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 AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIONS
 
 An Encyclopsedia of Religions 
 
 By 
 
 MAURICE A. CANNEY 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, LTD. 
 
 NEW YORK : E. P. BUTTON & CO. 
 
 1921
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The science of Comparative Religion is still so young that information on many matters embraced by it 
 has not found its way as yet into ordinary encyclopsedias ; and of special encyclopaedias or dictionaries 
 very few have been published. The great Encydojxedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by Dr. James 
 Hastings, is a storehouse of learned discussion and information, but its size places it as a household work 
 of reference beyond the reach of many readers. A felt gap is filled very usefully by the handy Dictionary 
 of Non-Classical Mythology, compiled by Marian Edwardes and Lewis Spence; but, as its title indicates, 
 much of the new material that belongs in a special sense to the domain of religion is excluded necessarily 
 from such a work. 
 
 It may seem a bold undertaking to seek, as the present writer has done, to present in a volume of 
 moderate size information about most of the ancient and modern religions, ethnic and historical. His 
 excuse must be that certain cravings of his own impelled him many years ago to set out upon a journey 
 along paths which at that time had not been trodden much, and to read more widely than is perhaps 
 usual; that invitations since 1898 to contribute articles to four voluminous encyclopaedias have formed 
 an A B C habit which he finds it difficult to throw off; and that a work such as he has attempted here is 
 as a matter of fact really needed. In any cjise, a woi'k is provided which covers much of the ground 
 claimed by Comparative Religion and is capable of subsequent expansion. If what is offered proves 
 acceptable, new material may be added, particularly as the Science develops. 
 
 While it is true that much of the new material in this field has not been incorporated as yet in 
 ordinary encyclopsedias, it is true also that to matters of religion with which, by name at least, readers 
 have become very familiar, a good deal of space has been given already in such works. In a field which 
 is so vast, therefore, the present writer has preferred often to concentrate particularly on matters which 
 are unfamiliar and on headings which are not to be found in ordinary encyclopsedias. Many of the 
 headings, here to be found, have never found a place as yet, he believes, in any other encyclopsedia. 
 These headings, with the mattei- included under them, it is hoped will not only interest the general 
 reader, but also suggest to students, as they have suggested to the writer, subjects for special research. 
 
 The writer is well aware that there is much more to be said about many of the subjects treated, and 
 in fact has himself dealt with some of them in much greater detail elsewhere. For example, with 
 NAME, CHANGE OF, may be compared his article on " The Significance of Names" in the Journal of the 
 Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society (No. ix., 1921, pp. 21-37), and with ashes and oath his articles 
 in Hastings' Enryclopcedia of Religion and Ethics (vol. ii., 1909, pp. 112-114; vol. ix., 1917, pp. 436-438). 
 
 MAURICE A. CANNEY. 
 Knutsford.
 
 CHIEF AUTHORITIES 
 
 [In the articles, books are referred to sometimes either by obvious abbreviations of the titles or by the names of the authors followed 
 by the initial letters of the titles. E.g.. The Dictionary of^ National Biography is referred to as D.N.B., S. Reinach's Orpheus as 
 S. Reinach. O.] 
 
 W. E. ADDIS and T. ARNOLD. -4 Catholic Dictionanj. Tth ed.. 
 
 1905. 
 W. R. ALGER, A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, 
 
 loth ed., 1878. 
 T. W. ALLIES, The Monastic Life. 1896. 
 RICHARD ANDREE. Ethnnqraphische Parallelen tind Vergleiche. 
 
 1878: lYeue Folae, 1889. 
 
 E. ANWYL, Celtic Religion, 1906. 
 
 T. W. ARNOLD, The Preaching of Islam, 1896. 
 
 H. H. BANCROFT, The Native Races of the Pacific Coast. 1875-76. 
 
 L. D. HARNETT. Hinduism. 1906. 
 
 L. D. B.\RNETT. .Intigtiities of India. 1913. 
 
 G. A. BARTON. A Sketch of Semitic Origins, Social and Religioua, 
 
 1903. 
 G. A. BARTON. The Religions nf the World. 1917. 
 W. BENHAM. Dictionnrii of Religion. 1887. 
 
 F. J. BLISS. The Relijions of Modern Syria and Palestine, 1918. 
 J. H. BLUNT. Dictinnarti of Sects, etc., 1903. 
 
 F. BOND, Dedications and Patron Saints of English Churches. 1914. 
 E. S. BOUCHIER. Syria as a Roman Province, 1916. 
 
 W. BOUSSET, The .intichrist Legend, 1896. 
 W. BOUSSET, What is Religionf 1907. 
 
 G. H. BOX, Short /n<roduction to the Literature of the Old Testa- 
 
 ment. 1909. 
 .1. H. BREASTED. Dcveiopincnt of Religion and Thought in Ancient 
 
 Egypt, mi. 
 C. A. BR IOCS, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, 1897. 
 
 C. A. BRIGGS, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scrip- 
 
 ture, 1906. 
 
 D. G. BRINTON, The Myths of the New World. 1868. 
 D G. BRINTON. Bciifiions of Primitive Peoples. 1897. 
 BROCKH.\US' Zonuersafioiis— Lcxifcoii. 
 
 E. G. BROWNE. Literary History of Persia, 1906. 
 
 E. A. \V. BUDGE, The Gods of the Egyptians, 1904. 
 
 F. BUHL, Knnon und Text des Alten Tesfamentes. 1891. E.T. 1893. 
 
 F. W. BUSSELL, Religious Thought and Heresy in the Middle 
 
 Ages. 1918. 
 A BUTLER, Dictionary of Philosophical Terms. 
 
 CALWER. JTirchcn/exifcon, ed. P Zeller, 1889, etc. 
 
 J. E. CARPENTER and G. HARFORD-BATTERSBY, The Hexa 
 
 teuch, 1900. 
 R. H. CHARLES, Religious Development between the Old and the 
 
 New Testaments. 
 T. K. CHEYNE and .1. S. BLACK, Encyclopsedia Biblica, 1899-1903. 
 E. CLODD, Myths and Dreams (=). 1891. 
 E. CLODD, .4nimi»m. 1905. 
 
 G. A. COBBOLD, Religion in .ropun, 1894. 
 
 C. M. COBERN, The Neiv Archeological Discoveries, 1917. 
 
 T. C. CONYBEARE, Myth, Magic, and Morals. 1909. 
 
 S. A. COOK. The Study of Religions. 1914. 
 
 R. S. COPLESTON, Buddhism Primitive and Present. 
 
 C. CORNILL, Introduction to the Canonical Books of the Old 
 
 Testament. 1907. 
 S. COULING, The Encyclop:Fd:a Sinica. 1917. 
 G. W. COX. Mythology of the Aryan Nations. 1R70. 
 
 F. CUMONT, The Mysteries of Mithra. 1903. 
 
 F. CUMONT, The Orienta! Religions in Roman Paganism. 1911. 
 
 W. A. CURTIS, History of Creeds and Confessions of Faith, 1911, 
 
 S. I. CURTISS, Primifii!c Semitic Rcliaion To-day, 1903. 
 
 E. L. CUTTS, Dicfionara of the Church of England. 
 
 T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, Hibheri Lectures, 1881. 
 
 VV. L. DAVIDSON. The Stoic Creed, 1907. 
 
 C. J. DETER, .4briss der Geschichte der Philnsophie. 1906. 
 
 The Dictionary of National Biography. 
 
 J. DOWSON, A Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and 
 
 Religion, 1879. 
 S. R. DRIVER, ZntrodMCtion to the Literature of the Old Testament. 
 J. A. DUBOIS and H. K. BEAUCHAMP, Hindu Manners, Customs, 
 
 and Ceremonies, 1897. 
 L. DUCHESNE, Christian H'orship, 1904. 
 
 L. DUCHESNE. Early History of the Christian Church. 1909. 
 EMILE DURKHEIM, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. 
 
 J. EDKINS, Religion in China. 
 
 M. EDWARDES and L. SPENCE, A Dictionary of Non-Classical 
 
 Mythology. 
 J. E. ERDMANN, History of Philosophy, 1890. 
 A. ERM.\N, .4 Handbook of Egyptian Religion, 1907. 
 
 L. R. FARNELL, The Cults of the Greek States, 1896. 
 
 L. R. F-\RNELL, Greece imd Babylon, 1911. 
 
 L R. FARNELL. The Higher Aspects of Greek Religion. 1912. 
 
 J. N. FARQUH.4R, Modern Religious Movements in India, 1919. 
 
 A. S. FARRAR. Crificai History of Free Thought, 1862. 
 
 W. WARDE FOWLER. The Religious Experience of the Roman 
 
 People, 1911. 
 .1. G. FRAZER. The Golden Bough, 3rd ed., 1911 B. 
 J. G. FRAZER, Totemism and Exogamy. 1910. 
 J. G. FR.\ZER, Folk-lore in the Old Testament, 1918. 
 
 .T. GARDNER, The Faiths of the World, 1858-00. 
 L. M. J. GARNETT. Ifysticisin and Moffic in Turkey, 1913. 
 A. S. GEDEN, Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, 1909. 
 A. S. GEDEN, Studies in the Religions of the East, 1913. 
 H. A. GILES, Heltgions of .Ancient China, 1905. 
 
 T. R. GLOVER, The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman 
 Empire, 7th ed., 1918. 
 
 F. J. GOULD, A Concise History of Religion, 1907. 
 H. GRAETZ, History of the Jews, 1893. 
 
 G. B. GRAY, .4 Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. 
 Great Religions of the R'orid, 1903. 
 
 C R. GREGORY, Canon and Text nf the New Testament, 1907. 
 J. .1. M. de GROOT, The Religious System of China. 1893, etc. 
 .T. J. M. de GROOT, The Religion of the Chinese, 1910. 
 H. GUTHE, Kurzes Bibelworterbuch. 1903. 
 
 H. HACKMANN, Buddhism as a Religion, 1910. 
 
 A. C. HADDON, Magic and Fetishism. 1906. 
 
 K. R. HAGENBACH, History of Christian Doctrines, 1880. 
 
 H. R. HALL, jEgean Archeology, 1915. 
 
 PETER HALL, Fragmenta Litnrgka. 1848.
 
 Tin 
 
 CHIEF AUTHORITIES 
 
 p. S. p. HANDCOCK, The Archxology of the Holy Land. 1818. 
 
 A. HARNACK, History of Dogma. 1896, etc. 
 
 J. E. HARRISON, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Beligion (2). 
 
 1908. 
 J. E. HARRISON, Themis, A Study of the Social Onrjins of Greek 
 
 Religion, 1912. 
 E. S. HARTLAND, The Legend of Perseus, 1894-96. 
 E. S. HARTLAND, Primitive Paternity, 1910. 
 E. S. HARTLAND, Hitual and Belief, 1914. 
 .1. HASTINGS, Encyclopa-dia of Religion and Ethics. 1908 ff. 
 J. HASTINGS, Dictionary of the Bible, in one volume, 1909. 
 M. HAUG, The Sacred Language, Writings, ayid Religion of the 
 
 Parsis, 2nd ed., 1878. 
 W. CAREW HAZLITT. Dictionary of Faiths and Folklore, 1905. 
 S. HEATH, The Romance of Symbolism, 1909 
 E. HERMANN. The Meaning and Value of Mysticism, 1916. 
 OSCAR HOLTZMANN, The Life of .Jesus. 1904. 
 
 E. W. HOPKINS, The Religions of India. 1895. 
 
 J. A. HOULDER, Short History of the Free Churches, 1899. 
 
 MARK HOVELL. The Chartist Movement, 1918. 
 
 C. HUART, A History of Arabic Literature, 1903. 
 
 T. .1. HUDSON, The Law of Psychic Phenomena, 1907. 
 
 F. VON HOGEL, The Mystical Element of Religion, 1908. 
 F. VON HOGEL, Eternal Life, 1912. 
 
 T. P. HUGHES. Dictionary of Islam, 1885. 
 
 J. HUNT. Religious Thought in England, 1870-73. 
 
 I. HUSIK, History of Mediscval Jeu-isk Philosophy, 1918. 
 
 International Critical Commentary. 
 
 A. V. WILLIAMS JACKSON. Persia. Past and Present, 1906. 
 WILLIAM JAMES, Varieties of Religious Experience. 1906. 
 WILLIAM JAMES. The Will to Believe, 1908. 
 MORRIS JASTROW, Jr.. The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. 
 
 1898. 
 MORRIS JASTROW. Jr.. Religion Babylonicns und Assyriens, 2 
 
 vols.. 1905, 1912. 
 MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria. 
 
 1915. 
 A. JEREMIAS, The Old Testament in the Light of the .4ncieiif 
 
 East. 1911. 
 The .lewish Encyclopedia. 
 T. A. JOYCE. Mexican Archeology. 1914. 
 
 T. A. JOYCE. Central .American and West Indian Archaeology, I'.ilO. 
 C. G. JUNG, Psychology of the Unconscious, E.T., 1915. 
 
 L. W. KING, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, 1899. 
 L. W. KING, Legends of Babylon and Egypt in relation to Hebrew 
 Tradition, 1918. 
 
 C. F. KENT, The Student's Old Testament, 1910-14. 
 T. A. KLEIN, The Religion of IsUm. 1906. 
 
 K. J. KNOWLING, The Witness of the Epistles. 1892. 
 K. KOHLER, -Jeivish Theology, 1918. 
 
 ANDREW LANG. Custom and Myth, 1893. 
 ANDREW LANG. Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 1899. 
 ANDREW LANG, The Making of Religion, 1900. 
 ANDREW LANG, Socio! Origins. 1903. 
 J. LEGGE. The Religions of China. 1880. 
 ARTHUR LLOYD, The Creed of Half .Japan. 1911. 
 LUCIAN. The Syrian Goddess, translated by H. A. Strong, and 
 edited by J. Garstang, 1913. 
 
 D. B. MACDONALD, Development of Muslim Theology, etc., 1903. 
 D. B. MACDONALD, The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, 1909. 
 A. C. M'GIFFERT, Protestant Thought before Kant, 1911. 
 
 D. A. MACKENZIE, Teutonic Myth and Legend, 1912. 
 
 D. A. MACKENZIE, Egyptian Myth and Legend. 1913. 
 
 D. A. MACKENZIE, Indian Myth and Legend, 1913. 
 
 D. A. MACKENZIE. Myths of Babylonia and Assyria. 1915. 
 
 D. A. MACKENZIE, Myths of Crete ond Pre-Heiientc Europe, 1917. 
 
 J. A. M'CLYMONT, The New Testament and Its Writers, 1904. 
 R. R. MARETT, The Threshold of Religion, 1909. 
 D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, Mohammedanism, 1911. 
 
 D. S. MARGOLIOUTH, The Early Development of Mohammedanism. 
 
 1914. 
 K. MARTI. The Religion of the Old Testament. 1907. 
 G. CURRIE MARTIN, The Books of the New Testament, 1909. 
 W. G. WOOD-MARTIN. Troces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland. 1902. 
 R. M. MEYER, /iitEfcrmanische Rp(itiions[icscfeic?ite. 1910. 
 J. MOFF.ATT, Zntrodiiction to the Literature of the New Testament. 
 
 1911. 
 A. R. HOPE MONCRIEFF, Classic Myth and Legend. 
 G. F. MOORE, The History of Religions. 1913. 
 J H. MOULTON, The Treasure of the Magi, 1917. 
 
 F. MAX MOLLER, The Sacred Books of the East. 
 
 E. NAVILLE, The Old Egyptian Faith, 1909. 
 ARNO NEUMANN, Jesws, 1906. 
 
 R. A. NICHOLSON. Literary History of the Arabs. 1907. 
 
 W. O. E. OESTERLEY and G. H. BOX, The Religion and Worship 
 
 of the Synagogue, 1911. 
 H. OLDENBERG, Die Religion des Veda, 1894. 
 H. OLDENBERG, .4ncicnt India. 1898. 
 
 J. C. OMAN, The Mystics, Ascetics, and Saints of India, 1905. 
 J. C. OMAN, The Brahmans, Theists and Muslims of India, 1907. 
 J. C. OMAN. Cults, Customs and Superstitions of India, 1908. 
 MALACHIA ORMANIAN, The Church of Armc7ua. 1912. 
 
 E. H. PARKER. Studies in Chinese Beligion. 1910. 
 
 G. T. W. PATRICK, The Psychology of Relaxation. 1916. 
 
 M. W. PATTER.SON. History of the CJiurch of England, 1909. 
 
 A. S. PEAKE, Critical Introduction to the New Testament, 1909. 
 W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE. The Religion of Ancient Egypt. 1905. 
 OTTO PFLEIDERER. The Development of Theology in Germany 
 
 since Kant, 1890. 
 
 B. PONJER, History of the Christian Philosophy of Religion, 1887. 
 
 S. REINACH. Orpfteus, 1910. 
 
 S. REINACH, Cults, Myths and Religions. 1912. 
 
 W. RIDGEWAY'. The Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred 
 
 Horse, 1915. 
 Religious Systems of the World, 1908. 
 J. M. ROBERTSON, Christianifi/ and Mythology. 1910. 
 J. M. ROBERTSON. Pagan Christs, 1911. 
 R. V. RUSSELL and R. B. HIRA LAL, The Tribes and Castes of 
 
 the Central Provinces of India, 1916. 
 H. E. RYLE, The Canon of the Old Testauient. 2nd ed., 1895. 
 
 W S.\NDAY', 7nspira(ion, 1903. 
 
 P. D. CHANTEPIE DE LA SAUSSAYE, T!ie i?e(ii7ion of the Teutons. 
 
 1902. 
 P. D. CHANTEPIE DE LA SAUSSAYE. Lelirbuch der Religions 
 
 geschichte, 3rd ed.. 1905. 
 SCHAFF-HERZOG, Religious Encyclopeedia. 1883-4. 
 O. SEY"FFERT. Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, 10th ed.. 1908. 
 W. SIMPSON. The Buddhist Praying-wheel, 1896. 
 H. S. SKEATS and C. S. MIALL, History of the Free Churches of 
 
 England. 1891. 
 SMITH and CHEETHAM, Dictionary of Christian .Antiquities. 
 G. ELLIOT SMITH, The Ancient Egyptians. 
 0. ELLIOT SMITH, Migrations of Peoples, 1915. 
 G. ELLIOT SMITH. The Influence of Ancient Egyptian Civilizntion in 
 
 the East and in .America, 1916. 
 G. ELLIOT SMITH. The Evolution of the Dragon, 1919. 
 W. ROBERTSON SMITH, The Old Testament in the .Jewish Church. 
 
 1892. 
 W. ROBERTSON SMITH, The Religion of the Semites. 1894. 
 W. ROBERTSON SMITH, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. 
 
 1003. 
 LEWIS SPENCE, The Mythologies of .Ancient Mexico and Peru, 1007.
 
 CHIEF AUTHORITIES 
 
 IX 
 
 W. B. SPENCER and F. J. GILLEN. The Northern Tribes of Central 
 AuHralia. 1904. 
 
 C SQUIRE. The Mythology of Ancient Britain and Ireland, IQOfi. 
 
 C. SQUIRE. Celtic Myth and Legend. 
 
 E. SQUIRE. The Mythology of the British Islands, 1910. 
 
 G. STEINDORFF, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, 1905. 
 
 E. THURSTON' and K. R.\NG.\CH.\RI, Castes and Tribes of Southern 
 
 India. 1909. 
 E. B. TYLOR. Primitive Culture. 4th ed., 190S. 
 
 EVELYN UNDERHILL. Mysticism. 4th ed., 1912. 
 EVELYN UNDERHILL. The Mystic Way, 1913. 
 
 M. R. VINCENT. .1 History of the Textual Criticism of the New 
 Testament. 1903. 
 
 H. WACE and W. C. PIERCY. Dictionary of Christian Biography 
 
 and Literature, 1911. 
 L. A. WADDELL. The Buddhism of Tibet, 1895. 
 HUTTON WEBSTER. Rest Days, 1916. 
 
 MAX B. WEINSTEIN. Welt- und Lehen-Anschanungen. 1910. 
 E. WESTERM\RCK, The Origin and Development of the Moral 
 
 Ideas, 19008. 
 E. M. WHERRY, The Mohammadan World of To-day, 1906. 
 O. C. WHITEHOUSE, The Books of the Old Testament, 1910. 
 A. WIEDEM.\NN. BWigion of the .Ancient Egyptians, 1897. 
 G. WILDEBOER. The Origin of the Canon of the Old Testament. 
 
 1895. 
 W. J. WII.KINS. Hindu Mythoh.gy, 1901. 
 SIR MONIER MONIER-WILLIAMS, Buddhism. 1890. 
 SIR MONIER MONIER-WILLIAMS, Brnhmanism and Hinduism. 4th 
 
 ed.. 1891. 
 H. B. WORKMAN. Christian Thought to the Reformation, 1911. 
 C. H. H. WRIGHT and C. NEIL, A Protestant Dictionary. 1904,
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIONS 
 
 A 
 
 Abbot 
 
 A. The name of a goddess in Babylonian- Assyrian 
 religion. She is a eonsort, the " beloved one," of the 
 gun-deity, Shamash (q.v.). The name seems to mean 
 " lady " or " queen." See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 A. God A. is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the JISS. of the Mayan Indians of 
 Central America. His frequent appearance in the 
 Dresden Oodex and in the Codex Tro-cortesianus suggests 
 that he was a god of great importance. He was clearly 
 a god of death and hell, corresponding to the Aztec god 
 Mictlan. His insignia include bells and a pair of cross- 
 bones, and his symbolical bird is the owl. 
 
 AAH. An ancient Egyptian moon-god, who in course 
 of time was merged with the lunar deity Thoth. His 
 importance is proved by such names as Ah-mes (" born 
 of Ah "; ep. Thoth-mes, " born of Thoth"). 
 
 AB. The fifth month of the Jewish sacred year. The 
 fifth month of the Babylonian calendar has the same 
 name. It is sacred to the solar deity, Nin-gishzida. See 
 Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 AB, NINTH DAY OF. A Jewish fast-day (cp. 
 Zeohariah 8, 19), intended to commemorate the destruc- 
 tion of the two Temples (First, 586 B.C.: Second, A.D. 
 70). It falls about the beginning of August. The fa«t 
 has been observed, with varying degrees of strictness, as 
 a day of deep gloom. In early times no enjoyment what- 
 ever was permitted for twenty-four hours, from evening 
 to evening. No work was allowed, only sad parts of the 
 Law might be studied, and people went about without 
 shoes or sandals. Bathing and anointing were of course 
 forbidden. See the Jeuixh Encycl.. i., 1901; W. O. E. 
 Oesterlev and G. H. Bos. 
 
 AB, FIFTEENTH DAY OF. A .Tewi.sh fe.^itival in the 
 time of the Second Temple. It fell about the 15th of 
 August. On this da.v the rich and poor maidens of 
 Jerusalem, robed in white, are said to have repaired to 
 the vineyards to dance with the young men and to give 
 them an opportunity of choosing a bride. The Talmud 
 gives various reasons for celebrating the day. One of 
 them is that on this day wood was collected by priests 
 and people for s;icriflcial use throughout the year. 
 Josephus mentions (B. J. ii. 17, ti) a Feast of Xylophory 
 (•• Wood-bearing"), placing it on the 14th Ab. See the 
 Jewish Encycl., i., 1901. 
 
 ABACUS. A designation in architecture of the upper- 
 most division of the capital of a column. It is variousl.v 
 formed or moulded in the different orders or styles of 
 architecture. See J. H. Parker, Gloss. 
 
 ABADDON. Literally " (place of) destruction." A 
 term used in the Wisdom-Literature of the Old Testa- 
 ment (Job 20, 0; Prov. 15, 11, etc.) as the equivalent of 
 Sheol, the under-world of the Hebrews. The same 
 
 word means " perdition " and " hell " in later Hebrew. 
 The term occurs also in the New Testament (Rev. 9, 11), 
 but in this case it is a proi^er name, a personification, 
 Abaddon being a king or angel of the abyss, whose Greek 
 name is Aiwllyon (" Destroyer "). See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ABBA. An Aramaic word meaning " father." It was 
 used by Jesus and in his time as a title of God (so in 
 Mark 14, .";<))■ 
 
 ABBACOMITBS. The Abbacomites or Abbates milites, 
 count abbots, were laymen to whom abbacies were 
 assigned for pecuniary profit. See Catli. Diet. 
 
 ABBATE. A Roman Catholic clergyman who has not 
 taken full orders, but has received the tonsure. 
 
 ABBATES MILITES. Lay abbots of the 10th century, 
 who appointed deans or priors to administer their abbeys 
 and perform the spiritual duties. They were also called 
 Abba-eomit^s. 
 
 ABBE. The French name for an Abbot (q.v.). It is 
 often used in France and Italy in a more general way as 
 the title of an unt)enifloed priest. 
 
 ABBES COMMENDATAIRES. Abbots who were 
 appointed by the king of France, and received one-third 
 of the revenue of their convents. They were often lay- 
 men, noblemen's sons or literary men, and their oflSce 
 was a sinecure. 
 
 ABBESS. A designation of the superior of a com- 
 munity of nuns. The Abbess corresponds to the Abbot 
 {(j.v.), but the office is not so ancient. It was probably 
 instituted in the time of Pope Gregory the Great (c. 591). 
 Generally, only a professed nun couJd be elected, and the 
 Council of Trent fixed the age at not less than forty 
 years, at least eight years of which must have been spent 
 in a convent. Like the Abbot, she has the ring, staff, 
 and abbatial cross. Sometimes she commands the 
 obedience of the monks of a related monastery (e.g. in 
 the order of the Brigittines and of Fontevrault). She 
 often possessed, under the ordinary, ecclesiastical 
 patronage; but she could not choose confessors, dismiss 
 a nun, etc. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 AB BETH DIN. Literally " father of the house of 
 .iustice." This, according to tradition, was a title of 
 the vice-president of the Jewish Sanhedrin, the Pre- 
 sident of which was called Nasi (" prince "). It seems 
 more likely, however, that it was the title of the spiritual 
 head of the people and so of the Sanhedrin, and that 
 Nasi was the designation of the more secular head of 
 the people (the High-priest). See the Jeu-ish Encycl., 
 ix., 1905, under " Nasi"; W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. 
 Box. 
 
 ABBEY. A monastic community governed by an 
 Abbot. See ABBOT. 
 
 ABBOT. The name means literally " father," and is
 
 Abbot of Unreason 
 
 Abhidharma Sect 
 
 the designation of the head of a religions community of 
 men. Another name for the same oflScial is Prior, Rector, 
 or Guardian. The office is as old as the third century. 
 In the fourth century a number of monasteries, with 
 abbots at their head, sprang up in Egypt. At first the 
 abbots were laymen, but ordination soon became the rule, 
 though it was not always strictly observed. They were 
 required lo be not less than twenty-five yeurs old. The 
 monks were allowed originally to elect tbeir own abbot. 
 The right, however, in the West was often exercised by 
 temporal princes and lords. It is the duty of an abbot to 
 govern the community, maintain discipline, and exercise 
 the priestly office. A distinction has been drawn between 
 these " abbates regulares " and other abbots, " abbates 
 seculares." whose office is of the nature of an ordinary 
 benefice. The Benedictine abbots have been allowed a 
 large measure of freedom in the organisation of their 
 convents. And abbots in general obtained special 
 r)rivileges, the heads of great monasteries being allowed 
 to use tile mitre, crosier, and ring (" abbates infulati "), 
 and to perform some of the episcopal functions (e.g., 
 minor orders). Formerly abbots of such distinction might 
 sit in the English Parliament. See Cath. Diet.; P. Zeller, 
 Calwer Kirohenlexikon, 1889 etc. 
 
 ABBOT OF UNREASON. The Scottish name for one 
 who took the i>rincipal part in Christmas revelries before 
 the Reformation. The character is better known as the 
 Ix)rd of Misrule (q.v.). In Scotland he was suppressed 
 by Act of Parliament in 1555. See W. C. Hazlitt. 
 
 ABBOTS IN COMMENDAM. Abbots commended to 
 take charge of an abbey, until a regular abbot had been 
 appointed. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. Words, titles, phrases, etc., in 
 common use are often abridged. For example, 
 " Reverend " as the title of a clergyman is usually 
 written "Rev." The following are some of the most 
 common abbreviations : 
 
 Abp. : Archbishop. 
 
 A.B.S. : American Bible Society. 
 
 A.D. : Anno Domini, in the year of Our Ijord. 
 
 A.F.B.S. : American and Foreign Bible Society. 
 
 A.H. : Anno Hegirse, in the year of the Hegira (622 .\.d.). 
 
 D.O.M. : Deo optimo maximo, to God, best and greatest. 
 
 D.V. : Deo Volente, God willing. 
 
 F.C. : Free Church (of Scotland). 
 
 F.D. : Fidei Defensor, Defender of the Faith. 
 
 I.H.S. : The first three letters of the Greek word 
 
 IHS0Y2. Jesus. 
 
 : Jesus hominum Salvator. 
 
 'A.M. : Anno Mundi, in the .year of the world. 
 
 A.V. : Authorise<l Version of the Bible. 
 
 B.C. : Before Christ. 
 
 B.D. : Bachelor of Divinity. 
 
 Bp. : Bishop. 
 
 B.V.M. : Blessed Virgin Mary. 
 
 C.M.S. : Church Missionary Society. 
 
 D.D. : Doctor of Divinity. 
 
 D.G. : Dei Grati;!, by the grace of God. 
 
 I. N.R.I. : Jesus Nazarenus, Rex ludjeorum, Jesus of 
 Nazareth, king of the Jews. 
 
 I.O.G.T. : Independent Order of Good Templars. 
 
 J.U.D. : Juris Utriusque Doctor, Doctor of Civil and 
 Canon Law. 
 
 LXX. : Septuagent Version of the Old Testa&ent. 
 
 M.E. : Methodist Episcopal. 
 
 N.T. : New Testament. 
 
 O.S.B. : Order of St. Benedict. 
 
 P.E. : Protestant Episcopal. 
 
 P.P. : Parish priest. 
 
 R.I. P. : Requieseat in pace, May he rest in peace. 
 
 R.V. : Revised Version of the Bible. 
 
 S.J. : Society of Jesus (Jesuits). 
 
 S.P.C.K. : Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 
 
 S.P.G. : Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. 
 
 S.T.P. : Sacrre Theologi;^ Professor, Professor of 
 Theology. 
 
 U.P. : United Presbyterian. 
 
 V.D.M. : Verbi Dei Minister, Minister of the Word of 
 God. 
 
 Xmas : Christmas. 
 
 Xtian : Christian. 
 
 T.M.C.A. : Young Men's Christian Association. 
 
 Y.W.C.A. : Young Women's Christian Association. 
 
 ABBREVIATORS. A designation, first used about the 
 beginning of the fourteenth century, of secretaries 
 employed in the Papal Chancery. They were so called 
 because they made short notes of decisions or replies 
 made bv the Pope, which they afterwards expanded. 
 See Cath. Diet. 
 
 ABECEDARIAN HYMNS. Hymns in which each stanza 
 or line begins with a letter of the alphabet. See 
 ACROSTIC. 
 
 ABECEDARIANS. A German Anabaptist sect of the 
 10th century. They claimed to be directly inspired by 
 God. Consequently they had nothing to learn from the 
 Scriptures. Profane literature being equally useless to 
 them, it was not necessary or desirable to learn to read. 
 Divine truth, directly imparted, could best be learned 
 from the most ignorant of men. The sect was founded 
 by Nicholas Stork, a weaver, of Zwickau, and the Abece- 
 darians are also known as " the Zwickau Prophets." 
 See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ABELITES. A religious sect in N. Africa in the 4th 
 century. They are also called Abelians, Abeloites, and 
 Abelonians. They objected to ordinary marriage, and 
 contracted spiritual unions, taking their name from Abel, 
 because they assumed that he had a wife, but never 
 -sought to procreate children. They adopted children in 
 order to perjietuate the sect. These al.so had to abstain 
 from sexual intercourse. The sect became extinct in the 
 reign of Theodosius the Younger (408-450). See J. H. 
 Blunt. 
 
 ABERDEEN, USE OF. Various places had liturgies 
 of their own in the early days of the Church in Britain. 
 These liturgies, which represented somewhat different 
 modes of celebrating Mass, were called " Uses." Aber- 
 deen was one of the places which had a use of its own. 
 
 ABERDEEN SERVICE. Forms of Divine Service oom- 
 l)osed by Henry Soougal (1G50-I(i78), precentor in the 
 Cathedral of Aberdeen, and professor of Divinity at 
 King's College. They were prepared for the morning 
 and evening service of the Cathedral Church of Aber- 
 deen. They were in use until the Revolution, when the 
 Presbyterians deemed written prayers unsuitable. See 
 Peter Hall. 
 
 ABGARUS LETTERS, THE. Some correspondence 
 purporting to have passed between Abgar Uchama 
 (1.5 — 50 A.D.), King of Edessa, and Jesus. Jesus is 
 besought by Abgar to visit Edessa. The letters are given 
 by Busebius {Church Eiatory, I, 13). 
 
 ABHIDHAMMA. The name of one of the three divi- 
 s-ions ("the three baskets") in the final collection of 
 Buddhist sacred books. The contents are partly meta- 
 physical. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 ABHIDHAMMAPITAKA. The third division of the 
 Buddhist Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 ABHIDHARMA SECT. An early Buddhist sect in 
 India of the School of the Hinayana. The teaching was 
 based upon the Commentary which Katyayaniputra 
 wrote on the Abhidharma treatises. The sect was intro-
 
 Abib 
 
 Abrahamites 
 
 duce<] into China about 394 A.D., and flourished until 
 about 440 A.D. A. Lloyd finds no traces of it In Japan. 
 
 ABIB. The fir.st month of the Jewish sacred year. 
 Literally the month of " young ears of barley." 
 
 ABJURATIOX. OATH OF. An Act of 1701 required 
 all clergy, members of the Universities, lawyers, and 
 other persons who held public offices to abjure by oath 
 the exiled House of Stewart. In the Roman Catholic 
 Church a convert was formerly required to malce a solemn 
 abjuration of his former faith. In the Ritual of Stras- 
 burg (1742) he is asl^ed : " Is it your firm purpose to 
 renounce in heart and mind all the errors which it [the 
 Catholic Church] condemns? " The modem convert in 
 England is required to read and ac-cept the Creed of Pope 
 Pius IV. which denounces all doctrines which are con- 
 sidered erroneous. See Catli. Diet. 
 
 ABLUTION, ROMAN CATHOLIC. Ablution is the 
 name applied to the water and wine used by a priest in 
 the celebration of the Mass to wash his thumb and index- 
 finger. " When he has consumed the Precious Blood, 
 the priest purifies the chalice: he then, saying in a low 
 voice a short prayer prescribed by the Church, holds his 
 thumb and index-finger, which have touched the Blessed 
 Sacrament and may have some particle of it adhering to 
 them, over the chalice, while the server pours wine and 
 water upon them. He then drinks the ablution and dries 
 his lips and the chalioe with the mundatory." (Cath. 
 Diet.). 
 
 ABLUTIONS. Bathing the whole or parts of the body, 
 as a religious practice, has been widely practised. It is 
 well known that man in a primitive state regards rivers, 
 springs, and wells as being often the abodes of deities. 
 Water seemed to be a holy element. To bathe oneself 
 in it meant to impart to oneself something of its divine 
 life and power. This seems to have been the original 
 idea in religious bathing. In course of time, however, 
 the idea of purification came to prevail, and the washing 
 away of external impurities bec-ame symbolical of the 
 cleansing of the heart. Sin is, perhaps, regarded too as 
 a real contagion, a disease, a kind of substance which 
 may be washed away by bathing. The Incas of ancient 
 Peru, after confe-ssing their guilt, bathed in a river. It 
 is a Vedic belief that sin may be removed by invoking 
 the gods of water. The water-gods Varuna and Trita 
 have power to wash it away. The later Brahmans 
 regarded water as the " essence (sap) of immortality," 
 and in modem India the waters of the Ganges have 
 power, it is thought, to cleaiise the blackest sinner. The 
 Hindus .shave their heads, and plunge into sacred 
 streams. The Hebrews used consecrated water for the 
 cleansing of impurities, and the modem Jews in Morocco 
 preserve a reminiscence of the practice by throwing stones 
 into the sea on New Year's Day. The Moors think that 
 misfortune can be removed by ablutions. Ablutions are 
 also practised to purify persons before they perform a 
 sacred rite or come into contact with holy things 
 (sacrifices, etc.). The Lapp wizard washes his body 
 before sacrificing, as did also the ancient Egyptians, the 
 Shinto prie.sts of Japan, the ancient Greeks and Romam?. 
 Zoroastrianism regards impurity as a physical evil to be 
 removed as quickly as possible. Brahmans and Hindus 
 make daily bathing an important part of their religious 
 exercises. In Lamaism the tips of the fingers are dipped 
 in water before sacrifice. Jewish Rabbis wash the hands 
 before praying. Mohammedans are commanded in the 
 Koran to wash their faces and their hands up to the 
 elbows, and to wipe their heads and their feet to the 
 ankles, when they prepare for prayer (Sur. V., 8). Before 
 reciting the liturgical form of prayer, therefore, they 
 perform an elaborate ablution in which the acts are 
 repeated three timers. Where water is scarce, dust or 
 
 sand serves as a substitute. In all such cases the idea 
 is that any impurity might hurt the holiness of the deity 
 and bring curses instead of blessings. Per.sons have been 
 accustomed to bathe also after coming in contact with a 
 corpse. The ablution removes the contagion of death. 
 Sexual intercourse, again, has often (e.g. among the 
 Babylonians, Hebrews, Arabs, Greeks) been regarded as 
 defiling, and the defilement has been removed by bathing. 
 Ablutions are necessary, again, after touching anything 
 unclean (e.g. an unclean animal). Hindus and Brahmans 
 live in constant fear of this defilement. The Hebrews 
 dared not touch the dead carcase of a dog. If a living 
 dog touches a Brahman, he plunges at once into water 
 with his clothes on. It should be added that in ancient 
 times ablutions have formed part of marriage cere- 
 monials. Even deities, when they were united, bathed 
 or were bathed. Thus the figure of Attis was bathed to 
 represent her union with Cybele. Aphrodite bathed after 
 her union with Adonis, and Hera after her marriage with 
 Zeus. See E. We.stermarck : J. G. Frazer, G.B.; Adonis 
 Attis Osiris. 190*!: W. R. Smith, R.S., 1S94: Monier- 
 Williams, Brahmcnism; J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beau- 
 champ, Hindu Manners, etc. 
 
 ABODA ZARA. One of the treatises of the Mishnah 
 i'l-i:). 
 
 ABODE OF LOVE. See AGAPEMONITES. 
 
 ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION. A phrase occur- 
 ring in the New Testament (Mt. 24, 1.5 = Mk. 1.'?, 14) in a 
 passage in which Jesus is represented as speaking of his 
 second coming. The " abomination of desolation " has 
 been identified with the '• man of sin " referred to in 
 another apocalyptic passage, 2 Thess. 2, 1-12. The statue 
 of an idol or false god seems to be meant, which causes 
 desolation by being set up in opposition to the true God 
 (so T. K. Cheyne). Another suggestion is that a statue 
 of Caligula is intended (so Fr. Spitta). A third is that 
 the " abomination " has reference to the Roman armies 
 (so B. Weiss). See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ABORTION. Cases of miscarriage or abortion have 
 sometimes received a religious significance. The Green- 
 landers thought an abortion l>ecame an evil spirit intent 
 on avenging the crime. Artificial abortion is strongly 
 condemned in the Christian religion (Tertullian, Augus- 
 tine, etc.). It is also condemned by the sacred law of 
 Zoroastrianism. See Edward Westermarck. 
 
 ABOTH. One of the treatises of the Mishnah (q.v.). 
 
 ABOTH DE-RABBI NATHAN. A JewLsh treatise, 
 being an exposition of the Mishnah treatise Pirqe Aboth 
 (q.v.). Of the two recensions which have been preserved, 
 one is usually appended to the Babylonian Talmud (see 
 TALMUD). Both have been published together by S. 
 Schechter. The treatise is the work of a school (Tan- 
 naite), rather than of an individual author. An English 
 version is included in M. L. Rodkinson's translation of 
 the Babylonian Talmud, New York, 1900. See the .Jewish 
 Encycl., i., 1901: W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 ABRACADABRA. A mystic word or magical formula, 
 used for the cure of fevers and agues. The letters were 
 arranged in the form of a triangle, so that it was pos- 
 sible to read them in many different ways. The square 
 piece of paper on which they were written was folded 
 in the form of a cross. This was then worn as an 
 amulet. 
 
 ABRAHAMITES. 1. A religious sect of the ninth 
 century. They re^-ived the teaching of the Paulianlsts, 
 and denied the divinity of Christ. Their name was 
 taken from Abraham or Ibrahim of Antloch. 2. A Bo- 
 hemian religious sect, known also as Bohemian Deists. 
 They appeared in 17S2. and were so called because they 
 claimed to represent the religion professed by Abraham 
 before his circumcision. They were suppressed by force.
 
 Abraiiam-Men 
 
 Accaophori 
 
 ABRAHAM-MEN. Beggars wlio wandered about the 
 country seeking alms after the Dissolution of the 
 Monasteries. 
 
 ABRAXAS STONES. Stones or gems having the word 
 Abraxas or Abrasax engraved on them in Greek letters. 
 Though of various shapes, the figure on them usually 
 has a human trunk and arms, a cock's head, and two 
 serpents' tails. They were used by the Gnostics, first 
 by the Basilidians (q.v.), then by the Priscillians (q.v.), 
 and afterwards generally. They were adopted by ma- 
 gicians and alchemists. They seem to have been used 
 as talismans. Magicians in Egypt used them in the 
 Hellenistic period. See Adolf Erman, Handbook. 
 
 ABRECH. A term occurring in the Old Testament 
 (Genesis 41, 43). It is said that when Joseph was made 
 grand-vizier of Egypt, the people " cried before him 
 Ahrech." The English version translates " bow the 
 knee." This is unsuitiible, because the form of the word 
 is Causative (" make to kneel "). We should expect, 
 moreover, an official title. This cannot be found in 
 Egyptian. It has therefore been suggested that Abrech 
 is a loan-word, being the equivalent of the Assyrian- 
 Babylonian abarakkii, a title of one of the five principal 
 dignitaries of the empire. See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ABSOIjT'TION. To absolve is " to set free from " or 
 " to acquit." Absolution is the act of pronouncing a 
 person friK^ from sin or penalty. According to the 
 Christian idea of God, God Himself is strictly the only 
 one who can do this. The Church, however, has taught 
 that God deputed ministers, in the first instance the 
 Apostles, to act for him. The crucial passage in the 
 Bible is John xx., 23, " Whosesoever sins ye remit, they 
 are remitted unto them, and whosesoever sins ye retain, 
 they are retained." The origin and precise meaning of 
 these words have been disputed. But in any case cer- 
 tain Church practices and doctrines have been connected 
 with them. In the early days of the Christian Church 
 anyone who had incurred its censure was required to 
 do public i)enance involving exclusion from the Lord's 
 Table. This having been duly performed, he was ab- 
 solved publicly by Bishop and clergy, and re-admitted to 
 Communion. In course of time and by slow degrees it 
 came about that the sinner confessed privately to a priest 
 and received from him alone the requisite absolution. 
 At the Reformation the Church of England is commonly 
 supposed to have renounced this practice. It cannot Y>e 
 denied, however, that there are passages in the Book of 
 Common Prayer (the Holy Communion and Ordination 
 Services) which do not altogether favour this view. In 
 the Roman Catholic Church the practice has been main- 
 tained and elaborated. It has had, at least from 1215 
 (Innocent III.), a Tribunal of Penance, and has made 
 the Sacrament of Penance consist of (1) Contrition or 
 Attrition, (2) Confession, (3) Satisfaction, (4) Absolution. 
 Confession is made in sec-ret to the priest. The absolu- 
 tion afterwards pronounced by a duly authorised or 
 delegated priest is a judicial act or sentence. There is 
 a prescribed form of absolution in the Roman Ritual : 
 " T absolve thee from thy sins, in the name of the 
 Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." See 
 Prot. Diet.; Oath. Diet. 
 
 ABSTINENCE. See ASCETICISM. 
 
 ABSTINENTES. The name of a sect in Gaul and 
 Spain at the end of the third century. Its members 
 held that only by avoiding marriage could true holiness 
 be attained. They found support in such New Testa- 
 ment passages as Matthew xix., 12, Hebrews xii,, 14. 
 The Christian life is that life of chastity which .Jesus 
 Himself \e<\. The Abstinentes also ob.iected to the use 
 of meat. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ABUNDIA. The name of a goddess in German 
 mythology who blesses marriage, brings good- or bad 
 luck to spinners, etc. See P. D. Chantepie de La 
 Saussaj'e, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 ABYSS, THE. In the Gnostic system of Valentinus 
 " the Abyss " is the name of tlie unbegotten, invisible, 
 ineffable Supreme Being, to whom the aeons owe their 
 generation. The term is used in another sense in the 
 New Testament (Revised Version). In Romans x., 7, it 
 denotes Sheol, the Hebrew underworld (Authorised 
 Version " the deep "). In Revelation ix., 1, 11, xi., 7, 
 xvli., S, XX., 1, 3 (Authorised Version " the bottomless 
 pit ") it is the abode of " the beast " and " the dragon," 
 a place which seems to have been thought of as a lake 
 of fire (cp Enoch x., 13). 
 
 ABYSSINIAN or ETHIOPIAN CHURCH. The early 
 Church is said to have been founded, as a branch of the 
 Christian Church, in A.D. 330 by Frumentius of Egypt 
 or Phoenicia. In any case, a form of Christianity 
 (Monophysite), in connection with Alexandria, was es- 
 tablished in Abyssinia by the end of the sixth century. 
 In the seventh century the country was practically 
 isolated through the Mohammedan conquest of Egypt. 
 Partly in consequence of this isolation, the Church has 
 preserved a number of peculiar obsen'ances. The Jewish 
 Sabbath is observed as well as the Chrislian Sunday. 
 (Circumcision is practised (though perhaps only for 
 sanitary reasons), and certain foods are abstained from. 
 The Books of Enoch and Jubilees (see APOCALYPTIC 
 LITERATURE) are included in the sacred writings. 
 The Virgin is worshipped, prayer is made to the saints, 
 and great merit is attached to asceticism and monas- 
 ticism. Some of these practices and observances seem 
 to be due partly to Jewish influence, partly to an early 
 connection with or migration from South Arabia. In 
 1540 the Abyssinians sought the help of the Portuguese 
 against a threatened invasion by Mohammedans. Troops 
 were sent, and the invaders were routed. The Pope 
 then sought to convert the Abyssinians, and to effect 
 this Jesuit missionaries laboured amongst the people. 
 At length, after rebellion and bloodshed, proclamation 
 of the Roman Catholic religion was made (1603). In 
 1632, however, perhaps in consequence of an attempt to 
 abolish circumcision, the Jesuits were expelled, and the 
 old Church was re-established. Since 1838 Roman 
 Catholic missionaries have again worked In the country. 
 Protestant missions have also been tried. Clerics are 
 ordained by the Ahoun (or Abouna), the head of the 
 Church, an Egyptian monk nominated by the Alexan- 
 drian patriarch. His see, the centre of tbe Abyssinian 
 Church, is at Axum. There are also such officials as a 
 temporal head (Etchiffeh), a head of the priesthood 
 (Nebriil), and an ecclesiastical .iudge (Lij Kaneat). The 
 clergy are divided into priests, monks, and unordained 
 clerks (defteras). The latter dance and sing in pro- 
 cessions. There are a great many feast-days and fast- 
 days. Paintings are hung in the Churches, and the 
 cross is venerated. See Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 ACACIANS. A school of Arians, followers of Acacius. 
 See ARIANISM. 
 
 ACCA LARENTIA. A Roman goddess of the earth. 
 She was worshipped as the protectress of the seed-com. 
 the guardian of the crops. It is siiid that she had 
 twelve sons, and that she observed an annual sacrifice 
 with them. The idea of the sacrifice having been to 
 make the fields (arva) fertile, her sons were called Arval 
 Brothers. The priestliood of that name is suppose<l to 
 have been founded by Romulus who took the place of 
 one of the brothers on his death. See O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 ACCAOPHORI. The name of a sect the members of 
 which discarded the use of wine in the Holy Eucharist
 
 Acceptants 
 
 Acts of the Saints or Martyrs 
 
 and substituted water. It le said that they were also 
 called Hydroparastatae. 
 
 ACCEPTANTS. A name given to those theologians 
 who accepted the papal Bull " Unigenitus " (1713) which 
 condemned the views of the Jansenlst leader Pasquier 
 Quesnel (1634-1719). See JANSENISTS. 
 
 ACCEPTILATION. A word derived from Roman Law, 
 and applied in theology to the doctrine of Duns Scotus, 
 according to which the satisfaction rendered to God by 
 Christ was not a full equivalent for the sins of man- 
 kind, but was graciously accepted by God as sufficient. 
 
 ACCOMMODATION. A term used in theology of a 
 method of interpreting Scripture by which the words 
 are accommodated or adapted to the needs of a discourse. 
 Jesus himself, it is claimed, accommodated his teaching 
 to his hearers by seeking to convey spiritual truths to 
 them in a homely way. 
 
 ACELDAMA. A name compounded of two Aramaic 
 words, and occurring in the New Testament as a desig- 
 nation of the held bought by Judas Iscariot, the disciple 
 who betrayed Jesus, for some unknown pun'ose with 
 the reward for his betrayal (Acts i., 19), or purchased 
 by the priests as a place to bury strangers in. The 
 Revised Version has Akeldama. The word is said to 
 have been interpreted " the field of blood." But the 
 best supported Greek reading is Acheldamach, which 
 would give the unsuitable meaning " field of thy blood." 
 On the other hand, assuming that Acheldamach is the 
 correct form of the name, the second part of the word 
 may be identified with another root. The name will 
 then mean " field of sleep," i.e., the sleep of death. See 
 Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ACEPHALI. A name applied to sects which had no 
 recognised leader (the Monophysite Acephali), or who 
 refused to follow their leader (the Nestorian Acephali) ; 
 or to priests who refused allegiance to their diocesans 
 and to suffragan bishops who would not obey their 
 metropolitans. E. B. Tylor {Primitive Culture, i., 390) 
 suggests that the term may well be used of those 
 monsters who are reported by travellers to have existed 
 without heads to their bodies. 
 
 ACHERON. In Homer several great rivers are repre- 
 sented as flowing through the world of the dead. One 
 of these bears the name Acheron (river of woe). Later 
 Legend imagines that the infernal regions are surrounded 
 by these rivers. See O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 ACHIROPOETOS. Literally " made without hands." 
 An expression used of pictures of Christ and the Virgin, 
 which were supposed to have been executed miraculously, 
 without human hands. There is one of these at Rome 
 in the church of St. John of Lateran. St. Luke and 
 angels are reputed to have been the artists. 
 
 ACCEMETAE. Literally " sleepless ones," an order 
 of monks founded near Constantinople during the Patri- 
 archate (A.D. 428-430) of Gennadius. They did not 
 abstain from sleep altogether, but, in order that worship 
 in their monastery should go on uninterruptedly, divided 
 themselves into three " watches," each being of eight 
 hours. A later name of the order was Studites, because 
 during the episcopate of Gennadius a rich Roman consul, 
 Studius by name, built a cloister for them in Constan- 
 tinople. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ACOLYTE. Literally " one who follows." and so a 
 ministrant or server. It is the highest of the four 
 minor orders in the Church of Rome. The acolyte 
 hands the priest wine and water at the Mass and carries 
 the light.s. He is now usually a layman. 
 
 ACOSMISM. A term used by Dr." Inge to denote the 
 denial of reality to the visible world and the assertion 
 that the only existence is " the intelligible world of 
 Ideas " in the mind of God. Examples of this attitude 
 
 are the Neoplatonists, the mystic Eckhart, and the 
 philosopher Spinoza. 
 
 ACROSTIC. A peculiar kind of verse-composition. 
 The initial letters of the lines are made to form to- 
 gether a word or sentence. Religious psalms or hymns 
 are sometimes composed in this way. There are examples 
 in the Psalms of the Old Testament {e.g., Ps. 119). In 
 the 119th Psalm the stanzas run through the letters of 
 the Hebrew alphabet. In Rabbinic literature this method 
 of composition became very common. Sometimes the 
 order of the alphabet was reversed, the hymn beginning 
 with the last letter and ending with the first. See J 
 W. Etherldge, Intr. to Hcb. Lit., 1856 
 
 ACT FOR UNIFORMITY. An act passed in 1549 for 
 the purpose of introducing " uniformity of public wor- 
 ship." It required the new Liturgy of Edward VI. to 
 be adopted throughout the kingdom. Refusal to comply 
 with this command was punished by imprisonment or 
 loss of benefice. There were other Acts of Uniformity 
 in the reigns of Edward VI., Elizabeth, and Charles II 
 
 ACT OF FAITH. See AUTO DA FE. 
 
 ACT OF SEPARATION. In 1843 a number of Scotch 
 Presbyterian ministers and professors (470) signed a 
 document by which they resigned their livings and in 
 which they protested against attempts to interfere with 
 tjhe right of a congregation to choose its own minister 
 
 ACT OF UNIFORMITY. An Act passed in the reign 
 of Charles II. (1661). It required all clergymen of the 
 Church of England to accept the Thirty-Nine Articles 
 as the basis of nniforuiity in religion. Many clergymen 
 were deprived of their livings for refusing to subscribe. 
 
 ACTA FRATRUM UNITATIS IN ANGLIA. An im- 
 portant folio work published (1749) by Count Nicolaus 
 von Zinzendorf to explain the methods and principles 
 of the Moravian Brethren {q.v.). John Wesley sum- 
 marized the contents in a pamphlet (1750), " ConU^nts 
 of a Folio History," in which he fiercely attacked the 
 Brethren as hypocrits and heretics. See J. E. Hutton, 
 History of the J/orawoM Church, 1909. 
 
 ACTISTETES. A name derived from the Greek word 
 aktistos, " uncreated." The sect of the Aetistetes were 
 so called because they claimed that Christ ought not to 
 be called a created Being after his Incarnation, and 
 therefore denied that lie became truly man. 
 
 ACTS OF PAUL AND THECLA. See APOCRYPHAL 
 BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 ACTS OF PILATE. Acta Pilati or Anaphora Pilati, 
 a work which professes to give a record of the trial 
 and death of Jesus, made for the Emperor Tiberius by 
 Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judaea at the time of 
 Jesus' death. The work is not genuine. See R. A. 
 Lipsius, Die Pilatus-Ahten, new ed., 1886. Cp. APOC- 
 RYPHAL BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. One of the books of the 
 New Testament which continues the Gospel story and 
 gives in particular an account of the acts of the apostles 
 Peter and Paul. Part of it reproduces the diarv of a 
 companion of Paul (the " we " sections). It is com- 
 monly considered to be the work of Luke, the reputed 
 author of the third Gospel. Luke was a physician, and 
 Adolf Harnack has recently sought to show that medical 
 terms are common in both works. Harnack thinks 
 Luke's material was in existence about SO A.D. B. W. 
 Bacon gives 85-90 as the approximate date. Other critics, 
 however, deny the Lucan authorship and place the work 
 as late as 120-130 A.D. P. W. Schmiedel places it be- 
 tween 105 and 130 A.D. See Adolf Harnack, Luke the 
 Physician, 1907; W. C. Selleck, New Appreciation of the 
 BiUe, 1907; Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ACTS OF THE SAINTS or MARTYRS. These are 
 collections of stories about the Christian saints and
 
 Acuanites 
 
 Adessenarians 
 
 raartyrs. The most celebrated collection is tliat begun 
 in the 17th c-entiiry by the Jesuits and continued by the 
 BoUandists (q.v.). Eusebius of Caesarea made two col- 
 lections, one of which is still to be found at the end of 
 Book vili. of his Church History. Simeon Metaphrastes 
 compiled another about 900 A.D., probably making use 
 of a collection (12 vols.) current in the Church of Con- 
 stantinople. The West had its collection, " Legenda 
 Aurea," made by Jacobus de Voragine (ob. 129S). Much 
 of the material incorporated in the early collections is 
 of doubtful value. Attempts have been made to sift it, 
 however. In 16S9 a Benedictine monk, Kuinart, 
 published a folio volume, " Pure Acts of the Martyrs," 
 and in 174S Stephen Assemani published in two folio 
 volumes, " Acts of the Holy Martyrs of the East and 
 of the West." See Cath. Diet. 
 
 ACUANITES. Followers of Acuan, who was a leading 
 Manichaean in Mesopotamia in the time of Epiphanius. 
 
 ADAD. A Babylonian deity. He was the god of 
 storms and thunder. He is referred tx) in the Ham- 
 murabi (2150 B.C.) Code as oue who might flood a man's 
 field and destroy his harvest (§§45, 48). Another name 
 for the same deity was Ramman (q.v.). See Morris 
 Jastrow, Kel. 
 
 ADAD. The name, according to Macrobius, of the 
 chief god of the Syrians, the name of his consort being 
 Adargatis. He is the same as Hadad (cp. the Assyrian 
 storm-god " Adad "), and is identified by Garstang with 
 the chief god of the Hittites. 
 
 ADAMITES. A Gnostic sect which appeared in 
 Africa in the second c-entury. They were so called no 
 doubt because they thought to live in a state of Inno- 
 cence, like Adam before the fall, though the name has 
 also been connected with another Adam who is supposed 
 to have founded the sect. They renounced marriage, 
 and worshipped in nude condition, holding their meet- 
 ings underground. Another sect holding some of their 
 tenets appeared in Bohemia in 1421. They were a 
 branch of the Beghards or Brethren of the Free Spirit 
 (q.v.), and were called Picards (q.v.). Zisca slew a 
 great many of them. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ADAM'S PEAK. A mountain summit in the South 
 of Cej'lon. Euroi)eans have adopted the name from the 
 Mohammedans. On the summit there is a hollow place 
 which was supposed to resemble a footprint. Moham- 
 medans said that it was made by All or Adam. Budd- 
 hists claim that it is the impress of the Buddha's foot. 
 Hindus have claimed it for the god Siva, Portuguese 
 Christians for St. Thomas. Many monasteries in Ceylon 
 contain representations of this footprint made of wood. 
 See further H. Hackmann. 
 
 ADAPA LEGEND. A legend in the Babylonian- 
 Assyrian religion. It was found on the El-Amama 
 tablets (15th cent., B.C.). Adapa, a fisherman, son of 
 Ea, is fishing in " the sea," when a storm arises. 
 Though only a mortal, swept into the waters by the 
 South Wind, he subdues the element, since it is under 
 the control of his father, and breaks the wings of the 
 storm-bird. Ami, God of Heaven, surprised at the dis- 
 appearance of the south wind, a.sks the god Ilabrat, his 
 messenger, the reason. He is informed, and thereupon 
 requests Ea to send Adapa to him for trial. He does 
 so, but advises his son to seek the protection of Tammuz 
 and Gishzida, gods who guard the approach to the gate 
 of heaven. Accordingly Adapa goes in mourning, ex- 
 plaining that he does so because " two gods have dis- 
 appeared from the earth." This conciliates the two 
 gods. They are prepared to plead his cause before Anu. 
 The god's wrath is appeased. He is alarmed, however, 
 that Adapa should have penetrated to heaven and seen 
 its secrets. The only thing to do now is for the gods 
 
 to make him one of themselves. He is therefore offered 
 the food of life to eat and the waters of life, to drink. 
 But Ea had warned him not to eat or drink. He there- 
 fore refuses them and returns to earth. The lesson 
 conveyed by the story seems to be that it is not good 
 for man to live for ever. Ea, in his wisdom, prevents 
 it. The legend is based upon " the nature-myth of the 
 annual fight of the sun with the violent elements of 
 nature." Gishzida and Tammuz are both solar deities, 
 and Adapa seems to be identical with Marduk, a third 
 solar deity. But the story has become more than a 
 nature-myth. It is now a legend containing a moral 
 or lesson. See Morris Jastrow, R(^l. 
 
 ADAR. The twelfth month of the Jewish sacred 
 year. The twelfth month of the Babylonian calendar 
 has the same name. It was sacred to the seven evil 
 spirits. The loth day of the month was sacred to 
 Shamash, Malkatu, and Bunene. An intercalated month 
 is also called Adar, Second Adar. This is sacred to 
 Ashur. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ADARGATIS. The name, according to Macrobius, of 
 the chief goddess of the Syrians. It is equivalent to 
 Atargatis (q.v.), who is identified by Garstang with the 
 chief goddess of the Hittites. 
 
 ' ADAWIYYA. An Arabian religious order. It was 
 founded by Sheikh ' Adl ibn Musafir al-Hakkari, who 
 took up his abode in the ruins of a Christian convent 
 to the west of Mosul. After his death he became the 
 patron saint of the Yazldls. See Clement Huart, Arabic 
 Lit., 1903. 
 
 ADDAI, TEACHING OP. An apocryphal book which 
 was probably written about the middle of the third 
 century, perhaps in or near Edessa. In this book it is 
 said that in Edessa the early Christians heard the Old 
 Testament read, and also " the New [Testament] of the 
 Diatessaron." See C. R. Gregory, Canon. 
 
 ADECERDITAE. A name given to those who be- 
 lieved that Christ by descending into Hell was able to 
 save many who were found there. 
 
 ADELOPHAGI. A name given to a sect, perhaps 
 belonging to the end of the fourth century, the members 
 of which would not eat in the presence of others. That 
 is implied in their name which is derived from Greek 
 words. But what precisely is meant is not clear. It 
 may only mean that they would not eat with members 
 of another sect. The Adelophagi seem to have denied 
 the divinity of the Holy Spirit. 
 
 ADELPHIANS. One of the names given to the 
 Euchites (q.v.). They were so called after one of their 
 leaders, Adelphius of Mesopotamia. Treacherously en- 
 ticed to disclose his views by Flavian, Bishop of Antioch, 
 Adelphius was excommunicated and banished. 
 
 ADELPHOPOIIA. Literally " the making of (into) a 
 brother." A religious rite which finds a place in old 
 Greek prayer-books. It is similar to a rite which still 
 survives in South Italy. In order to establish a blood- 
 covenant between two persons, their blood is mingled. 
 See F. C. Convbeare, M.M.M., 1909, pp. 258f., and cp. 
 BLOOD, COVENANT. 
 
 ADEPTS. A term used in Theosophy (q.v.). The 
 adepts are tho.se persons, members of a great Brother- 
 hood, who possess the Secret Wisdom of Theosophy. 
 They are living men whose evolution has reached a 
 higher stage than that of ordinary humanity. See 
 Annie Besant, " Theosophy," in R.S.W. 
 
 ADESSENARIANS. A name formed from the Latin 
 word adesse, " to be present," and applied in the six- 
 teenth century to Lutherans who held that in the Holy 
 Eucharist Christ is really, and not merely figuratively, 
 present, but who would not accept the Roman Catholic 
 doctrine of transubstantiation.
 
 Adiaphorists 
 
 Adoption 
 
 ADIAPHORISTS. From the Greek term adia'phora, 
 " things indifferent." The Leipzig interim of 1548 during 
 the Protestant controversy in Germany used the term 
 adia'phora of matters which Melanchthon and his party 
 declared to be indifferent. Such matters were, e.g., the 
 use of pictures, candles, surplices, Latin hymns and 
 vespers in the Roman Catholic Church, which the 
 Lutherans, on the other hand, regarded as subversive 
 of the faith. 
 
 ADIAPHORITES. An early religious sect, the mem- 
 bers of which refused to recognise any distinction be- 
 tween the divine and human natures of Christ. See A. 
 Harnack, History of Doyma, iv., 189S. 
 
 ADI BRAHMA SAMAJ. See BRAHMA SAMAJ. 
 
 ADI BUDDHA. The name in Lamaism for the one 
 supreme Buddha from whom are ultimately derived the 
 five celestial prototypes of the historical Buddhas. See 
 H. Hackmann. 
 
 ADIGRANTH. The sacred book or bible of the Sikhs, 
 compiled by Arjun in the sixteenth century. It was 
 originally called the '" Granth." The term Adigranth, 
 First Book, was applied to it afterwards to distinguish 
 It from a later collection of books. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 ADITI. An Indian goddess. Aditi (" Boundlessness ") 
 is the mother of Varuna (q.v.) and the " mother of 
 kings." All gods, men. and things are, in fact, identified 
 with her. She has seven or eight children, of whom 
 the chief, the Aditya (son of Aditi) is Varuna (q.v.). 
 
 ADITYAS. See ADITI and VARUNA. 
 
 ADMONITIONISTS. A name given to the Puritans 
 who supported the " Admonition to the Parliament," a 
 manifesto printed in 1.572. The "Admonition" demanded 
 extreme puritanical changes in the constitution of the 
 Church. The principal authors were John Field (d. 
 1588) and Thomas Wilcox {d. 1608), and they were both 
 imi>risoned for libel in Newgate. The Admonitionists 
 set up a secret conventicle at Wandsworth. 
 
 ADMONITION TO THE PARLIAMENT. A document 
 drawn up by Puritans (1571) in the reign of Queen 
 Elisabeth. It was Calvinistic, claiming that all rites 
 and ceremonies in the Church of England should accord 
 with the institutions of Apostolic times and with the 
 teaching of Holy Scripture. All Roman Catholic prac- 
 tices, it contended further, should be abolished. 
 
 ADONAI. Literally " my Lord." A Hebrew name for 
 the supreme deity. It is really a plural form (the 
 so-ealU'<J '• plural of majesty "), the singular being adOn, 
 " lord." The Jews have a name for God which was 
 considered too sacred to be pronounced. This consisted 
 of the consonants JHVH. Where it occurs in the sac-red 
 texts, thev pronounce in reading " Adonai " as a sub- 
 stitute for it. See JEHOVAH. 
 
 ADONIS. A deity of Semitic origin (Adonis = a(?(5n 
 = lord), the personification of vegetation which dies 
 yearly and revives as often. Legend represented that 
 Adonis died while hunting from a wound inflicted by 
 a boar, and that out of his blood Aphrodite (q.v.) made 
 the anemone grow. Loved by both Aphrodite and Per- 
 sephone, it was decided by Zeus that he should pass 
 half the .year with each goddess. In the Adonis-cult 
 there was a yearly Festival of Adonis, observed by 
 women. This spread from Phoenicia to Cyprus, Greece, 
 Egypt and ultimately to Rome. First a figure supposed 
 to represent Adonis' eorjise received sad and solemn 
 funeral rites : then its resurrection was celebrated with 
 wild re.loicinss. " Adonis-gardens " were a feature of 
 the celebration. These were baskets or pots of earth 
 sown with plants of various kinds that sprang up 
 quickly and as quickly faded. The plants were after- 
 wards thrown into the water. There is an allusion to 
 them in the Old Testament (Isaiah xvii., 10, Revised 
 
 Version margin, " plantings of Adonis "). It has been 
 suggested that Adonis is another form of the Babylonian 
 deity Tammuz (q.v.) who seems to have been honoured 
 with a similar festival. See O. Seyffert, Diet.; 3. G. 
 Frazer, Adonis Attis O.iiris, 1906. 
 
 ADONIS, RIVER. Lucian (§8) speaks of a marvellous 
 portent in the region of the Byblians. " A river, flow- 
 ing from Mount Libanus, discharges itself into the sea : 
 this river bears the name of Adonis. Every year regu- 
 larly it is tinged with blood, and loses its proper colour 
 before it falls into the sea : it dyes the sea, to a large 
 space, red : and this announces their time of mourning 
 to the Byblians. Their story is that during these days 
 Adonis is wounded, and that the river's nature is 
 changed by the blood which flows into its waters; and 
 that it takes its name from this blood " (transl. by H. 
 A. Strong). 
 
 ADOPTION. The taking of a child into a family or 
 clan to be treated as one of its born members often 
 has a religious significance. In Athens and Rome sons 
 were adopted, when necessary, not merely to perpetuate 
 the race, but also to continue its religious rites. In 
 China the eldest son of the principal wife occupies an 
 important position, as the continuator of the ancestral 
 line and the person upon whom devolves the charge of 
 worshipping the ancestors. If the principal wife has no 
 son, she adopts one. When adoption takes place, it is 
 naturally celebrated by a more or less elaborate cere- 
 mony. Where importance is attached to the feeling of 
 kinship, it has sometimes been the custom to make in- 
 cisions and mingle the blood of adopters and adopted 
 (cp. BLOOD). Mr. E. S. Hartland thinks that in the 
 blood-covenant (see COVENANT), we have a survival 
 of a rite of adoption into the clan. Such a practice is 
 not merely a formality. The thought that the blood 
 has been mingled acts as a powerful suggestion of kin- 
 ship. Another practice is for the new mother, when 
 a child is to be adopted, to pretend to give birth to 
 him. Thus, when the goddess Hera adopted Hercules, 
 she imitated a real birth. The same thing is done in 
 Bulgaria, as well as among the Bosnian Turks and the 
 Berawans of Sarawak. An example of a more elaborate 
 and religious ceremony may be taken from India. Among 
 the Brahuians, when a child is to be adopted, an aus- 
 picious day is first chosen. The portals of the house 
 are decorated with garlands of leaves (toranams), and 
 a pavilion (pandal) is erected. Then, when the cere- 
 monies are to begin, sacrifice is made to Vigueshwara 
 (the god of obstacles) and the nine planets. The new 
 father and mother sit on a small dais in the middle of 
 the pavilion. The real mother is given a new garment, 
 and a sum of money as " nursing wages." Carrying 
 her son to the adoptive father, she is asked by him 
 whether she hands over her child to be brought up. 
 The answer is in the afiirmative. Then a dish cf water 
 with powdered saffron in it is brought in. Next the 
 priest (purohita) blesses it, mutters some prayers or 
 formulas (mantrams), and ix-rforms some ceremonies. 
 After this the real mother hands the dish to the new 
 father, invokes fire as a witness, and says, " I give up 
 this child to you; I have no more right over him." The 
 new father takes the child on his knees and solemnly 
 and ceremonially promises to bring it up as his own 
 child. He and his wife next take a little saffron water 
 in their right hands and drink it. Then they pour some 
 into the hand of the child who has to drink it. They 
 conclude the ceremony by saying : " We have admitted 
 this child into our gothram, and we incorporate him 
 into it." Other festivities follow. The ceremony among 
 the Sudras and the Brahmans is almost identical; the 
 only difference being that among the Sudras the new 
 
 2
 
 Adoptionism 
 
 Adultery 
 
 father and mother pour the saffron water on the feet 
 of the child with one hand, while with the other they 
 catch and drink it. See J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beau- 
 champ, Hindu Manners, etc., 1897; J. J. M. de Groot, 
 If el. Hystem of China, 1S94, etc.; E. S. Hartland, Legend 
 of Perseus, 1894-96; J. G. Frazer, O.B.; E. Westermarck. 
 
 ADOPTIONISM. The doctrine according to which 
 Jesus, as regards his human nature, was Son of God 
 only by adoption. In the eighth century we hear of 
 a special sect, the Adoptianl, which avowed this doc- 
 trine. The idea, however, was no new one. It was 
 held by early Christian writers of Africa and Italy and 
 was prevalent among Syriac and Armenian Christians. 
 Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, Bishop of 
 Urgel. in Spain, held the doctrine at the beginning of 
 the ninth centurj', and were eondennied as heretics at 
 the Council of Ratisbon. The doctrine was condemned 
 again at Frankfort, Rome, and Aix la Chaiielle. 
 
 ADORATION OP RELICS. The relics of departed 
 saints and martyrs have been objects of worship in the 
 Christian Church, and are still venerated by Roman 
 Catholics. Such relics include their bodies, " fragments 
 of their bodies, articles or portions of articles which 
 they have used, such as clothes, vestments, rosaries, 
 and the like": in the case of Jesus, "the holy nails, 
 lance, spear, or fragments of the True Cross "; and, 
 in the case of Mary, " the girdle, veil, etc." (Addis and 
 Arnold). The explanation given of this veneration is 
 (1) that the saints were living members of Christ and 
 their bodies the temples of the Holy Ghost; and (2) 
 that God sometimes makes their relics instruments of 
 healing and other miracles, and bestows " spiritual 
 graces on those who with pure hearts keep and honour 
 them." See Cath. Diet. 
 
 ADORATION OF THE CROSS. A ceremony observed 
 In the Church of Rome on Good Friday. St. Thomas 
 said that the cross was to be adored with supreme 
 worship (latria). and Benedict XIV. quotes a verse of 
 Lactantius which speaks of " adoring the cross." On 
 Good Friday a crucifix being unveiled, priest and people 
 kiss it and adore it on their knees. It is explained 
 that the cross may be adored as representing something 
 else. In this way " we may give to the cross relatively 
 — i.e., to the cross as carrying on our mind to Christ— 
 the same honour which we give to Christ absolutely, 
 i.e., in himself. See Cath. Diet.; Prot. Diet. 
 
 ADRAMMELECH. According to a passage in the 
 Old Testament, this was the name of a Babylonian deity. 
 In II Kings xvli., 31, it is said that the Sephan-ites 
 whom the King of Assyria (Sargon) placed in the cities 
 of Samaria " burnt their children in the lire to Adram- 
 melech and Anammelech, the gods of Sepharvaim." It 
 Is difficult to Identify the deity or to understand the 
 allusion. Mr. L. W. King tells us (Encyel. Bibl.) that 
 throughout the cuneiform inscriptions, " there is no 
 allusion to human sacrifice, and In the sculptures and 
 reliefs no representation of the rite has been discovered." 
 The name used to be explained as equivalent to Adar- 
 malik, " Adar the prince." This was supposed to be 
 another name for the god Ninlb (q.v.). But the sup- 
 position was a mere conjecture. On the other hand, If, 
 as some scholars think, Sepharvaim is to be identified 
 with Sippar, Adrammelech may have been a subsidiary 
 name or title of Shamash the Sun-god, for the worship 
 of this god was specially associated with Sippar. See 
 Eneijcl. Bit)l. 
 
 ADRANUS. A Sicilian god to whom dogs seem to 
 have l)een sacred. Reference is made to his sacred dogs 
 by Aellan (Nat. An., xi., 20). Adranus was perhaps of 
 Semitic orisnn. See W. R. Smith, R.S. 
 
 ADRASTEIA. A Greek goddess. Dr. L. R. Famell 
 
 {Cults, vol. ii., 1896) thinks that originally the name 
 was a local title of Cybele. The cult of Adrasteia was 
 established near Priapus, Cyzieus, and In tbe Troad, 
 and it was in these localities in particular that Cybele 
 was worshipped. In the later period she came to be 
 regarded as a kind of twin-sister of Nemesis and was 
 connected sometimes with Artemis. A plausible ex- 
 planation of this development is offered by Famell. 
 " Cybele 'ASpia-reia meant the goddess of the city or 
 locality in Phrygia that took its name from the Phrygian 
 hero Adrastus. Then when the title was detached, it 
 came to be interpreted as " the goddess from whom one 
 cannot run away"; and this meaning may have been 
 assisted by the confusion between the Phrygian Adrastus 
 and the Argive hero, whose legend was a picture of 
 inevitable fate. AVhen afterwards this new sense of 
 'ASpaa-reM came into vogue, she naturally became con- 
 nected with Nemesis, and so accidentally with Artemis." 
 
 ADRIANISTS. The followers of a Dutch Anabaptist, 
 Adrian Hamsted, who was for a time a minister in 
 London. Edmund Grlndal (d. 1583), Bishop of London 
 and afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, having de- 
 posed him early in the year 1561, he returned to Hol- 
 land. The Adrianists would not accept the doctrine of 
 the miraculous birth of Jesus. 
 
 ADRIATIC, MARRIAGE OP THE. An annual cere- 
 mony of early origin celebrated on Ascension Day at 
 Venice. The Doge was rowed to the sea in his state 
 barge, and threw a consecrated ring into the water. 
 Pope Alexander III. originated the ceremony in 1174. 
 From this custom Venice received the name " Bride of 
 the Sea." 
 
 ADSALLtJTA. The name of a goddess worshipped by 
 the ancient Celts. AdsaHQta was paired with a god 
 Savus. 
 
 ADSMERIUS. Adsmerius or Atesmerius was one of 
 the names given by the ancient Celts to a god who 
 corresponded to the Roman Mercury. 
 
 ADULTERY. According to Hebrew law an adulterer 
 must be put to death. In the ancient Egyptian religion 
 It is an offence which excludes the guilty persons when 
 they die from the kingdom of Osiris. The Babylonian 
 Code of Khammurabi decrees that if the wife of a man 
 be found committing adultery with another male, " they 
 shall be bound and thrown into the water, unless the 
 husband lets his wife live; and the king lets his servant 
 live " (Chilperic Edwards, The Oldest Lares in the 
 World, § 129). Brahmanic religion regards adultery as 
 one of the worst sins, a sin against Varuna. A woman 
 must beware of sacrificing with this guilt on her soul; 
 but if confessed, '• the guilt becomes less." Christianity 
 condemns adultery equally in the case of husband or 
 wife. Adultery is also condemned by primitive folk, 
 though not by all. The god called Batara or Petara 
 among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo punishes cases of 
 adultery. So do Puluga, the supreme being of the 
 Andaman Islanders; Leza, the supreme being of the 
 Bantu people living Iwtween Lakes Tanganyika and 
 Bangweolo, and of the Awemba. Elephant-hunters in 
 East Africa think that if, during their absence, their 
 wives are unfaithful, they themselves will be killed or 
 wounded by the elephant. An Aleutian hunter of sea- 
 otters believes that the same thing will prevent him 
 from killing a single animal. Again it is thought by 
 many of the indigenous tribes of Sarawak that " were 
 the wives to commit adultery while their husbands are 
 searching for camphor in the jungle, the camphor ob- 
 tained by the men would evaporate " fj. G. Frazer). 
 The Karens of Burma believe that the crops are blighted 
 and the harvests spoiled by adultery or fornication. 
 The same idea prevails among the Battas of Sumatra
 
 Advent 
 
 ^sir 
 
 and the Dyaks of Borneo. See E. Westermarck ; J. G. 
 Frazer, G.B.; E. W. Hopkins, The Religions of India, 
 1S95. 
 
 ADVENT. Literally " the coming," Latin adventus, 
 the beginning of the ecclesiastical year, a season of 
 preparation for the coming of Christ. It was first ob- 
 served in the Western Church and thence was introduced 
 into the Eastern Church as a period of penitence and 
 fasting preliminary to the celebration of the Festival 
 of Christmas or of the Nativity of Jesus. In the Greek 
 Church it lasts forty days : and similarly in the Galilean 
 Church of the sixth century it extended from the feast 
 of St. Martin (Martinmas, November 11) to the Nativity, 
 and was called " Quadragesima S. Martini." In the 
 Church of England and of Rome the season has been 
 restricted since the time of Gregory the Great to the 
 four Sundays of Advent, the previous Sunday serving 
 as a kind of introduction. During this season the 
 Church " desires that her children should practise fast- 
 ing, works of penance, meditation, and prayer, in order 
 to prepare themselves for celebrating worthily the 
 coming ^adventum) of the Son of God in the flesh, to 
 promote His spiritual advent within their own souls, 
 and to school themselves to look forward with hope and 
 joy to His second advent, when He shall come again to 
 judge mankind " (Addis and Arnold). See A. Barry, 
 Teacher's Prayer Book: Cath. Diet. 
 
 ADVENTISTS, SECOND. A religious body in America, 
 the members of which believe that the second coming of 
 Christ is to take place soon. The sect was founded by 
 William Miller (17S1-1S49). The time of the second com- 
 ing was definitely fixed, but has had to be altered from 
 time to time. The Adventists observe various kinds of 
 abstinence. There are various branches of the sect. 
 One of them, the Seventh Day Adventists, fixes no 
 definite date for the second coming. The members are 
 80 called because they regard the Sabbath as being still 
 the seventh day. 
 
 ADVOCATUS DIABOLI. When a person is proposed 
 for canonisation in the Roman Catholic Church someone 
 is appointed as the " advocatus dlaboli " to bring for- 
 ward any objections to the proposal. On the other side, 
 there Is an " advocatus Dei," appointed to defend the 
 person in question. 
 
 ADVOCATUS ECCLESIiE. The " advocati eccle- 
 slarum " were " advocate-protectors, princes or barons, 
 or other powerful laymen, who, for a consideration, 
 undertook to protect the property of a church or monas- 
 tery, as well as the lives of the inmates " (Addis and 
 Arnold). The Lateran Council (A.D. 1215) had to decree 
 that they must be restrained from encroaching on the 
 property entrusted to them. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 ADVOWSON. A term in Church of England Law, 
 denoting the right of presentation to a vacant eccle- 
 siastical benefice. The right belongs to the successor of 
 the founder of the benefice who is commonly called the 
 Patron. See Prat. Diet. 
 
 ADWAITA. The name of a sect among the Brahmans. 
 Its adherents hold that the universe, with all its phen- 
 omena, has no real existence. The phenomena comprised 
 in the universe are the result of illusion. " All animate 
 and inanimate things are but parts of the Deity," the 
 one eternal essence. See J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beau- 
 champ. 
 
 ADYTUM. The most sacred part (" the holy of 
 holies ") of an ancient temple accessible only to priests. 
 In Greek temples It was sometimes underground. 
 
 ^GIR. A name occurring in Teutonic mythology. 
 .33gir is the chief of sea-giants, and is commonly a per- 
 sonification of the calm oiien sea. He has a wife. Ran 
 (q.v.), and nine daughters who represent together the 
 
 sea's surf and rough waves. See P. D. Chantepie de la 
 Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 AEGIS. A name for the shield of Zeus. Homer 
 imagines it to have been forged by Hephaestus. When 
 Zeus shakes it, there is thunder and lightning It is 
 thus a storm and thunder-cloud figured as a shield. It 
 is also borne by Athene, daughter of Zeus. See O. 
 Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 .ilOLUS. A figure in Greek mythology. Homer 
 imagines him to have been made keeper of* the winds 
 by Zeus. Later legend represents him as dwelling in one 
 of the ^olian isles north of Sicily, Lipara or Strongyle, 
 where he kept the winds imprisoned in a cave under- 
 neath a mountain. See O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 ^ON. Literally an " age " or " eternity." A term 
 used by the Gnostics to denote an emanation from God. 
 See Louis Duchesne, Hist. 
 
 ^•^QUIPROBABILISM. One of the different forms or 
 schools of Probabilism. It is the doctrine that the 
 less certain opinion may be followed when it is as pro- 
 bable as the more certain. See A. Hamack, Hist, of 
 Dogma, vli., 1899. 
 
 AERIANS. The followers of an Arian monk. Aerius. 
 He was exiled from Sebaste in Armenia. He recognised 
 no difference between a bishop and a presbyter, protested 
 against prayers and offerings for the dead, and protested 
 against the sacrifice of a paschal lamb in Christian 
 worship. He also disapproved of fasting. The sect 
 which he founded soon died out. 
 
 JSSCULAPIUS. Asclepios (Latin ^sculapius) was 
 worshipped by the Greeks as the god of Medicine. He 
 is reputed to have been the son of Apollo (q.v.), the 
 god of healing, by Coronis. One of the legends narrates 
 that Coronis was secretly delivered of her child on a 
 journey to the Peloponnesus. She exposed him on a 
 mountain, but he was suckled by a she-goat. According 
 to another legend the boy was snatched by Apollo from 
 the pyre on which his mother was about to be burnt, 
 and was committed to the charge of a centaur, Chiron, 
 who reared him and taught him how to cure all diseases. 
 Homer and Pindar represent him as a hero endowed with 
 the skill of a successful leech. He then appears as the 
 god of healing worshipped throughout Greece in groves, 
 on mountains, and by medicinal springs. He was able 
 even to bring the dead to life. '• Often the cure was 
 effected by the dreams of the patients, who were required 
 to sleep in the sacred building, In which there sometimes 
 stood, as might be expected, a statue of Sleep or Dream- 
 ing " (O. Seyffert). The introduction of the worship of 
 ^^Csculapius among the Romans is supposed to have been 
 enjoined by the Sibylline Books. It took place about 
 290 B.C. It is said that the god used to reveal himself 
 in the form of a snake. A colled serpent and a staff 
 are represented on his statues, and snakes were kept in 
 his temples. J. M. Robertson points out that the title 
 Saviour was given by the Greeks to Zeus, Helios, Artemis, 
 Dionysos, Heracles, the Dioscuri, Cybele, and Jilscul- 
 apius. There is nothing suriJrising in this. Anyone may 
 be called a saviour (cp., in the Old Testament, Judges 
 iii., 9, II Kings xili., 5). See O. Sevffert, Diet.; Reinach, 
 0.; J. M. Robert-son, CM.; P.O.; J. G. Frazer, O.B. 
 
 AESHMA DAEVA. An evil demon in the ancient 
 Persian religion. In Yasna Ivii. of the Zend-avesta he 
 is described as " the cruel demon A&shem6." The word 
 means " rapine " or " attack." In the Vendidad (Fargard 
 xix), he is called " the impetuous rusher." The As- 
 modeus of the book of Tobit (ill., S: see APOCRYPHA 
 OF THE OLD TESTAMENT) has been identified with 
 the Aeshma Daeva of Zoroastrlanism. See Martin Haug. 
 
 ^ESIR. The name of some Teutonic deities. The Irish 
 form of the name is ESIR. The Msir have been
 
 ^ternales 
 
 10 
 
 Agni 
 
 identified by some with the Indian Asnras (g.v.). The 
 gods figure in Danish mythology which tells of a conflict 
 between the ^sir and the Vanir. See P. D. Chantepie 
 de La Saussaye, Bel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 .ETEKNALES. A sect mentioned by Danieus. The 
 members believed that the present condition of the world 
 will remain unchanged. It will not be altered even after 
 the Second Coming of Jesus. 
 
 JSTIANS. The followers of Aetius. Ordained deacon 
 at Antioch A.D. 350, he was expelled on account of his 
 Arian views. He returned in 358, but in 360 the Emperor 
 Constantius summoned him to Constantinople and then 
 banished him to Phrygia. He denied the doctrine of 
 the Nicene Creed and agreed with the Homoiousians (q.v.) 
 that the Son is like the Father. See ARIANISM. 
 
 AFFIRMATION. Persons (Quakers, etc.) who have 
 conscientious scruples against taking an oath in a court 
 of justice have been allowed since 1833 to make, instead, 
 a solemn declaration. The permission has been extended 
 gradually, a new Oaths Act having been passed as re- 
 cently as 1888. In Scotland a person under age is 
 required to make a " declaration." 
 
 AFFUSION. A term applied to the pouring of water 
 on persons in Christian baptism (Q-v.). 
 
 AFRING.IN CEREMONY. A Parsee ceremony per- 
 formed in honour of a deceased person or of an angel. 
 In front of the fire, which bums in a vaselike vessel at 
 the southern end of the ceremonial area, is placed a 
 tray of wine and fruits, and on the left of the tray 
 flowers are put. The chief officiating priest then pro- 
 nounces a numl)er of formuhe. After this the consecrated 
 fruit and wine are partaken of by the priests and the 
 other ijersons present, this being accompanied by solemn 
 recitations. See Martin Haug. 
 
 AFRINGANS. A term used in the Zoroastrian re- 
 ligion of the " blessings which are to be recited over a 
 meal consisting of wine, milk, bread, and fruits, to which 
 an angel or the spirit of a deceased person is invited, 
 and in whose honour the meal is prepared. After the 
 consecration (which only a priest can perform) is over, 
 the meal is eaten by those who are present " (Haug). 
 There are special Afringans for different occasions. See 
 Martin Haug. 
 
 AFRIT. The name of a powerful demon in Moham- 
 medan mythology. 
 
 AGAPJi). This was a love- or charity-feast cele- 
 brated among the early Christians, in imitation, it is 
 thought of common meals held among the Greeks 
 (o-vo-o-iT-ia). It is mentioned in the New Testament. In 
 the Epistle of Jude (vs. 12) it Is said : " These are they 
 who are hidden rocks (or spots) in your love-feasts when 
 they feast with you, shepherds that without fear feed 
 themselves." And it is referred to in I Corinthians xi. 
 Rich and poor shared equally in the feast, the materials 
 being supplied by those who could afford to contribute. 
 " The Eucharist was always the chief act of worship. 
 In the beginning it was celebrated at the end of a cor- 
 porate meal. This is what we call the Agap^. In the 
 second century the Agap4 was already distinct from the 
 Eucharist. It took place in the evening, while the 
 Eucharist was celebrated at the morning meeting. A 
 corporate meal, however frugal, was only suitable for 
 restricted groups : as soon as the churches became 
 crowded assemblies, it would be diflicult to organize 
 such banquets so as to secure order and decorum. The 
 Agape was still kept up, but less as an expression of a 
 real corporate life than as a memory of the past, and 
 also as a work of charity; but soon no one went to it 
 except the poor and the clergy, and the latter took part 
 in it rather as part of their duty than for their own 
 benefit. Its recurrence did not coincide with that of the 
 
 ordinary liturgical service. The Agap4 became more and 
 more rare, and finally fell into disuse " (Mgr. Cuchesne). 
 According to Duchesne, this must be distinguished from 
 another kind of Agapa? of remote origin. This was a 
 banquet in commemoration of deceased persona. It was 
 still observed in the third and fourth centuries. See 
 Louis Duchesne, Hist.; W. Soltau, Das Fortleben des 
 Heidentums in der altchristlichen Kirohe, 1906; Cath. 
 Diet.; Prot. Diet. 
 
 AGAPEMONITES. The members of a conventual es- 
 tablishment called " Agapemone," " abode of love." The 
 establishment was founded (1859) at Charlinch, near 
 Bridgewater, Somerset, by Henry James Prince, a clergy- 
 man of the Church of England. It is now at Spaxton. 
 The Agapemonites profess to devote themselves to 
 spiritual contemplation, and to live in spiritual wedlock. 
 See Hepworth Dixon, Spiritual Wives, 1868. 
 
 AGAPETAI and AGAPETOI. The words mean liter- 
 ally " beloved women " and " beloved men." They were 
 men and women (spiritual wives) who lived together as 
 " brothers and sisters " in the early Christian Church. 
 The custom is eulogised in the " Sliepherd of Hennas " 
 dating from the end of the first or beginning of 
 the second century. Tertullian however denounced it, 
 and about the middle of the third century Cyprian, 
 Bishop of Carthage, disallowed it. They are still re- 
 ferred to by Gregory of Nyssa in the fourth century. 
 See F. C. Conybeare, M.M.M., pp. 217 f. 
 
 AGAPETOS. There is reason to think that in the 
 times when the Gospels of the New Testament were 
 composed the Greek expression 6 dyan-ijTo? " the Be- 
 loved One " was a standing Messianic title. In this 
 sense it seems to be used sometimes in the Gospels (e.g., 
 Mark i., 11; ix., 7). See J. Armitage Robinson, Ephe- 
 sians, 1904; Allan Menzies, The Earliest Oospel, 1901. 
 
 AGDISTIS. A nature-goddess worshipped by a tribe 
 of the Phrygians, equivalent to Atargatis. 
 
 AGGADA. See HAGGADAH. 
 
 AGHORIS. The Aghoris or Aghorpanthis are a class 
 of Saiva mendicants in India, found now chiefly at 
 Benares and at Girnar near Mount Abu. They used to 
 practise cannibalism, and still feed on human corpses 
 and excrement. " The Aghoris now represent their filthy 
 habits as merely giving practical expression to the 
 abstract doctrine that the whole universe is full of 
 Brahma, and consequently that one thins is as pure as 
 another. By eating the most horrible food they utterly 
 subdue their natural appetites, and hence acquire great 
 power over themselves and over the forces of nature. 
 It is believed that an Aghori can at will assume the 
 shapes of a bird, an animal or a fish, and that he can 
 bring back to life a corpse of which he has eaten a 
 part " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 AGIONITES. One of the sects condemned by the 
 Council of Gangra (between A.D. 360 and 380). The 
 name may have been formed from the Greek word hagios, 
 " pure." 
 
 AGIOSEMANDRUM. Literally " the holy caller " 
 from two Greek words. In Turkey, where the use of 
 bells is forbidden, this is a wooden instrument used 
 instead of a bell in Christian churches. 
 
 AGLIBOL. A solar deity, worshipped by the Pal- 
 myrenes. 
 
 AGNI. An Indian deity. Agni, originally fire and 
 then altar-fire, is one of the two greatest gods in the 
 Rig Veda (q.v.), the other being Soma. Agni. in whom 
 are the other gods, is regarded as a trinity (fire, 
 lightning, sun; earth, atmosphere, heavenj, and Hindu 
 ritual prescribes the keeping up of " three fires." In 
 the tirst hymn in the Rig Veda, Agni is described as 
 " house-priest," " priest divine of sacrifice," " oblation
 
 Agnibotris 
 
 U 
 
 Ahsonnutii 
 
 priest," " lord of sacrifice and shining guardian of the 
 rite." The DabistAn refers to " Agni-worshippers '' as 
 a sect existing In the seventeenth century. It is said 
 that there are still in India " Agnihotri," fire priests 
 who perform the Vedic sacrifices which entitle tie 
 worshippers to heavenlv life. See E. W. Hopkins, and 
 cp. E. B. Tylor. ii.. 281, 386. 
 
 AGXIHOTRIS. A term used in Brahmanism of those 
 Brahmans who duly perform all the sacrifices prescribed 
 for those who hope to go to heaven. 
 
 AGNOIT^. Literally " the Ignorant." A sect founded 
 by Theophronius of Cappadocia in the fourth century. 
 They were so called because they professed to have no 
 knowledge regarding the omniscience of God. The fol- 
 lowers of Themistius of Alexandria (c. 560) were also 
 called Asnoitae because they professed no knowledge of 
 the divinitv of Christ. 
 
 AGNOSTICS. A term introduced by Prof. T. H. 
 Huxley flS2o-1895) as a convenient designation of those 
 who refuse to claim any knowledge of supernatural 
 beings and events or of a future life. Agnostics are 
 not to be confused with Atheists (q.v^. 
 
 AGNUS DEI. The words mean " Lamb of God." It 
 is a title of Christ in the First Epistle of John f29). 
 It is also the name of a prayer, beginning with these 
 words, in the Roman Catholic Service of the Mass. It 
 is, further, the designation of medals of wax. silver, or 
 gold, consecrated by the popes from time to time since 
 the fourteenth century, and having stamped upon them 
 the figure of a lamb bearing a cross. These medals were 
 worn as amulets iq.v.). 
 
 AGONALIA. The word is derived from Agonius, a 
 Roman god (Ovid, Fasti, i.. 331). It is the name of a 
 Roman festival in honour of the deities who guarded 
 the State. 
 
 AGONICLITES. As the word suggests, this was the 
 name of a sect which disapproved of kneeling in divine 
 worship. The sect belonged to the seventh and eighth 
 centuries, and was condemned in 726 by a Synod held at 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 AGONISTICI. Literally " contenders." a name given 
 to parties of Donatists (fi.v.) who went about Africa 
 trying to win converts. They seem to have been in 
 existence in A.D. 317. They are also known by other 
 names, such as Cireuiti, Circumcellions (q.v.). 
 
 AGRAPHA. A name given to certain sayings which 
 are supposed to have been uttered by Jesus, but have 
 not been incorporated in the canonical Gospels. Ac- 
 cording to Papias. for instance. Jesus delivered a dis- 
 coursi,' on the Kingdom of God, in the course of which 
 he said : " The days will come in which every vine shall 
 produce ten thousand stems, and every stem shall give 
 ten thousand branches, and every branch shall have ten 
 thousand twigs, and on every twig shall be ten thousand 
 grapes, and every grape when pressed shall yield twenty- 
 five measures. And when a saint shall take a grape, 
 another shall cry, ' Lo. I am a better grape, take me, 
 and through me bless the Lord 1 ' And in like manner 
 a grata of wheat shall produce ten thousand ears, and 
 each grain shall yield five ' double pounds ' of pure white 
 flour: and so on. with all the other fruits and seeds 
 and vegetables in like manner. And all the creatures 
 that eat of the things which are thus brought forth by 
 the earth shall become gentle and peaceful one towards 
 another, and be obedient unto man in every respect " 
 fcp. the Apocalypse of Banieh, eh. xxviii.). Another 
 supposed saying of Jesus about the Kingdom of God 
 seems to have been current among the Eneratites (g.v.) 
 in the second century. One, Salome, asked the Lord how 
 long death would continue to hold sway. The Lord 
 answered, saying, " As long as ye women bear children; 
 
 for I came to abolish the functions of woman." Salome 
 said unto him, " Then have I done well in that I have 
 not borne children." The Lord answered and said. " Eat 
 of every plant save those which are bitter! " Salome 
 then inquired when that which she asked should be 
 revealed. The Lord said, " When ye tread down the 
 garment of shame, when the two become one, the male 
 with the female, neither male nor female." The same 
 utterance, though in a rather different version, occurs 
 in the Second Epistle of Clement (xii., 2-6). The Second 
 Epistle of Clement (v. 2-4) gives another supposed saying 
 of Jesus. " For the Lord said. ' Ye shall be like lambs 
 in the midst of wolves.* But Peter answered and said, 
 ' But what if the wolves should tear the sheep? ' Jesus 
 said to Peter, ' Let not the lambs, after they are dead, 
 fear the wolves. And ye, in like manner, fear not ye 
 those that kill you, and can do you no further hurt; 
 fear rather him who after death has power over soul 
 and body to cast them into the Gehenna of fire." 
 Another short saying which is frequently quoted (Clem. 
 Alex., Strom., i., 28, 177, etc.) is: " Be ye skilful money- 
 changers." Another saying given by Clement of Alexan- 
 dria is : " Ask for great things, and at the same time 
 small things shall also be given unto you; ask for 
 heavenly things, and earthly things shall also be given 
 unto vou." See Oscar Holtzmann. The Life of Jesus, 
 1904. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. Primitive folk look with a feeling 
 of awe and worship on the fertility of the earth. 
 Originally Baal (g.v.) of the Canaanites and Astarte 
 (q.v.) of the Phoenicians were gofls of fertility and of 
 the earth. Zoroastrianism recommends the diligent 
 tilling of the soil. " What is the food that fills the 
 Religion of Mazda? " asks Zoroaster. And the answer 
 of Ahura Mazda is: "It is sowing com again and 
 again, O Spitama Zarathustra '. He who sows com, sows 
 righteousness" (VencJidad, iii.. 23 ff.). Plato praises 
 agriculture as providing, amongst other things, first- 
 fruits for the gods and rich banquets for festivals. The 
 deities, festivals, etc., connected with agriculture are 
 dealt with under separate headings. See E. Wester- 
 ma rck. 
 
 AGUD. A term used among the islanders of the 
 Torres Straits to denote a mystic potency in things. 
 Agnd seems to be a force, and not a i)ersonal being, 
 and corresponds to the Melanesian mana. 
 
 AGYNIANS. A sect belonging to about A.D. 694. 
 They held that marriage was not a divine institution, 
 and therefore would hold no intercourse with women. 
 
 AHAU CHAMAHEZ. A tribal deity, god of medicine, 
 in the religion of the Mavan Indians. 
 
 AHMADITTAH. A Muhammadan sect founded in 
 North India in recent years by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed 
 of Qadian in the Punjab. According to E. JI. Wherry, 
 the sect really seems to be allied to that of the Babis 
 in Persia (see BABISM). " The founder styles himself 
 as the Mahdi-Messiah of the twentieth century. He 
 claims to be a prophet and the Messiah of the last 
 times." Many educated men have been influenced by 
 the movement; " but perhaps this may be accounted for 
 by its offering a refuge for men who can no longer 
 continue with the orthodox schools." Orthodox Muham- 
 madans regard the sect as heretical. See E. M. Wherry. 
 
 AHRIMAN. The personification of Evil in the dualistic 
 religion of Zarathustra, Zoroastrianism. The Vendidad 
 tells (Fargard. xix.) how Ahriman deputed one of the 
 evil spirits who served him to destroy Zarathustra him- 
 self, and how Zarathustra defeated him by repeating 
 a sacred formula. See Martin Haug. 
 
 AHSONNUTLI. The chief deity, creator of the hea- 
 vens and earth, among the Navaho Indians of New
 
 Ahuna-Vairya 
 
 12 
 
 Alaesiagae Bede et Fimmilene 
 
 Mexico. Having the attributes of both sexes, he is 
 called The Turquoise Hermaphrodite. 
 
 AHUNA-VAIRYA. The name of the oldest known 
 creed or formula of the Zoroastrians. Martin Haug 
 translates: " As a heavenly lord is to be chosen, so is 
 an earthly master (spiritual guide), for the sake of 
 righteousness, (to be) the giver of the good thoughts, 
 of the actions of life, towards Mazda ; and the dominion 
 is for the lord (Ahura) whom he (Mazda) has given as 
 a protector for the poor." Wilhelm Bousset gives as 
 the translation {What is Religion* 1907, p. 159 /.) : " The 
 will of the Lord is the law of justice. The reward of 
 heaven is for those who have worked in the world for 
 Mazda. Ahura grants the kingdom to those who have 
 helped the poor." In I'asno xis. of the Zend-avesta, 
 Ahura-mazda is represented as saying : " These my parts 
 of the Ahuna-vairya, when recited without mistake (and) 
 without mispronunciation, are equal, O Spitama Zara- 
 thushtra ! to a hundred of the other principal stanzas 
 (Gathas) recited without mistake (and) without mispro- 
 nunciation. Even recited with mistakes (and) mispro- 
 nunciation (they are) equal to ten other principals. 
 And whoever, in this my world supplied with creatures, 
 O Spitama Zarathushtra ! shall recall (mentally) one 
 part of the Ahuna-vairya, or in the course of recalling 
 shall mutter it, or in the course of muttering shall 
 chant it, or in the course of chanting prays to it, his 
 soul will I, who am Ahuramazda, carry all three times 
 over the bridge to paradise." See Martin Haug. 
 
 AHURA. A term used frequently in the Zoroastrian 
 religion. It means " lord," and can be applied to men 
 as well as to the Supreme Being. Commonly, however, 
 it is used of the latter. Mazda is repeatedly addressed 
 as " Ahura," or as Ahura-mazda iq.v.). A common 
 expression is " the religion of Ahura." In Yasna xxxvii. 
 of the Zend-avesta it is said : " Thus we worship 
 Ahuramazda. . . . We worship him in calling him 
 by the Ahura names which were chosen by Mazda him- 
 self, and which are the most beneficent." See Martin 
 Haug. 
 
 AHURAMAZDA. The Supreme Being In the Zoroast- 
 rian religion. He is called by Zarathushtra " the 
 Creator of the earthly and spiritual life, the Lord of 
 the whole universe, in whose hands are all the crea- 
 tures." He is said to be Light, and the source of light: 
 wisdom and the intellect. The possessor of all .such good 
 things as the good mind, immortality, health the best 
 truth, devotion and piety, and abundance of all earthly 
 blessings, he is ready to bestow these on the righteous 
 man. At the same time he will punish the wicked. 
 In Ahuramazda himself were united two principles or 
 creative spirits, spent6 mainiinnh, " the beneficient 
 spirit," and angrfi mainyush, " the hurtful spirit." In 
 course of time SpentO-mainyush was identified exclu- 
 sively with Ahura-mazda, and AngrO-mainyush was 
 regarded as an independent being, the organiser of the 
 powers of evil. See Martin Haug. 
 
 AIRU. The second month of the Babylonian calen- 
 dar. It was sacred to Ea. It seems to have been a 
 particularly sacred month. The tenth day was sacred 
 to Shamash, Malkatu, and Bunene. See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rel. 
 
 AIRTAMAN. The chief god of healing in the Iranian 
 pantheon. He is the equivalent of the Indian Aryaman, 
 the good companion of Mitra and Varuna, that is to 
 say, the third member of the great triad of the Adityas. 
 A. Carnoy (" The Iranian Gods of Healing," Journal 
 of the American Oriental Society, vol. 3S) thinks that 
 " the various Indications which we possess about his 
 character coincide in presenting him as a god of rain 
 and of fertility who is essentially helpful to man. It 
 
 is only reasonable to regard his functions of healer in 
 Iran as a secondary but very natural development out 
 of these elements." In the Pahlavi Vendidad (xx.) 
 it is said : " The longing for Airman (Airyaman) de- 
 stroys every disease and death, every sorcerer and witch, 
 and every wicked courtezan." See Martin Haug. 
 
 AISLE. From Latin ala, " a wing," the wings of a 
 Church or its lateral division. Churches in England 
 have usually two aisles, one on each side of the nave 
 or choir. Many churches, however, have only one. In 
 continental churches there are commonly two, but in 
 some cases three, aisles. " In many cases the aisles 
 have had their origin in chantry chaijels " (J. H. Parker, 
 Oloss.). 
 
 AITKENITES. The followers of Robert Aitken (1800- 
 1873), a clergyman of the Church of England, ordained 
 in 1823. Leaving the Church of England, he became 
 for a time a Wesleyan preacher. In 1840, however, he 
 returned, and in 1849 he became Vicar of Pendeen in 
 Cornwall. Aitken's experience of two types of Chris- 
 tianity led him to attempt to combine certain features 
 of Methodism (e.g., the ecstatic prayer-meetings) with 
 the ritual and teaching of the High Church Party. See 
 the D.N.B., and J. H. Blunt. 
 
 AIZEN MTO-0. Japanese god of love. 
 
 AKA-KANET. A harvest-god worshipped by the 
 Araucanian Indians of Chili. 
 
 AKALIS. A fanatical order of Sikh ascetics. The 
 name Akali means '" immortal." After the death of 
 Guru Govind, Balragi Banda introduced innovations 
 which were resisted stoutly by some of the Sikhs. This 
 section became the Akalis. " They constituted at once 
 the most unruly and the bravest portion of the very 
 unruly and brave Sikh army. Their headquarters were 
 at Amritsar, where they constituted themselves the 
 guardians of the faith and assumed the right to con- 
 voke synods. They levied offerings by force and were 
 the terror of the Sikh chiefs. Their good qualiltes 
 were, however, well appreciated by the Maharaja, and 
 when there were specially fierce foes to meet, such as 
 the Pathans beyond the Indus, the Akalis were always 
 to the front " (Sir E. Maclagan, quoted by Russell and 
 HIra Lai). See R. V. Russell. 
 
 AKASAMUKHAS. Literally " Sky-facers." An order 
 of Hindu ascetics, worshippers of Siva (q.v.). They are 
 so called because with necks bent back they gaze at the 
 sky. They spend their lives in this attitude. See 
 Monier-Wiiliama; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 'AKIIKA. Literally "the cutting off of the hair," an 
 Arabian ceremony in the time of Mohammed performed 
 on the birth of a child. The infant's head was shewed, 
 and tie scalp daubed with the blood of a sacrificed 
 sheep. The ceremony was supposed to " avert evil from 
 the child " and seemingly to place it under the pro- 
 tection of the community's god. Prof. Robertson Smith 
 infers, however, from early references to an Arabian 
 and Syrian practice that the oldest Semitic usage in 
 Arabia and Syria was to sacrifice the hair of childhood, 
 not In infancy, but on " admission to the religious and 
 social status of manhood." See W. R. Smith, R.S. 
 
 AKITU FESTIVAL. The name in Babylonian- 
 Assyrian religion of a festival in honour of Marduk 
 (q.v.). Originally it was called Zagmuku (q.v-), New 
 Year's Day, a festival belonging to anotJier god. Akitu 
 seems to have been a general name for festival, which 
 in course of time was specially applied to Marduk's 
 festival as the festival par excellence. See Morris 
 Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 AL^SIAGAE BEDE ET FIMMILENE. The names 
 of two goddesses worshipped by some of the Ancient 
 Teutons. In 1883 an altar erected by Frisian soldiers
 
 Alagarswami 
 
 13 
 
 was found at Honsesteads in the north of England. It 
 tears two inscriptions, one of which runs : " J^o the god 
 Mars Thingsus, and the two Alsesiagce, Bede and Fim- 
 mllene." On the sides of the altar is depicted tie 
 "figure of a hovering female, with a sword (or staff) 
 in the one hand and a wreath in the other " (Chantepie 
 
 *^ ALAlTRfwAxfl.^A deity to whom special veneration 
 la paid by the Kalians, a tribe or caste of the Madura 
 disuict in Southern India. At the car festival he is 
 represented as a long-eared Kalian carrying the boom- 
 ing and club, the favourite weapons of tlie caste^ 
 AlthSugh the Kalians sacrifice sheep to other dwt^^s JQO 
 blood ^crifice is offered to Alagarswami (the Ix^autiful 
 god) The essence of their religious behef is said to 
 be devil-worship. See E. Thurston. 
 
 ALAGHOM NAOM. A goddess worshipped by the 
 Tzental Indians of Mesico as the creator of mind and 
 thought. She is called also Iztat Is. ... 
 
 ALALA The name of a deity in Babylonian-Assynan 
 religion. Consort of Belili, he is mentioned on a cunei- 
 form tablet as one of the ancestors of the well-know_n 
 deities The name is found m incantations. He is 
 pirhaps to be connected with the bird Alallu. mentioned 
 in the Gilgamesh epic (g.r.). , „ ^ , . 
 
 AlIllu. The iame of a bird in the Babylonian 
 Gilgamesh Epic iq.v.). Addressing Ishtar (f.''-). ^»- 
 gamesh says : " The bright-coloured alallu bird thou 
 S love; thou didst crush him and break his pmions 
 S the woods he stands and laments, ' O my pmions! 
 There was originally perhaps some connection between 
 Alallu and Alala (q.v.) who is "•'^ferred to as one of the 
 early ancestors of the gods. See Moms Jastrow, Rel. 
 ALAMOTH UPON. A phrase occurring in the Old 
 Testament (Psalm 46, title, etc.1 as a musical expression 
 or direction. It perhaps means " for sopranos,' since 
 ?he word -Airirndth in Hebrew commonly means 
 " maidens." See Encycl. BtU. 
 
 ALASCANS. The Protestant party in the reign oi 
 Edward VI.. which was led by the Polish refugee, John 
 kI.aseo Laseo was much interested in the theology of 
 Zwingli. Before coming to England he was .Superin- 
 tendent of the Reformed Churches at Emden in Fnes- 
 land Cranmer, who is said to have invited bum to 
 England is thought to have been much influenced by 
 hU Aews. In London Lasco was made Supenntendent 
 of the Foreign Protestants. He worked in the interest 
 of Puritanism, being opposed to the pracUee of kneeling 
 at the Holy Communion, to the use of the surplice, etc. 
 
 See M. W. Patterson, Hist. ^ 
 
 ALB An ecclesiastical vestment made of white Imen. 
 It was worn formerly in the Church of England, and is 
 still worn in the Roman Catholic Church. It is a tunic 
 witH sleeves, and reached sometimes from head to foot 
 Other names for it were •' camisia," " Poderes, and 
 " linea " Its use was perhaps suggested by the under- 
 garment or tunic worn by Greeks and Romans. A canon 
 of the Fourth Council of Carthage (398) refers to its use 
 by deacons; the Council of Narbonne (589) to its u^Jaj 
 deacons, subdeacons, and lectores. Isidore says (59o) . 
 " The poderes is a linen tunic worn by priests, httmg 
 closely to the body and coming down to the feet; this 
 is commonlv called camisia " (quoted by Tyaek). in 
 later times the albs worn by English bishops were some- 
 times made of silk and coloured and embroidered. At 
 the Reformation the use of the alb was regarded by the 
 reformers as savouring of superstition. In lo'l Edmuna 
 Grindal (1519?-1!')S3), then Archbishop of York, enjoined 
 the churchwardens of his diocese to see that they were 
 disused and destroyed. In the First Prayer Book of 
 Edward VI. (1549) their use had been preec-nbed; but 
 
 Al-Burak 
 
 in the Second Prayer Book (1552) it was forbidden In 
 the Roman Catholic Church the priest still puts it on 
 before saving Mass. See G. S. Tyack, Htstorxo Dress 
 of the Clergy, 1897; Cath. Diet. , . ^ ^ . , .. 
 
 4X,BANENSES. A medieval sect which derived its 
 name from the diocese of Albi in Piedmont. It was a 
 subdivision of the Catharl. The Albanenses had 
 Manichaean leanings. They recognized two First Causes, 
 a God of Light and a Prince of Darkness. Believing 
 that God had not destined any creature to destruction, 
 they held it sinful to take the life of animals. There 
 were different parties in the sect, headed respectively 
 by Balazinansa, Bishop of Verona, and John de Lugio, 
 Bishop of Bergamo. See J. H. Blunt. 
 ALBATI. See WHITE BRETHREN. 
 ALBIGENSES. A general name given to sectaries 
 who were found in great numbers in the district of 
 Provence in Southern France at the beginning of the 
 thirteenth centurv. One of the districts of Languedoc, 
 \lbigeois, of which Albi was the capital, seems to have 
 Kiven th^m their name. They were regarded as a 
 Manich*an body and seem to have included adherents 
 of the Cathari, the Waldenses, and the Paulicians, 
 who had congregated in one district_from various 
 ouarters What their doctrines were, and to whit extent 
 they were heretical, it is difficult to say, since we have 
 for the most part only the statements of their opponents 
 to guide us. But in any case they were such as to 
 bring them into collision with the Church of Rome; and 
 fronT this and the further fact that they were nick- 
 named "the good people " we may infer that they were 
 opposed to pontifical government and sought to live the 
 simple lite of the Apostles. They were condemned by 
 Pot^ Calixtus II. in 1119 at Toulouse, and by Pope 
 LX^nt II in 1139. In 1209 Simon de Montfort was 
 .oSsioned by Pope Innocent III to conduct a crusade 
 against them. He was killed at the siege of Tou ouse 
 fn ms, but the crusade continued. The war itself 
 changed its character, and peace was made in 1229 by 
 which Louis IX. of France added to his possessions. 
 Sul there was no pea«. for the Albigenses^ ZatlmJn 
 handed over to the tender mercies of the Inquisition, 
 anfl^ter^ffering cruel torture and Pe-ecution were 
 liractically exterminated by A.D. 1244. See J. H. Biuni, 
 
 IlBINOS From the Latin word for "white," a 
 desigmition of persons having an irregularity in the 
 skfn This irregularity (leucosis) affects the colour of 
 the hair (white) and the eyes (the iris appearing re^). 
 The phenomenon appears also in animals. S nee any- 
 thing mvsterlous, startling, or . uncanny sometimes en- 
 genders awe Albinos have received religious veneration 
 Imong certain races. Sometimes they bave been mad^ 
 DriestI On the other hand, they are sometimes looked 
 K with horror and disgust. The Hindus call them 
 Knkrelaks a name for loathsome insects. They win 
 notafl^w'theVdeeent burial, but cast them into dUches. 
 See Edward Westermarck; J. A. Dubois and H. ».. 
 Beauchamp, Hindu Mannrrs. etc. 
 
 ALBIORIX. Albiorix. " king of the worid was one 
 of the names given by the ancient Celts to the war-god, 
 
 ^'If ^.KhtTrI^S'r^n' ^^T^hf Toflow^ ^of Jacob 
 AltS'^'fL™ Lutheran who fo-ded ^^^-^^ in 
 Pennsylvania. See EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION. 
 
 AL-BURAK . Literally " the bright one. This is the 
 name given to the animal on which Mohammed made
 
 Alcantara, Knights of 
 
 14 
 
 AUatu 
 
 was Buraq. Then I mounted the animal, and ascended 
 until we arrived at the lowest heaven, and Gabriel 
 demanded that the door should be opened " (Mishkutu 
 'I- Mambih, quoted in T. P. Hughes, Diet, of Islam, 1885). 
 
 ALCANTARA, KNIGHTS OF. An order of knights 
 established in Spain in 1177 in opposition to the Moham- 
 medans. 
 
 ALCHEMY. Originally the art of transmuting base 
 metals into gold and silver by a secret chemical process. 
 Alchemy became associated with magic when alchemists 
 thought to discover a solvent containing the original 
 principle of all matter. This solvent was to prove a 
 remedy for all diseases and a means of renewing youth 
 and preserving life. A Chinese alchemist of the fourth 
 century, Koh Hung, says that grease of jade mi.xed 
 with the juice of herbs, will, if drunk, make one live 
 a thousand years. " He who swallows gold will exist 
 as long as gold." The efBcacy ascribed by the Chinese 
 to jade and gold is seen In the fact that they put them 
 in the mouth of the dead to jirotect the body against 
 putrefaction (see J. J. M. de Groot, R.S.C). Some of 
 the Hindus, again, have believed that they could attain 
 " salvation during life " or present immortality by 
 swallowing elixirs compounded of mercury and mica, 
 the one being supposed to contain the essence of Siva, 
 the other the essence of his wife Gauri. The elixir, it 
 was thought, repairs and rejuvenates the decaying par- 
 ticles of the body (see Monler-Williams). Alchemy was 
 introduced into Egypt, and flourished there, in the 
 Hellenistic period. The solvent of the alchemists was 
 known in England as the " philosopher's stone," and 
 those who possessed the secret were called " adepts." 
 The adepts were taught the doctrines in mystical and 
 symbolical language. In the Middle Ages the monks 
 occupied themselves with alchemy. 
 
 ALCORAN. See KORAN. 
 
 ALDOBRANDINI, THE. The name of a Florentine 
 family to which Pope Clement VIII. (1592) and other 
 ecclesiastical dignitaries belonged. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN CANON. The Bible of Greek-speaking 
 Jews, the Septuagint (q.v.), includes, in addition to 
 our canonical books of the Old Testament, the books 
 commonly known to us as the Apocrypha. It has been 
 customary therefore to speak of an Alexandrian Canon 
 in distinction from the Palestinian Canon. This, as C. 
 H. Cornill points out (Intr.), is hardly correct. " In 
 strict correctness an Alexandrian ' Canon ' should not 
 be spoken of at all; for neither the number of the books 
 admited nor their order is in agreement in the Greek 
 Bible MSS. It is clear that the Greeks have allowed 
 themselves to be guided simply by the principle of 
 oLKoiofir) (' edification ') : all writings of a religious 
 character which they found edifying they read and held 
 in high esteem. But such a proceeding would have been 
 quite inconceivable if at the time of the birth of Christ 
 there already existed in Palestine an official canon, and 
 if the books had already at that time been separated 
 into such as defile the hands [i.e., are canonical!, and 
 such as do not." See further CANON, OLD TESTA- 
 MENT. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN CODEX. The Codex Aloxandrinus 
 (designated by the letter A) is a Greek manuscript 
 translation of the Bible, belonging probably to the last 
 half of the fifth century. It was so called from having 
 been presented in 1098 to the patriarch of Alexandria. 
 It was believed in Egypt to have been written by Saint 
 Thecla : and a note in Arabic in the first of the four 
 volumes says that she wTote it. But such traditions are 
 not uncommon. Writing in 1907 Dr. Gregory says : 
 " It is not a year since I visited a women's monastery 
 in the East in which the abbess assured me that their 
 
 beautiful manuscript had been written by an ancient 
 saintly woman, whereas I found in it the name, and 
 I think the date of the man who wrote it." In 1628 
 the Codex Alexandrinus was sent to King Charles I. as 
 a present. It is now presented in the British Museum. 
 The first three volumes contain (with some gaps) the 
 Septuagint Version of the Old Testament. The fourth 
 volume contains the New Testament. But there are 
 missing : Matthew i. to xxv. 6, John vi. 50-viii. 52, and 
 II. Corinthians iv. 13-xii. 6. It also contains the genuine 
 first Epistle of Clement of Rome and the homily known 
 as Second Clement. See C. R. Gregory, Canon; M. R. 
 Vincent, Teirt. Crit. of the N.T. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. When Alexandria became 
 the centre of learning (second period 30 B.C. to A.D. 
 640), an effort was made to blend the wisdom or philo- 
 sophy of the East and the West. Thus arose the Neo- 
 Platonists (q.v.). The movement suggested a new style 
 of treating theology, and gave rise to what is known 
 as the Alexandrian or Alexandrine School. The chief 
 representatives of this School were Clement of Alexan- 
 dria and Origen. The Alexandrian School resolved to 
 fight the Gnostic here.sy with its own weapons, and 
 developed a system of " Christian " Gnosis. See C. 
 Bigg, Christian Platonists of Alexandria, 1886; Neo- 
 platonism, 1895. 
 
 ALEXANDRIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. A work al- 
 luded to in the fragment of Muratori, the Italian 
 historian and librarian. The Epistle was forged in 
 Paul's name in support of the heresy of Mareion. 
 
 ALEXIANS. The name of a religious fraternity of 
 laymen founded on the Lower Rhine in the fifteenth 
 century. The name was suggested by that of St. Alexius, 
 who devoted himself to a life of poverty in the time of 
 Pope Innocent I. (402-417 A.D.). The Alexians devoted 
 themselves to the work of tending the sick. They were 
 known also as Nollards or Nollbrueder. 
 
 ALFHEIM. Alfheim would seem to have been one of 
 the nine worlds in the cosmogony of the Ancient Teutons. 
 
 ALI, SECT OF. A Mohammedan sect. See SHI'AH. 
 
 'ALI-ILAHIS. A sect In Persia having many 
 adherents. They regard ' AH, the cousin of Mohammed 
 and husband of his daughter, as " neither more nor less 
 than an Incarnation or ' Manifestation ' of Grod " (Allah). 
 See E. G. Browne, Lit. Hi.it. of Persia, 1906. 
 
 AL-KITAB. Literally " the Book," another name for 
 the Qur'an (g.v.). " The book " of course means the 
 book par excellence, the sacred book. Another name for 
 the Qur'Sn is Al-Furq9n (see FURQAN). 
 
 ALKORAN. See KORAN. 
 
 ALLAH. The Arabic name for God (the God). It is 
 cognate with the Hebrew Eloah. 
 
 ALLAH. Allah, the father of the Djinns, was a 
 North Arabian deity. He appears sometimes as the 
 consort of Allath (q.v.). 
 
 ALLATH. An Arabian goddess, identified with Athena. 
 She was adopted by the Syrian Arabs. Her consort was 
 Dusares (Dionysus). At Palmyra .she was associated 
 with the solar god Malakhbel. Herodotus calls her 
 Alilat or Urania. 
 
 ALLATII. The name of a goddess in Babylonian- 
 Assyrian religion. Originally a consort of Bel Iq.v.) of 
 Nippur, .she was afterwards associated in turn with Nin- 
 azu and Nergal (qq.v.). She is the chief goddess of the 
 subterranean cave in which the dead dwell, and seems 
 sometimes, like Nergal, to have been depicted as a lion. 
 As mistress of the underworld, she is regarded sometimes 
 as the authoress of evil, though as a personification of 
 the " earth " she seems also to have been considered a 
 goddess of fertility. The El-Amama tablets seek to 
 explain Nergal's position in the world of the dead by
 
 Allegory 
 
 15 
 
 Altar 
 
 the legend of a conflict between Nergal and Allatu. In 
 the end she offers to marry him, and he spares her life. 
 The legend seems to have been framed in imitation of 
 the Marduk-Tiamat story, Nergal corresponding to Mar- 
 duk, and Allatu to Tiamat. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ALLEGORY. A figurative manner of speaking in 
 which the words are symbols, and are not to be under- 
 stood in their literal meaning. The early Jewish rabbi 
 Philo, a contemporary of Jesus, is noted for his 
 allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament. Early 
 Christian Fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria, Origen. 
 Eusebius, Ambrose of Milan, followed his example. The 
 ancient Stoics in like manner allegorised the poems of 
 Homer, thereby explaining away many objectionable 
 features in Greek mythology. The allegory in the 
 "Arabian Nights" in which three rings represent the 
 Mahommedan, Jewish, and Christian religions, has been 
 repeated by Lessing in Sathan the Wise. 
 
 ALLELUIA. The Greek form of the Hebrew HALLE- 
 LUJAH. 
 
 ALL-FOOLS' DAT. See APRIL FOOL'S DAT. 
 
 ALL-SAINTS' DAT. A Christian festival now held on 
 the 1st of November. It took the place (A.D. 607) in the 
 West of a pagan festival " To all the Gods." Among the 
 Greeks the festival of all martyrs and saints seems to 
 have been ob.'^rved in the fourth century. It was Pope 
 Gregory III. who fixed the day (about 731) as the 1st of 
 November. Before this it had been the 13th of May. 
 See Cath. Diet. 
 
 ALL SAINTS' SISTERHOOD. MARGARET STREET. 
 A Church of England Sisterhood founded in 1851. The 
 Sisters, whose headquarters are now All Saints' Con- 
 vent, Colney Chapel, St. Albans, work as Hospital Nurses 
 and District Visitors. They al.so work ecclesiastical 
 embroidery and bake wafers for the Holy Eucharist. See 
 Walter Walsh, " Sisterhoods, Ritualistic," in the Prot. 
 Diet. 
 
 ALL SOULS DAT. Also called " Festa Animarum," 
 " Animarum Commemoratlo," " Omnium Fidelium Com- 
 memoratio." November the 2nd is observed as a day of 
 commemoration of all the dead. Odilon, Abbot of 
 Clugny, inaugurated the custom in A.D. 998. 
 
 ALMANACS. Registers of the days, weeks, months of 
 the year, etc. The Hindu Almanac (panchangam) is 
 compiled by learned priests (purohitas) Every priest 
 must possess a copy, because it supplies information about 
 auspicious and inauspicious days, propitious hours, lucky 
 and unlucky constellations, etc. By studying it, he can 
 give advice on the most varied matters. In China 
 almanacs circulate freely. Here also they supply in- 
 formation as to favourable or unfavourable days. One 
 of these popular almanacs gives details concerning 
 " things to be avoided with regard to coffining." If the 
 almanac does not suffice, a " day-professor " is consulted. 
 See J. J. M. de Groot, R.S.O. 
 
 ALMEH. A name for certain singing girls in Egypt 
 who attended festivals. 
 
 ALMOHADES. Originally the name of an Arabian 
 religious sect founded in 1146 in the Atlas mountains by 
 ' Abd al-Mu'min. a pupil of Abfl ' Abdallah Muhammad 
 Ibn Tflmart. The sect became militant and superseded 
 that of the Almoravides (9.1;.). 
 
 ALMONER. An ecclesiastical official attached to a 
 royal court or a noble mansion with the duty of dis- 
 tributing alms. Before the French Revolution (17S9) the 
 Grand Almoner (Grand AiimOnier) in France, who was 
 usually a cardinal, was a very important dignitary. In 
 England, there is a Lord High Almoner, an Anglican 
 bishop or dean, who distributes the royal bounty. The 
 Hereditary Grand Almoner is now hardly more than a 
 
 name. In France the name Almoner is given to any 
 kind of Chaplain. 
 
 ALMORAVIDES. Originally the name of an Arabian 
 religious sect founded about the middle of the eleventh 
 century by Abdallah-ben-Tasin. The sect became 
 militant and gave its name to a dynasty which ruled in 
 the eleventh and twelfth centuries in AJfrica and Spain. 
 The prefix Al- is the Arabic definite article. Con- 
 sequently, the name often appears as Moravids. See 
 Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 ALMS. Relief given to the poor out of compassion. 
 There seems to be a connection between sacrifice and the 
 giving of alms. The deity enjoys only the spiritual part 
 of the food offered ; the poor receive often tbe substance. 
 Sacrificial food is distributed among the poor. The 
 goddess Artemis (q.v.), the god Mazda (Yasna, xxxiv., 
 5) benefited them in this way. The pcoT of ancient 
 Arabia partook of meal-offerings made to the god 
 UqaiQir. Sometimes the almsgiving itself is a form of 
 sacrifice. In the sacred books of India sacrifice and 
 almsgiving are often mentioned. In the Egyptian " Book 
 of the Dead " (g.v.), in the Zoroastrian prayer Ahuna- 
 Vairya (q.v.), in the Koran, almsgiving occupies an 
 equally important place as a part of religion. It is well 
 known that the Jews associated almsgiving and sacrifice. 
 "He that giveth alms sacrificeth praise" we are told 
 (Ecclesiasticus, xxxv., 2). In the Mishnah it is said : 
 " Through alms a man jmrtakes of eternal life " (Rosh 
 hash-shanuh 3): and : " As sin-offering makes atonement 
 for Israel, so alms for the Gentiles " (Baba Bathra 10b). 
 In the Jewish synagogues and at the services of the early 
 Christian Church alms were regularly collected. It has 
 been .said, too, that whereas in heathen guilds or clubs 
 "charity was an accident, in Christian associations it 
 was of the essence " (E. Hatch, Organisation of the Earlv 
 Christian Church, 1881). Almsgiving is also closely con- 
 nected with fasting. In Brahmanism sacrifice, fasting, 
 and the giving of gifts are often spoken of together. In 
 Mohammedanism almsgiving is enjoined after a fast, and 
 in some cases (e.g., of old people) it is a substitute for 
 fasting. The Christian Fathers (e.g.. Augustine) say 
 that what is saved by fasting should be given to the poor. 
 See E. Westermarck; Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ALOGI. A name used by Epiphanius and Augustine to 
 describe those who did not accept St. John's doctrine of 
 the Logos and who denied the authority of St. John's 
 writings. The Montanist prophets based their claims 
 on these writings. The Alogi, called into existence in 
 Asia in the second century to combat Montanism, attacked 
 the enemy by denouncing their sacred books. They 
 rejected all the Johannine writings without distinction, 
 ascribing the authorship to Cerinthus. See Ix>uis 
 Duchesne, Hist. 
 
 ALPHA AND OMEGA. The first and the last letter 
 of the Greek alphabet. The expression is used in the 
 New Testament to denote the eternity of .Tesus. " I am 
 the Alpha and the Omega, said the Lord God, which is 
 and which was and which is to come, the Almighty " 
 (Revelation, i.. 8: cp. vs. 11 and xxi. fi. xxii. 13). 
 
 ALTAR. The I.,atin word is altare from altus " high." 
 The Hebrew word mizbeah means " a place of slaughter 
 or sacrifice." It is represented closely by the Greek word 
 thusiasterion. Sometimes, however, the word bomos is 
 given as the equivalent, which means literally " any 
 raised place." This is the more primitive meaning of an 
 altar. The altar was a place set apart for a holy pur- 
 pose, that of sacrifice. As such it was natural to 
 separate it from the ordinary soil on which men trod. 
 This was done by raising it. Originally it was enough 
 to pile up some of the earth, and earth altars were still 
 in use among the Hetorews (Exodus xx., 24-26), Car-
 
 Al-Taschith 
 
 16 
 
 Ambarvalia 
 
 thaginians, Romans, Greeks, and others. Afterwards a 
 stone (ep. Judges vi., 11 ff.) or a heap of stones was used : 
 and then a kind of table. When a stone has been con- 
 secrated to this use, it becomes holy, because the god is 
 supjx>sed to enter into it and make it his dwelling. The 
 Old Testament contains many references to altars, those 
 of later date relating to altars of rather elaborate con- 
 struction (cp. I Kings ix., 25; II Chronicles iv., 1). The 
 earlier Babylonian altar was of sun-dried brick. Stone 
 was used later, and in Assyria altars of limestone and 
 alabaster were common. At Nippur an altar twelve feet 
 long and six wide was found. The height appears to 
 have been from two to three feet. Like Hebrew and 
 Phoenician altars, Assyrian altars had at the corners of 
 the rim some kind of decoration resembling horns. The 
 table rested on a solid piece of stone or on a tripod. 
 When the Hebrews fled to the altar as a place of refuge, 
 they caught hold of its horns (I Kings i. 50, ii. 28; cp. 
 I Maccabees x. 43, Cicero, De Natnra Deoruin iii. 10). 
 Besides the altars in temples and other sacred places, it 
 has been the custom to have small household altars. 
 Thus the Greeks and Romans had them in the courts of 
 their houses. The Chinese may be said to have two 
 kinds of domestic altar. In the house is an altar for 
 sacrifice to the tutelar deities. While the coffin of a 
 deceased relative is still in the house, the mourners offer 
 the soul every evening burning candles and incense-sticks. 
 Besides this, at a Chinese burial a table is placed in front 
 of the soul-tablet and the coffin, and on it is set a sacri- 
 ficial meal for the soul of the dead person. On it are 
 placed also a censer or incense-sticks and candles. The 
 " grave table " is •• a square slab of granite, either placed 
 on the ground, or upon a massive table-shaped pile of 
 masonry; sometimes it is entirely of granite, and carved 
 in front with characters or emblematic figures " (De 
 Groot). At the left-hand side of the coffin is a small altar 
 for sacrifices to the god of earth. This altar "consists 
 of a rectangular slab of granite, seldom higher than one 
 or two feet, fixed perpendicularly in the ground." The 
 front of the slab bears such inscriptions as : " Ruler of 
 the Earth," " God or Spirit of the Earth," " Active 
 Animus of the Ground," " Spirit of the Felicitating 
 Agencies." In the Christian Churches for some centuries 
 the altars were usually of wood. In the fifth century 
 altars of stone became common. This seems to have been 
 suggested by the use of the tombs of martyrs in the 
 Catacombs as substitutes for altars, the marble slab 
 serving as a table. Stone altars were ordered in England 
 in 705 by Egbert (d. 7G0>. Archbishop of York. They had 
 already been ordered in France in 509. On Novemt>er 
 12, 1550, as a result of an Order in Council, it was com- 
 manded to " pluck down the altars." Matthew Parker 
 (1504-1575), Archbishop of Canterbury, and Edmund 
 Grindal (15197-1583) were anxious to assure themselves 
 that this order had been carried out. In 1857 it was 
 decided that a stone altar may not be erected in churches. 
 In the Church of Rome the altar " must consist of stone, 
 or at least must contain an altar-stone large enough to 
 hold the Host and the greater part of the chalice; and 
 this altar, or the altar-stone, must have been consecrated 
 by a bishop, or by an abbot who has received the requisite 
 faculties from the Holy See " (Addis and Arnold). 
 William Laud (1573-1045), Archbishop of Canterbury, gave 
 offence to the Puritans by ordering the communion table 
 or altar to be moved from the body of the church to the 
 east end and to be placed altar-wise (see M. W. Patter- 
 son. Hist.; W. L. Mackintosh, Life o/ William Laud. 
 1907). See W. R. Smith, R.S., 1894; Morris .lastrow, 
 Rel. of Babylonia and Assiiria, 1898; J. .T. M. de Groot, 
 R.S.C.. 1892, etc.; Encycl. BiU.; Prat. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 AL-TASCHITH Or Al-Tashheth. A phrase occurring 
 
 in the Old Testament (Psalm 75, 1 etc.) as a musical 
 expression or direction. It seems to designate the tune 
 (" Destroy not ") to which a psalm is to be sting. 
 
 ALTRUISM. The word means literally " of or to 
 others." It was first used by Auguste Oomte (1798-1857) 
 and his followers as a designation of unselfishness and 
 interest in others as distinguished from selfishness and 
 egoism. 
 
 ALUMBRADOS. A sect of Spanish mystics founded 
 about 1520, and suppressed by the Inquisition. The 
 Illuminati of a later date in Germany held similar 
 principles. 
 
 ALVISS. A figure in Teutonic mythology. Alviss is a 
 wise dwarf who presents himself before Thor (g.v.) and 
 asks for his daughter in marriage. He is detained until 
 the dawn of day which proves fatal to him. See Chante- 
 pie de La Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 AMADHLOZI. A name given by the Zulus to their 
 ancestral spirits who revisit them in the form of snakes. 
 They may be distinguished from ordinary snakes by their 
 frequenting huts, by their not eating mice, and by their 
 not being afraid of people. " Common folk become harm- 
 less .snakes with green and white bellies and very small 
 heads; but kings become boa-constrictors or the large and 
 deadly black Mamba " (Frazer). See J. G. Frazer, O.B. 
 
 AMAETHON. One of the deities worshipped by the 
 ancient Celts. The name appears in late Welsh legend. 
 Amaethon was the patron god of farmers. 
 
 AMALRICIANS. The followers of Amalric of Bena or 
 Amaury of Ben6, a Paris theologian at the end of the 
 twelfth century, who taught Pantheism and held, 
 amongst other things, that in Abraham was incarnate 
 the Father, in the Blessed Virgin the Son, and in our- 
 .selves the Holy Ghost. His teaching was condemned by 
 the University of Paris in A.D. 1204, by Pope Innocent 
 III. in A.D. 1207, and by the Fourth Lateran (Council in 
 A.D. 1215. Amalric died in 1209. Several of his 
 followers were burned as heretics. 
 
 AMARAPURA. The name of a sect (monks) in Singha- 
 lese Buddhism. The Amarapura Society arose at the 
 beginning of the nineteenth century in opposition to the 
 Siamese Society. The latter admitted only one special 
 caste to the monkhood. The Amarapura Society gave 
 entrance to three more. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 AMATERASU. One of the deities of the ancient 
 religion of Japan known as Shintoism (q.v.). Amaterasu, 
 the sun-goddess, is supposed to have been born from the 
 left eye of Izanagi, the Creator. From her was 
 descended Jimmu Tenno, the first human ruler of Japan, 
 according to the Japanese, who ascended the throne on 
 the seventh of April, 660 B.C. She is really a personifi- 
 cation of the sun, which is symbolized by the mirror 
 which figures as one of the chief emblems of Shintoism. 
 Her shrine in Ise to which pilgrimages are made is called 
 the Mecca of Japan. See G. A. Coblx)ld, Religion in 
 Japan, 1894; D. Goh and Isabella Bishop, " Shintoism," 
 in R.S.W. 
 
 AMATONGO. The term is used of the spirits of their 
 ancestors by the Zulus. The "amatongo," particularly 
 the heads of families, are worshipped. See ANCESTOR 
 WORSHIP. The " amatongo " or ancestral spirits some- 
 times take possession of persons. Those who are thus 
 possessed are stricken with a kind of disease (hysteria, 
 convulsions). In some cases disease-possession becomes 
 oracle-possession, and the possessed become professional 
 diviners. See Tylor li., 131 f. 
 
 AMBAGARHIA DEO. A Hindu deity, worshipped in 
 Bhand.^ra by the Koshtis, the Maratha and Telugu caste 
 of weavers of silk and fine cotton cloth in India. The 
 original was one Kadu, headman of a village. 
 
 AMBARVALIA. A Roman festival during which
 
 Ambisagnis 
 
 prayer was made to the deities of agriculture tliat the 
 fields (ana) might be fertile and the harvest abundant. 
 It was kept on the 29th of May. There was a solemn 
 procession round the fields, in which the country people 
 took part; and a hog, a ram, and a bull were sacrificed. 
 
 AMBISAGRUS. Ambisagrus, " the persistent," was 
 one of the names given by the ancient Celts to a god 
 who corresponded to the Roman Jupiter. 
 
 AMBO. Perhaps from the Greek anaheinein " to 
 ascend," a platform in early Christian churches used as 
 a pulpit. St. Chrysostom is said to have preached from 
 an " Ambo." It stood in the nave of the church, and 
 was used especially as a reading-desk. The Ambo is to 
 be seen in churches in Rome. The earliest example is 
 in the church of San Clemente. and belongs to about 
 A.D. UIO. The Ambo was used for other purposes. 
 "All church notices were read from it; here edicts and 
 excommunications were given out ; hither came heretics 
 to make their recantation" (Addis and Arnold). See J. 
 H. Parker, Gloss., 18S8; Cath. Diet. 
 
 AMBROSIA. A term derived from the Greek word 
 ambrOtos, " immortal." It is a name for the food of the 
 gods in Greek Mythology. Human beings who were 
 favourites of the gods were sometimes allowed to partake 
 of it, and were supposed thereby to attain immortal youth 
 and beauty. It was also a fragrant salve used by 
 goddesses, "and even by .lupiter. The drink of the gods 
 was called nectar. In Hindu mythology the special 
 beverage of the gods is called amrita. 
 
 AMBROSIAN CHANT. A hymu -so called (Ambro- 
 sianum), because it was supposed to have been composed 
 by St. Ambrose. It is now commonly known as the " Te 
 Deum laudamus." It was used in the fourth century by 
 the Church in Milan. 
 
 AMBROSIAN LITURGY. Also called " Ambrosian 
 Office." or " Ambrosian Missal." One of the most ancient 
 liturgies, associated with the name of St. Ambrose, 
 Bishop of Milan, because he adopted and adapted it. 
 
 AMBROSIAXS. The followers of one Ambrose, a 
 French Anabaptist. He claimed (c. A.D. 1559) to have 
 received a divine revelation superior to that of Holy 
 Scripture. His followers called themselves also 
 Spirituals or " Pneumatiques." 
 
 AMELUNGEN SAGA. A Gothic heroic saga, a glorifi- 
 cation of fidelity. 
 
 AMEN. A Hebrew word meaning literally " Yea," 
 " Truly," or " Verily." Used first in ordinary speech, it 
 was at an early date introduced into liturgies (see, e.g., 
 in the Old Testament, I. Chronicles xvi., 3<) = Ps. cvi., 48). 
 The Jews in their synagogues pronounce it at the close 
 of the parting benediction. The early Christians said it 
 at the close of the prayer offered by the presbyter (I. 
 Corinthians xiv., Ifi). 
 
 AMEN CORNER. This spot in London is so called on 
 account of a proces.sion of clergymen to St. Paul's 
 Cathedral which used to take place annually on Corpus 
 Christi Day. In the street called Pater-noster Row they 
 chanted the " Pater-noster," and at the spot called Amen 
 Comer said the " Amen." Ave Maria Lane com- 
 memorates the saying of the " Ave Maria," and Creed 
 liane the chanting of the " Credo." 
 
 AMENT. An Egyptian .deity. She was a goddess of 
 Thebes, though not one of the original deities. She is 
 represented with the head of a sheep. See Alfred Wiede- 
 mann. 
 
 AMENTI. The region of the departed in the old 
 Egyptian religion, the west-land, the underworld, in its 
 Greek form written Amenthes. See Alfred Wiedemann. 
 
 AMERET.^D. Literally " immortality." One of the 
 seven Ameshaspentas (g.r.), or celestial councillors, in the 
 Zoroastrian religion. Ameretad is usually mentioned 
 
 17 Amitabha Sutra 
 
 together with Haurvatad. Together they preside over 
 vegetation, and preserve the good creation in its original 
 uncorrupted state. See Martin Haug. 
 
 AMERICANISM. A name given by theologians to "an 
 attenuated form of Catholicism which was propagated 
 mainly in the United States by Father Isaac Hecker of 
 the Paulist Order (d. 1S8S). Afterwards Archbishop 
 Ireland, of St. Paul, Minnesota, became the accepted high 
 priest of the movement. Americanism was introduced 
 into Euroix; about 1890. " Its distinguishing doctrine 
 was the characteri-stieally American exaltation of good 
 works over faith." Archbi.shop Ireland submitted to the 
 Pope in 1899, after Leo XIII. had addressed a letter to 
 Cardinal Gibbons of Baltimore. See S. Reinach, O. 
 
 AMESHASPENTAS. The designation of the seven 
 archangels or celestial councillors in the Zoroastrian 
 religion. In an old prayer found in the Yasna haptan- 
 haiti we read : " We worship Ahuramazda, the righteous 
 master of righteousness. We worship the Amesha- 
 spentas, the possessors of good, the givers of good. We 
 worship the whole creation of the righteous spirit, both 
 the spiritual and earthly, all that supports (raises) the 
 welfare of the good creation, and the spread of the good 
 Mazda vasnian religion." Elsewhere they are described 
 as " the immortal benefactors." They are now called 
 Amshaspends. See Martin Haug. 
 
 AMIATA MANUSCRIPT. A manuscript of the Vul- 
 gate, named after Amiata, Codex Amiatinus. It was 
 written bv order of Ceolfrid (d. 71i>), abbot of Yarrow, 
 shortly before A.D. 716, and is now presen-ed at Florence. 
 The manuscript contains many Anglo-Saxon and Irish 
 readings. See C. R. Gregory. 
 
 AMICE. An ecclesiastical vestment. The word 
 (amictus) means "a wrap." It was also called "ana- 
 boladium " or " anabolagium " from the Greek anabal- 
 lein; and " humerale " or " superhumerale," because it 
 partly covered the shoulders. In an ancient missal at 
 Narbonne it is referred to as galea or a helmet. In the 
 Roman Catholic Church it is now " a piece of fine linen, 
 oblong in shape, which the priest who is to say Mass 
 rests for a moment on his head and then spreads on his 
 shoulder," and is caUed the " helmet of salvation " 
 (Addis and Arnold). The vestment is referred to fre- 
 quently after the beginning of the ninth century. 
 Originally it seems to have been a head-covering. This 
 accounts "for the Roman Catholic priest resting it on his 
 head for a moment before he puts it on. Franciscan and 
 Dominican friars, in fact, still wear it as a covering for 
 the head. In course of time it was regarded as a decora- 
 tion, and was often richly embroidered. Now. however, 
 its only adornment is a cross. The origin of the clerical 
 collar has been found in the Amice. It became " first a 
 white collar with a necktie, and then the clerical collar 
 as now usually worn, or the band or strip of linen 
 stretched over a black stock " (Tyack). See G. S. Tyack, 
 Historic Dress of the Ckrgy. 1897; Cath. Diet. 
 
 AMIDA. In Japanese Buddhism an abridged form of 
 Amitabha (q.v.). the name of one of the celestial 
 Buddhas. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 AMITABHA. In Laniaism the chief figure among the 
 five celestial prototypes of the historical Buddhas. The 
 different heavens of the Buddhist system are here 
 commonly represented as the " Paradise of Amitabha. 
 There is wonderful virtue and efficacy in the repetition 
 of the name of Amitabha. The priests repeat it 
 thousands of times to save the soul of a dead person. 
 See H. Haekman; J. J. M. de Groot. R.S.C. 
 
 AMIT.^BHA SCTRA. A sacred hook among the 
 Chinese Buddhists, the chief authority for the Chinese 
 doctrine of the Western Paradise. See J. J. M. de 
 Groot, R.S.C.
 
 'Amm-Anas 
 
 18 
 
 Amulets 
 
 ' AMM-ANAS. A South Arabian god for whom whole 
 hecatombg of animals are said to have been slaughtered. 
 See W. R. Smith, R.S. 
 
 AMMONIAN SECTIONS. The name usually given to 
 the sections or divisions into which Eusebius divided the 
 te.xt of each of the four Gospels for the purpose of con- 
 structing a Harmony of the Gospels. Cp. CANONS OF 
 EUSEP.ITTS. and .see HARMONIES OF THE GOSPELS. 
 
 AMMONIANS. The followers of Ammonius Saccas, 
 who founded a school of Neo-Platonism (g.v.) in the 
 second century. 
 
 AMON. One of the principal Egyptian deities. Also 
 called Amon Ra, he became prominent from the time of 
 the eleventh dynasty as the deity of Thel)es, where a 
 magnificent temple was built for him. With him are 
 associated the goddess Mut ("mother," a symbol of the 
 .iky) and the lunar deity KTions. As Amon represents 
 the productive power of generation, he is sometimes re- 
 referred to as the husband of his mother. He is 
 frequently depicted as a man with a sceptre in his hands 
 and two high feathers, ro.val emblems, on his head. 
 Sometimes, however, since the ram was sacred to him, he 
 is represented as a ram with great curving horns. Hymns 
 to and decrees of Amon have come down to us. See 
 Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith. 1909. 
 
 AMORAIM. A Rabbinic term. When the Jewish 
 legal system was committed to writing a body of learned 
 men were required to expound it. These were called 
 Amoraim, the word being derived from the common 
 Hebrew root amar, " to spealv." The I-aw had to be 
 interpreted in the vernacular siieech. In doing this, a 
 duly qualified expounder might lay down new principles. 
 These new principles, or additions to the Mishnah, were 
 embodied in a collection of writings called the Tosefta. 
 There was a Palestinian and a Babylonian School 
 of Amoraim. See J. W. Etheridge, Intr. to Heb. Lit., 
 185fi. 
 
 AMOS, BOOK OF. One of the Minor Prophets of the 
 Old Testament. Amos was a shepherd of Tekoa near 
 Jerusalem, and preached about SOO B.C., extolling the 
 practice of justice and condemning the superficial piety 
 which thinks to please God by making frequent offerings. 
 The book seems to have been edited and interpolated. 
 See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 AMOSITES. A small sect, an off-shoot of the 
 Bohemian Brethren, followers of a farmer named Amos. 
 In 1.50S they sent word to the King and informed against 
 the Brethren, saying that they were about to use the 
 sword in defence of their cause. The King summoned a 
 Diet, which issued on St. James's Day (July 2.5) the Edict 
 of St. James which prohibited meetings of the Brethren 
 and ordered their boolvs to be burned. See .1. E. Hulton, 
 History of the Moravian Church, 1909. 
 
 AMPHICTYONIC LEAGUE. A union of twelve popu- 
 lations of Northern Greece, "which at stated times met 
 at the .same sanctuary to keep a festival in common, and 
 to transact common business " (Seyffert). The league, 
 which was supposed to have been founded by Amphictyon. 
 met either at Delphi or near Pylae or Thermopylae, and 
 protected the sanctuaries there. Each people sent two 
 deputies (" pylagorae ") and two "wardens of holy 
 things" (" hieromnemones "). " When violations of the 
 sanctuaries or of popular right took place, the assembly 
 could inflict fines or even expulsion: and a state that 
 would not submit to the punishment had a ' hoiy war' 
 declared against it." The league is not heard of after 
 the second century A.D. See O. Se.vffert, Diet. 
 
 AMPHIDROMIA. A Greek Fe.stival at which a child 
 received its name. The child was first carried round the 
 hearth by the nurse, after the friends of the parents had 
 washed their hands. 
 
 AMPHITRITB. A goddess of the sea in Greek 
 mythology. 
 
 AMRITA. The Indian equivalent of amhrosia, the 
 gods' food of immortality. According to the Hindu epics, 
 the gods required amrita \t> give them power to overcome 
 the demons. A well-known legend relates that, by com- 
 mand of Vishnu, this amrita was obtained by churning 
 the ocean. The juice called Soma was also the nect.ar 
 of the gods. It was " the blood of trees" vitalized by 
 the god Soma, for, as Professor Elliot Smith says (Dr., 
 1919), in India the amrita was sometimes regarded as 
 the sap exuded from the sacred trees of paradise. 
 Amrita corresponds to the Persian Haoma, and to the 
 mead of the gods in Teutonic mythology. 
 
 AMRITSAR. The sacred town of the Sikhs in India 
 and the metropolis of their religion. It was so called, 
 according to tradition, from the " Pool of Immortality " 
 {Amritsar) which was said to have existed there from a 
 remote i)eriod, some of the nectar of immortality 
 (Amrita^ having been spilt on the spot. The sacredness 
 of the spot, however, is associated by the Sikhs with an 
 event which is supposed to have happened in the time of 
 Guru Ram-das (A.D. 1574-1.")R1), the fourth Guru of their 
 sect. It is said that an angry father married his beauti- 
 ful and pious daughter to a cripple. She had to support 
 herself and him by begging, and she carried her husband 
 on her head in a basket. One day she left the basket 
 for a little while near a pool. A lame crow came and 
 went into the water, whereupon its lameness was cured. 
 Observing this, the cripple followed its example, and he 
 too was restored to health. Guru Ram-das therefore 
 had a tank excavated, and laid here the foundations of 
 the lake-temple, or Golden Temple, of the Sikhs. " To 
 form an idea of the unique spectacle presented by this 
 sacred locality," says Monier-Williams, "one must 
 picture to one's self a large square sheet of water, 
 bordered by a marble pavement, in the centre of a 
 picturesque Indian town Around the margin of this 
 artificial lake are clustered many fine mansions, most of 
 them once the property of Sikh chiefs who assembled 
 here every year, and spent vast sums on the endowment 
 of the central shrine. ... In the centre of the water 
 rises the beautiful temple with its gilded dome and 
 cupolas, approached by a marble causeway. It is quite 
 unlike any other place of worship to be seen throughout 
 India, and in structure and appearance may be regarded 
 as a kind of compromise between a Hindu temple and a 
 Muhammadan mosque. . . ." See J. C. Oman, 
 Brahmans ; Monier-Williams, B.B. 
 
 AMSDORPIANS. The followers of Nicolas Amsdorf 
 (14S3-1565). Lutheran Bishop of Naumburg. and friend of 
 Luther. He was the opponent of George Major of 
 Wittenberg in a dispute about the saving efficacy of good 
 works (A.D. l.>")2-54), which became known as the 
 " Majoristic O)ntroversy." The dispute was settled by 
 the " Formula of Concord " (A.D. 1577). 
 
 AMSHASPENDS. See AMESHASPBNTAS. 
 
 AMULETS. Objects supposed to possess magic power, 
 and worn by people as a protection against evil. The 
 wearing of amulets has been a common practice. The 
 Babylonians seem to have used rings, seal cylinders, clay 
 figurines, metallic statuettes, inscribed tablets, discs, etc. 
 (Morris Jastrow. Rel. Assyria. 1898.) Egyptian mummies 
 in the period of the New Kingdom were covered with 
 amulets, which took the form of an eye. a heart, a 
 sceptre, a crown, a beetle, etc. (Adolf Erman, Hand- 
 book.) Mohammedans not only wear such objects as a 
 miniature cop.v of the Koran, chapters or verses of the 
 Koran written on paper and folded, the Mohammedan 
 creed on stone or silver, etc., but they also attach them
 
 Amyraldists 
 
 19 
 
 Anammeiech 
 
 to houses, animals, etc. (T. P. Hughes.) The Chinese 
 place amulets over the grave or in the house of a dead 
 person to remove evil influences in the calculation of an 
 auspicious day for burial. These consist of small strips 
 of yellow paper, on which are inscribed such words as, 
 " The virgins of the dark spheres of the nine heavens 
 are here present with imperial orders from Heaven to 
 subdue unlucky influences." They also hang amulets on 
 the walls of houses to purify them after a death, or on 
 coffins to counteract bad influences. (J. J. M. de Groot, 
 R.S.C.). Hindus value such objects as a jewel, a stone, 
 a piece of paper or metal, a leaf inscribed with mystic 
 words and formulae, as charms against evils of various 
 kinds. Hindu women wear them as a protection against 
 sterility. (Sir Monier Monier-Williams, Brahmanism 
 and Hinduism (4), 1891.) For the same purpose, Kaffir 
 women wear amulets made from the tail-hairs of a heifer 
 and supplied by medicine-men, and Moorish women 
 of Morocco carry a porcupine's foot. The women of 
 Mecca wear a magic girdle, the women of Persia a man- 
 drake. In other such cases, the object worn seems to 
 be a talisman to bring good luck rather than an amulet 
 to ward oft" evil. Thus, negresses in the interior of 
 Western Africa have been known to carry small ivory 
 figures of the two sexes, and among the Bechuana, 
 Basuto, and Agni women dolls have been carried. (E. 
 S. Hartland, Perseus, vol. I., 1894.) In England the 
 practice of carrying amulets was common in the Middle 
 Ages. These were often gems or coins having on them a 
 figure of some religious hero or saint. (Brand's Popular 
 Antiquities, ed. C. Hazlitt, 1905.) In Southern Germany 
 the Alemanni as late as the end of the sixth century used 
 herbs and amber as amulets. (P. D. Chantepie de La 
 Saussave, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902.) See also 
 ABRAXAS STONES, CHARMS; J, M. Wheeler, Foot- 
 steps of the Past, 1895; A. C. Haddon, Magic and 
 Fetishism, 1906. 
 
 AMYRALDISTS. The followers of Moses Amyraut, a 
 French Protestant divine. Professor at Saumur (A.D. 
 I(i33-1664). Amyraut was a Calvinist, specially interested 
 in the doctrines of Predestination and Grace. He held 
 that the salvation of all men is desired by God, but can 
 only be attained through faith in Christ, which is by 
 God's grace possible for all men. Amyraut's teaching 
 led to the formation of a school, especially amongst 
 French and Swiss Protestants, of so-called " Hypothetical 
 Universalists." 
 
 AN. The name borne by small monasteries or convents 
 in Chinese Buddhism. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 ANA. Ana or Anu is mentioned as the name of an 
 ancient Celtic godde.ss who was wor.shipped in Ireland. 
 She was a goddess of abxindance and prosperity, and is 
 described as the mother of the gods. She would seem 
 to have corresponded to Danu or D6n (q.v.). See C. 
 Squire, Myth. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. Tlie term is derived from a Greek 
 word meaning " to baptise again," and was applied to a 
 body of anti-sacerdotali.sts who came into prominence 
 early in the sixteenth century. They were so called 
 because, amongst other things, they disapproved of infant 
 baptism, and required the members of their sect who had 
 been baptised only as infants to be rebaptised. The 
 movement began to develop under the influence of the 
 " prophets of Zwickau," who became active in the year 
 1521. These were the followers of Thomas Miinzer 
 (14^5-1525), Lutheran preacher at Zwickau in Saxony, 
 who had absorbed the teaching of the mystic J. Tauler 
 (1300-1361). Leaving Zwickau, Miinzer went to AUstedt, 
 and preached there for two years, calling for radical 
 reforms in Church and State. He claimed that he had 
 received a new revelation, and taught that in the king- 
 
 dom of heaven now to be established on earth, all 
 Christians must be equal and all goods be shared in 
 common. Princes were summoned to join the new league 
 started by Miinzer, In 1524 he had to withdraw to Walds- 
 hut, on the borders of Switzerland, from which place as 
 a centre the movement spread over the whole of Switzer- 
 land. The next year the " Peasant War " broke out, 
 and found a supporter in Miinzer. He moved in the same 
 year to Miihlhausen, where he re-established his 
 theocracy, gathering about him the discontented peasants 
 and hiUfolk. The result was a rebellion headed by 
 " Miinzer, with the sword of Gideon," The prophet was 
 defeated at Frankenhausen on the 15th of May, 1525, and 
 on the 30th of May was executed at Miihlhausen. Nine 
 years later we find the theocracy re-established at 
 MUnster in Westphalia, under the guidance of a Pro- 
 testant minister, Bernard Rothmann, and the burghers 
 Knipperdolling and Krechting. These had joined John 
 Matthieson and were reinforced by John Bockhold, a 
 tailor from Leiden, who now became the leader of the 
 militant Anabaptists. Gaining ix)ssession of MUnster, 
 they allowed Matthieson to proclaim himself a prophet. 
 But his reign was short, for in a sortie against Count 
 Waldeck, who was besieging the town of which he was 
 bishop, he was killed. JBockhold succeeded him (1534), 
 and was crowned king of the " New Jerusalem " or " New 
 Zion" with the title John of Leyden. Churches were 
 then destroyed, and lawlessness prevailed for a year. In 
 15.35, however, the city was taken, and its king tortured 
 and executed. The principles, however, lived on and 
 were propagated in the Netherlands. Even before 
 Miinzer's death England seems to have been infected with 
 the teaching, for in 1534 a royal proclamation was issued 
 against persons holding similar views. In 1.539 the 
 opinions of the Anabaptists were condemned in a set of 
 Injunctions. But the movement was everywhere chang- 
 ing its tone, and losing its revolutionary character, so 
 that the followers of Menno Simonis (A.D. 1505-15t;i) in 
 Germany, and of the mystic David Joris (ISOl-l.'wC)). of 
 Delft, whose " Wunderbuch " (" Book of Miracles ") was 
 much studied, can hardly be called Anabaptists. Yet, 
 harmless as the new l)ody were compared with their fore- 
 runners, they were doomed to suft'er cruel persecution. 
 Further details will be found under BAPTISTS. See 
 J. H. Blunt; Prot. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 ANADYOMENE. A designation of Aphrodite as the 
 goddess " rising out of" the sea. 
 
 ANAHITA. Another form of the name of the goddess 
 Anaitis (q.v.), who was worshipped by the ancient 
 Persians. She represents the celestial waters. 
 
 ANAITIS. The name of a goddess worshipped in 
 Armenia. She was a goddess of fertility, and in her 
 temple at Acilisena prostitution was practised even by 
 daughters of the noblest families. This was an act of 
 religion which did not prevent them from marrying 
 afterwards. She seems to be a variant of Tauith and 
 Athene (q.v.). Her worship was afterwards displaced 
 by that of the Virgin (Mary). Another form of her name 
 is Anahita. See J. G. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, 1906; 
 J. M. Robertson, P.O. 
 
 ANAMMELBCH. The name, according to a pa.ssage 
 in the Old Testament, of a Babylonian deity worshipped 
 by the Sepharvites whom the king of Assyria (Sargon) 
 placed in the cities of Samaria. We are told (II. Kings 
 xvii., 31) that " the Sepharvites burnt their children in 
 the fire to Adrammelech and Anammeiech, the gods of 
 Sepharvaim." On the reference to human sacrifice see 
 ADRAMMELECH. Anammeiech seems to be for Anu- 
 malik, " Anu is the decider or prince." There is no 
 evidence, however, that Anu (q.v.), the god of Heaven,
 
 Anant 
 
 20 
 
 Angelic Doctor 
 
 was specially associated with Sippar. The Hebrew text 
 is perhaps corrupt. Another suggestion is that Anam- 
 melech is a doublet, " a faulty variant of Adrammeleeh." 
 See Enciicl. Bibl. 
 
 ANANT. The infinite or eternal, one of the names of 
 the Hindu god Vishnu. 
 
 ANANTA. Tlie most powerful of the seven snakes 
 worshipped by the Hindus. The earth is supposed to be 
 supported on its head. 
 
 ANATHEMA. A word used in the Bible in the sense 
 of " something devoted to destruction" (cp. BAN). It 
 occurs, for example, in Romans ix. 3, Galatians i. 8, 9, I. 
 Corinthian xvi. 22 (Revised Version). " Anathema sit " 
 is equivalent to " let him be accursed." The expression 
 was used in the early Christian Church, and has been 
 retained in the Roman Catholic Church. The Council of 
 Elvira (300) anathematized those who placed in the 
 cliurch libellous writings. " The Church has used the 
 phrase ' anathema sit ' from the earliest times with 
 reference to those whom she excludes from her com- 
 munion either because of moral offences or because they 
 persist in heresy " (Addis and Arnold). 
 
 ANATHEMA MARANATHA. An expression occurring 
 in a passage in the New Testament (I. Corinthians xvi., 
 22). The Authorised Version translates : " If any man 
 love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema 
 Maranatha." The Revised Version rightly places a stop 
 after Anathema, and renders " let him be anathema . 
 Maran atha." It explains Maran atha in the margin as 
 meaning " Our Lord cometh." " Let him be anathema " 
 means " let him be accursed " (see ANATHEMA). A 
 better division of Maranatha, which is made up of two 
 Aramaic words, is perhaps Marana/tha, " Our Lord, 
 come! " This seems to have been an exclamation in use 
 in the early Church. 
 
 ANCESTOR-WORSHIP. Though a person may be 
 dead, his spirit, it has been widely held, is still active. 
 And since the spirits of the dead may be harmful or 
 helpful. It is important to make sure of their friendship, 
 and if necessary to propitiate them by offerings, etc. 
 Moreover, a proper treatment of ancestral spirits is a 
 filial duty to one who still protects his family. In China, 
 for instance, ancestor-worship plays a dominating rOle 
 in religion. Ancestors are worshipped even in their life- 
 time. On their death, when they are regarded as pro- 
 tectors of their family or tutelary deities, there is 
 naturally no abatement in this worship. The soul of an 
 ancestor, which still lives in the grave or in ancestral 
 tablet.8. has to be propitiated. The Hindu seeks happiness 
 in a similar way: he is careful to make offerings to the 
 fathers ("pitaras"). The Romans worshipped their 
 ancestors as household patrons. The worship of ancestors 
 was common among the ancient Teutons. The Swedes 
 are said also to have worshipped men. King Ericus. for 
 instance, was made one of the company of the gods. 
 The worship of ancestors has been found also in North 
 and South America, in Tanna, Tasmania, Tonga, New 
 Zealand, the Malay Islands, Africa. Ceylon, Japan, etc. 
 When a Zulu .sneezes, he believes the sneezing is caused 
 by the presence of the ancestral spirit. Sneezing is a 
 good and healthy sign. He therefore praises the spirit, 
 and asks various blessings. Some of the dark-skinned 
 races, when white men have visited them, have thought 
 that they were their own deceased kindred come back 
 to them in a new form. The Divine Ancestor or First 
 Man is naturally regarded as chief of the other ancestors, 
 and so as a superior deity. He is then either closely 
 connected with the Creator, as in the mythology of Kam- 
 chatka, or identified with him, as among the Zulus. 
 though here his remoteness has lost him the respect of 
 the wor.shippers. The Hindu Yama appears as First 
 
 Man, solar God of Hades, and Judge of the Dead. See 
 E. B. Tylor, P.V.; J. J. M. de Groot, R.8.C:; P. D. 
 Chantepie de La .Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902; 
 Monier-Williams, Brahmanism, 1891. 
 
 ANCESTRAL TABLETS. In China the Buddhists 
 have adopted Chinese ancestor-worship. There is a 
 special room in the monasteries containing tablets to the 
 souls of cremated members of the communities. Offerings 
 are made to the deceased persons on special days, and 
 the sacred writings are read in front of the ancestral 
 tablets. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 ANCHORITES. A class of HERMITS. 
 
 ANCIENT OP THE MOUNTAINS, THE. A .supposed 
 designation of the Chief of the ASSASSINS (7.1'.), a 
 Persian secret sect re-organised by Hasan-i-Sabbi5h (d. 
 A.D. 1123-24). He is also referred to as the' " Old' Man 
 of the Mountain." The real meaning of the popular 
 Persian expression is " the Mountain Chief." See E. G. 
 Browne, Literary Hist, of Persia, 1906. 
 
 ANCIENT LITURGY OF THE CHURCH OP JERU- 
 SALEM. A Liturgy prepared by Thomas Rattray (lfi84- 
 1743), nonjuring bishop of Dunkeld in Scotland. It is 
 described as "The Ancient Liturgy of the Church of 
 Jerusalem, being the Liturgy of St. James," restored to 
 its original purity, with the Clementine Liturgy, and 
 parts of the Liturgies of St. Mark, St. Chrysostom, and 
 St. Basil, exhibited in parallel columns. It was published 
 in 1744. See Peter Hall: and the D.N.B. 
 
 ANCIENT MERCHANTS' LECTURE. A theological 
 lectureship founded in 1(172. The lectures are delivered 
 from October to May at the Memorial Hall. Farringdon- 
 street, London. The object of the foundation is " to 
 uphold the doctrines of the Reformation against the 
 errors of Popery, Socinianism, and Infidelity " (Oongre- 
 gational Year Book). The lectures were founded by a 
 wealthy Ixvndon tradesman, and the lecturers were to be 
 "the most eminent of the Dissenting ministers of the 
 metropolis " (H. S. Skeats and C. S. Miall, Hist.). 
 
 ANCYRA, SEVEN MARTYRS OF. The Seven 
 Martyrs of Ancyra were, according to the tradition, seven 
 Christian virgins of great piety who suffered in Diocle- 
 tian's persecution of 304 A.D, They were each about 
 seventy years old. Commanded to act as priestesses of 
 Diana and Minerva and to wash their statues, they 
 refused. Thereupon they were taken naked to a lake 
 and drowned in it, heavy stones being tied round their 
 necks. Their " Acts " are supposed to have been written 
 by an eye-witness named Nilus. See Wace and Plercy. 
 
 ANDRIAMANITRA. A name given by the Malagasy 
 to a power which is supernatural, supernormal, or awe- 
 inspiring. 
 
 ANELING. Another name for Extreme Unction (q.v.). 
 
 ANGELIACAE. The name of an order of nuns (also 
 " Angelieals"), founded by Luigia di Torelli, Countess 
 of GuastAlIa, at Milan, about A.D. 15,30. They followed 
 the rule of St. Augustine. See Oath. Diet. 
 
 ANGELIC BROTHERS. A community of Mystics or 
 theosophic Pieti.sts founded by J. G. Gichtel (1038-1710). 
 He was banished from Regensburg. his native place, as 
 an Anabaptist, and went to Amsterdam in 1008. The 
 Giclitelians. as they were akso called, neither married 
 nor were given in marriage, and believed they had 
 attained the state of angels. There are still adherents 
 of the sect in Holland and Germany. Gichtel's letters, 
 with a biography, were published in 1722 in seven volumes 
 under the title " Theosophia Practica." 
 
 ANGELIC DOCTOR. Uitin " Doctor Angelicus." a 
 name given to Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274), whom Pope 
 Pius V. in 1.507 designated the " Fifth Doctor of the 
 Church." He is said to have been so called from the 
 part which he took in a controversy as to : " Utrum
 
 Angelici 
 
 21 
 
 Angelus Bell 
 
 Angelas possit mover! de extreme ad ertremum non 
 transeundo per medium." 
 
 ANGELICI. A sect referred to by Epiphanius (Bcrr. 
 li.) and Augustine {Hwr. xxxis.). Why they were so 
 called is matter of conjecture. The most likely reason 
 is, as Augustine suggests, that they were worshippers of 
 angels (cp. Colossians ii. 18 and the 35th Canon of the 
 Council of Laodic;iea). But it is possible also that they 
 were so called either because they believed that the world 
 was created by angels, or because they thought that they 
 themselves had already attained the state of angels. 
 
 ANGELICI, THE. An order of monks founded by the 
 Emperor Angelus Comnenus in 1191. 
 
 ANGELICS. A name taken by an Anabaptist sect in 
 Silesia and Bohemia (c. A.D. 1596). 
 
 ANGELITAE. A name taken by the Jacobites or 
 Monophysites (Q-v.) of Alexandria, and suggested by the 
 name of their first church, which was called the Angellum 
 (A.D. 540). 
 
 ANGEL OF DESTRUCTION. Reference is made in 
 the Old Testament to a destroying angel or angel of 
 destruction (ii. Samuel sxiv., 16; ii. Kings xix., 35). The 
 same idea is found elsewhere. Hadrian's castle was re- 
 named the Castle of St. Angelo, because when Rome was 
 smitten by a plague, the archangel Michael is said to have 
 appeared on the castle holding a bloody sword. Slavonic 
 folklore also knows of a Pest-maiden who visits countries 
 and everywhere turns joy into sadness. More often these 
 visitors, though they are believed to be at work, are 
 invisible to man. See E. B. Tylor, P.C. 
 
 ANGELS. From a Greek word meaning " mea'tenger." 
 The Hebrew word mal'dkh has the same meaning. In 
 English the word denotes messengers of God, superhuman 
 beings. Angels are mentioned frequently in the Bible 
 (Old and New Testament), but the idea of them developed 
 gradually. In the earliest portions of the Old Testament, 
 though mention is often made of superhuman beings with 
 whom Jehovah took counsel, they are very rarely called 
 "angels." The expression "angel of Jehovah" is 
 common, but this means Jehovah himself in his human 
 manifestation. In course of time, however, when it was 
 no longer believed that Jehovah himself visited the earth 
 in human form, the "angel of Jehovah " came to be re- 
 garded as an intermediary between God and men. a 
 messenger sent by God to men (cp. Zechariah i. 11 /.). 
 In the New Testament we hear of angels visiting men 
 and women and bringing them divine messages (Matthew 
 i. 20, ii. 13; Luke i. 19; Acts x. 3, 30). With this 
 development came the idea of an inner circle of angels. 
 Certain special messengers of Jehovah are distinguished 
 from the general host of angels as chiefs, and are called 
 "archangels" (cp. Daniel x. 13, xii. 1; Tobit xii. 15; 
 Enoch xl.; and see I. Thessalonians iv. 16: Jude ix.). 
 The number of these is sometimes given as seven. In 
 Tobit xii. 15 one of these " chief princes" (Daniel x. 13) 
 says : " I am Raphael, one of the seven holy angels, which 
 present the prayers of the saints, and go in before the 
 glory of the Holy One." In Revelation viii. 2 it i.s said : 
 " And I saw the seven angels which stand before God; 
 and there were given unto them seven trumpets." In 
 Enoch (viii. 2) the seven angels " which stand before 
 God " are said to be Michael. Gabriel. Raphael. Uriel. 
 Chamuel. Jophiel. and Zadkiel. Seven, of course, is a 
 .sacred number, and the growth of an angelic hierarchy 
 is a natural one. At the same time it is not unlikely 
 that later Hebrew ideas of angelology and demonology 
 were influenced by Persian ideas. Prof. Cheyne thinks 
 that " manifestly this highest class of angels was sug- 
 gested by the Zoroastrian Amesha Spentas or Am- 
 shaspands (' immortal holy ones '). who (like the coun- 
 sellors of the king of Persia, Ezra 7, 14) are seven ; and 
 
 this seems to be confirmed by the reference to the arch- 
 angels in the Book of Tobit. which also mentions the 
 Zend name of the chief demon" (see AMESHA- 
 SPBNTAS; ASMODEUS). The tendency to distinguish 
 between beneficent and maleficent angels might also be 
 due to outside influence; but, as Prof. G. B. Gray says, 
 " the Old Testament nowhere lays stress on the moral 
 character of angels, or knows anji:hing of their ' fall ' ; 
 consequently, angels were divided, not into good and bad. 
 but into those who worked wholly, and tliose who worked 
 only partly, in obedience to God " (cp. Romans viii. 38; 
 I. d'orinthians xv. 24 /.). The idea of fallen angels first 
 becomes prominent in the Apocryphal Book of Enoch (cp. 
 xiv. 4-7, XV. 2). In the Gosi>els and in the Epiistles of 
 St. Paul, angels begin to lose their importance as inter- 
 mediaries of revelation. While Jesus himself is with 
 his disciples, he reveals to them the Father; and before 
 leaving them he promises to send the Holy Spirit to guide 
 and comfort them. St. Paul condemns the worship of 
 angels; and it was one of the peculiarities of the Sad- 
 ducees that they disbelieved entirely in the existence of 
 angels. The exi.stence of what are called " guardian 
 angels" has been widely believed in, and the idea has 
 been used by poets and painters. God, it is supposed, 
 has appointed a special angel to take care of every 
 believer. In support of this idea appeal has been made 
 to Matthew xviii. 10 and Acts xii. 15. In Alatthew xviii. 
 10 it is said : " See tiat ye despise not one of these little 
 ones; for I .say unto you that in heaven their angels do 
 alwa.vs behold the face of my Father which is in heaven." 
 Another passage which is referred to sometimes is Luke 
 xv. 10 : " Even so, I say unto you, there is joy in the 
 presence of the angels of God over one sinner that 
 repenteth." According to the Protestant Dictionary, the 
 invocation of angels " detracts from the unique glory of 
 our ascended liOrd, who is the alone Mediator between 
 God and men; and sends the suppliant to seek other inter- 
 cession than His." But there is, of course — ^without 
 regarding the matter from the point of view of a High 
 Churchman — something to be said on the other side. The 
 Roman Catholic Church, we are told for instance. " shows 
 to the angels that veneration or inferior honour which 
 is their due, and, knowing from Chrisfs words that they 
 are acquainted with things which pass on earth, she 
 begs their prayers and their kind oflSce.s. It is true that 
 St. Paul condemns the Qprja-Kela, or religion of angels, 
 in writing to the Colossians (i. 16), but every scholar is 
 aware that he is warning them against the Gnostic error 
 which regarded angels as the creators of the world ; and 
 with equal reason, the same passage might be alleged as 
 in condemnation of humility " (Oath. Diet.). See Encyol. 
 Bihl.; Prot. Diet.; Oath. Diet. 
 
 ANGELS OF THE SEVEN CHURCHES. An expres- 
 sion occurring in the New Testament (Revelation i., 20). 
 In Rev. i. 19 /. we read : " Write therefore tie things 
 which thou .sawest. and the things which are, and the 
 things which .shall come to pass hereafter; the mystery 
 of the .seven stars which thou sawest in my right hand, 
 and the seven golden candlesticks. The seven stars are 
 the angels of the seven churches; and the seven candle- 
 sticks are seven churches." Angels here might mean 
 " mes.sengers " (cp. Matthew xi.. 10; Luke vii.. 24. etc.). 
 delegates from the Asiatic Churches sent to Patmos. Or, 
 it has been .suggested, the reference might be to pres- 
 byteral colleges. It is more likely, however, that 
 " angel " is n.sed in its ordinary sense. Either angels 
 were thought of as presiding over the Churches, or 
 "angel of the Church" meant the prevailing spirit of 
 the Church. See H. B. Swete, Apocalypse of St. John 
 (2), 1907. 
 
 ANGELUS BELL. A bell which is rung morning,
 
 Anglican 
 
 22 
 
 Animal Worship 
 
 noon, and night in Roman Catholic communities to 
 summon the devout to the recitation of the Angelic Salu- 
 tation, which is also called AVE MARIA (g.v.)- 
 
 ANGLICAN. A designation of things and persons 
 belonging to the Church of England. It is sometimes 
 used particularly of the High Church Party. 
 
 ANGLICAN ORDERS. Roman Catholics have ques- 
 tioned the validity of Anglican Orders. " For us 
 Catholics," say Addis and Arnold, " the question was 
 decided by the Bull Apostolicce Curw (Sept. 13, 1890), 
 which declared Anglican orders to be ' absolutely null 
 and utterly void,' on the ground of defect of form in the 
 rite, and defect of intention in the minister." The Hon. 
 James Adderley says : " We are told that our Ordination 
 Service is invalid (1) because there is no delivery of the 
 Chalice to one who is to be ordained Priest, (2) because 
 there are said to be no words to denote that the Priest 
 is a Sacrificing Priest, (3) because tiere is no expressed 
 'intention ' to malie a Catholic Bishop or Priest." His 
 reply to this is (1) that the delivery of the Chalice is a 
 custom which VN-as not in vogue until the eleventh century, 
 and therefore can hardly be said to be essential, (2) tliat 
 there can be no necessity to use the term ' Sacrificing 
 Priest," provided that we do really claim to ordain 
 Priests, (3) that the intention of our Ordination Service 
 is quite sulBciently expressed in the Preface, as follows : 
 ' It is evident unto all men diligently reading Holy 
 Scripture and ancient Authors, that from the Apostles' 
 time there have been these Orders of Ministers in Christ's 
 Church : Bishops, Priests, and Deacons. Which offices 
 were ever more had in such reverent estimation, that no 
 man might presume to execute any of them except he 
 were first called, tried, examined, and known to have 
 such qualities as are requisite for the same; and also by 
 public prayer, with imiwsition of hands, were approved 
 and admitted thereunto by lawful Authority. And there- 
 fore to the intent that these orders may be continued 
 and reverently used and' esteemed in the Church of Eng- 
 land; no man shall be accounted or taken to be a lawful 
 Bishop, Priest, or Deacon in the Church of England, or 
 suffered to execute any of the said functions, except he 
 be called, tried, examined, and admitted thereunto 
 according to the Form hereafter following or hath had 
 formerly Episcopal Consecration or Ordination.' " The 
 Bull of Pope Leo XIII. was officially answered by the 
 Archbishops of Canterbury and York. See Cafh. Diet.; 
 James Adderley, The Catholicism of the Church of Eng- 
 land, 190S; M. W. Patterson, Hist. 
 
 ANGLO-CALVINISTS. A Romanist designation of the 
 Church of England on the ground that its principles and 
 formularies are Calvinistie. 
 
 ANGLO-CATHOLIC. A term which has become 
 common in recent years as a designation of the Church of 
 England. Those who belong to the High Church Party 
 like to call themselves Anglo-Catholics. The claim is 
 that the Church of England is as much a part or the 
 original Catholic Church as the Church of Rome. The 
 old Catholic Church existed in Britain before tjie mission 
 of St. Augustine. This claim is well supported by 
 history. For a ixjpular presentation of the facts, see 
 James Adderley, The Catholicism of the Church of Eng- 
 land, 1908. 
 
 ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY. A theory, held by 
 many people in Great Britain and America, that the Eng- 
 lish race is descended from one of the " lost tribes of 
 Israel." It is said that the Israelites who were trans- 
 ported to Media became known as Sacae or Scythians. 
 These Sacae afterwards overran Northern Europe and 
 became known as the Saxons. The contention has no sup- 
 port in science or history. The attempt to show a 
 relationship between the English and Hebrew language 
 
 has resulted in endless misrepresentations and 
 absurdities. The search for the " lost tribes " )ias, as a 
 matter of fact, been carried on in nearly everj' part of 
 the world. It has been fruitless as far as the original 
 quest is concerned, but has brought to light much 
 interesting knowledge. 
 
 ANGRO-MAINYUSH. In Zoroastrian religion, one of 
 the two principles or creative spirits (" the hurtful 
 spirit ") which originally were thought of as united in 
 Ahuramazda. The other spirit was called spentO main- 
 yush, " the beneficent spirit." In course of time AngrO- 
 mainyush came to be regarded as a separate independent 
 being opposed to Ahuramazda. As such he was the 
 organiser of the forces of evil. He is described as " the 
 deadly, the demon of demons," the "creator of evils." 
 It was he who created the darkness of night. Having 
 associated with him six councillors, he is himself called 
 archdemon. See Martin Haug. 
 
 ANGUS. Angus, one of the sons of Dagda (g.v.), was 
 a deity or divine hero revered by the ancient Celts in 
 Ireland. He was a god of music and love, and seems 
 to have resembled the British goddess of love, Dwynwen 
 or Dwyn (g.v.). See Charles Squire, Myth. 
 
 ANGUTTARANIKAYA. One of the Buddhist sacred 
 boolis in the second division of the Canon. See CANON, 
 BUDDHIST. 
 
 ANIMA MUNDI. Literally " soul of the world." A 
 name given by early philosophers to a vital, immaterial, 
 non-intelligential force. To Plato the anima mundi was 
 an intermediate agency between pure spirit and matter. 
 The Stoics spoke of the Deity as the soul of the world. 
 " Nothing that is itself destitute of life and reason can 
 generate a being possessed of life and reason. But the 
 world generates beings possessed of life and reason. 
 Therefore, the world is Itself possessed of life and reason" 
 (Zeno in Cicero, i)e Nat. Deor. ii. 8). See William L. 
 Davidson, The Stoic Creed, 1907. 
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. The modern theory of 
 animal magnetism is closely associated with the name of 
 Anton Mesmer (MESMERISM), a Viennese physician, 
 who came into prominence in 1780. Mesmer performed 
 wonderful cures. His use of artificial magnets led him 
 in time to believe in a magnetic fluid which, without the 
 use of magnets, he could conduct to the bodies of his 
 patients by movements of his own hands. " The 
 Magnetic i)ower was therefore evidently in man himself. 
 It was an animal magnetism in opposition to the mineral 
 one which belonged to the magnet and to the stars " 
 (Mijnsterberg). See Hugo Miinsterberg, Psychotherapy, 
 1909, and cp. HYPNOTISM, etc. 
 
 ANIMAL WORSHIP. Ancient or primitive peoples 
 have regarded animals with awe and veneration, and 
 attributed to them souls which survive like those of men 
 and have power to bring good or evil. They have wor- 
 shipped them in fear as possessing such qualities as 
 strength and cunning in a high degree, or they have 
 venerated them in gratitude as providing food. Thus, 
 worship has been paid to whales (by the Kamchadahs), 
 bears (ibid.), wolves (ibid.), fish (Tribes of Peru), 
 monkeys (ibid.), sparrow-hawks (ibid.), tigers (ibid.), 
 alligators (Philippine islanders). When the Aiuos (of 
 Yesso) slay a bear, they, as it were, apologise for doing 
 so, doing obeisance and making fair speeches. Yet some- 
 times an animal when dead is treated with a kind of 
 mockery (North American Indians, Ostyaks of Siberia). 
 The Yakuts of Siberia wor-ship the bear as their " beloved 
 uncle." In many cases deities are .supposed to be 
 embodied in animals. The animals therefore are pro- 
 pitiated with food and fed on sacrifices. Serpents, for 
 instance, have been special objects of veneration (e.g., 
 in Phoenicia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Persia, India,
 
 Animatism 
 
 23 
 
 Anointing 
 
 China, Tibet, Ceylon, etc.)- In other cases animals have 
 been worshipped as representatives of tribal ancestors, 
 or as totems. Of course, where a transmigration of 
 aonls is believed in, the animal may be thought to be a 
 reincarnation of an ancestor, and may be worshipped as 
 such. The worship of such animals as the bull Apis, 
 the bird Ibis, the hawk, the crocodile, etc., by the ancient 
 Egyptians is familiar to everyone. The sacred cow is 
 stiil worshipped by the Hindus. They worship also the 
 monkey (Hanuman), the bull (Basava). the kite (the bird 
 Garuda), snakes, fish, etc. (J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beau- 
 champ: Monier-WUliams). See E. B. Tylor. P.O.. vol. 
 li.; J. M. Wheeler, Footsteps of the Past, 1S9.5: E. Clodd, 
 Animism, 1905; F. J. Gould, Concise Hist, of Religion, 
 1907. 
 
 ANIMATISM. In reference to Hellenic worship, L. R. 
 Famell (G-reek Religion, 1912) thinks that " where we 
 find the object worshipr)€d in and for itself as sentient 
 and animate, a thunder-stone, moving water, a blazing 
 hearth, we should describe the religious consciousness 
 as animatism rather than animism, which implies the 
 definite conception of souls or spirits." The use of the 
 term animatism was suggested originally by R. R. Marett 
 (1909) to describe, in distinction from Animism, a simple 
 straightforward act of personification. It is an attitude 
 which " is not Animism in the strict scientific sense that 
 implies the attribution, not merely of personality and 
 will, but of ' soul ' or ' .spirit.' " One of the examples 
 given is that of the members of a Kaffir village who when 
 a thunderstorm approaches, " rush to the nearest village 
 and yell at the hurricane to divert it from its course." 
 
 ANIMISM. Originally the explanation of all natural 
 phenomena by the theory of an immaterial soul (anima) 
 as the principle of life. G. E. Stahl, the German 
 physician (lGfiO-1734), even maintained, like .some of our 
 modem mental healers, that the state of the body is 
 dependent on the state of the mind, that, in fact, disease 
 has its origin in the mind or soul. In modem usage the 
 term animism is applied by E. B. Tylor and others to 
 '• the doctrine of .«»uls and other spiritual beings in 
 general." It therefore embraces the conception of the 
 soul as an explanation of human and natural phenomena, 
 or as a philasophy of religion. Primitive folk, we are 
 told, have formed a conception of a world of spirits from 
 their observation of dreams, shadows, reflections, echoes, 
 and the phenomena associated with nervous disorders. 
 Figures and scenes seen in dreams are believed really to 
 exist. During sleep, something, the spirit, leaves the 
 body to visit familiar or new friends and places, and if 
 the sleeper be suddenly awakened, the spirit may not 
 return. The spirit is conceived as a kind of shadowy 
 breath or vapour. It is not found in man alone. Since 
 plants, animals, and even inanimate objects also appear 
 in dreams, a spirit is assigned to these as well. See H. 
 Spencer, Principles of Sociology; E. B. Tylor, P.C.; E. 
 Clodd, Animism, 1905. 
 
 ANIMISTS. The followers of the German physician G. 
 E. Stahl. See ANIMISM. 
 
 ANNA KUARI. Anna Kuan or Mahadhanl is a Hindu 
 deity, a fertility goddess, worshipped by the Oraons, an 
 important Dravidian tribe in India, the members of which 
 work as farm servants and labourers. Human sacrifices 
 are offered to her. 
 
 ANNA PURNA. An Indian deity, the Cora-giving 
 goddess of Madras. She corresponds to Durga or Devi. 
 
 ANNA-PRASANA CEREMONY. A Hindu ceremony 
 which takes place as soon as a child is weaned. It is 
 preliminary to the change of diet. An auspicious day 
 having been chosen, a i)avilion (pandal) is erected and 
 decorated with wreaths (toranams) of mango leaves. The 
 father, with a cup of akshatas (rice coloured with 
 
 .saffron), then invites his relations and friends to come to 
 the feast, which they do, having first bathed. The 
 mother, holding the child, sits by the side of her husband 
 on a platform of earth in the centre of the pavilion. The 
 priest approaches them and performs certain ceremonies 
 (sacriflc-e to fire, etc.). After this the women sing verses 
 wishing the child happiness, and perform the aratti cere- 
 mony (see ARATTI CEREMONY) over him. Next the 
 father offers to his household gods, and has part of the 
 banquet .set aside for them. The married women, walk- 
 ing in procession and singing, bring a new dish of silver- 
 plated copper, given by the maternal uncle, a cord of 
 cotton thread, worn by Hindus round their loins to 
 suspend the small piece of calico which covers their 
 private parts. Having touched the child with these two 
 articles, they pour a mixture (paramannu) into the dish. 
 Then singing again tiey take the dish and place it before 
 the household gods. It is then designated the " dish 
 god." They carry it back, singing, to the child, and 
 fasten the cord round its loins. Three of them then 
 I)our some of the mixture down its throat. The aratti 
 ((/.v.) concludes the ceremony. See J. A. Dubois and H. 
 K. Beauchamp. 
 
 ANNAT. A term (also written ANN) used in Scots 
 law. An Act passed by the Scottish Parliament in 1672 
 provided that on the death of a clergyman, the next half- 
 year's stipend should be iMiid to his next-of-kin. This 
 sum was called " Annat." 
 
 ANNATES. The income of a spiritual benefice for 
 one year (annus), claimed by the Pope as First Fruits. 
 At first the tax was levied only on bishoprics, but after- 
 wards on abbeys, rectories, etc. They were withheld in 
 1.^34 in England, and appropriated by the crown to be 
 devoted ostensibly to the Church of England. Queen 
 Anne restored them to the Church, and the fund became 
 known as Queen Anne's Bounty. 
 
 ANNIHILATION. The theory that the soul ceases to 
 exist at death. Even those who believe in its survival 
 sometimes think that there are exceptions. The Omahas 
 think that a self-murderer is annihilated. The Thompson 
 Indians (British Columbia) hold the same belief. It is 
 said that some savages disbelieve entirely in the survival 
 of the soul, but the ca.ses cited are open to question. 
 Some of the wild tribes of India (e.g., the Bengale.se 
 Oraons and the Burmese Mishmis), for instance, are said 
 to have no idea of a future life, though they believe that 
 in the case of some persons a reincarnation takes place 
 on earth (see E. W. Hopkins). To the primitive mind, 
 the best way to annihilate an individual, or even an 
 insect, is to eat him. This is one rea.son for cannibalism. 
 To punish the wicked, the supreme deity of the Pawnees 
 annihilates them. See B. Westermarek. 
 
 ANNIHILATIONISTS. A designation of those who 
 believe that after death the wicked will be entirely 
 annihilated. 
 
 ANNUNCIATION. A theological term for the tidings 
 brought by the angel Gabriel to Mary when she was about 
 to become " mother of the Lord " (see Lk. i.). The 
 festival of the Annunciation is observed by the Church 
 on the 25th of March. It is first referred to in the acts 
 of the Tenth Ouncil of Toledo (fSO) and of the Tmllan 
 Council ((192). In England the festival is more commonly 
 known as Lady Day (.q.v.). 
 
 ANOINTING. The Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and 
 other ancient peoples were accu.stomed to anoint the body 
 or parts of it with oil as part of their toilet. Among the 
 Hebrews anointing with oil was combined with washing 
 or bathing in water (Ruth iii., .3: Esther ii., 12: Ezekiel 
 xvi., 9; .Judith x., 3). Olive oil is frequently mentioned 
 in this connection (Amos vi., fi: Micah vi., 15: Luke vii., 
 46). Even this ordinary anointing has become among 
 
 i
 
 Anomians 
 
 24 
 
 Antichrist 
 
 some peoples a kind of religious duty. Brahmans anoint 
 themselves with oil of sesamum or castor oil from head 
 to foot, then rub themselves with herbs and finally bathe 
 the body. On grand ceremonial occasions their guests 
 are provided with some kind of ointment that they may 
 anoint themselves in the same way. Another kind of 
 anointing, practised by primitive folk, has a different 
 significance. In this case, as in that of swallowing or 
 inoculation, the idea is to get certain virtues imparted 
 to one. The Australian Blacks used to cut out the caul- 
 fat of a slain man and rub themselves with it in the 
 belief that they would thus acquire his distinguishing 
 qualities. The negroes of Southern Guinea hang up the 
 head of a dead man that the drippings of his brain may 
 fall on to a lump of chalk, which they afterwards use as 
 a kind of ointment for the forehead. The Andaman 
 Islanders rub the melted fat of a boar into the body of a 
 young man when he is initiated into manhood. The Arabs 
 of Eastern Africa anoint themselves with lion's fat, and 
 the Central Australian tribes use the fat of the kangaroo, 
 their totem. Such customs seem to throw light on the 
 practice (e.g. among the Hebrews) of anointing kings, 
 priests, and prophets with oil. By this action (now 
 become symbolical) it was supposed that the good 
 qualities of their predecessors were imparted to ttiem. 
 Another practice has been to anoint sacred pillars or 
 stones with oil. This seems to have been a form of 
 sacrifice, the oil being a substitute for the fat of an 
 animal. The practice among the Arabs of smearing 
 pillars with fat seems to prove this (see Robertson 
 Smith). This kind of anointing was not confined to 
 Hebrews (Genesis xxvili., 18) and Arabs. The image of 
 Aphrodite was a white cone or pyramid. A cone was 
 also in certain places the emblem of Artemis and Astarte. 
 This cone was anointed with olive oil at a special festival. 
 In the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, too, a sacred stone 
 was anointed. Another idea Is at work in anointing 
 when it is practised in sympathetic magic. In Suffolk 
 when a man cuts himself with a scythe, he " oils it to 
 prevent the wound from festering." He does the same 
 with a thorn which has run into his hand. In the Harz 
 mountains people say that " if you cut yourself, you 
 ought to smear the knife or the scissors with fat and put 
 the in.strument away in a dry place in the name of the 
 Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. As the knife 
 dries, the wound heals." Among the aborigines of 
 Central Australia, when a boy has been circumcised, his 
 mother rubs grease all over her body every day until the 
 wound is healed. Cp., further, CHRISM and EXTREME 
 UNCTION. See J. G. Frazer, G.B.; Adonis Attis Osiris, 
 inO(5; W. R. Smith, R.S.; J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beau- 
 champ, Hindu Manners, etc.; Encycl. liibl. 
 
 ANOMIANS. Another designation of the ANTI- 
 NOMIANS (g.v.). 
 
 ANOMCEANS. A name given to the strict Arians. See 
 ARIANISM. 
 
 ANRA-MAINYU. The personification of Darkness in 
 the dualistic religion of Zarathustra. 
 
 ANSARS. An Arabian sect, more correctly called 
 Nossairians (Nuseirtyeh, q.v.). 
 
 ANSHAR. The name of a deity in Babylonian- 
 Assyrian religion. He is mentioned on a cuneiform 
 tablet as one of the early ancestors of the gods. Anshar, 
 perhaps another form of Ashur (q.v.), plays a part in the 
 cosmology. He sends Anu, Ea, and Bel-Marduk (qq.v.) 
 to destroy the monster Ti9mat. See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rel. 
 
 ANTEDILUVIAN. Literally " before the deluge," the 
 deluge referred to being that described in the Old Testa- 
 ment and commonly known as the Flood. The term is 
 often used of anything antiquated or old-fashioned. 
 
 ANTHEMS. An abridged form of Antiphon, a piece 
 sung in alternate parts. The words are verses from the 
 Bible (Psalms, etc.), and are sung as solos or in chorus. 
 In the reign of Elizabeth they were appointed to be sung 
 at the morning and evening service of the Church of 
 England. A similar part of the Roman Catholic Service 
 is the Motet. 
 
 ANTHESTBRIA. An Athenian festival, on which the 
 souls of the departed were supposed to return from the 
 nether world. Earthenware pots seem to have been filled 
 with boiled food and placed in the streets for their enter- 
 tainment. To prevent the ghosts from entering their 
 houses, the people smeared the doors with pitch. They 
 also fastened ropes round the temples " to keep out the 
 wandering ghosts." See J. G. Frazer, O.B. 
 
 ANTHROPOLATRY. The worship of men. See 
 ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 
 
 ANTHROPOMORPHISM. The style of thought and 
 language that ascribes to the Deity human form and 
 attributes. 
 
 ANTHROPOMORPHITES. Another name for the 
 Syrian sect Audiani (q.v.). 
 
 ANTHROPOPHAGOI. Another name for CANNI- 
 BALS. 
 
 ANTI-ADIAPHORISTS. A name for the strict 
 Lutherans as distinguished from the party of Melanch- 
 tlion, the Adiaphorists (q.v.). 
 
 ANTIBURGHERS. A name taken by one of the divi- 
 sions into which the Associate Synod or Secession Church 
 of Scotland split up in 1747. The trouble arose over the 
 burgess-oath which burgesses were required to take in 
 certain corporate towns. One party maintained that it 
 could not be taken by consistent Seceders. The other 
 party, though they thought it inexpedient for Seceders to 
 take the oath, would not refuse to do so. Those who 
 refused to take the oath formed themselves into the 
 " General Associate Synod " or " Anti-burgher Synod." 
 Those who would not take it became the " Associate " 
 or " Burgher Synod." Later on another split occurred 
 owing to differences of opinion about the powers of the 
 civil magistrate in matters of religion. It was felt by 
 many that the views of the old Covenant required to be 
 modified. In 1804 therefore a new Declaration of 
 Principles or " Testimony " was put forth. Thomas 
 McCrie (1772-1835), Archibald Bruce (1746-1816), James 
 Aitken, and James Hog, however, professed to adhere 
 " to the true constitution of the Reformed Church of 
 Scotland," and in 1806 started the " Constitutional Asso- 
 ciate Presbytery," the members of which were called also 
 " Old Light Anti-burghers." Another division had in 
 1799 formed themselves into the " Original Burgher 
 Presbytery " or " Old Light Burghers." In 1820 the 
 " New Light " sections of the Burghers and Anti-burghers 
 were re-united as the " United Secession." In 1827 the 
 " Old Light Anti-burghers " united with the " Associate 
 Synod of Protesters " (formed in 1820 in opposition to 
 the " United Secession "), and the two bodies 
 became the " Associate Synod of Original Seceders." 
 Cp. BURGHERS. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ANTI-CALVINISTS. A designation of the Arminians 
 (q.v.). 
 
 ANTICHRIST. The word is first found in the New 
 Testament (I. John ii. 18, 22, iv. 3: II. John 7). In I. 
 John ii. 18 we read : " Little children, it is the last hour, 
 and as .ve heard that antichrist oometh, even now have 
 there ari.sen many antichrists, whereby we know that it 
 is the last hour." In vs. 22 it is said : " Who is the liar 
 but he that denieth that Jesus is the Christ? This is the 
 antichri.st, even he that denieth the Father and the Son." 
 In I. John iv. 3 the words are : " And every spirit which 
 oonfesseth not Jesus is not of Gtod, and this is the spirit
 
 Anticonstitutionists 
 
 25 
 
 Anti- Popes 
 
 of tile antichrist, whereof ye have heard that it cometh ; 
 and now it is in the world already." In II. John vs. 7 
 we read : " For many deceivers are gone forth into the 
 world, even they that confess not that Jesus Christ 
 cometh in the flesh. This is the deceiver and the anti- 
 christ." These are the only passages in which the term 
 occurs. It means " one who opposes the Messiah 
 (Christos) " and although the word only appears in the 
 late Johannine passages, the idea itself is present else- 
 where. In II. Thess. ii. 1-12 it is said that before the 
 Second Coming of the Lord Jesus Christ there will be a 
 falling away and " the man of sin (or lawlessness) " will 
 be revealed. " the son of perdition, he that opposeth and 
 exalteth himself against all that is called God or that is 
 worshipped; so that he sitteth in the temple of God, 
 setting himself forth as God." It is said also vs. 7 /.) : 
 " For the mystery of lawlessness doth already work ; only 
 there is one that restraineth now, until he he taken out 
 of the way. And then shall be revealed the lawless one, 
 whom the Lord Jesus shall slay with the breath of his 
 mouth and bring to nought by the manifestation of his 
 coming; even he, whose coming is according to the work- 
 ing of Satan with all power and signs and lying wonders, 
 and with all deceit of unrighteousness for them that are 
 perishing." Ideas belonging to the same world of 
 thought are referred to in the Book of Kevelation (xi. ; 
 xiii., 11 //.). Outside the New Testament, moreover, 
 there are many references (e.g. in Apocalyptic Literature 
 and in the Early Fathers) to Antichrist which point to 
 a body of tradition of which the New Testament state- 
 ments are only fragments. The origin of these traditions 
 is to be found partly in Jewish haggada, that method of 
 exposition which consisted in " the working up of the 
 historic and didactic parts of Scripture, an elaboration of 
 them by the free use of the legendary element, suitable 
 to the views and requirements of the age " (W. Fair- 
 weather, The Background of the Gospels, 1908). The 
 starting-point for this may have been Daniel xl. 7 /. It 
 should be noticed also that in Apocalyptic Literature 
 (e.g., Siiyll. iii. 63 //.) Belial or Beliar, ruler of the evil 
 spirits, " is already presented in an aspect closely 
 resembling that of Anti-Christ " (W. Bousset). If we 
 wish to trace these ideas farther back, much of the 
 imagery may be reproduced from the conception of the 
 dragon in the Babylonian creation-myth. The idea of 
 Nero returning as a spirit from the underworld perhaps 
 belonged originally to another tradition, but both tradi- 
 tions are combined in the Book of Revelation (xiii. and 
 xvii.). The number of the Beast (()66, Revelation xiii.) 
 represented in Hebrew letters gives the name of Nero (see 
 P. W. Sehmiedel, Johannine Writings, 1908). Of course, 
 the references to Antichrist have been regarded as pro- 
 phecies, and some historical person has been looked for 
 who seemed to fulfil the requirements. Other identifica- 
 tions (i.e., besides Nero) have been : Mohammed, the 
 Grand Turk, Napoleon I., Napoleon III., the Pope. See 
 Encycl. BiU.; W. Bousset, The Antichrist Legend, 1896. 
 
 ANTICONSTITUTIONISTS. A name given to those 
 theologians who rejected the papal Bull " Unigenitus " 
 (1713) which condemned the views of the Jansenist leader 
 Pasquier Quesnel (1634-1719). See JANSENISTS. 
 
 ANTIDICOMARIANITES. Literally " opponents of 
 Mary." A religious sect in Arabia, referred to by 
 Epiphanius. They held that after the birth of Jesus, 
 Mary and Joseph became the parents of other children. 
 
 ANTILEGOMENA. Literally " spoken against." A 
 general designation of those books of the New Testa- 
 ment the authenticity of which was disputed in the 
 fourth century. They were for a time regarded as un- 
 canonical (see CANON). The Books in question are : 
 Second Epistle of Peter, Ep. of James, Ep. of Jude, Ep. 
 
 to the Hebrews, Second and Third Ep. of John, and the 
 Book of Revelation. The term homologoumeiia was 
 applied to the other books. 
 
 ANTINICAENS. Opponents of the Creed of Nicaea. 
 See ARIANISM. 
 
 ANTINOMIANISM. Antinomian has been defined as 
 "one who holds that the law is not a rule of life under 
 the Grospel." The idea that to one who had become a 
 true follower of Christ conscience was the only law 
 might easily arise. Luke xvi. 16, " the law and the 
 prophets were until John"; Romans vii. 6, "But now 
 we have been discharged from the law, having died to 
 that wherein we were holden, so that we serve in 
 newness of the spirit, and not in oldness of the letter " ; 
 Galatians ii. 16, " knowing that a man is not justified by 
 the works of the law, but only through faith in Jesus 
 Christ, even we believed on Christ Jesus, that we might 
 be justified by faith in Christ, and not by the works of 
 the law "; and other passages would be appealed to in 
 support of such a view. And the idea would soon be 
 exaggerated and carried to extremes. This seems 
 actually to have happened among certain sections of the 
 Gnostics, and later among some of the religious sects in 
 the Middle Ages. In such cases Antinomianism, from 
 being a kind of superiority to law, degenerates into 
 rejection and violation of the moral law. The term was 
 first used, however, by Luther in reference to the views 
 of John Agricola (1492-1566), called " Magister Islebius," 
 from the name of his birth-place, Eisleben. In 1527 he 
 maintained in opposition to Philipp Melanchthon (1497- 
 1560) " that the law of God was not to be used to bring 
 men to repentance, and that the preaching of the law was 
 no work for a gospel minister " (J. H. Blunt). In 1538 
 he was bold enough to " declaim against the law, main- 
 taining that it was neither fit to be proposed to the 
 people as a rule of manners, nor to be used in the Church 
 as a means of instruction; and that the gospel alone was 
 to be inculcated and explained both in the churches and 
 in the schools of learning." His followers were called 
 Antinomians. His controversy with Luther, which 
 ended in a recantation (1540), was called the " Anti- 
 nomian Controversy." Since that time Antinomianism, 
 in one form or another, has had its representatives in 
 England. Amongst the troublesome parties with which 
 Cromwell had to deal were " the violent fanatics and 
 Antinomians who desired an immediate ' rule of the 
 -saints ' " (M. W. Patterson, Hist.). In 1691 the republi- 
 cation of the works of Tobias Crisp (1600-1643) produced 
 another " Antinomian Controversy " between Oongrega- 
 tionalists and Presbyterians, the latter accusing the 
 former of Antinomianism (see H. S. Skeats and C. S. 
 Miall, Hist.). See J. H. Blunt; Brockhaus. 
 
 ANTIPABDOBAPTIST. A designation, derived from 
 the Greek, of one who objects to infant-baptism. See 
 BAPTISTS. 
 
 ANTIPHONER. A name given to one of the four parts 
 of the Medieval Service-book of the Christian Church, 
 the Missal (g.v.). It contained the antiphons sung by the 
 choir and deacons at the celebration of High Mass. It 
 was called also Grail or Gradual. 
 
 ANTIPHONY. A method of chanting in which two 
 choirs sing in turn, responding as it were to each other. 
 Some of the Old Testament Psalms are admirably adapted 
 for this kind of singing. Ignatius is said to have intro- 
 duced antiphony at Antioch in the second century. 
 Ambrose is supposed to have used it at Milan in the fourth 
 century, and thus to have introduced it into the Western 
 or Latin Church. 
 
 ANTI-POPES. A designation of opposition popes, that 
 is to say, of popes who have claimed the Papal Chair 
 and set themselves in opposition to the canonically-elected
 
 Anti-Remonstrants 
 
 26 
 
 Anunnaki 
 
 occupant. There have been at least twenty-nine such 
 popes. 1. Hippolytus (?), third century. 2. Novatian, 
 A.D. 251. 3. Felix II., A.D. 355-365. 4. Ursicinus, A.D. 
 366-367. 5. Eutalius, A.D. 418-419. 6. Laurentius, A.D. 
 498-501. 7. Constantine II., A.D. 767. 8. Philip, eighth 
 century. 9. Anasta.sius, A.D. 855. 10. Leo VIII., A.D. 
 956-963. 11. Boniface VII., A.D. 974. 12. John XVI., 
 tenth oenturv. 13. Gregory, A.D. 1012. 14. Sylvester 
 III., A.D. 1044. 15. Benedict X., A.D. 1058. 16. 
 Honorius II., A.D. 1061-1072. 17. Guibert, or Clement 
 III., A.D. 1080-1100. 18. Theodorie, A.D. 1100. 19. 
 Aleric, A.D. U02. 20. Maginulf. A.D. 1105. 21. Burdin 
 (Gregory VIII.), A.D. 1118. 22. Anacletus II., A.D. 
 1130-38. 23. Victor IV., A.D. 1159-64. 24. Pascal III., 
 A.D. 1164-1168. 25. Calixtus III., A.D. 1168-77. 26. 
 Innocent III., A.D. 1178-80. 27. Nicholas V., A.D. 1328- 
 1330. 28. Robert of Geneva (Clement VII), September 
 20, A.D. 1378, to September 16, A.D. 1394. 29. Amadeus 
 of Savoy (Felix V.), November, 1439, to April, 1449. See 
 the Catholic Enoycl. 
 
 ANTI-REMONSTRANTS. When Peter Walsh drew 
 up the Petition of Remonstrance in 1666 which protested 
 against the notion that if Catholicism were tolerated the 
 eafety of the State would be endangered, some of the 
 Irish Catholics refused to sign it and were called Anti- 
 Eemoustrants. 
 
 ANTI-SCRIPTURALISTS. Richard Baxter (1615- 
 1691), writing in 1650, refers to a sect of Puritans with 
 this name. They were closely related to, or perhai)s 
 identical with, the Seekers (q.v.). With the latter they 
 would seem to have attached more value to the present 
 illumination of the Spirit than to the past revelation of 
 the Scripture. See John Hunt. 
 
 ANTISTES. A title which has «>metimes been applied 
 to a Christian prelate or bishop. 
 
 ANTITACTICS. A term used by Clement of Alex- 
 andria in reference to " opponents " who held a dualistic 
 philosophy and distinguished between (3od, the Father of 
 all things who made all things good, and an Adversary, 
 a rebel creature, who originated evil (Olem. Alex., 
 Strom, iii., 4). 
 
 ANTITRINITARIANS. A designation of those who 
 deny the doctrine of the Trinity. See TRINITY, 
 UNITARIANS, and CHRISTADELPHIANS. 
 
 ANTITYPE. Literally, something which corresponds 
 to, or is prefigured by, the type. But in theology the 
 person who fulfils the idea of some prophetic tjT)e. 
 Christ, e.g., is the antityi)e of the paschal lamib. 
 
 ANTO. One of the gods of the Todas. Perhaps he is 
 the same as On (Anto=Onteu). He seems to have been 
 a giant. According to a legend, he rolled a large stone 
 to the top of a hill with his hair. 
 
 ANTONINES. An order of monks founded towards the 
 close of the eleventh century by (Jaston, a gentleman of 
 Dauphin^. Many people were suffering from a disease 
 called St. Anthony's fire. Gaston's son became one of 
 the afflicted. His father, praying before some relics of 
 St. Anthony, vowed that if his son recovered he would 
 found a hospital (1095). On the recovery of his son, he 
 founded an order of monks, and established a hospital 
 for the treatment of persons afflicted with St. Anthony's 
 fire. The order flourished until the Revolution. " Bene- 
 dict VIII. in 1297 ordained that the Antoninea should 
 live as canons-regular under the rule of St. Austin." 
 See Oath. Diet. 
 
 ANTONY'S FIRE, ST. The name given to an epidemic 
 which raged in France especially in 1089. It was so 
 called be«iuse many of those who were attacked by it 
 are supposed, on praying before the relics of St. Antony, 
 to have been healed. St. Antony (A.D. 251-356) of Thebes 
 
 had a great reputation as the father of monasticism and 
 the ideal hermit. 
 
 ANTOSIANDRIANS. Opponents of the party of the 
 German Protestant Andreas Osiander (1498-1552). See 
 OSIANDRIANS. 
 
 ANTRIM, PRESBYTERY OP. An off-shoot of the 
 Irish Presbyterians. They refused to subscribe to the 
 Westminster Confession (q.v.), and formed themselves 
 into an independent body in 1750. 
 
 ANTS. The Apalai Indians of South America drive 
 away any demon of disease which may cling to their 
 persons by allowing themselves to be .stung by large ants. 
 Certain Indians of Guiana, when a girl first shows signs 
 of puberty, keep her for a month " in her hammock at 
 the top of the hut," and expose her to the painful bites 
 of large ants. This is said to be to strengthen her to 
 bear the burden of motherhood. See J. G. Frazer, O.B. 
 
 ANTWERP POLYGLOT. An early printed edition of 
 the New Testament in several languages. It was brought 
 out at Antwerp under the auspices of Philip II., was 
 edited by Benedict Arias Montanus, and was printed by 
 Christopher Plantin. It is called also the Plantin poly- 
 glot after its printer. It contains the Greek text, the 
 Syriac text both in Syriac and Hebrew letters, a Latin 
 translation of the Syriac text and another of the Greek 
 text, and the Latin Vulgate. The Greek text " agrees 
 in the main with Robert Estienne's edition of the year 
 1550." See C. R. Gregory. 
 
 ANU. A Babylonian deity. He is described on an 
 ancient Babylonian seal-cylinder as " Ann, the supreme, 
 king of the Anunnaki " (spirits of the heavens). See Fr. 
 Delitzseh, Babel and Bible, 1903, p. 74. The name seems 
 to be found in inscriptions prior to the year 2300 B.C. 
 Ann Is the god of heaven. In the early religion, Ann Bel 
 (g.v.), and Ea {q.v.) are the three great gods. Ann's 
 consort is Anatum. According to one version of the great 
 battle of the gods with the monster Tiamat, Anu is sent 
 to slay the monster. Anu also plays a part in the Adapa 
 I.«gend (q.v.). He is brought into association with several 
 other gods (e.g., Ramman, Dagan), and in course of time 
 is rather overshadowed by Ashur (q.v.). The sun's 
 ecliptic is described as the " way of Anu," and the pole 
 star of the ecliptic was specially identified with him. See 
 Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ANUBIS. An Egyptian deity. Son of Osiris (q.v.), he 
 is represented as having the head of a jackal or dog-ai)e. 
 When the Greeks and Romans took over the worship 
 they represented him as a dog. Like Hermes, with 
 whom the Greeks identified him, he conducted the dead 
 to the underworld (Amenthes), where with Horus (q.v.) 
 he weighed their deeds in the balance before Osiris. In 
 a tomb of the Old Empire has been found a slab of stone 
 containing an invocation to Anubis. Anubis is entreated 
 that the dead person may have a good tomb in the West, 
 and may receive a plentiful supply of offerings on special 
 feast-days. See E. Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith, 
 1909, p. 71. 
 
 ANUNIT. A Babylonian goddess. She is described 
 (cylinder inscription of Nabonldus) as " the mistress of 
 battle, bearer of the bow and quiver." Anunit is a 
 feminine form corresponding to the masculine Anu (q.v.). 
 She seems to be mentioned in inscriptions prior to the 
 year 2300 B.C., but in course of time the name became 
 another designation of Ishtar (q.v.). See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rel. 
 
 ANUNNAKI. A term occurring in Babylonian- 
 Assyrian religion. The derivation of the word is doubt- 
 ful. It has been interpreted (Hommel) " gods of the 
 watery habitation." In any case, the Anunnaki are a 
 group of gods or spirits employed in the service of other 
 gods. They are spirits of earth, while the spirits of
 
 A pad ana 
 
 27 
 
 Apocalyptic Number 
 
 heaven receive the name Igigi (gv.). They figure in the 
 Babylonian Creation and Deluge stories. See Morris 
 Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 APADAXA. A Buddhist sacred book, a book of stories 
 of the saints, included in the collection appended to the 
 eeoond division of the Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 APELLIANISTS. A Gnostic sect of the second 
 century named after Apelles, who was for a time the 
 disciple of Marcion (taught about A.D. 350). They were 
 also called Apelleians or Apellites. Apelles seems to 
 have held that matter was created by an inferior deity, 
 hostile to God though created by Him; and that Jesus 
 descended mysteriously from heaven and took a body 
 composed of earth, air, fire, and water, which elements 
 were dispersed again before his ascension to heaven. He 
 criticised the prophets of the Old Testament and the Law 
 of Moses, on the ground that they were often inspired, 
 not by God the Creator, but by the inferior deity, the 
 author of evil. He seems to have taught also that salva- 
 tion depended upon being true to one's own faith, what- 
 ever it might be. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 APHACA, POOL OF. A sacred pool among the 
 Phoenicians. Once a year the heaven goddess is said to 
 have come down into the waters " in the shape of a 
 falling star." The worshippers of the goddess were 
 accustomed to cast gifts into the sacred ixx>l. If a gift 
 was not accepted, the eddies cast it up. See W. R. 
 Smith, R.S. 
 
 AP-HI. Ap-hi is worshipped by the Abchases of the 
 Caucasus as the god of thunder and lightning. In time 
 of drought an ox is sacrificed to him, and he is implored 
 to send rain to revive the crops. He is one of the 
 examples of a god of thunder being regarded as a god 
 of fertility also. See J. G. Frazer, The Magic Art, 19U. 
 
 APHORISM. A short pithy saying expressing a 
 general truth. The Hindus are fond of employing 
 aphorisms (slokas), and many of these are of a moral or 
 religious nature. The children learn them by heart in 
 the schools. See .1. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 APHRODITE. The goddess of love in Greek religion. 
 She appears under several aspects, some of them 
 oriental. Other Greek names for her are : Aphro-geneia, 
 the " foam-bom ": Anadyomene, " she who rises " from 
 the sea; Kypris, the Cyprian: Aphrodite Tranla, "the 
 heavenly"; Pandemos, "all the people's." Thus she 
 was goddess of the .sea, especially the calm sea, and as 
 such was worshipped by fishermen and sailors; she was 
 goddess of the sky with its gales and storms. She was 
 also goddess of the earth with its gardens and groves, 
 its plants and flowers. As the goddess of love in a more 
 and more refined sense, she became a goddess of mar- 
 nage and married life, the goddess beloved by all. Early 
 Greek legend represented that she was the daughter of 
 Zeus and Dione. Aphrodite, however, was not always 
 worshipped as the goddess of a purer love. At Paphos, 
 the great and ancient seat of her wor.ship, she seems to 
 liave shared, as a goddess of fertility, the licentious rites 
 of other Asiatic deities, one of these being female prosti- 
 tution. For her association with Adonis, see the article 
 under that heading. In later Greek times the immoral 
 form of her worship prevailed in Greece also. Aphrodite 
 corresponds to the Roman Venus (q.v.). Her symbol or 
 image was a white cone or pyramid. Minoan discoveries 
 have thrown doubt on the theory that Aphrodite was 
 originally a Semitic deity brought to Greece from 
 Phoenicia or Cyprus. A Minoan Aphrodite is represented 
 on monuments of the First Late Minoan period (c. 1000- 
 1.500 B.C.). H. R. Hall (A. A.) points out that " it is 
 evident now that she was not only a Canaanitish-Syrian 
 goddess, but was common to all the peoples of the Levant. 
 She is Aphrodite-Paphia in Cyprus, Ashtaroth-Astarte in 
 
 Canaan, Atargatls in Syria, Derketo in Philistia, Hathor 
 in Egypt; what the Minoans called her we do not know, 
 unless she is Britomartis. She must take her place by 
 the side of Rhea-Diktynna in the Minoan pantheon." 
 I'rofessor G. Elliot Smith contends (Dr.) that this list 
 of homologues can be extended to Mesopotamia, Iran, 
 and India, to Europe and Further Asia, to America, and, 
 in fact, to everj' part of the world that harbours god- 
 desses. See O. Seyffert, Diet.; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, 
 Attin, Osiris. 
 
 APHTHARTODOCET-^. A general name for the 
 Julianists of Armenia and the (iaianitip of Egypt, the 
 two divisions of the Monophysites (g.v.). They were so 
 called because they attributed to Jesus' body aphtJiarsia, 
 " incorruptibility." " The human nature they considered 
 to have been so essentially united with the Divine nature 
 of the Logos as to have become merged or absorbed in it, 
 and therefore to have become possessed of the inherent 
 and indestructible life of the Logos " (J. H. Blunt). 
 
 API. An Egyptian goddess. She is represented as 
 having the body of a hippopotamus. 
 
 APIS. An Egyptian deity. At first a sacred bull in 
 the temple of Ptah, he then became a god represented 
 as a bull, and later still was regarded as an incarnation 
 of Osiris (g.v.), and ranked next to Ra (g.v.). See Adolf 
 Erman. 
 
 APITO. An earth-goddess worshipped in the West 
 Indies (Antilles). 
 
 APOCALYPSE. The Greek name of the last book of 
 the New Testament, more commonly known as the 
 Revelation of St. John the Divine (q.r.)- 
 
 APOCALYPSE OP BARUCH. See APOCALYPTIC 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 APOCALYPSE OF PETER. See APOCRYPHAL 
 BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE. A general term for a 
 collection of Jewish writings called " Apocalypses," i.e., 
 prophetic revelations of the future. An early example 
 is found in the Old Testament in the book of Daniel (167- 
 104 B.C.). The last book of the New Testament bears the 
 Greek title " Apocalypse of S. John the Divine " (see 
 REVELATION, BOOK OF), and some scholars think that 
 a little Apocalypse has been incorporated in the Gospels 
 (Matthew xxiv. 6-8, 15-22, 29-31, 34-35 = Mark xiii. 7-9 a, 
 14-20, 24-27, 30; see Arno Neumann, Jesus, 1906, p. 148) 
 and in 2 Thes.salonians (2, 1-12). Other Apocalyptic 
 writings are : the " Apocalypse of Baruch," preserved in 
 Syriac, written by Pharisees (e. A.D. 50-90); the "Book 
 of Enoch," preserved in Ethiopic, composite, the earliest 
 iwrtion having been written perhaps c. 200 B.C., the 
 latest c. 04 B.C.; another " Book of Enoch " or "Book 
 of the Secrets of Enoch," preserved in Slavonic, written 
 about A.D. 1-50; the " Ascension of Isaiah," preserved in 
 Ethiopic and partly in Latin, composite, written about 
 A.D. 1-100; the " Book of Jubilees," preserved in Ethiopic 
 and partly in Hebrew, Syriac, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, 
 written about 40-10 B.C.; the "Assumption of Moses," 
 preserved in Latin, written about 7-30 A.D. ; the " Testa- 
 ment of the XII. Patriarchs," preser\-ed in Greek, 
 Armenian, and Slavonic, written about 130 B.C. - 10 A.D. ; 
 the " Psalms of Solomon," composite, written about 70-40 
 B.C.; the "Sibylline Oracles," written in Greek, com- 
 posite, the earliest portions dating from the second 
 century B.C., the latest from the third century A.D. See 
 EncycJ. Bibl.; W. Fairweather, Background of the 
 Gospels, 1908. For New Testament Apocalypses, see 
 APOCRYPHAL BOOKS OF THE N.T. 
 
 APOCALYPTIC NUMBER. In the New Testament 
 Book of Revelation we read (xiii. 18) : " He that hath 
 understanding, let him count the number of the l)east; 
 for it is the number of a man; and his number is six
 
 Apocarites 
 
 28 
 
 Apocryphal Books of the New Testament 
 
 hundred and sixty and six." This is vrhat is meant by 
 the Apocalyptic Number. It is supposed to indicate some 
 name, since Greek and Hebrew letters were used to repre- 
 sent numbers. Prof. Schmiedel (The Johanmne 
 Writings, 190S) points out that in many copies of the 
 Booli of Revelation before the time of Irenaeus, that is 
 to say, before A.D. 185, the number is given as 616. He 
 therefore suggests that a name must be found the letters 
 of which might in some way or other produce either of 
 the numbers 666 or 616. He thinks that the name of the 
 Emperor Nero meets the requirements, since it might be 
 written N(e)ron K(€)s(a)r or N(e)ro K(e)s(a)r. The 
 vowels e and a would not be expressed in Hebrew. The 
 identifications are as follows : 
 
 N R O N K S R 
 50-I-200+6+50-I-100+60-I-200 = 666 
 N R O K S R 
 
 50+200+6 +100+60+200 = 616 
 Prof. Schmiedel points out that the number 666 alone has 
 produced more than a hundred other solutions. 
 
 APOCARITES. A sect which appeared in the reign of 
 the Roman Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus (A.D. 
 275-6). Its tenets were largely Gnostic and Manichtpan. 
 The Apocarites held also that the human soul is eternal 
 and uncreated. 
 
 APOCATASTASIS. A Greek word meaning " restitu- 
 tion," and occurring in the New Testament. In Acts iii. 
 21 it is said that the heaven must receive Jesus " until 
 the times of restoration of all things, whereof God spake 
 by the mouth of his holy prophets which have been since 
 the world began." Apocatastasis became a theological 
 term denoting the doctrine, taught by Origen and others, 
 that all men would be converted and admitted to ever- 
 lasting happiness. 
 
 APOCATEQUIL. A deity in the mythology of the 
 ancient Peruvians. He was connected with the night, 
 and was called therefore by the Inean Peruvians " Prince 
 of Evil." His name is said to mean " Chief of the 
 followers of the moon." 
 
 APOCRISIARIUS. From the Greek apokrinesthai " to 
 answer." A name given from the fourth to the ninth 
 century to ecclesiastical or Papal emissaries to the Court 
 of the Emperor. Their task was to bring important 
 questions, civil and ecclesiastical, to the notice of the 
 civil authority and to obtain answers to them. The same 
 duty was performed at a later date by the Nuncio or 
 Legate a latere. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 APOCRYPHA. INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE. 
 A Society the object of which " is to make more widely 
 known the theological, ecclesiastical, and literary value 
 of the ' Books which the Church doth read for example 
 of life and instruction of manners,' and to promote their 
 more general study among the clergy and laity " {Official 
 Year-Book of the Church of England). The Society 
 publishes a Quarterly Journal. 
 
 APOCRYPHA OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. The 
 word Apocrypha means literaUy "hidden," and, like the 
 corresponding Hebrew word, denotes boolvs which were 
 withdrawn from public use as being unfit for public 
 reading. Sometimes there is associated also with the 
 word the idea that certain books are not suitable for the 
 general public because they contain mysterious truths or 
 esoteric doctrines. The early fathers applied the word 
 "apocryphal" both to heretical works and to works 
 which were not accepted as canonical or included in 
 Sacred Scripture. Old Testament and New Testament 
 Apocrypha, however, have been placed upon a very 
 different level. While the New Testament Apocrypha 
 (7>roperly speaking) have been regarded as possessing 
 very slight value, to some of the Old Testament 
 
 Apocrypha has been ascribed a value almost, if not quite, 
 as great as that of some of the canonical books. The 
 Old Testament Apocrypha (proper) " the Church [of Eng- 
 land] doth read for example of life and instruction of 
 manners, but yet doth it not apply them to establish any 
 doctrine " (Article vi.). The Roman Catholic edition of 
 the Bible, the Douay Version, includes the Apocrypha 
 (proper) with the exception of the " Prayer of Manasseh," 
 " Third Esdras," and " Fourth Esdras," which were 
 rejected by the Council of Trent as uncanonical. The 
 books of the Apocrypha are as follows : 1. The Third 
 Book of Esdras. This is the title in the Vulgate (g.t'.). 
 In the original Greek version, in the Septuagint (q.v.), 
 and in the English Version, it is called " I. Esdras." 
 The book is partly a compilation from the canonical Book 
 of Ezra (g.v.). It perhaps belongs to the first century 
 B.C. 2. The Fourth Book of Esdras. In the English 
 Version it is called " II. Esdras." The Greek original 
 has disappeared, and there are omissions in the Vulgate. 
 The work is composite. It belongs perhaps to the firsit 
 oenturv after Chri.st. Sometimes it is called the 
 "Apocalypse of Ezra." 3. The Book of Tohit. Pre- 
 served in Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Aramaic. It was 
 written perhaps not later than the first century A.D. It 
 is a romance of the Captivity, and is interesting on 
 account of its angelology and demonology. 4. The Book 
 of Judith. Preserved in Greek. It belong perhaps to 
 the first century B.C. It is a romance, and perhaps to 
 some extent an allegory. It describes how Judith, a 
 noble Hebrew widow, delivers the city Bethulia from 
 Holofernes, its besieger, by assassinating him. 5. The 
 Rest of the Book of Esther. Additions to the Book of 
 Esther {q.v.). In the Greek, Vulgate, and Douay Ver- 
 sions it is not a separate title. 6. The Book of Wisdom. 
 Written in Greek under the assumed name of Solomon. 
 It was perhaps written in the first century B.C. It is 
 not all of equal merit, but there are many remarkable 
 passages in the book. 7. Jesus the son of Sirach. Pre- 
 served in Greek, but a translation from Hebrew, much of 
 a (perhaps original) Hebrew version having been recently 
 discovered. It is better known as the Book of Eccle- 
 siasticus. It probably belongs to the second century 
 B.C. The book contains many remarkable passages, and 
 is well worthy of study. 8. Baruch the Prophet. Pre- 
 served in Greek. It is composite. Part of it (the end) 
 may have been written after 70 A.D. The Baruch meant 
 is Jeremiah's amanuensis, the son of Neriah. Appended 
 to it is a letter known as the Epistle of Jeremy (or Jere- 
 miah), which belongs probably to the first century A.D. 
 9 The Song of the Three Children. Preserved in Greek. 
 An addition to the Book of Daniel (g.v.), and not treated 
 as a separate title in the Septuagint, Vulgate, and Douay 
 Versions. 10. The Star;/ of Susanna. In exactly the 
 same category as No. 9. 11. Of Bel and the Dragon. In 
 exactly the same category as Nos. 9 and 10. 12. The 
 Prat/er of Afanas.^es. Preserved in Greek and Latin. It 
 purports to have been written in prison by Manasseh, 
 king of Judah. 13. The First Book of Maccabees. Pre- 
 served in Greek, but a translation from Hebrew. Written 
 about 105 B.C. It is a historical work of great value, 
 recording the history of the Jews in Palestine from 175 
 to 135 B.C. 14. The Second Book of Maccabees. Pre- 
 served in Greek. Of very much less value. The work 
 is composite. The first part purports to give two letters 
 written by the Jews of Jerusalem to the Jews of Egypt. 
 The second part professes to be an abridgment of a lost 
 work in five books by Jason of Cyrene. The above are 
 the works which are commonly known as " the 
 Apocrypha." Cp.. further, PSEUDEPIGRAPHA. See 
 Encucl. BiM.: Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 APOCRYPHAL BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
 
 Apocryphans 
 
 29 
 
 Apologetics 
 
 A large number of writings, purporting to have been 
 written by apostles and designed to supplement the his- 
 tory contained in the New Testament. They group them- 
 selves for the most part under the headings Gospels, 
 Acts, Epistles, Apocalypses. 1. Gospels. a) Gospel 
 according to the Hebrews. It was originally in Aramaic. 
 Only fragments have been preserved and not in the 
 original langruage. These are found in the works of 
 Jerome, Origen, Eusebius, and in Codex Tischendorf III. 
 6) Gospel of the EUonites or Gosppl of the Twelve. Frag- 
 ments are given by Epiphanius (adv. Haer. 30). c) Gospel 
 according to the Egyptians. Quoted once by Clement of 
 Alexandria. d) Gospel according to Peter. Referred 
 to by Origen (In Matth. torn. 17, 10). A long fragment 
 was discovered at Akhmim in 1S.S5 (see the French 
 Archaeological Mission's iltfmoires, 1S92). Another frag- 
 ment is given by Serapion, Bishop of Antioch (A.D. 190- 
 203). e) The Logia. Sayings of Jesus contained on a 
 papyrus discovered by Grenfell and Hunt. /) Prot- 
 evangelium of James or Book of James. This story of 
 early events in the life of Jesus has been preserved in 
 several languages, Syriae, Coptic, etc. The James is 
 James the Just, and the book perhaps belongs to the first 
 century. Mary's parents are said to have been Joachim 
 and Anne. Published by K. v. Tischendorf, Evangelia 
 Apocrypha. g) Gospel of Nicodemus or Acts of Pilate. 
 Preserved in several languages, Coptic, Greek, Latin, etc. 
 It treats of the Passion, Resurrection, and Descent to Hell 
 of Jesus. It belongs perhaps to the early jwirt of the 
 second century. Published by K. v. Tischendorf (op. 
 cit.). There is another work with the same title (see 
 ACTS OF PILATE). 2. Acts. The chief work is the 
 Acts of Paul and Thecla. It has been preserved in 
 Syriae, Greek, etc. It is a romance, the earliest of its 
 kind, recounting the story of a virgin, Thecla of Iconium, 
 converted by Paul. Published by R. A. Lipsius, .icta 
 Petri et Paiili. There are also in existence fragmentary 
 Acts of Paul, Peter, John, Thomas, Andrew and Philip. 
 3. Epistles, a) Epistle of Paul to the Laodiceans. A 
 short document, preserved in Latin. 6) Epistle of Paul 
 to the Alexandrines. Mentioned in the Muratorian 
 Canon (q.v.). c) Third Epistle of Paul to the Corin- 
 thians. Preserved in Armenian, Latin, and Coptic. 4. 
 Apocalypses, a) Apocalyse of Peter. Preserved, in large 
 part, in Greek. It contains part of a prophecy of Jesus 
 about the last things and a description of the bliss of the 
 blessed and the tortures of the damned. The work per- 
 haps belongs to the early part of the second century. 
 6) Prophecy of Hy.'^taspes. It has not been preserved, 
 but ie quoted by Justin Martyr (Apol. I., 20, 44) and 
 Lactantius (Div. Inst. vii. 15, 18), and is associated with 
 the Sibylline Oracles. 5. Pre.\ching. a) Teaching of 
 the Apostles or the Didach^. Preserved in Greek. It 
 was first printed in 18S3. having been recently discovered. 
 It is partly a manual of ethics, partly a collection of 
 rules and formulae. 6) Preach ing of Peter. Fragments 
 are given by Heracleon and Clement of Alexandria. It 
 contains warnings against Judaism, a lament of Peter, 
 ethical maxims, and words of Jesus. See in Clark's 
 " Ante-Nicene Library " the volume entitled The Apocry- 
 phal Gospels, Acts, and Revelation; A. Hilgenfeld. Novum 
 Testamentum extra canonem receptum (2), 1S7C-84; and 
 M. R. James in the Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 APOCRYPHANS. A general designation of religious 
 sects which appealed for authority to apocryphal or 
 Ijrivate writings (e.g., the Manichaeans and Gnostics). 
 
 APOLLINARIANS. The followers of Apollinaris (d. 
 A.D. 390), Bishop of Laodicea. As against Arius. Apol- 
 linaris was anxious to maintain the Divinity of Christ. 
 This led him to represent the human nature of Jesus in 
 a way that was considered unorthodox. Making a dis- 
 
 tinction between nous, the rational soul, and psyche, the 
 animal soul, Apollinaris argued that in Christ the divine 
 Logos took the place of the human nous. In this way 
 he thought the sinlessness of Christ was assured, since it 
 is the human mows which is the seat of sin. He there- 
 fore virtually denied the perfect manhood of Christ. 
 ApoUinarianism was condemned by several synods from 
 tlie year 362, particularlv bv the Council of Constan- 
 tinople in A.D. 381. See J. "H. Blunt. 
 
 APOLLO. A Greek deity, one of the most ideal figures 
 in Greek mythology. According to legend, he was the 
 son of Zeus by Leto (Latona), had as his twin-sister 
 Artemis (Diana), and was bom at the foot of Mount 
 Cynthus in Delos. He seems to have been originally a 
 god of light in general. Thus, having withdrawn in 
 winter, he comes back in Spring to gladden the land with 
 his brightness: he calms the wintry sea after the 
 equinoctial gales; he protects the ripening crops, and 
 receives in Autumn the first-fruits of the harvest: he is 
 the patron of flocks and pastures, and slays rapacious 
 beasts that come to do them harm. He is also a god of 
 health and of prolific power, and gives help in war. As a 
 god of streets and highways, his " rude symbol, a conical 
 \K)st with a pointed ending, stood by street-doors and in 
 courtyards, to watch men's exit and entrance, to let in 
 good and keep out evil, and was loaded by the inmates 
 with gifts of honour, such as ribbons, wreaths of myrtle 
 or bay, and the like" (O. Seyffert). Apollo is also a 
 guardian and guide on the sea. As a god of health and 
 averter of ills, he is one of the chief gods of healing. 
 His son Asclepios (^sculapius) is famous for his 
 possession of the same power. Health and holiness, light 
 and purity being closely allied, Apollo became a god of 
 moral purity and civic righteousness. As such he is able 
 to purify the penitent suppliant who is eager to make 
 atonement for sin. Finally, he is a god of divination 
 or prophecy and of music. With Zeus and Atiene, Apollo 
 forms a kind of divine triad. The worship of Apollo 
 became naturalized among the Romans, and in B.C. 431 
 he was honoured with a temple as god of healing. In 
 212 B.C. the " Ludi AiX)Uinares " were established. The 
 symbols of Apollo include the bow and quiver, the lyre, 
 the tripod, the bay, the dolphin, the snake. See O. 
 Seyffert, Diet.; Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 APOLLYON.The Greek equivalent of the Hebrew name, 
 Abaddon (q.v.). 
 
 APOLOGETICAL SOCIETY OF THE HAGUE, THE. 
 Another name for The Haag Association for the Defence 
 of the Christian Religion (q.v.). 
 
 APOLOGETICS. That branch of theology which is 
 occupied specially with the defence of Christianity as a 
 divinely-revealed system of religion. The term is still 
 commonly used in Germany. In England the designation 
 "Christian Evidences" seems to be preferred as a modern 
 description. In the early days of the Church, Christian 
 writers wrote "Apologies" in reply to charges brought 
 against the " brethren," and in order to remove occasion 
 of persecution. Thus one Quadratus addressed an 
 Apology to the Emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), which 
 is referred to by Eusebius (Church History, iv. 3), Aris- 
 tides and Justin addressed one to the Emperor Antoninus 
 (A.D. l.'58-l()l). Justin, also famous for his dialogue (c. 
 A.D. 1.35) with the learned Jew Trypho, wrote this 
 Apology c. A.D. 1.52. In it he refutes the charges brought 
 against the Christians and explains their meetings and 
 religious practices. The e.ssay is not free from in- 
 accuracies. Later two Asiatic bishops, Melito, Bishop 
 of Sardis, and Apollinaris, Bishop of HierapoUs, 
 addres.«ed Apologies to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius 
 (A.D. 169-177). Of the former only fragments have been 
 preserved by Eusebius (Church HiMory, iv. 26). The
 
 Apologue 
 
 30 
 
 Apostles' Creed 
 
 latter bas been lost, as has that also of Miltiades (Eus. 
 C.H., V. 17). Another Apology was that of Athenagoras, 
 another Athenian philosopher. It was addressed to the 
 Roman Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus (A.D. 
 177-180). This has been preserved. AU these apologies 
 were followed by a number of Orations and Addresses to 
 the Greeks. See Louis Duchesne. Hist. 
 
 APOLOGUE. A fable or parable with a moral. It is 
 often a story in which animals or inanimate things figure. 
 Aesop's fables are a classical example. There is also a 
 good example in the Old Testament, in the aiX)logue of 
 Jotham (Judges ix. 7-15), which was iwrhaps drawn from 
 a collection of popular aiX)logues (see G. F. Moore, 
 Judges, 1895). Mention may also be made of the fables 
 of Bidpai or Pilpay, of which the oldest version that has 
 been preserved is in Arabic, and dates from about A.D. 
 750 (Kallluh vn Dirnimh}. 
 
 APOLOGY OF ARISTIDBS. An apology of, or defence 
 of, Christianity addressed to the Roman Emperor 
 Antoninus (A.D. 138-161). Aristides, an Athenian 
 philosopher, eulogises the morals, practices and beliefs 
 of the Christians as compared with those of barbarians, 
 Greeks, and Jews. The work was published by Rendel 
 Harris and Armitage Robinson in 1891 (The Apology of 
 Aristides, Cambridge " Texts and Studies," vol. i.). 
 
 APOLOGY OF ATHENAGORAS. See APOLO- 
 GETICS. 
 
 APOPHIS-SERPENT. A monster often depicted on 
 Egyptian mummy-cases. 
 
 APOSTATE. The word has been commonly used of one 
 who abandons or renounces the Christian faith. In the 
 early days of Christianity persecution led many to do 
 this. The Emperor Julian was called the Apostate 
 because he would not accept Christianity and wished to 
 revive paganism. In England apostasy was formerly 
 punished by civil penalties. An apostate can still be 
 excommunieate<l. Addis and Arnold distinguish three 
 kinds of apostasy. There is apostasy from the Chri.stiau 
 faith when one " wholly abandons the faith of Christ, 
 and joins himself to some other law, such as Judaism, 
 Islam, Paganism, etc." There is apostasy from eccle- 
 siastical obedience " when a Catholic wilfully and con- 
 tumaciously sets at nought the authority of the Church." 
 There is apostasy from a religious profession or from 
 holy orders. The latter happens when one, " after having 
 received major orders, renounces his clerical profession, 
 and returns to the dress and customs of the world " (W. 
 E. Addis and T. Arnold). 
 
 APOSTLE OF THE NORTH. A name given to John 
 Macdonald (1779-1849), the missionary preacher. 
 
 APOSTLE SPOONS. Children at Baptism usetl to be 
 presented with gilt gi>oons. These were called Apostle 
 Spoons, because figures of the twelve Apostles were 
 carved on the handles. Sometimes as many as twelve 
 spoons were given. See Brand's Popular Antiquities, 
 ed. C. Hazlitt, 1905. 
 
 APOSTLES. The Greek term apostolos means a " mes- 
 senger " or a " delegate." In the Greek translation of 
 the Old Testament it is given by Aquila (II. Kings xiv. 
 0) and by Symmachns (Isaiah xviii. 2) as the equivalent 
 of the Hebrew word shfiUali . " one sent." After the 
 destruction of Jerusalem the Hebrew term was used of 
 those oflScials who collected from the dispersed the taxes 
 due to the Jewish Patriarch (see Emil Schiirer, Gesch. 
 des Jiid. Volkes, ii. 532, 548). The Greek term is used 
 especially of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus as his 
 constant disciples and deputed by him to preach the glad 
 tidings of the Kingdom of God (Mark iii. 14, Luke vi. 13; 
 Mark vi. 30, Luke ix. 10). The number twelve seems to 
 have been suggested by the number of the tribes of Israel. 
 The original apostles, ae given in Matthew (x. 2), Mark 
 
 (iii. 16), Luke (vi. 14), and Acts (i. 13) were : Simon, 
 surnamed Peter ; James of Zebedee, and John, the brother 
 of James, surnamed Boanerges (q.v.); Andrew; Philip; 
 Bartholomew; Matthew; Thomas; James of Alphseus; 
 ThaddsBus; Simon the Zealot; and Judas Iscariot. After 
 the betrayal by Judas Iscariot, or Judas the man of 
 Kerioth, Matthias was elected to fill his place. After- 
 wards Paul claimed equality with these apostles on the 
 ground that he had received a direct revelation and com- 
 mission from Christ. He describes himself (Galatians 
 i. 1) as " Paul an Apostle, not of men, neither by man, 
 but by Jesus Christ, and God the Father, who raised him 
 from the dead." Of the (iospel he says, " neither did I 
 receive it from man, nor was I taught it, but (it came to 
 me) through revelation of Jesus Christ " (Galatians i. 12; 
 cp. ii. 8, I. C^orinthians i. 17, ix. 1, II. (Dorinthians iii. 2, 
 etc.). Paul's claims were recognised, and the original 
 inner circle seems to have been enlarged so as to include 
 the " Apostle of the Gentiles " (Romans xi. 13). But the 
 title seems in a restricted sense to have been conferred 
 on a small outer circle including Barnabas (Acts xiv. 14), 
 Silvanus (I. Thessalonians ii. G), Andronicus and Junias 
 (Romans xvi. 7). In a still more restricted sense 
 reference is made to apostles in Luke xi. 49, Ephesians 
 iii. 5, Revelation xviii. 20. The early work known as 
 " The Teaching " shows in fact that in the sub-apostolic 
 age there were a number of "apostles" who travelled 
 about from one place to another as itinerant teachers or 
 missionaries. The original ai>ostles, however, had the 
 unique advantage of being personally associated with 
 •Tesus, and, it is claimed, that they were witnesses of his 
 resurrection (Acts i. 21 /.). They were in a sense his 
 representatives (cp. Acts iii. 16, ix. 34). When new 
 officers were cliosen for the early Christian community 
 we are told that these " they set before the apostles, and 
 when they had prayed, they laid their hands on them " 
 (Acts vi. 6). See Encucl. Bibl.; Grimm-Thayer, Oreek- 
 English Lex. of the N.T., 1896; Prot. Diet. 
 
 APOSTLES' CREED. One of the principal creeds of 
 the Christian Church. It does not belong to the apostoUc 
 age, but seems to have been called " The Apostles' Creed " 
 becau.se it w-is cx)nsidered to embody aix>stolic teaching. 
 It seems to have developed out of early baptismal 
 formulas; and it is claimed that there are traces of a 
 .similar creed in the writings of Irenaeus (c. A.D. 115- 
 202), Tertullian (born about A.D. 150), and Cyprian (bom 
 about A.D. 200). But Rufinus (d. A.D. 410) is the first to 
 give a form of it which approximates to that which is 
 now known as " The AiKkstles' Creed." His form of the 
 Roman creed or " symbolum " reads : " I believe in God 
 the Father Almighty: and in Jesus Christ, his only Son, 
 our Lord, who was born of (de) the Holy Ghost of (ex) 
 the Virgin Mary, was crucified under Pontius Pilate and 
 was buried, rose again from the dead the third day, 
 ascended into heaven, sitteth on the right hand of the 
 Father, from thence he shall come to judge the quick 
 and the dead ; and in the Holy Ghost, the Holy Church, 
 the Forgiveness of Sins, the Resurrection of the Flesh " 
 (C. A. Heurtley, De Fide et Siimttols. English edition, 
 1889). This is a shorter form than that in present u-se. 
 The present Creed has in addition : " he descended into 
 hell "; (I believe in) "the communion of saints ": "and 
 the life everlasting." Marcellus, Bishop of Ancyra in 
 Galatia (A.D. 336-341) gives in Greek a creed resembling 
 that of Rufinus. The slightly longer form was no doubt 
 in use in the Gallican and Italian Churches in the fifth 
 or sixth century. Legend has it that the twelve articles 
 of the Apostles' Creed were composed by the twelve 
 Apostles, each of them contributing one article. The 
 exact words of our Apostles' Creed are given (c. A.D. 
 730) by Pirminius, a Bishop in Gaul. See W. R. W.
 
 Apostles, Teaching of the 
 
 31 
 
 Apostolic Succession 
 
 Stephens, Book of Common Prayer, 1901; Prot. Diet.; 
 Cath. Diet. 
 
 APOSTLES, TEACHING OF THE. See APOCRT- 
 PHAL BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 APOSTOLIC. A name applied to things relating to, 
 derived from, or characteristic of the Christian Apostles 
 (9.r.). 
 
 APOSTOLIC BRETHREN. 1. A Gnostic sect of the 
 third century. 2. and 3. Another name for the APOS- 
 TOLICALS iq.v.). 
 
 APOSTOLIC CANONS and CONSTITUTIONS. The 
 " Canones Apo.stoliei " are eighty-five canons or precepts 
 which purport to have apostolic authority and are sup- 
 posed to have been communicated to the Church by 
 Clement of Rome. They are first heard of in A.D. 494, 
 ■when they were declared by Pope Gelasius and seventy 
 bishops to be apocryphal. John Scholasticus, however, 
 who afterwards lyecame Bishop of Constantinople (A.D. 
 565), decided that they were of apostolic origin, and his 
 decision was supported by the Trullan Council at Con- 
 stantinople in A.D. 692 and by the second Nicene Synod 
 in A.D. 787. They were therefore accepted in the Eastern 
 Church. The verdict of the Western Church, on the other 
 hand, has continued to be against them. In 1562 the 
 Magdeburg Centuriators argued powerfully against the 
 apostolic origin, and it would seem that in their present 
 form they are not older than the fourth century. Some 
 of them, it is now thought, belong to the sixth century. 
 It has been suggested that the .sources of sixty of the 
 e'ghty-five canons may be found in the " Apostolic Con- 
 stitutions " and the Canons of Nicaea (A.D. 325), Antioch 
 (A.D. 341), and Ephesus (A.D. 431). The editor seems 
 also to have had before him the " Teaching of the Twelve 
 Apo.stles." It has also been pointed out that in many 
 places the teaching is not apostolic, and things are men- 
 tioned which were of post-apostolic date and origin. The 
 Canons are given in C. J. Hefele's History of the Councils 
 (2nd German edition, 1873-1890), J. Mansi's Collection of 
 the Acts of the Councils (1759-1781). and W. Beveridge's 
 Codex Canonum Ecclesiae Primitivae Yindicatus (1678). 
 The " Ck)n.stitutiones Apostolicae " purport to have been 
 dictated by the twelve Apostles in the fir.st per.son to 
 Clement of Rome. They are in eight books, and deal 
 with the ctustoms, homiletic teaching, liturgical forms. 
 and otBcial titles in the Eastern Church. William 
 Whiston (1667-1752) translated them, and believed that he 
 had discovered in them the true " primitive Christianity," 
 which happened to be Arian. But the post-apostolic 
 origin of the (Constitutions is proved by absurd 
 anachronisms, and in 1S83 it was seen that a large part 
 of one of the books was a reproduction of the '" Teaching 
 of the Twelve Apostles." C. J. Hefele assigns the work 
 to the second half of the third century. The whole work 
 is a compilation. It was perhaps put together by a 
 Syrian l)etween A.D. 364 and 37S. The "Constitutions" 
 will be found in J. P. Migne, Patrolof/ia Grwca. quarto, 
 vol. i., 1857, and Pitra, Jiiri^i Ecelesiastici Grwcoriim 
 Historia et Monnmenta. vol. i.. 1864. See F. von Funk, 
 Die Apostoliscken Eonstitiitionen, 1891; Prot. Diet. 
 
 APOSTOLIC FATHERS. Fathers of the Christian 
 Church who lived in the period succeeding that of the 
 Apostles. Their writings are commonly called patristic. 
 The following are some of them : ri) The Epistle of 
 Barnabas. Not written by Barnabas. Paul's feUow- 
 traveller, however. It was probably composed between 
 A.D. 70 and 137. The language is sometimes mystical. 
 (2) The Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians. Written 
 by Clement of Rome to the Church of Corinth. (3) The 
 Second Letter of Clement to the Corinthians. The real 
 author is unknown. It is part of an ancient homily 
 belonging perhaps to the middle of the second century. 
 
 (4) The Epistles of Ignatius. Bishop of Antioch. Seven 
 letters of which there is a longer and shorter form. In 
 their shorter and purer form they belong to the early 
 l>art of the second century A.D. " The C:atholic Church " 
 is spoken of for the first time. (5) The Epiitle of Poly- 
 carp, Bishop of Smyrna. A letter addressed to the 
 Church of God at Philippi. It was probably written 
 between A.D. 107 and 155. (6) The Martyrdom of St. 
 Polycarp. Written soon after Polyearp's death (A.D. 
 1.55). (7) Papias' Treatise on the Words of the Lord. 
 Only fragments have been preserved. Written A.D. 130. 
 (8) The Epistle to DiogneUis. The author is unknown, 
 but it probably belongs to the second century A.D. It 
 describes the manners of the early Christians. (9) The 
 Pastor or Shepherd of Hernms. The work, which is 
 allegorical, consists of Visions, Commandments, and 
 Similitudes. It is referred to by Irenaeus and Clement 
 of Alexandria. If the Hermas was the brother of Pope 
 Pius (.so Muratori), tJie work is to be dated between A.D. 
 140 and 156. See Lightfoot's editions of Clement (1869; 
 new ed. 1890), Ignatius (1885), and Polycarp (1889); 
 Funk's edition of the Apostolic Fathers; Prot. Diet.; 
 Cath. Diet.; H. B. Swete, Patristic Study. 1902. 
 
 APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION. In a sense all ministers 
 of the Christian Church who carry on the teaching of 
 the Aix)stles .share in the Apostolic Succession. 'They 
 are doing the same work on the same authority. It may 
 be claimed however, with reason, that the vitality of the 
 Christian Church can be.st be explained on the supposition 
 that a personal force or influence has since the days of 
 .Tesus, its founder, been transmitted from one person to 
 another. The Apostles were the first agents; and there 
 is therefore a deeper .sense in the apostolic succession than 
 is implied in a mere preaching of the Gospel. The power 
 or influence of the Apostles may have been imparted to 
 any person who came in contact with them, and may in 
 this way have been disseminated widely. When there- 
 fore a person receives " a call " he may have come under 
 thus ix>wer or influence. In the Church of England the 
 nest step required is ordination, firi?t as deacon, then 
 as priest ; but the Church of England " does not deny 
 that men cho.sen in other ways are lawfully called to the 
 ministry, and, in fact, from 1.559 to 1662, presbyterian 
 ministers often oflSeiated and held dignities in the 
 Church " (B. Whitehead. Church Law). The Church 
 of England maintains that " episcopacy is necessary to 
 the 'well-being,' but not to the ' being ' of a Church, in 
 other words, that it is the best form of ecclesiastical 
 polity." If, however, it could be shown that the apos- 
 tolic power or influence was directly and deliberately 
 transferred to certain i)ers)ons. and that through them it 
 has been transferred uninterruptedly to others, apostolic 
 succession will have a .still deeper meaning than those 
 already mentioned. This kind of aiwstolie succes.sion is, 
 as a matter of fact, claime<l for the bishops of Rome, of 
 the Greek Church, and of the Church of England. The 
 P.ishop of Rome claims to be the successor of the Apostle 
 Peter. As regards the Church of England, the Catholic 
 Church existed in Britain (Wales) before the Roman 
 mission. The first Welsh bishop is supposed to have l)een 
 ArLstobulus, who is .said to have died in A.D. 67. The 
 claim is l)est supported in the case of the Greek Church 
 (Antioch and Alexandria). The Church of Rome claims, 
 in addition, a peculiar universal jurisdiction in virtue of 
 its relationship to Peter, to whom .Tesus is said to have 
 addressed the words : " Thou art Peter, and upon this 
 rock I will build my church ... I will give unto thee 
 the keys of the kingdom of heaven; and whatsoever thou 
 shalt bind on earth .shall be bound in heaven, and what- 
 -soever thou shalt loo.«e on earth, shall be loosed in 
 heaven" (Matthew xvi. IS /.). We are told that " it is
 
 ApostoHcals 
 
 32 
 
 Apse 
 
 Peter only, who had any individual successor in his 
 primacy and his universal jurisdiction " (Addis and 
 Arnold). See Prot. Diet.; Oath. Diet. 
 
 APOSTOLICALS. 1. A twelfth century sect founded 
 near Cologne and referred to by Evervinus (Jean Mabil- 
 lon, Veter. Analec.t. Hi. 152) and St. Bernard (Serm. Ixv., 
 Ixvi., in Cantica). The members of the sect favoured 
 celibacy, but were allowed to have .spiritual sisters. They 
 would not eat flesh, and regarded every meal as a 
 Eucharist. They denied that there is an intermediate 
 state after death, and disapproved of prayers for the 
 dead, the invocation of saints, and infant baptism. 
 2. A mediaeval sect, founded towards the close of the 
 thirteenth century by Gerard Sagarelli of Parma. Saga- 
 relli's followers, who belonged mo.stly to Lombardy and 
 the Tyrol, were mendicants who went about bareheaded, 
 unshorn, clothed in white, and accompanied often by 
 " sisters," as they were not permitted to marry. They 
 lived in expectation of the fulfilment of the prophecies of 
 Joachim, Abbot of Flora, that is to say, in expectation 
 of the rise of a new and purer Church. Coming into 
 conflict with the civil power and the Church, the latter 
 tried to suppress them by means of the Inquisition. 
 Sagarelli .suffered death by burning A.D. 1300. He was 
 succeeded by Doleino of Novara, who not only inveighed 
 against the Pope, Bonifact viii., but put himself at the 
 head of an army and fought against the papal troops. 
 He was ultimatelv captured, and was executed in 1307 at 
 Vercelli. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 APOSTOLICI. Another name for the APOTACTICS 
 (q.v.). 
 
 APOSTOLICON. In the Canon of Marcion (c. 144 
 A.D.) the New Te.stament consists of two jrarts : the 
 Gospel and the " Apostle " or Apostolicon. 
 
 APOSTOLICUS. A title used at tirst generally of 
 Christian bishops. Later it was used only of metro- 
 politans or primates (.so Pope Siricius. about A.D. .390). 
 Later still (ninth century) it came to lx» used only of the 
 Popes. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 APOSTOLOS. This name was given to a lectionary 
 containing passages from the Acts of the Apostles in the 
 early Christian Church. See LBCTIONARIES. 
 
 APOSTOOLIANS. The followers of Samuel Apostool, 
 a Baptist preacher at Amsterdam (A.D. 1664). The sect 
 was an off-shoot of the Waterlanders. Dutch Baptists. 
 The other division of the Waterlanders received the 
 name Galenists from their leader, Galen Abraham 
 de Haan. 
 
 APOTACTICS. A sect which seems to have advocated 
 the renunciation of private property. Epiphanius and 
 Augustine identify them with a sect having the name 
 Apostolici. They took this name no doubt because they 
 believed they were following the apostolic mode of life. 
 
 APOTHEOSIS. The deification of kings and heroes. 
 This might take place during their life or on their death. 
 The Roman Emperors sometimes claimed or were 
 assigned divine honours in their life-time (e.g., Julius, 
 Augustus, Domitian, and Commodus). The Ancient 
 Egyptians deified their kings in the same way. The 
 deification and worship of ancestors has been widespread. 
 See ANCESTOR- WORSHIP. 
 
 APOTTATOU. The name of one of the deities in the 
 early Egyptian religion. The meaning of the name is 
 " he who opens the ways," and the ways referred to are 
 the paths of unexplored regions. So, when the kings 
 went to war, Apouatou was borne before them to show 
 them the way. The deity was carried, in the form of a 
 jacical or dog, on a kind of perch. At a later date 
 he became merged in Osiris (g.v.). See Naville, The Old 
 Egyptian Faith, 1909. p. 46. 
 
 APPARITIONS. Primitive folk believe that during 
 
 sleep the soul leaves the body and makes journeys, some- 
 times of great di.stance. It may (.so think, e.g., the New 
 Zealanders) on these journeys go to visit distant friends, 
 even penetrating to the region of the dead. In like 
 manner, the souls of the dead revisit the living. 
 The reality of Apparitions has been contended for 
 in modem times. It has been claimed, on the one 
 hand, that the dead .-^metimes appear to the living, 
 and on the other hand, that living people some- 
 times appear to others at a distance. The evidence for 
 the theory of phantasms of the living seems to be in- 
 creasing. We can hardly speak of " evidence " for 
 phantasms of the dead. In any case, it is possible to 
 explain most cases of apparition by Telepathy (q.v.). 
 Cp. Brand's Popular Antiquities, ed. C. Hazlitt, 1905. 
 
 APPEALS, ACT OF. An Act of Parliament passed in 
 the reign of Henrj' viii. (1533). It declared that the 
 Church of England was empowered to deal with spiritual 
 questions affecting it, and that appeals should l)e made 
 to no higher authority than the Archbishop. 
 
 APPELLANTS. A name given to those theologians 
 who rejected the papal Bull " Unigenitus " (1713) which 
 condemned the views of the Jansenist leader Pasquier 
 Quesnel (16.34-1719). They were so called because they 
 desired that the matter should be referred to a General 
 Council. See JANSENISTS. 
 
 APPLES. In the Old Testament book, the Song of 
 Songs, the apple (or the quince) is associated with love 
 and marriage (ii. 3 and 4, viii. 5). A Hebrew Midrash 
 states that in Egypt before the days of Moses the Hebrew 
 women were delivered of children under the apple-trees. 
 Among the Ottoman Jews it is the custom for a mother 
 who is about to bear a child to put an apple on her head. 
 Arab women eat fruit in order to make themselves fertile. 
 Hartland notes that " among the Southern Slavs the 
 bride is unveiled beneath an apple-tree and the veil is 
 sometimes hung on the tree." Tu.scan women, when 
 they want children, get a priest to bless an apple. Then 
 ihey pronounce over it an invocation to Saint Anne. In 
 King-yang-fu in China the women resort to a goddess of 
 fertility. Appearing in a dream, the goddess " gives fruit 
 to the pilgrim, an apple or a peach if she is to have a 
 bov, plums or pears if a girl." See E. S. Hartland, P.P. 
 
 APPLE-HOWLING. A name given to an old religious 
 custom in England. It was observed at least in Devon- 
 .«hire and Cornwall. On Christmas Eve the parishioners 
 walked in procession to the apple orchards, where, 
 standing around a particular tree, they sprinkled it with 
 cider, placed cakes of toast and sugar in its branches, 
 and prayed for its fruitfulness. See W. Carew Hazlitt, 
 and Sidney Heath. 
 
 APPROBATION. As a technical Roman Otholic term, 
 this means " the formal judgment of a prelate, that a 
 prie.st is fit to hear confessions." The approbation given 
 " by the bishop, or one who has quasi-episcopal jurisdic- 
 tion, is needed for the validity of absolution given by a 
 .secular priest, unless the said priest has a parochial 
 benefice." See Cath. Diet. 
 
 APRIL FOOLS' DAT. A name for the 1st of April, 
 which was ob.served in ancient Britain as a general 
 festival. It was really the old Feast of the Vernal 
 Equinox. It was called April Fools' Day on account of 
 the playful revelry with which the festival was associated, 
 as the l)eginning of the joys of Spring-time. The 
 Spaniards and Swedes have ob.served the same custom. 
 One of the customs at the Hindu Holi Festival is said to 
 be " an exact reproduction of April Fools' Day." People 
 are made " Holi fools " hy being .sent on useless errands, 
 etc. See W. C. Hazlitt: E. W. Hopkins, Religions of 
 India, 1895. 
 
 APSE. From a Greek word meaning " a wheel " or
 
 Apsu 
 
 33 
 
 Archontics 
 
 " an arch." The apse was an architectural feature in 
 the basilicas or halls of justice which were used by the 
 Christians as places of worship in the early days of the 
 Church. It was a " semi-circular or polygonal termina- 
 tion " to the aisles of a Basilica, in which the judges 
 sat. The apse was retained in the Byzantine style of 
 Church architecture, as may be seeji in the Church of 
 St. Sophia at Constantinople (sixth century). The semi- 
 circular ap.se also became a feature in some of the 
 churches in England built in the Norman style. Norwich 
 Cathedral is a good example. " On the Continent the 
 apse continued in use much later tlian in England, where 
 the practice of making the east end of the churches square 
 began early in the Norman period " (J. H. Parker). See 
 J. H. Parker, Gloss.; Oath. Diet. 
 
 APSU. A name occurring in Babylonian-Assyrian 
 religion. It is a personification of the "watery deep " 
 and synonymous with Tiamat. In course of time, 
 it was represented that the gods were bom of a union 
 between Apsu and TiSmat. a union, that is to say, between 
 water, the first element, and chaos. See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rel. 
 
 AQU^I. A sect mentioned by St. Augustine, and pro- 
 bably to be identified with the Hydrotheitae. 
 
 AQUARIANS. THE. An early Church sect the 
 members of which, instead of using wine in the Lord's 
 Supper, used consecrated water. 
 
 AQUAVITA FATHERS. A name given to the Jesuats 
 {q.v.). 
 
 ARABES, or ARABICI. An Arabian sect of the third 
 century, the adherents of which believed that soul and 
 body died together, only to be re-united and revived at 
 the last day. They were converted by Origen at a 
 council of Bishops held about A.D. 2.50. 
 
 'ARAFAH, THE MOUNT OF. See SERMON ON 
 THE MOUNT, MUHAMMADAN. 
 
 ARAKHIN. One of the treatises of the Mishnah 
 (q.v.). 
 
 ARAKH-SHAMNA. The name of the eighth month in 
 the Babylonian calendar. It was sacred to Marduk 
 iq.v.). The 15th day of the month was sacred to 
 Shamash, Malkatu, and Bunene {qq.v.). See Morris 
 Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ARALC. A name for the nether-world In Babylonian- 
 Assyrian religion. It is supposed to be a cave under- 
 neath the earth to which all the dead went. It seems 
 also to be called "house of AralQ." In later usage it 
 is also the name of the mountain within which the nether- 
 world (AralQ itself) lay. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ARAMO. Aramo, " the gentle," was one of the names 
 given by the ancient Celts to a god who corresponded 
 to the Roman Jupiter. 
 
 ARATTI CEREMONY. A Hindu ceremony (also called 
 ARTI) which only married women (not widows) and 
 courtesans may perform. It is thus described by Dubois 
 (ed. Beauchamp). " A lamp made of kneaded rice-flour 
 is placed on a metal dish or plate. It is then filled with 
 oil or liquefied butter and lighted. The women each take 
 hold of the plate in turn and raise it to the level of the 
 I>erson's head for whom the ceremony is being performed, 
 describing a .specified number of circles with it. Instead 
 of using a lighted lamp they sometimes content them- 
 .selves with filling a vessel with water coloured with 
 saffron, vermilion, and other ingredients. The object of 
 this ceremony is to counteract the influence of the evil 
 eye and any ill-effects which, according to Hindu belief, 
 may arise from the jealous and spiteful looks of ill- 
 intentioned per.sons." The ceremony is practised fre- 
 quently, even daily, on behalf of distinguished persons, 
 by courtesans or dancing-girls. The dancing-girls of the 
 temples perform it twice daily over the images of the 
 
 gods whom they serve. It is even performed over 
 elephants, horses, etc. See J. A. Dubois and H. K. 
 Beauchamp. 
 
 ARCHANGELS. See ANGELS. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP. An ecclesiastical title, first used in 
 the fourth century A.D. Athanasius (e. 29.5-37.3) styled 
 himself Archbishop. Originally bishops of the Christian 
 Church in charge of a province and having suffragan 
 bishops under them were called metropolitans. When 
 in course of time the bishops of the greater cities them- 
 selves had suffragan bishops to assi.st them, these became 
 metropolitans, and a new title " primate," "exarch," or 
 " archbishop " was given to the old metropolitans. The 
 only difference now between the terms " archbishop " and 
 " metropolitan " is that a metropolitan always has 
 suffragans. There seem to have been three archbishoprics 
 in Roman times. These were London, York, and Caer- 
 leon. Menevia or St. David's afterwards took the place 
 of Caerleon. In the sixth and seventh centuries Canter- 
 bury and York were the recognized archbishoprics. St. 
 David's remained as before until it was amalgamated 
 with Canterbury (c. A.D. 1147). In the eighth century 
 Lichfield also was an archbishopric for a short time. This 
 also was amalgamated with Canterbury. Ireland 
 originally had four archbishoprics, Armagh, Dublin, 
 Cashel, and Tuam, which have been retained by the 
 Roman Catholics. The Protestants have now only two, 
 Armagh and Dublin. There are now a number of 
 colonial archbishops (Cape Town, Ottawa, Rupert's 
 Land, Jamaica, Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane). The 
 Archbishop of Canterbury is " Primate of All England," 
 and crowns the sovereigns of England. The Archbishop 
 of York is called " Primate of England." The two 
 Archbishops are independent; their authority is co- 
 ordinate. Since 1850 the Roman Catholics have had an 
 Archbishop of Westminster. The first holder of the oflBee 
 was Nicholas Wiseman. The .superior dignity of an 
 archbishop in the Roman Catholic Church is still marked 
 by two insignia—" the pallium with which he is invested 
 by the Holy See, and the donble cross borne on his 
 ' stemma ' over his arms." He " has the right of 
 carrying his cross throughout his province, except in the 
 presence of the Pope or a Cardinal I^egate " (Addis and 
 Arnold). See Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 ARCHDEACON. Originally an ordinary deacon (q.v.) 
 chosen by a bishop to assist him. In course of time he 
 acquired great power, and became almost equal to a 
 bishop. It became necessary in the twelfth and 
 thirteenth centuries to restrict his power and jurisdiction. 
 In the Roman Catholic Church the office has now been 
 entirely, and in the Greek Church almost entirely, 
 abolished. In the Church of England the office is stiU 
 an important one, but the dignity is inferior to that of 
 a Dean (q.v.), and an archdeacon's powers and duties 
 in no way compete with those of a bishop. He is the 
 bishop's Vicegerent in administrative matters, being in 
 most cases appointed by the bishop himself. See Prot. 
 Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 ARCHES, COURT OF. An ecclesiastical court of the 
 Church of England, so called because it us«d to be held 
 by the Dean of Arches at the church in London called 
 St. Mary le Bow (" Sancta Maria de Arcubus "). It is 
 the Court of Appeal from all Diocesan Courts in the 
 province of Canterbury. See, further, Prot. Diet. 
 
 ARCHIMANDRITE. A designation in the Greek 
 Church of the dignitary who is placed at the head of a 
 number of abbeys and convents. 
 
 ARCHONTICS. A second century sect named after an 
 anchorite Archon, or after the angels or arch-spirits (Gk. 
 arehontes). who presided over seven of the worlds into 
 which they divided the Universe. The sect originated
 
 Archpriest 
 
 34 
 
 Arianism 
 
 in Palestine and spread to Armenia. The eighth world 
 in their system of the Universe was a higher world ruled 
 by the iiarent power. They are said to have denied the 
 resurrection; and they did not recognise Baptism or the 
 Holy Eucharist. They had their own apocryphal books. 
 These, and not Holy Scripture, were their inspired and 
 sacred works. They did not marry, regarding woman as 
 a creation of the devil. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ARCHPRIEST. This was formerly the title of an 
 officer in the Roman Catholic Church, and is said to date 
 from the fourth century. He was at first attached to a 
 cathedral as chief of the presbyters. Afterwards arch- 
 priests were appointed in the larger towns. In 1598, the 
 missionary priests in England having no recognised head. 
 Pope Clement VIII. appointed George Blackwell (1545?- 
 1013) their superior as " Archpriest." Twelve priests 
 were also nominated as his assistants. Blackwell was 
 deprived of office in 1608 for talking an oath of civil alle- 
 giance which Pope Urban V. had condemned. He was 
 succeeded by George Birket or Birkhead. On his death 
 in 1014, William Harrison (1553-1021) was appointed. He 
 was the last archpriest. After his death William Bishop 
 (1554-1024) was made Bishop of Chaleedon and the first 
 vicar-apostolic of England and Scotland. See Cath. 
 Diet.; the D.N.B. 
 
 ARDIBAHISHT. The name of one of the archangels 
 in the Zoroastrian religion. He was originally called 
 nshavahishta, " the best righteousness." Ardlbahisht 
 represents " the blazing flame of fire, the light in 
 luminaries, and brightness and .splendour of any kind 
 whatever, wherever it may exist " (Haug). 
 
 ARDI-BA. A figure in Babylonian mythology. In the 
 Gilgamesh Epic (Q.f.) Ardi-Ea is the ferryman who takes 
 Gilgamesh across the waters of death to the fountain of 
 life. 
 
 ARES. The Greek name for the god of war, Mars 
 (q.v.). 
 
 AREVURDIS. An Armenian .sect. 
 
 ARGENTEUS CODEX. A fragmentary manuscript of 
 the Gothic translation of the Gosi)els. It is written in 
 silver letters on purple parchment, dates from the sixth 
 century, and is preserved in the University Library at 
 Upsala. See C. R. Gregory. 
 
 ARGONAUTS. An ancient Greek legend, already well 
 known in the time of Homer. A number of heroes sailed 
 under .Jason, .son of .aSson, in a fifty-oared ves.sel called 
 the " Argo," to Colchis on the Black Sea to fetch the 
 golden fleece of the ram on which Phrixus had fled. The 
 fleece was held by .aretes, a magician. .aSetes sets Jason 
 a task, which seems impossible, and promises on its 
 successful performance to hand over the fleece. Medea, 
 .35etes' daughter, falls in love with .Tason, and helps 
 him by her witchcraft to overcome his difficulties. They 
 then escape together. Seyffert points out that " as the 
 story spread, all the Greek heroes tliat could have been 
 living at the time were included among the number of 
 the Argonauts " (Diet.). 
 
 ARHAT. In Buddhism " the Holy One," tie ideal 
 ancient monk, one who had gained entrance to Nirvana 
 by strictly obeying the teaching of the Buddha. In 
 Lamaism sixteen of the chief apostles of the Buddha are 
 called " Arhats." See H. Hackmann. 
 
 ARIANISM. The doctrines of Arius, a native of Libya, 
 who was borne soon after the middle of the third century, 
 and became a presbyter in Alexandria in A.D. .313. The 
 Arian Controversy started from a criticism by Arius of 
 a discourse on the Trinity delivered by Alexander his 
 bishop. The Bishop having explained that the unity in 
 the Trinity consisted in an indivisible unity of substance 
 or essence, " a certain one of the presbyters under his 
 
 jurisdiction, whose name was Arius, possessed of no in- 
 considerable logical acumen, imagining that the bishop 
 entertained the same view of this subject as Sal)ellius 
 the Libyan [see SABELLIANISM], controverted his 
 statements with excessive pertinacity, advancing another 
 error which was directly opposed indeed to that which 
 he suppo.sed him.self called upon to refute. ' If,' he said, 
 ' the Father begat the Son, he that was begotten had a 
 beginning of existence : and from this it is evident that 
 there was a time when the Son was not in being. It 
 therefore necessarily follows that he had his existence 
 (hnpostasis) from nothing' " (Socrates, Eccles. Hist.). 
 Alexander excommunicated Arius. and those who sympa- 
 thised with him, who took a further step, denied the co- 
 eternity and co-equality of the Son with the Father, and 
 maintained that he differed from other beings in being 
 created out of nothing as the first and highest of God's 
 creatures. Arius was dei)osed at Alexandria in 321. In 
 323 a synod at P.ithynia pronounced in his favour. But 
 at the famous Council of Nicaea in Bithynia, convoked 
 by the Emperor Constantine in 325, the doctrine of the 
 Trinity was carefuU.v defined in a way unfavourable to 
 Arius, who was at the same time banished to Illyricum. 
 The Nicene Creed declared that the Son was "begotten, 
 not made, being of one essence (homoousion) with the 
 Father," and anathematized those who say that " there 
 was once when he was not," and " before he was begotten 
 he was not," and " he was made of things that were 
 not," or maintain that the Son of God is of a different 
 essence (hupostasis or ousia) or created or subject to 
 moral change or alteration." The great champion of 
 orthodoxy was Athanasius (the " Father of orthodoxy "), 
 who was born about A.D. 295, and became Bishop of 
 Alexandria in 328. In the course of his struggles with 
 the Arians, he suffered banishment five times, his 
 opponents t;emporarily getting the upper hand. There 
 was a re-action against the Nicene Formula after Con- 
 stantine's death (337). Athanasius could be said at times 
 to stand against the world (" Athanasius contra mun- 
 dum "), and there was a period (A.D. 359 esi)ecially) of 
 which it could be said that " the whole world groaned, 
 and was astounded to find itself Arian " (Jerome). But 
 a counter-reaction set in after the death of the Emperor 
 Constantius (A.D. 301), and in A.D. .381 at the Council 
 of Constantinople the Creed of Nicaea was re-affirmed. 
 Arius, of course, was not the only leader, and Arianism 
 had a number of able exponents. One of his earliest 
 friends and sympathisers was Eusebius, Bishop of Nioo- 
 media (d. 342), who became head of a party, the Euse- 
 bians. Another Eusebius (bom about A.D. 270), Bishop 
 of Caesarea and famous as a historian, also took part in 
 the controversy. His followers also were called Euse- 
 bians as well as Semi-Arians. They maintained that the 
 Son was " like in .substance to the Father." Their 
 teaciing was therefore Homoiousian not Homooiisian. 
 Strict Arianism was represented by Aetius and his 
 disciple Eunomius, whence they were called Aetians or 
 Eunomians. They were also known as Anomoeans or 
 Heterousians, because they said that the substance of the 
 .Son was unlike (anomoios) that of the Father; or as 
 Exucontians because they maintained that he was created 
 from nothing (ex ouk onton). Another leader was 
 Aeacius, who contended simply that the Son is " like " 
 the Father, and refused to use the phrase " like in sub- 
 stance or essence." His followers have been called 
 Acaciana or Homoeans (from homoios "like"). The 
 heterodox parties have also been called Antinicaans or 
 Antinicenes as compared with the orthodox Athanasians 
 or Nicenes. In the fifth century A.D. Arianism was ex- 
 pelled from the Roman Empire, but obtained a hold 
 among the Vandals, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Burgundians,
 
 Ariaarod 
 
 35 
 
 Armeno- Protestants 
 
 Suevi, and Lombards. It was through Arianism that 
 these Teutonic tribes were introduced to Christianity. 
 By the year 662, however, they had all passed over to 
 the orthodox faith. See J. H. Newman, The Avians of 
 the Fourth Century, new ed., 1S91: H. M. Gwatkin, The 
 Arian Controversy, 18S9; J. H. Blunt, Heresies, etc.. 1903; 
 Cath. Didt.; Chambers' Encyclop.; and Brockhaus. 
 
 ARIANROD. Arianrod appears as the name of a 
 goddess revered by the ancient Celts in Britain and asso- 
 ciated with the god Gwydion (q.v.). The name was 
 popularly understood to mean Silver Wheel. Arianrod 
 is said to have been the mother of Lieu (q.r.). See 
 Squire, Myth. 
 
 ARICOUTE. A deity in the mj-thology of the Tupi 
 tribe of Brazil. He is the god of darkness who is van- 
 quished daily by his brother Timondonar, the god of light. 
 
 ARIEL. A name applied to Jerusalem in an Old Testa- 
 ment prophecy. Ariel (Arial) seems to mean " altar- 
 hearth." When the city is besieged the slaughter in its 
 streets will make it like an altar-hearth. The name has 
 also been explained as meaning " lion of God " or 
 " hearth of God." See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ARISTO. DIALOGUE OF. Eusebius refers (Church 
 Hist., iv. 6) to a Dialogue between Papiscus and Jason 
 written by Ari.sto of Pella. The work, which was of an 
 apologetic nature, has been lost. See A. Hamack, 
 Oesch. der altchristl. Lit. Ms Eusebius (1893 and 1897); 
 Louis Duchesne, Hist. 
 
 ARK. For the ark of Noah, see DELUGE. 
 
 ARK OF THE COVENANT. A sacred chest among 
 the Hebrews. It contained some sacred objects, but what 
 tiese were originally is not stated. They were probably 
 sacred stones, perhaps stones used in seeking oracles. It 
 was not at first call€KJ the Ark of the Covenant. It was 
 known at one time as the Ark of the Testimony (Exodus 
 XXV. 22), and was .supposed to have been so called because 
 it contained the two stones on which were inscribed the 
 ten commandments. It was an early belief that in some 
 way or other the ark represented the presence of Jehovah. 
 It was taken into battle that Jehovah Zehaoth, the god 
 of war, might lead Israel's hosts to victory (I. Samuel 
 iv. 3-8: cp. I. Sam. xvii. 4.5). According to later writers, 
 those who had charge of it were themselves required to 
 be priests or Levites (Joshua iv., 9, Priestly Code; I. 
 Chronicles xv., 15). David transported it to Zion, his 
 own city (2 Samuel vi. 7 /.), and Solomon set it in the 
 most sacred part of his temple (I. Kings vi. 19). It 
 came in course of time to be known as the Ark of the 
 Covenant (Joshua ill. 6), because Jehovah was supposed 
 to have made a covenant with his people. It was then 
 thought to contain the documents relating to this cove- 
 nant (I. Kings viii. 9). According to Exodus xxv. 10-22, 
 xxxvii. 6-9 (Prie.stly Code), a magnificent golden cover 
 was made for it. The Ark disappeared before the 
 destruction of the temple. See H. Guthe, Kurzes Bihel- 
 wiirterbuch; Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ARMAGEDDON. In the New Testament (Revelation 
 16, 16 ; RV Har-Magedon) represented as tine scene of the 
 last great battle when the kings of the whole world shall 
 be gathered together " for the war of the great day of 
 God the Almighty." The writer seems to have had in 
 mind " the mountain district (Hebrew ftar=mountain) 
 of Megiddo." Assuming, however, that the writer was 
 drawing upon a little apocalypse written in Hebrew, it 
 has l)een -suggested that he misinterpreted the second 
 word of the expression. A ver.y similar word would 
 give the meaning " his fruitful mountain." This would 
 mean " the mountain-land of Israel." H. Gunkel's idea 
 that the name of a Babylonian goddess of the underworld 
 (Migadon) forms the second part of the expressions seems 
 rather fanciful. See Encycl. Bihl. 
 
 ARMAITI. The name of a goddess or archangel in tie 
 Zoroastrian religion. She is the angel of the earth, 
 personifies prayer, and is described as " the bountiful." 
 Armaiti belongs to the number of the seven Amesha- 
 spentas or archangels. The name originally means 
 " devotion, obedience." She al.so appears as Spenta- 
 Armaiti (Spendarmad), " tie bountiful Armaiti." See 
 Martin Haug. 
 
 ARMASITES. A .seventh century sect founded by 
 Harmasius, an Egyptian. 
 
 ARMENIAN CHURCH. The Armenian Church was 
 firmly established as a branch of the Christian Church 
 in A.D. 300 by Gregory the Illuminator (A.D. 257-325), 
 who was supported by King Tiridates III. Gregory 
 became its head or Catholicos (A.D. 302-318), the office 
 for some centuries being made hereditary, and fixed the 
 chief see at Etchmiazin near Mount Ararat. He con- 
 ciliated the pagan priests by allowing the continuance of 
 .sacrifices for the dead, etc., but the formulae were 
 christianized and the chief priests were made bishops. 
 At first the Catholicos was ordained at Caesarea in 
 Cappadocia. Mona.srticism was introduced in the fourth 
 century by Basil (A.D. 330-379). In the fifth century 
 Mesrop and Isaac the Great translated the Old Testa- 
 ment into Armenian and revised an already existing 
 translation of the New Testament. They also translated 
 Greek liturgies and homilies. This made the Armenians 
 more independent. After the Persian conquest, the con- 
 nection with Caesarea was broken (c. A.D. 370), and 
 towards the end of the fifth century the Armenians 
 declined to accept the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon 
 (A.D. 451). The Church then became Monophvsite (see 
 JIONOPHYSITES). Some of the members took up an 
 extreme position, and in the seventh centui-y existed as 
 a sect called Paulicians. Since the time of the Cru- 
 sades, some of the Armenians {e.g., in Cilicia, Poland, 
 and Russia), the Uniats, have recognised the Pope. In 
 Turkey many of the clergy and laity amongst the 
 " United Armenians " went over to Rome altogether in 
 1879. There has been change and development in 
 Armenian wor.ship. The Armenians used not to observe 
 the Christmas Festival. They commemorated the 
 Baptism of Jesus, the spiritual birth, and introduced a 
 commemoration of the human birth later (c. A.D. 500). 
 They observed the Jewish Sabbath as well as the 
 Christian Sunday. Originally they praetLsed Adult 
 baptism, but they added Infant baptism later (eighth 
 century). The Feast of the Annunciation was established 
 in the ninth century. Protestant missionaries have had 
 some success in Turkey. See F. C. Convbeare in Prot. 
 Diet., 1904, and in R.8.W., 1908; Cath. Diet.; M 
 Ormanian, The Church of Armenia, 1912. 
 
 ARMENO-CATHOLICS. A sect in Turkey and else- 
 where, an off-shoot of the Armenian Church. In Turkey 
 the.v form a nationality (millet) of their own with a 
 special hierarch.v. " In Russia the Armeno-Catholics 
 have formed a community of their own, but it is subject 
 to the control of the Roman Catholic bishop of Saratoff 
 There are also to be reckoned a certain number in Galicia 
 and in Hungary ; these, however, have no relations with 
 their oo-religioni.sts in the East " (Malachia Ormanian). 
 
 ARMENO-GREEKS. A body in the Ottoman empire 
 which separated from the Armenian Church during the 
 period of Byzantine rule. The sect was at one time very 
 numerous, but its membership has now dwindled to a few 
 thousands. 
 
 j\JlMENO-PROTESTANTS. A sect in Turkey, an off- 
 .shoot of the Armenian Church, due to the zeal of 
 American missionaries. The Armeno-Protestants have 
 endeavoured to form a special nationality (millet). 
 " Their profession of faith is based on the principles of
 
 Armeno-Russians 
 
 36 
 
 Artemonites 
 
 the Evangelical Church; a few of their number belong 
 to the Episcopal and Baptist persuasions" (Malachia 
 Ormanian). 
 
 AKMENO-RUSSIANS. A small sect in the Caucasus, 
 an offshoot of the Armenian Church. 
 
 ARMINIAN BAPTISTS. See BAPTISTS. 
 
 ARMINIANS. The followers of Jakobus Arminius 
 (1500-lCOS), who in 1603 was made professor at Leiden. 
 Having engaged in a controversy on Predestination in 
 which he championed the views of Calvin, he became 
 himself in course of time a convert to Universalism, and 
 was accused of Pelagianism. He met with determined 
 opposition from his colleague at Leiden, Franz Gomarus 
 (15(;3-lfi41), whose followers became known as Gomarists. 
 After the death of Arminius (1609), the battle between 
 his supporters and opjionents continued. In 1610 the 
 Arminians were so fiercely attacked that they drew up 
 a remonstrance, which led to their being called Remon- 
 strants. The remonstrance contained five articles. It 
 claimed (1) that for Christ's sake all who believe in him 
 and persevere in this belief to the end are saved by the 
 grace of God; (2) that Christ died for all who by faith 
 make his merit their own; (3) and (4) that a man can 
 only have faith through Grace, but Grace is not irre- 
 sistible ; and (5) that those who believe can by the Spirit 
 overcome sin, the world, the flesh, and the devil, but 
 Scripture must decide whether those who have been bom 
 again can lapse. The Calvinistic party, or the Gomarists, 
 became known as the Counter-remonstrants. Con- 
 ferences were held at the Hague (1610) and at Delft (1613), 
 but no reconciliation was effected. At the Synod of 
 Dort (Nov. 13, 1618, to the end of April, 1619), to which 
 representatives were sent from England, the Arminians, 
 under Simon Episeopius, also called Bishop or Biscop 
 (1583-1643), a Professor of Leiden, could not obtain a fair 
 hearing. They therefore retired and were condemned 
 and excommunicated in their absence. Hugo Grotius or 
 de Groot (1583-1645), one of their leading men, was 
 sentenced to life-long imprisonment, but escaped after 
 two years. In 1630 some toleration was extended to 
 them in Holland, and in 1634 an edict of toleration was 
 passed. In the same year Episeopius opened a Seminary 
 for Remonstrants in Amsterdam. Here he developed 
 the ideas of Arminius and made them more universalistie. 
 Henceforth Arminianism in Holland became more and 
 more free in its interpretion of Scripture, the creeds, 
 and ecclesiastical government. A certain kind of 
 Arminianism has been represented in the Church of Eng- 
 land from time to time. But compared with the later 
 Dutch school, it has been of a moderate kind. In the 
 reign of Charles I. those who were opposed to Calvinism 
 were called Arminians, and in the time of Laud the Lati- 
 tudinarians were described in the same way. See P. 
 Zeller, Calwer Eirchenlexikon, 1889, etc.; J. H. Blunt; 
 Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 ARNOLDISTS. The followers of Arnold of Brescia, a 
 reformer and an opponent of the Papacy in the twelfth 
 century. Arnold was a disciple of Abelard (A.D. 1079- 
 1164). He preached in Brescia against the worldliness 
 of the clergy and excited the people, whereupon he was 
 cited before the Second Lateran Council (A.D. 1139), held 
 under Pope Innocent II., which banished him from Italy. 
 He removed to France, but the hostility of St. Bernard 
 drove him to Ziirich. In Ziirieh he stayed about five 
 years. A rising against the papal government having 
 broken out in Rome in A.D. 1143, Arnold repaired thither 
 and preached against the secular rule of the Papacy and 
 in favour of the revival of the ancient Roman republic. 
 The insurrection continued for some years, and in the 
 course of it Pope Lucius II. was killed (A.D. 1145). 
 At the end of 1154 it was subdued by Pope Adrian IV. 
 
 (Nicholas Breakspear). whereupon Arnold fled to Cam- 
 pania. Soon afterwards (A.D. 11.55) the Emperor 
 Frederick I. had him arrested and handed over to the 
 Pope at Rome, where he was hanged and his body burned. 
 He was afterwards held in great reverence by the 
 Italians. The Amoldists lived on into the thirteenth 
 century. See Adolf Hausrath, Arnold von Brescia, 1891; 
 Die Artioldisten, 1895. 
 
 ARRHABONARII. A name formed from the Greek 
 word arrhabon, " a pledge," and given to a Polish sect 
 or party, because its members held that in the Holy 
 Eucharist the worshipper receives a pledge (not a present 
 gift) of a gift to be enjoyed in heaven. 
 
 ARROWS, MAGIC. In the North American Indian 
 myth of the Red Swan, the hunter O.libwa makes use of 
 three magic arrows. ■ Among the Hindus the god of 
 love (Kama-deva) is represented as having five arrows, 
 the arrow that puts to flight, the arrow that enchants, 
 the arrow that fascinates, the love-kindling arrow, and 
 the love-inflaming arrow. See Monier-Williams. 
 
 ARSUS. An Arabian deity, one of the heavenly twins, 
 the evening star. Adopted by the Palmyrenes. Called 
 also Monimus. 
 
 ARTAIOS. A god, perhaps of agriculture, worshipped 
 by the continental Celts. Inscriptions to him have been 
 found in France. The King Arthur of British legend 
 was probably evolved out of an old hero-god worshipped 
 by British Celts. 
 
 ARTEMIS. The Greek goddess corresponding to the 
 Roman goddess Diana. She is said to have been 
 daughter of Zeus and Leto and twin-sister of Apollo, 
 Delos having been the place of her birth, and she was 
 worshipped in his shrines. Like Apollo, she carried bow 
 and arrows. She was goddess of Light by night, of 
 Nature, and of the Chase. As the latter, her favourite 
 animal was the hind, and cakes made in the shape of 
 this animal were offered at her festival (Elaphebolla). 
 As goddess of Light, she became goddess of the Moon, 
 and in Attica at full moon roiind cakes were offered to 
 her. Reverence was also paid her by girls and boys as 
 the Guardian of youth. There were several Asiatic 
 goddesses who bore the same name. Thus there was a 
 Tauric Artemis, a Scythian deity, to whom human 
 sacrifices were burnt and offered. There was a Perasian 
 Artemis at Castabala in southern Cappadocia, whose 
 priestesses walked over a charcoal fire, this being 
 apparently a substitute for a human sacrifice by burning. 
 A native goddess at Perga in Pamphylia, whose symbol 
 was also a cone, was called Artemis by the Greeks; and 
 the Sarpedonian Artemis of south-eastern Cilieia was 
 probably another native goddess. See O. Seyffert, Diet.; 
 J. G. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, 1906. 
 
 ARTEMONITES. The followers of Artemon or 
 Artemas who taught early in the third century and denied 
 the Divinity of the Second and Third Persons in the 
 Trinity. He held that Christ after his incarnation re- 
 ceived a certain portion of the Divine Nature. We learn 
 from a quotation in the Eccelsiastical History of Euse- 
 bius (v. 28) that the Artemonites tried to find support 
 for their system in geometry and philosophy. " The 
 sacred Scriptures have been boldly perverted by them; the 
 rule of the ancient faith they have set aside, Christ they 
 have renounced, not inquiring what the holy Scriptures 
 declared, but zealously labouring what form of reasoning 
 may be devised to establish their impiety. And should 
 any one present a passage of divine truth, they examined 
 first whether a connected or disjoined form of syllogism 
 can be formed from it. But they abandon the holy 
 Scriptures for the study of geometry ; as being of the 
 earth, they talk of the earth, and know not him that
 
 Articles of the Church of England 
 
 37 
 
 Asceticism 
 
 oometh from above. Euclid, therefore, is industriously 
 measured by them. Aristotle and Theophrastus are also 
 admired, and a.s to Galen, he is even perhaps worshipped 
 by some." 
 
 ARTICLES OP THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 
 Doctrinal statements put forth in the sixteenth century. 
 There were a series of such Articles culminating in The 
 xxxix. Articles, as finally revised and synodically sanc- 
 tioned in 1571, which are now, reasonably interpreted, 
 authoritative for the Church. The earlier series were : 
 (1) The X. Articles of 1536. These rejected or ignored 
 some of the seven Roman Catholic Sacraments, explain- 
 ing only those of Baptism, Penance, and the Sacrament 
 of the Altar. (2) The xiii. Articles of 1538. Influenced 
 by the Confession of Augsburg, they bear the marks of 
 an attempt to come to terms with the Lutherans. The 
 xiii. Articles of 1538 found among Cranmer's papers were 
 not put forth authoritatively. (3) The vi. Articles of 
 1539. These were reactionary, for they favoured Com- 
 munion in one kind, clerical celibacy, vows of chastity, 
 private masses, and auricular confession. (4) The xiii. 
 Articles of 1553. To some extent influenced by the Con- 
 fession of Augsburg, and largely the work of Cranmer 
 and Ridley, these indicate a reassertion of the reforming 
 spirit. (5) The xi. Articles of 1561. Put forth by Arch- 
 bishop Parker on his own authority, these disallow 
 private Masses and worship of images and relies, and re- 
 admit Communion in both kinds. (6) The xxxix. Articles 
 ot 1563. These owed much to Archbishop Parker, and 
 were based upon the xiii. Articles and the Wiirtemburg 
 Confession of 15.52. See Prot. Diet.; B. J. Kidd, The 
 Thirty-nine Articles, 1908. 
 
 ARTICLES OF PRAGUE. The confession of faith of 
 the Hussites. John Zisca issued it in the year 1420. 
 
 ARTIO. Artio was the name of a goddess worshipped 
 by the ancient Celts. The name means " she-bear." On 
 a bronze bas-relief discovered at Muri near Berne the 
 goddess is represented as sitting with a huge bear in 
 front of her. Originally, it would seem, the goddess 
 herself was represented as a bear. Then she assumed 
 a human form, but had a bear as her companion. Reinach 
 points out tliat " the memory of the worship of the bear 
 has persisted in the city of the bear (Berne) throughout 
 the ages." See Anwvl: Reinach, O. 
 
 ARTOTTRITAE. A division of the later Montanists 
 (q.v.) of Phrygia, who partook of bread (Gk. artos) and 
 cheeee (Gk. turos) at the celebration of tie Lord's Supper. 
 The cheese represented the fruit of the flock, as the 
 bread did that of the ground. 
 
 ARUNDHATI MARRIAGE-VOW. A Hindu marriage 
 custom. After the marriage-feast the couple go outside, 
 accompanied by singing women, the guests, and the priest 
 (purohita), and preceded by musicians. The priest calls 
 their attention to a star, Arundhati, the chaste wife of 
 Vasishta Rishi. The couple look at the star with due 
 solemnity and vow to live together like Vasishta and 
 Arundhati. See J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauehamp. 
 
 ARUNGQUILTHA. Also written Aninkulta, a term 
 u.sed among the Arunta of Central Australia to denote a 
 mystic potentiality. The term seems to denote a force, 
 and not a personal being. According to Strehlow, it is 
 "a force which suddenly stops life and brings death to 
 all who come in contact with it." According to Spencer 
 and Gillen, "the name is applied indiscriminately to the 
 evil influence or to the object in which it is, for the time 
 being, or permanently, resident." 
 
 ARURU. The name of a goddess in Babylonian- 
 Assyrian religion. In a Babylonian .story of creation it 
 is said that she, with Marduk, created mankind : " The 
 Goddess Araru created the seed of men together with 
 him." She figures also in the Gilgamesh Epic {q.v.). 
 
 Here she creates a human being out of a lump of clay, 
 having already created Gilgamesh himself. See Morris 
 Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ARUSPICES, THE. Etruscan priests or diviners who 
 predicted the future from an inspection of the entrails 
 of sacrificial victims. They were introduced among the 
 Romans. 
 
 ARVAL BROTHERS. An early Roman brotherhood 
 (Fratres Arvales, " brothers of the fields ") of twelve 
 priests devoted to the worship of a goddess of cornfields, 
 Dea Dia, who seems to have been identical with Acca 
 Larentia. The brothers were life-members, and new 
 brethren were co-opted. Under the Empire even the 
 Emperors belonged to the Brotherhood. At their chief 
 festival (1st, 2nd, and 3rd of Mayj a feature of the cere- 
 monial in the temple of the goddess was a dance with the 
 singing of the " Arval Hymn," which has been preserved 
 and is one of the oldest I^atin texts we possess. Part of 
 the festival took place in a grove in which expiatory 
 sacrifices were made for any damage done to the trees 
 by lightning, etc. See O. Sevffert, Diet. 
 
 ARVAL HYMN. See ARVAL BROTHERS. 
 
 ARVEL BREAD. The name (also written Arvil and 
 Arval) of loaves distributed among the poor at funerals 
 in the North of England. See W. C. Hazlitt. 
 
 ARYA SAMAJ. A modem theistic church or society 
 among the Hindus. It was founded by the reformer 
 Dayananda Sarasvati, and to some extent in opposition 
 to the Brahma Samaj, since Sarasvati still sought 
 authority for his teaching in the hymns of the Veda. 
 According to him, the only true non-human revelation 
 is to be found in the four collections of Vedic hymns, 
 and Agni, Indra, and SGrj'a are merely different names 
 for tie One (Jod. Sir Monier Williams received from 
 him this definition : " Religion is a true and just view, 
 and the abandonment of all prejudice and partiality — 
 that is to say, it is an impartial inquiry into the truth 
 by means of the senses and the two other Instruments of 
 knowledge, reason and revelation." In his will he 
 appointed a Committee which was charged, amongst 
 other things, to educate the poor in the principles of the 
 Arya Samaj. Though Dayananda profess«l a pure 
 monotheism, he added to it the doctrine of metem- 
 psychosis. He denied that anyone, whether Christ or 
 Krishna, could be an incarnation of the Deity, or that 
 God, being absolutely just, could forgive sins. Thus he 
 was equally free in his criticii3m of orthodox Brah- 
 manism, Mohammedani-sm, and Christianity. See Monier- 
 Williams, B.H.: J. C. Oman, OuUs; R. V. Russell. 
 
 ASCENSION-DAY. One of the festivals of the 
 Christian Church, also called Holy Thursday. It is kept 
 on the fortieth day after Eai-rter, and therefore was called 
 Quadragesima, Tessarocostes or Tetracostes. The obser- 
 vance can be traced back to the fourth century, but is 
 clearly of much earlier origin. Bishop Barry says that 
 the comparative neglect of the festival in the Church of 
 England, " which is now being partially corrected," is 
 •' entirely at variance with the intention of the Prayer 
 Book " (Teacher's Prayer Book). In the Church of 
 Rome, " in 1607 the CV>ngregation of Rites ordered that 
 the paschal candle should be lighted when Mass is sung 
 and in vespers, on Easter Sunday, Easter Monday, Easter 
 Tuesday, on Saturday in Low Week, and on Sundays till 
 Ascension Day, when it is extinguished after the (Jospel. 
 The rite symbolises Christ's departure from the 
 Apostles" (W. E. Addis and T. Arnold). 
 
 ASCENSION OF ISAIAH. See APOCALYPTIC 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 ASCETICISM. The cultivation of the spiritual life by 
 means of self-denial and severe religious exercises. 
 Ascetics think to please (Jod by imposing upon themselves
 
 Aschaffenburg, Concordat of 
 
 38 
 
 Ashes 
 
 suffering. A common form of such self-denial and 
 self-torture is abstention from food (or fasting). " The 
 ascetic element was not strongly marked in the Hebrew 
 religion " (S. 6. Smith, Religion in the Making, 1910) ; 
 and asceticism is condemned in the Koran (Siir. Ivii. 27). 
 But, whether officially condemned or approved, the 
 impulse to it has always been very strong (see WJUiam 
 James, Varieties of Religious Experience, 190(5). 
 Christian ascetics have subjected themselves to all kinds 
 of deprivation, living in caves, dens, or pits, going about 
 like animals without clothes, eating rotten corn, etc. 
 Hindus have exposed themselves naked to the violence of 
 the weather, cut themselves with knives, eaten offal, etc. 
 Monier-Williams tells of a Brahman who tortured him- 
 self by lying on a bed of arrows (as a substitute for a 
 "bed of thorns ") " He was seated in the usual way 
 on the ground, but close to him on his right hand was his 
 only bed — an iron framework resting on four short legs, 
 and unprovided with mattress or coverlet, but studded 
 instead with rows of iron spikes, somewhat blunted at 
 the points, while at the pillow-end there was a spiky 
 head-rest." Mohammedans have dragged al)out heavy 
 chains or cannon balls, have lain on iron spikes, etc. 
 Adherents of Zoroastrianism, the ancient Egyptians, and 
 modern Jews have submitted to flagellation. Ancient 
 Mexicans, as a preparation for festivals or as an expia- 
 tion for sin, lacerated themselves and let the blood flow 
 freely. Such beating is also connected with purification. 
 As a preparation for the Jewish fast of atonement, for 
 instance, some of the Jews purify themselves by ablu- 
 tions, while others allow themselves to be scourged. 
 Christians have in all ages suffered pain in order to atone 
 for their sins; and the belief that atonement is possible 
 in this way has prevailed among Mohammedans, 
 adherents of Zoroastrianism, Hindus, and others. The 
 Brahmans believe further that asceticism can produce 
 superhuman power. Another idea which sometimes 
 operates in asceticism is that the suffering will excite 
 the compassion of the deity. A Fijian priest, after 
 praying in vain for rain, is reported to have slept several 
 nights on the top of a bare rock in the hope that the 
 deity would take pity on him and send a shower. Another 
 aim in asceticism is the mortification of the lusts of the 
 flesh to such an extent that the proneness to sin may be 
 reduced, and communion with God be rendered possible. 
 Associated with this is the idea that matter and material 
 things are evil by nature. This influenced the Essenes 
 {q.v.) and the Therapeutae {q.v.) in their renunciation 
 of the life of the world. A strict form of asceticism, 
 apart from a simple monastic life, is foreign to the nature 
 of Buddhism, though there are instances of it among 
 Chinese Buddhists. Some of the latter not only brand 
 themselves, but also burn off their fingers or give their 
 whole body to the flames. Others incarcerate them- 
 selves. Another form of asceticism is celibacy. Cp. 
 MYSTICISM. See E. Westermarck; Monier-Williams, 
 Brahmanism; J. C. Oman, M.A.S.I.; H. Hackmann, 
 Buddhism. 
 
 ASCHAFFBNBURG, CONCORDAT OF. An agree- 
 ment as to Papal rights made in 1448 between the 
 Emperor Ferdinand III. of Grermany and Pope Nicholas 
 V. 
 
 ASCITJ5. A division of the Montanists at the end of 
 the second century A.D. They took their name from 
 the Greek word (askos) for a skin or bottle. Matthew 
 ix. 17 ("Neither do men put new wine into old bottles: 
 else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the 
 bottles perish : but they put new wine Jnto new bottles. 
 and both are preserved.") seems to have suggested to 
 them the observance of festivals in which they danced on 
 wine-skins. Cp. ASCODRUGIT,^. 
 
 ASCLBPIODOTIANS. The followers of Asclepiodotus, 
 a disciple of Theodotus of Byzantium. He iield that 
 Jesus was no more than a man. 
 
 ASCODRUGITAE. A division of Montanists (g.v.) in 
 Galatia at the end of the second century A.D. One of 
 their practices was to put an inflated wine-skin (askos) 
 on an altar and to dance round it. They held Montanus 
 to be the Paraclete, who at times inspired them. The 
 initiated were introduced to mysteries similar to those 
 of the Gnostics (q.v.). 
 
 ASCODRUPIT^, or ASCODRUTI. A division of the 
 Marcosian Gnostics. They disapproved of externalities, 
 outward signs, in religion, including the Sacraments, and 
 attached all importance to purely spiritual knowledge. 
 
 ASCOPHITBS. A sect which appeared about the 
 year A.D. 173 and is referred to by Theodoret (Hwr. fab. 
 i. 10). They objected strongly to the Holy Eucharist, 
 and seem to have refused to recognise the Old Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 ASGARDH. In the cosmogony of the Ancient Teutons, 
 Asgardh was one of the nine worlds. It is said to have 
 been on the Black Sea, and to have been the original 
 home of the god Odhin (WODAN). See P. D. Chantepie 
 de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Ancient Teutons, 1902. 
 
 ASGAYA GIGAGEI. A thunder-god in the mythology 
 of the Cherokee Indians. 
 
 ASHEM-VOHU. An early .sacred formula or creed in 
 the Zoroastrian religion. In the HddOkht Nask of the 
 Zend-avesta we read : " Zarathushtra asked Ahuramazda, 
 O Ahuramazda ! most munificent spirit, creator of the 
 settlements supplied with creatures, righteous one! in 
 whom alone is thy word, the enunciation of all good, of 
 all that is of rightful origin? Ahuramazda answered 
 him. In the Ashem-reciter, O Zarathushtra!" Haug 
 translates the formula : " Righteousness is the best good, 
 a blessing it is; a blessing be to that which is righteous- 
 ness towards Asha-vahishta (perfect righteousness)." 
 See Martin Haug. 
 
 ASHERAH. An object of worship referred to fre- 
 quently in the Old Testament. A plural form, Asherim, 
 also occurs (II. Chronicles xxiv. 18). The Authorised 
 Version wrongly translates " grove " or " groves." The 
 use of Asherim is forbidden in Deuteronomy xvi. 21, and 
 they are to be destroyed (Deut. vii. 5, xii. 3). " They 
 were wooden poles set up like the stone pillars at sanc- 
 tuaries. Their meaning is obscure, scarcely a phallic 
 emblem, possibly a substitute for a tree as a residence 
 of deity, or possibly originally boundary posts, regarded 
 later as sacred. It has also been thought that there was 
 a Canaanite goddess Asherah, equivalent to the great 
 Semitic goddess Astarte, whose symbol or idol was the 
 Asherah post (cp. xv. 16). But on this scholars are not 
 agreed " (E. L. Curtis and A. A. Madsen, The Books of 
 Chronicles, 1910). See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ASHES. The use of ashes in mourning customs is very 
 familiar. The Hebrews and Greeks, for instance, 
 .strewed themselves with ashes or sat in them, as a sign 
 of humiliation. Out of this practice developed the 
 simpler one, that of a mere sprinkling. But the use of 
 ashes as a sign of humiliation is not confined to mourning 
 customs. Monier-Williams describes a Hindu ascetic 
 who sat " perfectly motionless and impassive, with naked 
 body smeared all over with white ashes, matted hair, and 
 the forefinger of the upraised hand pointing to the heaven 
 to which in imagination he seemed to be already trans- 
 porting himself." In other ceremonies the ashes have a 
 different significance : they are sacred. This can easily 
 be understood in cases in which Fire is worshipped. For 
 instance, the devout Brahman performs a religious cere- 
 mony before taking his mid-day meal, and consecrates 
 his food by offering small portions to all the deities who
 
 Ashi 
 
 39 
 
 Assassins, The 
 
 have ministered to his wants, especially to Fire. In the 
 course of this ceremony he takes up ashes from the fire 
 and applies them to his forehead, neck, navel, shoulders, 
 and head. It is natural also that the ashes of an ancestor 
 or a hero should be regarded as sacred. Amongst 
 Chinese Buddhists, for instance, the ashes of a monk -who 
 in his devotion to asceticism has immolated himself are 
 treasured as those of a saint. Other uses of ashes are 
 found amongst the Chinese. When a person dies sud- 
 denly in his sleep, they believe that he has been struck 
 by a malicious agency. They exorcise this evil spirit 
 by a ceremony in which a circle of ashes is made round 
 the dead man. Again, they strew ashes in the bottom of 
 the coffin of a deceased person. This is done by tie 
 sons, but they are unable to provide the ashes them- 
 selves because no fire is allowed in the dwelling of the 
 dead person for some days after the decease. When 
 therefore the corpse has been washed, they go round, 
 dressed in sackcloth, to their neighbours to collect ashes. 
 This is called the " begging for ashes." It is the custom 
 to offer gifts for the dead. These often take the form 
 of paper money, which is burned and placed in a paper 
 wrapper in the coffin. See Monier-Williams, Brah- 
 manism; 3. 3. M. de Groot, R.S.C., 1892, etc.: and, for a 
 number of other customs, Maurice Canney in Hastings' 
 E.R.E. 
 
 ASHI. The name of a female angel in the 
 Zoroastrian religion. The full form of the name is 
 Ashish vanuhi (modernised into Ashishang), and means 
 " the good truth." She is referred to as a daughter of 
 Ahuramazda and a sister of the Ameshaspentas, as the 
 inspirer of prophets and the giver of wealth. See Martin 
 Haug. 
 
 ASHKENAZIM. A mediaeval Jewish name for the 
 Jews of German- and Slavonic-speaking countries, as dis- 
 tinguished from the Spanish and Portuguese Jews who 
 were called Sefardim. See W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. 
 Box. 
 
 ASHTAROTH. See ASTARTB. 
 
 ASHTA-TOGA. A form of penance among the Hindus 
 for obtaining forgiveness of sins. After a three days' 
 fast the penitent goes to a temple of Siva, a cemetery, or 
 a special kind of tree. Here he goes through a ceremony 
 and paints a small circular mark (tilaka) on his forehead. 
 Then he clears a clean space on the ground and .stands 
 on his head on it with his feet in the air. He performs 
 six times, while in this position, a ceremony of inhaling 
 and exhaling through the nostrils, thereby expelling from 
 the body a nerve in which resides the Man of Sin. When 
 the nerve has been expelled, he washes it and makes an 
 offering to it. Then, by inhalation, he restores it to its 
 original place. See J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 ASHTORETH. The name given in the Old Testament 
 to a goddess of the Canaanites and Phoenicians (I. 
 Kings xi. 5; II. Kings xxiii. 13). The correct form of 
 the name is ' Ashtart, corresponding to the Greek Astarte 
 [g.v.). The plural of the Hebrew, 'Ashtdroth, is used 
 in a general sense of heathen goddesses. In Deuteronomy 
 vii. 13 occurs the peculiar expression " the ' Ashtoreths 
 of thy flock," which, it has been suggested " appears to 
 show that this deity, under one of her types, had the 
 form of a sheep " (S. R. Driver, Deuteronomy, 1895). See 
 Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ASHUKU. One of the five celestial Buddhas in 
 Japanese Buddhism. The Indian name is Aksobya. See 
 H. Hackmann. 
 
 ASHUR. An Assyrian deity. The name means the "good 
 one." Belit (q.v.) is sometimes represented as his consort. 
 Ashur came to be placed at the head of the Assyrian 
 pantheon. Great gods are associated with him, but he 
 towers high above them all. He was first the patron 
 
 god of the city of Ashur, to which he gave his name, 
 and then extended his sway over the whole of Assyria. 
 Wherever the kings fixed their official residence, the place 
 became a centre for his worship. He had as his chief 
 symbol a standard which could be carried into battle or 
 moved about from place to place. It is possible that he 
 was originally a solar deity. This is perhaps suggested 
 by the standard which "consisted of a pole surrounded 
 by a disc enclosed within two wings, while above the 
 disc stood the figure of a warrior in the act of shooting 
 an arrow " (Jastrow). Samsi-Ramman (c. 1850 B.C.) in 
 an inscription describes himself as •' the builder of the 
 temple of Ashur." The Assyrian rulers, since they owed 
 everything to this all-powerful god, the " king of gods " 
 or " the guide of the gods," described themselves poeti- 
 cally as his offspring. Among other things, they owed 
 to him their successes in war, and so in course of time 
 he became purely a god of war. See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rel. 
 
 ASH-WEDNESDAY. The name of the first day of 
 Lent, the Christian penitential season which now lasts 
 forty days. In early times it lasted thirty-six days, or 
 six weeks, excluding Sundays. Addis and Arnold point 
 out that this was nearly a tenth part of the year, so that 
 " Christians were tiought to render a penitential tithe 
 of their lives to God." At the end of the fifth and in the 
 sixth century the season extended from the first Sunday 
 in Lent to Easter Day. Subsequently Ash Wednesday 
 and the three following days were added. There is 
 evidence that this must have happened before A.D. 714. 
 The number of fast days then became forty, corresponding 
 to the number of days Jesus is said to have fasted in the 
 wilderness. The day was called " Ash Wednesday," 
 " Caput jejunii," or " Dies Cinerum," because on the 
 first day of Lent, penitents came to the church door 
 clothed In sackcloth, to have penances imposed upon 
 them. They then had to appear before the Bishop, and 
 ashes were sprinkled on their heads. It became 
 customary for the friends of the penitents to accompany 
 them and to receive the ashes as well. Consequently in 
 course of time the whole congregation came to share in 
 this form of the penance. See Cath. met.; Prot. Diet. 
 
 ASMODEUS. An evil demon mentioned in the Book 
 of Tobit (iii. 8), one of the apocryphal books of the 
 Old Testament. The demon killed the seven husbands 
 of Sara, daughter of Raguel, at Rages. Asmodeus may 
 be the Aeshma Daeva (g.v.) of the ancient Persian 
 religion. 
 
 ASPERGES. The first word of Psalm li., 7, in the 
 Latin Version (in English " sprinkle [me] "). In the 
 Roman Catholic Church it is used as a designation of 
 the practice of sprinkling the altar, clergy, and people 
 with holy water before the celebration of High Mass. 
 See Cath. Diet. 
 
 ASPERSION. Literally " sprinkling." A designation 
 of that mode of baptism (g.v.) in which an infant is 
 sprinkled with water instead of being dipped in water 
 or having water poured upon it. 
 
 ASSASSINS. In a passage in the New Testament 
 (Acts xxi. 38) " Assassins " is given in the Revised 
 Version as a rendering of the Greek word sikarioi. The 
 Authorised Version translates " murderers." Sikarioi is 
 formed from the Latin sica, a short sword which " cut- 
 throats " (Grimm-Thayer, Lexieon, 1896) carried under 
 their clothing (ep. Josephus, Wars ii 17, 6; Antiguities 
 XX. 8, 10). The term seems to have been applied to 
 some of the Jewish Zealots (g.v.). 
 
 ASSASSINS, THE. A sect which arose in Persia after 
 the death of al-Mustan.sir (A.D. 1094), the supreme head 
 of the Isma'ilis (g.v.), through the rivalry of his two 
 sons, Musta'li and Nazir. Al-Mustan.sir is said to have 
 
 i
 
 Assembly Catechism 
 
 40 
 
 Astrology 
 
 been asked by Hasan-i-Sabbah in whose name the 
 Isma'ili propaganda should be conducted after his 
 death, and to have received the reply, " In the name 
 of my elder son, Nizar." He therefore carried on his 
 propaganda in favour of this son, and his followers 
 became known as " Assassins." The Crusaders called 
 them Assassinl, Assessini, Assissini, or Heissessini. It 
 was once thought that the name was a corruption of 
 Hasaniyyln, " followers of Hasan." Sylvestre de Sacy, 
 however, has shown tiat the Greek chroniclers and 
 Eabbi Benjamin of Tudela have preserved a form of 
 the name (Xao-itrioi; Hashishni) more nearly resembling 
 the original. Benjamin of Tudela's designation, 
 Hashishin represents, it is thought, the Arabic 
 Hashishiyyun, a name which would have been given to 
 the sect " because of the use which they made of the 
 drug Hashish, otherwise known to us as ' Indian hemp.' " 
 At this period the properties of the drug seem to have 
 been known to only a few people in Persia. Its use by 
 the Assassins seems to have been confined to one of the 
 Degrees or Grades of Initiation Into which the Order 
 was divided. The head of the order was called the 
 Chief-Propagandist or Grand Master (knovra in popular 
 speech as " the Mountain Chief "). Immediately under 
 him were the Grand Priors or Superior Propagandists. 
 Then came the ordinary propagandists. The lower 
 grades who received a lesser and varying kind of initia- 
 tion, comprised Companions, Adherents, and Self-devoted 
 Ones. The latter were the " ministers of vengeance of 
 the Order " (the " Destroying Angels "), and were 
 trained not only in the use of arms, but sometimes also 
 in the use of foreign languages. To die on one of the 
 Grand Master's errands of assassination was considei-ed 
 by them an honour and a sure way to future happiness. 
 See E. G. Browne, Literary Hist, of Persia, 1906. 
 
 ASSEMBLY CATECHISM. A catechism or confession 
 compiled by the Assembly of Divines in 1648 
 
 ASSEMBLY, GENERAL. The supreme ecclesiastical 
 court of the Presbyterians in Scotland, Ireland, and the 
 United States. In the Presbyterian State Church of 
 Scotland, the General Assembly includes clerical and 
 lay representatives from all the presbyteries, as well as 
 representatives from the Universities and the royal 
 burghs. At the annual meeting, which takes place at 
 Edinburgh in May and is presided over by a Moderator, 
 who is now always a clergyman, the King is represented 
 by the Lord High Commissioner. The General Assem- 
 blies of the Free Church of Scotland and of the Pres- 
 byterian Church of Ireland are constituted in a similar 
 way, but of course there is no royal commissioner.' 
 
 ASSEMBLY OP DIVINES. See WESTMINSTER 
 ASSEMBLY. 
 
 ASSERTION OF THE SEVEN SACRAMENTS. A 
 reply to Luther written by King Henry VIII. Pope Leo 
 X. on account of this book gave him the title of De- 
 fender of the Faith. 
 ASSOCIATE SYNOD. See BURGHERS. 
 ASSOCIATE PRESBYTERY. See ANTI-BURGHERS. 
 ASSUMPTION OP THE BLESSED VIRGIN. A 
 Christian festival which is said to have been observed 
 In the East and West before the sixth century. It is 
 not observed in the Church of England, but in the Church 
 of Rome is celebrated on the fifteenth of Augiist. It is 
 called in Greek koimesis or metastasis; and in Latin 
 dormitio, pausatio, transitus, or assumptio. The festival 
 commemorates the taking up of Mary's body into heaven. 
 There was a Gnostic or Collyridian tradition (see 
 COLLYRIDIANS) that Michael brought back the soul 
 of the Virgin Mary from Paradise to be reunited to her 
 body, which was then carried by angels to heaven. See 
 Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 ASSUMPTION OP MOSES. See APOCALYPTIC 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 ASSURANCE, THE. An oath which all persons who 
 held positions of trust in Scotland were required to take 
 on the accession of William III. Declaration had to be 
 made that William was King de jure as well as de 
 facto. The Episcopalian clergy who took the oath were 
 allowed to retain possession of their benefices. 
 
 ASSURITANS. A sect, mentioned by St. Augustine, 
 which arose in the time of Pope Liberius (c. A.D. 358). 
 It was condemned by the Council of Bagai or Vaga in 
 Numidia (A.D. 394). 
 
 ASTARTB. A goddess worshipped by the Canaanites 
 and Phoenicians. The name appears in the Old Testa- 
 ment (I Kings xi. 5) as Ashtoreth, and a plural of this 
 word (Ashtaruth) denotes heathen goddesses in general 
 (Judges ii. 13, etc.). Other forms of tlie name are : 
 ' Ashtart (Phoenicia), Ishtar (Babylonia and Assyria), 
 ' Athtar (South Arabia), ' Astar (Abyssinia), ' Atar or 
 ' Athar (Syria). Astarte was worshipped under ditlerent 
 aspects in difterent places. It is clear that she played 
 an Important r61e as a goddess of fertility and genera- 
 tion. There was a great sanctuary of Astarte at Kyblus, 
 where her worship was associated with that of Adonis 
 (q.v.), and another with a grove at Aphaca in Syria. 
 Female prostitution was a prominent feature in her 
 worship, as in that of Aphrodite iq.v.) to whom she 
 corresponds. See Encycl. Bibl.; 3. G. Prazer, Adonis 
 Attis Osiris, 1906. 
 
 ASTATHIANS. A Greek designation corresponding to 
 the Latin " Instabiles." The sect arose in Phrygia In 
 the ninth century under the leadership of one Surgius, 
 and was suppressed by the Emperor Michael Rhangabes 
 (A.D. 811-813). The Astathians were perhaps a viander- 
 ing body like the " Bohemians " and " Egyptians " of 
 Prance In the Middle Ages. 
 
 ASTRJiIA. Literally the " star-maiden." Daughter of 
 Astraeus and Eos, or of Zeus and Themis. In the 
 golden age she lived on earth as a goddess. She was 
 the last of the gods to retire to the sky in the brazen 
 age. She is represented in the Zodiac by the constellation 
 Virgo. 
 
 ASTRAL BODY. An expression used in Spiritualism. 
 It is claimed that " the power resides in the subjective 
 mind of man to create phantasms percejitiple to the 
 objective senses of others." Some persons, it would 
 seem, can not only create such phantasms, but also give 
 them a certain amount of intelligence and power. An 
 image can be thus created in sleep and even projected 
 to a great distance, becoming visible and sometimes even 
 tangible. The phenomenon is called by Orientalists the 
 " projection of the astral body." See T. .1. Hudson. 
 
 ASTRAL SPIRITS. Among the Greeks and Romans 
 the heavenly bodies were supposed to have each a spirit 
 or soul. In the Middle Ages deceased persons or fallen 
 angels were sometimes thought of as astral spirits. 
 
 ASTROLOGY. The study of the stars. Astrology 
 has played an important part in religion and magic as 
 one of the occult sciences. It had a strong hold over 
 the Babylonians. Babylonian astrologers carefully 
 studied the stars and planets, and were enabled thereby 
 — or so it was thought — to answer all kinds of questions 
 about auspicious days, etc. Cuneiform texts show that 
 there was an important official called the " court as- 
 trologer." The Hebrew writings have presen'ed few 
 traces of the practice of the art, but this is no doubt 
 due to the work of editors. On the other hand, it is 
 forbidden by Mohammed, except as a help to travellers 
 on the sea or through forests. Ancient and m-diaeval 
 astrologers undertook to calculate nativities, and to 
 foretell a child's future from a study of the stars at
 
 Asura 
 
 41 
 
 Athanasian Creed 
 
 the time of its birth. Mediaeval astrology also tells of 
 star-souls and star-angels. The Hindus have family 
 astrologers who draw up a horoscope or birth-record 
 '■ of the exact time of the child's nativity, the constel- 
 lation under which it was born, with a prophecy of the 
 duration of its life, and the circumstances, good or evil, 
 of its probable career " (Monier-Williams). In the vil- 
 lages the Brahman priest acts as astrologer, and the 
 peasants consult him about every conceivable matter — 
 about sowing and reaping, sneezing, the cries of animals, 
 etc. The Chinese astrologers combine with the study of 
 astrology the study of geomancy, in the belief that hills, 
 mountains, etc., powerfully influence by their outlines 
 the destiny of man. They have a Bureau of Astrology 
 which selects auspicious days for important events, and 
 to this are attached eighteen geomancers. See T. P. 
 Hughes, 1S85; Monier-Williams, Brahmanism; J. J. M. 
 de Groot. R.S.C.; Morris .Tastrow, Rel. of Babylonia and 
 Assyria, 1898. 
 
 ASURA. A term in Indian religion. At first it meant 
 the great and good spirit. The term is applied to Varuna 
 (Q.v.). but not to Varuna alone. Later it came to 
 designate an evil spirit, or demon. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 ASVA';EDHA. The name of a horse-sacrifice among 
 the Brahmans. It was the principal animal sacrifice, 
 and there are special hymns for the occasion in the 
 Rig-veda. " A horse was selected by a prince who 
 aimed at supremacy and was let loose to roam at large 
 for a year. Those who disputed his claim tried to 
 capture the roving horse and to hold it against the 
 original owner and all comers. If no one succeeded, 
 the horse was brought back and sacrificed with long 
 ceremonies, and the prince who held it was acknowledged 
 as paramount sovereign." (Mouier- Williams). 
 
 ASWATTA. A fig-tree regarded with great awe by 
 the Hindiis. Its large thin leaves, fanned by the wind, 
 produce a refreshing coolness so that health-giving 
 prorierties have been attributed to the tree. It is ren- 
 dered sacred by the tradition that Vishnu (q.v.) was 
 bom under It. The tree even becomes an embodiment 
 of Vlshn-',. It may not be cut down, its branches may 
 not be lopped off. nor may its leaves be plucked (except 
 In worship). The tree is sometimes ceremonially con- 
 secrated at great cost as the abode or embodiment of 
 Vishnu. See J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 ASYLUM. A sanctuary or sacred spot. " within whose 
 precincts those who take refuge may not be harmed 
 without sacrilege " (" Encyclopaedia Bibllca "). Among 
 the Hfbrpws the asvlum was at first the altar (I. Kings 
 1. 50-5.S: I. Kings ii. 28-.'?4). The Greeks fled to sanc- 
 tuaries. V.'e read in the Apocrypha of the Jewish high- 
 priest Onlas taking refuge in the famous sanctuary of 
 Apollo and Artemis at Daphne near Antioch (11. Mac- 
 cabees iv. 33 ff). The Romans adopted the practice, 
 and took refuge in sacred places (temples). Among the 
 Central Australian Arunta a man, and even an animal, 
 is safe in the immediate neighbourhood of an 
 ertnatiiluntja. the sacred spot in a local totem centre. 
 In T'poln fSamoan Islands) the asylum was found to 
 be a sacred tree. At Maiva (South Eastern part of 
 New Guinea), the temple (dubu) serves as an asylum. 
 Amon? the Gallas it is a hut near the burial-place of 
 the king: in Fetu on the Gold Coast it Is the hut of 
 the high-priest. In the Caucasus criminals, and even 
 animals, take refuge in sacred groves. Among the 
 Hebrews, when the old holy places were abolished, " six 
 cities of refuge " Core miklat) were appointed as 
 asylums 'Deuteronomy iv. 41-43; xix. 2 /.. 8-10). Amongst 
 other r)eoples cities or villages have sen-ed the same 
 purpose. In the island of Hawaii there were cities of 
 refuge for non-combatants during a war. Among North 
 
 American tribes the place of refuge is sometimes a whole 
 village, sometimes a place of worship. Among the 
 Soutb-Central African Barotse it is a city of refuge 
 or the tomb of a chief. Dr. Wescermarck thinks that 
 the right of sanctuary is explained, partly by the fear 
 of shedding blood and disturbing the peace in a holy 
 place, partly by the idea that a criminal, unless he is 
 made friendly, might bring a curse on the deity. Chris- 
 tian churches became places of refuge, and long remained 
 so; but something had to be done to check abuses. 
 Consequently, " by the legislation of Justinian those 
 guilty of certain specified crimes were to find no right 
 of asylum in the churches " (Addis and Arnold). See 
 E. Westermarck, vol. ii., 1908; Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ATABEI. An earth-goddess worshipped in the West 
 Indies (Antilles). 
 
 ATAGO. A Shinto god of Japan. 
 
 ATAGUCHU. The creative deity in the mythology 
 of the Peruvians. 
 
 ATAHENTSIO. The name given to the moon by the 
 Hurons. They regarded tlie moon as maker of the 
 earth and man. Among the Northern Indians Atahentsic 
 is the Death-goddess. 
 
 ATAHOCAN. The supreme deity of the Algonquin 
 Indians. When in the seventeenth century they heard 
 of the white man's Creator of heaven and earth, they 
 identified him with Atahocan. It has been suggested 
 that louskeha, the Sun, of the Hurons is identical with 
 Atahocan. 
 
 ATARGATIS. A Syrian goddess. In one of the 
 Apocrypha (q.v.) of the Old Testament (II. Maccabees 
 12, 26) we read that when Judas Maccabaeus defeated 
 the Ammonites and Arabians, they took refuge in the 
 Temple of Atargatis. Her worship is associated with 
 that of sacred waters. At Ascalon there was a pool 
 near her temple in which were sacred fish. One legend 
 relates that she and her son plunged Into the water 
 and were changed into flsh. Another represents that 
 she " was bom of an egg which the sacred fishes found 
 in the Euphrates and pushed ashore " (Robertson 
 Smithy Compare further ' ATHEH; and see W. Robert- 
 son Smith, iS.fe'.; Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 ATAVISM. A scientific term denoting the reversion 
 of an animal to its ancestral type. To the mind of 
 primitive folk the phenomenon is explained by the 
 doctrine of Transmigration of Souls (q.v.). See also 
 METEMPSYCHOSIS. 
 
 ATEN. The name of a deity in the old Egyptian 
 religion. Aten was the solar disc, and was regarded as 
 a form in which Ra manifested himself. In the 
 eighteenth dynasty Amenhotep IV. wished to raise the 
 cult of the gods of Heliopolis above that of all the other 
 gods. He assigned the first place to Aten, who became 
 practically his sole god. He also changed his own name 
 to Khuen-aten (" the splendour of the solar disc "). 
 Naville tbinks he was incensed against the college of 
 the priests attached to the service of Amon at Thebes. 
 Aten is always depicted as the disc of the sun with rays. 
 See Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith, 1909. 
 
 ATHANASIAN CREED. One of the creeds or con- 
 fessions of the Christian Church. It is also called 
 " Quieunque vult " from its first words. It is printed 
 in the Roman Catholic breviary and in the Book of 
 Common Prayer of the Church of England. The latter 
 speaks of it as " commonly called the creed of St. 
 Athanasius." It Is now widely recognised that it can 
 be so called not as having been written by Athanasius, 
 but at most merely as embodying his teaching. The 
 style is Latin rather than Greek. The creed is not 
 mentioned by Cyril of Alexandria, Pope I.;eo, the Council 
 of Ephesus, or the Council of Chalcedon; and it is
 
 Athanasians 
 
 42 
 
 Atonement, The 
 
 wanting in nearly all the MSS. of Athanasius' works. 
 It has been suggested that it may have been composed 
 by Bishop Vigilius of Thapsus (end of fifth century, 
 A.D.), since for literary purposes he sometimes assumed 
 the name of Athanasius. Other authors who have been 
 suggested are : Victrieius, Bishop of Rouen (c. A.D. 400) ; 
 Hilary, Abbot of Lerins, afterwards Bishop of Aries 
 (ob. A.D. 449); St. Vincent, a Galilean monk (earlier 
 than A.D. 450) ; Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers 
 (sixth century). A number of modem scholars have 
 contended however that the creed was not the work of 
 a single author and did not assume its present form 
 until the ninth century. The creed has given rise to 
 much controversy, many members of the Church of 
 England objecting to its use on account of the damnatory 
 clauses, or because it is not adapted to liturgical use. 
 It is used in the French Protestant Church, but only 
 as a hymn in the Church of Ireland. In the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church of the United States it is not recog- 
 nised in the Articles or Prayer Book. See Prot. Diet..; 
 Oath. Diet. 
 
 ATHANASIANS. Followers of Athanasius the Great 
 (c. 295-373). See ARIANISM. 
 
 ATHANASIUS CONTRA MUNDUM. See ARIANISM. 
 
 'ATHAR. A Syrian nature-goddess, equivalent to 
 the Phoenician Astarte. 
 
 ATHARVA-VBDA. One of the four Vedas in Indian 
 literature, the other three being the Rig-Veda, the Sdma- 
 Veda, and the Yajur-Veda. Each Veda has three sub- 
 divisions, the Samhitd, Brahmana, and Stitra (qq.v.). 
 The Atharva is the latest collection made from the first 
 collection, the Rig-veda. The text and formulae of the 
 Atharva-veda came to be used and are still used as 
 charms and spells " to prevent or to cure diseases, to 
 drive away demons, to frustrate sorcerers and enemies, 
 to ensure victory in battle, to promote virility, to obtain 
 a husband or wife, to arouse the passionate love of a 
 man or a woman, to guarantee safety at an assignation, 
 to allay jealousy, to stimulate the growth of the hair, 
 and to secure a hundred other advantages both trivial 
 and important" (Oman). See Monier-Williams; J. C. 
 Oman, " Brahmans." 
 
 'ATHEH. A goddess worshipped at Tarsus as a 
 partner of Baal (q.v.). The name occurs in combination 
 with another in a Palmyrene inscription ('Athar-'atheh), 
 the compound being apparently the equivalent of the 
 Syrian Atargatis (q.w). On coins 'Atheh is represented 
 seated on a lion. At Hierapolls-Bambyce near the 
 Euphrates the image of Atargatis was seated on a lion 
 while it was worshipped. Hommel thinks that the East 
 of Asia Minor was tie oldest centre of 'Atheh's worship, 
 and that it spread to Western Asia and North Syria. 
 See Encj/cl. Bibl. under "Atargatis"; J. G. Frazer, 
 Adonis Attis Osiris, 1906. 
 
 ATHEIST. One who does not believe in the existence 
 of God. The Greeks called the early Christians "atheists" 
 because they did not believe in the classic gods. 
 
 ATHENE. One of the three principal Greek deities. 
 Also called Pallas Athene. 
 
 ATHINGANI. The name of a division of the Pauli- 
 cians {c/.v.) in Asia Minor. They were called " At- 
 tingians " or " Separates " in the days of the Empress 
 Irene (A.D. 797-802) because they separated themselves 
 from the dominant party, and refused to worship images, 
 the cross, and relics. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 'ATHTAR. A South Arabian god. The name cor- 
 responds to the Babylonian Ishtar (q.v.), and the 
 Phoenician Astarte iq.v.), but in South Arribia the deity 
 appears as masculine. 'Athtar is one o, the gods of 
 irrigation. Stags and gazelles seam to 1 ive been sacred 
 to him. See W. R. Smith, R.S. 
 
 ATIUS TIRAWA. The chief deity, a creator-god, in 
 the mythology of the Pawnees. 
 
 ATMA. A term used in Theosophy (q.v.). It is the 
 name given to the Spirit in man. The vehicle of the 
 Spirit is called Buddhi, the Spiritual Soul. Mrs. Besant 
 explains that Atma and Buddhi " are the reflexions in 
 man of the highest planes in the universe." See Annie 
 Besant, " Theosophy," in R.H.W. 
 
 aTMAN. a common term in Br.ahmanism. Atman is 
 spirit. It then l)ecomes the Spirit, that mysterious 
 Power which vivifies the body and is the Breath of 
 Life, that divine afllatus which fills and inspires the 
 sacred writers, that force which manifests itself in men, 
 gods, and all material things, the primal and eternal 
 essence, the Universal Soul. See Monier-Williams. 
 
 ATMARAM. Soul of Rama (King of Ayodhia, a great 
 incarnation of Vishnu), one of the names of the Hindu 
 god Rama. 
 
 ATMIYA SABHA. Literally " Spiritual Society," a 
 modem Hindu sect or church founded in 1816 by the 
 reformer, Rammohun Roy (1772-183."?). It met with 
 great opposition from the orthodox priests which it did 
 not survive, but it prepared tbe way for the foundation 
 of a similar movement, the Brahma Samaj (q.v.). 
 
 ATOMS. The atomic theory of the universe was 
 originat«d by Democritus, the Greek philosopher, who 
 was bom at Abdera In Thrace about 460 B.C. Demo- 
 critus was a disciple of Leuclppus. whose teaching he 
 developed. " According to this theory there are in the 
 universe two fundamental principles, the Full and the 
 Void. The Full is formed by the atoms, which are 
 primitive bodies of like quality but different form, in- 
 numerable, indivisible, indestructible. Falling for ever 
 through the infinite void, the large and heavier atoms 
 overtake and strike upon the smaller ones, and the 
 oblique and circular motions thence arising are the be- 
 ginning of the formation of the world. The difference 
 of things arises from the fact that atoms differ in 
 number, size, form and arrangement. The soul consists 
 of smooth round atoms resembling those of fire; these 
 are the nimblest, and in their motion, penetrating the 
 whole body, produce the phenomena of life. The im- 
 pressions on the senses arise from the effect produced 
 in our senses by the fine atoms which detach themselves 
 from the surface of things. Change is in all cases 
 nothing but the union or separation of atoms " (O. Sey- 
 ffert. Diet., s.v. " Democritus"). Epicurus ih. ."42 B.C.) 
 accepted the atomic theory, but in his teaching it as- 
 sumed, in several respects, a different form. He gave 
 it a more ethical and religious bearing. " It seemed to 
 him to be most consonant with the theory of pleasure 
 as the summum ionum, which was the ruling feature 
 in Epicurus' philosophy, and it struck at the root of 
 religious superstition by excluding the gods from ar- 
 bitrary and capricious interference with the government 
 of the world " (W. L. Davidson, The l^toie Creed, 1907). 
 According to Epicurus, however, the soul is composed 
 of no less than four elements — heat, air, vapour, and 
 another unnamed ; and while Democritus found no place 
 for free will, Epicurus regarded it as a fact of ex- 
 perience, and attached great importance to it as a 
 fundamental principle in ethics. 
 
 ATONEMENT. The act or practice of atoning or 
 making expiation. See ATONEMENT, THE. The idea 
 of atonement is dealt with further under ASCETICISM 
 and SACRIFICE. 
 
 ATONEMENT, THE. " The Atonement " is the 
 designation of one of the chief doctrines of the Chris- 
 tian religion. To atone means in English to give satis- 
 faction, to set at one, to reconcile. The corresponding 
 word in Hebrew is used in the sense of " to cover."
 
 Atonement, The 
 
 43 
 
 Atonement, Day of 
 
 In Genesis xxxil. 20 Jacob says of Esau : " I will cover 
 his face (Authorised Version ' appease him ') with the 
 present that goeth before me, and afterward I will see 
 his face; perad venture he will accept me (Hebrew ' my 
 face ')." But there is reason for thinking that prim- 
 arily the word meant " to wipe out." The word used 
 In the New Testament (katallaye) and translated "atone- 
 ment" in the Authorised Version (Rom. v. 11) means 
 really " reconciliation " (so the Revised Version). In 
 the ritual religion of the Old Testament guilt is re- 
 moved by the offering of sacrifice. But an enlightened 
 psalmist exclaims : " The sacrifices of God are a brolien 
 spirit; a broken and a contrite heart, O God, thou wilt 
 not despise." Christian theories of the Atonement may 
 be said to have arisen in answer to the question : " Why 
 was Jesus destined to suffer a cruel death upon the 
 cross? " The sudden termination of Jesus' career in 
 a manner that seemed humiliating came as a shock and 
 surprise to his disciples and followers. The ApostJe 
 Paul is the first to offer an explanation. In Romans 
 ill. 25 we are told that God set forth (or purposed) 
 Jesus " to be a propitiation, through faith in his blood, 
 to shew his righteousness, because of the passing over 
 of the sins done aforetime, in the forbearance of God." 
 In Rom. iv. 25 it is said that Jesus " was delivered up 
 for our trespasses, and was raised for our justification " 
 (cp. viii. 3; II. Corinthians v. 21); in Rom. v. 10 and 11 
 that " if, while we were enemies, we were reconciled 
 to God through the death of his Son, much more, being 
 reconciled, shall we be saved by his life, and not only 
 so, but we also rejoice in God through our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, through whom we have now received the recon- 
 ciliation " (cp. II. Corinthians v. 19). In Rom. v. 19 
 we read : " For as through the one man's disobedience 
 the many were made sinners, even so through the 
 obedience of the one shall the many be made righteous " 
 (cp. X. 4; Galatians Iv. 4). The conception of another 
 writer is seen in St. John i. 29, " Behold, the Lamb of 
 God, which taketh away the sin of the world," and x. 
 11, " I am the good shepherd, the good shepherd layeth 
 down his life for the sheep " (cp. Rom. v. 6-8; I. Peter 
 ill. 18). It is clear from such passages as these that 
 the death of Christ was already explained in several 
 ways. It was connected with the Old Testament idea 
 of the fall of man and the atoning (appeasing) power 
 of sacrifice, and with the prophetic and evangelic beUef 
 that God is propitiated by a life of penitence, obedience, 
 and self-sacrifice. These ideas were afterwards de- 
 veloped in various ways. Athanasius (295-373), the 
 " Father of Orthodoxy," explains that Jesus by paying 
 the penalty incurred by all men satisfied God and de- 
 livered mankind from death. He offered up his sacrifice 
 on behalf of all, " yielding his Temple to death in the 
 stead of all, in order firstly to make men qnit and free 
 of their old trespass, and further to show himself more 
 powerful even than death, displaying his own body in- 
 corruptible, as first-fruits of the resurrection of all " 
 (De Incarnatione, xx., translated by Archibald Robert- 
 son). As to the cross, " if he came himself to bear the 
 curse laid upon us, how else could he have ' become a 
 curse,' save he received the death set for a curse? and 
 that is the Cross. For this is exactly what is written : 
 ' Cursed is he that hangeth on a tree ' " (xxv.). Again, 
 " as death must needs come to pass, he did not himself 
 take, but received at others' hands, the occasion of per- 
 fecting his sacrifice. Since it was not fit, either, that 
 the Lord should fall .sick, who healed the diseases of 
 others: nor again was it right for that body to lose its 
 strength, in which he gives strength to the weaknesses of 
 others also " (xxi.). Anselm (1033-1109), however, the 
 founder of Scholastic Theology, is considered to have 
 
 defined the doctrine more clearly and consistently (Our 
 Deus Homo). " In various ways Anselm seeks to illus- 
 trate and establish the truth of the objective necessity 
 of the Atonement. The necessity is not found in the 
 claims of Satan, nor in the character of man, but in the 
 character of God and the claims of righteousness. But 
 though there was a moral necessity for the death of 
 Christ, His sufferings and death were perfectly voluntary. 
 This is vindicated with great clearness against objections. 
 And as it is shown that neither a sinless man nor an 
 angel could have given the satisfaction which justice 
 required, the necessity for a Redeemer who was both 
 God and man is proved, and the connection is established 
 between the two cardinal doctrines of the Deity of 
 Christ and His atonement for sin. The voluntary death 
 of such a person must have an incomparable value, and 
 may well be accepted by God as a reason for righteously 
 remitting the sins of even the vilest of men. It thus 
 illustrates the love of the Father as well as of the Son. 
 Mercy triumphs over guilt, while the claims of Justice 
 are fully met " (E. S. Prout, Introduction to Cnr Deus 
 Homol). The idea of a vicarious satisfaction is now 
 generally accepted by orthodox Churchmen, and the 
 atonement is regarded as complete and sufficient for all 
 men. It may be said that on the whole the main stress 
 is laid now on Jesus' self-sacrificing ol)edienoe unto death. 
 Jesus effected the reconciliation not so much by his death 
 as by his life. The " Mystical " theory also refuses to 
 lay too much stress on his death. According to this 
 Jesus made it possible for man and God to be at-one by 
 his incarnation. Before this man could not enter into 
 intimate relations with (Sod. See Prot. Diet.; Cath. 
 Diet.; Chambers' Encycl.; Brockhaus; A. Kitschl, Die 
 christUche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und der 
 Versohnung, 3 vols., 3rd ed. 1888-89, 4th ed. of vol. iii. 
 1895. 
 
 ATONEMENT, DAY OF. A Jewish festival, called in 
 the Talmud " the great day," " the day," or " the great 
 fast." The chapter in the Old Testament (Leviticus 
 xvi.) which treats of its observance is composite, and 
 there is no evidence that such a day was observed before 
 the Exile. But In course of time it became the most 
 important day In the ecclesiastical year. The Day of 
 Atonement was instituted " that the Israelites might 
 annually make a complete atonement for all sin, and that 
 the sanctuary might be cleansed (Lev. xvi. 33). The 
 leading idea of the entire Priestly Law found here its 
 best expression " (I. Benzinger). Prof. Cheyne points 
 out that the ritual of New Year's Day {Rosh hash- 
 Shanah) had the same propitiatory character. It waa 
 believed " that the fate of man was decreed on New 
 Year's Day (the festival of Creation), and that on the 
 Day of Atonement the decree was ' sealed.' No wonder 
 that the nine days which intervened between the first 
 day of the seventh month (New Year's Day) and the 
 tenth (the Day of Atonement) were regarded by the Jews 
 as penitential days." On this day " the High Priest 
 does not wear his gorgeous official dress, but the white 
 robes of purity and consecration. The blood that is to 
 expiate the people's sin must be brought directly into the 
 presence of God, because the fullest expression must be 
 given to the thought of atonement, because the innermost 
 sanctuary must be cleansed from the stains with which it 
 is defiled by the presence of a sinful people. He first 
 offers a sin-offering for himself and the people. Enveloped 
 in incense, he carries the blood before the holy mercy- 
 seat, and be-sprinkles it therewith. Thus atonement is 
 made for Israel, and its sin is taken away. Its holy 
 things are consecrated; it stands there as a holy com- 
 munity in which God can dwell. His gracious presence 
 in Israel is once more undisturbed. The second goat.
 
 Attis 
 
 44 
 
 Augury 
 
 which has been presented by the people for an expiatory 
 purpose, but is not used as a sacrifice, can now be dedi- 
 cated in order to carry the burden of the people's sins, 
 laid upon it by confession, as being now forgiven and 
 forgotten, away into the wilderness, beyond the conse- 
 crated circle of the camp, into a land where there is 
 neither salvation nor mercy. The feeling of horror at 
 the Impurity of sin is so strongly expressed by this cere- 
 mony that the persons who have bo do with the burning 
 of the animal sacrificed, and with the driving away of the 
 living one, are regarded as polluted, and have to be 
 washed before they regain the holiness necessary for 
 fellowship with Israel " (H. Schultz, O.T. Theology, vol. 
 i., 1895). Cp. AZAZEL. See Encycl. BiU. 
 
 ATTIS. A god worshipped in Phrygia and corres- 
 iwnding to the Syrian Adonis (7. v.). He is another per- 
 sonification of vegetation which dies yearly and yearly 
 revives. He was bom of a virgin. Nana, who conceived 
 after eating an almond or placing it in her bosom. 
 According to one account of his death he was killed by 
 a boar. According to another he destroyed his man- 
 hood under a pine-tree, which became the embodiment 
 of his spirit. From his blood grew violets. Attis is said 
 to have l)een beloved by Cybele {q.v.), the Phrygian 
 Mother of the Gods. The worship of Attis seems to 
 have spread to Rome with that of Cybele (204 B.C.). 
 Attis, in the form of a pine-log, decked with violets, was 
 annually mourned at a Spring festival, part of the 
 mourning consisting in self-mutilation. Afterwards he 
 was sought for on the mountains, and was found on the 
 third day. This resurrection was celebrated in a Festival 
 of Joy '(Hilaria), at which people, going about in dis- 
 guise, made merry without restraint. There were also 
 secret or mystic ceremonies connected with the worship 
 of Attis. The god seems to have been originally a god 
 of vegetation. See J. Q. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, 
 190fi: O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 ATTRITION. In the Roman Catholic Church a dis- 
 tinction is drawn between Attrition and Contrition. The 
 latter " is that sorrow for sin which has for its motive 
 the love of God whom the sinner has offended." 
 Attrition, on the other hand, is prompted by a lower 
 motive, such, for instance, as " the fear of hell, the loss 
 of heaven, the turpitude of sin " (Addis and Arnold). 
 
 AUDHUMLA. The name of a cow which figures in 
 Teutonic cosmogony. It is regarded by some as 
 symbolical of the clouds. See P. D. Chantepie de La 
 ^ussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 AUDIANI. A sect founded by Audaeus of Mesopo- 
 tamia in 338. He was a bishop of the Syrian Church, 
 but was exi)elled for condemning the vices of the clergy. 
 
 AUFKLABRUNG, ZBITALTER DBR. The period 
 (eighteenth century) known in Germany as the "Period of 
 Enlightenment." See ENLIGHTENMENT, PERIOD OF. 
 
 AUGEAN CODEX. The Codex Augiensis Is a manu- 
 script of part of the New Testament belonging to the end 
 of lie ninth century. It was so called from a mona.stery 
 Augia Major or Dives on an island in Lake Constance. 
 Dr. C. R. Gregory describes it as " a beautiful book." 
 The manuscript, which is now preserved in Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, England, contains the Epistles of Paul, 
 with a few gaps. See C. R. Gregory. 
 
 AUGSBURG. CONFESSION OF. The most important 
 confession of faith in the Lutheran Church, called in 
 Latin " Confessio Augustana." In order to compose 
 religious differences, Charles V. summoned a Diet of the 
 States of the German Empire to meet at Augsburg in 
 1530. The Elector, John of Saxony, in view of this 
 meeting, commissioned the Wittenberg theologians to 
 draft articles of faith and present them to him at Torgau. 
 In the execution of their task, these made use of articles 
 
 which had been drawn up in Latin and German at 
 Swabach and Marburg shortly l)efore. The articles laid 
 l)efore the Elector at Torgau were in turn used by Philipp 
 Melanchthon (A.D. 1497-1500), when, with the help of 
 other theologians, he framed the Confession of Augsburg, 
 which in Latin and German was presented to the Emperor 
 on the 25th of June, 1530. It was intended to be a con- 
 ciliatory statement of the beliefs of the Lutheran Pro- 
 testants drawn up in such a way as to show as little 
 divergence as possible from Catholic views. The Con- 
 fession consists of two divisions. The first contains 
 twenty-one articles of faith; the second consists of seven 
 declarations or protests against abuses In the Roman 
 Catholic Church. The twenty-one articles deal with the 
 following matters: 1. God and the Trinity; 2. Original 
 Sin: 3. The Son of God, the Incarnation, the Atonement, 
 the Descent to Hell, the Ascension, the Second Coming; 
 4. Justification by Faith; 5. The Ministration of the Word 
 and the Sacraments: 6. Obedience to God; 7. The One 
 Church, its unity of doctrine and sacraments: 8. The 
 Church, its Sacraments effective, even when administered 
 by evil persons; 9. Baptism and the need of Infant 
 Baptism; 10. The Lord's Supper, and the real presence 
 of the Body and Blood of Christ; 11. Confession, its 
 private use allowed; 12. Penance, contrition to be accom- 
 panied by good works; 13. The Use of the Sacraments, 
 need of faith in their promises; 14. Church Government, 
 duly appointed ministers; 15. Church Order, universal 
 observance of Church Ceremonies; 16. Secular Govern- 
 ment, legitimate authority of civil magistrates; 17. 
 Christ's Second Coming to judgment; 18. Free-will and 
 the Holy Spirit; 19. The cause of Sin, not in God; 20. 
 Faith and Good Works, and the merit of Christ's 
 sacrifice; 21. The Merits of the Saints as objects of 
 imitation. The declarations against abuses deal with 
 the following matters : 1. Withholding the Cup from the 
 laity; 2. Compulsory Celibacy of the Clergy: 3. The Say- 
 ing of Masses for money; 4. The Enumeration of sins 
 in Auricular C-onfession ; 5. Distinctions of Meat in 
 Fasting; 6. Irrevocable Conventual Vows; 7. The 
 Authority of Bishops, its growth and secular use. The 
 Confession was too Protestant to please the Catholics, 
 and too Catholic to please the Anabaptists and Swiss 
 Reformers; but it was accepted by the Lutherans. 
 Melanchthon afterwards thought himself at liberty to 
 make certain changes, and in 1540, with the idea of re- 
 conciling Calvinisrts and Lutherans, he published a new 
 edition in Latin (Confessio Variata). The Orthodox 
 Lutherans would not accept these alterations, and the 
 " Confessio invariata " became their standard. Both 
 forms of the Confession, however, came to be recognised 
 by the Reformed Churches of Germany. See the edition 
 of the Confession by Th. Kolde (1896); also Brockhaus; 
 J. H. Blunt; Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 AUGSBTTRG. DIET OF. See the preceding article. 
 
 AUGSBURG, INTERIM OF. Interim was a name 
 given In Reformation times to edits given forth by the 
 German Em7>eror pending the decision of religious dis- 
 putes by a general council. The Augsburg Interim was 
 made at a Diet of Augsberg In A.D. 1548. It provided 
 that the Cup should not be withheld from the laity at 
 the Lord's Supper, and allowed the clergy to marry. 
 
 AUGURY. The prediction of future events l)ased on 
 the close observation of the flight of birds, the state of 
 the sky, etc.. and the examination of the entrails of 
 animals. Among the Romans there was a priesthood of 
 Augurs or diviners, who were consulted about all kinds 
 of matters, public affairs and private concerns. The 
 predictions from the observation of birds received the 
 special designation Auspices. The practice of augury 
 has been noted among savages such as the Tupis of
 
 Augustines 
 
 45 
 
 Avenger of Blood, The 
 
 Brazil, the Dayaks of Borneo, the Maoris, etc., as well 
 as among representatives of ancient civilization. 
 
 AUGUSTINES. An order of nuns who claimed that 
 their Order originated in a convent founded by St. 
 Angu-stine at Hippo. The claim was no doubt suggested 
 by a letter (no. 109) he wrote " in which he laid down 
 a rule of life for the religious women under his direction, 
 not binding them to strict enclosure, but requiring them 
 to renounce all individual property " (Addis and T. 
 Arnold). The Augustines devoted themselves to good 
 works, especiallv among the sick. 
 
 AUGUSTINIANS. It has been claimed that the order 
 of the Canons Regular of St. Augustine was founded by 
 St. Augustine of Hippo (A.D. 354-430.) It is difficult, 
 however, to prove that he composed any formal rule. 
 All that can be said is that some of his writings (e.g., 
 De Morihus Clericorum) may have suggested one. Addis 
 and Arnold mention the argument that " if St. Augustine 
 promulgated a rule and founded congregations which 
 have had perpetual succession ever since, it seems impos- 
 sible to explain how St. Benedict should have been 
 universally regarded for centuries as the founder of 
 Western monachism." The Augustinian Canons do not 
 seem to be earlier than A.D. Slfi. In that year a rule 
 was drawn up at Aix-la-Chapelle for observance among 
 the canons of various Cathedrals. This rule did not for- 
 bid the holding of private property. In 1059 and 10<"i3, 
 however, at councils held in Rome, the rule was 
 amended. Private property had to be renounced, and 
 those who belonged to the Order had to live together. 
 Those who conformed to this rale were called regular 
 canons. It became known as the rule of St. Augustine. 
 There were soon (12th century) many independent (that 
 is to say, as regards Cathedrals) bodies of Canons Regular 
 of St. Augustine or St. Austin in Europe. In England, 
 where they were called Black Canons from their black 
 cloaks, they had many houses. At the Reformation there 
 were about 170. There were also Augustinian Hermits: 
 otherwise known as Hermits of St. Augu.stine, Austin 
 Friars, or Begging Hermits. The (Drder did not 
 arise until A.D. 1265 when Pope Alexander IV. united 
 several congregations. Pope Pius V. decided definitely 
 that they were friars and not monks (15fi7). They gave 
 up all property, and lived on alms. At the Dissolution 
 they are said to have had thirty-two houses in England. 
 There are now two houses in England, the one at Hoxton, 
 London, the other at Hythe in Kent ; and twelve houses 
 in Ireland. Martin Luther was a member of the house 
 of the Augu.stinian Hermits at Wittenberg. See Cath. 
 Diet.; Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 AULD LICHTS. The United Pre.'sbyterian Church was 
 formed in 1^47 by the amalgamation of the Associate 
 Presbytery or Secession Kirk and the Relief Church. But 
 when this union took place, a few congregations stood 
 aloof, and claimed to be the Old Seceders (that is to say, 
 the original secession) or the Auld Lichts. 
 
 AUM. A sacred, mystic word in Brahmanism. It is 
 pronounced with i)eculiar reverence, and its meaning is 
 kept secret. The three letters may represent the three 
 deities, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. See .T. A. Dubois 
 and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 AUREOLE. From the Latin aureolus " golden." In 
 Christian Art the figure of a holy person is surrounded 
 with gold. This is the Aureole as di-stinguished from 
 the nimbus which covers only the head. " In theology 
 it is defined as a certain accidental reward added to the 
 essential bliss of heaven, because of the excellent victory 
 which the person who receives it has attained during his 
 warfare upon earth." See Cath. Diet. 
 
 AURICULAR CONFESSION. See CONFESSION. 
 
 AUSPICES. Properly, the special designation of pre- 
 
 dictions founded on the observation of birds in divina- 
 tion. See AUGURY. 
 
 AUSTIN FRIARS. See AUGUSTINIANS. 
 
 AUTGA. A Hindu deity, worshipped as the god of 
 hunting by the Mais, a tribe of the Rajmahal hills in 
 India. 
 
 AUTHORISED VERSION. Usually contracted and 
 referred to as AV (margin of Authorised Version = AVmg). 
 The English Version of the Bible published A.D. Kill. 
 See BIBLE. The two versions of the Bible, Authorised 
 and Revised, are often referred to together as E.V. 
 
 AUTOCEPHALI. Metropolitans, such as those of 
 Cyprus or the Archbishops of Bulgaria, who were not sub- 
 ject to a patriarch. 
 
 AUTO DA FE. The Act of Faith was a name given to 
 the public trial of tiose who were supposed to be heretics 
 in the Roman Catholic Church. A special day was fixed 
 from time to time by the Inquisition in Spain and 
 Portugal for the examination of tho.se who were accused 
 of heresy. If the accused i)erson was found guilty, he 
 was handed over to the magistrate to be put to death, 
 either by burning at the stake or by strangling. In 
 Portugal the ceremony was held in a large theatre which 
 could accommodate 3,000 spectators. 
 
 AUTOMATISM. A name given by F. W. H. Myers 
 (1843-1901) to certain mental phenomena produced by an 
 impulsive working of what is known as the subliminal 
 self, the sub-consciousness, or the sub-conscious mind. 
 Uprushes of sub-conscious knowledge into the ordinary 
 consciousness, may and do produce, it is claimed, such 
 phenomena as automatic speech or writing. Such Auto- 
 matism often takes a religious turn. See William James, 
 Varieties of Religious Experience, 1906. 
 
 AUTO-SUGGESTION. A hypnotized person is very 
 su.sceptible to suggestion, so much so tiat the subject can 
 be cured by suggestion of certain nervous diseases or 
 of vices and bad habits. It is well known, moreover, 
 that suggestion is, and has been, a great power in our 
 daily life in the form both of heterosuggestion. suggestion 
 coming from others, and auto-sugge.stion, suggestion made 
 to ourselves. This has led to the discovery, it is claimed, 
 that, without the u.se of hypnotism, a person can suggest 
 to himself or herself the cure of diseases and bad habits. 
 See T. J. Hudson: E. Worcester, S. McComb and I. H. 
 Coriat, Religion and Medicine, 190S. 
 
 AVALIKITESVARA. The Indian name of the Chinese 
 and .Japanese Buddhist deity, Kwan Tin (Kwannon). In 
 Lamaism the name appears as Avalokita. The deity is 
 continually reincarnate in the Dalai Lama of Lhassa. 
 See H. Hackmann, 
 
 AVATARS. A term used in Hindu mythology for in- 
 carnations of the Deity. Vishnu (q.v.). e.g., is supposed 
 to have appeared in ten different incarnations. In the 
 later writings called Purfinas the number was increased 
 to eleven (Varaha Piirnna) and even to twenty or twenty- 
 two (Bhagavat Purana). See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 AVE MARIA. A prayer, also called the Angelical 
 Salutation (Hail. Mary!) repeated daily by Roman 
 Catholics before the canonical hours and after Compline. 
 It consists of the words of the angel Gabriel ('" Ave 
 [Maria! gratia plena, Dominus tecum: benedicta tu in 
 mulieribus "), those of Elisabeth to Mary (" et benedictus 
 fructus ventris tui "), and a late addition (" Sancta 
 Maria, Mater Dei, ora pro nobis peccatorihus nunc et in 
 hora mortis nostrae "). The use of the whole prayer 
 was enjoined by Pope Pius V. in 1568. The first two 
 parts came into use towards the close of the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 AVENGER OF BLOOD. THE. This is the English 
 translation of a Hebrew expression occurring in the Old 
 Testament. The Hebrew expression is go'el had-ddm.
 
 Avernus, Lake 
 
 46 
 
 Azymites 
 
 and the word go'el means more properly " the reclaimer " 
 or " the redeemer." When a person's blood had been 
 unjustly shed, it was the duty of a member of his family 
 or elan, especially of his nearest kinsman, to vindicate 
 the rights of the dead person (II. Samuel xiv. 7, 11; 
 Deuteronomy xix. 12; Numbers xsxv. 19, 21, 27). This 
 vindicator was called the <j6'el had-ddtn. See Encycl. 
 Bibl. 
 
 AVERNDS, LAKE. A lake in Naples between the 
 ancient Cumae and Puteoli. The hills which surrounded 
 it were thickly wooded. This made the place dark and 
 gloomy, and Homer and Virgil in their mythology have 
 represented the place as the entrance to hell. Real places 
 have often been so conceived. The Hebrews have their 
 Gehinnom (Valley of Hinnom). The Baperi of South 
 Africa think of a cavern, Marimatl(5, in the same way. 
 The North German peasants have connected the banks 
 of the swampy Dromling, and the Irish the place Lough 
 Derg, with the same idea. 
 
 AVERRHOISM. The teaching of an Arabian philoso- 
 pher who became known as Averroes (112G-1198). His 
 real name was Abfl'l-Walld Ibn Rushd. He was born 
 at Cordova. He was suspected of heresy towards the 
 end of his life, and was exiled. In his book " Decisive 
 Discourse " he attempts to reconcile Moslem law and 
 Science. See Clement Huart, Hist, of Arabic Lie, 1903. 
 
 AVESTA, THE. The collection of the sacred books of 
 the old Persians (see ZOROASTRIANISM). These 
 sacred writings were collected and edited in the third 
 century A.D. The text together with the commentaries 
 which were added is known as the Zend-Avesta. 
 
 AVIGNON CAPTIVITY. A name given to the period 
 (1305-1377) during which the Popes, from Clement V. to 
 Gregory XI., resided at Avignon and were almost vassals 
 of France. It is sometimes called the " Babylonish 
 Captivity." 
 
 AWAKENING OF HERCULES. A Greek festival held 
 about the month of .lanuary. In it were represented 
 dramatically the burning of the god Hercules and his 
 resurrection. See J. G. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, 
 1906. 
 
 AWALOKITEQWARA. In Chinese religion, one of the 
 chiefs of the Western Paradise, the other being Amitabha. 
 The Chinese Buddhists say that AwalSkitegwara con- 
 veys departed souls to Paradise in a ship (" the barge of 
 mercy "). See J. J. M. de Groot, R.S.C. 
 
 AWONAWILONA. The creative deity in the 
 mythology of the Zufii of New Mexico. 
 
 AXE, DOUBLE-HEADED. The double-headed axe 
 figures as a symbol or emblem of deities. It was borne 
 for in.'itance by the Asiatic deity Sandan of Tarsus, who 
 corresponded to Hercules; by some of the Hittite deities 
 of Boghaz-Keui ; by Sandon of Lydia. another deity cor- 
 responding to Hercules. Sandon and Sandan are, no 
 doubt, identical, and the deity in each case is Hittite. 
 In Mycenaean and Minoan worship, again, the double 
 axe appears frequently as a sacred emblem. In Crete it 
 was associated with the sacred bull. See .1. G. Frazer, 
 Adonis Attis Osiris, 1006. 
 
 AXINOMANCY. A term eompo.sed of two Greek words 
 and meaning " divination by an axe." The ancient 
 Greeks practised this kind of divination, and believed 
 that by means of it they could detect those who had 
 been guilty of crime. The practice was to balance an 
 axe upon a stake in such a way that it would turn or 
 move. 
 
 AYNIA. Aynia or Alne was an ancient Irish deity. 
 
 The goddess is associated principally with the North of 
 Ireland. Popular legend suggests that at one .time she 
 was the moon-godde!?s. Near Dunany there is an 
 immense stone, which is called " the chair of Aynia " or 
 " the chair of the lunatics." It was believed that lunatics 
 were drawn irresistibly to this chair. Sitting upon it 
 three times, they became incurable. Even sane persons 
 might lose their reason by sitting upon it. The influence 
 of the godde.ss was felt particularly on the Friday, 
 Saturday, and Sunday immediately following Lammas 
 Day. Aynia seems to have been also a patroness of 
 medicine and literature. According to W. G. Wood- 
 Martin, h^rb and charm-mongers regarded her as equiva- 
 lent to what they called the " vital spark." As 
 patroness of literature, she rewarded the learned by 
 leading them when they died into fairy realms. She 
 came in fact to be regarded as the Queen of Fairies. One 
 of her fairy haunts survives at Knocknanny, in the 
 county Tyrone, in a rude stone monument which the 
 peasants call "Aynia's Cove." Aynia seems to have 
 been equivalent to the god who was worshipped as 
 Minerva by the natives of Gaul. See W. G. Wood-Martin. 
 
 AYUNGANG. A deity (also known as Dharma Boja 
 or Lankan), the sun, worshipped by the Savaras (also 
 known as Sawaras or Saoras), an important hill-tribe in 
 Southern India. The deity is supposed to live in big 
 trees. 
 
 AZAZBL. In the Hebrew ritual of the Day of Atone- 
 ment the high-priest had to cast lots upon two goats. 
 The one goat was to be a sin-offering for Jehovah, the 
 other was to " be presented alive before the Lord, to 
 make an atonement with him, and to let him go for a 
 scapegoat into the wilderness " (Leviticus xvi. 8-10). The 
 idea seems to have been that the goat which was sent 
 into the wilderness bore away the sins of the people. The 
 meaning of the word, however, has been disputed. Jewish 
 interpreters thought Azazel was a place in the wilderness; 
 others have taken it to be a designation of the goat itself, 
 or even of the act of ritual (" complete dismissal "). But 
 it seems clear that Azazel is a personal being contrasted 
 with Jehovah. Azazel therefore was probably one of the 
 demons to whom in post-exilic times sacrifices were made, 
 or a kind of personal angel (so T. K. Cheyne). though 
 " the first clear mention of a personal devil (Beliar= 
 Satan, Sammfel, Mastema, Azazel) occurs in The Testa- 
 ments of the Twelve Patriarchs, dating probably from 
 the MaccabfBan age " (W. Fairweather, The Background 
 of the Gospels, 1908). Prof. Cheyne thinks that the 
 author of the scape-goat ritual substituted this personal 
 angel, " a fallen angel, evil no doubt, yet not altogether 
 unfriendly to man," for the crowd of earth-demons to 
 whom the rieople were accustomed to offer sacrifice. 
 "This was obviously an offering to the devil," says Dr. 
 Samuel G. Smith, " perhaps not seriously but rather as 
 .sending to him the sins of the people, a gift of his own 
 come home " (Religion in the Making, 1910). See Encycl. 
 Bibl. 
 
 AZIZUS. An Arabian deity, one of the heavenly twins, 
 the morning star. Adopted by the Palmyrenes. 
 
 AZRAEL. In the Mohammedan religion this is the 
 name of one of the four members of the highest group 
 of angels, the others being Gabriel, Michael, and Israfil. 
 Azrael is the " Angel of Death." 
 
 AZYMITES. From a Greek word meaning " without 
 leaven." A name applied by Greek schismatics to the 
 Christians of the I>atin Church because they used 
 unleavened bread in the Lord's Supper.
 
 B 
 
 47 
 
 Baalzebub 
 
 B 
 
 B. God B. is a designation used by anthropologists for 
 a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians of 
 Central America. He is represented as having a long 
 truncated nose, and is described by Stempell as " the 
 elephant-headed god B standing uiton the head of a 
 serpent " (Maya Codex Troano: see G. Elliot Smith, Dr., 
 p. S4). " Many authorities consider god B to represent 
 Kukulkan, the Feathered Serpent, whose Aztec equiva- 
 lent is Quetzalcoatl. Others identify him with Itzamna, 
 the Serpent God of the East, or with Chac, the Rain 
 God of the four quarters and the equivalent of Tlaloc of 
 the Mexicans" (Herbert J. Spinden, Maya Art, p. 62). 
 Prof. Elliot Smith identifies him with Chac, and con- 
 tends that Chac ( = Tlaloc) is simply an American form 
 of the Indian rain-god Indra. " One and the same funda- 
 mental idea, such as the attributes of the serpent as a 
 water-god, reached America in an infinite variety of 
 guises, Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian, Indonesian, 
 Chinese and Japanese, and from this amazing jumble of 
 confusion the local priesthood of Central America built 
 up a system of beliefs which is distinctively American, 
 though most of the ingredients and the principles of 
 synthetic composition were borrowed from the Old 
 World." 
 
 BAAL. A Semitic word meaning " owner, proprietor, 
 or possessor," it is used as the title of gods regarded as 
 the owners or inhabitants of places or districts. Thus 
 there was a Baal of Tyre, a Baal of Sidon, a Baal of the 
 Lebanon, a Baal of Mt. Hermon, etc. In the Old Testa- 
 ment, the local deities are spoken of collectively as the 
 Baalim or the Baals. As gods of fertility (Hosea ii. 5, 
 12), agricultural festivals were a feature of their worship 
 (Hosea ii. 8, 13). One of the Baals who assumed a 
 leading position in later times was called Baal-shamem, 
 " the owner of the heavens." When the Israelites settled 
 among the Canaanites they seem to have worshipped the 
 Canaanite Baalim side by side with their own god 
 Jehovah. Later on, however, they regarded Jehovah 
 himself as the Baal of the land, though the rites of the 
 old Baal cult survived even among the Israelites. The 
 prophets of the eighth century denounced this idolatrous 
 worship. See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BAAL BERITH. See BERITH MILAH. 
 
 BAAL-BERITH. A local Baal (q.v.) referred to in the 
 Old Testament (Judges ix. 4). also called " El-berith " 
 (" God of the covenant," Judges ix. 4fi). This was a 
 Canaanite Baal who was worshipped at Shechem. In 
 ordinary Hebrew baol-berlth means " covenant ally," 
 literally " possessor of covenant." Here, however, the 
 god seems to be so called as " the Baal who presides over 
 covenants, or rather over the special covenant by which 
 the neighbouring Israelites were bound to the Canaanite 
 inhabitants of the oity " (W. R. Smith, R.S.). Or the 
 covenant may have been between Shechem and neigh- 
 bouring Canaanite towns. Another view is that the 
 Baal was possessor of a covenant between himself and 
 his worshippers. There was a temple of Baal-berith 
 which is a.<!Sociated with several episodes in Hebrew 
 history (Judges ix. 4, 27, 46). See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BAAL-HAMMON. A god who is often mentioned in 
 Punic inscriptions. In the Old Testament (Ezekiel vi. 
 4, 6, and other passages) reference is made to hanimdnim 
 as places of idolatrous worship. This word has been 
 connected with hammCi, a late Hebrew word for " sun," 
 and interpreted " sun images " or " sun pillars." Baal- 
 hammon might therefore mean " the deity which dwells 
 in the sun-pillars." In " El-hammon," however, which 
 occurs in another inscription, liammon seems to be the 
 name of a place. See Encycl. Bibl.; W. R. Smith. R.S. 
 
 BAAL-MARCOD. The name of a god worshipped near 
 Bairut and referred to in inscriptions. The Semitic form 
 of the name would mean " lord of dancing," or a god 
 who required homage to be paid him in dances. See W. 
 R. Smith, R.S. 
 
 BAAL-MARRIAGE. In marriages under the system 
 of male kinship in Arabia, the wife — whether obtained 
 by capture or by contract — " who follows her husband 
 and bears children who are of his blood has lost the right 
 freely to dispose of her person ; her husl)and has authority 
 over her and he alone has the right of divorce." Among 
 the Arabians, Hebrews, and Aramaeans the husband in 
 this kind of marriage was called ba'al, "lord" or 
 " owner." Rol)ertson Smith therefore describes it as 
 Baal-marriage (cp. the term be'fdah of a subject wife, 
 Lsaiah Ixii. 4). In this way such a marriage is distin- 
 guished from a Beena-marriage (q.v.). Rotiertson Smith 
 contends that before the separation of the tribes Beena- 
 marriage or matriarchy was the universal practice 
 among the Semites. But Prof. Wellhausen has proved 
 that Baal-marriage or patriarchy can be traced back to 
 primitive Semitic times. Dr. I. Benzinger thinks it 
 "best to abandon all attempts to make out a genetic 
 connection or evolutionary relation between the various 
 kinds of marriage." One tril)e " might count kin from 
 the mother, being endogamous, or else marrying its young 
 women to men of alien tribe only when the men consented 
 to join the tribe of the wife and the children remained 
 with the mother. Another tribe counted kin from the 
 father and therefore sought for its wives, so far as these 
 could not be found within the tribe, by capture of such 
 welcome additions from other trityes " (Encycl. Bibl.). 
 See W. Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early 
 Arabia, 1903. 
 
 BAAL-PBOR. The Baal of Peor, a Moabite god re- 
 ferred to in the Old Testament (Numbers xxv. 3; 
 Deuteronomy iv. 3; Psalm 106, 29). The Israelites 
 adopted the worship in Shittim. " And Israel yoked 
 himself nnto the Baal of Peor. and the anger of the Ix)rd 
 was kindled against Israel " (Numbers xxv. 3). It has 
 been suggested (G. B. Gray) that the worship was pos- 
 sibly a local cult of Chemosh (g.v.). See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BAALSAMIN. A deity worshipped by the Phoenicians, 
 Nabataeans, and Palmyrenes. The name means " the 
 lord of heaven." 
 
 BAALZEBUB. The name of a local baal (see BAAL), 
 a god of Ekron. Ahaziah, king of Israel, when he was 
 ill sent messengers to consult the god's oracle (II. Kings 
 i. 2, 3, 6, 16). The word has been commonly explained
 
 Baal-zephon 
 
 48 
 
 Babism 
 
 as " god of flies," that is to say, " a god who sends as 
 well as removes a plague of flies " ; but this is not very 
 suitable. God of Zebub would be more suitable, but no 
 such place is known. Prof. Cheyne would read Baal- 
 zebul, " lord of the high house," a title such as any god 
 with a fine temple might bear. He thinks that in con- 
 tempt the late Hebrew narrator altered this to " god of 
 flies." See Enci/cl. Bibl. 
 
 BAAL-ZEPSON. The name of a Phoenician god. The 
 word idphon means " north " in Hebrew, whence Baal- 
 zephon seems to mean " Baal of the North," or " the Baal 
 whose throne is on the sacred mountain of the gods in 
 the north " (Baethgen). The god is also referred to in 
 Assyrian inscriptions (Baal-.«apunu). Prof. Che.vne 
 identifies Baal-zephon with Baal-Lebanon, " the Baal of 
 Lebanon." See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BAANITBS. Followers of Baanes, a disciple of 
 Josephus Epaphroditus, who formed a sect of tie 
 Pauliclans in Armenia (c. A.D. 810). 
 
 BABA. Literally " father," a title of honour in Persia 
 and Turkey borne by distinguished ecclesiastics. 
 
 BABA BATHRA". One of the Jewi.sh treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D. and are 
 included in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection and compila- 
 tion completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the Patriarch, 
 about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractaetes of the Mishnah 
 are divided Into six groups or orders (sedarim). Babfi 
 Bathr,T is the third tractate of the fourth group, which 
 is called Ne~ikin (" Damages "). 
 
 BABA KAMMA. The name of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are incorporated in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Baba Kamma is the first tractate of the 
 fourth group, which is called Nezikin (" Damages "). 
 
 BABAKIYAH. The followers of Babek, upon whom is 
 supposed to have fallen the mantle of the Persian Mazdak 
 (founder of a Religious Communism). Babek claimed to 
 be God incarnate. His followers are said to have prac- 
 tised the " extinction of the lamp " at their nightly 
 festivals. According to Isfaraini, they assembled by 
 night in the mountains and agreed upon all kinds of 
 depravity with women and fluteplaying; they put out 
 lamps and fires and each rises up to seize the female who 
 sits nearest. But, as P. W. Bussell says, such charges 
 are frequently levelled against all secret meetings of a 
 suspected sect. 
 
 BABA MESI'A. The title of one of the Jewish 
 tractates or treatises which represent the unwritten law 
 or oral tradition as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are included in the Mishnah (g.v.). a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriardi, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Bfibfi MesT'a is the second tractate of the 
 fourth group, which is called Nezikin (" Damages "). 
 
 BABBAR. The name of a deity in the old Babylonian 
 inscriptions. It means literally the " brilliantly shining 
 one," and seems to have been another name for the sun, 
 Shamash (g.v.). See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 BABEL, TOWER OP. A story in the Old Testament 
 (Genesis xi.) the purpose of which was to account for a 
 variety of languages amongst men and the dispersion of 
 mankind. The story may have been suggested partly 
 by the spectacle of a ruined temple-tower of Babylon. 
 Babel is, as a matter of fact, the Hebrew form of the 
 native name Bab-ili, "gate of God"; but the Hebrew 
 
 narrator tries to connect it with a Hebrew word meaning 
 " to confuse." The story, which is very anthropo- 
 morphic, is to this effect. The whole earth had originally 
 one language. Mankind .iourneyed and found a place suit- 
 able to settle in, the plain of Shinar. They then pro- 
 ceeded to make bricks with clay and bitumen. They 
 would build a city and also a tower reaching unto heaven. 
 These would prevent them from being disi>ersed. But 
 Jehovah, becoming alarmed, " came down to see the city 
 and the tower." Having seen them he returns and takes 
 counsel with the sons of God. If they do this, he says, 
 " nothing will be withholden from them which they pur- 
 pose to do." Then he adds, " Come, let us go down, 
 and bring their speech into confusion." Thus, in the 
 words of Dr. Samuel G. Smith, " to save the sanctity of 
 the divine abode, the common langiiage was confounded, 
 the men were scattered abroad, the city building was 
 abandoned, and a primitive explanation of the race 
 question was left on record (Religion in the Making, 
 1910). See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BABISM. A religious movement in modern Persia. 
 Babism is an olTshoot of Shiism (g.v.), the Persian state- 
 religion. The Shiites recognised, after Mohammed, 
 twelve Imams or vicars of God on earth. The last of 
 these. Imam Mahdi, disappeared mysteriously A.D. 940. 
 He communicated with the faithful, however, through 
 privileged persons, each of whom was called Bab or Gate. 
 There were four of these in succession, and their period 
 was called the " Lesser Occnltation." The succeeding 
 period was called the " Gireater Occnltation." The 
 Shiite school known as Shaykhism maintained that 
 between the Hidden Imam and his followers there must 
 always be a " perfect man " to act as a channel of grace. 
 Sayyid Kazim, one of these perfect men, died with- 
 out naming a successor. Thereupon Mirza All Moham- 
 mad declared that he was the new Bab or Gate, 
 and Mulla Husayn soon became his devoted disciple 
 (May 23. 1844). They were joined by followers of Sayyid 
 Kazim and others, to whom the Bab inveighed against 
 the worldliness of the Mohammedan clergy and the in- 
 justice of the government. On a pilgrimage to Mecca he 
 seems to have broken definitely with the faith of 
 Mohammed, and In consequence his followers were soon 
 made to .suffer. He himself was next arrested, taken 
 to Shlraz, and found guilty of heresy. In 184fi he made 
 his escape to Ispahan, whence he was afterwards 
 banished, first to Maku, and then to Chihrik, where he 
 was closely confined, though he still contrived to send 
 messages to his disciples. After this he gave out that 
 he was the Imam Mahdi himself, and prophesied that 
 there should come after him " He whom God .shall mani- 
 fest," one greater than himself. In his teaching he 
 attached a peculiar sanctity to the number 19. He chose 
 18 disciples as " I/etters of the Living," and called him- 
 self, as the nineteenth person, the " Point of Unity." 
 His chief work, which became the Bible of Babism, was 
 called the " Bayan." His disciple Mulla Husayn was 
 very active In spreading the faith, but was killed In 1S49 
 while fighting with his co-religlonlsts against the royal 
 troops. There were several such Babi ri.sings in which 
 the Bab's followers were mercilessly dealt with. The 
 authorities now turned their attention once more to the 
 Bab himself. After a mock trial at Tabriz he was con- 
 demned to death, and died a martyr at the age of twenty- 
 seven. Other martyrdoms fallowed, especially in the 
 year IS.'JO. The movement tended to become more 
 ixtlitieal. This, and an attempt on the life of the Shah, 
 led to voluntary exile in Bagdad. In 1864 another move- 
 ment had to be made first to Constantinople, and then 
 to Adrianople. From 1850 until this time Subh-i-Eze! 
 had been head of the Babis. In 1866-67 an elder half-
 
 Babylonian Psalms 
 
 49 
 
 Bahaism 
 
 brother Beha gave out that he was " He whom God shall 
 manifest." Subh-i-Ezel would not allow this. Thus a 
 schism was caused, and the Behais, whose headquarters 
 were moved in ISfiS to Acre, became the more numerous 
 and more powerful division. Amongst his other works, 
 Beha produced one, the Kitab-i-Akdas, which became a 
 new Bible and took the place of the Bayan. Beha, who 
 came to be reverenced as God Almighty, died in 1892, and 
 was succeeded by his eldest son. Abbas Efendi. The 
 Bfibis, who are said to numl)er now one million, " have 
 no places of worship of their own, but hold their meetings, 
 generally after sundown, in the houses of various 
 members of the community " (E. Denison Ross). The 
 movement has spread to America. See B. Denison Ross 
 in a.R.W.; E. G. Browne, Hew History of the Bab, 1893 
 
 BABYLONIAN PSALMS. A number of Babylonian 
 hymns and songs have been preserved, and are interesting 
 as bearing some resemblance to the psalms of the Old 
 Testament. The German scholar H. Zimmern has made 
 a collection of the psalms of penance under the heading 
 " Babylonian Penitential Psalms " (Babylonische Buss- 
 psalmen). He thinks that the impetus was given to this 
 class of composition by national calamities rather than 
 by personal grievances. The hymns often contain his- 
 torical allusions, and sometimes include a prayer for the 
 king. For specimens of these psalms, see Morris 
 Jastrow, Rel.; W. Bousset. 
 
 BABY-TOWERS. In China it has been the practice 
 to throw away the corpses of infants. In some parts of 
 the Empire they have been left in urns or wooden boxes 
 in the open country. In other parts structures called 
 baby-towers have been built to receive them. These are 
 round, polygonal, or square, and are constructed of stone 
 blocks or of bricks. They have an aperture like a window 
 into which the infants are dropped. Sometimes there are 
 two apertures, one labelled " male infants." the other 
 inscribed " female babies." On a slab of stone in front 
 of such a tower may be found the inscription, " Pagoda 
 or Tower for hoarding up bones " or " Place of Resort 
 for Infants." See J. J. M. de Groot, R.S.O. 
 
 BACABS. A name given to four beings, upholders of 
 the firmament, in the mythology of the Mayan Indians 
 of Yucatan. Their names were Kan, Muluc, Ix, and 
 Cauae. They represented the ea.st, north, west, and 
 south ; and had as their symbolic colours yellow, white, 
 black, and red. 
 
 BACCANARISTS. A religious order (also called 
 " Paccanarists "), founded by one Baecanari or Pacca- 
 nari of Trentino in 1798. Their proper title was Regular 
 Clerks of the Faith of Jesus. Baecanari 6.stablished his 
 monastery in a country house near Spoleto with the idea 
 of reviving the Jesuit Society of Jesus. The movement 
 spread to France and Holland : but in 1804, when the 
 Society of Jesus was re-established in Naples, it neces- 
 sarily lost ground, and in 1814, on the restoration of the 
 Jesuits, it ceased to exist. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 BACCHUS. One of the Greek names and the oommon 
 Roman name for Dionysus, the god of wine. 
 
 BACULARII. An Anabaptist sect the members of 
 which believed that Christians are forbidden an the 
 Scriptures to carry any weapon but a staff. 
 
 BADI. A Malay term denoting something half- 
 material, half-personal. 
 
 BADUHENNA, GROVE OF. A eacred grove where the 
 Romans were defeated A.D. 28 (Tacitus, Anjuils, iv., 
 73). 
 
 BAELDAEG. The Anglo-Saxon form of Balder (g.v.), 
 one of the gods of the Ancient Teutons. 
 
 BAETYLS. Since these objects are referred to as 
 " bsetyls, animated stones " (Sanchonlathon, BoiriiAio, 
 
 Xieov; efi^ivxovi), the Original meaning seems to be 
 meteorites or supposed thunderbolts (see E. B. Tylor, 
 P.O.). But the term is applied to small portable stones 
 which were supposed to possess magic virtues. 
 
 BAGDAD, JEWS IN. The Bagdad Jew is described 
 by E. J. Banks (Bismya, or The Lost City of Adab, 
 1912) as very superstitious. The following are examples 
 of some of their superstitions. A wife may not look into 
 a mirror, or sweep the floor of her house, or bring a 
 saucepan into the house after sunset. " When her child 
 die«, she forgets the old Hebrew Law, and takes a pig 
 into the house to protect the other children from the 
 evil eye; if the pig should die, a coat for the child is 
 made from its skin." A large tomb in the desert to the 
 East of Bagdad, which, though modern, is said to be the 
 tomb of Joshua (Son of Nun), is a sacred place of 
 pilgrimage for the Jewesi^es of the city. They gather 
 also about a large English gun in a public square. 
 Stroking it, they whisper their prayers, their troubles, and 
 their hopes into its mouth. " They place lighted candles 
 in tiny paper boats in the river, and, as the current bears 
 them away, they read in the flickering flame whatever 
 fate has in store for them." 
 
 BAGHARRA DEO. A Hindu deity, the tiger, wor- 
 shipped as the protector of cattle against wild animals 
 by the Kawars, a primitive tribe living in the hills of the 
 Chhattisgarh Districts north of the Mahanadi in India. 
 
 BAGHESHWAR. An Indian deity, the tiger god, wor- 
 shipped by the Bharias. 
 
 BAGNOLENSES. A branch of the Cathari in the 
 thirteenth century. They were also called Baiolenses, 
 being named after Bagnolo or Baiolo, a town of Provence. 
 They had much in oommon with the Albanenses (Q.v.), 
 and were perhaps forerunners of the Albigenses (q.v.). 
 They held that matter was created by God alone, but 
 that' out of it an evil spirit made the four elements, earth, 
 air, fire, and vrater, and so formed the world. See J. H. 
 Blunt. 
 
 BAHAISM. A religion of Persian origin, a develop- 
 ment of Babism (q.v.). At the end of the year 1852 many 
 of the Babis were exiled to Bagdad by the Persian and 
 Ottoman governments. One of the exiles was Baha'u'llah, 
 an early disciple of the Bab. His real name was Mirza 
 Husain 'Ali Nuri, and he belonged to a powerful and 
 lioble family. He was born on the 12th of November, 
 1817. When he was nearly thirty he determined to con- 
 secrate all his energies to the cause of Babism. He did 
 not meet the Bfib, but he corresponded with him regu- 
 larly. At Bagdad he l)ecame leader and organiser of 
 the exiles. In the cour.se of this work he became con- 
 vinced that he was the Supreme Manifestation heralded 
 by the Bab. but he kept the conviction a secret from all 
 but his most intimate friends. The party that gathered 
 round Baha'u'llah grew to such an extent that in course 
 of time it came to be considered dangerous. The leader 
 was summoned to Constantinople. Before he left his 
 movement underwent a new development. He declared 
 himself to be the Supreme Manifestation of (iod 
 prophesied by the Bftb. His followers were to be hence- 
 forth not Babis but Bahais. And he made the startling 
 pronouncement that foreign peoples, infidels, were no 
 longer to be considered unclean. " The times were dis- 
 tant since Moses. Jesus or Muhammad had brought them 
 special laws. God would speak again, and this time, 
 through His Supreme Manifestation, he would lead recon- 
 ciled men toward progress, and regenerate them by love. 
 Disdainful of the comforts of this world, they ought only 
 to strive to develop their spirituality. Thus, the work 
 begun by the Bab would find in him its accomplishment 
 and its end in the renovation and unification of all 
 religions! " (H. Dreyfus). Baha'u'llah was four months
 
 Bahman 
 
 50 
 
 B&laji 
 
 in Constantinople. He was then sent to Adrianople 
 (1804). Here he addressed letters to the ruJers in Europe 
 and America urging tiem to assist him in introducing 
 universal fraternity and peace. In 1868 the Sultan 
 banished him to 'Alika, whither he was accompanied by 
 his faithful disciples. They were at first imprisoned in 
 the fortress and were treated rather harshly. After a 
 time, however, they were released, and new-comers joined 
 their colony, Buddhists, Parsees, Musulmans, and 
 others. " One has not often, I think," writes H. Dreyfu.s. 
 " had the opportunity of observing an ec-onomic and social 
 phenomenon such as this little community composed as it 
 was of individuals belonging to the most diverse and 
 equally fanatical religions, having up to this time lived 
 in the most diCferent surroundings, accustomed to con- 
 ceptions of existence often contradictory: and who had 
 now come to carry into action the principles of detach- 
 ment and of human fraternity, around the Prophet him- 
 .self, which until then they had been powerless to realise 
 in their native land. Their conduct was so perfect, their 
 morality so high, their harmony so complete, that, 
 although they have been there for forty years, no judge 
 has had yet to intervene for them in any legal disputes." 
 Prom 18«;9 to 1892 the leader dictated to some of his 
 disciples a number of treatises. These included " The 
 IVIost Holy Book " and " The Book of the Testament." 
 When Baha'u'lliih died at the end of May, 1892, his son 
 'Abdu'1-Baha (b. May, 1844), who had been a tower of 
 strength to his father, assumed the leadership. His 
 opinions and advice have been sought on all hands by the 
 Bahais. "Thus he is effectively the centre of this great 
 movement, which having started from the Persian moun- 
 tains, to-day re-unites people from all corners of the 
 earth in one unique aim— that of the progress of 
 humanity." Baha'u'llah exhorted the ministers of State 
 to make some one language universal, and to institute 
 tribunals of arbitration. He insists " that all nations 
 should become one in faith and all men as brothers; that 
 the bonds of affection and unity between the .sons of men 
 should be strengthened." The Bahais are required to 
 live a spiritual life, but not a life of austerity and soli- 
 tude. 'Abdu'l-Bahfi says : " We were made to be happy 
 and not ead; for joy, not for sorrow. Happiness is life; 
 sadness is death; spiritual happiness is eternal life. It 
 is a light that tie night does not extingruish ; it is an 
 honour that shame does not follow, an existence which 
 is not resolved into annihilation ! For happiness the 
 worlds and contingent beings have been created." See H. 
 Dreyfus, The Universal Religion: Bahaism, 1909. 
 
 BAHMAN. Originally called Vohu-manO, "good 
 mind," the name of a Zoroastrian god. Plutarch (" On 
 Isis and Osiris," xlvi. and xlvii.) describes the deity as 
 "the god of benevolence." Bahman "pervades the 
 whole living good creation, and all the good thoughts, 
 words, and deeds of men are wrought by him " (Haug). 
 
 BAHEAM. According to R. V. Russell and R. B. Hlra 
 Ja\\, Bahr.im of Nachangaon near Pulgaon is the tutelary 
 deity of the Wardha Dhangars. The Dhangars are the 
 Maratha caste of shepherds and blanket-weavers in India. 
 
 BAIRAGIS. A general term for Hindu ascetics of any 
 Vishnuite sect who are accustomed to go about naked, 
 and pride themselves on having destroyed the power of 
 sexual passion. This latter they are supposed to do 
 either by practising great abstemiousness in eating and 
 drinking, or by the use of drugs, or even by means of 
 some such mechanical contrivance as a heavy weight 
 fastened to the generative organs. Russell and Hira Lai 
 note that usually the term Bairagi is not applied to the 
 Kabirpanthi. the Swaml-Narayan, the Satnami, the Sikh 
 religious orders, or to the Chaitanya sect of Bengal. See 
 J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 BAIRAM. The Persian and Turkish name for one of 
 the two great Mohammedan festivals. It follows the 
 fast called Ramadan, and lasts three days or more. There 
 is a second Bairam seventy days after the first. This 
 last four days. 
 
 BAKHTASHIYKH. The Bakhtashlyeh or Bagh- 
 dashlyeh are an order of Dervishes which was founded 
 by Haji Bakhtash (d. 1357). 
 
 BALA GOPaLA. a name for the child-god Krisihna, a 
 form of Krishna worshipi>ed by modem Hindus. See B. 
 W. Hopkins. 
 
 BALAAM'S ASS. Reinach remarks that one of the 
 mo.st curious epl.^^des in the book of Numbers (see 
 NUMBERS, BOOK OF) " is tiat of Balaam the prophet, 
 whose ass seems to have been an echo of the worship 
 of the ass, considered as an oracular animal." He com- 
 pares the story (Numbers xxii.) with those animal-fables 
 which were widely prevalent in ancient times (cp. the 
 Encycl. Bibl., s.v. " Balaam," where Addis compares the 
 Babylonian beast-stories, and the si)eaking horse in 
 Homer's Iliad, xix. 404), and thinks that " the primitive 
 stories which were combined and revised to form the 
 Bible must have bristled with tales of animals." But he 
 is obliged to admit that in the Bible as preserved to us 
 animals only speak on rare occasions. There are only 
 two instances — that of the serpent in the Book of Genesis 
 and that of Balaam's ass in the Book of Numbers. Why 
 are there not more? The truth may be that the Hebrew 
 stories are not on a level with ordinary animal-fables, 
 but were suggested by real psychical or spiritual 
 oxpyeriences which seem to have been granted in un- 
 usually rich measure to the Hebrews. Balaam was 
 requested by Balak, king of Moab, to go and curse the 
 Israelites, that is to say, to bring them under the baneful 
 influence of a powerful spell. Balaam at first refused 
 to do this. He realized intuitively that this people was 
 under the protection of the Divine Power. When at 
 length he did consent to go, it was with great reluctance 
 and hesitation. Now it has often been remarked that 
 the mental state of a rider influences the animal which 
 he rides. Balaam's uncertainty communicated itself to 
 his ass, and the animal tried several times to turn back. 
 The master beat the animal, and at length, we are told, 
 the ass spoke and rebuked him. Of course animals do 
 not speak. But it is nevertheless possible that Balaam 
 heard a voice, and that he or his reporter ttelieved that 
 the voice proceeded from the animal. The words spoken 
 have been altered in accordance with this idea. We now 
 know that the hearing of a voice is a not uncommon 
 p.s.ychical experience (cp. BURNING BUSH). And 
 Balaam was just the kind of man to have had the 
 kind of experience denoted by clairaudience (g.v.) and 
 elain'oyance (g.v.). " Among the various nations of the 
 world we find instances in which we are able to observe 
 how certain persons, popularly regarded as a special type 
 of men, distinct from their fellows, pass into ecstatic 
 slates, and in them make peculiar observations. Gener- 
 ally these experiences come to them during worship, or 
 whilst they offer fervent prayer, or during some other 
 powerful religious occupation of the mind. 'They get into 
 a condition in which they are in a peculiar sense cut off 
 from the world, but in which their souls are all the more 
 active, and respond readily to influences which have no 
 effect upon a man in his ordinary waking life. In this 
 condition they see visions and hear voices and words, the 
 significance of which is unknown to the ordinary man " 
 (R. Kittel, Scientific Study of the O.T., 1910). For the 
 story of Balaam, see Enoycl. Bibl.; G. B. Gray, Numbers, 
 in the I.C.O., 1903; A. R. S. Kennedy, Leviticus and 
 'Numbers, in the " Oentory Bible." 
 
 BALAJI. Baiaji is the name of one of the modem gods
 
 Balance of Osiris, The 
 
 51 
 
 Bana 
 
 of the Hindus, an dncamation of the Supreme Triad 
 (Brahma-Vishnu-Siva). Sir Alfred C. Lyall states 
 (Asiatic Studies) that he is one of the four most popular 
 gods in the province of Berar in Central India. He 
 thinks that not so very long ago he must have been a 
 notable living man. Bai9ji is worshipped on Fridays as 
 the younger brother of Rama by the Dhangars. the 
 Maratha caste of shepherds and blanket-weavers. 
 
 BALANCE OF OSIRIS, THE. A familiar repre- 
 sentation in the religion of ancient Egypt. In the under- 
 world, in the judgment-hall of Osiris (q-v-), the heart of 
 a deceased person is weighed by Horus (q.v.) and Anubis 
 (g.v.) to see whether it is lighter than truth. In a 
 magical text of the Hellenistic period it is said : " he 
 whose evil deeds are more in number than the good, is 
 given to the Devourer of the underworld ; his soul and 
 his body are destroyed and he shall live no longer. He 
 whose good deeds are more in number than the evil, he 
 is received among the divine counsellors of the Lord of 
 the underworld, while his soul goes with the glorious 
 justified ones to heaven." See A. Erman. 
 
 BALDACCHINO. An Italian word for a canopy. It 
 is supposed to be derived from Baaldak, the name by 
 which Bagdad was known at the time of the Crusades. 
 The Baldacchino is used in the Roman Catholic Church. 
 The canopy placed over the high-altar hangs from the 
 roof of the church or is supported on four pillars. 
 Canopies may also be erected over a pulpit or above a 
 bishop's throne, etc. Since the time of Constantine 
 canopies resembling in shape the bowl of a cup have been 
 suspended over the altar-table. Inside this canopy was 
 hung a vessel containing the Holy Sacrament. This 
 canopy was called ciborium. Its use in the Church of 
 England has been declared Illegal (Dec. 15, 1873). 
 Baldacchino is al.so the name of a canopy held over the 
 Roman Catholic priest as he carries the Host in pro- 
 cession on Holy Thursday, etc. See Oath. Diet. 
 
 BALDER. Also written Baldr, the name of a god in 
 Teutonic religion (cp. Anglo-Saxon bealdor "prince"). 
 He is a god of light. His original home was perhaps in 
 Denmark, for he figures most frequently in Danish 
 legends. In Denmark too are Baldersbrond where he 
 quenched the thir.=it of warriors by making water .spring 
 from the ground, and Baldrshoje where he is buried. 
 Balder is said to have been wounded in a fierce struggle 
 with Hotherus, son of a Swedish king, the two antagonists 
 being rivals for the love of Nanna. the beautiful 
 daughter of the Norwegian king Gevarus. Balder could 
 only be wounded by Miming's .sword, of which Hotherus 
 had contrived to obtain iwssession. There are variations 
 of the legend. According to another account, he was 
 killed with mistletoe. All things had been put under oath 
 not to harm him, except the mistletoe, which had been 
 overlooked. In Norse mythology Balder has become more 
 human: he is "the beaming hero, beloved of all " (C. de 
 I.^ Saussaye). Scenes from the legend of Balder seem 
 to have been depicted on the two golden horns, dating 
 from the fifth or beginning of the six-th centurv, found 
 in Southern .Jutland in 1(!39 and 17.34. There is also 
 reference to the legend in a magic formula (perhaps of 
 the eighth century) found at Merseburg in 1841. See P. 
 D. Chantepie de La Saussaye, Rrl. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 BALKISHEN. The boy Krishna, one of the names of 
 the Hindu god Krishna, 
 
 BALMARCODES. A shrine of the Punic or Phoenician 
 god Baal Marcod, " the lord of dances," has been found 
 not far from Bexytus. In inscxiptions of the Roman 
 age this god is called Balmarcodes. His worship was 
 introduced into Syria by the Phoenicians. 
 
 BALMIK. A saint (also known as Balnek) worshipi)ed 
 by the Mehtars, the caste of sweepers and scavengers in 
 
 India. According to R. V. Russell and R. B. Hira Lai, 
 he is really the huntsman Valmiki, the reputed author of 
 the Ramayana, who in turn was originally a hunter called 
 Ratnakar. 
 
 BALOR. A deity with an evil eye, one of the gods of 
 the Irish Celts of the Pomorian cult. 
 
 BAMACHARI. A sub-division of the Hindu sect 
 known as Saktas (q.v.). The Bamachari are left-handed 
 Saktas, i.e., worshippers of Sakti, the female force in 
 Nature, per-souified as a goddess. They are so called as 
 distinguished from the right-handed Saktas and the 
 extreme Saktas. See J. C. Oman, B.T.M.I. 
 
 BAMBINO. An Italian word, meaning literally 
 " babe." The term is used in art of the swaddled figure 
 of the infant Jesus. The figure, carved in wood, in the 
 church of the Ara Cceli at Rome {Santissimo Bambino) 
 is supposed to possess the power of miraculously healing 
 the sick. 
 
 BAMPTON LECTURES. A Church of England course 
 of Lectures on Divinity delivered at Oxford, and named 
 after their founder, the Rev. John Bampton. Bampton 
 was a Prebendary of Salisbury Cathedral. He died in 
 1751, leaving a legacy of £120 per annum for the endow- 
 ment of eight lectures. The lectures are delivered as 
 sermons at Great St. Mary's, and are afterwards 
 published. The object of the lectures is " to confirm and 
 establish the Christian faith, and to confute all heretics 
 and schismatics, upon the divine authority of the holy 
 Scriptures, upon the authority of the writings of the 
 primitive Fathers as to the faith and practice of the 
 primitive Church, upon the divinity of our Lord and 
 Saviour Je.sus Christ, upon the divinity of the Holy 
 Ghost, uix)n the articles of the Christian Faith as com- 
 prehended in the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds." 
 
 BAN. In the Old Testament we often read of things or 
 persons being put under a ban, that is to say, being 
 devoted to Jehovah by destruction. The term use (hrm, 
 Greek iviBe/ia; Authorised Version "accursed thing"; 
 Revised Version "devoted thing") is derived from a 
 common Semitic root. It is the root from which harem 
 (a place con.secrated or set apart) comes. Amongst the 
 things devote<l to Jehovah were : idols (Deuteronomy vii. 
 25), Cauaanite cities (Deut. xx. 16-18), enemies (I. Samuel 
 XV.: cp. the Moabite Stone 1. 16 /.), property (Micah iv. 
 13), and guilty persons (Joshua vii.). Sometimes the 
 devoted thing .seems to have been a kind of free-will 
 offering or sacrifice to Jehovah. Leviticus xxvii. 28 says 
 that " no devoted thing, that a man shall devote unto 
 the Lord of all that he hath, whether of man or beast, 
 or of the field of his possession, shall be sold or redeemed : 
 every devoted thing is most holy unto the Lord. None 
 devoted, which shall be devoted of men, shall be ran- 
 somed; he shall surely be put to death." Apparently 
 the idea in such cases was to purchase by a vow the 
 friendly aid of the deity. See Encycl. BiU. 
 
 BANA. A term used in Singhalese Buddhism. Bana 
 is a recitation which, even though the hearer does not 
 understand the words, is supposed to act as a charm, 
 averting illnesses and exorcising evil spirits. In con- 
 nection with its use there is a custom called pirit (Paii 
 pdritta). Laymen are accustomed to hire monks to read 
 bana day and night without interruption. The ceremony 
 usually lasts seven days, and is performed in the 
 preaching-hall of a monastery or in some other suitable 
 building. " The monks relieve one another in such a 
 way that no .smallest pause occurs to break the charm. 
 A Buddhist relic lies on the platform where the monk is 
 reciting, and a sacred cord encircles the whole building, 
 beginning at the place of recitation and leading back to it 
 again, so that by Its means the working of the incanta-
 
 Banat Su'ad 
 
 52 
 
 Baptism, Christian 
 
 tion may be substantially held together. Besides the 
 two monks who read the bana simultaneously, there are 
 usually others assembled in the building, who murmur 
 with them and lieep hold of the cord which encircles 
 the sacred area. The festival ends with a procession 
 and a mythological performance, which is often the cause 
 of lavish expenditure. Thus the word of the Buddha's 
 doctrine is perverted into a magic formula." See H. 
 Haclimann. 
 
 BANAT SU'AD. An Arabic poem in praise of 
 Mohammed. See BURDA. 
 
 BANBURY MAN. A name given to Puritans in the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
 
 BAND OF HOPE. A name given (1855) to children's 
 Societies the members of which have promised to abstain 
 from intoxicants. The name is due to Jabez Tunnicliffe, 
 of Leeds. One of the chief leaders in the movement was 
 Stephen Shirley. 
 
 BANDA. A deified man, the principal deity of the 
 Kharias, a primitive Kolarian tribe in India. 
 
 BANDANA. An annual festival, preliminary to mar- 
 riage, among the Sunthals. a wild tribe of India. The 
 unmarried men and women " indulge together in an in- 
 describable orgie, at the end of which each man selects 
 the woman he prefers " (Hopkins). 
 
 BANDE NOIRE. When the French Revolution was 
 supposed to have rendered useless many such buildings 
 as castles, monasteries, churches, chapels, abbeys, 
 societies were formed (tande noire) for the purpose of 
 purchasing them, pulling them down, and selling the 
 materials. 
 
 BANDS, CLERICAL. A kind of neckcloth or collar 
 formerly worn by clergymen. They are mentioned as 
 early as 15U6 as part of the dress of the English clergy 
 which was worn out of doors. They consist of two 
 strips of linen which hang like a necktie. Barristers in 
 England still wear something similar. Graduates at 
 the Universities used to have them, and scholars at 
 Christ's Hospital and Winchester School still have them. 
 In the Church of England they have survived as part 
 of the clerical Court dress. In France and Germany 
 they are still worn. Their origin has been found in the 
 broad collars generally worn in the Tudor period or in 
 the ecclesiatical vestment known as the Amice (q.v.). 
 See G. S. Tyack, Historic Dress of the Clergy, 1897. 
 
 BANGOR, USB OF. In the early days of the Church 
 In Britain various places had liturgies of their own repre- 
 senting somewhat different modes of celebrating Mass. 
 These were called " Uses," and Bangor was one of the 
 places which had a use of its own. 
 
 BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY. A controversy in the 
 ■Church of England (1717-1720) caused by a sermon 
 preached by Dr. B. Hoadly (1076-1761), Bishop of Bangor, 
 before King George I. on the text, " My kingdom is not 
 of this world." In this sermon, which was published 
 by Royal request, the Bishop laid stress on the fact that 
 the Kingdom of God was spiritual and not temporal. Dr. 
 Hoadly was censured by Convocation for denying the 
 royal supremacy in ecclesiastical matters and for trying 
 to subvert the discipline and government of the Church. 
 The King, however, prorogued Convocation (1717). A 
 great many pamphlets were written on one side or the 
 other. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 BANJARAS. An Indian caste of carriers and drivers 
 of pack-bullocks, also known as Wanjriris. Labhanas, or 
 Mukeris. 'Their favourite deities are Banjfiri Devi, 
 whose shrine in the forest is often a heap of stones; 
 Mithu Bhiikia, who was originally a freebooter; and Siva 
 Bhnia, the great brother to all women, who was wooed 
 in vain by Mfiri Mata, the goddess of cholera. The Ban- 
 
 jiiras worship also their pack-cattle, practise witchcraft, 
 and are said to offer human sacrifices. See R. V. Russell. 
 
 BANNERS. In the Roman Catholic Church banners 
 are used in processions and services. Inside the church 
 they are hung round or near the altar. " As the soldier 
 in battle looks to the colours of his regiment, and while 
 they float aloft, knows that the day may still be won, 
 and is animated to do valiantly, so should Christians, as 
 the Church by her sanction of banners reminds us, fix 
 their gaze on that Cross of Christ which is the standard 
 of their warfare, and be continually animated by the 
 thought to fresh courage " (Addis and Arnold). 
 
 BANNS. A solemn proclamation of intended marriage 
 made in Christiian churches or in licensed public chapels. 
 The proclamation is now ordered by Act of Parliament. 
 In 1215 it had been made a general ecclesiastical law by 
 the Fourth Lateran Council. See Prot. Diet.; Cath. 
 Diet. 
 
 BANSHEE. The banshee is a female sprite or fairy 
 in Irish folklore. Originally every family would seem 
 to have possessed a banshee of its own, that is to say, 
 " the spirit of one of its ancestors who always appeared 
 to announce by its weird warning the approaching decease 
 of any member of the family" (W. G. Wood- Martin) ; 
 but she came to be identified with one of the ancient 
 goddesses and to be associated particularly with aristo- 
 cratic families. Often, too, she is the ghost of someone 
 who has suffered violence at the hands of a progenitor 
 of the family. W. G. Wood-Martin iioints out that the 
 banshee resembles the guardian angel or saint of the 
 Christian. She warned mortals of impending danger, 
 and pointed out to them the right line of conduct to 
 pursue. The moan of the wind in crevices of the rocks 
 before a storm was supposed to be the wail of the banshee, 
 and other strange noises (e.g., in old houses) were 
 explained in the same way. See W. G. Wood-Martin. 
 
 BAPHOMET. A name associated with the Templars. 
 It has been explained as a cabalistic formation, an abbre- 
 viation, written backwards, of " templi omnium hominum 
 pacis abbas," which means " abbot (or father) of the 
 temple of peace of all men." An earlier explanation, 
 however, is that the word is a corruption of Mahomet, 
 and that the Templars venerated the prophet. What- 
 ever Baphomet was, it seems to have been represented 
 or svmbolized bv a small two-headed human figure. 
 
 BAPTISM, CHRISTIAN. A word formed from a 
 Greek root meaning " to dip," and used as a special 
 designation of one of the rites of the Christian Church. 
 The practice seems to have been suggested by the Jews, 
 who removed ceremonial uncleanness by bathing the body 
 in water and required Gentiles to be baptised on becoming 
 Jewish proselytes. But the rite, it is claimed, assumed 
 a new significance. WTiereas Jewish baptism was thought 
 of only as a means of getting rid of ceremonial unclean- 
 ness. Christian baptism was regarded as " a baptism of 
 repentance for the remission of sins." Jesus allowed 
 himself to be baptised by John the Baptist. He did not 
 himself baptise, however, and it has been questioned 
 whether he himself instituted the rite. True, he is repre- 
 sented as having done so. In Matthew xxvili. 19, he is 
 represented as saying to his disciples when he appeared 
 to them after his crucifixion : " Go ye, therefore, and 
 make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them into the 
 name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy 
 Ghost." In Mark xvi. 16 we are told that he said : " He 
 that believeth and is baptized shall be saved ; but he that 
 di.sbelieveth shall be damned." But there is evidence that 
 the passage in Matthew's Gospel has been edited, and the 
 passage in Mark's Gospel belongs to the last twelve verses 
 which are widely recognised now to be a later addition. 
 At any rate, the Christian community adopted the rite at
 
 Baptism, Christian 
 
 an early date. When Peter appealed to the multitude 
 on the day of Pentecost, saying, " Kepent ye, and be 
 baptized, each one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ 
 for the remission of your sins, and ye shall receive the 
 gift of the Holy Spirit " (Acts ii. 38), about three 
 thousand persons are said to have l)een baptisied. We 
 need not suppose that people were required always to 
 Immerse themselves. The jwuring of water on the head 
 would no doubt often suffice. The Greek word for " to 
 baptize " (BairW^etv) could be used in a wide sense. It 
 sometimes meant simply " to wash " (cp. Luke xi. 38; 
 Mark vii. 4; Hebrews ix. 10). Persons were baptized at 
 first " in the name of Jesus Christ " (Acts ii. 38, x. 48) 
 or " in the name of the Lord Jesus " (Acts viii. Ifi, xix. 5). 
 Afterwards, with the development of the doctrine of the 
 Trinity, they were baptized "' in the name of the Father 
 and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost " (cp. Justin 
 Martyr, Apol. i. 61). In Colossians ii. 11 /. St. Paul 
 seems to compare baptism with circumcision. Since Jewish 
 boys were circumcised on the eighth day after birth, this 
 seems to suggest that infants were baptised in the early 
 Christian community (cp. the references to " house- 
 holds " in Acts svi. 15, 31-33, I. Corinthians i. 16). 
 Towards the end of the second century we hear almost 
 everywhere of " Catechumens." This was the name 
 given to adult converts who were being prepared for 
 baptism. The rite of initiation from the time of the 
 ai)ostles "included two principal parts: the bath, or 
 baptism with water, and the laying on of hands. The 
 fir.<?t rite conveyed the special gift of remission of sin; it 
 was the symbol of the purification of the soul, by con- 
 version and grafting into Jesus; the second rite carried 
 with it sanctification by the descent of the Holy Ghost 
 upon the soul of the neophyte. As time went on, other 
 ceremonies were introduced. Tertullian speaks not only 
 of baptism and the laying on of hands, but also mentions 
 unction, the consignation or imjwsition of the sign of the 
 cross, and lastly, a mixture of milk and honey given the 
 newly initiated to drink. And as he adds that all these 
 ceremonies were practised by the Marcionites. they must 
 date back at least to the first half of the second century " 
 (Louis Duchesne). At baptism the catechumens " were 
 required to renounce publicly, before the whole Christian 
 assembly, Satan, his pomps, and his works, which meant, 
 in fact, paganism, its worship and its lax morality. Then 
 they declared their faith in Jesus Christ, and in token 
 thereof they recited a profession of faith." This pro- 
 fession of faith was a form of the Apostles' Creed. The 
 ancient ceremonial is largely retained in the Roman 
 Catholic Church. " The priest meets the child at the 
 door of the church; drives the devil from him; breathes 
 thrice upon his face, to signify the new spiritual life 
 which is to be breathed into his soul : puts salt into hia 
 mouth, as a sign that he is to be freed from the corruption 
 of sin; signs him on the forehead and breast with the 
 sign of the cross, and leads him into the temple of (5od. 
 The recipient then, through his sponsors, professes his 
 faith by reciting the Creed and the Our Father. Then 
 the priest exorcises the child; anoints his ears and 
 nostrils with spittle — after our Lord's example, who thus 
 cured the deaf and dumb man — ^and asks him in three 
 separate interrogations whether he renounces Satan, all 
 his works, and all his pomps. He next anoints him 
 with the oil of catechumens on the breast and between 
 the shoulders. The ancient athletes were anointed before 
 their contests in the arena, and in tie same way the 
 young Christian is prepared for the ' good fight ' which 
 lies before him. The priest pours water three times on 
 his head, in the form of a cross, at the same time pro- 
 nouncing the words ' I baptise thee.' etc. After baptism, 
 chrism is put on the top of his head, to signify his union 
 
 53 
 
 Baptists 
 
 with Christ, the head of his Church ; he receives a white 
 garment, and a burning light in his hands, svmbols of 
 innocence and of the light of faith and charity " (Addis 
 and Arnold). In the Church of England there are three 
 forms of Service : one for the public baptism of infants, 
 a second for Uie private baptism of children in houses, 
 and a third for the baptism of those of riper years. In 
 the public baptism of infants, the priest requests the 
 sfjonsors to name the child, " and then naming it after 
 them (if they shall certify him that the child may well 
 endure it) he shall dip it in the water discreetlv and 
 wanly, saying " the formula of baptism. " But if they 
 certify that the child is weak, it shall suffice to pour water 
 uf)on it." In practice, whether a child is weak or not, 
 the latter method is now generally followed. After this 
 '■ the priest shall make a cross upon the child's fore- 
 head " saying : " We receive this child into the congrega- 
 tion of Christ's flock, and do sign him with the sign of 
 the cross," etc. In the baptism of those of riper years, 
 the priest requests the godfather and godmother to name 
 the person to be baptised, " and then shall dip him in 
 the water, or pour water upon him." The controversies 
 about baptism which have arisen from time to time are 
 dealt with under separate headings. Cp. ABLUTIONS 
 See Uncycl. Hibl: Cath. Diet.; Prot. Diet.; Louis 
 Duchesne, Bist.; Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 BAPTISM OF BLOOD. A baptism of blood seems to 
 have figured in the worship of Attis (g.v.). The wor- 
 shipper stood in a pit while the blood of a bull which had 
 been stabbed to death poured through a grating above 
 his head. In this baptism he was born again to eternal 
 life, and for a time he was dieted as a new-t)orn child. 
 The ancient Greeks purged a manslayer by smearing him 
 with pig's blood, the idea perhaps being that the blood is 
 accepted by the ofiended spirit " as a substitute for the 
 blood of the guilty person " (J. G. Frazer, Adonis Attis 
 Osiris, 1906). Sometimes a child receives a baptism of 
 blood (e.g., among the Gipsies of northern Hungary), the 
 object being " to unite the child in the closest bond with 
 the person whose blood is shed." See further E. S. Hart- 
 land, Perseus, 1894-1896. 
 
 BAPTISTERY. The name of a place or building 
 specially set apart for the performance of Christian bap- 
 tism. In ancient times it was a separate building attached 
 to Cathedral churches. The baptisterv was circular or 
 polygonal with a bath in the middle, which in the West 
 was called " piscina." There is a specimen at Ravenna in 
 Italy belonging to about A.D. 430. The baptistery is now 
 only a name for part of a church. " According to the 
 Roman Rituale, it should be railed off. it should have a 
 gate fastened by a lock, and be adorned, if possible, with 
 a picture of Christ's baptism by St. John " (Addis and 
 Arnold). See W. R. W. Stephens. Common Prayer, 1901 
 
 BAPTISTS. A large body of Christians who object to 
 infant baptism, and claim that, in the light of Scripture 
 and of the original Greek term (baptizein). baptism is 
 efficacious only when persons are baptized by immersion 
 at an age at which they are able fullv to understand the 
 meaning of the rite. Baptism is a new birth (•' Except 
 a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God ") 
 of which the recipient must be fullv conscious, having 
 been taught the truths of Christianity. Appeal is made 
 to Romans vi. 4 : " We were buried therefore with him 
 through baptism into death, that like as Christ was raised 
 from the dead through the glory of the Father, so we also 
 might walk in newTiess of life "; and Colossians ii. 12: 
 " having been buried with him in baptism, wherein ye 
 were al.so rai.sed with him through faith in the working 
 of God, who raised him from the dead." The Baptists 
 do not care to be identified with the Anabaptists of the 
 sixteenth century, whose principles were certainly in some
 
 Baraitha 
 
 54 
 
 respects very diJferent. Apparently they claim a kind 
 of apostolic succession for their practices Some of their 
 principles, however, they find represented aniong suci 
 sects as the Cathari and Albigenses of the Middle Ages. 
 In the twelfth century there were numbers of baptists 
 among the Waldenses. Two leading opponents of infant 
 baptism, Peter de Brueys and Arnold of Brescia, vfere 
 condemned bv the Lateran Council in U39. Arnold of 
 Brescia and Henry of Lausanne gathered around them 
 manv followers and organised a kind of Baptist Churcn 
 at Toulouse in the south of France. Their followers 
 were called Petrobrusiaus or Henricians. Coming down 
 to later times, a connection is suggested with the Men- 
 nonites ("Dutch Baptists") of the sixteenth century, 
 and more especially with the Brownists {q.v.) of the early 
 part of the seventeenth century. A Baptist Church is 
 .said indeed to have existed in England in 1417. At any 
 rate we are told that " there were certainly Baptist 
 ' churches ' in England as early as 15S9, and there could 
 scarcely have been several organised communities without 
 the corresponding opinions having been held by indi- 
 viduals and some churches established for years previous 
 to this date " (H. S. Skeats and C. S. Miall). But Robert 
 Browne and his successors seem to have been the founders 
 of new denominations. Henry Jacob (1503-1024) is said 
 to have changed the name " Brownists " into Inde- 
 pendents," and in 1616 to have established at Blackfriars, 
 London a community which claimed to be '"The first Inde- 
 pendent or Congregational Church in England." As far 
 as this particular claim is concerned, " it is now clearly 
 established that an Independent church, of which Richard 
 Fitz was pastor, existed in 1568 " (Skeats and Miall). But 
 the importance of Henry Jacob's church remains. In 
 course of time certain members of this congregation, 
 having convinced themselves that baptism ought not to be 
 administered to infants, separated, and in 1033 established 
 a distinct church of which the minister was John Spils- 
 bury In 1639 there was anotier congregation which met 
 in Crutched Friars. In the same year Roger Williams 
 (]004''-1683) founded the first Baptist Church in North 
 America at Providence. The spread of the movement 
 in England after this was so rapid that in 1646 there are 
 believed to have been forty-six congregations in and 
 around London. In the reigns of Henry VIII. and of 
 Elizabeth, the Baptists were numerous and important 
 enough to attract the notice of the authorities and to 
 suffer persecution. Since the reign of William III., in 
 which they obtained a full measure of religious liberty, 
 their progress has been unchecked. In 1908 there were 
 424 DOS members of the Baptist Union (formed in 1813) in 
 the British Isles; and in the United States the members 
 numbered over 6,000.000. The Bapti.st.s have excellent 
 Colleges, and send their missionaries to India, Ceylon, 
 China, Palestine, the West Indies, Africa, Brittany, and 
 Italy. Their church-government is congregational. The 
 body has a number of sub-divisions. There are : 
 General Baptists or Arminian Baptists (American Free- 
 will Baptists) who believe that Christ died to save all 
 men: and Particular Baptists who believe that he died 
 to save only an elect number of persons. There are 
 also Free-will Baptists, Old School Baptists, Six-Principle 
 Baptists, Seventh-day Baptists, Se-Baptists, Scottish 
 Baptists, Tunkers, Campbellites, and Hard-Shell Baptists. 
 See John Hunt: J. H. Blunt; Piot. Diet.; Chambers' 
 Encncl. : the D.y.B. 
 
 BARAITHA. A name given to additions to the Jewish 
 Mishnah (q.v.). The term means literally " external," 
 and its use corresponds to some extent to that of the 
 term " apocrypha." The Baraithas are Tannaite tradi- 
 tions (see TANNAIM) which have not been incorporated 
 in the Mishnah. See W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 Barnabites 
 
 BARASHNOM OF NINE NIGHTS. A Parsee. ceremony 
 of purification, practised mostly by priests and lasting 
 nine nights. "The ceremony is described in the Vendidad 
 (Fargard ix.). " The person who has to undergo the 
 ceremony must drink the urine of a cow, sit on stones 
 within the compass of certain magic circles, and while 
 moving from one heap of stones to another he must rub 
 his body with cow's urine, then with sand, and lastly 
 wash it with water. This custom has descended from 
 the most ancient times, when a purifying and healing 
 influence was ascribed to the urine proceeding from so 
 sacred an animal as the cow was to the ancient Aryans " 
 (Haug). See Martin Haug. 
 
 BARBELIOTES. The Gnostic sect in Iberia referred 
 to by Irenaeus, Augustine, and Epiphanius. It was 
 named after Barbelos or Barbelo, a name which was 
 perhaps framed out of two Hebrew words, har baalah, 
 " son of the Lady," or bar baal, " son of the Lord." The 
 Barbeliotes claimed that Barbelo was the son of the 
 Father by a mother named Jaldabaoth or Sabaoth. From 
 him came JAght who was anointed by the Father and 
 became Christ. The sect received the name Borborians 
 from the Greek word borboros, " filth " or " mud," pro- 
 bablv on account of .some of their secret practices. See 
 J. H. Blunt. 
 
 BARCELONA, TREATY OF. A treaty made between 
 Charles V. and Pope Clement VII. in 1529. The Emperor 
 consented to receive his crown from the Pope's hands at 
 Rome, and undertook as far as possible to prevent the 
 reformed religion from spreading. 
 
 BARDESANISTS. The followers of Bardesanes (A.D. 
 154-222), a Syrian, who was bom at Edessa in Mesopo- 
 tamia. It has been thought that he was the tutor of 
 Clement of Alexandria. He was the " last of the 
 Gnostics," but developed a system of his own. He tried 
 to explain the origin of evil by assuming two supreme 
 principles, the one good, the other evil, which are co- 
 equal. He asserted that the body of Christ was not real, 
 but celestial, and he would not accept the doctrine of the 
 resurrection of the body. He wrote many hymns which 
 proved a successful means of spreading his teaching. See 
 A. Hilgenfeld, Bardesanes, 1864. 
 
 BAREFOOTED FRIARS. There has been no distinct 
 order of friars who have made it a practice to go bare- 
 foot; but a certain number of mendicant friars belonging 
 to various orders (e.g., Carmelites, Franciscans) have 
 done so. 
 
 BARLAAMITES. The followers of Barlaam, a Cala- 
 brian abbot. He was an opponent of the Hesychasts, 
 mystics aniong the monks of Mount Athos, who 
 believed that by bringing the body into a state of perfect 
 repose and fixing their gaze steadily on their own navels, 
 they were able to cultivate the " inner light." Barlaam 
 called them " omphalopsychi," and accused them of 
 believing in two Gods, a God invisible, and a God visible. 
 A Council held at Constantinople A.D. 1340 supported the 
 Hesvchasts and condemned Barlaam. 
 
 BAR-MITZVAH. Literally " Son of the Command- 
 ment," a Jewish designation given to a boy when he 
 reaches his religious maturity, j.e., when he is thirteen 
 years of age. From this time he has to observe the 
 whole Law. The occasion is marked by a special cere- 
 mony in the Synagogue at which the boy is called upon 
 to read aloud or chant a portion of the Law, and by a 
 festival in the home. See W. O. B. Oesterley and G. H. 
 Box. 
 
 BARNABAS, EPISTLE OF. See APOSTOLIC 
 FATHERS. 
 
 BARNABITES. The popular designation of the 
 " Regular Clerks of the Congregation of St. Paul." They 
 are called Barnabites because in the sixteenth century
 
 Barrowists 
 
 55 
 
 Basilidians 
 
 they preached In a church of St. Barnabas in Milan. The 
 order was founded by St. Antonio Maria Zaccaria (in 
 particular), Bartolommeo Ferrari, and Giacomo Antonio 
 Morigena, and the foundation was sanctioned by Clement 
 VII. in 1533. In 1579 St. Charles Borromeo, Archbishop 
 of Milan, examined their constitutions, and 13nally 
 approved and confirmed them. The Barnabites are a 
 body of secular clergy who live in the world but devote 
 their lives to the work of caring for the sicli, instructing 
 the young, preaching repentance, and sanctifying them- 
 selves. " Besides the three usual vows they talie a 
 fourth, never to seek any office or ecclesiastical dignity, 
 and to accept no post outside of their order without the 
 permission of the Pope. The habit is merely the black 
 soutane worn by secular priests in Lombardy at the time 
 of their foundation " (Addis and Arnold). They have 
 now about twenty colleges in Italy, Austria, and France, 
 their chief establishment being at Rome, where their 
 General resides. 
 
 BARROWISTS. The followers of Henry Barrow (d. 
 1593). See BKOWNISTS. 
 
 BARSANIANS. An ofTshoot of the Acephali (g.v.) in 
 the second half of the fifth century A.D. They are said 
 to have been followers of Barsanius. and have been 
 identified with the Semidalites. 
 
 BARSANUPHITES. An ofTshoot of the Acephali (q.v.) 
 at the end of the fifth century A.D. They took their 
 name from one Barsanuphius. 
 
 BARSOM. In the Old Testament there is a reference 
 (Bzekiel viii. IG, 17) to a practice of holding twigs towards 
 the face in worship. The prophet reproves some of the 
 Jews for doing this as well as for worshipping the sun. 
 The Parsees have such a custom, and the bundle of twigs 
 which they use is called Barsom. In Yasna Ivii. of the 
 Zend-avesta the angel Sraosha (Srosh) is worsiiipped as 
 " he who of Ahuramazda's creatures first worshipped 
 Ahuramazda by means of arranging the sacred twigs 
 (Barsom) " and as " he who first arranged the bundle of 
 sacred twigs (Barsom), that with three, that with five, 
 that with seven, and that with nine stalks, those which 
 were as long as to go up to the knees, and those which 
 went as far as the middle of the breast (he arranged 
 them) to worship, to praise, to satisfy, and to extol the 
 archangels." In one form of the ceremony with this 
 bundle of sacred twigs, the twigs had to be arranged in 
 a certain prescribed order while portions of a sacred book 
 were being chanted. Thin metal wires are now generally 
 used instead of twigs. See Martin Hang. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF ST. The name 
 given to the well-known massacre of the Huguenots, 
 because it took place on St. Bartholomew's Day, the 24th 
 of August. Catharine de Medici, regent of France, 
 planned that the Huguenots in Paris should be fallen 
 upon and slaughtered on St. Bartholomew's Day, 1572. 
 The signal was given by the ringing of a bell in the tower 
 of the royal palace, and it is calculate<i that the number 
 of persons who were killed exceeded 4,000. The provinces 
 followed the example of Paris, continuing the slaughter 
 for some weeks. 
 
 BARULI. A branch of the Albanenses in the twelfth 
 century A.D. They maintained that Christ took a 
 celestial kind of body and was not truly incarnate. 
 
 BASILIANS. A monastic order founded by St. Basil 
 (d. .S79), Bi.shop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. His mother 
 Emelia and his sister Macrina had already founded 
 monasteries in a desert region of Pontus when Basil, on 
 his return from a visit to monasteries in Egypt. Palestine 
 and Mesopotamia, established a monastic order of his 
 own. Of his two rules, the Great and the Little, the 
 Great comprised fifty-five articles, the Little three 
 hundred and thirteen. These monastic rules now prevail 
 
 in the Greek Church. St. Benedict himself seems to 
 have taken hints from them. The Basilians have 
 flourished in Southern Italy, Spain, Russia, Austrian 
 Poland and Hungary. There is now a Basilian establish- 
 ment at Plymouth, the College of St. Mary Immaculate. 
 In Austrian Poland and Hungary these monks are called 
 Ruthenians. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 BASILICA. A name applied to Christian churches 
 about the beginning of the fourth century. In Rome 
 before the time of Constant ine the Christians seem to 
 have used as places of worship the private basilicas of 
 Roman palaces and sepulcliral buildings (sometimes cata- 
 combs). In the age of Constantine they built basilicas 
 of their own with distinctive features. In Syria many 
 Chriirtian basilicas have been unearthed in recent years, 
 dating from the fourth century. The earliest of these 
 are not characterised by distinctive features. " It is 
 often only by the inscriptions that certain basilicas can 
 be known as churches, since these are made in exact 
 imitation of the public buildings of the Romans of the 
 previous period " (Camden M. Cobern). " Between the 
 fourth and fifth centuries there was some development 
 in architecture, so that strange styles of capitals and a 
 new and rich Christian symbolism appear. In the fifth 
 century classic models of ornamentation are less and less 
 used. The churches of this era. instead of the nine 
 arches on either side of the nave as in the fourth century, 
 now have seven and sometimes five arches, and the 
 central nave becomes much wider and the apse arch much 
 broader, while bands of chain and basket work orna- 
 ment the mouldings. The churches are large and 
 magnificent, often having splendid baptistries in con- 
 nection with them, and va.st inns for the accommodation 
 of pilgrims: they often stand inside of strong forts, whose 
 towers occasionally, as at Kasrll-Benat, rise to six 
 .stories in height." The sixth century " saw the elabora- 
 tion and perfection of all the architectural motifs that 
 had been initiated and developed in the two centuries 
 preceding." To this eenturj' belongs the church of St. 
 Simeon Stylites at Kal'at Similn, described by H. C. 
 Butler as the " most magnificent ruin of early Christian 
 architecture in the world." One church, dated A.D 
 582, "very nearly anticipates by 500 years the Lombard 
 and French Romanesque system, which has vaults con- 
 structed above the nave and side aisles." Cobern's 
 account is based on Howard Crosby Butler's Ancient 
 Architecture in l<yria. 1910. See also the Cath. Diet. 
 
 BASILIDIANS. The followers of Basilides (d. about 
 A.D. 1.39), one of the earliest of the great Alexandrian 
 Gnostics (see GNOSTICS). He seems previously to 
 have spent some time in Syria. Menander was one of 
 his teaeher.s. According to his own account, these also 
 included St. Matthias and one Glaucias (otherwise 
 unknown), who is supposed to have been a.ssociated 
 closely with St. Peter. Basilides recognised one Supreme 
 Being or Fir.st Cause, and called Him Abraxas. The 
 letters of this name are supposed to give the number 305, 
 like the name of the Persian sun-god Mithras. Abraxas 
 has been explained as a Coptic word meaning " Hallowed 
 by the Name." Basilides taught that from Abra.vas 
 snrang the Understanding or Nous, from the Fnder- 
 standing the Word or Logos, from the Word Providence, 
 from Providence Power, from Power Wisdom, from 
 Wisdom Righteousness, from Righteousness Peace. From 
 these again sprang the higher angels, principalities, and 
 ]x>wers: and from these the lower angels. The God of 
 the Jews wa.s only one of those angels of the lowest kind 
 who created the world. Christ, the Son (nous) of the 
 Supreme Being, was sent down to bring to man, who 
 had become corrupt, heavenly knowledge. He joined 
 himself to the man Je.sus, and it was this man, not the
 
 Basle, Confession of 
 
 56 
 
 Bav 
 
 €hrist, who was crucified. Regardinjt matter as evil, 
 Basilides did not believe in the resurrection of the body. 
 But he believed in a kind of metempsychosis or trans- 
 migration of souls. Saints and martyrs, he held, suffered 
 because they had sinned in a previous stage of existence. 
 Everyone had to atone for his sins in this way, by living 
 again in a different body. But in some people faith 
 and godline-ss, are inborn. The Holy Spirit descended 
 upon Jesus at his Baptism, and left him before his 
 death. Basilides wrote some Commentaries. He did 
 not recognise the Old Testament as authoritative, and 
 rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Epistles to 
 Timothy and Titus. His followers seem to have developed 
 and corrupted his teaching. See J. U. Blunt, and the 
 literature under GNOSTICISM. 
 
 BASLE, CONFESSION OF. One of the most imjiortant 
 of the Protestant confessions of faith drawn up in the 
 sixteenth century (A.D. 1532-36). The Confession of Augs- 
 burg being eonsiderd still too Catholic, the Confession of 
 Basle was framed by Protestant ministers of Basle to 
 repair these defects. It was reconstructed (A.D. 1536) 
 by Bucer, Capito, and the theologians of Wurtemberg, 
 renamed the Helvetic Confession, and accepted for all 
 the Swiss churches at the Synod of Smalkalden. Another 
 revision, made bv Bullinger and published in Latin soon 
 after 1560, was subscribed by all the Protestant Evangeli- 
 cal communities, having been first accepted by the 
 magistrates of Mulhausen. Thus arose the name 
 Mylhusian Confession. It was accepted by all the 
 " ministers of the Church of Christ " in Switzerland " as 
 a testimony to all the faithful that they remain in the 
 unity of the true and ancient Church of Christ, teaching 
 no new or erroneous doctrines, and having no connection 
 with any sects or heresies; a fact of which all pious 
 persons are invited to assure themselves by its perusal " 
 (Preface). The Confession was accepted also by all the 
 Reformed non-Lutheran communities in France and 
 Flanders. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 BASLE, COUNCIL OF. In accordance with decrees 
 of the Council of Constance (A.D. 1414-1418) which recom- 
 mended the convening of a general council every five 
 years. Pope Martin V. summoned one to meet at Pavia 
 in 1423. Difliculties having arisen with regard to this 
 plan, the place was altered to Basle, and the date to 
 July, 1431. Cardinal Julian Ce.sarini was nominated as 
 papal legate and president. Many French and German 
 bishops assembled at Basle: but in the meantime, Martin 
 V. having died and his successor Pope Eugenius IV. 
 having decided that there were objections to the suit- 
 ability of Basle, the place of meeting was altered to 
 Bologua. The bishops assembled at Basle under Cesarini 
 opposed the transfer, and continued. The representa- 
 tives from France and Germany had been joined by a few 
 from Italy, Spain, and England. In 1432 the Pope sent 
 a legate, Christopher. Bishop of Cervia, to confer with 
 them, and in 14.33 delegated other legates to be present, 
 who were not well received. The next year a letter from 
 the Pope seemed to have arranged matters, and the papal 
 legates were admitted. In June 1435, however, the 
 Council passed a decree for the reform of the Roman 
 Chancery which the Pope would not sanction. A 
 difference next arose among the members of the Council 
 themselves on the question of removing the Council to 
 Avignon or Ferrara, the majority deciding in favour of 
 Avignon. The Pope, however, in October. 1437, formally 
 transferred the Council to Ferrara. In May, 1439 those 
 who remained at Basle under the Cardinal of Aries pro- 
 ceeded to depose Eugenius and to elect in his place 
 Amadeus of Savoy, who became known as Felix V. In 
 April, 1445, he abdicated, and the Council of Basle, now 
 at Lausanne, recognised Nicholas V. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 BASMOTHBANS. A sect referred to in the Apostolic 
 Constitutions (vi. 6), persons " who deny Providence, and 
 say that the world is made by spontaneous motion, and 
 take away the immortality of the soul." The name seems 
 to be a variation or corruption of Masbotheans. 
 
 BASSINAM. A kind of ornament which plays a part 
 in one of the ceremonies of a Hindu marriage. The 
 ornament, decked with gold leaf or gold paper, and 
 entwined with flowers, is placed on the foreheads of 
 husband and wife as a protection against the evil eye of 
 ill-disposed persons. See J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beau- 
 champ. 
 
 BAST. The name of a goddess in the early religion of 
 the ancient Egyptians. The Greek name is Bubastis. 
 Bast delighted in music and dancing, and is commonly 
 represented as holding in her hand the sistrum used by 
 dancing-women, and on her arm a basket. As regards 
 form, she is represented with the head of a cat. When 
 later (c. 950 B.C.) Bubastis in the Delta became tlie 
 capital of the Libyan ruler Sheshonk, Bast was made 
 the official deity of his kingdom. A great festival was 
 held in the town, a feature of which was the dancing 
 and the playing of ca.s-tanets. Erman reproduces a figure 
 of Bast in the Berlin Museum in which she appears with 
 a human head, but may be recognized by the basket on 
 her right arm and by two cats which she holds one in 
 each hand. See A. Erman. 
 
 BATH-KOL. Literally " daughter of a voice," a term 
 occurring in Hebrew religion. It is a divine or heavenly 
 voice, and, though the ordinary word for voice (kol) is 
 sometimes used alone in the same sense, it was called 
 " daughter of a voice" for the sake of distinction. It 
 was not thought of as an echo, but as a real voice which 
 could be distinctly heard, though the author could not 
 be seen. Sometimes it would roar like a lion, at other 
 times murmur like a dove. A distinction is often made 
 between the Bath-kol and the Holy Spirit. The Holy 
 Spirit entered into a close relationship with the prophets 
 and possessed them. The Bath-kol was something 
 external. They could not possess it. The idea of the 
 Bath-kol was no doubt suggested by certain psychological 
 phenomena which are not uncommon even at the present 
 day. Compare the experience of Saint Augustine 
 (William James, Varieties of Religious Experience, 1906, 
 p. 171). See the Jeicish Encycl., ii., 1902; and cp. W. O. 
 E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 BAU. The name of a goddess in the early religion of 
 Babylonia (referred to before 2300 B.C.). A ruler of 
 Lagash who added her name to his own and called him- 
 self Ur-Bau, built her a temple at Um-azaga (" brilliant 
 town "). She was the consort of Nin-girsu, the god of 
 Girsu, another district of Lagash, and on New Tear's 
 Day, Zag-muk, called the Festival of Ban, bridegrooms 
 were accustomed to offer presents to their chosen ones. 
 There does not seem to be any connection between Ban 
 and the Hebrew Bohu. Old inscriptions speak of her 
 as the chief daughter of Ann (r/.v.), the god of heaven. 
 In incantation texts she is the great mother, the begetter 
 and also the healer of mankind, in other words, the 
 goddess of abundance and fertility. In processions the 
 deities were carried in ships, and Ban's ship bore the 
 name " the ship of the brilliant oOspring." See Morris 
 Jastrow, Bel. 
 
 BAV. An ancient Irish deity, the goddess of war. The 
 name signifies rage, fury, or violence, and " ultimately 
 came to be applied to a witch, fairy, or goddess, repre- 
 sented by the scarescald- or royston-crow " (W. G. Wooil- 
 Martin). Bav is represented in Irish tales of war and 
 battle as a scald-crow screaming in anticipation of wide- 
 spread carnage. In the South of Ireland it is said that 
 the term is applied now to a scolding woman or virago.
 
 Baxterians 
 
 57 
 
 Beena-Marriage 
 
 BAXTERIANS. The followers of Richard Baxter 
 (1615-1691). Baxter was the son of a well-to-do person, 
 but his father being a gambler, the early years of his 
 life were spent with his grandfather. He was mainly 
 self-educated. In 1638, after trying a court-life, he was 
 ordained and was appointed Head-master of a school at 
 Dudley. He soon left this post to take up ministerial 
 work. On the outbreak of the civil war in 1642 he sided 
 with the Parliament, and retired to Coventry, where he 
 became chaplain to the garrison. He afterwards acted 
 as chaplain to Colonel Whalley's regiment, and was pre- 
 sent at several sieges. Then, his health failing, he left 
 the army, and quietly awaited his end. Meantime, he 
 began to write his book "The Saints' Everlasting Rest " 
 (published in 1650). He had formerly been preacher at 
 Kidderminster (1641). His old parishioners now invited 
 him to return, which he did. In 1660 he went to London 
 and became one of the King's chaplains. Here he 
 took an Important part In preparing the " Reformed 
 Liturgy." When the Act of Uniformity was passed, he 
 left the Church of England (1662). In 1663 he went to 
 live at Acton, and was occupied with literary work there 
 until 1672, when the Act of Indulgence gave him an 
 opportunity of returning to London. In 1685 he was 
 brought before the brutal Judge Jeffreys and charged 
 w'th libelling the Church in his " Paraphrase of the New 
 Testament " (1685). He was condemned, fined, and 
 imprisoned for nearly eighteen months. He died on the 
 8th of December, 1691. Baxter was remarkably catholic 
 and tolerant for his period. He was viewed in one 
 quarter as an Arminian, and in another as a Calvinist. 
 See the Reli^iuuie Baxterianae, 1696; John Hunt; the 
 D.N.B. 
 
 BAYAN, THE. The sacred book or Bible of Babism 
 {q.v.), the most important of the works written by Mirza 
 AJi Mohammad. 
 
 BEADS. In the Roman Catholic Church, beads made 
 of glass or other sub-stances are used by worshippers to 
 help them to remember a set number of prayers. A 
 string of these beads is called a Rosary. 
 
 BEARD. We learn from the Old Testament that 
 amongst the Hebrews the beard was shaved as a sign 
 of mourning (Isaiah xv. 2; Jeremiah xli. 5, xlviii. 37). 
 The Arabs touch the beard, or swear by it, as a token 
 of good faith (Doughty, Arahia Deserta i. 250). The 
 Hebrew priests were forbidden to shavf off " the comer 
 of their beard " (Leviticus xxi. 5), but Egyptian priests 
 were accustomed to shave. On the other hand, the 
 Egyptian god is represented as wearing a long beard. 
 See Encyol. Bibl. 
 
 BECKMANITES. A religious sect founded by Mrs. 
 Dora Beckman (d. 1883), of Alpena, Michigan. She 
 claimed that in her person Christ was incarnate and had 
 become " the bride of the Church." 
 
 BEDS, SACRED. It has been pointed out by Professor 
 Elliot Smith (Mi.) that it is a familiar scene in ancient 
 Egyptian pictures to find the mummy l)orne upon a bed, 
 and that in a proto-dynastic cemetery, on a site excavated 
 by FKnders Petrie at Tarkhan, corpses have been found 
 lying upon beds. It may well be assumed that such beds, 
 or some of them, came to be regarded as sacred. In the 
 sanctuary of Men, the chief god of Antioch in Pisidia, 
 Sir William Ramsay in his excavations found " three of 
 the feet of the ' holy bed ' used for the my.stic marriage 
 ceremony between the god and his godde.ss — in which ser- 
 vice, according to immemorial tradition, Anatolian ladies, 
 even those of highest rank, were expected to take part " 
 (Cobem). In Ireland, as noted by W. G. Wood-Martin, 
 there are a number of sacred spots known as Saints' Beds 
 or Priests' Beds, to which devout persons, especially 
 
 women, used to resort. St. Molaise's bed is near his 
 house in the Island of Devenish. It is " a stone trough 
 (coffin) sunk level with the surface of the ground, six 
 feet in length and fifteen inches wide, in which people 
 lie down and repeat some prayers, in hope of relief from 
 any pains with which they may be affected." According 
 to Lady Wilde, there is a stone receptacle called " The 
 Bed of the Holy Ghost " in one of the wild desolate 
 islands off the Western coast of Ireland. If one passed 
 a night in it, it would heal all diseases, and to a woman 
 would bring the blessing of children. In a depression 
 or cavity of a slab of rock on Inishmore, now called 
 Church Island, in Lough Gill, county Sligo, was a bed 
 called " Our Lady's Bed." Women who desired children 
 lay in it, turned thrice round, and repeated certain 
 prayers. It is said that to '■ St. Patrick's Bed " on 
 Croagh Patrick only barren women resorted. Here, after 
 going round the bed seven times, they lay in it and turned 
 round seven times. 
 
 BEDAWIYEH. An order of Dervishes, founded by 
 Ahmed el-Bedawy (d. 1276). The Bedawtyeh, according 
 to F. J. Bliss, follow ecstatic principles similar to those 
 of the mother order, the Qadirlveh (q.v.). 
 
 BEDIKATH CHAMETS. Literally "the search for 
 leaven," a Jewish ceremony on the evening of the 13th 
 Nisan, when, in preparation for the celebration of the 
 Passover, the master of a house searches the house 
 for leaven in order to remove or destroy it. See the 
 Jpicish Encyol.; W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 BEELZEBUB. A name occurring in the New Testa- 
 ment (Matthew x. 25, xii. 24, 27, Mark iii. 22, Luke xi. 
 15, 18 f.). This is the reading of the Authorised and 
 Revised Versions; but the margin of the Revised Version, 
 following a better attested Greek reading i BeeA^e/3ouA) 
 has " Beelzebul." Beelzebul is the Aramaic form of 
 Baalzebul, " lord of the mansion," which was altered in 
 contempt to Baalzebub, " lord of flies " (Aramaic form, 
 Beelzebub). The Jews of New Testament times seem to 
 have interpreted " lord of the mansion " as " lord of the 
 nether world." When Jesus healed one possessed with, 
 a devil, the Pharisees are said to have remarked : " This 
 man doth not cast out devils, but by Beelzebub, the prince 
 of the devils" (Matthew xii. 24). An older view (Light- 
 foot) was that Beelzebul was intended by the Pharisees 
 to he understood " lord of dung," zehul being equivalent 
 to the Hebrew word zebel, " dung." See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BEENA-MARRIAGE. A form of marriage which 
 seems to have l)een common among the Semites in the 
 r>eriod before the tribes separated. Robertson Smith 
 brings forward evidence to show that " there was a well- 
 established custom of marriage in Arabia in which the 
 woman remained with her kin and chose and dismissed 
 her partner at will, the children belonging to the mother's 
 kin and growing up under their protection." J. F. 
 McLennan has given the name beena marriages to mar- 
 riages of this kind, because in Ceylon '• unions in which 
 the hu.sband goes to settle in his wife's village " are so 
 called. Robertson Smith accepts the term as applied to 
 " regulated unions which really deserve the name of mar- 
 riage." In the beena system of marriage it was the 
 custom for the wife to receive her husband in her own 
 tent; and a trace of this custom is found in Arabic, Syriac 
 and Hebrew linguistic usage when the husband is said 
 to " go in " (to the tent) to the bride (see Genesis xxxviii. 
 S; Deuteronomy xxii. 13; Judges xv. 1), whereas, as a 
 matter of fact, the bride was brought in to the husband. 
 There are other traces of fiepna-marriage or matriarchy 
 in the Old Testament (e.g.. Genesis xxiv. 67; cp. the 
 feminine tribal names : Keturah, Leah. BiUiah, Zilpah). 
 In the case of Samson's marriage (Judges xiv.) the wife 
 continued to belong to her own tribe. Cp. BAAL-
 
 Bees 
 
 58 
 
 Bekhorotb 
 
 MARRIAGE. See W. Robertson Smith, Kinship; the 
 Enoycl. Bibl., s.v. " Kinship." 
 
 BEES. The cufitom of '■ telling the bees " has been 
 observed in this country. In Germany, on the death of 
 the master or mistress of a house, it has been the practice 
 to give the message to every bee-hive in the garden and 
 to every beast in the stall. In addition to this, " every 
 sack of com must be touched and everything in the house 
 shaken, that they may know the master is gone." See 
 E. B. Tylor, P.O. 
 
 BEETLE. The Egyptian god Rft Is sometimes repre- 
 sented aa a glittering beetle, and the beetle was the special 
 emblem of the god Khepera. The scarahmus or model 
 of a beetle was one of the most popular talismans. 
 According to the River Chaco Indians, the universe was 
 created by a gigantic beetle. 
 
 BBPANA. An Italian word, a corruption of Epiphania, 
 Epiphany. Befana is a figure in Italian folklore. She 
 Is a female spirit or fairy who is suppo-ssed to visit children 
 on Twelfth Night and to put presents in the stockings 
 which they have hung up before the fire. But she metes 
 out punishment as well as reward. If a child has been 
 naughty, she fills the stocking with ashes. Formerly it 
 was the custom on Twelfth Night for a procession to pass 
 through the streets carrying a figure called the Befana. 
 
 BEGGING HERMITS. See AUGUSTINIANS. 
 
 BEGHARDS. Associations of laymen modelled on 
 those of the Beguines {q.v.). They are first heard of in 
 the early part of the thirteenth century in Germany, the 
 Netherlands, and the South of France. Later they 
 became known in France as " bons gargons " or " boni 
 pueri " and as " bons valets " or " boni valeti." They 
 became vagrants and mendicants, and quickly 
 degenerated. Having allied themselves with the Frati- 
 celll and the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, 
 and having given themselves up to Antinomianism, severe 
 measures were taken against them. Called upon to 
 suffer persecution after 1367, many of them preferred to 
 join the third orders of the Mendicant fraternities. They 
 were suppressed by Pope Innocent X. in 1650. See J. H. 
 Blunt; Cath. Diet. 
 
 BEGOONI. Begooni or " the Runners " is another 
 name for the Stranniki (q.v.). a Russian sect. 
 
 BEGUINES. A Roman Catholic sisterhood. The 
 founder is supposed to have been St. Begga (A.D. 700) or 
 (more likely) Lambert le B&gues or le B^ghe who about 
 the year 11S4 establi.ihed in Li&ge an institution for pious 
 widows and single women. These women lived under a 
 superior in an establishment consisting of a number of 
 cottages, a chapel, a hospital, etc. The establishment 
 was called a B^guinage or a Beginagium, and the sisters 
 were known as B^ghines or Beguines (also Beguinsp, 
 Beguttfp). The only vow which they took was one of 
 obedience and chastity while they remained in the 
 B4guinage. They were free to leave when they liked. 
 They devoted themselves to good works, including educa- 
 tion. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries they 
 were active in France, Germany, and the Netherlands. 
 In the fourteenth century many of them became 
 associated with the Fraticelli and the Brethren and 
 Sisters of the Free Spirit. They were suspected of 
 immoral practices, and were condemned by the Council 
 of Vienne (1311). B^gninages are still to be found in 
 Belgium. The B^guinage of St. Elizabeth at Ghent 
 forms in itself a little town within a town, like the 
 Francke Institutes at Halle. There are also " Beguinen- 
 haflser " in Germany, but these are almshouses and have 
 ceased to be real B^guinages. See Cath. Diet.; J. H. 
 Blunt: Chambers' Enoycl. 
 
 BEHEMOTH. An animal referred to in the Old Testa- 
 ment (Job xl. 15-24). The term is the plural form of a 
 
 Hebrew word which is common in the singular in the 
 .sense of " cattle." It seems to be an intensive plural 
 meaning " colossal beast." The margin of the Revised 
 Version gives " hippopotamus." This seems to be based 
 on a supposed connection with an Egyptian word (p-ehe- 
 moii), but it is doubtful whether there was such a word. 
 Prof. T. K. Cheyne regards Behemoth as a mythological 
 monster, lord of the dry land, the other monster referred 
 to in Job (xli.). Leviathan, being lord of the ocean. He 
 thinks that the Hebrew notion of Behemoth was bor- 
 rowed from the Egyptians, that of Leviathan from the 
 Babylonians. The two monsters are referred to again 
 in two apocryphal iMSsages (Enoch Ix. 7-9: 4 Esdras vi. 
 49-52). The passage in Enoch seems to lend strong sup- 
 port to the view that Leviathan is lord of the sea, and 
 Behemoth lord of the dry land. See Enoycl. Biil. 
 
 BEHMENISTS. The followers of Jacob Behmen, 
 Boehme, or Bohm (1575-1624), a German theosophist and 
 mystic, born in Altseidenberg near Gorlitz. Even as a 
 boy, Boehme had strange religious experiences. Once he 
 " was for seven days surrounded with a divine light, and 
 stood in the highest contemplation, and in the kingdom 
 of joys." In 1004 he became a master-shoemaker in 
 Gorlitz. In 1616 he published his " Aurora, or the 
 Morning Redness," having written it some years earlier. 
 This was the first of a number of books which brought 
 him into conflict with the authorities. After a time he 
 was summoned before the Elector of Saxony, and 
 examined by six Doctors of Divinity. The court treated 
 him favourably. On his return to Gorlitz he died in 1624, 
 after having gained many disciples. His works reveal a 
 thorough knowledge of the Bible and a familiarity with 
 the language of the mystlco-philosophic alchemists of his 
 time. His object was to explain the origin of things, 
 the nature of (Jod. and the existence of evil in the terms 
 of a mystical philo.sophy. He has been studied with 
 much sympathy and appreciation in Germany, Holland, 
 and England. John Pordage (lf;07-1681), rector of Brad- 
 field. Berkshire, wrote a commentary on his works. .lane 
 I^eade (162.3-1704), an enthusiastic disciple, founded a sect, 
 the Philadelphists, for the study of his philosophy. 
 William Law (16S6-1761), author of the " Serious Call," 
 translated his writings. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) 
 took a great interest in them. See the biography of 
 Boehme by Paul Deussen (1S97) ; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 BEHR.^M. The name of one of the angels in the 
 Zoroastrian religion. He was originally called Vereth- 
 raghna, " killer of enemies." Behr9m is the giver of 
 victory. He manifests himself under various forms to 
 his worshippers (e.g., as a wind, a cow, a horse, a camel, 
 a boar, a boy of fifteen, a warrior). Zarathustra him- 
 self was one of his worshippers, and the angel rewarded 
 him with strength of arm and general vigour of body. 
 He was specially worshipped in a meal in which water 
 was consecrated, the sacred twigs, Barsom (q.v.), were 
 solemnly arranged, and an animal of reddish or yellowish 
 colour was slain and cooked. No courtezan, criminal, 
 or opponent of the Zoroastrian religion was allowed to 
 take part in it. See Martin Haug. 
 
 BEIROBA. One of the modern gods of the Hindus, 
 an incarnation of the Supreme Triad (Brahma-Vishnu- 
 Siva). According to Sir Alfred C. Lyall, Kandoba, Vit- 
 toba. Beiroba and Bai9ji are the four most popular gods 
 in the province of Berar in Central India (Asiatic 
 Studies). He thinks that not so very long ago they 
 must have been notable living men. 
 
 BBITULLAH. An Arabic expression meaning literally 
 " the house of Grod." It is a name given to the temple 
 of Mecca or the Great Mosque in which the Kaaba (q.v.) 
 stands. 
 
 BEKHOROTH. The name of one of the Jewish
 
 Bel 
 
 59 
 
 Belit 
 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are included in the Mish'nah (q.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Bekhoroth is the fourth tractate of the fifth 
 group, which is called Kodnshim (•■ Holy Things "). 
 
 BEL. The name of a Babylonian deity. He appears 
 on the oldest monuments as En-lil, which means the 
 "chief demon." He is "the lord of the lower world," 
 the lower as comimred with the upper or heavenly world. 
 Becoming the great deity of Nippur, in course of time he 
 " is released from the limitations due to his local origin 
 and rises to the still higher dignity of a great ix>wer 
 whose domain is the entire habitable universe " (M. 
 Jastrow). He then became known as Bel, " the lord " 
 par excellencp, and was venerated in north and south 
 alike. Nippur, however, remained his most important 
 place of worship. It was called the " land of Bel." The 
 great temple there called E-Kur or " mountain house " 
 was continually repaired and added to by the kings of 
 Nippur, each of whom wished to be known as " builder 
 of the Temple of Bel at Nippur." Even the patron deity 
 of the city of Babylon, Marduk, is sometimes honoured 
 by having the name of Bel combined with his own. In 
 the days of Khammurabi when Bel's powers were trans- 
 ferred to Marduk. the name was transferred as well. 
 From about the twelfth century Marduk is referred to 
 repeatedly as Bel. When Tiglathpileser I. wishes to 
 announce that he rebuilt a temple to Bel he adds the 
 word " old " to avoid confusion. The honour bestowed 
 upon Marduk is referred to in a " Marduk hymn " in the 
 Babylonian story of Creation : " Because he created the 
 heavens and formed the earth, ' Lord of Lands ' father 
 Bel called his name." Bel figures in the eleventh tablet 
 of the Gilgame.sh Epic as the rival of Ea (q.v.) and as 
 wishing to destroy mankind. Bel is mentioned in the 
 Bible in Isaiah xlvi. 1 : " Bel has bowed down, Nebo has 
 crouched " (Cheyne). See Morris Jastrow, Rel. of Baby- 
 lonia and insyria, 1898; H. Winckler, History of Babyl. 
 and Ass., 1907. 
 
 BEL AND THE DRAGON. An apocryphal addition to 
 the Book of Daniel in which in the Greek, Latin and 
 Douay Versions the fragment is actually Included. See 
 APOCRYPHA OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 BELATUCADRUS. Bel.ltucadrus, " the brilliant in 
 war," was one of the names given by the ancient Celts 
 to the god of war, the deity corresponding to the Roman 
 Mars. Beiatucadrus was held in high honour in ancient 
 Britain. The name occurs in a number of inscrip- 
 tions. 
 
 BELENUS. One of the gods worshipped by the ancient 
 Celts. The name is rather like tliat of the Phoenician 
 term Baal and of the Babylonian god Bel: but it is doubt- 
 ful whether there was any connection between them. 
 Reinach declares that " the Celtic divinity Belenus 
 (Apollo) had nothing in common with a Baal." Ausonius 
 states that Belenus was held in reverence by the Druids 
 (g.v.) as a sun-god. In any case the name Belenus sur- 
 vived in Belinus. a mythical king of Britain, and in the 
 Balin who figures in the Morte D' Arthur. See Anwyl; 
 Squire, Myth.; Reinach, 0. 
 
 BELFRIES. It has been held that the Irish round 
 towers, which evidently once served a religious purpose, 
 were watch-towers or belfries or both. Another sug- 
 gestion is that they were pillars used for keeping alive 
 the sacred fire of Bfll. In this connection Sidney Heath 
 points out that " the early Irish colonists were wor- 
 ahippers of Bai, and that the constant recurrence of the 
 
 word Bai in Irish place-names seems to indicate some 
 connection with the earlv pagan settlements." 
 
 BELGIUM. CONFESSION OF. A Confession drawn 
 up in A.D. 1561 by Belgian Proteertants, who previously 
 had called themselves " Associates of the Conference of 
 Augsburg." Published in French in A.D. 1562, after 
 having been framed in the Walloon language by Guy de 
 Bres, it was approved by the Svnod of Flanders (A.D. 
 1579), and confirmed by the Synod of Dort (A.D. 1619) and 
 at the Hague (A.D. 1651). See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 BELL Arianrod, who figures as a daughter of D6n 
 (Q.v.) in the British mythology, is referred to also as the 
 daughter of Beli. Beli, therefore, would seem to have 
 been the father of the gods and the consort of DOn, the 
 mother of the gods. The Gaelic Bil6 perhaps represents 
 the same deity. Beli survived as the name of a legendary 
 king of the Brythons. Bil6 appears as the name of the 
 ancestor of the first Celts who settled in Ireland. See 
 Squire, Myth. 
 
 BELIAL. In the Old Testament " sons (or men) of 
 Belial " is a familiar phrase for " good-for-nothing 
 fellows," or, as the margin of the Revised Version trans- 
 lates it. " base fellows." The common explanation is 
 that Belial (Heb. Beliyya'al) is composed of two Hebrew 
 words, beli " not " and ya'al " profit " and means literally 
 " profitless." Another explanation is that it is a proper 
 name, equivalent to Beliar. In that case, it w>uld be a 
 -synonym for Satan. In 2 Corinthians vi. 14 /. it is said : 
 •' What fellowship have righteousness and iniquity? or 
 what communion hath light with darkness? And "what 
 concord hath Christ with Beliar? " Prof. Cheyne con- 
 nects the word Belial with Belili, the name of a Baby- 
 lonian goddess of vegetation, " and hence of the under- 
 world." He thinks that the Canaanftes and Israelites 
 probably regarded the name as a synonym for the abyss 
 of Sheol. It then came to be a symbol of insatiable 
 destructiveness. See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BELIAR. A name for Satan in some of the apocrvphal 
 books (Test of the Ttrelve Patriarchs; the Book of 
 Jubilees; the Sibylline Oracles). 
 
 BELIEVERS. A name given to those who believed 
 in the claims of Joanna Southcott (1750-1814), the 
 prophetess of Exeter. She was the daughter of a 
 farmer, and for some years was in domestic service. She 
 began to make converts in ISOl. See the D.N.B. 
 
 BELILI. One of the deities in the old Babylonian 
 pantheon. She seems to be referred to as the sister of 
 Tammuz (q.v.). which suggests that she was one of the 
 deities of vegetation. Her consort is Alala, and the two 
 deities both belonged to the court of Allatu (q.v.). 
 
 BELISAMA. Belisama, one of the deities worshipped 
 by the ancient Celts, corresix)nded to the Roman deity 
 Minerva. The name means " the most warlike goddess." 
 The British Celts regarded her as the tutelar deity of the 
 River Ribble. 
 
 BELIT. One of the Babylonian deities, a goddess, 
 mentioned in inscriptions prior to 2300 B.C. The name 
 means " the lady " par excellence. Another form of it 
 was Nin-Lil. Belit is the " mistress of the lower world." 
 She received the title Nin-khar-sag. " lady of the high 
 or great mountain," that is to say, the mountain on 
 which the gods were thought to dwell. When in the 
 days of Khammurabi Bel became Marduk, Belit did not 
 at the same time l)ecome Marduk's consort. But Belit 
 did apparently come to be applied in its general sense of 
 " mistress " to the consort of the chief god. Thus 
 Tiglathpileser I. speaks (c. 1140 B.C.) of Belit, "the 
 lofty consort and beloved of Ashur " : and Nabopolassar, 
 referring to the consort of Shamash at Sippar, speaks of 
 " Belit of Sippar." As a general title, " mistress," the 
 term is also applied to Ishtar (q.v.), Ashurbanipal
 
 Bell, Book, and Candle 
 
 60 
 
 apparently referring to lier as " Belit mati " or the 
 lady of the land." This would involve in course of time 
 the transference of the qualities of Belit, the consort of 
 Bel, to other consorts, just as the qualities of Bel were 
 transferred to Marduk. From the names of the eight 
 gates of Sargon's palace, it appears that Belit was a 
 goddess of fertility. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE. The expression has 
 reference to a custom in the Roman Catholic Church. 
 Since the eighth century, when a person has been con- 
 demned to suffer the greater excommunication, after the 
 sentence has been read, a bell is rung, the book is closed, 
 and a candle is put out. 
 
 BELLA PENNU. See BORA PENNU. 
 
 BELLONA. Two goddesses with this name were wor- 
 shipped by the Romans. (1) One was the goddess of 
 war, and seems to have been of Sabine origin. She is 
 reputed to have been the sister or wife of Mars. The 
 senate sometimes met in her temple in the Campus 
 Martins. (2) The other goddess belonged originally to 
 Comana in Cappadocia. Her worship was introduced 
 among the Romans towards the beginning of the first 
 century B.C. The priests and priestesses, who were 
 Cappadocians and were called Bellonarii, at her festivals 
 gashed their arms and loins with a two-edged axe and 
 prophesied to the sound of drums and trumpets. Similar 
 practices elsewhere suggest that this was regarded as a 
 means of renewing a blood covenant. Robertson Smith 
 points out (R.S.) that in the account of the worship given 
 by Tibullus the blood is sprinkled on the idol; and that 
 according to the Church Fathers " those who shared in 
 the rite drank one another's blood " (on this practice cp. 
 BLOOD). See O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 BELLONARII. See BELLONA. 
 
 BELLS. Bells have been used in religious worship 
 from a remote period. They have been found among 
 Buddhists and Brahmans and in the Shintoo temples of 
 the Sun goddess in Japan. Bells are mentioned in the 
 English translation of the Bible, but the words so trans- 
 lated do not seem to denote bells in our sense of the 
 word. The Mohammedans object to the use of bells. 
 In front of the porch before the door of a temple dedi- 
 cated to Siva (rj-v.). Monier-Williams noticed three long 
 rows of bells. Whenever a worshipper entered the shrine, 
 he rang one of the t)ells. In the shrine itself " there 
 was a constant ringing of small portable bells and 
 clapping of hands, as if to draw the attention of the deity 
 worshipped to the prayers muttered by his worshippers." 
 In the Hindu ceremony called Pafic'ayatana one of the 
 sacred objects of worship is a small bell. At the adora- 
 tion of the bell, the worshipper says : " O bell, make a 
 sound for the approach of the gods, and for the departure 
 of the demons. Homage to the goddess Ghanta (bell). 
 I offer perfumes, grains of rice, and flowers, in token of 
 rendering all due homage to the bell." Among the 
 Lfimas of Tibet a bell forms part of the sorcerer's equip- 
 ment (see L. A. Waddell). The bells already referred 
 to were hand-bells. It is not known when exactly the 
 large church-bells in Christian churches were introduced. 
 It is possible that when in the early days of the Church 
 basilicas or halls of justice were used as places of wor- 
 ship, the bells belonging to them were rung to call the 
 I)eople to divine worship. Panlinus, Bishop of Nola in 
 Campania, however, is reputed to have introduced their 
 use. In France they seem to have been used before the 
 seventh century; and they were in use elsewhere in the 
 ninth century (e.g., in the Greek Church). In Germany 
 and Switzerland they came into use in the eleventh cen- 
 tury. In the tenth century the custom arose of giving 
 them names. In the eleventh century we begin to hear 
 of " the baptism of a bell." This i.s a popular expression 
 
 Benedictines 
 
 for the ceremony of consecration, which Is still observed 
 in the Roman Catholic Church. " The bishop washes the 
 bell with blessed water, signs it with the oil of the sick 
 outside, and with chrism inside, and lastly places under 
 it the thurible with burning incense. He prays 
 repeatedly that the sound of the bell may avail to summon 
 the faithful, to excite their devotion, to dr-ive away 
 storms, and to terrify evil spirits." It is explained 
 that " this power of course is due to the blessings and 
 prayers of the Church, not to any efficacy snperstitiously 
 attributed to the bell itself. Thus consecrated, bells 
 become spiritual things, and cannot be rung without the 
 consent of the ecclesiastical authorities " (Addis and 
 Arnold). Small bells are also in use in the Roman 
 Catholic Church. A bell is rung during Mass at the 
 Sanctus and at the Elevation of the Host. See Oath. 
 Diet.; Chambers' Encycl.; Monier-Williams, Brahmunism. 
 
 BELTANE FIRES. The so-called Beltane Fires were 
 lit in honour of the sun-god Bai on the three great Druid 
 festivals on May-day Eve, Midsummer Eve, and AH 
 Hallow-e'en. The custom is said to have survived until 
 recently in Ireland, Scotland, and Cornwall. It was 
 christianised by the Church, which made the fires 
 symbolical of the shining light of John the Baptist (John 
 the Baptist's Day = Midsummer Day). See Sidney Heath. 
 
 BEMIDBAR RABBAH. Bemidbar " in the wilder- 
 ness " is the Hebrew name for the Old Testament Book 
 of Numbers. Bemidbar Rabbah is the name of the Rab- 
 binic commentary (midrash) on this book contained in 
 the Midrash Rabbah. The work is composite, the 
 second part being largely derived from another Midrash, 
 Midrash Tanchuma. It seems to belong to the twelfth 
 century. See the Jewish Eneycl.; W. O. B. Oesterley 
 and G. H. Box. 
 
 BENDIDEIA. An Athenian festival in honour of 
 BENDIS iq.v.). 
 
 BBNDIS. A Thracian goddess of the moon. The 
 Greeks identified her with Artemis, Hecate, and Perse- 
 phone. A public festival was held in her honour at 
 Athens, which was called Bendldeia. 
 
 BENEDICITE. One of the canticles in the Order for 
 Morning Prayer in the Prayer-book of the Chnrch of 
 England. Shadrach, Meshach and Abed-nego, who figure 
 in the Book of Daniel, are supposed to have sung it in 
 " the burning fiery furnace." It is included in the Old 
 Testament Apocrypha under the title " The Song of the 
 Three Holy Children." In the Septuagint translation 
 of the Bible it is inserted in the third chapter of Daniel 
 (between verses 23 and 24). It was in use in the time of 
 Chrysostom (A.D. 347-407) in the services of the Church. 
 
 BENEDICTINES. Orders of monks and nuns founded 
 by St. Benedict (A.D. 480-543). Starting at Snbiaoo, 
 near Rome, in A.D. 529, he removed his order to Monte 
 (3assino, near Naples. While Benedict was still living, 
 his disciple St. Maur founded a Benedictine monastery 
 at Glanfeuil, near Angers, in France. In Spain others 
 were founded about A.D. fi.33: and St. Placid, another 
 disciple of St. Benedict, introduced them into Sicily. 
 St. Augustine, when he came on his mission to England, 
 having been abbot of a Benedictine monastery at Rome, 
 brought the rule of St. Benedict with him. The English 
 Benedictines became great missionaries. St. Willibrord 
 (658-739), bom in Northumberland, worked among the 
 Frisians and the Dutch. St. Boniface or Winfried (A.D. 
 r>80-755), bom at Crediton in Devonshire, laboured 
 amongst the Germans and earned the title of " the Apostle 
 of Germany." The rule of St. Benedict binds a monk 
 to remain permanently in a monastery; to endeavour to 
 live the perfect life; to observe chastity; to celebrate 
 daily the divine office at the canonical hours; to live 
 simply and labour devotedly. As copyists, students, and
 
 Benedictus 
 
 61 
 
 Berretta 
 
 educationalists, the Benedictines have done a great work. 
 Their clothing has long been black, whe-nee they have 
 been called " black monks." They were required to 
 abstain from meat. Persons who were quite young 
 could be admitted to the order. They were then educated 
 in a monastery. This gave rise to monastic schools. 
 The Venerable Bede or Bseda (ft. about A.D. 673) is said 
 to have entered the Benedictine abbey at Monkwear- 
 mouth when he was only seven years old. The order 
 degenerated in course of time, but from time to time 
 reformers arose such as Benedict of Aniane (A.D. 750- 
 821), Peter the Venerable (6. A.D 1094), Abbot of Cluny 
 (1122), and St. Dunstan (A.D. 924-988). At a later date 
 certain abuses led to the formation in France of the 
 reformed congregation of St. Vanne (A.D. 1550) and of 
 St. Maur (A.D. KilS). At the Revolution (A.D. 1792) the 
 order was suppressed in France, but in the nineteenth 
 century new foundations arose. In Germany, after being 
 suppressed, the order has reappeared. At the Dissolu- 
 tion, the abbeys, priories, and nunneries were suppressed. 
 The Benedictines, however, have reappeared in England 
 al.so, and now have a number of houses. There is an 
 English Benedictine monastery at Douai, and the Bene- 
 dictines have done good work in Western Australia and 
 New Zealand. There are also a number of abbeys in 
 the United States. See Abbot Gasciuet, Henry VIII. and 
 the English Monasteries; Cath. Diet. 
 
 BENEDICTUS. The name of one of the canticles, the 
 song of Zacharias (Luke i. (')8-79), included in the Order 
 for Morning Prayer in the Prayer-book of the Church of 
 England. It is so called because the first word in the 
 Latin version is " Benedictus." Formerly in the ser- 
 vices known as the Canonical Hours (g.v.) it was sung 
 at Lauds. 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY. In Latin " privilegium 
 clericale," originally the privilege allowed to clergy who 
 were charged with felony (other than high treason or 
 arson) of being tried only in ecclesiastical courts. Henry 
 II. was anxious to abolish the privilege. So far from 
 being abolished, however, in course of time it was 
 extended, so that it was enjoyed not only by those who 
 wore " habitum et tonsuram clericalem," but also by any- 
 one who could read, except women and " bigami." It 
 was afterwards extended to " bigami " (1547), then even 
 to Peers who were unable to read, and early in the 
 eighteenth century to others who were unable to read 
 and to women. But a statute of 1487 had already pro- 
 vided that the privilege could not be claimed by a lay- 
 man more than once, and to insure this he must be burned 
 with a hot iron. When the privilege was extended to 
 women they had to be burned and to spend less than a 
 year in prison. The " privilegium clericale " was finally 
 abolished in 1827. See Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 BENI-ISRAEL. Literally " sons of Israel." the 
 designation of a community of persons of Jewi-sh origin 
 settled in Bombay and other parts of western India. 
 They keep the Sabbath strictly, observe the great feasts, 
 and are careful to abstain from such fle.sh or fish as is 
 regarded as unclean. They seem to have called them- 
 selves Beni-Israel because the Mussulmans could not bear 
 to hear the name Jews (Yehudim). 
 
 BENSHEE. Another form of the word Banshee (q.v.). 
 
 BENTHEIM CONFESSION, THE. A German Con- 
 fession of Faith in twelve articles drawn up by the 
 authority of the ruling Count, who is said to have been 
 a convinced Presbyterian. It is still authoritative. " No 
 (Confession in the long series is less controversial and 
 partisan, more simple and charitable " (William A. 
 Curtis)^ 
 
 BERaKHOTH. The title of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 
 written law as developed by the sec-ond century A.D., 
 and are included in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (seda-rim). Berakhrith is the first tractate of the first 
 group, which is called Zerd'lm (" Seeds"). 
 
 BERCHTA. Another form of the name Perehta 
 (q.v.). 
 
 BEREANS. A name taken by the disciples of John 
 Barclay (1734-1798). The name is supposed to have been 
 suggested by Acts xvii. 11, where the people of Berea 
 are said to have " received the word with all readiness 
 of mind, examining the scriptures daily." Barclay was 
 originally assistant minister at Brrol. Here he gave 
 offence by his teaching, and was dismissed. He then 
 became (1763) assistant minister at Pettercaim, Kincar- 
 dineshire. Here again in 1772 he was inhibited from 
 preaching. His next step was to found independent con- 
 gregations at Sauchybum and Edinburgh. At a later 
 date he founded another in London. The views held by 
 the Bereans were largely Calvini.stic. They also attached 
 supreme importance to the Bible as a revelation of God's 
 being and character, and as the only revelation. See 
 the D.N.B. 
 
 BERECTNTIA. A goddess referred to by Gregory of 
 Tours. She was perhaps identical witli Brigindu (q.v.). 
 
 BBRITH MILAH. Literally " Covenant of Circum- 
 cision," the Jewish ceremony at which a boy is initiated 
 into the covenant of Abraham. The godfather (Sandek), 
 who took the child on his knees in the course of the 
 ceremony, is sometimes spoken of as " Master of the 
 Covenant " (Baal Berith). See W. O. E. Oesterley and 
 G. H. Box. 
 
 BERKELETISM. The philosophy of George Berkeley 
 (1684-1753), Bishop of Cloyne, the Idealist. In 1709 
 Berkeley published an " Es.say towards a New Theory 
 of Vision." This was followed in 1710 by his " Treatise 
 concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge," and 
 in 1713 by his " Three Dialogues between Hylas and 
 Philonous." The two latter are his chief works. The 
 difference between a thing and an idea, according to 
 Berkeley, " does not consist in the former being real and 
 the latter notional, but in the former being complex and 
 the latter simple; both are " notional beings." Instead 
 of the world of Leibnitz, which consisted of quasi-spirits, 
 we have one which consists solely of spirits and of their 
 images or ideas. The principle which Leibnitz applies 
 to some substances — that they have the power of thought 
 and of will — is in this case applied to all alike. Instead 
 of Ijeibnitz's Semi-idealism, we have here a consistent 
 form of Idealism. Berkeley himself does not employ this 
 name for his system. If he had wished to give it a 
 distinctive title, he would probably have called it 
 " spiritualism," possibly " notionalism," or " pheno- 
 menalism." Suffice it to say, that he takes up a position 
 directly antagonistic to what he called, as we do, 
 materialism, and that he is never tired of arguing 
 against the mistaken notion involved in the " supposition 
 of external objects," which really " subsist not by them- 
 selves, but exist in minds " (Erdmann). See J. B. Erd- 
 mann, vol. ii., 1892; and the D.N.B. 
 
 BERNARDINES. The followers of Bernard of Clair- 
 vaux; another name for the Cistercians (q.v.). 
 
 BERRETTA. A term formed from the Latin birrus, 
 a mantle with a hood, and applied to a special kind of 
 headgear worn by Roman Catholic priests and other 
 ecclesiastics. Its use has been introduced into the 
 Church of England by the ritualistic party. The Beretta 
 is " a square cap with three or sometimes four 
 prominences or projecting comers rising from its crown "
 
 Bes 
 
 62 
 
 Bharata 
 
 (Addis and Arnold). It often has a tassel on the top. 
 The berretta of an ordinary cleric is black, of a bishop 
 purple, of a cardinal red, of the Pope white. See Oath. 
 Diet. 
 
 P.ES. An Egyptian deity who became popular in the 
 period of the New Empire. He was regarded by the 
 priests as an inferior kind of deity, as a demon in fact. 
 I.,ike a Greek satyr he was represented as half-animal 
 half-human. He belonged to a class of grotesque beings 
 who amused the great godi? with music and dancing, 
 and fought against adversaries of various kinds. His 
 ligure was used as a magical protection against evil 
 creatures. In the Hellenistic Period Bes was esteemed 
 highly as a protecting warrior, and he was represented 
 as holding a shield in one hand and brandishing a sword 
 with the other. See A. Erman. 
 
 BES A. The title of one of the Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D. and are 
 included in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection and compila- 
 tion completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, alK)ut 200 A.D. The si.xty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Be.sa is the seventh tractate of the second 
 group, whch is called Mo'ed (" Festival "). 
 
 BETHESDA, POOL OF. In the New Te.stament re- 
 ference is made (John v.) to a pool, Bethesda (or Beth- 
 saida, or Bethzatha), the waters of which possessed 
 healing virtues. " Now there is in Jerusalem by the 
 sheep gate a pool, which is called in Hebrew Bethesda, 
 having five porches. In these lay a multitude of them 
 that were sick, blind, halt, withered, waiting for the 
 moving of the water : for an angel of the I^ord went down 
 at certain seasons into the pool, and troubled tie water: 
 whosoever then first after the troubling of the water 
 stepped in was made whole, with whatsoever disease he 
 was holden." Bethesda seems to be for the Aramaic 
 Ueth-hesda, " house of mercy." But the best authorities 
 read Bethsaida or Bethzatha. Bethsaida would be 
 equivalent to the Aramaic Beih-tsaidd, " place of 
 fishing" or "fish-pool." Bethzatha is apparently for 
 the Aramaic Beth-zaithd, " place of the olive." It has 
 been a common practice to bathe in sacred pools, and 
 where the bather has had great faith in the healing pro- 
 perties of the waters, diseases of a nervous nature, 
 (paraly.sis, etc.) have been cured. In modem times this 
 has happened at Lourdes. for instance. 
 
 BETH HA-KENESETH. Literally " House of Assem- 
 bly," the Hebrew name for a Synagogue (g.v.). 
 
 BETH HA-MIDRASH. Literally " House of Study," 
 the Jewish name for a college in which higher iastruetion 
 in the Jewish Law and Religion is given. 
 
 BETHLEHEMITES. 1. An order of monks who are 
 said to have had a monastery at Cambridge in 12.57. 
 Matthew Paris (d. 1259) calls them " fratres Beth- 
 leemitae " and says that they wore a habit like that of 
 the Friars Preachers, except that they had also on their 
 breast a red and blue stiir. 2. A military order founded 
 by Pope Pius II. in 14.59 in opposition to the Turks. 3. 
 .\n order founded about IfiOO in Guatemala by the 
 Spaniard Peter of B^tencourt. His foundation included 
 a school, ho.spital, and convent. The Bethlehemites in 
 10S7 were placed by Innocent XI. under the rule of St. 
 Augustine. 4. The same name was applied to the 
 Hussites (q.x\). 
 
 BBZPOPOFTSCHINS. A name for Russian dissenters 
 who have abolished the office of pope or priest. They 
 are sub-divided into a considerable number of sects. 
 
 BEZSLOVESTNI. Literally " the dumb," a name 
 given to a Russian sect of the eighteenth century. On 
 joining the sect, a member became speechless, conse- 
 
 quently nothing, not even torture, has availed to gain 
 information about the religious temets of the Bezslovesrtni. 
 BHADRA-KALI. The deity of the Mukkuvans, the 
 caste of sea fishermen on the Malabar coast of India. 
 A goddess, she is represented by a log of wood kept in a 
 hut which is called a temple. The Mukkuvans assemble 
 four times a year, offer fruit to the log of wood, and 
 sacrifice a cock. 
 
 BHAGA. A name, occurring in the Rig Veda, for the 
 sun-god in Hindu religion. The word seems to have 
 meant first "giver" and then "god." There is one 
 hymn addressed to Bhaga which begins: "The early- 
 conquering mighty Bhaga call we, the son of Boundless- 
 ness, the gift-bestower." See B. W. Hopkins. 
 
 BHAGAVAD GITA. One of the sacred wr tings, the 
 Divine Song, of the Hindus. It is described as " the 
 wonderful song, which causes the hair to stand on end." 
 It is a revision (Krishnaite) of an earlier Vishnuite 
 poem, and is treated with great reverence by the Vish- 
 nuites. " It is a medley of beliefs as to the relation of 
 spirit and matter, and other secondarj' matters : it 
 is uncertain in its tone in regard to the comparative 
 eflBcacy of action and inaction, and in regard to the 
 practical man's means of salvation; but it is at one 
 with itself in its fundamental thesis, that all things are 
 each a part of One Lord, that men and gods are but 
 manifestations of the One Divine Spirit, which, or rather 
 whom, tlie Vishnuite re-writer identifies with Krishna, 
 as Vishnu's present form " (E. W. Hopkins). See B. 
 W. Hopkins. 
 
 BHAGA VAT. A Buddhist title, meaning " the Blessed 
 one. It is one of the titles of Gautama. 
 
 BHaGAVATAS. An early Hindu sect the members 
 of which worshipped Vishnu (g.v.) as Bhagavat. They 
 held in reverence the holy-stone, and were guided by the 
 Upanlshads (g.v.) and the Divine Song or Bhagavad Gita 
 (g.v.). See B. W. Hopkins. 
 
 BHAGWAN. The fortunate or illustrious, one of the 
 names of the Hindu god Vishnu. 
 
 BHAINSASUR. A figure in Hindu mythology, the 
 buffalo demon, invoked by the Jubbuljjore Kols, a large 
 tribe in India. Pigs are sacrificed to the deity for the 
 protection of the crops. As R. V. Russell and R. B. 
 Hira Lai suggest, the pig itself was no doubt worshipped 
 at one time by the Hindus. It seems possible " that 
 the Hindus reverenced the wild boar in the past as one 
 of the strongest and fiercest animals of the forest and also 
 as a destroyer of tie crops. And they still make sacri- 
 fices of the pig to guard their fields from his ravages. 
 These sacrifices, however, are not offered to any deity 
 who can represent a deified pig, but to Bhainsasur, the 
 deified buffalo. The explanation seems to be that in 
 former times, when forests extended over most of the 
 country, the cultivator had in the wild buffalo a direr 
 foe than the wild pig." The breeding of pigs for sacri- 
 fices is made a special business by some of the Kumhars, 
 the caste of potters in India. 
 
 BHAIRON. A figure in Hindu mythology, the watch- 
 man of the temples of Mahadeo. He is represented 
 riding on a black dog. 
 
 BHAKTAS. An early Hindu sect the members of 
 which worshipped Vishnu (g.v.) as Vilsudeva. It is also 
 the name of a modern order of mystics which was 
 founded in 1876. These Bhaktas seek to attain " in- 
 ebriation in God." 
 
 BHANDARIN. An Indian deity, worshipped as tie 
 goddess of agriculture by the Gadbas, a primitive tribe 
 belonging to the Vizagapatam District of Madras. 
 
 BHARATA. One of the two sacred epics of early 
 Hinduism, the other being the Ramayana (g.v.). The 
 Bharata (tale) is also called Maha-Bharata or Great
 
 Bhars 
 
 63 
 
 Bible 
 
 Bharata. It was recognised as sacred by all sects. The 
 work, which contains legends, myths, history, etc., is 
 <!omposite. Characters in the story were familiar to 
 Panini (probably of the fourth century B.C.), and the 
 work was complete at the end of the sixth century A.D. 
 The Bharata reveals a great growth in an asceticism 
 which is not of an exalted nature. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 BHARS. One of the wild tribes of Bengal. Another 
 form of the name is Bharats, which suggests a con- 
 nection between the Bhars and the great tribe known as 
 Bharata. The Bhars hold in honour as sacred things, 
 and perhaps as totems, the bamboo, the bel-tree, the tor- 
 toise, and the peacock. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 BHARWAN. An Indian deity, the protector of cattle, 
 worshipijed by the Gadbas, a primitive tribe belonging to 
 the Vizagapatam District of Madras. 
 
 BHATS. An Indian caste, the caste of bards and 
 ffG'H^fl. los i st s . 
 
 BHAVANA RISHI. The caste deity of the Padma 
 Sales, a Telugu-speaking caste of weavers in the Madras 
 Presidency of India. " A festival in honour of this 
 deity is celebrated annually, during which the god and 
 goddess are represented by two decorated pots placed on 
 a model of a tiger (vyagra vfilianam), to which, on the 
 last day of the ceremonial, large quantities of rice and 
 vegetables are offered, which are distributed among the 
 loom-owners, pujari, headman, fasting celebrants, etc." 
 (E. Thurston). 
 
 BHEARTHA. An ancient Irish deity. In English the 
 name of the goddess appears as Vera, Verah, Berab^ 
 Berri, Dirra. and Dhirra. She is conceived ix)pular'y 
 as a being of great stature and forbidding mien. In the 
 county Sligo there is a popular tradition that she was 
 able to wade all the Irish rivers and lakes except Loch- 
 da-ghedh, in which she was drowned. There still exists 
 on the mountain near the lake a ruin called Cailleach-a- 
 Vera's House. In the county Louth also there survives 
 a sepulchral chamber called Cailleach Dirra's House. 
 According to W. G. Wood-Martin, " in some parts of 
 Ireland she is now looked upon as a banshee, and makes 
 her appearance before the death of a member of -some 
 well-known families." See W. G. Wood-Martin. 
 
 BHIMSEN. An Indian deity, worshipped as the god 
 of rainfall by the Baigas, who inhabit the eastern Sat- 
 pQra hills in the Mandla, Balaghat and Bilagpur 
 Districts. 
 
 BHUJARIYA. The name of a barley feast observed 
 in the Central Provinces of India. Grains of barley are 
 planted in a pot of manure on the seventh day of the 
 month Sftwan. These grow very quickly into long stalks, 
 and on the first day of Bhadon, the next month, the 
 women and girls present the plants to their male friends 
 to be placed in their turbans, throwing the manure into 
 water. J. G. Frazer compares these plantings with the 
 Gardens of Adonis (see ADONIS), which " are essenti.illy 
 charms to promote the growth of vegetation." See .1. 
 G. Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, 1906. 
 
 BHUMI DEVATA. A Hindu deity, worshipped once 
 in three years as the earth goddess by the Jhodia, Pengu, 
 and Kondhi divisions of the Porojas, a class of cultivators 
 in India. 
 
 BHTITAS. The Bhijtas are demons worshipped by 
 certain Hindu castes (e.g., the Nalkes). The demon 
 temple is called Bhutasthanam. Usually it contains a 
 number of images. " All castes in South Canara have 
 great faith in Bhutas, and, when any calamity or mis- 
 fortune overtakes a family, the Bhutas must be pro- 
 piated. The worship of Bhutas is a mixture of ancestor 
 and devil propitiation. In the Bhuta cult, the most 
 Important per.sonage is Brahmeru, to whom the other 
 Bhutas are subordinate. Owing to the influence of 
 
 Brahman Tautris. Brahmeru is regarded as another name 
 for Brahma, and the various Bhiitas are regarded as 
 ganas on attendants on Siva. Brahmanieal influence is 
 clearly to be traced in the various Bhtita songs, and all 
 Bhiitas are in some manner connected with Siva and 
 Parvati " (E. Thurston and K. Rangachari). Among 
 the many Bhutas there are only two females, Ukkatiri 
 and Kallurti. 
 
 BIANCHI. A fanatical sect found in Italy in 1399. lbs 
 members subsisted on bread and water, and always wore 
 long white garments. 
 
 BIAS. In a very helpful work, Herbert Spencer has 
 explained the influence of a number of different kinds 
 of bias, educational, patriotic, social, political, theologi- 
 cal. It is a common charge against theologians that 
 they are biased. It is not sufliciently realized, on the 
 otier hand, by their opix>nents that men's views are 
 distorted equally by an anti-theological bias. The 
 theological bias cannot, of course, be denied. " Under 
 its special forms, as well as under its general form, the 
 theological bias brings errors into the estimates meJi 
 make of societies and institutions. Sectarian antipathies, 
 growing out of differences of doctrine, disable the 
 members of each religious community from fairly judg- 
 ing other religious communities. It is always diflicult, 
 and often impossible, for the zealot to conceive that his 
 own religious system and his own zeal on its behalf may 
 have but a relative truth and a relative value; or to con- 
 ceive that there may be relative truths and relative 
 values in alien beliefs and the fanaticisms which main- 
 tain them. Though the adherent of each creed daily has 
 thrust on his attention the fact that adherents of other 
 creeds are no less confident than he is — though he can 
 scarcely fail sometimes to reflect that these adherents of 
 other creeds have, In nearly all cases, simply accepted 
 the dogmas current in the places and families they were 
 bom in, and that he has done the like; yet the special 
 theological bias which his education and surroundings 
 have given him, makes it almost beyond imagination that 
 these other creeds may, some of them, have justifications 
 as good as, if not better than, his own, and that the rest, 
 along with certain amounts of absolute worth, may have 
 their special fitnesses to the i>eople holding them." But 
 the anti-theological bias also leads to serious errors, 
 " both whea it ignores the essential share hitherto taken 
 by religious systems in giving force to certain principles 
 of action, in part absolutely good and in part good rela- 
 tively to the needs of the time, and again when it prompts 
 the notion that these principles might now be so estab- 
 lished on rational bases as to rule men effectually through 
 their enlightened intellects. ... It generates an un- 
 willingness to see that a religious system is a normal 
 and essential factor in every evolving society; that the 
 specialities of it have certain fitnesses to the social con- 
 ditions; and that while its form is temporary, its sub- 
 stance is permanent. In so far as the anti-theological 
 bias causes an ignoring of these truths, or an inadequate 
 appreciation of them, it causes misinterpretations." See 
 Herbert Spencer, The Study of Sociology, ISth ed., 1897. 
 
 BIBLE. In Greek Ta Biblia is a plural expression 
 meaning " The Books," just as we speak of " the Scrip- 
 tures," meaning the Scriptures par excellence. In Low 
 Latin the word Biblia came to be used as a singular, and 
 this usage has been adopted in modern languages. The 
 English Bible is a collection of books regarded as sacred 
 and received as canonical. It includes books of the Old 
 and New Covenants. See OLD TESTAMENT. The 
 Roman Catholics accept also as canonical certain books 
 which the English Churches regard as apocryphal. These 
 are included In their Bible (see CANON OF THE OLD 
 TESTAMENT). The ordinary English Bible, how-
 
 Bible 
 
 64 
 
 Bible Societies 
 
 ever, contains only the Old and New Testaments. 
 The Apocryphal additions to the Old Testament 
 (see APOCRYPHA OF THE OLD TESTAMENT) are 
 only found in si)ecial editions of the whole Bible or 
 in separate editions of the Apocrypha. In the English 
 Versions, the Old Testament is translated from the 
 Hebrew, the New Testament from the Greek. John 
 Wyclifte (d. 1384) was the first to concern himself about 
 a translation of the whole Bible into English. He him- 
 self seems to have translated the whole of the New 
 Testament and part of the Old Testament. The whole 
 worii was completed and edited by John Purvey (1353?- 
 1428?) before 1400. Nicholas de Hereford (fi. 1390), one 
 of the leaders of the Lollards in Oxford, seems to have 
 been resi)onsible for the tran-slation of a large part of the 
 Old Te.stament. There are no verse-divisions in 
 Wycliffe's Bible, but the matter is roughly divided into 
 chapters. There are about 170 manuscripts of this Bible 
 in existence. The first printed edition of the New Testa- 
 ment in English (152()) was the worli of William Tyndale 
 (d. 1536), who went direct to the original Greelc. After- 
 wards he translated the Pentateuch (c. 1530), tie follow- 
 ing boolis of the old Testament as far as II. Chronicles, 
 and the Book of Jonah (1531). Large use of this version 
 was made when the Authorised Version was prepared, 
 and Tyndale is considered to have set a standard of 
 biblical translation. Tyndale's New Testament was 
 printed and published at Worms. It was not yet possible 
 to print a translation in England. The first English 
 Bible which the Government allowed to be sold in Eng- 
 land was the Bible of Miles Coverdale (1488-1568). His 
 translation seems to have been first printed by Christo- 
 pher Froschouer of Zflrich in 1535. It was introduced 
 into England in the same year by James Nicolson of 
 Southwark. The work was not original, the translation 
 being based upon the Bibles of Luther and Zwingli, with 
 the help of Latin versions (e.specially the Vulgate) and 
 of Tyndale's New Testament. In 1537 Coverdale revised 
 and modified his version, which was then authorised by 
 the King. In the same year Matthews' Bible was 
 published. Thomas Matthews was a name assumed by 
 John Rogers (15007-1555), who was afterwards burnt at 
 Smithfield in the Marian persecution. This was really 
 a new edition of Tyndale's translation, which was com- 
 pleted by the addition of the Old Testament books after 
 II. Chronicles from Coverdale's version. Next appeared 
 Tavemer's Bible (15.39), which was no more than a 
 revised edition of Matthews' Bible by Richard Tavemer 
 (15057-1575), who wrote works in support of the Reforma- 
 tion. This was followed by the Great Bible or Cranmer's 
 Bible (1539). another revision of Matthews' Bible. The 
 printing of it in Paris was superintended by Miles Cover- 
 dale. It was, in fact, a revision of Matthews' Bible by 
 Coverdale. From this Bible was taken the English 
 version of the Psalms in the Prayer Book of the Church 
 of England. Cromwell enjoined the use of the Great 
 Bible in every parish church. Some years later some 
 of the reformers who had fled to Geneva brought back 
 the Geneva Bible (1557-1500), popularly called the 
 " Breeches Bible," a version made by Protestant 
 refugees. It was called tie Breeches Bible because in 
 Genesis iii. 7 in one edition it is said that Adam and 
 Eve " sewed fig-tree leaves together, and made them- 
 selves breeches." This was for many years the most 
 popular Bible in English homes. It was of a convenient 
 size, and was supplied with notes. Another Bible of a 
 later date (1568) was known as the Bishops' Bible. Mat- 
 thew Parker (1504-1575), Archbishop of (Canterbury, was 
 occupied in the publication of this, a revision of the Great 
 Bible, for some years (1563-68). Another version of the 
 New Testament appeared in 1582. It was made at the 
 
 College of Douay to meet the needs of English-speaking 
 Roman Catholics, and was published at Rheims. The 
 Old Testament was published at Douay, but not until 
 1609-10. This version is commonly known as the Douay 
 Bible. The next version of the Bible was the famous 
 one undertaken in tie reign of James I. It became known 
 as the Authorised Version, not because it was directly 
 and officially autiorised by King, Parliament, or Con- 
 vocation, but because through its own merits it came to 
 be regarded as authoritative. It was the work of six 
 companies sitting at Westminster, Oxford, and Cam- 
 bridge, and was based upon the Bishops' Bible with the 
 help of the Genevan and Douay versions. The under- 
 taking was di-scussod in 1604, seriously taken in haad in 
 1607, and completed in 1611. As Mr. Patterson truly 
 says, it " has become a classic wherever the English 
 tongue is spoken." He adds that " by the providence 
 of God, it was written when the English language was 
 in its simplest and most majestic form." But, beautiful 
 and excellent as the Authorised Version is, yet another 
 English version has been made nec-essary in recent years 
 by the progress of .scientific study. Since the time when 
 the Authorisetl Version was made, much of its 
 phraseology has become obsolete or even changed its 
 meaning; scholars have a more thorough and accurate 
 knowledge of the original and cognate languages of the 
 Bible; new discoveries of ancient manuscripts, versions, 
 and quotations have been made: and textual criticism 
 has become a science. In June, 1S70, therefore, an 
 assembly of distinguished divines met in the Jerusalem 
 Chamber in Westminster Abbey to start work upon a 
 new version of the Bible. IThe New Testament was 
 published in 1881, and the Revised Version of the whole 
 Bible in 1885. In 1895 was published a Revised Version 
 of the Apocrypha (Old Testament), " being the version 
 siet forth A.D. ICll compared with the most ancient 
 authorities and revised A.D. 1894." The work was done 
 by three Committees, which were called the London, 
 Westminster, and Cambridge Committees. See J. Pater- 
 son Smvth, HoiP we got our Bible, 1889; M. W. Patter- 
 son, Hist.; the D.N.B. 
 
 BIBLE CHRISTIANS. See METHODISTS. 
 
 BIBLE COMMUNISTS. Anotier name for the PER- 
 FECTIONISTS (g.v.). 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. Societies formed for the pur- 
 pose of circulating copies of the Old and New Testaments. 
 The First Bible Society seems to ha^e been founded in 
 Germany in 1712 bv Baron Hildebrand von Canstein 
 (1667-17i9), the friend of the pietists P. J. Spener (1635- 
 1705) and A. H. Franeke (1663-1727). Called the " Can- 
 steinsche Bil)elanstalt," it was afterwards combined with 
 the Franeke Institutes at Halle. In 1780 a society called 
 " The Bible Society " was formed in England with the 
 object of supplying Bibles to soldiers and sailors. This 
 afterwards became known as the " Naval and Military 
 Bible Society." In 1792 a " French Bible Society " wa« 
 formed for the purpo.se of circulating Bibles in Frenci. 
 In 1802 Thomas Charles (1755-1814) went to London to 
 call the attention of religious people to the scarcity of 
 Welsh Bibles in Wales. " Having been introduced to 
 the committee of the Religious Tract Society, it was sug- 
 gested by the Rev. Joseph Hughes, a Baptist minister, 
 who was pre.sent, that there might be a similar dearth 
 not only in Wales, but in other parts of the country, 
 and tiat it would be desirable to form a society for the 
 express purpose of circulating the Scriptures." On 
 inquiry it was found that there was such a dearth, and 
 " The British and Foreign Bible Society " was founded 
 (1804). The Society " was founded on unsectarian prin- 
 ciples, it being resolved tiat one-ialf of its committee 
 siould be elected from amongst Cburcimen, and one-ialf
 
 Biblia Pauperum 
 
 65 
 
 BilocatioD 
 
 from amongst Dissenters (H. S. Skeats and C. S. 
 Miall). This is now the greatest society of the kind, and 
 has branches in all parts of the British Empire. There 
 is also a " National Bible Society of Scotland," which 
 was formed in ISfil. The Society next in importance to 
 tlie British and Foreign Bible Society is the " American 
 Bible Society," which was founded in 1816 at New York. 
 There are similar societies in Germany and Russia. The 
 income of the " British and Foreign Bible Society " is 
 about a quarter of a million, and about five millions and 
 a half of Bibles, Testaments, and portions of Holy Scrip- 
 ture are annually circulated in 409 languages and 
 dialects " London 'Diocese Book, 1910). See Chambers' 
 Encycl; Brockhaus; Prot. Diet. 
 
 BIBLIA PAUPERUM. Literally the "Bible of the 
 Poor." The famous book with this title was a work 
 giving pictures of the chief events recounted in the Old 
 and New Testaments, to which were added short illustra- 
 tive notes or tests in Latin or German. The book was 
 treasured by the laity and used as a textbook by mendi- 
 cant preachers in the Middle Ages. It was so called 
 either because these mendicant preachers were known 
 as Pauperes Christi, " Christ's Poor," or because it was 
 intended for the " poor In spirit." The pictures were 
 copied in sculptures, and on walls, glass, altar-pieces, 
 etc. In Vienna are preserved an altar-piece of the 
 twelfth century with a painting from the '" Biblia 
 Pauperum," and two copies of the book dated 1430. The 
 book fell into disuse early in the sixteenth century. 
 Ther« was another book with the same title, " Biblia 
 Paupemm." or " Poor Man's Bible," compiled by Bona- 
 ventura (A.D. 1221-1274). This book explains the con- 
 tents of the Bible on mystical and allegorical lines. 
 
 BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY, SOCIETY OF. A society 
 founded in December, 1870. The special object of the 
 Society was the collection of illustrations of archseology, 
 history, arts, and chronology from the monuments of 
 Ancient and Modem Assyria, Palestine, Egypt, and 
 other Biblical Lands. Papers were read, and published 
 in the " Proceedings " of the Society, which were issued 
 monthly during the session. 
 
 BIBLIOMANCY. A term composed of two Greek 
 words and meaning " divination by the Bible." The 
 practice was to open the Bible haphazard, and to regard 
 the first passage on which the eye fell as a special 
 message or pronouncement. Or the first words of the 
 Bible heard after entering a place of worship might be 
 similarly regarded. Another form of bibliomaney is the 
 ordeal of the Bible and the key. The way to detect a 
 thief is to read to the apparatus Psalm 50. At the 
 words "When thou sawe-st a thief, then thou con.sentedat 
 with him," it will turn to the guilty person (see E. B. 
 Tylor, P.O. 
 
 BIBLIOTHECA. A term which has sometimes been 
 used as a designation of the Bible. It came into use 
 towards the end of the fourth century A.D. 
 
 BICORNI. Literally " idiots," a contemptuous deaig- 
 nation of the Beghards iq.v.), used by mediaeval writers. 
 
 BIDDELIANS. Followers of John Biddle (161.5-1662). 
 In 1641 Biddle was made master of the free school of 
 St. Mary-le-Crypt, Gloucester. In 1645 he was impri- 
 soned on account of his religious opinions, but was soon 
 released on bail. He was next summoned before a par- 
 liamentary commission at Westminster, and in 1647 was 
 sent back to prison. In the same year, a work which 
 he had published on the Holy Spirit, and in which he 
 argued against the Godhead, was burnt as blasphemous 
 by the hangman. Afterwards he was again released on 
 bail, and then again imprisoned, this time in Newgate. 
 In 1652 he was set free once more, in virtue of Crom- 
 well's Act of Oblivion. By this time he had gained a 
 
 number of followers. In 1654, however, he was impri- 
 soned in Gatehouse, and in 1655 he l)ecame involved in 
 a theological dispute and was banished to the Scilly 
 I.slands. He was allowed to return to London in 1058, 
 and preached there until 1602. He was then arrested 
 again, and, being unable to pay his fine, went to prison. 
 Here he died. Biddle has sometimes been regarded as 
 the founder of Unitarianism (q.v.) in England. See the 
 D.Ji.B. 
 
 BIDDING PRAYER. A form of Christian prayer in 
 which the people are " bidden " to prayer for certain 
 persons. It is no longer in common use; but may be 
 heard sometimes in Cathedrals. Inns of Court, and the 
 Universities. Canon 55 of 1003 orders that " before all 
 sermons, lectures, and homilies, the preachers and 
 ministers shall move the people to join with them in 
 prayer, in tiiis form or to this effect as briefly as con- 
 veniently they may." The form then in use ran : "Ye 
 shall pray for Christ's holy Catholic Church, that is, for 
 the whoie congregation of Christian people disi^ersed 
 throughout the whole world, and especially for the 
 Churches of England, Scotland, and Ireland : and herein 
 I require you most especially to pray for the King's 
 most excellent Majesty our Sovereign Lord Jamem, King 
 of England. Scotland, France, and Ireland, Defender of 
 the Faith and Supreme (Jovemor in these his realms, 
 and all other his dominions and countries, over all 
 persons, in all causes, as well Ecclesiastical as Tem- 
 poral : ye shall also pray for our gracious Queen Anne, 
 the noble Prince Henry, and the rest of the King and 
 Queen's royal issue : ye shall also pray for the Ministers 
 of God's holy Word and Sacraments, as well Archbishops 
 and Bishops, as otiier Pastors and Curates : ye shall 
 also pray for the King's most honourable Council, and 
 for all the Nobility and Magistrates of this realm ; that 
 all and every of these, in their several callings, may 
 serve truly and painfully to the glory of God, and the 
 edifying and well governing of his people, remembering 
 the account that they must make : also ye shall pray 
 for the whole Commons of this realm, that they may 
 live in the true faith and fear of God in humble obedience 
 to the King and brotherly charity one to another. 
 Finally, let us praise God for all tho.se which are departed 
 out of this life in the faith of Christ, and pray unto 
 God that we may have grace to direct our lives after 
 their good example; that, this life ended, we may be 
 made partakers with them of the glorious resurrection 
 in the life everlasting; always concluding with the Lord's 
 Prayer." See Prot. Diet. 
 
 BIJAS. A term employed in Hinduism. Mantras 
 (q.v.) are in.spired Vedic texts which are supposed to 
 ix)ssess great power as occult forces. Bijas are the 
 radical letters or syllables of Mantras, the essential parte 
 of them, or letters or syllables which represent the name 
 of the deity to whom the Mantra is addressed, or letters 
 or syllables which denote parts of the body over which 
 the deity is supposed to preside. See Monier-Williams. 
 
 BIKKURIM. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are included in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Bikkurim is the eleventh tractate of the first 
 group, which is called Zerd'im (" Seeds "). 
 
 BILOCATION. The expression denotes the power of 
 being in two places at the same time. Certain persons 
 are supposed to have pos.sessed or to possess this power. 
 In a biographv of St. Alfonso di Liguori, translated by 
 Cardinal Wiseman, the saint is said one day to have been
 
 Bimbo-Gatni 
 
 66 
 
 Bishop 
 
 in his own house and at the same time in church preaching 
 a sermon. The writer of the biography of Apollonius 
 of Tyana reports that his hero transported himself 
 quicljly and mysteriously from one place to anotlier. 
 Pythagoras is said to have had the same power. In 
 modern times spiritualists liave claimed that the same 
 thing still happens. In 1905 Italian newspa7>ers reported 
 strange happenings in a family named Pansini. Two 
 twys are said to have had a number of strange 
 experiences. " The boys were at Ruvo one morning at 
 9 o'clock, and at 9.30, without knowing how or why, they 
 found themselves at Molfetta, before the c-onvent of the 
 Capuchins." Again we are told that " one day the two 
 boys were in the Piazza di Ruvo at 1.35 o'clock, and at 
 1.45, about ten minutes afterwards, were at Trani, before 
 the door of the house of one of their uncles, Signor Giro- 
 lamo Maggiore " (Joseph Ijapiioni, Hypnotism and 
 Spiritism, 1907). 
 
 BIMBO-GAMI. A god of poverty in Japanese 
 mythology. 
 
 BINDING AND LOOSING. Expressions occurring in 
 the New Testament (Matthew xvi. 19, xviii. IS). In 
 Matthew xvi. IS, Jesus is represented as saying to his 
 disciple, Simon Peter : " And I also say unto thee, that 
 thou art Peter (Petros), and upon this rock (petra) I 
 will build my church; and the gates of Hades shall not 
 prevail against it. I will give unto thee the keys of the 
 kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever thou shall bind on 
 earth shall be bound in heaven : and whatsoever thou 
 ehait loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." On this 
 passage the Church of Rome, of which Peter is supposed 
 to have been the first bishop, bases its claim to 
 supremacy. In Matthew xviii. 18, Je.sus, addressing the 
 disciples collectively, says : " Verily, I say unto you, 
 what things soever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound 
 in heaven : and what things soever ye shall loose on earth 
 ehall be loosed in heaven." The expressions were com- 
 monly used of decisions given by the Jewish rabbis. To 
 bind was to forbid ; to loose was to allow. See Encycl. 
 BiU. 
 
 BINZURU. Binzuru is one of the deities most widely 
 revered in Japan in connection with the ancient national 
 religion known as Shintoism (f/.t'.). The god of 
 medicine, he " is usually a red lacquer figure of a man 
 seated, and much defaced by the rubbings of centuries " 
 (I. Bishop). Persons afflicted with disease make 
 pilgrimages to celebrated images of the god. To cure 
 the disease they rub that part of the god which cor- 
 responds to the afflicted part of their own persons. Then 
 they rub themselves again. See " ShintOism " in R.S.W. 
 
 BIRADEVARU. Biradevaru or BTrappa is the patron 
 saint of the Kurubas, a caste of hunters in Southern 
 India. Horses and ponies being vehicles of the god, the 
 Kurubas will not ride upon them. The Kurubas are 
 ancestor worshippers, and treasure golden discs stamped 
 with the figures of human beings. Their temples are 
 dolmen-like structures. " In the open country near 
 Kadur in Mysore is a shrine of Biradevaru, which con- 
 sists of four stone pillars .several feet in height, sur- 
 mounted by flat slabs as a cap-stone, within which the 
 deity is represented by round stones, and stones with 
 snakes carved on them are deposited. Within the 
 Kuruba quarter of the town, the shrine of Anthar- 
 gattamma is a regular dolmen beneath a margosa 
 {Melia Azadirachta) tree, in which the goddess is repre- 
 sented by rounded stones imbedded in a mound of eartJi. 
 Just outside the same town, close to a pipal tree (Ficus 
 relifjiosa) are two smaller dolmen-like structures con- 
 taining .stones representing two Kuniba Da saris, one a 
 centenarian, who are buried there " (E. Thurston and K. 
 Rangachari). 
 
 BIRBTTA. See BERRETTA. 
 
 BIRKATH ERUSIN. Literally the " Blessing of 
 Betrothal," a feature in the Jewish marriage-service. 
 God is blessed for having instituted marriage. "Blessed 
 are Thou, O Lord, Who sanetiflest Thy people Israel by 
 the rite of the canopy and the sacred covenant of wed- 
 lock." See W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 BIRTH CEREMONIES. In Arabia soon after a child 
 was born a sheep was sacrificed, and the infant's head 
 was shaved and daubed with the sheep's blood. The 
 sacrifice was meant " to avert evil from the child by 
 shedding blood on his behalf," apparently to establish 
 a kind of blood-brotherhood between the protector and 
 the protected (see BLOOD). This ceremony was called 
 "AKIKA (q.v.). Another custom among some sections of 
 primitive folk has been to spit on a child after its birth 
 (e.g., in Oonnemara) or at its naming (e.g., among the 
 Mandingos and among the Bambaras of Western Africa). 
 The reason for this is that sometimes a person's saliva ia 
 supposed to possess the element of life. In order, 
 apparently, to place a child under the deity's protection, 
 the Arabs also hid it, as soon as it was born, under a 
 cauldron, where it remained until dawn. Sometimes on 
 the morning after birth a child's gums were rubbed with 
 masticated dates and a name was given it. Robertson 
 Smith thinks that " in general, the sacrifice, the naming, 
 and the symbolical application of the most important 
 article of food to the child's mouth all fell together, and 
 marked his reception into partnership in the sacra and 
 means of life of his father's group " (Kinship). See W. 
 R. Smith, Kinship; E. S. Hartland, Perseus. 
 
 BISHNOIS. A Hindu sect, founded in the Punjab by 
 a Panwar Rajput named Jhambaji (6. A.D. 1451). 
 Jhambaji is supposed at an early age to have given 
 evidence of a miraculous origin, and during a famine in 
 1485 he is said to have won a great reputation by pro- 
 viding food for all who had faith in him. He seems to 
 have been a religious reformer, " who attempted to 
 break loose from the debased Hindu polytheism and 
 arrogant supremacy of the Brilhmans by choosing one 
 god, Vishnu, out of the Hindu pantheon, and exalting 
 him into the sole and supreme deity " (R. V. Russell). 
 Some of his doctrines, as given by Russell and Hlra Lai, 
 are as follows: Bathe in the morning; Commit no 
 adultery; Be content; Be abstemious and pure; Strain 
 your drinking-water; Be careful of your speech; E.vamine 
 your fuel in case any living creature be burnt with it; 
 Show pity to living creatures; Do not steal; Do not 
 speak evil of others; Do not tell lies; Never quarrel; 
 Avoid opium, tobacco, bhang and blue clothing; Do not 
 cut green trees; Sacrifice with fire; Say pra.vers : medi- 
 tate; Perform worship and attain heaven; Baptise your 
 children if you would be called a true Bishnoi. 
 
 BISHOP. The word is given in the English Version 
 of the Bible as a translation of the Greek word episkopos 
 (Philippians i. 1; I. Timothy iii. 2; I. Peter il. 25). In 
 Acts i. 20 episkope is translated " bishopric," but not, 
 of course, in a technical sense. It has long been a 
 matter of controversy whether " bishop " Is used in the 
 New Testament in the sense in which it was used later 
 in the Christian Church. The word episkopos was taken 
 over from the Greeks, among whom it denoted an " over- 
 seer " or a " superintendent " (cp. episkope, visitation, 
 oversight; and then office or charge generally). It seems 
 to have been used particularly of the finance officers of 
 Greek guilds. And it was just this kind of duty that 
 the Christian episkopos was called upon to perform— the 
 administration of the common fund of a kind of benevo- 
 lent society. On the other hand, the word had already 
 been adopted in the Greek translation of the Old Teerta-
 
 Bishop 
 
 67 
 
 Blavatsky Institute, The 
 
 ment to represent the Hebrew pdk id, which denotes an 
 "overseer" in a more general sense (Judges is. 28; 
 Nehemiah xi. 9, 14, 22; II. Kings xi. 15). An earlier title 
 for the officials of the early Christian Church was 
 preshyteros. Presbyter or Elder (Acts xi. 30; xr.); and 
 when episkopos first came into use the two terms seem 
 to have been regarded as equivalent (Acts xx. 28; Philip- 
 pians i. 1; I. Timothy v. 17; Titus i. 5, 7; I. Peter v. 1, 
 2). Moreover, these two terms seem to have other 
 equivalents, such as proistdmenoi, " presidents " (I. 
 Thessalonians v. 12; Romans xii. 8), hegoiimenoi, 
 " rulers " (Hebrews xiii. 7, 17), and poim^nes, " shep- 
 herds " (Ephesians iv. 11), The question is : Did one of 
 the Presbyters of a collegium come gradually in New 
 Testament times to be elevated above the rest. It has 
 been ably contended that this did happen, and that the 
 government of the apostolic Church l)ecame monarehial. 
 The power exercised by Diotrephes (III. John i. 9), it has 
 been pointed out, seems to have exceeded that of ordinary 
 presbyters. But Diotrephes is rebuked for desiring to 
 exercise this power, so that it seems to have been a kind 
 of usurpation; and in the time of Hermas and Irenaeus, 
 bishops and elders or presbyters seem still to be placed 
 upon the same level (Hermas. Vision ii. 4, iii. 9; Simili- 
 tudes iii. 27; Irenaeus, Adt\ Haeres. iii. 3). Local con- 
 ditions were not, however, the same everywhere. By 
 the middle of the second century the monarchical episco- 
 pate was well established; and in Rome and elsewhere 
 the development may have been more rapid than in other 
 places (cp. Ignatius, Epintle to the Romans, ii.. ix. ; 
 Epistle to Poll/carp iv., vi.). In any case, it is difficult 
 to prove that the monarchical episcopate is of apostolic 
 origin. That it was. on the other hand, a natural and 
 pre-ordained development is a legitimate contention. 
 The Roman (Catholic Church, however, insists on the 
 apostolic origin of episcopacy. The Council of Trent 
 says : "If anyone deny that there is in the Church a 
 hierarchy instituted by divine ordinance, which consists 
 of bishoi)s, presbyters, and ministers, let him be ana- 
 thema"; and "if anyone affirm that bishops are not 
 superior to presbyters, or that they have not the power 
 of confirming or ordaining, or that the power which they 
 have is common to presbyters also, let him be anathema." 
 It is claimed by Roman Catholics (though not by them 
 alone) that " St. James the Less was beyond reasonable 
 doubt bishop of Jerusalem " ; that St. Paul having given 
 Titus power to ordain presb.vters, and Timothy directions 
 as to receiving accusations against presbyter.s, these two 
 were clearly " ecclesia.stical officers superior to the clergy 
 of the second order " ; and that the Angels of the 
 Churches mentioned in the Book of Revelation (i. 20) 
 " answer to the idea of diocesan bishops and to nothing 
 else." In the third century, according to Cyprian (Bp. 
 Ix-viii.), bishops were chosen " by the vote of all the 
 faithful and by the judgment of the bishops." and they 
 were so elected in the West until the eleventh century. 
 Bi.shops were then elected by the cathedral chapter. At 
 first the election had to be confirmed by the metropolitan. 
 The right of confirmation afterwards pas,sed to the Pope, 
 and in course of time in some cases the election itself. 
 In Catholic Germany and Switzerland the right of elec- 
 tion now l)elongs to the cathedral chapters; in France, 
 Portugal. Spain, Naples and Sicily, Sardinia, Austria, 
 and Bavaria to the Sovereign. in England the Pope 
 chooses the Roman Catholic bishops. In the Church of 
 England royal letters patent are sent to the Dean and 
 Chapter of the Cathedral telling them to make a certain 
 choice. In Protestant Germany the title Bishop has 
 been dropped in favour of General-Superintendent. See 
 D. Schenkel, Bibel-Lexikon: Encycl. Bihl.; Chambers' 
 Encycl.; Cath. Diet.; Prot. Diet. 
 
 BISHOPS' BIBLE. An English version of the Bible, 
 published in 1568. See BIBLE. 
 
 BISHOPS' BOOK, THE. A name given to " The 
 Institution of a Christian Man," a manuel which was 
 published in 1.537. It was composed by a committee of 
 bishops on the lines of and sometimes in the language 
 of the Ten Articles, and its use was authorised for three 
 years by Henry VIII. The book expounded the Apostles' 
 Creed, the Sacraments, the Ten Commandments, the 
 Lord's Prayer, the Ave Maria, Justification, and Pur- 
 gatory. " It represented neither doctrinal advance nor 
 doctrinal reaction " (M. W. Patterson, Hist.). 
 
 BISHRIYYA. An Arabian sect, regarded by the 
 Sunnis (q.v.) as heretics. They hold that " the Will of 
 God was one of His works, that since God is omniscient 
 and knows what is profitable for man, it is impossible 
 to suppose that He does not will it." See F. A. Klein. 
 
 BISMILLAH. An Arabic expression meaning " in the 
 name of God (Allah)." The bismillah means the formula 
 in which the name of God is mentioned. 
 
 BIZOCHI. A name used by Pope John XXII. for the 
 Fraticelli In his Bull of A.D. 1317. 
 
 BLACK BARTHOLOMEW. A name given to St. 
 Bartholomew's Day in 1002, because on that day all bene- 
 ficed clergy had to comply with the provisions of the Act 
 of Uniformity and accept the Book of Common Praver. 
 
 BLACK BOOK. The report of the committee which 
 King Henry VIII. nominated in 1535 to inquire into the 
 condition and administration of the monasteries became 
 known as the " Black Book." 
 
 BLACK CANONS. See AUGUSTINIANS. 
 
 BLACK FRIARS. See DOMINICANS. 
 
 BLACK-LETTER DAYS. These are the minor Holy 
 Days noted in the Calendar of the Christian Church. 
 They are so called in distinction from the major Holy 
 Days, Red-letter Festivals, which were distinguished 
 originally by red letters. See W. R. W. Stephens, 
 Common Prayer, 1901. 
 
 BLACK MONKS. See BENEDICTINES. 
 
 BLACK POPES. A name given to the leaders of the 
 Jesuit Society of Jesus in the time of Pope Pius IX. 
 because of the influence which thev exercised at Rome. 
 
 BLACK STONE. THE. A sacred stone in one of the 
 corners of the Ka'ba, the square stone building at Mecca. 
 See KA'BA and HAJJ, THE. 
 
 BLASPHEMY. In the Old Testament the word is 
 equivalent to scorn or rejection of God. The Hebrews 
 made such treatment of God a capital offence (Leviticus 
 xxiv. 15). The people were forbidden lightly to use the 
 name of (Jod, and in course of time even to pronounce 
 his true name was a profane act (Leviticus xxiv. 11). 
 Jesus was accused of blasphemy when he claimed to be 
 the Son of God (Mark xiv. 61-(!4; Matthew xxvi. 65), and 
 Stephen was stoned because he was considered to have 
 used " blasphemous words against Mo.ses, and against 
 God " (Acts vi. 13, vii. Sfi ff-f 
 
 BLAVATSKY INSTITUTE, THE, The Blavatsky 
 Institute was organized by a small group of disciples 
 of H, P. Blavatsky. It is an activity within the 
 Theosophical Society founded in 1875 by H. P. Blavat- 
 sky. H. S. Olcott, and W. Q. Judge. The promoters 
 of the Institute believe in the teachings of Theosophy, 
 and wish to eive to those who desire it an oppor- 
 tunity to study them. The study of H. P. Blavat- 
 sky's works, and the application of her statements to the 
 various problems, social, ethnical, philo.sophical and re- 
 ligious, which confront us in our complex civilization, 
 constitute the main work. Intellectual and spiritual 
 development receive equal attention. The fundamental 
 laws of the Universe are learnt, and at the .same time 
 man is taught to obtain mastery over himself. It is
 
 Blessed Sacrament, Confraternity of the 
 
 68 
 
 Bodhisattvas 
 
 stated that " it is not the object of this enterprise to 
 furnish a retreat for misantliropes and hypochondriacs. 
 Neither is it an infirmary for ghost-seers, visionaries, or 
 dreamers, where they may revel to their hearts' content 
 among the creations of their own fancy; nor is it to be 
 a school for occultism, where magic arts are taught to 
 the fool ; but it Is intended to be a place where those who 
 earnestly aspire to spirituality may find the External 
 conditions necessary to cultivate it, and to acquire the 
 true ' magic staff' that will securely support them on 
 their journey through Eternity." The Blavatsliy In- 
 stitute publishes a monthly journal called The Path. 
 
 BLESSED SACRAMENT, CONFRATERNITY OP 
 THE. A Society founded in 1862 in the Church of Eng- 
 land. With it was amalgamated in 1807 " The Society 
 of the Blessed Sacrament." The Associates are priests 
 and laymen. Grants of money are made to poor parishes 
 for Altar linen and Eucharistic vestments. The 
 Associates are asked to pray for the re-union of Christen- 
 dom, the restoration of the Reserved Sacrament, " Sacra- 
 mental Confession," and for the faitiiful Departed. 
 Members of the Confraternity receive a medal. See 
 Walter Walsh, " Ritualistic Secret Societies," in Prot. 
 Diet. 
 
 BLESSINGS AND CURSINGS. In primitive times 
 there was supposed to be a great power in a blessing or 
 a curse. To have the blessing of a deity was to enjoy 
 his friendly aid and protection; to have the curse was 
 to encounter his disfavour and active hostility. A 
 blessing or a curse was thus a liind of spell. Amongst 
 the Hebrews it was an ancient practice to involie a curse 
 upon the enemy before commencing hostilities. Balak, 
 King of Moab, summoned Balaam the prophet to come 
 and curse the Israelites before he attempted to over- 
 throw them (Numbers xxli.); and Goliath "cursed David 
 by his gods" before advancing to battle againjst him (I. 
 Samuel xvii. 43). Curses were added also to legal 
 formulae to malte them more impressive. Blessings 
 might be used on the same occasions as cursings. Moses 
 powerfully blessed his own people and effectively cursed 
 their enemies (cp. Leviticus ix. 22, Numbers vi. 23-27). 
 Fathers on their death-bed pronounced valued blessings 
 on their children. There can be no doubt that, given a 
 strong belief in the power of the god, the effect of a 
 blessing or curse on the mind, and so on the life, of a 
 person, migiit be very powerful. This, of course, is not 
 the primitive, but the true psychological explanation. 
 In the storj- an the New Testament known as the 
 "Cursing of the Fig-tree (Matthew xxi. 19 /. ; Mark xi. 
 13, 21 /.), the curse is so potent that it withers up the 
 tree. Here we have not merely a mental effect, but one 
 that is regarded as directly material. Jesus pronounced 
 blessings in his discourses, as well as denunciations which 
 might be called curses. See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BLOOD. Robertson Smith (Religion of the Semites, 
 1894, p. 233) notes that among the Semites the sacrificial 
 use of blood " is connected with a series of very 
 important ritual ideas, turning on the conception that the 
 blood is a special seat of the life. But primarily, when 
 the blood Js offered at the altar, it is conceived to be 
 drunk by the deity." He compares cases of the drinking 
 of blood among other peoples. In Africa fresh blood is 
 drunk by all the negroes of the White Nile. It is imbibed 
 by Masai warriors, by the Gallas, and, as far as the men 
 are concerned, by the Hottentots. Durkheim (p. 137) 
 notes that in the tribes of Central Australia human blood 
 is so holy a thing that it serves frequently to consecrate 
 the most respected instruments of the cult. " For 
 example, in certain cases, the nurtunja is regularly 
 anointed from top to bottom with the blood of a man. 
 •It is upon ground all saturated with blood that the 
 
 men of the Emu, among the Arunta, trace their sacred 
 images. There is no religious ceremony where blood 
 does not have some part to play. During the initiation, 
 the adults open their veins and sprinkle the novice with 
 tlieir blood; and this blood is so sacred a thing that 
 women may not be present while it is flowing; the sight 
 of it is forbidden them, just as the sight of a. churinga 
 is. The blood lost by a young initiate during the very 
 violent operations he must undergo has very particular 
 virtues : it is used in various ceremonies. That which 
 flows during the sub-incision is piously kept by the 
 Arunta and buried in a place upon which they put a 
 piece of wood warning passers-by of the sacredness of 
 the spot; no woman should approach it. The religious 
 nature of blood also explains the equal importance, re- 
 ligiously, of the red ochre, which is very frequently 
 employed an ceremonies; they rub the churinga with it 
 and use it in ritual decorations. This is due to the fact 
 that, because of its colour, it is regarded as something 
 kindred to blood. Many deposits of red ochre which are 
 found in the Arunta territory are even supposed to be 
 the coagulated blood which certain heroines of the 
 mythical period shed on the soil." Elliot Smith has 
 ix>inted out that blood was regarded as an elixir of life 
 (g.v.), and that red ochre came to be used as a sub- 
 stitute for it. It was an Aztec belief that the sun was 
 an animal, which was originally a man. The man had 
 become transformed, and "had received the intense 
 vitality necessary for the performance of his functions 
 from the blood of the gods, voluntarily shed for that 
 purpose " (Edwardes and Spence, p. 4S). In the Central 
 American system the sun is often represented as "a 
 deity whose sole sustenance is human blood, and who 
 must be well supplied with this gruesome pabulum or 
 perish " (iMd.. p. 72). The Scandinavian god Heim- 
 dallr Is nourished by the blood of sacrifices. 
 
 BLOOD, FIELD OF. See ACELDAMA. 
 
 BLOOD-BURIAL. An expression used in Chinese re- 
 ligion. It is a mark of filial devotion to allow a few 
 days (sometimes seven) to elapse before a deceased parent 
 is buried. When this Is not done, the burial is called 
 a " blood-burial," because the corpse is supposed still 
 to have blood in it (J. Doolittle, Social Life of the 
 Chinese, 1867, quoted by J. J. M. de Groot in R.S.C.). 
 
 BLOOD-LICKBRS. See BLOOD. 
 
 BOANERGES. We read in the New Testament that 
 Jesus gave this name to two of his disciples, James and 
 John, the sons of Zebedee (Mark iii. 17). The name is 
 interpreted by the Gospel writer " Sons of Thunder." 
 The first half of the word might be a corrupt form of 
 the Hebrew b'ne " eons of." The second jmrt of the 
 word is more difficult to explain. The most plausible 
 suggestion is that the Hebrew or rather Aramaic word 
 intended is regaz " anger." Regaz might be used of 
 thunder, though " sons of anger " in the sense of " soon 
 angered " seems more suitable. See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BOCHICA. A deity in the mythology of the Muyscas 
 of Bogota. He is represented as a culture-hero, the 
 teacher of building, agriculture, and laws; and as god 
 of the dawn. 
 
 BODHISATTVAS. Literally " he whose essence is 
 becoming enlightenment," a term used in Buddhism. A 
 term applied to a Buddha at a certain stage in his 
 development. Thus, when Gautama became incarnate 
 and was born of Maya, he was a Bodhisattva. Now 
 " when a Bodhisattva undertakes the task of a Buddha, 
 then his goal is Nirvana : with that, naturally, all earthly 
 relation comes to an end." But, " many of tho.se lofty 
 beings, who are in a position to tread the last way of 
 life, are possessed by a strong craving to aid their fellow-
 
 Boedromia 
 
 69 
 
 Bollandists 
 
 beings around them, to lead them into the true way of 
 knowledge, and this craving determines them to 
 willingly forego the Buddhaship which they might attain, 
 in order to live for countless years in the state of a 
 Bodhisattva engaged in taslis of ministry to lower things. 
 The Bodhisattva meanwhile exists in one of the many 
 heavens, possesses divine powers, is filled with kindly 
 intentions towards the suffering world below him, and is 
 ready to help those who appeal to him." The Bod- 
 hisattva Avalokita is considered to be reincarnate regu- 
 larly in the Dalai Lama of Lhassa. In Tibetan temples 
 are to be seen on wall-paintings representations of 
 Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and saints. The Bodhisattva 
 " is sumptuously adorned after the manner of an Indian 
 Prince. The head is covered with a crown, the orna- 
 ments coming down over the ears; he wears bracelets, 
 and has chains on his breast; precious stones, either real 
 or imitation, are worn in profusion. The hair is not 
 shaved off, but bound in a knot on the top of the head. 
 Some Bodhisattvas show .several heads or arms. Avalo- 
 kita especially is often represented with eleven heads, 
 with four or many more (" thousand ") arms. The 
 eaints, on the other hand, generally wear the normal 
 monk's habit and a monk's cap." See H. Hackmann. 
 
 BOBDROMIA. An Athenian festival held in honour 
 of Apollo (q.v.) in his character of a god of battle (Boe- 
 dromios). One of the months (September-October) was 
 named after the god Boedromion. The festival took 
 place on the sixth day of this month. 
 
 BOGOMILES. Literally " lovers of God " (from the 
 Slavonic), a sect which appeared in Thrace and BiUgaria 
 in the twelfth century. 'They are also called Bogarmitae, 
 Massilians, and by orthodox members of the Greek 
 Church Phundaites, " wearers of the girdle." The sect 
 was founded by a monk named Basil, whose system of 
 theology was dualistic like that of the Paulicians and 
 Oathari. His followers had to live a life of poverty 
 and asceticism. They did not accept all the books of 
 the Bible, but only the Psalms, the Prophets, the Gospels, 
 the Acts, tie Epistles, and the Apocalypse; and they 
 applied the allegorical key to the interpretation of Scrip- 
 ture. The world of matter and human beings was 
 created, they held, by Satanael, who sprang from the 
 Divine Being but rebelled against Him and opposed Him. 
 The Logos, who also sprang from the Divine Being, took 
 a phantom body and came down to earth to undo the 
 work of the wicked Satanael. Alexius Comnenus (1048- 
 1118) undertook to exterminate the heresj-. In 1118 he 
 invited Basil to a banquet, had him seized, and after- 
 wards caused him to be burned at Constantinople. But 
 the sect was not suppressed. In A.D. 1140 we find a 
 Council of Constantinople anathematizing the followers 
 of Basil, and in 132.5 Bosnia was overrun with them. 
 In this year Pope John xxii. wrote to the King of Bosnia 
 inveighing against them. In the fifteenth century they 
 appealed to the Turks to protect them against the King 
 of Bosnia and the priests who were persecuting them. 
 Soon after the invasion of Bosnia by Muhammad II. 
 (14fi3), they seem to have gone over to Islam in large 
 numbers. This, as Mr. T. W. Arnold says, in view of 
 " the numerous points of likeness between their peculiar 
 beliefs and the tenets of Islam," is quite intelligible. 
 " They rejected the worship of the Virgin Mary, the in- 
 stitution of Baptism, and every form of priesthood. They 
 abominated the cross as a religious symbol, and con- 
 sidered it idolatry to bow down before religious pictures 
 and the images and relics of the saints. Their houses 
 of prayer were very simple and unadorned, in contrast 
 to the gaudily-decorated Roman Catholic churches, and 
 they shared the Muhammadan dislike of bells, which they 
 styled ' the devil's trumpets.' They believed that Christ 
 
 was not himself crucified, but that some phantom was 
 substituted in his place : in this respect agreeing par- 
 tially with the teaching of the Qur'an. Their condemna- 
 tion of wine and the general austerity of their mode of 
 life and the stern severity of their outward demeanour 
 would serve as further links to bind them to Islam. . . 
 They prayed five times a day and five times a night, 
 repeating the Lord's Prayer with frequent kneelings, and 
 would thus find it very little cliange to join in the ser- 
 vices of the mosque." See J. H. Blunt; T. W. Arnold, 
 The Preaching of Islam, 1896. 
 
 BOHEMIA, CONFESSION OF. A Bohemian con- 
 fession approved by Luther, Melanchthon, and the 
 Academv of Wurtemburg, and published in A.D. 1532. 
 
 BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. The Bohemian Brethren 
 were de.scendants of the Hussites (q.v.). When the 
 Taborites (q-v.), the extreme section of the Hussites, 
 were finally conquered and disi>ersed, a remnant of them 
 settled at Lititz on the borders of Moravia and Silesia. 
 This remnant united with a remnant of the Calixtines 
 (g.v.) in 1457 to form a religious body of Bohemian (and 
 Moravian) Brethren, which took the name " Unitas 
 Fratrum " or " The Unity of the Brethren." The unity 
 they desired was that of a brotherhood of Christians (of 
 every denomination) united on a broad basis of scrip- 
 tural doctrine, practice, and worship. In 1467 The 
 Brethren decided to organize a ministry of their own. 
 Stephen, a Waldensian bishop, who claimed descent from 
 the bishops of the early Church, consented to consecrate 
 as their first bi.shop Michael Bradacius. Under George 
 Podiebrad (d. 1471) the Brethren were persecuted. Under 
 Luke of Prague (1497-1528) the Holy Scriptures became 
 their only rule of faith and practice. In 1500 their 
 churches in Bohemia and Moravia already numbered two 
 hundred. In the time of John Augusta (15.31-72) they 
 issued " Confessions." In 1505 they published a Hymn 
 Book, and in 1593 a Bohemian version of the Bible, the 
 Kralitz Bible. The Bohemian Brethren, in fact, made 
 great progress and became prosperous. But in course 
 of time prosperity brought relaxation of discipline and 
 excess of ambition. They had supported the Bohemian 
 Protestants in their rising against Ferdinand II. These 
 were routed at the Battle of the White Mountain in 1620, 
 and the consequences were serious for the Bohemian 
 Brethren. In 1621 their leading men were beheaded. 
 Thousands of them afterwards fled, or were expelled, 
 from Bohemia. A century later, when the remnant 
 also left their native country, the refugees became 
 known as Hermhuters or Moravians (see MORAVIANS). 
 The members of the Unitas Fratrum were divided into 
 three classes : the Beginners (Ineipientes), the Pro- 
 ficient (Proficienten), and the Perfect (Perfecti). The 
 ministers also, who were chosen from the Perfect, were 
 of three kinds : Acolytes or Deacons, Pastors or Priest.s, 
 and Bishops or Presidents. At the head of the Unitas 
 Fratrum was a Council of Elders. See J. H. Blunt; 
 Prot. Diet.: Oath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 BOHRAS. The Bohras or Bohoras (probably 
 " traders ") of India are a caste of traders, whose 
 original home was Gujarnt. The sect is said to have 
 grown up here through the activity of a missionary, 
 Abdulla, who came from Yemen to Cambay in A.D. 1067. 
 In 1539 the Bohras of India were joined by the Bohras 
 of Arabia, and Surat became the headquarters of the 
 .sect. The Bohras are Muhammadans. and for the most 
 part Shias of the Ismailia sect of Egypt. With a few 
 exceptions (e.g., the special importance attached to 
 circumcision), the customs of the Bohras do not differ 
 much from those of ordinary Muhammadans. See R. V. 
 Russell. 
 
 BOLLANDISTS. The great Jesuit work "Acta Sanct-
 
 Bona Dea 
 
 70 
 
 Book of Dimma 
 
 orum " or Lives of the Saints was planned by Rosweid 
 (d. 1629), a Flemish Jesuit. But John Holland (159(i- 
 1665), who worked at Antwerp, was the first to make a 
 real beginning with the undertaking. From 1635 George 
 Heuschen (KiOO-lCSl) collaborated with him, and by the 
 year 1658 five folios had appeared. In 1660 Daniel Pape- 
 broek (1628-1714) also became a collaborator. After the 
 death of Holland there was a succession of Jesuit 
 workers; but in 1794, by which time fifty-three volumes 
 had been published, the undertaking was interrupted by 
 the French Revolution. It was not possible to resume 
 the work until 1837, when the Society of Jesus was com- 
 missioned to do so, and issued a prospectus " De Prosecu- 
 tione Operis Bollandianl." In 1845 a new volume 
 appeared. It has been followed by many more. The 
 collaborators have been called HoUaudists after John 
 Holland. See Oath. Diet. 
 
 HONA DBA. Literally " the good goddess," an 
 Italian goddess of fertility. She was a patron goddess 
 of women, and was worshipjied in Rome only by women 
 (and amongst them by the Vestal Virgins). Men were 
 not allowed to enter her temple. She was evidently a 
 goddess of healing, since healing plants, as well as t.ame 
 seri^ents, were kept In her temple. Her symbol was a 
 consecrated serpent. " She is represented in works of 
 art with a sceptre in her left hand, a wreath of vine 
 leaves on her head, and a jar of wine at her side." See 
 O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 BONE-GATHERING CEREMONY. WTien a deceased 
 person has been burnt, it has been the custom among 
 some peoples to gather the bones and ashes together with 
 great solemnity. Monler-Williams gives several descrip- 
 tions of this ceremony as he saw it performed in India. 
 One of them is as follows : " A Brahman and five women 
 were seated in a semi-circle round the ashes and bones of 
 a young married girl of low caste, whose body had 
 recently been burnt. Before them was an earthenware 
 vase, and around it were flowers, fruits, and betel- 
 leaves. The Brahman had a metal vase shaped some- 
 thing like a tumbler in his hand containing consecrated 
 or holy water. With a small round spoon or ladle he 
 took out a small portion of the water and poured it into 
 the hands of the woman, at the same time muttering 
 tests and prayers. Then he poured water into the vase, 
 and on the top of the water placed the fruit, flowers, 
 and leaves. Next, he collected the half-calcined bones, 
 and having put them carefully and reverentially into the 
 vase, he made a hole in the ground a few yards off and 
 buried it. I was told that the vase would be left there 
 for ten days, when a Sraddha (offering to deceased 
 ancesitors) would be performed in the same place." After- 
 wards the ashes and bones are thrown into a sacred river, 
 preferably the Ganges. See Monier-Williams. 
 
 BONI HOMINES. Another name of the Perfect!. 
 
 BONI PUERI. Another name of the BEGHARDS 
 (q.v.). 
 
 BONI VALETI. Another name of the BEGHARDS 
 (q.v.). 
 
 BON RELIGION. A primitive form of religion in 
 Tibet, which preceded Lamaism. It " recognised nature 
 spirits, which were worshipped by all sorts of powerful 
 and terrible offerings; and it also paid reverence to the 
 spirits of the dead. The religious functions were per- 
 formed by priests, and there were the elements of a 
 magic cult, the knowledge of which was a secret con- 
 fined to the Bon priests. Sacrifices — especially human 
 sacrifices — were obligatory." In eour.se of time this 
 religion, which did not disappear altogether, was com- 
 pletely mingled with Tantrie Buddhism. See H. Hack- 
 mann. 
 
 HOOK OF " AM DtTAT." Literally the book " of that 
 which is in the underworld," a sacred hook, in the religion 
 of ancient Egypt. It wa.8 inscribed on sarcophagi, or 
 written on papyri which were placed in graves. There 
 is a fuller form of the text reserved for royal use and 
 an abridged form. The Dflat has twelve divisions, 
 through each of which the Sun made an hour's journey 
 at night. These divisions represent fields, cities, or 
 dwellings through which runs a river. The Sun-god, 
 journeying in his bark from West to East, meets every 
 conceivable kind of spirit and demon, and encounters 
 enemies whom he punishes, and faithful ones whom he 
 rewards. The underworld received in different places a 
 rather different colouring. The book which gives the 
 Theban representation was the work of the priests of 
 Amon, and the sun is identified with this god. We have 
 in the Book of "Am Dftat," says Prof. Naville, "one 
 of the best examples of the incoherences which reign in 
 the religious idea.s of the old Egyptians. It would 
 indeed be difficult to disentangle from the midst of the 
 fantastic scenes which pass before our eyes any unity 
 of conception, beyond the fact that the subject Is the 
 course of the sun during the night, or rather of the king 
 who has become that great god. If we would look for 
 a key to the fantastic symbolism of the book, we should 
 continually run against contradictions, and against con- 
 ceptions which are in complete antagonism to one 
 another." See A. Wiedemann; A. Erman, Handbook; 
 E. Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith, 1909. 
 
 BOOK OF ARMAGH. A manuscript translation of the 
 New Testament " in the emendated Irish text," written 
 in A.D. 812, and now preserved in Trinity College, Dublin. 
 See 0. R. Gregory. 
 
 BOOK OF BEN SIRA, THE. Jesus the son of (Ben) 
 Sira or Sirach is the reputed author of the Ar>ocryphal 
 book Ecclesiastieus. The work is also known as the 
 Book of Ben Sira or The Wisdom of Jesus the son of 
 Sirach. 
 
 BOOK OF CHAD. A manuscript translation of the 
 Gospels, belonging to the seventJi or eighth century. It 
 contains the emendated Irish text of Matthew, Mark, 
 and the beginning of Luke. The manuscript is preserved 
 in Lichfield Cathedral. See C. R. Gregory. 
 
 BOOK OF CHANGES. The Yih, " Book of Changes," 
 or Yih-king, " Classical Book of Changes," is one of the 
 ancient books treasured by the Chinese. It gives the 
 ancient ix>litical cosmogony. A very ancient work. It 
 was remodelled and expanded by the founder (1122 B.C.) 
 of the Imperial dynasty that niled in the time of Con- 
 fucius (551-479 B.C.). Confucius himself added appen- 
 dices to the Tih. He said he would gladly give fifty 
 years to the study of it. The book has been described 
 as " the most ancient of the Chinese writings." And 
 this would seem to be a true description, though Prof. 
 Legge assexts that not a single character in the book is 
 older than the twelfth century B.C. The Yih-king was 
 one of five books that received the title of the " Five 
 Classics." See James Legge, Religions of China, 1880; 
 A. Terrien De Lacouperie, The Oldest Book o/ the 
 Chinese, 1892; H. J. Allen, Early Chinese Hist., 1906; E. 
 H. Parker, Studies, 1910. 
 
 BOOK OF DEER. A manuscript translation, an emen- 
 dated Irish text, of the Go.spels, belonging to the eighth 
 or ninth century. It is so called because formerly it 
 was in the monastery of Deer or Delr in Aberdeen.shlre. 
 It is now preserved in the Library of the University of 
 Cambridge, England. See C. R. Gregory. 
 
 BOOK OF DIMMA. An Irish manuscript translation 
 of the Gospels belonging to the ninth century. It is 
 preserved in Trinity (College, Dublin.
 
 Book of D arrow 
 
 71 
 
 Book of Rites 
 
 BOOK OF DURROW. An Irish manaacript transla- 
 tion of the GospeLs belonging to the eighth century. It 
 is preserved in Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 BOOK OF HISTORY. The Shu, " Book of History " 
 or " Book of Annals," or Shu-king, " Classical Book of 
 History," is one of the five ancient books accepted by 
 the Chinese as Classics. The Book of History deals 
 with the patriarchal period and ends with the year 721 
 B.C. According to Prof. Legge (The Religions 0/ China, 
 18S0), this compilation is the oldest of Chinese books (see, 
 however, BOOK OF CHANGES). See H. J. Allen, Early 
 Chinese Hist., 1906: E. H. Parker, Studies, 1910. 
 
 BOOK OF JASHER. The Book of Jasher (Revised 
 Version, Ja.shar) is an ancient Hebrew song-book from 
 which quotations are given in the Old Testament (Josh. 
 X. 13; 2 Sam. i. 18). The Hebrew expression is sepher 
 hayyashar, which is most naturally translated " the book 
 of the righteous (or upright)." Yashar can hardly be 
 a proper name here. According to the Greek Version 
 of the Old Testament (the Septuagint), the words of 
 Solomon in I. Kings viii. 12 /. were to be found in the 
 " Book of Songs." This in Hebrew would be sepher 
 hashshir. Very likely in every case this was the original 
 expression. Sepher hashshir (s-ph-r h-sh-y-r) was mis- 
 read Sepher hayyashar (s-ph-r h-y-sh-r). The book was 
 a collection of poems and perhaps also of narratives, 
 which seems to have been made about 930 B.C., that is to 
 say, soon after the time of Solomon. See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BOOK OP KELLS. An Irish manuscript translation 
 of the Gospels, belonging to the seventh or eighth cen- 
 turv. It is preserved in Trin'ty College, Dublin. 
 
 BOOK OF MOLING OR MULLING. An Irish manu- 
 script translation of the Gospels belonging to the ninth 
 century. It is preserved in Trinity College. Dublin. 
 
 BOOK OF ODES. The Shi, " Book of Odes," or Shi- 
 king, " Clas.sical Book of Odes," is one of the Chinese 
 Classics. It contains " the popular songs of China, in 
 which the people of the various states expressed their 
 political and social emotions " (E. H. Parker). The odes 
 were collected and edited by Confucius (5.51-479 B.C.). 
 Prof. Giles quotes one as follows : 
 
 Do not say. This place is not public; 
 
 So one can see me here. 
 
 The approaches of spiritual Beings 
 
 Cannot be calculated beforehand ; 
 
 But on no account should they be ignored. 
 
 Prof. Legge quotes another ode, dating from the twelfth 
 century B.C., and gives it in rhyme thus : 
 
 With reverence I will go 
 
 Where duty's path is plain. 
 Heaven's will I clearly know; 
 
 It's favour to retain 
 Is hard;— let me not say 
 
 ' Heaven is remote on high. 
 Nor notices men's way.' 
 
 There in the starlit sky 
 It round about us moves. 
 
 Inspecting all we do. 
 And daily disapproves 
 
 What is not just and true. 
 
 Prof. Giles thinks it is clear from the Odes " that the 
 Chinese people continued to hold, more clearly and more 
 firmly than ever, a deep-seated belief in the existence of 
 an anthropomorphic and personal God, whose one care 
 was the welfare of the human race." See James Legge, 
 Religions of China, 1880: H. J. Allen, Early Chinese 
 Hist., 1906: H. A. Giles, Religions of Ancient China, 1905; 
 E. H. Parker, Studies, 1910. 
 
 BOOK OF ORIGINS. The name given by H. Ewald 
 to the Elohistic narrative which runs through the Hexa- 
 tench. It was so called because it seemed to form the 
 framework or groundwork (German " Grundschrift "). 
 See SUPPLEMENTARY HYPOTHESIS. 
 
 BOOK OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS. The 
 " Book of Rewards and Punishments " is said to be the 
 most popular exposition in its modem form of the 
 Chinese religion or system of ethics known as Taoism 
 (y.v.). It does indeed claim to be the production of the 
 reputed founder of Taoism, Lao-tsze himself (sixth cen- 
 tury B.C.) ; but, according to Prof. Douglas, it can hardly 
 have been published earlier than the fifteenth or six- 
 teenth century A.D., that is to say, many centuries after 
 Buddhism became known in China (A.D. 62). Some of 
 the maxims of the book, as given by Douglas, are as 
 follows: "Practise righteousness and filial piety, be 
 affectionate towards your younger brothers and respect- 
 ful towards your elder brothers. . . . Do no injury, 
 either to insects, plants, or trees. . . . Rejoice at the 
 success of others, and sympathise with their reverses, 
 even as though you were in their place. . . . Bestow 
 favours without expecting recompense. . . . Do not 
 introduce vexatious reforms into the administration of 
 the empire. . . . Don't shoot at birds, nor hunt 
 animals. . . . Don't drive insects from their holes, 
 nor frighten roosting birds. . . . Don't seek your own 
 advantage at the expense of others. . . . Don't suck 
 other men's brains. . . . Don't break asunder mar- 
 riages. . . . Don't decry the excellences of others, nor 
 conceal your own imperfections. . . . Don't put 
 obstacles in the way of the promotion of men who are 
 endowed with talents or worthy of praise. . . . Don't 
 delight in picking and stealing. . . . Don't murmur 
 against Heaven at your lot, nor accuse men. Don't 
 scold the wind, nor abuse the rain. . . . Never say 
 anything you don't mean. . . . Don't employ aU your 
 strength to accomplish your aims. . . . Live in har- 
 mony with your wife. Wives, respect your husbands. 
 . . . Don't do anything which is not useful. . . . 
 Don't leap over a well or a hearth. . . . Don't shout 
 or get angry on the first day of the month, or in the 
 morning. . . . Don't point rudely at the sun, moon, 
 and stars. . . . Don't needlessly kill tortoises and 
 serpents." Douglas's translation is based upon the 
 French translation of Stanislas Julien. See Robert K. 
 Douglas. Confucianism and Taouism; Frederic H. Bal- 
 four, " Taoism," in R.S.W. 
 
 BOOK OF RITES. The Li, " Book of Rites." or Li- 
 king, " Classical Book of Rites," is one of the ancient 
 books accepted by the Chinese as Classics. The Rites 
 are those of the Imi>erial dynasty that was reigning in 
 the time of (Confucius (5.51-479 B.C.), and was founded ia 
 1122 B.C. Prof. Parker states that the Book of Rites 
 or Book of Abstract Principles has never been changed 
 organically. And he quotes Confucius as saying : " The 
 dj-nasty (1756-1122 B.C.) preceding that under which we 
 live (1122-255 B.C.) continued the abstract principles of 
 that before it (2205-1766 B.C.), and handed over the same 
 principles to the dynasty now reigning." The Book of 
 Rites was only in part.s- edited by Confucius and his di.s- 
 ciples. A few quotations will give some idea of the 
 nature of the work. " Every tree has its appointed time 
 to perish, and every beast its appointed time to die, and 
 h'3 who cuts down a tree or kills an animal before their 
 time is guilty of unfilial conduct (Douglas). ... A 
 woman is unable to stand alone, and therefore when 
 young depends on her father and brothers, when married, 
 on her husband, and after his death, on her sons 
 (Dougla.s). . . . Sacrifice is not a thing coming to a 
 man from without; it issues from within him, and has 
 its birth in his heart. When the heart is deeply moved, 
 expression is given to it by ceremonies; and hence, only 
 men of ability and virtue can give complete exhibition 
 to the idea of sacrifice " (Legge's translation of the 
 "Book of Rites"). See R. K. Douglas, Confucianism 
 
 «
 
 Book of Secret Blessings 
 
 72 
 
 Book of the Dead 
 
 and Taouism; H. A. Giles, Religions of Ancient China, 
 1905; H. J. AUen, Early Chinese Hist., 1906; E. H. 
 Parker, Studies, 1910. 
 
 BOOK OP SECRET BLESSINGS. The " Book of 
 Secret Blessings " is an exposition in its modem form 
 of the Chinese religion or system of ethics known as 
 Taoism (g.v.). Next to the " Book of Rewards and 
 Punishments " (g.v.), which it resembles, it is said to 
 be the most popular religious work in China, being wel- 
 comed by Buddhists, Oonfucianists, and Taoists alike. 
 " It has gone through many thousand editions, and has 
 become a household word throughout the empire" 
 (Douglas). Amongst its maxims, as summarized by 
 Prof. Douglas, are these : " Publish abroad lessons for 
 the improvement of mankind, and devote your wealth to 
 the good of your fellow-men. In all your actions follow 
 the principles of Heaven, and in all your words follow the 
 purified heart of man. Have all the Sages of antiquity 
 before your eyes, and examine carefully your conscience." 
 See R. K. Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism. 
 
 BOOK OF THE ACTS OF SOLOMON. An old Hebrew 
 record referred to in the Old Testament. In I. Kings 
 xi. 41 we read : " Now the rest of the acts (or " words " 
 or " matters ") of Solomon, and all that he did, and his 
 wisdom, are they not written in the book of the acts of 
 Solomon? " It seems to have been a work based upon 
 the annals of the reign of Solomon. It would appear to 
 have included also narratives partly historical and partly 
 biographical, which were intended to illustrate the 
 wisdom and greatness of Solomon. The work was one 
 of the sources used by the compiler of the Books of 
 Kings. See Skinner, Kings, in " The Century Bible." 
 
 BOOK OF THE COVENANT. The name of several 
 documents referred to in the Old Testament. (1) We 
 read : " And Moses came and told the people all the 
 words of Jehovah, and all the judgments : and all the 
 people answered with one voice and said. All the words 
 which Jehovah hath six>ken will we do. And Moses 
 wrote all the words of Jehovah, and rose up early in the 
 morning, and builded an altar under the mount, and 
 twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel. 
 . . . And he took the book of the covenant, and read 
 in the audience of the people : and they said, All that 
 Jehovah hath spoken will we do, and be obedient " 
 (Exodus xxiv. 3, 4, 7). The document intended here is 
 no doubt the section of the Hexateuch comprised in 
 Exodus XX. 22-xxiii. 3.3, which is also known to scholars 
 as the code of the covenant or the Greater Book of the 
 Covenant (to distinguish it from No. 2 following). The 
 code is part of the Ephraimitic narrative incorporated 
 in the Hexateuch (see PKNTATEtTCH). " It contains 
 several pentades of Words, a number of detached 
 statutes, a few laws of a mixed type (probably red- 
 BCtional); but the main body of the code is made up of 
 a series of pentades of judgments, which seem to be 
 judicial decisions of cases arising in an agricultural com- 
 munity. These are not such as would arise among the 
 nomads whom Moses led out of Egj'pt to Horeb " (C. A. 
 Briggs). G. Wildeboer (Canon of the O.T., 1S95> points 
 out that we have no certain knowledge alout the promul- 
 gation of this book, and that since Deuteronomy, though 
 often following its prescriptions closely, never mentions 
 it, it must have had a private character. He adds that 
 it' could not have been a book for the people like 
 Deuteronomy, but must have been a book for legal use. 
 (2) In another passage we read : " And Jehovah said 
 unto Moses, Write thou thase words : for after the tenor 
 of these words I have made a covenant with thee and 
 with Israel " (Exodus xxxiv. 27). Here a " Book of the 
 Covenant " is not actually mentioned, but is implied. 
 It evidently conaiats of the preceding section, Eiodus 
 
 xxxiv. 11-28, the work of the Judaic writer. To dis- 
 tinguish it from book no. 1 (above), it has been desig- 
 nated by scholars the Little Book of the Covenant. It 
 really represents another decalogue in addition to that 
 of Exodus XX. 1-17 (see DECALOGUE). (3) Another 
 book is referred to in II. King's xxii.-xxiii. and II. 
 Chronicles xxxiv. -v. It is first spoken of as " the book 
 of the law " (II. Kings xxii. 8, 11; II. Chronicles xxxiv. 
 15) or " the book of the law of Jehovah " (II. Chronicles 
 xxxiv. 14) or simply "the words of the law" (II. 
 Chronicles xxxiv. 19), and then as the " book of the 
 covenant" (II. Kings xxiii. 2, 21; II. Chronicles xxxiv. 
 30) or " the law of Moses " (II. Kings xxiii. 25) or " the 
 word of Jehovah by the hand of Moses " (II. Chronicles 
 XXXV. (i). This " book of the covenant " is the book 
 which was brought to light and introduced to the people 
 in the eighteenth year of King Josiah (621 B.C.). It 
 used to be thought that it was identical with the whole 
 of our Pentateuch or of the Jewish " Torah." That view 
 is no longer held by critical scholars. It has been 
 demonstrated that " the Book of the Covenant," other- 
 wise called '• the Book of the Law," comprised " either 
 a portion of our Deuteronomy or a collection of laws, 
 Deuteronomie in tone, and, in range of contents, having 
 a close resemblance to our Book of Deuteronomy " (H. 
 E. Ryle). There are two lines of evidence. (1) It is 
 clear from the description of the book that " in its most 
 characteristic features, it approximated more closely to 
 portions of Deuteronomy than to any other section of the 
 Pentateuch." (2) ^Tien the historian speaks of "the 
 law," he appears " to have in view the Deuteronomie 
 section, and scarcely to be acquainted with any other." 
 The arguments are summarized very lucidly by H. B. 
 Ryle. The public recognition and acceptance of this 
 deuteronomie work marks the beginning of the process 
 of canonization. See H. E. Ryle, Canon; W. R. Smith, 
 O.T.J.C. (2); C. A. Briggs, Eex. 
 
 BOOK OF THE DEAD. A book, that is to say, 
 intended for the dead, the most important of the religious 
 writings of tlie ancient Egyptians. Parts of it may 
 belong to the remote period of the first Memphite 
 dynasties. The Book contains prayers or addresses, 
 hymns, and formulae for the use of a deceased person 
 in the underworld. It was in use in the Middle King- 
 dom, but more so in the New Kingdom, and, later, por- 
 tions were written on the walls of the tombs, the sides 
 of the sarcophagi, the linen bandages, and on papyri 
 folded within the body-cloths. Different portions or 
 chapters were thought to be adapted to different tastes, 
 emergencies, or means. With the magic help of the Book 
 of the Dead, a soul on its journey through the under- 
 world could overcome the evil spirits and win over the 
 good ones. Prof. Naville gives this rubric from later 
 papyri : " He who knows this book on earth, or on whose 
 coffin it has been written, may come out from the day 
 when he pleases, and again enter his dwelling, without 
 anyone repulsing him. And there shall be given to him 
 bread, beer, much flesh meat, upon the altar-table of 
 Ra ; he shall receive allotment of land in the garden of 
 Aalu, and there shall be given to him grain, and he shall 
 grow green (flourish) again, like what he was upon 
 earth." A very interesting chapter or section has 
 reference to the testing of the soul in the underworld. 
 Arrived at the Hall of the Two Truths or Two Justices, 
 the deceased person had to stand before the judgment- 
 throne of Osiris, with whom sat the forty-two judges of 
 the dead. The deceased had to justify himself, to make 
 a confession, and to show that he had not been guilty 
 of any of the forty-two sins. To test him, his heart was 
 weighed in the scales by Horns (q.v.) and Anubis (q.v.). 
 If he came through this ordeal satisfactorily, he received
 
 Book of the Kings of Israel 
 
 73 
 
 Bourigoonists 
 
 back his heart and in his old form became a nerv and 
 eternal being. Other books based upon the Book of the 
 Dead, supplementing it or reproducing the most import- 
 ant formulae, had a wide circulation. These included 
 such works as : " The Book of the Breath," " The Second 
 Book of the Breath," " The Book of Journeying in 
 Eternity," " The Book of ' May my Name flourish '." 
 It should be added that much of the matter in the Book 
 of the Dead reveals a well-developed moral sense. See 
 A. Wiedemaim: A. Erman, Handbook; B. Naville, The 
 Old Egyptian Faith, 1909. 
 
 BOOK OF THE KINGS OF ISRAEL. An old Hebrew 
 record referred to in I. Chronicles i.x. 1. It was one 
 of the sources used by the compiler of the Books of 
 Chronicles. The full title of the work seems to have 
 been "The Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah." 
 " This work, which is cited as an authority for reigns 
 as early as that of Asa and as late as that of Jehoiakim, 
 was clearly a comprehensive one, but not the canonical 
 Books of Kings, because it is cited for matters not in 
 those books — i.e., genealogies (I. Ch. ix. 1), the wars of 
 Jotham (II. Ch. xxvii. 7), and the prayer of Manasseh 
 (II. Ch. xxxlii. 18) and the abominations of Jehoiakim 
 (II. Ch. xxxvi. 8). Neither was it the sources men- 
 tioned in I. and II. Kings for the jwlitical history of 
 Israel and Judah, since they were two distinct works." 
 But it may have been dependent upon those sources, " or 
 since the real historical material derived from this book 
 apart from that in the canonical books is extremely 
 meagre, it may have been dependent upon those books, 
 a Midxash or commentary on them (Kuenen, Einl. p. 
 ICO). In their earliest form I. and II. Kings may have 
 contained fuller information than in their present Mas- 
 soretic form " (E. L. Curtis and A. A. Madsen). See E. 
 L. Curtis and A. A. Madsen. Book of Chronicles, 1910. 
 
 BOOK OF THE LAW. THE. A document referred to 
 in the Old Testament (II. Kings xxii. 8. 11) in connection 
 with the reforms of King Josiah. In II. Kings xxiii. 
 2, 21, and II. Chronicles xxxiv. 30 it is called the Book 
 of the Covenant (q.v.). 
 
 BOOK OF THE RESURRECTION. A N.T. apocry- 
 phal work. A Coptic version, found in Egypt, has been 
 printed In recent years by the trustees of tie British 
 Mu.seum. The work exhibits marked Egyptian (Gnostic) 
 influence. " It describes the descent of Jesus into hell; 
 the conquest of death : the defeat of the devil : the 
 destruction of the gates, bolts, and bars of hell; the 
 extinction of its fires; the overthrow of its blazing 
 cauldrons: the liberation of Adam and Eve and all the 
 children of men; the final condemnation of Judas Iscariot; 
 the ascent from hell of the Lord Jesus; his resurrection; 
 his enthronement at the right hand of the Father in his 
 tabernacle of light in the seventh heaven; and the recon- 
 ciliation of God with Adam and his eons " (Cobem). 
 
 BOOK OF THE WARS OF THE LORD. An ancient 
 Hebrew book referred to in the Old Testament (Numbers 
 xxi. 14 /.). The reference is as follows : " Wherefore 
 it is said in the book of the Wars of the Lord, Vaheb 
 in Suphah, and the valleys of Amon. and the slope of 
 the valleys that inclineth toward the dwelling of Ar, 
 and leaneth upon the border of Moab." The book, it has 
 been thought, was a collection of songs referring to 
 Israel's wars against its neighbours, and it has been sug- 
 gested that other passages in the O.T. <e.(i.. Exodus xv. 
 1-19) were derived from it. Thus it may be supposed to 
 have been a book like the Book of Jashar (q.v.). It was 
 perhaps compiled about 900 B.C. Prof. Cheyne observes, 
 however, with good reason, that the contents of the 
 quotation hardly suggest a history or a collection of his- 
 torical songs or ballads. The quotation suggests that 
 the book " had reference to geography." There is per- 
 
 haps some corruption in the text, though it is difficult to 
 emend it satisfactorily. See Encycl. Bihl. 
 
 BOOK OF TORGAU. A confessional formula drawn 
 up mainly by James Andreas and Martin Chemnitz. It 
 was designed as the basis on which the Lutherans might 
 agree, and sui)erseded the Swabian and Saxon Formula 
 of Concord (q.v.) and the Maulbronn Formula. The 
 Book of Torgau consisted of twelve articles. In 1577 
 A.D. Andrea and Chemnitz, with the assistance of Sel- 
 necker, Musculus, Komer, and Chytraus, recast it at 
 Bergen near Magdeburg as the Formula of Concord (q.v.). 
 See William A. Curtis. 
 
 BOONBOLONG. A magic word among the natives of 
 New South Wales. If it is uttered on the approach of 
 the evil spirit which in the form of " a dwarf with mon- 
 strous head roams the woods at night and devours those 
 whom he meets," the dwarf will pass by and do no harm. 
 See D. G. Brinfon, Rel. 
 
 BORBELITES. Another name of the BAEBELIOTES 
 (q.v.). 
 
 BORBORIANS. A name applied by way of reproach 
 to the Barbeliotes (q.v.). 
 
 BORRELISTS. A division of the Dutch Baptists or 
 Mennonites. The sect was founded by Adam Borrel in 
 the second half of the seventeenth century. They cor- 
 respond very largely to the English Quakers. 
 
 BORVO. Borvo, or Bormo, or Bormanus was one of 
 the names of a god of the ancient Celts who corresponded 
 to Apollo (q.v.). The name means " the boiling," and 
 Borvo was the deity of thermal springs. The ancient 
 Celts often associated a god with a goddess, but it is 
 tmcertain what relationship they had in mind. In any 
 case, the god Borvo is paired with the goddess Damona 
 (q.v.). See Anwyl, Celtic Religion, 1906: Reinach, O. 
 
 BOSTON DECLARATION, THE. The " Boston 
 Declaration " is a Confession of Faith which was 
 approved by the Synod of the New England Churches in 
 KiSO A.D. It " is simply the Savov Confession with the 
 Cambridge Platform " (William A. Curtis). Cp. SAVOY 
 DECLARATION and CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM. 
 
 BOTANOMANCy. Divination by means of plants. It 
 was once a custom to write words and questions on 
 leaves. When the leaves were blown about by the wind, 
 some of them were supposed to come together in such a 
 way as to answer questions. 
 
 BO-TREE. The name given in Buddhism to the tree 
 under which Gautama received the revelation which 
 changed his outlook on life. The Buddhist monks plant 
 such a tree (Ficus religiosa) within the precincts of every 
 monastery. Asoka sent one to Ceylon, which " still 
 survives as a two-thousand-year-old rarity in the remark- 
 able ruins of Anuradhapura." In Japan a substitute 
 is found in an aniseed (Illioium religiosum) or in a 
 Chinese juniper. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 BOCCHERA. A goddess worshipped by the Hijras 
 (also called Khasuas), the community of eunuchs In 
 India. The name appears also as Behechra. 
 
 BOURIGNONISTS. The followers of Madame Antoin- 
 ette Bourignon de la Porte (1616-1680), a m.vstic and 
 visionary. She was born at Lille. Madame Bourignon 
 believed that she saw visions and was directly inspired 
 by God to revive Christianity in its pure evangelic form. 
 Admitted to a convent by the Archbishop of Cambray, 
 she succeeded in making disciples of some of the nuns. 
 She was afterwards head of a hospital, first in Lille, and 
 then in East Friesland. She died at Franeker in Friee- 
 land. Her religion was a pietistlc mysticism in which 
 more importance was attached to emotion and inner 
 feeling than to knowledge and practice. Madame 
 Bourignon was an accomplished conversationalist and a 
 prolific writer. Her principal toUowers have Included
 
 Bourneans 
 
 74 
 
 Brahmanas 
 
 Bartholomew de Cordt, a Jansenlst priest, and Peter 
 Poiret, a Calvinistic minister, the editor of her works 
 (25 volumes, 1676-S4). The movement spread from 
 Holland to Germany, France, Switjserland, and England. 
 See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 BOURNEANS. The followers of one Bounie, a Bir- 
 mingham preacher, who maintained that at the final 
 punishment Impenitent sinners would be totally an- 
 nihilated. 
 
 BOWLS, MAGICAL. Morris Jastrow (Civ.) notes that 
 at Nippur " hundreds of clay bowls, containing magical 
 inscriptions in Aramaic and Syriac as a protection of the 
 dead against evil demons, and dating from about the 
 sixth century of our era, were found in graves of the 
 uppermost layens in certain sections of the mound, as a 
 proof that Nippur continued to be a sacred necropolis for 
 Jews and Christians many centuries after it had ceased to 
 be occupied, and at a time when all traces and even the 
 recollection of its one-time grandeur had disappeared." 
 
 BOXERS. A secret society in China, one of the objects 
 of which was to expel European missionaries from China. 
 In 1900 the European Powers united to suppress them, 
 and the expedition was successful. 
 
 BOY-BISHOP. In the Middle Ages it was a custom 
 to elect one of the boys of the church or cathedral clJOir 
 or of the grammar-school to act as boy-bishop from the 
 fith of December (St. Nicholas' Day) to the 2Sth of 
 December (Holy Innocents' Day). The custom was 
 perhaps intended as a commemoration of Jesus' act in 
 setting a child in the midst of his disciples as a pattern 
 of humility (Matthew xviii. 2-6). The boy-bishop was 
 allowed to wear the episcopal dress, and to have a number 
 of attendants who wore the priestly dress. With the.se 
 he performed ceremonies (except Mass) in the church, 
 and, going from house to house, blessed the people. The 
 custom was discontinued in England by Henry VIII. 
 (1542), but was revived by Queen Mary (1554). It was 
 abolishe<l, gradnailly, in the reign of Elizabeth. The 
 Council of Basle condemned the practice (1431). 
 
 BOYLE LECTURES. A Church of England course of 
 Ijectures on Divinity founded by the Hon. Robert Boyle 
 (1627-1091), one of the founders of the Royal Society. By 
 his will he left £50 a year for eight sermons to be 
 preached by " some preaching minister," the purpose of 
 the lectures being to defend the Christian religion 
 against notorious Infidels, Atheists, Deists, Pagans, Jews 
 and Mohammedans. The lectureship may be held by the 
 (ame preacher for three years. He must be " resident 
 within the City of London or Circuit of Bills of 
 Mortality," and deliver the lectures between Christmas 
 and Midsummer of each year in some London Church. 
 See the London Diocese Book. 
 
 BRACHITAE. A branch of the Manichaeans (q.v.), 
 which seems to have belonged to the end of the third 
 century A.D. 
 
 BRAGI. God of poetry in the religion of the ancient 
 Teutons. Mention is made of Bragi's cup which every 
 new Ising had to drain on ascending the throne of his 
 father and by which he had to pledge himself. This 
 Bnagi must, be distinguished from Bragi the Old or Bnagi 
 Boddason who seems to have been a historical person of 
 the ninth century. See P. D. Chantepie de La Saussaye. 
 
 BRAHMA. The Indian deity from whom Brahmanism 
 tAkes its name. Brahma is the Creator, but not 
 in the sense of being the original source of everything. 
 He is the ijersonal (mase.) manifestation of the one 
 impersonal Essence or Being, Brahma (neuter). With 
 him are associated, and often identified, Vishnu (q.v.) 
 and Siva {g.v.). The two latter can, in fact, be wor- 
 shipped as Brahma, since the functions of the three gods 
 are interchangeable. This is thought to account for the 
 
 fact that there are not many temples to Brahma him- 
 self. There is a temple to him near Idar or Edar, and 
 another at Pushkara, and a legend associates him with 
 the temple at Kalighat near Calcutta, one of the 
 shrines of Siva's wiife. Kali (Alexander Duff, India and 
 Indian Missions. 1S.39, quoted by Oman). Brahma is 
 said to have performed a sacrifice at Pushka«a which 
 made the lal^e there sacred, so that to bathe in it is to 
 be cleansed of all sin and to be made fit to enter 
 Brahma's heaven. Monier-Williams describes a visit to 
 the temple at Pushkara. He found the actual shrine 
 of Brahma in the centre of a quadrangle. " In front 
 of the entrance was the inevitable bell. I was allowed 
 to look through the well-carved wooden gates at the 
 image which was clearly visible in its sanctuary at the 
 end of the vista of open columns. I observed that it had 
 four black faces, each one of which was supposed to 
 be directed towards one of the four quarters of the com- 
 pass. In point of flaet, however, three of the faces 
 were made to look at the observer, each face having two 
 great staring glass eyes. Covering the four-faced head 
 was a broad red turban, and over that were hanging 
 five umbrella-shaped ornaments. I noticed that the 
 image was dressed in red clothes with flaps of coloured 
 cloth hanging round the waist. On one side of the god's 
 image was that of his wife worshipped here as Gayatri 
 or Savitrl, and behind both was the image of Kama- 
 dhenu — the sacred cow granting all desires. On the 
 maxble floor in front of the shrine was the carved repre- 
 sentation of a tortoise — significant, no doubt, of Brahma's 
 connection with Vishnu (p. 108), out of whose navel he 
 is fabled to have sprung, seated on a lotus." See 
 Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins; J. C. Oman, B. T.M.I. 
 
 BRAHMACHARI. A name given to the young Brahman 
 after he has obtained the right to wear the triple cord. 
 He is invested with this cord at a special ceremony called 
 the Upanayana. " It is well known that all Brahmins 
 wear a thin cord, hung from the left shoulder and 
 falling on to the right hip. It is composed of three 
 strands of cotton, each strand formed by nine threads. 
 The cotton with which it is made must be gathered from 
 the plant by the hand of a pure Brahmin, and carded 
 and spun by persons of the same caste, so as to avoid 
 the possibility of its being defiled by passing through 
 unclean hands. After a Brahmin is married his cord 
 must have nine and not three strands " (Dubois and 
 Beauchamp). 
 
 BRAHMAMAHA. A sectarian festival among the 
 early Hindus in honour of Brahma, a festival in which 
 all the castes took part. It was a kind of harvest festival 
 accompanied by athletic contests. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 BRAHMANAS. Each of the four Vedas in Indian 
 Literature, the Rig-Veda, the Sdma-Veda, the Yajur- 
 Veda, and the Atharva-Veda, has three sub-divisions, 
 the Samhitii, Brdhmana, and Siitra. The majority 
 of the Brdhmanas were written before 480 B.C. 
 They deal with prayer, ritual, dogma, sacrifice, and are 
 much later than the Vedic hymns. " Their object is 
 to connect the sacrificial songs and formulas with the 
 .sacrificial rite, by iwinting out, on the one hand, their 
 direct mutual relation; and, on the other, their sym- 
 bolical connection with each other. In setting forth the 
 former, they give the particular ritual in its details : in 
 illustrating the latter, they are either directly explana- 
 tory and analytic, dividing each formula into its con- 
 stituent parts, or else they establish that connection 
 dogmatically by the aid of tradition or speculation. We 
 thus find in them the oldest rituals we have, the oldest 
 linguistic explanations, the oldest traditional narratives, 
 and the oldest philosophical speculations. This peculiar 
 character is common generally to all works of this class,
 
 Brahma Samaj 
 
 75 
 
 Brasen Serpent 
 
 yet they differ widely in details, according to their indi- 
 vidual tendency, and according as they belong to this or 
 that particular Veda " (A. Weber). Appended to the two 
 Brahman as of the Rig- Veda is an Aran-yaka, a Forest- 
 Book, and in the Forest-Book an Upaniahad (a-i')- See 
 A. Weber, Hist, of Indian Lit. (2) 1878; B. W. Hopkins. 
 
 BRAHMA SAMAJ. Literally " the Congregation of 
 God," a modern theistic church founded at Calcutta in 
 1828 by the Hindu reformer, Rammohun Roy (1772-1833). 
 After the death of Rammohun Roy, hia successor, 
 Debendranath Tagore (6. 1818), founded another church, 
 " the Truth-teaching Society " (1839-1859), which was 
 afterwards united with the Brahma Samaj. In 1844 
 the latter was re-organised as the Adi Brahma Samaj, 
 the First Congregation. The members of this took an 
 oath, and were guided by a president and minister. A 
 schism was nearly caused in the Church by a difference 
 of opinion regarding the infallibility and authority of tlie 
 Vedas. The movement, however, spread, and in 1850 
 Samajas were in existence in other provinces. In 18.58 
 Keshub Chunder Sen joined the Brahma Samaj, and 
 soon began to advocate far-reaching reforms, such as the 
 abolition of ca.srte, child-marriages, and polyandry. 
 Failing in his purpose here, in 186G he founded a new 
 church, the Brahma Samaj of India as distinguished 
 from the Adi Samaj of Calcutta. In this church caste- 
 restrictions and Brahmanism were abolished, but the 
 religion was characterised by much emotionalism and 
 ecstatic fervour. Sen, himself, though he denied that he 
 made any claim to divine honours, came to receive divine 
 honours. He certainly claimed to be divinely inspired, 
 and assumed the power of a pope among his followers. 
 His glory suffered an eclipse when jn 1877 his young 
 daughter (10) was engaged to a boy-prince (IG). In 1880 
 he proclaimed Christianity to be the only true religion; 
 but the Christianity he had in mind was hardly that of 
 the Christian Churches, for he afterwards professed to 
 find the true religion in an amalgamation of Christianity, 
 Hinduism, and Mohammedanism. In 1878 Sen's 
 opponents started another new church or society, and 
 now there are said to be many such congregations in 
 India. Cp. ABYA SAMAJ, and see E. W. Hopkins: 
 Monier-Williams; J. C. Oman, B.T.M.I.; and R. V. 
 
 BRAHMANASPATI. Also called Brihaspati, one of the 
 more recent of the Vedic gods, a personification of Prayer. 
 In some texts he is identified with Agni or with Soma. 
 
 BRAHMANS. The priestly caste of India. The caste 
 seems to have originated in the bards, ministers and 
 family priests attached to the king's household in Vedic 
 times. " Gradually then from the household priests 
 and those who made it their business to commit to 
 memory and recite the sacred hymns and verses handed 
 down orally from generation to generation through this 
 agency, an occupational caste emerged, which arrogated 
 to itself the monopoly of these functions, and the doc- 
 trine developed that nobody could perform them who 
 was not qualified by birth, that is, nobody could be a 
 Brahman who was not the son of a Brahman " (Russell 
 and Hira Liil). When the Sanskrit language ceased to 
 be the language spoken by ordinary people, the Brah- 
 mans alone held the key to the sacred l)ooks, and for 
 a long time they enjoyed a monopoly of literacy and 
 education. This made their intellectual, religious, and 
 even administrative leadership secure. A change, how- 
 ever is taking place now through the action of the British 
 Government, which has made education available to all. 
 It is no longer possible for a Brahman to learn all the 
 Vedas and their commentaries. Hence the ordinary 
 Bnihman devotes himself to one of the branches (or 
 Shakhas) into which each Veda has been divided, and 
 
 only to one Veda. This has given rise to a kind of 
 sectarian division. In the Central Provinces most 
 Brahmans are either Rlgvedis or Yajurvedis, who usually 
 marry only followers of their own Veda. " Formerly 
 the Brahman considered himself as a part of Brahma, 
 and hence a god. This belief has decayed, but the gods 
 are still held to reside in the body : Siva in the crown 
 of the head, Vishnu in the chest, Brahma in the navel, 
 Indra in the genitals and Ganesh in the rectum. Most 
 Brahmans belong to a sect worshipping especially Siva 
 or Vishnu, or Rama and Krishna, the incarnations of the 
 latter god, or Sakti, the female principle of energy of 
 Siva. But as a rule Brahmans, whether of the Sivite 
 or Vishnuite sects, abstain from flesh meat and are 
 averse to the killing of any living thing " (Russell and 
 Hira Lai). See R. V. Russell, and cp. J. Dowson. 
 
 BRAIDISM. A name given to the hypnotic system 
 used by the Scotch surgeon James Braid. Braid proved 
 that the hypnotic state can be brought upon oneself by 
 staring at a shining object, and is not dependent upon 
 external energies such as mesmerism (q.v.) or animal 
 magnetism (q.v.). He made his patients stare at a 
 shining object, and produced hypnotism in this way. 
 Braid was the first writer who employed the terms 
 " hypnotism " and " nervous sleep " in this science. See 
 .J. Lapiwni, Hypnotism and Spiritism, 1907; H. Miinster- 
 berg. Psychotherapy, 1909.. 
 
 BRAN. The Gaelic Bron or British Brfln was one of 
 tie deities revered by the ancient Celts in Britain. He 
 is said to have been the son of Llyr (q.v.). He is repre- 
 .sented as the king of the Underworld, and the patron of 
 bards and minstrels, and as being of immense size. See 
 Squire, Myth. 
 
 BRANDING. The chiefs (a(5arj'as) of the two Hindu 
 sects of Ramanuja make a periodical visit of their 
 dioceses, and in every large town hold a kind of con- 
 firmation. They confirm every child or young person 
 who has been initiated by branding or stamping him as 
 a true follower of Vishnu. " Boys may be branded at 
 the age of seven or upwards; girls only after their mar- 
 riage. A sacred fire is kindled, two golden instruments 
 are heated, and the symbols of the wheel-shaped discus 
 and conch-shell of Vishnu are impressed on the breast, 
 arms, or other parts of the body." The same practice is 
 observed by the M.idhva sect. " When I was at Tan- 
 jore," says Monier-Williams, " I found that one of the 
 successors of Madhva had recently arrived on hia 
 branding visitation. He was engaged throughout the 
 entire day in stamping his disciples and receiving fees 
 from all according to their means." The worshippers 
 of Siva are branded and stami)ed with the weapons and 
 symbols of Siva (e.g., the trident and the linga). See 
 Monier-Williams. 
 
 BRASEN SEA. When Nebuchadrezzar, King of Baby- 
 lon, sacked Jerusalem, his soldiers are said to have 
 broken in pieces " the pillars of brass that were in the 
 house of the Ix>rd, and the bases and the brasen sea that 
 were in the hou.se of the Lord," and to have carried the 
 brass to Babylon (2 Kings xxv. 13). The Brasen Sea 
 was a laver. 
 
 BRASEN SERPENT. An object of veneration among 
 the ancient Hebrews. According to the story in the Old 
 Testament (Numbers xxi.), when the people were bitten 
 by fiery serpents in the wilderness, the Lord said unto 
 Moses (vs. 8) : " Make thee a fiery serpent, and set 
 it upon a standard ; and it shall come to pass, that every 
 one that is bitten, when he seeth it, shall live." Moses 
 did so, making the serpent of brass: "and it came to 
 pass, that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he 
 looked unto the serpent of brass, he lived " (vs. 9). The 
 idea of this story seems to be to account for the worship
 
 Breastplate of Judgment 
 
 76 
 
 Briginda 
 
 of serpents by the Hebrews. The worship has, as a 
 matter of f^ct, been widespread, and " in some form or 
 other the serpent had been worshipped ages before in 
 Egypt " (Samuel G. Smith, Religion in the Making, 1910). 
 It has been looked upon with fear and awe, because, 
 amongst other things, to use the words of Genesis (iii. 
 1), the seri)ent is " more subtil than any beast of the 
 field which the Lord God had made." When King 
 Hezekiah proceeded to introduce extensive reforms, it is 
 said that he " brake in pieces the brasen serpent that 
 Moses had made, for unto those days the children of 
 Israel did burn incense to it, and he called it a piece of 
 brass " (2 Kings xviii. 4). 
 
 BREASTPLATE OF JUDGMENT. In the Old Testa- 
 ment the High Priest is said to have worn on the ephod 
 a Breastplate (khoshen, Exodus xxviil. 4) or Breast- 
 plate of Judgment (khOshen mishpdt, Exodus xxviii. 
 15). This seems to have been a square kind of pocket 
 fastened at each comer to the shoulder-straps of the 
 ephod. The outer part was ornamented with precions 
 stones. 
 
 BREECHES BIBLE. A popular name for the English 
 version of the Bible (1557-1560) brought from Geneva. It 
 was so called because in one edition it is said in Genesis 
 iii. 7 that Adam and Eve " sewed fig-tree leaves together 
 and made themselves breeches." See BIBLE. 
 
 BRETHREN OF CHELCIC. Peter of Chelcie was one 
 of the spiritual descendants of John Hus (c. 1369-1415). 
 He appeared in Bohemia some tinie after the final defeat 
 and dispersion of the Taborites (g.v.), the extreme 
 section of the Hussites, and by his pamphlets prepared 
 the way for the foundation of the " Unitas Fratrum " 
 (see BOHEMIAN BRETHREN). Peter of Chelcie 
 described the Pope as Anti-Christ, attacked the morals of 
 the priests in Bohemia, and contended that men could be 
 saved solely by their own faith. Further, *' he inter- 
 preted the Sermon on the Mount literally, denounced 
 war as murder, opposed the union of Church and State, 
 and objec-ted to oaths and litigation. He declared that 
 Clhrist's example and law were guide sufficient for any 
 man." See C. H. H. Wright and C. Neil, Prot. Diet., 
 s.v. " Moravian Church." 
 
 BRETHREN OP JESUS. Reference is made in the 
 New Testament to " brethren of Jesus." In Mark iii. 
 32 (Matthew xii. 47; Luke vlii. 20) it is said that mes- 
 sengers came to Jesus and said : " Behold, thy mother 
 and thy brethren without seek for thee." It is not abso- 
 lutely necessary here to take brethren in its literal sense : 
 " brethren " might mean kinsfolk. In Mark vi. 3, how- 
 ever, when Jesus began to teach in the Synagogue, we 
 are told that the people exclaimed : " Is not this the 
 carpenter, the son of Mary, and brother of James, and 
 Joses, and Judas, and Simon? and are not his sisters 
 here with us? " In this case real brothers and sisters 
 seem to be meant. Again in Galatians i. 19 the writer 
 says : " Then after three years I went up to Jeru.salem 
 to visit Cephas, and tarried with him fifteen days. But 
 other of the apostles saw I none, save James the Lord's 
 brother." In the interest of the perpetual virginity of 
 Mary, the Mother of the Lord, it has been denied that 
 the " brethren of Jesus " were literal brethren, and has 
 been maintained that here the Greek adelpJioi stands for 
 anepsioi, children of two brothers or two sisters. But 
 the expression used of .lesus in Luke ii. 7. prototokon, 
 " first-born," clearly denotes that Mary had other 
 children after the birth of Jesus. 
 
 BRETHREN OF MONTE SENARIO. Another name 
 for the Servites (g.v.). 
 
 BRETHREN OF PURITY. A Muhammadan secret 
 order of the tenth century. The Brethren composed 
 an encyelopsedla in fifty-one treatises which combined 
 
 Aristotelian logic and physics with Neo-Platonic meta- 
 physics and theology, and to which Jewish writers (such 
 as Ibn Gabirol, Judah Halevi, Moses and Abraham Ibn 
 Ezra) were much Indebted. See Isaac Husik. 
 
 BRETHREN OP THE COMMON LIFE. A Dutch 
 branch of the " Friends of God " {g.v.). 
 
 BRETHREN OF THE CROSS. A body which arose 
 in Thuringia in 1414 under the leadership of Conrad 
 Schmidt, who regarded himself as a reincarnation of 
 Enoch. Schmidt '• prophesied the downfall of Rome 
 and the sacramental system, the imminent recognition 
 by all mankind that salvation could only be attained by 
 the whip. Joined by many of the vagrant Beghards, 
 the united society suffered grievous persecution at the 
 hands of Eylard Schoneveld and became nearly extinct " 
 (P. W. Bussell). The Brethren lashed themselves in 
 public twice a day, believing that the blood which they 
 shed would mingle with the blood of the Saviour and 
 wash away all sin. 
 
 BRETHREN OF THE FREE SPIRIT. The name of 
 a sect which was originally called Ortlibenses (g.v.). 
 The name and tenets seem to have been suggested by 
 Romans vlii., 2 and 14 : " For the law of tie Spirit 
 of life in Christ Jesus hath made me free from the law 
 of sin and death. . . . For as many as are led by 
 the Spirit of God, they are the Sons of God." The 
 Brethren claimed to be free from external ordinances 
 and from the law of sin. 
 
 BRIDE OF THE NILE. A truncated cone of earth 
 called tie " bride " figures in a rite of irrigation per- 
 formed at Cairo about the middle of August. The 
 ceremony seems to be a charm to ensure a rich fer- 
 tilisation of the land by water when the dam of earth 
 across the canal of Cairo is cut. The " bride," set up 
 in front of the dam at the river's side is washed down 
 before the cutting of the dam. According to tradition, 
 the bride was originally a young virgin who was thrown 
 into the river as a sacrifice. Dr. Frazer thinks that 
 the ceremony represents the marriage of the river as 
 a male power to the comland as his bride. See J. G. 
 Frazer, Adonis Attis Osiris, 1906; E. W. Lane, Modem 
 Egyptians. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The Bridgewater 
 Treatises " On the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of 
 God, as manifested in the Creation " were so called, 
 because they were paid for from a fund left for the 
 purpose by Francis Henry, Earl of Bridgewater, who 
 died in 1829. Eight treatises were published, the authors 
 being Thomas Chalmers, John Kidd, William Whewell, 
 Charles Bell, Peter Mark Roget, William Buckland, 
 William Kirby, and William Prout. 
 
 BRIEF. A Papal Brief or Breve is a letter written 
 in modem characters on thin white parchment and 
 issued from the Court of Rome. It is subscribed by the 
 Secretary of Briefs, stamped in red wax with the Pope's 
 signet-ring which bears a figure of St. Peter hauling 
 in his fishing-net, and dat«d " a die Nativitatis." Be- 
 fore the date come the words " given at Rome at St. 
 Peter's under the ring of the fisherman." 
 
 BRIGANTIA. It api>ears from several inscriptions 
 found in the North of England that Brigantia was a 
 goddess worshipped by the ancient Celts. 
 
 BRIGINDU. One of the goddesses worshipped by the 
 ancient Celts. The name appears on an Inscription 
 found at Volnay near Beaune in Gaul. C. Squire con- 
 nects her with the Brigit who was worshipped in Ire- 
 land as a kind of Minerva or Vesta. E. AJnwyl thinks 
 that she is perhaps to be identified with a goddess 
 Berecyntla, who is referred to by Gregory of Tours. 
 The goddess mentioned by Gregory would seem to have 
 been a corn-spirit, for we are told that her image was
 
 Brigit 
 
 77 
 
 Broad Church 
 
 borne on a wagon to the fields and vineyards to protect 
 them. See Anwjl, Celtic Rel., 1906; Squire, Myth. 
 
 BRIGIT. A goddess worshipped by the Irish Celts 
 as the patroness of knowledge. She seems to have been 
 also a goddess of fertility. When the Irish Celts were 
 converted to Christianity, Brigit was transformed into 
 Saint Brigit. 
 
 BRIGITTINES. An order founded in 1344 by St. 
 Brigit (Brigitta) or Bridget (1302 or 1303—1373), a 
 Roman Catholic saint, in Sweden. The community 
 consisted of sixty nuns, thirteen priests, four deacons, 
 and eight lay-brothers. It was thus a double establish- 
 ment. The rule adopted was that of St. Austin. The 
 order was called the Order of St. Salvator or the Order 
 of the Saviour. It is also known as the Order of St.. 
 Brigit. It is claimed that the constitutions were divinely 
 revealed to her. In Sweden the community was sup- 
 pressed in 1595. There was a Briglttine house, Sion 
 Convent, near Brentford, which was restored by Queen 
 Mary, but suppressed in the reign of Elizabeth. In 
 1861 the convent of Sion House, Spettisbury, Dorset- 
 shire, was founded by Brigittines from Portugal. In 
 1887 it was transferred to Chudlelgh, Devonshire. A 
 book which gives the confessions of St. Brigit, " Revela- 
 tiones St. Brigittae " has been much read. See Cath. 
 Diet.; Chambers' Encych 
 
 BRITINIANS. The name of a colony of Augustinian 
 monks settled at Britini, Ancona. 
 
 BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY. 
 Originally (1808) the Royal Lancasterian Society, 
 founded in the interests of the Lancasterian System of 
 Education (g.v.). 
 
 BRITOMARTIS. Literally " sweet maid," a Cretan 
 goddess. She was identified sometimes with Artemis 
 (q.v.). A goddess of Nature, of birth, and of health, 
 she was supposed to protect sailors, fishermen, and 
 hunters. As a goddess of the sea, she was called 
 Dictynna, apparently from the Greek word diktyon, " a 
 net." According to legend, to escape the attentions of 
 Minos, her suitor, she leapt into the sea, fell into some 
 nets, and was made a goddess by Artemis. Seyffert 
 thinks that " she would seem originally to have been 
 a goddess of the moon, her flight symbolizing the 
 revolution of the moon round the earth, and her leap 
 into the sea its disappearance." See O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 BRIZO. A goddess of Delos. worshipped particularly 
 by women as one who protected mariners. Offerings 
 were brought to her in small boats. 
 
 BROAD CHURCH. A Liberal party in the Church 
 of England. There have always been Churchmen who 
 have adopted a broad or liberal attitude in matters of 
 doctrine fcp LATITUDINARIANS). Dr. Rashdall is 
 certainly right when he claims : " It may safely be said 
 that there has been no period in the history of the 
 Church of England up to the days of the Oxford Move- 
 ment at which there have not been thousands of the 
 clergy who could only justify their position in its ranks 
 by taking in a verj- loose and liberal sense some part 
 or side of the authorised formulae " (" Clerical 
 Liberalism " in the work Anglican Liberalism, 1908). 
 But the particular attitude characterised as Broad 
 Church may be said to have found one of its first 
 representatives in John Colet (14677-1519). Dean of St. 
 Paul's (1504-1519), who was accused of heresy (1513-14) 
 by Richard Fitz.iames (d. 1522), Bishop of London. In 
 the seventeenth century the movement made great head- 
 way. It ma.v be said to have been represented by such 
 men as Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667), Bishop of Down and 
 Connor, the famous author, whose writings include the 
 "Liberty of Prophesying" (1646); John Hales (3584- 
 1656), Fellow of Eton (1613-49) and Canon of Windsor, 
 
 who wrote a tract, on " Schism and Schismaticks " 
 (1642); William Chillingworth (1602-1644), who turned 
 Roman Catholic for a time (1630), but afterwards re- 
 pented (1G34) and wrote a book " The Religion of 
 Protestants a safe Way of Salvation " (1638) ; Thomas 
 Tenison (1636-1715), Archbishop of Canterbury, who was 
 noted for his " moderation towards dissenters"; Ralph 
 Cudworth (1617-1688), Regius Professor of Hebrew at 
 Cambridge (1645-88), who wrote " The True Intellectual 
 System of the Universe" (1678): and the Cambridge 
 Platonists : John Tlllotson (1630-1694), Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, who had to defend his orthodoxy in a 
 course of lectures on the Socinian Controversy (1679- 
 80); Edward Stillingfleet (1635-1699), Bishop of Wor- 
 cester, who offered an olive-branch to the Presbyterians 
 in his work " The Irenicum " (1059): John Hoadly (1678- 
 1746), Archbishop of Armagh, one of whose friends was 
 Thomas Chubb, the deist; and Gilbert Burnet (1643- 
 1715), Bishop of Salisbury, who in 1699 published an 
 " Exposition of the XXXIX Articles." Naturally the 
 Broad Church attitude was well represented among the 
 divines of the " rationalistic " eighteenth century. We 
 may regard as members of the school such men as : 
 Conyers Middleton (1683-1750), Fellow of Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge (1706), whose works on " Miracles " 
 (1747 and 1748) caused a considerable stir; Arthur Ashley 
 Sykes (16847-1756), who published in 1742 " A Brief 
 Discourse concerning the Credibility of Miracles and 
 Revelation"; Francis Blackburne (1705-1787), Prebend- 
 ary of York, who wrote an " Apology for the Authors 
 of the Free and Candid Disquisitions " : John Hey (1734- 
 1815), Norrisian Professor of Divinity (1780-95) at 
 Cambridge, whose " Divinity Lectures " (1796) are re- 
 markable for their candour and freedom ; and Richard 
 Watson (1737-1816), Bishop of Llandaff, who undertook 
 to controvert Edward Gibbon (1776) and Thomas Paine 
 (1796). The Broad Church attitude, however, has been 
 identified more particularly with a school of theologians 
 belonging to the nineteenth century who were influenced 
 by a more scientific criticism of the Bible and by its 
 representatives in Germany. In this school we may 
 include : Sydney Smith (1771-184.5), Prebendar>- of St. 
 Paul's, the famous author of the " Plymley Letters " 
 (1807); Richard Whately (1787-18G3), Archbishop of 
 Dublin, who chose as the subject of his Bampton 
 Ivectures (1822) " Party Feeling in Matters of Reliaion "; 
 Thomas Arnold (1795-1842), tie renowned Headmaster 
 of Rugbv School, author of " Principles of Church 
 Reform"" (1833); Julius Charles Hare (1795-18551, Arch- 
 deacon of Lewes, who translated German works and 
 defended Niebuhr and Luther; Henry Bristow Wilson 
 (1803-1888), Vicar of Great Staughton, Huntingdonshire 
 (1850-1S88). who was prosecuted for heterodoxy on ac- 
 count of views expressed in a contribution to " Essays 
 and Reviews" (1860); Frederick Denison Maurice (1805- 
 18721, Professor at King's College, London, who was 
 chareed with heterodoxy in 18,51, and in 1853, after the 
 publication of his " Theological Essays," was requested 
 bv the Council of Kind's College to resign; Mark Pat- 
 tison (1813-1884). Rector of Lincoln College. Oxford 
 (1861), who contributed an article to Essays and Re- 
 views; John William Colenso (1814-188.3), Bishop of 
 Natal, who was deposed and excommunicated in 1863 
 by the Bishop of Cape Town on account of his critical 
 works on the Pentateuch; Arthur Penrhyn Stanley 
 (1815-1881), Dean of Westminster, who defended Bishop 
 Hampden (1850), Bishop Colenso (1861). and the writers 
 of " Essavs and Reviews " (1861) ; Frederick William 
 Robertson (1816-1853), Vicar of Trinity Chapel, Brighton, 
 whose liberal sermons have been widely read in Ger- 
 many as well as in England; Rowland Williams (1817-
 
 Bross Foundation, The 
 
 78 
 
 Brothers and Sisters of Penance 
 
 1870), Professor of Hebrew at St. David's College, 
 Lampeter (1850-62), who was prosecuted for heterodoxy 
 on account of views expressed In a contribution to 
 "Essays and Reviews" (1860); Benjamin Jowett (1817- 
 1893), Master of Balliol College, Oxford (1870-93), who 
 contributed an essay on the " Interpretation of Scrip- 
 ture " to "Essays and Reviews" (1860); Charles 
 Kingsley (1819-1875), Canon of Westminster, the dis- 
 tinguished author; and Edwin Hatch (1835-1889), who 
 chose as the subject of his Hlbbert Lectures (1888) 
 " Greek Influence on Christianity." See John Hunt; 
 Leslie Stephen, Hist, of English Thought in the 
 Eighteenth Gentury; A. I. Fitzroy, Dogma and the 
 Church of England, 1891; Anqlican Liberalism by Twelve 
 Churchmen, 1908; the D.N.B. 
 
 BROSS FOUNDATION, THE. In 1879 William Bross, 
 who was Lieutenant-Governor of Illinois from 1866 to 
 1870, transferred to the " Trustees of Lake Forest 
 University " the sum of forty thousand dollars to found 
 a memorial to his son Nathaniel Bross (d. 1856). When 
 the income accumulated it was to be devoted to the 
 purpose of stimulating the best books or treatises " on 
 the connection, relation and mutual bearing of any 
 practical science, the history of our race, or the facts 
 in any department of knowIe<lge, with and upon the 
 Christian Religion." The donor wished " to call out 
 the best efiforts of the highest talent and the ripest 
 scholarship of the world to illustrate from science, or 
 from any department of knowledge, and to demonstrate 
 the divine origin and the authority of the Christian 
 Scriptures; and, further, to show how both science and 
 revelation coincide and )irove the existence, the provid- 
 ence, or any or all of the attributes of the only living 
 and true God, ' infinite, eternal and unchangeable in His 
 being, wisdom, power, holine.ss, justice, goodness, and 
 truth.' " In 1900 the Trustees began to carry out the 
 provisions of the trust. They decided to purchase and 
 publish a series of books under the general title " The 
 Bross Library." The first volume in this series was 
 the " Evidences of Christianity " by William Bross's 
 " verj' dear friend and teacher, Mark Hopkins, D.D." 
 A prize, open to " the scientific ccen, the Christian 
 philosophers and historians of all nations," was offered 
 in 1902, and was awarded in 1905 to James Orr, D.D., 
 Professor of Apologetics and Systematic Theology in 
 the United Free Church College, Glasgow. His treatise, 
 " The Problem of the Old Testament " (1906) was 
 Volume III. of the " Bross Library." The Trustees 
 have also invited eminent scholars to deliver courses of 
 lectures before Lake Forest College. The first course, 
 on " Obligatory Morality," was given in 1903 by Francis 
 Landey Patton, D.D., LL.D., President of Princeton 
 Theological Seminary. The second course, on " The 
 Bible : Its Origin and Nature," was given in 1904 by 
 Marcus Dods, D.D., Professor of Exegetical Theology 
 in New College, Edinburgh. The third course, on " The 
 Bible of Nature," was given in 1907 by Mr. J. Arthur 
 Thomson, M.A., Regius Professor of Natural History in 
 the University of Aberdeen. 
 
 BROTHERHOOD OF AS- SANUSI. An Arabian re- 
 ligious movement founded by Muhammad ibn All as- 
 Sanusi in 1837. The Brotherhood is an order of Der- 
 vishes of a puritanical and reforming character. Its 
 principles are strictly monotheistic. The original home 
 of the order was at Jarabub in the eastern Sahara, 
 but houses have been established throughout North 
 Africa and Morocco. The head of the order, who re- 
 sides in the African desert, claims that he is the Mahdi. 
 See D. B. Macdonald, Development. 
 
 BROTHERHOOD OP ST. ANDREW, THE. A Church 
 of England Brotherhood for laymen of all classes. "The 
 
 rules binding on members are two : (1) The Rule of 
 Prayer, to pray daily for the spread of Christ's King- 
 dom among men, especially young men, and for God's 
 blessing upon the labours of the Brotherhood; (2) the 
 Rule of Service, to make at least one earnest effort 
 each week to lead some man nearer to Christ through 
 His Church." There is a Junior Department attached 
 to the Brotherhood. See the Official Year-Book of the 
 Church of England. 
 
 BROTHERHOOD OF THE KOSMON DAWN. A 
 religious brotherhood founded in 1918 by members of 
 the so-called ICaithist Churches as nearly as possible 
 on the lines Indicated in their sacred book, the Kosmon 
 Bible Oahspe. The home of the Brotherhood, for the 
 time being, is at " Rock," Crown Hill, South Devon. 
 The objects are : (a) to found the Father's Kingdom 
 on Earth through orphan babes, castaway infants, and 
 foundlings under 3 years of age; (ft) to provide a new 
 way of living, and opportunities for a higher and holier 
 development, whilst living upon and cultivating the 
 land, thus providing for the spiritual as well as the 
 corporeal man. All members work, sleep, and dine in 
 the open as much as possible, and lead a simple life. 
 In accordance with the teaching of the book Oahspe 
 as to the desirability of purity and health, the children 
 are encouraged to take sun, light and air batlis. Vege- 
 tarianism is practised, as well as non-resistanoe to 
 persecution and abuse. One of the conditions of life 
 for the brethren is that " they shall abjure war, even, 
 if necessary, by submitting to death rather than take 
 part therein." See further Kosmon Ray, No. 1, 1919. 
 
 BROTHERHOODS, MODERN ANGLICAN. There 
 are three well-known Brotherhoods. (1) " The Com- 
 munity of the Resurrection." This was founded at 
 Pusey House, Oxford, in 1892. Since 1898 its centre 
 has been the House of the Resurrection, Mirfield, to 
 which was added in 1903 a College for training CJan- 
 didates for the ministrj-. The Community itself con- 
 sists of celibate Clergy who live under a Rule and 
 share a common purse. " Each priest who joins the 
 Community does so after a period of probation, and 
 with the intention of remaining permanently in it, and 
 is bound to it by simple vows." (2) " Society of St. 
 John the Evangelist." This is a Society of Mission 
 Priests of St. John the Evangelist who are commonly 
 called the Cowley Fathers (Cowley St. John, Oxford). 
 It was founded in 1865 by the Rev. R. M. Benson " for 
 the cultivation of a life dedicated to God according to 
 the principles of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience, and 
 is engaged in works both Missionary and Educational, 
 at home and abroad, for the advancement of the King- 
 dom of Christ. Lay Brothers are united with the 
 Clergy in Dedication to the Religious Life, who assist 
 so far as they can in the works of the Society." (3) 
 " Society of the Sacred Mission," Kelham, Newark-on- 
 Trent. This is " an association of men bound together 
 for the ser\-ice of the Church." Its objects are : " 1. 
 By its rule and discipline to maintain the spirit of 
 devotion and self-forgetfulness in the members; 2. To 
 render such devotion effective by an organisation which 
 allows of the concentration of many gifts upon a com- 
 mon plan." The House of the Sacred Mission is a 
 recognised Theological College. See the Official Year- 
 Boole of the Church of England. 
 
 BROTHERS. In theosophy (g.v.) those who possess 
 the Secret Wisdom form a great Brotherhood and are 
 called Brothers. They are also called Adepts, Masters, 
 Mahatmas (g.v.). 
 
 BROTHERS AND SISTERS OF PENANCE. The 
 third Franciscan order, otherwise called Tertlaries 
 (g.v.).
 
 Brothers and Sisters of St. Alexins 
 
 79 
 
 Buchanites 
 
 BROTHERS AND SISTERS OF ST. ALEXIUS. A 
 more correct designation of the fraternity commonly 
 known as Lullards (g.v.). 
 
 BROTHERS OF THE HOSPITAL OF ST. JOHN 
 THE BAPTIST. Another name for the Knights of the 
 Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem. See HOSPITAL- 
 LERS. 
 
 BROTHERS OF VICTORY. A name by which the 
 Minims (q.r.) were known in Spain. 
 
 BROWNIE. A kind of domestic fairy. Early refer- 
 ences are found to it in Scotch writers. The brownie 
 was supposed to visit houses and to help in the domestic 
 work. It was " a very obliging spirit, who used to 
 come into houses by night, and for a dish of cream to 
 perform lustily any piece of work that might remain to 
 be done : sometimes he would work, and sometimes eat 
 till he bursted : if old clothes were laid for him, he 
 took them in great distress, and never more returned " 
 (Pinkerton quoted in Brand). Offerings of various kinds 
 were made to the si)irit. See Brand's Popular Antiquities 
 of Great Britain, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, 1905. The Brownie 
 corresponds to the German Kobold (Kabouter). " The 
 Kobold, as a rule, likes to lend a helping hand in the field 
 and stable: he feeds the cattle and threshes the grain, 
 fetches water, and performs all manner of domestic 
 duties. At the same time he is also capable of teasing, 
 but, as a rule, only those who have deser^'ed punish- 
 men " (de La Saussaye). See P. D. Chantepie de La 
 Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 BROWNISTS. The forerunners in England of the 
 Independents or Congregationalists, followers of Robert 
 Browne (1550?-lfi33). After graduating at Corpus Christi 
 College, Cambridge, Browne seems to have been or- 
 dained about 1573. After this he became Master of the 
 Free School of St. Olave's, Southwark. At the same 
 time he preached in the open air at Islington without 
 a licence from the bishop. About the year 1578, preach- 
 ing at Cambridge and in the neighbouring villages, he 
 began to attack the parochial system, and to denounce 
 ordination by bishops or by the presbytery. His brother 
 obtained him a licence to preach from the Bishop of 
 Ely, but he destroyed it. For this he was inhibited. 
 He proceeded to Nom^ich about the year 15S0, and 
 formed an independent congregation, " the church," 
 there, his assistant being Robert Harrison (d. 1.585?). 
 In 1581 the Bishop of Norwich was induced to take 
 action against him, and he was imprisoned for " de- 
 livering unto the people corrupt and contentious doc- 
 trine." But through the influence of Cecil, Lord Bur- 
 leigh, he was released. He then left England with his 
 followers and settled at Middleburg in Holland. Here 
 he wrote and issued books, which in England were not 
 allowed to be circulated. One of these, published in 
 1582. was " A book which sheweth the life and manners 
 of all true Christians, and how unlike they are to 
 Turks and Papists and Heathen folk. Also, the points 
 and parts of all Divinity, that is of the revealed will 
 and word of God, are declared by their several defini- 
 tions and divisions." In 1583 he quarrelled with Robert 
 Harrison, and in 1584 he left Holland for Scotland. 
 Having spent a few days in prison there, he returned 
 to England. In England he was again imprisoned. His 
 next field of action was Northampton where we find 
 him preaching in 1586. In the same year he was ex- 
 communicated by the Bishop of Peterborough. After 
 this he " submitted himself to the order and govern- 
 ment of the Church." Thereupon he was made master 
 of Stamford Grammar-school. From 1591 to 16.31 he was 
 Rector of Thorpe-Achurch in Northamptonshire. Before 
 his death he was again imprisoned, this time for as- 
 saulting a constable. He died in Northampton gaol 
 
 about the year 1633. Henry Barrow or Barrowe (d. 
 1593) succeeded Browne as leader of the Brownists. In 
 consequence they became known also as " Barrowists." 
 He was a Cambridge graduate and a barrister of Gray's 
 Inn. In his advocacy of Brownist principles he was 
 assisted by John Greenwood (d. 1593), a young clergy- 
 man. In 1586 they were both summoned to api)ear for 
 examination before the Court of High Commission. 
 From this examination it was clear that Barrow set 
 himself in uncompromising opposition to the ecclesias- 
 tical government. He was, moreover, bitterly opposed 
 to the use of fixed prayers and the taking of an oath. 
 Greenwood's principles were found to agree closely with 
 tho.se of Barrow. They published an account of their 
 examination and other works, and paid the penalty by 
 going to prison. Subsequently (1593) they were hanged 
 at Tyburn " for writing and publishing sundry seditious 
 books and pamphlets, tending to the slander of the 
 Queen and Government." In the same year another 
 Brownist, John Penry (1559-1593), who wrote pamphlets 
 under the pseudonym " Martin Mar-Prelate," was 
 hanged in Southwark on the charge of exciting to re- 
 bellion. Henry Barrow was succeeded by Francis 
 Johnson (1562-1618), who had been a Fellow of Christ's 
 College, Cambridge, but was expelled in 1.589 for preach- 
 ing a '• seditious " sermon. He went to Middleburg In 
 Holland and was preacher to the English merchants 
 there from 1589 to 1592. In 1592 he formed an inde- 
 pendent church in London. In 1596, after being im- 
 prisoned several times, he went to Amsterdam, where 
 he acted as Independent pastor and published works 
 explaining Independent principles. Henry Jacob (1563- 
 1624), precentor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 
 joined the Brownists in Holland in 1593. In 1598, after 
 a return to England, he was again in Holland, and in 
 1.599 he entered into a controversy with Francis John- 
 son. He seems to have been convinced by a pamphlet 
 which Johnson wrote the next year. Later on Jacob 
 was associated with John Robinson (1576-1625), who 
 emigrated to Amsterdam in 1608. In 1016, having re- 
 turned to England, he established in Southwark " the 
 first Independent or Congregational Church in Eng- 
 land." Jacob regarded each congregation as " an en- 
 tire and independent body-politic, endued with power 
 immediately under, and from, Christ, as every proper 
 Church is and ought to be " (Declaration and Plainer 
 Opening of Certain Points, 1611). In 1622 he emigrated 
 to Virginia. Returning to London, he died there in 
 1624. He was succeeded in London by John I.athrop, 
 Lothrop, or Lothropp (d. 1653), who emigrated to Boston 
 in 1634. See John Hunt: D. Neal, History of the 
 Puritans. 1732-1738: J. H. Blunt; the D.A'.B. 
 
 BRUGGLENIANS. The followers of two brothers, 
 Christian and Jerome Rohler, belonging to the Swiss 
 canton of P.rugglen. They gave out (A.D. 1746) that 
 they were the two witnesses referred to In the Book 
 of Revelation (Rev. XI. 3 ff.). Christian Rohler said 
 he would ascend to heaven on a certain day and take 
 his followers with him. The two brothers were executed 
 in 1753. 
 
 BRUGPA SECT. A sect among the Tibetan Budd- 
 hists. Brugpa is another form of Dugpa. See DDGPA 
 SECT. 
 
 BRTiSIANS. The followers of Peter de Bruys, a 
 religious sect of the twelfth century. 
 
 BRYANITES. A sect of the Methodists. 
 
 BUCHANITES. The followers of a Scotch lady, Mrs. 
 Elspeth Buchan (1738-1791). She was the daughter of 
 an innkeeper, John Simpson, near Bannf. Originally 
 an Episcopalian, about 1760 she married a potter, Robert
 
 Buddhasasana Samagama 
 
 SO 
 
 Buddhism 
 
 Buchan, and adopted his religion, that of the Bnrgher 
 Secession. She separated from him in 1781. Shortly 
 l)efore this she began to prophesy the speedy coming 
 of the millennium and promised that those who became 
 her disciples would not die, but would witness the 
 Second Coming of the Lord and with Him possess the 
 earth for a thousand years. In 1783 Hugh White, 
 minister of the Relief Church at Irvine, was persuaded 
 that she was inspired. He became a follower, and his 
 presbytery deposed him. Other followers joined them. 
 They lived together, having renounced mai-riage and the 
 ordinary duties of life, and awaited the Second Coming. 
 In 1784, being expelled from Irvine, they moved into 
 a farmhouse in Closebum near Thornhill, Dumfries- 
 shire. There were forty-six members of the com- 
 munity. They were supported mainly by the contribu- 
 tions of the wealthier disciples. In 17SC some of her 
 followers left her and complained of trickery and ex- 
 tortion. Mrs. Buchan died in 1791, declaring on her 
 death-bed that she was the Blessed Virgin and the 
 woman referred to in the Book of Revelation (xii.). See 
 Joseph Train, The Buchanites from First to Last, 1846; 
 J. H. Blunt: the D.N.B. 
 
 BUDDHASASANA SAMAGAMA. A modem reform 
 party among the Buddhists. The movement originated 
 in Burma in 1902, and was reorganized in 1903. The 
 leader now is a European, Mr. Allan B. MacGregor, 
 who was formerly a Roman Catholic. The aim of the 
 society is to bring Buddhism " into close contact with 
 Europe and its culture, for the needs of which this 
 religion is held to be all-sufficing." There is a branch 
 of the society in Ceylon. Here the members " have 
 built a preaching-hall, in which on Sunday ( !) evening 
 there is usually a Singhalese sermon on Buddhist ques- 
 tions, at which the audience — mostly attired in European 
 clothes — sit on benches as in a Christian church, the 
 monk preaching from a kind of platform. They do not 
 sing, but a creed is recited in unison at the close. In 
 the background of the hall— somewhat in the position 
 of a Christian altar— is a statue of the Buddha." See 
 H. Hackmann. 
 
 BUDDBLAVAMSA. A Buddhist sacred book included 
 in the collection appended to the second division of the 
 Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 BUDDHI. A term used in Theosophy (q.v.). It is 
 the name given to the Spiritual Soul in man, which is 
 the vehicle of the Spirit or Atma (g.v.). 
 
 BUDDHISM. The religion founded by Gautama, 
 afterwards called the Buddha, who seems to have l)e€n 
 born about 567 B.C. Gauta-ma's father was Suddhodana. 
 a prince of the royal family of the Sfikyas, a Rajput 
 clan, which lived and ruled in the valley of the Ganges 
 about 130 miles N. of Benares. The son was bom under 
 some tall trees in the Lambini Grove by the town of 
 Kapilavastu, and lost his mother Mfiya or Mahfi- 
 Maya a week later. When he grew up he married his 
 cousin, the daughter of the raja of Koli. At the age 
 of twenty-nine, soon after the birth of a son, he was 
 impelled to renounce the world in order to devote him- 
 self to the study of religion. Before doing so he visited 
 his wife and child as they lay asleep and took a last 
 look at them. This parting is called by Buddhists the 
 " Great Renunciation." According to legend it was 
 accompanied, like his birth, by miraculous signs. Mara, 
 the prince of evil, tried to turn him back, but without 
 success. He went first to the kingdom of Magadha on 
 the south of the Ganges, where he studied the philosophy 
 of the Brahmans. Then, in company with five ascetics, 
 he withdrew into the jungle and entered upon a course 
 of austerities, which lasted six years. This period is 
 called the " Great Struggle." At the end of it he 
 
 abandoned the practice of austerities, and was aban- 
 doned by the five ascetics. Having bathed and eaten, 
 he sat down under a banyan tree, and suffered again 
 the onslaught of Mara. Mara was again defeated, and 
 new light came to Gautama. From being a Bodhisattva. 
 one who was destined to attain supreme wisdom, he 
 became a Buddha or "enlightened one"; and the tree 
 came to be known as the Bo-tree or " tree of enlighten- 
 ment." The five ascetics had gone to Benares. Thither 
 Gautama went, sought them out, converted them, and 
 admitted them to the order of monks which he estab- 
 lished. After thus " setting in motion the wheel of the 
 law," the Masfer went about from place to place preach- 
 ing. He also sent forth many disciples as missionaries. 
 According to tradition, he was eighty years old when 
 he died. Immediately after his death a Council is said 
 to have been held at Rajagriha which established a 
 fixed and authorised version of the sayings of the 
 Master. The Vinaya and the Dharma were rehearsed, 
 but no mention is made of the Abhidharma, the third 
 division of the Buddhist Canon. About a hundred years 
 later a second Council was held at Vaisali to consider 
 certain relaxations asked for by a section of the Budd- 
 hist monks. When these relaxations (or ten indulgences) 
 were rejected by the Council, a schism took place. After 
 atiout another century a third is said to have heeu 
 held at Piitaliputra or Patna under the presidency of 
 king Asoka (d. about 230 B.C.), which condemned all 
 innovations and heresies. Asoka's work was of such 
 importance that he has been c-alled the " Buddhist 
 Constantine." In some ways he did much more for 
 Buddhism than Constantine is supposed to have done 
 for Christianity. " Until his reign Buddhism was ap- 
 parently confined to a comparatively restricted area in 
 and about Magadha, and was perhaps little more than 
 one of many sects of an all-embracing Hinduism. He 
 gave it predominant influence and prestige. And by 
 his zealous missionary endeavours, his direct Inculcation 
 of its principles, and by the example of his own life 
 and practice, won respect and adherence to Buddhist 
 teaching not only throughout the Indian i)enlnsula from 
 the north almost to the extreme south, but beyond its 
 borders. As far as the available evidence enables us 
 to form a judgement, it was Asoka who raised Buddhism 
 from a narrow local sectarian faith to the position of 
 a world-wide religion " (A. S. Geden, Studies). The 
 tlioughts and teachings of Asoka have been preserved 
 in numerous edicts which he caused to be engraved on 
 rocks and pillars throughout his empire. From these 
 edicts it appears that he enjoined kindness and gentle- 
 ness to animals as well as men, and toleration of other 
 religions; that he appointed overseers or censors of 
 public morals: and that he established hospitals for the 
 care of men and animals. About three hundred years 
 after the third Council, a fourth Buddhist Council met 
 under the Indo-Seythian king Kanishka, who did for 
 Northern what Asoka had done for Southern Buddhism. 
 The purpose seems to have been to compose differences 
 of opinion and to lay down rules for future guidance. 
 Buddhism was introduced into Ceylon as the result of 
 a mission sent there by Asoka. It has flourished in 
 Ceylon with particular vigour. Indeed, the famous 
 Buddhist monk and commentator P.uddhaghosa, who 
 lived tliere in the fifth century A.D., has been called 
 the .second founder of Buddhism. From Ceylon Buddh- 
 ism spread to Burma, and then to the Malay peninsula, 
 to Sumatra and Java, and to other islands of the Eastern 
 Archipelago. In Kashmir and Nepal it appeared at an 
 early date. It was carried to China in 62 A.D., and 
 thence to Korea in 372 A.D., and to Japan in 552 A.D. 
 It reached Tibet during the years 638-40 A.D., probably
 
 Buddhism 
 
 81 
 
 Bulgarians 
 
 by way of Nepal. Here it was developed about a century 
 later by the Indian monk and saint Padma-Sambhava, 
 the founder of Liimaism. At about the close of the 
 sixteenth century Tibetan Lamaism seems to have been 
 introduced into Mongolia. From the sixth century 
 Buddhism steadily declined in the land of its origin, 
 and at the opening of the nineteenth century, although 
 it was still supreme on the Himalayas, in Burma and 
 in Ceylon, it had practically disappeared from India 
 proper. It is said to have at the present time about 
 500,000.000 adherents in the world, and thus to be the 
 religion of about one-third of the human race. The first 
 and fundamental truth that the Buddha proclaimed 
 was that existence it.self is an evil, a source of pain 
 and unhappiness. The desire for continuance of exist- 
 ence baa, like other desires, to be suppressed. The 
 second fundamental truth is an attempt to explain the 
 origin of evil. Human life is linked to its beginnings 
 by a chain of cause and effect. The first link of causa- 
 tion and the primary root of all evil is ignorance. With 
 knowledge of the truth, false notions disappear. The 
 formula known as the Buddhist confession of faith, 
 though independent, gives expression to a thought simi- 
 lar to that of the Chain of Causation. To get rid of 
 the evils of life, the causes of life itself must be sup- 
 pressed or destroyed. The Buddha denied the existence 
 of a soul In the sense of an individual and i)ersonal 
 identity. There are five groups of elements (skandhas). 
 These, when a person is bom, unite together In various 
 proportions (hence differences in character, disposition, 
 etc) to form the living sentient creature; and when he 
 dies, they are dissolved again and perish. Apart from 
 them no existence is possible. " The great aim of 
 Buddhist teaching therefore is to show by what means 
 the reoonstitution of the skandhas may be prevented, 
 and thus release obtained from existence with its weari- 
 ness and sorrow " (Geden). When at death the skandhas 
 are reconstituted and recomblned a new individual arises 
 in this or in some other world, and the link between 
 the old and new existences is what is called karma or 
 action. It is karma, and not the individual, that lives 
 on. In the new existence (except for the Buddhas), the 
 memory of the events of previous lives is lost, but penalty 
 is paid for wrong-doing or reward is received for good 
 deeds In a previous existence. This Is what is meant 
 by re-birth in Buddhism. The great aim of Buddhism 
 is to break the chain of karma, and to extricate oneself 
 from the mechanical round of re-births. To do this 
 and to enter into the rest which is called Nirvana, one 
 must become enlightened by treading in the Noble Bight- 
 fold Path. Nirvana is explained by E. Lehmann in 
 Chantepie de la Saussaye's Lehriuch. " The Nirvana is 
 the condition in which the suffering life's endless re- 
 incarnations are abolished. It is declared to involve 
 the extinction of Desire and of Cognition; and though 
 we are not told that it also includes the extinction of 
 Life, such an extinction would be in the logical conse- 
 quence of Buddhism, since the evil from which man 
 is to save himself, namely, suffering, consists precisely 
 in existence." But " the Nirvana can only be defined 
 n^atively : not Desire, and not Consciousness, not Life, 
 yet also not Death. Only this can be said positively 
 concerning it, — that it is the condition in which the 
 soul is freed from transmigration; only from the point 
 of view of the endless births, with their life and death 
 and death and life, is it possible to attach any con- 
 ception whatsoever to the term Nirvana " (quoted by 
 F. von Hfigel). The two chief schools of thought and 
 practice in Buddhism are called the Mahayana or the 
 " Great Vehicle " and the HTnayana or the " Little 
 Vehicle." They are also described, rather inexactly, as 
 
 Northern Buddhism and Southern Buddhism. " The 
 Mahdi/ana system taught a kind of speculative theism, 
 with which were united especially in Tibet elements of 
 mysticism and fable, derived in large part from the 
 ancient popular religions of the country. This system 
 was moreover tolerant, gentler and more human than 
 its rival, the Hinayana ; and permitted greater freedom 
 to the individnal, both in action and belief, than did 
 the simpler agnosticism and stem but unattractive 
 morality which claimed to represent primitive Budd- 
 hism " (Geden). The Mahayana is often ascribed to 
 Nagarjuna, the thirteenth or fourteenth in succession of 
 the Buddhist patriarchs. He is said also to have taught 
 a " middle way " between the doctrines of the reality 
 and of the deceptiveness of existence (the Middle 
 Vehicle). This system is known in Tibet as the 
 Madhyamayana. In Tibet the religion of the Buddha 
 has been changed and modified by nature and devil 
 worship; and the ritual, with its altars, processions, 
 and incense resembles strikingly that of the Roman 
 Catholic and Greek Churches. Buddhism in fact pre- 
 sents various types. " The Buddhism of Nepal and 
 Tibet differs from the Buddhism of Ceylon as much as 
 the Christianity of Rome or of Moscow differs from that 
 of Scotland or Wales. The Buddhism of Mongolia and 
 China is far removed from either of these, and the 
 Buddhism of Japan has peculiarities all its own " (T. 
 W. Rhys Davids, Hibhert Lectures, 1881). An interest- 
 ing problem is raised by the resemblance of some of 
 the stories and parables which were in course of time 
 attributed to Gautama and incorporated in the Buddhist 
 scriptures, to passages in the New Testament Gospels. 
 It has been maintained by some that Christianity bor- 
 rowed from Buddhism, and by others that Buddhism 
 borrowed from Christianity. " Albert J. Edmunds and 
 Garbe earnestly advocate the indebtedness of Christ- 
 ianity to Buddhism. Such borrowing has not yet been 
 fully proved, though shown to have been possible " (G. 
 A. Barton. Religions of the World, 191"). See, in addi- 
 tion to works already mentioned : W. Bousset, H. Hack- 
 mann, Arthur Lloyd, P. W. Bussell. 
 
 BUDDHIST SACRED WRITINGS. See CANON, 
 BUDDHIST. 
 
 BUDDHIST SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND 
 IRELAND. A Society founded in London in 1907. Its 
 aim is to promote a better knowledge of Buddhism and 
 to encourage the study of Pali and Sanskrit literature. 
 
 BUDNAEANS. The followers of Simon Budna'aus. 
 They were drawn from the Antitrinitarians of Poland 
 and Transylvania soon after 156.5. In 1584 Simon 
 Eudn,T?us and his followers were excommunicated. They 
 would not accept the doctrine of Jesus' miraculous birth. 
 
 BUFFALO, SACRED. The buffalo is worshipped by 
 the Todas of South India as affording the main source 
 of subsistence. They eat the male only once a year. 
 A young bull calf is killed with special ceremonies by 
 all the grown-up males of the village, and roasted by 
 a sacred fire. " There is good reason for believing the 
 Todas' assertion that they have never at any time eaten 
 the flesh of the female buffalo " (Marshall. Travels 
 among the Todas, 1873, quoted by W'. R. Smith). At 
 a funeral, when they kill a buffalo, the men. women, 
 and children bewail its death. See W. R. Smith, R.8. 
 
 BUG BIBLE, THE. A popular designation of Mat- 
 thew's Bible (1551). It was so called because in Psalm 
 xci., 5, the passage, "Thou shalt not be afraid of the 
 terror by night," is rendered " Thou shalt not be afraid 
 of the bugges by night." 
 
 BULGARIANS. A name for the Catharists or Al- 
 bigenses of mediseval times. They seem to have been 
 so called because they came from, or were connected
 
 Bulla 
 
 83 
 
 Burnett Lectures 
 
 with, Bulgaria. Other forma of the name are: Bnlgri, 
 Bogri, Boulgares, Boulgres. 
 
 BULLA. An ornament worn by free-bom Roman 
 children. It was a round or heart-shaped box with an 
 amulet inside it. In the case of patricians it might be 
 golden, in tiat of poor families it was of leather. Boys 
 discarded it when they were privileged to wear the toga 
 virllis. Adults, however, occasionally wore it as a 
 protection against the evil eye. See O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 BULL-ROARER. A convenient description of a sacred 
 instrument, a kind of rattle (Australian titmdun) used 
 in religious mysteries in New Mexico, Australia, Africa, 
 and even in ancient Greece. F. Gushing {Adoentures 
 in Zuni) describes its sound as " a deep whirring noise." 
 The Kurnai of Australia make boys listen to the din 
 of the bull-roarer when they go through their mystic 
 ceremony of initiation. The American Indians of Zuni 
 use it to summon men to the mysteries. In South 
 Africa it has also, besides this use, magic power to 
 raise a wind. It is noteworthy that among the Aus- 
 tralian Kurnai women are strictly forbidden to look 
 upon the turndun. As Spencer and Gillen have shown, 
 the same prohibition extends to the chnringa, a similar 
 instrument with the same ritual significance, employed 
 by the tribes of Central Australia. An identical instru- 
 ment, it should be added, was used by palieollthic man 
 in Euroije. The identification with the Greek kiuvos 
 (ep. p6/il3oq) is due to Andrew Lang. He notes that an 
 ancient scholiast on Clemens of Alexandria writes : 
 '■ the Kujvos is a little piece of wood, to which a string 
 is fastened, and in the mysteries it was whirled round 
 to make a roaring noise." The bull-roarer has survived 
 as a toy; and in Scotland also as a thunder-spell. 
 
 BUNENE. One of the deities in Babylonian-Assyrian 
 religion. In the great temple E-babbara at Sippar in 
 the time of Nabubaliddin (c. 850 B.C.) Shamash, Malik, 
 and Bunene form a triad. In a design added to the 
 inscription of Nabubaliddin the two deities Malik and 
 Bunene seem to be represented as attendants on the 
 sun-god, " who drive the fiery chariot that symbolized 
 the great orb." Bunene, though a male deity, l)ecomes 
 in time the consort of Malik. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 BUPHONIA. This was in Athens another name for 
 the Diipolia, a festival at which a bull was sacri- 
 ficed. The term means " ox-murder." Robertson Smith 
 points out (U.S.) that originally the term was a general 
 one for the slaying of oxen for sacrificial feasts. 
 
 BCRA PENNU. Among the Khonds of Orissa, Bura 
 Pennu or Bella Pennu is the supreme creative deity, the 
 Light-god or Sun-god. He is the good deity to whom is 
 opposed as the deity of evil his consort Tari Pennu the 
 Earth-goddess. Biira Pennu created the world a happy 
 Paradise. Tari Pennu rebelled and introduced disease, 
 poison, and every kind of disorder. The Khonds are 
 divided into two sects. The Bura sect believe that 
 Bura prevaile<i in the conflict; the Tari sect hold that 
 the battle still continues. See E. B. Tylor, P.O. 
 
 BURDA. The Arabic word for " mantle." Moham- 
 med presented his own biirda to the poet Ka'b ibn 
 Zuhair in recognition of some flattering verses which 
 he had written. The poet showed his gratitude by 
 writing another poem known as " BSnat Su'ad " from 
 its opening words. In imitation of this panegyric, a 
 later poet, Sharaf al-din Muhammad al-BOstrJ (A.D. 
 1211-1294) wrote another famous ode to the Prophet's 
 mantle called " Qasldat al-Burda," which has been 
 translated Into French, German, and English. See 
 Clement Huart, Hist, of Arabic Literature, 1903. 
 
 BURDEN. Sometimes in the Old Testament this 
 word stands at the head of prophecies CIsalah xiii. 1, 
 sv. 1, xix 1, xxi. 1, etc.). In such cases the Hebrew 
 
 word is massd from a root meaning " to lift up " (In 
 this connection " tJie voice "), and the correct transla- 
 tion is " oracle " (so margin of the Revised Version, 
 2 Kings ix. 25). 
 
 BURGHERS. A name taken by one of the divisions 
 into which the Associate Synod or Secession Church of 
 Scotland split up in 1747. The division was due to 
 difference of opinion regarding the religious clause of 
 the burgess-oath which burgesses were required to take 
 in certain corporate towns. This clause read : "I iiro- 
 fess and allow with all my heart the true religion 
 presently professed within this realm, and authorized 
 by the the laws thereof; I shall abide at and defend 
 the same to my life's end, renouncing the Roman re- 
 ligion called Papistry." The Burghers were not pre- 
 pared to refuse to tak"e this oath. The other division, 
 however, the Anti-burghers, refused to do so. In course 
 of time other divisions took place. In 1799 the Burghers 
 separated into " Old Light Burghers " and " New Light 
 Burghers." In 1820 the "New Light" sections of the 
 Burghers and Anti-burghers joined forces as the " United 
 Secession." In 1847 this joined itself to the " Relief 
 Secession," a body which had seceded on the question 
 of patronage and had formed itself in 1760 " into a 
 Presbytery for the relief of Christians oppressed in 
 their Christian privileges," and the two together became 
 the " United Presbyterian Synod." The " Old Light 
 Burghers " returned in 1839 to the Established Church. 
 Cp. ANTI-BURGHERS. See J. H. Eluut. 
 
 BURHI MaTA. An Indian deity, also called Thakurani 
 Mata, the goddess of smallpox and rinderpest, wor- 
 shipped by the Gadbas, a primitive tribe belonging to 
 the Vizagapatam District of Madras. 
 
 BURIAL CLUBS, EARLY CHRISTIAN. Burial 
 guilds are referred to in a number of early Christian 
 inscriptions discovered in recent years. By the will of 
 Aristeas (Central Phrjgia), for example, a sum of money 
 is bequeathed to the " Society of Neighbours " to enable 
 it every year to " cause the grave of my wife Aurelia 
 to bloom with roses." Camden M. Cobem thinks " the 
 burial club was almost certainly the first official society 
 established under the auspices of Christianity. It was 
 common among the pagans and the Jews, though not 
 conducted probably on the same wide lines of charity 
 and brotherhood as among the early Christians." Only 
 by joining one of these clubs could even a hard-working 
 labourer be sure of a decent burial in the first century. 
 
 BURIAL HILL DECLARATION, THE. The Burial 
 Hill (Boston) Declaration of Faith was drawn up in 
 1865 A.D. by the National Council of Congr^atlonal 
 Churches of the United States. It " impressively af- 
 firms the Synod's adherence to the faith and order of 
 the Apostolic and Primitive Churches held by their 
 fathers, and substantially as embodied in the Confes- 
 sions and Platforms which the Synods of 1648 and 1680 
 set forth or re-affirmed " (William A. Curtis). 
 
 BURNETT LECTURES. A course of lectures so 
 named after John Burnett (1729-84), an Aberdeen 
 merchant. Originally the sum of money bequeathed 
 by Burnett was to be applfed to the foundation of two 
 prizes to be awarded for the two best treatises on " The 
 evidence that there is a Being all-powerful, wise, and 
 good, by whom everything exists; and particularly to 
 obviate difficulties regarding the wisdom and goodness 
 of the Deity; and this independent of written revelation, 
 and of the revelation of the Lord Jesus; and from the 
 whole to point out the inferences most necessary and 
 useful to mankind." Under a new scheme the prizes 
 have since 1883 been converted into a lectureship on 
 some subject illustrating natural theology. In 1887, 
 for instance. Prof. W. Robertson Smith was invited to
 
 Burning Bush, Tbe 
 
 Caitanya Sect 
 
 give three courses of lectures from October, 1888, to 
 October, 1S91, on " The primitive religions of the 
 Semitic peoples, viewed in relation to other ancient 
 religions, and to the spiritual religion of the Old 
 Testament and of Christianity." 
 
 BURNING BUSH. THE. A phenomenon mentioned 
 in the Old Testament (Exodus iii. 2-4^ The vision is 
 said to have been seen by Moses while he was tending 
 the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law. " And the angel 
 of the Lord appeared unto him in a flame of fire out of 
 the midst of a bush: and he looked, and behold, the 
 bush burned with fire, and the bush was not consumed. 
 And Moses said, ' I will turn aside now, and see this 
 great sight, why the bush is not burnt.' " Verse 5 
 continues : '"And when the Lord saw that he turned 
 aside to see, God calletl unto him out of the midst of 
 the bush, and said ' Moses, Moses.' And he said, ■ Here 
 am I.' " The word used for bush here, seneh, seems 
 to occur again in Deuteronomy xxxiji. 16, where Je- 
 hovah is referred to as '" He that dwelt in the bush," 
 shokeni seneh. This would suggest that Jehovah, like 
 the deities of other primitive folk, was sometimes 
 thought of as making his abode in trees. But Renan 
 was no doubt right in thinking that the original reading 
 in Deuteronomy was shokeni sinai, " he who dwells in 
 Sinai." There is no reason to doubt that the Hebrews 
 regarded fire as being sometimes a manifestation of the 
 divine presence, or that they believed certain trees to 
 be the abodes of deities. But this particular story 
 need not be based upon such beliefs (cp., however, 
 Encycl. Bihl.). Nor is it necessary to think, with 
 Robertson Smith (R.S.), that " the original seat of a 
 conception like the burning bush, which must have its 
 physical basis in electrical phenomena, must probably 
 be sought in the clear dry air of tbe desert or of lofty 
 mountains." The story describes the kind of subjective 
 vision which a prophet may well have seen. The seeing 
 
 of a bright light and the hearing of a voice belong to 
 psychic phenomena or experiences. See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 BURNING OF THE GOD. In ancient times it was 
 the practice in some countries (e.g. in Asia Minor) 
 solemnly to burn a god either in efligy or in the form 
 of a human representative. The idea of the rite seems 
 to have been that in this way the incorruptible and 
 Immortal part of him was set free from the corruptible 
 and perishable elements of human existence. The repre- 
 sentative of the god was sometimes a king. Mel- 
 carth, the great god of Tyre, whom the Greeks 
 identified with Hercules, seems to have been burnt in 
 effigy in Gades (mod. Cadiz), an early Tyrian colony. 
 It is said of Hercules himself that he burned himself 
 to death and afterwards ascended to heaven. J. G. 
 Frazer thinks this is a Greek imitation of the burning 
 of Melcarth. The Cappadocian god Sandan, who also 
 corresponds to the Greek Hercules, seems to have been 
 burned in efflgy at a periodical festival in Tarsus. The 
 Assyrian king Sardanapalus, who is said to have founded 
 the city of Tarsus, is also said to have burned himself 
 on a great pyre. The story is not true of the Sardan- 
 apalus who is otherwise known as Ashurbanipal; but it 
 is perhaps reminiscent of the practice of burning a king 
 as a representative of the god. See J. G. Frazer, Adonis 
 Attis Osiris, 1906. 
 
 BURNT OFFERING. See ALTAR. SACRIFICE. 
 
 BUSSUMARUS. Bussumarus, " the large-lipped," 
 was one of the names given by the ancient Celts to 
 a god who corresponded to the Roman Jupiter. 
 
 BUTO. The name of a goddess in the religion of the 
 ancient Egyptians. She was the protecting goddess of 
 Buto, the lower capital of Egypt, and took the form 
 of a serpent. Her original name was Uto. In the re- 
 ligion of the late period Buto became the most im- 
 portant of the seven gods who spoke by oracles. See 
 A. Erman. 
 
 C. God C. is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians 
 of Central Amerca. Since in one place he is repre- 
 sented as surrounded by a nimbus of rays, and in the 
 Codex Tro-cortesianus is encircled by planetary signs, 
 he would seem to have been a deity of astronomic 
 significance; but his identification is very uncertain. 
 
 CABAI^A. A popularized form of the Hebrew term 
 Kabbalah (q.v.). 
 
 CAINITES. A sect of the second century, the mem- 
 bers of which placed Cain above Abel, and in fact, as 
 F. W. Bussell says, converted the sinners of Scripture 
 (Esau, Korah, the men of Sodom, Judas Iscariot) into 
 saints. For them Abel represented the lower powers, 
 while Cain was the messenger endowed with power from 
 the higher regions. 
 
 CAITANYA SECT. A Hindu sect in Bengal, tie fol- 
 lowers of Caitanya. Caitanya was bom in the year 
 A.D. 1485. He came to be regarded as an incarnation 
 of Krishna, which accounts for marvellous stories about 
 his early years. Thus it is said that soon after his 
 birth holy men visited his parents to pay homage to 
 their new-bom child and to offer him a present of rice, 
 fruits, gold and silver. He is said also to have made 
 himself master of Sanscrit grammar and literature with 
 great rapidity. After spending some years in making re- 
 ligious pilgrimages he began to preach and to propagate 
 his own view of Vaishnavism or the worship of Vishnu in 
 Bengal. " His success as a preacher was remarkable. 
 Even his enemies were attracted by the persuasiveness 
 of his manner and the magnetic power of his eloquence. 
 The lower classes flocked to him by thousands." Leav-
 
 Caityas 84 
 
 ing his two disciples, Advalta and Nltyananda to 
 continue his work in Bengal, he himself settled at 
 Katali in Orissa not far from the temple of Jagan-nath. 
 " The first principle he inculcated was that all the 
 faithful worshippers of Krishna ( = Vishnu) were to 
 be treated as equals. Caste was to be subordinated to 
 faith in Krishna." And " the devotion of the human 
 soul to Vishnu was to be symbolized under the figure 
 of human love." This devotion, similar to the tender 
 affection of a girl for her lover, should be so intense 
 that the worshipper loses " all individuality and self- 
 consciousness in ecstatic union with his god." Such a 
 state may be produced by constant repetition of the 
 name of the deity, by singing, music, dancing or similar 
 movements of the body. It is not known how or when 
 Caitanya died. He disappeared in a mysterious way 
 when he was forty-two years of age (o. A.D. 1527). After 
 this ho was deified and worshipped. The only question 
 was " whether he was a full manifestation of the Su- 
 preme Being (Krishna) or only a descent of a portion 
 (anSa) of his essence." It was decided that he was 
 the ven' Krishna incarnate, and that " his two principal 
 disciples, Advaita and Nityfinanda, were manifestations 
 of portions of the same deity." Another disciple, Hari- 
 das, was deified in Bengal as a separate divinity. See 
 Monier-Williams. 
 
 CAITYAS. Originally the word Caitya meant the 
 heap or mound under which the Buddhists placed the 
 relics of their great saints. Then it came to denote a 
 relic-structure within an assembly-hall, whereas a 
 Stupa meant a relic-structure outside in the open air. 
 See STrPAS. 
 
 CAJETANI. Another name for the Order of Theatines 
 {g.v.). 
 
 CALEDONIAN ASYLUM, ROYAL. An institution 
 founded by the " Highland Society of London " in 1814, 
 and incorporated by Act of Parliament on June 14, 1815. 
 See IRVINGITES. 
 
 CALF, GOLDEN. Reference is made in the Old 
 Testament to worship of a golden calf by Israelites of 
 the Northern kingdom. These images are said to have 
 been set up in Dan and Bethel (I. Kings xii. 28 ff.; II. 
 Kings, X. 29; Hosea x. 5), and in Samaria (Hosea viii. 
 5 /.). Reference is perhaps made also to their worship 
 in Gilgal (Amos v. 4 /.; Hosea iv. 15, ix. 15, xii. 11). 
 Apparently, however, they were not worshipped in the 
 temple of Jerusalem or in the other sanctuaries of 
 Judah. Aaron is said to have made a golden calf in 
 the wilderness; but it is strange that nomads wandering 
 In a wilderness should have tiiought of worshipping 
 a golden calf. Some scholars have thought that the 
 Israelites followed the example of the Egyptians in 
 worshipping the bull. But Dr. Benzinger points out 
 (Encycl. Bibl.) that the Israelites were not much in- 
 fluenced by the Egyptians, and as a matter of fact it 
 was living animals that were worshipped by the 
 Egyptians. The Israelites seem to have learned the 
 worship from the Canaanites amongst whom the bull 
 was the symbol of Baal. The prophetic writers condemn 
 the worship as idolatry (Hosea viii. 5, x. 5; cp. the 
 Deuteronomist in I. Kings xiv. W, xv. 26, xvi. 26; II. 
 Kings X. 29). See Eno/clop. Bibl. 
 
 CALIXTINES. One of the sections into which the 
 followers of John Hus (1369-1415; see HUSSITES) were 
 divided. The name is derived from the Latin calix 
 "cup" or "chalice"; and the Calixtines, "men of 
 the Cup," were so called because they insisted on 
 Communion in both kinds (sub utraque specie; bread 
 and wine). They were called also Utraquists. This 
 point, Communion in both kinds, was not one to which 
 Has himself attached importance. It was made im- 
 
 Camaldules 
 
 portant by one of his followers Jacobellus de Misa " the 
 first to begin the practice of Communion in both kinds 
 in Bohemia," and was adopted unanimously by the 
 Hussites. While, however, the Calixtines were disposed 
 to cherish and defend the practice peacefully, the other 
 section of the Hussites, the Taborites proceeded under 
 the guidance of John Ziska (1360-1424) to defend it by 
 force of arms. In 1421 the Calixtines expressed their 
 wishes in four articles (" Articles of Prague "). 1. 
 " That the Word of God should be preached freely and 
 without impediment throughout the kingdom of Bo- 
 hemia." 2. " That the Sacrament of the Divine 
 Eucharist should be freely administered m both kinds, 
 that is, under the species of bread and of wine, to all 
 Christians not disqualified by mortal sin, according to 
 the command and institution of the Saviour." 3. " That 
 any clergyman engaged in the pursuit of secular power, 
 or of wealth and temporal goods, contrary to the pre- 
 cept of Christ, to the prejudice of his office, and to 
 the injury of the State, should be forbidden such pur- 
 suits and made to live according to the Evangelical rule 
 and Apostolic life which Christ lived with his Apostles." 
 4. " That all mortal sins, and particularly public ones, 
 should be properly punished by those to whom the 
 duty of suppressing them belongs, and by reason of the 
 law of God." These articles were ratified and confirmed 
 by the Council of Basle (1433) in the Compact of 
 Prague. Eventually some of the Calixtines conformed 
 to the Roman usage, while others joined the Taborites. 
 See Blunt; Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 CALVARIANS. A monastic association of priests 
 founded on Mont Val^rien near the Bois de Boulogne 
 about 1635 by a pr'est named Hubert Charpentier. It 
 was founded in honour of the Passion of Jesus Christ, 
 and witii the object of promoting Catholicism. Mont 
 Valerien afterwards became known as CoUine de Gal- 
 vaire. In 1617 one Pfere Joseph founded a congregation 
 of Calvarian nuns at Poitiers. In 1619 Virginia Braceelli 
 established a congregation of Calvarian sisters at 
 Genoa. See Schaff-Herzog ; the Oath. Diet. 
 
 CALVARY. In the Gospel of Luke (xxiii. 33) it is 
 said in the Authorised Version that Jesus was crucified 
 at a " place which is called Calvary." The Revised 
 Version has a " place which is called The Skull." The 
 Greek word is kranion, which the Revised Version 
 translates. The Authorised Version keeps the Latin 
 word Oalvaria. The parallel passages in the other 
 Gosjiels preserve the Semitic word Golgotha. 
 
 CAMALDULES. An Order founded by Romualdua 
 of Ravenna (950-1027). After establishing a number of 
 monastic communities in different places, he established 
 one at Campus Maldoli (Camaldoli) In the Apennines. 
 This establishment, the Hermitage of Camaldoli, be- 
 came the centre of his movement. In 1072 " there 
 existed an order of Camaldules, not as a reformed 
 branch of the order of the Benedictines, but as an 
 independent association of anchorets. The prior was 
 called ' major.' The members lived in separate huts, 
 where they slept and ate. At certain hours they met 
 in the prayer-house, and recited (not sang) the liturgy. 
 They fasted often. Bread and water was their common 
 diet : meat was not allowed. But tlie principal com- 
 mand was silence " (Schaff-Herzog). In course of time 
 a monastery was built at Fontebuono in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Hermitage, and other monasteries arose In 
 various places (in Venice, for instance) in place of 
 hermitages. The severity of the original rule had been 
 somewhat mitigated by Rudolph, the fourth major, in 
 1102, who introduced a common table and other changes. 
 The Camaldules were abolished in Austria in 1782, and 
 afterwards in France and Italy. In Naples, howeyer,
 
 CamaxtU 
 
 85 
 
 Campbellites 
 
 they were restored in 1822. See Schaff-Herzog ; the 
 Cath. Diet. 
 
 CAMAXTLI. A god of war among the Tlascaltecs or 
 Tlascalans of Mexico. 
 
 CAMAZOTZ. A god of bats in the mythology of the 
 Quiche of Guatemala. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE CAMDEN SOCIETY. A Society founded 
 in 1839 " to promote the study of ecclesiastical archi- 
 tecture and antiquities, and the restoration of mutilated 
 architectural remains." W. Walsh (Prot. Diet., s.v. 
 '' Oxford Movement ") quotes Francis Close (1797-1882), 
 afterwards Dean of Carlisle, as saying in 1844 in a 
 sermon that " as Romanism is taught AnaU/tically at 
 Oxford, it is taught Artistically at Cambridge — it is 
 Inculcated theoretically, in tracts, at one University, and 
 it is sculptured, painted, and graven at the other. The 
 Cambridge Camdenians bnild churches and furnish 
 symbolic vessels, by which the Oxford Tractarians may 
 carry out their principles." 
 
 CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM OF CHURCH DIS- 
 CIPLINE. The Cambridge (New England) Platform 
 of Church Discipline was drawn up by the Cambridge 
 Synod in 1648 A.D. as a supplement to the Westminster 
 Confession (q.v.) of 1646 A.D. The new Platform takes 
 the place of the doctrine of Church government and 
 discipline in chapters xxv., xxx., and xxxi. of the 
 Westminster Confession. W. A. Curtis speaks of it as 
 " a careful and minute application of Congregational 
 principles to the details of the Puritan doctrine of the 
 Church." See William A. Curtis. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS, THE. A party of re- 
 ligious thinkers at Cambridge who were opposed to the 
 party of William Laud at Oxford. Its chief representa- 
 tives were Benjamin Whichcote (1609-1683), provost of 
 King's College (1644-60), Ralph Cudworth (1617-1688), 
 Regius Professor of Hebrew (1645-88), Henry More 
 (1614-1687) of Christ's College, Nathanael Culverwel (d. 
 16-51?), Fellow of Emmanuel College, and George Rust 
 (d. 1670), Fellow of Christ's College (1649-59). 
 
 CAMEL, THE. Camels were used as food and offer- 
 ings by the Arabs, but not by the Israelites. According 
 to Nilus, among the Saracens, " the camel was not al- 
 lowed to be killed and eaten except in a public rite, 
 at which all the kinsmen assisted " (Robertson Smith). 
 It was devoured by the Arabs in a sacramental meal 
 while its blood and flesh were still warm. In the oldest 
 known form of Arabian sacrifice, as described by Nilus, 
 " the camel chosen as the victim is bound upon a rude 
 altar of stones piled together, and when the leader of 
 the band has thrice led the worshippers round the altar 
 In a solemn procession accompanied vrith chants, he 
 inflicts the first wound, while the last words of the 
 hymn are still upon the lips of tlie congregation, and 
 in all haste drinks of the blood that gushes forth. 
 Forthwith the whole company fall on the victim with 
 their swords, hacking off pieces of the quivering flesh 
 and devouring them raw with .such wild haste, that in 
 the short Interval between the rise of the day star which 
 marked the hour for the service to begin, and the dis- 
 appearance of its rays before the rising sun, the entire 
 camel, body and bones, skin, blood and entrails, is wholly 
 devoured " (iJ.S.). We read too of consecrated camels 
 among the Arabs, which they released from service and 
 allowed to roam at large. These might not be ridden, 
 except in an emergency. But, though they seem some- 
 times to be spoken of as the property of the deity, they 
 were not used for his service. At Riimallah in Palestine 
 there are two springs, one of which is supposed to be 
 Inhabited by a camel. 
 
 CAMEBONIANS. The name given to a body of Scotch 
 
 Covenanters in the reign of Charles II. They were so 
 named because one of their leaders was Richard Cam- 
 eron. They claimed to be the true representatives of 
 the principles of those who framed the original Coven- 
 ant. Cameron was one of those responsible for the 
 anti-monarchical Declaration which was read at San- 
 quhar in 1680. He was killed in the battle of Airdmoss 
 in the same year. The Cameronians were organised 
 in " societies," and were also called Society People. 
 On the death of Cameron, James Renwick succeeded to 
 the leadership. Renwick boldly disowned " the usurpa- 
 tion and tyranny " of James, Duke of York, and in 
 16SS was executed. In 1706 John Maemillan became 
 leader of the Societies. In conjunction with Thomas 
 Nairn, in 1743 he founded and organised a new body, 
 " the Reformed Presbytery." Originally the Reformed 
 Presbyterians were forbidden by a formal Act of Testi- 
 mony to exercise the franchise or to take the oath of 
 allegiance. In 1863, however, the Scotch synod decided 
 that " while recommending the members of the Church 
 to abstain from the use of the franchise and from taking 
 the oath of allegiance, discipline to the effect of sns- 
 Ijension and expulsion from the Church shall cease." A 
 minority of tlie Reformed Presbyterians refused to 
 accept this decision, and formed a new body with the 
 same name. In 1876 the older and larger body of 
 Reformed Presbyterians united with the Free Church 
 of Scotland. See Schaff-Herzog ; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 CAMERONITES. A School of theology founded by 
 John Cameron (15797-1625). Cameron was bom and 
 educated at Glasgow. In 1600 he went to France and 
 taught Greek and Latin at Bordeaux. In lt;02 he re- 
 ceived an appointment at Sedan. After studying divinity 
 at Paris, Geneva and Heidelberg for about three years, 
 he went back to Bordeaux as protestant minister (1608- 
 1617). In 1018 he removed to Saumur as professor of 
 divinity. Here he put forward views which were similar 
 to those afterwards adopted by Moses Amvraut (see 
 AMYRALDISTS). " The substance of these opinions 
 was that God wills the salvation of all men, and not 
 of the elect only, that none are excluded from the 
 possibility of salvation, and that those are saved who 
 co-operate with God by using the power of judgment 
 between good and evil which He infuses Into their 
 understanding for the choice of good " (Blunt) In 1620 
 Cameron returned to London, and in 1622 he became Prin- 
 cipal of Glasgow University. He soon abandoned this 
 position (1623) and went back to Saumur. The next year 
 he removed to Montauban as professor of divinity. Here 
 in 1625 he was stabbed by one of his opponents and 
 died from the wound. His works were published in 
 I^tin and French in ten volumes (1616-42). See J. H. 
 Blunt; the D.N.B.: and Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 CAMPBELLITES. The followers of Alexander Camp- 
 bell (1786-1866). Bom in Ireland, Campbell went to the 
 United States in 1809. Here he became pastor of a 
 Presbyterian church in Washington county. Pa. In 
 1827 he founded an independent sect which he called 
 " The Disciples of Christ." The members of this sect 
 are now knovm as the Campbellites. In 1840-41 he 
 founded an institution called Bethany College and be- 
 came its first president. The Disciples of Christ held 
 that the Church of Christ was intended to be one and 
 undivided; that its lost unity might be regained by a 
 return to the Gospel in its original purity; that all the 
 theological terms and doctrines of the schools must be 
 abandoned and replaced by the original words, phrases, 
 and ordinances of Holy Scripture; and that baptism 
 should be by immersion. The officers of the local 
 churches are elders and deacons. See Harper's Encycl. 
 of U.S. Hist., 1902.
 
 Campbeliites, American 
 
 86 
 
 Canon, Buddhist 
 
 CAMPBELLITES, A5IERICAN. The followers of 
 Thomas Campbell, who went from Ireland to America 
 in 1807. They called the)nselve8 Reformed Baptists. 
 
 CAMULUS. Camulus, it would seem, was one of the 
 deities worshipped by the ancient Celts. As a war-jrod, 
 he would correspond to the Roman Mars; but he 
 seems also in some respects to have resembled Jupiter 
 as well. The name survived in Camulodunum i Col- 
 chester), and perhaps in the Irish Cumhal who appears 
 as father of Finn. See Anwyl: C. Squire, Myth. 
 
 CANDLEMAS. An ecclesiastical festival, so called 
 on account of the candles which in the Roman Catholic 
 Church are carried in procession. The festival is also 
 called the " Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary." 
 It is observed on the 2nd of February In commemoration 
 of the presentation of Christ in the Temple. In the 
 Prayer Book of the Church of England it is described 
 as ''' The Presentation of Christ In the Temple, com- 
 monly called the Purification of Saint Mary the Virgin." 
 The purification thought of originally was that of the 
 Levitieal law (Lev. 12, 2), but two other events are 
 now more prominent in the Roman Mass and office. 
 " Candles are blessed and carried in procession to re- 
 mind us how the holy old man Simeon met our Lord, 
 took Him in his arms, and declared Him the light of 
 the Gentiles and the glory of Israel. Next, in the col- 
 lect, epistle, and the gospel there are marked references 
 to the fact that our Lord was at the same time pre- 
 sented in the temple before God and redeemed with five 
 holy shekels " (Lk. xil. 22: cp. Exod. xiii. 2, Num. viii. Ifi, 
 xviii. 1.5 — Oath. Diet.). The festival is said to have been 
 kept at Antioch in 526 under the Emperor Justin, and 
 was known in the West before 735. Baronius suggests 
 that Pope Gelasius substituted it for the pagan Luper- 
 calia which was kept in February (15) and was also a 
 festival of purification and expiation. The lights were 
 forbidden in the Church of England in 1548 by an order 
 of the Privy Council. See Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 CANDLES. The Chinese burn candles on their 
 domestic altars. At sunset they place a burning candle 
 in the " lantern of Heaven " which is suspended near 
 the doorposts of the house. Candles are burned in front 
 of the ancestral soul-tablets. Every evening, as long 
 as the coffin of a deceased person is in the house, these 
 candles are offered to the soul. In the funeral procession 
 lighted candles are carried in lanterns hanging from 
 curved poles. The lanterns bear inscriptions. " Their 
 use in broad daylight shows decidedly that they are 
 designed to pilot the soul, which lives in complete dark- 
 ness, along the right path to the burial ground," and 
 perhaps the inscriptions " are intended to prevent the 
 soul from being led astray by other lanterns, which 
 it may happen to see along the road " (de Groot). A 
 peculiar kind of candle stands on the altar or in front 
 of the altar in the temples of Tibetan Buddhists or 
 Lamas. This temple-lamp is " a short pedestalled bowl. 
 Into a socket in the centre of which is thrust a cotton 
 wick, and it is fed by melted butter. As the great 
 mass of butter solidifies and remains mostly in this 
 state, the lamp is practically a candle. The size varies 
 according to the means and the number of the temple 
 votaries, as it is an act of piety to add butter to this 
 lamp. One is necessary, but two or more are desirable, 
 and on special occasions 108 or 1.000 small lamps are 
 offered upon the altar. Sometimes a cluster of several 
 lamps form a small candelabrum of the branching lotus- 
 flower pattern " (Waddell). See L. A. Waddell; J. 
 J. M. de Groot, /?.S. 
 
 CANNON, WORSHIP OF. An example of the wor- 
 ship of a cannon is noted by E. S. Hartland (P.P.). "A 
 cannon, old and useless and neglected, belonging to the 
 
 Dutch Government, lay in a field at Batavia, on the 
 island of Java. It was taken by the native women for 
 a linga. Dressed in their best, and adorned with flowers, 
 they used to worship this piece of senseless iron, pre- 
 sented it with offerings of rice and fruits, miniature 
 sunshades, and coppers, and completed the performance 
 by sitting astride upon it as a certain method of win- 
 ning children " (I, 123). A similar superstition has 
 been noted by E. J. Banks (Bismya, or The Lost Citv 
 of Adah, 1912) among Jewish women in Bagdad. These 
 gather about a large English gun in a public suuare, 
 and stroking it, whisper into its mouth their prayers, 
 their troubles, and their hopes. 
 
 CANON. The term Canon is commonly used (1) of a 
 law or rule, (2) of a collection of sacred writings, es- 
 pecially of the Sacred Scriptures accepted by Christians, 
 and (3) of a dignitary of the Church of England. The 
 word is of course the same as the Greek kovoiv. It 
 meant originally a reed or rod. It then came to mean 
 a measuring rod, and was next " used for a plumbline 
 or for a level, or a ruler, for .inything that was a 
 measure or a rule for other things " (0. R. Gregory). 
 Then in the intellectual sphere it denoted a rule " that 
 told a man what wag right or what he had to do." The 
 grammarians in Alexandria called the ancient Greek 
 writers the canon, because they were regarded as pat- 
 terns or models. They also called their rules for 
 declensions, conjugations, and syntax " canons." In 
 common usage canon denoted " a measure, a definition, 
 an order, a command, a law." Joshua, as an ideal 
 leader, is calle<l by Philo (c. 20 B.C. -45 A.D.) a canon. 
 The word is found in the New Testament. In Galatlans 
 vi. 16 it is said : " And as many as shall walk by this 
 rule (to kanoni touto), peace be upon them and mercy." 
 In II. Corinthians x. 13 (Authorised Version) it is said : 
 " But we will not boast of things without our measure, 
 but according to the measure of the rule (Revised Ver- 
 sion "province"; Revised Version margin "limit"; 
 Gk. toil kanonos) which God hath distributed to us, a 
 measure to reach even unto you." In course of time 
 the word came to be used in the Christian Church for 
 a definite and certain decision, an ecclesiastical determ- 
 ination. At a synod at Antioch held in A.D. 266 one 
 of Paul of Samosata's doctrines was said to be " foreign 
 to the ecclesiastical canon." After this the ecclesiastical 
 canon became a set phrase for the rule or custom of 
 the Church. From A.D. 341 (Council at Antioch) the 
 term " canons " was applied to the decisions of eccles- 
 iastical councils. The term " canon " as applied to 
 Holy Scripture was first used by the Greek Fathers of 
 the fourth century. Cp. further CANON, OLD TESTA- 
 MENT. In the other sense of the term, a (^anon is a 
 residentiary member of a cathedral chapter. He is 
 appointed by the Bishop or nominated by the Crown. 
 There are also Honorary Canons who receive no emolu- 
 ment. They are appointed by the Bishop or Archbishop, 
 and rank next after the residentiary Canons. Finally 
 there are Minor Canons. These have to intone part of 
 the Service. A good voice is therefore a necessary 
 qualification for appointment. They are appointed by 
 the Cathedral chapter. In some cases a professorship 
 carries with it a canonry (e.g.. at Oxford, Cambridge, 
 and Durham). " The clergy of every large church in 
 ancient times were termed canoniei, as being entered on 
 the list (for this is one of the meanings of Kovrav) of 
 ecclesiastics serving the church " (Addis and Arnold). 
 See C. R. Gregory: Cath. Diet. 
 
 CANON, BUDDHIST. There are three collections of 
 Buddhist sacred writings. We find (1) a Canon of the 
 Southern Buddhists comprising books written in the 
 Pflll language; (2) a Canon of the Northern Buddhists,
 
 Canon, Bnddhist 
 
 87 
 
 Canon of the New Testament 
 
 comprising books written in Sanscrit; and (3> a Canon 
 of the Chinese Buddhists, comprising boots written in 
 Chinese. As regards the fundamental features, the 
 main divisions, and the most important Ixwks, the Canon 
 is much the same everywhere; but there are great 
 differences in details, and in the Canons of the Northern 
 and Chinese Buddhists many later texts and comment- 
 aries have been introduced. In any case, there is not 
 the same unity among the Northern Buddhists as there 
 is among the Southern. " It is incorrect to speak, as 
 is so often done, of Northern and Southern Buddhism 
 as the only two great divisions into which Buddhism 
 had been divided. There was a unity in Southern 
 Buddhism ; but there has been no such unity in Northern 
 Buddhism. We may talk, indeed, of Northern Buddh- 
 isms; but it would be better to keep the Buddhism of 
 each of the northern countries in which it has been 
 adopted separate and distinct, both in our thoughts and 
 our language " (T. W. Rhys Davids). Of the later books 
 admitted into the Northern Canon (e.g. by the Buddhists 
 of Nepaul), one is called " The Lotus of the true Law " 
 and is a kind of mystery play (Sacred Books of the 
 East, xxi.); the other is called " Lallta-Vistara '' and 
 is an account of the birth and trials of the Buddha. 
 The sacred collection of the Sikhs is called the " Adi- 
 Granth " {g.v.). That of the Jains includes the " Gaina 
 Sntras "' (Sacred Books of the East, x.\ii.). The 
 Southern Canon, however, must be taken as the original 
 model. " Scholars generally agree that the canon of 
 the so-called Southern Buddhism (prevailing in Ceylon, 
 Burma, Siam), on the whole, presents the most original 
 aspect of the sacred books " (H. Haekmann). In this 
 Canon there are three principal divisions. It is there- 
 fore called the "Tipitaka" (Sanscrit. Tripitaka) or 
 " The Three Baskets."' (1) The first division is called 
 the Vinayapitaka. It deals with the organization of 
 the monastic life. There are three works in this 
 division, (a) Snttavibhanga. This gives the precepts con- 
 oeming monastic penances. (6) The Khandhakas. There 
 are two books : the Mah^vagga and the Cullavagga. 
 These give rules as to admission into the Order (Pati- 
 mokkha), and as to dress, dwelling, etc. (c) Parivftra. 
 This is a kind of appendix of later date giving details 
 about the life of the community. (2) The second division 
 is called the Suttapitaka. It deals with the Buddha's 
 doctrine of salvation. There are four works in this 
 division, (a) Dtghanikaya. Longer discourses of the 
 master, (b) Majjhimanikaya. Discourses of medium 
 length. (c) Anguttaranikaya. Discourses " arranged 
 after numbers " (Haekmann). (d) Samyuttanikaya. 
 Discourses arranged in groups. There is an appendix 
 to this division called Khuddakanikflya, '• a collection 
 of different materials, .sayings of the Buddha, songs, 
 tales, legends, and the like." There are fifteen books, 
 " some of which belong to the best -known and most 
 impressive works of the Buddhist literature. They in- 
 clude the Dhammapada. a kind of hvmn-book, which 
 has been considered perhaps the most sacred and popular 
 book of the Buddhist Bible (see Sacred Books of the 
 East, X.) ; the jataka which gives legends concerning 
 five hundred and fifty previous existences of the 
 Buddha ; the Apadana which gives stories of the saints : 
 the Buddhavamsa which deals with twenty-four previons 
 Buddhas: and the CariySpitaka which treats of thirty- 
 four previous incarnations of the Bnddha." (.3) The 
 third division is called the Abhidhammanitaka. It 
 discusses " the psychological prolegomena of the 
 Buddhist ethical system " (Haekmann). There are 
 seven works in this division. (a) Dhammasamgani. 
 This describes states or phenomena. (6) Vibhanga. 
 This is a continuation, (c) Kathavatthn. This refutes 
 
 two hundred and fifty-two heresies, (d) Puggalapannatti. 
 This divides men into classes from the ethical stand- 
 point, (e) Dhatukatha, (/) Yamaka, and (g) Patthana 
 are smaller txeatises. The books included in the 
 Southern Canon seem to have been committed to writing 
 by about the beginning of the first century B.C. Earlier 
 collections were recognised as authoritative in the time 
 of Asoka (c. 250 B.C.j. See H. Haekmann ; Max MOller, 
 Sacred Books of the East; T. \V. Rlivs Davids. 
 
 CANONICAL HOURS. Hours or "times of prayer, 
 which were prescribed by rule or canon. They were 
 observed by the early Christians. In the days "of per- 
 secution, there were Noctums or Vigils, prayers at 
 night. The early mom'ng prayers were called" Lauds. 
 The following are the names of the canonical hours. 1. 
 Matins, in Old English ■■ Uhtsang," at break of day. 
 2. Prime, or " Primesang," at the first hour of the day, 
 () a.m. :;. Tierce, or " rndersang," at 9 a.m. 4. Sext, 
 or " Midday Sang." at 12. 5. Nones, or " Noon-Sang," 
 at 3 p.m. 6. Vespers, or " Evensang," public evening 
 service. 7. CompHne, or " Night-sang," the closing 
 sen-ice (Latin complere, to finish) of the day. See W. 
 R. W. Stephens, Common Prauer, 19()1; Prot. Diet. 
 
 CANON OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. The sacred 
 writings of the earliest Christians were the canonical 
 writings of the Old Testament. The authoritative words 
 of their own Christian prophets at first circulated orally. 
 The earliest written documents were letters written by 
 the Apostle Paul to Churches which he had founded 
 and which were in need of guidance. As in the case 
 of the Old Testament the need for a sharply defined 
 collection of sacred writings did not arise until other 
 writings began to compete with those of the Church. 
 This would not happen for some time. As Gregory says, 
 at least in many districts, well on into the second 
 century the word was still preached by wandering 
 preachers, the Apostles. " Little by little it will have 
 become known that the Gospels had been written. These 
 Gospels will at first have been circulated in the im- 
 mediate neighbourhood of the place in which each was 
 written, and then have soon struck the great lines, if 
 they were not already on one of them, and have reached 
 Rome and .Jerusalem and Alexandria. Wherever a 
 Gospel was rec-eived. Christians will have compared its: 
 tenor with that which they had heard by word of mouth. 
 But for a while the living voice of the evangelisinjr 
 preacher will have been preferre<] to the dead letter in 
 the book. Many Churches will for a long while have 
 had no Gospel or only one Gospel, and only after much 
 waiting have gotten more. Church after Church, group 
 after group of Christians had then a Gospel and an 
 Epistle or two. a few Epistles. The tendency of the 
 intercourse between the Churches was towards an in- 
 crease in the collection of books: now one now another 
 new one was added by friends to the old and treasured 
 store of rolls." In course of time a fairly large number 
 of books would be known to all the Churches alike, 
 though some of them might not be held in equal esteem 
 everywhere. Clement of Rome, writing in the post- 
 Apostolic age, seems to be acquainted with nearly all 
 of the books of our New Testament. We know that 
 some of these books were already being made use of 
 by unorthodox teachers (e.g.. Simon Magns, Cerinthus, 
 Basilides). Basilides himself wrote twenty-four books 
 on the Gospel. The Church Father Polvcani, according 
 to Gregory, had in his hands all the Epistles of Paul, 
 the First Epistle of Peter, the First Epistle of John, 
 the Gospel of Matthew, and probablv all the four Gos- 
 pels. The Gnostic Valentinus (first half of .second cen- 
 tury) seems to have been acquainted with most of the 
 books of the New Testament. The Gnostics had al80 
 
 7
 
 Canon of the New Testament 
 
 88 
 
 Canon of the New Testament 
 
 books of their own, auch as the Gospel of Truth, the 
 Gospel of Perfection, the Gospel of Eve. Marcion, who 
 left the Church and about the year 144 founded a Church 
 of his own, set up his own canon of New Testament 
 writings. He accepted only the Gospel of Luke, and ten 
 Epistles of Paul (Galatians, Corinthians, Romans, Thes- 
 salonians, Ephesians [Laodieeans], Colossians, Philip- 
 plans, Philemon). Melito, Bishop at Sardes (fl. 176 
 A.D.), seems to quote all the books of the New Testa- 
 ment, except the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, 
 the Second and the Third Epistle of John. Tatian, who 
 severed his more direct connection with the Church 
 about 172 or 173, in compiling his Diatessaron made 
 use of the four Gospels. He seems also to have known 
 most of the books of the New Testament. The Mura- 
 torian fragment belongs ac-cording to Gregory to about 
 170 A.D. It contains (as far as it has been preserved) 
 a list of the books of the New Testament. " We have 
 the four Gospels, Acts, the Epistles of Paul, the Epistles 
 of John. Jude, the Revelation. So far as the fragment 
 goes, it brings neither James nor the Epistles of Peter 
 nor Hebrews. Of course, in the case of a copyist who 
 was so extremely careless, there remains the possibility 
 that in some place a line or several lines have been 
 omitte<l. These Epistles are, however, Epistles that 
 would be likely at first to be read more in the East 
 than in the West." The Epistle to the Hebrews seems, 
 however, to have been known at Rome as early as about 
 95 A.D. •• There may have been some special reason 
 for its omission in this fragment. Perhaps the author 
 of the fragment thought, as Tertullian did. that Hebrews 
 was written by Barnabas, and he may not have been 
 inclined to put it into the list on that account" (Gregory). 
 Irenaeus, in his great work on the Heresies, written 
 between about the years 181 and 189, made use of the 
 four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the First Epistle 
 of Peter, the First Epistle of John, the Book of Revela- 
 tion, and all the Epistles of Paul except Philemon. He 
 speaks of the Scriptures as having been handed down 
 without corruption. Clement of Alexandria, according 
 to Eusebius {B.E. vl. 14) made c-omments on all the 
 Scriptures, including the books spoken against (Antileff- 
 omena), the Epistle of Jude and the rest of the Catholic 
 Epistles. The Eijistle to the Hebrews he regarded as 
 the work of Paul. Tertullian does not seem to know 
 anything of the Epistle of James, the Second Epistle 
 Of Peter, the Second and the Third Epistle of John. 
 He knows of the Book of Revelation, and ascribes it 
 to the Apostle John. He knows also of the Epistle to 
 the Hebrews. This he ascribes to Barnabas. Origen 
 accepts most of the books of the New Testament, in- 
 cluding the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews, 
 and the Book of Revelation. His testimony as to the 
 Epistle of James, the Second Epistle of Peter, the 
 Second and the Third Epistle of John is somewhat 
 uncertain. Dionysius of Alexandria (died about 265 
 A.D.) accepts the Epistle of James, the Second and 
 the Third Epistle of John, and the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews. The Book of Revelation he ascribes to an 
 unknown John. The only books of the New Testament 
 that he does not seem to accept are the Epistle of Jude 
 and the Second Epistle of Peter. Cyprian of Carthage 
 (died 258 A.D.) does not seem to have known of the 
 Epistle of James, the Second Epistle of Peter, the 
 Second and the Third Epistle of John, the Epistle of 
 Jude, and the Epistle to the Hebrews. In the third 
 century A.D., therefore, it cannot be said that our books 
 of the New Testament were canonized, that is to say 
 recognized as a whole as canonical. It is even possible 
 that other works were considered of equal authority. 
 Oscar Holtzmann {Life of Jesus) thinks that the Gospel 
 
 of the Hebrews was assigned a rank equal to that of 
 the Gospels of Luke and John. We next come to 
 Eusebius, who wrote his Church History between about 
 the years 305 and 325 A.D. He divides the writings of 
 the three first centuries into three classes (B.E. iii. 25). 
 These are : (1) the acknoirlcdged books, the four Gos- 
 pels, the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles of Paul, the 
 First Epistle of John, the Epistle of Peter, and perhaps 
 (" if that appears perhaps just ") the Revelation of 
 John: (2) the disputed books, the Epistle of James, 
 the Epistle of Jude, the Second Epistle of Peter, the 
 Second Epistle of John, the Third Epistle of John, and 
 the spurious books, the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd, 
 the Apocalypse of Peter, the Epistle of Barnabas, the 
 Teachings of the Apostles, and perhaps the Revelation 
 of John and the Gospel according to the Hebrews; 
 heretical books, the Gospel of Peter, Thomas. Matbias 
 and others, the Acts of Andrew, John, and others. The 
 Epistle to the Hebrews is included among the Epistles 
 of Paul. Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catechetical Lect- 
 ures, written about 346 A.D., recommends a study of 
 the four Gosi)els, the Acts of the Twelve Apostles, the 
 Seven Catholic Epistles of James and Peter, John and 
 Jude, and the fourteen Epistles of Paul. The Book of 
 Revelation is not recommended. The next landmark in 
 the history of the Canon is supposed to be the Council 
 of Laodicea held in 3()3 A.D. The last canon gives a 
 list of " canonized " books which includes all the books 
 of our New Testament except the Book of Revelation. 
 But the list seems to have been a later addition. The 
 first complete list of New Testament books regarded as 
 inspired scripture is given by Athanasius of Alexandria 
 (.367 A.D.). Later, we find Amphilochius. Bishop of 
 Iconium in Lycaonia, re.lecting the Book of Revelation 
 and doubting the Second Epistle of Peter, the Second 
 E|)istle of John, the Third Epistle of John, and the 
 Epistle of Jude. At the third Council of Carthage, held 
 397 A,D. a list of canonical books was drawn up cor- 
 responding to our list, and it was settled that " apart 
 from the Canonical Scriptures nothing is to be read in 
 Church under the name of Divine Scriptures." But the 
 books were still far from being accepted universally. 
 It is doubtful whether John Chrysostom (.347-407 A.D.), 
 Bishop of Constantinople, accepted all of them. Junilius 
 (died after 550 A.D.) states that the Book of Revelation 
 was questioned among Orientals. He himself does not 
 seem to have accepted all the Catholic Epistles. August- 
 ine, who became assistant Bishop of Hippo in 395 A.D., 
 says that the Christian reader should place in the front 
 rank those Canonical Scriptures which are received by 
 all Catholic Churches, in preference to those which 
 some do not receive. " Among those, moreover, which 
 are not received by all, let him prefer those which more 
 and more important Churches accept to those which 
 fewer and less authoritative Churches hold. Should he, 
 however, find some to be held by very many and otbers 
 by very weighty Churches, although this cannot easily 
 happen, yet I think that they are to be regarded as of 
 equal authority " (after Gregory). On April S, 1546, 
 the Council of Trent recited a " catalogue of the sacred 
 books," including those of the Apocrypha, and decreed 
 that " if any one receive not, as sacred and canonical, 
 these same books entire with all their parts, as they 
 have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and 
 as they are contained in the old Ijitin Vulgat* Edition," 
 he should he anathema. The sixth article of the Thirty- 
 Nine Articles of the Church of England says : " In the 
 name of Holy Scripture, we do understand those 
 Canonical books of the Old and New Testament, of 
 whose authority was never any doubt in the Church." 
 It then gives a list of the Old Testament books. There
 
 Canon of the Old Testament 
 
 89 
 
 Canon of the Old Testament 
 
 is no list of the New Testament books. In place of it 
 we read : " All the hooks of the New Testament, as 
 tiiey are commonly received, we do receive and accoimt 
 them Canonical." It is then stated that the other books 
 (the Old Testament Apocrj'phaj are read simply for 
 example of life and instruction of manners, and a list 
 is added. It has been suggested that a distinction is 
 here drawn between the " Canonical " books and such 
 " Canonical books as have never been doubted in the 
 Church," and that the framers of the Article on a point 
 on which scholars were greatly divided wished to leave 
 the judgment free. See the separate articles on the 
 books of the New Testament; articles on Canon and 
 Bible in the Dictionaries and Encyclopaedias; C. R. 
 Gregory; J. Mollatt, Introd. 
 
 CANON OF THK OLD TESTAMENT. The Jews 
 divided their canonical writings into three groups : (1) 
 The Torah or Law; (2) The Nebiim or Prophets; (3) The 
 Kethubim or Writings (Hagiographa). The first group, 
 the Torah, c-omprises the five books of the Pentateuch, 
 called by the Jews " the five fifths of the law " 
 (chami^lishah chumshe ha-tordh). The Hebrew name of 
 each of the five books is derived from the initial word 
 or words of the book. The second group, the Nebiim, 
 is sub-divided into two main divisions : (o) The Nebiim 
 rishonim or Former Prophets comprising Joshua, Judges, 
 I. and II. Samuel, and I. and II. Kings; (6) The Nebiim 
 akharonim or Latter Prophets, comprising Isaiah, Jere- 
 miah, Ezekiel. and the twelve Prophets. The Latter 
 Prophets are further sutHdivided sometimes into (i.) The 
 Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel) and (ii.) 
 The Minor Prophets. The Minor Prophets were regarded 
 as forming together a single book, and as such received 
 the title "The Twelve" (Heb. shenem 'asar; Aramaic 
 teresar; Greek to dodekapropheton). The third group, 
 the Kethubim, is subdivided into three divisions : (1.) 
 The Kethubim rishonim or Former Writings, Psalms, 
 Proverbs, Job; (ii.) The Megilloth (.g.v.) or the Five Rolls. 
 Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes. and 
 Esther; (iii.) The Kethubim akharOnim or Latter 
 Writings, Daniel, Ezra. Nehemiah, I. and II. Chronicles. 
 It seems strange that Joshua, Judges, I. and II. Samuel, 
 and I. and II. Kings should be regarded as prophetical. 
 But Samuel, of course, was a prophet; and Jewish trad- 
 ition regarded him as the author of the Book of Judges 
 as well as of the two Books of Samuel. Tradition also 
 ascribed the Books of Kings to the prophet Jeremiah. As 
 regards the Book of Joshua, Numbers xxvii. 18 speaks 
 of Joshua as " a man in whom is the spirit," and Eccles- 
 iasticus xlvi. 1 refers to him as " the successor of Moses 
 in prophecies." As Prof. Sanday says (/., 190.3). " the 
 idea was that the history of each successive generation 
 was written by a contemporary prophet ; and as the pro- 
 phetic literature in the narrower sense does not begin 
 until the reign of Jeroboam II. in Israel and Uzziah in 
 Judah. the narratives of whose reigns fall in the second 
 half of the Second Book of Kings, it was natural that the 
 great bulk of the historical writings (Joshua — II. Kings) 
 should be roughly described as the work of the older 
 prophets" (p. 15.5). This was only a tradition; but as 
 a matter of fact there was an element of truth in it, 
 insofar as the books in their present form were put into 
 shape by a prophetic school. The order of the Books 
 of the Old Testament given above is that which is com- 
 monly followed in printed editions of the Hebrew Bible. 
 In the Talmud (Bdba bdthra 146), however, the order of 
 the Latter Prophets is given as: Jeremiah, Ezekiel, 
 Isaiah, the Twelve. The explanation of this remarkable 
 order is fancifully explained as follows. " Since Isaiah 
 lived before Jeremiah and Ezekiel, ought he not to have 
 been put before them? [No.] Beoauae Kings closes 
 
 with destruction, Jeremiah is entirely occupied with it, 
 Ezekiel begins with it, but ends with consolation, while 
 Isaiah is all consolation : hence we connect destruction 
 with destruction, and consolation with consolation." The 
 same order is commonly followed in German and French 
 manuscripts. The Massoretic scholars (7th-9th cent.), 
 however, assigned Isaiah the first place, and this is the 
 position of the book in Spanish manuscripts and in our 
 printed Hebrew Bibles. The order of the Kethubim in 
 the Talmud Is ; Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Eccles- 
 iastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, 
 Ezra (—Nehemiah), Chronicles. Here Ruth is placed 
 first as giving the ancestry of David, whose writings, the 
 Psalm.s. come second. The other books are supposed to 
 be in chronological order. The Massoretic scholars and 
 u.sually the Spanish manuscripts arrange the books : 
 Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth. Song of Songs, 
 Ecclesiastes, Lamentations. Esther. Daniel. Ezra. Thus 
 they keep the five rolls or Megilloth together. German 
 manuscripts generally follow the order found in our 
 printed Hebrew Bibles. The three groups of canonical 
 writings correspond to three stages in the growth of the 
 Canon. The books were accepted only gradually. The 
 terms " canon " and " canonical " are of course Christ- 
 ian. The Jews expressed the idea in a different way. 
 Books which we call canonical are said by them to be 
 books '• that defile the hands " (metamme'im eth hay- 
 i/adai/im). The meaning of this expression seems un- 
 doubtedly to be that contact with the sacred writings 
 involves a ceremonial washing of the hands. " The 
 Pharisees." says Budde " (under protest from the Sad- 
 ducees; cp. Yad. iv. 6) attributed to the sacred writings 
 a sanctity of such a sort that whosoever touched them 
 was not allowed to touch aught else, until he had under- 
 gone the same ritual ablution as if he had touched some- 
 thing unclean " (EncycL Jiibl.). According to a trad- 
 ition preserved in Second Esdras Ezra was inspired to 
 dictate ninety-four books, of which seventy were to be 
 delivered only to the wise, while the other twenty-four 
 were to be published. As far as Ezra himself is con- 
 cerned, the legendary nature of the tradition is clear: but 
 it seems to be no less evident, as Wildeboer says, "that 
 toward the end of the first century ot our era in Jewish 
 circles a Canon of twenty-four books was recognized, and 
 that gradually the part which Ezra had in the canoniza- 
 tion of the Old Testament, viz.. giving binding force to 
 the Tora, was being extended to the entire Old Testa- 
 ment." The New Testament, it has been thought, may 
 supply evidence that even in the New Testament period 
 the Book of Chronicles was the last work in a Canon of 
 twenty-four books. In Matthew xxiii. 35 we read : 
 " that upon you may come all the righteous blood shed 
 on the earth, from the blood of Abel the righteous unto 
 the blood of Zachariah son of Barachiah, whom ye slew 
 between the sanctuary and the altar " (cp. Lukexi. 51). 
 The idea, it is supposed, was to refer to the first (Genesis 
 iv.) and last book (II. Chronicles xxiv. 20-22) of the Old 
 Testament. Since, however, it is uncertain which 
 Zachariah is really referred to. it is not safe to attach 
 much importance to the passage. The tradition as to 
 Ezra and his companions was revived bv David Kimchi 
 (d. 1240) and Elias T^vita (1472-1549). who stated that 
 Ezra and his associates, the Men of the Gr*!at Syna- 
 gogue, fixed the whole canon (Levita, ilassoreth ha-Mas- 
 ■wreth. p. 120, ed. Ginsburg). But the only Talmudic 
 passage in which any support for this statement can be 
 found is in Baba bathra 14&, and there is no satisfactory 
 evidence of the existence of the Great Synagogue (g.v.). 
 Moreover, as a matter of fact, some of the books of the 
 third group (e.g.. Daniel) were clearly later than the 
 time of Ezra. Daniel can hardly have been added to
 
 Canon of the Old Testament 
 
 90 
 
 the Kethubim (Hapiographa) before the time of the Mac- 
 cabees And, assuming that the whole Canon was fixed 
 at one time, it would in any case be very strange that 
 Daniel should have been placed among the Kethubim 
 instead of among the Prophets. It is useless to contend 
 that he was not a prophet in the same sense as the 
 others He is recognized as a prophet in the New Testa- 
 ment (Matthew sxiv. 15; Mark siii.). The Jewish tradi- 
 tion cannot be relied upon. Some of the bool^s included 
 among the Kethubim are found there, instead of among 
 the r^biim, because they were of late origin and were 
 added to the Canon after the Prophetic group had been 
 closed. The process of collection and canonisation was 
 a gradual one. It is clear that an original collection, the 
 Boolis of the Law, was gradually supplemented and 
 enlarged. The division known as the Torah has a dis- 
 tinctive character: but, as Wildeboer says, •' no one has 
 succeeded in satisfactorily defining the specific difference 
 between the Nebiim and Kethubim." It is noteworthy 
 too that the Septuagint makes no distinction between the 
 two groups (see ALEXANDRIAN CANON). 
 
 The process of growth and development can be seen 
 from the very beginning. The Law itself grew. There 
 was first the Ten Words inscribed on two tables of stone. 
 Prof. Briggs (Intr.) thinks that, " if any docnmeut 
 fulfils all the tests of canonieity, the Tables of the Law 
 certainly do." There vras next the Book of the Covenant 
 (Exodus sxxiv.. Judaic narrative: Exodus xx. 22-xxiii., 
 Ephraimitic narrative), which Moses " read in the 
 audience of the people " when God made a covenant with 
 them (see BOOK OF THE COVENANT). After this 
 came the promulgation of the Deuteronomic Code, which 
 was found in the Temple in the reign of Josiah (021 B.C.). 
 The event is recorded in II. Kings xxii.-xxiii. = II. 
 Chronicles xxxiv.-xxxv. The book is described as " the 
 book of the law " (II. Kings xxii. S, 11) or " the book 
 of the covenant" (II. Kings xxiii. 2, 21; II. Chronicles 
 xxxiv. 30), or " the book of the law of Yahweh " (II. 
 Chron. xxxiv. 14). Modem scholarship seems to have 
 demonstrated that this book was nothing more than the 
 Deuteronomic Code. The next stage brings us to the 
 riublic recognition, through the influence of Ezra and 
 Nehemiah, of the first division of the present Hebrew 
 Canon, The Law. The account of this event is given 
 in Nehemiah viii.-x. The Pentateuch, as promulgated by 
 Ezra and Nehemi.ih in 444 B.C., was practically the Law 
 as we have it. But only the Law was made authorita- 
 tive by Ezra. Nehemiah viii.-x. speaks of nothing else. 
 The Samaritans, moreover, adopted as their sacred book 
 only the Pentateuch. This may be taken to prove that 
 at late as ?,?& B.C. (according to Jo.«ephus' dating) or at 
 any rat« as late as about 410 B.C. ^according to the 
 calculation of manv modern scholars) the Law stood 
 alone (see SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH). It is true 
 that in later times the Samaritans possessed a Book of 
 •Joshua. But it resembles the canonical book very little. 
 As Wildeboer says, " it is really the beginning of a 
 chronicle relating the history down to the time of the 
 Roman emperors. Besides, the close connection of 
 .Joshua with the Pentateuch, taken together with the fact 
 that Joshua is peculiarly the tril)al hero of Ephraim. 
 makes this exception quite explicable." In the case of 
 the second group of writings, the Prophets, we have no 
 historical accounts of a kind of public recognition or 
 canonisation. But here again the process was gradual. 
 The ultimate recognition of an atithoritative group of 
 prophetical writings was the result of a national crisis. 
 The prophets were naturally speakers rather than 
 writers, but at a comparatively early date they found it 
 convenient to commit their words to writing. Thus a 
 
 prophetic literature began to arise in the 8th century 
 
 Canon of the Old Testament 
 
 B.C. This was read even before the Exile, and during 
 and after the Exile, was much studied. There is evidence 
 of this in the books of Deuteronomy, Isaiah, Ezekiel, 
 and Jeremiah. It is not difficult to account for the 
 veneration with which this literature came to be re- 
 garded. The situation is well described by Robertson 
 Smith (O.T.J.C). " When the national existence with 
 which the ancient religion of Israel was so closely inter- 
 twined was hopelessly shattered, when the voice of the 
 prophets was stilled, and the public services of the sanct- 
 uary no longer called the devout together, the whole 
 continuance of the spiritual faith rested upon the remem- 
 brance that the prophets of the Lord had foreseen the 
 catastrophe, and had shown how to reconcile it with the 
 undiminished trust in Jehovah, the God of Israel. The 
 written word acquired a fresh significance for the relig- 
 ious life, and the books of the prophets, with those 
 records of the ancient history which were either already 
 framed in the mould of prophetic thought, or were cast 
 in that mould by editors of the time of the Exile, became 
 the main support of the faithful, who felt as they had 
 never felt before, that the words of Jehovah were pure 
 words, silver sevenfold tried, a sure treasure in every 
 time of need." The prophetic writings gradually took 
 firm hold of the hearts of the godly in Israel. Con- 
 sequently, " these books had no need to be brought from 
 Babylon with the approval of a ro.val rescript, or laid 
 before the nation by the authority of a Tirshatha. The 
 only form of public recognition which was wanting, and 
 which followed in due course, was the practice of reading 
 from the Prophets in the public worship of the synagogue. 
 It required no more formal process than the natural use 
 made of this ancient literature, to bring it little by little 
 into the shape of a fixed collection." The collection was 
 not at once formally fixed, because for Ezra's purpose, 
 that of establishing a theocracy, the Priestly Law was of 
 primary importance. When, and for what reasons, was 
 it formally fixed? The strictly historical books known 
 as " the former prophets " (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, 
 Kings) immediately continue the narrative part of the 
 Pentateuch, and are connected organically with it. It 
 is reasonable therefore to suppose that these formed an 
 early appendix, as it were, to the I>aw. " It is quite 
 ix>ssible," .says Wildeboer, " that the memory of the 
 interval between the canonization of the historical books 
 and of the prophetic writings proper is perpetuated by 
 the order of the two groups of books and by the appella- 
 tion based upon it, NeMim Rishonim and Aharonim." 
 Wildeboer thinks that there is an element of truth in II. 
 Maccabees ii. 13 which says that Nehemiah, " founding 
 a library, gathered together the books about the kings 
 and prophets and the books of David, and letters of 
 kings about sacred gifts." Nehemiah collected a number 
 of books: and this collection, which was held in high 
 esteem, became the basis of the second and third parts 
 of the Canon. At the same time he had no intention of 
 ascribing canonical authority to this collection. A pre- 
 eminent place in it was taken by the books of Joshua, 
 Judges. Samuel, and Kings. These formed the founda- 
 tion of the second division of the Canon, and in later 
 times were rightly called Nebiim Rishonim. To this 
 early collection was added in course of time the Nebiim 
 Aeharonim. It, has already been mentioned that the 
 Book of Daniel is not included in the second division of 
 the Canon. The true explanation of this seems to be 
 that it did not gain canonical recognition until after the 
 division had been closed. It has been thought, moreover, 
 that the Book of Daniel itself in ix. 2. where it speaks 
 of " the books " (ha-sephdrim) assumps as well known 
 a collection of prophetic writings. There are excellent 
 reasons for concluding that the Book of Daniel was cam-
 
 Canon of the Old Testament 
 
 91 
 
 Canticles 
 
 posed between the years 168 and 165 B.C. (eee DANIEL, 
 BOOK OF). Another clue may perhaps be found in the 
 fact tliat Isaiiah xxlv.-xxvi., which probably belongs to 
 about 332 B.C., is included in the collection. This would 
 suggest that the prophetico-historical and the other pro- 
 phetic writings were canonized some time after 332 B.C. 
 and before 165 B.C. Wildeboer thinks that the date will 
 probably have been about 20O B.C. Jesus ben Sira is 
 thought to lend support to this view (xliv.-l.). When he 
 mentions " the Twelve." it is supposed that he had in 
 mind the technical name for the Twelve Minor Prophets. 
 The Greek Ecelesiasticus may be placed between the 
 years 130 and 120 B.C. The Hebrew original falls 
 between the years 190 and 170 B.C. In the Prologue to 
 Ecelesiasticus the grandson of Jesus ben Sira speaks of 
 his grandfather as having " giving himself to the reading 
 of the Law and the Prophets and other books of our 
 fathers." Speaking of his own time, he says that " many 
 and great things have been delivered unto us by the Law 
 and the Prophets, and by others that have followed their 
 steps." Such language has been taken to indicate that 
 for some time the Law and the Prophets had been recog- 
 nized as clearly defined groups. After the time of Ezra, 
 it was apparently the scribes of Jerusalem who determ- 
 ined what books should be regarded as sacred. In the 
 case of the third division of the Canon, the Kethubim, 
 historical statements as to the canonization are again 
 wanting. But clearly here, as in the other groups, tie 
 collection was formed gradually. The beginning seems 
 to have been made with the Book of Psalms. In the Xew 
 Testatment we actually find a reference (Luke xxiv. 44) 
 to "the Law and the Prophets and the Psalms." The 
 third group may be supposed to have existed for a time 
 as an undefined collection. But. as Wildeboer says, it 
 was not every book that could gain admission to this 
 indefinite group. " There were admitted to it only books 
 written in Hebrew or Aramaic, which treated of the 
 ancient history (Rnth, Chronicles), or gave information 
 about the establishment of the new order of things (Ezra- 
 Nehemiah), or which were supposed to have been written 
 by some famous person of ancient times (Proverbs, Eeeles- 
 iast«8, Canticles, I-amentations. Daniel, perhaps Job 
 also): while E.sther obtained admission (after much con- 
 troversy, as was the case with Eeclesiast-es) because it 
 was in complete harmony with the national sentiment of 
 people and scribes alike." The Old Testament Canon 
 seems to have been closed in the course of the second 
 century, and not before. As Comill says : " it was not 
 Israel, not the Judaism of Ezra or of the Maccabees, that 
 definitely fixed and established the Old Testament Canon, 
 but only Talmudlcal Judaism at its early stages for the 
 purposes of self-presen-ation." H<;ischer thinks that there 
 was pressing need for the Pharisees and Rabbis to assert 
 the antiquity and authority of the classical writings. 
 There had arisen a new literature which gave voice to 
 the thoughts and hopes of the time, a literature such as 
 had not previously existed, the Apocalyptic Literature 
 (7.t'.). It was eagerly accepted by the devout souls 
 among the people, for it spoke of the realization of hopes 
 in days not far distant, but within the reach of living 
 men. And though it was really new, it professed to be 
 old. It was received with such enthusiasm that, though 
 it never really disputed the authority of the Torah and 
 the other scriptures, it did as a matter of fact tend to 
 overshadow the ancient literature. The books were put 
 forward under the names and authority of the patriarchs. 
 And, compared with the definite and detailed predictions 
 of the Apocalyptic writers, what were the vague and 
 general utterances of the prophets? What was the age of 
 the Torah which Moses received compared to the revela- 
 tions which Noah, Enoch, and even Adam received in the 
 
 earliest days? The Apocalyptic literature in fact 
 assumed an air of superiority. Thus the position of the 
 really ancient literature seemed to he threatened. Some- 
 thing had to be done to defend it. The final fixing of 
 the Canon was a blow aimed at the apocalyptic literature. 
 The Rabbis had come to look upon the apocalyptic wisdom 
 and tiie apocalyptic writings with anxiety and even to 
 show pronounced hostility towards them. And the oppos- 
 ition was most bitter and pronounced just at that time 
 when the principle of the Canon was established. See 
 F. Buhl: H. E. Ryle: W. Sanday, /. ; G. Wildeboer; W. 
 H. Green, Introd. to the O.T., 1899: G. Holscher, 
 Kaiwnisch und Apolcryph, 1905; C. Cornill, Intr. 
 
 CANONS OF EUSEBIUS. Eusebius, in constructing 
 his Harmony of the Gospels, divided the text of each 
 Gospel into sections or small chapters. The indices or 
 rabies of these sections he called " canons " (Gk. 
 kanone.s). See HARMONIES OF THE GOSPELS. 
 
 CANOPY. Above the altar in the temples of Tibetan 
 Buddhists or L.amas " is suspended a large silken 
 parasol, the oriental symbol of ro.valty, which slightly 
 revolves in one or other direction by the ascending cur- 
 rents of the warm air from the lamps. And over all is 
 stretched a canopy, called the ' sky ' on which are 
 depicted the thunder dragons of the sky " (L. A. 
 Waddell). 
 
 CANTICLES. One of the books of the Bible. It is 
 included in the tiird division of the Canon (q.v.). that is 
 to say among the Kethubim or Hagiographa. It is also 
 one of the five books belonging to the sub-division Megil- 
 loth or ■■ Rolls." Other names of the book are the 
 " Song of Solomon " and the " Song of Songs " (i.e., the 
 choicest of all songs). The theme of the Song of Songs 
 is love. Older scholars (following Herder) regarded the 
 book as a collection of independent love-songs. It is 
 now held by many (following Ewald) to be a kind of 
 drama. Whereas the older scholars recognised only two 
 characters — King Solomon and a Shulammite (or 
 Shunammite) maiden — later scholars have discovered 
 three principal characters — King Solomon, a Shulam- 
 mite (or Shunammite) maiden, and a young shepherd to 
 whom she is betrothed — and a kind of chorus consisting 
 of the •• daughters of Jerusalem." King Solomon tries 
 to win the affections of the maiden, but she remains true 
 to her shepherd-lover, and true love triumphs (chap. 
 viii. 5-7). Another explanation of the poem connects it 
 with marriage customs which still prevail among the 
 peasants of Syria. The customs have been described by 
 .1. G. Wetzstein. The substance of his descriptions is 
 given in the Eiici/cl. Bibl. (s.v. " Canticles "). " During 
 the seven days after a wedding, high festivity, with 
 scarcely interrupted singing and dancing, prevails. The 
 bridegroom and the bride play the part of king and 
 queen (hence the week is called the ' king's week '), and 
 receive the homage of their neighbours: the crown, how- 
 ever, is at present in Syria (as in Greece) confined to the 
 bride (contrast Song iii. 11). The bridegroom has his 
 train of companions (to borrow the ancient term, Judg. 
 xiv. 11). and the grander the wedding the more of these 
 there are. The bride too has her friends (cp. ' daughters 
 of Jerusalem,' Song i. 5, etc.), the maidens of the place, 
 who take an important part in the reception of the bride- 
 groom (cp. Ps. xlv. 14. Mt. XXV. 1-13)." This would 
 suggest tiat in Canticles the " king " (King Solomon) 
 represents the young husband, while the Shulammite (or 
 Shunammite) maiden is his young wife. In any case, 
 the poem is of a .secular nature, however good the moral 
 may be. and it is rather surprising that it should have 
 gained admittance into the Canon. The explanation is 
 that, owing to the mention of Solomon, it was believed 
 to be of Solomonic authorship, and that it was inter-
 
 Capuchins 
 
 92 
 
 Carmelites 
 
 preted as a spiritual allegory (so in the Fourth Book of 
 Esdras). But the canonical authority of the book was 
 certainly for a time a matter of controversy among Jewish 
 scholars (see the passage from the Mishnah quoted under 
 BCCLBSIASTES). It is clear " that in the second cen- 
 tury A.D. there was still vigorous dispute about some 
 books of the Kethubim, viz.. Proverbs, Ecelesiastes, 
 Canticles, and Esther " (G. Wildeboer). As regards the 
 date of Canticles, certain peculiarities in the language 
 (Persian and Greek loan-words, etc.) seem to require a 
 time not earlier than 300 B.C. See C. H. Comill. hitr.; 
 G. Currie Martin, Proverbs, Ecelesiastes, and Song of 
 Solomon in the "Century Bible"; G. Wildeboer. 
 
 CAPUCHINS. An off-shoot of the Franciscans (g.v.). 
 or rather of a branch of the Franciscans, the Observant- 
 ines (g.v.). The Observatines adhered to the strict rule 
 of Francis of Assisi. Matteo di Bassi of Urbino was one 
 of them, being a member of the Observantine fraternity 
 at Monte Falco. He came to the conclusion, however, 
 that the hood (capuche) used by St. Francis was different 
 from that adopted afterwards by the Franciscan monks. 
 In 1520, therefore, he went to Pope Clement VII., and 
 obtained permission " to put on a pyramidal capuche, to 
 wear a long beard, to live as a hermit, and to preach 
 wherever he liked, on the condition that he should report 
 once every year at the provincial chapter of the 
 Observants [Observantines] " (Schaff-Herzog). But the 
 Observantines regarded him as an apostate. He was 
 joined by others, and the new body was befriended by the 
 Conventuals. In 1528 the Capuchins or Fratres Minores 
 Capuzini were confirmed by Pope Clement VII. as a 
 separate congregation, but were placed under the 
 authority of the Conventuals. It was agreed that they 
 should be allowed to live the hermit life, to wear beards, 
 and to use the pyramidal capuche. " They should have 
 only a vicar-general, and he should be confirmed by the 
 general of the (Conventuals; they should be subject to 
 visitations from the chapter of the Conventuals; when 
 walking in a procession, they should walk under the cross 
 of the Conventuals, and not under a cross of their own, 
 etc." (Schaff-Herzog). In IfilO they obtained more inde- 
 pendence, when they were allowed to walk in procession 
 under a cross of their own, and to have their own general. 
 Before this the Order had spread from Italy to France. 
 (Jermany, and Spain. In France and Germany the Order 
 was abolished in the eighteenth century: but in Austria, 
 Switzerland, and the British Isles it .still flourishes. In 
 1534 an Order of Capuchin nuns was founded in Italy. 
 See Schaff-Herzog; the Oath. Encycl. 
 
 CAPUTIATI. The followers of one Durand. a car- 
 penter, a sect which appeared in Auvergne in 11S2. They 
 were so called from the caps or hoods which they wore. 
 They proclaimed universal liberty and equality; and 
 Durand professed to have received revelations from the 
 Virgin Mary in the light of which he hoped to establish 
 peace in the Church. They were suppressed by Bishop 
 Hugo of Aux-erre, who marched against them with troops. 
 See Schaff-Herzog; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 CARBONARI. The word means literally " charcoal- 
 burners " or " colliers." It was adopted as the name of 
 a secret society, which was founded in the Abruzzi in 
 ISOS. the name being due to the fact that there were many 
 charcoal-burners in that part of Italy. In organising 
 the society, and arranging its ceremonial, the founders 
 seem to have taken .sugge.'stions from freemasonry and 
 Christianity. It had lodges, mystic rites of initiation. 
 and four grades of members. In 1815 the Carbonari 
 were a political force of considerable power and 
 significance. Its members afterwards included the 
 Italian poet Silvio Pellico (1788-1 8.')4). Lord Bvron (1788- 
 1824), and Guiseppe (Joseph) Mazzini (1805-1872). Maz- 
 
 zini. however, from the first seems to have shown dis- 
 satisfaction with the organisation of the Carbonari. He 
 was amused at their ceremonies of affiliation, and " re- 
 flected with surprise and distrust that the oath which 
 had been administered to him was a mere formula of 
 obedience, containing nothing as to the aim to be reached 
 . . . it was war to the Government, nothing more." 
 The association which he himself founded later seems 
 to have been intended to be an improvement upon that of 
 the Carbonari. This new association was called " Toung 
 Italy." It was followed by another called "Young 
 Europe." Cp. PACT OF FRATERNITY. See C. W. 
 Heckethom. Secret Societies of All Ages, 1874; and 
 Chamhers' Encyc. 
 
 CARDINAL. The term is explained as follows in C. 
 H. Bowden's Simple Dictionary for Catholics. " A name 
 first given (in the fourth century) to the priests having 
 charge of the Roman parish churches or ' titles,* and 
 now to the immediate counsellors and assistants of the 
 Sovereign Pontiff, whose elect.ion rests with them. The 
 college of Cardinals consists of six bishops, fifty priests, 
 and fourteen deacons; but the number is seldom com- 
 plete." 
 
 CARDINAL VIRTUES. According to Plato, the chief 
 or cardinal virtues are four: Wisdom, Fortitude, Tem- 
 perance and Justice. St. Ambrose suggested the addi- 
 tion of the three Christian virtues : Faith, Hope, and 
 Love. 
 
 CAR FESTIVALS. Tliese festivals are now char- 
 acteristic of Hinduism. They are processions In con- 
 nection with the more important temples. That in con- 
 nection with the Temple of Jagan-nath is famous. On 
 these occasions " the Idols are placed on huge massive 
 cars supported on four large solid wheels, not made, like 
 our wheels, with spokes and felloes. A big beam serves 
 as the axle, and supports the car proper, which is some- 
 times fifty feet in height." The thick blocks forming 
 the base have figures of men and women carv'ed on them. 
 " Several stages of carved planking are raised upon this 
 basement, gradually diminishing in width until the whole 
 fabric has the form of a pyramid." The car is decorated 
 witli garlands, etc., and the idol richly apparelled and 
 bedecked with jewels is placed in the middle of it under 
 a canopy. The car is drawn by thick cables, more than 
 a thousand i)ersons ssometimes being harnessed to it. 
 Seated on the car, around the idol, are dancing-girls w!ho 
 fan the idol, and many other persons who guide the car 
 and spur on those who are dragging it. "The proces- 
 sion advances .slowly. From time to time a halt is made, 
 during which a most frightful uproar of shouts and cries 
 .and whistlings is kept up." The courtesans perform 
 dances; and "as long as the procession continues, the 
 drums, trumpets, and all .sorts of musical instruments 
 give forth their discordant sounds." And " finally, a 
 great number of devotees crawl slowly before the car on 
 hands and knees. Those who have nothing else to do 
 shriek and shout so that even the thunder of the great 
 Indra striking the giants would not be heard by them." 
 See J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 CARIY.^PITAKA. A Buddhist .sacred book included 
 an the collection appended to the .second division of the 
 Canon. See CANON. BUDDHIST. 
 
 CARMELITES. An order of monks founded about 
 1150 A.D. at the Well of Elijah on Mount Carmel by a 
 crusader named Berthold. There seem to have been 
 hermits there already. The community established by 
 Berthold received in 1209 a rule in sixteen articles from 
 Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem. By this the monks were 
 required to live in separate cells, to renounce the posses- 
 sion of property, to abstain from meat, and to observe 
 a strict fast for a certain period. They were recom-
 
 Carnival 
 
 93 
 
 Cat, The 
 
 mended also to work with their hands and to observe 
 silence The rule was confirmed by Pope Hononus III. 
 an 1224 In 1238 the Muhammadan danger made it neces- 
 sary for them to leave Mount Carmel and establish them- 
 eelves in Europe. The change required them also to 
 abandon the life of hermits. In 1247, therefore^ their 
 rule was changed with the approval of Innocent IV., and 
 thev were confirmed under the title of Friars of Our Lady 
 of Mount Carmel. They now became a mendicant order, 
 and adopted a brown habit with white cloak and scapular. 
 In England thev became known as the White Friars. 
 The scapular " consists of two stripes of gray cloth, worn 
 on the breast and on the back, and connecting with each 
 other on the shoulders " (SchafT-Herzog). It was 
 believed that the pattern of this piece of dress was re- 
 vealeil to St. Simon Stock, general of the order (1245), 
 by Our Lady herself. In 1431 the rule of the order was 
 further relaxed bv Poih? Eugenius IV. This led to divis- 
 ions There arose Observantines or Discalced Car- 
 melites who followed the stricter rule, and Conventuals 
 or Caleed Carmelites who followed the milder rule. In- 
 dependent congregations were founded for the observance 
 of the strict rule, such as the Congregation of Mantua, 
 which owed its origin to Thomas Connecte. In 14.52 an 
 order of Carmelite Nuns was founded in France, but in 
 course of time the strict rule was relaxed. St. Teresa, 
 desiring a return to the strict rule, founded the Dis- 
 calced Carmelite Nuns in Spain. With the help of St. 
 Peter of Alcantara ahe founded there also reformed con- 
 vents for men. In England there were at one time fifty- 
 two Carmelite houses. See Schaff-Herzog; the Cath. 
 Diet. 
 
 CARNIVAL. A word composed of two Ijatin terms 
 and denoting either a farewell to flesh-meat or a solace 
 of the flesh. It is an institution in Roman Catholic 
 countries. A carnival is held on the three days pre- 
 ceding Lent. It " is a special season for feasting, danc- 
 ing, masquerading, and mirth of all sorts," and is 
 observed in Rome as well as in other places. " In itself 
 this custom is innocent, although the Church from 
 Septuagesima onwards assumes the garb of penance, and 
 prepares her children, by tie saddened tone of her oflBce, 
 for the I>enten season " (Addis and Arnold). See Cath. 
 Diet. 
 
 CARPOCRATIANS. The followers of Carpocrates of 
 Alexandria. Carpocrates (bom in the first half of the 
 second century) was a Platonist and a kind of Gnostic. 
 His son Epiphanes, who was only seventeen years old 
 when he died, was worshipped as a god at Cephalonia, 
 where a temple and museum -stood in his honour. Car- 
 pocrates " believed in one God, from whom emanated a 
 whole hierarchy of angels. The visible world is their 
 work. The souls of men first moved around the Father- 
 God ; then they fell into the power of matter, from which 
 they have to lie released to go back to their original state. 
 Jesus, the son of Joseph, naturally bom like other men, 
 and subiect as they are to metempsychosis was able, by 
 a remembrance of what he had known in his first exist- 
 ence, and by power sent from above, to obtain dominion 
 over the rulers of this world, and to re-ascend to the 
 Father. It is in the power of all men by following his 
 example, and by the method he usmI, to despise the 
 creators of this world and to escape from them. They 
 can achieve this equally well, or even better, than he 
 did. This scheme of deliverance is consistent with all 
 conditions of life, and with every kind of act " 
 (Duchesne). Jerome charges the Carpocratians with 
 mutilating the Gospels; Irenaeus accuses them of dealing 
 in magic. The Carpocratians paid reverence not only to 
 images of Jesns Christ, but also to those of Pythagoras, 
 Plato, Aristotle, and other sages. They believed that 
 
 Jesus imparted secret teaching to his disciples. The CJar- 
 pocratian heresy was introduced into Rome by Marcel- 
 lina (see MARCELLINIANS). See J. H. Blunt; Louis 
 Duchesne, Hist. 
 
 CARTHUSIANS. An order of monks founded in the 
 eleventh century by St. Bruno. Bruno went from 
 Cologne, his birthplace, to Rheims, and there as "scholast- 
 icus " made a reputation as a teacher. Before long, 
 however, he decided to retire from the life of the world. 
 He left Rheims, went to Hugh, Bishop of Grenoble, and 
 unburdened his soul to him, telling him that, with certain 
 companions, he wished to live a life of severe au.sterity 
 and self-discipline. Bishop Hugh pointed out to him a 
 site in La Chartreuse (whence the name Carthusian) near 
 Grenoble, a spot accessible only by a difficult and gloomy 
 path, and here in 1086 with his followers he erected an 
 oratory and small separate cells around it, as in the 
 Lauras (q.v.) of Palestine. A few years later Bmno 
 was .summoned to Rome by his old pupil, now the Pope, 
 Urban II., never to return to La Chartreuse. Later he 
 founded convents at Squillace and Ija. Torre in Calabria, 
 and he retired to La Torre to end his days there (t 1101). 
 The Carthusians wore very rough and scanty dress, which 
 included nex-t to the skin coarse hair-shirts. They fasted 
 almost without interruption. Sick or well, they would 
 never touch flesh. But they ate fish when it was given 
 to them as alms. On Sundays and Thursdays they ate 
 eggs and cheese; on Tuesdays and Saturdays boiled pulse 
 or herbs; on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays they 
 took only bread and water. They ate only bran bread. 
 Except on special occasions, they had only one meal a 
 day. They devoted themselves to .some manual work, 
 chiefly the "transcribing of books, and to constant prayer 
 and worship, alone and in common. For some time they 
 seem to have had no written rale. The rales were first 
 written down by Guigo, fifth prior of La Chartreuse 
 (1228). In 1259 a collection of all the decisions of the 
 chapter-general since 1141 was made by Bernard de la 
 Tour. In 1581 a fourth compilation appeared (Nova 
 Collectio Htatuorum Ordinis Cartusiensis). In 1688 this 
 was approved of by Pope Innocent XI. The name Char- 
 treuse, which in England became Charterhouse, was given 
 to all the monasteries of the order. In France at the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century there were seventy- 
 five monasteries. These were all swept away during the 
 Revolution. There were nearly a hundred monasteries 
 elsewhere. In England there were nine at the time of 
 the dissolution. The Carthusian nunneries seem to have 
 been founded in the thirteenth or fourteenth century. 
 London still has its " Charterhouse," though it now 
 serves a new purpose. The site, near Smithfield. with 
 the surrounding land was purchased in 1.349 by Sir Walter 
 de Manny (t 1.372) as a burial-place for those wlio died 
 from the" Black Death." In 1.371 on the same land he 
 founded a house of Carthusian monks. At the dissolu- 
 tion the prior was hanged for refusing to renounce the 
 Pope's supremacy, and the monastery passed into the 
 hands of the Speaker of the House of Commons. Sir 
 Thomas Audlev (1488-1.544). In course of time it was 
 purchased bv Thomas Sutton (1532-1611), who founded a 
 hospital and school, the hospital (home) for eighty men, 
 by preference military men, the school for forty boys. 
 The school was in course of time removed to Godalming. 
 The Hospital remains, and now accommodates eighty 
 Poor Brothers or pensioners. See Schaff-Herzog; W. 
 Benham; the Cath. Did.; Chamhers'-t Encncl. 
 
 CASWALLAWN. A war-god worshipped by the British 
 Celts. Probably the British warrior Cassivellaunus owes 
 his name to him. 
 
 CAT, THE. In ancient Egypt the cat was regarded as 
 a sacred animal, " especially in the nome of Buhastis,
 
 Catacombs 
 
 91 
 
 Catholic Epistles 
 
 where cat-mummies may be counted by tens of tbou- 
 aands " (S. Reinach, Cults). The goddess Bast is figured 
 with the head of a cat. It was a crime to kill cats; 
 and it was forbidden in early times to export them from 
 Egypt. Among the Greeks and Romans they were practi- 
 cally unknown. Not until the fourth century, when 
 Christianity triumphed in Egypt, did the domestic cat 
 begin to travel. The Greek monks when they left Egypt 
 to preach in Europe took the cat with them. " Thus," 
 says Reinach, " the cat. a local totem in Egypt, tamed 
 and domesticated in that country only, spread over 
 Europe when Egyptian paganism had vanished and all 
 the barriers reared by the old cult had been levelled 
 with the ground." In Scandinavian mythology the 
 chariot of Freyja, a goddess of fertility, was drawn by 
 cats. The Mangs, a low caste of the Maratha Districts 
 in India, regard the cat as a sacred animal. Their most 
 solemn oath is sworn on a cat. 
 
 CATACOMBS. Recent archaeological discoveries have 
 thrown new light on the Roman catacombs, underground 
 passages and chambers, which were used by the early 
 Christians for concealment from their persecutors, for 
 burial, and for worship. " The catacombs represent the 
 most notable monuments of primitive Christianity which 
 have come down to us. They are entirely of Christian 
 construction, and did not originate, as was formerly sup- 
 posed, out of ancient stone quarries, but are hewn out 
 of the tufa rock. The vastness of these labyrinths 
 awakens astonishment when we consider the poverty of 
 the early Christians " (Camden M. Cobem). The eata- 
 combe were dug along several of the principal streets 
 leading out from Rome. " They are narrow passages 
 with graves on the right and left, the number of which 
 has been estimated at nearly two miUions. They were 
 evidently built on Jewish models, tie Jews having made 
 such underground cemeteries near Rome in pre-Christian 
 time. Several of these Jewish catacombs remain, con- 
 taining pictures which represent the olive branch, the 
 dove, the palm, the seven-branched candlestick, and a 
 number of inscriptions, prominent among which may 
 be seen the Hebrew word ci''-" " Peace." Up to A.D. 
 70 the early Christians were legally regarded as Jews 
 by the Roman Government, and could doubtless be buried 
 in Jewish catacombs or in graves of their own without 
 fear. Burial places, even of criminals, were sacredlv 
 re-speeted by the Roman Empire, so that for severa'l 
 generations Christian cemeteries were not disturbed." 
 The earliest of the catacombs, such as those of Domitilla. 
 Priscilla, Commodilla. and the crypt of Lucina, date back 
 to the first century: but the majority of those dug up 
 (more than .50) during something over 300 years belong 
 to the fourth century. Even after churches and ceme- 
 teries were built above ground, the catacombs continued 
 in use. By the eighth century, however, they had been 
 deserted, and from the tenth to the sixteenth" they were 
 almost entirely forgotten. In tie catacombs have been 
 found many beautiful inscriptions and paintings. 
 Through the munificence of the Holy See. " there has 
 been dug up a treasure of early Christian epitaphs and 
 paintings, valuable beyond all expectations, which has 
 given much unlooked-for information concerning the faith 
 of the early Christians, their concepts of life, hopes of 
 eternity, family relations, etc." (Anton de Waal. Cath. 
 Encyclopwdia). See A. P. Stanley, Chr. Institution/i. 
 1882: and the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CATAFALQUE. The name given to a structure. 
 usually empty, like a bier, placed in the centre or other 
 suitable part of a Roman Catholic church while Masses 
 are said for the dead. The term also includes the tapers, 
 ornaments, etc., with which the structure is surrounded. 
 Another name for the structure with all the decorations 
 
 is caatrum doloria or " castle of grief." The French 
 name is chapeUe ardente. 
 
 CATASTERISM. Translation into the stars. " The 
 heroes of mythology, or even those of human society, 
 continued to live in the sky in the form of brilliant stars. 
 Ther« Perseus again met Andromeda, and the Centaur 
 Chiron, who is none other than Sagittarius, was' on terms 
 of good fellowship with the Dioscuri." To some extent 
 the good or bad qualities of such heroes were then 
 ascribed to the constellations. " For instance, the ser- 
 pent, wiich shines near the northern pole, was the author 
 of medical cures, because it was the animal sacred to 
 Aesculapius " (Franz Cumont, O.R.). 
 
 CATECHISM. Catechism means properly teaching by 
 word of mouth or oral instruction, but the term has come 
 to denote a summary of Christian doctrine, usually in 
 the form of question and answer. As a result of delibera- 
 tions at the Council of Trent. Pope Pius IV. was com- 
 missioned to arrange for the drawing up of a Catechism 
 for the Roman Catholic Church. This appeared towards 
 the close of 1566 under the title " Catechismus Romanus. 
 ex Decreto Concilii Tridentini, Pii V. Pont. Max. jussu 
 editus." Since that time other Catechisms of various 
 sizes have been prepared by Bishops. The Catechism 
 incorporated in the Prayer Book of the Church of Eng- 
 land (as far as the end of the explanation of the Lord's 
 Prayer) was composed in 1.549 : but the latter irnrt on the 
 Sacraments was added, after the Hampton Court Con- 
 ference, in 1604. 
 
 CATECHUMENS. A name formerly given to those 
 who were being prepared for Christian baptism. The 
 instruction often lasted for two or three years, and 
 the catechumens were divided into classes. See Cath. 
 Diet. 
 
 CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE. An expression used 
 by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) to 
 describe the fundamental law of the practical reason and 
 the highest universal principle of morality. The prin- 
 ciple is this : " So act that the maxim of your Will (or 
 the subjective principle of your willing) can always stand 
 at the same time as the principle of a universal law." 
 As compared with the Categorical Imperative, the Hypo- 
 thetical Imperative denotes mere rules of convenience for 
 particular cases and definite circumstances. " To .speak 
 the truth is a Categorical Imperative. To take due exer- 
 cise every day is a hypothetical imperative whose neces- 
 sity depends on the hypothesis that I wish to keep well " 
 (Butler). See C. J. Deter, 1906: Arthur Butler. 
 
 C.\TEQUIL. Catequil was one of the deities wor- 
 -shipped by the ancient Peruvians. He was the god of 
 thunder, and as such was greatly feared. To propitiate 
 him children were sacrificed. He was armed with a 
 club and sling. See Lewis Spence. 
 
 CATHEDRAL. The church which contains the 
 cathedra or seat of the bishop of a diocese and in which 
 he performs the chief episcopal functions of the year. In 
 the Roman basilicas the bishop's seat was a marble chair 
 behind the altar. " This marble chair is often called 
 tie Cardinal's chair, because when the church was 
 served by a Cardinal it was his seat " (.1. H. Parker, 
 Gloss.). The best example of the survi\-al of the Bishop's 
 chair in England is .said to be that behind the altar in 
 Norwich Cathedral. A few examples are to be seen on 
 tie Continent. 
 
 CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH. HOLY. The title 
 assumed in 1832 bv tie followers of Edward Irving (1792- 
 1834). See IRVINGITES. 
 
 CATHOLIC EPISTLES. A name given from early 
 times to certain of the New Testament Epistles, because 
 they seemed to have been addressed to the whole 
 (catholic) Church. The group originally was considered
 
 Catholic Truth Society, The 
 
 95 
 
 Centeoti 
 
 to include the Firat. Epistle of John and the First Epistle 
 of Peter. Afterwards it was extended (from the third 
 century), and was made to comprise also the Epistles of 
 James" and Jude, the Second Epistle of Peter, and the 
 Second and Third Epistles of John. These epistles were 
 quite small books. They could easily be circulated. As 
 Dr. C. R. Gregory says, James, the longest of the 
 Epistles, would fillonly about ten pages. To copy and 
 distribute it widely will have been a simple matter. 
 
 CATHOLIC TRUTH SOCIETY, THE. The beginnings of 
 a movement in the direction of the work of the Catholic 
 Truth Society were suggested by the Anglican movement 
 which began with the " Tracts for the Times." About a 
 dozen persons, Roman Catholic priests and others, recog- 
 nising the importance of cheap but attractive publications 
 in support or in the service of the Faith, decided to con- 
 tribute a pound each for this purpose. Three booklets 
 were published, which not only excited interest but even 
 realized a small profit. Dr. Coffin, Bishop of Southwark, 
 when his attention was directed to the work, became an 
 active sympathiser and patron. Early in 1884 a meeting 
 was held at Messrs. Burns and Gates, the publishers, to 
 consider the further development of the work, but no 
 practical decision was arrived at. On November 5. 1884, 
 a meeting was held at Herbert House, at which Bishop 
 Vanghan presided. The Bishop had been approached by 
 James Britten, had consented to become President of a 
 new society, and had suggested that this new society 
 should take up the name and work of " The Catholic 
 Truth Society." The society was therefore formally re- 
 established, with Gteorge Whitlaw as Trea-surer, and 
 Father Cologan and James Britten as Honorary Secre- 
 taries. The earlier Catholic Truth Society had been 
 established in 1868 by Dr. Vaughan. Rector of St. 
 Joseph's Missionary College, Mill Hill, Lady Herbert, 
 and Father Bamfield. It had not been a great success. 
 Its precursors had been a " Catholic Society for the Dis- 
 tribution of Prayer-Books, Catechisms, etc." (1832); and 
 a '• Catholic Tract Society " (1834), which had been 
 amalgamated in 18.38 with the " Catholic Institute," an 
 organization for the printing and distribution of litera- 
 ture. In connection with the re-established " Catholic 
 Truth Society," in 1888 an Annual Conference, somewhat 
 similar to the Anglican Church Congress, was held. "Since 
 then the Conferences have l)een an annual event in the 
 Catholic life of England, and have afforded a platform 
 for the delivery, by suc-cessive Archbishops, of important 
 pronouncements affecting the action of English Catho- 
 lics " (James Britten). In February 18S7 the work of 
 the '■ Catholic Truth Society " had grown to such an 
 extent that special premises were taken. The Society 
 now had important branches in Ireland, Scotland, Aus- 
 tralia. New York, and other plac-es. Off-shoots are the 
 '• Catholic Needlework Guild " and the " Catholic 
 Guardians' Association." The aims of the Society have 
 been condensed into four sentences. 1. To di.sseminate 
 among Catholics small and cheap devotional works. 2. 
 To assist the uneducated poor to a better knowledge of 
 their religion. 3. To spread among Protestants informa- 
 tion about Catholic Truth. 4. To promote the circula- 
 tion of good, cheap, and popular Catholic works. The 
 pamphlets written to spread among Protestants informa- 
 tion regarding Catholic Truth " are unfortunately largely 
 controversial, for in stating Catholic truth it is too often 
 necessary to expose Protestant falsehood." In addition 
 to pamphlets, the Catholic Truth Society publishes a 
 number of larger works. Cardinal Newman, who had 
 looked forward to .seeing the establishment of a Catholic 
 Society on the lines of the Anglican " Society for the 
 Promotion of Christian Knowledge," is said to have found 
 the realization of hi-s dream in the Catholic Truth 
 
 Society. Abbot Gasquet emphasises the great importance 
 and absolute necessity of the work of the Catholic Truth 
 Society. " There is hardly a paper, magazine, or book 
 — that is perhaps too wide — so let me say there are few 
 publications by non-Catholic writers which do not display 
 an ignorance about Catholic matters which is simply 
 amazing. Statements are made in such works which are 
 wholly or partly fal.se. Sometimes this is obviously 
 intentional, but let us hope generally that it is done in 
 ignorance." See Abbot Gasquet and James Britten, 
 The Catholic Truth Society. 
 
 CAUSAL NEXUS. THE. The Causal Nexus (Pratitya 
 Samutpada) is a formula in Buddhism held in high 
 esteem by all Buddhists. It is as follows : 
 
 Ignorance produces the syntheses; 
 The syntheses produce cognition; 
 Cognition produces name and form ; 
 Name and form produce the sixfold sphere 
 
 (sense surfaces and understanding); 
 The sixfold sphere produces contact ; 
 Contact produces feeling: 
 Feeling produces craving; 
 Craving produces grasping; 
 Grasping produces renewed existence; 
 Renewed existence produces birth ; 
 Birth produces old age and death, grief, lamenta- 
 tion, distress, melancholy and despair. 
 
 The nexus forms a chain with twelve links. And 
 •' though the ideas underlying the connection of these 
 twelve links are much disputed, it is clear that some sort 
 of natural law is maintained, resulting in a new existence, 
 and that in the series of causes craving and grasping are 
 those which immediately produce this new existence " 
 (H. Hackmann). See C. A. F. Rhys Davids, A Buddhist 
 ilanual of Psychological Ethics, 1909: H. Hackmann. 
 
 CAVES, SACRED. In Aegean religion there seems 
 to have been nothing resembling a special religious 
 building. Houses and palaces had small chambers or 
 shrines. Apart from these, the worship of the gods on 
 a large scale seems to have been pur.sued in the open air, 
 or in graves, or in caves. To such places pilgrimages 
 were made. See H. R. Hall, A. A. 
 
 CELE.STINIAN HERMITS. A branch of the Fran- 
 ciscans (g.r.). The institution, which was named after 
 Pope C-elestine V. who authorised it, grew out of a desire 
 to practise with greater strictness the rule of St. Francis. 
 
 CELESTINIANS. An order of monks founded about 
 1254 by the hermit Peter of Morone. In 1294 Peter of 
 Morone became the "hermit Pope" Celestine V. His 
 hermits then called themselves Celestinians or Celestines. 
 They devoted tiemselves entirely to a contemplative life. 
 They rose at 2 a.m. to say matins: " abstained perpetu- 
 ally from meat unless in case of illness, and fasted every 
 da.v from the Exaltation of the Cross to Easter, and twice 
 a week for the rest of the year" (Cath. Diet.). The 
 Cele.stinians spread through France, Italy, and (jermany, 
 but the order has now almost disappeared. 
 
 CELLITE BROTHERS AND SISTERS. A more cor- 
 rect designation of the fraternity commonly known as 
 LuUards (q.v.). 
 
 CENTEOTL. Centeoti was one of the deities wor- 
 shipped by the ancient Mexicans. The name was that 
 of a goddess, and means Maize-goddess. Onteotl was 
 represented as bearing in her arms a child (the young 
 maize), or as a frog with many udders. One of her 
 descriptions is " the nourisher of men." Just as a young 
 male was sacrificed to Tezcatlipoca (i.v.). a maiden, who 
 personated Centeoti, was sacrificed to the goddess with 
 other victims. " Before her death she took part in 
 several symbolic representations which were expressions
 
 Cerdonians 
 
 96 
 
 Ch'an Tsung 
 
 of the various processes in tin? growth of the harvest. 
 The (lay before her sacrifice she sov?ed maize in the 
 streets and on the arrival of midnight she was decapi- 
 tated and flayed " (Lewis Spence). A priest then donned 
 her skin. J. M. Robertson comi)ares the practice of the 
 Babylonian priests who identified themselves with the 
 Fish-god by wearing artificial fish-skins. See Lewis 
 Spen^' J M. Robertson, "The Religions of Ancient 
 America," in B.S.W.; P.G., 19U. 
 
 CERDONIANS. A sect named after the Syrian Cerdo, 
 who appeared in Rome in 138 A.D. A body of ascetics, 
 they declined to marry, to drink wine, or to eat meat. 
 They held that the birth and sufferings of Jesus were 
 mere appearance. 
 
 CERINTHIANS. The followers of Cerinthus, who 
 seems to have flourished about the end of the first 
 century A.D., and to have been a contemporary of John 
 of Asia. The principal authority for his teaching is 
 Irenaeus. According to a story told Irenaeus by Poly- 
 carp, John of Asia actually met Cerinthus in Ephesus. 
 On entering the baths at Ephesus one day he saw Cerin- 
 thus there, and left Immediately saying: " Let us flee; 
 the house may fall in, for it shelters Cerinthus, the 
 enemy of the truth " (Hwr. iii. 3). The doctrine of 
 Cerinthus is stated by Irenaeus in the following passage 
 {Hwr. i. 2t)) : " A certain Cerinthus in Asia taught that 
 the world was not made by the Supreme God, but by a 
 certain power entirely separate and distinct from that 
 authority which is above the universe, and ignorant of 
 that God who is over all things. He submitted that 
 Jesus was not bom of a virgin (for this seemed to him 
 impossible), but wa8 the son of Joseph and Mary, born 
 as all other men, yet excelling all mankind in righteous- 
 ness, prudence, and wisdom. And that after His baptism 
 there had descended on Him, from that authority which 
 is above all things, Christ in the form of a dove; and 
 that then He had announced the unknown Father and 
 had worked miracles; but that at the end Christ had 
 flown back again from Jesus, and that Jesus suffered 
 and rose again, but that Christ remained impassible, 
 since He was a spiritual being " (as quoted by A. S. 
 Peake). Hippolytus adds that Cerinthus taught that 
 the world was made by an angel, and that the Law was 
 given to the Jews by another angel, who was the God 
 of the Jews. These angels were far below the Supreme 
 Being. The teaching of Cerinthus lias often t)een re- 
 garded as a mixture of Judaism and Gnosticism. J. M. 
 Fuller more correctly speaks of it (Diet, o/ Christ. 
 Biogr.) as a link connecting Judaism and Gnosticism. 
 A. S. Peake agrees with Th. Zahn in regarding the 
 Judaism of Cerinthus as only a learned myth. He points 
 out that the representation of Cerinthus as a Judaizing 
 Gnostic is due to Epiphanius and Philaster. " It is 
 quite likely that what has given rise to it is the way 
 in which Irenaeus connects Cerinthus with Carpocrates 
 and the Ebionites." Irenaeus speaks of the Ebionites 
 as holding views similar to those of Cerinthus and Car- 
 pocrates, and as using only the Gospel according to 
 Matthew. " The point of contact between the Ebionites 
 and Cerinthus lay in their denial of the supernatural 
 origin of the humanity of Jesus; and this was extended 
 by Epiphanius and Philaster to an acceptance of a 
 mutilated Gospel of Matthew and a Judaizing legalism " 
 (A. S. Peake). Epiphanius speaks of the Merinthians, 
 and connects Merinthus with Cerinthus. Merinthus may 
 be another form of the name Cerinthus, or it may be 
 a nickname ("noose"). See Louis Duchesne, Hist.; 
 Arthur S. Peake in Hastings' E.R.E.; Waee and Piercy. 
 
 CESSAIR. An ancient tribal deity in Ireland. She 
 was worshipped there in pre-Celtie times. Later legend 
 represents her as the first inhabitant of the island. 
 
 CHAC. A god of rain, thunder, and agriculture in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. He was worshipped in 
 Yucatan. With him were connected a number of sub- 
 sidiary deities called the Chac. These were associated 
 with the snake, the symbol of rain. 
 
 CHAGIGa. The title of one of the Jewish tractatee 
 or treatises which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are included in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Chagigfi is the twelfth tractate of tiie second 
 group, which is called Mo'ed (" Festival "). 
 
 CHALCHIHUITLIOUE. One of the deities worshipped 
 by the ancient Mexicans. She was the goddess of Water, 
 wife of Tlaloc, the god of Rain. See TLALOC. 
 
 CHALDEAN RITE, CHRISTIANS OF. In ecclesias- 
 tical usage, according to the Cath. Diet., the name 
 Chaldeans denotes the Catholics who belong to the 
 Church formed by conversions from Nestorianism. But 
 it seems that the Christians of Persia, who claimed that 
 Nestorius followed them, called themselves the Chaldean 
 Church (F. W. Bussell, p. 152). The Chaldean Catholics 
 are now distinguished from the Nestorians properly so- 
 called by the name Meshihaya, which means " followers 
 of the Messiah." The term Chaldean is not used in a 
 linguistic sense. " The Catholics of the Syrian and 
 Chaldean rites agree in the use of the Syriac tongue 
 in the liturgy; the former, however, using the Western 
 or Jacobite, the latter the Eastern or Nestorian, dialect " 
 (Cath. Diet.). 
 
 CHALLA. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are included in the Mishnah (q.i\), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Challa is the ninth tractate of the first 
 group, which is called Zerd'im (" Seeds "). 
 
 CHAMON. A Syrian deity, dedications to whom have 
 been found at Ham near Heliopolis, and in Dacia. 
 Probably he is to be identified with Hermes (so E. S. 
 Bouchier). 
 
 CHAMUNDI. A figure in Hindu mythology, the queen 
 of the demons. She plays an important part in the 
 devil-charming or devil-driving of the Vannans, a washer- 
 men caste in the Tamil and Malayalam countries of 
 India. 
 
 CH'AN TSUNG. The name of one of the principal 
 schools of thought in Chinese Buddhism. Ch'an means 
 Buddhistic meditation, and tsung denotes School. The 
 school was founded by Bodhidharma, the Patriarch of 
 Indian Buddhism, who settled in China in A.D. 526. 
 He urged the true disciples to cultivate the inner being, 
 the heart, the nature, of Buddha, and not to concern 
 themselves about externalities such as writings and 
 ritual. The disciples must receive oral instruction, and 
 must practise the " inward look " or deep abstraction. 
 " The philosophy based upon this was the ' emptying of 
 consciousness ' — that is to say, the complete subjectivity 
 of our human conceptions and impressions." Bodhi- 
 dharma became known popularly as the Wallgazer. 
 " Every outward manifestation was indeed superfluous 
 as far as Bodhidharma's contemplative aim was con- 
 cerned—whether worship, image, or recitation; and it 
 may be that in those early times his school had really 
 discarded these things, although, naturally, such is no 
 longer the case." In course of time the school split up 
 into five subdivisions, which all attached importance to
 
 Chapter, Cathedral 
 
 97 
 
 Chaula Ceremony 
 
 objeotivism and ext<?mals. and opposed the absolute 
 subjectivism of the Ch'an school. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 CHAPTER, CATHEDRAL. An ecclesiastical body 
 composed in the Church of England of the prebendaries, 
 canons, and dean (who acts as president). In former 
 times it goveme<l the diocese whenever the see was 
 vacant. Since the thirteenth century this is the case 
 " only with regard to an archiepiscopal see " {Prot. 
 Diet.). While the Dean and Chapter advise the bishop, 
 they enjoy rights and privileges of their own, and often 
 act independently. In the Roman Catholic Church 
 '• everywhere harmony and co-operation reign between 
 the bishops and the cathedral chapters " (Cath. Diet.). 
 In England every Catholic diocese has its chapter, con- 
 sisting usually of ten canons and a provost. 
 
 CHAPTER. CONVENTUAL. An expression used in 
 connection with the monastic Ufe. Monks have long 
 been accustomed to meet together every morning to hear 
 a chapter (capitulum) of their rule read, and for other 
 purposes. The term Capitulum or Chapter came in 
 course of time to be applied both to the assembly and 
 to the place of meeting. See the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CHAPTER-HOUSE. A Chapter-house may be either 
 the room or hall in which the dean and chapter (canons) 
 meet to transact business, or the meeting-place of the 
 religious of a monastery. Before the thirteenth century 
 Chapter-houses were usually rectangular. Now they are 
 of various shapes (circle, parallelogram, octagon, etc.). 
 
 CHARCOT SCHOOL. A school of hypnotism founded 
 by Professor Charcot of the Paris Salpetri^re. It is 
 also called the Paris School, or School of the Salpetrifere. 
 It " holds that hypnotism is the result of an abnormal 
 or diseased condition of the nerves : that a great number 
 of the phenomena can be produced independently of 
 suggestion in any form; that the true hypnotic condi- 
 tion can be produced only in persons whose nerves are 
 diseased ; and that the whole subject is explicable on 
 the basis of cerebral anatomy or physiology " (Hudson). 
 A person must be in the condition which Charcot calls 
 " neuromuscular hyperexcitability." See T. J. Hud.son, 
 Psychic Phenomena, 1907; Joseph Lapponi, Hypnotism 
 and Spiritism, 1907. 
 
 CHARMS. The use of charms, like tliat of amulets 
 (Q.V.), has been common in all religions, and their nature 
 has been very varied. It has been found that " in the 
 hills of Northern India and as far as Madras, an ap- 
 proved charm for getting rid of a disease of demoniacal 
 origin is to plant a stake where four roads meet, and 
 to bury grains underneath, which crows disinter and 
 eat " (Westemjarck). In Morocco, it is said, the cross 
 serves as a charm against the evil eye. Dr. Westermarck 
 thinks that the chief reason for this is that the cross 
 " is regarded as a conductor of the baneful energy 
 emanating from the eye, disjiersing it in all the quarters 
 of the wind and thus preventing it from injuring the 
 person or object looked at." Among the Tibetan Buddh- 
 ists or Lamas great virtue is a.scribed to the use of 
 charms as a protection against evil spirits. One of the 
 commonest charms is the repetition by monks of por- 
 tions of the sacred writings. One of the best known of 
 the sacred formulae is "Cm! man! padme, hOm ! " or 
 " Om ! the jewel in the lotos, hQm ! " It is reputed to 
 contain all happiness, knowledge, and capacity. " It is 
 adorned with all sorts of mystic additions and inter- 
 pretations: the six syllables represent the six divisions 
 of the world, and each has its si)ecial appointed colour, 
 etc." Many written charms, mantras or dhflrants are 
 also in use. The words need not be intelligible to the 
 common people. " Such sayings are attached to walls 
 or are carried on the person. In case of illness the 
 person swallows such a charm, either by itself or mixed 
 
 with some other ingredients. They have them reflected 
 In a sacred mirror, which is commonly to be found in 
 a temple; then the mirror is diligently washed, and the 
 patient drinks the water which has been used for the 
 purpose, and which is supposed to have absorbed the 
 spirit of the formula " (Hackmann). Or the sacred 
 words are written on rags, which are then hung up as 
 flags. These prayer-flags are to be seen everywhere. A 
 still more mechanical device is the prayer-cylinder. "The 
 sacred formula (or a number of them) is printed on a 
 long strip of paper rolled round the cylinder, which is 
 enclosed in a box, and by means of a stick, which is 
 the axle on which it revolves, it is fastened to a handle 
 or in a case. Every turn of the cylinder sets the word 
 in motion, and makes its wholesome influence ojieratlve." 
 Sometimes wind or water is used to set the cylinder in 
 motion. See H. Hackmann; E. Westermarck. 
 
 CHARTERHOUSE, THE. See CARTHUSIANS. 
 
 CHARTISM, CHRISTIAN. In connection with the 
 Chartist political movement, a serious effort, was made 
 to form so-called Chartist churches. The best known 
 church was at Birmingham, and was conducted by 
 Arthur O'Neill and John Collins. The former definitely 
 proclaimed himself a Christian Chartist. The principles 
 of his movement are explained in the report of a sermon 
 by him (Parliamentary Papers, 1843, p. cxxxiii., quoted 
 by Mark Hovell). " The necessity of their new Church 
 was evident, for the true Church of Christ ought not 
 to be split up into opposing sects : all men ought to be 
 united in one Universal Church. Christianity should 
 prevail in everyday life, commerce should be conducted 
 on Christian principles, and not on those of Mammon, 
 and every other institution ought to be based on the 
 doctrines of Christianity. Hence the Chartist Church 
 felt it their duty to go out and move amongst the masses 
 of the people to guide and direct them by the principles 
 of Christianity. They felt it incumbent upon them to 
 go out into the world, to be the light of the world and 
 the salt of the earth. The true Christian Church could 
 not remain aloof but must enter into the struggles of 
 the people and guide them. The characteristic of mem- 
 bers of a real Church was on the first day of the week 
 to worship at their altar, on the next to go out and 
 mingle with the masses, on the third to stand at. the 
 bar of judgment, and on the fourth perhaps to be in 
 a dungeon. This was the case in the primitive Church 
 and so it ought to be now." There was a similar church 
 at Bath, conducted by Henry Vincent; and there were 
 Christian Chartist churches in Scotland, especially at 
 Paislev and Partick. 
 
 CHARTOPHYLAX. In the Eastern Church the 
 Chartophylax, literally " keeper of records," originally 
 corresponded to the Bibliothecarins of the Latins. In 
 course of time, however, he assumed other duties. In 
 Constantinople, and eventually, in other parts of the 
 East he came to represent the bishop and to act like 
 the archdeacon in the Western Church. The Uniate 
 Greeks of the Austrian Empire still have their Charto- 
 phylax or Carthophylax, who directs the business of 
 the episcopal chancery. See the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CHASCA. One of the gods worshipped by the ancient 
 Peruvians. Chasca corresponded to Venus (Q-v.). 
 
 CHAULA CEREMONY. A Hindu ceremony. Chaula 
 means " tonsure," and this is made for the first time 
 three years after the birth of a male child. The child 
 is seated between his father and mother on a little 
 earthen platform. Married women first anoint him with 
 oil and bathe him in warm water. They then powder 
 his forehead and other parts of his body, and init orna- 
 ments on him, " a long necklace of coral beads round 
 his neck and two bracelets to match on his wrists."
 
 Chaurasi Devi 
 
 98 
 
 Christian Quakers 
 
 The priest then draws near and, after performing some 
 other priestly ceremonies, " traces on the floor in front 
 of the child a square patch with red earth, which they 
 cover with rice that has the husk on." On one side is 
 now placed the idol Vigneshwara, and sacrifice and of- 
 ferings are made to it. " The child is made to sit near 
 the squai-e patch, and the barber, after offering worship 
 to his razor, proceeds to shave the child's head, leaving 
 one lock at the top, which is never cut. While the barber 
 is performing his part of the ceremony, the women sing, 
 musical instruments are played, and all the Brahmins 
 present remain standing in perfect silence. As soon as 
 the barber has finished, they throw him the money due 
 to him. This he picks up, and before retiring he also 
 carries off the rice that has been scattered over the 
 square patch." The child is then bathed again " to 
 purify him from the defiling touch of the barber." After 
 the women have again attended to his toilette, and the 
 priest has performed some other ceremonies, the occasion 
 is celebrated by a feast and the distribution of presents. 
 See J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 CHAURASI DEVI. A goddess worshipped by the 
 Kewats, a caste of fishermen and boatmen found chiefly 
 in the Chhattisgarh Districts of Drug, Eaipur, and 
 Bilfispnr in India. The goddess is painted on their boats, 
 and is supposed to dwell in them and to keep them from 
 sinking. 
 
 CHERUBIM. A class of angels often referred to in 
 the Old Testament. In Genesis iii. 24 it is said that 
 God " placed at the east of the garden of Eden the 
 Cherubim, and the flame of a sword which turned every 
 way, to keep the way of the tree of life." According to 
 primitive Hebrew myth, therefore, they were powerful 
 superhuman creatures who guarded the entrance to the 
 earthly abode of the god or gods. Prof. Cheyne points 
 out that " when the range of the supreme god's power 
 became wider, when from an earth-god he became also 
 a heaven-god, the cherub too passed into a new phase; 
 he became the divine chariot " (Encijcl. Bibl.). In I. 
 Kings vi. 2.3 ff. there are said to have been huge figures 
 of Cherubim in Solomon's temple, and according to 
 Exodus xxv. IS ft', there were small golden Cherubim on 
 the lid of the ark in the Tabernacle. The derivation of 
 the word is doubtful. It has been connected with the 
 Greek wor-d gryps " griflin." Lenormant thought he had 
 found the word kirubu on a Babylonian amulet used as 
 a synonym for s-idu which denotes the winged bull of 
 Assyrian palaces and temples. His theory has not been 
 confirmed. But, whatever the etymology of the word, 
 the Cheinibim seem to resemble the winged genii which 
 are often represented in Babylonian Art by the side of 
 the tree of life. " These figures are usually human in 
 form with human heads, but sometimes combine the 
 human form with an eagle's head, and occasionally the 
 human head with an animal body. They are shovm in 
 the act of fecundating the date-palm by transferring 
 the pollen of the male tree to the flower of the female; 
 and hence it has been conjectured that they are per- 
 sonifications of the winds, by whose agency the fertilisa- 
 tion of the palm is effected in nature (Tylor, PSBA, xii. 
 SSSff.)." The quotation is from Skinner. See D. 
 Schenke\, Bibel-Lexikon, 1869; Encycl. Bibl.; J. Skinner, 
 Genesis, 1910. 
 
 CHICOME COATL. A Mexican deity, a maize-goddess, 
 sister of the great rain-god Tlaloc. 
 
 CHIETINI. Another name for the Order of Theatines 
 ig-v.). 
 
 CHILDREN, SONG OF THE THREE. An apocryphal 
 addition to the Book of Daniel. See APOCRYPHA OF 
 THE OLD TESTAMENT and BENEDICITE. 
 
 CHILDREN'S CRUSADE, THE. See CRUSADES. 
 
 CHILIASM. The belief in and doctrines eonoeming 
 a Millennium, or in a glorious and happy existence 
 upon earth which was to last a thousand years. The 
 Jews believed that this happy rule was to be Introduced 
 by the expected Messiah ((j.v.). In its early form the 
 doctrine was of a spiritual nature. Chiliasm, however, 
 came in time to mean the expectation of a .glorious 
 Jewish or Jewish-Christian kingdom of a worldly char- 
 acter. This expectation was common in the days of 
 Jesus, and was shared even by his most intimate dis- 
 ciples. Believers in the millennium are called Chlliasts 
 or Millennarians. 
 
 CHIN. A moon-goddess in the mythology of the 
 Muysca Indians of Bogota. She is associated with 
 water, and is said on one occasion to have flooded the 
 whole earth. 
 
 CHINAX. A tribal deity, god of war, in the religion 
 of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 CHIROMANCY. Literally " divination by the hands," 
 another name for palmistry, which has flourished in 
 ancient Greece and Italy, and in modem India. " Chiro- 
 mancy traces in the markings of the palm a line of 
 fortune and a line of life, finds proof of melancholy in 
 the intersections on the saturnine mount, presages sor- 
 row and death from black spots in the finger-nails, and 
 at last, having exhausted the powers of this childish 
 symbolism, it completes its system by details of which 
 the absurdity is no longer relieved by even an ideal 
 sense " (E. B. Tj'lor). 
 
 CHITRAGUPTA. A god worshipped, as their divine 
 ancestor, by the Kayasths, the cast« of writere and vil- 
 lage accountants in India. On special occasions the 
 Kayasths worship also pen and ink. 
 
 CHITRAKATHIS. The Chitrakathis (also known as 
 Hardas) are quit« a small caste of religious mendicants 
 and picture showmen found in the Maratha Districts of 
 India. " The men sometimes paint their own pictures, 
 and in Bombay they liave a caste rule that every Chitra- 
 kathi must have in his house a complete set of sacred 
 pictures; this usually includes forty representations of 
 llama's life, thirty-five of that of the sons of Arjun, 
 forty of the PHndavas, forty of Sita and Rawan, and 
 forty of Harishchandra. The men also have sets of 
 pupi)ets representing the above and other deities, and 
 enact scenes with them like a Punch and Judy show, 
 sometimes aided by ventriloquism " (R. V. Russell). 
 Their special god is Hari Vithal. 
 
 CHOLA PaCHO. a Hindu deity, the lady of the 
 sacred grove, worshipped by the Oraons, an important 
 Dra vidian tribe in India, the members of which work 
 as farmservants and labourers. The goddess is supposed 
 to give the rain which causes good crops. 
 
 CHRIST, THE. The Greek equivalent (Ohristos, " the 
 one anointed ") of the Hebrew Messiah, a designation of 
 Jesus. There is a tendency in modem thought to dis- 
 tinguish between the Jesus of history and the Christ of 
 religious experience. The idea is expressed in Science 
 and Health (p. 334). " The invisible Christ was Imper- 
 ceptible to the so-called personal senses, whereas Jesus 
 appeare<l as a bodily existence. This dual personality 
 of the unseen and the seen, the spiritual and material, 
 the eternal Christ and the corporeal Jesus manifest in 
 flesh, continued until the Master's ascension, when the 
 human, material concept, or Jesus, disappeared, while 
 the spiritual self, or Christ, continues to exist in the 
 eternal order of divine Science, taking away tlie sins 
 of the world, as the Christ has always done, even before 
 the human Jesus was incarnate to mortal eyes." 
 
 CHRISTENING. Initiation into the Christian re- 
 ligion, a popular designation of baptism (q.v.). 
 
 CHRISTIAN QUAKERS. Another name for the
 
 Christianity 
 
 Keithians (g.r.), the followers of George Keith (1639?- 
 1716). 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. Christianity claims to be based 
 ux>on the teaching of Jesus of Nazareti (6. shortly before 
 the year 1 of our era), who seems to have come to regard 
 himself as the Messiah (Christ) eageriy expected by the 
 Jews, while interpreting the Messiahship in a new way. 
 To Jesus the Kingdom of God meant a divine rule under 
 the guidance of a spiritual Messiah, not in a national 
 and political realm, but in the hearts and minds of men. 
 The Kingdom was in the worid, but not of the worid. 
 In the worid in a real sense: not of the world in being 
 raised above the world. Jesus was not the tirst to speak 
 of God as a Father. But here again he brought a new 
 interpretation. The sense in which he uses Father is 
 not that of the stem (if just) master and ruler of the 
 household, but that of the loving head and friend of the 
 family. God as the Father Is just but not stem, re- 
 morseful but not revengeful, reproachful but not vindic- 
 tive. Full of kindness and love, on the first sign of 
 penitence, he is ever ready to forgive. All are the child- 
 ren of God. Consequently all are brothers and sisters. 
 who. being equally loved, should love one another 
 equally. ■' Jesus had realized the life of God in the 
 soul of man and the life of man in the love of God. 
 That was the real secret of his life, the well-spring of 
 his purity, his eompas,sion, his unwearied courase, his 
 unquenchable idealism : he knew the Father. But if he 
 had that greatest of all possessions, the real key to the 
 secret of life, it was his highest social duty to share 
 it and help others to gain what he had. He had to 
 teach men to live as children in the presence of their 
 Father, and no longer as slaves cringing before a despot. 
 He had to show them that the ordinary life of selfish- 
 ness and hate and anxiety and chafing ambition and 
 covetousness is no life at all, and that they must enter 
 into a new world of love and solidarity and inward 
 contentment " (W. Rauschenbush, Christianiti/ and the 
 Social Crisis. 1907). The kernel of Jesus' message or 
 Gospel {evangelinm) was not so much the preaching of 
 the coming of the kingdom of God as this doctrine of 
 the fatherhood of God. The model prayer which he gave 
 to his disciples, and which even to-day is the real con- 
 fession of faith that unites all Christendom (Amo Neu- 
 mann, Jesus. l!K)(i) begins with the words •' Our Father." 
 In his determination to carry out the will of the Father, 
 he rejected the ordinances of the orthodox leaders of 
 the people, and elected to pay the penalty of dath upon 
 the cross. He was the Redeemer, though " not in the 
 sense that his death was a propitiatory sacrifice, without 
 which the God of love would not have been able to 
 forgive us our sins." It was " his special work to 
 re<leem by guiding us from the letter to the spirit, from 
 the feeling of a slave to the love of a child, from self- 
 seeking to brotherly love, from the dominion of the 
 visible to that of the invisible, and his death showed 
 that he was ready and determined to offer, in order to 
 procure these benefits, not his labour only, but also his 
 life " (Neumann). He was the Saviour and Deliverer. 
 " .lesus delivered religion from all national claims, from 
 all national fetters, from ceremonial, from the letter of 
 the law, and from the domination of erudition " (W. 
 Eousset). The religion of Jesus was simple. In order 
 to adapt it to the Graeco-Roman world, the Apostle Paul 
 to some extent elaborated and transformed it. A com- 
 munity of disciples became a Church. The divine aspect 
 of Christ was emphasized. Jesus became a Redeemer 
 sent from heaven to deliver mankind from sin and 
 death, and his death a vicarious sacrifice of atonement. 
 The sacred acts of Christianity — such as Baptism and 
 the Lord's Supper — began to receive a sacramental in- 
 
 99 Christianity 
 
 terpretation. Whether, and to what extent .Tesus him- 
 self was a mystic is an open question. But in any case 
 Paul and John (or the Johannine writers) found mys- 
 ticism in the Gospel and developed the teaching along 
 these lines. According to Evelyn Underbill (J/.TF,), 
 Paul IS in fact " the supreme example of the Christian 
 mystic : of a " change of mind " resulting in an enor- 
 mous dower of vitality : of a career of impassioned 
 activity, of " divine fecundity " second only to that of 
 Jesus Himself. In him, the new life breaks out, shows 
 itself Ln its dual aspect; the deep consciousness of 
 Spiritual Reality which is characteristic of the contem- 
 plative nature, supporting a practical genius for concrete 
 things." When the Gospel of John was written (c. 100 
 A.D.), the Gnostic heresy, which was beginning to ger- 
 minate in the time of Paul, had made considerable 
 progress. The writer therefore opposes to it tJie true 
 Christian gnosis. To the Johannine writers we owe 
 the exposition of God as Spirit (John iv. 24), Light 
 (I. John i. 5), Love (I. John iv. 8, 16). In the 
 Apostolic Age Churches began to be organised on 
 very much the same lines as Jewish Synagogues. 
 There was of course a Chri.stian community at Rome 
 in the days of Paul, to which he addressed his 
 Epistle to the Romans. It has been conjectured that 
 this was founded by the Apostle Peter. At any rate, 
 Peter, to whom (according to Matthew xvi. 18-19) the 
 keys of the kingdom of heaven were committed, is re- 
 garded by Roman Catholics as its chief foundation, and 
 the Pope as his successor is held to be " the vicar of 
 Christ, the visible head of the Church, the doctor and 
 teacher of all the faithful " (Cath. Diet.). In the second 
 century the powerful appeal made by various types of 
 Gnosticism led to the development in Christianity of its 
 episcopal form of government and of a tendency "to rely 
 upon written creeds. The latter tendency was accentu- 
 ated by the menace of a new heresy, that of Arius, who 
 began to teach in Alexandria about .SIS A.D. At the 
 Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D. the so-called Nieene Creed 
 was formulated. At the First Council of Constantinople 
 in .>S1 A.D. it was reaffirmed and slightly supplemented. 
 In the next century a great controversy arose between 
 two schools of Christian thought — the school of Antioch 
 and the school of Alexandria— which had developed 
 during the third century about the two natures in Christ. 
 In 4.51 A.D. the Council of Chalcedon sought to settle 
 the matter, but neither of the extremes was satisfied. 
 " The Monophysites, who believed in one nature, 
 separated from the church. These form the Egyptian 
 (or Coptic), the Abyssinian, and the Armenian churches 
 to the present time. The radical Dyophysites, who be- 
 lieved in two natures, also separated and formed what 
 is known as the Nestorian church. For some centuries 
 they flourished, spreading eastward to Turkestan and 
 China, but have now dwindled to a small remnant in 
 Persia " (G. A. Barton, Rel.). The division of the early 
 Church into the Eastern Church and the Western Church 
 began when the Roman Empire was divided into an 
 Eastern and a Western empire, and was completed in 
 the Middle Ages. A marked difference between the two 
 was that the Eastern Church was given to speculation 
 and definition, while the Western f'hurch concerned 
 itself more with organization and administration. 
 Monasticism took root and flourished in the East and 
 West alike, but it assumed a rather different r61e. " In 
 the East monasticism preserved its ascetic, quietistic 
 character, but in the more vigorous West it developed 
 into a civilising power of the highest importance " 
 (Bousset). Bousset describes Christianity in the Eastern 
 Church — the Greek Catholic Church — as sinking on the 
 whole to a lower stage of religions life, through its
 
 Christianity 
 
 100 
 
 Christiaiiity 
 
 attachment to fixed dogmas and self-sufficing acts and 
 ceremonies. "Religion became entirely custom, usage 
 as it had been when it was at the national stage of 
 religious life; and from the time when the Byzantine 
 Empire was subdued by advancing Islam the Onental 
 Church was split up into a number of insignificant, de- 
 generate Churches closely united to the smaller Christian 
 nations which were now arising in the East." In the 
 West on the other hand, the Roman Catholic Church 
 did not lose its spiritual generating power. It developed 
 the old traditional ecclesiastical features, drew to itself 
 the spirit of Roman law and Roman world-empire, and 
 assumed a political character. Its development owed 
 much to the genius of St. Augustine and later of St. 
 Francis of Assisi. The Middle Ages, after a period of 
 darkness, produced a series of intellectual leaders who 
 are known as the Schoolmen, such as Anselm (1038-1109 
 A.D.), Abelard, and Thomas Aquineas (1227-74). These 
 expounded the doctrines of the Church (c.jf., the Atone- 
 ment) in such ways as to commend them to the reason. 
 Then other divines, seeking more direct knowledge of 
 God and the Bible, interested themselves in a presenta- 
 tion of the Scriptures in the vernacular, and in mys- 
 ticism. In the 14th century appeared the translation of 
 the Bible by Wyclifife (1324-84) and the writings of 
 Meister Heinrich Eckhart (d. 1329), John Ruysbroek 
 (1293-1381), and John Tauler (1300-1361). On the one 
 hand, it was felt that with the Holy Scriptures to guide 
 him the meanest peasant might know the truth ; and, 
 on the other hand, that " the soul finds God in its own 
 depths" (Ruysbroek). In the fifteenth century mys- 
 ticism in a developed form passed into common life. 
 " It was a mysticism which abandoned speculation for 
 practice. Its keynote was the positive ' imitation ' of 
 Christ, and the reality of inward religion " (H. B. 
 Workman). The outcome of this new movement on its 
 intellectual side is seen in the Imitation of Christ of 
 Thomas h Kempis (1380-1471), which Dr. Workman de- 
 scribes as " the most Influential mystic writing the world 
 has ever known." If the Protestant Reformation was 
 not the result of the work of such men as Wycliffe, 
 Huss (d. as a martyr in 1415), and Eckhart, they as- 
 sisted humanists like Erasmus to prepare the way for 
 it. The Reformation itself, as A. C. M'Giffert points 
 out, was not exclusively nor even chiefly a religious 
 movement. " It involved a break with the historical 
 ecclesiastical institution and the organisation of new 
 churches independent of Rome, but the break itself was 
 as much political as religious both in its causes and in 
 its results. Dissatisfaction with the existing order of 
 things was widespread in Western Europe, and was 
 coming to ever more active expression. It was not con- 
 fined to one class of society, nor limited to one set of 
 conditions. The period was marked by discontent and 
 unrest, moral, religious, social, economical, and political. 
 The conviction was growing that traditional customs 
 and institutions needed adjustment to the new needs of 
 a new age, and on every hand criticisms of the old were 
 rife and programmes of reform were multiplying. For 
 centuries the Church had been the most imposing in- 
 stitution in Europe, and the most influential factor in 
 its life. Rightly or wrongly it was widely held re- 
 sponsible for current evils in every line, and every 
 project for the betterment of society concerned itself in 
 one or another way with the ecclesiastical establish- 
 ment." The Reformation is closely associated with the 
 name of Martin Luther (1483-154G), in whose teaching 
 the most modern element was the idea of Christian 
 liberty. He laid great stress on the doctrine of just- 
 ification by faith. Another of the fathers of Protest- 
 antism was the great Swiss reformer, Huldreich Zwlngll 
 
 (1484-1531), though the differences between him and 
 Luther were considerable. In his teaching the con- 
 trolling place in Christian thought was given not to a 
 personal religious experience, but to the absolute and 
 unconditioned will of God. It was he rather than Luther 
 that guided the reformed wing of Protestantism. The 
 task of formulating and systematizing the teachings of 
 Luther and Zwingli was undertaken chiefly by Philip 
 Melanchthon (1497-1560) in the Lutheran camp, and by 
 John Calvin (1509-64) in the Reformed. There was much 
 in common between Melanchthon and Zwingli. " Both 
 had the same conception of the authority of the Bible, 
 of the relation of natural and revealed theology, of the 
 oneness of law and gospel, and of the nature of faith " 
 (M'Gififert). The theology of Calvin, however, who re- 
 garded man as a totally depraved being, and taught 
 that his sins were borne vicariously by Christ, was the 
 most widely accepted. The sixteenth century gave birth 
 to many radical sects, which were not all the fruit of 
 the Protestant Reformation. These included the Ana- 
 baptists and the Soeinlans. In England the break with 
 Rome came in the reign of Henry VIII. In the reign 
 of Edward VI. by the first Act of Uniformity (1549) the 
 Book of Commou Prayer was made the only lawful 
 service book in the English Church. The second Act 
 of Uniformity (1552) substituted a revised edition. In 
 the reign of IDlizabeth certain reformers who were called 
 Puritans came into prominence. Many of the Puritans 
 aimed simply at purifying and reforming the English 
 Church from within. But some of them refused to be- 
 long to a national church, and formed independent 
 churches of their own (e.g., the Independents or Con- 
 gregationalists). Thus arose the Separatists or Noncon- 
 formists. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 
 through the influenc-e especially of Philip Jacob Spener 
 (representative of Pietism) in Germany, and of George 
 Fox (d. 1690, representing (he Friends) and John Wesley 
 (representative of Evangelicalism) in England, mystical 
 piety again asserted itself. Wesley, who came under 
 the influence of the Moravians, and with whom was 
 associated George Whitefield, sought to promote an 
 evangelical revival in the Church, and ended by found- 
 ing (1739) a new denomination (Methodism). In America 
 a movement closely related to the evangelicalism of 
 Wesley appeared in the New England theology of Jona- 
 than Edwards and his school. At the same time the 
 philosophical speculations of men like Descartes, Spinoza, 
 Hobbes and Locke, and the scientific discoveries of men 
 like Bruno, Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Gassendi, Bacon 
 and Newton promoted rationalism in all spheres of 
 thought. In England theology sought refuge to some 
 extent in the Neo-Platonism of the Cambridge school, 
 as represented by such men as Benjamin Whichcote, 
 Henry More, Ralph Cudworth aud John Smith (Cam- 
 bridge Platonists), who laid " emphasis UTion reason as 
 a faculty by which we may enjoy a direct vision of 
 spiritual realities hidden from the senses and inaccess- 
 ible by the ordinary processes of discursive reason " 
 (M'Giffert); but to a greater extent in the rational super- 
 naturalism of theologians like John Tillotson and Samuel 
 Clarke. The Deists (such as Tindal, Chubb, and Mor- 
 gan) held that religion is primarily a means to virtue, 
 and even opposed the divine claims of Christianity; but 
 some of them at least regarded them.selves as defenders 
 of the true faith. In France Deism found wide accept- 
 ance, and in the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau was 
 developed on more radical lines. In Germany rationalism 
 in religion was promoted by the philosophy of Leibnitz 
 and Kant. In America by the early Unitarians. In the 
 nineteenth century a profound impression was made 
 upon Christian thought by the philosophy of Kant and
 
 Chorepiscopus 
 
 101 
 
 Christadelphians 
 
 Hegel, by the development of historical and literary 
 criticism of the Old and New Testaments, by the spread 
 of various types of Socialism (the Chartist Movement, 
 etc.), and by the publication of Darwin's Origin of 
 Species (18591. Christianity struggled to readjust itself, 
 either by abandoning non-essentials (the Broad Church 
 Movement in the Church of England; Modernism In the 
 Church of Rome; various tyiies of New Theology in the 
 Free Churches), or by going back to traditions of 
 Authority (proclamation of Papal Infallibility, 1S70: the 
 Oxford or Tractarian Movement in the Church of Eng- 
 land). Turning to more recent times, the Roman Church 
 seems to have taken its stand definitely for the mediaeval 
 form of Christianity. In Protestantism modem Chris- 
 tian thought " is still endeavouring to adjust itself to 
 the new intellectual universe called into being by modem 
 science. The adjustment is not fully accomplished and 
 there is consequently, much variety " (G. A. Barton). 
 But the tendency seems to be to lay increasing stress 
 upon a Christian life rather than upon Chri.stian 
 dogmas: and to regard religion as a system of living 
 emotions rather than of dead intellectual errors. Mys- 
 ticism, if of a rather new kind, is again making a strong 
 and successful appeal (see Jane E. Harrison, Rationalisvi 
 and Reliiioiis Reaction, 1919). 
 
 CHOREPISCOPUS. Chorepiscopus (Greek chorepis- 
 kopos) means literally " country-bishop." The word is 
 first found in a canon belonging to a period late in the 
 third century, and the office seems to have arisen in 
 Asia Minor. " The chorepiscopus was appointed by the 
 bishop of a large diocese to take charge of and ad- 
 minister the more remote districts and was empowered 
 to confer minor orders. Fifteen chorepiscopi are found 
 among those who subscribed the Nicene canons. This 
 has suggested that they were true bishops, " as far as 
 order went, on a level with others, though they were 
 sometimes consecrated by one bishop only " (Benham). 
 The Catholic Dictionary thinks the better opinion is 
 that, " notwithstanding the name, they were neither 
 true bishops nor an order of clergy interposed between 
 bishops and priests, but simply priests, invested with 
 a jurisdiction smaller than the episcopal, but larger 
 than the sacerdotal." The Council of Laodicea describes 
 them as '" circuit officers." In the Western Church 
 frequent reference is made to them after the year .500 
 A.D. It appears that in course of time they were often 
 not properly consecrated. After the middle of the 
 eleventh century they disappeared. See Benham: Smith 
 and Cheetham: the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CHOREUTAE. A name given to the Euchites (g.f.). 
 They were so called because they danced. They trampled 
 in this way on demons which they believed they could 
 see. According to the teaching of the Euchites, everyone 
 is l)om with a demon, which has to be expelled. 
 
 CH'ORTENS. A term used in Tibetan Buddhism or 
 I>amaism. It means literally " receptacle for offerings." 
 Intended originally as relic-holders, the Ch'ortena cor- 
 respond to the Caityas and Stupas or " Topes " of 
 Indian Buddhism. They " are now mostly erected as 
 cenotaphs in memory of Buddha or of canonized saints." 
 The Lamaist Ch'ortens " cenerally adhere to the Indian 
 131)6, but differ most conspicuously in that the dome in 
 the commonest, form is inverted. Both have more or 
 less elaborate plinths, and on the sides of the capital 
 are often figured a pair of eyes, like the sacred eyes met 
 with in ancient Egyptian. Greek, and Roman vases, etc., 
 and believed to be connected with sun-worship. Above 
 the toran [square capital] is a bluntly conical or pyra- 
 midal spire, Cuddmani, of thirteen steplike segments, 
 typical of the thirteen Bodhisat heavens of the Buddh- 
 ists. This is surmounted by a bell-shaped symbol 
 
 (usually copper-gilt) called the kalsa, the handle of which 
 forms a tapering pinnacle sometimes modelled after a 
 small Caitya, but often moulded in the form of one or 
 two or all of the following objects : a lotus-flower, a 
 crescent moon, a globular sun, a triple canopy, which 
 are finally surmounted by a tongue-shaped spike, repre- 
 senting the jijoti or sacred light of Buddha. And some- 
 times round the base of the kalsa is a gilt canopy or 
 umbrella (cat)-a)." See L. A. Waddell. 
 
 CHREMATHEISM. A term coined by E. W. Hopkins 
 to denote a kind of worship which pervades the Rig 
 Veda (QA-.). It is " the worship of more or less per- 
 sonified things, differing from pantheism in this, that 
 whereas pantheism assumes a like divinity in all things, 
 this kind of theism assumes that everything (or any- 
 thing) has a separate divinity, usually that which "is 
 useful to the worshipper, as the plough, the furrow, 
 etc." Chrematheism is not to be confused with Fetichism 
 iq.v.). See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 CHRISM. What is known as Chrism is still in use 
 in the Greek and Roman Church. It was used also in, 
 or soon after, the time of Tertullian. in the ancient 
 Christian Church : and in the English Church until 
 about 1.552. Originally persons were anointed with 
 simple olive oil. Chrism denotes in the Roman Church, 
 as it did in the English Church, a compound of oil and 
 balsam. In the Greek Church it denotes a compound 
 of oil and forty different spices. The Maronites iq.v.), 
 before their union with the Roman Church, mingled 
 with the oil. saffron, cinnamon, essence of roses, white 
 inc-ense. and other spices. It appears that in England 
 the parish priests obtained the chrism from the bishop, 
 who consecrated it every year on Maundy Thursday. 
 Chrism was used, as it is still in the Roman Church, 
 in baptism, confirmation, ordination: the consecration 
 of altar-stones, chalices, churches: the blessing of bap- 
 tismal water; and also at royal coronations. It used to 
 be the custom in England to anoint a king first with 
 oil, and tJien with chrism. The chrism is now dispensed 
 with. See P.enham: the Cath. Did. 
 
 CHRISTADELPHIANS. The small sect known as the 
 Christadelphians arose during the American civil war. 
 The founder was John Thomas, who was at one time 
 one of the Disciples of Christ (g.v.). The Christadel- 
 phians (''Brethren of Christ") adopted this name be- 
 cause they claimed that being in Christ they were his 
 brethren, and that they were the true representatives of 
 the faith and practice of Apostolic times. Their c-on- 
 gregations they called " ecclesias " to distinguish them 
 from other churches which they regarded as " churches 
 of the apostasy." Christadelphians do not accept the 
 Trinity. " They l)elieve in one supreme God. who dwells 
 in unapproachable light: in Jesus Christ, in whom was 
 manifest the eternal spirit of God, and who died for 
 the offences of sinners, and rose for the justification of 
 believing men and women : in one baptism only, — im- 
 mersion, the ' burial with Christ in water into death to 
 sin.' which is essential to salvation: in immortality 
 only in Christ: in eternal punishment of the wicked, 
 but not in eternal torment: in hell, not as a place of 
 torment, but as the grave: in the resurrection of the 
 just and unjust; in the utter annihilation of the wicked, 
 and in the non-resurrection of those who have never 
 heard the gospel, lack in intelligence (as infants), or 
 are sunk in ignorance or brutality; in a second coming 
 of Christ to establish his kingdom on earth, which is 
 to be fitted for the everlasting abode of the saints; in 
 the proximity of this second coming; in Satan as a 
 scriptural personification of sin; in the millennial reign 
 of Christ on earth over the nations, during which sin 
 and death will continue in a milder degree, and after
 
 Christian Brothers 
 
 102 
 
 Christian Israelites 
 
 which Christ will surrender his position of 8upreinac> 
 and God will reveal himself, and become Father and 
 Governor of a complete family; in salvation only for 
 those who can understand the faith as taught by the 
 Christadelphians, and become obedient to it /Schaff- 
 Herzog) They profess in their Services to proclaim the 
 Truth as set forth by Moses and the Prophets, Christ 
 and the Apostles, in contradiction to " the writings and 
 teachings of the Clergy of the Church of Rome and her 
 Harlot Daughters the Church of England and Protestant 
 Dissenters." See Schaflf-Herzog ; Chambers's Encycl.; J. 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS. The Christian Brothers or 
 more correctly the Brothers of Ihe Christian Schools 
 was an association which was founded in 16S4 by the 
 Abb6 J. B. de la Salle (1651-1719) and elevated to the 
 rank of a religious congregation by Pope Benedict XIII. 
 in 1725. The object was to promote the Christian edu- 
 cation of the people. The Brothers " bound themselves 
 by vow to devote tbeir lives to teaching in the schools, 
 and wore the religious habit " (Cath. Diet.). They were 
 required to " be and remain laymen, equally with the 
 professors and assistant teachers who were employed 
 under them. And this has continued to be the practice 
 of the congregation ever since." It has been claimed 
 that J. B. de la Salle was the originator of primary 
 schools, and that he founded a Sunday School at St. 
 Sulpice (1099) before such institutions were thought of 
 in England. See the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, IRISH. A religious con- 
 gregation founded in Ireland in 1802 by Edmund Igna- 
 tius Rice (1702-1844), and modelled on the foundation of 
 J. B. de la Salle (see preceding article). The efforts 
 of Rice met with great success, and In 1,S20 the order 
 of Christian Brothers, who devoted themselves to the 
 work of educating poor children, was confirmed by Pope 
 Pius VII. " The Brothers, after the establishment of 
 the Irish system of national education in 18.S1, placed 
 their schoois for a time in connection with the Board, 
 and accepted the grant; but finding that the rules of the 
 Board as to the absolute division of secular from re- 
 ligious t.eaching were gradually leading them into eon- 
 cessions alien from the spirit of their founder and the 
 Church, they withdrew from all connection with the 
 Government, and have since carried on their schools 
 independently " (Cath. Diet.). In 1890 the schools are 
 said to have numbered three hundred. See the Cath. 
 Diet.; the D.N.B. 
 
 CHRISTIAN COMMONWEALTH, THE. One of the 
 publications which have been closely identified with a 
 new development in religion and theology (cp. ESSAYS 
 AND REVIEWS, LUX MUNDI, etc.) was the weekly 
 journal which bore the name " The Christian Common- 
 wealth." When Mr. R. J. Campbell was bitterly attacked 
 as the apostle of the " New Theology " (Q.v-), this 
 journal boldly supported and defended him. Its alleg- 
 iance never wavered, and the journal was recognised 
 as the organ of that progressive movement in religion 
 and social ethics which was associated with the name 
 of Mr. R. .1. Campbell. The adoption of the " New 
 Theology " was commonly supposed to mark a great 
 change in policy, but those who knew " The Christian 
 Commonwealth " best claim that the development was 
 a natural one, and that in all essential particulars 
 the principles and policy of the paper had remained 
 unchanged. The journal was founded in 1881 by Dr. 
 W. T. Moore, Dr. John Kirton, and Mr. Henry Varley. 
 Dr. Moore, an ardent follower of the Scottish American 
 Alexander Campbell (see CAMPBBLLITES), had come 
 to England from Cincinnati, U.S.A., where he was 
 minister of a large church, to carry on an evangelistic 
 
 campaign in this country. In 1879 he founded witJi Mr. 
 Timothy Coop in the North of England a paper called 
 " The Evangelist." On moving to London, he produced 
 with his coadjutors a new newspaper unlike any other 
 religious journal published, and to this was given the 
 name " The Christian Commonwealth." As explained 
 in the first number, the editors aimed '" to be liberal 
 without being lawless: to be motlern in our sympathies, 
 thoughts and expressions, without being guilty of that 
 popular spiritual vandalism which, whilst bearing the 
 Christian name, attempts to destroy the whole Divine 
 literature, and aims to remove the ancient monuments 
 and landmarks. Our politics are not necessarily either 
 Liberal or Conservative." They proclaimed that " Christ- 
 ianity comprehends true politics, which is another name 
 for national righteousness, and we shall ardently co- 
 operate with all those who labour for this result, by 
 whatever name they may be called." One more state- 
 ment is worth quoting. " We intend fearlessly to resist 
 all attempted divorce between Commerce and Christ- 
 ianity, between wise legislation and national morality, 
 between Law and its power and function to repress 
 lawlessness. Wholesome laws are moral agencies, and 
 sound legislation must stand on the side of truth and 
 righteousness." In course of time Dr. Moore became 
 sole editor. The " Christian Commonwealth " was the 
 originator, it is said, of what was known as the Christian 
 Unity Movement. It persistently attacked the evils 
 of sectarianism and denominationalism. For four or five 
 years it enjoyed the exclusive rights for the weekly 
 serial publications of the sermons of Dr. Joseph Parker 
 of the City Temple. Ultimately Dr. Parker's paper, 
 •' The Christian Chronicle " was absorbed by " The 
 Christian Commonwealth." From 1901 the i)aper was 
 edited by Mr. Albert Dawson. 
 
 CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE, FATHERS AND CON- 
 FRATERNITY OF THE. A Society of priests and lay- 
 men formed about 1560, under the leadership of one 
 Marco Cusani of Milan, with the object of teaching 
 children the Catechism on Sundays and countryfolk on 
 Church holidays. Pope Pius V. in 1571 ordered a more 
 general adoption of this kind of Society; and the Fathers 
 and Confraternity of the Christian Doctrine received a 
 fine church from Pope Clement VIII. in 1596. The Con- 
 fraternity was raised by Pope Paul V. to the rank of an 
 archconfraternity. See the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY. The Christian 
 Evidence Society wajs instituted A.D. 1870. Its objects 
 are : to declare and defend Christianity as a Divine 
 Revelation; to controvert the errors of atheists, pan- 
 theists, secularists, and other opponents of Christianity: 
 to counteract the energetic propagandism of Infidelity, 
 especially among the uneducated: to meet the difficulties 
 and strengthen the faith of the doubting and perplexed; 
 and to instruct the young in the evidences of Christianity. 
 It .seeks to attain these objects by means of sermons and 
 lectures, popular controversial addres.ses and discussions 
 in halls and in the open air, classes and examinations, 
 interviews and correspondence, and the distribution of 
 tracts. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ISRAELITES. The followers of John 
 Wroe (1782-1863). Wroe came under the influence of 
 George Turner (d. 1821), of Leeds, who was a leader of 
 the followers of Joanna Southcott (see SOUTHCOTT- 
 lANS) : and when Turner died, he claimed to succeed 
 him. Wroe went to Australia, New Zealand, and 
 America, and gained many adherents. He professed to 
 be a ijrophet, and announced that the Second Advent was 
 close at hand. When it took place, Israel would be 
 restored, as God had promised. " To this end it was 
 necessary that there ^ould be a great in-gathering of
 
 Christian Quakers 
 
 303 
 
 Christian Scientists 
 
 Israel, that is of tihe lost tribes, which was to take place 
 under the leadership of the Christian Israelites, divinely 
 inspired for the worli " (J. H. Blunt). See the D.N.B.; 
 and J. H. Blunt. 
 
 CHRISTIAN QUAKERS. A name assumed by the 
 followers of George Keith (16397-1716). See KEITHIANS 
 CHRISTIANS OF ST. JOHN. Another name for the 
 Mandaeans (g.v.). 
 
 CHRISTIAN SABBATH-KEEPERS' UNION. The 
 objects of this Union are five. 1. To form a special bond 
 of union between '• immersed " Christians, irrespective 
 of denomination, who observe the Seventh day of the 
 week. 2. To spread the linowledge of the Sabbath of 
 the Lord. 3. To help its members to obtain employment, 
 also to look after their general welfare. 4. To cultivate 
 a more intimate sociability and genuine sympathy 
 between Sabbath-keepers. 5. To inculcate a spirit of 
 mutual encouragement, support, and friendship among 
 its members. 
 
 CHRISTIAN SCIENCE. The principles known as 
 "Christian Science" were formulated and developed by 
 Mary Baker G. Eddy. She was led to the discovery of 
 her system in 18(;(i, but her first pamphlet on Christian 
 Science did not appear in print until 187(1, though it had 
 been copyrighted in 1870. She says she " had learned 
 that this Science must be demonstrated by healing, before 
 a work on the subject could be profitably studied." The 
 text-book of Christian Science is called '• Science and 
 Health," and the first edition was published in 1875. The 
 founder of Christian Science started the first school of 
 Christian Science Mind-healing in Massachusetts about 
 the year 1867 with only one student. In 1881 she opened 
 the Massachusetts Metaphysical College in Boston, under 
 the seal of the Commonwealth. She also acted as Pastor 
 of the first established Church of Christ, Scientist; as 
 President of the first Christian Scientist As.sociation;'and 
 as sole editor and publisher of " The Christian Science 
 Journal." During seven years over four thousand 
 persons studied under her in her College. On October 
 1889 she closed her College in order to devote all her 
 energies for a time to the revision of the book " Science 
 and Health." The new edition was published in 1891 
 and the College was re-opened in 1899. A great number 
 of people state that by reading Mary Baker G. Eddy's 
 book they have not only been wnvinced of the truth of 
 Christian Science, but have also been reformed and 
 healed of various diseases. It is stated (in the form of 
 testimonies) that these diseases have included cancer 
 fibroid tumor, epilepsy, cataract, heart disease, gastric 
 catarrh, sciatic rheumatism, Bright's disease, deafness 
 consumption, insanity, etc. Such cures have been 
 effected, it is claimed, not by ordinary mental science 
 but by Divine Science. " If God, the All-in- All. be the 
 creator of the spiritual universe, including man then 
 everything entitled to a classification as truth, or science 
 must be comprised in a knowledge or understanding of 
 <jOd, for there can be nothing beyond illimitable divinity " 
 The author of " Science and Health" uses the terms 
 Divine Science. Spiritual Science. Christ Science. 
 Christian Science, or Science alone, interchangeably 
 These synonymous terms stand for everything relating 
 to God, the infinite, supreme, eternal Mind. It may be 
 said, however, that the term Christian Science reveals 
 God, not as the author of sin, sickness, and death, but as 
 Divine Principle, Supreme Being, Mind, exempt from all 
 evil. It teaches that matter is the falsity, not the fact 
 of existence; that nerves, brain, stomach. lungs, and so 
 forth, hav^as matter— no intelligence, life, nor sensa- 
 tion Disease and evil are the off-spring of mortal 
 mind. Science [Christian Science] not only reveals 
 the origin of aU disease as mental, but it also declares 
 
 that all disease is cured by divine Mind. There can be 
 no healing except by this Mind, however much we trust 
 a drug or any other means towards which human faith 
 or endeavour is directed. It is mortal mind, not matter, 
 whjch brings to the sick whatever good thev may seem 
 to receive from drugs. But the sick are never really 
 healed except by means of the divine power. Only the 
 action ot Truth, Life, and Love can give harmony." 
 There is one basis for all sickness. " Human mind pro- 
 duces what is termed organic disease as certainly as it 
 produces hysteria, and it must relinquish aU its errors, 
 sicknesses, and sins. I have demonstrated this beyond 
 all cavil. The evidejice of divine Mind's healing power 
 and absolute control is to me as certain as the evidence of 
 my own existence." There is really no pain in matter 
 '• Be farm m your understanding that the divine Mind 
 governs, and that in Science [Christian Science] man 
 reflects God's government. Have no fear that matter 
 can ache, swell, and be inflamed as the result of a law 
 of any kind, when it is self-evident that matter can have 
 no pain nor inflammation. Your body would suffer no 
 more from tension or wounds than the trunk of a tree 
 which you gash or the electric wire which you stretch 
 were it not for mortal mind." As regards surgery Mrs' 
 Eddy writes as foUows : " Until the advancing age admits 
 the efficacy and supremacy of Mind, it is better for 
 Christian Scientists to leave surgery and the adjustment 
 of broken bones and dislocations to the fingers of a 
 .-surgeon, while the mental healer confines himself chiefly 
 to mental reconstruction and to the prevention of in- 
 flammation. Christian Science is always the most skil- 
 ful surgeon, but surgery is the branch of its healing 
 which will be last acknowledged. However, it is but 
 just to say that the author has already in her possession 
 well-authenticated records of the cure, by herself and 
 her students through mental surgery alone, of broken 
 bones, dislocated joints and spinal vertebrae." The 
 Christian Science form of Service is simple but impres- 
 sive. There is no sermon or address. Passages from 
 the Bible with corresponding sections in " Science and 
 Health " are read, and are allowed to speak for them- 
 selves. See Mary Baker G. Eddy, Science and Health, 
 With Key to the Scriptures, 1907. 
 
 CHRISTIAN SCIENTISTS. The name given to those 
 who accept tlie teaching of Mary Baker Eddy (see article 
 above). Mrs. Eddy was the daughter of Mark and Mary 
 Baker, and was bom at Bow, New Hampshire, on July 
 the 16th, 1821. In 1843 she married George Washington 
 Glover, who had been associated with her brother, 
 Samuel Baker, in Boston as a contractor and builder, and 
 at this time had a good business in Charleston, South 
 Carolina. He was a Mason, a member of Saint Andrew's 
 Ijodge. No. 10, and of Union Chapter, No. 3, of Royal 
 Arch Masons. His married life was short, for within a 
 year he became ill and died. Mrs. Glover returned to 
 her parents. A son was bom to her, whom she named 
 after his father, but she was too ill to nurse him. On 
 her recovery she was employed in writing political 
 articles for the New Hampshire " Patriot," and in 
 teaching occasionally at the New Hampshire Conference 
 Seminary. After the death of her mother she became 
 an invalid. She lived with her sister Abigail, and often 
 for long periods was confined to her bed. In 1853 she 
 contracted a second marriage with Daniel Patterson, a 
 dentist. She had been separated from her child, and 
 believed that in thus marrying again, she would be able 
 to get him back. After a time they went to live at North 
 Groton, New Hampshire. We are told that " she was 
 bedridden most of the time they lived here." The next 
 move was to a cottage in Rumney village. Here, in 
 spite of a most careful observance of the laws of hygiene.
 
 Christian Scientists 
 
 104 
 
 Christmas Day 
 
 and of homeopathic treatment from her husband, Mrs. 
 Patterson's " spinal weakness was not overcome and the 
 nervous seizures continued to occur with increasing 
 violence." She " was wasting to a shadow under the 
 most careful nursing, and her life was being consumed 
 in ineffectual efforts to appease the ravishment of pain." 
 At the same time she read the Bible daily, and, as iier 
 biographer says, " she more than ever pondered the cures 
 of the early ciiurch." In 18()2 she wrote to Phineas P. 
 Quimby, of Portland, Maine, who had a reputation as a 
 healer." She said she wished to come to him for study 
 and healing. Her sister described Quimby as a char- 
 latan, and tried to dissuade her from going. But Mrs. 
 Patterson was determined to know whether he had dis- 
 covered a truth which she had long been seeking. '• I 
 certainly do not want mesmerLsm or spiritualism, but I 
 somehow believe that I must see what this man has or 
 has not. I am impelled with an unquenchable thirst for 
 God that will not let me rest. Abigail, there is a science 
 beyond all sciences we have ever studied. It is Christ's 
 Science. There is a fundamental doctrine, a Grod's truth 
 tJiat will restore me to health, and if me, then countless 
 thousands. Has this man Quimby discovered the great 
 truth or is he a blunderer, perhaps a charlatan as you 
 say? I must know." In October, 1802, she arrived at 
 the International Hotel, Portland, where Dr. Quimby had 
 his offices. Dr. Quimby succeeded in giving her relief. 
 Her biographer writes thus : " Gradually he wrought the 
 spell of hypnotism, and under tiat suggestion she let go 
 the burden of pain just as she would have done had mor- 
 phine been administered. The relief was no doubt tre- 
 mendous. Her gratitude certainly was unbounded. She 
 was set free from the excruciating pain of years." But 
 her interi)retation of Quimby's success was different from 
 his own. She imputed to him " a knowledge of God's 
 law," an " understanding of the tnith which Christ 
 brought into the world and which had been lost for ages." 
 She believed that he had a philosophy which could be 
 reduced to philosoi)lvic arguments, and she tried to help 
 him to put this into shape in writing. Mrs. Patterson 
 was certainly for a long time under the influence of 
 Quimby. On the strength of this fact extravagant 
 claims have been made for h.im. They are: "that 
 Quimby cured Mary Baker of her invalidism, that he 
 gave her the germ ideas of her philosophy, that he pre- 
 sented her with manuscripts which she afterwards 
 claimed as her own, that he focussed her mind, that he 
 was the imi)etus of all her subsequent momentum." In 
 the light, however, of her earlier history, and of the 
 general character of the book which she afterwards 
 published, as compared with the personal history of 
 Quimby and with what is known of his efforts of com- 
 position, it seems pretty clear that in reality " she heard 
 and saw only what was in her own mind and experience, 
 and continued to identify publicly and privately her faith 
 with Quimby's in the face of all the evidence to the con- 
 trary and his own occasional expo.stulation." In 1S04 
 Mrs. Patterson went to live in Lynn, Massachusetts. 
 On February the 3rd, lS6fi, she met with an acci- 
 dent, which was referred to in the Lynn " Reix>rter " as 
 follows : '■ Mrs. Mary Patterson, of Swampscott, fell 
 upon the ice near the corner of Market and Oxford 
 streets on Thursday evening and was severely injured. 
 She was taken up in an insensible condition and carrie<l 
 into the residence of S. M. Bubier, Esq.. near by, where 
 she was kindly cared for during the night. Dr. Cushing, 
 who was called, found her injuries to be internal and of 
 a severe nature, inducing spasms and internal suffering. 
 She was removed to her home in Swampscott yesterday 
 afternoon, though in a very critical condition." The 
 next morning she was still semi-conscious, but was 
 
 removed to her .suburban residence. " On the third 
 day, which was Sunday, she sent those who were in her 
 room away, and taking her Bible, opened it. Her eyes 
 fell upon the account of the healing of the palsied man 
 by Jesus." Thereupon, we are told, she had a mar- 
 vellous spiritual experience, which healed her. " Mrs. 
 Patterson arose from her bed, dressed and walked into 
 the iiarlor where a clergyman and a few friends had 
 gathered, thinking it might be for the last words on earth 
 with the sufferer who, they believed, was dying. They 
 arose in consternation at her appearance, almo.st believing 
 they beheld an apparition. She quietly reassured them 
 and explained the manner of her recovery, calling upon 
 them to witness it." Soon after this her husband 
 deserted her. In 1873 she was divorced fix)m him. In 
 1S77 she married Asa Gilbert Eddy, an agent for a sewing- 
 machine business, who had come to her for healing. He 
 died in 1.882. In 1883 Mrs. Eddy published the first 
 number of the " Journal of Christian Science," now 
 called the " Christian Science Journal." By the year 
 1888 thirty Christian Science academies were in existence. 
 In 1889 Mrs. Eddy withdrew from the world, and retired 
 to Concord. In 1894 was completed at Boston the original 
 Mother Church of Christ, Scientist. In 1908 Mrs. Eddy 
 removed to Che.stnut Hill in the suburbs of Boston. She 
 died in 1910. Cp. CHRISTIAN SCIENCE. See Sibyl 
 Wilbur, The Life of Mary Baker Eddy, 1907. 
 
 CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM. See SOCIALISM, 
 
 CHRISTIAN. 
 
 CHRISTIAN SOCIAL UNION, THE. A Society com- 
 I)osed of Members of the Church of England and founded 
 at Oxford as a result of the teaching of Charles Kingslev 
 (1819-187.5), Frederick Denison Maurice (180.")-]872), and 
 others. 'The Guild of S. Matthew ((/.i'.) had already 
 been established in 187r) with ratlier similar aims. The 
 objects with which the Chri.stian Social Union was 
 started, put in simple form, were thr(>e. 1. To claim 
 for the Christian law the ultimate authority to rule social 
 practice. 2. To study in common how to apply the moral 
 truths and principles of Christianity to the social and 
 economic difficulties of the present time. 3. To present 
 Christ in practical life as the Living Master and King, 
 tlie enemy of wrong and .selfishness, the power of 
 righteousness and love. The Union has now a numl)er 
 of Settlement Houses called " Maurice Hostels." The 
 objects set before residents are : to share in the work 
 of charitable agencies in the district, to take part in local 
 government, to work clubs at the Settlement Houses, to 
 aid in parochial work, and to .study social problems in 
 the district. See C. W. Stubbs, Charlen Kingsley and the 
 Christian Social Movement , 1899. 
 
 CHRISTLICH-SOCIALE PARTEI. A political rwrty 
 in Germany founded in Berlin in 1878 by the Court 
 Preacher, Adolf Stoecker (183.5-1909). It seeks to improve 
 the condition of the working classes by working along the 
 lines of a monarchical Christian Socialism. But the good 
 .seed of Christian Socialism is mingled with the poison 
 of antisemitisra. 
 
 CHRISTMAS DAY. The precise date on which the 
 founder of the Christian religion was bom is doubtful. 
 The festival known as Christmas was a pagan festival 
 adopted by the Christians and adapted to Christian use. 
 As Amo Newmann says, it is not the day that matters, 
 but the idea associated with it; and the birth of Jesus 
 remains the most important event in the whole of history. 
 " The celebration of the birthday of .Tesus is not met 
 with at all until after the beginning of the third century. 
 Down to that time it was the day of His death that was 
 observed, as being the birthday of the higher life. Even 
 then the celebration is first found among heretical sects, 
 and its adoption by the Church does not come until a
 
 Christo Sacrum 
 
 105 
 
 Chrysanthemum, The Sixteen-Petal 
 
 later date, when its power had grown. The day was 
 originally fixed as the 6th (at first also by acfx>mmoda- 
 fion the 10th) of January, now tie feast of the Epiphany. 
 Day of birth and day of baptism were regarded as 
 identical, becaii.se in the baptism the ' Son of God ' 
 seemed to be bom. We find this usage prevailing 
 down to the end of the fourth century, particularly 
 in the Eastern Churcli. Soon, however, religious 
 policy, having the heathen in view, dictated the separa- 
 tion of the Birth from the Baptism. The 25th of Dec-em- 
 ber is first found as a real feast-day in Rome in ^^4 A.D. 
 at tie earliest. . . Under Bishop Liberius she [Rome] 
 took the date as a substitute for the heatien solstice 
 festival, calculating it from the spring equinox of the 
 old calendar (25th of March). regarde<l as tie date of the 
 Annunciation. In place of the birthday of the invincible 
 Sun-god (Helios=Sol = Mitira), she put that of .Tesus 
 Christ, the sun in men's hearts (cp. Malachi iii. 20). An 
 official command was then sent to all places to observe 
 the new festival. So, gradually, by the year 4.50 A.D. 
 the 25th of December came to be observed throughout 
 the Church except in Armenia " (Amo Neumann). See 
 J. M. Wheeler, Footsteps of the Past, 1895; Oscar Holtz- 
 mann. The Life of Jesus. 1904; Amo Neumann, Jesus, 
 1906; J. G. Frazer, G.B., Pt. iv., 2nd ed. 1907. 
 
 CHRISTO SACRUM. A society or a^jsociation founded 
 by Onder de Wijngaart Canzius, burgomaster of Delft, in 
 Holland (1797-1801 A.D.). The idea was to unite in one 
 body all Christians, whatever their denomination, who 
 believed in the divine nature of Christ and in the redeem- 
 ing i)ower of his Passion. For a time the association 
 met with some sniccess, but in 1838 it had to be dissolved. 
 See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 CHRIST SCIENCE. Another designation of Christiau 
 Science (q.v.). 
 
 CHRIST SCIENTIST. Another designation of 
 Christian Scientist (q.v.). A place of worship is ealled 
 " Church of Christ Scientist." 
 
 CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF. In Hebrew the Books 
 of the Chronicles are called Dibhre hniz-i/Omlm. " affairs 
 of the days " or events of the times. In the Septuagint 
 the title is Paraleipomena, " things omitte<l " (in the 
 older historical books). The Engli.sh title was .suggested 
 by the name (Chronicon) which .Jerome gave to the books. 
 It would seem that originally the books of Chronicles, 
 Ezra and Nehemiah were one work. They all liave tie 
 same peculiarities of language and thought." The narra- 
 tive which elOvSe-s abmptly in Chronicles is resumed and 
 continued in the Book of Ezra fsee CANON OF THE 
 OLD TESTAMENT). The Chronicler rewritevs the his- 
 tory contained in the other books of the Old Testament 
 from Genesis to II. Kings from a new standpoint, and 
 takes hardly any account of the history of the Northern 
 Kingdom. In I. Chronicles i.-ix. he gives the history 
 from Adam to the end of the reign of Saul in the fonii 
 of genealogies and stati.stics. In I. Chronicles x. to II. 
 Chronicles xxx^^■. the history mns parallel to that which 
 is given in the books of Samuel and Kings from I. .Sam. 
 xxxi. to II. Kings xxv. 21. From the point at which 
 David ascends the throne the historv becomes more 
 elaborate. The treatment of the Northern Kingdom 
 snggest-s that it " had long ceased to possess any living 
 interest." There are other indications, in addition to 
 the Aramaic colouring of the books, that the Chronicles 
 were separated from the fall of the Northern Kingdom 
 by a long Interval. In II. Chron. xxxvi. 2.3 Cyrus is 
 given the title King of Persia. But the titles given to 
 the Persian kings at the time were as a matter of fact 
 " the King," the " Great King," tie " King of Kings," 
 the " King of the Lands." This s\igge,sts that the 
 Chronicler wrote much later than the period of the Per- 
 
 sian Empire. Again, in I. Chron. xxix. 7, in reference 
 to the time of David, a sum of money is reckoned in 
 darics, whereas this Persian coin was not introduced until 
 
 n V^oV^ ?**'''"^ ^- '^-^' ^■'^■^- r^astly, in I. Chron. 
 111. iJ-24, SIX generations seem to be assigned to the 
 descendants of Zembbabel (c. 520 B.C.) in the Hebrew 
 ^1* ^",'1/'*'^*'° '° the Septuagint. This would give us 
 f,'^r l?^*^'" f^ ^;C. A num^ber of scholars fa vfuV the 
 Utt^r date for the compilation of Chronicles. The 
 Chronicler seems to have made use of the earlier his- 
 tori«il b(x>ks. On his own admission he also used a 
 number of works not included in the Canon of the Old 
 Testament. Such works were : the " Words of Nathan, 
 the prophet " (I. Chron. xxix. 29), tlie " Pronhecv of 
 Ahijah, the Shilonite" (II. Chron. ix. 29), the '' \asions 
 
 iJ^"^?;. ^^"^ ^,?'';' ("^^^'^ron- i-^- 29), the '"Words of 
 Iddo, the seer" II. Chron. xii. 15), the " Midrash of 
 tlie prophet Iddo " (II. Chron. xiii. 22), the " Words of 
 Shemaiah, the prophet " (II. Chron. xii. 15), the " Words 
 of Jehu, the .son of Hanani " (II. Chron. xx 34) the 
 ■• Rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and last " (written bv 
 Isaiah the prophet, the son of Aiiioz; II. Chron xxvi 2') 
 the '•Vision of Isaiah, the prophet, the son of Amoz"'' 
 (II. Chron. xxxii. 32), the " Words of Hozai " (II Chron 
 xxxiu. 19), the " Words of Samuel, the .seer " (I Chron 
 ?m"';,^^\*i'' " '^^^'^^ <>^ C^ad, tie seer " (I. Chron. xxix'. 
 -9), the Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel " (II 
 tiron. xvi. 11 etc.), the " Acts (or affairs) of the Kings 
 ?. \*^™f' . ^^^- Cbron. xxxiii. 18), the " Midrash of the 
 Look of Kings ' (II. Chron. xxiv. 27). All this material 
 Jias been treated m such a way as to enforce and illus- 
 1rate a special point of view. " The Chronicler's survey 
 IS rather in the nature of a church history of Israel from 
 the point of view of post-Exilic Jewish orthodoxy, than 
 a mere narrative of events " (G. H. Box). He is parti- 
 cularly interested in the worship and music of the Temple 
 Wlien material found in the books of Samuel and Kino-s 
 IS not cjilcnlate<l to further his purjiose, he rejects it 
 Again, " there are many ca.ses in which the chronicler 
 modifies tie material in Samuel and Kings in some 
 degree, sometimes condensing a Jiarrative greatly, some- 
 times expanding; at other times changing the .sigiiiflcance 
 of an event, or magnifying the size of an armv, or dis- 
 regarding historical fact " (W. R. Harper). The matter 
 which IS added to supplement that of the other canonicar 
 books IS for the mo.st part of the nature of moralising 
 romance: but occa.sionally it seems to be ba.sed urioa 
 historical facts. For instance, in II. Kings there son^v 
 a brief account of the very prosperous reign of Uzz^ali 
 II. Chronicles xxvi. 6-15 .supplements this bv givin- In: 
 formation about this pro.sperity, and Curtis and Madsen 
 contend that this information is in sub-stance histoHcal 
 
 O C. Whitehouse; E. L. Curtis and A. A. Madsen 
 Chronicles in the I.a.O . 1910 ^^auseu, 
 
 VV^^^T^'Yf ^'^ J"? '^^^^'^S OF MEDIA AND 
 nSr ; 9^ document referred to in the Old Testament 
 (Esther X. 2) as one of the .sources of the Book of Esther. 
 The reference is as follows : '• And all the acts of his 
 IKvwer and of his might, and the full account of the 
 greatness of Mordecai, whereunto the king advanced him 
 are they not written in the book of the (jhronicles of the 
 kings of Media and Persia'" 
 
 CHRYSANTHEMUM. THE SIXTEEN-PETAL The 
 sixti'en-petal Chrysanthemum of Japan is said to be a 
 Buddhist emblem. But it has been found also on a 
 tomb m Egypt by Dr. N. G. Munro, of Yokohama " It 
 IS also given In the newly-discovered hook of Jao as a 
 ' seal,' with its appropriate though meaningless mantra • 
 it comes to Japan viA China and appears at Kyoto as the
 
 Chuila-^Gandi 
 
 106 
 
 Church Associatioa, The 
 
 ' seal ' of the god of Peace. In the twelfth century it 
 appears as the mon or crest of the Emperor Toba, who 
 wasa religious-minded person, much devoted to the wor- 
 ship of the ' god of Peace.' It is to-day the Imperial 
 Crest sacred to the uses of the Imperial House. ISo 
 suWect may have it on anything that belongs to him ; 
 and yet for the modest outlay of a halfpenny, he can 
 procure 'at the (modern) Heian-Jingu, or Temple of the 
 G<>d of Peace, at Kyoto, amulets and charms, protective 
 against evil, which bear the Imperial Chrysanthemum 
 Crest " (A. Lloyd). See Arthur Lloyd. 
 
 CHULLA-GANDI. A reform iMirty among the Buddhist 
 monJis of Burma. " The adherents of this party try to 
 enforce a stricter observance of the monastic rules, as, 
 for instance, that no luxurious gowns should be worn, 
 even going so far as to prohibit the use of umbrellas and 
 sandals, and to require that they should live on the food 
 obtained by begging, that no one should accept money or 
 gifts to himself personally, and that he should take no 
 part in dances or popular festivals." See H. Hack- 
 mann. 
 
 CHULLIN. The title of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. and 
 are included in the Mishnah {q.v.}. a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Chullin is the third tractate of the fifth 
 group, which is called Koddshim (" Holy Things "). 
 
 CHURCH. The Greek and Latin name for *' church " 
 is ecclcsia, which meant originally " a legislative 
 assembly of citizens " (cp. Acts xix. 32, 39, 41). The 
 old English word " church " is derived from the Greek 
 kuriakos (oikos), the " Lord's House." " It is used to 
 designate alike a material fabric used for worship, a 
 particular body of Christians, the whole body of baptized 
 professing Christians, and the inner circle of true 
 believers, whether now living or departed in the faith of 
 Christ " (Prot. Diet.). The earliest well-preserved 
 Christian churches in Syria date from the fourth century. 
 See BASILICA. 
 
 CHURCH AND MEDICAL UNION. A Church of Eng- 
 land Union or Society founded in 1908. The founda- 
 tion seems to have been suggested by the work of healing 
 carried on at Emmanuel Church, Boston, U.S.A. (see 
 EMMANUEL CHURCH MOVEMENT). The object of the 
 Union was to promote co-operation between the medical 
 profession and the Church in the healing of tie sick. A 
 Committee, before the formal constitution of the Society, 
 had undertaken " to collect as much evidence as possible 
 in regard to the various healing movements both within 
 and without the orthodox Christian Churches, and to 
 endeavour to discover what was good in them and what 
 was not." The principles of the Union as formally con- 
 stituted were embodied in certain paragraphs in the Lam- 
 beth Report of 1908. They are these : (1) " The Com- 
 mittee believes that Christ still fulfils in Christian 
 experience His power to give life, and to give it more 
 abundantly; and that the faith, which realises His Pre- 
 sence, is capable of creating a heightened vitality of 
 spirit, which strengthens and sustains the health of the 
 body. The Committee believes that sickness and disease 
 are in one aspect a breach in the harmony of the Divine 
 purpose, not only analogous to, but sometimes at least 
 caused by, want of moral harmony with the Divine Will ; 
 and that this restoration of harmony in mind and will 
 often brings with it the restoration of the harmony of the 
 body." (2) " The Committee believes that medical 
 science is the handmaid of God and His Church, and 
 should be fully recognised as the ordinary means 
 
 appointed by Almighty God for the care and healing of 
 the human body. The Committee believes that dis- 
 coveries in the region of medicine and surgery oome to 
 man through Him who is the Light and the Life, the 
 Divine Word." The work of the Union seems to have 
 met with some success. See Psychic Healing: An 
 Account of the Work of the Church and Medical Onion, 
 1910. 
 
 CHURCH ARMY, THE. The Church Army was 
 founded in 1882 by W. Carlile, Rector of S. Mary-at-HiU, 
 and now Prebendary also of S. Paul's Cathedral. It is 
 a Church of England Institution modelled in some re- 
 spects on the Salvation Army (g.v.). As the designa- 
 tion Army implies, it enlists officers and soldiers, and 
 does not disdain the use of brass bands. It has a Train- 
 ing Home in which working men and women are trained 
 as '■ Church of England Evangelists " for mission work 
 amongst their own people. The women act as Mission 
 Nurses; the men as Reformatory Missioners, Mission 
 Van Captains, Colporteurs, etc. Before they are com- 
 missioned they must now pass an examination. On 
 doing so, the men are admitted by the Bishop of London 
 as Lay Evangeli-sts in the Church. In 18S8 Mr. Carlile 
 started Labour Homes in London and elsewhere to give 
 a " fresh start in life to the outcast and destitute." In 
 connection with the Church Army there are also such 
 philanthropic agencies as cheap lodging-houses, an 
 employment bureau, a cheap food depot, an old clothes 
 department, and a dispensary. A few years ago the 
 Army was presented with the Hempstead Hall Estate, 
 near Haverhill, in Essex, comprising about 740 acres of 
 mixed arable, pasture, and wood land, in order that it 
 might be converted into a training test colony. There 
 were included some farmhouses, and an old mansion 
 which was converted into a labour home. "It is 
 intended that the estate shall afford employment, at once 
 healthy and instructive, for about fifty men at a time. 
 These will be selected from the Army's London and pro- 
 vincial labour homes, and they will be kept at work 
 hedging, ditching, digging, tending livestock, ploughing, 
 and all the manifold occupations attendant upon a large 
 mixed farm; and, provided they go through the period 
 of training and testing satisfeictorily, they will from time 
 to time be drafted out to Canada, well equipped with a 
 practical knowledge of the work which will probably 
 form their lot in future years " (" The Daily Tele- 
 graph "). The men work in return for board. If 
 they earn anything beyond this, it is placed to their 
 credit and paid to them or used for them when they 
 leave. 
 
 CHURCH ASSOCIATION, THE. The Church Asso- 
 ciation was instituted in 1865 " to uphold the doctrines, 
 principles, and order of the United Church of England 
 and Ireland, and to counteract the efforts now being 
 made to pervert her teaching on essential points of the 
 Christian faith, or assimilate her services to tiose of the 
 Church of Rome, and further to encourage concerted 
 action for the advancement and progress of Spiritual 
 Religion." The As-sociation seeks to resist what it 
 believes to be Innovations in the order of the Service 
 as prescribed by the joint authority of the Church and 
 State — whether in vestments, ornaments, gestures, or 
 practices similar to those of the Church of Rome — and 
 especially to prevent the adoration of the elements in 
 the Lord's Supper, which, it contends, is contrary to the 
 order of the Communion Service and the terms both of 
 the Liturgy and Articles. " It seeks to resist all 
 attempts to restore the use of the Confessional, and 
 every exercise of that Priestly authority which was put 
 down at the Reformation, and also to oppose the intro- 
 duction of doctrines contrary to the teaching of the
 
 Churchmen's Union, The 
 
 107 
 
 Churinga 
 
 Church, as set forth in her Liturgy and Articles." It 
 seeks to attain these objects by means of public lectures 
 and meetings, the use of the Press, Colporteurs, Lay 
 Evangelists, Protestant Vans. Protestant Lay Missions; 
 and through Appeals to Parliament to pass such 
 measures as may be needed to restrain clergymen " from 
 violating the order of their Church, and obtruding on 
 their parishioners practices and doctrines repugnant to 
 the Formularies and Articles of our Reformed Church." 
 CHURCHMEN'S UNION, THE. A Society in the 
 Church of England. It was inaugurated at the Church 
 House, Westminster, in 1898 for the advancement of 
 liberal religious thought. The objects of the Union are 
 stated to be five. (1) To maintain the right and duty 
 of the Church to restate her belief from time to time as 
 required by the progressive revelation of the Holy 
 Spirit. (2) To uphold the historic comprehensiveness 
 and corporate life of the Church of England, and her 
 Christian spirit of tolerance in all things non-essential. 
 (3) To give all support in their power to those who are 
 honestly and io.vally endeavouring to vindicate the truths 
 of Christianity by the light of scholarship and research : 
 and while paying due regard to continuity, to work for 
 euch changes in the formularies and practices in the 
 Church of England as from time to time are made neces- 
 sary by the needs and knowledge of the dav. (4) To 
 assert the rights and duties of the laitv as "constituent 
 members of the Body of Christ. (5) To encourage 
 friendly relations between the Church of England and 
 all other Christian bodies. " Is the continuance of the 
 Churchmen's Union necessary or useful? This question 
 has been raised during the past year [1908-09] : but the 
 Council feel that only one answer is possible. We 
 gratefully acknowledge that real progress has been made 
 in toleration for liberal religious views, and that open 
 persecution of clergymen who hold them is now rare. 
 But we cannot forget that the forces of reaction are 
 strong, persevering and determined. Thev have captured 
 to a large extent the machinery of the Church— Con- 
 vocations, Diocesan Conferences, the so-called ' Repre- 
 sentative ' Church Council, and Training Colleges for 
 clergy; and though the Episcopal Bench is now more 
 liberal-minded than it was, this advance has not vet been 
 followed by the majority of the clergy. There" is, and 
 there will be for many years to come, great need for 
 euch a body as ours to vindicate the value of liberal 
 principles within our Church " (Annual Report, 1908- 
 1909). 
 
 CHURCH OF THE DISCIPLES. A Church founded 
 in lS2f; by Alexander Campbell (178S-180G). His fol- 
 lowers were also called Campbellites (q.v.). 
 
 CHURCH REFORM LEAGUE. The Church Reform 
 League concerns itself solely with Church Reform. It 
 is a non-party and non-political association, and does not 
 deal with questions of doct,rine. It advocates five 
 principles of Reform. 1. That, saving the supremacy 
 of the Crown according to law, and, in respect to legisla- 
 tion, subject to the veto of Parliament, the Church 
 should have freedom for self-government, bv means of 
 reformed Houses of Convocation rwhich" shall be 
 thoroughly representative, with power for the Canter- 
 bury and York Convocations to sit together if desired), 
 together with a repre.sentative body or bodies of the 
 Laity. 2. That the Laity should have the principal 
 share in the administration of Finance, and. within the 
 fixed limits of Church order, a real control in the 
 appointing of their Pastors, and in all matters of eccles- 
 iastical organization and administration, a concurrent 
 voice with the Clergy. That the Communicants of every 
 Parish should have a recognized power to prevent th"e 
 arbitrary alteration of lawful customs in ritual. 3. 
 
 That all Ministers and Church Officers should be re- 
 movable by disciplinary process, benefices being made 
 tenable only during the adequate performance of the 
 duties, and that a " Godly discipline " for the Laity 
 should be established. 4. That all transfers by sale of 
 next presentations and advowsons should be made 
 illegal, but that where patronage is transferred to a 
 Diocesan Trust reasonable compensation may be given. 
 o. That in each Diocese a Diocesan Trust be" formed to 
 receive and administer Diocesan and Parochial Endow- 
 ments on lines similar to those on which the Ecclesiasti- 
 cal Commissioners administer their Trust. As an 
 example of the spirit which animates the Church Reform 
 League, its suggestions with regard to the election, 
 number, and income of Bishops are significant and worth 
 quoting. " Compared with freedom for legislation aU 
 else seems to us at present secondary. None the less, it 
 is obvious that a better method for the nomination of 
 our Bishops should be found than the choice of names 
 by a Premier of any views or creed for approval by the 
 King. It is notorious that within the lifetime of many 
 of us such powers have been used for party purposes. 
 Throughout the last century it was commonly so, and 
 especially in the case of the Church in Wal"es. The 
 appointments made by the Crown ruined the Church in 
 Wales and paralysed the Church in England." Again, 
 " surely it is time to do away with the income limit of 
 £3,000 per annum that so seriously thwarts the founding 
 of new sees. The work of the Church calls for a large 
 episcopate; it in no way calls for a rich episcopate. On 
 the contrary so large an increase of income is a draw- 
 back. The old sees have, indeed, heavy obligations 
 attacheil to them that it may not be easy or wi.^e to 
 sever from them. No such obligations need attach to 
 new sees. Hence to cripple our progress with such a 
 condition, in itself a very doubtful blessing, is a spiritual 
 folly. It only points a contrast that alienates the artisan, 
 while it weakens a standard of living that is be.st and 
 most effective when entirely simple and apostolic." See 
 the Leaflets of the Church Reform League. 
 
 CHURINGA. Ritual instruments used by the tribes 
 of Central Australia, especially the Arunta, the Loritja, 
 the Kaitish, the Unmatjera, and the Ilpirra. "They 
 are pieces of wood or bits of polished stone, of a great 
 variety of forms, but generally oval or oblong. Each 
 totem ic group has a more or less important collection 
 of these. Upon each of these is engraved a design repre- 
 senting the totem of this same group " (Emile Durk- 
 heim). Some of them have a hole at one end, through 
 which a thread is passed. These serve as real bull- 
 roarers. " By means of the thread bv which thev are 
 suspended, they are whirled rapidly in the air in such a 
 way as to produce a sort of humming identical with that 
 made by the toys of this name still used by our children; 
 this deafening noise has a ritual significance and accom- 
 panies all ceremonies of any importance." But not aU 
 churinga are bull-roarers. In any case, they are 
 eminently sacred. They may not be touched or even 
 seen at close quarters by women or by young men who 
 have not l)een initiated into the religions life. They 
 are kept in a special place, a kind of cave, called by the 
 Arunta ertnatulunga, which they render so sacred that 
 it is regarded as a sanctuary of the totemic group and as 
 a place of asylum. Their properties are such that they 
 can heal wounds, make the beard grow, and give men 
 force, courage, and perseverance. They may be lent to 
 another group, but when this happens, the original 
 possessors weep and lament for two weeks. " They are 
 taken care of, they are greased, rubbed, polished, and 
 when they are moved from one locality to another, it is 
 in the midst of ceremonies which bear witness to the
 
 Ciagat 
 
 108 
 
 Circumcision 
 
 fact that this displacement is regarded as an act of the 
 highest importance." According to Spencer and Gillen. 
 the ehuringa owe their power and sanctity to the fact 
 that they serve as the residence of an ancestor's soul: 
 according to Strehlow, to the fact that they are re- 
 garded as the image of the ancestor's body or as the 
 body itself. Durkheim holds that their religious nature 
 is due to the totemic stamp which they bear. It is the 
 emblem tliat is sacred. See fimile Durkheim. 
 
 CIAGAT. A god worshipped by the Nicarao (of 
 Nicaragua) He is probably identical with the Mexican 
 Quetzalcoatl. 
 
 CICOLLUIS. Cicolluis was one of the names given 
 by the ancient Celts to a god who corresponded to the 
 Roman Mars. He was pairetl with the goddess Litavis 
 (.Q-v.). 
 
 CIOACOATL. Cioaooatl or Chalehihuitlicue was the 
 name of a goddess worshipped by the ancient Mexicans, 
 the goddess of Water. She w^as the wife of Tlaloe 
 (Q-v.). 
 
 CIPALTONAL. The chief goddess of the Nicarao (of 
 Nicaragua). She was equivalent to the Mexican Cipac- 
 tonal. With the help of the god Tamagostad. she 
 created the earth and mankind. 
 
 CIRCELLIONS. Another name for the CIRCUM- 
 CELLIONS (q.v.). 
 
 CIRCLE, THE. In the 13th century the circle was 
 used in Christian art as a symbol of (5od. Three 
 entwined circles, denoting the indissoluble union of the 
 three persons, " were used as an abstract or geometric 
 symbol of the Trinity " (Sidney Heath). The circle 
 also symbolises eternity. 
 
 CIRCUITORES. Another name for the Oircumcel- 
 Jions (Q.V.). 
 
 CIRCUMAMBULATION. A mode of worship prac- 
 tised by the Hindus and other primitive folk. The wor- 
 shipper must always keep his right side towards the 
 object worshipped, following the course of the sun. 
 Monier-Williams .saw poor women who were probably 
 not able to have a sacred Tulasi plant in their own 
 homes. He noticed in one village, especially, " a woman 
 who was in the act of walking 108 times round the 
 eacred plant with her right shoulder always turned 
 towards it. Her simple object, no doubt, was to pro- 
 pitiate the goddess with a view to securing long life for 
 her hu.sband and gaining a large family of sons for her- 
 self." Even sacred rivers are circumambulated. In 
 the ca.se of the Ganges, this takes .six years (see Monier- 
 Williams). Amongst the Lamas of Tibet, it is the custom 
 to proceed with the right hand to the wall in approaching 
 the door of a temple. The Romans observed a similar 
 practice in circumambulating temples. The Druids, on 
 the other hand, kept the sacred structure to the left of 
 them. Mr. Waddell points out that in the Scotch high- 
 lands "to make the deaxil " is to " walk thrice in the 
 direction of the sun's course around those" whom one 
 wishes well. See L. A. Waddell. 
 
 CIRCrMCELLIONS. The Cireumcellions were re- 
 ligious fanatics who took advantage of the strife between 
 the Donatists (see DONATISM) and their opponents. 
 They are commonly regarded as a section of the Dona- 
 tists; but they were not desirable allies, and the Dona- 
 tists themselves suffered by rea.son of their excesses. 
 " It was a period of much social distress and disturbance 
 Sn Africa. The Donatists, as ecclesiastical rebels, pro- 
 vided a rallying-point for all the discontented and 
 seditious elements in the population. There was a break- 
 down of social order. Bands of disix)ssessed peasants 
 and escaped slaves infested the country, committing 
 abominable outrages and exposing themselves to death 
 with fanatical enthusiasm. Thev sought to make 
 
 common cause with the Donatists, and called themselves 
 milites Christ! agonistici, but are better known as cir- 
 cumcelliones, ' hut-haunters.' The Donatists were dis- 
 credited by these excesses, and suffered in their sup- 
 pression " (Hastings' Encyclopaedia). In A.D. 411, when 
 Marcellinus, proconsul of Africa under the Emperor 
 Honorius, pronounced sentence against the Donatists, 
 he commanded that " if they have Cireumcellions about 
 them, and do not restrain and repress the excesses of 
 these men, they shall be deprived of their places In the 
 state." They were not totally suppressed until after 
 A.D. 429, for they rendered assistance to (Jenseric, king 
 of the Vandals, in his expeditions through Africa. See 
 Schaff-Herzog, KeJlgions Encyclopaedia; 3. H. Blunt; 
 Wace and Piercy; Hastings' E.R.E., vol. iv., 1911. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION. Circumcision, the cutting away of 
 the foreskin, was a rite common to a number of Semitic 
 peoples in ancient times. It was practised by the ancient 
 Arabs, and by the Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabites, 
 as ■well as by the Hebrews. It was practised also by 
 non-Semitic races. According to Herodotus and Philo, 
 all Egyptians were circumcised; and according to other 
 ancient writers the rite originated in Egypt and thence 
 spread to the other peoples of Africa and to the Semites 
 of Asia. In any ca.se, as L. H. Gray say? (Hastings' 
 E.R.E.). the operation was practised almost everywhere 
 except in Europe and non-Semitic Asia. " The Indo- 
 Germanic peoples, the Mongols, and the Finno-Ugric 
 races (except where they have been influenced by 
 Muhammadanism) alone are entirely unacquainted with 
 it. It can scarcely have been praeti.sed in pre-Aryan 
 India (obviously we have no data regarding pre-Indo- 
 Germanie Europe), for there is no allusion to it in Sans- 
 krit literature, and no trace of it in modem India, 
 even among peoples untouched by Hindu civilization." 
 The real reasons for the operation are diflBcult to deter- 
 mine. Benzinger (Encycl. Bibl.) thinks that, in general, 
 circumcision is to be regarded as a ritual tribal mark. 
 It marked the initiation of the full-grown man into full 
 membership of his clan. This involved something 
 more. " Like all other initiation ceremonies of the kind 
 in the Semitic religions, circumcism had attributed to 
 it also the effect, of accomplishing a sacramental com- 
 munion, bringing about a union with the godhead." It 
 should be noted, however, that among many peoples 
 (including the ancient Arabs) the operation has been 
 performed uix>n women as well as upon men. G. A. 
 Barton is perhaps right in saying (Hastings) that in the 
 beginning Semitic circumcision would .seem to have been 
 a sacrifice to the goddess of fertility. " Whether it was 
 intended to ensure the blessing of the goddess, and so 
 to secure more abundant offspring, or whether it was 
 considered as the .sacrifice of a part instead of the whole 
 of the person, we may not clearly determine, though 
 the writer regards the former alternative as the more 
 probable." The idea of a sacrifice seems to be pre- 
 sent in a custom found among the Borans. " The Borans, 
 on the southern borders of Abyssinia, propitiate a sky- 
 spirit called Wak by sacrificing their children and cattle 
 to him. Among them when a man of any standing 
 marries, he becomes a Raba, as it is called, and for a 
 certain period after marriage, probably four to eight 
 years, he must leave any children that are bom to him 
 to die in the bush. No Boran cares to contemplate the 
 fearful calamities with which Wak would visit him if 
 he failed to discharge this duty. After he ceases to be 
 a Raba, a man is circumcised and becomes a Gudda. 
 The sky-spirit has no claim on the children bom after 
 their father's circumcision, but they are sent away at a 
 very early age to be reared by the Wata, a low caste of 
 hunters. They remain with these people till they are
 
 Circumcision, Feast of 
 
 109 
 
 Clairaudience 
 
 grown up, and then return to their families " (J. G. 
 Frazer). Frazer tiinks that here the circumcision of 
 the father seems to be regarded as " an atoning sacrifice 
 which redeems the rest of his children from the spirit to 
 whom thev would otherwise belong." He thinks that 
 the story told by the Israelites (Exodus iv. 24-26) to 
 account "for the origin of circumcision " seems also to 
 suggest that the custom was supposed to save the life 
 of the child by giving the deity a substitute for it." In 
 the early days of Christianity the Judaeo-Christians 
 wi.shed to retain the rite of circumcision, but the Apostle 
 Paul was instrumental in abolishing it. The Christian 
 rite of baptism came to be substituted for it. The .Tews 
 circumcise ciildren on the eighth day after birth (Geu. 
 xvii. 12; Luke i. 59. ii. 21), and, as in Christian l>aptism. 
 the name is given at the same time. But originally iu 
 both cases the rites may be supposed to have been cele- 
 brated at a later date, when the children attained 
 pubertv. See Schaff-Herzog ; Encycl. Bibl.; Cliamhem' 
 Encucf.; Hastings' E.R.E.: 3. G. Frazer, G.B., Pt. iii., 
 1912. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION, FEAST OF. In Judaism a father 
 is required by the Mosaic Code to have his son circum- 
 cised on the eighth day after birth as a " sign " of the 
 covenant with Abraham. The father in his benediction 
 terms this act " admission into the covenant of Abra- 
 ham "; but K. Kohler emphasises the fact that Cireum- 
 ci.sion is not a sacrament among the Jews, and does not 
 determine membership in the Jewish community. Many 
 rabbis have indeed held that Circumcision gave the Jew 
 a place in " Abraham's bosom " which was denied to the 
 uncircumcised. They thus made Circumcision equiva- 
 lent to Chri.stian baptism. But according to a number of 
 imssages in the Talmud, especially in the Tosefta. Cir- 
 cumcision was not believed to have power to save a 
 sinner from Gehenna. We learn from Luke ii. 21 that 
 Jesus was circumcised, and in the Church of England 
 and of Rome the event is commemorated on the 1st of 
 January. The first mention of the feast by its present 
 name is in Canon 17 of a council held at Tours in SfiT 
 (Cath. Diet.). It was known also as the " Octave of 
 our Lord." 
 
 CISTERCIANS. An order of monks founded at 
 Citeaux fl09Rl (Cistercium: whence the name), near 
 Dijon, in Burgundy, by St. Robert. Robert became first a 
 Benedictine monk. But he wished to introduce a stricter 
 observance of the Benedictine rule than that which he 
 found to prevail. In 107.5 he retired to the forest of 
 Molesme, near Chatillon. and founded a small colony of 
 hermits there. But again he became dissatisfied with 
 the way in which the rule was observed. He retired 
 to Haur, a forest in the neighbourhood, only to be re- 
 called by the Bishop of the diocese. In 109S. however, 
 with the permission of the papal legate. Archbishop 
 Hughes of Lyons, he removed to Citeaux (Cistercium), 
 near Diion. Here he formed a community of hermits, 
 who undertook to observe strictly the rules of St. Bene- 
 dict (.see BENEDICTINES). Then a monastery was 
 built, of which Robert became Abbot. But again he was 
 recalled, and was obliged to return to Molesme. where in 
 1108 he died. The successor of Robert at Citeaux, 
 Alberic, succeeded in 1100 in having the monastery placed 
 under the direct authority of the Pope. He also drew 
 np the Statiita Monachorum Ci^tertiensium, which 
 adopted the strict observance of the rule of St. Benedict. 
 The habit of the order was changed from grey to white 
 (in the choir, but black in the streets). In the time of 
 Alberic's successor, the Englishman Stephen Harding 
 (t 1134), thirteen new monastries were founded. In 1113 
 Bernard, with a number of companions, was admitted 
 onto the Monastery of Citeaux. Two years later it 
 
 became necessary to found four new monaisteries, and 
 Bernard was sent to found one of them at Clairvaux 
 (whence his designation St. Bernard of Clairvauxj. 
 Bernard gave a great impetus to the movement. "Led 
 by St. Bernard, and following the Pope, the order occu- 
 pied one of the very first places in the Christian world. 
 It crushed the heretics, Abelard, Arnold of Brescia, the 
 Cathari, etc.: it preached the second crusade; it called 
 into life the military orders of the Templars, of Cala- 
 trava, Alcantara, Montesa, Avis, and Christ. In 1143 
 the kingdom of Portugal declared itself a fief of the 
 Abbey of Clairvaux; and in 1.57S the abbey actually tried 
 to make good its claims " (Schaff-Herzog). After St. 
 Bernard the members of the order are sometimes called 
 Bemardines. The Cistercians, under the strict observ- 
 ance of the rule of St. Benedict, abstained from meat, 
 fish, eggs and grease, and usually from milk. They 
 fasted from Septemiber 14th to Ea.ster. But after the 
 middle of the thirteenth century the discipline of the 
 order began to be relaxed, and the order itself began to 
 decline. In 1475, by a brief of Pope Sixtus IV., the 
 monks of Citeaux were allowed the use of meat. In 
 1485, by order of the general chapter, it was allowed in 
 all convents on three days in the week. There were 
 protests against this which in course of time took the 
 form of new congregations (see FEUILLANTS, TRAP- 
 PISTS). There were at one time eighteen hundred 
 Cistercian abbeys. In England at the time of the dis- 
 solution, there were about one hundred houses for monks 
 or nuns. See Schaff-Herzog; Benham; the GatU. Diet.: 
 Brockhaus. 
 
 CITBOLONTUM. A tribal deity, god of medicine, in 
 the religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 CITY TEMPLEISM. A name which was given to 
 the New Theology ((/.r.), or the teaching of Mr. R. J. 
 Campbell, formerly minister of the Cit.v Temple, London. 
 
 CITY, THE. It has been pointed out by L. R. Famell 
 and others that in many cases the very origin of the 
 poli.^ or city was religious. " We have evidence that 
 before the Homeric period the exclusive tribal-religious 
 system had been transcended, and that certain tribes 
 might share and maintain a common temple; for 
 instance, the Delphic Amphiktyony had arisen before 
 society had become predominatingly civic. The temple 
 would be surrounded with sacrosanct ground, and this 
 would serve as a rallying place for commerce and social 
 union. Adjacent habitations could naturall.v arise, and 
 the settlement could grow into a city, just as. in our 
 early Middle Ages, a town might arise under the .shadow 
 of a monastery. The name ' Preston ' points to such an 
 origin; and names of cities such as ' Athemse* the .settle- 
 ments of Athena, Alalkomenai the .settlements of Athena 
 Alalkomene, Potniai ' of the mistress,' Megara ' the 
 nether shrine of Demeter,' indicate the same process of 
 development. In these cases the temple is the nucleus of 
 the expanding communit.v. But also when, as perhaps 
 happened more frequently, .secular motives such as mili- 
 tary security prompted the foundation, the bond that 
 holds the city together is none the less religious " (L. R. 
 Farnell). See L. R. Pamell, Oreek Religion. 
 
 CIUAPIPILTIN. A name given to certain Mexican 
 goddesses, goddesses of the cross-roads, who were 
 thought to be the spirits of women who had died in child- 
 birth. Since they were supposed to haunt cross-roads, 
 temples were built and offerings made there to placate 
 them. They were liable to afflict children with various 
 diseases. 
 
 CLAIRAUDIENCE. It is well known that Socrates 
 believed that a familiar spirit attended him and spoke 
 to him sometimes, giving him advice. This advice 
 generally took the form of a warning against some
 
 Clairvoyance 
 
 110 
 
 Coat, The Holy 
 
 approaching danger. It is believed now that this and 
 many other instances of the hearing of voices can be 
 explained in the light of the modern study of psychic 
 phenomena. Socrates, says Mr. Hudson, " was endowed 
 with that rare faculty which, in one way or another, 
 belongs to all men of true genius, and which enabled 
 him to draw from the storehouse of subjective know- 
 ledge In his case the threshold of consciousness was so 
 easily displaced that his subjective mind was able at 
 will to communicate with his objective mind in words 
 audible to his senses. This phenomenon is known to 
 spiritists as clairaudience." See T. J. Hudson. 
 
 CLAIRVOYANCE. The word has been defined to 
 mean "the alleged power of seeing things not present 
 to the senses." The power has been claimed as one 
 of the phenomena of spiritism, and spiritists profess 
 to be able to see things which are happening at a dis- 
 tance. T. J. Hudson says that " certainly the great bulk 
 of phenomena which are popularly regarded as evincing 
 clairvoyant power must now be referred to telepathy. 
 It must be said, however, that many phenomena have 
 been produced which cannot at present be accounted for 
 on any other hypothesis than that of independent clair- 
 voyance. Yet it is not impossible that, when the laws 
 of telepathy are better understood, all so-called clair- 
 voyant phenomena may be referred to that agency." Op. 
 TELEPATHY. See T. J. Hudson; Joseph Lapponi, 
 Hypnotism and Spiritism, 1907. 
 
 CLAPHAM SECT. A name given by Sydney Smith 
 (1771-1845) to a group of Evangelical philanthropists of 
 the Church of England. They were so called because 
 they lived in Clapham. One of them was the Vicar of 
 Clapham, John Venn (1759-1813), a founder of the Church 
 Missionary Society. Others were : Henry Thornton 
 (1760-1815), first Treasurer of the Society for Missions, 
 which became afterwards the Church Missionary 
 Society; William Wilberforce (1759-1833), who carried 
 the Bill for the abolition of slavery through the House 
 of Commons; Granville Sharp (1735-1813), who formu- 
 lated the principle " that as soon as any slave sets foot 
 upon English territory he becomes free"; Zachary 
 Macaulay (1768-18.38), editor of the " Christian Observer," 
 which was devoted to tie cause of the abolition 
 of the British slave-trade; James Stephen (1758-1832), 
 who resigned his seat in the House of Commons because 
 the Government refused to support the registration of 
 slaves; and John Shore or Baron Teignmouth (1751-1834), 
 the first President of the British and Foreign Bible 
 Society. " The influence exerted by the co-operation of 
 these men, and of the friends who came to visit them — 
 men like Simeon and Dean Milner and Clarkson — ^was of 
 vast importance in its day. The abolition of the slave 
 trade, leading on to the abolition of slavery itself, was 
 the work of this coterie. The Evangelical party found 
 here their chief rendezvous. They started the Christian 
 Observer, the only religious periodical of the day worth 
 notice: they were the founders of the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, and of Exeter Hall as a place for religious 
 meetings; and they wrought greatly on behalf of Church 
 Missions to the heathen " (W. Benham, Dictionarti). 
 See Sir James Stephen, JUssaiis in Ecclesiastical 
 Biography. 1849; Benham; the D.N.B. 
 
 CLARISSES. The order of the Nuns of St. Clare. 
 See POOR CLARES. 
 
 CLEMENT, EPISTLES OF. See APOSTOLIC 
 FATHERS. 
 
 CLEWER SISTERHOOD, THE. A Church of Eng- 
 land Sisterhood founded at Clewer near Windsor in 
 1849. The Sisters are engaged in educational work 
 and in the conduct of Penitentiaries, Orphanages, and 
 Convalescent Homes. Their Manual " advocates Auri- 
 
 cular Confession, the Real Presence, the Eucharistie 
 Sacrifice as a propitiation, and Prayers for the Dead " 
 (Walsh). See Walter Walsh, " Sisterhoods, Ritualistic," 
 in the Prot. Diet. 
 
 CLINICAL BAPTISM. In the early Christian Church 
 persons who received baptism on the sick-bed were called 
 clinici (from the Greek kline "a bed "). The.y were of 
 course baptised by the sprinkling or pouring of water 
 over them, and in their case this form of baptism was con- 
 sidered valid. But clinici who recovered were not as a 
 rule allowed to be ordained. This was decreed by the 
 Council of Neo-Cassarea (314 A.D.). The exceptions were 
 to be made only when there was a great want of clergy, 
 or when clinici had proved themselves to be particularly 
 zealous Christians. See SehafE-Herzog; Benham; the 
 Cath. Diet. 
 
 CLUNY, CONGREGATION OF. The Congregation of 
 Cluny or Clugny represents a movement for the reform 
 of the monastic life towards the end of the ninth century 
 A.D. A new monastery was founded by Berno, Abbot 
 of Gigny, in 912, at Clugny (Oluniacum) in Burgundy, 
 and endowed by William Duke of Aquitaine. The 
 reform took the form of a very strict observance of the 
 rule of St. Benedict. It met with such favour and 
 success that many other monasteries attached themselves 
 to it. The rules of the Congregation (Oonsuetudines 
 Cluniaeenses) were finally collected by Peter the Vener- 
 able, the ninth abbot, whose authority was recognised 
 by two thousand convents. The monastery of Cluny 
 was the largest in Christendom. Its church, which was 
 consecrated in 1131 by Pope Innocent II., " was one of 
 the most magnificent built during the Middle Ages, orna- 
 mented with wall and glass pictures, and embroidered 
 tapestries, and stocked with furniture of gold and 
 bronze " (Schaff-Herzog). From the beginning of the 
 twelfth century, however, the Congregation had begun to 
 decline. In the thirteenth century discipline was greatly 
 relaxed. At the Revolution the property of the Con- 
 gregation of Cluny was confiscated by the Republican 
 Government. The church was sold to the town of Cluny, 
 and was then pulled down. In England, at the time of 
 the dissolution there were thirty-two Cluniac houses. 
 See Schaff-Herzog; Benham; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 COADJUTOR. In ecclesiastical usage, the term Coad- 
 jutor denotes " the assistant of an ecclesiastic who by 
 sickness or age is prevented from fulfilling the duties 
 of his ofl5ce, and may be appointed temporarily or per- 
 petually " (Schaff-Herzog). In ancient times it was not 
 considered proper to appoint a successor to a bishop 
 while the bishop was still alive. In the Church of Eng- 
 land it was provided by Act of Parliament in 1869 that 
 an Archbishop or Bishop, if incapacitated, might retire 
 with a pension. A successor, a C!oadjutor Bishop, is 
 then elected and consecrated in the usual way. In the 
 Church of Rome the Pope himself decides upon the right 
 course of action. It was decreed by the Council of Trent 
 that coadjutors " should be appointed at cathedral 
 churches and monasteries only in cases of absolute neces- 
 sity, and that they should never acquire the right of suc- 
 cession, except after a careful investigation of all circum- 
 stances by the Pope " (Schaff-Herzog). See Schaff- 
 Herzog; Edward L. Cutts; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 COAT, THE HOLY. The relic known as the Holy 
 Coat of Treves is preserved in the Cathedral of Treves. 
 It has been claimed that it is the seamless coat worn by 
 Jesus at the time of his Passion (.lohn xix. 23). Accord- 
 ing to the " Gesta Trevirorum," the Empress Helena 
 became possessed of it in the Holy Land and sent it 
 (about 326 A.D.) to Treves. But there are several trad- 
 itions. According to one of the legends it was brought to 
 Treves by a maiden, and as she drew near to the city
 
 Coatlicue 
 
 111 
 
 Code of Holiness, The 
 
 all the bells began to toll. In 1512 the coat was exposed 
 for the veneration of the faithful. On the occasion of 
 its exposure in 1844, in the presence of eleven bishops 
 and more than a million layment, several miraculous 
 cures are said to have taken place. This led to a long 
 controversy regarding the authenticity of the Coat, and 
 to the secession of a number of members of the Church, 
 who formed a new body called the " German Catholic 
 Church " (Deutschkatholilien). The Coat was exposed 
 as recently as 1891. when a number of cures were again 
 reported. See William Benham; Schaff-Herzog ; the 
 Cath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 COATLICUE. One of tie deities of the ancient Mexi- 
 cans. She was the mother of the War-god Huitzilo- 
 pochtli (q.v.), and became, when translated to heaven, 
 the Goddess of Flowers. 
 
 COCCEIA^'S. A school of theologians in Holland 
 which was led by J. Cocceius (1603-1669). a professor at 
 Leiden. In 1669 Cocceius published a Hebrew Lexicon. 
 But his peculiar system of theology, the Covenant or 
 Federal Theology, was expounded in a work published 
 in 1648, " Summa Doctrinae de Foedere et Testamento 
 Dei." He develops the idea of two covenants made by 
 God with man, the first covenant, or covenant of works, 
 made witJi Adam, and the second covenant, or covenant 
 of grace, made with Christ. Cocceius " maintained that 
 there is a strict unity between the Old and the New 
 Testament, that a proper interpretation of the former 
 makes it full of evangelical revelations, and that the 
 fulness of the Divine Word is such that its language 
 must bear many meanings, suited to many times and 
 persons. It became a common saying that Cocceius saw 
 Christ everywhere in the Old Testament, but that 
 Grotius saw him nowhere " (J. H. Blunt). See J. H. 
 Blunt; Brockhaus. 
 
 COCIDIUS. Cocidius was one of the names given by 
 the ancient Celts to the war-god, a deity corresponding 
 to the Roman Mars. Reverence was paid to Cocidius in 
 ancient Britain. 
 
 COCK, THE. In China if there has been delav in 
 burying a coffin, "it is not unusual to see on the "way 
 to the grave a live white cock with its feet tied standing 
 upon the catafalque." From ancient times the Chinese 
 have regarded the cock as an emblem of the sun. A 
 Chinese book says : " The cock is the emblem of the 
 accumulated Yang (i.e. the sun) and of the South. 
 Etherial things which partake of the character of fire 
 and of the Xang element, have the property of flaming 
 up; hence, when the Tang rises above the' horizon the 
 cock crows, because things of the same nature influence 
 each other." The cock seems therefore to be placed 
 upon the catafalque liecause it contains Xang matter or 
 vital energy. Another reason is that it is supposed to 
 keep away spirits of darkness. It is commonly believed, 
 moreover, that these cannot withstand daylight, and are 
 put to flight every morning by the cock's crowing. To 
 impart vitality to a soul-tablet marks are made on it 
 with blood taken from the comb of a cock. When per- 
 sons are lingering between life and death, or even when 
 they are dead, the blood of a cock is supposed to have 
 power to revive them. In funeral processions white 
 cocks are preferred. In ancient times thev were also 
 preferred for exorcising purposes. See f. J. M. de 
 Groot, 7?..S'.C. Modem European Jews observe a cere- 
 mony in which a cock or hen (preferablv a white one) 
 plays a part. The bird serves as a kind of vicarious 
 sacrifice on the day before the Day of Atonement. 
 Usually a male per.son takes a cock, a female a hen. 
 Psalm cvii. 17-20 and Job xxxiii. 23-24 are first recited, 
 and then, the right hand resting on the animal's head, 
 the bird is swung round the head three times. While 
 
 this is being done, these words are said three times in 
 Hebrew : " This be my substitute, my vicarious offer- 
 ing, my atonement. This cock [or hen] shall meet 
 death, but I shall find a long and pleasant life of peace." 
 The bird is afterwards killed and given to the poor; 
 or it is eaten and its equivalent in money given to the 
 poor. The ceremony bears the Xiddish name " Kap- 
 parath-Schlag." See Oesterley and Box. The cock 
 api>ears as emblem of the Attis-prie.srt in an inscription 
 on an um in the Lateran Museum at Rome. Lucian 
 speaks {Surian Goddess, § 48) of " a certain holy cock 
 who dwells hard by the lake " (the sacred lake of 
 Hierapolis). According to W. G. Wood-Martin, on some 
 of the islands off the western coast of Ireland, it is 
 the custom on St. Patrick's day to sacrifice a black 
 cock in honour of the saint. The Gadbas, a primitive 
 tribe belonging to the Vizagapatam District of Madras, 
 offer a white cock to tie sun and a red cock to the 
 moon. When the Oraons, an important Dravidian tribe 
 in India, the members of which work as farmservants 
 and labourers, celebrate at the Sarhul festival the mar- 
 riage of the sun-god and earth-mother, the former is 
 represented by a white cock and the latter by a black 
 hen. After the marriage the cock and hen are sacri- 
 ficed. The Valans, a fishing caste in Southern India, 
 hold a grand festival called Kumbhom Bharani (cock 
 festival) in the middle of March, " when Nayars and 
 low caste men offer up cocks to Bhagavathi, beseeching 
 immunity from diseases during the ensuing year " (E. 
 Thurston and K. Rangachari). S. Couling notes that 
 in Hongkong the form of oath for Chinese in Court 
 was by cutting off a cock's head. 
 
 COCK FESTIVAL. The Nayars, a Dravidian caste 
 in Malabar, hold annually at Cranganore a festival In 
 which the chief feature is the sacrifice of cocks. It ie 
 held in a temple dedicated to the goddess Kali, to which 
 many pilgrims resort. The pilgrims take with them 
 rice, salt, chillies, curry-stuffs, betel leaves and nuts, 
 a little turmeric powder and pepper, and particularly a 
 number of cocks. " The popular idea is that the greater 
 the number of cocks sacrificed, the greater is the efficacy 
 of the pilgrimage. Hence men vie with one another in 
 the number of cocks that they carry on the journey. 
 The sacrifice is begun, and then there takes place a 
 regular scramble for the sanctified spot reserved for 
 this butchering ceremony. One man holds a cock by 
 the trunk, and another pulls out its neck by the head, 
 and, in the twinkling of an eye, by the intervention of 
 a sharpened knife, the head is severed from the trunk. 
 The blood then gushes forth in forceful and continuous 
 jets, and is poured on a piece of granite specially re- 
 served. Then another is similarly slaughteretl, and then 
 as many as each of the pilgrims can bring. In no length 
 of time, the whole of the temple yard is converted into 
 one horrible expanse of blood, rendering it too slippery 
 to be safely walked over. The piteous cries and death 
 throes of the poor devoted creatures greatly intensify 
 the horror of the scene. The stench emanating from the 
 blood mixing with the nauseating smell of arrack ren- 
 ders the occasion all the more revolting " (T. K. Gopal 
 Panikkar, Malaiar and its Folk, 1900). The festival is 
 known as the Bharani. 
 
 CODDIANI. One of the names given to the Gnostics. 
 It is referred to by Epiphanius (Hwr. xxvi. 3) who 
 suggests that the name is connected with a Syriac word 
 Codda meaning a dainty side-dish. The Gnostics might 
 have been so called because they ate apart from others. 
 See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 CODE OP HOLINESS, THE. The Code of Holiness 
 or the Law of Holiness (commonly represente<l by the 
 letter H) is the name given to a priestly document
 
 Code of Khammurapi 
 
 112 
 
 Columbanus, St., Rule of 
 
 Leviticus xvii.-xxvi.) incorporated in the Hexateueh. 
 The book of the prophet Ezekiel is closely connected 
 with it, and the booklet has even been ascribed to him. 
 Another view is that it is "a codification of more 
 ancient laws by Ezekiel prior to the composition of his 
 own code." A third theory makes it later than Ezekiel, 
 but earlier than the rest of the Priests' Code. C. A. 
 Briggs is of opinion that " Ezekiel's resemblance to 
 It in many respects implies a knowledge of its legisla- 
 tion whether he knew it in its present form of codi- 
 fication or not. It is probable that Ezekiel knew of it, 
 but it is difficult to prove the existence of the code 
 prior to Ezekiel." See C. A. Briggs, Eex. 
 
 CODE OF KHAMMURAPI. A Babylonian code of 
 laws, the oldest code in the world, discovered at Susa 
 in 1901 by M. J. de Morgan. Khammurapi flourished 
 about 2100 B.C. Mr. W. St. Chad Boscawen points out 
 that, although this is the oldest code of laws, " other 
 tables of morality have existed, such as the Negative 
 Confessions in the Egyptian Book of the Dead " (see 
 BOOK OP THE DEAD). The following are examples 
 of some of the laws (in the rendering of Chilperic 
 Edwards) : 109. If rebels meet in the house of a wine- 
 seller and she does not seize them and take them to 
 the palace, that wine-seller shall be slain. 110. If a 
 priestess who has not remained in the sacred building 
 shall open a wine-shop, or enter a wine-shop for drink, 
 that woman shall be burned. 142. If a woman hate 
 her husband, and say " Thou shalt not possess me," 
 the reason for her dislike shall be inquired into. If 
 she is careful, and has no fault, but her husband takes 
 himself away and neglects her; then that woman is not 
 to blame. She shall take her dowry and go back to 
 her father's house. 143. If she has not been careful, 
 but runs out, wastes her house and neglects her hu.s- 
 band; then that woman shall be thrown into the water. 
 229. If a builder has built a house for a man, and his 
 work is not strong, and if the house he has built falls 
 In and kills the householder, that builder shall be slain. 
 2.50. If a mad bull has rushed upon a man. and gored 
 him, and killed him; that case has no remedy. 251. If 
 a man's ox is known to be addicted to goring, and he 
 has not blunted his horns, nor fastened up his ox : then 
 if his ox has gored a free man and killed him, he shall 
 give half a mina of silver. See W. St. Chad Boscawen, 
 The First of Empires, 1903: Chilperic Edwards, The 
 Oldest Laws in the Worlil, 190(i. 
 
 CCENOBITJM. Cu'nobium was the name given to the 
 place in which coenobites lived together. Their superior 
 was called koinoMarches. As distinguished from an- 
 chorites and hermits, cunobites elected to live in com- 
 mon. Their name is derived from the Greek words 
 koinos hios '• common life." The monastic community 
 of a ccr-nobinm differs from that of a laura <q.v.) to the 
 extent that the inmates of the latter have separate cells 
 and live in solitude five davs of the week. 
 
 COGITO ERGO SUM. This, according to Ren6 Des- 
 cartes (1.59C-1C50), the founder of speculative rationalism, 
 is the basic principle of all philosophy. If we are to 
 find in knowledge anything of abiding value we must 
 start, with the first grounds of Reason, and destroy all 
 conventional assumptions (De omnibus nobis dubitaudum, 
 quae incerta). One thing it is impossible to deny — the 
 fact that we exist. " For if I doubt or I deny', that 
 means I must think, and the ' I ' who thinks must 
 exist " (Butler). " I think, consequently I exist." See 
 C. J. Deter; Arthur Butler. 
 
 COOLERS. A sect founded by a man named Sirgood 
 at Kirdford in Sussex. They were also called Copiers, 
 and were believed to possess a " Book of Cople." They 
 were teetotallers, and professed to be sinless. 
 
 COLLEGE. In Roman usage the word Collegium was 
 a general term for an association. Political clubs were 
 called Colleges. There were many associations or col- 
 leges, " which, although not united by any specifically 
 religious ob.jects, had a religious c-entre in the worship 
 of some deity or other " (Seyffert). Religious societies 
 were either established by the State, or formed by 
 private individuals. In eitiier case they Had to be 
 recognised and controlled by the Government. When 
 Christian churches first arose in the Roman Empire 
 they were regarded as colleges {collegia) and were con- 
 sidered to be illegal associations (collegia illicita). In 
 modern times, apart from the ordinary uses of the term 
 college, it is used often of that part of a Cathedral 
 foundation in which the dean and Chapter reside. See 
 O. Seyffert, Diet.: the Cath. Diet.; Smith and Cheetham. 
 
 COLLEGIANTS. The followers in Holland, and 
 afterwards in Hanover, of John James, Hadrian, and 
 Gisbert van der Kodde. The sect was founded in 1619. 
 There was no official ministry. At their prayer meet- 
 ings, held t.wic-e a week, any member of the congregation 
 was allowed to pray or preach. They practised baptism 
 by immersion. For a time a division was caused in 
 the sect b.v John Bredenburg who had come under the 
 influence of the teaching of Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677), 
 but in course of time the breach was healed. See J. 
 H. Blunt. 
 
 COLLYRIDIANS. A religious sect in Arabia, re- 
 ferred to by Epiphanius. The name is derived from 
 the Greek word koUvrides, " cakes," and the sect was 
 so called because the women offered cakes or rolls to 
 JIarv and then ate them. 
 
 COLOURS, CHRISTIAN SYMBOLISM OF. The 
 various colours are used to symbolise states and qual- 
 ities. White denotes innocence, purity, virginity, faith, 
 joy, life, and light. In ritual it is used on the festivals of 
 the Circumcision, the Epiphany, Christmas, and Easter. 
 Red denotes divine love, power, regal dignity, war, 
 suffering, and especiall.v the Passion of .Tesus and the 
 martyrdom of the saints. In ritual it is used on the 
 festivals of Pentecost and of the Martyrs. Green de- 
 notes life, hope, plenty, mirth, youth, and prosperity. 
 In ritual it is used on ordinary Sundays. Violet (or 
 Purple) denotes .sorrow, passion, suffering, humility, 
 and truth. In ritual it is used during Lent, Holy Week, 
 and Advent, as well as on Septuagesima, Quinquagesima, 
 and Ash-Wednesday. Mart.vrs are depicted in purple 
 garments. Black denotes death, despair, sorrow, humili- 
 ation, and mourning. In ritual it is used on Good 
 Friday. Blue denotes sincerity, godliness, piety, and 
 divine contemplation. Bright yellow denotes brightness, 
 goodness, faith, and fruitfulness. Dull Yellow denotes 
 faithlessness, deceit, and .iealousy. See Sidney Heatli. 
 
 COLUMBANUS, ST,, RULE OF. Columbanus (about 
 54,"-61.5 A.D.) was born in Ijcinster, Ireland, and edu- 
 cated at Bangor. In !^U~> he founded a monastery on 
 the Irish model in the Vosges, a school for the practice 
 of asc-eticism and for sacred study. His work met with 
 great success. Later, when he was banished from the 
 country, he established himself in an abandoned church 
 on the shore of the Lake of Constance. Finally he 
 founded a monastery, Bobbio, on the Trebia, south of 
 Pa via. This became a centre of learning. The com- 
 munity of Columbanus claimed a large measure of in- 
 dependence. In many points its leader refused to 
 conform to the rites and niles of Rome. The life was 
 one of great austerity. The monks had to observe, as 
 far as possible, perpetual silence. Only one meal was 
 taken, consisting of common vegetables, pulse, dough, 
 and a small loaf twice-baked. Mortification had to be 
 practiced in thoughts, words and movements. Colum-
 
 Comaristae 
 
 113 
 
 Communion of Saints, The 
 
 banus is reputed to liave composed two documents con- 
 cerning his rule, the Regula Colvmbani and the Regnla 
 Canobialis Frutrum de Hibernia. " The former is a 
 thoroughly biblical direction towards a Christian life 
 in evangelical freedom : the latter orders that he who 
 neglects to make the sign of the cross over the spoon 
 before eating shall be punished by a sound whipping; 
 that he who speaks to a layman shall be punished by 
 singing a number of hymns, etc. But while the char- 
 acter of the Hegula Columbani corresponds very closely 
 with that of Columban's sermons, which are genuine, 
 the Liber Pwnitentiaiis Columbani, which corresponds 
 to the Regula Coenobialis, is evidently spurious " (Schaflf- 
 HerzogJ. See Schaff-Herzog; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 COMARISTAE. A religious sect, the members of 
 which held I'elagian views. They were so called after 
 Theodore Comartius (d. c. A.D. 1595). Another name 
 for them was New Pelagians (q.vA. 
 
 COMMANDMENTS, THE TEN. See DECALOGUE. 
 
 COMMERCE, I'ATRON SAINTS OF. There was a 
 widespread detlication during the early Middle Ages of 
 churches and fraternities to St. Nicholas of Myra in 
 Lycia, and Professor G. Unwin (in the Journal of the 
 Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society, 1916, p. 13 ff.) 
 has sought to establish a connection of these on the one 
 hand with the spread of commercial usages and gild 
 organisations from the I^evant westwards, and on the 
 other hand with the simultaneous spread of a particular 
 method of city construction and city expansion which 
 had been practised from the earliest historic times in 
 Mesoi)Otamia. and was especially exemplifle<l in the 
 foundation of Baghdad by the Caliph Mansur in 77(i 
 A.D. In the second century B.C. Delos was the prin- 
 cipal intercontinental market for slaves. " The detli- 
 cations to Isis, Hermes, and the Tyrian Hercules of the 
 fraternities with clubhouses and chapels of the 
 merchants who frequented it, point to their descent as 
 institutions from a much earlier time, whilst, on the 
 other hand, they were almost identical in their social 
 and religious character with the merchant guilds of the 
 early Middle Ages. One of the chief patron deities of 
 commerce at Delos was naturally Poseidon ; and later, 
 in the second century A.D. a gild of merchants dedi- 
 cated to Poseidon still existed at Tanais, at the mouth 
 of the Don (Minns, Scythians and Greeks). Tanais, 
 which had long been under the influence of a cosmo- 
 politan Judaism, was a frontier post of that Levantine 
 world, whose curious transitional blend of more primi- 
 tive custom with Hellenism and with Christianity has 
 been interpreted by Sir W. Ramsay and Professor 
 Calder. Fraternities, at first Pagan, but afterwards 
 Christian, played a large part in that world. The cult 
 of Poseidon amongst seafaring merchants was displaa^l 
 by the veneration of St. Nicholas of Myra in Lycia 
 (Lawton, Modern Greek Folklore) to whom a church was 
 dedicated by .Justinian at Constantinople in 530 A.D. 
 Until the rise of the Italian republics the Levantine 
 region, of which St. Nicholas thus became the tutelary 
 genius, remained the seat of acUve commerce in Europe 
 and the intermediary through which the products and 
 the technique of the more advanced industries of Meso- 
 potamia and Central Asia, China and India slowlv 
 passed into the civilisation of the West. Greek anil 
 Syrian Christians were the first agents of this inter- 
 course, as is shown by the earliest dedications of 
 Florentine churches (Davidsohn. Gesch. d. Florcnz) to 
 St. Miniata, a Greek, in 250 A.D. and to St. Reparata, 
 a Syrian, about 400 A.D. ; but after the rise of Islam 
 Arabs played a large part, and Offa's gold tribute to 
 Rome m the eighth century was paid in Arab dinars 
 (Brit, yumis. Journal, vol. v.)." From the ninth to the 
 
 twelfth century the centre of this commerce and cul- 
 ture tended to gravitate towards Baghdad. The spread 
 of St. Nicholas dedications began at the period of the 
 Crusades. " In the last decade of the eleventh century 
 Venice and Bari were contending for the possession of 
 the saint's body and a large proportion of the churches 
 erected at new ports or new markets throughout Nor- 
 thern Europe were dedicated to St. Nicholas." Unmis- 
 takable instances of the connection between St. Nicholas 
 and new settlements of traders are found at Brussels, 
 Ghent, Amsterdam, Middleburg, I^vden, Berlin, Ham- 
 burg. I..eipzig, Prankfort-on-Maine, Prague, Stockholm, 
 Paris, Rouen, Amiens, Chartres, London, Newcastle, 
 Durham, Bristol, Liverpool, Yarmouth, Rochester. There 
 are 385 dedications to St. Nicholas in England alone, 
 many of them being in insignificant villages. The rapid 
 spread of the cult of St. Nicholas at ports and markets 
 seems to indicate " the activity of Levantine influences 
 either through the migration of the traders themselves 
 or through the adoption of their methods and traditions 
 in the West." 
 
 COMMISSARY. In the Church of England a Com- 
 missary commonly denotes a clergyman or a layman 
 who acts in England for colonial bishops in matters 
 of business. The Cath. Diet, defines a Commissary as 
 an ecclesiastic who is delegated by the bishop to exer- 
 cise " a iwrtion of the episcopal .iurisdiction in a 
 particular part of the diocese, especially with reference 
 to licences, institutions, the examination of witnesses, 
 etc." 
 
 COMMISSION CREED. THE. A Creed drawn up in 
 America in 1883 A.D. by twenty-five commissioners. 
 This cree<i, consisting of twelve Articles, is, in the 
 opinion of W. A. Curtis, " one of the most successful 
 modem Declarations," and has found wide acceptance. 
 " It is catholic and evangelical in its doctrine: the 
 historic difficulties in Calvinism are passed over; the 
 language is simple, vigorous, and ai)propriate; even the 
 doctrine of the Church in Art. X. is in such terms as 
 would commend it to others than Congregationalists " 
 (W. A. Curtis). See William A. Curtis. 
 
 COMMUNION, HOLY', A name given to the Christian 
 institution (one of the Sacraments) which commemorates 
 the Last Supper of Jesus with his disciples. It is also 
 called the Lord's Supper; or the Eucharist, which means 
 Thanksgiving, because according to the gospels of St. 
 Matthew, St. Mark, and St. Luke, Jesus " gave thanks " 
 before he broke and distributed the bread. The name 
 Holy Communion emphasises the fact that " the Sacra- 
 ment is a means of conuunniou or fellowship with Christ 
 Himself, and with all those, whether living or departed, 
 who are members of His Body — the Church " (W. R. W. 
 Stephens, Book of Common Prayer). It seems to have 
 been suggested by the language of I. Corinthians x. 16. 
 
 COMMUNION OF SAINTS, THE. This expression, 
 which is a translation of the Latin commviiio sanctorum, 
 is the third clause of the third section of the Apostles' 
 Creed in its present form, that is to sa.v. of the common 
 Creed of Western Christendom. It is not found in any 
 Eastern Creed, nor is any allusion made to it in the 
 Commentary on the Apostles' Creed by Riiffinus of 
 Aquileia in Italy, which was written about 390. The 
 first allusion to it seems to have occurred in a baptismal 
 Creed of the South-Gallican Church, which is at least 
 a century later. According to Heurtley, the clause can 
 hardly be regarded as established before the close of the 
 eighth century. It was therefore an insertion in the 
 original creed. It is not even certain what the clause 
 means. The Latin expression may, and has been, trans- 
 lated " communion of sacred tihings." The earliest 
 comments take sanctorum to refer to persons rather
 
 Communism, Religious 
 
 114 
 
 Concordat 
 
 than things. The Catechism of the Council of Trent 
 takes it to refer to things rather than to persons, that 
 is to say to participation in the Sacraments. Calvin 
 explains : " Everyone of us must maintain brotherly 
 concord with all the sheep of the flock, give due 
 authority to the Church, and, in short, conduct ourselves 
 as sheep of the flock." According to the Heidelberg 
 Catechism, the clause means : " First, that believers, 
 all and several, have communion in Christ and all His 
 blessings, as His members; then, that each member is 
 bound promptly and gladly to contribute the blessings 
 he has received to the common good and to the salvation 
 of all." It is contended by some of the Catholics of 
 the Church of England that belief in the Communion 
 of Saints involves prayers for the dead. According to 
 the Roman Catechism the clause is an explanation of 
 the foregoing vcords, " I believe in the holy Catholic 
 Church." The Cath. Did. explains : •' The communion 
 of saints consists in the union of the Church on earth, 
 and connects the Church on earth vfith the Church 
 suffering in Purgatory and triumphant in heaven." See 
 the Prot. Diet. 
 
 COMMUNISM, RELIGIOUS. A movement of the 
 nature of Religious Communism was promoted by Maz- 
 dak, son of Bambad, a Persian of Susiana. According 
 to the Arab historian Tabari (83S-923 A.D.), Mazdak 
 counselled his followers to possess their estate and 
 families in common, as an act of piety acceptable to 
 God. God had placed the means of livelihood in the 
 world that his servants might freely share them, but 
 men had wronged each other and done injury to the 
 poor. Mazdak forbade the slaughter of animals for food, 
 and was himself an ascetic. He regarded his teaching 
 as the revival of true Zoroastrianism. " Whatever the 
 excesses of his followers, he appeared to have sincerely 
 believed that the triumph of his communistic anarchy 
 meant the defeat of the evil powers — the task which 
 long ago Zoroaster had set before the nation " (F. W. 
 Bussell). 
 
 COMMUNITY OF THE RESURRECTION, THE. An 
 Anglican Brotherhood, which was founded in 1892, and 
 consists of celibate clergy who live under rule and with 
 a common purse, and devote themselves to pastoral, 
 evangelistic, literary, and educational works. See 
 BROTHERHOODS, MODERN ANGLICAN. 
 
 COMPANIONS OF MUHAMMAD. Muhammad is re- 
 ported to have said : " God has chosen my Companions 
 before all the worlds, with the exception of the proiiheta 
 and the apostles." The Companions rank next after the 
 prophets and apostles. Ne.xt come the Followers, men 
 " who lived and had intercourse with the Companions 
 even if but for a short time." Then come the Followers 
 of the Followers; and after these the Khalifs (g.v.). 
 
 COMPITALIA. A popular Roman festival held in 
 honour of the " lares compitales," that is to say, of the 
 Lares, the good spirits of the departed, regarded as 
 tutelary divinities of the cross-ways (cornpita). The 
 festival was held four times a year. W. Warde Fowler 
 thinks that the Lar was an object of worship on the 
 land before it became such in the house. " The oldest 
 Lar of whom we know anything was one of a char- 
 acteristic Roman group of which the individuals lived 
 in the cornpita, i.e. the spots where the land belonging 
 to various households met, and where there were chapels 
 with as many faces as there were properties, each face 
 containing an altar to a Lar, — the presiding spirit of 
 that allotment, or rather i^erhaps of the whole of the 
 land of the familia, including that on which the house 
 stood." The rejoicing, in which the whole familia, both 
 bond and free, took part was free and jovial. " Each 
 familia sacrificed on its own altar, which was placed 
 
 fifteen feet in front of the compitum, so that the wor- 
 shippers might be on their own land; but if, as we may 
 suppose, the whole pagus celebrated this rite on the same 
 day, there was in this festival, as in others ... a 
 social value, a means of widening the outlook of the 
 familia and associating it with the needs of others in 
 it5 religious duties." At the festival of the Compitalia, 
 as at the Paganalia, small images of the human figure 
 or round balls were hung on trees or doorways that 
 they might swing in the wind. The common name for 
 these figures was oscilla, but those of the Compitalia had a 
 special name, maniae, of which the meaning has been lost. 
 For the meaning of this custom see SWINGING, and cp. 
 PAGANALIA. See O. Seyffert, Diet.; W. Warde Fowler. 
 
 COMPLINE. Compline was added by St. Benedict 
 in the sixth century to the six Hours of Prayer which 
 had previously been observed by devout Christians. See 
 further CANONICAL HOURS. 
 
 COMPLUTENSIAN POLYGLOT, THE. An early 
 printed edition of the Bible. It derived its name from 
 Complutum, the Latin designation of Alcala de Henares, 
 a town in Spain. At the University of Alcald Cardinal 
 Francis Ximenes de Cisneros (1437-1517), Archbishop of 
 Toledo, began in 1502 to prepare an edition of the Bible. 
 It was to be a Polyglot, for his idea was to give in the 
 Old Testament the Greek and Latin translations by the 
 side of the Hebrew text, and in the New Testament the 
 Latin translation by the side of the Greek text. The 
 New Testament was finished first, and was printed, but 
 not published, in 1514. The Old Testament was printed, 
 but not published, in 1517. The volumes did not receive 
 the approval of Pope Leo X. until March 22, 1520, and 
 do not appear to have been in circulation before 1522. 
 Dr. C. R. Gregory points out that in reference to the 
 Old Testament the editors already reveal a tendency to 
 overestimate the Latin Text of the Bible. " For, re- 
 ferring to the fact that they had placed the Latin text 
 in the middle and the Hebrew and Greek at the sides, 
 they said that the Latin text was like Jesus between 
 the two thieves." See C. R. Gregory. 
 
 CON. Con or Cun, the " lord " or " father " of the 
 mountains is a god of thunder worshipped by the Indians 
 of the Andes. In time of drought he is appealed to 
 to send rain. His sacred bird is the condor. Since a 
 thunderstorm brings fertilising rain, a thunder-god 
 comes to be regarded as a god of fertility. See J. G. 
 Frazer, The Maqic Art, 1911. 
 
 CONCH-SHELL, THE. Conch-shell trumpets were 
 employed in temple services in Crete in Minoan times, 
 and have long been in use as sacred instruments among 
 the Hindus. Their use has been recorded also among 
 the natives of Oceania and America. " The conch, which 
 is necessary in every Hindu temple, is loudly sounded 
 in the early morning, primarily to wake the deity, and 
 secondarily to rouse the villagers. Again, when the 
 temple service commences, and when the nivedya or 
 offering is carried, the music of the conch is heard from 
 the northern side of the temple " (E. Thurston and K. 
 Rangachari). Some of the Marans, whose traditional 
 occupation is sounding or playing on the sacred instru- 
 ments, call themselves Vadakku-purattu, or belonging to 
 the northern side. 
 
 CONCLAVE. The assembly of cardinals convened for 
 the election of a new Pope, and the place where they 
 assemble. 
 
 CONCORDAT. A concordat is defined in the Oath. 
 Diet, as " a treaty between the Holy See and a secular 
 State touching the conservation and promotion of the 
 interests of religion in that State." The more famous 
 concordats include that of Worms (1122), between Calixtus 
 II. and the Emperor Henry V., which settled the
 
 Confessio Bohemica 
 
 115 
 
 Coafirmatioa 
 
 question of investiture in such a way aa "to leave intact 
 In theory the universal pastorate of the successors of 
 Peter":" that of Frankfort or Vienna (1446-S) between 
 Popes Eugenius IV.. Nicholas V. and the Emperor 
 Frederic III., which agreed " to divide in a particular 
 manner the patronage of ecclesiastical dignities in Ger- 
 many " ; that of 1515, between Leo X. and Francis I. 
 by which the pragmatic sanction of Charles VII. was 
 abolished, and the nomination to vacant bishoprics and 
 abbeys was resigned to the crown of France; and that 
 of ISOl, between Pius VII. and the first Napoleon, by 
 which the public practice of their religion was restored 
 to the French nation. 
 
 CONFESSIO BOHEMICA. A confession of faith 
 prepared for the Bohemian Brethren at Prague (1575) 
 by a number of learned divines. The Emperor, Maxi- 
 milian II., attended a Diet at which it was presented 
 to him. ■' It was a compromise between the teaching 
 of Luther, and the teaching of the Brethren. In its 
 doctrine of justification by faith it followed the teaching 
 of Luther : in its doctrine of the Lord's Supi^er it in- 
 clined to the broader evangelical view of the Brethren." 
 See J. E. Button, Hist, of the Moravian Church. 1909. 
 
 CONFESSIO HUNGARICA. The Confessio Hungarica 
 (1570 A.D.), also called the Confession of Czenger, was 
 in the main the work of Peter Melius. W. A. Curtis 
 describes it as " the last and most important of a series 
 of Synodic Declarations against the Unitarian movement 
 in Hungary." 
 
 CONFESSIO HUNGAKORUM. A Hungarian Confes- 
 sion of Faith. It was drawn up by Peter Melius, and 
 was ratified by Synod. This Confessio Hungarorum 
 (1560-62) " is the first general Calvinist Confession of 
 the Church dealing with election and other topics, doc- 
 trinal and ecclesiastical " (W. A. Curtis). It is also 
 called the Confession of Debreczen, or Confessio Agri- 
 vallensis, or Confessio Catholica. 
 
 CONFESSION. In the religion of the Mayan Indians 
 " confession is made to the cacique, or local chief, if a 
 member of the community is seriously ill and the patient 
 believes that some sin of his commission may be the 
 cause " (T. A. Jovce, M.A.). 
 
 CONFESSION (OF A MARTYR). Confessio or Con- 
 fession, used as the equivalent of the Greek term 
 marturion, has been applied from early times to the 
 tomb of a martyr. " If an altar was erected over the 
 grave, then the name ' confession ' was given to the 
 tomb, the altar, and the cublculum or subterranean 
 chamber, in which they stood " (Cath. Diet.). In the 
 Vatican basilica there is a famous " confession " of St. 
 Peter. See the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CONFESSION OF SEVEN CHURCHES IN LONDON. 
 A Baptist Confession of Faith (1644 A.D.). Baptist 
 divines were excluded from the Westminster Assembly 
 (g.v.). They therefore published this Confession, in 
 fifty-two articles, " for the vindication of the truth and 
 information of the ignorant : likewise for the taking off 
 of those aspersions which are frequently both In pulpit 
 and print unjustly cast upon them." W. A. Curtis de- 
 scribes the articles as " Calvlnlstlc throughout, apart 
 from the Sacraments and Church polity." 
 
 CONFESSION OP THE AMERICAN FREE-WILL 
 BAPTISTS. A Confession of Faith in twenty-one 
 chapters. It was revised a third time In 1868. This 
 Confession " is the most important and authoritative 
 statement of Arminian Baptist views " (W. A. Curtis). 
 
 CONFESSION OF THE FRANKFORT COMMUNITY 
 OF FOREIGNERS. A Confession of Faith (1554 A.D.) 
 drawn up on behalf of exiles. In 1551 A.D. those who 
 had taken refuge in London presented to Edward VI. 
 a statement of their beliefs, " Compendium Doctrinae," 
 
 composed by Martin Micron. The Frankfort Confession 
 "is a revision of the earlier compendium under the 
 influence of John k Lasco, their leader In England, and 
 of Calvin " (W. Curtis). 
 
 CONFESSION OF WATERLAND, THE. A Men- 
 nonite Confession of Faith (1580 A.D.) drawn up In 
 Dutch by De Rles and Gerardl. It Is the most Im- 
 portant of the Mennonite Confessions. " It consists of 
 forty Articles, which deny the guilt of original or trans- 
 mitted sin, affirm the conditional election of all, and 
 universal atonement, condemn oaths, war, civil office, 
 litigation, revenge, worldly amusements, infant baptism 
 as unscriptural ; approve of obedience to civil magistrates 
 in all things not contrary to conscience and God's word; 
 but on other points conform to the normal tenets of 
 Protestantism " (W. A. Curtis). 
 
 CONFESSOR. In ecclesiastical usage the term Con- 
 fessor has been used with different shades of meaning. 
 In the early Christian Church it denoted at first one 
 who confessed Christ by suffering death for him. It 
 was thus synonymous with the earlier term Martyr 
 (q.i\). In course of time, however, the word martyr 
 was reserved for those who suffered death, while con- 
 fessor was used of one who had displayed heroic sanctity 
 and endured great suffering without dying. The term 
 came also to be used of models of Christian piety who 
 had not been exposed to great suffering. Thus in the 
 calendar of the Anglican Church men like Augustine 
 and .Terome are called Confessors. In the Roman Missal 
 and Breviary the term Is used of " all male saints who 
 do not fall under some special class, such as Martyr, 
 Apostle, Evangelist " (Cath. Diet.). The word was 
 sometimes used of a singer or chorister, one who con- 
 fessed to God with his voice in divine worship, and it 
 is still so used in the Roman Catholic office on Good 
 Friday. It was used again of one who confessed his 
 sins, and so of a monk who devoted himself to a life 
 of penitence. Finally, in the Roman Catholic Church 
 it is used to denote the priest who hears confessions 
 (confe.ssarius). See Eenham; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CONFIRMATION. The Biblical Feast of Weeks or 
 Festival of the First Fruits was transformed by Rab- 
 binical .Judaism into a historical feast when it was 
 made the memorial day of the giving of the Ten Words 
 on Mount Sinai. " The leaders of Reform Judaism 
 surrounded the day with new charm by the introduction 
 of the confirmation ceremony, thus rendering it a feast 
 of consecration of the Jewish youth to the ancient 
 covenant, of yearly renewal of loyalty by the rising 
 generation to the ancestral faith " (K. Kohler). Kohler 
 points out, however, that " Confirmation does not be- 
 stow the character of Jew upon the young, any more 
 than the former rite of Bar Mlzwah did upon the young 
 Israelite who was called up to the reading from the 
 Law in his thirteenth year as a form of initiation into 
 Jewish life." The Jew becomes a member of the Jewish 
 community by right of birth. In the Roman Catholic 
 Church, Confirmation, conferred by the bishop, who lays 
 his hands on the recipient, is held to be a sacrament : 
 " a sacrament of the new law by which grace is con- 
 ferred on baptised persons which strengthens them for 
 the profession of the Christian faith " (Cath. Diet.). All 
 baptised persons are qualified to receive this sacrament, 
 and the twelfth year of age is considered the most 
 suitable. The candidates are brought to the bishop by 
 god-parents. At the time of Confirmation it is usual to 
 take another Christian name, but this is not used after- 
 wards in signing. In the primitive Church infants were 
 confirmed immediately after baptism, and the practice 
 still obtains in the Eastern Church. In the Protestant 
 Churches, Confirmation is not held to be a sacrament.
 
 Confucianism 
 
 U6 
 
 Confucianism 
 
 In the Church of England, where, as in the Church of 
 Kome the bishop confirms, it 's an ordinance " in which 
 persons come to vears of discretion, and previously bap- 
 tized as infants, publicly take upon themselves the vows 
 and promises made for them in their baptism by their 
 godparents, and in which the gift of the Holy Spirit is 
 specially sought for to strengthen in their resolutions 
 those who submit themselves to the ordinance " (Prot. 
 Diet ) It is administered also to persons baptized as 
 adults. In the Greek Church the rite may be performed 
 by a priest. In the Lutheran churches and in the 
 Reformed Church of France, it is i)erformed by pastors. 
 CONFUCIANISM. Confucianism, one of the three 
 religions of China, owes its name to the great teacher 
 Confucius (551-479 B.C.), but in a measure it existed 
 before t'onfucius, just as Taoism (q.v.) did before Lao- 
 tsze (6th century B.C.), its reputed founder. At the 
 time of the birth of Confucius the power of the Emperor 
 of China had almost disaprieared. The appanage states 
 of the vassal princes had become almost independent. 
 Prof. Parker compares the condition of China to the 
 state of Pranc-e before the power of the vassal dukes 
 and counts had been broken by Louis XI. " Not only 
 were the vassal principalities, dukedoms, and c-ounties 
 insubordinate in relation to the king, but their own 
 counts, barons, and squires were equally presumptuous 
 towards themselves; and it was into this chaotic con- 
 dition of society and policy, where each clever man was 
 fighting for liis own hand alone, that Confucius was 
 ushered at his birth." According to later legend, his 
 birth was accompanied by a number of marvels, but 
 little is really known about his early years. He .soon 
 displayed an interest in ritualistic ceremonies; and at 
 the age of fifteen he became devoted to study. At the 
 age of nineteen he married. Soon afterwards he ac- 
 cepted a post as grain distributor. At the age of 
 twenty-one he was promoted to be an estate-agent or a 
 farm-overseer. When he was twenty-two he was al- 
 ready surrounded by a band of earnest students and 
 disciples. He now earned his living by teaching philo- 
 sophy. For years he taught others, and at the same 
 time continued his own studies. He took lessons in 
 music from a celebrated music-master. On a visit to 
 the Imperial capital, whither he went particularly to 
 obtain more exact information about the ancient rites 
 and ceremonies, he met and consulted the Taoist 
 philosopher Lao-tsze. According to one account Lao-tsze 
 addressed him thus : " The bones of the people you 
 siieak of have all rotted away, and only their words 
 remain. When a man of tir.st rate qualities finds his 
 opportunity, he makes his career; if he finds no oppor- 
 tunity, he betakes himself off like the grass carried away 
 by the storm. I have always understood that a good 
 trader keeps back his best wares : in the same way a 
 man of first-rate qualities hides his potential virtues 
 behind an expressionless face. Get rid of your superior 
 airs and your multitudinous requirements, of your 
 mannerisms, and your inordinate desires, none of which 
 can be of any advantage to your body. This is all I 
 have to say to you." Confucius is reported to have 
 said to his disciples : " I know the capacity of a bird 
 to fly. of a fish to swim, of a beast to get along; the 
 last you can trap, the others take with a rod or an 
 arrow ; but when it comes to dragons, I am ignorant of 
 how they ride the winds and clouds up to heaven. Lao- 
 tsze, whom I have seen to-day. would seem to be of 
 the dragon kind." In spite of Lao-tsze's reproof, Con- 
 fucius' disciples soon numbered three thousand. When 
 Confucius was thirty-six he was forc-ed by the outbreak 
 of a civil war to remove from Lu to the land of Ts'i. 
 He returned after six years, and devoted himself for a 
 
 time to the compilation and editing of the " Book of 
 Odes " (q.v.) and the " Book of History " {g.v.). At 
 the age of forty-seven, he was made Magistrate or 
 Governor of one of the towns of Lu. This gave him an 
 opportunity of putting his own principles of government 
 into practice, and he met with such success that in 
 course of time he was made Minister of Works. 
 When the Duke, his master, had asked him' whether 
 his rule of government was adapted to the whole State 
 he had replied : " Certainly, and not only to the State 
 of Lu, but to the whole Empire." But enemies soon 
 rose up to frustrate his work. " Honesty, morality and 
 funeral etiquette advanced with such strides under the 
 premiership of Confucius that neighbouring states began 
 to grow uneasy. It was first thought advisable to con- 
 ciliate the rising power by a cession of territory; but 
 wilier counsels prevailed, and a successful effort was 
 made to corrupt the new duke's heart with presents of 
 beautiful singing-girls and tine horses. This moral col- 
 lapse so distressed the philosopher that he left the 
 country " (Parker). This happened in 49t> B.C. Con- 
 fucius went forth with his disciples to wander for thir- 
 teen years through the various feudal states, seeking, 
 as Prof. Legge says, a ruler who would heed his in- 
 structions and had the goodness and the wisdom to 
 follow them. A long and fruitless quest. The philo- 
 sopher was sixty-eight years old when the Duke of 
 Lu invited him to return. He accepted the invitation, 
 but devoted the remaining five years of his life to the 
 completion of his literary labours. His history of his 
 own State (see SPRING AND AUTUMN ANNALS) 
 begins with the year 722 B.C. and covers about two 
 hundred and fifty years. His work as a historian marks 
 a turning-point in the study of Chinese history. " All 
 Chinese history previous to this date," says Prof. 
 Parker, "is as vague and unsatisfactory a.s is our own 
 European history previous to the founding of Rome in 
 753 B.C." When Confucius felt that he had not much 
 longer to live he said : " No intelligent monarch arises; 
 there is no ruler in the kingdom who will make me his 
 master; my time has come to die." The philosopher 
 only claimed to be a man with a divine mission. He 
 was first described as " holy " by Mencius (372-2S9 B.C.) 
 two hundred years later. Naturally it was reported in 
 course of time that he possessed excejitional and extra- 
 ordinary knowledge, but he said of himself : " I am 
 never tired of learning myself, and never weary of 
 teaching others." His mission was to teach men the 
 way of jMjrfection. " Self-control, modesty, forbearance, 
 patience, kindness, orderliness, absence of effusiveness 
 and i«ssion, studiousness, industry, mildness, dutiful- 
 ness, neighbourliness, fidelity, uprightness, moderation, 
 politeness, ceremoniousness^these were the qualities 
 which Confucius consistently practised and taught " 
 (Parker). One of his rules was an anticipation of the 
 Golden Rule. He said : " What you do not wish others 
 to do to you, do not to them." Lao-tsze (see TAOISM) 
 went even fartlier than this, for he said that good 
 should be returned for evil. Confucius could not rise 
 to this height. " What do you say," asked one of his 
 disciples, " concerning the principle that injury should 
 bo recompensed with kindness? " The philosopher re- 
 plied : " With what then will you recompense kindness? 
 Recompense injury with justic-e, and rec-ompense kind- 
 ness with kindness." Prof. Parker suggests that as a 
 practical man interested in good government Confucius 
 could not approve of Lao-tsze's maxim. This indeed 
 was the great difference between the two men. The one 
 was a philosophical radical like Carlyle or Tolstoy; the 
 other was a practical ruler and reformer. Confucius 
 " probably did in common with the received traditions,
 
 C ongregationalists 
 
 U7 
 
 Conversion 
 
 more or less vaguely believe in a Supreme Maker, but; 
 he did not attempt to define or dogmatize as to what 
 that Maker was, or how that Maker created. He pre- 
 ferred to discuss the practical character of things before 
 his eyes, and was indifferent to the causes of those 
 things. He says nothing about the future state, but 
 holds that man continues, after what we call death, to 
 live on " (Parker). Prof. Giles notes that in the one 
 original work by Confucius, the " Spring and Autumn 
 Annals " (q.v.) there is no allusion whatever to any 
 interjjosition on the part of God in human affairs. It 
 has been pointed out also that in the whole of the 
 Confucian literature there is no purgatory or hell. 
 Confucius shares the sacrifice that is made in China to 
 the great men who have departed. Twice a year, in 
 Spring and in Autumn, it is the duty of the reigning 
 emperor to go to Peking and present offerings before 
 the spirit tablets of Confucius. But according to Prof. 
 Legge it is only the homage of gratitude that is given, 
 and not the worship of adoration. See J. Edkins. Be- 
 ligion in China, 1S78; James I>egge, The Religions of 
 China, 1880; R. K. Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism; 
 H. A. Giles, Religions of Ancient China, 190.5: James 
 Legge. " Confucius the Sage and the Religion of China." 
 in K.S.W.: E. H. Parker, Studies in Chinese Religion. 
 1910; cp. H. A. Giles. '• Confucianism in the Nineteenth 
 Century." in Great Religions of the World, 1902 
 
 CONGREGATIOXALISTS. For the origin of the Con- 
 gregat.ionaIi.sts or Independents, see BROWNISTS and 
 cp. CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 CONSCIENCERS. Consciencers or Men of Conscience 
 was the name by which the followers of the German 
 wandering scholar Matthias Knutzen (6. 164<5) were 
 known. The greater number of his adherents were in 
 Jena. Knutzen denied the divine inspiration of the 
 Bible, and found a substitute for the sacred book in 
 common science (the science common to all) or con- 
 science. Conscience was his Bible, an authority superior 
 to that of the secular government and the clergy. To 
 do evil is to .suffer grievous torture: to do good" is to 
 enjoy heaven. The supreme principle of the Consciencers 
 was : •• Live justly and honestly, and give everyone his 
 due." They denied the existence of God, the devil, and 
 a future life; the utility of governments and preachers, 
 and the moral necessity of the institution of marriage 
 
 CONSENSUS OF SENDOMIR. A Confession of Faith 
 drawn up in Poland in 1.570 A.D. by a joint-Svnod of 
 Lutherans. Calvinists. and Brethren. W. A." Curtis 
 points out that " a notable feature is the complete 
 mutual recognition of the Churches concerned, and the 
 practical exhortation to avoid strife and promote fellow- 
 ship by every possible means." 
 
 CONSENSUS OF ZURICH. A declaration made in 
 1.^49 A.D. and representing the agreement of Bullinger 
 and Calvin on the question of the Lord's Supper It 
 consists of twenty-six articles. AT. A. Curtis speaks of 
 the Consensus as linking together the Churches of Ziirich 
 and Geneva and finding acceptance in other countries. 
 
 CONSISTORY. The Roman Emperors had their con- 
 sistorium or privy council, and the word consistorv has 
 been adopte<l to denote a meeting of official persons to 
 transact business, and also the place of meeting. In 
 the Church of England every bishop has his Consistorj- 
 Court, which is presided over bv his Chancellor or 
 Commissory. The London Diocese Book (1912) states 
 that the Bishop of London's Consistorv Court " has 
 cognisance of all matters which arise locallv within its 
 limits, and administers generally all branche"s of Eccles- 
 iastical I^w." In the Roman Catholic Church the term 
 Consistory is now used almost exclusively of " the 
 ecclesiastical senate in which the Pope, presiding over 
 
 the whole body of Cardinals, deliberates upon grave 
 ece esiastical affairs, and communicates to his veni>rable 
 brethren, and through them to Christendom, the solici- 
 tudes and intentions of the vicar of Christ as to the 
 
 ^''^l!?''n***.r^°'*'.'^^"^'«" nation, or the definition 
 of some Catholic doctrine " (the Catholic Dictionary) 
 The ordinary meetings are secret, but from time 
 to time public consistories are held, in which the 
 decisions of the secret consistories are announced. In 
 the Lutheran Churches the Consistory is composed of 
 both lay and ecclesiastical officials. It often exercises 
 the functions of a bishop. In the Reformed Churches 
 It corresponds to the Session of the Presbyterian Church. 
 See Schaff-Herzog; Benham; the Cath. Diet 
 
 CONSTITUTIONISTS. A name given to 'those theo 
 °5f°« ^??, accepted the papal Bull '• Unigenitus " 
 (1.13) which condemned the views of the Jansenist 
 leader Pasquier Quesnei (lO-^i-lTW). See JANSEXISTS 
 
 CONSUBSTANTIAL. The Latin term consuhstantialis 
 IS used as equivalent to the Greek term hnmoousios 
 which IS used in the Nicene Creed to define the relation- 
 ship of Jesus Christ the Son to God the Father The 
 word was imrposely chosen in order to exclude the Arian 
 doctrine. Tlie Son is consubstantial, of the same sub- 
 stance, with the Father. Consubstantiality implies 
 Ijerfect equality and co-etemitv. Compare SUliST^NCE 
 
 CONSUBSTANTIATION. A technical term for the 
 Lutheran doctrine relating to the bread and wine in 
 the Lord's Supper or Eucharist. According to this 
 doctrine the Bread and Wine are not converted into the 
 Body and Blood of Christ (TRANSUBSTANTIATION)- 
 •• the bread and wine remain bread and wine though 
 after the consec-ration. the real flesh and blood of Christ 
 co-exist in and with the natural elements, just as a 
 heated iron bar still remains an iron bar, though a new 
 element, heat, has come to co-exist in and with it " 
 (Schatf-Herzog). The followers of Lutlier, however do 
 not recognize a permanent consubstantiation, but confine 
 tlie connection of the elements with the body and blood 
 of Christ to the act of communion. See K. R Ha^en- 
 bach: Schaff-Herzog; W. Benham. 
 
 CONTEMPLATION, CHRISTIAN. A form of Silent 
 or Mental Prayer. It differs from Meditation (g.v ) 
 because there is a methodical use of the reason. See 
 
 CONTRITION. The Council of Trent defines contri- 
 tion as •' grief of mind and detestation of sin committed 
 with a purpose of sinning no more." The Cath Diet' 
 points out that, thus widely defined. Contrition includes 
 Attrition (rj.v.). but that the term has a narrower sense 
 being used to denote " that sorrow for sin which arises 
 from consideration of God's goodness which sin has 
 outraged, and which includes a resolution never to offend 
 God (at least mortally) because God so deserves our 
 love." See the Prot. Diet.; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CONVENTUALS. A branch of the Franciscans (g.v.). 
 In consequence of the action of Ellas of Cortona. suc- 
 cessor of Frauds of A.ssisi as head of the Franciscans, 
 in relaxing the strictness of the original rule of the 
 Order, the Franciscans became divided into two great 
 branches, the Conventuals, the milder partv, and the 
 f)bservantines, the severer party. The Conventuals 
 decide<l to live in large convents. Efforts to reunite these 
 bodies to the parent body only succeeded In the case of 
 one of them, the Observantines (g.v.); the Conventuals 
 have remainetl separate. 
 
 CONVERSION. In a religious .sense, the term 
 means a change of mind in matters of religion. This 
 change is often .supposed to come suddenly. Thi.s is the 
 interesting question in religion : Is conversion ever really 
 sudden? That a person should change from one religion
 
 Conversion 
 
 118 
 
 Corinthians, First Epistle to the 
 
 to another after deep thought and long study is natural. 
 That a person who has lived without religion for some 
 vears should suddenly change his mind seems to be 
 supernatural. There are many interesting cases of con- 
 version. Two of them are very familiar, those of Paul 
 the Apostle and the Emperor Constantine the Great. Paul 
 was a strict Pharisee and bitterly persecuted the early 
 Christians. Suddenly, to all appearances, he changed 
 his mind and became a Christian. The story is told in 
 the Acts of the Apostles (ix. 1-18). " And Saul, yet 
 breathing out threatenings and slaughter against the 
 disciples of the Lord, went unto the high priest, and 
 desired of him letters to Damascus to the synagogues, 
 and that, if he found any of this way. whether they 
 were men or women, he might bring them bound unto 
 Jerusalem. And as he journeyed, he came near 
 Damascus : and suddenly there shined round about him 
 a light from heaven : And he fell to the earth, and heard 
 a voice saying unto him, Saul, Saul, why persecutest 
 thou me? And he said. Who art thou. Lord? And the 
 Lord said, I am Jesus, whom thou persecutest : it is 
 hard for thee to kick against the pricks. And he, 
 trembling and astonished, said. Lord, what wilt thou 
 have me to do? And the Lord said unto him. Arise, 
 and go into the city, and it shall be told thee what thou 
 must do. And the men which journeyed with him stood 
 speechless, hearing a voice, but seeing no man. And 
 Saul arose from the earth; and when his eyes were 
 opened, he saw no man : but they led him by the hand, 
 and brought him into Damascus " (vss. 1-7). In the 
 first place it should be noticed that, although this con- 
 version was no doubt quite unexpected, it was not sudden 
 in the sense of being unprepared for. It was no doubt 
 the last thing that Saul or Paul expected. But the forti- 
 tude and endurance of the Christians had made a great 
 impression uix)n him. For a long time there had been 
 going on in his subjective mind between two sets of ideas 
 a conflict of which he was hardly conscious. On his way 
 to Damascus, he fell into a kind of trance. The objec- 
 tive mind became dormant. The subjective mind, with 
 its vast store of accumulated knowledge and experience, 
 became abnormally active. The two sets of ideas 
 struggled against one another for the mastery. The 
 Christian overcame the Jewish, and, almost against his 
 will, Paul became a Christian. This, we believe, is the 
 true psychological explanation of all conversions of this 
 kind. The hearing of a voice is what is known as clair- 
 audience (g.v.). St. Paul's experience was a subjective 
 one. Christianity had made already an overpowering 
 impression without Paul's being aware of it. In any 
 case he would have become a Christian in time. The 
 event was hastened, and he was, as he himself described 
 himself, " a child untimely bom " {ektroma, I. Corin- 
 thians XV. 8). The story of the conversion of the 
 Emiieror Constantine on the eve of his great battle with 
 Maxentius is not so interesting, and is very likely a 
 fiction, though it was suggested by the real occurrence 
 of similar experiences. Constantine is supposed to have 
 seen suspended in the air a cross together with the motto 
 •' Hoc signo vinces " (" By this sign thou shalt 
 conquer "). If we accept the story as genuine, here 
 again the conversion was already prepared for. Con- 
 stantine had had opportunities of noting the virtues of 
 the Christians. These had no doubt made a great 
 impression upon him. The experience, too, was again 
 subjective. The seeing of fiery crosses and other objects 
 is a not uncommon experience when the subjective mind 
 is abnormally active. Conversion, apparently sudden 
 and certainly unexpected, is a very real thing. It is 
 useless to soofE at the Idea. The experience may come 
 to anyone, even to the agnostic wlio has made up his 
 
 mind that his views are settled once and for all. But 
 it has next to be admitted that the experience is not con- 
 fined to any one religion. Christians will claim of 
 course that the Christian convert experiences a change 
 different from that of all other converts. But it may be 
 doubted whether there is any difference in the sense of 
 relief and happiness felt by the convert to any religion 
 at the time of conversion. Compare William James, 
 TJie Varieties of Relipiows Experience. 
 
 CONVULSIONAKIES. Convulsionnaires or Convuls- 
 ionaries was a name given to the .Tansenists (q.v.) after 
 the year 1727. In that year a Jansenist Francois de 
 Paris died, and at his tomb miracles are said to have 
 taken place. Pilgrimages were made to the cemetery 
 in which he was buried, and at the tomb people fell into 
 fits of ecstasy and convulsion. 
 
 CORDELIERS. The name given in France to the 
 Observantines {(j.v.), one of the two great branches into 
 which the Franciscans (g.v.) came to be divided. 
 
 CORINTHIANS, FIRST EPISTLE TO THE. Corinth, 
 " the ancient Paris." as it has been called, was one of 
 the cities in which the Apostle Paul lived and laboured. 
 He resided there in the house of Aquila and Priscilla, 
 and with them pursued the trade of tent-making. In 
 spite of opposition, Paul's mission to the Corinthians 
 was fruitful in so far as he succeeded in establishing a 
 Christian Church amongst them. The dangers, how- 
 ever, to which a Church planted in such an " intel- 
 lectual ■' atmosphere was exposed clearly caused the 
 Apostle no little anxiety. None knew better than Paul 
 that the claims of the intellect are very powerful until 
 their weakness is demonstrated by the overpowering 
 sense of divine intuition or inspiration. His own pre- 
 sence among the Corinthians was an inspiration. When 
 he left them, as he was obliged to do after a time, the 
 divine impulse had to be imparted by means of his 
 written word and an ambassador (Timothy or Titus). 
 Even the spoken word gives but a poor reflection of the 
 light which has come by inspiration to a man like Paul. 
 The written word probably reflects still less of it. And 
 yet on this Paul had to depend largely for the strengthen- 
 ing of the faith of his Churches. He had to send letters, 
 written in a hurry no doubt and when his mind was 
 occupied with a number of different problems. After 
 Paul's dei>arture, the Church of Corinth seems to have 
 suffered from divisions. It is a human weakness to form 
 parties and to become attached to persons rather than 
 to principles. In Christianity the essential thing is to 
 have the mind of Christ or the Christ mind. " Where- 
 fore," Paul has to declare to the Corinthians, " let no 
 one glory in men. For all things are yours; whether 
 Paul, or ApoUos, or Cephas " (I. C-orinthians iii. 21, 22). 
 It would seem that it was at Ephesus, whither Paul had 
 journeyed, that the Apostle received news of trouble at 
 Corinth. It would also seem that three or four letters 
 were sent to Corinth. In I. Corinthians v. 9 we read : 
 " I wrote unto you in my epistle to have no company 
 with fornicators." This seems to refer to a letter, now 
 lost (though II. Corinthians vi. 14-vii. 1 may be a frag- 
 ment of it; see next article), which was written before 
 the letter now known as I. Corinthians. After this, 
 Paul sent Timothy to Corinth. Then on receiving again 
 an unsatisfactory report, he sent our I. Corinthians. 
 " The genuineness of the Epistle has been almost univers- 
 ally admitted; it was regarded as axiomatic by the 
 Tubingen school, and is accepted by all but the hyper- 
 critics who deny the authenticity of all the Pauline 
 Epistles " (A. S. Peake). Internally the Epistle bears 
 unmistakable marks of Paul's genius, character, and 
 experience. The external evidence is also good. 
 Clement of Rome, writing to the Church of Corinth
 
 Corinthians, Second Epistle to the 
 
 119 
 
 Corpus Christ! 
 
 about 95 A.D. says : "Take up the Epistle of tie blessed 
 Apostle Paul. What did he write to you at the beginning 
 of the preaching of the gospel? In trutii it was under 
 the inspiration of the Spirit that he wrote to you con- 
 cerning himself and Cephas and Aj)Ollos, because even 
 then ye had formed parties." A verse of the Epistle is 
 quoted by Polycarp with the words " as Paul teaches." 
 The Epistle seems to have been used also by Ignatius. 
 It is included in the list of Irenaeus and in the Mura- 
 torian Canon. Origen says that he had never heard of 
 tie genuineness of the Epistle being disputed. Clejnent 
 of Alexandria refers to Paul's " Former Epistle to the 
 Corinthians," and says that it contains the precept. 
 " Brethren, be not children in mind." The Epistle 
 treats in a very interesting way of a number of impor- 
 tant questions, such as the Lord's Supper (xi. 17-34), 
 Spiritual Gifts (xii.-xiv.), the Resurrection (xv.). See 
 R. J. Knowling, The Witnexs of the Epistles, 1892; J. 
 Massie, /. and //. Corinthians, in the "Century Bible"; 
 J. A. M-Clymont, 1904; G. Currie Martin; Arthur S. 
 Peake; J. Moflfatt. 
 
 CORINTHIANS, SECOND EPISTLE TO THE. The 
 Second Epistle to the Corinthians presents a number of 
 difficult problems. At the same time the external 
 evidence for its genuineness is not so good as for the 
 first Epistle. Clement of Rome does not seem to have 
 known of its existence. It seems, however, to have been 
 used by Polycarp. It is included in the Canon of Mar- 
 cion and in the Muratorian Canon. It is quoted by 
 Irenaeus. This te.s-t.imony is sufficient. Nor does the 
 internal evidence argue against the genuineness of the 
 Epistle. All that it militates against is the unity of 
 the work. It has been said above (preceding article) 
 that our First Corinthians seems to have been preceded 
 by another letter. There is reason to believe that the 
 same thing happened in the case of our Second Corin- 
 thians. In II. Corinthians ii. 4 we read : " For out of 
 much affliction and anguish of heart I wrote unto you 
 with many tears; not that ye should be made sorry, but 
 that ye might know the love which I have more abund- 
 antly unto you." Paul, it appears, had written a very 
 severe letter to the Corinthians. This can hardly have 
 been our First Corinthians. " It is not comparable in 
 the sharpness of its tone to the closing portion of II. 
 Corinthians itself, which for concentrated and passionate 
 invective has no parallel in the Pauline Epistles" (A. 
 S. Peake). In the First Epistle Timothy was the mes- 
 .senger sent to Corinth. In the Second Epistle no men- 
 tion is made of Timothy's visit, but Titus appears as 
 Paul's messenger (II. Cor. vii. 5-15). In both Epistles 
 there is reference to a person who has committed a grave 
 offence, but the offender can hardly be the same. If the 
 offender in the two Epistles be identical, as Peake says, 
 in the Second Epistle •' the grossness of the offence seems 
 to be passed over altogether too lightly." It would 
 seem therefore that Second Corinthians was preceded 
 by another letter (other than our First Corinthians). 
 It is not unlikely, moreover, that this letter was 
 preceded by another visit of Paul, " a hasty visit to 
 Corinth that he might set things right by a per- 
 sonal effort " (Mas.sie). Compare II. Corinthians ii. 1, 
 xiii. 1, 2. xii. 14. Now, it has been noticed that chapter 
 ix. would be a more appropriate ending to Second 
 Corinthians than chapter xiii. ; that the tone of chaps, 
 x.-xiii. differs from that of chaps, i.-ix.; and that at 
 times chaps, x.-xiii. seem to reflect an earlier situation. 
 All this (and more) has suggested that chapters x.-xiii. 
 do not really belong to Second Corinthians. It has been 
 conjectured further that in these four chapters are to be 
 found the letter referred to in II. Cot. ii. 4 (the four- 
 chapter letter) or at any rate part of it. Prof. Peake 
 
 cannot help thinking that II. Cor. x.-xiii. formed part 
 of the severe letter. " On the one side we have the 
 description of a letter in the early chapters of II. Corin- 
 thians which it seems impossible to identify with our 
 First Epistle; and then as corroborating this we have the 
 surprising character of the last four chapters of II. 
 (Corinthians as part of the same letter which we find in 
 the first nine chapters. It is difficult to believe that the 
 two sections of the Epistle hold together. If II. Corin- 
 tidans is a unity, we have the following state of things : 
 Paul sends a very stem letter to Corinth, and is fiUed 
 with regret for the writing of it, and apprehension as 
 to its reception. In the joyful reaction caused by the 
 good news of Titus, he writes a letter overflowing with 
 affection at the beginning, and concluding with a sharp- 
 ness of invective to be parallele<l nowhere else in his 
 Epistles." It has been said that, to judge by I. Cor. 
 v. 9 our First Corinthians would seem to have been pre- 
 ceded by another letter. In Second Corinthians there 
 is a short section (vi. 14-vii. 1) which does not tit well 
 iuto its present context. It interrupts the progress of 
 thought. If it is omitted, vi. 13 connects very well with 
 vii. 2. The section seems to have been inserted here by 
 mistake, and it has been conjectured that it really formed 
 part of the letter referred to in I. Cor. v. 9. Bousset 
 points out that Second Corinthians is deeply personal. 
 " The nervous attractive personality of the Apostle 
 speaks throughout it with the most extraordinary 
 power." See R. J. Knowling, The Witness of the 
 Epistles, 1892; J. Massie, /. & //. Corinthians, in the 
 " Centnry Bible"; J. A. M'Clymont; G. Currie Martin; 
 Arthur S. Peake; J. Moffatt. 
 
 CORPIANI. One of the names given to the Gnostics. 
 The word is probablv corrupt for Scorpiani. 
 
 CORPORATE REUNION. ORDER OP. An order 
 founded in 1877 in the Church of England. Those who 
 doubted the validity of the Orders of the clergy of the 
 Church of England could, by joining the Order of C!or- 
 Itorate Reunion, be re-ordainetl by " bishops " who had 
 been consecrated by foreign Bishops whose Orders the 
 Church of Rome recognised as valid. One of these 
 '• bishops " was F. G. Lee ((/. 1902), Vicar of All Saints, 
 Ijambeth. After Lee's death the Order ceased to exist. 
 See Walter Walsh, " Ritualistic Secret Societies," in 
 the Prot. Diet. 
 
 CORPSE-CAKES. Corpse-cakes, according to E. S. 
 Hartland (" Religion among the Indians of Guiana " in 
 The R.P.A. Annual for 1918), figure in a funeral custom. 
 " In the Highlands of Bavaria, when the corpse is placed 
 upon the bier, the room is carefully washed out and 
 cleaned. Formerly it was the custom for the housewife 
 then to prepare the corp.se-cakes. Having kneaded the 
 dough, she placed it to rise on the dead body, as it lay 
 there enswathed in a linen shroud. When the dough 
 had risen the cakes were baked for the expected guests. 
 To the cakes so prepared the belief attached that they 
 contained the virtues and advantages of the departed, 
 and that thus the living strength of the deceased passed 
 over, through the medium of the corpse-cakes, into the 
 kinsman who consumed them, and so was retained 
 within the kindred." 
 
 CORPUS CHRISTI. Corpus Christ! (" the body of 
 Christ ") is the name of a festival in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, held on the Thursday after Trinity 
 Sunday in honour of the transubstantiation. It was 
 originally a local festival instituted in 1240 at Li&ge, by 
 Robert, Bishop of Li&ge, at the special request of St. 
 Juliana, a nun of Liege. Juliana had had a vision in 
 which she .seemed to be advised of the festival. In 1264 
 Pope Urban IV. published a bull which commanded that 
 the festival should be celebrated throughout the Church;
 
 Couvade, The 
 
 120 
 
 Crextion 
 
 but he died soon afterwards. He seems to Have been 
 influenced by anotlier vision seen by a priest of Bolsena 
 (the ancient Volsinium). Urban IV.'s decision was con- 
 firmed by Clement V., and the celebration of the festival 
 was secured by succeeding Popes. It ^s long been 
 the custom on Corpus Christi to carry the Blessed Sacra- 
 ment about in a magnificent procession. In the Aoglican 
 Church the festival was removed from the Calendar at 
 the Reformation, but in ritualistic churches its observ- 
 ance in some measure has been revived. See Benham ; 
 Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 COUVADE, THE. The name given to a custom 
 among primitive folli which requires a husband during 
 the pregnancy of his wife or after the birth of the child 
 to submit to various restrictions. Sometimes he hajs 
 to abstain from all work, sometimes from certain Irinds 
 of work. One remarkable example is the case in which 
 a husband is confined to his bed, like his wife. The 
 custom as practised by the Yerukalas, a vagrant gipsy 
 tribe dn India, for instance, is as follows. " Directly 
 the woman feels the birth-pangs she informs her hus- 
 band, who immediately takes some of her clothes, puts 
 tiem on, places on his forehead the mark which the 
 women usually place on theirs, retires into a dark room 
 where there is only a very dim lamp, and lies down on 
 the bed, covering himself up with a long cloth. When 
 the child is born, it is washed and placed on the cot 
 beside the father. Asafoetida, jaggery and other 
 articles are then given, not to the mother, but to the 
 father. During the days of ceremonial impurity the 
 man is treated as other Hindus treat their women on 
 such occasions. He is not allowed to leave his bed, 
 but has everything needful brought to him " (John Cain, 
 quoted by R. V. Russell and R. B. Hira Lai). Hutton 
 Webster (R.D.) suggests that " the practice of the couvade 
 appears to be an outgrowth of the idea that under special 
 circumstances the close ties uniting husband and wife 
 engender a mystic sympathy between them, so that the 
 acts of the one affect the welfare of the other." 
 
 COVENANTS. In Arabia when two groups undertook 
 to aid each other to the death, or in other words when 
 they undertook the duties of a common blood-feud, this 
 compact or covenant was solemnized originally by a 
 ceremony in which the blood of the two parties was com- 
 mingled. At Mecca the form of oath among the group 
 of clans afterwards known as " blood-lickers " was that 
 " each party dipped their hands in a pan of blood and 
 tasted the contents " (Robertson Smith, Kinship). In 
 Herodotus (iii. 8) a custom is referred to in which blood 
 is drawn and smeared on seven stones. Robertson 
 Smith points out that " the later Arabs had substituted 
 the blood of a victim for human blood, but they retained 
 a feature which Herodotus had missed, they licked the 
 blood as well as smeared it on the sacred stones." The 
 idea of this ceremony was to unite the contracting parties 
 in a bond of brotherhood. The anearing of blood on the 
 sacred stones made the god also a party to the cove- 
 nant. In old times men of the same stock, who had 
 mutual obligations, seem to have borne a tattooed mark 
 (sharf). Professor Robertson Smith suggest that the 
 mark of Cain was nothing else than " the sUart or tribal 
 mark which every man bore on his person, and without 
 which the ancient form of blood-feud, as the affair of 
 a whole stock, however scattered, and not of near rela- 
 tives alone, could hardly have been worked." See W. 
 R. Smith, Kinship. 
 
 COVENANT THEOLOGY. A name given to the 
 theological teaching of J. Cocceius (1603-1669). See 
 COCCBIANS. 
 
 COVBRDALE'S BIBLE. The English translation of 
 
 the Bible made by Miles Coverdale (1535). See BIBLE. 
 
 COWLEY FATHERS, BROTHERHOOD OF THE. 
 
 An Anglican brotherhood inaugurated in 1865. The 
 members devote their lives to missionary and educa- 
 tional works, upon the principles of poverty, chastity, 
 and obedience. See BROTHERHOODS, MODERN 
 ANGLICAN. 
 
 COYOTLINAUATL. A Mexican deity, the god of the 
 guild of feather-workers. 
 
 COZAH . An Arabian deity. He was an archer-god, 
 reference being made to his bolts as lightnings and his 
 bow as the rainbow. He was worshipped by the 
 Idumseans. In the sanctuary of Mozdalifa burned a 
 fire sacred to Cozah . This seems to have been the only 
 sanctuary in Arabia which had " a place of burning." 
 See W. RolK^rtson Smith, Kinship; and R.Si. 
 
 CRANMER'S BIBLE. Coverdale's Bible corrected 
 and with a preface by Archbishop Cranmer (1540). See 
 BIBLE. 
 
 CREATION. Since the outbreak of the great War, 
 new material has been published in America which 
 throws light on the earliest conceptions of creation. The 
 bulk of this new material, according to L. W. King 
 (Legends of Babylon and Egypt in relation to Hetrew 
 Tradition, 1918), is furnished by some early texts, 
 Avritten towards the close of the third millennium B.C. 
 " They incorporate traditions which extend in unbroken 
 outline from their own period into the remote ages of 
 the past, and claim to trace the history of man back to 
 his creation. They represent the early natiomil trad- 
 itions of the Sumerian people, who preceded the Semites 
 as the ruling race in IJabylouia ; and incidentally they 
 necessitate a revision of current views with regard to 
 the cradle of Babylonian civilization. The most reanark- 
 able of the new documents is one which relates in poeti- 
 cal narrative an account of the Creation, of Antediluvian 
 history, and of the Deluge. It thus exhibits a close 
 resemblance in structure to the corresponding Hebrew 
 traditions, a resemblance that is not shared by the 
 Semitic-Babylonian Versions at present knovra. I?ut in 
 matter the Sumerian tradition is more primitive than any 
 of the Semitic versions. In spite of the fact that the 
 text appears to have reached us in a magical setting, 
 and to some extent in epitomized form, this early docu- 
 ment enables us to tap the stream of tradition at a point 
 far above any at which approach has hitherto been poe- 
 sible " (King, p. iii.). As regards the Old Testament 
 narratives, it is now common knowledge that they pre- 
 sent two versions of the story of creation — a primitive 
 version (Gen. ii. 4b-25, Jehovistic) and a later version 
 (Gen. I. 1-ii. 4a, Priestly). " In spite of the obvious 
 differences, the two accounts have important features in 
 common. Both show the influence of the ancient trad- 
 ition by beginning with a scene of waste desolation; and 
 the influence of inspired teaching by the omission of all 
 polytheistic ideas. On the other hand the differences 
 are also important: the Priestly account is cosmic; it 
 deals with earth and heaven and all their hosts, v^ith 
 the dry land, and the firmament, and the waters above 
 and below the firmament: the Primitive account is local, 
 and is only concerned with a garden and its inhabitants, 
 and the streams that water it. In the Priestly account 
 anthropomorphic language is used as little as possible; 
 but in ii. 46-25 Yahweh is frankly spoken of as a man 
 might be: He moulds a man out of dust, plants a garden, 
 and takes a rib out of the man and builds it up into a 
 woman. So far as the creation of the same beings is 
 concerned the order is different: especially in ch. ii. the 
 woman is formed last, as a kind of afterthought, to be 
 the man's companion, and we are not told that Gc6 
 breathed into her the breath of life; whereas in c4i. i. 
 man and woman are formed by the same creative act
 
 Creation-Epic, Babylonian 
 
 121 
 
 Criticism, Higher 
 
 in the likeness of God " (W. H. BeJinett. Genesis in the 
 •' Century Bible "). In the Sumeiian Version, according 
 to L. W. King, the account of Creation is not given in 
 full. Only such episodes are included as were directly 
 related to the Deluge story. "■ No doubt the selection 
 of men and animals was suggested by their subsequent 
 rescue from the Flood " (p. 113). No attempt is made 
 to explain how the universe itself had come into being. 
 No less than four deities, including a goddess, are repre- 
 sented as taking part in t±ie Creation, and when the 
 deities (Anu, Enlil, Enki, and Ninkharsagga) undertake 
 to create man, the existence of the earth is pre-supposed. 
 Dr. King iwints out that the idea of a goddess taking 
 part in creation is not a new feature in Babylonian 
 mythology. " Thus the goddess Aruru, in co-operation 
 with Marduk, might be credited with the creation of the 
 human race, as she might also be pictured creating on 
 her own initiative an individual hero such as Enkidu of 
 the Gilgamesh Epic " (p. 111). And, although in the 
 Sumerian text Ninkharsagga, the " Lady of the Mount- 
 ains," appears for the first time in the charac-ter of 
 creatress, " some of the titles we know she enjoyed, 
 under her synonyms in the great God List of Babylonia, 
 already reflected her cosmic activities" (ibid.). Turn- 
 ing to the ancient Egyptians, there is an interesting 
 series of sculptures on tie walls of the famous Queen 
 Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el-Bahari in which she seeks 
 to record her divine origin. " The scene in the series, 
 which is of greatest interest in the present connection, 
 is that representing Khnum at his work of creation. He 
 is seated before a potter's wheel whici he works with his 
 foot, and on the revolving table he is fashioning two 
 children with his hands, the baby princess and her 
 ' double." It was always Hatshepsut's desire to be 
 represe-nted as a man, and so both the children are boys. 
 As yet they are lifele-ss, but the symbol of Life will be 
 held to their nostrils by Ileqet, the divine Potter's wife, 
 whose frog-head typifies birth and fertilitv" (King, p. 
 106). Brinton iK>lnts out (R.P.P., p. 123) that this con- 
 ception of the Creator as a moulder or manufacturer 
 underlies many Creation myths. " Thus the Australians 
 called him Baiame, " the cutter-out.' as one cuts out a 
 sandal from a skin, or a figure from hark. The Maya 
 Indians used the tvcrm Patol. from the verb pat, to mould, 
 as a potter his clay, Bitol, which has the same meaning, 
 and Tzaool, the builder, as of a house. With the Dyaks 
 of Borneo, the Creator is Tupa, the forger, as one forges 
 a spear-blade: and so on." Frazer has shown (Folk-lore 
 in the O.T., vol. i.) that the legend of the creation of 
 men out of clay is found among the Greeks, the Maoris, 
 the Tahitians, the Melanesians, and others. Other con- 
 ceptions are equally widespread. " The conception of 
 the cosmic egg from which the universe is hatched, the 
 heaven-bom twins, the fecund mother of humanity who 
 falls from heaven, are found not only in the older 
 mythologies of India and China, Egypt and Bab.vlon, but 
 also in Scandinavian creation-stor>', Persian cosmogony, 
 and the many world-legends of North and .South 
 America " (Edwardes and Spence, Diet., p. .39). This is 
 regarded as " a .striking testimony to the world-wide 
 similarity of the workings of the barbarian human 
 mind." But it might also be said to be a remarkable 
 demonstration of the diflfuision of culture from a common 
 centre. 
 
 CREATION-EPIC, BABYLONIAN. See MARDUK, 
 EPIC OP. 
 
 CREDNE. The tutelar god of brasiers in the 
 mythology of the Irish Celts. 
 
 CREED. The term Creed denotes in a specific sense 
 a brief summary of the articles of Christian faith. The 
 earliest designations of such a summary, however, were 
 
 canon of faith or canon of truth (Greek), rule of faith, 
 rule of truth, or symbol (Latin). In 1889 Dr. Rendel 
 Harris discovered a Syriac translation of the long-lost 
 Aiwlogy of Aristides, which represents a text dating 
 back to the second century, the Apology itself having 
 been written somewhere between A.D. 124 and 140. 
 From this document Dr. Harris has restored a part of 
 the creed of the Christian Church of that era. It reads : 
 •• We believe in one God Almighty. Maker of heaven and 
 earth : And in Jesus Christ his Son . . . Born of the 
 A'irgin Mary ... He was pierced by the .Tews : He 
 died and was buried : The third dav he rose again: He 
 ascended into Heaven ... He is about to come to 
 .iudge. . ." (see Camden M. Cobem). The three creeds 
 in common use in the Christian Church are the Apostles' 
 Creed, the Athanasian Creed, and the Nicene Creed 
 (qq.v.). The Roman CatJiolic Clmrch uses also the Creed 
 of Pius IV., which was published in 15(i4 under the title 
 Profession of the Tridentine Faith. " It consists of the 
 NiPieno-Constantinopolitan Creed with a summai-j- of the 
 Tridentine definitions. It now also contains' a pro- 
 fession of belief in the definitions of the Vatican 
 Council " (Co*;;. Diet.). 
 
 CREIRWY. A goddess of love in the mythology of 
 the British Celts. 
 
 CRESCENT AND THE CROSS, THE. Another name 
 for Mohammedanism and Christianity, the crescent being 
 the s.vmbol of the Saracens, and the cross the symbol 
 of the Christians. 
 
 CRIOBOLIUM. A Roman sacrifice connected with 
 the worship of the Asiatic goddess Cybele (q.v.). A ram 
 was sacrificed, and, by a form of baptism with its blood, 
 the per.son who made the offering was cleansed from 
 pollution and bom again (" in setemum renatus "). See 
 O. Se.vffert, Diet., s.v. "Rhea"; J. M. Robertson, C.^f. 
 CRISPIANS. The followers of Tobias Crisp (IfiOO- 
 1643), brother of Sir Nicholas Crisp, who raised a regi- 
 ment for Charles I. (1643). Tobias Crisp was a clergy- 
 man of the Church of England, and in 1627 became Rector 
 of Brinkworth in Wiltshire. His preaching became 
 extremely Antinomian, and involved him in controversy 
 with the Puritan Divines. After Crisp's death his dis- 
 courses were published. But they did not attract much 
 attention until they were republished by his son in 1690 
 in an edition which was recommended and authorised 
 by twelve Independent ministers. In replv to Crisp's 
 sermons. Dr. Daniel Williams (1643?-171fi) publish.Hl in 
 1692 a book with the title " Gospel Trath Stated and 
 Vindicated." He was at the time Lecturer at Painters' 
 Hall, Ix>ndon. In consequence of the controversy that 
 arose on the publication of his book, he was dismisse<] 
 from his lectureship. The Sermons of Tobias Crisp were 
 republished in 174.5. See J. H. Blunt: and the D.N.B. 
 CRISPINADES. The word Crispinades denotes acts 
 of charity done at the expense of another. It is derived 
 from Cri.spinus, the name of a saint and martyr. Cris- 
 pinus fled from Rome to what is now Soissons. and with 
 his brother Crispianus worked there as a shoemaker. 
 Tjegend reports that he stole leather in order to make 
 .shoes for poor people. The two brothers were martyred 
 in the year 287 A.D. 
 
 CRITICISM, HIGHER. Higher Criticism is the 
 common, but rather unfoitunate, d&signation of the 
 modem critical study of the Bible. " Part of the 
 phra.se ' Higher Criticism ' is a mere accident. Crit- 
 icism, in its earliest stage, took the form of text-criticism. 
 When, at a more advanced stage, it entered upon the 
 inner study of Scripture, it called itself ' higher ' in 
 order to distinguish itself from the criticism of the text 
 as a ' lower,' or preparatory form of study. The ad- 
 .iective is the result of a bare historical incident, having
 
 Criticism, Lower 
 
 122 
 
 Cross 
 
 no merit in itself, deserving to be retained— if retained 
 at all— solely on the ground of present convenience" 
 (Henry S. Nash). As Prof. Nash says, the term 
 '■ higher " offends people by suggesting a kind of supeii- 
 ority. Dr. C. A. Briggs (Intr.) explains in a very 
 interesting way the questions which the Higher Crit- 
 icism has to answer and the scientific principles by whicli 
 it determines the questions. The questions are four. (Ij 
 As to the integrity of the writings; (2) As to the authen- 
 ticity of the writings; (3) As to literary features; (4i 
 As to the credibility of the writings. The principles 
 are six. (1) The writing must be in accordance with 
 its supposed historic position as to time and place and 
 circumstances. (2) Differences of style imply differences 
 of experience and age of the same author; or, when 
 sufficiently great, differences of author and of period of 
 comix)Sition. (3) Differences of opinion and conception 
 imply differenc-es of author when the.se are sufficiently 
 great, and also differences of period of composition. 
 (4) Citations show the dependence of the author upon 
 the author or authors cited, where these are definite and 
 tile identity of the author cited can be clearly estab- 
 lished. The other two principles relate to : (51 Positive 
 testimony as to the writing in other writings of acknow- 
 ledged authority; and ((!) The silence of authorities as 
 to the writing in question. As to Silence, there are a 
 number of considerations. (a) Silence is a lack of 
 evidence when it is clear that the matter in question 
 did not come within the .scope of the author's plans and 
 purposes. (b) Silence is an evidence that the matter in 
 question had certain characteristics which excluded it 
 from the author's argument. (c) The matter lies fairly 
 within the author's scope, and it was omitted for good 
 and sufficient reasons which may be ascertained. (d) 
 The silence of the author as to that which was within the 
 scope of his argument was unconscious and therefore 
 ignorance is implied. (e) When the silence extends 
 over a variety of writings of different authors, of 
 different classes of writings and different periods of com- 
 position, it Implies either some strong and overpowering 
 external restraint such as divine interposition, or ecc-les- 
 iastical or civil power; or it implies a general and wide- 
 spread public ignorance which presents a strong pre- 
 sumptive evidence regarding the reality and truthful- 
 ness of the .matter in question. See further C. A. 
 Briggs, lOOfi. See al.so for the history : C. A. Briggs, 
 Hex.; Archibald Duff, Histoni of O.T. Grit., 1910; M. R. 
 Vincent, Text. Crit. 
 
 CRITICISM. LOWER. The explanation of the expres- 
 sion " Lower Criticism " will be found under CRIT- 
 ICISM. TEXTUAL and CRITICISM, HIGHER. 
 
 CRITICISM, TEXTUAL. The critical examination 
 of the text of documents. " One of the most necessary 
 parts of the investigations of historians is to criticise 
 the documents on which their researches are based, in 
 order to be certain that the text whicli they are using 
 really represents the original writing of the author. This 
 criticism is usually known as Tevtval criticism, for the 
 obvious reason that it deals with the te,rt as opposed to 
 the subject-matter. It is less commonly termetl the 
 Lower as opposed to the Higher criticism, which deals 
 not with the text as written by the author or editor of 
 the document in question, but with the sources and 
 methods used by him in making the text. Thus Higher 
 critici.=rm approaches the subject at a point higher up 
 the stream of its existence" (K. Lake). The critical 
 study of manuscripts shows that corruptions have often 
 crept into texts. The critic has to try to decide how 
 these corruptions have arisen. In .some cases a .scribe 
 or copyist has introduced changes on his own account 
 through not understanding his copy. In other cases a 
 
 text has been deliberately altered or corrupted because 
 it seemed to contain something improper (unorthodox 
 or profane). The Jewish scribes did not hesitate to 
 make such alterations. In yet other cases corruptions 
 are purely the result of accident. A word may be 
 written twice over by mistake (dittography). When two 
 clau.ses or lines end with the same or similar syllables, 
 a copyist's eye may easily pass from the first to the 
 second (homoioteleuton). Again, the same word may be 
 written ouce when it ought to be written twice (haplo- 
 graphy). Textual criticism classifies and compares 
 manuscripts, noting their differences. It compares the 
 text as quoted by various writers with the text of the 
 original document. For instance, the (juotations of the 
 Old Testament found in the New Testament are carefully 
 compared with the original Hebrew; the quotations of 
 the New Testament in the writings of the Fathers of the 
 Church are carefully compared with the original Greek. 
 Textual criticism also c-ompares the versions or transla- 
 tions of a document with the original (or the supposed 
 original). In this way it often appears that the trans- 
 lator had before him a text different from the supposed 
 original, and the true original text can be reconstructed. 
 Valuable evidence may also be supplie<l by the examina- 
 tion of Lectionaries and Liturgies. In poetical composi- 
 tions, textual criticism may attain imix>rtant results by 
 a careful study of tlie metre and its requirements (so, 
 e.g., in the Book of Isaiah). Something may also be 
 gained in prose, as well as in poetical, compositions, by 
 studying the ancient system of measuring books by the 
 line, and the line by syllables (Stichometry). See F. 
 Buhl; M. R. Vincent; K. Lake, The Text of the N.T. 
 
 CROCODILE. One of the sacred animals in ancient 
 Egypt. Donald A. Mackenzie (E.M.L.) notes that " even 
 the crocodile was associated with the worship of the com 
 god ; in one of the myths this reptile recovers the body 
 of Osiris from the Nile." 
 
 CROSIER. The crosier or pastoral staff which now 
 serves as a bishop's emblem of office or symbol of 
 authority may have developed out of an ordinary 
 walking-staff'. It may. however, have been suggested 
 by the .short hooked staff (littms) which the Roman 
 augurs bore. In any case, it did not become prominent 
 as the symbol of a bishop until aft.er the tenth century. 
 It is like a shepherd's crook, being a long staff with a 
 hook at the upper end. For a time it was borne also 
 by abbots. A bishop held it, with the crook turned out- 
 wards, in his left hand; an abbot held it, with the crook 
 turned inwards, in his right hand. The Anglican Prayer 
 Book of 1549 directs that whenever the bishop celebrates 
 the Holy Communion in the church or executes any other 
 public mini.stration he sh.all have his pastoral staff in 
 his hand, or else borne or held by his chaplain. The 
 l)astoral staff' of an archbishop terminated in a floriated 
 cross, instead of in a crook; that of a patriarch in a cross 
 with two transverse bars; that of the Pope in a cross 
 with three transverse bars. See Benham; Edward L. 
 Cutts: the Cath. Diet. 
 
 CROSS. The cross in one form or another has been 
 found to have been a wide-spread religious symbol in 
 pre-Christian times. It was used, for instance, in 
 ancient Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria, Crete, and Greece. 
 In the palace of Knossos in Crete Sir Arthur Evans dis- 
 covered an equilateral cross in marble, whic^h he calls a 
 " fetish cross." This, he thinks, occupied a central 
 position in the Cretjin sihrine of the Mother Goddess. 
 " A cross of orthodox Greek shape was not only a 
 religious symbol of Minoan cult, but seems to be trace- 
 able in later off-shoots of the Minoan religion from Gaza 
 to Eryx " (quoted by Donald A. Mackenzie, Crete). It 
 it found on Babylonian cylinders, and as an amulet on
 
 Crown of the Law 
 
 123 
 
 Crystal=Gazing 
 
 Assyrian necklaces. Mackenzie notes that the Maltese 
 cross first appears on Elauiite ix>ttery of the Neolithic 
 age. The " swastika," another form of cross, also 
 known as the gammadion or crux gammata has been 
 found at Kno.s.sos in Crete, at Tro.v, and at Cyprus: and 
 appears on Greek i>ottery about the year 800. lu the 
 Christian era it reappears in the «itacombs of Rome and 
 elsewhere. It is found frequently, as Reinach says 
 (O.) in the Buddliist art of ludia and China. Houssay 
 and Elliot Smith think that the figure may have l)eeu 
 derived from conventional li zed representations of the 
 octopus. The latter points out that a remarkable picture 
 of a swastika-like emblem has been found in America. 
 " The elephant-headed god sits in the centre and four 
 Ijairs of arms radiate from him, each of them equipped 
 with definite suckers " (Dr., p. 175). Camden M. Cobern 
 notes that among the early Chri.stians a magic power 
 came to be ascribed to the cross and other symbols for 
 Christ. In a Christian tomb discovered in Palestine in 
 1913 " the most prominent features of the decoration 
 were a garland of flowers surrounded by a cross and a 
 cock." Here " the cross was probably merely an orna- 
 ment, but the cock as ' herald of the dawn' almost cer- 
 tainly symbolized the hope of a future life." See 
 Maurice A. Canney in the Eneycl. BihI.. s.v.; O. Zoeckler, 
 The Gross of Christ, 1877; M. Brock. The Cross: Heathen 
 and Christian, 1S.S0. 
 
 CROWN OF THE LAW. One of the names given to 
 the sacred chest in which in Jewi.sh synagogues the 
 Torah (Law) is kept. 
 
 CRUSADES. The wars known as the Cni.sades were 
 .so called because the Christians who took jiart in them 
 wore the cross as a badge. It was long a popular idea 
 that the Crusaders' eagerness to gain possession of the 
 Holy I^nd was due purely to an outbreak of religious 
 zeal and unselfish chivalry in the twelfth century. But, 
 as H. B. Workman points out (Hastings' E.R.E.). the 
 conflict was simply a new form of an old struggle between 
 East and We.st. " The conflict between Cre.scent and 
 Cross was bound to be renewed under a new form, with 
 a new champion of Christendom, and in a wider arena, 
 no longer as a frontier war, but one of inter-continental 
 character." There was of course .at first a Jarge amount 
 of religious enthusiasm. But in course of time the enter- 
 prise degenerated, first into " a romantic tournament 
 between the Christian knight and the Moslem warrior " 
 (Schaff-Herzog), and then into what was little more than 
 a commercial undertaking. To the eleventh and twelfth 
 centuries the East was " what the New World was to the 
 Elizabethan sailors " (H. R. Workman). " Motives of 
 commerce, wealth, adventure, and religion were united." 
 For convenience, the Crusades are nsuallv divided into 
 seven. The First Crusade QOOfi-lOft!)) was decided uix)n 
 at the Council of Clermont (Nov. 10i).">) under Pope Urban 
 II. Before the main exi)editiou was ready, a lawless 
 multitude set forth under Peter the Hermit," Walter the 
 Penniles.s, and Walter de Pois-sy, and met with disa.ster. 
 The main Crusade was led by Godfrey of Bouillon, Hugh 
 of Vermandois. Robert of Normandv, Robert of Flanders, 
 Raymond of St. Gilles and Toulouse, and others. The 
 Crusaders captured Antioch, and eventually Jerusalem 
 (.July, 1099). On the 22nd of .July, 1099, Godfrey of 
 Bouillon was elected king of Jerusalem or " Advocate 
 of the Holy Sepulchre." His death occurred in Julv, 
 1100. The Second Crusade (1147) was due to the con- 
 quest of Edessa by the Muhammadans under 'Imad-al- 
 Din Zengi, or Zanghis (Latinized, Sanguineus. 1127- 
 1146). It was inspired by the preaching of St. Bernard 
 of Clairveaux in France and Germany, and was led by 
 the Emperor Conrad III. of Germany and King Louis 
 VII. of France. The Germans under Otto of Freising 
 
 met with disaster near Laodicea, and Louis was routed 
 in Phr.vgia. The whole crusade was a failure, and tiie 
 feeling again^st St. Bernard was very bitter. " He 
 ■sjived his fame as an in.spired prophet by declaring the 
 crusading armies unworthy of victorv, and the defeat a 
 divine punisliment of their .sins" (Schaff-Herzog). The 
 Third Crusade was caused by the capture of Jerusalem 
 by Kurd Saladin (Salah-al-Diu, 6. 1137), Vizier of Egypt, 
 in October 1187. The new crusade was preached" by 
 Pope Gregory VIII., and his call to arms was answered 
 by Frederick Bartorossa, Emperor of Germany, Philip 
 Augustus, King of France, and Richard I. (Coeur-de- 
 lA;on), King of England. The French king quarrelled 
 with Richard and returned home. Richard I. severely 
 defeated Saladin at Arsuf. but never succeeded in captur- 
 ing Jeru-salem. Ultimately he made terms with Saladin, 
 by which tlie Christians were allowed free access to the 
 Holy Sepulchre. Frederic Barlmrossa was drowned 
 during the crusade, but after the death of SaLadin 
 (March, 1193), the Germans gained a great victory. The 
 Fourth Crusade was preached by Pope Innocent III. 
 The (^ru.saders assembled at Venice; but Venice, in- 
 different to all motives except gain, demanded for their 
 transfer to the Holy Land a greater sum than they were 
 able to pay. They went therefore first to Dalmatia, and 
 then to Cou.stantinople, which they conquered in April, 
 1204. Venice had as a matter of fact by treaty with the 
 Saltan of Egyi)t undertaken to divert the crusade. In 
 1212 I'ope Innocent summoned a new crusade. " He 
 was answered by the children." " In France aro.se a 
 movement in 1212 which even the government was not 
 able to snpijress. Thousands of children, boys and girls, 
 often of the tendere.st age, took the cross, and rushed 
 in feverish enthusiasm towards the Holy Land. Some 
 .swarms reached Italy: and there the.v melted away, by 
 hunger and disease, in the waves, and in the slave- 
 markets " (Schafi:'-Herzog). The Fifth Crusade was 
 preached by Iimocent III. in 1215, and the cross was 
 taken b.v Andrew II. of Hungary (1217) and by the 
 Emperor Frederick II. (1220). Frederick II. was excom- 
 municated by Pope Gregory IX. for delaying to take the 
 field, and in con.sequence could not i>revail uiwn the 
 Military Orders to fight under him. But he contrived 
 to obtain the cession of .Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and 
 Nazareth, and in 1229 crowned himself King of Jeru- 
 salem. In 12-14. however, the Templars and Hos- 
 pitallers were defeated by the Charismians. allies of the 
 Sultan of Egypt, and Jerusalem was sacked. The Sixth 
 Cru.sade was led by Ijouis IX. of France (124S). who, 
 however, never succeeded in reaching Jeru.salem. He 
 was defeated and captured ou his way to Cairo. To 
 secure his relea.se, France had to pa.y a heavy ransom. 
 In spite of this, he (Started on a new crusade, the Seventh 
 Crusjide, in 1270. As a preliminary he invaded and 
 besieged Tunis. He died in August of the same .vear 
 during the siege. Edward of England went to Tunis in 
 October of the same year, and .succeeded in saving Acre 
 from the Muhammadans. The Crusades led to the insti- 
 tution of various orders of military monks. See SchafF- 
 Hencog: Hasting.s' E.R.E. 
 
 CRYSTAL-GAZING. What is known as crystal-gazing 
 consists in looking fixedly into a crystal, or into a mirror, 
 or into water in a vessel or pond. Many persons who 
 do this fall into a kind of daze or trance and see visions. 
 There are reports of such visions in the Proceedings of 
 the Society for P.sychical Research. The phenomenon 
 may be explained as due to tlie working of the subcon- 
 scious mind. William James mentions the case of a 
 lady who had the power of seeing these visions. " Miss 
 X. has this susceptibility in a remarkable degree, and 
 is, moreover, an unusually intelligent critic. She reports
 
 Cuchulainn 
 
 124 
 
 Curate 
 
 mauy visions which can only be deiscribed as apparently 
 clairvoyant, and others which beautifully fill a vacant 
 niche in our knowledge of subconscious mental opera- 
 tions. For example, looking into the crystal before 
 breakfast one morning she reads in printed chaiacters 
 of the death of a lady of her acquaintance, the date and 
 other circumstances all duly appearing in type. Startled 
 by tiis, sihe looks at the ' Times ' of the previous day 
 for verification, and there among the deaths are the 
 identical words which she has seen. On the same page 
 of the ' Times ' are other items which she remembers 
 reading the day before: and the only explanation seems 
 to be that her eyes then inattentively observed, so to 
 speak, the death-item, which forthwith fell into a .special 
 corner of her memory, and came out as a visual hallu- 
 cination when the peculiar modification of consciousness 
 induced by the crystal-gazing set in." As Andrew Lang 
 says, crystal-gazing in one form or another has been 
 practised in most countries, and among primitive folk 
 has served to increase the influence of priests and 
 medicine-men. Where crystal-gazing is not understoo<l, 
 the visions seem to be supernatural. See T. J. Hudson: 
 William James, The Will to Believe. 1908; Hastings' 
 E.R.E. 
 
 CUCHULAINN. The Cuchulainn or CuchuUin who 
 figures .so prominently in the legends of ancient Ulster 
 would seem to have been originally a solar hero or deity. 
 " When in his full strength no one could look him in the 
 face without blinking. The heat of his body melted 
 .snow and boiled water " (Squire). We are told that 
 when he was a child he changed his name from Setanta 
 to C\i Chulainn, " Hound of Culann." See Charles 
 Squire, Myth. 
 
 CUERAVAHPERI. A Mexican deity, goddess of 
 fertility and rain. At an agricultural festival held in 
 her honour a vic-tim was flayed, and the priest, arraye<l 
 in the skin, performed a ceremonial dance. 
 
 CULDEES. The Culdees appear as a religious order 
 in the ancient British Church. They are mentioned 
 chiefly in connection with Ireland and Scotland, and are 
 not heard of after ].'5.'.2 A.D. Their origin seems in fact 
 to have been Irish. Culdees is a popular and later form 
 of the original name. It was suggested by Cvildeus, a 
 term first used (A.D. 1526) by Hector Boeee. The 
 original Irish name seems to have been C^le d^ " com- 
 panion or servant of God " (compare Deicola). This 
 assumed the Latinized forms Colidiel in Ireland, Calle- 
 dfpi and Keledei in Scotland, and Colidei in England. 
 Culdees hardly seems to have been a general term for 
 anchorites. " At first having the marks of anchorites, 
 they gradually take on the appearance of secular 
 canons . . . we find them filling a subordinate 
 ' Levitical ' position in cathedral establishments, chiefly 
 engaged in the choral parts of the worship; they became 
 esi)ecially associated also with charitable care of the 
 sick and poor, and the distribution of alms. The latter 
 seems to have been one of (heir earliest and most char- 
 acteristic traits '• (T. .Tones Parrr, E.R.E.). T. .Tones 
 Parry sees in the Culdees, not the drooping remnant of the 
 disappearing Celtic Church, but " a recrudescence, a burst 
 into flame of the old Celtic religion, stimulated perhaps 
 by conflict with the rival Roman institution." The 
 name, he thinks, was given by the people, and implies 
 special devotion and piety, "a revival of religion at 
 some given period, and not decav." See Schaff-Herzog: 
 J. H. Blunt: Hastings, E.R.E. 
 
 CUIiLAVAGGA. A Buddhist sacred book, one of the 
 Khandhakas, in the fir.st division of the Canon. See 
 CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 CULTUS. The term Cultus means veneration or 
 worship, or in partiailar that form of public worship 
 
 in which the special character of a religion is manifested 
 most clearly. The Christian forms of cultus have been 
 most elaborated in the Roman Catholic Church. In the 
 more general sense of the term Roman Catholics dis- 
 tinguish three kinds of cultus — latria (Gk. latreia), dulia 
 (Gk. douleia), and hyperdulia. Latria is the worship 
 due to God alone. Dulia is the secondary veneration 
 paid to saints and angels. Hyperdulia is that higher 
 veneration which is paid " to the Blessed Virgin as the 
 most exalted of mere creatures, though of course in- 
 finitely inferior to God and incomparably inferior to 
 Christ in His human nature " {Oath. Diet.). See the 
 Cath. Diet.; Brockhaua. 
 
 CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. An 
 American religious body which arose in Cumberland 
 County, Kentucky, as the result of a " revival " under 
 .Tames McGready of the American I'resbyterian Church. 
 The revival began in 1797, and was so successful that 
 more ministers than could be supplied were needed. To 
 meet the need the Cumberland Presbytery ordained 
 certain persons who had not had the usual education 
 and training. This caused dissensions in the synod of 
 Kentucky, and in 1806 the presbytery was dissolved. In 
 1810 the Cumberland Presbytery was re-organized by 
 Finis Ewlng, Samuel King, and Samuel McAdow as an 
 independent presbytery. Its theology was mainly Cal- 
 vinistic, but the doctrine of election and reprobation was 
 rejected. " In the j'ear 1813 the Cumberland Presbytery 
 had become so large, that it divided itself into three 
 presbyteries, and constituted the Cumberland Synod. 
 This synod, at its sessions in 1816, adopted a confession 
 of faith, catechism, and system of church order. In con- 
 formity with the principles avowed upon the organization 
 of the first presbytery. The Confession of Faith is a 
 slight modification and abridgment of the Confession of 
 Faith of the Presbyterian Church. The Larger Cate- 
 chism was omitted, and also some sections of the chapter 
 on " God's Eternal Decrees." The form of government 
 is Presbyterian " (Schaff-Herzog). In 1826 a College 
 was established at Princeton, Kentucky. This was 
 transferred in 1842 to Lebanon, Tenn., where a t "umber- 
 land University was founded. The University was 
 divide<I into four branches, preparatory, academic, law. 
 and theological. See Schaff-Herzog; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 CUNNINGHAM LECTURESHIP. A lectureship 
 founded in 1862 by William Binny Webister, of Edin- 
 burgh, in memory of William Cunningham, D.D., Prin- 
 cipal of the Free Church College, Edinburgh, and Pro- 
 fessor of Divinity and Church History. The purpose 
 was to advance the Theological Literature of Scotland. 
 The Ijeoturer has to be a minister or Professor of the 
 Free Church of Scotland, but occasionally a minister or 
 Professor from other denominations may be appointed. 
 He holds the lectureship for not less than two and not 
 more than three years. He is at liberty to cioose his 
 own subject within the range of Apologetical, Doctrinal. 
 Controversial, Exegetical, Pa.storal, or Historical 
 Theology, including what bears on Missions, Home and 
 Foreign, subject to the consent of the Council. The 
 lectures must be delivered publicly at Edinburgh, and 
 must not be fewer than six in number. They must be 
 printed and published within a year after delivery at 
 the risk of the lecturer. 
 
 CURATE. In the Church of England the word Curat* 
 originally denoted a clergyman to whom was committed 
 the cure of souls, that is to say the charge of a parish. 
 The word is so used in the Pra.ver Book and its rubrics. 
 In France the term is still so used, the incumbent of a 
 parish being the Cur6, while his assistant has the title 
 Vicaire. In Ehigland a Curate now means one who is 
 licensed to assist the incumbent of a parish. His correct
 
 Cnria Romana 
 
 125 
 
 Cyrenaics 
 
 deseripUon, however, is Assistant-curate. The incumbent 
 is now called the Vicar (q.v.) or Rector (q.v.). The 
 term Curate is not much used by Roman Catholics. But 
 It is common in Ireland, where it denotes a priest who 
 acts under the parish priest. See Benham; the Vath. 
 Diet. 
 
 CURIA ROMANA. In its stricter sense the Curia 
 denotes " the authorities which administer the Papal 
 Primacy "" {Cath. Diet.). In its wider sense, it denotes 
 the body of authorities and functionaries who form the 
 Papal Court, including the Congregations of Cardinals 
 and the Cardinal Secretary of State. See the Cath. 
 Diet. 
 
 CDTHBERT GOSPELS. A manuscript of the Gospels 
 belonging to Lindisfame and dating from the eighti 
 century A.D. St. Cuthbert (d. fi.S7). after being abbot 
 of L/indisfame, was made bishop ((iS4). The manu- 
 scripts are now in the British Museum. " They are 
 written in an Anglo-Saxon script, and contain between 
 tlie lines a series of Northumbrian glosses " (C. R. 
 GregOTj). 
 
 CUTCHA. Cuycha was one of the deities worshippetl 
 by the ancient Peruvians, the rainbow, attendant on 
 the sun and moon. 
 
 CYBELE. Cybele was originally a Phrygian deity, a 
 goddess of fruitfulness. She was called also Agdistls 
 after a sacred rock Agdus on Mount Dindymus, and 
 Dindymene after the mountain itself, on which she was 
 worshipped. Her priests were eunuchs. The Greeks 
 identified her with Rhea, originally a Cretan goddess, 
 and gave her Rhea"s title, the " Mother of the Gods." 
 As Rhea was accompanied by her Curetes, earth-bom 
 demons, so Cybele was attended by her Corybantes, 
 priests who went into a frenzy on the festivals of the 
 goddess. The Corybantes danced wildly to tie music of 
 flutes, horns, drums, and cymbals. Cybele had also mendi- 
 cant priests "who roamed from place to place, as inspired 
 servants and prophets of the Great Mother " (Seyffert). 
 About 204 B.C. the worship of Cybele was brought to 
 Rome, where she was called the " Great Mother." Her 
 priest were called Galli (emasculated), and the chief of 
 ttiem or arch eunuch became known as the Archi-Gallus. 
 A temple of the goddess was built on the Vatican Mount. 
 Early in the second century A.D. sacrifices called the 
 Tanrobolium (q.v.) and the Criobolium (q.v.) were in- 
 stituted in connection with the worship of Cybele. The 
 offerer was cleansed from pollution and bom again 
 through a kind of baptism with the blood of bulls and 
 rams. According to Augustine, Cybele was called the 
 Virgo Coelestis. She is described also as a Saviour, 
 and as healing little children by magical songs. Accord- 
 ing to another legend, her father exposed her as an 
 infant on the mountain Cybelus, where she was suckled 
 bv panthers and other wild beasts. See O. Seyffert, 
 Diet.; J. M. Robertson, CM.; P.C. 
 
 CYNICS. The school of Greek philosophers known as 
 Cynics was founded by Antisthenes of Athens (444-368 
 
 B.C.), who in later life became a disciple of Socrates. 
 He founded his new School after the death of Socrates, 
 and taught that as far as i)ossible men should be in- 
 dependent of ordinary human needs. His clothing was 
 an old cloak; his bed was the bare earti: his furniture 
 consisted of a sack, a staff, and a bowl. The name 
 Cynic is either derived from Cyuosarges, the gymnasium 
 in which Antisthenes taught, or was suggested by the 
 mode of life of the Cynics, which, according to their 
 opponents befitted a dog (kiion) rather than a man. 
 The Cynics claimed to be the true representatives of the 
 teaching of Socrates, and thev made a great impression 
 on the Stoics (see STOICISM). They have been de- 
 scribed as a kind of " mendicant order in philosophy." 
 Their doctrines led them to flout and defy the conven- 
 tionalities of life, to l)ecome self-sufficient and anti-sodal. 
 They wished men to live in accordance with Nature. 
 •' They glorified the state of nature with inexhaustible 
 eloquence and ingenuity, and they never wearied of 
 anathematising the pernicious influence of civilisation " 
 (Gomperz, Orrek Thinkers, quoted by W. L. Davidson). 
 The ideal man of Antisthenes was Diogenes of Sinope. 
 Yet Cynicism at its best has a large element of the finest 
 idealism. Anthisthenes teaches that pleasures of the 
 world are not real pleasures, and that mere money is 
 not real wealth. " You cannot buy uprightness with 
 material coin; but you may be wealthy, though poor and 
 lacking such coin, in .spiritual riches. ' I hold to the 
 belief,' he says, ' that wealth and poverty lie not in 
 men's estate but In men's souls,' ' wealth of my sort will 
 make you liberal of nature.' The soul is the great 
 thing, and its health the first concern ; and tiie discourse 
 on this text that he gives is an advocacy of the wisdom, 
 for the .soul's sake, of sitting loose to the pleasures of 
 the world, of moderating and suppressing one's desires, 
 of finding the source of happiness and peace in the mind 
 and inward being, not in external circumstances or the 
 so-calle<l good things of life, which are variable and 
 uncertain and which perish in the using, leaving one 
 unsatisfied " (W. L. Davidson). See William L. David- 
 son, The Stoic Creed, 1907; C. J. Deter; Max B. Wein- 
 stein. Welt- und Lehen-anschauungen , 1910. 
 
 CYRENAICS. A school of Greek philosophers founded 
 by ArLstippus the Elder of Cyrene (365 B.C.). The 
 philosophy seems to have been systematized by Aristippus 
 the Younger, the grandson of Aristippus the Elder, since 
 the latter left no writings. It has also been called 
 Hedonism. " Its chief points were : (1) that all human 
 sensations are either pleasurable or painful, and that 
 pleasure and pain are the only criterions of good and 
 evil; (2) that pleasure consists in a gentle, and pain in 
 a violent motion of the soul; (3) that happiness is simply 
 the result of a continuous series of pleasurable sensa- 
 tions; (4) that actions are in themselves morally in- 
 different, and that men are concerned only with their 
 results " (Chamliers's Encycl.). See Chambers; C. J. 
 Deter.
 
 D 
 
 126 
 
 Daleites 
 
 D 
 
 D. God D is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians 
 of Central America. In his hieroglyph, amongst, other 
 things a starry sky is represented by dots: and, like the 
 Water-goddess I, he is depicted as wearing the serpent 
 head-dress. This suggests that he was a moon-deity. 
 
 DABAIBA. The goddess Dabaiba was one of the 
 deities worshipped by the ancient Americans. She was 
 feared and propitiated, before the time of the Aztecs, 
 as one who had power to control the thunder and light- 
 ning. To win her favour human victims were sacrificed. 
 After being killed, they were burned " that the savoury 
 odours of roasting flesh might be grateful in the nostrils 
 of the goddess " (Bancroft). She was. it was said, the 
 mother of the Creator. Her son, the Creator, mediated 
 between the peojile and his mother. When rain was 
 wanted, it was to him that the prayers were made. 
 Bancroft mentions that " when the needs of the people 
 were very urgent, the chiefs and priests remained in 
 the temple, fasting and praying with uplifted liands; 
 the people meanwhile observed a four-days" fast, lac-er- 
 ating their bodies and wa,shing tlieir faces, which were 
 at other times covered with paint. So strict was this 
 fast, that no meat or drink was to be touched until the 
 fourth dav, and then only a soup made from maize- 
 flour." See H. H. Bancroft: .T. M. Robertson, P.O. 
 
 DADt3 PANTHIS. A modem Hindu sect. The 
 founder, who flourished about A.D. 1600, was Dadii, a 
 disciple of Ramananda : but the religious works of the 
 sect are based on the precepts of the great reformer 
 Kabir (see KABIR PANTHIS). Monier-Williams de- 
 scribes them as being, like the Sikhs (.see SIKHISM), 
 Vaishnava Theists. Some of their principles and 
 precepts, as given by H. H. Wilson and E. W. Hop- 
 kins, are as follows : " He is my God who maketh 
 all things perfect. O foolish one, God is not far from 
 you. He is near you. God's power is always with you. 
 . . . All things are sweet to them that love God. I 
 am satisfied with this, that happiness is in proportion 
 to devotion. . . . Sit ye with humility at the feet of 
 God, and rid yourselves of the sickness of your bodies. 
 From the wickedness of the body there is much to fear, 
 because all sins enter into it. Therefore let your dwell- 
 ing be witli the fearless, and direct yourselves toward 
 the light of God. For there neither sword nor jioison 
 liave power to destroy, and sin cannot enter." See 
 Monier-Williams: E. W. Hopkins: and R. V. Russell. 
 
 DAGABAS. Dagaba is the Piili name for the casket 
 in which the Buddhists placed tbe relics of their great 
 saints. In course of time the word came to denote not 
 only the casket but also the monument (Stupa) in which 
 the casket was placed (Pagoda). See STCPAS and 
 PAGODAS. 
 
 DAGAN. A Babylonian deity. Dagan appears as one 
 of the gods before the time of Hammurapi. Afterwards 
 we find the name used as the equivalent of Bel (g.iK). 
 Anu and Dagan are sometimes mentioned instead of 
 Anu and Bel. Eventually, however, Dagan disappeared 
 altogether. It has been suggested that Dagan is the 
 
 same as the Philistine god Dagon. He seems to have been 
 regarded as the god of earth. See Morris Jastrow, 
 Eel. 
 
 DAGDA. One of the gods worshipped by the ancienli 
 Celts in Ireland. It is thought that his name meant 
 the " good god." He " played the seasons into being 
 with his mystic harp " (Squire). He resembled the god 
 Jiath. One of his sons was Angus. See Squire, 
 Mythology. 1900. 
 
 DAIKOKU. Daikoku figures in the religion of Japan 
 known as Shintoism Uj.r.) as the chief of the household 
 gods. His image is to be found in every home. He is 
 the leader and guide of all men, to whom oBferings and 
 incense are given continually. Those who have to earn 
 their own living seek to propitiate him perpetually. " He 
 is short and stout, wears a cap like the cap of Liberty, 
 is seated on rice-bags, holds a mallet in his right hand, 
 and with his left clutches the mouth of a sack which 
 he carries over his shoulder " (I. Bishop). See " Shin- 
 toism " in K.fi.W. 
 
 DAIRY-TEMPLES. The Todas, a tribe which inhabits 
 the Nllgiri plateau in India, have an elaborate dairy 
 ritual. In connection with this they have what have 
 been described as dairy-temples. " In addition to the 
 dairies which in form resemble the dwelling-huts, the 
 Todas keep up as dairy-temples certain curious conical 
 edifices, of which there are said to be four on the 
 Nllgiri plateau, viz., at the Muttanfid mand, near 
 Kotagiri, near Sholur, and at Mudimand. . . . The 
 edifice at the Muttanfid mand (or Nodrs), at the top of 
 the STgur ghat, is known to members of the Ootaeamund 
 Hunt as the Toda cathedral. It has a circular stone 
 base and a tall conical thatched roof crowned with a 
 large flat stone, and is surrounded by a circular stone 
 wall. To penetrate within the sacred edifice was for- 
 bidden, but we were informed that it contained milking 
 ves.sels, dairy apparatus, and a swami in the guise of a 
 copper bell (mani). The dairjman is known as the 
 varzhal or wur.sol. In front of the cattle-pen of the 
 neighbouring mand, I noticed a grass-covered mound, 
 which, I was told, is sacred. The mound contains no- 
 thing buried within it, but the bodies of the dead are 
 placed near it, and earth from the mound is placed on 
 the corpse before it is removed to the burning-ground " 
 (E. Thurston). 
 
 DALEITES. A religious sect, tbe followers of David 
 Dale (1739-1S0(>). David Dale was a weaver by profes- 
 sion. In conjunction with Richard Arkwright (1732- 
 1792) about 1784 he erected cotton-mills at Ne-vC Lanark, 
 and became wealthy. He also became noted for his 
 philanthropy. At first his religious views seem largely 
 to have been in harmony with those of John Glas 
 (1695-1773), who founded a sect of independent Presby- 
 terians at Dundee (see GLASSITESi. But he came to 
 differ from Glas to some extent, and therefore founded 
 a congregation of his own in Glasgow and acted as its 
 minister. The Daleites differed from the Glassites 
 mainly in matters of discipline. " The Daleites did not 
 keep aloof from other Christian bodies with the ex-
 
 Damianites 
 
 127 
 
 Daniel, Book of 
 
 clusiveness (so distiuctive of petty sects) witb which the 
 Glassites regarded them, and they entertained somewhat 
 dififerent views resjiecting the office of elders, iiarticularly 
 holding that the apostolic description of an office-bearer, 
 as being " the husband of one wife," forbade only the 
 having more than one wife at the same time, while the 
 Glassites generally held that an elder was disqualified 
 for office by re-marriage after a first wife's death " (J. 
 H. Blunt). Dale's daughter married Robert Owen 
 (1771-18.58). See J. H. Blunt: and the D.N.B. 
 
 DAMIANITES. The followers or school of Damianus 
 or Damian, the Monopliysite patriarch of Alexandria 
 (.570 A.D.). Damianus was ac-cused of being a tetra- 
 theist, that is to say a worshipper of four Gods. 
 Damianus maintained " that the FatJier is one, the Son 
 another, and the Holy Ghost another, but that no one 
 of them is God as such : they only possess the subsisting 
 divine nature in common, and each is God, in so far as 
 he inseparably participates in it " (Hagenbaeh). God 
 Himself is the autotlieos. See Hagenbaeh: J. H. Blunt. 
 
 DAMKINA. A Babylonian deity. The goddess Dam- 
 kina appears sometimes as the consort of Ea (q.r.). 
 The name means " lady of the earth." Ea and Damkina 
 are appealed to by king Agumkakrimi and asked lo 
 grant him long life. Sargon calls her " Belit iiani," 
 the mistress of the gods. See Morris .Tastrow, Rel. 
 
 DAMODAK. One of the names of the Hindu god 
 Krishna. 
 
 DAMOXA. One of the deities worshipi)ed by the 
 ancient Celts. Damona was the goddess of c-attle. The 
 name seems to be connected with a word either for 
 "ox" (Irish) or ".sheep" (Welsh): and Anwyl sug- 
 gests that it is perhaits that of an ancient totem sheep 
 or cow, just as the goddess Epona (rj.v.) was originally 
 perhaps a mare. A Celtic goddess is sometimes as- 
 sociated with a Celtic god. Whether they are to be 
 regarded as mother and son, or as brother and sister, 
 or as husband and wife is unc-ertain. The god who is 
 paired with Damona is Eor\-o (g.r.). See Anwyl: 
 Keinach, O. 
 
 DANCERS. The sect known as the Dancers made its 
 first appearance, on the Lower Rhine, in 1374. The 
 dancing was in honour of St. John, whose name the 
 dancers introfluced into Iheir exclamations. They were 
 " a crowd of men and women dancing hand in hand, 
 either in pairs or in a circle, on tlie streets, in the 
 churches, in private houses, wherever they might be, 
 without shame, without rest, hour after hour, until they 
 dropped from sheer exhaustion " (Schaff-Herzog). The 
 movement spread throughout the Low Country and into 
 France. " Children left their parents, and joined the 
 wandering, crazy throng; wives forgot their houses, 
 maidens their duties; all cla.sses sent recruits." See 
 Schaflf-Herz(^. 
 
 DANCING. Dances, or movements allied to dancing, 
 have been practised widely in religious rites and cere- 
 monies from very early times. Rhythmic movements 
 of the body, to the accompaniment of musical instru- 
 ments, however .simple, seem to have been regarded as 
 the most natural means of expressing both pious joy 
 and devout sorrow. It seems also to have been felt that 
 such movements sen-e<l to put tlie worshippers in tune 
 with the Infinite (to use a modem phrase). In a le.ss 
 refined form, as among dancing Dervishes, they have 
 as a matter of fact been employed for the purpose of 
 producing a frantic religious fervour, a divine ecstasy 
 (see ECSTASY). According to a modem view of the 
 matter, " the slow, measured, reverential movements 
 characterising all religious rites of nearly every creed 
 and race, have for their spiritual purpose the cultivation 
 of repose and the economlsation of the Infinite Force 
 
 coming through man, so that it shall work the best 
 results for him " (Prentice Mulford, The Gift of Under- 
 KtatnUny). In early Egypt and Babylonia religion seems 
 to have provided the principal occasions for dancing. 
 Thus dancing was first developed as an art in the pro- 
 cessions of Apis, the black bull. The dancing of the 
 Arabs is proverbial. Tristram (Eastern Vustomg) saw 
 Mohanimixians " leaping, bounding, swaying their arms 
 and whirling round in time to the din of drums, tmmiiets 
 and cymbals which followed them." As they danced, 
 " the men chanted or rather yelled, verses of the 
 Koran." The Circumcision Feast unuzauinn) was an 
 occasion for manifesting joy by means of dancing. 
 Dances have been a prominent feature in the worship 
 of Krishna and Siva in India. This kind of homage 
 has been specially paid to iiJiva in his character of lord 
 of dancing. " Further, it is well known that in ancient 
 times women were detlicated to the service of the 
 temples, like the vestal virgins of Europe. They were 
 held to be married to the god and had no other duty 
 but to dance before his shrine. Hence they were called 
 the god's slaves (devaOusl), and were generally patterns 
 of piety and propriety " (Monier Williams, " Religious 
 Thought and Life in India). Among the Hebrews, 
 dancing seems to have been practised in the earliest 
 times. It was never entirely abolished. They danced 
 in the vineyards on the Day of Atonement. " On the 
 Feast of Tabernacles the men performed a torch-dance. 
 " They danced with torches, throwing them into the air 
 and catching them again, often performing profligies 
 with a dexterity acquired by long practice" (Delitzsch, 
 Iris). In the Old Testament itself we are told that on 
 one occasion " David danced before the Lord with all 
 his might" (II. Samuel vi. 14): and a psalmist ex- 
 claims. " Let them praise his name in the dance : let 
 Ihem sing praises unto him with the timbrel and harp " 
 (Psalm C"XLIX. 3). The Greeks devoted themselves to 
 the art with peculiar zeal. " A whole world of dreams 
 peopled the poetic Greece of long ago. In the hush of 
 forests, before .sacred altars, in sun.shine, under star- 
 light, bands of maidens crowned with oak-leaves, gar- 
 landed with flowers, passed dancing in honour of Pan, 
 of Apollo, of Diana, of the Age of Innocence, and of 
 chaste wedlock " (G. Vuillier, A Historii of Dancing). 
 The Romans followed the example of the Greeks. But 
 in ancient times dancing was practi.eed .solely in con- 
 nection with religious rites and festivals. " Nemo fere 
 saltat sobrius, nisi forte insanit " (Cicero, Pro Miir. 
 vi. 13). In China, in ancient times, as in other countries, 
 dances were performed during a funeral. It was com- 
 manded " that the Officers of the Shields at Great 
 Funerals arrange the implements used at the execution 
 of dances, and at the interment take them up, to store 
 them away in the grave " (Cheu li. quoted by J. J. M. 
 de Groot). The prevalence of dancing among primitive 
 folk or savages is well known (so in Polynesia: see Gill. 
 Fro7n Darkness to Light in Polynesia). See, in addition 
 to the works already mentioned, R. Voss, Der Tanz mid 
 seine Geschichte, 18fi9; Lilly Grove, Dancing. 1895: 
 Encvcl. Bihl. 
 
 DAND DEVI. An Indian deity, the protector of men 
 against the attacks of wild beasts, worshipped by the 
 Gadbas, a primitive tribe belonging to the Vizagapatam 
 District of Madras. 
 
 DANIEL, BOOK OF. Daniel is usually spoken of as 
 a prophet, and it might have been expected that the 
 Book of Daniel would be found in the second division 
 of the Hebrew Canon of the Old Testatoent (q.v.); but 
 as a matter of fact the book is include<l among the 
 Kethuhim (or Hagiographa). The book is really of a 
 peculiar character, compared with the other books of
 
 Danu 
 
 128 
 
 Dea Domnann 
 
 the Old Testament. It is an example within the Canon 
 of a class of literature which l)ecame verj' popular in 
 later Judaism, Apocalyptic Literature (q.v.). The second 
 part of the book records the visions of Daniel, which 
 are supposed to have been seen in the time of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar (()05-562 B.C.); the first part consists of ordinary 
 narrative. Chapter i. tells how Daniel and his three 
 friends were taken to Babylon in the reign of Jehoiakim. 
 king of Judah, and were trained by command of 
 Nebuchadnezzar in the language and learning of the 
 Chaldeans. In chapter ii. we learn how by a kind of 
 supernatural wisdom Daniel interpreted a dream which 
 troubletl Nebuchadnezzar and baffled his magicians. 
 Chapter iii. describes how the three friends of Daniel, 
 Hananiah, Misliael, and Azariah were east into a burn- 
 ing fiery furnace for refusing to worship the golden 
 image set up by Nebuchadnezzar, and how they were 
 unharmed. In chapter iv. Daniel again appears as the 
 successful interpreter of a dream which could not be 
 interpreted by the Chaldeans. Chajiter iv. describes an 
 episode which has become proverbial. While Nebuchad- 
 nezzar was feasting, some mysterious handwriting ap- 
 iseared on the wall of the banqueting-hall, which Daniel 
 alone was able to exjjlain. In chapter vi. we learn how 
 Daniel fell a victim to a plot devised by the nobles of 
 King Darius, and how Daniel was cast into a den of 
 lions, but was unharmed. Chapter vii. gives Daniel's 
 account of his vision of the " four beasts," which are 
 explained to mean four kingdoms. Chapter viii. gives the 
 " horn " vision, in which, it is thought, the " little horn " 
 represents Antiochus Eiiiphanes. Chapter ix. gives first 
 a prayer of Daniel, and then the angel Gabriel's ex- 
 planation of the seventy years of desolation predicted 
 b.v Jeremiah, which is that they denote seventy " weeks 
 of years." The book closes with a revelation concerning 
 the future made to Daniel by an angel. Part of the 
 Book of Daniel, as we have it, is in Aramaic (chapters 
 ii. 4 6 — vii. 28). This has suggested to some scholars 
 that originally the whole book was in Aramaic. J. D. 
 Prince, on the other hand, thinks that originally the 
 whole book was written in Hebrew and translated into 
 Aramaic. Then part of the Hebrew original was lost, 
 and the gap was filled from the Aramaic translation. 
 In any ca.se, the style of the Book of Daniel is late, 
 and there are other indications, internal and external, 
 of lateness of date. The book uuist have been composed 
 some centuries after the time of Nebuchadnezzar (605- 
 562 B.C.). " It is practically certain that it was com- 
 posed between the years 168 and 165 B.C., to encourage 
 the faithful who were suffering in the persecution in- 
 augurated by Antiochus Epiphanes " (G. H. Box). A. 
 Kamphausen points out (Encycl. Bibl.) that the name 
 Daniel is rare in the Old Testament. It is curious that 
 in Ezra's time there was a priest named Daniel who 
 had as his contemporaries a Mishael, an Azariah, and 
 a Hananiah. This is " a coincidence of rare names 
 which led Bleek to conjecture that our author had 
 thrown back the contemporaries of Ezra by more than 
 a century in order that he might represent them as 
 living in the time of the ' exile ' at a heathen court, 
 and showing an example to his countrymen under the 
 oppression of the heathen." See Encycl. BiM.; S. R. 
 Driver; C. Comill; G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse; and 
 the Commentaries by J. D. Prince (1899) and S. R. 
 Driver (1900). 
 
 DANXI. Danu or Donu was the name of an ancient 
 Celtic deity. The name is the Gaelic equivalent of the 
 British D6n (g.v.). 
 
 DARBYITES. The followers of John Nelson Darbv 
 (1800-1882). In 1827 Darby became a Plymouth Brother. 
 In 1847 he became the leader of a party within the 
 
 community of the Plymouth Brethren. The Darbyites 
 have also been called Separatists. See the D.N.B. 
 
 DARU'L HARB. A name given by the Muhammadans 
 to any country which belongs to infidels, and has not 
 been subdued, or to " a country in which i)eace has not 
 yet been proclaimed between Muslims and unl)elieverB." 
 The expression means " The Land of Warfare." It is 
 distinguished from " The Land of Islam " or Daru'l 
 Islam (g.v.). See F. A. Klein. 
 
 DARU'L ISLAM. A name given by the Muhammadans 
 to one of the great divisions of the world. The ex- 
 pression means " The Land of Isiam." It denotes any 
 country which has been subdued by Islam, and in which 
 the laws of Islam prevails. The opposite expression is 
 '■ The Land of Warfare," or Daru'l Harb (g.v.). P. A. 
 Klein explains that in certain circumstances the Land 
 of Islam becomes again a Land of Warfare. " (1) When 
 the country is governed according to tie laws of un- 
 b(^lievers instead of the laws of Islam; (2) when the 
 coimtry in question becomes joined to a Land of War- 
 fare and no other Muslim country lies between them: 
 (;j) when no more protection remains for either Muslim 
 or Zimmi, though they had, at first, enjoyed protection 
 when the country was conquered by Muslims." On the 
 other hand, " the Land of Warfare becomes a Land of 
 Isldm when the laws of Islam are promulgated in it 
 and it is governed in accordance with the same, so that 
 the Friday prayers and Muslim festivals are observed." 
 SeeF. A. Klein. 
 
 DaSARIS. a small caste of priests and mendicants 
 in India. In the Central Provinces they are identified 
 with the Satanis, but elsewhere they are regarded as 
 distinct. " The Dasaris wander about, singing hymns 
 to a monotonous accompaniment upon a leather instru- 
 ment called tappai (perhaps a tabor). They are engaged 
 by some Sudra castes to sing tlieir chants in front of 
 the corpse at funerals. Others exhibit what is called 
 the Panda sewai, that is, they become possessed by the 
 deity and beat themselves over the body with a flaming 
 torch " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 DASODA. A Hindu goddess, the foster-mother of 
 Krishna._ 
 
 DATTaTRBYA. a Hindu deity, one of the two gods 
 (the other being Krishna) worshipped by the Manbhaos, 
 a caste in India, originally a religious sect or order. 
 
 DAVIDISTS. The followers of David of Dinant in 
 the thirteenth century. David of Dinant, of whom little 
 is known, has been regarded as a disciple of Amalrich 
 (see AMALRICIANS). Erdmann, however, thinks it 
 more likely that David " received his inspiration and 
 his pantheism from Moorish commentators of Aristotle. 
 David's doctrines were condemned, with those of Amal- 
 rich, at the Synod of Paris in 1209. He is said to have 
 taught that " the materia prima, or the substratum of 
 all corporeal things, the wows or the principle of all 
 individual souls, and God or the source of the heavenly 
 Essences, were one and the same, because they are in- 
 distinguishable in being " (Puenjer). See B. Puenjer; 
 J. E. Erdmann; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 DAVIDISTS. One of the names of the followers of 
 David Joris (or Joriszoon, i.e. Georgeson: c. 1501-1556). 
 They were called also Jorists {g.v.). 
 
 DaWAL MaLIK. A Muhammadan saint worshipped 
 by the Dhanoje Kunbls. The Kunbis are the great 
 agricultural caste of the Maratha country in India. In 
 VVardha and Berar tlieir customs have been influenced 
 by Islam. 
 
 DAZBOGU. Dazbogu was one of the gods worshipped 
 by the ancient Slavs. He was a solar deity. 
 
 DEA DOMNANN. An ancient Irish goddess wor- 
 shipped by the Celts or by the pre-Celtie population.
 
 Dea Gannangabis 
 
 129 
 
 Deluge=Story, Babylonian 
 
 DEA GARMANGABIS. Dea Garmangabis, as appears 
 from an inscription, was the name of a goddess wor- 
 shipped by some of the Ancient Teutons. 
 
 DEA HARIASA. It would seem from an inscription 
 that Dea Hariasa was the name of a goddess worshipped 
 by some of the Ancient Teutons. 
 
 DEA HARIMELLA. Dea Harimella seems to have 
 been a goddess worshipped by some of the Ancient 
 Teutons. The name is found in an inscription. 
 
 DBA VAGDAVEROUSTIS. Dea Vagdavereustis was 
 the name of a goddess worshipi>ed by some of the An- 
 cient Teutons. The name api>ears in an inscription. 
 
 DBA VERCANA. The name appears in an inscription. 
 The goddess, Dea Vercana. was worshipped, it would 
 seem, by some of the ancient Teutons. 
 
 DECALOGUE. Literally '• (the) ten words," a (ireek 
 expression for the earliest collection of Hebrew laws. 
 In Hebrew also they are called " the ten words." In 
 English they are commonly known as the Ten Command 
 ments. Two versions (Exodus xx. 1-17; Deuteronomy v. 
 6-21) or more (Exodus xxxiv. 14-26) are given in the Old 
 Testament, which differ from one another in certain 
 details. It seems clear that " the fact of these differ- 
 ences, if the argument from style were not sufficient to 
 show it, points to the Decalogue having originally existed 
 in a still shorter form. It argues also the freedom with 
 which the compilers, the Elohist and the Deuteronomist. 
 the one in the eighth or ninth, the other in the seventh 
 century B.C., considered themselves at liberty to vary 
 the form in which the fundamental Moral Code was 
 transmitted. Both writers have introduced some touches 
 of Individual style and colouring into the explanatorj' 
 clauses of the longer commandments, e.g. fourth and 
 fifth. They have not thereby impaired the substantial 
 accuracy of their record; but, by leaving impressed upon 
 the Decalogue itself the literary stamp of the age to 
 which they respectively belonged, they showed as con- 
 clusively as it was possible for them to show, that, in 
 their days, the most sacred laws of Israel were not yet 
 fenced about with any scrupulous regard for the letter 
 apart from the spirit" (H. E. Ryle). W. E. Addis re- 
 stores the decalogue of Exodus xx. as follows : 1. Thou 
 Shalt have no other gods beside me; 2. Thou shalt not 
 make unto thee any (graven) image; ;!. Thou shalt not 
 take the name of .Jehovah tby God for a vain end : 4. 
 Remember the sabbath day to hallow it; 5. Honour thy 
 father and thy mother; 6. Thou shalt do no murder; 7. 
 Thou shalt not c-ommit adultery; S. Thou shalt not 
 steal; 9. Thou shalt not bear false witness against 
 thy neighbour; 10. Thou .shalt not covet thy neigh- 
 bour's hou.se. This decalogue belongs to about the 
 middle of the eighth century B.C. But it is claime<l 
 now that an older decalogue is found imbedded in 
 ExoduK xxxiv. 10-2f>. J. Wellhausen has recon- 
 structed this decalogue as follows: 1. Tliou shalt wor- 
 ship no other god; 2. Thou shalt made thee no molten 
 gods; 3. The feast of unleavened bread shalt thou keep: 
 4. Rvi'i-y firstling is mine: .5. Thou shalt observe the 
 feast of weeks; (i. And the feast of ingathering at the 
 year's end; 7. Thou shall not offer the blood of my 
 sacrifice with leaven; ,S. The fat of my feast shall not 
 be left over till the morning; 9. The best of the first- 
 fruits of thy land .shalt thou bring to the house of 
 Jehovah thy God; 10. Thou shalt not seethe a kid in 
 its mother's milk. See H. E. Ryle; C. A. Briggs, Hpt., 
 1897; Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 DECLARATION OF THE CONGREGATIONAL 
 UNION OF ENGLAND AND WALES. A Confession 
 of Faith which api>eared in 18.3.3 A.D. and sets forth 
 the " Faith, Church Order, and Discipline of the Con- 
 gregational or Independent Dissenters." The Declara- 
 
 tion has maintained its place as the official manifesto 
 of the Union. " It is prefaced by seven preliminary 
 notes which disclaim for it technical or critical precision, 
 deny the utility of creeds as bonds of union, admit the 
 existence of differences of opinion within the Union, but 
 claim a greater harmony than among Churches requiring 
 subscription " (W. A. Curtis). See William A. Curtis. 
 
 DECLARATION OF THORN. A Confession of Faith 
 (1645 A.D.) recognised in Brandenburg and in Poland. 
 " It was the Statement of Reformed Doctrine submitted 
 to a Conference of Lutheran, Reformed, and Roman 
 Catholic representatives, convened by the King of 
 Poland, Vladislav IV., himself a Roman Catholic, in hope 
 to allay his subjects' religious dissensions " (W. A. 
 Curtis). 
 
 DEPIXIONES. Leaden tablets used by the ancient 
 Greeks. The tablets were Inscribed with the names of 
 persons on whom an injury was invoked. They were 
 " deflxed " or bound with a nail. The custom .spread 
 to Italy ; and similar tablets have been found in England 
 (London, Gloucestershire, Yorkshire). See P. B. Jevone 
 in the Trans, of the 2'hird Internnt. Congress for the 
 Hist, of Religions, 1908, vol. ii., pp. i:^l-139. 
 
 DEISM. A term which has been used in various senses. 
 " The term is now commonly applied to that view of the 
 relation of God to the world which, in opposition to 
 Atheism, affirms the exl.stence of God, and in opposi- 
 tion to Pantheism, affirms the personal, independent, 
 extra-mundane existence of God, but which at the same 
 time, in opposition to Theism strictly .so called, denies 
 the continuous, ever-present action of God upon the 
 world and His activity in it " (B. Piinjer). Piinjer 
 observes that the roots of Dei.sm, which was prepared for 
 in politics by the doctrines of the Ijevellers and in 
 philosophy by Francis Bacon, " lay in the sober, practi- 
 cal, common-sense character of the English people, and 
 its beginnings took their ri.se in the characteristic move- 
 ment of tJie English Reformation." J. B. Bury (Hist, 
 of Freedom of Thought) speaks of the English deists as 
 doing memorable work by their polemic against the 
 authority of revealed religion. " The controversy 
 tx>tween the deists and their orthodox opix>nents turned 
 ou the question whether the Deity of natural religion — 
 the God who.se existence, as was thought, could be proved 
 by reason — can be identified with the author of the 
 Christian revelation. To the deists this seemed impos- 
 sible. The nature of the alleged revelation seemed ineon- 
 sis-teut with the character of the God to whom reason 
 rwinted. The defenders of revelation, at least all the 
 most competent, agreed with the deists in making rea.son 
 .supreme, and through this reliance on reason some of 
 Ihem fell into heresies. Clarke, for instance, one of the 
 ablest, was very un.soimd on the dogma of the Trinity. 
 It is also to be noticed that with both sections the interest 
 of morality was the principal motive. The orthodox 
 held that the reveale<l doctrine of future rewards and 
 puni.shments is nece.s.sary for morality; the dei.sts. that 
 morality depends on reason alone, and that revelation 
 contains a great deal that is repugnant to moral ideals." 
 
 DELUGE-STORY, BABYLONIAN. In the Baby- 
 lonian Gilgamesh Epic (g.v.) Gilganiesh goes in search 
 of Par-(w Ut-)napishtim to find out from him the secret of 
 his immortality. Pamapishtim tells him that no man can 
 escape death. Thereupon Gilgamesh asks how it is that 
 he (Parnapi.shtim) has become immortal. In reply 
 Pamapishtim tells him the .story of a flood from which, 
 as by a miracle, he was delivered. The city Shurippak 
 had become corrupt. The gods determined to bring a 
 deluge upon it. Their resolution was procLiimed by 
 Anu (<i.v.), Bel (g.v.), Ninib (q.v.). En-nugi. and Ea 
 (q.v.). Pamapishtim is advised to build a ship and to
 
 Demai 
 
 130 
 
 Deuteronomy, Book of 
 
 load it with living tilings of every kind. Ea tells liim 
 to explain to the people that he is going to the " deep " 
 to dwell with Ea, becaiise Bel. the god of earth, has cast 
 him out. As for them, a deluge is oouiiug uixrn them. 
 Parnapishtim builds a ship with six stories, and smears 
 it without and within with bitumen. He then loads it 
 with all that he has, with his family, silver, gold, cattle, 
 etc. Wlien the deluge is about to come, he enters and 
 shuts the door. Then Ramman ((i-v.) thunders, Dib- 
 barra (g.v.), the god of war, lets loose his? forces, Ninib 
 works himi5elf up into fury, the Anunnaki (rj.r.) make 
 their torches flash. The gods themselves tremble at the 
 .success of their activities. Ishtar (q.r.) groans like a 
 woman in travail, and reiieuts of the evil that has been 
 wrought. The gods weep with her. Not until the 
 seventh day does the storm begin to cease. Parnapish- 
 tim looks forth and weeps at the li.'ivoc tliat has been 
 created, the disappearance of mankind. After a time 
 the boat rests on Mount Nisir. Tlien Parnapi.shtim 
 sends forth, first a dove, which returns, then a swallow, 
 which returns, and finally a raven, which does not 
 return. Parnapishtim now leaves the .ship and offers a 
 sacrifice to the gods. Bel is not allowed to share in 
 it, because he caused the deluge. He, for his part, is 
 angry that anyone should have escaiied. He is told by 
 Ninib that this is due to Ea. Ea reproves Bel, and 
 admits that he saved Parnapishtim tor Adra-Khasis) by 
 telling him in a dream the decision of the gods. At 
 length Bel ds reconciled. He goes on board the ship 
 and blesses Parnapishtim and his wife. He declarer 
 that whereas before they were human, now they shall be 
 gods. Pamapisbtim's dwelling shall be "at the con- 
 fluence of the streams." See Morris Jastrow, Rel.; S. 
 Reinaeh, O. 
 
 DEMAI. The name of one of the Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D., and are 
 included in the Mishnah ((/.v.). a collection and compila- 
 tion completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the Patri- 
 arch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of the 
 Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders (sedarim). 
 Demai is the third tractate of the first group, which is 
 called Zrrd'im (" Seeds "). 
 
 DEMIURGE. A term used in Gnosticism (q.r.). The 
 Demiurge is the creator of the visible universe. For 
 this pur]x>se he is formed out of psychical substance by 
 Hachamoth (q.v.). See VALENTINIANS. 
 
 DERCBTO. A Syrian fish-goddess. According to 
 lyucian, she was worshipped at Hierapolis. She is to be 
 identified no doubt witli Atargatis, in whom, according 
 to Garstang (The i^iirian Goddess, 1913), we have the 
 embodiment of " that local aspect of the great Nature- 
 goddess that typified the productive powers of waters 
 (in generating fishes, etc.)." Derceto had other famous 
 shrines at Camion and Askelon. She resembles the 
 Cretan Britomartis. and would seem to have been 
 imported from Crete bv the Philistines. 
 
 DERVISHES, WHIRLING. The Mowlawiyeh, one of 
 the Dervish orders, have been called the whirling 
 derviishes on account of a sacred dance which they 
 practice. In Constantinople it is practiised throughout 
 the year, but in some places only during certain months. 
 " The dancing is said to represent the revolving of the 
 spheres as well as the circling movement of the soul 
 caused by the vibration of its love to God. The part.ici- 
 Iiants wear voluminous l>ell-shape<J skirts. After prayers 
 led by the sheikh they file in stately procession before 
 their master, reverentially saluting him with a low bow, 
 each in turn. This function is repeated several times. 
 Then follows the circling. When the dancer glides on to 
 the floor his head is inclined and his arms are stretched 
 
 out; the fingers of one hand are raised, those of the 
 other are held drooping, symbolical of his being the 
 medium of grace, received from heaven to be dispensed 
 on earth. During the whirling the eyes are shut. As 
 the pace increases the skirts .spread out around the dancer 
 like a wheel or disk. When exhausted he takes a rest, 
 but, again resuming, glides into the circle for another 
 ix)und. On the floor there may be several dancing 
 together or not more than one at a time. The dance 
 may last, with brief pauses for prayer, for two hours, 
 at the close of which the sheikh himself takes part " 
 (F. J. Bliss). See T. P. Hughes: P. J. Bliss. 
 
 DERVONNAB. Den'onnae, the oak-spirits, was the 
 name given to some goddesses who were worshipi>ed as 
 a group by the ancient Celt s. Another group was called 
 Proximae^ (q.i-.). 
 
 DESWaLI. a Hindu deity, god of the village, wor- 
 .shipiwd by the Mundais (also called Kols or Hos), a large 
 tribe in Chota Nagpur, India. 
 
 DETERMINISM. The doctrine of Determinism is 
 opposed to that of the Freedom of the Will. " There is 
 a dogmatic determinism, which, in order to glorify the 
 majesty of God, excludes all other causality from human 
 action but God himself (Luther, Dp servo arbitiio); and 
 there is a philosophical determinism, whieli explains all 
 human actions as results of surrounding circumstances 
 (La Mettrie). There is a fatalistic determinism, which 
 places God him.self in the grip of an iron necessity (the 
 ancient idea of Nemesis, Islam); and there is a pan- 
 theistic determinism, which makes even the faintest 
 gleam of human freedom vanish into the darkness of a 
 natural process (the Hindoos, Stoicism, Spinoza) "— 
 Schaff-Herzog. It has been maintained that Determinism 
 is not the only alternative. Other alternatives are In- 
 determinism (q-v.) and Self-determination (q.v.). See 
 Schaff-Herzog; Arthur Butler; William James, The Will- 
 to Believe, 1908. 
 
 DEUTEROCANONICAL BOOKS. The Roman Catho- 
 lic Church accepts (in accordance with the decrees of 
 the Tridentine and Vatican Councils) certain books which 
 are commonly regarded as apocryphal by other Christian 
 Churches. Among.st these books are ; Tobit, Judith, 
 Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, Banich, I. and II. 
 Maccabees. The Old Testament Apocrypha (q.v.) are 
 regarded, together with the other books of the Old Testa- 
 ment, as authoritative for dogmatic and ethical teaching. 
 The Church of England, on the other hand, reads them 
 " for example of life and instruction of manners, but yet 
 doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine " 
 (Article vi.). For convenience, however, since the six- 
 teenth century Roman Catholics have used the expression 
 " deuterocanonica 1 of certain books (mentioned above) 
 which are not included in the Jewish Canon (see 
 CANON), and were admitted after the other aiwcryphal 
 books into the Canon (as understood by Roman 
 Catholics) of the Christian Church. The term " proto- 
 canonical " has been used of the books admitted earlier, 
 but the use of the term is considered to be misleading 
 and mistaken. See W. Sanday, /. 
 
 DBUTERO-ISAIAH. In the Book of Isaiah, chapters 
 xl.-lv. differ so considerably in language and style from 
 chapters i.-xxxix. and Ivi.-lxvi. that they have been 
 .iudged by critics to be of different date and authorship. 
 The hi.storic background is also different. Chapters rl.- 
 Iv. have therefore been designated Deutero-Isaiah to 
 distinguish them from Isaiah (i.-xxxix.) and Trito- 
 Isaiah (Ivi.-lxvi.). See ISAIAH, BOOK OF. 
 
 DEUTERONOMY, BOOK OF. The Book of 
 Deuteronomy, the fifth book in the first division of the 
 Hebrew Canon of the Old Testament (q.i\). derives its 
 name from the Septuagint, in which the words in
 
 Devak 
 
 131 
 
 Diatessaron of Tatian 
 
 fliapter xvii. vs. IS, misliiieh liat-tOrah ha::-z6th, " the- 
 copy of this law," are translated to detitrronomioti totito. 
 Early Christian writers understood the term to mean 
 either supplementary legislation or recapitulation of the 
 law. G. P. Moore points out that to modem critics also 
 it is the Second Legislation in the sense that it i.s au 
 expansion and revi.sion of older c-ollections of laws such 
 as the codes presetted in Exo<lus xxi.-xxiii., xxxiv. In 
 the Hebrew Bible the book bears the title 'elleh had- 
 debiirim (the opening words) or debarim. The book 
 discovered in the temple In the eighteenth year of kins 
 Josiah (022-t)21 B.C.) was not the whole Pentateuch, as 
 nsetl to be thought, but an early edition of the Book of 
 Deuteronomy, which did not comprise the whole of the 
 present book (see BOOK OF THE LAW). Deuteronomy, 
 as we have it, " contains the last injimetions and 
 admonitions of Moses, delivered to Israel in the land of 
 Moab, aa they were about to cross the Jordan to the 
 conquest of Canaan; and with the exception of chaps, 
 xxvii.. xxxi.. xxxiv., and a few verses elsewhere, is all 
 in the form of address. It is not, however, one c-ou- 
 tinuotis discourse, but consists of at least three distinct 
 speeches (i.-iv. 40: v.-xxvi.; xxviii.; xxix. f.), together 
 with two poems recited by Moses in the hearing of the 
 people (xxxii. f.). The narrative chapters record doings 
 and sayings of Moses in the last days of his life, 
 and are more or less closely connected with the 
 speecfhes " (G. P. Moore). Only in a few sections do we 
 detect the sources (.TE and P) which have been so largely 
 used in the other books of the Hexateuci. Deuteronomy 
 has a thought, diction, and style of its own, which 
 powerfully influenced a whole school of subsequent 
 writers. This influence is manifest in the Books of 
 Joshua, Judges, Kings, etc. The many resemblances 
 between Deuteronomy and the Book of Jeremiah suggest 
 either that the two books were produced at about the 
 .same time, or that Jeremiah was familiar with the 
 ancient Deuteronomy, or even that he was the author of 
 Deuteronomy. According to Moore, evidence of every 
 kind " concurs to prove that the primitive Deuteronomy 
 was a product of the seventh century." It seems to 
 have been written at Jerusalem, both priests and 
 prophets co-operating in its production. Moore thinks 
 the book "will ever stand as one of the noblest mouu- 
 ment.s of the religion of Israel, and as one of the most 
 noteworthy attempts in history to regulate the whole life 
 of a people by its highest religiotis principles." To P 
 (the Priestly Writer) have been assigned i. 3, xxxii. 48-52; 
 xxxiv. la, 56, 7-9; to JE earlier fragments, xxvii. 5-"a, 
 xxxi. 14, 15, xxxi. 2.3, xxxiii., xxxiv. la, Ib-oo, 6, 10. To 
 D (the First Deuteronomic Writer) have been assigned 
 i. 1/., i. 4-iii. IS; hi. IS-iv. 2.S; iv. 32-40; v. 1-xxvi. 19; 
 xxvii. 9/.; xxviii. 1-xxix. S; xxx. 11-20; xxxi. 1-13: 
 xxxi. 24-27; xxxii. 4.5-47; to D^ (Second Deuteronomic 
 Writer) iii. 14-17; iv. 29-31: iv. 41-49; xxvii. 1-4; xxvii. 
 76-,S; xxvii. 11-26; xxix. 9-28; xxx. 1-10; xxxi. 16-22; 
 xxxi. 28-30; xxxiv. 11/. The Second Deuteronomic 
 Writer would seem to have followed some time after tie 
 First. See Moore in EnciicJ. BihJ.; S. R. Driver, Dent., 
 in I.C.C.; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersbv, Thv 
 Hexateiich. 1900: W. R. Harper, The Pricatly Element in 
 the O.T.. 1905; C. P. Kent, Israel's Laws, 1907; G. H. 
 Box; O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 DEVAK. A family god among the Riimosis, a criminal 
 tribe of the Bombay Presidency. The Devak is repre- 
 sented usually by a tree or a bunch of the leaves of 
 .several trees. 
 
 DEVI. A Hindu goddess, the earth-goddess, one of 
 the names of the consort of Siva. 
 
 DEWaKI. a Hindu goddess, supposed to have been 
 the mother of Kri-shna. 
 
 pHAMIS. A Hindu sect, founded by one Prannath, 
 who flourished towards the end of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. The founder's followers are known also as Pran- 
 nathi, and as Sathi Bhai, brothers in religion, or Bhai, 
 brothers. The name Dhami is derived from dhdtn. a 
 monastery. The home of the sect was in the Panna 
 State of Bundelkhand. The great object of the founder 
 was to amalgamate the two religions of Islam and 
 Hinduism. He supplied his followers with a book of 
 faith called the Kulzam Sarup. In lhis were collected 
 texts from the Koran and the Vedas. The book is sup- 
 I>osed to be the only material obiect of wor.ship. It is 
 placed in all temples, and round it "a lighted lamp is 
 waved in the morning and evening" (Russell and HIra 
 L.al). In practice, it is said, they worship the boy 
 Krishna. The Dhamis are strict vegetarians. Their 
 jiriests are also celibates. The sect has adherents in 
 Nepal, where they are known as Pranami or Pamami 
 See R. V. Russell, vol. i., 1916. 
 
 DHAMMAI'ADA. A Buddhist sacred book, a kind of 
 hymn-book, included in the collection appended to the 
 second divi-sion of the Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST 
 
 DHAMMASAMGANI. A Buddhist sacred book in the 
 third division of the Canou. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 DHARMES. A Hindu deity, the supreme god of the 
 Oraons, an important Dravidian tribe in India, the 
 members of which work as farm servants and labourers. 
 The Oraons sacrifice to him a white cock. " They think 
 that god is too good to punish them, and that they are 
 not answerable to him in any way for their conduct: 
 they believe that everjbody will be treated in the same 
 way in the other world. There is no hell for them or 
 place of puni.shment, but everybody will go to merkha 
 or heaven " (Father P. Dehoii, quoted by R. V. Russell). 
 
 DHARNI, An Indian deity, worshipped aa the 
 goddess of good health by the Gadbas, a primitive tribe 
 belonging to the Vizagapatam District of Madras. 
 
 DHARTI MaTA. An Indian deity. Mother Earth. 
 The Baigas regard her as the wife of Thakur Deo, and 
 propitiate her for the sake of the crops. 
 
 DHATUKATHA. A Buddhist sacred book in the third 
 division of the Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 DIANKET. An ancient Irish deity. Dianket or 
 Diancecht was the god of medicine. Legend relates 
 that he was jealous of his own son and killed him. 
 When on his eon's grave there sprang up three hundred 
 and sixty-five healing herbs. Dianket spitefullv mixed 
 them all up in utter confusion. He seems to have been 
 equivalent to the god who was worshipped by the natives 
 of Gaul as Apollo. 
 
 DIATESSARON OF TATIAN. Literally "Through 
 Four." the Greek name of a Harmonv of the (Jospels 
 made by Tatian (second century). The name indicates 
 that four Gospels were used. The question has arisen : 
 Were they our four canonical (Jospels? The Gospel to 
 the Hebrews, for instance, might have been used and 
 not the (Jo-spel of John. Dr. C. R. Gregory, however, 
 points out that as a matter of fact Tatian begins with 
 verses from the Go.spel of .John. The Harmony gave 
 the gospel in a very convenient form, and was trans- 
 lated into Syriac and other languages. It was widely 
 used. Tlieodoret (390-457 A.D.), as quoted bv Gregory, 
 refers to it thus : " This one [Tatian] also put together 
 the Gospel called Diates.saron. not only cutting away the 
 genealogies, but also the other things so far as they show 
 that the Lord was bom from the seed of David after the 
 flesh. And not only the people of his .society u.sed this, 
 but also those who follow the apostolical dogmas, not 
 having known the evil tendency of the composition, but 
 using it in simplicity as a short book. And I found 
 more than two hundred such books held in honour in the
 
 Dibbarra Epic 
 
 132 
 
 Disciplinarians 
 
 Churches among us, and gathering them aU together I 
 put them aside, and introduced instead of them the 
 Gospels of the four evangelists." The Diatessaron wa,s 
 not in favour with the orthodoi:, because its author 
 became a kind of Gnostic. But, as Dr. Gregory says, 
 " from Theodoret's description it is perfectly clear that 
 only our four Gospels were used in the Diatessaron. He 
 would have pounced like a vulture on any sign of an 
 apocryphal Gospel in it." The Diatessaron of Tatian, 
 which was translated from a Syriac text into Arabic, 
 "did a long service, and will certainly not have cor- 
 rupted the Christianity of any reader, much as Theodoret 
 was exercised about its use in the Churches near him." 
 Bphraem the Syrian {d. 373) wrote a commentary on the 
 work. .Tames Aphraates, another Syrian writer, who 
 lived about the middle of the fourth century, also com- 
 mented on it. " As handed down an Arabic, it differs, 
 both in text and in arrangement, from the text com- 
 mented on by Ephraem; and both of these differ from the 
 text commented on by Aphxaates " (E. A. Abbott in 
 Encycl. BiM., s.v. " Gospels," § 107). The explanation 
 seems to be that "at a very early period the Diatessaron 
 was revised in the interests of orthodoxy." See C. R. 
 Gregory. 
 
 DIBBARRA EPIC. Dibbarra or more correctly Gir- 
 ra is a Babylonian deity. He was a god of war and 
 pestilence, a .solar deity who in course of time came to 
 be identified with Nergal (q.v.). In the Epic of Dib- 
 barra he figures as the warrior, the god of war. He is 
 attended by the god Ishum (g.v.). who describes his 
 deeds. Dibbara sends a " governor " to attack Babylon. 
 He is to kill young and old alike. Through the power 
 of Dibbarra great slaughter is executed in the city. The 
 blood of the inhabitants, the " servitors of Ann and 
 Dagan," flows like water. On another occasion Dib- 
 barra afflicts Uruk. The just and the unjust suffer 
 alike. Then Ishum proposes a war against the gods, 
 and of men against men, a kind of Armageddon (q.v.^. 
 Dibbarra consents. Country shall fight against country, 
 house against house, man against man, brother against 
 brother. Afterwards the Akkadian shall come and con- 
 quer all. By the Akkadian Hammurapi seems to be 
 meant. After Dibbarra has wrought great havoc, Ishum 
 seeks to appease his wrath. His entreaties are success- 
 ful, and Dibbarra promises to bless those who acknow- 
 ledge his power, praise, and honour him. The Baby- 
 lonians seem to have hung an their houses tablets on 
 which Dibbarra was glorified. See Morris Jastrow, Rel., 
 and cp. Oiv. 
 
 DIDACHE. A shortened form (the first Greek word) 
 of the title of " The Teaching of the Ivord by the Twelve 
 Apostles to the Gentiles," an early Christian work 
 (probably written before 100 A.D.), discovered by Bishop 
 Philotheus Brj-ennios in the library of the .Jerusalem 
 Monastery of The Most Holy Sepulchre in the Phanar of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 DIGAMBARAS. The Digambaras or " sky-attire 
 men " are one of the two main bodies into which the 
 .Tains (q.i\) have .split up. They were so called because 
 on principle they refused to wear any clothing. They 
 argued that where there is no sin, there can be no shame. 
 
 DIGHANIKAYA. One of the Buddhist eacred books 
 in the second division of the Canon. See CANOX. 
 BUDDHIST. 
 
 DIKTYNNA. A Cretan goddess. 
 
 DIMOERITAE. Dimoeritae .seems to have been 
 another name for the followers of Apollinarius. 
 Epiphanius called the Apollinarians Dimoeritae because. 
 of the three parts that constitute perfect humanity 
 (soma, psuche, nous), they held that Jesus a«9sumed only 
 
 two (dimoiria). Epiphanius says that "some (heretics) 
 denied especially the perfect Incarnation of Christ, some 
 asserted Hie Body consnbstantial with His divinity, some 
 emphatically denied that He had ever taken a soul ; 
 others not less emphatically refu.sed to Him a mind " 
 (Haer Ixxvii.). J. M. Fuller thinks that probably the 
 Dimoeritae existed as a sect only for a few years. See 
 Wace and Piercy. 
 
 DINKAR. The sun. or he who makes the days, one 
 of the names of the Hindu god ViShnu. 
 
 DIRONA. A goddess worshipped by the continental 
 Celts, and regarded by the Romans as the consort of 
 Mercury. 
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST. The Disciples of Christ 
 are a religious body which was founded an the United 
 States by Thomas Campbell. Campbell was originally a 
 minister of the Seceder Presbyterian Church in Ireland, 
 who went to America an 1807. There his eagerness to re- 
 unite different bodies of Presbyterians brought him into 
 conflict with the Presbytery. He left his own Church, 
 and foionded what he called the " Christian Association 
 of Washington." His son, Alexander Campbell, after 
 being educated at the University of Glasgow, became 
 assistant to his father. In 1812 he and his father were 
 baptized by immersion. " I have set out to follow the 
 apostles of Christ, and their Master," said Alexander 
 Campbell, " and I will be baptized only into the primitive 
 Christian faith." In 1823 he began to pubUsh a 
 periodical, " The Christian Baptist," in which he pleaded 
 for the restoration of the primitive gosiH?! and practice. 
 A complete union with the Baptist Churches seemed to 
 be in sight, but in 1827 the Baptist Churches withdrew 
 fellowship, and the Disciples became a separate body. 
 " The special plea of the EMsciples is the restoration of 
 original apostolic Christianity, and the luiion of all 
 Christians. They insist, that as, in the beginning there 
 was one spiritual brotherhood — one body with one Lord, 
 one faith, and one baptism — there should be but one 
 to-day; that all party names, creeds, and organisations 
 .should be abandoned, and the Church have no creed but 
 the Bible, no law but the Lord's, no name but the 
 Master's; and that, as the basis of that primitive union 
 was the common teaching of Christ and the Apostles, 
 nothing is now essential to the conversion of the world 
 but the union and co-operation of Christians with the 
 apostles' teaching or testimony " (Schaff-Herzog). The 
 Disciples have made great progress. They now have 
 many representatives in England and Australia, and dis- 
 play missionary activity in China, India, Japan, Africa, 
 the Philippines, Mexico, and the West Indies. " The 
 creation of new educational foundations, the maintenance 
 of an aggressive journalism, the organization of mis- 
 sionary and philanthropic agencies, and the encourage- 
 ment of an effective evangelism in the churches have 
 increased the numbers, intelligence, and consecration of 
 the Disciples, until at the present time they are fifth 
 among the great evangelical bodies of America " 
 (Hastings' Encyclopaedia). See Schaff-Herzog; Blunt: 
 Hastings' E.R.E. 
 
 DISCIPLES OF ST. JOHN. Another name for the 
 Mandieans (q.v.). 
 
 DISCIPLINARIANS. A name given to those who in 
 the reign of Queen Elisabeth wished to alter the con- 
 stitution of the Church of England and to substitute for 
 it the Presbyterian system of Calvin. They wished to 
 abolish all ecclesia.stical officers except presbyters. Their 
 leader was Tliomas Cartwright ri.').>5-1603). who in 1.565 
 attacked the tase of the surplice. In 1569 Cartwright 
 was appointed I^ady Margaret Professor of Divinity at 
 Cambridge, but the next year he was deprived of his 
 jirofessorship. The great work of Richard Hooker
 
 Dishai Devi 
 
 133 
 
 Dolichenus 
 
 (15547-1600), " The Laws of EeclesiasticaU Politie," were 
 directed against the Disciplinarians. See Blunt ; the 
 D.N.B. 
 
 DISHAI DEVI. An Indian deity, tie goddess of the 
 sheep-pen, worshipped by the Gadarias (also called 
 Gadris), the occupational shepherd caste of northern 
 India. When they enter the siheep-pen in the morning. 
 they make obeisance to the sheep. This seems to indi- 
 cate that Dishai Devi is really the deified sheep. 
 
 DIS PATER. Dis Pater, that is to say Dives Pater or 
 Father Dives, was a name given by the Romans to 
 a god who corresponded to the Greek god Pluto. His 
 worship was commanded by the Sibylline Books. He 
 was the ruler of the lower world, who stuns the dead 
 with a mallet. Since he is represented as wearing a 
 wolfskin, Reinaeh thinks that, like Orcus, he was 
 originally a wolf. Caesar applies the name Dis Pater 
 to a god worshipped by the Gauls as their ancestor. C. 
 Squire suggests that this deity was Beli (Q-v.), the father 
 of the gods, consort of D6n, the mother of tie gods. The 
 Gallic Dis Pater is represented in his images as wearing 
 a wolf-skin and holding a long mallet. Another of his 
 names Sucellus, means " the good striker." The deity 
 was a nocturnal god. This, with the wolfskin, again 
 implies that originally he was a wolf. See Edward 
 Anwyl; Squire, Myth.; Reinaeh, O. 
 
 DIVINE SCIENCE. Another name for Christian 
 Science (q.v.). One of Mary Baker Eddy's publications 
 is entitled Rudimental Divine Science (1891; new edition, 
 1910). 
 
 DIWALI FESTIVAL. An Indian religions festival, 
 known in Bengal as the Kali Poojah. In that province 
 many victims, particularly .sheep, goats, and buffaloes, 
 are sacrificed. Elsewhere, on this occasion the Banias, 
 a ca.ste of bankers, moneylenders, and dealers in grain, 
 etc., worship Ganpati or Ganesh, their principal deity, in 
 conjunction with Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. They 
 open new account-books and worship them, and they pay 
 reverence to a silver rupee or an English sovereign." See 
 R. V. Russell and R. B. Hira Lai. 
 
 DOCETISM. The term Docetism is derived from the 
 Greek word dokein ("to seem, to appear"). The 
 Doceta were so called because they maintained that 
 Jesus' body was not real or material, but only the 
 appearance (dokesis) of a body. They were opposed by 
 Ignatius (d. 104 or 11.5?) or in the Ignatian Epistles, and 
 even, it has been held, by the author of the Epistles of 
 John (I. John i. 1-.3, ii. 22, iv. 2 S., II. John vii.). 
 Docetism was of the nature of Gnosticism (q.v.). The 
 Docet« regarded matter as evil. •' They rejected the 
 idea of physical birth, as in the last degree degrading 
 and unworthy of a divine .saviour and teacher: the idea 
 that he was begotten by a human father, of a woman, 
 being, of course, still more repulsive to them " (F. C. 
 Conybeare). See Blunt: Prut. Diet.; F. C. Convbeare. 
 
 DOCTRINAIRES. In 1562 Marcus de Sadis Cusani 
 of Milan founded in Rome an a.ssociation " Padri della 
 Dottrina Christiana " with the object of instructing the 
 people in the catechism. In France Caesar de Bus, a 
 priest and Canon of Cavaillon, founded independently a 
 similar association, the '• Doctrinaires " or " Peres de 
 la Doctrine Chr^tienne." The members of this associa- 
 tion were sent forth to catechise everyone they met in 
 the streets. Caesar de Bus himself went fromhouse to 
 house catechising. The constitntion of the as.sociation 
 was confirmed in 1597 by Pope Clement VIII. See 
 Schafif-Herzog. 
 
 DOCTRINE AND ERUDITION FOR ANY CHRIS- 
 TIAN. The title of a book of Christian doctrine, 
 published in 1537. It came to be known as the " King's 
 Book " (q.v.). 
 
 DOCUMENTARY HYPOTHESIS, THE. This expres- 
 sion is used of one of the theories put forth by the 
 Higher Critics (see CRITICISM, HIGHER) to explain 
 the composition of the Hexateuch. It was noticed that 
 in the book of Genesis certain sections might be dis- 
 tinguished from others by the use of the divine name 
 Jehovah (correctly Yahweh) instead of Elohim, and, 
 besides, that there were often duplicate accounts of the 
 same events. In 17.53 Jean Astruc claimed that a 
 number of documents could be recognised in Genesis 
 He thought that at least nine had been used by the com- 
 piler of the book, two large and nine smaller documents 
 This IS the Documentary Hypothesis, and as a whole it 
 has held its ground. In 179S C. D. Ilgen di.scovered 
 that two documents (instead of one) were characterised 
 by the use of the divine name Elohim, but the discovery 
 did not receive due attention until it was revived bv H 
 Hupfeld of Halle (1853). Ilgen believed Genesis to be 
 composed of seventeen documents, all of them probably 
 the work of three writers. J. G. Eichhom, who 
 published an Introduction to the Old Testament in 1780 
 (second edition 1787), gave more attention to the use of 
 tie divine names, systematized the new method, and 
 called it the Higher Criticism. He also applied similar 
 methods to Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deutero- 
 nomy, recognising in the three former the priests' code, 
 and in the latter the law book of the people. The Docu- 
 mentary Hypothesis was followed for a time bv the 
 Fragmentary Hypothesis (q.v.). See C. A. Briggs.'He-T.. 
 1897: Archibald Duff, O.T. Crit. 
 
 DODEKAPROPHETON. A Greek designation of the 
 twelve Minor Prophets (q.v.). At an earlv date the 
 Minor Prophets were regarded by the Jews (cp. Philo) 
 as forming one book, and were spoken of collectively 
 
 DOG, THE. The sacrifice of dogs is mentioned as a 
 heathen practice in the Book of Isaiah (Ixvi. 3). Accord- 
 ing to Al-Nadim, they were sacred among the Har- 
 ranians. The Harranians offered sacrificial gifts to the 
 dog, " and in certain mysteries dogs were solemnly 
 declared to be the brothers of the mystae " (Robertson 
 Smith, R.S.). Jacob of Sarug mentions " the Lord with 
 the dogs " as one of the deities of Carrhip. In the legend 
 of the invention of the purple dye, the Tyrian Heracles 
 or Melcarth is accompanied by a dog. Among the 
 Muhammadans black dogs are supposed to have a 
 demoniac character. In a hymn to the Egyptian god 
 Amon-Ra it is said that " the gods gather as dogs round 
 his feet." To the Greek goddess Hecate dogs were 
 sacrificed. " In this case the victim was the sacred 
 animal of the goddess to which it was offered : Hecate is 
 represented in mythology as accompanied by demoniac 
 dogs, and in her worship she loved to be addressed bv 
 the name of Dog. Here, therefore, the victim is not only 
 a sacred animal, but an animal kindred to the deitv to 
 which it is sacrificed " (Robertson Smith). The cow'and 
 the dog are held in special reverence by the Naodas, a 
 small caste in India. " The dog is .sacred as being the 
 animal on which Bhairava rides, and their most solemn 
 oaths are sworn by a dog or a cow " (R. V. Russpll and 
 R. B. Hira Lai). In Babylonia, it should be added, an 
 importaut significance was a.soribed to the movements 
 and actions of dogs in divination. •' A white dog enter- 
 ing a palace means .siege of a city: a yellow dog, that 
 the palace will escape disaster; a dog of mixed c-olours. 
 that the enemy will plunder the palace. Dogs barking 
 at the gates prognosticate a pestilence, mad dogs the 
 destruction of the city, howling dogs the overthrow of 
 the city " (Morris Jastrow. Civ.). 
 
 DOLCINISTS. The followers of Dolcino, a militant 
 leader of the APOSTOLICALS (,q.v.. 2). 
 
 DOLICHENUS. The god Jupiter Dolichenus takes
 
 Dolis 
 
 134 
 
 Donatism 
 
 his name from Doliclie near Aintab, which was north- 
 west of Hierapolis. His worship seems to have been 
 introduced to the Roman army by Syrian soldiers. Since 
 he is associated with a bull and his consort with a lion, 
 the god and goddess may be identitied with the two chief 
 deities of the Hittites. 
 
 DOLLS. In the course of excavations carried on at 
 'Tell Sandahannah in Palestine, the most striking find 
 consisted of sixteen little human figiares which date from 
 the early Christian era. " These little ' revenge dolls ' 
 are bound in fetters of lead, iron, etc., through which 
 the owners hoped to work magic on their enemies" 
 (Camden M. Cobern). Robertson Smith notes that the 
 Romans substituted puppets of rushes or wool for human 
 offerings in the Argea and the worship of Mania (R.S.). 
 
 DOMINICA DE ROSA. Another name for Lsetare 
 Sunday (q.v.), the fourth Sunday in Lent. 
 
 DOMINICANS. An Order founded by Domingo de 
 Guzman (1170-1221), or Dominic, of Calaruega, in Old 
 Castile. In 1194 he was made a canon of the chapter 
 of Osma. Here he helped Bishop Diego of Osma to 
 introduce the rule of St. Austin. In 1204 he accom- 
 panied the Bishop to France, where they came into con- 
 tact with the Albigenses. Bishop Diego was anxious to 
 try to convert these heretics, and obtained permission 
 from Pope Innocent III. to remain in Languedoc for a 
 time. After his return and death, Dominic continued the 
 work, aided by some earnest sympathisers, but without 
 much success. At length Dominic decided that a new 
 order was needed. He gathered a band of men round 
 him in 1215, and then requested Pope Innocent III. to 
 sanction the foundation of an order. The Pope did not 
 approve of adding to the already existing orders. He 
 declined at first to accede to Dominic's reque^st. At 
 length, however, he was prevailed upon to grant it "on 
 the condition that the brotherhood ^ould adopt the 
 rules of some older, already recognised, order, and 
 organize itself in the simple form of colleges of canons'" 
 (Schaff-Herzog). The rule adopted was that of St. 
 Austin, with the addition of statutes of the Praemon- 
 stratensians. The members were to practise per- 
 petual silence, to fast almost without intermission, to 
 abstain altogether from meat, except in illness, to wear 
 woollen garments, to accept poverty, etc. Their dress 
 consisted of a black cassock and rochet. This was after- 
 wards changed to " a white habit and scapular, with a 
 long black capiia or mantle" (Cath. Diet.). In 1210 
 Pope Honorius III. fully confirmed Dominic's order, 
 giving to it the title Fratres Pra^dicantes or Preaching 
 Brothers. The order soon spread to Spain and France. 
 Visiting Rome, Dominic was appointed Magister Sacri 
 Palatii, Master of the Sacred Palace in the Pontifical 
 Court, and this office has been held ever since by a 
 Dominican. But he was not yet satisfied with the pro- 
 gress of his work. He felt that a more complete re- 
 nunciation of worldly things was needed. Consequently, 
 at a chapter-general held in 1220 " the order renounced 
 the possession of property in any form or shape, and 
 declared for complete poverty, and the daily begging of 
 the means indispensable to the sustenance of life" 
 (Schaff-Herzog). This renunciation had the desired 
 effect. Greater progress was made, and at the chapter- 
 general in 1221 as many as sixty monasteries were repre- 
 sented. After this the movement spread in every direction. 
 In 12.30 two chairs were held by Dominican monks 
 in the University of Paris. The task of teaching, in 
 particular, led to rivalry between the Dominicans and 
 the Franciscans (ci.v.), and the " Summa Theologiae " 
 of the Dominican Thomas of Aquinum became the cause 
 of endless di,sputes. " The system of St. Thomas was 
 so vast as to afford scope for the labour of many com- 
 
 mentators and explicators, and a school hence arose, 
 consisting chiefly of Dominicans, named Thomists. 
 Franciscan theologians, among whom the chief was Duns 
 Scotus, raised objections to iwrtions of the teaching of 
 St. Thomas; the problems of Realism and Nominalism 
 were imported into the controversy : and the contentions 
 of Scotists and Thomists, taken ui) often by men of in- 
 ferior mental calibre, tended at last to make men weary 
 of the scholastic philosophy altogether " {Cath. Diet.). 
 In 1425 the prohibition as to the iK>ssession of property 
 was revoked by Pope Martin V. This resulted in 
 numerous bequests. Many churches and monasteries 
 were built, and the Dominicans have enriched the world 
 with some of the best examples of Ciothic architecture. 
 vSee Schaff-Herzog; the Prot. Diet.; the Cdth. Diet. 
 
 DOMPELERS. A name by which the Tunkers {q.v.) 
 are known in the Netherlands. 
 
 DON. In Welsh documents the gods of the Celts in 
 Ancient Britain are sometimes referred to as the 
 •' Children of Don." The Goidels (Gaels) seem to have 
 revered Dauu or Donu (the Don of the Brythons or 
 Britons) as the mother of the gods. They called the 
 gods the "Tribe of the Goddess Danu." Dfln appears 
 as the father of .several of the heroes in British 
 m.vthology. Gwydion and Govannon are sons of D6n. 
 Arianrod is a daughter of D6n and of Beli {g.v.). The 
 latter would seem to have been iiaired with D3n as the 
 father of the gods. See Squire, Mijth. 
 
 DONAR. The name by which Thor (q.v.), the 
 Teutonic god of thunder, was known to the High 
 Germans. 
 
 DONATISAI. Donatism was not a heresy, but a 
 .schism. During the persecution of the Christians under 
 Diocletian, they were called upon to deliver up any copies 
 of their sacred books they might have. Often they pre- 
 ferred to suffer martyrdom, and there grew up an un- 
 healthy enthusiasm for the martyr's crown. Mensurius, 
 Bishop of Carthage, tried to discountenance this. When 
 called upon to deliver up his sacred books he hid them 
 and substituted some heretical works. Mensurius died 
 A.D. 311, and was succeeded by his archdeacon, Caecilian, 
 who sharetl his views. Caecilian was consecrated by 
 Felix, Bishop of Aptunga. The consecration provoked 
 a storm which had long been brewing. The opponents 
 of Mensurius and Caecilian warmly protested. They 
 made three charges : (1) that Cnecilian was not worthy 
 to hold the office; (2) that he had not been elected by 
 the bishops of the whole provinc-e of Numidia ; and (3) 
 that he had not been properly consecrated, since Felix 
 himself had been a traditor. Secundus, Bishop of 
 Tigisis and Primate of Numidia, supporting the 
 opponents of Ctecilian, consecrated Ma.lorinus as a rival 
 bishop. About A.D. 315 Majorlnus was succeeded by 
 Donatus Magnus, who was so called by his followers to 
 distingui.sh him from another bishop of the same name. 
 " Under him the sect became an organised community 
 extending over all the provinces of North Africa, almost 
 every town having its rival bishop and congregation" 
 {Prot. Diet.). The aim of the Donatists was a good one. 
 They felt that the Church ought to be pure, and con- 
 sequently ought to exclude unworthy members. " Dona- 
 ti.sm represents an attempt— the final one for a thousand 
 years — to resist the process of secularization by which 
 the Church was gradually transformed from a community 
 of holy persons into an institution of mixed character, 
 offering to secure salvation for its members by means of 
 grace over which it had sole control. . . . Insistence 
 on a minimum of personal worthiness in the clergy at 
 least was ' the last remnant of a much more earnest 
 conception ' of the Church. It was met by the defenders 
 of Catholicism with a new emphasis on the objective
 
 Dongar Deo 
 
 135 
 
 Dove, The 
 
 character of tiie aacraments, and upon the holiness of 
 the Church apart from the holiness or otherwise of its 
 members and clergj-. It was in the controversy WJth 
 the Donatists. therefore, that the Catholic doctrine of 
 the Church was completely developed" {E.R.E.). The 
 case of the Donatists was examined and rejected a 
 number of times by the orthodox Churdi. But they 
 could not easily be suppressed, in spite of the flact that 
 in course of time they split up into many sects {e.g.. 
 Roeatists, Maximianists, Primianists). " As Uonatus 
 sought to divide Christ, so was Donatus divided 
 bv the divisions which arose daily amongst his own 
 followers" (St. Augustine). In A.D. 4U the Emperor 
 Honorius arranged for a conference of Catholic and 
 Donatist bishops at Carthage. Marcellinus. pro-consul 
 of Africa presided, and 2.stj Catholic and 279 Donatist 
 bishops were present. The president pronounced sen- 
 tence against the Donatists. He warned all men to 
 hinder their assembling in towns and villages, and to 
 restore the churches to the Catholics. " Every bishop 
 of the communitv of Donatus must, on his return to his 
 home, return to" the one true church, or at least uot 
 impede the faithful execution of the law." After this 
 many of the Donatists returned to the Church. In A.D. 
 414 "sterner measures were taken against those who 
 remained The Donatists continued to return to the 
 Church in increasing numbers. They revived somewhat 
 towards the end of the sixth century, but after the 
 Saracen invasion in the seventh century they disappeared. 
 Optatus, Bishop of Milevis in Numidia, wrote a treatise 
 in seven books " On the Schism of the Donatists." See 
 K R. Hagenbach; J. H. Blunt: the Prot. Diet.; the 
 Cath. Diet.; Wace and Piercy: Hastings' E.R.E. 
 
 DONGAR DEO. A Hindu village deity, god of the 
 hills worshipped bv the Korkus, a Kolarian tribe in India. 
 
 DONNELLAN LECTURES. The Donnellan Lecture- 
 ship takes its name from Mrs. Anne Donnellan who left 
 a legacy in 1794 '" for the encouragement of religion, 
 learning, and good manners." It was founded by the 
 Provost and Senior Fellows of Trinity College, Dublin. 
 The lecturer delivers six lectures or sermons. 
 
 DORJE. The Dorje (" thunderbolt ") is an instru- 
 ment which forms part of the equipment of Buddhist 
 monks in Tibet. It is thought that it represents the 
 thunderbolt dropped by the Hindu god Indra (9.r.) from 
 heaven, or that originally it was an instrument belonging 
 to Gautama Buddha. In the latter ease it is supposed 
 that on Gautama's disappearance from earth, it floated 
 through the air from India to Tibet. It is much used 
 in the exorcism of evil spirits. Monier-Williams de- 
 scribes it as consisting of " a short bar, about four 
 inches long, the two extremities of which swell out in 
 globular form, or like small oval cages formed of hoops 
 of metal." Hackmann describes it as being " a pecuhar 
 metal instrument, with a handle in the middle, at each 
 end of which is fastened a bundle of four or eight 
 birds' claws, tied together at the points." The instru- 
 ment is waved to and fro. See Monier-Williams: H. 
 Hackmann. 
 
 DOSITHEANS. One of the sub-sects of the class of 
 Russian dissenters known as Popovtzi. The Dositheans, 
 or followers of Dosithey, denounced both the Czar and 
 the Church of Russia. 
 
 DOUKHOBORS. A Russian sect. The name means 
 spirit-wrestler, and was used to describe those who were 
 considered by the Orthodox Russian Church to be 
 wrestling against the Holy Spirit (cp. the name Icono- 
 b<5rs, image-wrestlers, those who objected to the use of 
 ic<5ns or images). The sect began to come into promi- 
 nence during the second half of the eighteenth century. 
 It was the policy of Catharine II. to tolerate them, but 
 
 they suffered some measure of oppression, being re- 
 garded as enemies of Church and State alike. At first 
 they were tolerated by Paul also, but afterwards some 
 of them were arrested and punished. Under Alexander 
 I. (1801-25) they were allowed to congregate and to form 
 a settlement at the " Milky Waters " near the sea of 
 Azof. Here they organised themselves into an industrial, 
 economic, and religious community. Their teaching was 
 not enshrined in books, but was transmitted orally and 
 in large part secretly. They acknowledged one God, 
 believed in the pre-exlstenee of souls, and denied the 
 transmission of Adam's sin. They held Jesus to be the 
 Son of God in the same sense in which other men are 
 the sons of God, and believed that he is bom and rises 
 again spiritually in the heart of each believer. Men 
 are enlightened by the inward word rather than by an 
 external revelation. This inward light is smothered in 
 most men by luxurious food and clothing. All men are 
 equal, and, being the children of God, they do not re- 
 quire a Government. It is forbidden to go to war, to 
 carry arms, and to take oaths. The true Church of God 
 is world-wide and invisible, and has no common creed. 
 The Scriptures are symbolical and mystical. The only 
 true priest is the Christ within: no external priest is 
 necessary: external sacraments have no efficacy. Mar- 
 riage again needs no external ceremony. For the most 
 part the Doukhob<5rs have been vegetarians, total ab- 
 stainers, and non-smokers. During the years 1841-1844 
 the Doukhobors were transported to the Caucasus. Here 
 they formed three settlements, and, devoting themselves 
 to "agriculture and cattle-breeding, became prosperous. 
 In course of time a disiiute arose about their leadership, 
 and two parties, the " Large Party " (followers of Peter 
 Veri'gin) and the " Small Party " (followers of L. V. 
 Kalmikova's brother). Peter Verigin brought about a 
 religious revival, which tended to enforce greater strict- 
 ness. This conduced to aggravate trouble when the 
 enforcement of conscription (introduced into the Cau- 
 casus in 1887) was in question. From being passive 
 conscripts, the Doukhobors became (after 1895) uncom- 
 promising objectors, with the result that they had to 
 submit to persecution and punishment. They were im- 
 prisoned, flogged, even killed sometimes, and their 
 settlements were broken up. So great was the suffering 
 that Leo Tolstoy and others started a public agitation 
 against the persecution. The result was that in 1898 
 the Doukhobors, with certain exceptions, received per- 
 mission to leave Russia. Funds were then raised and 
 arrangements made for the migration of 7,363 members 
 of the community to Canada. Here they established a 
 Commune, called the " Christian Commune of Universal 
 Brotherhood." This or the " Universal Community of 
 Christian Brotherhood " is the name they prefer to be 
 known by. See Aylmer Maude, A Peculiar People; The 
 Doukhobors, 1904: and cp. John F. Fraser, Canada as 
 it is; W. Fairweather, The Background of the Gospels, 
 1908. 
 
 DOVE, THE. The dove had quite a peculiar sanctity 
 among the Semites. Among the Syrians it was the 
 holiest of birds, and anyone who touched it was taboo 
 for a day. It was sacred among the Philistines: and 
 among the Phoenicians, by whom it was associated with 
 the goddess Astarte as her companion. Among the 
 Hittites it was associated with the Goddess-mother. 
 According to Al-Nadim, the Harranians would not sacri- 
 fice it. Its sanctity among the Arabs is clear from the 
 fact that there are" sacred doves at Mecca. The Hebrews 
 did not use it for an ordinary sacrifice involving a sacn- 
 fieial meal: but they offered it in sacrifices which were 
 closely analogous to' mystical rites. In Cyprus we hear 
 of an" earth goddess, who resembles Astarte and Aphro-
 
 Dream^Theory 
 
 136 
 
 Duality of Mind 
 
 dite, and was known aa " Our Lady of Doves." In 
 Babylonia, Egypt, and Crete, again, we find turtle doves 
 associated witli the goddess of love. Among the Romans 
 doves were sacrificed to Venus. In Russia the modem 
 peasant never kills a dove, because it is the bird of the 
 Holy Ghost (S. Reinach, Cults). In Christian art the 
 dove is used as a symbol of baptism, and of the presence 
 of the Holy Spirit. When doves are depicted drinking 
 from a vase or chalice, they may symbolise the Eucharist 
 also. 
 
 DREAM-THEORY. In the words of R. R. Marett, 
 " this theory asserts that the prototype of soul and 
 spirit is to be sought esi)ecially in the dream-image and 
 trance-image." 
 
 DRUIDS. The Druids were a religious body which 
 flourished in ancient times in Gaul and the British Isles. 
 It is commonly supposed that they were so called be- 
 cause they were oak-worshippers, drus being the word 
 for " oak " in Greek. In this connection it is worth 
 noting that for ordinary purposes they used the letters 
 of the Greek alphabet. But the likeness of drus to 
 Druid may well be a mere coincidence. True, they 
 venerated the oak, and preferred oak groves and oak 
 leaves for their ceremonies and rites. But the worship 
 of trees is a common feature in primitive religion. It 
 is true also that they treated mistletoe with great 
 reverence. " The mistletoe of the oak, which is a some- 
 what rare parasite, was gathered with great ceremony 
 by the Druids, dressed in white robes; they detached it 
 with a golden sickle, after sacrificing a white bull to 
 the gods, and caught it in white cloths as it fell from the 
 tree " (Reinach, O.). But here again reverence for the 
 mistletoe might almost be described as natural. In any 
 case, it was not peculiar to tJie Druids. In the Teutonic 
 myth of Balder (g.v.) all objects were put under oath 
 by Frigg {q.v.), not to harm Balder. But the mistletoe, 
 which had escaped notice, was used as an arrow against 
 Balder, and proved fatal to him. Probably the Druids 
 were not so called on account of their reverence for the 
 oak but because of their reputation for wisdom and 
 knowledge. They were " the far-seeing " (dru-vid). 
 This seems to have been the character in which they 
 were known to Caesar. To him they were the learned, 
 or professional, class as distinguished from the military 
 class on the one hand and from the common people, on 
 the other. To others they were even the philosophers 
 as distinguished from those who were mere Seers 
 (Vates). Posidonius and Strabo, for instance, dis- 
 criminate between the three classes : Bards, Seers, and 
 Druids. The Druids seem to have gained the reputation 
 of philosophers through the resemblance of some of 
 their teaching to the Pythagorean philosophy. According 
 to Caesar, the Druids spread from Britain to Gaul about 
 500 B.C. Reinach thinks that we have evidence in the 
 megalithic monuments that Druidism was fully de- 
 veloped earlier than this. He thinks that It flourished 
 first in the neolithic period, particularly in Ireland. 
 Then it spread to the continent. After the Roman 
 conquest the Druids returned and rejoined their Irish 
 confreres. The religious teaching of the Druids was not 
 committed to writing. Their sacred principles and pre- 
 cepts were transmitted orally. This involved a great 
 eifort of memory, and accounts for the fact that the 
 training of a novice lasted twenty years. The head of 
 the clergy was calle<l the Arch-Druid. He was elected 
 for life. The clergy would seem to have ministered not 
 merely as priests and healers, but also as arbitrators, 
 judges, and teachers. Their teaching included astrology 
 and history, as well as theology. The Druids were 
 exempt from military service. According to Caesar, they 
 used in some of their sacrifices great images of wicker- 
 
 work. Sometimes criminals were placed inside these 
 effigies and burnt. It is doubtful, however, whether 
 human sacrifice was common. It would seem to have 
 sufficed to take a few drops of blood from the victim 
 and to bum only the wickerwork dummy. E. Anwyl 
 thinks that " the use of wickerwork, and the suggestion 
 that the rite was for purifying the land, indicates a 
 combination of the ideas of tree-worship with those of 
 early agricultural life." Suetonius says that the Em- 
 peror Claudius suppressed the Druids, but he would 
 hardly seem to have done more than suppress some of 
 their rites, if indeed he even did that. According to 
 Diodorus Siculus, the Druids taught that after a certain 
 number of years the souls of men came to life again 
 and entered into other bodies. They would seem to have 
 taught this kind of metempsychosis at first. Afterwards, 
 however, they seem to have reduced the doctrine to "the 
 migration of souls towards a region in the West " 
 (Reinach). See Edward Anwyl; Reinach, O.; Oultes, 
 Mythes et Religion, 1904-190S; Chambers' Enoycl.; cp. J. 
 M. Robertson, C.M., and W. G. Wood-Martin. 
 
 DRUZES. A Mohammedan sect which owes its name 
 to a Persian, DarAzi. It arose in Syria early in the 
 eleventh century, but its religious teachings had been 
 systematized in Egypt by Khallf al HAkIm bi-amr-illdh. 
 The Khalif, supported by two Persians, Hamza and 
 DarSzi, had it publicly proclaimed at Cairo A.D. 1029 
 (A.H. 407) that he was an incarnation and manifestation 
 of God. Darilzi was nearly killed by the people for 
 making this announcement. He fled to Mount Lebanon, 
 whence the new faith was propagated. According to its 
 teaching, God, who is a unity, has at different times 
 manifested Himself in human form. Hdkim bi-amr-ill4h, 
 the last of these incarnations, though he had disap- 
 peared A.D. 1033, would appear agam and establish his 
 kingdom. See F. A. Klein; and M. Th. Houtsma, Encycl. 
 of Islam, 1913. 
 
 DUALITY OF MIND. According to T. J. Hudson, 
 the doctrine of duality of mind has become a cardinal 
 principle in the philosophy of many of the ablest ex- 
 ponents of what is called the New Psychology. He 
 distinguishes the two minds in man by designating the 
 one as Objective, and the other as Subjective. The 
 difference between the two is stated as follows. " The 
 objective mind takes cognizance of the objective world. 
 Its media of observation are the five physical senses. It 
 is the outgrowth of man's physical necessities. It is his 
 guide in his struggle with his material environment. Its 
 highest function is that of reasoning. The subjective 
 mind takes cognizance of its environment by means in- 
 dependent of the physical senses. It perceives by in- 
 tuition. It is the seat of the emotions, and the storehouse 
 of memory. It performs its highest functions when the 
 objective senses are in abeyance. In a word, it is that 
 intelligence which makes itself manifest in a hypnotic 
 subject when he is in a state of somnambulism." As 
 regards the power of Suggestion over these two- 
 minds the following propositions are laid down. " 1. 
 That the objective mind, or, let us say, man in his 
 normal condition, is not controllable, against reason, 
 positive knowledge, or the evidence of his senses, by 
 the suggestions of another. 2. That the subjective mind, 
 or man in the hypnotic state, is unqualifiedly and con- 
 stantly amenable to the power of suggestion." Two 
 further propositions are as follows. " 1. The objective 
 mind is capable of reasoning by all methods. — inductive 
 and deductive, analytic and synthetic. 2. The subjective 
 mind is incapable of inductive reasoning." But, " given 
 a general principle to start with," the subjective mind 
 " will reason deductively from that down to all 
 legitimate inferences, with a marvellous cogency and
 
 Duat 
 
 137 
 
 Dylan 
 
 power." Another peculiarity of the subjective mind 
 consists in its prodigious memory. " It would perhaps 
 be hazardous to say that the memory of the subjective 
 mind is perfect, but there is good ground for believing 
 that such a proposition would be substantially true." 
 It used to be thought that the subjective mind of a 
 person could only be influenced by another objective 
 mind (Suggestion). But it is now held that the ob- 
 jective mind of a person can influence its subjective 
 mind (Auto-suggestion) — for instance by giving it certain 
 directions just before the person falls asleep. See T. 
 J. Hudson. 
 
 DUAT. The name of the underworld in Egyptian 
 mythology. The region the sun traverses after it dis- 
 appears in the West and before it rises in the East, a 
 region bounded by two mountains. Maspero thought it 
 lay on the same plane as the visible world but was 
 beyond any regions known to the Egyptians. E. Naville 
 thinks it was really thought of as a lower world, for, 
 " if we may judge from different expressions which are 
 applied to the Douat, and also from certain representa- 
 tions of it, we must think of it as lying below this 
 world, and of the sun, when he sets, as descending lower 
 than the visible world." 
 
 DUDHERA. A god worshipped as the protector of 
 cattle by the Gowarls, the herdsman or grazier caste of 
 the Maratha country in India. The Gowfiris worship 
 also the green pigeon, haryal. 
 
 DUG PA SECT. The Dugpa or Dukpa or Brugpa sect 
 is a sect among the Tibetan Buddhists of the Red-cap 
 school (see BED-CAP BUDDHISTS). Dharma-raja, tJie 
 spiritual ruler of Bhutan, claimed the title, " Chief of 
 all the monks of the Dugpa sect." On his seal of office 
 he gives himself a number of other titles, such as De- 
 fender of the Faith, Chief of all the Buddhas, Most 
 learned in the holy Laws, An Avatar of God, Absolver 
 of sins, etc. See Monier-Williams; H. Haekmann. 
 
 DULHA DEO. An Indian deity, the family god of 
 the Agarias, a caste of iron-smelters and an offshoot of 
 the Gond tribe. He is worshipped also by the cultivating 
 caste, the Agharias, by the Audhelias, and by the 
 Baigas. The Baigas revere him as the god who averts 
 disease and accident. They offer him a reddisli fowl or 
 goat. 
 
 DUNKERS. An incorrect designation of the American 
 Tunkers (g.v.). 
 
 DUNKIRK PRAYER-BOOK. A prayer-book published 
 in 1791 for the use of English Protestants at Dunkirk 
 in Prance. The title is : " Tlie Book of Common Prayer 
 compiled for the use of the English Church at Dunkirk, 
 together with a Collection of Psalms." Attempts to 
 establish a Church at Dunkirk entirely conformable to 
 the Church of England had failed. In 1700 it was de- 
 cided to open a Church and to call over a Minister from 
 England. In view, however, of the existence of different 
 sects and parties, it was determined to adopt a Form 
 of Prayer of such a character that it might be calcu- 
 lated to offend no one and to satisfy all. Care was 
 taken therefore to omit everything that might offend. 
 The plan followed was that proposed by Dr. Samuel 
 Clarke (1675-1729), Rector of St. James's, Westminster. 
 Other alterations, not suggested by him, but well ap- 
 proved of by the Society for whose use the Prayers were 
 printed, were made. The Liturgy was offered " with a 
 degree of boldness to the examination of the public at 
 large, but especially of the English inhabitants of Dun- 
 
 kirk, who are mo.-rt concerned in the success of this 
 estabUshment, which, if it be not conformable entirely 
 to the Church of England, or to any other Church, a"t 
 least claims affinity to all in everything essential to the 
 proper mode of conducting public worship, and the cult- 
 ivation of the morals of mankind." The whole manage- 
 ment of the new religious establishment or Society was 
 vested in a Committee of twelve members, chosen by the 
 subscribers. See Peter Hall. 
 
 .v-^H?.^f • ^urga is one of the deities wor^ipped bv 
 the Hindus. She is represented as the wife of Siva 
 (</.i7.) and the sister of Vishnu (q.v.). Hopkins points 
 out that under various names (Parvati Kali Uma 
 Bhavani, Sati, etc.) she plays a great role in the ' re- 
 vived ' literature. He suggests that " Durga was pro- 
 bably an independent local deity, subsequently regarded 
 as Siva's female side." In a hymn she is described as 
 the mother of the Vedag and Vedanta. She is known as 
 the " hard " Durga on account of the terror she inspires 
 One of the ways by which she used to be propitiated was 
 by the sacrifice of human beings. Men were sacrificed 
 to her yearly. Hopkins thinks that the Thugs (g v ) 
 originated among the worshippers of Durga or KalT 
 On principle they would not shed blood; but as a sub^ 
 stitute for this, and as a protest against it, they 
 throttled their victims. See Monier-Williams: E Vf 
 Hopkins: J. C. Oman, Cults. 
 
 puSARES. An Arabian deity, identified with 
 Dionysus. He was the consort of Allath. Sometimes 
 he was worshipped In the form of a large square stone. 
 
 DUSUQIYEH. An order of Denishes, founde<l by 
 lb rahlm ed-Dusu'qi (d. 1278 A.D.), a celibate The 
 Dusuqlyeh, according to P. J. Bliss, follow ecstatic 
 principles similar to those of the mother order the 
 Qadirtyeh (g.v.). 
 
 DUTCH CONFESSION, THE. A Confession or Creed 
 drawn up in 1566. W. A. Curtis speaks of it as being 
 a comparatively obscure work of uncertain origin, and 
 as being of a milder Calvinism than the Belgic Confes- 
 sion of 1561 A.D. (see BELGIUM, CONFESSION OF) 
 " Zwinglian indeed in character, reflecting in its eighteen 
 articles the apologetic purpose of the Belgic Confession 
 but sharper in its anti-Romanist polemic " (William A 
 Curtis). 
 
 DUTCH REMONSTRANCE, THE. The Dutch " Re- 
 monstrance " of 1610 A.D. was a Creed or Confession of 
 five articles, which modified the orthodox Calvinism from 
 the standpoint of James Arminius (d. 1609). Drawn up 
 by the preacher Uytenbogaert. for presentation to the 
 Estates of Holland and West Priesland, " it represent*^ 
 an even more serious and determined attempt than 
 Amyraldism— Its kindred though independent French 
 counterpart-to break down the rigour of supralapsarian 
 and mfralapsarian Calvinism " (W. A Curtis) Con 
 demned by the Synod of Dort, " it exerted an extremely 
 widespread influence, especially throughout the English- 
 speaking world, pervading the Anglican Church and its 
 great Methodist offshoot." See William A. Curtis. 
 
 DWTN. Dwyn or Dwynwen, a goddess of love revered 
 by the ancient Celts in Britain, .<«^ms to have cor- 
 responded to the Roman Venus (g.v). Her character 
 resembled that of the Irish god An.gus. 
 
 DYLAN. A figure in the mythology of the British 
 Celts, associated with the waves of the sea, and probably 
 a personification of them.
 
 138 
 
 Ebionites 
 
 E 
 
 B. God B is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in tbe MSS. of the Mayan Indians 
 of Central America. That he was a maize-god is e(hown 
 by his head-ornament, the leafed ear of maize. He may 
 therefore be equivalent to Centeotl, the Aztec maize-god. 
 Schellhas (Die Ootiergestalten der Mayahandschriften) 
 identifies him with Yum Eaax, an obscure deity who was 
 a lord of harvest. 
 
 BA. A Babylonian deity. The god Ba is mentioned 
 before the time of Hammurapi. He became one of a 
 great triad consisting of Ann (q-v.), Bel (q.v.), and Ea. 
 Ea was a water-god, the giver of wisdom and fertility. 
 As the giver of wisdom, lie was also the protector of men 
 against evil, whether this came from gods or demons. 
 He was the god who removed pain, the god of physicians. 
 He was the god of art and sculpture. When the god 
 Marduk (q.v.) rose to power he was represented as being 
 the son of Ba, and as having inherited all the virtues 
 and honours of his father. Marduk appears in the Epic 
 of Marduk as the creator of mankind (see MARDUK, 
 EPIC OF), but it is likely that originally this r61e 
 belonged to Ba. He is even said to have assigned to 
 Anu, Bel, and Ea their domains. When he has finished 
 the work of creation and the gods unite in praising him, 
 Ea confers his own name upon him. In the story of the 
 Deluge (see DELUGE-STORY, BABYLONIAN) Ea 
 appears as the opponent of Bel (q.v.). Bel wishes to 
 destroy all mankind. But Ea warns Utnapishtim, and 
 advises him to build a boat. When Utnapishtim 
 escapes, Bel is verj- angry ; but Ea succeeds in pacifying 
 him. In that part of the Gilgamesh Epic (q.v.) which 
 recounts the adventures of Gilgamesh, Anu, Bel, and Ba 
 are mentioned as the gods Who have given him wisdom. 
 The Persian Gulf was sacred to Ba, and in the Adapa 
 Legend (q.v.) the fi-sherman Adapa is said to be the eon 
 of Ea, his protector. The god Nin-ib (q.v.) is called the 
 first-born of Ea. Nabu (q.v.) also is said to be his son. 
 The consort of Ea was Damkina (q.v.), but Belit (q.v.) 
 also appears as his consort. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 EABANI. One of the characters in the Babylonian 
 Epic of Gilgamesh (see GILGAMESH EPIC). The 
 goddess Arum (q.v.) created him out of a lump of clay. 
 He is a hairy creature Who at first lives with animals. 
 Afterwards he forsakes them and goes to Uruk. Here 
 he becomes the companion of Gilgamesh and a hero like 
 him. 
 
 EAGLE, TEMPLE OF THE. Reference is made to a 
 "temple of the eagle " or " house of the eagle " in an 
 inscription of Boghaz-Keui, and a double-headed eagle 
 figures on Hittite sculptures. The eagle seems to have 
 been one of the emblems of the chief god of the Hittites. 
 That the eagle should be regarded with awe is natural. 
 E. S. Hartland (Ritual) notes that " the Hidatsa of the 
 North American prairies, after hunting eagles, build a 
 sweat-lodge and purify themselves, singing a mystery- 
 song or incantation." 
 
 EBELIANS. The followers of the German theologian 
 J. W. Ebel (1784-1861). Ebel was Preacher at Koenigs- 
 berg (181fi-1839). In 1839 he was deposed for erroneous 
 teachlMg and immoral liviing. 
 
 EBIONITES. The Ebionites were an early Jewish- 
 Christian sect. The name was derived from a Hebrew 
 word ('ebhyon) meaning " poor." It was not chosen, it 
 would iseem, because there existed a leader of the sect 
 named Ebion. The Ebionites were so called because 
 they accepted the principle, " Blessed are the poor! " 
 They seem to have arisen after the fall of Jerusalem 
 (70 A.D.). J. M. Fuller (Diet, of Christ. Biogr.) rightly 
 dLstinguishes between two types of Ebionism, an earlier 
 type, Pharisaic Ebionism, and a later type, Essene or 
 Gnostic Ebionism. Pharisaic Ebionism is described In the 
 writings of Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertul- 
 lian, and others ; Essene or Gnostic Ebionism more especi- 
 ally in the writings of Epiphanius. The Pharisaic Ebion- 
 ites were far more Jewish than Christian. They attached 
 more importance to the Old Testament than to the New, 
 and looked forward to a millennial kingdom of the 
 Messiah, in which the earthly Jerusalem would be re- 
 stored. Their ideal of perfection wais legal righteous- 
 ness. They held that Jesus was the Son of Joseph and 
 Mary according to the ordinary course of human genera- 
 tion. But at his baptism, whicli was the turning-point 
 in his life, he was anointed by election and then became 
 Christ. He was the Christ of God in virtue of his 
 perfect fulfilment of the Law. Naturally therefore all 
 Ebionites must strictly observe the law, for " when 
 Ebionites thus fulfil the law, they are able to become 
 Christs " (Hippolytus, quoted by J. M. Fuller). This 
 observance of the Law included circumcision, the sab- 
 bath, the sacrificial offerings, the distinction between 
 clean and unclean food, etc. The Apostle Paul was re- 
 garded by the Ebionites as an apostate from the Law, 
 and his Epistles were rejected by them. Their Gospel 
 they called the " Gospel according to the Hebrews." 
 This was a Chaldee version written in Hebrew 
 characters, and is identified by Eusebius with the original 
 Gk>spel of St. Matthew. The s-tory of the miraculous 
 birth of Jesus is excluded. It has been suggested that 
 the Gospel according to the Hebrews, which was known 
 in Egypt in the time of Trajan, was so called to dis- 
 tinguish it from the Gospel according to the Egyptians, 
 which was in use among the Christians of Alexandria. 
 The Ebionites in coairse of time even had their own 
 Greek version of the Old Testament. This was made 
 towards the end of the second century by Symmachus. 
 Like the version of Aquila, it follows the Hebrew text 
 exclusively and seems to have been intended for those 
 " who declined the LXX adopted by the orthodox 
 Christians, or the Greek versions of Aquila and Theodot- 
 ion accepted by the Jews " (Diet, of Christ. Biogr.). 
 After Symmachus we sometimes find the Ebionites called 
 by Latin authors of the fourth and fifth centuries Sym- 
 maehians. It is not always easy to distinguish between 
 Pharisaic and Gnostic Ebionism, but in general the latter 
 is characterised by features due to external influence. 
 They accepted only the Pentateurti as authoritative, 
 dividing the prophets of the Old Testament into two 
 classes. The important class included Adam, Noah, 
 Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Aaron, Moses, and Jesus. As 
 to Jesus or Christ, " some afiBrmed that He was created
 
 Ecclesiastes 
 
 139 
 
 Ecstasy 
 
 (not bom) of the Father, a Spirit, and higher than the 
 angels: that He had the power of coming to this earth 
 when He would, and in various modes of manifestation; 
 that He had been incarnate in Adam, and had appeared 
 to the patriarchs in bodily shape; others identified Adam 
 and Christ. In these last days He had come in tie 
 person of Jesus. Jesus was therefore to them a successor 
 of Moses, and not of higher authority " (Diet, of Christ. 
 Biogr.). The Gnostic Ebionites did not eat flesh or 
 drink wine. Instead of wine in the Holy Communion, 
 they used water. They practised frequent ablutions, 
 were circumcised, and observed the Lord's Day of the 
 Christians as well as the Sabbath of the Jews. On the 
 other hand, they rejected the sacrifices of the altar. 
 They did not abjure married Life. In the time of 
 Epiphanlus id. 40.3 A.D.) tlie Ebionites are represented 
 as living in Rome, Cyprus, and particularly in the 
 regions along the Dead Sea. They are sometimes called 
 Peratici on account of their settlement at Peraea. See 
 Schaff-Herzog; J. H. Blunt; Louis Duchesne, Hist.; 
 Wace and Piercy. 
 
 ECCLESIASTES. The name of a book which is in 
 some ways one of the most remarkable in the Old Testa- 
 ment. It is one of the five small works called Megilloth 
 (c/.v.) or " Rolls " by the Jews. The Hebrew name is 
 Koheleth. This is rendered Ecclesiastes by the Septua- 
 gint and Concionator by Jerome. Both of these words 
 would give the meaning " The Preacher." The form of 
 the Hebrew name is feminine. It might in an intensive 
 sense (" the great orator," margin of Revised Version) 
 be used of a i)erson (cp. Sophereth in Nehemiah vii. 57). 
 In chap, i., verse 1. the book is said to contain " the 
 words of Koheleth, the son of David, king of Jerusalem." 
 In vs. 12 the author is represented as saying " I 
 Koheleth was king over Israel in Jerusalem." Koheleth 
 is thus identified with Solomon. A common use of the 
 Hebrew root (to gather or assemble) has suggested that 
 the title is descriptive, meaning "assembly," that is to 
 say, a collection of wise sayings. The tone of the book 
 is pessimistic. AU is vanity and sorrow (i. 2, 18; ii. 1, 
 11, 23; xii. 8). " There is nothing better for a man than 
 that he should eat and drink " (ii. 24). " Who knoweth 
 the spirit of man — Doth it go upwards? or the spirit of 
 beast — Doth it go downward to the earth? " (iii. 21). 
 " But if a man live many years, and rejoice in them 
 all; yet let him remember the days of darkness, for they 
 shall be many. All that cometh is vanity " (xi. 8). Yet 
 the pessimism is by no means a pessimism of abject 
 de.spair. " A living dog is better than a dead lion " 
 (ix. 4). A young man is exhorted to remember his 
 Creator in the days of his youth (xii. 1); and all are 
 urged to " fear God and keep his commandments, for this 
 is the whole duty of man " (xii. 13). As Prof. O. C. 
 Whitehouse says (The Books of the Old Testament, 
 1910), " the book reflects a period of national depression 
 and hopeles-sness when the Jews were a subjugate<l 
 people. It is evidently late, for the Hebrew abounds 
 in Aramaisms and evidences of those later forms that 
 are found in " New Hebrew " or the language of the 
 Mi.shna. It cannot be much earlier than 200 B.C., and 
 may, in fact, be even later." Ecclesiastes belongs to 
 the third and latest division of the canonical writings, 
 the Kethubim or Hagiographa. Its inclusion in the 
 Canon at all was afterwards a matter of surprise and a 
 subject of controversy. Echoes of this controversy are 
 found in the Mishnah (200 A.D.). In the tractate 
 Yadaim (iii. 5), quoted by G. Wildeboer (Origin of the 
 Canon of the Old Testament, 1895), we read : " Rabbi 
 Judah [c. 120 A.D.] said. Canticles defiles the hands [i.e., 
 is canonical; see CANON, OLD TESTAMENT], but 
 Ecclesiastes is subject of controversy. Rabbi Jose [con- 
 
 temporary of the emperor Hadrian] said, Ecclesiastes 
 does not defile the hands, and Canticles is subject of 
 controver.sy. Rabbi Simeon said. The school of Sham- 
 mai was laxer as to Ecclesiastes than the school of 
 Hillel. Rabbi Simeon ben Azzai said, A tradition has 
 been delivered to me from the lips of the seventy-two 
 elders, on the day when R. Eleazar ben Azariah was 
 raised to the presidency [of the Academy] , that Canticles 
 and Ecclesiastes defile the hands. Rabbi Akiba said : 
 God forbid ! No one in Israel ever contended that Can- 
 ticles does not defile the hands: For the whole world 
 together is not to be compared to the day on which Can- 
 ticles was given to Israel; for all Kethubim are holy, but 
 Canticles is most holy. If there was ever any con- 
 troversy it was solely about Ecclesiastes. Rabbi 
 Johanan ben Joshua, the son of R. Akiba's father-in- 
 law, said : As [Simeon] ben Azzai reports, such was the 
 controversy, and such was the decision." In Shabbath 
 (fol. 30&) it is said : " The learned intended to withdraw 
 the book Koheleth; but gave up the intention on account 
 of the beginning and end of the book." These doubts 
 about the book were known to Jerome and other 
 Christian scholars. The book owes its inclusion in tie 
 Canon largely no doubt to the fact that it professes to 
 have been written by King Solomon. Two of liie essential 
 qualifications for admittance seem to have been (1) com- 
 position in Hebrew or Aramaic and (2) by a famous 
 person of ancient times. See G. A. Barton, Ecole- 
 ■siastes; G. Currie Martin, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and 
 Song of Solomon (" Century Bible"). 
 
 BCEBOLIANS. Ecebolius was a sophist of Constan- 
 tinople whose religion was as changeable as that of the 
 •• Vicar of Bray." The ecclesiastical historian Socrates, 
 referring to persons who consented to offer sacrifice 
 under the Emperor Julian (reigned 361-363 A.D.). says: 
 " Such was Ecebolius, a sophist of Constantinople, who, 
 accommodating himself to the dispositions of the 
 emperors, pretended in the reign of Constantius to be a 
 very zealous Christian ; while in Julian's time he 
 appeared an equally ardent Pagan : nay, after Julian's 
 death, he again made a profession of Christianity, pros- 
 trating himself before the church doors, and calling out, 
 ' Trample on me, for I am as salt that has lost its 
 savour'" (iii. 13). The term Ecebolian was applied to 
 persons who changed their opinions in the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ECHETJ3. Nicetas Choniates mentions a body of 
 monks who bore this name. The Greek word from 
 which it seems to be derived means to sound or (with 
 Accus.) to make to sound. The monks followed the 
 example of Moses and Miriam, and in divine service 
 expressed their joy by dancing, etc. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ECLECTICISM. Eclecticism is the selection of ideas 
 from various systems of philosophy to provide the 
 material for a new philo.«ophy. Roman philosophy was 
 entirely eclectic. This is exemplified by the moral 
 writings of Cicero, who had been influenced by the 
 eclectics, Panaetius and Posidonius. Neoplatonism (g.t\) 
 was eclectic, since to a large extent it combined oriental 
 ideas and doctrines with the doctrines of Pythagoras 
 and Plato. The French philosopher Pierre Paul Royer- 
 CoUard (1763-1845) founded what has been described as 
 an eclectic spiritualism. His pupil Victor Cousin (1792- 
 1867) was another eclectic. See C. J. Deter; Arthur 
 Butler. 
 
 ECSTASY. Really a Greek word, meaning, in its 
 good sense "a trance." The root from which the word 
 (ekstasis) is derived frequently signifies " to lose one's 
 senses." As Emerson truly says (" Swedenborg; or the 
 Mystic"), "all religious history contains traces of the 
 trance of saints." He adds that " the trances of
 
 Edda 
 
 140 
 
 Elephant, The 
 
 Socrates, Plotinus, Porphyry, Behmen, BnnyaD, Fox, 
 Pascal, Guion, Swedenborg, will readily come to mind. 
 But wliat as readily comes to mind, is the acoompani- 
 ment of disease. This beatitude comes in terror, and 
 with shocks to the mind of the receiver." Since Emer- 
 son's day, however, the branch of psychology to which 
 phenomena such as ecstasy belong has become a serious 
 study. Emerson seems to confuse different kinds of 
 trances. A cataleptic trance is no doubt a kind of 
 disease. A trance, in the sense of an ecstasy, while it 
 is certainly not a normal state, is not abnormal to the 
 extent of being a disease. If the claims of religion are 
 to stand, ecstasy must be regarded as natural and intel- 
 ligible. For religion not only recognises higher planes 
 of existence and a life above the life of the world. It 
 also asserts that there is, in human eximrience, contact 
 between the higher and the lower world. A person in 
 a state of ecstasy leaves for a time the life of the body 
 and rises to a higher and a spiritual plane. The sense 
 for spiritual things is quickened and intensified. The 
 experience has been made in all ages. It has not been 
 so common in modern times as it was in the days of the 
 Hebrew prophets, because life has become more and more 
 materialistic. The Hebrew prophets lived in closer touch 
 with Nature and with (Jod than any other prophets seem 
 to have done. The human spirit entered into closer 
 communion with the divine (cp. INSPIRATION). The 
 question has been asked in Germany (O. Holtzmann) : 
 Was Jesus ecstatic? Our answer is that naturally he 
 was. Like the great prophets, his predecessors, when 
 he could escape from the crowd, " he walked with God " 
 and was, as it were, lost to the things of the world. 
 Philo (quoted by W. Sanday in Inspiration, 1903) well 
 describes the state. With reference to Genesis xv. 12, 
 where it is said that " about the setting of the sun a 
 trance came " upon Abraham, it is explained that the 
 sun represents tie light of human reason which sets in 
 order to give place to the Spirit of God. " So long then 
 as our mind shines and stirs about us, pouring as it 
 were noontide brightness into every comer of the soul, 
 we are masters of ourselves and are not possessed; but 
 wihen it draws to its setting, then it is natural that the 
 trance of inspiration should fall upon us, seizing upon 
 us with a sort of frenzy. For when the divine light 
 begins to shine, the human sets; and when it sets below 
 the horizon, the other appears above it and rises. This 
 is what constantly hapi)ens to the prophet. The mind 
 in us is expelled at the arrival of the Divine Spirit and 
 returns again to its home at His removal. For it may 
 not be that mortal dwell with immortal. So the setting 
 of the reason and the darkness that gathers round it 
 generates an ecstasy and heaven-caused madness." It 
 has to be borne in mind that there is a natural (spon- 
 taneous) and an unnatural (artificial) form of ecstasy. 
 But it was the ecstasy of natural experience that sug- 
 gested the ecstasy of artificial stimulation. There can 
 hardly be any comparison between the ecstasy of a 
 Hebrew prophet and the ecstasy of a dancing Dervish. 
 It is true that the two kinds appear in the Bible, but the 
 Bible itself distinguishes between true prophets and 
 false prophets, and between natural and artificial kinds 
 of inspiration. Cp. William James, The Varieties of 
 Religious Experience. 
 
 EDDA. A term denoting a species of Scandinavian 
 or Norse literature. The Poetic Bdda is a collection of 
 songs. The word Bdda means literally " grandmother." 
 According to Eeinach the collection was so called " as if 
 the whole bad been related by a grandmother." Chan- 
 tepie de la Saussaye thinks that as applied to literature 
 the sense " grandmother " is meaningless. According to 
 another interpretation, Bdda means " poetics." A third 
 
 interpretation connects the word with the Icelandic 
 school of Ssemund (died 1133). There is another Edda, 
 the Snorra Bdda, which is written in prose, but contains 
 a number of verse quotations. The Bdda is not a 
 " bible." It consists of mythical and heroic eongs. See 
 P. D. Ohantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902; 
 Reinach, O. 
 
 BDGEITBS. A sect which appeared at Rangoon. 
 According to J. H. Blunt, they combined the principles 
 and practice of the Baptists with those of the Plymouth 
 Brethren. 
 
 'BDUYOTH. The title of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by t2ie second century A.D. and 
 are included in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the Patri- 
 arch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of the 
 Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders (sedarim). 
 'Eduyoth is the seventh tractate of the fourth group, 
 which Is called Nezikin (" Damages "). 
 
 BEVIL. Bevil or Aoibhell (or Aedbhinn) was an 
 ancient Irish deity. A goddess, aihe appears as the 
 gniardian spirit of the warriors of the Dalcassian race. 
 
 BFFRONTES. A sect which arose in Transylvania 
 about the year 1534. The Effrontes rejected the worship 
 of the Third Person in the Trinity. "They professed 
 to be Christians, but rejected the use of baptism, and 
 substituted for it a strange custom of shaving the fore- 
 head until blood flowed, and then anointing the scarified 
 surface with oil " (Blunt). Probably this practice was 
 suggested by the reference to marks on the forehead in 
 the Book of Revelation (Rev. xiij. 16, sx. 4). See J. H. 
 Blunt. 
 
 EGOISTIC HEDONISM. See HEDONISM. 
 
 EGUNGUN. A god worshipped by the Yoruba tribes 
 of the Slave Coast of Africa. He is supposed to have 
 risen from the dead, and a powerful secret society was 
 named after him. In the month of June he is honoured 
 by an All Souls' festival, which lasts seven days. 
 
 BILITHYIA. A Syrian deity, mentioned by Lucian 
 (§ 38). 
 
 BIR. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. The 
 goddess Eir belongs to the retinue of Prlja (g.v.), and is 
 represented as the healer. 
 
 EKCHUAH. A tribal deity, god of travellers and 
 traders, in the religion of the Mayan Indians. He cor- 
 responds to the Mexican god Yacatecutli. 
 
 ELAGABAL. A deity worshipped in Syria In Roman 
 times. He was a sun-god, and had a magnificent temple 
 at Emesa. The temple contained a sacred black stone, 
 later the sacred stone was transferred to the shrine at 
 Rome (the Elagaballum). 
 
 ELBATICS, THE. A school of Greek philosophers 
 founded in Elea by Xenophanes (d. about 470 B.C.). 
 Other prominent representatives of the school were Par- 
 menldes (6. about 544 B.C.). Melissus, and Zeno (6. about 
 500 B.C.). According to Parmenides, Being alone can 
 be cognized. There is no such thing as an empty space. 
 Being is one, and excludes a multiplicity of individual 
 things. A Becoming and a Multiplicity are only 
 appearance. See J. B. Erdmann; C. J. Deter; Max B. 
 Welnstein, Welt- und Leben-Anschauungen, 1910. 
 
 ELEPHANT, THE. When the birth of her son 
 Gautama was foretold to Mahamaya in a dream, he 
 appeared In the form of an elephant. Hence the animal 
 was regarded as aacred by the Buddhists. The Hindu 
 god Ganeaa is represented with the head of an elephant, 
 and in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians of Central 
 America God B and God K are depicted as elephant- 
 headed. It has been shown by Professor BUlot Smith 
 not only that we find pre-Columbian representations of
 
 Elephant, White 
 
 141 
 
 Elixir of Life, The 
 
 the elephant in America, but also that we can identify 
 the species ae Indian (Nature, Nov. 25, 1915). Thie 
 suggests early contact between India and America. "The 
 god who was most often depicted upon the ancient Maya 
 and Aztec codices was the Indian rain-god Indra, who in 
 America was provided with the head of the Indian 
 elephant (i.e., eeema to have been confused with the 
 Indian Ganesa) and given other attributes more sug- 
 gestive of the Dravidian Nfiga than his enemy, the Aryan 
 deity. In other words the character of the American 
 god known as Chac by the Maya people and as Tlaloc by 
 the Aztecs, is an interesting illustration of the effects of 
 such a mi.xture of cultures as Dr. Rivers has studied in 
 Melanesia. Not only does the elephant-headed god in 
 America represent a blend of the two great Indian rain- 
 gods which in the Old World are mortal enemies, the 
 one of the other (partly for the political reason that the 
 Dravidians and Aryans were rival and hostile peoples), 
 but all the traits of each deity, even those depicting the 
 old Aryan conception of their deadly combat, are repro- 
 duced in America under circumstances which reveal an 
 ignorance on the part of the artists of the significance 
 of the paradoxical contradictions they are representing " 
 (G. Elliot Smith, Dr., 1919, p. 83). It should be added 
 that Elliot Smith identifies God B with Chac and Tlaloc. 
 
 ELEPHANT. WHITE. One of the seven royal 
 treasures which the ideal king, the king of kings, of the 
 Buddhists (or rather of the pre-Buddhists), is supposed 
 to possess. It is able to carry its master across the earth 
 and to bring him back in time for the morning meal. 
 Rhys Davids connects it with the mythical elephant 
 Airavata ("the Fertilizer"), "on which the sun-god 
 Indra rides, the personification of the great, white, 
 fertilizing rain-cloud, so rapid in its passage before the 
 winds of the monsoon over the vault of heaven." See 
 T. W. Rhys Davids. 
 
 ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. Greek initiation cere- 
 monies, so called because according to legend they were 
 first performed at Eleusis in Attica. L. R. Famell 
 {Greek Rel.) thinks that their expansion must have taken 
 place before the composition of the Homeric hymn to 
 Demeter, in whose honour they were celebrated, that is 
 to say, not later than 600 B.C. In the mysteries the 
 catechumens sought to enter into intimate personal rela- 
 tions with the Mother and the Maid. " An elaborate 
 ritual of purification was prescribed whereby the candi- 
 date was spiritually prepared for this communion. And 
 it has been supposed that the means of grace included 
 a form of sacrament, the drinking of the sacred cnp 
 into which the personality of the goddess might be 
 infused by transubstantiation; but the evidence does not 
 allow us to interpret this part of the ritual with cer- 
 tainty. What is clear is that the fully initiated were 
 privileged to see holy and mystic things, and that the 
 revelation of these established between the individual 
 and the great goddesses of life and death a close and 
 personal tie, whereby his happiness after death was 
 assured. By the time when these great mysteries of 
 Eleusis became pan-Hellenic, this was probably their sole 
 appeal to the peoples outside Attica— namely, their pro- 
 mise of posthumous salvation; and the craving for this 
 grew ever stronger in the Hellenic world from the sixth 
 century till the end of paganism." After the candidate 
 had fasted and bathed in the sea with a young pag which 
 was to be sacrificed, he entered the sacred place and 
 drank of the eacred cup. " For a time hia head and 
 shoulders were covered by a cloth, so that he could not 
 see what was happening about him " (Donald A. Mac- 
 kenzie, Crete). Prof. G. Elliot Smith (Dr.) thinks the 
 pig was bathed in the sea because it was " a surrogate 
 of the c»wry, which lived In the eea, and of the Great 
 
 Mother, who was sprung from the cowry and hence bom 
 of the sea." 
 
 ELIXIR OF LIFE, THE. The search for an elixir 
 of life, the Great Elixir, has not been confined to the 
 alchemists of the Middle Ages. Much of what has gone 
 by the name of religion, or philosophy, or science in all 
 ages and in all countries represents a quest for some- 
 thing (some power or substance) that will confer upon 
 mankind life, renewed life, and eternal life. From the 
 ancient Egyptian ritual of rebirth to the modem cult of 
 Christian Science, this has been the great quest. This 
 is emphasized by Professor G. Elliot Smith in one of hJs 
 remarkable essays (" The giver of Life " in the Journal 
 of the Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society, 1918, 
 p. 53 ff.). Man's first and only concrete idea of death 
 was associated with some physical injury which caused 
 loss of blood (" the blood that is the life thereof "). 
 From the fact that the effusion of the red fluid caused 
 loss of consciousness and death, he inferred that blood 
 was the substance of consciousness and life. This sug- 
 gested that the defective vitality of persons might be 
 remedied by offerings of blood. Blood " became an 
 elixir to restore youth, to ward off danger to life (by 
 adding to the vital substance), and to increase the supply 
 of vitality to the dead, in whom life was not regarded as 
 ended but simply reduced in volume." This belief in 
 the efficacy of blood (or later of a substitute for blood, 
 such as a fluid made of red ochre, or wine) as an elixir 
 of life " not only exerted the most profound and t&v- 
 reaching influence in early religious ceremonies and 
 symbolism, but also was responsible for driving men to 
 embark upon -such diabolical practices as head-hunting 
 and human sacrifice to obtain the blood which was 
 credited with such potent magical value." Blood could 
 revitalize. But since in the beginning man had to be 
 bom, it was further assumed that to enjoy new life, he 
 must be re-bom. " The portal of birth was regarded 
 not merely as the channel by which a new life came into 
 being, but also as the giver of life. The new being and 
 its vital essence were considered to be actually created 
 by what Semitic-speaking people still call ' the giver of 
 life.' This ' giver of life' was simulated by the cowrie 
 shell, which came to be regarded as an appropriate 
 amulet to add vitality to living or dead, to ward off 
 danger to life or to give renewed supply of life-substance 
 to the dead. But the circumstances of its original sym- 
 bolism made it also potent to increase the fecundity of 
 women and to facilitate birth. When the moon also came 
 to be regarded as a controlling influence over these 
 physiological processes in women the moon was drawn 
 into the circle of elixirs of life. This was the commence- 
 ment of the belief in a sky-world and a heaven, and also 
 the foundation-stone of astrology and astronomy." Then 
 the pearl found in a shell and actually called by the 
 Persians margan or " the giver of life " came to be 
 regarded as a heaven-sent fragment of moon-substance 
 and as the quintessence of life-giving substance. Magic 
 shells were eagerly sought for, and incidentally provided 
 the first coinage. The wearing of shell-girdles was 
 responsible for the Invention of clothing. Where the 
 shell-amulets were not easily procurable, the practice 
 grew up of making models of the cowries in stone or 
 other materials. " In the deserts between the Nile and 
 the Red Sea (the home of the cowrie cult), which must 
 have been repeatedly traversed by the searchers after 
 shells, the soft, plastic, yellow metal was found in con- 
 siderable quantity, lying about unused and unapprec- 
 iated." Models were made in gold, and in course of 
 time gold itself acquired the reputation as a " giver of 
 life" which at first belonged only to the form of the 
 amulets made of It. Hence the value ascribed to gold,
 
 Elkesaites 
 
 142 
 
 'Emeth 
 
 and its use as the basis of currency. See, further, G. 
 Elliot Smith, Dr. 
 
 ELKESAITES. The Elkesaites or Elchasaites were 
 an early sect to which a book called Elkesai was sacred. 
 They seem to have been a branch of the Ebionites (q.v.), 
 and flourished at the end of the second century A.D. The 
 book Elkesai, which became known to Hippolytus, 
 Origen, and Epiphanius, professed to contain angelic 
 revelations. The revelation is said to have been made 
 in the third year of Trajan (100 A.D.) to a member of 
 the tribe of the Seres, a Parthian people who are sup- 
 posed to have lived a life of perfect happiness, purity, 
 and freedom from pain. The book of Elkesai 
 "announced a new method of forgiveness of sin, asserted 
 to have been revealed in the third year of Trajan, by 
 which any person, no matter of what sins he might have 
 been guilty (some of the very grossest are expressly men- 
 tioned), might obtain forgiveness by submitting to a 
 new baptism with the use of a certain formula. . . . 
 A similar baptism was prescribed as a remedy for the 
 bite of a mad dog or a serpent or for disease " {Diet, of 
 Christ. Biogr.). The Elkesaites observed the law of 
 Moses, but rejected sacrifice and the eating of flesh. 
 They held Christ to be simply the greatest of created 
 beings and one of a number of manifestations of the 
 Christ. They refused to acknowledge St. Paul. It is 
 thought that the book of Elkesai was of Jewish origin. 
 Its name .seems to be Hebrew or Aramaic. If it is, it 
 might perhaps mean " God is a shelter." It might, 
 however, be Arabic. In that case it would mean simply 
 " The shelter " {'al-haslidly]). An Arabic author, Bn- 
 hedim, of about 987 A.D., says that one El-Chasaiach 
 founded a sect of Sabeans of the Desert. A special 
 feature in their religion was the practice of frequent 
 ablutions. See J. H. Blunt: Wace and Piercy. 
 
 EIiLAMMA. A Hindu deity, goddess of the boundary, 
 worshipped by the Paraiyans, a tribe or caste in India. 
 
 ELLERIAN SECT. A sect of religious enthusiasts in 
 Germany, founded by Eliaa Eller (6. 1690). They were 
 also called Zionites {q.v.). 
 
 BLNAKHUM. One of the gods of the Todas. 
 
 BLOHIST. The name given by Higher Critics to one 
 (or more) of the writers of the narratives of which the 
 Hexateuch is composed. The writer was so called 
 because his work was characterised by the use of the 
 divine name Elohim instead of Jehovah (more correctly 
 Jahveh or Yahweh). Critics now discriminate between 
 a First Blohist and a Second Elohist. See PENTA- 
 TEUCH. 
 
 ELY LECTURES, THE. The full title of the lectures 
 founded by Zebulon Stiles Ely in the United States of 
 America is " The Blias P. Ely Lectures on the Evidences 
 of Christianity." The course of lectures was intended 
 to comprise any topics serving to establish the proposi- 
 tion that Christianity is a religion from God, or that it 
 is the perfect and final form of religion for man. Among 
 the subjects may be : The Nature and Need of a Revela- 
 tion; The Character and Influence of Christ and His 
 Apostles; The Authenticity and Credibility of the Script- 
 ures, Miracles, and Prophecy; The Diffusion and 
 Benefits of Christianity, and The Philosophy of Religion 
 in its Relations to the Christian System. The lectures 
 are delivered in connection with the Union Theological 
 Seminary. 
 
 EMBALMING. The ancient practice of embalming 
 was specifically Egyptian. When Hebrew narrators say 
 that it was applied in the case of Jacob and Joseph (Gen. 
 50, 2 f. 20), they are speaking of exceptions. It was not 
 a Hebrew practice. The Egyptians believed in the con- 
 tinued existence of the human Ka, provided that the body 
 
 of the deceased was carefully preserved. Hence the 
 practice of embalming, to which reference is made by 
 Herodotus (II. 80 fif.) and Diodorus Siculus (I. 91). Pro- 
 fessor Elliot Smith explains that " from the outset the 
 Egyptian embalmer was clearly inspired by two ideals : 
 (o) to preserve the actual tissues of the body with a 
 minimum disturbance of its isuperficial appearance; and 
 (6) to preserve a likeness of the deceased as he was in 
 life " {Dr.). To attain these ideals practical measures 
 were taken, and various ritual ceremonies were per- 
 formed (see MUMMIFICATION, INCENSE, LIBA- 
 TIONS). The essential processes of mummification were 
 salting, evisceration, drying, and smoking. The incision 
 for eviscerating the body was made in the flank, right 
 or left, or in the perineum. To prevent the general 
 epidermis, as it was shed, from carrying the finger- and 
 toe-nails with it, the ancient Egyptian embalmers made 
 circular incisions around fingers and toes. Herodotus 
 distinguishes three methods of embalming. In one 
 method, the brain was withdrawn and the cavity filled 
 with spices; then the bowels were removed and washed 
 with palm wine, and the cavity was filled with myrrh, 
 cassia, and other drugs; finally, after being kept for 
 seventy days in natron (sub-carbonate of soda), the body 
 was waslied and swarthed in long strips of byssus 
 smeared with gum. In another method " cedar oil was 
 introduced into the body and removed after it had decom- 
 posed the viscera ; the body was then laid in natron, 
 which, according to Herodotus, wholly consumed the 
 flesh, leaving nothing but the skin and bones " {Encycl. 
 Bihl.). At an early stage in the evolution of mummifica- 
 tion the wrapped body was converted into a portrait- 
 statue of the deceased. Thus, in a mummy found at 
 Medum by Flinders Petrie, " the superficial bandages 
 were saturated with a paste of resin and soda, and the 
 same material was applied to the surface of the wrap- 
 pings, which while still in a plastic condition, was very 
 skilfuUy moulded to form a life-like statue. The 
 resinous carapace thus built up set to form a covering of 
 stony hardness " (Elliot Smith, M.). Elliot Smith notes 
 that " special care was devoted to the modelling of the 
 head (sometimes of the face only) and the genitalia, no 
 doubt to serve as the means of identifying the individual 
 and indicating the sex resi)ectively. The hair (or, per- 
 haps it would be more correct to say, the wig) and the 
 moustache were painted with a dark brown or black 
 resinous mixture, and the pupils, eyelids and eyebrows 
 were represented by painting with a mixture of malachite 
 powder and resinous paste." It has been said that the 
 practice of embalming was specifically Egyptian. It is 
 in Egypt that we first hear of it, and it was there that 
 it first developed. But it was not confined to Egypt. 
 It has been found throughout the world. The Baganda 
 embalm the bodies of their kings. Embalming was prac- 
 tised in the Canary Islands, in Persia by the Moslems, in 
 Thibet, in Australia, in Tahiti, in Peru and other parts 
 of America, and elsewhere. The methods employed 
 often resemble so closely those used in ancient Egypt 
 that one can hardly avoid the conclusion that Egypt was 
 the centre from which, somehow or other, the custom 
 spread all over the world. 
 
 EMDEN CATECHISM, THE. A Catechism (1554 
 A.D.) drawn up by John k Lasco. " It took the place 
 of a larger Catechism for children based on Micron's 
 Compendium, and also of a Lutheranizing substitute 
 which an Emden pastor had prepared on his own 
 authority. It became the recognized text-book and 
 doctrinal norm of East Priesland, in who.se dialect it Is 
 written " (William A. Curtis). 
 
 'EMETH. A xiox memorialis sometimes nsed in 
 Jewish literature to designate a group of books included
 
 Emmanuel Church Movement 
 
 143 
 
 Enlightenment, Period of 
 
 in the Old Testament. The books are Job, Proverbs, 
 and Psalms. 'Emeth is a common Hebrew word mean- 
 ing " truth." The three consonants of which it is com- 
 posed (noK) correspond to the initial consonants of the 
 three books. Psalms (n). Proverbs (d). Job («). 
 
 EMMANUEL CHURCH MOVEMENT. Emmanuel 
 Church is a church in Boston, U.S.A. The movement, 
 also called the " Emmanuel Movement," is metlico- 
 religious in character. It began in an attempt to cure 
 the poorest consumptives without removing them from 
 their homes. " A Tuberculosis Class was formed under 
 the direction of a distinguished medical authority. The 
 treatment offered consisted of the most recent scientific 
 method of combatting consumption, plus discipline, 
 friendship, encouragement, and hope — in short, a com- 
 bination of physical and moral elements." The success 
 of this move led to an extension of the work. It was 
 decided to render the same help to the morally and 
 nervously diseased. The sympathetic ai)provai and 
 active co-operation of the leading neurologists in the 
 country was first invited and obtained. One of the 
 fundamental ideas of the movers is that all work of this 
 kind should be under strict medical control. " We be- 
 lieve in the power of the mind over the body, and we 
 believe also in medicine, in good habits, and in a whole- 
 some, well-regulated life. In the treatment of functional 
 nervous disorders we make free use of moral and 
 psychical agencies, but we do not believe in overtaxing 
 these valuable aids by exiiecting the mind to attain 
 results which can be effected more easily through phys- 
 ical instrumentalities. Accordingly we have gladly 
 availed ourselves of the services of the skilled medical 
 and surgical siiecialists who have offered to co-operate 
 with us, and we believe that our freedom in this respect 
 and the combination of good psychical and physical 
 methods have had much to do with our success." It 
 will be clear at once that the Emmanuel Movement is 
 not to be identified with Christian Science. It " bears 
 no relation to Christian Science, either by way of protest 
 or of imitation, but it would be what it is had the latter 
 never existed." The Emmanuel workers believe in the 
 existence of what is known as the Subconscious Mind 
 and avail themselves largely of the power of Suggestion. 
 They claim that by means of Suggestion it is possible not 
 only to cure physical (nen'ous) disorders, but also to 
 check or remove moral failings (e.p., alcoholism). In 
 England the Church and Medical Union ((j.v.) worked on 
 similar lines. The Psycho-Therapeutic Society (q.v.) 
 did good work for some years fsince 1901). Its field was 
 rather wider, and it could perhaps claim to be more 
 scientific. It was not specially identified with any 
 particular religious denomination. See Religion and 
 Medicine (190S), by E. Worcester, S. McComb, and I. H. 
 Coriat. 
 
 BMMA-O. A god in Japane-se Buddhism, lord of the 
 underworld. 
 
 ENCRATITBS. The name Encratites fGk. " contin- 
 ent ") describes probably not a single heretical sect, but 
 heretics of a particular character belonging to a number 
 of different sects. Such persons abstained from flesh, 
 wine, and marriage (like the Essenes). Irenaeus applies 
 the name to followers of Saturninus and Marcion. Such 
 abstinence might of course be practised by orthodox 
 Christians. But the Encratites who were heretics prac- 
 tised it because they believed that matter was essentially 
 evil and was created by some hostile power opposed to 
 the Supreme Being. " Epiphanius describes (Baer. 48) 
 the Encratites as widely spread, enumerating seven dif- 
 ferent countries where they were then to be found. 
 Evidently, therefore, there were in these countriei: 
 heretics leading an ascetic life, though it would be un- 
 
 safe to assert an absolute identity in their teaching " 
 [Diet, of Christ. Biogr.). See J. H. Blunt; Wace and 
 Piercy. 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDISTS. The name Encyclopidistes was 
 given to the French scholars and thinkers of the 
 eighteenth century who edited and contributed to the 
 " Encyclopedic ou Dictionnaire raisonne des Sciences, des 
 Arts et des Metiers," which was published in Paris in 
 twenty-one volumes (1751-1764). The work was founded 
 and edited by Denis Diderot (1713-1784) and Jean 
 d'Alembert (1717-1783). Jean d'.tUembert was co-editor 
 only for a few years (till 1757), but he wrote the Intro- 
 duction on the methods and correlation of the sciences. 
 The other contributors included Marie Francois de 
 Voltaire (1G94-1778), Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), 
 Baron Montesquieu (1689-1755), Etienne de Condillac 
 (1715-1780), Claude Adrien Helvetius (1715-1771), and 
 Baron Holbach (1721-1789). The writers were influenced 
 by the philosophy (Sensualism) of John Locke (1632- 
 1704) and David Hume (1711-1770) : " nihil est in 
 intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu." But this 
 philosophy was transformed to suit the peculiar temper 
 and circumstances of the age in France. " Instead of 
 aiming at a transformation of the old theology into 
 another pattern, as had been the object of the earlier 
 English Deists, the French representatives of the move- 
 ment advocated a general repudiation of theology and 
 the substitution of an undogmatic religion in place of 
 Roman Catholicism. To this end Voltaire applied the 
 weapons of his caustic satire, and the Encyclopaedists 
 added the weight of their accumulated knowledge. In- 
 deed, Diderot (tl784) and his school represent a furtlier 
 stage in the downward transition from Deism towards 
 Materialism " (Hastings' E.R.E., s.v. " Deism "). It has 
 been pointed out, however, that it is a mistake to sup- 
 pose that Diderot's EnoyclopMie is full of open and bold 
 attacks on religion, Christianity, and the Roman Catholic 
 Church. " Though the article on the Jesuits is written 
 with great gusto for scandals, and though the article 
 on the Pope vindicates the Galilean views of the 
 episcopacy, the work as a whole is confessedly Roman 
 Catholic, and the Reformation, with all that belongs to 
 it, is treated in a supercilious manner as a vicious 
 innovation ; to which must be added that there is hardly 
 any Christian dogma which is not accepted and de- 
 fended, — such as those of the trinity, of inspiration, of 
 the atonement, etc. But (and this is characteristic of 
 the book) the reasons for the acceptance of the Christian 
 dogmas are generally of such a quality that a flat re- 
 jection, for no reason whatever, could not have made 
 the matter worse. Theism is preferred to atheism, 
 because it is better for the development of human hap- 
 piness to accept than to reject the Idea of the existence 
 of God. Christ is the first and foremost of all religious 
 founders, because he revealed the best and highest 
 morality, etc." (Schaff-Herzog). See Schaff-Herzog; J. 
 H. Blunt; C. J. Deter; Max B. Wein.stein, Welt- und 
 Leben-anschauungen, 1910. 
 
 ENGLISH VIRGINS. See INSTITUTE OP THE 
 BLESSED VIRGIN MARY. 
 
 ENIGORIO. The name (meaning Good Mind) of a 
 figure In the mythology of the Iroquois Indians. Enigorio 
 in his creative work is opposed and thwarted by his 
 twin-brother Enigohatgea (Bad Mind). 
 
 ENLIGHTENMENT, PERIOD OP. The period of 
 Enlightenment or Illiiminism in Germany (" Zeitalter 
 der Aufklaerung ") was the period (eighteenth century) 
 during which German thought was under the influence 
 of John Locke (1632-1704) and the English deists, Marie 
 Francois de Voltaire (1694-1778), Jean Jacques Rousseau 
 (1712-1778) and the French Encyclopedists, and of the
 
 Enmeduranki 
 
 144 
 
 Ephphatha 
 
 German philosophers Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646- 
 1716) and Christian Wolff (1079-1754). See B. Puenjer. 
 
 ENMEDURANKI. A figure in Babylonian mythology, 
 mythical king of Sippar and the seventh Antediluvian 
 king in the list of Berossu6. He was regarded as the 
 founder of divination. 
 
 ENTHUSIASTS. Another name for the Euchltes 
 (q.v.). 
 
 ENTHUSIASTS. Writers of the Elizabethan period, 
 such as John Jevrel (1522-1571) and Thomas Eogers, in 
 sr<eaking of such heretics as the Famillsts (g.v.) and 
 Anabaptists (g.v.), mention also a class of persons called 
 Enthusiasts. This seems to have been a designation not 
 of a distinct sect, but of such persons as the Famillsts 
 and Anabaptists. During and after the Commonvcealth 
 period the term was applied to the Puritans. See Schaff- 
 Herzog; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ENTYCHITES. The sect referred to by Clement of 
 Alexandria as the Bntychites is perhaps the same as 
 that referred to by Theodoret as the Eutycheta (g.v.). 
 
 BONIANS. The followers of the Breton fanatic, Eon 
 d'Etoile (d. 1148 A.D.). Eon claimed to be the Messiah, 
 and when he died he was expected by the Eonians to 
 appear again. Since his communism made him political- 
 ly dangerous, the civil authorities Imprisoned him. See 
 J. H. Blunt. 
 
 BPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. The Epistle to the 
 Ephesians was the favourite epistle of Calvin, and was 
 described by Coleridge as one of the divinest composi- 
 tions of man. Dean Armitage Robinson describes it as 
 the crovra of St. Paul's writings. It is one of the four 
 epistles now known as the Epistles of the Captivity, 
 because in them Paul describes himself as a prisoner. 
 Originally, it would seem, it was not addressed ex- 
 clusively to the Church at Ephesus. This is suggest-ed 
 by a number of considerations. The words "in Ephesus" 
 (i. 1) are wanting in our two best Manuscripts, and were 
 not found in a number of ancient manuscripts known to 
 Basil (360 A.D.). In spite of the fact that Paul had 
 worked with success in Ephesus this Epistle contains no 
 greetings to friends there (cp. Acts xx. 17-38). The 
 author (to use the words of M'Clymont) " writes as if 
 the Christian graces of his readers were only known to 
 him by report, and as if his apostlesbip to the Gentiles 
 were only known to them bv hearsay (i. 15-19; ill. 1-4; 
 iv. 17-22; cf. Col. i. 3-9)." The autograph of the Apostle 
 is not added. The Epistle would seem to have been 
 written not for a particular Church but for a number 
 of Churches in Asia Minor. It was intended as a 
 circular letter, an encyclical. " The capital of the 
 Roman province of Asia was Epheeus. To Ephesus such 
 a letter would naturally go first of all : and when in 
 later times a title was sought for it, to correspond with 
 the titles of other epistles, no name would offer itself 
 80 readily and so reasonably as the name of Ephesus. 
 Accordingly the title ' to the Ephesians * was prefixed to 
 it. And if, as seems not improbable, the opening sen- 
 tence contained a space into which the name of each 
 Church in turn might be read — ' to the saints which are 
 . . . and the faithful in Christ Jesus '—it was certain 
 that in many copies the words ' in Ephesus ' would 
 come to be filled in " (Armitage Robinson). As a matter 
 of fact, Tertullian says that the Epistle was also knovra 
 by the title " to the Laodiceans." As regards the 
 authenticity of the Epistle, the external evidence seems 
 to l>e quite adequate. It seems to have been used by 
 Ignatius and Polycarp. It is included in the Canon of 
 Marclon and in the Muratorian Canon. It is ascribed 
 to Paul by Irenaeus. It is more esijecially the internal 
 evidence that has raised doubts in the minds of a num- 
 ber of scholars. It has been urged that it is un-Pauline 
 
 in style and thought. But it is only un-Pauline in com- 
 parison with something that has arbitrarily been set up 
 as a fixed standard of Paulinism. Scholars too often 
 think of Paul as being an ordinary man like themselves. 
 He was a genius. More than that, he was a man who 
 had profound spiritual experiences, and, like the 
 prophets, was from time to time possessed by a new 
 spirit. A man of this kind never stands still. " He never 
 sees things in quite the same way yesterday, to-day, and 
 to-morrow. His thought changes, his language changes 
 under the impulse of divine intuitions. He may be lifted 
 in a moment on to a different plane and use the language 
 of that plane without having studied it In the ordinary 
 way. This is not merely a supposition; it is a fact 
 proved by experience. We must expect to find difficulties 
 In the Epistles of Paul. And we need not expect to 
 explain them all. The Epistle was probably written 
 from Rome. It is catholic in nature. That does not 
 militate against its Pauline origin. " We have no 
 ground for the assumption that the conception of the 
 Catholic Church must have been later than Paul, indeed 
 it is quite in a line both with his thought and action. 
 His attempt to keep the Churches together expressed 
 in the collection for the saints at Jerusalem, hia feeling 
 that local idiosyncracies must be curbed by the general 
 practice of the Church (I. Cor. xiv. 33, 36), his im- 
 perialist instincts which had controlled his missionary 
 activity and which were nowhere so likely to find ex- 
 pression as in Rome, all urged him in this direction " 
 (A. S. Peake). See J. Armitage Robinson, St. Paul's 
 Epistle to the Ephesians, 1904; J. A. M'Clymont; G. 
 Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake; J. Moft'att. 
 
 EPHOD. A word occurring in the Old Testament with 
 at least two different meanings. Sometimes it denotes 
 a garment, probably a loin-cloth. The boy Samuel we 
 are told was " girt with a linen ephod " (I. Samuel ii. 
 18). David, when he brought the ark up to Jerusalem 
 and danced before Yahweh with all his might, wore 
 only an ephod (II. Samuel vi. 14). At other times the 
 word denotes something closely associated with the 
 priests. Here it is not a vestment, but something which 
 was borne or carried (I. Samuel xiv. 18; xxiii. 6, 9; 
 XXX. 7), and it is used in divining or in consulting Yah- 
 weh. By some kind of manipulation it was made to 
 answer questions. The ephod referred to in Judges vili. 
 27, xvii. f. and I. Samuel xxi. 9 seems to have been an 
 image of Yahweh. If the ephod used in divining was 
 in all cases an image, we may think of " a portable 
 idol before which the lots were cast " (G. F. Moore). 
 Sometliing called an ephod figures also among the high- 
 priest's ceremonial vestments. This seems to have been 
 a kind of apron, to the shoulder-straps of which was 
 attached an oracle-pouch (" breastplate of judgment "). 
 " It is possible," says Prof. Moore, " that the primitive 
 ephod — a comer of which was the earliest pocket — was 
 used as a receptacle for the lots, from which they were 
 drawn, or into which they were cast (see Proverbs xvi. 
 33) ; and that when it was no longer a common piece 
 of raiment it was perpetuated in this sacred use, not 
 worn, but carried by the priest; the ephod and oracle- 
 pouch of the high-priest would then preserve this an- 
 cient association. The ephod of Gideon— perhaps aleo 
 the ephod in the temple at Nob — was, however, an 
 agalma of an entirely different character; what relation 
 there may be between the ephod-garment and the ephod- 
 idol, it is not easy to imagine." See Encycl Bibl. 
 
 EPHPHATHA. An Aramaic word found in the New 
 Testament and represented in Greek letters. In the 
 story of the healing of a deaf and dumb man In Mark 
 vli. 32-37 we read : " And he took him aside from the 
 multitude privately, and put his fingers into his ears.
 
 Epicureanism 
 
 145 
 
 Ernatulunga 
 
 and he spat, and touched hig tongue; and looking up 
 to heaven, he sighed, and aaith unto him, Ephphatha, 
 that is, Be opened (Gk. dianoichtheti)." The word is 
 a passive (Ethpe'el or Ethpa'al) of the verb pethach 
 " to open." 
 
 EPICUREANISM. The philosophy of Epicurus of 
 Samos (342-270 B.C.) owed much to the speculations of 
 earlier Schools, for Instance of the Cyrenaic School (see 
 CYRENAICS) and of the Atomic philosophers (see 
 ATOMS). In 306 B.C. he opened a school at Athens 
 in a country-house and garden. Here he was held in 
 the highest esteem by his pupils. And later every 
 disciple was ardently devoted to the Master. " He even 
 exalted him to the place of deity In his veneration. This 
 comes out again and again in Lucretius, whose language 
 in extolling Epicurus is that of the enthusiastic wor- 
 shipper, disclosing whole-hearted and unbounded ad- 
 miration " (Davidson). Epicurus wrote many works, 
 but only extracts and summaries have been preserved. 
 " We are fortunate, however, in possessing the philo- 
 sophical masterpiece of a great Roman poet, who was, 
 first and foremost, a follower of Epicurus — the famous 
 didactic poem of Lucretius (95-52 B.C.), entitled De 
 Rerum Naturd (' On the Nature of Things '), in which 
 the cosmology and general system of the Epicureans are 
 worked out "with considerable fulness and with great 
 enthusiasm, and in which the strength of personal 
 conviction aids the poetic imagination and adds force 
 to the felicitous diction, so that the picture becomes at 
 once vivid, fascinating, and impressive." According to 
 the Epicureans the whole material universe was con- 
 structed, on fixed immutable laws, out of atoms in 
 motion and the void. The laws are so fixed that no 
 supersensible being can interfere with or alter them. 
 The gods are located by Epicurus in the intermvndia or 
 spaces between the worlds (Gk. diakosmoi). Here, re- 
 mote from the troubles and trials of earth, they have 
 nothing to do with the affairs of mortal men. In their 
 elaboration of the atomic doctrine, Democritus, Epicurus, 
 and Lucretius, it is claime<i (by Davidson and others), 
 were the undoubted precursors of Tyndall, Huxley, 
 Buechner, and Haeckel. The Epicurean doctrine of 
 atoms and the void is used, however, to explain even 
 Life and Mind. " In this view. Life is simply the 
 result of particular collocations of particular atoms; 
 and human consciousness, sensation, perception, reflect- 
 ion — the soul, with all its properties and functions — are 
 the product of the elementary material particles, 
 variously combining and reacting : life and consciousness 
 alike are but ' modes of motion ' " (Davidson). The 
 soul itself is composed of very minute, smooth, round 
 atoms. Pleasure and pain are explained on the same 
 principle. " To the Epicurean, pleasure means simply 
 the harmonious, and orderly movement of the atoms; 
 while pain is the feeling that ensues when there are 
 jarring and discord among them." Epicurus differed 
 from Democritus (ft. al)out 400 B.C.) in his application 
 of the atomic theory, for he claimed that Free Will is 
 the great fact on which ethics is based, and that it is 
 a fact of our experience. C. J. Deter points out that 
 Epicurus ennobled as much as possible the ancient con- 
 ception of pleasure. Yet to him virtue was not an aim 
 in itself, but was to be aimed at merely for its useful- 
 ness as a means to another end, a happy and pleasant 
 life. To him personally his philosophy meant a virtuous 
 and Joyful life, spiritual and intellectual rather than 
 sensual pleasure. But as in course of time it came to 
 be interpreted by his disciples, it degenerated into a 
 mere search for sensual pleasure. The stigma which 
 attaches now to Epicureanism is of course due not to 
 the original but to the degenerate form of tiie system. 
 
 See William L. Davidson, The Stoic Creed, 1907; C. J. 
 Deter; Max B. Weinstein, Welt und Leben-anschavungen, 
 1910. 
 
 EPISTLES OF DIONYSIUS OF CORINTH. Dio- 
 nysius was Bishop of Corinth. He seems to have been 
 bishop there in 165 A.D. and to have died before 198. 
 His Epistles were addressed to the Christians of the 
 Churches : to the Lacedaemonians, the Athenians, the 
 Nicomedians, the Gortynians, the Amastrians, and the 
 Cnossians (the people of Cnossos near Candia in Crete). 
 Eusebius calls them " catholic letters to the Churches," 
 perhaps with the idea of suggesting a comparison with 
 the New Testament " Catholic Epistles " (q.v.). Euse- 
 bius (quoted by C. R. Gregory) tells us further : " And 
 the same [Dionysius] speaks as follows of his letters 
 as being treacherously treated : For when the brethren 
 asked it of me that I should write letters, I wrote them. 
 And these the apostles of the devil have mingled with 
 tares, taking some things out and putting some things 
 in. For whom the Woe is waiting. It is then not 
 strange if some have laid their hands upon the work of 
 treating the writings about the Lord treacherously, see- 
 ing that they have taken such counsel against letters 
 that are not such as those are." Dr. C. R. Gregory 
 thinks that the distinction here made between writings 
 about the Lord and his own letters " that are not such " 
 emphasises a difference between " the writings which 
 belong in the service to the part God to Man and those 
 which belong to the part Man to Man." He thinks 
 that in the writings about the Lord probably Dionysius 
 has in view the Gosi)els and possibly also the Epistles 
 of the Apostles. See C. R. Gregory. 
 
 EPISTLES OF THE CAPTIVITY. Four of the 
 Epistles ascribed to the Apostle Paul have been desig- 
 nated the " Epistles of the Captivity," because in all 
 of them he describes himself as a prisoner. They are 
 the Epistles to the Ephesians (cp. ill. 1, iv. 1, vi. 20), 
 Colossians (cp. iv. 18), Philippians (cp. i. 7, 13), and the 
 Epistle to Philemon (cp. vss. 10, 13). It is matter of 
 dispute whether the place of imprisonment was Caesarea 
 or Rome. 
 
 EPONA. Epona was a goddess worshipped by the 
 ancient Celts. She was the goddess of horses. The 
 name moans " equine spring," for which Reinach com- 
 pares Hippocrene, the fountain of I'amassus brought 
 forth by Apollo's steed Pegasus. E. Anwyl thinks that 
 originally the goddess Epona had the form of a mare. 
 Afterwards she was represented as a human being 
 riding on a horse. As the protectress of horses, she 
 was the only Gallic deity to find particular favour with 
 the Romans. See Edward Anwyl; Reinach, O. 
 
 EPUNAMUN. The war-god in the mythology of the 
 Araucanian Indians of Chili, probably of Peruvian 
 origin. 
 
 ERASTIANS. A name given in England to those who 
 hold that the Church should be subject to the State. 
 The designation was suggested by the name Erastus, a 
 name assumed by Thomas Liebler or Lieber (1524-1583), 
 a German physician and theologian. As a theologian, 
 I>iebler defended the doctrines of the reformer Ulrich 
 Zwingli (1484-1531), especially the doctrine that the 
 external organization of religion is purely a civil matter, 
 the spiritual part being entirely the concern of the 
 individual conscience. In the reign of Charles I. many 
 of the English Puritans were Erastians. Later, the 
 Hanoverian bishops were " thorough-going Erastians " 
 (Patterson). See J. H. Blunt; M. W. Patterson, Hitt.; 
 Brockhaus. 
 
 ERNATULUNGA. A name used by the Arunta of 
 Central Australia for the sacred place in which their 
 ritual instruments, the churinga, are kept.
 
 'Erubin 
 
 146 
 
 Essenes 
 
 'ERDBIN. The title of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are included in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). 'Erubin is the second tractate of the second 
 group, which is called Mo'ed (" Festival). 
 
 ESAUGETUH EMISSEE. The chief deity of the Creek 
 Indians, a wind-god. 
 
 ESHARRA. In the Babylonian Epic of Marduk (see 
 MARDUK, EPIC OF) Esharra is the name of the vault 
 of earth which Marduk places over Apsu (Q.v.), the 
 Deep. 
 
 ESSAYS AND REVIEWS. A volume of theological 
 essays written (with two exceptions) by clergymen of 
 the Church of England and published in 1860. It is 
 said in the Preface : " The Volume, it is hoped, will be 
 received as an attempt to illustrate the advantage de- 
 rivable to the cause of religious and moral truth from 
 a free handling, in a becoming spirit, of subjects pecu- 
 liarly liable to suffer by the repetition of conventional 
 language, and from traditional methods of treatment." 
 As a matter of fact the publication of the volume 
 aroused a storm of protest and indignation among the 
 orthodox, and charges were brought against it as being 
 contrary to, or inconsistent with, the doctrines of the 
 Church of England. The charges, however were not sus- 
 tained. Some of them were withdrawn or rejected in 
 the Court of Arches, others during the hearing before 
 the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The first 
 essay ia on " The Education of the World," and was 
 written by Frederick Temple. The writer was Head- 
 master of Rugby School. He afterwards became Arch- 
 bishop of Canterburj'. The second essay is on " Bunsen's 
 Biblical Researches." It was written by Rowland 
 Williams (1S17-1870), who was at the time Vice-Principal 
 and Professor of Hebrew in the Theological College of 
 St. David's, Lampeter. The third essay is "On the 
 Study of the Evidences of Christianity." The author 
 was Baden Powell (1796-1860), Savilian Professor of 
 Geometry in the University of Oxford. The fourtii 
 essay is on " Stances historiques de Geneve. The 
 National Church." It was written by Henry Bristow 
 Wilson (1803-1888), Vicar of Great Staughton, Hunting- 
 donshire. The tifth essay is "On the Mosaic Cos- 
 mogony." The writer, C. W. Goodwin (1S17-187S), an 
 Egyptologist, was a barrister. He afterwards became 
 acting judge in the supreme court of China and Japan. 
 The sixth article is on " Tendencies of Religious 
 Thought in England, 1688-1750." It was written by 
 Mark Pattison (1813-1884), who became Rector of Lincoln 
 College, Oxford (1861). The seventh essay is " On the 
 Interpretation of Scripture." The writer, Benjamin 
 Jowett (1817-1893), was Regius Professor of Greek in 
 the University of Oxford. He afterwards became Master 
 of Balliol College. 
 
 ESSENES. The Essenes seem to have been a kind 
 of monastic order among the Jews. As a well-defined 
 body they do not seem to have arisen before the second 
 century B.C. But there may have been small groups 
 of them, resembling the bands of the prophets, at a much 
 earlier date. It would be a quite natural development 
 for disciples of men like Elijah to form themselves into 
 societies like that of the Essenes. It would be equally 
 natural for such societies, having cut themselves off to 
 some extent from the common current of thought, to 
 work out doctrines of their own. Essenism is not 
 necessarily un-Jewish or due to foreign influence. As 
 Mr. R. Travers Herford says {Pharigaism, 1912), they 
 
 were ascetics and recluses, and stood apart from the 
 main body of the Jewish people. They were ascetics 
 " of more than Pharisaic strictness (for asceticism was 
 not a characteristic feature of Pharisaism either in 
 practice or theory), and they combined with the re- 
 ligion of Torah certain mystical doctrines of their own." 
 W. Fairweather thinks that apparently the religious 
 ideas of the Essenes were essentially Jewish "with cer- 
 tain decided exceptions or modifications. " In respect 
 of their belief in Providence, which was more absolute 
 than that of the Pharisees; in respect of their venera- 
 tion for Moses and the Law; and in respect of their 
 sabbath observance, which was of the strictest possible 
 type, they were Hebrews of the Hebrews. Apparently 
 also, as a guarantee of ceremonial purity, their food 
 was prepared and blessed by priests of Aaron's house, 
 while the allegorical intertaretation of Scripture had a 
 place in their worship." The modifications, which he 
 regards as alien elements, would arise from the fact of 
 their standing apart from the main body of the Jewish 
 people. The name Essenes might mean " the pious " or 
 " the physicians." The former meaning is more likely. 
 What we know about tiem is due to Philo, Josephus, 
 the Jewish historian, and Pliny, the Roman historian. 
 They preferred villages to towns, and lived chiefly in 
 the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea. " Admission to 
 the order was solemnised by the threefold gift of an 
 apron, a white robe, and a mattock (.symbols, presum- 
 ably, of abstinence and purity), followed only upon a 
 lengthened and double novitiate, and necessitated the 
 taking of tremendous oaths of absolute obedience to the 
 presidents, oijenness towards the members, and secrecy 
 towards outsiders respecting the doctrines of the brother- 
 hood " (Fairweather). Serious offenders were exi)elled 
 from the order. The brethren lived a communistic life. 
 " All their l)elongings were common property, ad- 
 ministered by chosen stewards for behoof of the entire 
 order. This applied to food, housing, and even clothing; 
 while in every town provision was made for shewing 
 hospitality to journeying brethren." They had many 
 peculiar manners and customs. " While sending gifts 
 to the Temple, they offered no animal sacrifices, deeming 
 their own lustrations superior in point of purity. 
 Theirs was a fellowship based not upon sacrifice, but 
 apparently upon sacrament. Their midday common 
 meal was at the same time a solemn diet of worship, 
 a holy sacrament to which they came clad in white after 
 having by a cold bath cleansed themselves on their re- 
 turn from the fields. A purifying bath had also to be 
 taken in the event of contact with a foreigner, or even 
 with an Essene of a lower grade. In bathing and in 
 performing natural functions they behaved with extreme 
 modesty." They probably abstained from flesh and 
 wine. They abstained from all sexual intercourse, re- 
 fused to use oaths, and rejected the use of oil for 
 anointing. " Slavery and war they abhorred. Re- 
 nouncing trade as tending to covetousness, they earned 
 their livelihood by manual labour: the majority of them 
 were engaged in agriculture. They were content with 
 the same simple fare day by day; nor were their clothes 
 and shoes replaced until utterly worn out." They were 
 held in high repute as foretellers of the future. They 
 held every object of sense to be ungodly, and sin to be 
 a transgression of the law of nature. The soul of man 
 really belongs to another world, the spiritual realm. 
 " Having come out of the purest etier in order to be 
 imprisoned In the body as the consequence of a fall 
 into sin, souls, when freed at death from terrestrial 
 bonds, soar again to the heights, happy to have escaped 
 from their long servitude." It has been thought that 
 the Essenes worshipped the sun. But It may be that
 
 Esther, Book of 
 
 147 
 
 Ethical Societies, The Union of 
 
 their sun-worship was simply suggested by the reverence 
 they paid to angels. A numl)er of scholars and thinkers 
 (including De Quincey, E. Planta Nesbit, and, more 
 recently, Emil Berg) have urged that Jesus was educated 
 among the Essenes, and that the religion of Jesus was 
 a product of Essenism. But, as others have pointed 
 out, there are radical differences between Essenism and 
 the teaching of the gosi>els. The resemblances, as Fair- 
 weather says, extend only to minor details. See E. 
 Planta Nesbit, Christ, Christians, and Christianity, 
 1899; the Encycl. BibL; W. Staerk, Neutestamentlichc 
 Zeitgeschichte, 1907; \V. Fairweather, The Background 
 of the Gospels. 190S. 
 
 ESTHER, BOOK OF. In the Hebrew Canon of the 
 Old Testament the Book of Esther is one of the five 
 books described as Megilloth (or " Rolls "). The book 
 purports to be historical, but it is now widely regarded 
 as a Jewish romance. It narrates that the Persian 
 king Ahasuerus (Xerxes. 4S5-465 B.C.) repudiated his 
 proud consort Vashti and made Esther, the adopted 
 daughter of the Jew Mordecai, queen in her place. 
 Haman. the Agagite, the enemy of Mordecai, hatches 
 a plot to massacre the Jews. This plot is frustrated by 
 Esther, with the result that Haman is hanged, and 
 Mordecai promoted to take his adversary's place. The 
 Jews were mercifully delivered, and in memory of this 
 deliverance the Feast of I'urim was obsen'ed on the 
 14th and 15th of the month Adar (Feb.-March). In II. 
 Maccabees xv. 36 the Day of Nicanor. on which was 
 celebrated Judas" defeat at Adasa of Nicanor the general 
 of Antioelius Epiphanes. is referred to as being " the 
 day before the Day of Mordecai." This Day of Mor- 
 decai seems to be identical with the Feast "of Purim 
 referred to in Esther ix. 22. The contents and language 
 of the Book of Esther point to a late date for its com- 
 position. " In the Book of Esther the Persian empire 
 is treated as a thing of the past, already Invested with 
 a halo of romance. The writer must therefore have 
 lived some considerable time after Alexander the Great, 
 not earlier than the third, probably in the second, 
 century before Christ. The book presupposes moreover 
 that the Jews had long been ' scattered abroad and 
 dispersed ' among the nations (iii. 8) ; this idea of a 
 ' dispersion ' (Sioo-.Topa) points to the time when large 
 Jewish settlements were to be found within the domain 
 of Greek civilisation. The same i)eriod is indicated by 
 the passage about the conversion of vast multitudes to 
 Judaism (ix. 27), for such a conception would have been 
 impossible even in a romance, until Jewish proselytes 
 had l)ecome numerous " (Encycl. Bibl.). A. Kuenen and 
 C. Comill assign the book to about !?,'> B.C. O. C. 
 Whitehouse thinks " it probably arose after the Mac- 
 cabaean war (1C5 B.C.), when the spirit of national 
 exclusiveness in the Jewish people became intensified." 
 The purpose of the book is to explain the origin of the 
 Feast of Purim and to encourage the observance of it. 
 See T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Enci/cl. Bihl.; C. 
 Comill, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 ESUS. Esus, together with Teutates and Taranis, is 
 mentioned by Luc-an (c. A.D. 60) as one of the Gallic 
 divinities. Esus, the eponym of the Es.suvii, is said to 
 have been a divine woodman; and the three gods, it 
 appears, required human sacrifices. Tlie triad, acc-ord- 
 ing to Reinach and Anwyl, does not represent a Celtic 
 Trinity. It is composed simply of local deities who were 
 " venerated by a few tribes to the north of the Loire " 
 (Reinach). See Edward Anwyl; Reinach, O. 
 
 ETANA. A Babylonian deity. Etana may originally 
 have been a historical person; but in any case he was 
 deified and became a legendary figure. Shamasb (g.v.), 
 the sirn-god, is his patron. When his wife finds it 
 
 difficult to bring to birth a child, Etana beseeches 
 Shamash to reveal to him " the plant of birth." He 
 would seem to find it on a mountain with the help of 
 an eagle. On another occasion Etana ascends with the 
 eagle to the gates of the upper regions. As they ascend, 
 the sea appears smaller and smaller, first like a pool, 
 next like a belt, then like a gardener's ditch. They 
 reach the gate of Anu (g.v.), Bel (g.v.), and Ea (g.v.). 
 Thence the eagle wishes to carry Etana to Ishtar (g.v.). 
 the mistress of the gods. Etana consents. They mount 
 higher and higher. But their presumption is punished; 
 they are cast headlong from the heights. In the Gil- 
 gamesh Epic (g.v.) Etana is one of the dwellers in the 
 nether world. Etana's eagle, after the catastrophe, 
 loses the favour of Shamash, and becomes hostile to the 
 serpent of Shamash, trying to catch it. Shamash tells 
 the serpent to ascend a mountain, tear open a wild ox 
 and hide in its carcase. The eagle will descend with 
 the other birds and can then be torn in pieces. The 
 serpent does as he is told. The eagle is caught and 
 destroyed. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ETHICAL, HEDONISM. See HEDONISM. 
 
 ETHICAL SOCIETIES, THE UNION OF. If the 
 Ethical Movement seems to be in conflict and rivalry with 
 the CTiurches, it may nevertheless claim to be in a real 
 sense a religious movement. The Giosi)el of the Ethical 
 Movement, as expounded by W. M. Salter in his *' Ethical 
 Religion" should command the greatest respect. There 
 are no doubt many persons to whom such a gospel comes 
 as a great relief, consolation, and inspiration. Whether 
 it Is such a religion as can permanently satisfy the 
 natural human craving for communion with a power 
 be.vond and above that of man ma.v well be questioned. 
 The general object of the Union of Ethical Societies is 
 to advocate the supreme importance of the knowledge, 
 love and practice of the Right. The principles of the 
 Union are stated to be nine. (1) In all the relations of 
 life — personal, social, and political — the moral fector 
 should be the supreme c-onsideration. (2) The love of 
 goodness and the love of one's fellows are the true 
 motives for right conduct ; and self-reliance and co-opera- 
 tion are the true sources of help. (3) Knowledge of the 
 Right has been evolving through the experience of the 
 human race; therefore the moral obligations generally 
 accepted by the most civilised communities should be 
 taken as the .starting-point in the advocacy of a progre.s- 
 sive ideal of per-sonal and social righteousness. (4) For 
 each individual, after due consideration of the convict- 
 ions of others, the final authority as to the right or 
 wrong of any opinion or action siiould be his own con- 
 scientious and reasoned judgment. (5) The well-being 
 of society requires such economic and other conditions 
 as afford the largest scope for the moral development of 
 all its members. fO) scientific method should he applied 
 iu studying the facts of the moral life. (7) The moral 
 life involves neither acceptance nor rejection of belief in 
 any deity, personal or impersonal, or in a life after death. 
 (S) The acceptance of any one ultimate criterion of right 
 should not be made a condition of ethical fellowship. 
 (9) Ethical Fellowships are the most powerful means 
 of encoTiraging the knowledge and love of right prin- 
 ciples of conduct, and of giving the strength of character 
 necessary to realise them in action. It is clear that the 
 Ethical Societies have much in common with the 
 Churches as far as good works are concerned, but the 
 two conceptions of what constitutes true religion are 
 widely divergent. " So far as the Churches are endeav- 
 ouring to battle with the evils of Society and of the 
 individual life, and to band the people together into re- 
 ligious communities for that purpose, the Ethical 
 Societies welcome and endorse their efforts. But they
 
 Ethnophronians 
 
 148 
 
 Euphemites 
 
 have nothing in common with that view of Religion which 
 toys the chief emphasis upon what a man believes and 
 not upon what he does." Mr H Snell, a Gene^l 
 Secretary of the Union of Ethical Societies, has drawii 
 u^rkind of Ethical Creed. Part of it may be quoted^ 
 "We believe first of all in making duty a religion. By 
 duty we mean passionate loyalty to truth, justice, mercy, 
 a^d right livi^ We do not believe that creeds, 
 theologies, and priestly ceremonies are religion, and we 
 are opposed to ceremonial beliefs being made a duty. 
 We believe that what men call the ' good life constitutes 
 religion: that there is no religion except that, and we 
 believe that man can lead the • good life ' without super- 
 natural beliefs of any kind. We do not say that all 
 supernatural theories are wrong, but we believe that the 
 •good life' is not dependent on belief in them. we 
 believe that there is no salvation for mankind apart 
 from character; and we believe that character is salva- 
 tion We have no collective beliefs c-oncerning another 
 life than this; but we believe that the life we have needs 
 purifying and improving, and to this end we devote all 
 our time and strength. As individuals we may or may 
 not believe that a ready-made heaven is waiting for us 
 when this life is over; but we unitedly believe that if 
 the kingdom is to ' come on earth as it is in heaven it 
 must be by man's labour and self-sacrifice. We believe 
 that perfection lies at the end and not at the beginning 
 of human experience; that there was no Garden of liden, 
 no perfect man, and no Fall which brought sin into the 
 world We believe that although men fall daily, man 
 is rising, and that he has risen from the beginning until 
 now We do not beUeve that Jesua encompassed all the 
 possible good in his own personality, but that knowledge 
 of the right evolves from age to age." There are more 
 than twenty Societies federated in the Union. 
 
 ETHNOPHRONIANS. A name given in early times 
 to those who mingled with Christianity pagan customs 
 and superstitions. " Those who practised astrology, 
 fortune-telling, divination, .sortilege, or auguries, were 
 all reprobated under this title " (J. H. Blunt). 
 
 EUCHAEIST. A name given to the Christian institu- 
 tion which commemorates the Last Supper of Jesus. 
 According to the gospels of St. Matthew, St. Mark, and 
 St Lake, Jesus "gave thank.s " (eucharistcsas) before 
 he broke the bread and gave it to his disciples. Hence 
 the name Eucharist, which means Thanksgiving. Pro- 
 testants prefer the title Lord's Supper or Holy Com- 
 munion, and for the most part are not in agreement with 
 Roman Catholics as to the meaning of the sacrament. 
 Considered as a *iacrament fas well as a sacrifice), the 
 Eucharist, according to the Cath. Diet., is the true body 
 and blood of Christ under the appearance of bread and 
 wine. " Like all the sacraments, it was instituted by 
 Christ, and like them, it consists of an outward part- 
 viz., bread and wine, or the appearance of bread and 
 wine; and an inward or invisible part— viz.. the body 
 and blood of Christ with the grace which tbey impart 
 to those who communicate worthily." 
 
 EUCHITES. A religious sect which became prominent 
 in Syria towards the end of the fourth century A.D. 
 Derived from a Greek word, the name means " the 
 praying people." The original designation, formed from 
 a Svriae word meaning "to pray," was Messalians or 
 Mas'salians. The Euchites seem to have been confined 
 to the East, where they existed for some centuries. Mes- 
 salians are heard of as late as the twelfth century. The 
 Euchites held that men are born with a demon which 
 incites them to sin. This demon cannot be expelled by 
 Baptism or the Budiarist. It can be expelled or sub- 
 deed only by intense, concentrated prayer, continued 
 until it produces a state from which all affections and 
 
 volitions are banished. , When this state is reached the 
 soul is conscious of a union with God ; the demon departs, 
 and the Holy Spirit enters ; the Holy Trinity can be seen 
 with the bodily eyes. It was possible, the Euchites 
 believed, to attain a passionless state of perfection in 
 which a man became sinless. "The soul of him who 
 was ' spiritual,' as they boasted themselves to. be, was 
 changed into the divine nature; he could see things in- 
 visible to ordinary men; and so some of them used to 
 dance by way of trampling on the demons which they 
 saw, a practice from which they were called Chorentae " 
 [Diet, of Christ. Biogr.). The Euchites were monks, 
 but, unlike other monks, tliey refused to support them- 
 selves by their labour, preferring to roam about begging. 
 They were condemned by councils held at Side, Constan- 
 tirople (426 A.D.), and Ephesus (431 A.D.). At Ephesns 
 the Messalian book, Asceticus, from which passages were 
 read. Was anathematized. The Euchites suffered per- 
 secution both in Syria and Asia Minor. Amongst their 
 leaders were Adelphius, Lampetius, and Marcian. See 
 Schaff-Herzog; J. H. Blunt; Wace and Piercy. 
 
 EUDISTS. The Roman Catholic congregation known 
 as Eudists derived its name from Jean Eudes (1601-1680). 
 At an early age Eudes was admitted into the Oratory- 
 founded by Abb4 de B^rulle in Paris. He became 
 specially interested in missions, and left the Oratory 
 with the intention of founding a congregation devoted to 
 this work. In 1643 he founded his congregation of 
 secular priests at Caen. The movement spread rapidly 
 during his lifetime. The Eudists were attacked during 
 the French Revolution, and many of them fled to Eng- 
 land. The congregation was revived in 1826. It should 
 be added that the Eudists are not required to make vows. 
 See Cath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 EUDOXIANS. The followers of Eudoxins, who 
 became Bishop of Antioch (357 A.D.). He was one of 
 the leading Arians of the fourth century, and developed 
 an extreme form of Arianism iq.v.). He was condemned 
 by the Semi-Arian Councils of Seleucia (3.59 A.D.) and 
 Lampsacus (365 A.D.). See J. H. Newman, The Arians 
 of the Fourth Century; H. M. Gwatkin, The Arian Con- 
 troversy, 1889; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 EUNOMIANS. A name given to the strict Arians 
 (see ARIANISM) who belonged to the party of Bishop 
 Bunomius. They were also known as Anomoeans because 
 they said that the Father and the Son were unlike, and 
 as Bxucontians because they said that the Son was made 
 out of nothing. 
 
 EUNOMIO-EUTTCHIANS. The followers of Buty- 
 chius of Constantinople, a body of Eunomian heretics (see 
 EUNOMIANS). Socrates, the ecclesiastical historian, 
 seems to identify their tenets with those of the Eunomio- 
 Theophronians iq.v.). 
 
 BUNOMIO-THEOPHRONIANS. The followers of 
 Theophronius of Cappadocia (flor. about 370 A.D.), a 
 body of Eunomian heretics (see EUNOMIANS). Accord- 
 ing to Sozomen, the ecclesiastical historian. Theophronius 
 had given some attention to the works of Aristotle and 
 composed an appendix to them with the title " Exercises 
 of the Mind." Afterwards, on the strength of what he 
 tiought a deep knowledge of the terms of Scripture, " he 
 attempted to prove that though God is acquainted with 
 the present, the past, and the future, his knowledge on 
 these subjects is not the same in degree, and is subject 
 to some kind of mutation." The Eunomians repudiated 
 and excommunicated Theophronius, whereupon he 
 founded a new sect. Socrates, the ecclesiastical his- 
 torian, states that the Eunomio-Theophronians baptized 
 in the name of Christ alone, and not in that of the 
 Trinity. See J. H. Blnnt: Wace and Piercy. 
 EUPHEMITES. According to Augustine, Euphemites
 
 Eutychianism 
 
 149 
 
 Evangelical Association 
 
 was another name for Euchites (q.v.). According to 
 Epiphanius, however, the Euphemites were pagans who 
 in part had adopted the Christian form of worship : they 
 had abandoned polytheism and devoted themselves to the 
 worship of one God. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 EDTTCHIANISM. The teaching of Eutyehes, who 
 was archimandrite of a monastery near Constantinople. 
 In 44S A.D. he was definitely accused of heresy by Euse- 
 bius of Dorylaeum, at a synod convened in Constan- 
 tinople. When Eutyehes refused to present himself, 
 deputies were sent to him to ascertain his views exactly. 
 According to their report, he said that he was unable to 
 find in the writings of the Fathers of the Church the 
 doctrine that Jesus Christ subsisted of two Persons 
 united in one HyjKtstasis; and that in any case he could 
 not accept such a doctrine, as it is not found in Holy 
 Scripture. He held that He who was bora of the Virgin 
 Mary was very God and very man, but that His body 
 was not of like substance with ours. Summoned to come 
 to the synod in rterson, Eutyehes again refused. To 
 those who were sent to question him again, he is said 
 to have argued tliat the word homoousios ("of the same 
 substance ") does not occur in Holy Scripture, but was 
 derived from the Fathers, as was also the affirmation of 
 the two natures. Finally Eutyehes presented himself, 
 but his answers to the questions put to him were of the 
 same kind, and were considered unorthodox. He wa.s 
 condemned to be " excluded from all priestly functions, 
 from our commtmion, and from his primacy in his 
 monastery." Eutyehes and Dioscorus, patriarch of 
 Alexandria, requested the Emperor to .summon another 
 synod. This was done, and in 449 the synod met at 
 Ephesus, the chief opponent of Eutyehes being Flavian, 
 bishop of Constantinople. Eutyehes was acquitted, but 
 the synod became known as the Latrocinium or Robber 
 Synod on account of its violence. '' The Christian world 
 was rent in pieces by its proceedings. Egypt, Thrace, 
 and Palestine ranged themselves with Dioscorus and the 
 emperor: Syria. Pontus, Asia. Rome, protested against, 
 the treatment of Flavian and the acquittal of Eutyehes " 
 (Waoe and Piercy). In 4.51 a fourth great Council of the 
 Church met at Chalcedon. At this tie verdict of the 
 Latrocinium was reversed, and Eutyehes was condemned. 
 It was decreed that Christ must be " acknowledged in 
 two natures, tnconfusedly. unchangeably, indivisibly, in- 
 separably, the distinction of natures being by no means 
 taken away by the union, but rather the property of each 
 nature being preserved, and concurring in one person 
 and one hypostasis, not parted or divided into two 
 persons, but one and the .same Son and Only-begotten, 
 God the Word, the Lord .Tesus Christ, as the prophets 
 from the beginning have declared concerning Him. and 
 the Lord .Jesus Christ Himself has taught us. and the 
 creed of the holy Fathers has delivered to us." Eutyehes 
 was crushed, but Eutychianism still exi,st.s. See William 
 Benham; .T. H. Blunt; the Prot. Diet.; Waee and 
 Piercy. 
 
 EUTTCHETiE. A sect of heretics mentioned by 
 Theodoret. Theodoret seems to identify the Eutychetae 
 with the Euchites iq.v.). Ittigius, on the other hand, 
 identifies them with a .sect mentioned by Clement of 
 Alexandria, the Entychites, who, it would seem, owed 
 their name to certain profligate practices. See J. H. 
 Blunt. 
 
 EVANGBLIARIUM. A lectionary containing passages 
 from the GosiJeLs was so called in tie earlv Christian 
 Church. See LBCTIONAEIES. 
 
 EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, THE. The Evangelical 
 Alliance was constituted in lS4f; at a great Conference 
 in Freemason's Hall, London, which was attended by 
 eight htmdred representatives of the Christian Churches. 
 
 One of the resolutions passed was as follows : " This 
 Conference, composed of professing Christians of many 
 different denominations, all exercising the right of 
 private judgment, and, through common infirmity, differ- 
 ing among themselves in the views they severally enter- 
 tain on some points both of Christian doctrine and eccles- 
 iastical polity, and gathered together from many and 
 remote parts of the world for the puri)ose of promoting 
 Christian union, rejoice in making their unanimous 
 avowal of the glorious truth that the Church of the 
 Living God, while it admits of growth, is one Church, 
 never having lost, and being incapable of losing, its 
 essential unity. Not, therefore, to create that unity, 
 but to confess it, is the design of their assembling 
 together. One in reality, Ihey desire also, as far as 
 they may be able to attain it, to be visibly one; and thus 
 both to realize in themselves and to exhibit to others 
 that a living and everlasting union binds all true 
 believers together in the fellowship of the Church of 
 Christ, ' which is His body, the fulness of Him that 
 filleth all in all.' " The Alliance is based upon nine 
 theological views which are usually understood to l)e 
 evangelical. 1. The divine inspiration, authority, and 
 sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures. 2. The right and duty 
 of private judgment in the interpretation of the Holy 
 Scriptures. 3. The unity of the Godhead, and the Trinity 
 of Persons therein. 4. The utter depravity of human 
 nature in consequence of the fall. 5. The Incarnation 
 of the Son of God, His work of atonement for sinners, 
 and His mediatorial intercession and reign. 6. The 
 justification of the sinner by faith alone. 7. The work 
 of the Holy Spirit in the conversion and sanctification 
 of the sinner. S. The immortality of the soul, the resur- 
 rection of the body, the judgment of the world by our 
 Lord Jesus Christ, with the eternal blessedness of the 
 righteous, and the eternal punishment of the wicked. 
 9. The divine institution of the Christian miuLstry, and 
 the obligation and perpetuity of the ordinances of 
 Baptism and the Lord's Supper. It is distinctly declared, 
 however, that ■' this brief summary is not to be regarded, 
 in any formal or ecclesiastical sense, as a creed or con- 
 fession, nor the adoption of it as involving an a.'^ump- 
 tion of the right authoritatively to define the limits of 
 Christian brotherhood, but simply as an indication of 
 the class of i)ersons whom it is desirable to embrace 
 within the Alliance." One of the practical resolutions 
 agreed upon by the London Conference of lS4<i and read 
 at each Annual Meeting or Conference of the British 
 Organization of the Evangelical Alliance lays special 
 .stress on this general Christian fraternity. " That, 
 while they believe it highly desirable that Christians of 
 different bodies, holding the Head, should own each 
 other as brethren by .some such means as the Evangelical 
 Alliance affords, the members of the Alliance disclaim 
 the thought that those only who openly join the society 
 are sincere friends to the cause of Christian Union : 
 that, on the contrary, they regard all those as its true 
 friends who solemnly purpose in their hearts, and fulfil 
 that purpose in their practice, to be more watchful in 
 future against occasions of strife, more tender and charit- 
 able towards Christians from whom they differ, and more 
 con-stant in prayer for the union of all the true di.sciples 
 of Christ." Since its foundation the Evangelical 
 Alliance has exerted itself on behalf of persecuted 
 Christians not only in Europe but al.'« in many countries 
 beyond. In recent years it has endeavoured also to 
 bring relief to .Tews in Russia, and sufferers from famine 
 in Armenia. It has tried to promote religious liberty 
 in Malta, Russia, Spain, and other countries. See the 
 Annual Reports of the Evangelical Alliance. 
 EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION. The name assumed
 
 Evangelical Union 
 
 150 
 
 Exodus, Book of 
 
 by a religious sect founded in North America by Jacob 
 Albrecht (d. 1808). In 1803 Albrecbt was made presiding 
 elder, or a kind of bishop, by the other preachers. The 
 " Albrecht Brethren," as the members of the sect are 
 also called, have much in common with the Methodists. 
 Branches of the Evangelical Association were formed in 
 Germany. See J. H. Blunt; Brockhaus. 
 
 EVANGELICAL UNION. The name assumed by the 
 sect founded by James Morison (1816-1893). The 
 members were also called Morlsonians (q.v.). 
 
 BXCALCEATI. The Excalceati were an ancient sect 
 who thought it necessary to follow the example of the 
 prophet Lsaiah and to walk barefoot. They were called 
 also Gymnopodae. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION. A term used to denote exclu- 
 sion from the ecclesiastical community. According to 
 Ezra X. 8, tiose who had taken " strange " wives and 
 refused to give them up were separated from the Jewish 
 community. In Luke vi. 22 reference seems to be made 
 to three "different grades of Jewish excommunication. 
 These apparently were (1) nUldui. a short term of thirty 
 days; (2) ckerem, a much longer period; and (3) sham- 
 matta, complete exclusion. In St. Paul's epistles some 
 kind of excommunication seems to be referred to in I. 
 Cor. V. 3-5, II. Cor. ii. (i-U. In the Pastoral Epistles 
 the rules of exclusion have become more precise (I. Tim. 
 i. 20, V. 19 f.). In recent times several early Christian 
 documents of exoommunieation have been discovered 
 (Camden M. Cobem). The Roman C«atholie Church dis- 
 tinguishes two kinds of excommunication, the major and 
 the minor. " The minor kind is an ecclesiastical cen- 
 sure, by which a Cliri.stian is deprived of the right to 
 participation in sacraments, and indirectly, as a conse- 
 quence, of the right of receiving a benefice" (Oath. 
 Diet.). The major excommunication "deprives of all 
 ecclesiastical communion, and is equivalent in substance 
 to anathema, from which it only differs in regard to the 
 formalities by which the latter is surrounded." Article 
 xxxlii. of the Church of England states that persons 
 who are rightly cut off fivjm the unity of the Church by 
 open denunciation of it ought to be avoided by the faith- 
 ful. " The rubric prefixed to the Communion Service 
 provides that for notorious moral offences offenders may 
 be denied the Lord'.s Supper, but the offence mast 
 obviouslv be proved bv the judgment of some competent 
 court " {Prot. Diet.). 
 
 EXERCISES, SPIRITUAL. Ignatius of I^yola 
 wrote a work which he called " Spiritual Exercises," and 
 which has sei-ved since as a guide for those who have 
 desired to practice meditation and penance. The Jesuits 
 have zealously practised spiritual exercises according to 
 the method of Ignatius, and have won the title " men 
 of the Exercises." The work was written in Spanish, 
 but was translated into Latin (Engl, transl.. The 
 Spiritual Excreises of St. Ignatiux of Loi/ola. 1849). 
 " The i>erison wtio makes the exercises is supposed to 
 receive them from a director, and the exercises are 
 arranged for a retreat of four weeks; they can, how- 
 ever, be adapted for a much shorter time. The exer- 
 citant begins with meditations on the end of man, and 
 on the penalties of sin, that he may flee with horror 
 from it; passes next to those on Christ's life and death, 
 Christ being the model which we have to copy; and ends 
 by contemplating the resurrection of Christ, happiness 
 of heaven, etc., that he may learn to unite himself to 
 God " (Cath. Diet.). See Schaff-Herzog; Cath. Diet. 
 
 EXODUS, BOOK OF. The Book of Exodus, the 
 .second book in the first division of the Hebrew Canon 
 of the Old Testament ((].v.), bears in the Hebrew Bible 
 the title We-elleh Shemoth (these being the opening 
 words of the book) or simply Shemoth. The English 
 
 title is derived, through the Old Latin and Vulgate, from 
 the Septuaglnt. In the liXX the title is Exodus or 
 fiXodos Aiguptou ("Exodus from Egypt"; see Exodus 
 xix. 1). The Book of Exodus carries on the history of 
 Israel from the death of Joseph. But the circumstances 
 have changed. " The twelve sons of Jacob with their 
 children who went down into Egypt (' seventy souls ') 
 have so increased in numbers as to be a cause of alarm 
 to the Egyptians; the narrative, which throughout 
 Genesis preserves the form of a family chronicle, now at 
 once becomes the history of a people (G. F. Moore). The 
 contents of the Book of Exodus are as follows : Chapters 
 i.-ii. describe the growth of the people in Egypt, tJie 
 Egyptian oppression, and the early days of Moses. 
 Chaps, iii. 1-vii. 13 tell of Moses' call to be the deliverer 
 of his people. Chaps, vii. 14-xi. describe nine of the ten 
 plagues .sent by God to warn and frighten the Egyptians. 
 Chai>s. xii.-xiii. tell how the Feast of the Passover and 
 the Feast of Unleavened Cakes were instituted, and how 
 after the tenth plague, the destruction of the first-bom 
 of the Egyptians, the Israelites departed from Rameses. 
 Chap. xiv. describes the passage of the Red Sea and the 
 pursuit by the Egyptians. Chap. xv. gives Moses' Song 
 of Triumph and Thanksgiving. Chap. xvi. tells how the 
 Israelites journeyed to the wilderness of Sin, and were 
 fed with Manna and Quails. Chap. xvii. recounts that 
 they continued their journey to Rephidim, and found 
 water at Ma.isah (J) or Meribah (E). It describes also 
 the battle with and victory over Amalek. Chap, xviii. 
 tells of a visit made by Mo.ses to Jethro and of its results. 
 Chaps, xix.-xxiv. tell of the arri^ial of Israel at Sinai 
 and of the preparation for the law-giving. Moses 
 receives from God the Decalogue and the Book of the 
 Covenant. Chaps, xxv.-xxxi. 18a tell how Moses received 
 directions which amounted to " an entirely new law. very 
 detailed instructions with regard to the institution of 
 an official cultns " (Holzinger). Chaps, xxxi. 186-xxxiv. 
 tells of the making of the Golden Calf. Chaps, xxxv.-xl. 
 describe how the in.structions with regard to the institu- 
 tion of an official cultus were carried out. The Book of 
 Exodus is of composite origin, and was compiled from a 
 number of documents. 'The oldest of these were the 
 Primitive Document (J ; ninth cent. B.C.) and the early 
 Elohistic Document (E; a little later). These were based 
 partly uiwn oral tradition, partly upon written laws 
 (e.g., chaps, xx.-xxiii., xxxiv. 10-28). The combined 
 narrative JE was compiled early in the seventh century 
 B.C. Another stratum consists of additions made to J 
 or E or JE by Deuteronomic editors (600 B.C.). The 
 document known as P (Priestly Writer) is largely repre- 
 sented in the second half of the book. To this may be 
 traced the chapters dealing with the institution of an 
 official cultus (xxv.-xxxi. 18a and xxxv.-xl.). According 
 to Driver, " it is probable that P was written, partly 
 during the Babylonian exile, partly during the century 
 that followed the return to Judah." Driver points out 
 that, "as regards JE in general, it is to be remembered 
 that the criteria distinguishing J and E from each other 
 are less numerous and strongly marked than those dis- 
 tinguishing P from JE as a whole; so that, while there is 
 hardly ever any doubt as to the limits of P, there are 
 passages of JE in whici. from the insufficiency or 
 ambiguity of the criteria, the analysis is uncertain, and 
 different critics may arrive at different «)nclusions." 
 The Song of Moses or Song of Miriam, in the form in 
 which it has been pre.ser^-ed (chap. xv. 1-18), is lypohably 
 not of ancient date. It would seem to be an expansion 
 of ,1 very much shorter utterance — an utterance consist- 
 ing only of vs. 1 (repeated in vs. 21). The expanded 
 form may have been written in the sixth century B.C. ; 
 or even in Babylonia about 540-538, when, as Whitehouse
 
 Exorcism 
 
 151 
 
 Extreme Unction 
 
 says, " the expected restoration would naturally recall 
 the memories (" former things ") of the exodus (Isa. 
 xliii. 1, 2, 16-17, xliv. 27, 28, xlvi. 9 S.. xlviii. 3, 21, 1. 2, 
 li 9, 10)." The Book of Exodus contains several ancient 
 codes of laws. There are the " Ten Commandments " 
 (chap. XX., E), the " Book of the Covenant " (xx. 22-xxiii. 
 19, E), the Laws of the Two Tables (sxxiv. 10-28, J). See 
 Moore in Encycl. Bibl.; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford- 
 Battersby; H. Holzinger, Exodus, 1900: W. H. Bennett, 
 Exodus in the " Century Bible " ; G. H. Box, Intr.; O. C. 
 Whitehouse; S. B. Driver, Exodus in the " Cambridge 
 Bible," 1911. 
 
 EXOKCISM. The term " Exorcists " (.exorkistai) 
 occurs in the New Testament. It is used of persons who 
 used a formula of conjuration in order to expel demons. 
 Josephus (Antiquities, viii. 2, v.) says that God gave 
 Solomon skiU in expelling demons. " He composed such 
 incantations also by which distempers are alleviated. 
 And he left behind him the manner of using exorcisms, 
 by which they drive away demons, so that they never 
 return, and this method of cure is of great force unto 
 this day; for I have seen a certain man of my own 
 country, whose name was Eleazar, releasing people that 
 were demoniacal in the pre.sence of Vespasian and his 
 sons and his captains and the whole multitude of his 
 soldiers. The manner of the cure was this : He put a 
 ring that had a root of one of those sorts mentioned by 
 Solomon to the nostrils of the demoniac, after which he 
 drew out the demon through his nostrils; and when the 
 man fell down immediately, he abjured him to return 
 into him no more, making still mention of Solomon, and 
 reciting the Incantations which he composed. And when 
 Eleazar would persuade and demonstrate to the spec- 
 tators that he had such a power, he set a little way off 
 a cup or basin full of water, and commanded the demon 
 as he went out of the man to overturn it, and thereby 
 to let the spectators know that he had left the man ; and 
 when this was done, the skill and wisdom of Solomon 
 was shown very manifestly " (Whlston's transL). In 
 the Wars of the Jews (vii. 6, 3) Josephus mentions a 
 herb Baaras which was difficult to pluck. He adds : 
 " Yet, after all this pains in getting, it is only valuable 
 on account of one virtue it hath, that if it be only 
 brought to sick persons, it quickly drives away those 
 called demons, which are no other than the spirits of 
 the wicked, that enter into men that are alive and kill 
 them, unless they can obtain some help against them." 
 In the New Testament we are told that Jesus cast out 
 the spirits " with a word " or " by the spirit of God " 
 or " by the finger of God." His disciples too were 
 empowered by him to cast out demons both before and 
 after his restirrection. In Mk. xvi. 17 Jesvis, after his 
 resurrection and before his ascension, is represented as 
 saying that one of the signs th.it shall accompany those 
 who believe will be the casting out of demons in his 
 name. From Acts xix. 13 it seems that the sons or 
 disciples of a prominent Jew at Ephesvis u.sed the name 
 •' as a spell in preference to the strings of names of 
 gods and demigods and angels which were common in 
 exorciams both in Asia Minor and elsewhere " (Ency. 
 Bib.). Justin Martyr says (Apol. ii. 5) that in cases in 
 which every other kind of exorcism had failed, " the 
 name of Jesus Christ who was crucified imder Pontius 
 Pilate " was potent to cast out demons. In his Dialogue 
 with Trypho he admits that Jews were able to exorcise 
 demons in the name of the God of Abraham or of Isaac 
 or of Jacob, but he complains that they had adopted 
 heathen practices, such as the tise of perfumes and liga- 
 tures. There is frequent reference to the practice of 
 exorcism in the early church. Catechumens were exor- 
 cised at baptism, and even afterwards. Baptismal 
 
 exorcism has survived in the Roman Catholic Church. 
 So also has the ancient practice (cp. Cyprian, Ep. 70) 
 of exorcising inanimate things, such as holy oil and 
 holy water. Cornelius, as quoted by Eusebius (Eccles. 
 Hist., vi. 43) refers to Exorcists as a special order of the 
 clergj'. A special form for the ordination of Exorcists 
 is prescribed by what is known as the Fourth Council 
 of Carthage. The bishop, in presenting a book of exor- 
 cisms, said : " Take this book and get it by heart, and 
 have authority to lay hands upon catechumens and 
 baptised persons possessed," Exorcists were forbidden 
 by Innocent I. to exercise " their ministry on the 
 possessed without express permission from the bishop, 
 and this law is still in force " (Cath. Diet.). In the 
 Roman Catholic Church the Exorcists are the third of 
 what are known as the minor orders. In the Greek 
 Church they are not recognised as an ecclesiastical order. 
 Nor are they recognised by the Protestant Churches. By 
 the seventy -second canon of the Church of England (1G03) 
 ministers are forbidden to attempt to drive out demons 
 without a license from the bishop. In exorcism, as 
 practised in ancient times by the Babylonians, use was 
 made of ablutions, fumigations, and medicinal plants. 
 See Benham; the Cath. Diet.; the Encycl. BiM.; 
 Chambers' Encycl.; Reinach, O. 
 
 EXOTIANS. SocTates, the ecclesiastical historian, 
 describes how the Arians of Constantinople, " after 
 having been in possession of the churches for forty 
 years, in consequence of their opposition to the concilia- 
 tory measures of the emperor Thedosius, were driven 
 out of the city, in Gratian's fifth consulate and the first 
 of Theodosius Augustus, on the 26th of November " (v. 7). 
 It seems from the chronicle of Alexandria and a decree 
 of Justinian that the Arians who had to hold their ser- 
 vices outside the city (exo tes poleos) were called 
 Exotians. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 EXTREME UNCTION. In the fifth chapter of the 
 General Epistle of Jam-js (ci.v.) it is said (vss. 14, 15) : 
 " Is any among you sick? let him call for the elders of 
 the church; and let them pray over him, anointing him 
 (or, having anointed him) with oil in the name of the 
 Ix>rd : and the prayer of faith shall save him that is 
 sick, and the Lord shall raise him up; and if he have 
 committed sins, it shall be forgiven him." James 
 Adderley points out (The Epistle of St. James) that the 
 Church of England has not made any special provision 
 for the Unction, though it has done so for the Prayers. 
 He thinks that a revival of the primitive and Catiolic 
 practice of anointing the sick .should be prayed for. 
 Since he wrote the practice has to some extent been 
 revived. Originally, it would seem, the anointing with 
 oil had a medicinal and therapeutic value. In Mark 
 (vi. 13) it is said that the Apostles " cast out many 
 demons, and anointed with oil many that were aiek, and 
 healed them"; and there are references to the practice 
 in the Old Testament (e.g., Ezekiel xvi. 9). A rule is 
 given by Egbert, Archbishop of York (732-766). " That 
 according to the enactment of the holy fathers, if any is 
 sick he be diligently anointed with sanctified oil together 
 with prayers." Extreme Unction is first spoken of as a 
 sacrament by Hugo of St. Victor (d. 1141). Peter Lom- 
 bard (d. 1164) distinguishes three kinds of consecrated 
 oil — (1) that used for priests and kings and candidates 
 for Confirmation; (2) that used for catechumens and 
 newly baptized persons; (3) that used for the sick. 
 Adderley suggests that probably at first Extreme Unction 
 simply meant " the last of the unctions in a Christian's 
 life." Then in course of time it came to mean the unction 
 of a person dying or in extremis. But it did not become 
 this in the Eastern Church. There, where the sacrament 
 is called Prayer-oil, it is not confined to those who are 
 
 11
 
 Exucontians 
 
 152 
 
 Ezra-Nehemiah, Book of 
 
 dying. It is defined as " holy oil, a sacred rite aad type 
 of divine pity, supplied to those who turn from sin for 
 redemption and sanctificatiou, affording absolution of 
 sins, and raising up from sicknesses, and filling with 
 sanctlfication." In the Roman Catholic Church extreme 
 unction is reserved for those who are in danger of death. 
 It can only be given by a priest, and with a set form 
 of words. In former times it preceded the Viaticum 
 (q.v.) ; now it follows. The oil is applied in the form 
 of a cross. See James Adderley, The Epistle of St. 
 James; K. R. Hagenbach; Prdt. Diet.; Oath. Diet. 
 
 EXUCONTIANS. A name given to the strict Arians 
 (see ARIANISM) who belonged to the party of Aetius 
 and Bishop Bunomius. They were so called because they 
 taught that the Father and the Son were unlike (Gk. 
 anomoios, whence the designation Anomoeans), and that 
 the Son was made out of nothing (Gk. ex ouk onton). 
 They were also designated Eunomians. 
 
 EYES, CEREMONY OP PAINTING THE. A cere- 
 mony performed by the Kammalans (g.v.) of India, 
 makers of god-images. The ceremony takes place when 
 the eyes are added to the images. It is curious to find 
 the Kammalans attaching the same importance to 
 artificial eyes as the ancient Egyptians did. " After 
 moulding into shape the wrappings of the mummy so as 
 to restore as far as possible the form of the deceased, 
 the embalmer then painted eyes upon the face. So also 
 when the sculptor had learned to make finished models 
 in stone or wood, and by the addition of paint had 
 enhanced the life-like appearance, the statue was still a 
 dead thing. What were needed above all to enliven it, 
 literally and actually, in other words, to animate it, 
 were the eyes; and the Egyptian artist set to work and 
 with tnily marvellous skill reproduced the appearance 
 of living eyes. How ample vra.s the justification for this 
 belief will be appreciated by anyone who glances at the 
 remarkable photographs recently published by Dr. Alan 
 H. Gardiner. The wonderful eyes will be seen to make 
 the statue isparkle and live. To the concrete mind of 
 the Egyptian this triumph of art was regarded not as a 
 mere technical success or aestiietic achievement. The 
 artist was considered to have made the statue really 
 live; in fact, literally and actually converted it into a 
 ' living image.' The eyes themselves were regarded as 
 one of the chief sources of the vitality which had been 
 conferred upon the statue " (G. Elliot Smith, Dr., 1919, 
 p. 52). 
 
 EZBKIEL, BOOK OF. The Book of Bzekiel as one 
 of the larger prophetic books in the Canon of the Old 
 Testament. Ezekiel, the autiior, was one of those who 
 with Jehoiachin was carried captive to Babylonia in 
 597 B.C. by Nebuchadrezzar. He was a priest as well 
 as a prophet, and it has been suggested that " possibly 
 he was singled out by Nebuchadrezzar as a chief man 
 among the priest.s " (C. H. Toy). He represents a 
 transition period, a period in which the prophets were 
 giving place to the priests. Jeremiai also was a priest, 
 and, as Prof. Harper says, the books of Haggai, 
 Zechariah, and Malachi are far more priestly than pro- 
 phetic. " Ezekiel, as a prophet, was alive to the 
 dependence of the people on the immediate word of God. 
 to the necessity, that is, of a constant living contact 
 between the mind of God and the mind of man; but, as 
 priest, he also saw that the people had reached a stage 
 which demanded a more precise formulation of the law 
 of worship. He lived on the verge of a great religious 
 revolution — the abolition, namely, of idolatry, and the 
 establishment of the sole worship of Yahw§ in Israel. 
 The religious leaders of Josiah's time, both priests and 
 prophets, had with true insight insisted on the necessity 
 of centralising the worship at Jerusalem in order to 
 
 destroy the corrupt local cults. Ezekiel carries on the 
 fight for ethical monotheism, not only by denouncing the 
 worship of other gods than Yahw^ as the source of the 
 national misfortunes, but also, more effectively, by 
 furthering that strict organisation of the cultus which 
 alone could train the people to the purer worship of the 
 one God of Israel " (C. H. Toy in the Encycl. BiU.). 
 The text of the Book of Bzekiel is in considerable dis- 
 order, but this is not due to composite authorship. The 
 contents may be divided into three sections. (1) 
 Chapters i.-xxiv. were delivered at the beginning of the 
 siege of Jerusalem, and have in prospect its imminent 
 destruction. This section contains the " Vision of the 
 Chariot " (i. 1-iii. 15). Chapters xxv.-xxxii. contain 
 oracles against foreign nations, against Ammon, Moab, 
 Bdom, Philistia, Tyre, Sidon, and Egypt. Chapters 
 xxxiii.-xlviii. contain prophecies of Israel's restoration 
 and triumph, with a vision of the restored theocracy. 
 The last part of this section (xl.-xlviii.) and of the whole 
 book is rather different in character from the rest of 
 the work. It presents an ideal state; it puts forward 
 " a conception which constitutes the germ of the 
 doctrine of the kingdom of Ood " (Harper). There are 
 many points of contact between Ezekiel and Jeremiah. 
 Ezekiel would -seem to have been familiar with discourses 
 or writings of the earlier prophet; or it may be supposed 
 that in some cases use was made of a common source. 
 C/ompare Bzek. iii. 3 with Jer. xv. 16; Ezek. ili. 17 with 
 Jer. vi. 17; Bzek. vii. 14, 27 with Jer. iv. 5-9; Ezek. xiid. 
 with Jer. xiv. 13-16; Bzek. xiii. 10 with Jer. vi. 14; Ezek. 
 xvi. 51 with Jer. iii. 11; Ezek. xviii. with Jer. xxxi. 
 29 f. ; Ezek. xx. with Jer. xi. 3-S; Ezek. xxiv. 10-23 with 
 Jer. xvi. 3-9; Ezek. xxix.-xxxi. with Jer. xlvi. ; Bzek. 
 xxxiv. with Jer. xxiii. 1-4; Ezek. xxxvi. 26 with Jer. 
 xxiv. 7; Ezek. xxxvii. 24 with Jer. xxx. 9; Ezek. xxxviii. 
 15 with Jer. vi. 22. There are also points of contact 
 between Ezekiel and the Code of Holiness (see 
 LEVITICUS). The latest date given in the book of 
 Ezekiel is 570 B.C. (xxix. 17). The text on which the 
 Septuagint translation was based seems to have been 
 shorter than the Hebrew text. See C. H. Toy in the 
 Encycl. Bibl.; A. B. Davidson, Ezekiel in the " Cam- 
 bridge Bible," 1892; C. Comill, Das liuch des Prophet 
 Ezechiel, 1886; A. Bertholet, Das Buch Eesekiel, 1897; R. 
 Kraetzschmar, Das Buch Ezechiel, 1900; W. R. Harper, 
 The Priestly Element in the Old Testament, 1905; C. 
 Cornill, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 BZRA-NEHEMIAH, BOOK OF. The book of Ezra 
 and Nehemiah originally formed one book in the Jewish 
 Canon. In a passage of the Talmud (q.v.) the book of 
 Nehemiah is evidently understood to be included in tie 
 book of Ezra (Baba bathra 14, 2; cp. Melito of Sardis in 
 Eusebius, HE, iv. 26). The .Jewish Rabbis Rashi and 
 Aben Ezra regard Nehemiah i. 1 as directly continuing 
 Ezra X. 44. The Massoretes by their liturgical divisions 
 of Ezra-Nehemiah and by their appended Massoretic 
 notes (at the end of Nehemiah) show that they regarded 
 the two books as one. In the Septuagint they actually 
 appear as one (Second Esdras). But, besides this, there 
 is a close connection between Ezra-Nehemiah and the 
 Books of Chronicles (q.v.). so close a connection that 
 Ezra-Nehemiah would seem to have been compiled by 
 the Chronicler as an immediate sequel to his books of 
 Chronicles. As Prof. Harper says, " Ezra-Nehemiah 
 takes up the history at the point where it stops in 
 Chronicles and continues it until the building of the 
 second temple is narrated, the two books. Chronicles and 
 Ezra-Nehemiah, thus constituting a history of the temple 
 and its worship from the time of the building of 
 Solomon's temple until the restoration of worship in the 
 days of Ezra and Nehemiah." Ezra-Nehemiah resembles
 
 Ezra-Nehemjah, Book of 
 
 153 
 
 Familists 
 
 Chronicle* in literary style and in vocabulary: and the 
 opening words of the book of Ezra (i. l-3a) are identical 
 with the closing words of the Second Book of Chronicles 
 (II. Chron. xxxvi. 22 ff.). The contents of the Book 
 of Ezra may be divided into two sections : I., Chapters 
 i.-xiii. 3; II., Chapter xiii. 4-31. In section I. Chapters 
 i.-vi. describe the return of the Jews to Palestine and 
 their experiences there from the first year of Cyrus as 
 king of Babylon to the sixth year of Darius Hystaspis 
 (538-515 B.C.). caiapters vii.-x. continue the history 
 after an interval of about sixty years. They describe 
 the arrival of E!n"a in Jerusalem in the seventh year of 
 Artaxerxes (4-58 B.C.) and his work as a reformer there. 
 The contents of the Book of Nehemiah also divide them- 
 selves in the main into two sections. Chapters i.-vii. 
 narrate (in the first person) events connected with the 
 planning and carrying out of Nehemiah's visit to Jeru- 
 salem, and with his efforts at reform there. Chapters 
 viii.-x. narrate (in the third person) events connected 
 with the public reading of the " book of the Law of 
 Moses " by Ezra, the celebration of the Feast of Taber- 
 nacles, etc.. Chapters xi.-xiii. 3 give ."statistics, and deal 
 with the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem, etc, 
 Section II. (chap. xiii. 4-31) gives an account (in the 
 first per.<5on) of Nehemiah's .second visit to Jerusalem 
 and of his work as a reformer. It is clear that the 
 compiler of the work Bzra-Nehemiah made use of a 
 number of different sources. Part of the Book of Ezra 
 is written in Aramaic (iv. 8-vi. 18 and vii. 12-2fi); and it 
 has been mentioned already that the narrative in Ezra 
 and Nehemiah is partly in the third and partly in the 
 first person. The most important of the sources used 
 
 were Memoirs of Ezra (e.g., Ezra vii. 27-viii. 34, ix.) and 
 Memoirs of Nehemiah (e.g., Nehemiah i. 1-vii. 5a, xiii 
 f^'^ .t regards the historical value of Ezra-Nehemiah, 
 the Dutch scholar Kosters has tried to show that the 
 first four chapters of Ezra are unhistorical, and that a 
 return of exiles did not take place at all in the second 
 ^f^'i. Jr^™^- ^- ^itt<?l- however (The Scientific Study 
 Of the^ O.T., 1910), while admitting that Chronicles can 
 only be accepted with great reservation as a record of 
 history, thinks that the books of Ezra and Nehemiah 
 which are probably by the same c-ompiler, are of a quite 
 different type. It is true that we must regard certain 
 parts of these books with distrust, but in this case the 
 books relate the history of a much later period than the 
 Chronicles, and the narrator therefore is in a much 
 better position, in that he speaks of events which were 
 nearer to him in time than the events described in the 
 Chronicles." C. F. Kent accepts the view that " many 
 of the otherwise insuperable difficulties of Ezra-Nehe- 
 mrah disappear, when it is recognized that if at all 
 historical, the work of Ezra must have followed not 
 preceded that of Nehemiah." As regards the date of 
 Ezra-Nehemiah. internal evidence seems to point to the 
 fact that the compilation was made between the vears 
 ..00 and 2.iO B.C. See Enojcl. Bibl.: H. E. Rvle 'E~ra 
 and Nehemiah in the " Cambridge Bible." IRO.^- c Sic- 
 fried, E.5ra, Nehemiah vnd Esther, 1901; A Bertholet 
 Die Bvecher Esra und Nehemia. 1902: W R Harper' 
 The PrieKtly Element in the Old Test.. 1905: C. F Kent' 
 Israel's Histririeal and Biographical Narratives, 1905- c' 
 Comill, Intr.; O. C. Whitehouse. ' ' 
 
 F 
 
 F. Giod F is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians 
 of Central America. He is represented with black lines 
 on his face and body. These, according to Schellhas, 
 signify death wounds. In any case, the deity is a death- 
 god and resembles (Jod A (q.v.). 
 
 FAITHIST BROTHERS AND SISTERS. Members 
 of a new religious community. The name is explained 
 in the sacred book of the communitv— a work called 
 Oahspe. " We cannot found the Father's Kingdom with 
 any other members than such as say with all their hearts 
 and mind and soul : Whatsoever Thou puttest upon me, 
 O Jehovii, that will I do with all mv wisdom and 
 strength. To have faith in this wav is to have Faith 
 with practice: such a one is a Faithist in fact." See 
 BROTHERHOOD OF THE KOSMON DAWN. 
 
 FAKIRS. The term Fakir means in Arabic a " poor 
 man." The Fakirs in India are religious mendicants 
 who, to excite pity, inflict tortures on themselves. They 
 are feared, though not respected, by the people because 
 their curses are believed to be very potent. It was 
 formerly their practice to go about in a nude condition, 
 but this practice is now forbidden. See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 FALASHAS. The Falashas are a people in Abyssinia, 
 whose religion incorporates a number of Jewish beliefs 
 and practices. Their ancestors may have been Jews or 
 
 proselytes to Judaism. But they observe also a number 
 of pagan practices. Their sacred books include the 
 canonical and apocryphal books of the Old Testament in 
 Geez, a work Ardit which purports to l)e a book of secrets 
 revealed to twelve saints, and a translation of Josephus 
 called Sana Aihud. They practise circumcision and 
 fasting, and keep some, but not all, of the Jewish Feasts 
 (e.g., Passover, Ingathering, Tabernacles). At the same 
 time they believe in magic, and worship a goddess San- 
 bat. They offer sacrifices for the dead, pray for the 
 dead, and use fire in a ceremony of purification for un- 
 chastity. See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 FAMILIARS OF THE HOLY OFFICE. Spies who 
 worked for the Inquisition (q.v., ii.) or Holy Office in 
 Spain. 
 
 FAMILISTS. The Familists or Familia Charitatis 
 were a religious body founded by Henry Nicholas of 
 Muenster. Nicholas went from Holland to England in 
 the reign of Edward VI. and sought to make converts 
 there. " The predominant trait of the sect was its 
 mysticism, which gave rise to very peculiar doctrines of 
 Moses as the prophet of hope, Christ as the prophet of 
 faith, and Henry Nicholas as the prophet of love " 
 (Schaff-Herzog). In the reign of Queen Elizabeth a 
 proclamation was issued " against the Sectaries of the 
 Family of Love." After this severe measures were taken
 
 Famovians 
 
 154 
 
 Feris Latinae 
 
 against the Familists, and in the reign of James I. the 
 sect died out. Nicholas was acquainted with David 
 Joris. See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 FARNOVIANS. The followers of Farnovius or 
 Stanislaus Farnowski. Farnovius was one of the 
 leaders of the anti-trinitarians in Poland in the sixteenth 
 century. He was in fact an Arian or Unitarian. After 
 his death, in 1C1.5, the Famovians amalgamated with the 
 Socinians. See Schaff-Herzog; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 FATHER-MOTHER GOD. The name given to God 
 by the founder of Christian Science (g.v.), Mary Baker 
 Eddy. In " Rudimental Divine Science " (new edition, 
 1910) she says : " I mean the infinite and divine Prin- 
 ciple of all being, the ever-present I am, filling all space, 
 including in itself all Mind, the one Father-Mother God. 
 Life, Truth, and Love are this trinity in unity, and their 
 universe is spiritual, peopled with iserfect beings, har- 
 monious and eternal, of which our material universe and 
 men are the counterfeits." The Lord's Prayer, as ex- 
 pounded in the Christian Science Service, begins : " Our 
 Father-Mother God, all-harmonious." See Mary Baker 
 G. Eddy, Science and Health, 1907, p. 16 /. 
 
 FAUNUS. One of the oldest of the Italian deities. 
 He was the god of forests, plains, fields, and shepherds. 
 As such he came to be identified with the Greek god 
 Pan (q.v.). He was worshipped also as a gotl of pro- 
 phecy. " He revealed the future in dreams and strange 
 voices, communicated to his votaries while sleeping in 
 his precincts upon the fleeces of sacrificed lambs " (O. 
 Seyffert). As a god of prophecy, he was called Fatuus. 
 J. G. Frazer mentions (O.B., Pt. II., 1911) that those 
 who consulted the oracle of Faunus were required to be 
 chaste, to eat no flesh, and to wear no rings He explains 
 that rings seem to have been regarded as magical fetters 
 which prevented the egress or ingress of spirits. With 
 Faunus was associated a goddess Fauna or Fatua. The 
 festival Faunalia at which honour was done to tie deity 
 by peasants was celebrated on the 13th of February and 
 the 5th of December. In legend Faunus is represented 
 as the grandson of Saturn (q.v.), and as an ancient king 
 of Latium who taught the people agriculture and cattle- 
 breeding. To Faumis the god were assigned a number 
 of Fauni or Fauns, just as to Pan (q.v.) were assigned 
 a number of little Pans (Paniskoi), and to Silenus 
 Silenuses. Like the Pans, Silenuses, and Satyrs (q.v.), 
 the Fauns are represented as being to some extent in the 
 form of goats. They were regarded as " merry, 
 capricious beings, and in particular as mischievous 
 goblins who caused night-mares " (O. Seyffert). J. G. 
 Frazer points out that all such minor divinities in the 
 form of goats partake more or less clearly of the char- 
 acter of woodland deities. " The Fauns are expressly 
 designated as woodland deities; and their character as 
 such is still fiirther brought out by their association, or 
 even identification, with Sllvanus and the Silvanusos, 
 who, as their name of itself indicates, are spirits of the 
 woods." He points out further that there is a close 
 connection between tree-spirits and corn-spirits. This is 
 seen in the case of the Fauns. Though wood-spirits, 
 they were supposed to foster the growth of the crops. In 
 folk-custom the corn-spirit is frequently represented as a 
 goat. Frazer agrees with Mannhardt that on the whole 
 " the Pans, Satyrs, and Fauns perhaps belong to a 
 widely diffused class of wood-spirits conceived in goat 
 form." See Chambers' Encucl.; O. Seyffert, Diet.; J. 
 G. Frazer, G.B., Pt. V., vol. ii. 
 
 FEAST OF FOOLS. The Feast of Fools was a more 
 or less christianized form of the pagan Saturnalia (q.v.). 
 In the twelfth century it was celebrated as a Church 
 festival throughout Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and 
 England. See further BOY-BISHOP 
 
 FEATHERS' TAVERN ASSOCIATION. In the latter 
 part of the eighteenth century a body of clergymen and 
 laymen who demanded revision of the Liturgy of the 
 Church of England, and particularly certain changes in 
 the Athanasian Creed, used to meet in a place called 
 Feathers' Tavern. From the name of the place they 
 became known as the Feathers' Tavern Association. 
 
 FEBRONIANISM. Febronianism is a teria used to 
 describe certain views regarding the relations of Church 
 and State which Roman Catholics describe as "an 
 exaggeration of Gallicanism " (Oath. Diet.). The term 
 is derived from the name Febronius, a name assumed 
 for literary purposes by John Nicolas von Hontheim 
 (1701-1790), who was suffragan bishop of Treves. Under 
 this nom rie plume there appeared in 1763 a work " De 
 Statu Ecclesiae et de legitima Potestate Romani Ponti- 
 ficis," which attained great notoriety. The writer 
 claimed that the power of the keys belonged to the whole 
 body of the faithful, though the administration was com- 
 mitted to the bishops. The bishops received their i)ower 
 direct from God. The primacy of the Pope was only 
 equivalent to the superiority of a Metropolitan to the 
 other bishops of his province; and the authority of the 
 Pope is not equal to that of the Epiiscopate as a body. 
 The Pope's primacy was in the Church not over the 
 Church, and from tie Pope it was always possible to 
 appeal to a General Council. In 1764 the book was con- 
 demned by Clement XIII. During the years 1770 to 
 1774 the author made considerable additions to his work. 
 In 177S he was persuaded by Pius VI. and the Archbishop 
 of Treves to make a formal retraction of propositions in 
 his book. In 1786 a schism was threatened by the Arch- 
 bishops of Cologne, Treves. Mayence, and Salzburg, but 
 in 1789 they returned to their allegiance. See Prot. Diet.; 
 Oath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 FEDERAL THEOLOGY. A designation of the theo- 
 logical teaching of J. Coeceius (1603-1669). See COC- 
 CEIANS. 
 
 FB'E. A deity worshipped by the natives of Samoa, 
 a war-god. The name reaUy denotes tie cuttle-fish. 
 His sacred month in one district was May. " No 
 traveller was then allowed to pass through the village 
 by the public road ; nor was any canoe allowed in the 
 lagoon off that part of the settlement " (George Turner, 
 8amoa, 1884). There were great festivities, in which 
 featured games, club exercise, spear-throwing, and 
 wrestling. In another district three months were sacred 
 to the deity. " For the first month torches and all other 
 lights were forbidden, as the god was about and did not 
 wish to be seen. White turbans were also forbidden 
 during the festivities, and confined to war " (ihid.). 
 
 FENRIS-WOLF. The Fenris-wolf or Fenrir-wolf is a 
 figure in the mythology of the Ancient Teutons. He is 
 represented as one of the offspring of Loki (q.v.). Like 
 the Midhgardh-serpent (q.v.), he is represented as being 
 a sea-monster, one of the giants. Legend tells of a 
 struggle between Tyr (see TIU) and the Fenris-wolf, in 
 which the God lost his right hand ; and of a conflict 
 between Vidharr (q.v.) and the wolf, in which the latter 
 was slain. See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of 
 the Tentons, 1902. 
 
 FERI^ LATINAE. One of the principal of the mov- 
 able festivals observed by the Romans. From being a 
 celebration by the Latin race in honour of Jupiter 
 I^atiaris, it was converted by Tarquinius Superbus into 
 a festival of the Latin League. " It's most notable cere- 
 mony consisted in the sacrifice of white bulls, a portion 
 of who.se flesh was distributed to each of the cities of 
 the league represented at the sacrifice. If any city did 
 not receive its portion, or if any other point in the cere- 
 monial was omitted, the whole sacrifice had to be
 
 Fennentarians 
 
 155 
 
 Fire, Passing Through 
 
 repeated " (O. Seyflfert). J. G. Frazer points out that 
 " at Rome swinging seems to have formed part of the 
 great Latin festival (Ferits Latuiae). and its origin was 
 traced to a search in the air for the body or even the 
 soul of King Latinus. who had disappeared from earth 
 after the battle with Mezentius. King of Caere." In 
 this case, as in others, swinging was practised as a 
 religious or nither a magical rite. At the Compitalia 
 and Paganalia small images of the human figure or 
 simply round balls were hung on trees or doorways to 
 swing in the wind. Cp. COJIPITALIA. PAGANALIA, 
 and SWINGING. See O. Sevffert: W. Warde Fowler: 
 J. G. Frazer, G.B.. Pt. iii., 1912. 
 
 FERMENTARIANS. A name formerly given by 
 members of the Latin Church, who used unleavened 
 bread in the Lord's Supper, to members of the Greek 
 Church, who used leavened bread. 
 
 FETCHES. A term in Iri.sh folklore. The fetch is 
 an apparition, a kind of shadow of a living person. " If 
 the apparition appears in the morning a happy longevity 
 for the original may be confidently predicted ; but if it 
 appears in the evening the immediate dissolution of the 
 living prototype may be as surely anticipated. When 
 the Fetch appears agitated in its movements, a violent 
 or painful death is indicated for the doomed prototype, 
 who is known at the time to be labouring under some 
 serious illness " (W. G. Wood-Martin). 
 
 FETIOHISM. The term fetichism was introduced 
 into the .'science of religions by De Brosses (Dit Ciilte (lest 
 dieux fHiches, 1760). " The Portugues navigators who 
 first traded with Western Africa had noticed that the 
 negroes of this region bestowed a kind of worship on 
 material gods, such as .stones or shells, which the Portu- 
 gue-se called fetiches, from a word in their own language 
 [feitiro] derived from the I.atin factitius (fabricated), 
 used to denote small devotional objects" (Reinach, O.). 
 Among anthropologists the term has come to be used in 
 a great variety of applications. W. G. Aston in 
 Hastings' Encjjcl. distinguishes five distinct classes of 
 objects to which the term relates. " all of which fall 
 under the general description of material objects wor- 
 shipped, honoured, or esteemed for something more than 
 their physical properties or commercial value." (1) 
 Natural objects and phenomena, such as the .sun, the 
 sky, and the earth. f2) Material objects worshipped as 
 representatives or symbols of a Nature-deity or deified 
 man. such as the golden solar disk of the ancient Peru- 
 vians. (3) Material objects supposed to be the perma- 
 nent or temporary abodes of a spirit, such as .shells, 
 bones, .stones. C4) Non-religious magical appliances, 
 charms, or amulets, which have a virtue quite inde- 
 pendent of any gods or spirits, such as the claw of a 
 lion worn to keep off danger. (.5) Material things which 
 are made the objects of a make-believe worship, such as 
 the needle of the Japanese housewife. 
 
 FEUILLANTS. Feuillants was the name given to a 
 reformed congregation of the Cistercians {q.r^, founded 
 in 1577 by Jean de la Barrifere. 
 
 FIDEISM. The French scholar Louis Bautain (1796- 
 1867). Professor of Philosophy at Strasburg, wrote a 
 thesis in which he maintained that human reason of itself 
 has not the power to establi.sh truth. According to 
 Bautain, it is necessary to believe or have faith in truth 
 a.s revealed by God and handed down from age to age. 
 Bautain's thesis was condemned in 1834 by Gregory XVI. 
 His doctrine was called FideLsm. The same kind of 
 teaching is called Traditionalism {q.v.). See Reinach, 
 O. 
 
 FIFTH MONARCHY MEN. A religious sect which 
 was particularly prominent in the time of Oliver Crom- 
 well (1599-1658). Their views were Millenarian. Their 
 
 name was due to the fact that they designated the Mes- 
 sianic reign, which they believed to be approaching, the 
 fifth monarchy. The last of the four monarchies referred 
 to in the Book of Daniel was the Roman. " It was 
 represented by the fourth beast, which had ten horns, 
 and among these horns came up a llttJe horn previous to 
 the final destruction of the empire, and just before the 
 introduction of the millennial reign. Was not Oliver 
 this ' little horn '? " The Fifth Monarchy Men included 
 John Tillinghast (1604-1655), Rector of Trunch, Norfolk; 
 Christopher Feake (fl. 1645-1660), Vicar of Christ Church, 
 Newgate: and Vavasor Powell (1G17-1670), the " metro- 
 politan of the itinerants." who had previously been at 
 the head of a band of travelling preachers. On one 
 occasion, on a Sunday morning, when the Fifth Monarchy 
 Men were a.s.sembled in Coleman Street to hear a sermon 
 by John Canne (d. 1667?), Pastor of the English Inde- 
 pendents in Amsterdam, Cromwell's ofiicers surprised 
 them. A " Narrative of the Sufferings of Fifth Monarchy 
 Men " who were taken was publishe<l. At a later date 
 a man named Thomas Venner {d. 1661) put him.self at 
 the head of a rising and proposed to take possf'ssion of 
 London. His followers marched through the city, shout- 
 ing, " Ix>ng live King Jesus! " Venner and others were 
 captured, and executed for high treason. See John 
 Hunt, Rel. Thought in England, 1870-73; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 FIKI, THE. A name by which the teacher of the 
 Koran is known in the Libvan Desert. 
 
 FINGER, SACRIFICE OF. Amongst the natives of 
 the Tonga Islands in the South Pacific Ocean it is a 
 common practice to sacrifice a little finger when a 
 superior relative is ill as a propitiatory offering to the 
 gods for the sins of the sick man. It is said tJiat there 
 is scarcely a grown-up person who has not lost the little 
 finger of both hands. See William Mariner's Account of 
 the Natives of the Tonga Islands (ed. by John Martin, 
 2nd ed. 1818). The practice has been found among other 
 peoples, and can be traced l)ack as far as the Aurignaeian 
 Age (imprints of human hands with mutilated fingers). 
 "The practice of finger-mutilation obtained among Bush- 
 men, certain Australian tribes, and communities of 
 Canadian Indians. Independent investigators have 
 ascertained that it was usually associated with burial 
 cu.stom.s and the ravages of disease. Bush women 
 .sacrificed a joint of the little finger when a near relation 
 died, and Canadian natives acted similarly during times 
 of pestilence ' to cut off deaths.' Finger mutilation in 
 Au.stralia was, among other thing.s, occasionally a mark 
 of caste" (Donald A. Mackenzie, Crete). Mackenzie 
 notes that references are made to finger mutilation in 
 Gaelic stories. As he says, the practice had evidently 
 a magical significance. 
 
 FIQH. An Arabic term used to designate the practical 
 side of the religion of Isl9m. It " consists of precepts 
 and commandments to be obeyed, rules and customs to 
 be observed, duties to be fulfilled." Klein explains that 
 " it is generally called ' Fiqh ' Science. Knowledge. 
 Jurisprudence, and treats of the following subjects : 
 Prayer, Almsgiving, Fasting, and the Pilgrimage to 
 Mecca." See F. A. Klein. 
 
 FIRE, PASSING THROUGH. The ancient Irish 
 would seem to have sacrificed human beings by burning 
 them. A hint of this survived in the later c-ustom of 
 driving cattle through two fires to purify them. Toland 
 in his History of the Druids (1814) says : " Two .such 
 fires as we have mentioned were kindl'd b.v one another 
 on May Eve in every village of the nation (as weU 
 thro'out Gaule as in Britain, Ireland, and the adjoining 
 lesser Hands), between which fires the men and the 
 beasts to be sacrific'd were to pass: from whence came 
 the proverb, between Bel's tico fires, meaning one in a
 
 Fire-Sermon 
 
 156 
 
 Flood, The 
 
 great strait, not knowing how to extricate himself. One 
 of the fires was on the cam, another on the ground. On 
 the eve of the first day of November there were also 
 such fires kindl'd, accompany'd (as they constantly were) 
 with sacrifices and feasting " (quoted by W. G. Wood- 
 Martin). 
 
 FIRE-SERMON. What is known as the "burning" 
 fire-sermon is a sermon which was delivered on a hill by 
 Gautama Buddha to a large gathering of monks. The 
 part of the sermon which gave it its name is as follows : 
 " Everything, O monks, is burning. The eye is burning; 
 visible things are burning. The sensation produced by 
 contact with visible things is burning— burning with the 
 fire of lust, enmity and delusion, with birth, decay, 
 death, grief, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair. 
 The ear is burning; sounds are burning; the nose is 
 burning, odours are burning; the tongue is burning, 
 tastes are burning; the body is burning, objects of sense 
 are burning. The mind is burning; thoughts are burning. 
 All are burning with the fire of passions and lusts." See 
 Monier-Williams, Buddhism, 1890. 
 
 FISH, THE EMBLEMATIC. In early Christian art 
 the fish appears as an emblem of Christ. The repre- 
 sentation is found in the Catacombs of Rome. The 
 letters of the Greek word for fish, IChThUS, interpreted 
 as an anagram, served as a secret summary of Christian 
 doctrine, being taken to represent "Jesus Christ, Son 
 of God, Saviour." St. Augustine says : " IX©Y2 is the 
 mystical name of Christ, because he descends alive into 
 the depths of this mortal life, as into the abyss of waters." 
 In an early Christian inscription (not in the catacombs) 
 Christians are spoken of as " the divine children of the 
 Heavenly Fish " (Cobern). On the seal of Aberdeen 
 Cathedral is depicted a Nativity-scene. The Blessed 
 Virgin and St. Joseph are represented, but lying on the 
 manger in place of the infant Saviour is seen a fish. 
 The fish is used also {e.g., in the catacombs) to .symbolise 
 Baptism and the Eucharist. The figure of three fishes 
 entwined in the form of a triangle seems to symljolise 
 baptism under the blessing of the Trinity. As a 
 eucharistic symbol, we find in a picture dated to the 
 second century the basket of loaves placed on a fish. See 
 Sidney Heath and Francis Bond. 
 
 FISH AND ANCHOR. The fish as a sacred emblem 
 in Christian art is associated sometimes with the Dove 
 or the Anchor. Thus a fish and anchor appear on an 
 inscription in the Catacombs dated A.D. 2.34. See the 
 figures in Sidney Heath, p. 128, and Francis Bond, p. 259. 
 
 FISHPONDS, SACRED. In ancient times there were 
 sacred fishponds at Edessa, Ascalon, and Hierapolis. At 
 Hierapolis the Syrian goddess Atargatis is said to have 
 oome down into the fishpond once and then to have 
 returned to heaven with one of the fish, the ancestor 
 of the sign of the zodiac Pisces. The fishpond at Ascalon 
 is said (by Diodorus) to have owed its sanctity to the 
 fact that the goddess of the place had cast herself into 
 the lake and assumed part of the form of a fish. Another 
 explanation is that the goddess (Derketo or Atargatis) 
 was drovraed in the pool with her son Ichthys and 
 devoured by fishes. Lucian (§45) says that the sacred 
 fish at Hierapolis grew to a great size, were called by 
 names, and would approach when called. He states also 
 that an altar of stone stood in the midst of the lake. 
 Xenophon (Anal). I., iv. 9) speaks of " tame fish looked 
 upon as gods" in the Chains, near Aleppo (Garstang in 
 the Syrian Goddess). 
 
 FIVE FIFTHS OF THE LAW, THE. This was the 
 name given by the .Tews to the Pentateuch. See CANON 
 OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 FIVE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAJVI. The five founda- 
 tions of Islam are five pillars of practical religion. They 
 
 are: (1) witness to the creed; (2) the observance of 
 prayer at the five stated periods; (3) the giving of alms; 
 (4) fasting during the month Ramadan; (5) the pilgrim- 
 age to Mecca. See T. P. Hughes. 
 
 FIVE POINTS OF CALVINISM. In A.D. 1610 the 
 Arminians (q.v.) or Remonstrants put forth Five Articles. 
 In reply the Calvinists put forth Five Points of Cal- 
 vinism : particular predestination, limited atonement, 
 natural inability, irresistible grace, and the perseverance 
 of saints. These points were defended by the Synod 
 of Dort (1G18, 1619). See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 FLAGELLANTS. The name Flagellants was given to 
 a body of religious persons who first attracted attention 
 in the thirteenth century. To atone for the sins of the 
 age, they went in processions with bare arms and 
 shoulders, they lashed themselves and one another with 
 scourges iflagella) until the blood flowed. The first body 
 of Flagellants appeared at Perugia in 1260. Every 
 member undertook to continue the penance for thirty- 
 three days, the number of days corresponding to the 
 number of years in the life of Jesus. The movement 
 spread throughout Italy, and in course of time beyond 
 the Alps. It broke out again, in a more extravagant 
 form, after the plague known as the Black Death (1348). 
 The Flagellants had now become heretics, and opponents 
 of the Church. Pope Clement VI. anathematized them 
 and prohibited their processions. But they were not 
 entirely suppressed. They reappeared about the time 
 of the Council of Constance (1414-1418), and were con- 
 demned by it. Afterwards they disappeared. See J. 
 H. Blunt; Prot. Diet.; Oath. Diet. 
 
 FLAGSTONE OF THE FIRE. In the Church of 
 Teach-na-Teinedh, or "the church of the fire," on the 
 island of Inishmurray, off the Sligo coast of Ireland, 
 there was formerly a flagstone called Leac-na-Teinedh, 
 or " the flagstone of the fire." Until lately (according 
 to W. G. Wood-Martin) it covered a miraculous hearth. 
 " On this flag, or fire-stone, fire was always kept burning 
 by the monks for the use of the islanders. In later 
 times, when monks no longer inhabited the caahel, when- 
 ever a householder wanted kindling for the family fire, 
 a sod of turf or a piece of wood deposited on this holy 
 hearth ignited spontaneously." 
 
 FLOOD, THE. The Old Testament .story of a great 
 flood sent by God to destroy mankind (with a few except- 
 ions) for their wickedness is well known, it is common 
 knowledge too that a rather similar story has been pre- 
 served on Babylonian cuneiform tablets. Another story 
 in the same series has recently come to light in docu- 
 ments published in America since the outbreak of the 
 great War. " We have indeed recovered a very early, 
 and in some of its features a very primitive, form of the 
 Deluge narrative which till now has reached us only in 
 Semitic and Greek renderings; and the stream of trad- 
 ition has been tapped at a point far above any at which 
 we have hitherto approached it " (L. W. King, Legends 
 of Babylon and Egypt, 1918, p. 92). This is the Sumerian 
 Version. It seems to have begun with a brief account 
 of the Creation and the Antediluvian history. After the 
 Flood, the chief duty of man is stated to be to build 
 temples to the gods ' in a clean spot,' that is to say, ' in 
 hallowed places.' The god (Anu or Enlil) founds five 
 cities, and allots them to divine rulers. The name of 
 the hero of the story is Ziusudu, and the description of 
 him has ' great interest in furnishing us with a close 
 parallel to the piety of Noah in tlie Hebrew Versions ' " 
 (p. 68). He is warned in a dream that a flood is to be 
 sent " to destroy the seed of mankind." When the flood 
 comes, it is accompanied by hurricanes of wind, but the 
 hero is safe in a great boat which floats on the mighty 
 waters. Then " the Sun-God came forth shedding light
 
 Flying-Horse 
 
 157 
 
 Foundation=Pillars for a Life of Jesus 
 
 over heaven and eartli." At the conclusion we read : 
 " Ziusudu, the king, before Ann and Enlil bows himself 
 down. Life like (that of) a god he gives to him. An 
 eternal soul like (that of) a god he creates for him. In 
 a . . laud, the land of Dilmun (?), they caused him 
 to dwell " (King, p. 90). Frazer has shown {Folk-loic 
 in the O.T., vol. i.) that stories of a great flood are 
 widespread, and that there are many points of similarity 
 between them. D. G. Brinton {R.P.P., p. 152) writes : 
 " Look in what continent we please, we shall find the 
 myth of a Creation or of a primeval construction, ot a 
 Deluge or a destruction, and of an expected Restoration." 
 The Flood-stories have been explained, as Brinton says, 
 as the remembrance of some local overflow. But this 
 hardly accounts for the wide prevalence of such stones. 
 A new explanation has therefore been proposed by G. 
 Elliot Smith— that of transmission. "The Sumenan 
 story of the Floo<l, which is at least as old as the 
 beginning of the third millennium B.C., was transmitted 
 not merely to Babylonia and Western Asia, but also to 
 Greece and to the uttermost limits of Europe, where it 
 is preserved in the folk-lore of Wales, Scotland and Ire- 
 land. And in the East it spread not merely to India, 
 the Malay Archipelago, and China, but also to Oceania 
 and both North and South America. Certain trivial and 
 unessential incidents of the narrative crop up again and 
 again throughout this wide domain, and proclaim the 
 fact of the derivation of the common framework of all 
 the versions, directly or indirectly, from one original 
 source. Local circumstances supplied merely the cor- 
 roborative detail and distinctive embellishments of each 
 particular version. . . . The original story of the 
 Flood was developed as the culmination of a series of 
 legends of the destruction of mankind in which a flood 
 played no part whatever. ... In the earliest version, 
 the ' Flood ' consisted of the blood of a human victim 
 whose throat was cut to provide the elixir of life to 
 rejuvenate the king when his virile powers began to fail. 
 In the next phase mankind as a whole replaced the 
 original victim. In a third phase beer, to which red 
 ochre was added to give it the proper colour as a sub- 
 stitute for blood, was employed in place of actual blood. 
 Finally the blood-coloiired mixture poured out upon the 
 earth from seven thousand vessels was confused with 
 the red waters of the annual inundation of the Nile. 
 But as the destruction of mankind (which no longer 
 formed a logical part of the story, once substitutes were 
 found for human blood) had survived as the central 
 Incident of the narrative, the story-teller had to provide 
 an explanation of it. Manlcind was being punished for 
 its sins, and instead of the slaughtered men providing 
 the ' Flood ' of blood, the blood-coloured waters of in- 
 undation were represented as inflicting the vengeance of 
 the gods upon men" (Journ. of the Manch. Eg. and Or. 
 Soc, 1918, p. 17 ff.). This explanation is rather startling 
 at first sight, but probably many facts could be adduced 
 in support of it. For instance, " primitive people believe 
 that unless the sun is regaled with the blood of mankind 
 he ages xapidly. Hence the myth of the sending of 
 Hathor-Sekhet to earth, and the holocaust of humanity. 
 Such sacrifices on a large scale were frequent in ancient 
 Mexico, and on one occasion some 70,000 people were 
 immolated on the altars of the war-god Huitzilopochtli, 
 the procession of victims stretching for over two miles " 
 (Edwardes and Spence, Diet., p. 14fi). 
 
 FLYING-HORSE. The " flying-horse " (or " wind- 
 horse," Lungta) is one of the sacred figures or symbols 
 of Tibetan Buddhists. It is supposed to be able to carry 
 a man round the world in one day. If it is kept flying 
 on a flag (see PRAYER-FLAGS), it will, it is thought, 
 bring good fortune. It has been suggested that the 
 
 flying-horse is identical with the mystic white horse of 
 earlier Buddhism, which figures as one of the Seven 
 Roval Treasures (see TREASURES, THE SEVEN 
 ROYAL). See Sir Monier-Williams, Buddhism, 1890; 
 cp. T. W. Rhys Davids. 
 
 FO. Fo or Fo-hi is a figure in the mythology of 
 Chinese Buddhism, apparently a personification of 
 idealized humanity. According to legend he was the 
 first Chinese emperor. 
 
 FOMAGATA. One of the deities worshipped by the 
 ancient Americans before the time of the Aztecs. He 
 was the chief god of the Muyscas in northern South 
 America. In Nicaragua he was worshipped as Foma- 
 gazdad. His wife bore the name Zipaltonal. Foma- 
 gazdad and Zii)altonal were regarded as the parents of 
 the human race. They were propitiated by means of 
 human sacrifices. See J. M. Robertson, P.O. 
 
 FOMORIANS. Deities worshipped by the pre-Celtic 
 inhabitants of Ireland as gods of fertility, but regarded 
 by the Celts as evil powers. They include Balor of the 
 evil eye, Bres, Elatha, a god of knowledge, Indech, an 
 earth-god. Net, a war-god, and Tethra, god of the under- 
 world- „ , . ^ 
 
 FORMULA OF CONCORD. The Formula of Con- 
 cord was drawn up at Bergen, near Magdeburg, in 1577, 
 as the basis on which Lutherans might agree. It was 
 an improvement on the Book of Torgau (q.v.), which 
 again was based upon the Swabian and Saxon Formula 
 of Concord (q.v.) and the Maulbronn Formula. The 
 Formula of Concord is in two divisions, the Epitome and 
 the ><olida Repetitio et Declaratio, and each division 
 contains twelve articles. The " Prophetic and Apostolic 
 writings both of the Old and of the New Testament " 
 are declared to be the one and only " compendious rule 
 and norm " by which all dogmas are to be judged. As 
 subordinate standards of right doctrine, approval is given 
 to the three " primitive Church Symbols," the " first, 
 unaltered" Augsburg Confession, the Schmalkald 
 Articles, and Luther's Smaller and Larger Catechisms. 
 " In every article the conservative Lutheran position is 
 maintained as against the Romanist and Melanchthonian, 
 not to say against the Calvinist and Zwinglian and Ana- 
 baptist, and the victorious conclusions of the antecedent 
 Lutheran controversies are firmly embodied, sometimes 
 with moderated phraseology " (W. A. Curtis). See 
 William A. Curtis. 
 
 FORSETE. Forsete or Forsite was the name of one 
 of the gods of the Ancient Teutons. When Willebrord 
 visited Helgoland, he found that the island was sacred 
 to the god Forsete. Chantepie de la Saussaye thinks 
 that among the Frisians he was regarded as a god of 
 justice. The Scandinavians, in so far as they recognised 
 him, made him the son of Balder (q.v.). See P. D. 
 Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teuton.'^, 1902. 
 
 FORTY MARTYRS, THE. No less than three different 
 bands of Christians who suffered for their faith have 
 been known as " The Forty Martyrs." Forty Christian 
 soldiers are said to have been martyred at Sebaste in 
 Armenia in 320 A.D. under Licinius. When ordered by 
 the emperor to offer .gacrifioe they refused. Thereupon 
 they were placed for a whole night in a pond of frozen 
 water, and the next morning were thrown into fires. 
 The Christians afterwards built churches in their lionour. 
 Another band of Christian martyrs is said to have suffered 
 in Persia in 375 A.D. Thirdly, at Antioch in Syria forty 
 virgins are said to have been martyred under Decius. 
 See Wace and Piercy. ^ ^^„ ^t^ titic-tto 
 
 FOUNDATION-PILLARS FOR A LIFE OF JESUS. 
 This expression has become familiar on account of the 
 article on the Gospels contributed to the " Encyclopaedia 
 Biblica " by P. W. Schmiedel of Zuerich. Schnuedel
 
 Foundation°Sacrifices 
 
 158 
 
 Fragmentary Hypothesis, The 
 
 described nine passages in tlie Synoptic Gospels as " the 
 foundation-pillars for a truly scientific life of Jesus." 
 In order to prove the historicity of Jesus against those 
 who seek to deny it, he selected nine passages which 
 could not possibly have been invented, since they are 
 incompatible with the worship in which Jesus came to 
 be held. The passages are given, and explained briefly 
 by Arno Neumann. Seven will be found on page 10 of 
 his book (Jesus). Tlie eighth and the ninth are discussed 
 on page 80 f. and on page 76 note 2. It is not of cour.'je 
 said that the Gospels contain only nine trustworthy 
 passages. What is contended is that these nine passages 
 cannot be accounted for on the supposition that Jesus did 
 not exist as a historical per.son. They are guarantees 
 for his historical existence and much more. See the 
 Encycl. BiU., s.v. " Gospels," §§ 131, 139 f. ; Arno Neu- 
 mann, Jesus, 1906. 
 
 FOUNDATION-SACRIFICES. The practice of bury- 
 ing something at the foundation of a city is very ancient. 
 In Palestine a human sacrifice was offered and buried in 
 the structure of the building (cp. Josh. vi. 26). Usually 
 the victim was a child, but at Gezer the skeletons of 
 adults have been found. The children were often placed 
 in jars, a form of burial that has been noted elsewhere 
 {e.g., in early Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria). See P. S. P. 
 Handoock; and G. H. Payne, The Child in Human Pro- 
 gress, 1916. 
 
 FOUR-CHAPTER LETTER, THE. The " Four- 
 chapter Tvetter" is a description given by certain New 
 Testament scholars to four chapters in the Second Epistle 
 to the Corinthians. It has been thought that these 
 four chapters do not harmonise well with the earlier 
 chapters of tJhe Epistle, and that they are really an inde- 
 pendent letter. See CORINTHIANS, SECOND 
 EPISTLE TO THE. 
 
 FOURIERISM. The system of Frangois Marie 
 Charles Fourier (1772-1837). Fourier was the son of a 
 draper, and it was some distasteful experiences in con- 
 nection with business that excited his Indignation 
 against the conditions of trade and commerce. He was 
 punished, when only five years old, for telling one of 
 his father's customers the truth about some goods, and 
 in 1799 as a clerk in Marseilles he had to superintend the 
 casting into the sea of a great quantity of rice which had 
 been held back at a time of scarcity in the hope of 
 Increa.sing the price and had become unfit for use. 
 Fourier determined to try to discover a remedy for such 
 a corrupt and immoral state of things. " He soon per- 
 ceived that the only mode of ensuring truth, equity, and 
 economy, either in productive or distributive industry, 
 was to suppress the rivalry of interest between the pro- 
 ducer and the consumer, by associating them together 
 in a common union. The numerous advantages of other 
 kinds capable of being realized by association if it were 
 extended so as to embrace the domestic life of men as 
 well as the operations of industry, convinced him that 
 God must have ordained such an association as the 
 natural destiny of man, and that the condition under 
 which it could be formed would be discoverable by a 
 careful study of the laws by which the nature of man 
 was governed. The unity which he observed in all the 
 works of God led him to the conviction that, the Creator 
 being an infinite harmonious being, ever.vthing in nature 
 must be an imitation of His attributes, and therefore 
 that there exists in every order of creation similarity or 
 universal analogy. The study of the universe around 
 him led him further to the persuasion that all its har- 
 monies are distributed in progressive series; and that 
 every being in creation is subject to permanent attract- 
 ions and repulsions in proportion to its respective funct- 
 ions and final destinies. Armed with these principles, 
 
 he set himself to study first the natural impulses, attract- 
 ions and repulsions of man, and then the mode in which 
 these faculties could be combined progressively according 
 to the general laws of series, satisfied that he should thus 
 be led to the di-scovery of the principle of union of which 
 he was in quest " (E. V. Neale). Fourier investigated 
 the nature of man, and found in him three classes of 
 inborn desires. The first class consists of the five senses. 
 The second class comprises the four modes of affection : 
 friendship, love, parental and filial, ambition or corporate 
 affection. The third class embraces three intellectual 
 desires : the desire of intrigue and rivalry ; the desire of 
 alternation ; and the deisire of combining different 
 pleasures. How are these passions and desires to be 
 satisfied duly? The five senses require physical health 
 and vigour, as well as material wealth. The four moral 
 affections require free scope for the development of 
 groups of persons drawn together by similarity of tastes, 
 etc. The three intellectual desires require free play for 
 a spirit of rivalry and emulation. Fourier therefore 
 combined men into social individuals called phalanges, 
 who should dwell each in the phalnnst&re best suited to 
 his taste, " cultivating each a sufficient quantity of land 
 for the support of aU the members of which it is com- 
 posed, and carrying on, in combination with tJie agricul- 
 tural operations forming the basis of its existence, such 
 other industrial pursuits as the nature of the locality or 
 climate suggested. The secret of securing the well-being 
 of such a body, and of all the members composing It, 
 consisted in such arrangements as would allow the groups 
 into which its members would be drawn by their mutual 
 attractions, to form themselves into a series methodically 
 arranged, so that each group should be in direct rivalry 
 with those immediately contiguous to it, and passing 
 gradually into concord with those more removed from 
 it, and as would at the same time link all the series 
 thus formed to each other by a gradual transition " 
 (Neale). See Edward Vansittart Neale, The Oharac- 
 teristic Features of some of the Principal (Systems of 
 Socialism, 1851; Chamber.^' Encycl.; cp. Guiseppe Maz- 
 zini. Thoughts upon Democraev in Europe, 1847. 
 
 FRAGMENTARY HYPOTHESIS, THE. This expres- 
 sion is used of one of the theories which has been put 
 forth by the Higher Critics (see CRITICISM, HIGHER) 
 to explain the composition of the Hexateuch. It 
 followed the Documentary Hypothesis (g.v.). The Frag- 
 mentary Hypothesis was advocated, in particular, by 
 Alexander Geddes (17,37-1802) in England, and J. S. Vater 
 in Germany. They believed that fragments of different 
 date and authorship were added to one original Mosaic 
 work. (Jeddes (as quoted by C. A. Briggs) thought it 
 indubitable that; " (1) The Pentateuch in its present 
 form was not written by Moses. (2) It was written in 
 the land of Chanaan, and most probably at Jerusalem. 
 (3) It could not be written before the reign of David, 
 nor after that of He^ekiah." He believed, however, that 
 " it was compiled from ancient documents, some of 
 which wore coeval with Moses, and .some even anterior 
 to Moses. Whether all these were written records or 
 many of them only oral traditions, it would be rash to 
 determine." The Book of Joshua he considered to 
 belong closely to the Pentateuch, because it seems to 
 have been " compiled by the .same author, and because 
 it is a necessary appendix tx) the history contained in 
 the former books." W. E. Addis (Documents of the 
 Hexateuch , i., p. xxvii.) thinks that in some respects the 
 position of Geddes and Vater marked an advance upon 
 that of Astrue and Eichhom (see DOCUMENTARY 
 HYPOTHESIS). " It extended the investigation from 
 Genesis and the beginning of Exodus to the whole Penta- 
 teuch, and ceased to assume that the only documents
 
 Franciscans 
 
 159 
 
 Free Religious Movement, The 
 
 in the Pentateuch were documents used by Moses. It 
 argued, with justice, that the Pentateuci is composed of 
 sections, some of which had no original connection with 
 each other, and that even the documents which use the 
 word Elohim or Yahweh [commonly pronounced 
 Jehovah] may be, and are, of various origin." Its 
 wealiness consisted in failing to see " that the supposed 
 ' fragments ' might, on closer inspection, form them- 
 selves into two or three documents." See T. K. Oheyne, 
 Founders of O.T. Grit., 1893: C. A. Briggs, Hex.; A. 
 Duff. History of O.T. Grit., 1910. 
 
 FRANCISCANS. The Franciscans owe their name to 
 Francis of Assisi (1172-122()), whose real name was Gio- 
 vanni Francesco Bemardone. The son of a rich mer- 
 chant, in his early manhood he became leader of a club 
 to which tie gay youths of Assisi belonged. He also 
 fought in a battle between Assisi and Perugia. A severe 
 illness marketl a change in his life. It led him to take 
 an interest in the poor and suffering, and to abandon 
 his old pleasures. In 120G he laid aside the clothes which 
 he had been accustomed to wear, put on old garments, 
 and devoted himself to a life of poverty. In 1209 when 
 he heard a preacher read the passage in Matthew x. vss. 
 9 and 10 {" Get you no gold, nor silver, nor brass in your 
 purses; no wallet for your journey, neither two coats, 
 nor shoes, nor staff : for tlie labourer is worthy of his 
 food. And into whatsoever city or village ye shall enter, 
 search out who in it is worthy ; and there abide till ye 
 go forth "), the words appealed to him with all the 
 force of a direct, personal message, a message to go forth 
 and preach. He now further simplified his dre.ss, dis- 
 carding shoes and the use of a staff, and before long he 
 was joined by ten followers. His followers seem to have 
 been exhorted to work for their daily bread, but in 
 return to take only things necessary for life (not money), 
 lu 1210 he obtained from the Benedictines a plot of 
 ground near Assisi called Portiuncula on which was an 
 abandoned chapel of Our Dady of the Angels. Around 
 this chapel the Franciscans established a convent con- 
 sisting of rude huts. " From this humble site, which 
 thus became the cradle of the order, thousands of monas- 
 teries were to be planted, missioners were to go forth to 
 all parts of the world to preach, toil, and in many cases 
 suffer martyrdom for the gospel of Jesus Christ, and a 
 vast multitude of doctors and holy prelates were to 
 issue, by whom the purity of the faith should be 
 sustained, and its principles methodised and applied " 
 (Gatholic Dictionary). In 1210 Francis went to Rome 
 to have his rule confirmed by the Pope, but he suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining from Innocent III. only verbal con- 
 firmation. The rule was not solemnly ratified until 
 1223, when, in a more compendious form, it was con- 
 firmed by Honorius III. The Order had already .spread 
 beyond Italy to Spain, Egypt. Africa, Greece, England, 
 Hungary, and Germany. In 1219 as many as five 
 thonsand members were present at a general assembly. 
 In 1220 Franciscans established themselves in England 
 at Canterbury, and soon afterwards at Northampton. 
 In course of time Franei.scan convents arose in Oxford, 
 London, Coventry, and in other places. Francis is said 
 to have laid down twenty-seven precepts. "They 
 prescribe the particular means by which the vow of 
 poverty is to be carried out, regulate the dress to be 
 worn, order that the friars shall go barefoot, specify the 
 fasts to be observed, and enjoin a blind unlimited 
 obedience to superiors for the love of God. The habit 
 which he gave them was a grey gown of coarse cloth 
 with a pointed hood or capuche attached to it, one under- 
 tunie and drawers, and a cord round the waist" (Gath. 
 Diet.). After the death of Francis, his successor, the 
 Minister-Greneral Blias of Cortona relaxed the original 
 
 strictness of the rule. This relaxation displeased many 
 of the Franciscans and caused a division. Two branches 
 of the Order grew up, Conventuals and Observantines. 
 The Conventuals were the milder party and lived in 
 convents; the Observantines were the severer party (in 
 France they were called Cordeliers) and lived like 
 hermits in poor dwellings. The Observantines in time 
 became subdivided into Observants, Reformed, Discalced 
 or Alcantarines, and Recollects. There arose also a 
 distinct branch of Franciscans called Capuchins (q.v.). 
 In 1897 Leo XIII. succeeded in re-uniting all the Fran- 
 ciscans except the Conventuals and Capuchins under the 
 name of tlie Order of Friars Minor. The Franciscans 
 have done a great work for humanity, and have produced 
 maay very eminent men. Naturally, their zeal and 
 strictness have called forth opponents and rivals. 
 Zoeckler describes the Dominicans (q.v.) as bom rivals 
 of the Franciscans. " The two orders fought for a time 
 cordially together, side by side, as long as they had a 
 common object ; namely, to get access to the universities. 
 But hardly were Bonaventura the Franciscan, and 
 Thomas Aquinas the Dominican, installed as doctores 
 theolofjiae at the University of Paris, before a strongly 
 niarke^l .scientific difference between the two orders 
 became apparent, and it continued to separate them 
 during the whole period of the middle ages. The Fran- 
 ciscans were realists; the Dominicans, nominalists: the 
 Franciscans leaned tovrards Semi-Pelagianism ; the 
 Dominicans were ardent disciples of Augustine : the 
 Franciscans were Scoti.?ts: the Dominicans were 
 Thomists : in the debate on the immaculate conception 
 of Marv. the Franciscans said Yes, and the Dominicans 
 No" ("Schaff-Herzog). See Schaff-Herzog ; the Prot. 
 Diet., 1904: the Cath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 FRANCKESCHE STIFTUNGEN. Philanthropic Insti- 
 tutions established at Halle (Schools, Home for Orphans, 
 Dispensary, Printing-house, etc.) by the German pietist 
 A. H. Francke (10(^-1727). See PIETISM. 
 
 FRANKISTS. The followers of Jacob Frank (Jankiew 
 Lejbowiez; 1712-1791). Frank at fir.st put himself at the 
 head of the Sabbatians (q.v.) in Podolia, South Russia. 
 Then he had himself baptized and declared himself to be 
 the re-born Christ. He was imprisoned for more than 
 ten years. Frankists are to be found in Poland, Rou- 
 mania, and Turkey. See Brockhaus. 
 
 FRATERNITY, PACT OF. A declaration of principles 
 drawn up bv Giuseppe (Joseph) Mazzini (1805-1872). See 
 PACT OF FRATERNITY. 
 
 FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. A dissentient 
 episcopal community. The Free Church of England 
 originated in 1844 as a counteracting movement to the 
 Oxford Tractarian movement. It regarded the episco- 
 pate as a distinction of " office not of order," and re- 
 pudiated the historical succession of bishops. It held 
 itself free " to preach in any parish, use a revised 
 Prayer-book, associate the laity in the government of the 
 Church, and hold communion with other (^^ristians. It 
 has annexed several churches of the Covmtess of Hunting- 
 don's Connexion " (J. A. Houlder). 
 
 FREE CONGREG.\TIONS. Congregations founded in 
 Ormany in 1S4.5 by Wislicenus of Halle and Julius Rupp 
 (6. 1809) of Koenigsberg. They sought to develop a faith 
 in harmony with reason. See FRIENDS OF LIGHT. 
 
 FREE RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATION. A very liberal 
 Association founded at Boston in 18fi7. It " aims at the 
 emancipation of religion from all sectarian limits, the 
 reconciliation of faiths, and the application of the 
 scientific method to the study of theology." See Schaff- 
 Herzog. 
 
 FREE RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT, THE. The Free 
 Religious Movement in London, the adherents of which
 
 French Prophets 
 
 160 
 
 Friends, Society of 
 
 meet in Steinwav Hall, was founded by Dr. Walter 
 Walsli. In 1912, after being deprived of his church 
 through the verdict of the highest law court in Scotland, 
 Dr. Walsh formed what he called a Free Religious 
 Movement in Dundee. Subsequently he was apixtinted 
 to succeed Mr. Voysey as Minister of the Theistic Church 
 in London. But here again his utterances in course of 
 time proved unwelcome to the members of the Church, 
 and he was again ejected. Hence arose the Free 
 Religious Movement in London. In the United States 
 there is a Free Religious Association of America which 
 has taljen as its motto " World Religion and World 
 Brotherhood"; in various parts of the Continent there 
 has been a similar movement with the same name; and 
 in Australia a Free Religious Fellowship has been 
 formed. The Free Religious Movement towards World 
 Religion and World Brotherhood, under the leadership 
 of Dr. Walsh, has its source in that desire for unity 
 which pervades the modem world. It is a reasoned 
 effort to express and encourage that sweep towards 
 universalism in religion and social ethics and politics 
 which is the most powerful and hopeful impulse of our 
 time. It seeks to relate man to his universe, and human 
 beings to one another, by principals which are rational, 
 scientific, ethical, and international. The movement is 
 religious — not in the narrow ecclesiastical sense of the 
 word — but in a broad, humanist and ethical sense. It is 
 a constructive movement, springing from the spiritual one- 
 ness of humanity, and consciously directed towards the 
 realisation of the greatest of human ideals — the ideal of 
 social and international unity. To enable it to move 
 with ease and rapidity, the Free Religious Movement 
 does not encumber itself with creed or sacrament. Be- 
 lieving that for the accomplishment of the successive 
 tasliS of mankind ample wisdom and virtue dwell within 
 the nature of man himself, it seeks to voice the trath of 
 the ages as discovered by .science, tested by reason, and 
 approved by experience. It endeavours to support truth 
 as disclosed to the growing intelligence of man by his- 
 tory and science. It asserts the undeniable right of 
 everyone to think and speak his or her own thoughts; 
 and therefore it assures to its leaders and speakers entire 
 intellectual liberty; and to all its adherents and auditors 
 perfect freedom of .iudgment. Believing that goodness 
 and truth are inherent in human nature, it seeks for 
 these in the immortal books of all ages and races; and 
 regards with reverence all those who in every nation and 
 time have laboured and suffered and lived and died for 
 humanity. In the conviction that the goal of human 
 unity can be reached only as men and women learn to 
 think independently, fearlessly and rationally, the Free 
 Religious Movement in all its activities keeps steadily 
 before it the liberation of mind and conscience from 
 servile submission to authority and tradition; and seeks 
 association with all those who also are looking for a 
 world which shall be enlightened by knowledge, guided 
 by reason, and animated by love. See the Free Religious 
 Addres.ses and Leaflets. 
 
 FRENCH PROPHETS. A body of fanatics which 
 arose in France as a result of the persecution of Pro- 
 testants and afterwards of Jansenists. Their fanaticism 
 " found expression in convulsions and prophecies of the 
 impending destruction of Church and State " (T. G. 
 Crippen, Appendix to J. A. Honlder's Free Churches, 
 1S99). Some of these enthusiasts came to England about 
 the year 1706, and gained for a time a considerable 
 following. 
 
 FRBYJA. One of the chief of the Norse deities. She 
 was one of the figures represented on the golden horns 
 found in South Jutland in 1639 and 1734 and dating, it is 
 thought, from the fifth or beginning of the sixth century. 
 
 According to Snorri Sturluson (1178-1241), she was 
 originally a human being. She is goddess of the dead 
 and consort of Odhin (q.v.). They share the fallen 
 heroes between them. She is a deity of sensuous love. 
 In one myth she is said to be the wife of Odhr and to 
 have bomie him a daughter named Hnoss. Odhr is per- 
 haps another form of Odhin. Freyja, the female deity, 
 corresponds to the male deity Freyr (q.v.). She is 
 identical with GuUveig-Heidhr, the Vanir-goddess (see 
 VANIR). See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of 
 the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 FREYR. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 Thor (q.v.) and Freyr became the chief gods of Swe<len. 
 Freyr was the god worshipped by the Ingvax)nes, and it 
 is thought by some scholars that he is identical with 
 their eponymous hero Ingv. He was the god of fertility. 
 His symbol was the phallus, and there were processions 
 in his honour in Spring. He was also the god of pros- 
 perity, peace, and love. Freyr, who was one of the 
 Vanir (Q.v.), was introduced into Norway, and it has 
 been suggested that the war between the Vanir and the 
 iEsir represents the conflict which then took place 
 between the adherents of Freyr and the adherents of 
 Odhin (see WODAN). See P. D. Chantepie de la Saus- 
 saye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 FRIARS MINOR. The name chosen by Francis of 
 Assisi for his followers. They are better known as 
 Franciscans (q.v.). 
 
 FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF. The body of Christians 
 known as the " Friends " and nick-named the Quakers 
 (q.v.) was founded by George Fox (1624-1691 A.D.) as the 
 result of a profound religious experience. As a young 
 man, Fox was troubled for a time with religious 
 despondency, and could find no comfort or help in the 
 counsels of the priests and preachers of his age. He 
 wandered about in great misery, with the Bible as his 
 only companion. At length the clouds were dispersed, 
 as they so often are in such cases, and his outlook was 
 brightened in a wonderful way. He received a divine 
 message to the effect that "There is one, even Christ 
 Jesus, that can speak to thy condition." He now knew 
 in what direction to seek for help. " I saw also that 
 there was an ocean of darkness and death, but an infinite 
 ocean of light and love which flowed over the ocean of 
 darkness. In that I saw also the infinite love of God, 
 and I had great openings." Such an experience as Fox 
 had had seemed to prove to him that what men needed 
 most was to seek spiritual enlightenment by kindling Into 
 flame the divine spark which exists in all of them. He 
 had found that no priest nor religious rite is necessary 
 to bring the soul into direct communion with God. He 
 had re-discovered, he thought, the original secret of 
 Christianity, and was prepared to devote himself heart 
 and soul to the task of reviving primitive Christianity. 
 In 1647 he started on a missionary campaign, which only 
 ended when his life did. He wandered about England 
 as a preacher, urging the people to " look to Christ 
 within " and to " follow the inward light." He met with 
 great success. After he had laboured alone for four 
 years, he was joined by other preachers. In the seventh 
 year of his work there were more than sixty. In the 
 eighth year there were preachers in Asia and Africa, as 
 well as in various parts of Europe. About twenty years 
 after the formation of the body Itnown as the Friends, 
 William Penn (1644-1718) joined them. The Friends 
 flourished in spite of persecution. Slany of them were 
 fined and imprisoned, particularly between the years 1650 
 and 1689. In 1682 a settlement was made in America, 
 and in a few years there were thousands of Friends in 
 the American Colonies. The body in America in 1827 
 si)lit into two divisions, one of whidi became known as
 
 Friends of God 
 
 161 
 
 Fung'Shui 
 
 tie Hicksites (q.v.). The principles of the Friends have 
 been summarized as follows : (1) God's Spiritual Light 
 tiat lighteth everv man; (2) the indwelling of the Spirit 
 with the disciple: (3) the Headship of Christ in His 
 Church; (4) the priesthood of all believers: (5) the free- 
 dom of the Gospel Ministry: (0) the spiritual equality 
 of the Sexes; (7) Spiritual Baptism, and Spiritual Com- 
 munion; (8) the unlawfulness of war to the Christian; 
 (9) the unlawfulness of oaths; and (10) the duty of 
 brotherly love, and of simplicity of life. The members 
 of the Society of Friends worship in silence, unless ijome 
 member of the congregation is moved by the Spirit to 
 preach or offer prayer or give praise. " But this silence 
 is itself intended "to be occupied with religious act*. 
 Highest of these is the direct communion of the soul with 
 its Maker and its Lord, in rapt devotion, in thanksgiving 
 and prayer. But there are services, in these hours of 
 silenc-e, adapted to every degree of religious experience 
 and every serious mood of mind. One of the most protit- 
 able of these is self-examination. . . . Another exer- 
 cise is religious meditation. At worst, every attender 
 can force himself to think on profitable tiemes by repeat- 
 ing to himself texts of Scripture, or the verses of some 
 suggestive hymn. ' Sometimes a light surprises ' the 
 humble worshipper; his thoughts are led on and upward 
 by a higher Power; new meanings of texts flash upon 
 his mind, a new illumination is given to the path of duty, 
 and in answer to the prayer breathed forth by his inmost 
 soul, he feels conscious of a closer union with God, and 
 strengthened for his future warfare with the world, the 
 flesh, and the devil. And, if some brother or sister is 
 led to offer vocal service, it often happens that the word 
 of exhortation or reproof or comfort, or the earnest peti- 
 tion to the throne of grace, harmonizes witi the private 
 exercise of mind which the hearer has passed through, 
 confirming his faith, and invigorating his resolution" 
 (Schaff-Herzog). The Friends have been great philan- 
 thropists. See Schaff-Herzog; J. H. Blunt; Prot. Diet.; 
 R.S.W. 
 
 FEIENDS OF GOD. A name (Gottesfreunde) assumed 
 by German mystics in the fourteenth century. They 
 included such men as : Henry Eckhart, " Master Eck- 
 hart " (c. 12G0-1329) ; Rulman Merswin (1.307-1.3S2), author 
 of "The Book of the Nine Rocks"; Nicolas of Basle 
 (1330-1383); John Tauler (c. 1.30O-13G1); and Henry Suso 
 or Seu.se (von Berg; 129.5-136<>). author of the "Book of 
 Eternal Wisdom." See MYSTICISM, CHRISTIAN. 
 
 FRIENDS OF LIGHT. A religious sect of German 
 origin. It originated in 1S41, when Leberecht Uhlich 
 (1799-1872), with fifteen other clergymen, formed a 
 " Union of Protestant Friends." The members of this 
 Union were also called the " Friends of Light." They 
 held that Christianity ought to be brought into harmony 
 with the faith of reason. In 1844 a great meeting was 
 held at (3«ethen. A lecture was delivered by Wislieenus 
 of Halle, and the Friends of Light declared that they 
 could not allow their faith to be determined by Holy 
 Scripture. In 184.5 Wislieenus and Julius Rupp (1S09- 
 1884), of Koenigsberg, were dismis.sed from their churches 
 by the Prussian Government. In 1846 they formed Free 
 Congregations in Koenigsberg and Halle. Other con- 
 gregations soon arose in other towns. See Brockhaus; 
 J. H. Blunt. 
 
 FRIGG. Another form of the name Frija (q.v.). 
 
 FRIJA. One of the chief deities of the Teutons 
 Frija is a goddess who in the legends of the Lombards 
 appears as Frea, and in those of the Fri.?ians as Fria. 
 She is mentioned in one of the Merseburg Charms (q.v.). 
 In the Balder Myth, where .she appears as Frigg. she 
 aids Balder (q.v.) by making nearly all objects harmless. 
 Frija is the consort of Odhin or Wodan (g.v.). She 
 
 gives advice to Wodan, or sometimes even frustrates his 
 plans. And, like him, she knows the fate of men. Swine 
 and cats were sacrificed to her. Her worshippers also 
 threw sacrificial cakes into wells and then drank of the 
 water. See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the 
 Teutons, 1902. 
 
 FRINGES. One of the commands in the Old Testa- 
 ment is (Deuteronomy sxii. 12) : " Thou shalt make thee 
 fringes upon the four corners of thy vesture wherewith 
 thou ooverest thyself." The Hebrew word (tsitsith) 
 seems to mean " twisted cords." These fringes were 
 originally tassels attached by a blue cord (cp. Numbers 
 XV. 38) to the four corners of the outer garment, a kind 
 of shawl. The modem name for this garment is Talith 
 (q.v.). 
 
 FRITHSTOOL. The Frithstool or Freedstool, literally 
 " the seat of peace " was a seat or chair placed near the 
 altar in certain churches. Such seats still survive in 
 churches at Hexham and Beverley Minster. The frith- 
 stool was the most sacred place of refuge for those who 
 claimed " sanctuary " (see SANCTUARY). Frequently 
 the seats were of stone. See J. H. Parker, Gloss. 
 
 FRODHI-PEACE. Frodhi-peace is the Norse name 
 for an idea which has prevailed in many parts of the 
 world — the idea of a golden age in the past. Frodhi in 
 the saga appears as one of the first of the Danish kings. 
 He resided at Leire on Seeland. He is calletl the Prince 
 of Peace, because during his reign, for a time at least, 
 peace reigned supreme. No man harmed his neighbour. 
 This continued until the king, developing a taste for gold, 
 obtained from tlie king of Sweden two giantesses, Fenja 
 and Menja, to grind gold, peace, and happiness. Instead 
 of gold, the giantesses ground for him calamity and 
 vengeance. They were at length carried off in ships 
 of the enemy, but they made the ships sink by grinding 
 salt on them. This accounts for the saltness of the sea. 
 See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 
 1902. 
 
 FRONTLETS. In the Old Testament it is said 
 (Deuteronomy vi. S) with reference to the words of God : 
 " And thou Shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, 
 and they shall be for frontlets between thine eyes." In 
 course of time the passage came to be interpreted 
 literally, and it became the custom to wear frontlets, that 
 is to say, small boxes containing prayers written on 
 parchment. The Hebrew term is Totafoth (g.v.). 
 
 FUDO. A deity worshipijed by the Japanese Buddh- 
 ists. It is thought that he corresponds to the Indian 
 deity Siva (g.v.). " His appearance is fierce and angry, 
 the face often coloured black ; in his right hand he holds 
 a sword, and in his left a rope; tongues of flame form 
 the background." Fudo is a god of fire, and apparently 
 also of wisdom. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 FUJUFUZE SECT. A sub-sect of .lapanese Nich- 
 irenism (see NICHIREN SECT). They were extremists. 
 Their principle was known as Fiiju fuxe. A. Lloyd 
 explains that tiis means " not giving and not receiving," 
 and may be translated intransigeant. The Emperor 
 lemitsu " (died 10.51) proscribed both the Fujufuze 
 Nichirenists and the Christians. See Arthur Llo.vd. 
 
 FULLA. The name of one of the deities of the Ancient 
 Teutons. In one of the Merseburg Charms (q.v.) the name 
 seems to occur as Volla (q.v.). 
 
 FUNG-SHUI. A Chinese term meaning wind-water, 
 in other words, the climate as regulated and determined 
 by the winds that bring rain or drought. It is important 
 that a Chinese grave should be so placed that the body 
 and soul may be under the good influence of fiing-shui. 
 To secure this the Chine.se consult fung-shui professors, 
 a class of specialists who know how to find the most 
 lucky spots for graves, as well as the best sites for
 
 Furious Host 
 
 162 
 
 Galilee, The 
 
 temples and houses. " These fung-shui professors mostly 
 take as the basis of their determinations of suitable spots 
 for the dwellings of the living and the dead, the forms 
 and configurations of the hills, the windings of the rivers 
 and broolis. as well as the shapes of houses, temples, and 
 rociis; in short, everything on earth, aecordtng to them, 
 may modify those influences of wind and rain " (de 
 Groot). Until a suitable spot for the grave can be found, 
 the bodv must remain unburied. See J. J. M. de Groot. 
 Rel. of the Chinese, 1910; Hastings' E.R.E., vol. v., 1912. 
 FURIOUS HOST. Another name for the Wild Hunt 
 (q.v.). 
 
 PURQAN. Al-Furqftn is another name for the Qur'an 
 (q.v.). The root of the verb means " to separate or dis- 
 tinguish." Furqan therefore means that which dis- 
 tinguishes between truth and error, or that which is 
 divided into sections. The Hebrew pereq also means a 
 section (cp. the collection of sayings called Pirqe AMth). 
 
 FYLFOT. THE. The Christian symbol kno.'.n as the 
 fylfot (cp. the Fylfot Cross in heraldry) is identical with 
 the Swastika, a sacred emblem of the Buddhists. It 
 fi^'ures in the Catacombs and in mediaeval churches. 
 Cp. CROSS. 
 
 G. God G is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians. 
 The employment of the sun-sign in his hieroglyph 
 indicates that he is a sun-god. He is sometimes provided 
 with the symbol of death, apparently because he needed 
 human blood to sustain him. 
 
 GADADHAR. Wielder of the club or gada, one of 
 the names of the Hindu god ViShnu. 
 
 GAGA. A Babylonian deity. Gaga was one of the 
 minor gods. In the Epic of Marduk (see MARDUK, 
 EPIC OF) Gaga appears as a messenger sent by Anshar 
 to TiSmat to announce the coming of Marduk. The 
 message is received by Lakhmu (q.v.) and Lakhamu. and 
 causes consternation among the Igigi (q.v.). See Morris 
 Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 GALATIANS. EPISTLE TO THE. As far as genuine- 
 ness is concerned, the Epistle of Paul to the Galatians 
 is one of the least disputed of the Pauline Epistles. It 
 has been said that " it bears on every line of it the sign 
 manual of the Apostle " (Currle Martin). There are 
 indeed statements in it which cannot easily be reconciled 
 with other statements in other Epistles and in the Book 
 of Acts, but there is a broad basis of agreement. The 
 Epistle seems to be quoted by Justin the Gnostic. Poly- 
 carp, Theodotus. Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and other 
 early writers. It is included in the Versions and Canons 
 of the second century A.D. In spite of all this, it is 
 not without its difBeulties. One of these is presented by 
 the term " Galatians." In the Acts of the Apostles 
 " Galatia " seems to denote only a broad strip of the 
 Roman province of Galatia in Asia Minor, running from 
 the South-west to the North-east, a territory inhabited 
 by a mixed population of Phrygians. Greeks. Romans. 
 .Jews, and C«lts (Acts xvi. fi; sviii. 2.3). But in the 
 time of the Apostle Paul the term seems to have denoted 
 also the whole Roman province, which included Antioch, 
 Derbe, Lystra, and Iconium. It used to be thought that 
 the Galations of Paul's Epistle were the inhabitants of 
 the Galatia of the Acts of the Apostles (North Galatian 
 theory). It is now held by many scholars that the Gala- 
 tians of the Epistle were inhabitants of the southern 
 towns (South Galatian theory). W. M. Ramsay main- 
 tains " tiat the CThurches to which the Epistle was 
 addressed were no other than those of Antioch, Iconium. 
 
 Lystra. and Derbe, which were planted by Paul in his 
 first missionary journey, and of which we have an account 
 in Acts xiii., xiv." (McClymont). Some of the passages 
 in the Epistle, it is thought, can be best explained as 
 referring to customs and laws peculiar to the province 
 of South Galatia in Roman times. " The main points 
 that can be elucidated by reference to the current customs 
 in the province of South Galatia are those of adoption, 
 the making of wills or covenants, and the special 
 character of the tutor or paidagogos (cf. Gal. iii. 24) 
 found in the Galatian letter " (Currie Martin). In Gala- 
 tians iv. 13 Paul says : " but ye know that because of 
 an infirmity of the flesh I preached the gospel unto you 
 the first time." This has been supposed to militate 
 against the South Galatian tlieory since there is no 
 reference to the illness of Paul in Acts. On the other 
 hand, as Prof. Peake says, it is hardly likely that North 
 Galatia could have been a place to which Paul could 
 have gone in consequence of illness. " For either he 
 was taken ill when passing through it to another district, 
 or he went there to regain his health. Against the former 
 it must be said that the road through North Galatia 
 led nowhere where he was likely to go, against the latter 
 that the climate was singularly unfitted for an invalid." 
 McClymont thinks that the Epistle was written in the 
 period of transition from II. Corinthians to Romans, 
 towards the close of the year 57 A.D. Ram.say assigns 
 it to about the year 53 A.D., the time when the Apostle 
 was about to commence his Third Missionary Journey. 
 He thinks that it was written at Antioch in Syria. The 
 main object of the Epistle was to counteract a Judaislng 
 tendency in the Galatian Church. An interesting feature 
 in the Epistle is the emphasis laid on the independent 
 character of Paul's apostleship. He says, for instance 
 (1. 11 f.) : " For I make known to you, brethren, as 
 touching the gosi)el wh'ch was preached by me. that it 
 is not after man. For neither did I receive it from 
 man. nor was I taught it. but through revelation of Jesus 
 Christ." See J. A. McClymont: G. Currie Martin; 
 Arthur S. Peake. Intr. ; J. Moffatt, Intr. 
 
 GALILEE, THE. In Christian architecture this term 
 is applied to a porch or chapel at the entrance of a 
 Church. There are many examples in Cathedrals and 
 old Priory Churches. The term is applied also some-
 
 Galli 
 
 163 
 
 Gayatri Prayer 
 
 times " to the nave, or at least to the western portion 
 of it, and in some churches there are indications of the 
 •west end of the nave having been part^ off from the 
 rest, either by a step in the floor, a division in the archi- 
 tecture, or some other line of demarcation " (J. H. 
 Parker, Gloss.). St. Stephen's Chapel at Westminster 
 had formerlv at the west end a galilee which formed a 
 kind of vestibule or ante-chapel. Durham Cathedral has 
 at the west end of the nave a galilee dedicated to St. 
 Cuthbert. It was built for tie use of the women. 
 Sidney Heath explains that the term " is thought to 
 have been applied to lurches situated on the north side 
 of a conventual church or cathedral for the reason that 
 when the Crusaders and pilgrims entered the Holy Land 
 from the north. Galilee was the frontier province." 
 
 GALLI. According to Lucian, the Galli were sacred 
 servants in the temple of Hierapolis. They were 
 castrated and wore female attire. 
 
 GAliLICAN PSALTER. The Gallican Psalter was the 
 second (3S7) of the three revisions of the Book of P.salms 
 made by Jerome. Under Pope Pius V. it was sul)st.itnted 
 in general ecclesiastical use in the Roman Church for the 
 Roman Psalter (q.v.), the version made by Jerome in 
 383. The Gallican Psalter was so called because it was 
 introduced primarily into Gaul by Gregory of Tours. 
 It was introduced afterwards into Germany, England, 
 and Spain. Cp. VULGATE. 
 
 GAMES. Robertson Smith has emphasized the joyful 
 character of the ancient religions known to us. When 
 men met their god they feasted and were glad together. 
 Ordinary acts of worship are all brightness and hilarity. 
 This is true also of the religions of primitive peoples 
 And indeed it may be said of any religion that gloom 
 and sadness are signs of degeneracy and decay. Games 
 and the principal forms of art seem to have l)een bom 
 of religiou, and for a long time they retained a religious 
 character. Worship was not merely an act of religion 
 but also a form of recreation (in the best sense of the 
 word). " The state of effervescence in wliich the 
 assembled worshippers find themselves must be trans- 
 lated outwardly by exuberant movements which are not 
 easily subjected to too carefully defined ends. In part, 
 they escape aimlessly, they spread themselves for the 
 mere pleasure of so doing, and they take delight in all 
 sort of games. Besides, in so far as the beings to whom 
 the cult is addressed are imaginary, they are not able to 
 contain and regulate this exuberance; the pressure of 
 tangible and resisting realities is required to confine 
 activities to exact and economical forms. Therefore 
 one expo.ses oneself to grave misunderstandings, if, in 
 explaining rites, he believes that each gesture has a pre- 
 cise object and a definite reason for its existence. There 
 are some which serve nothing; they mer-ily answer the 
 need felt by worshippers for action, motion, gesticula- 
 tion. They are to be seen jumping, whirling, dancing, 
 crying and singing, though it may not always be possible 
 to give a meaning to all this agitation " (Smile Durk- 
 heim). Durkheim thinks that religion would not be 
 itself if it did not give some place to play, to art, and 
 to all that serves to recreate the spirit which has been 
 fatigued by the too great slavishness of daily work. 
 
 GANAPATI. Ganapati or Ganpati. Another name 
 for Ganesa (g.v.), or Ganesh, one of the gods of the 
 Hindus. 
 
 GANDH.\RVA. A Hindu god, guardian of the sacred 
 Soma plant. 
 
 GANDHMALIS. A caste of village priests connected 
 with the temples of Siva or Mahadeo in Sambalpur and 
 the Uriya States in India. Another name asstimed by 
 some members of the caste is Thanapatis (" Masters of 
 the sacred place " ; Oandh in Gandhmali means " in- 
 
 cense "). R. V. Russell and R. B. Hira Lfil think that 
 the Thanapatis are priests of the temples in towns and 
 large villages whose calling has gained for them con- 
 siderable social estimation, whereas the Gandhmalis are 
 village priests who occupy a more menial position. The 
 Gandhmalis are generally Saivas. " They consider that 
 their ultimate ancestor is the Nag or cobra and especially 
 observe the festival of Nag-Panchmi, abstaining from 
 any cooked food on that day " (Russell). 
 
 GANESA. Ganesa, also called Gana-pati, is one of the 
 gods of the Hindus. He is one of the sons of Siva 
 (q.v.). His worshippers once formed one of the great 
 Hindu sects. The name (^nesa means " lord of hosts," 
 and the god was so called because he was supposed to 
 be in command of the hosts of messengers and servants 
 which surrounded Siva, that is to say, of the evil demons 
 and the good angels. But he is not a fighting commander, 
 a god of war: he is simply a tutelary village deity, a 
 god of luck and misfortune. He seems in particular to 
 be in charge of those spirits who contrive obstacles and 
 difficulties. He is invoked to remove these. Thus, at 
 the literary festival on the 2nd of February, Ganesa is 
 invoked, not as a god of learning corresponding to Saras- 
 vati (q.v.), the goddess of learning, but as the god who 
 might put obstacles in the way of literary accomplish- 
 ment. At the present day Ganesa is worshipped in con- 
 junction with all the other gods, and his images and 
 shrines are found throughout India. " What the Ganesa 
 or Gaiia-pati of the present day really represents is a 
 complex personification of sagacity, shrewdness, patience, 
 and self-reliance — of all those qualities, in short, which 
 overcome hindrances and ditficulties, whether In perform- 
 ing religious acts, writing books, building houses, making 
 journeys, or undertaking anything. He is before all 
 things the typical embodiment of success in life; with its 
 usual accompaniments of good-living, plenteousness, 
 prosperity, and peace. This is the true secret of his 
 popularity " (Monier-Williams). But though he is 
 mainly a god who removes obstacles, he may become a 
 god who brings them. Hence his names Vighnesa and 
 Vighna-raja, " lord of obstacles." In sculpture Ganesa 
 is figured with the head of an elephant and riding on a 
 rat. Both elephant and rat are emblems of wealth. The 
 elephant is a great consumer of grain, and the rat is 
 associated with overflowing granaries. See Monier- 
 Williams; E. W. Hopkins; J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beau- 
 champ; R. V. Russell. 
 
 GANESH PRASAD. Gift of Ganesh, one of the names 
 of the Hindu god Ganpati or Ganesh. 
 
 GANGADHAR. The holder of the Ganges, one of the 
 names of tie Hindu god Siva. 
 
 GANGAMMaL. a Hindu deity, wor.shipped as the 
 goddess of cholera by the Paraiyans, a tribe or caste in 
 India. 
 
 GARUDA. a figure in Hindu mythology, the king of 
 birds, half-man and half-eagle, on which the god Visihnu 
 rode. 
 
 6ATHAS. The GSthas, or sacrificial hymns, are the 
 most ancient part of the Zendavesta (q.v.), the oldest col- 
 lection of writings .sacred to the old Persians. They con- 
 stitute an original or old Avesta, as compared with a 
 later and new Avesta. They are included in that division 
 of the Zendavesta known as the Tasna. 
 
 GAYATRI PRAYER. A Hindu prayer or formula, 
 regarded as the most powerful of the Mantras (q.v.). A 
 good Brahman should use this Vedic prayer daily, morn- 
 ing and evening. The ten Sanskrit words, supposed to 
 be full of mystery and deep allusions, are translated by 
 Monier-Williams : " Let us meditate on that excellent 
 glory of the Divine Vivifying Sun; may he enlighten 
 our understandings." Monier-Williams compares its
 
 Gdid Al Islam 
 
 164 
 
 Geneva Catechism, The 
 
 sacrwlness with that of the Lord's Prayer among 
 Christians. It was so sacred that it was deified and 
 Gayatri became a goddess. See Monier-Williams; E. W. 
 Hopkins; J. A. Dul)ois and H. K. Beauchamp; J. C. 
 Oman, Cults. 
 
 GDID AL ISLAM. A Jewish sect of about 2,000 
 persons in Khorassan. 
 
 GEFJON. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 The goddess Gefjon shared with Odhin (WODAN) the 
 knowledge of the fate of men. She was also the patron 
 deity of those who died as maids. Gefjon is perhaps to 
 be identified with the goddess Freyja (q.v.). See P. D. 
 Ohantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Tetitons, 1902. 
 
 GELUGPA SECT. An order of monks in Lamaism. 
 It was founded by Tsong Kapa, who came from North- 
 West China. Great reverence is paid to the founder, 
 who is supposed to have been directly inspired by Atlsa, 
 the great teacher of the eleventh century. Tsong Kapa 
 " strove to reinstate the original stern rules of life by 
 means of discipline, such as that their clothing should be 
 made from rags sewn together, their food be obtained by 
 begging, a strict retirement be observed during the Was 
 season, earnestness in meditation, and .«o on. On the 
 other hand, he established an ornate and strictly regu- 
 lated ritual." The monks are celibates, but otherwise 
 do not adhere strictly to the rules of the founder of the 
 order. Their headgear and outer garments are yellow. 
 See H. Hackmann. 
 
 GEM, THE WONDROUS. One of the seven royal 
 treasures which the king of kings, the ideal king, of the 
 Buddhists, or rather of the pre-Buddhists, is supposed to 
 possess. It is described as being of the purest species 
 and perfect in every way. It is said that " when the 
 great king of glory, to test that wondrous gem, set all 
 his fourfold army in array, and raised aloft the gem 
 ufjon his standard-top, he was able to march out in the 
 gloom and darkness of the night, and all the dwellers 
 round about began their daily work, thinking, ' The day- 
 light hath come.' " Rhys Davids ix>ints out that in the 
 Vedic hymns Indra slays the demon of darkness with the 
 lightning, wliich is called his jewel. He thinks that in 
 the wondrous gem " we have a reminiscence of the poetry 
 and mysticism of that Animism which is so hard to kill." 
 See T. W. Rhys Davids. 
 
 GEMARA. The designation of a part of the Jewish 
 Talmud (q.v.). In course of time the two constituents 
 of the Talmud came to be distinguished as Mlshnah (this 
 btMug the text) and Gemara (the commentary). Gemara 
 has commonly been taken to mean " completion," but 
 tJiere is reason to think that, in this connection, the word 
 really means " learning." There are two recensions of 
 the Jewish Talmud, a Palestinian and a Babylonian. 
 The Palestinian Talmud is sometimes called " Gemara 
 of the people of the West." In both the Palestinian 
 Talmud (completed in the fourth century) and the Baby- 
 lonian Talmud (completed by the end of the fifth century) 
 the GJemara is incomplete, but it is much more extensive 
 in the latter. The Gemara represents the teaching of 
 the Amoraim (q.v.). See W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. 
 Box; C. A. Briggs, Intro. 
 
 GENESIS, BOOK OF. The name of the first book of 
 the fir.st division of the Hebrew Canon of the Old Testa- 
 ment (q.v.) is in the Hebrew Bible " Bereshith." This 
 is the opening word of the book. " In-the-beginning." In 
 the Septuagint the title is " Genesis kosmou " or " Be- 
 ginning of the World." The common abbreviation of 
 this, " Genesis " (cp. Philo, De .itrahumo, § 1), has sug- 
 gested the title which the book bears in the English 
 Bible. The book has two main divisions. The first, 
 chapters i.-xi. 26, gives the Primaeval History of Man- 
 kind, including stories of the Creation, of a great Flood, 
 
 of the dispersion of peoples, etc. The second, chapters 
 xi. 27-1., gives the History of the Ancestors and Patri- 
 archs of the Israelites, including stories of Joseph's 
 adventures in Egypt. The work is composite, having 
 been compiled from the Priestly History and Law-book 
 (P) and the Prophetic (or Popular) History (JE). The 
 compiler himself has made alterations and additions. G. 
 F. Moore points out that the Genesis of P was much 
 shorter than the account of the same period in JE. 
 Within JE it is often possible to separate the two inde- 
 pendent documents J and E. As S. R. Driver says, 
 " the method of the compiler, who combined J and E 
 together, was sometimes, it would seem, to extract an 
 entire narrative from one or other of these sources (as 
 XX. 1-17 from E; xxiv. from J); sometimes, while taking 
 a narrative as a whole from one source, to incorporate 
 with it notices derived from the other; and sometimes 
 to construct his narrative of materials derived from each 
 source in nearly equal proportion." The use of different 
 documents is proved not only by striking linguistic 
 differences, but also by the presence of duplicate narra- 
 tives. There is a double account of the creation, for 
 instance (ch. i. 1-ii. 4 a and ch. ii. 4 6-25). Comijare also 
 ch. vi. 9-13 with vi. 5-S, vii. 1-5 with vi. 18-22, viii. 20-22 
 with ix. S-17, XV. with xvii., xx. with xxvi. 1-11, xxi. 
 22-32 with xxvi. 12-31, xxviii. 10-22 with xxxv. 9-15, xxxii. 
 22-32 with xxxv. 9-13, xxxvi. 15-19 with xxxvi. 40-43. The 
 composite character of the Book of Genesis has long been 
 recognized. A more recent discovery has been that there 
 are remarkable parallels to some of its stories in the 
 literature of Babylonia, Egypt, and Persia. The Baby- 
 lonians had similar traditions about Creation and a 
 Deluge (see DELUGE-STORY, BABYLONIAN). The 
 Egyptian Tale of Two Brothers resembles the story of 
 Joseph in Gene.sis (see Encycl. BiM., s.v. " Joseph "). 
 There are now a number of scholars who hold that the 
 traditions and institutions of Israel were powerfully 
 influenced by the culture of Babylonia. But even when 
 this is admitted, it is claimed that the Israelite version 
 of the Flood (for instance) " is no mere copy of the 
 Assyrian-Babylonian, for the biblical narrative is 
 stamped by the genuine characteristics of the Israelite 
 spirit " (K. Marti, Religion of the O.T.). A comparison 
 of the traditions of other peoples raises the whole quest- 
 ion of the character of the Book of Genesis as a his- 
 torical source. It cannot be regarded as history in the 
 modern sense of the term, that is to say, as " an authentic 
 record of actual events based on documents contem- 
 porary, or nearly contemixirary, with the facts narrated " 
 (Skinner). But if it be regarded as a collection of 
 legends, there are, nevertheless, as Prof. Skinner says, 
 three ways in which such legends may yield sound his- 
 torical results. " In the first place, a legend may embody 
 a more or less exact recollection of the fact in which it 
 originated. In the second place, a legend, though un- 
 historieal in form, may furnish material from which 
 history can be extracted. Thirdly, the collateral 
 evidence of archaeology may bring to light a cor- 
 respondence which gives a historical significance to the 
 legend." See Encycl. Bibl.; Carpenter and Harford- 
 Battersby, Bex.; W. H. Bennett, Genesis in the " Century 
 Bible"; S. R. Driver. The Book of Oenesis, 7th ed., 
 1909; A. R. Gordon, The Enrly Tmditions of Genesis, 
 ]fl07; John Skinner. Commentary on Genesis, 1910; G. H. 
 Box, Intr. ; O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 GENEVA CATECHISM, THE. The "Geneva Cate- 
 chism " was prepared by Calvin in 1536 A.D. It included 
 a brief " Confession of Faith " in twenty-one articles. 
 In 1541 A.D. the Catechism was recast in French, and in 
 1.^45 in Latin. It was translated afterwards into many 
 languages, and came into regular use in Scotland. " It
 
 Genistae 
 
 165 
 
 Gilgamesh Epic 
 
 is clear without being superficial, simple without being 
 childish, lacking in the picturesque, but well arranged, 
 comprehensive, and dignified. If it was excelled, it was 
 only by its offspring, the Heidelberg Catechism and the 
 Westm'inster Shorter Catechism " (W. A. Curtis). 
 
 GENISTAE. A Jewish sect referred to by JnsHn 
 Martyr. J. H. Blunt suggests that Genistae is only 
 another name for the Nazarseans (q.f.) spoken of by 
 Epiphanius. He thinks the name should rather be 
 GeJiitae. The sect would seem to have claimed that 
 thev represented the true stock of Abraham. See J. H. 
 Blunt. 
 
 GENIZAH. The Jews are careful to prevent copies 
 of the Scriptures which have been used in public worship 
 from falling into profane hands, even when they have 
 become old, dirty, and unfit for service. From early 
 times, therefore, they have been accustomed to .stow 
 away (to hide) worn-out manuscripts in a kind of lumber- 
 room in the Synagogue. This place is called Gcnizah, 
 •' place of hiding." The Genizah had a further use. 
 Books were placed there which, though highly esteemed, 
 were not considered suitable for use in the Synagogue 
 services. They were said to be hidden, and were called 
 " hidden books " (sepharim genuztm). The question was 
 raised by some of the Rabbinic scholars, whether some 
 of our canonical books (e.g.. Proverbs. Ezekiel) ought 
 not to be hidden. Cp. CANON, OLD TESTAMENT. 
 See G. Wildeboer; W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box: 
 A. S. Geden, Intr. to the Hebrew BiUe, 1909. 
 
 GEONIM. Geonim, " Princes," was the title given to 
 the leaders of the Jewish Academies of Sura and Pum- 
 beditha in Babylonia from 589 to 1040 A.D. The Geonim 
 were " the official heads of dispersed Judaism in things 
 judicial as well as spiritual " (Oe.sterley and Box). 
 
 GERDHR. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 Gerdhr is a beautiful young giantess, who plays a part 
 with the god Freyr {q.r.). The god beheld her one day 
 and sent his servant to persuade her to give herself up 
 to him. After nine nights she yielded. Chantepie de 
 la Saussaye thinks " the chief meaning of this myth is 
 doubtless the awakening of the earth in spring, although 
 not all details, of course, are transferable." Gerdhr is 
 represented as a daughter of the giant Gymir. See P. 
 D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 GERM.\N CATHOLICS. A religious body in Germany 
 whose aim at first was to reform the Roman Catholic 
 Church. In 1844 they seceded under the leadership of 
 Johannes Czerski and Johannes Ronge. Soon after 1845 
 a difference arose l)etween the two leaders as to a con- 
 fession of faith, which resulted in a separation. In 1848, 
 owing to a rising, the German Catholics in Austria were 
 completely suppressed. In 1850 in Germany they allied 
 themselves with the Free Churches, but for political 
 reasons the alliance did not endure. In 1S.59 an attempt 
 at union took shape in a League of Free-Religious 
 Churches, and in 186.3 in a Religious Reform Union. 
 
 GESTA ROMANORUM. The Gesta Romanorum or 
 " Deeds of the Romans" i.s a Latin collection of anec- 
 dotes which seems to date back to about the beginning 
 of the fonrteenth century. The stories inculcate a moral 
 and were intended for the use of Christian preachers. 
 Most of them begin with the words, " There was an 
 Emperor of Rome," but the events related are pure 
 fiction. The collection is of great interest as throwing 
 light on the morals of the times and as containing the 
 germs of many famous tales, such as the story of the 
 caskets introduced into Shakespeare's " Merchant of 
 Venice." An English translation of the collection is 
 included in Bohn's " Antiquarian Library." See William 
 Benham; Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 GHANSIaM. The dark-coloured or black one, one of 
 the names of the Hindu god Krishna. 
 
 GHaSI SaDHAK. An Indian deity, a god worshipped 
 as the protector of horses against disease by the Ghasias 
 (also known as Sais), a caste of Orissa and Central 
 India. The occupation of the members of the caste is 
 to cut gras-s, tend horses, and act as musicians at village 
 festivals. At the Dasahra festival they worship also the 
 sickle and the horse. 
 
 GHATOIA DEO. An Indian deity, a god of ferries 
 and river-crossings. He is worshipped among the 
 Dhimars (also known as Kahars, or Bhois, or Palewars, 
 or Baraua.'^, or Machhandars), the caste of fishermen and 
 palanquin-bearers, that is to say. by those of them who 
 are employed on ferry-boats. He is also the principal 
 deity of the Dhobis (also known as Warthis, or Barethas, 
 or Chaklas, or Rajaks, or Parit.s), the professional caste 
 of washermen, being the god of the landing-place (ghat) 
 on the river. 
 
 GIBBITES. The followers of John Gib of Borrow- 
 stounness in Scotland. They were also called Sweet 
 Singers (q.v.). 
 
 GIBIL. A Babylonian deity. Gibil was a fire-god. 
 But Nusku (q.v.) appears also as a fire-god, and the two 
 seem to have been amalgamated. Both gods are sons 
 of Anu (q.v.). Gibil or Nusku is the chief counsellor of 
 the gods and the god of civilization. He is the founder 
 of cities. It is he who (as fire) brings sacrifices into 
 the presence of the gods. He came to be identified with 
 Nergal (q.v.). See Morris Jastrow, Bel. 
 
 GILGAMESH EPIC. The great national epic of the 
 Babylonians, which preserves a number of ancient trad- 
 itions. Gilgamesh is the name of the hero. He was 
 probably an ancient king who was afterwards deified. 
 He became a solar deity, subordinate to Shamash (q.v.). 
 The epic begins by representing the " walled Uruk," 
 city of Ishtar (q.v.) as in a state of siege. Next we 
 find Gilgamesh in possession of the city either as its 
 saviour or its conqueror. Gilgamesh is a hero of great 
 strength and power. He displeases the inhabitants of 
 T'ruk by taking captive their virgins and their wives. 
 They beseech Aruru (q.v.), his creator, to raise up a rival 
 to him. The goddess Aruru thereupon creates a divine 
 hero Eabani. Eabani is a hairy creature, and in other 
 respects resembles an animal. Gilgamesh sends a hunter 
 to catch him. but Eabani frightens him. Gilgamesh then 
 sends with him Ukhat, one of the harlots of Ishtar. 
 Ukhat entices and gains control of Eabani. He returns 
 with her to be her companion or the companion of Gil- 
 gamesh. The tablets containing the immediate continua- 
 tion of the story are defective. We next find Ealwni 
 undertaking to fight in company with Gilgamesh against 
 a terrible enemy Khumbaba. The enemy is overcome. 
 Ishtar the goddess then .seeks the love of the heroic Gil- 
 gamesh. But the hero repulses her. because she has 
 .slain those that once she loved. Ishtar appeals to Anu 
 (q.v.). her father, the god of heaven, who creates a 
 divine bull Altl to destroy Gilgamesh. The bull is 
 attacked by Gilgamesh and Eabani together and killed. 
 Eabani adds insult to injury by throwing the divine bull 
 in Ishtar's face. Ishtar, with her prostitute attendants, 
 the Kizreti, the Ukhati, and the Kharimftti, makes 
 lamentation for the bull. Gilgamesh offers the horns 
 of the bull to Lugal-AIarada, king of Marad, his own 
 native place. Gilgamesh now lo.ses his companion. 
 Eabani becomes ill and dies. Then he is himself .stricken 
 with disease. He decides to go in .search of a "distant 
 one," one who is immortal, his ancestor Parnapishtim or 
 Utnapishtim. On the way he has to confront lions and 
 scorpion-men. Finally he must cross a great sea. On 
 this side of the sea he finds the sea-goddess Sabitum.
 
 Gipsies 
 
 166 
 
 Gnostics 
 
 He beseeches her to allow him to cross. She tells him 
 that the only person who can take him .safely across is 
 the ferryman Ardi-Ea. Ardi-Ea is persuaded to take 
 him. At length Gilgamesh reaches Parnapishtim, tells 
 him of his adventures and heroic deeds, and seeks his 
 help. Parnapishtim tells him that it is impossible to 
 escape death. Gilgame^ is naturally curious to know 
 how in that case Parnapishtim has attained immortality. 
 In reply Parnapishtim tells him the story of his escape 
 from a deluge. This is a Deluge-story resembling that 
 of the Bible. Parnapishtim was delivered from the flood 
 and made a god. After the recital of the deluge-storj-, 
 Gilgamesh is made to fall into a deep sleep. The wife 
 of Parnapishtim then prepares magic food made of 
 charm-root. Gilgamesh eats it and is partly healed of 
 his disease. Ardi-Ea is told to take him to the place 
 of purification and wash his sores. When this has been 
 done, Gilgamesh is cured. Parnapishtim then tells him 
 of a plant that restores youth. Ardi-Ea helps Gilgamesh 
 to find it. But as he holds it, it is snatched out of his 
 hand by a demon. Gilgamesh has to return to Uruk 
 without it. On his return he wanders from temple to 
 temple seeking to find out what has become of Eabani. 
 At length Nergal causes the spirit of Eabani to appear 
 to him. Gilgamesh inquires the nature of the land in 
 which he is now dwelling. Eabani says he cannot tell 
 him, apparently because it will not bear telling. He 
 curses Ukhat as the cause of his death. See Morris 
 Jastrow, Rel.; Keinach, O. 
 
 GIPSIES. In mediaeval times Egypt was supposed 
 to be the home of the gipsies. This accounts for the 
 name, whicli is probably an abbreviation of " Egyptian." 
 It is held now that the gipsies spread from India. They 
 have been identified with the Doms, a great caste of 
 menials and scavengers in Hindustan and Bengal. 
 Leland has i)ointed out that Romany is almost letter for 
 letter the same as Domni, the plural of Dom in the 
 Bhojpuri dialect of the Bihari language. He thinks that 
 Romany-Rye, " a gipsy gentleman," may be well com- 
 I>ared with the Bhojpuri Domni Rai, "a king of the 
 Doms." The Bhojpuri-speaking Doms are said to have 
 many points of resemblance with the gipsies of Europe. 
 The gipsy grammar is said to be connected closely with 
 that of Bhojpuri. See R. V. Russell, s.v. Kanjar. 
 
 GIRDHARI. He who held up the mountain, one of 
 the names of the Hindu god Krishna 
 
 GIR-RA. A Babylonian deity. The name was read 
 originally Dibbarra. GLr-ra was a god of pestilence and 
 war. See DIBBARRA EPIC. 
 
 GITA GOVINDA. In the Vishnu Purana (see 
 PURANAS) Govinda (q.v.), "cow-boy," is a title given to 
 the man-god (Krishna). The Gita Govinda Is a mystical 
 poem, composed in the twelfth century A.D., which 
 glorifies the cow-boy god. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 GIT TIN. The name of one of the Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D., and are 
 included in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 tie Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 {sedarim). Gittm is the sixth tractate of the third 
 group, which is called Nashim (" Women "). 
 
 GLASSITES. A religious sect founded bv John Glas 
 (1695-1773). Glas was for some years (1719-1728) minister 
 of Tealing in Forfarshire. Glas developed doctrines 
 on the kingdom of Christ and the relations between 
 Church and State which brought him into conflict with 
 the Solemn League and Covenant and the Westminster 
 Canfession. In 1728 he published his views in a book 
 " The Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning His 
 
 Kingdom." He contended that national establishments 
 of religion find no support in the New Testament ; that 
 congregations have the right to appoint their own 
 teachers and to share in the government of the Church ; 
 and further that civil magistrates have no right to inter- 
 fere in religious matters. On the publication of his book 
 the Synod of Angus and Meams suspended him " for 
 holding tenets inconsistent with the established govern- 
 ment of this Church, and declining to come under engage- 
 ments to forbear venting them." The General Assembly 
 of the Church of Scotland, on being appealed to, deposed 
 him from the ministry (1730). Glas then became pastor 
 of an independent congregation; and in course of time 
 other Glassite congregations were formed in Scotland, 
 England, and America. The teaching of the sect was 
 developed by Glas's son-in-law, Robert Sandeman (1718- 
 1771) to such an extent that the sect became better known 
 as Sandemanians (g.v.). See J. H. Blunt; the D.N.B.; 
 and Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 GLOSSOLALY. A term meaning "speaking with 
 tongues." See TONGUES, GIFT OF. 
 
 GNA. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. The 
 goddess Gna belongs to the retinue of Frija (q.v.), and 
 is represented as his messenger. 
 
 GNOSTICS. The Gnostics claimed to possess a deeper 
 insight and knowledge (gnosis) than that whidi was 
 supplied by the faith (pistis) of ordinary Christians. 
 The basis of Gnosticism which flourished in the second 
 century A.D. " was an eclectic philosophy of religion 
 chiefly Hellenic in character, though in union with many 
 Oriental elements, cosmical speculations, and mystic 
 theosophy similar to what we find in Hindtiism " (H. B. 
 Workman). It was concerned with two main problems : 
 the nature of the Absolute, and the origin of evil; and 
 " was essentially an esoteric Christianity, which differed 
 widely in its tenets according to its local habitation — 
 Alexandria, Syria, Asia Minor, or Rome — ^and the degree 
 of admixture of East and West." In Syria one of the 
 earliest Gnostics was Satuminus of Antio<di, who 
 flourished in the reign of Trajan. But quite a multitude 
 of sects sprang up on this soil, which had been prepared 
 by Simon Magus. These included the Ophites, Naas- 
 senes, and Peratae, which mingled Christianity with 
 snake-worship. Spreading to Alexandria, celebrated 
 forms of Gnosticism came to be as.sociated with the names 
 of Basilides, Valentinus, and Carpocrat«s. The best 
 known of these is tliat of Valentinus (fl. 140 A.D.). It 
 is throughout a nuptial Gnosticism in which there aire 
 perpetual syzygies, marriages, and generations. In 
 Roman Gnosticism the leader was Marcion. Duchesne 
 (Hist.) thinks that amid the diversity of the various 
 Gnostic systems certain common and fundamental con- 
 ceptions are easily discernible. " 1. God, the Creator 
 and Lawgiver of the Old Testament, is not the True 
 God. Above him, at an infinite distance, is the Father- 
 God, the supreme First Cause of all being. 2. The God 
 of tie Old Testament knew not the True God, and in 
 this ignorance the world shared, until tJie appearance 
 of Jesus Christ, who did indeed proceed from the True 
 God. 3. Between the True God and creation is inter- 
 posed a most complicated series of beings, divine In their 
 origin; at some point or other in this series, occurs a 
 catastrophe, whch destroys the harmony of the whole. 
 The visible world — often including its creator — originates 
 in this primal disorder. 4. In humanity there are .some 
 elements capable of redemption, having come in one way 
 or another from the celestial world above the Demiurge. 
 Jesus Christ came into the world to deliver them from 
 it. 5. As the Incarnation could not really amount to a 
 true union between divinity and matter, the accursed, 
 the Gospel story is explained as a moral and transitory
 
 God 
 
 167 
 
 Gonds, Religion of the 
 
 union between a divine ieon and tlie concrete personality 
 of Jesus, or again, by a simple semblance of humanity, 
 tj. Neither the passion nor the resurrection of Christ is 
 therefore real: the future of the predestinate does not 
 permit of the resurrec-tion of the body. 7. The divine 
 element which has strayed into humanity, that is, the 
 predestinated soul, has no solidarity with the flesh 
 which oppresses it. Either the flesh must be annihilated 
 by asceticism (rigorism), or at least the responsibility of 
 the soul for the weaknesses of the flesh must Ik- denied 
 (libertinism)." Gnosticism possessed great vitality. 
 Even when defeated in the Church, it persisted by taking 
 refuge underground. " For a thousand years we find it 
 living a subterranean existence, ever and anon coming 
 to the surface in some new heresy, the roots of which 
 lie deep in the older Gnosticism, or rather in the religions 
 older even than Gnosticism to which Gnosticism was so 
 largely indebted. In the third century it appears in the 
 formidable movement known as Manichaeism, so called 
 from Mani (6. 21.i), the founder of the sect" (H. B. 
 Workman). See F. W. Bussell. 
 
 GOD. According to M. R^-ejac, the most perfect 
 notion of God which has ever been conceived is " the 
 Being forever communicating Its own essence " (quoted 
 by E. Hermann, ilusiicism. 1916). Matthew Arnold's 
 definition of the God of the Bible and of Christianity is 
 " The Eternal, not ourselves, that makes for righteous- 
 ness." Another definition is the " Friend behind 
 phenomena " (Bevan). 
 
 GODSTOXES. A name given sometimes by the 
 peasants of the North of Ireland to the white stones or 
 lumps of quartz crystal which the ancient Irish buried 
 with the dead. White quartz stones have been found 
 also in primitive internments in the Hebrides and in the 
 neighbourhood of Dundee. W. G. Wood-Martin thinks 
 that " the custom of burying white water-worn stones or 
 pieces of fractured quartz or cry.stals may have been 
 practised contemporaneously in Scotland and Ireland." 
 The custom survived into (Christian times. The grave 
 of St. Brecan, in Aran, wlien it was opened, was found 
 to contain a number of rounded stones. 
 
 GOFANNON. One of the deities worshipped by the 
 ancient Celts, the patron god of metal workers. 
 (Jofannon figures in late Welsh legend. He is the son 
 of Danu or D<5n (q.v.). In Irish mythology, where the 
 name appears as Goibniu, he is celebrated also as a 
 divine hero who brewed an ale of immortality. He is 
 represented also as a wonderful architect. See Anwj-1 ; 
 Squire. Myth. 
 
 GOLD. Among the Hindus, gold, silver, and copper 
 are all held sacred, but a special sacredness is ascribed 
 to gold. " When a mau is at the point of death, a little 
 gold, Ganges water, and a leaf of the tulsi or basil plant 
 are placed in his mouth, so that these sacred articles 
 may accompany him to the other world. So valuable as 
 a means of securing a pure death is the presence of gold 
 in the mouth that some castes have small pieces inserted 
 into a couple of their upper teeth, in order that wherever 
 and whenever they may die, the gold may be present to 
 purify them " (R. V. Russell and R. B. Hira Lfil). 
 According to G. Elliot Smith (Dr.. 1918) gold first 
 acquired its value from being used for making models 
 of .shells (especially cowries). In course of time people 
 who lived at a distance from the sea experienced difficulty 
 in obtaining the shells which they wore as amulets on 
 girdles and necklaces. Hence they took to manufactur- 
 ing, at first in clay and stone, imitations of the shells. 
 " Rut at an early period in their history the inhabitants 
 of the deserts between the Nile and the Red Sea (Hathor's 
 special province) discovered that they could make more 
 durable and attractive models of cowries and other shells 
 
 by using the plastic yellow metal which was lying about 
 in these deserts unused and unappreciated. This prac- 
 tice first gave to the metal gold an arbitrary value which 
 it did not possess before. For the peculiar life-giving 
 attributes of the shells modelled in the yellow metal came 
 to be transferred to the gold itself." Thus gold itself 
 acquired the reputation of being a giver of life. Elliot 
 Smith points out that the earliest Eg>'ptian hierogl.vphic 
 sign for gold was a picture of a necklace of golden 
 amulets which probably represented cowries : and he sug- 
 .gests that this emblem l)ecame the determinative of the 
 (Jreat Mother Hathor, not only because she was originally 
 the ijersonification of the life-giving shells, but also 
 because she was the guardian deity both of the Eastern 
 wadys where the gold was found and of the Red Sea 
 coasts where the cowries were obtained. Hence she 
 became the Golden Hathor, the prototype of the (jolden 
 Aphrodite. 
 
 GOLDEN ROSE. From the thirteenth century the 
 Popes have been in the habit of sending a golden rose 
 occasionally, as a mark of distinction, to Catholic sove- 
 reigns or other persons of eminence, as well as to 
 churches, sanctuaries, or Catholic cities. '■ Originally, 
 it was a single flower of wrought gold, coloured red; 
 afterwards the golden petals were decked with rubies 
 and other gems; finally, the form adopted was that of 
 a thorny branch, with several flowers and leaves, and 
 one principal flower at the top. all of pure gold " (Catfi. 
 Diet.). The rose is anointed, fumigated, and blessed 
 by the Poi)e on Loetare Sunday (g.r.), or as it is also 
 called on this account " Dominica de ro.sa." It was 
 awarded to Joanna of Naples in 13i'ifi; to Henry VIII. by 
 three Popes; to Queen Mary in 15.5.5; to the Republic of 
 Lucca in 1564: to Maria Theresa in 1668: to the Cathedral 
 of Capua in 1726: as well as to other persons and institu- 
 tions. See Schaff-Herzog ; the Cath. Diet.; Chambers' 
 Encyd. 
 
 GOLOKA. (lO-loka is one of the paradises or heavens 
 of the Hindus. It is the heaven of Krishna (q.v.). that 
 of Siva (q.r.) being Kailasa, and that of Vishnu (g.r.) 
 being Vaikuntha. It is the paradise reserved for the 
 faithful followers of Krishna. See Monier-Williams. 
 
 GONDHALIS. A ca.ste of wandering beggars and 
 musicians in the Maratha Districts of the Central Pro- 
 vinces of India and in Berar. R. V. Ru-ssell and R. B. 
 Hira Lai give the following as a specimen of a Gondhali 
 religious song : 
 
 •' Where I come from and who am I, 
 
 This mysterj- none has solved: 
 
 Father, mother, sister and brother, these are all illus- 
 ions. 
 
 I call them mine and am lost in my selfish concerns. 
 
 Worldliness is the beginning of hell, man has wrapped 
 himself in it without reason. 
 
 Remember your guru, go to him and touch his feet. 
 
 Put on the shield of mercy and compassion and take 
 the sword of knowledge. 
 
 Ciod is in every human body." 
 There are passages here which remind us of the New 
 Testament. 
 
 GONDS, RELIGION OF THE. The Gonds. whose 
 numbers were given in 1911 as three million, have been 
 described as being perhaps the most important of the non- 
 Aryan or forest tribes in India. Tlie name Gond would 
 .seem to be practically equivalent to the name Khond. 
 It has been pointed out that while the Gonds call them- 
 .^elves Koi (or Koitur). the Khonds call themselves Ku. 
 There seems to be sufficient evidence " to establish a 
 probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally 
 one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained 
 separate names and languages since they left their
 
 Gontiyalamma 
 
 168 
 
 Grail, Holy 
 
 original home for the north. The fact that both of them 
 speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home 
 is in southern India, malies it probable that the two 
 tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into 
 the Central Provinces and Orissa " (R. V. Bussell and 
 R. B. Hira Lai). Tlie Gonds worship as their great God 
 Bura Deo (originally, it is thought, the saj tree). They 
 worship also their ancestors, deified human beings, 
 certain animals, implements and weapons. Some of 
 their village gods are common to them and the Hindus. 
 Their village gods include : Bhimsen, the god of strength; 
 Ghor Deo, the horse god; Holera, the god of cattle; 
 Ghansiam Deo, a deified prince; and Doctor Deo, a 
 deified physician. They have, besides, a number of 
 special tribal gods. These include : Pharsi Pen, the 
 battle-axe god; Matiya, the god of mischief; Ghangra, 
 the bell god; Chawar, the cow's tail; Palo (a piece of 
 cloth); and Sale, apparently the god of cattle-pens. 
 Sometimes they think of their gods collectively as Bura 
 Deo. They have also household gods, which include : 
 Jhulan Devi, the cradle goddess; Nag Deo, the cobra 
 god; Narayan Deo, the sun. The Gonds used to offer 
 human sacrifices to the goddess Kali and to the goddess 
 Danteshwari (of Bastar); and the sacrifices to Kali at 
 Chiinda and Lfinji i)ersisted into the nineteenth century. 
 " The victim was taken to the temple after sunset and 
 shut up within its dismal walls. In the morning, when 
 the door was opened, he was found dead, much to the 
 glory of the great goddess, who had shown her power 
 by coming during the night and sucking his blood " 
 (Bussell and Hira Liil). The goddess is perhaps a deifica- 
 tion of the tiger. The Gonds also, or isome of them 
 (e.g., a tribe in the hills of Amarkantak and to the 
 south-east in the Gondwana country), have been charged 
 with cannibalism ; but they only eat persons belonging to 
 their own family or tribe. The cannibalism, if prac- 
 tised, may be ritualistic. The Holi festival is held in 
 common with the Hindus. Stones are set up, usually 
 by the roadside, in memory of dead persons. Some- 
 times a small stone seat as made in front for the deceased 
 to sit on. This seems to be because ghosts and devils 
 are supposed to be unable to sit on the bare ground. 
 The Ginds seem to have believed originally that the 
 spirits of the dead continued to hover about their old 
 homes and villages; but in course of time they developed 
 or borrowed a doctrine of reincarnation, according to 
 which souls are bom again in children of the same 
 family. See R. V. Russell. 
 
 GONTIYALAMMA. One of the deities worshipped by 
 the Malas of Sonthern India. She is the special caste 
 deity of the Mfilas of the Godavari district. 
 
 GOOSE, THE. The goose was associated with the 
 ancient Egyptian god Amen or Amon, and was the sym- 
 bol of the god Seb or Keb. Among the Greeks, the goose 
 was associated with the worship of Asklepios, the god 
 of healing. " The Romans declared that they kept geese 
 on the Capitol to honour the vigilance of these birds, 
 which had frustrated a nocturnal attack attempted by 
 the Gauls; this was a later explanation of a custom 
 founded on the sacred character of the goose " (S. 
 Reinach, O.). The Britons of the time of Caesar kept 
 geese which they were forbidden to eat. 
 
 GOPAL. A Hindu deity, another name for Krishna. 
 
 GORTH^ANS. Euseblus in his Ecclesiastical History 
 (iv. 22), in referring to seven sects among the Jewish 
 people, says : " Of these, also was Simeon, whence 
 sprang the sect of Simonians; also Cleobius, from whom 
 came the Cleobians; also, Dositheus, the founder of the 
 Dositheans. From these also sprang the Gorthoeans, 
 from Gorthseus, and the Masbothoeans, from Mas- 
 botheus." They are mentioned also by Epiphanlus 
 
 iHser. xii.), iu conjunction with the Essenes, the Sebuae, 
 and the Dositheans, as one of the sects of the Samari- 
 tans. See ,1. H. Blunt. 
 
 GOSAINS. Gosain (al.so Gusain, Sanniasi, Dasnami) 
 is a designation of the orders of religious mendicants 
 of the Sivite sect in India. Sanniasi is explained as 
 meaning one who abandons the desires of the world and 
 the body. Dasnami means the ten names (i.e., of the 
 ten orders). The ten orders of the Gosains are described 
 as : Giri, peak of a hill; Puri, a town; Parbat, a mount- 
 ain; Sfigar, the ocean; Ban or Van, the forest; Tirtha, 
 a shrine of pilgrimage; Bharthi, the goddess of speech; 
 Saraswati, the goddess of learning; Aranya, forest; and 
 Ashram, a hermitage. Certain ascetics in these orders 
 are called Dandis and Abdhiits. The Dandis take their 
 name from a bamboo staff (dand), which they carry. 
 Like the Sanniasis, they claim to have become part of 
 the deity (Siva). Another class of Gosains are called 
 Rawanvansis after Rawan, the demon king of Ceylon, 
 in whose character they go about. The Gosain mendi- 
 cant provides himself with a begging-bowl, with a pair 
 of tongs used for kindling a fire, and, if possible, with 
 the skin of a tiger or panther \x> sit and lie down on. 
 In former times he was accustomed to go about naked. 
 The rule of the orders is celibacy, property passing to 
 a man's chela or disciple; but it is now the practice of 
 most Gosains to marry. See J. C. Oman, M.A.8.; and 
 especially R. V. Russell. 
 
 GOTTESFREDNDE. A name assumed by German 
 mystics in the fourteenth century. The word means 
 Friends of God {q.v.). 
 
 GOVINDA. Govlnda is one of the names given to the 
 Supreme Being by Nanak (1469-1538 A.D.), the founder 
 of Slkhism (q.v.). But he preferred the name Hari. 
 
 GRABCDS VENETUS. This is the name given to a 
 Greek translation in manuscript of a large part of the 
 Old Testament. The manuscript, also called Codex 
 Venetus, was discovered in the library of St. Mark's 
 Church, Venice. It belongs probably to the fourteenth 
 or fifteenth century. The author seems to have been 
 a Jew who translated direct from the Hebrew text, but 
 compared earlier Greek versions. The books included 
 are : the Pentateuch, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Eeeles- 
 iastes, Lamentations, and Daniel. Tlie work was 
 published in 1784, and again by O. Gebhardt in 1S75. In 
 some resi)ects the translation " recalls that of Aquila, 
 in its literality and the attempt to render Hebrew terms 
 by Greek words of similar origin and derivation. It is, 
 however, entirely independent of the earlier version " 
 (A. S. Geden). See H. B. Swete, Intr. to the O. T. in 
 Greek, 1900; A. S. Geden, Intr. to the Hebrew Bible, 
 1909. 
 
 GRAIL, HOLY. The derivation of the word " grail " 
 is doubtful. The most probable identification is with 
 the Latin gradaUs = cratalls (from crater), " cup." The 
 story of the Holy Grail, as is clear from the Arthurian 
 legend, centres round some precious ob.iect which was 
 lost and could be found only by the truly pure seeker 
 (such as Sir Galahad). In the Christian version of the 
 Middle Ages the grail is thought of usually as the cup 
 used by Jesus at the Last Supper or the vessel used by 
 Joseph of Arimatha^a to catch the blood which flowed 
 from Jesus' wounded body. The Christian legend, how- 
 ever, is an adaptation or transformation of a legend 
 which originally had nothing to do with Christianity. 
 Its proximate origin, as far as it can be traced, is Celtic. 
 The legend seems to have passed from Wales to France, 
 where it was transformed (by Chretien de Troves (1180- 
 90) in Le Conte del Graal; and bv Robert de Borron 
 (1180-99) in Le petit St. Oraal). it was then reintro- 
 duced into Wales (Mabinogi of Pesednr, Son of Evrawc,
 
 Gramsiri 
 
 169 
 
 Greek Versions, Old Testament 
 
 loth cent.)- The ultimate origin of the legend may have 
 been Oriental. Miss M. A. Murray (Journal of the 
 Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Societu. 1917, p. 15 f.) 
 thinks that that portion of the Grail romance which 
 relates to Joseph of Ariniathsea is Egy])tian in origin. 
 At the beginning of the legend the route taken hy .Tosepli 
 indicates that the whole action takes place in Eg>pt. 
 The names of (he principal characters in the story show 
 an Egyptian origin. Further proofs of the Egyptian 
 origin are to be found in the passages which relate to 
 the Grail itself and to Josephes. The reference to a 
 '• wooden ark " points to a Christian ceremony, though 
 a ceremonv not in use in the Western Church. In the 
 Coptic celebration of the Eucharist a wooden ark plays 
 a large part. Again, in the consecration of .To.sephes 
 Coptic ritual may be recogni.sed ; and the vestments with 
 which Josephes was clothed appear to be those in use 
 in the Coptic and Byzantine Churches. Another inter- 
 esting proof of the connection with Egypt is found in 
 the name of the castle in which the Grail was finally 
 housed— Corbenie. The Arabic Qurban is the usual 
 name in the Coptic Church for the Eucharist. Castle 
 Corbenie may therefore be explained " The House of the 
 Eucharist." In any case, the legend in its wanderings 
 gathered up a number of curious features. Witli the 
 cup or chalice is associated sometimes a lance and a 
 sword. S. Reinach (O.) points out that the chief episo<le 
 in the Finnish collection of popular poems, the Kalewala 
 (belonging in its present form to the age of Charle- 
 magne) is the theft of a sacred object. See A. Nutt, 
 Studies on the Legend of the Holy Grail, 1888, and No. 
 14 of Popular Studies. 
 
 GRAMSIRI. An Indian deity, worshipped by the 
 Chasas (also known as Tasas or Alias), tie chief cul- 
 tivating caste of Orissa. The god is represented by a 
 stone outside the village. The Chasas worship also 
 their agricultural implements (hoes, hatchets, etc.). 
 
 GRAND PRIORY OF THE ORDER OF THE HOS 
 PITAL OF S. JOHN OF JERUSALEM IX ENGLAND. 
 See HOSPITALLERS. 
 
 GRANNUS. The name Granni or Grannus, " the 
 brilliant," appears as that of a god of the ancient Celts 
 who coiTesponded to Apollo (q.v.). Grannus was a gotl 
 of healing, who presided over thermal springs. The 
 popularity of such a god is easily explained, and it is 
 not surprising to find that the worship of Grannus was 
 adopted by the Roman soldiers. A religion is often 
 supposed to demonstrate its divine character by its 
 success in healing bodily ailments. The god Grannus 
 is paired with the goddess Sirona, but what relationship 
 was Intended is uncertain. See Anwyl ; Reinach, O. 
 
 GRANTH, THE. The Granth, that is to say, " the 
 Book," is the name of the sacred book or Bible com- 
 piled for the Sikhs (see SIKHISM) by their fifth Guru, 
 chief, or teacher Arjun. It was called afterwards 
 Adigranth, or First Book, to distinguish it from a larger 
 Bible which was compiled by the tenth Guru or teacher 
 Govind. One of the books which Govind added to the 
 original Granth was composed by himself. This was 
 called the Book of the Tenth Guru. See Monier- 
 Williams: E. W. Hopkins; R.S.W. 
 
 GRAPHOLOGICAL SPIRITISM. That kind of 
 spiritism in which writing is employed as the medium 
 of communication. See SPIRITISM. 
 
 GREAT SYNAGOGUE. Reference is made in the 
 Jewish Mishnah, Gemaras and Midrash to a body of 
 persons designated " the Men of the Great Synagogue." 
 The Talmud represents that they consisted of one 
 hundred and twenty (or eighty-five) ijersons learned in 
 the Scriptures, that the body was founde<l or presided 
 over by Ezra, and that after the exile they stood at tlie 
 
 head of the state. One of the works they were sup- 
 posed by the mediaeval Jews to have accomplished was 
 the fixing of the whole Canon of the Old Testament. 
 As to this the statements on which the idea was based 
 are found in the tractate of the .Vlislmah called Aboth 
 (i. 1, 2) and in a Baraitha ((/.v.) of the Talmud {Bilba 
 Bathrd, fol. \oa). In Aboth we read that : " Moses 
 received the Torah from Sinai and delivered it to 
 Joshua, and Joshua to the elders, and the elders to the 
 prophets, and the rirophets to the men of the Great 
 Synagogue. They said three things : Be deliberate in 
 judgment, and raise up many disciples, and make a 
 fence to the Torah. Simon the Just was of the rem- 
 nants of the Great Synagogue." In the Baraitha we are 
 told that : " The men of the Great Synagogue wrote 
 Ezekiel and the Twelve, Daniel and the Roll of Esther, 
 whose sign is n:p." These statements in themselves, 
 however, do not imply more than that the men of the 
 Great Synagogue were one of the means of transmitting 
 the Torah and that they edited certain of the books of 
 the Old Testament. But in any case the story of the 
 work of the men of the Great Synagogue bears traces 
 of being unhistorieal {e.g., Simon the Just belonged to 
 the time of Alexander the Great), and the very existence 
 of the Great Synagogue has been shown to be very 
 doubtful. The statements about it are conflicting. It 
 appears at one time as a permanent institution, at 
 another time as lasting a hundred years. According to 
 mediaeval Jewish scholars, it exercised a very great 
 influence in religious matters. As G. Wildeboer says : 
 •' Jewish scholars after the fall of Jerusalem had an 
 entirely false idea of the older times. Israel was not 
 ruled by the Scribes before the year 70 A.D. What are we 
 to imagine under the name Great Synagogue? A senate? 
 Certainly not; it is supposed to have been a religious 
 body." A. Kuenen argues powerfully for the view that 
 the story is a legend based upon the narrative in 
 Nehemiah viii.-x. " If now it be assumed that the 
 historical basis of the legend is the assembly in Nehe- 
 miah viii.-x., then we cannot attribute to it the rSle 
 ascribed to it by tradition. For this assembly did not 
 legislate, but adopted a legislation." So A. Kuenen says 
 that " the Talmudic Great Synagogue is an unhistorieal 
 conception, a transformation of the assembly which 
 under Ezra and Nehemiah adopted the complete Mosaic 
 law book." Subsequently the Sopherim antedated the 
 domination of their predecessors, and ascribed a pro- 
 longed existence to the assembly. In place of the men 
 of the Great Synagogue we have to put " the older 
 scribes." " The latter really accomplished what is 
 ascribed to the former. They constituted no governing 
 a.ssembly, but were some of them priests, others not; 
 some members of the Sanhedrin, others outside of that 
 body " (Wildeboer). See G. Wildeboer, Canon; C. A. 
 Briggs, Intr. 
 
 GREEK VERSIONS, OLD TESTAMENT. The trans- 
 lation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint 
 faile<l in course of time to satisfy the leaders of .Jewish 
 thought. It was considered too free, and wanting in 
 dignity and precision. In consequenc-e of this feeling 
 new translations came into existence during the second 
 centurj- or at the beginning of the third century A.D. 
 The chief of these were associated with the names of 
 Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmaehus. (1) The Version 
 of Aquila seems to have been the earliest of the three. 
 " It also represents most fully the reaction of Jewish 
 sentiment against the freedom with which the Seventy 
 had treated the Hebrew text " (A. S. Geden). The name 
 of the author is in Greek 'Aiv-iAa?. It seems to be 
 identical with Onkelos, the traditional name of the 
 author of a Targum on the Pentateuch (see TABGUM).
 
 Grey Friars 
 
 170 
 
 Guild of S. Matthew 
 
 Epiphanius says that Aquila's translation was produced 
 in the twelfth year (A.D. 128-29) of the reign of the 
 Emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-38). Jewish tradition states 
 that he was a disciple (c. A.D. 100) of Rabbi Akiba. 
 The fragments of the translation which have been pre- 
 served show that It was slavLshly literal and full of 
 Hebraisms. The version " seems to have been welcomed 
 by the Jews, who found in it what they required, a 
 Greek Bible free from Christian associations, and con- 
 formed to the Hebrew Canon and style ; and it has been 
 supposed to have been more or less formally authorised 
 in Palestine, and to have remained In use there by 
 Greek-speaking Jews until the time of the Muhammadan 
 Conquest in the seventh century " (A. S. Geden). (2) 
 The version of Theodotion was not much, if at all, later 
 than that of Aquila. Theodotion is said by Eplphanius 
 to have been a native of Pontus and an adherent, of 
 Marcion (flourished about A.D. l.oO), and is mentioned 
 by Justin Martyr (c. A.D. 160). His translation was 
 clearly not based upon the Hebrew text, but upon the 
 accepted Greek text, of which it was evidently intended 
 to be a revision. " His Hebrew scholarship appears to 
 have been hardly equal to that of Aquila, for he some- 
 times transliterates Hebrew words where the latter 
 translates, apparently for no other reason than that he 
 was in doubt or ignorance as to the meaning " (A. S. 
 Geden). Theodotion's translation of Daniel entirely 
 supplanted that of the Septuagint. Only fragments of 
 the rest of his version have survived. (3) Symmachus 
 seems to have been the latest of the three translators. 
 Irenaeus does not mention him. This may be regarded 
 as an indication of his date. Moreover, as H. B. Swete 
 says, " so far as we can .iudge from the fragments of 
 his version which survive in Hexaplaric MSS, he wrote 
 with Aquila's version before him, and in his efforts to 
 recast it made free use of both the LXX and Theodot- 
 ion." Eplphanius speaks of him as a Samaritan, and 
 says that he lived under Severus (A.D. 193-231). It has 
 been thought that Severus here is a mistake for 
 " Verus," that Is to say Lucius Vems (A.D. 161-180). 
 f^p. further HEXAPLA. See F. Buhl, Canon; H. B. 
 Swete, Intr. to the O. T. in Greek. 1900; A. S. Geden, 
 Intr. to the Hebreiv Bible, 1909. 
 
 GREY FRIARS. A name by which the followers of 
 Francis of Assisl, the Franciscans (g.v.) were known in 
 England. They were so called because the colour of 
 their gowns and hoods was gre.y. 
 
 GRIHASTHAS. The word means literally " house- 
 holders," and corresponds to " laity." It designates 
 one of the two chief classes Into which the disciples of 
 the Hindu religious reformer, Svaml Narayana (b. 
 about 1780), are divided. The other chief class consists 
 of the " holy men " or clergy, Sadhus (Q.v.). 
 
 GUECUBU. An evil power (also called Aka-kanet) 
 in the mythology of the Araucanian Indians of Chili, 
 a power to whom or to which all misfortunes were 
 ascrltied. 
 
 GUILD OF ALL SOULS, THE. A society founded 
 in 1873 in the Church of England, " for the purpose of 
 propagating a belief in the existence of Purgatory, and 
 of encouraging the practice of Prayers for the Dead, 
 and the offering of Masses to release their souls from 
 Purgatorial pains " (Walsh). See Walter Walsh, 
 " Ritualistic Secret Societies " in Prot. Diet. 
 
 GUILD OF HEALTH. A Society founded in 1905 and 
 reconstituted in 1918. It has been designed to promote 
 a deeper interest in the relation between the spiritual 
 life and bwlily health. The promoters believe that by 
 strengthening our grasp upon Eternal Realities, we find 
 re-enforcement for the life in us, which quickens all 
 the functions of body as well as those of mind. This 
 
 truth has supplied the vital element of certain societies, 
 in which it is combined with doctrines and practices 
 which tend to draw the mind from the es.sential faith 
 of Christianity. From these the members of the Guild 
 of 'Health would dissociate the vital truth to which they 
 bear witness. That truth Is constructive, and it is by 
 a constructive teaching alone that it is possibly to put 
 an end to tJie steady movement of good people from the 
 Church into these societies, and to revive within the 
 Church a right proportionate emphasis upon this 
 neglected part of Christian doctrine. In other words, 
 it is desired by the Guild to emphasize the great 
 Christian truth which has been put forward in the 
 movements known as Christian Science, Higher Thought, 
 Faith Healing, etc., without accepting all the char- 
 acteristic opinions which seem to its promoters to diverge 
 seriously from the Christian Gospel. Ttie objects of the 
 Guild are : (1) The study of the influence of spiritual 
 upon physical well-being; (2) the exercise of healing by 
 spiritual means, in complete loyalty to scientific prin- 
 ciples and methods; (3) united prayer for the inspiration 
 of the Holy Spirit in all elTorts to heal the sick; (4) 
 the cultivation, through spiritual means, of both in-- 
 dividual and corixvrate health. The Chairman of the 
 Committee is the Rev. Harold Anson (12, Fellows Road, 
 London, N.W. 3). 
 
 GUILD OF S. MATTHEW. A Society founded in 
 1876 by a small number of Anglican clergy who were 
 inspired by the teaching of Charles Kingsley (1819-1875). 
 Their objects were three. 1. To get rid, by every pos- 
 sible means, of the existing prejudices, especially on the 
 part of " secularists," against the Church, her sacra- 
 ments and doctrines; and to endeavour to " justify God 
 to the people." 2. To promote the study of social and 
 political questions in the light of the Incarnation. 3. 
 To promote frequent and reverent worship in the Holy 
 Communion, and a better observance of the teaching of 
 the Church of England, as set forth in the Book of 
 Common Prayer. The character of the work of the 
 Guild Is well explained in one of its Reports. " Be- 
 lieving, as we do, that the great fact of the Incarnation 
 is the foundation of Christian teaching and practice, 
 we cannot see how or why the Christian Church should 
 not consider every question l>earing upon the welfare, 
 secular and spiritual of man. We feel the absolute need 
 of preaching in season and out of season ' the Gospel 
 of the Kingdom,' the fact that the Church is a real 
 living society on this earth, working for the greatest 
 good of the greatest number, and embodying in her 
 sacraments and in her creeds the strongest assertions 
 of true ' liberty, equality, and fraternity ' ever given 
 to tlie world, doing tiis, too, on far higher grounds than 
 can possibly be taken by any ' secular ' creed or society. 
 Does the secularist talk of fraternity? We tell him 
 there is no merely theoretical basis of true fraternity 
 so grand or sure as the fact of the Fatherhood of God. 
 Of equality? Nowhere is it embodied so grandly as in 
 Holy Baptism and In the Holy Communion; nowhere 
 have its principles been carried out to their logical 
 conclusions so thoroughly as in the Communistic Church 
 of Jerusalem. Of liberty? The priests and bishops of 
 the English Church have constantly led the people to 
 vlctor.v over kings and pope alilve. Of the rights of 
 labour? Bible history, as apart from Bible biography, 
 begins with a ' strike ' (Ex. v. 4,5), and some of the 
 bitterest denunciations of the prophets both of the Old 
 and of the New Testaments are launched against those 
 ' who keep back by fraud the hire of the labourers who 
 have reaped their fields.' Of patriotism? The English 
 Church welded the incoherent Saxon kingdoms into one 
 nation. The representative government of later times
 
 Gukumatz 
 
 171 
 
 Habakkuk, Book of 
 
 was modellwl after the earlier councils of the Church. 
 Of the wider bond of the brotherhood of nations? St. 
 Paul preached it for the first time In Europe, in the 
 teeth of the exclusive Greeks at Athens. The Hebrew- 
 prophets — nay, more, our Lord Himself — reiterated it in 
 equally exclusive .Judwa. The Catholic Church is the 
 only true international." Cp. CHRISTIAN SOCIAL 
 UNION, and SOCIALISM, CHRISTIAN. See C. W. 
 Stubbs, Charles Kingsley and the Christian Social Move- 
 ment, 1899. 
 
 GUKUMATZ. A tribal deity, god of creaUon, in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. He is called also 
 Kukulkan (q.v.). 
 
 GULA. A Babylonian deity. Gula was a goddess of 
 healing. She was the " great physician," a " life-giver." 
 But she could bring on diseases as well as heal them. 
 Sometimes she is associate<l with Nin-akha-kuddu, the 
 goddess of si>ells and purification. She was the consort 
 of Ninib (c/.v.). There was a festival (Si-gar) in her 
 honour in ly.var, the second month. See Morris .Tastrow, 
 Mel. 
 
 GURAIYA DEO. A Hindu deity, the principal deity 
 in Hoshangabad of the Pardhis, a low caste of wander- 
 ing fowlers and hunters in India. His image, a human 
 figure, embossed in silver, is kept in a leather bag. He 
 is also one of the special deities of the Ahirs, a caste 
 of cowherds, milkmen and cattle-breeders. As such, he 
 dwells in the village cattle-stalls, and is worshipped once 
 a year. 
 
 GURAOS. A caste of village priests of the temples of 
 Mahadeo or Siva in the Mariitha Districts of India. 
 They claim to have been originally Brahmans, who were 
 degraded from their status on account of some ritual 
 negligence. It .seems more likely that " the caste is not 
 of Brahmanical origin but belongs to a lower class of 
 the population " (R. V. Russell). The Guraos are al- 
 lowed to repeat the Rudra Gayatri or sacred verse of 
 Siva, but they are permitted to study only tiie Sama 
 Veda. According to the Bombay Gazetteer (quoted by 
 
 Russell and Hira Eal), " the Jain Guraos are probably 
 .Tain temple servants who have come under the influence 
 partly of Lingayatism and partly of Brahmanism." 
 
 GURMUKHIS. A special sect, in the Nagpur country 
 in India, of the Koshtis (or Koshtas), the Maratha and 
 Telugu caste of weavers of silk and fine cotton cloth. 
 They are followers of a saint named Koliba Baba, who 
 ■' is said to have fed five hundred persons with food 
 which was sufficient for ten and to have raised a 
 Bnihman from the dead in Umrer " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 GURU. Religious teachers or spiritual guides among 
 the Hindus. Usually they are Brahmans. 
 
 GUSTAV-ADOLF-VEREIN. The Gustavus Adolphus 
 Association was founded at Leipzig in 1832 by Super- 
 intendent Grossmann in honour of Gustavus II. Adolphus 
 (1594-1(>32), King of Sweden. The aim of the Association 
 was to relieve Protestant communities, wherever they 
 were oppressed, especially in Catholic countries. A. S. 
 Farrar points out that the Association " was one of the 
 first means of promoting Christian union." See A. S. 
 Farrar, Orit. Hist, of Free Thought (" Bampton Lect- 
 ures "), 1862; Brockhaus. 
 
 GWYDION. Gwydion was one of the gods or divine 
 heroes revered by the ancient C^lts in Britain. He is 
 said to have been one of the sons of Don (q.v.). He 
 resembles the Teutonic Odhin or Wodan (q.v.) in so 
 many resijects that the two gods have been thought to 
 be identical. Professor Rhfa has suggested the equation 
 Gwydion = Wodan = Indra (Hibbert Lectures on Celtic 
 Heathendom, 1886). Gwydion is represented as a Culture- 
 hero. He was not only skilled in war-craft, but also 
 wonderfully inspired as a poet. He was associated with 
 a goddess Arianrod, who figures as the mother of Lieu 
 (q.v.). See Squire, Myth. 
 
 GTMNOPODAE. Another name for the Excalceati 
 (q.v.). 
 
 GWTNN. A god of the underworld in the mythology 
 of the British Celts. An owl figures as his companion. 
 
 H 
 
 H. Grod H is a designation used by authix)pologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians 
 of Central America. On his forehead appears the scale 
 or skin-spot of a serpent; but the meaning of the sign is 
 uncertain. 
 
 HAAG ASSOCIATION FOR THE DEFENCE OP THE 
 CHRISTIAN RELIGION, THE. An association founded 
 in Holland in 17^5 as a result of the publication, in 1782. 
 of Joseph Priestley's " History of the Corruptions of 
 Christianity." Its object was to oppose the anti- 
 Christian tendencies of the age. It sought to defend tlie 
 more orthodo.x- and conservative positions against the 
 attacks of the rationalists, and of extreme critics like 
 D. F. Strauss. After ISfiO, however, it became active 
 rather in the ethico-religious field; "and, in spite of the 
 truth and beauty they contain, its i>ublications on 
 slavery, war, capital punishment, woman's emanciiKjtion, 
 and other questions of a similar import, lie far out in the 
 
 periphery of Christian apologetics " (Schaff-Herzog). 
 The Association is known also as " The Apologetical 
 Society of the Hague." See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 HABAKKUK, BOOK OF. Various dates have been 
 assigned to the prophecy of Habakkuk. Betteridge (1903) 
 favours the year 701 B.C. Reiser thinks the prophecy 
 was composed about the year 609 B.C. by a Jewish prince 
 who was familiar witii Assyro-Babylonian literature. 
 Whitehouse favours, for the ma.ior ix)rtion of the oracles, 
 a date a little before 600 B.C. Happel thinks the 
 prophecy was composed about 170 B.C. Kent is perhaps 
 right in thinking that there is good reason for dating 
 the original sections of the Book of Habakkuk in 605-4 
 B.C. He thinks " it is evident that the situation is pre- 
 cisely similar to that described by Jeremiah ; and Habak- 
 kuk's teachings are closely parallel to those of Jeremiah 
 in the same period. The rule of Jehoiakim, under 
 Egyptian supremacy, represented injustice and violence
 
 Hachamoth 
 
 172 
 
 Haggai, Book of 
 
 to the true followers of the prophets. Habakkuk, as well 
 as Jeremiah, recognized that the fate of the faithful 
 seemed, for the moment at least, to implicate the very 
 justice of Jehovah himself. At the same time, after the 
 great victory at Carchemish, the advancing Chaldeans 
 were recognized as Jehovah's agents, commissioned to 
 overthrow the existing n'gime of violence and oppres- 
 sion." The third chapter of the book is called " Prayer 
 of Habakkuk the Prophet." It Is a post-exilic psalm; 
 but, as Cornill notes, it is not one of the latest products 
 of post-exilic literature, since it is imitated in Psalm 
 Ixxvii. 17-20. He further points out that " the circle of 
 thought in which the ix)em moves is that of eschatology 
 tinged with apocalyptic: its mode of expression is the 
 artificial archai.'^ing style of such passages as Deut. xxxii., 
 II. Sam. xxiii. 1-7, Pss. Ixviii. and xc, in common with 
 which it has a corresponding superscription." See C. 
 Cornill, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse; C. F. Kent, 
 The Sermons, Epistles and Apocalypses of Israel's Pro- 
 phets, 1910. 
 
 HACHAMOTH. A term used in Gnosticism (q.v.). 
 Hachamoth is the illegitimate offspring of Sophia, 
 Wisdom, one of the thirty ax>ns of the Pleroma, and is 
 expelled from the Pleroma. She forms out of psychical 
 substance the Demiurge or creator of the visible universe. 
 See VALENTINIANS. 
 
 HACHIMAN. One of the native deities of Jajmn, the 
 god of war. When the Ryobu-Shinto (g.v.) was intro- 
 duced in Japan, Haehiman came to be regarded as a 
 Buddha. " One of the natural consequences of the 
 system known as Ryobu (" two parts ") was that, by 
 treating the native gods of .Japan as merely incarnations 
 of one or other of the Buddhas, and as therefore entitled 
 to the worship of the Buddtiists, the Japanese were 
 enabled to introduce into their Buddhism many non- 
 Buddhist elements " (Arthur Lloyd). 
 
 HADATHIYYA. An Arabian sect, regarded by the 
 Sunnis as heretics. See HA'ITIYYA. 
 
 HADITH. An Arabic word meaning " tradition." 
 The term is used to denote the body of traditions regard- 
 ing Muhammad, and is equivalent to the Sunna (g.v.). 
 
 H^VA. Ho?va or Awai is the name of a goddess wor- 
 shipped by some of the Ancient Teutons. The name 
 appears on an altar discovered in the Netherlands. The 
 altar was erected by a man and his wife, who would 
 seem to have worshipped Hseva as a goddess of fertility. 
 
 HAGGADAH. In the Jewish (Talmudic) interpreta- 
 tion of the text of Scripture a clear distinction is made 
 between two methods of exposition, one of which is called 
 Haggadah, and the other Halakah. Haggadah means 
 literally "telling" or "narration"; Halakah means 
 " rule " or " binding law." The one method was 
 legalistic and casuistic, the other illustrative and homi- 
 letical. The term Haggadah " acquired an extended 
 significance covering the whole field of the non-halakic 
 part of the old Rabbinical literature, all that is spiritual 
 and homiletical as well as all that is merely illustrative, 
 such as stories and legends of biblical and post-biblical 
 heroes and saints, and folklore generally." Halakah 
 embraces " all that belongs to the strictly legal or ritual 
 element in Scripture, or can be deduced therefrom, in- 
 eluding discussions of such iwiiits " (Oesterley and Box). 
 It al.90 covers usages, customs, ordinances and decrees 
 which have little or no Scriptural authority. Haggadah 
 became a special kind of oratory in the synagogue. 
 " The Haggadah, which is intended to bring heaven down 
 to the congregation, and also to lift man up to heaven, 
 appears in this office both as the glorification of God and 
 as the comfort of Israel. Hence religious truths, moral 
 maxims, discussions concerning divine retribution, the 
 inculcation of the laws which attest Israel's nationality. 
 
 descriptions of its past and future greatness, scenes and 
 legends from Jewish hi.storj-. comparisons between the 
 divine and Jewish institutions, praises of the Holy Land, 
 encouraging stories, and comforting reflections of all 
 kinds form the most important subjects of these dis- 
 courses " (L. Zunz, quoted by Oesterley and Box). In 
 course of time thirteen rules of Halakah and thirty-two 
 rules of Haggadah were elaborated. Wogue (quoted by 
 C. A. Briggs) sums these up. " These forty-five rules 
 may all be reduced to two fundamental considerations. 
 (1) Nothing is fortuitous, arbitrary, or indifferent in the 
 Word of Grod. Pleonasm, ellipsis, grammatical anomaly, 
 transposition of words or facts, everything is calculated, 
 everything has its end and would teach us something. 
 The casual, the approximate, the insignificant and incon- 
 sequential flower of rhetoric, all that belongs to the 
 setting in human language, are strange to the sgvere pre- 
 cision of Biblical language. (2) As the image of its 
 author, who is one by Himself and manifold in His 
 manifestations, the Bible often conceals in a single word 
 a crowd of thoughts; many a phrase, which appears to 
 express a simple and single idea, is susceptible of diverse 
 .senses and numberless interpretations independent of the 
 fundamental difference between literal exegesis and free 
 exegesis, in vshort, as the Talmud says, after the Bible 
 itself, the divine word is like fire which divides itself into 
 a thousand sparks, or a rock which breaks into number- 
 less fragments under the hammer that attacks it. These 
 two points of view, I repeat, are the soul of the Midrash 
 in general; the latter above all serves as the common 
 basis of the Halakah and Haggadah, and it explains, 
 better than any other theory, the long domination of the 
 midrash exegesis in the synagogue." See C. A. Briggs, 
 Intr.; W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 HAGGAI, BOOK OF. The prophet Haggai is referred 
 to in the Book of Ezra (v. 1, vi. 14). With a certain 
 Zechariah he came forward in the second year of Darius 
 Hystaspis (520 B.C.) to arouse the zeal of the people and 
 to urge them to undertake without delay the rebuilding 
 of the ruined temple. The Book of Haggai contains four 
 prophecies, each of which is dated from the year of the 
 reign of the Persian monarch. The first, eh. i. vas. 1-11, 
 was delivered on the 1st day of the sixth month in the 
 second year of Darius. To this is added, vss. 12-15, a 
 section which states that, as a result of the prophet's 
 words, a beginning was made with the work on the 24th 
 day of the same month. The second prophecy, eh. ii. vss. 
 1-9, was delivered on the 21st day of the seventh month; 
 the third, ch. ii. vss. 10-19, and the fourth, oh. ii. vss. 
 20-2.^, on the 24th day of the ninth month. The prophet 
 rebuked the people for dwelling in ceiled houses, while 
 the House of Jehovah lay iu ruins. He declared that n 
 severe famine from which the people and land were 
 suffering was a punishment for this indifference. The 
 concluding prophecy is Messianic. The de.scendant of 
 David, Zerubbabel, shall set up the messianic kingdom, 
 and shall be as a signet on the Lord's hand. It is iKJSsible 
 that Haggai had seen the Temple of Solomon (cp. ii. 3). 
 In that case he musrt have been over seventy years old 
 at the time of his prophetic activity. In 53S B.C. Cyrus 
 had given permission to the conquered iieoples whom he 
 found in Babylon to return to their own countries and 
 rebuild cities and temples. Not many of the Jews took 
 advantage of this concession. C. F. Kent takes the view 
 that " the conditions of the .ludean community reflected 
 in the sermons of Haggai and Zechariah and the memories 
 of Nehemiah indicate conclusively that there had been no 
 general return of the exiles from Babylon. Rather the 
 hope of a general return was still in the future. The 
 audience to which the prophets Haggai and Zechariah 
 spoke was the little community which had grown up about.
 
 Hagiographa 
 
 173 
 
 Haji, The 
 
 the ruins of the temple." See C. Cornill. Intr.; G. H. 
 Box; O. C. WTiitehouse ; C. F. Kent, The Sermons, 
 Epistles and Apocalypses of Israel's Prophets, 1910. 
 
 HAGIOGRAPHA. The third grotip into which the 
 books of the Old Testament are divided. The Hebrew 
 name is Kethubim. '• Writings." The .Jews have sub- 
 divided the Kethubim into three smaller groups. (1) 
 Poetical books, also called " The Former Writings " 
 (Kethubim rishOnim) : Psalms, Proverbs, Job. (2) The 
 five Megilloth (q.v.) or Rolls: Song of Songs. Ruth, 
 Lamentations. Ecclesiastes. Esther. (",) A miscellaneous 
 group, sometimes called " The Latter Writings " (Kethu- 
 bim akhar6nim) : Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, I. and II. 
 Chronicles. This is the order in printed editions of the 
 Hebrew Bible. In the Talmud (q.v.) the order is : Ruth, 
 Psalms, Job. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Lamenta- 
 tions, Daniel, Esther, Ezra (Ezra-Xehemiah), Chronicles. 
 Jerome gives the order: Job, David ( = Psalms), Solomon 
 ( = Proverbs), Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Daniel, Chronicles, 
 Ezra-Nehemiah, E.sther. The three groups into which 
 the books of the Old Testament are divided ( (1) Law, 
 (2) Prophets, (3) Hagiographa) mark the stages in the 
 growth of the Canon. The third group is of a rather 
 miscellaneous character. This is accounted for by sup- 
 posing that some of the books were written, or received 
 recognition, too late to be included in the second group. 
 But if the Hagiographa formed as it were an undefined 
 collection, the rules of canonicity were strictly adhered 
 to, and it was not every book that could gain admission. 
 " There were admitted to it only books written in Hebrew 
 or Aramaic, which treated of the ancient history (Ruth, 
 CHironicles), or gave information about the establishment 
 of the new order of things (Ezra-Nehemiah), or which 
 were supposed to have been written by some famous 
 per.son of ancient times (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, 
 Lamentations, Daniel, perhaps Job also) ; while Esther 
 obtained admission (after much controversy, as was the 
 case with Ecclesiastes), because it was in complete 
 harmony with the national sentiment of people and 
 scribes alike " (G. Wildeboer). See G. Wildeboer, 
 Canon: H. E. Ryle, Canon. 
 
 HAIR, THE. In the Old Testament one of the legal 
 enactments is said to have been : " Ye shall not round 
 off the comers of your hair, nor shalt thou disfigure the 
 comers of thy beard '" (Lev. xix. 27). The Israelites 
 were commanded not to cut off or shave the hair about 
 the temples. This had come to be regarded as a heathen 
 custom. We learn from Herodotus (iii. 8) that certain 
 Arab tribes were accustomed to remove these locks at a 
 certain age in honour of their god Orotal, and Jeremiah 
 seems to allude to the custom (ix. 2-5) when he speaks of 
 ketsiitse pe'ah, '• those who have the comers of their 
 head polled." But the prohibition in Leviticus is prob- 
 ably directed against the practic-e of offering the hair 
 as a sacrifice. It is likely that in ancient times the 
 Hebrews sacrificed the hair of the head and the beard to 
 some deity (cp. Baruch vi. .jO ff.). Some such cu.stom 
 prevailed widely in the East and in Greece. " When 
 Egyi)tian boys or girls had recovered from sickness, their 
 parents used to shave the children's heads, weigh the 
 hair against gold or silver, and give the precious metal 
 to the keepers of the sacred beasts, who bought food 
 with it for the animals according to their tastes " (.J. G. 
 Frazer). In the worship of the Phoenician goddess 
 Astarte, the sacrifice of women's hair was accepted as a 
 substitute for the sacrifice of their chastity (cp. Lev. xix. 
 29). In .some parts of Greece maidens before marriage 
 sacrificed their hair to Artemis. Boys went to Delphi 
 to offer their hair (the seat of strength) to Apollo. Else- 
 where men dedicated locks of their hair to Zeus. Similar 
 customs have been noted among primitive folk in modem 
 
 times. Thus the Australians deposit hair (as the seat of 
 human strength) with the dead. The use of hair as a 
 charm may be explained on the principle of imitative 
 magic. In ancient Mexico the goddess of maize was 
 called " the long-haired mother." During her festival 
 "the women wore their long hair unbound, vshaking and 
 tossing it in the dances which were the chief feature in 
 the ceremonial, in order that the tassel of the maize 
 might grow in like profusion, that the grain might be 
 correspondingly large and flat, and that the people might 
 have abundance " (E. J. Payne, quoted bv J. G. Frazer). 
 The natives in Western Australia blow hair plucked 
 from their thighs and arm-pits in the direction from 
 which they desire rain. In the case of the Hebrew 
 Nazirite, the hair was allowed to grow long until 
 the period of his vow had expired, when, we may sup- 
 pose, the hair was offered as a sacrifice (Numbers vi. 5). 
 " As soon as a man takes the vow to poll his locks at the 
 sanctuary, the hair is a consecrated thing, and, as such, 
 inviolable till the moment for discharging the vow 
 arrives; and so the flowing locks of the Hebrew Nazirite 
 or of a Greek votary like Achilles are the visible marks 
 of his consecration " (W. R. Smith). Among the Hindus 
 the hair was regarded as the special seat of bodily 
 strength. Indeed, evidence has been collected which 
 " appears to indicate that the belief of a man's strength 
 and vigour being contained in his hair is by no means 
 confined to the legend of Samson, but is spread all over 
 the world" (R. V. Russell). See S. R. Driver and H. 
 A. White, The Book of Lei-iticus, in " Sacred Books of 
 the Old Testament," 189S; B. Baentsch, E-TOdus-Leviticus- 
 Numcri, 1903; Eneycl. BiM.; W. Robertson Smith, E.S.; 
 J. G. Frazer, G.B., Part I., vol. i., p. 28 ff. 
 
 HA'ITITYA. An Arabian sect, regarded by the 
 Sunnis as heretics. The Ha'itiyya, together with the 
 Hadathiyya, accepted the view of the Christians that at 
 the last day Christ would come to judge all creatures. 
 They ascribed to him a divine character. But " they 
 as-serted the existence of two gods, the one eternal, the 
 most High (iod, and the other not eternal, that is Christ." 
 See F. A. Klein. 
 
 HAJJ, THE. The name of a pilgrimage made by the 
 Muhammedans to the holy house at Mecca, the Ka'ba 
 (g.v.). It is the fifth of the foundations of Islam. Every 
 Muslim, male or female, is commanded to make the pil- 
 grimage at least once in his life (Qur'an, xxii. 28; ii. 1.53, 
 192; iii. 90; v. 2). The black stone. " built up in one 
 of the comers of this temple forms an object of special 
 veneration to the pilgrim." To make the pilgrimage 
 the Muslim must be a free man of full age, of sound 
 reason, and in good health. He must also have the 
 necessary means to provide for himself and for his family 
 at home. "A woman must be accompanied by her hus- 
 band or some near relation." Before setting out the 
 pilgrim is required to repent of his sins, pay his debts, 
 give alms, etc., say a prayer and read certain verses of 
 the Qur'an. He must take with him a pious and charit- 
 able man as his companion. The journey must be made 
 for the most part by night, and the pilgrim must not dis- 
 mount till the day has become hot. On the road to 
 Mecca there are a number of stages called starting- 
 places. The pilgrims are assigned different starting- 
 places according to the places from which they have 
 come. On reaching his starting-place, the pilgrim has 
 to observe five customs. " (1) He bathes and cleans his 
 whole body, proposing to himself to do it for the sake of 
 the pilgrimage, he pares his nails, combs his beard; and 
 (2) he divests himself of his clothes and assumes the 
 pilgrim's sacred robe, consisting of two seamless 
 ■wTappers, one being wrapped round the waist and the 
 other thrown loosely over the shoulder, the head being
 
 Halakah 
 
 174 
 
 Harmonial Philosophy, The 
 
 uncovered." As long as he wears the pilgrim's garb, he 
 must not pare his nails, nor shave his body, nor indulge 
 ill any kind of sexual intercourse. Before he enters 
 Mecca, he has to bathe nine times. Having entered the 
 holy mosque, he approaches the Ka'ba and says : " Praise 
 be to God, peace on his servants." " After this he 
 approaches the Black Stone and touches it -with his right 
 hand and kisses it saying : ' My pledge I have delivered, 
 my vow I have fulfilled, bear thou witness that I have 
 done it.' " If it is not possible to touch the stone with 
 his hand, he is allowed to touch it with a stick. He 
 then performs the c-eremony of going round the Ka'ba, 
 the Tawaf or circumambulation (cp. CIRCUMAMBULA- 
 TION). He goes round the Ka'ba seven times. " The 
 first three processions he performs at a quick step; the 
 last four times at the usual walking pace. It is desir- 
 able that every time he passes before the Black Stone, 
 he should touch it either with his hand or with a stick 
 and kiss it." The next ceremony is " the walking 
 between Safa and Marwa," two hills beyond the temple 
 gate. After this, preparation must be made for the 
 Feast of the Sacrifice. On the 9th of Zu'1-Hijja the 
 pilgrim proceeds to mount 'Arafdt. Here near the 
 mosque he spends part of the day and the ni^t. Thence 
 be proceeds to Muzdalifa, where he spends another night. 
 Before continuing his journey, he has to provide himself 
 with a number of little stones or pebbles. His next 
 destination is a place called Mind, where there are three 
 heaps or pillars of pebbles. On reaching one of these 
 heaps called Jumratu'l-'Aqaba he throws the seven stones 
 of the 'Aqatia, thus performing the ceremony of " the 
 throwing of stones." At Mind the pilgrim then observes 
 the Feast of the Sacrifice. After this he is allowed to 
 shave h;s head, and to return to Mecca, where he again 
 goes round the Ka'ba seven times. Before returning 
 home he goes to Mind and repeats the ceremony of stone- 
 throwing, and before leaving Mecca finally he performs 
 a farewell circumambulation (seven times). See F. A. 
 Klein. 
 
 HALAKAH. One of the Rabbinic methods of inter- 
 preting the text of Scripture, the other being HAG- 
 GADAH. 
 
 HALJA. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 The name Halja is the same as Hel (g.v.). 
 
 HALLOWEEN. The Eve of All-Saints' Day (q.v.). 
 
 HALO. The bright ring which surrounds the heads 
 of saints. It first appears about the head of Jesus in 
 the third century. " In the early fourth century it seems 
 generally resented for Christ and the angels, but by tlie 
 end of this century the Virgin and the Apostles are simi- 
 larly decorated, and by the fifth century it begins to be 
 used for any of the ' saints ' " (Cobern). 
 
 HAMZAVIS. A Dervish order, founded about the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century by Sheikh Hamza. 
 Tlie founder was put to death for heterodoxy, and his 
 adherents seem to have been from the first in bad repute 
 with the orthodox. " To judge, however, from their 
 Litany, they appear to be a singularly pious sect, and 
 they enjoy the reputation of being most conscientious in 
 all their dealings, living only for their doctrines, regard- 
 less of the things of this world " (L. M. J. Gamett). 
 
 HAND, THE. It is noted by Donald A. Mackenzie 
 (Crete) that " the Aurignacian custom of leaving imprints 
 of hands on rocks is prevalent in modem times in Aus- 
 tralia and elsewhere." In India such imprints are still 
 made on houses to charm them. EJdgar Thurston (Omens 
 and 8upersti1ions of Southern India, 1912) writes: "At 
 Kadure, in the Mysore Province, I once saw impressions 
 of the hand on the walls of Brahman houses. Impres- 
 sions in red paint of a hand with outspread fingers may 
 be .seen on the walls of mosques and Mohammedan 
 
 buildings." In the Old Testament reference is often 
 made to the hand of God, and in Christian art a hand 
 appears as a symbol of God the Father. In the earliest 
 Christian representation, that found in a tomb of the 
 Catacombs dated A.D. 359, the Divine Hand issues from 
 a cloud. The hand is seen again in the Bayeux tapestry 
 (Church of S. Peter), in the Eomsey crucifix, and in 
 I/enton Church, Notts., on the Norman font. G. C. 
 Niven notes (Dedicntions and Patron Saints) that in 
 modern .Jerusalem a large hand is painted rudely over 
 the main doorway of many houses. This hand, called 
 the " hand of power." is the Hand of God. See Sidney 
 Heath andFrancis Bond. 
 
 HANUMaN. a deity in Hinduism. Hanuman is the 
 divine ape. He is worshipped, in particular, by the 
 disciples of Rflm.anand. Hanuman helped Rama (qa-.) 
 to recover his wife Sita from the demon R."iv;ina. He 
 has therefore been worshipped as a model of faithful 
 and devoted service. It is believed that if his favour 
 can be gained, he will bestow great muscular strength. 
 Monier- Williams thinks that the original Hamimfm who 
 helped Rama was a man, the chief of .some wild ape-like 
 aboriginal tiibes. See Monier- Williams: E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 HAOKAH. A thunder-god in the mythology of the 
 Sioux Indians. His countenance had two halves, 
 expressing on the one side laughter (when he was 
 depressed) and on the other tears (when he was cheer- 
 ful). 
 
 HAOMA. The equivalent in the Later Ave.«ta of the 
 Indian Soma. In the pre-Zoroastrian nature-worship 
 Sauma ( = Haonia) appears as an intoxicating drink 
 which has the iiower to confer immortality. It was 
 repudiated by Zarathustra, but Haoma, " the Averter of 
 Death," reappeared later as a deity to whom the Parsi 
 prays for wisdom. See ,J. H. Moulton. 
 
 HARDAUL. A deified person (perhaps, as R. V. 
 Rrssell and R. E. Hira Lfil suggest, the deified Rajput 
 horseman) wor.=:hipped by the Kurmis, the representative 
 cultivating caste of Hindustau. He is represented by an 
 image of a man on horseback carrying a spear in his 
 hand, and clay horses are offered to him. 
 
 HARE, THE. The Hebrews were forbidden to eat the 
 hare. The reason given is that it chews the cud and 
 does not part the hoof. Apart from the fact that the 
 hare does not chew the cud, we may infer that it was not 
 eaten because a certain sanctity attached to it. The 
 Britons of the time of Caesar kept hares which they were 
 forbidden to eat, and the Germans of the eightli century 
 abstained from the flesh of hares. The Algonquian 
 Indians of North America worship a god whom they call 
 Manibozho, "The Great Hare." 
 
 HARI. Hari is the name given by preference to the 
 Supreme Being liy Niinak (14fi9-15aS A.D.). the founder 
 of Sikhism (Q.r.1. He u.sed also such names as Brahma 
 and Govinda. 
 
 HARIHAEA. Hari-hara is a late dual name used in 
 Hinduism to denote the two gods Vishnu (r/.v.) and Siva 
 (f/.r.) regarded as one. 
 
 HARI VITHAL. An Indian deity, the special god of 
 the Hardas or Chitrakathis (q.v.), a caste of religious 
 mendicants and picture showmen found in the Maratha 
 Districts of India. 
 
 HARMLESS PEOPLE. A name given to the Junkers 
 (<l.r.). a religious bodv in America. 
 
 HARMONIAL PHILOSOPHY, THE. The teaching of 
 an American, Andrew Jackson Davis (6. lS2fi). The 
 philosophy of life and the theory of disease taught by 
 Davis resembles the teaching of Quimby (see QITIM- 
 BYISM). In 18.50 he published an account of his 
 philosophy in a book entitled " The Great Harmonia." 
 Georgine Milmine quotes a number of his statements.
 
 Harmonies of the Gospels 
 
 175 
 
 Hebrews, Epistle to the 
 
 ■ There is but one Principle, one united attribute of 
 Goodness and Truth . . . Truth is positive Principle: 
 error is a negative principle, and as Truth is positive 
 and eternal, it must subdue error, which i,s only temporal 
 and artificial . . . Power, Wisdom, Goodness, .Jus- 
 tice, Merc.v, Truth, are the gradual developments of an 
 eternal and internal Principle, constituting the Divine, 
 original Essence . . . disease is discord . . . this 
 disease originates in a want of equilibrium in the circula- 
 tion of the spiritual Principle throughout the organism 
 . , . those physical developments which are called 
 diseases, are simply evidences of constitutional or 
 spiritual disturbances: and consequently, that there is 
 but one ' disease,' having innumerable symptoms." See 
 Georgine Milmine, The Life of Mary Baker O. Eddy 
 find the History of Christian Science, 1909. 
 
 HARMONIES OF THE GOSPELS. Theophilus, who 
 was Bishop of Antioch about the years 181 to 190 A,D., 
 is said by .Jerome to have made a harmony of the Gospels 
 by " fitting together into one whole the things said by the 
 four evangelii5ts." This work has been lost, but a work 
 of the same kind has been preserved in the Harmony of 
 Tatian (second century), which is otherwise known as 
 the Diates-saron (q.v.). The plan of such Harmonies as 
 these was to combine the narratives of the four Gospels 
 into a single con.secutive story. Another kind of Har- 
 mony, of which a great number have been produced from 
 early times down to the present time, is more of the 
 nature of a synoi>sis. The narratives of the four «^or 
 three) Gospels are arranged in parallel columns so that 
 their agreements and differences may be seen at a glance. 
 Of this kind apparently was the Harmony of Ammonius. 
 which has been lost. Ammonius lived at Alexandria in 
 the time of Origen (185-2.>4 A.D.). He is said by Eusebius 
 to have constructed his Harmony by making the text of 
 Matthew's Gospel the Iwsis and setting by the side of it 
 the parallel passages in the otier Gospels. Eusebius 
 himself compiled a Harmony on a .system of his own. 
 He first divided the four Gospels into sections or little 
 chapters. " Then he prepared lists, canons, of the 
 various possible or actual combinations of these chapters, 
 and thus of the Gospels with each other. There were ten 
 of them. The first list contained the numbers of the 
 .sections in which all four Gospels agreed with each 
 other. The second list or canon gave the numbers of 
 the sections in which Matthew, Mark, and Luke coin- 
 cided with each other. The third canon offered the 
 sections in which Matthew. Luke, and .John agreed. The 
 fourth canon has the sections in which Matthew, Mark, 
 and John go together. The fifth canon is occupied by 
 the sections in which only Matthew and Luke agree. The 
 .sixth canon is devoted to the sections in which Matthew 
 and Mark are alike. The .seventh canon shows in which 
 .sections Matthew and .Tohn are of one mind. The eighth 
 canon numbers the .sections in which Luke and Mark 
 unite. Tlie ninth canon tells its in which .sections Luke 
 and John alone are found. And finally, the tenth canon 
 recounts the sections in which each Gospel stands totally 
 alone." Eusebius "put on the margin in red ink under 
 every number of a section the number of the canon in 
 which it belonged " (C. R. Gregory). In 15.S7 Andreas 
 Osiander (1498-15.52) published a Harnionia EvangeUca, 
 and in 1.5.53 appeared Calvin's Harmonia er tribus Evan- 
 gelistis Composita. Some of the best known modern 
 Harmonies are : K. von Tischendorf's Synopsis Evan- 
 geUca; A. Wright's Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek: 
 Stevens and Burton, A Harmony of the Gospels. 1S9C: 
 S. D. Waddy, A Harmony of the Four Gospels in the 
 Revised Version. 1S9.5. 
 
 HARMONITES. A religious community founded by 
 George Rapp (17.57-18471. Rapp was bom at Iptingen 
 
 in Wurttemberg. He founded his societv in 1805. It 
 aimed at establishing a life of " harmony " jn Church 
 and State. The Harmonites had all things in common 
 and objected to marriage. In 1814 they founded the citv 
 of New Harmony in Indiana, and in 1,824 the citv of 
 Economy in Pennsylvania. They are also known as the 
 Harmony Society, or the Harmonists, or the Rappist,s. 
 See J. H. Blunt: Brockhaus. 
 
 HARMONY SOCIETY. A communitv founded in 
 Pennsylvania in 1805 by (Jeorge Rapp (1757-1847). See 
 above. 
 
 HATHOR. One of the deities worshipped by the 
 ancient Egyptians. Hathor, which means " House of 
 Horus," was originally one of the names of the goddess 
 of the sky (ep. NUT). Then as the chief of the 
 goddesses, the complete embodiment of feminine god- 
 head, .she became the divine model of womanhood, as 
 well as the goddess of joy and love. Another designa- 
 tion of the goddess is " the Eye of the Sun (Ra)." She 
 is represented in such a way as to suggest a connection 
 with the cow. Sometimes .she appears as an ordinary 
 woman, but with "a headdress which recalls the ancient 
 celestial cow, consisting of two horns between which 
 appears the sun " (Erman). At other times she apijcars 
 with the head of a cow, or with a head half-human half- 
 cowlike. In the Hellenistic period she had developed 
 into a goddess of the dead, unless Wiedemann is right in 
 thinking that the Hathor, Lady of the Underworld, was 
 of independent origin. See Alfred Wiedemaim: Adolf 
 Erman, Handbook: Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith. 
 1909. 
 
 HATTEMISTS. The followers of Pontianus van 
 Hattem, who was a disciple of Spinoza (see SPINOZISM). 
 Van Hattem was pastor of Philipsland in Zealand, but 
 was dejxt.sed for heresy in 1083. Advocating a kind of 
 mystical pantheism, he denied the doctrine of original 
 sin, and urged that there is in reality nothing in man that 
 can ofl'end God. Men are punished by their sins; they 
 are not puni.shed by (Jod for their sins. Such doctrine 
 seemed to lead to Antinomianism. See Schaflf-Herzog; 
 J. H. Blunt. 
 
 HAUPTBRIEFE, THE. The term Hauptltriefe. the 
 " chief or great Epistles," is u.sed by German New Testa- 
 ment .scholars of a group of letters ascribed to Paul the 
 Apostle. The letters are : Galatians, I. and II. Corinth- 
 ians, and Romans. These four Epistles have been 
 accepted as Pauline even by scholars who have taken up 
 a very radical position with regard to many other 
 writings in the New Testament. They have been rejected 
 in particular by a Dutch .school of Theologians, of whom 
 W. C. van Manen ma.v now be regarded as representative. 
 Prof, van Manen's ix>sition, however, has won few 
 adherents. For W. C. van Manen's views, see the Fncycl. 
 Bibl. See also R. J. Knowling, Witness; J. Moffatt, 
 Introd. 
 
 HEBREWS. EPISTLE TO THE. The New Testament 
 writing known as the Epistle to the Hebrews raises a 
 number of problems. Two of these are suggested at once 
 by the title. Is the book really an Epistle? And who 
 are the Hebrews? Currie Martin thinks that the book 
 has no features of an epistle, except in its close. This 
 theory has been put forward by Wrede. He thinks that 
 it is a treatise to which the concluding verses were added 
 by an editor. The idea of the editor will have been to 
 convert the treatise into a Pauline Epistle. Against this 
 A. S. Peake argues tiiat " if the editor had wished in 
 the closing verses to pass the Epistle off as Paul's, he 
 would surely have spoken with much greater definiteness 
 and identified the writer with Paul far more clearly." 
 It is not correct, Peake thinks, to .say that the work is 
 a mere abstract treatise. The constant references to the
 
 Hedonism 
 
 176 
 
 Heliand 
 
 conditions and i>erils of the community are of such a kind 
 that it« history and present situation can to a large 
 extent be reconstructed. Next, as regards the persons 
 to whom the letter is addressed. " Hebrews " suggests 
 at once Jews. Currie Martin, however, thinks that the 
 word need not denote a purely Jewish community here, 
 and points out that elsewhere Gentiles are addressed as 
 the seed of Abraham (Galatians iii. 7, 29). To this it 
 may be objected that merely to refer to Gentiles as the 
 seed of Abraham is very different from addressing a 
 writing to " Hebrews " in the sense of Gentiles. But 
 Currie Martin, of course, adds other reasons for tliinking 
 tJiat the writing was addressed to Gentiles as well as to 
 Jews. Yet his reasons, and those of scholars who take 
 the same view, are hardly c-onvincing. Prof. Peake 
 argues more strongly for the view that the writing was 
 addressed to Jewish Christians. They were Jewish 
 Christians who were in danger of falling bade into 
 Judaism. This is proved detinitely, Peake thinks, by the 
 use made in the Epistle of the Old Testament. '• It is 
 quite beside the mark to say that the Old Testament was 
 regarded as authoritative by Gentile as well as by Jewish 
 Christians. It is more to the point to observe that the 
 grounds of acceptance were very different. The Jew 
 whether Christian or not accepted the Old Testament as 
 the sacred book of his nation, his belief might be con- 
 firmed by Christianity, but it was essentially independent 
 of it. With the Gentile Christian the case was alto- 
 gether different. The Old Testament meant nothing to 
 him apart from his Christianity. It was as an integral 
 portion of his new religion that he recognised its 
 authority. Of what use then was it to supply a Gentile 
 in danger of apostasy from Christianity with arguments 
 drawn from a book in which he believed simply because 
 he was a Christian? The author's argument has force 
 only if his readers accepted the Old Testament inde- 
 Ijendently of their acceptance of the Gospel, and this 
 suits Jewish Christians but not Gentiles. It may be 
 added that, even setting aside the inconclusive details, 
 there are many phrases in the Epistle which point much 
 more naturally to Jewish Christian than to Gentile 
 readers, but where the main argument is so conclusive it 
 is less necessary to lay stress on minor points." Another 
 problem is the question of authorship. According to 
 Clement of Alexandria, the Epistle was written in Hebrew 
 by Paul, and translated into Greek by Luke. According 
 to Origen, the thoughts are Paul's, but they were written 
 down from memory by another person, who added anno- 
 tations of his own. This person may have been either 
 Clement of Rome or Luke. In the Western Church, 
 however, for a long time the Epistle failed to win 
 acceptance. " Augustine and Jerome were alike hesitant 
 about it, but yielded to Eastern opinion and accepted the 
 Pauline authorship, and this secured its acceptance in the 
 Western Church." It does not seem to have been used by 
 Hennas, Justin Martyr, or Irenaeus. It is not included 
 in the Canon of MarcMon or in the Muratorian Canon. 
 The external evidence therefore supports the view, sug- 
 gested by the style and contents, that Paul was not the 
 author of the Epistle. Who then was the author? Ter- 
 tullian ascribes the work to Barnabas. Luther suggested 
 ApoUos, and the suggestion has been favoured by a 
 number of modern scholars. Others have thought of 
 Silas. Hamack has now oome forward with the theory 
 that the author was Priscilla. See J. A. M'Clymont: G. 
 Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake, Intr.; J. Moffett. 
 Intr. 
 
 HEDONISM. Hedonism in its ancient form is repre- 
 sented by the philosophy of Aristippus (see CYRENAICS). 
 But the name has been given to certain forms of a modem 
 philosophy that originated with Jeremy Bentham (1748- 
 
 1832) and J. S. Mill (1806-1873). Psychological Hedonism 
 .starts with the principle tiat all desire is desire for 
 pleasure. Ethical Hedonism urges that pleasure ought 
 to be pursued as being the highest good. It denies that 
 all desire is for pleasure. EfioisUc Hedonism teaches 
 that the pleasure to be aimed at is the pleasure of the 
 individual. Vniversalistic Hedonism holds tihat the 
 pleasure to be achieved must be the pleasure not only of 
 .self but also equally of others. Bentham's Hedonism 
 has been called Consistent Hedonism, because he held 
 that the only difference between pleasures is one of 
 quantity. See Arthur Butler; C. J. Deter. 
 
 HEIDELBERG CATECHISM, THE. The " Heidel- 
 berg Catechism" (1503 A.D.) was prepared by Zacharias 
 Bar or Ursinus and Caspar Olewig or Olevianus, of 
 Heidelberg, with the full approval of the Elector Pala- 
 tine, Frederick III. They were, in fact, commissioned 
 by him " to prepare a manual which should serve alike 
 for teaching the young and for settling the constant 
 differences in doctrine between Lutherans, of both 
 schools, and Calvinists, of which Heidelberg had become 
 the continual scene " (W. A. Curtis). They executed 
 their task with great success. " The Catechism, though 
 it had detractors, soon established itself in every 
 Reformed land and language." See William A. Curtis. 
 
 HEIMDALLR. The name of a god in Norse litera- 
 ture. " He is the guardian of the gods, and sits at the 
 edge of heaven to guard the bridge against the mountain 
 giants. He requires less sleep than a bird, and both by 
 day and night can see a distance of one hundred miles. 
 He is, moreover, the pos.sessor of the Gjailarhom (loud- 
 resounding horn), whose sound is heard throughout the 
 universe, and which lies hidden under the world-tree 
 until the final catastrophe " (Chautepie de la Saussaye). 
 He plays a prominent part in the Necklace-myth, 
 struggling with Loki (q.v.) for the ix>ssession of the neck- 
 lace. See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rri. of thf. 
 Teutons, 1902. 
 
 HEKT. An Egyptian deity. Hekt was a go<ldeas, 
 and is represented with the head of a frog. In Abydos 
 she was regarded as one of the two deities created by 
 Ra (q.v.) out of himself, the other deity being the god 
 Shu (g.v.). Wiedemann points out that lamps which 
 date from Coptic times have the image of a frog with 
 the inscription, " I am the resurrection." This suggests 
 that Hekt " played some part in the doctrine of the 
 resurrection." It was believed that frogs were generated 
 spontaneously from mud. See A. Wiedemann; Adolf 
 Erman, Hnndbook. 
 
 HEL. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 The goddess Hel is said to be one of the offspring of 
 Ix)ki (q.v.). Hel appears to Balder (q.v.) in a dream. 
 when he is wounded, and tells him he will soon be at 
 rest in her arms. But she represents a place more than 
 a person, one of the abodes of the dead. It came to be 
 regarded as a place of gloom, darknes.*;, and misery; but 
 not, it would iseem, a.s a place of punishment. We hear 
 of warriors going there. See P. D. Chantepie de la 
 Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 HELIAND. The " Heliand " (that is to say. Heiland 
 or Saviour) is an Old Saxon poem written in alliterative 
 verse and dating from the ninth century. It gives the 
 story of Jesus, based, it is thought, on Tatiau's Harmony 
 of the Go.spels (see DIATESSARON). The story is 
 adapted to suit the Saxon surroundings. The disciples 
 have become brave warriors with Jesus as their hero 
 chief. " He is not the Man of Sorrows, nor yet the 
 heavenly Son of God of the Catholic church, but now the 
 brave Teutonic chief, who valiantly leads hi.s men to 
 victory, and then again the wealthy, generous Teutonic 
 popular king, who gloriously traverses his land to teach.
 
 Heliolithic Culture 
 
 177 
 
 Heracles 
 
 judge, heal, and to battle, and who in the end in defeat 
 itself outwits the enemy and gains tie victory— a Christ 
 different certainly from that of the Gospels, but one that 
 was living and real to the Saxons " (de la Saussaye). 
 See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rcl. of the Teutons, 
 1S02; Broekhaus. 
 
 HELIOLITHIC CULTURE. An expression which has 
 come into use among certain ethnologists in recent years. 
 It is explained by Professor Elliot Smith in his Migra- 
 tions of Peoples." " Between 4000 B.C. and 900 B.C. 
 a highly-complex culture compounded of a remarkable 
 series of peculiar elements, which were associated the 
 one with the other in Egypt largely by chance, became 
 intimately interwoven to form the curious texture of a 
 cult which Brockwell has labelled ' heliolithic,' in 
 (reference to the fact that it includes sun-worship, the 
 custom of building megalithic monuments, and certain 
 extraordinary beliefs concerning stones. An even more 
 peculiar and distinctive feature, genetically related to 
 the development of megalithic practices and the belief 
 that human beings could dwell in stones, is the custom 
 of mummification." 
 
 HELVETIC CONFESSIONS. The " First Helvetic 
 Confeasion " or the " Second Confession of Basel," as it 
 was also called, was the result of a conference of repre- 
 sentatives of the Reformed cities of Switzerland held at 
 Basel in 15.36 A.D. The Confession was prepared by 
 Bullinger, Myconius, Grynaeus, Leo Judae, and 
 Megander. " Their work, after discussion, was unani- 
 mously accepted and subscribed by the delegates, and 
 became the first general Swiss Confession, the fir.st 
 ' Reformed ' Confession of national authority " (W. A. 
 Curtis). The " Second Helvetic Confession " was the 
 work of Henry Bullinger. It was composed originally 
 in 1.562. In 1565 it was, in a somewhat revised form, 
 approved universally in Switzerland, except at Basel. In 
 1566 it was presented to the Diet at Augsburg by the 
 Elector Palatine, Frederick III., and in the same year 
 was accepted by the Reformed Church in Scotland. " It 
 was accepted in Hungary in 1507, and in Prance and 
 Poland in 1571. W. A. Curtis thinks that in theological 
 ability and in doctrinal interest few Confessions can bear 
 comparison with it. " It's doctrinal -standpoint is 
 characteristic of the author and the time — ^a combination 
 of the positions of Zwingli and Calvin, with an unbending 
 attitude towards Rome, whose Tridentine Confession was 
 being formulated at the self-same time; with a courteous 
 tone towards Lutheranism ; with a firm adherence to the 
 ancient Catholic Creeds, which are printed in the preface 
 as authoritative; and with an underlying conviction that 
 the doctrinal re-union of Christendom was possible upon 
 a Scriptural basis alone. Confessional revision and re- 
 adjustment being a Christian duty as better knowle<lge 
 of the Word of God was attained." See William A. 
 Curtis. 
 
 HELVIDIANS. The followers or adherents of Hel- 
 vidius, a layman who died at Rome in the latter part of 
 the fourth century A.D. Helvidius denied the perpetual 
 virginity of the Virgin Mary and deprecated the tendency 
 to rank celilmcy above matrimony. His work on the 
 subject has perished, and is known only from quotations 
 in the tract " Contra Helvidium " written by Jerome 
 against the author. Gennadius states that Helvidius 
 was "a di.sciple of Auxentius," the Arian, and "an 
 imitator of Symmachus," the pagan; but it is difficult to 
 find any support for these statements. See Schaff- 
 Herzog: .7. H. Blunt: Wace and Piercv. 
 
 HEMERO-BAPTISTS. A .Jewish sect, so called 
 (" every-day baptists ") because they practised cere- 
 monial ablutions every day. Like the Sadducees, they 
 did not believe in a Resurrection (Epiphanius, Hwres. 
 
 xvii.). They are referred to by Hegesippus (Eusebius, 
 Hist. Eccles. iv. 22) and .Tustin Martyr {Diol. cum 
 Tryph.). See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 HENOTICON, THE. The Henotieon or " Instrument 
 of Union " was an edict put forth by the Emperor Zeno 
 in 482 A.D. with the idea of establishing unity between 
 the Monophysites iq.v.) and the Church. It was con- 
 sequently of the nature of a compromise. It was prob- 
 ably composed by Aeaeius, Patriarch of Constantinople. 
 It condemned Nestorius, approved the anathemas of 
 Cyril, and recommended acceptance of the creeds of 
 Nicaea and Constantinople, but ignored, or seemed to 
 ignore, the Council of Chalcedon. It professed to be 
 addressed to the bishops and iieople in Alexandria, 
 Egypt, Libya, and Pentapolis. It did not attain its 
 object. " Like every endeavour, however well meant, to 
 cover radical differences b.v a vague comprehensiveness, 
 it not only failed to secure union but aggravated the 
 divisions it was intendetl to cure, and created a schism 
 which divided the East and West for nearly 40 years, 
 lasting down to the reign of Justinian and the po))edom 
 of Hormisdas " (Diet, of Christ. Biogr.). See J. H. 
 Blunt; the Vath. Diet., s.v. "Monophysites"; Wace 
 and Piercy. 
 
 HENRY BRADSHAW SOCIETY. A Society founded 
 in November, 1890. It was named the Henry Bradshaw 
 Society in honour of the scholar and antiquary, Henry 
 Bradshaw (18;a-18S6), who was Librarian of the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge. It was founded for the purpose of 
 printing liturgical manuscripts and rare editions of ser- 
 vice books, and illustrative documents, on an historical 
 and scientific basis, especially such as bear upon the his- 
 tory of the Book of Common Prayer, or of the Church of 
 England. One volume at least appears every year, and 
 every volume bears a device commemorative of Mr. Brad- 
 .shaw. The works edited by the Society are not published. 
 
 HEPATOSCOPY. The examination of the liver of 
 animals in divination. " The sacrificial animal was 
 believed to be united to the deity to whom it was dedi- 
 cated. The soul of the animal was attuned to the deity, 
 so that it was ix>ssible by the examination of the animal 
 soul to understand the mind of the deity who controlled 
 fntiire events. The sanctity attached to blood not un- 
 naturally suggested that the seat of the soul was in the 
 liver, one-sixth of the blood in the human body, for 
 example, being contained in it. To read the soul of 
 the animal, and thus divine the purpose of the god, was 
 effected by studying the conformation and the markings 
 on the liver of the sheep, which was the animal invariably 
 used. These are never precisely the same in any two 
 animals, and most elaborate directions were given for 
 reading the signs " (A. S. Peake, The Bihle. 1913). 
 
 HEPTAPLA, THE. A name sometimes given in early 
 times to Origen's Hexapla. See HEXAPLA. 
 
 HERA. According to Lucian, the name of a Syrian 
 goddess, the patron-deity of Hieraixdis, " the sacred 
 city." Her temple was visited by many pilgrims — 
 Arabians, Babylonians, Cilicians, Phoenicians, and 
 others. She seems to be equivalent to the chief goddess 
 of the Hittites. 
 
 HERACLES. Heracles (Latin Hercules) is one of tJie 
 oldest and most famous of the heroes in Greek mytho- 
 logy. " Indeed, the traditions of similar heroes in other 
 Greek trit>es, and in other nations, especially in the East, 
 were transferred to Heracles: so that the scene of his 
 achievements, which is, in the Homeric poems, confined 
 on the whole to Greece, became almo-st extensive with 
 the known world; and the story of Heracles was the 
 richest and most comprehensive of all the heroic fables " 
 (O. Seyffert). He is represented as the son of Zeus by
 
 Hermeneutics 
 
 178 
 
 Hieracites 
 
 Alcmene, the wife of Amphitryon. The strongest man 
 on earth, he figures in works of art as the ideal of manly 
 strength. See A. R. Hope Monerieff. 
 
 HERMENEUTICS. The term is of Greek origin and 
 denotes the science of interpretation. It has been used 
 especially of the interpretation or exegesis of the Bible. 
 Thus S. Davidson (lS0(i-1899) published in 1S43 a work 
 called Saercd Hermeneutics. The term is old-fasihioned. 
 and is no longer in common use. 
 
 HERMESIANISM. The principles or philo.sophy of 
 the Roman Catholic theologian George Hermes (1770- 
 1831). Hermes is describe<l by Erdmann as a Semi- 
 Kantian. In 1805 he published a work " Investigations 
 relating to the Inner Truth of Christianity," and in 1819 
 " Philosophical Introduction to Christian-Catholic 
 Theology " (2nd ed. 1831). The latter work was censured 
 by Gregory xvi. in 1835. Herme.s held that philosophical 
 inquiry ought to begin by questioning everything that 
 hitherto had been regarded as self-evident. As regards 
 Christianity three preliminary questions have to be asked. 
 1. '■ Is it possible for us to decide regarding the truth 
 in what ways it is attainable and whether any of these 
 ways is applicable to the proof of Christianity? " 2. 
 •' Is there a God, and what is his nature? " .3. " Must 
 a supernatural revelation of God to men be admitted as 
 possible, and under what universal conditions mu.st it be 
 deemed actual? " As regards a God, " in opposition to 
 Kant and Fichte, it is as.serted that the certainty of the 
 existence of God is not a moral certainty, but that it is 
 a physical necessity for the theoretical reason to hold as 
 real a certain, eternal, absolute, unchangeable, personal, 
 creative first cause of the transitory world. It is other- 
 wise as regards the attributes of God, where theoretical 
 and practical reason, belief and assumption, unite in 
 making us certain of the incomprehensible power, know- 
 ledge, and goodness, as well as of the holiness, freedom, 
 and love of God, in virtue of which God wilLs our happi- 
 ness, which, .iust because He wills it eternally! is there- 
 fore eternally willed and hence will endure eternally. 
 In spite of this faith, rendered irrevocabl.y certain 
 through the theoretical and practical reason, it must not 
 be misunderstood, that much that transcends the power 
 of reason to conceive, as e.f/., the infinitude of the divine 
 attributes, can become certain to us only b.v the way of 
 experience; especially, that the real nature of God 
 remains to us. even after actual revelation, uncogniz- 
 able " (Erdmann). As regards the third question, 
 " whereas the existence of God is securely established by 
 the theoretical reason, the above-mentioned attributes of 
 God by the theoretical and practical reason, revelation 
 in general, and a definite revelation in particular, is 
 guaranteecl onl.y by the obligatory reason, so that, there- 
 fore, it remains a moral necessity." See J. E. Erdmann: 
 nnth. Diet. 
 
 HERMETICAL BOOKS. Certain religious books 
 attributed to the Egyptian god Thoth or Hermes Tris- 
 megistos. According to Seleucus in lamblichus they 
 numbered 20,000; according to Manetho 3fi,52.5. Clement 
 of Alexandria seems to have known of forty-two. C. R. 
 Gregory (Canon) thinks that perhaps " these large 
 numbers appl.v to the lines contained in the books: in 
 that case the great difference between the numbers would 
 be intelligible." 
 
 HERRNHTTTER. The Hermhuter were the successors 
 of the Bohemian Brethren. After the battle of the White 
 Jlouutain (lfi20). in which the Bohemian Protestants were 
 routed, the TJnitas Fratrum was dispensed, and m.my of 
 its members left Bohemia. In 1721 the greater part of 
 the remnant of them also abandoned Bohemia, and 
 settled in Lusatia on the estate of Nikolaus Ludwig von 
 Zinzendorf (1700-1760). This settlement was named 
 
 Herrnhut, " The Lord's Watch," and the settlers became 
 known as Herrnhuter. See further MORAVIANS. 
 
 HERTFORDSHIRE HERMIT, THE. A name given 
 to James Lucas (1S13-1S74), who lived near Hitchin, slept 
 on cinders, and did not wash. 
 
 HEXAPLA, THE. Besides the Septuagint (q.r.) and 
 the versions of Aqnila, Theodotion, and Svmmaehus (see 
 GREEK VERSIONS, OLD TESTAMENT), other Greek 
 versions of the Old Testament were known to Origen (c. 
 185-86 A. D.— 251-54 A.D.). Two of these, designated 
 Quinta and ^cxta he made use of in his Octapla. Euse- 
 bius and Jerome mention a third version, designated 
 Septima. Origen sought to provide a critical edition of 
 the Septuagint in the first half of the third century A.D. 
 He first collected all existing Greek versions of the Old 
 Testament. " He then proceeded to transcril)e the ver- 
 sions in parallel columns, and to indicate in the column 
 devoted to the Septuagint the relation in which the old 
 Ale.xandrian version stood to the current Hebrew text." 
 The work was called Hexapla because there were six 
 columns. They were as follows : (1) the Hebrew text 
 in Hebrew; (2) the Hebrew transliterated in Greek 
 characters: (3) the Greek of Aquila; (4) the Greek of 
 Symmaehus: (5) the Septuagint; (6) the Greek of Theodot- 
 ion. Origen also compiled a Tetrapla, that is to say, 
 an edition in which the first two columns were omitted. 
 The Hexapla, when the book of Psalms is in question, is 
 .■sometimes referred to as the Octapla, apparently 
 •' becau.se in the Psalter of the Hexapla there were two 
 additional columns which received the Quinta and 
 Sexta " (H. B. Swete). Similarly it was sometimes 
 called Heptapla in reference to portions where a seventh 
 column appeared. Origen " sought to determine the true 
 primitive form of the Greek [which had become corrupt], 
 and by an elaborate system of obelisks and other artificial 
 marks inserted in the text to guard it from the possibility 
 of further corruption. Unfortunately this system, 
 owing to its detailed and highly-elaborate character, lent 
 itself most easily to the cause of error. Copyists trans- 
 posed Origen's asterisks, obelisks, etc., omitted them alto- 
 gether, or inserted at wrong points, thus defeating the 
 ob.iect whicli their author had in view, and introducing 
 new variations and confusion " (A. S. Geden). The 
 fragments of the Hexapla which have been preserved are 
 collected in F. Field's Origenis Hexaplorum quae Super- 
 sunt Fragmenta, 2 vols. i876. See H. B. Swete, Intr. 
 to the O.T. in Greek. 1900; A. S. Geden, Intr. to the 
 Hebrew Bible, 1909. 
 
 HIBBEBT LECTURES. The Hibbert Trust was 
 founded by Robert Hibbert (1770-1849), who had been a 
 merchant and slave-owner in Jamaica. The trustees 
 used the funds until 1878 to promote the higher education 
 of candidates for the Unitarian Ministry. In 1S78 they 
 decided to establish a lectureship designed to promote 
 thorough research into religious problems from an inde- 
 I>endent standpoint, that is to say, apart from any bias 
 towards any particular church, system, or creed. The 
 lecturers have been scholars of the highest distinction in 
 England. Germany, and France. 
 
 HICKSITES. The followers of Elias Hicks (174S-1S30). 
 who was a distinguished preacher of the Society of 
 Friends (see article) in the United States of America. 
 His followers are also called Hicksite Friends. Hicks 
 caused a schism in the Society by developing rationalistic 
 views. He repudiated the dogmas of the Trinity and 
 the Atonement, denied the miraculous conception and 
 the deity of Jesus, and questioned the divine authority 
 of Holy Scripture. See J. H. Blunt ; Chambers' 
 Encgcl. 
 
 HIERACITES. The Hieracites were not exactly a 
 sect but a school. The leader of this school, which arose
 
 Higher Thought, The 
 
 179 
 
 Hinduism 
 
 at the beginning of the fourth century, was Hierax of 
 Leontium in Egypt. He is said by Epiphanius and 
 Augustine to have denied the resurrection of the body 
 and the existence of a visible Paradise; and to have said 
 that Melchizedech was the Third Person of the Trinity, 
 and that infants cannot inherit the kingdom of God. 
 Further, he held, it is said, that the body must be 
 mortified in every way. Marriage must be rejected, and 
 meat and wine abstained from. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 HIGHER THOUGHT, THE. The " Higher Thought," 
 also known as the " New Thought," may be described 
 as a modern idealistic and mystical j>hilosophy of a 
 practical character. Some of its principles are, indeed, 
 by no means new. As Horatio W. Dresser says (Health 
 and the Inner Life, 1907), " for untold ages the ' New 
 Thought ' has been old in India." But the application 
 of the principles is new. Mr. Dresser says further of 
 the designation " New Thought " : " This is the latest 
 of mind-cure terms and at present the most popular. It 
 came into vogue in 1S95. and was used as the title of a 
 little magazine published for a time in Melrose, Massa- 
 chu.sietts. The term was apparently a convenient designa- 
 tion, inasmuch as for its devotees it was literally a ' new 
 thought ' about life. But critics soon assailed it on the 
 ground that the doctrine was not new, and in England 
 the term ' Higher Thought ' was substituted." The 
 Higher Thought lays great emphasis on the power of the 
 mind. This power, many will think, is greatly 
 exaggerated; but it will be admitted that much of the 
 Higher Thought is of the highest ethical and religious 
 value. Its value is recognized even by persons like the 
 agnostic author of The Churches and Modern Thought 
 (see p. 400 in the Popular Edition, 1908). One of the 
 best exponents of the philo.sophy is Ralph Waldo Trine. 
 " The great central fact of the universe," he says, " is 
 that Spirit of Infinite Life and Power that is behind all, 
 that animates all, that manifests itself in and through 
 all ; that self-existent principle of life from which all has 
 come, and not only from which all has come, but from 
 which all is continually coming " (In Tune icith the 
 Infinite, 190(>). Further, " the great central fact in 
 human life, in your life and in mine, is the coming into a 
 con.scious, vital realization of our oneness with this 
 Infinite Life, and the opening of ourselves fully to this 
 divine inflow." And '" in the degree that we open our- 
 selves to this divine inflow are we changed from mere 
 men into God-men." As the Infinite Spirit is behind all 
 and has created everything. " we, through the operation 
 of our interior, spiritual, thouglit forces, have in like 
 sense creative power." As in the New Theology, great 
 stress is laid on the idea that God is immanent as well 
 as transcendent. This being granted, " in the degree 
 that we open ourselves to the inflowing tide of this 
 immanent and tran.scendent life, do we make ourselves 
 channels through which the Infinite Intelligence and 
 Power can work." The liearing of such doctrines as 
 these upon the question of mental healing is obvious. 
 Another able exponent of this kind of philosophy 
 is Orison Swett Marden. The teaching of his book 
 Peace, Poicer and Plentii, and of much of the Higher 
 Thought, is summarized in the Preface. " The author 
 attempts to show that the body is but the mind exter- 
 nalised, the habitual mental state out-pictured: that the 
 bodily condition follows the thought, and that we are 
 sick or well, happy or miserable, young or old. lovable 
 or unlovable, according to the degree in which we control 
 our mental processes. He shows how man can renew 
 his body by renewing his thought, or change his body, his 
 character, by changing his thought. The book teaches 
 that man newl not be the victim of his environment, but 
 can be the master of it: that there is no fate outside of 
 
 him which determines his life, his aims; that each person 
 can shape his own environment, create his own condi- 
 tion; that the cure for poverty, ill-health, and unhappi- 
 iiess lie^ in bringing one's self through scientific thinking 
 into conscious union with the great Source of Infinite 
 lite, the Sourc-e of opulence, of health, and harmonv 
 This conscious union with the Creator, this getting in 
 tune with the Infinite, is the secret of all peace, power 
 and pro^nty. It emphasizes man's oneness with In- 
 hnite Life, and the truth that when he comes into the 
 full realization of his inseparable connection with tho 
 creative energy of the universe, he shall never know lack 
 or want again. This volume shows how man can stand 
 porter at the door of his mind, admitting only his friend 
 thoughts, only -those suggestions that will produce joy 
 prosperity; and excluding all his enemy thoughts which 
 would bring discord, suffering, or failure." Some of the 
 essays of Prentice Mulford are very striking. See Ralph 
 Waldo Trine, In Tune with the Infinite, 190(;- What all 
 the World's a-seeking, 190T; O. S. Marden, Peoce, Power 
 and Plenty, 1909; Prentice Mulford. The Gift of the 
 Spirit, 1908: The Gift of Understanding; James Allen 
 From Poverty to Power (6), 1909; The Mastery of Destiny, 
 
 HIJRAS. The members of the community of eunuctis 
 in India (also known as Khasuas). They are either 
 Iiersons who were born deformed or who have been made 
 eunuchs by amputation. When admitted into the com- 
 munity, they become Muhammadans. The mutilation is 
 effected usually in the performance of a religious vow. 
 The Hijras worship the goddess Bouehera or Behechra, 
 a sister of Devi. " As a further fulfilment of their vow, 
 the Hijras pull out the hair of their beards and mous- 
 taches, bore their ears and noses for female ornaments, 
 and affect female speech and manners " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 HINAYANA. When the widened form of Buddhism 
 known as Mahayana, or the Great Vehicle, was developed, 
 the older form received the name Hinavana or the Little 
 Vehicle. See VEHICLES, THE THREE. 
 
 HINDUISM. The earliest form of Indian religious 
 observance derived from the ancient literature is known 
 as Brahmanism. The term Hinduism is applied to later 
 and modem developments. " Brahmanism, founded on 
 these sacred books and claiming to fulfil their precepts. 
 is the religion of Brahma, the Creator, or of the Brah- 
 mans, the priestly and privileged class, charged with the 
 preservation of doctrine and the maintenance of the 
 rites " (A. S. Geden, Studies). The revealed literature 
 of the Veda was succeeded by a sub-Vedie literature, 
 which is hardly inferior in authority. This is related 
 to six recognised philosophical s.vstems, which trace their 
 origin more or less directly to the Upanishads. The 
 systems are known as the Vedanta. founded by Vya-sa: 
 the Mimamsa, founded by .Taimini; the Sankhya, founded 
 by Kapila; the Yoga, founded by Patanjali ; the Nya.va, 
 founded by Gotama; and the Vaiseshika, founded by 
 KanSda. The names of the founders or authors, it 
 should be added, are only traditional. Other literary 
 .sources of the religious usages and beliefs are the two 
 great epic ixvems. the Mahfibharata and the Rnmaiiana. 
 To these the later Puranas owe much of their information 
 and inspiration. The Bhagavadr/itd (later Bh.Tgavata 
 Pur.Tna) was the relisious text-book of the Bhfigavatas, 
 the wor.shippers of Bhagavad, the Lord or Blessed One — 
 a body which represented, not a sectarian form of re- 
 ligion, but a more mystical kind of devotion. The 
 origins of the movement may be hardly less ancient than 
 the orthodox ritual and creed of the Br.ahmans. In any 
 case, Brahmanism was confronted in course of time by 
 many more popular forms of belief and worship. 
 Hindui.sm " is the general title for all the forms under
 
 Hiriadeva 
 
 180 
 
 lioenir 
 
 whieli tie religious consciousness of the people of India 
 has found expression; and the link or internal connection 
 between the diverse creeds which pass under this name 
 is of the very slightest— a recognition of common divini- 
 ties and temples, and of the rights and prerogatives of 
 their priests, the Brahmans. There is no common article 
 of faith or obligation of morality, and the adherence to 
 forms or religious duties is often superficial, and in recent 
 times especially is greatly relaxed. The real and most 
 powerful bond of union is social. A Hindu is born, 
 not made Caste has been, and is at the present time, 
 the compelling influence which welds into the semblance 
 of a unity the multitude of diverse and often conflicting 
 professions which claim to be parts of the Hindu faith " 
 (Geden). Of the many sects which have arisen, the 
 two great groups are known as the Vishnuite and the 
 Sivaite In the year 1800— which marks the beginning 
 of quite new developments— Hinduism, which, according 
 to J. N. Farquhar, was the religion of at least three- 
 fourths of the population of the peninsula, consisted, m 
 the main, of these two great groups of sects ^nd of a 
 mass of wandering celibate ascetics, who were held to 
 be outside society. " The Vishnuite sects were very 
 numerous, both in the North and in the South, and they 
 were perhaps, on the whole, more homogeneous than the 
 worshippers of Siva. The leading Vishnuite sects declare 
 Vishnu to be the one God, and yet they recognize the 
 existence of all the other divinities of the Hindu 
 pantheon. They also hold that Vishnu has been incarn- 
 ate among men a great many times, the latest and chief 
 incarnations being Eama and Krishna. VTorshippers of 
 Siva declare that Siva is the one God, but recognize also 
 all the other gods. A special group of Sivaite sects has 
 to be noticed, namely, those who pay honour to the wife 
 of Siva as Kali or Durga. Both Vishnuites and Sivaites 
 worship idols, but among Sivaites the phallic symbol is 
 more usual than images of the god. Both sects worship 
 their gurus, that is, their teachers, as gods. Both are 
 fully orthodox in the sense that they retain and enforce 
 with great strictness the ancient Hindu rules of conduct 
 which are summed up under the word dharma. Both 
 sects claim to be Vedantists, but each has its own inter- 
 pretation of the philosophy " (J. N. Farquhar). Perhaps 
 the most celebrated of Vishnuite teachers was Rfimanuja, 
 who lived about 1100 A.D., and opposed the doctrine 
 which denied the real existence of the phenomenal world 
 and identified all souls with the one Brahma. Accord- 
 ing to Ramanuja, Brahma is " an all-penetrating, all 
 powerful, all-knowing, all-merciful Being. He is not 
 an undifferentiated Unity, for the manifold world of 
 reality exists in Him; souls and the material elements 
 form His body but not His nature; they are subordinate 
 to Him as our body is to our spirit, and exist in Him 
 with a relative independence. All that lives is in process 
 of transmigration (samsara), from which the soul can 
 free itself — ^through the knowledge of Brahma, not 
 through good works; the soul is then raised into the 
 world of Brahma, to an eternal, blessed life, and partici- 
 pates in Brahma's divine qualities, except in His power 
 to emit and to rule the world and to receive it back into 
 Himself " (F. von Hiigel, E.L.). See, in addition to the 
 works already mentioned, B. W. Hopkins; W. Bousset; 
 G. A. Barton, Rel., 1917; F. W. Bussell. Various castes, 
 sects, reform-movements, etc., are treated under separate 
 headings. 
 
 HIRIADEVA. An object of worship among the 
 Kurumbas of Southern India, represented by a rough 
 stone set up either in a cave or in a circle of stones. 
 
 HISTOPBDES. The Eunomians (g.v.) are said to have 
 been so called because they baptised persons with their 
 
 feet upright (histos) in the air (Epiphanius, Haer 
 Ixxvi.; Theodoret, Bwret. fab. iv. 30). 
 
 HISTORY OF GAD THE SEER. A record referred 
 to in I. Chronicles (xxix. 29). See HISTORY OF 
 SAMUEL THE SEER. 
 
 HISTORY OF NATHAN THE PROPHET. A record 
 referred to in I. Chronicles (xxix. 29). See HISTORY 
 OF SAMUEL THE SEER. 
 
 HISTORY OF SAMUEL THE SEER. A record 
 referred to in 1. Chronicles (xxix. 29). We read as 
 follows : " Now the acts of David the king, first and last, 
 behold they are written in the history (or ' acts ' or 
 ■ words ') of Samuel the seer, and in the history of Nathan 
 the prophet, and in the history of Gad the seer; with 
 all his reigQ and his might, and the times that went 
 over him, and over Israel, and over all the kingdoms of 
 the countries." These do not appear to have been inde- 
 pendent works. " There can be little doubt that these 
 are nothing more than references to the narratives in 
 which Samuel, Nathan, and Gad are mentioned in our 
 books of Samuel. The order is the same as that in 
 which they appear in the earlier historical books. If the 
 Chronicler knew anything about these men with which we 
 are not familiar from the books of Samuel, he kept that 
 information to himself. Where he does mention Nathan 
 (c. 17) and Gad (c. 21), he simply uses material found in 
 II. Samuel (cc. 7, 24). He probably quoted the acts of 
 these three men, instead of simply referring to the one 
 book which contained aU of them, since such an enumera- 
 tion of works would emphasise the importance of David's 
 reign" (E. L. Curtis and A. A. Madsen). See E. L. 
 Curtis and A. A. Madsen, Commentary on the Books of 
 
 (^ hVOTliclGS 1^10 
 
 HITTITE RELIGION. The Hittites came into con- 
 tact with Babylonia and Egypt towards the end of the 
 third millennium B.C. In the fourteenth century they 
 appear as a firmly-established power with an extensive 
 dominion and with a capital at Boghaz-Keui. The name 
 of their chief deity, the " Ix)rd of Heaven," a storm- 
 god, is not known, but representations of him have been 
 preserved in sculptures. With him is associated a 
 goddess, the Great Mother. A sculpture in the sanctuary 
 near Boghaz-Keui represents the ceremonial marriage 
 of the two deities with its rites and festivities. The 
 goddess is represented as having a young companion, a 
 youth, who seems to have been worshipped as the patron 
 of agriculture. Ou some of the sculptures the god is 
 represented as a Bull, while one of the special emblems 
 of the Great Mother is the Lion. On one .sculpture the 
 goddess is worshipped in a ceremonial feast or com- 
 munion. Again, in many small clay and bronze images 
 found in Northern Syria, "the goddess is represented 
 as naked, with her hands proffering her breasts " (J. 
 Gar.stang, The Syrian Goddess). The Hittite power 
 began to wane in the 12th century, and came to an end 
 before 700 B.C. But the goddess survived, and her cult 
 was pursued, with modifications, especially at Pessinus 
 in Phrygia, and at Comana in the Taurus, where the 
 Romans identified her with Bellona. See J. Garstang, 
 Land of the Hittites, and his Introd. to H. A. Strong's 
 translation of The Syrian Ooddess, 1913. 
 
 HLIN. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. The 
 goddess Hlin, who belonged to the retinue of Fri.ia (q.v.) 
 and Freyja (q.v.), appears as a goddess who protects 
 people against peril. 
 
 HLUDANA. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 The goddess Hludana is mentioned on inscriptions as 
 having been worshipped by fishermen. See P. D. Chante- 
 pie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 HCENIR. A deity in the religion of the Ancient 
 Teutons. The god Hoenir is sometimes one of a triad,
 
 Hoffmannites 
 
 181 
 
 Horus 
 
 tbe other two gods being Odhin ((?.".) and Lodhurr 
 or Loki (g.v.). He is accompanied by the wise Mimir 
 because he is himself duU. His precise nature is 
 unknown. E. H. Meyer regards him as equivalent to 
 the Enoch (Henoch) of the Bible. See P. D. Chantepie 
 de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 HOFFMANNITES. A religious community founded 
 by Christian Hoffmann in 1S4S. Another name for them 
 is Jerusalem Friends (g.v.). 
 
 HOKKB SECT. Another name for the Japanese 
 Buddhist sect Nichiren (g.v.). 
 
 HOLDA. Holda is a figure in Teutonic mythology. 
 She belongs more especially to Northern Germany. In 
 modem folklore -she is represented sometimes as leading 
 the host of the dead when it mshes through the air (.see 
 WILD HUNT). Sometimes she is repre.sented as a 
 goddess of fertility. See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussa.ve. 
 Rel. of the Teutons. 
 
 HOLLER. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 The god Holler was worshipped by the Frisians as the 
 " Lord of the lower world." 
 
 HOLY CROSS. SOCIETY OF. A Society founded in 
 1S55 by Anglican clergymen with the idea of cultivating 
 a deeper spiritual life. The leading spirit was Alexander 
 Heriot Mackonochie (1825-1887). In 1862 Mackonochie 
 was appointed the first vicar of St. Alban's Church, Hol- 
 bom. He became an advanced ritualist, and in 18G7 
 was prosecuted under the " Church Discipline Act " in 
 the provincial Court of Arches. On his acquittal here, 
 appeal was made to the judicial committee of the privy 
 council, and the former judgment was reversed. This 
 decision Mackonochie did not consider binding. His 
 opponents, however, continued to attack him. In 1882 
 he resigned the living of St. Alban's, Holbom. The 
 church has become famous for its ritualistic practices. 
 See the D.N.B. 
 
 HOLY DROI'. Mr. F. L. Faridi (quoted by R. V. 
 Russell and B. B. Hira Lai) speaks of the mmarchhanta 
 or Holy Drop as being a remarkable feature at the 
 Khojah's death. The BChojahs are a small Muham- 
 madan sect of traders belonging to Gujarat in India, 
 who retain some Hindu practices. They meet for prayer 
 at a lodge called the Jama'at Khana. " The Jama 'at 
 otficer asks the dying Khojah whether he wishes for the 
 Holy Drop, and if the latter agrees he must bequeath 
 Rs. 5 to Rs. 500 to the .lama'at. The otficer dilutes a 
 cake of Karbala clay in water and moistens the lips of 
 the dying man with it. sprinkling the remainder over his 
 face, neck and chest. The touch of the Holy Drop is 
 believed to save the departing soul from the temptation 
 of the Arch-Fiend. and to remove the death-agony as 
 completely as among the Sunnis does the recital at a 
 death-bed of the chapter of the Koran known as the 
 Siirah-i-Ta-sIn." 
 
 HOLY MAID OF KENT, THE. In the reign of Henry 
 "VIII. this name was given to Elizabeth Barton (1.506?- 
 1534). Originally a domestic servant, she became sub- 
 ject to trances and visions and gave forth messages which 
 were supposed to be inspired. Her clients included the 
 King, Edward Bocking (d. 1.534), William Warham (14-50?- 
 1532), Archbishop of Canterbury, John Fisher (1459-1535), 
 Bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More (1478-1535). 
 When King Henry divorced Catherine of Aragon, Eliza- 
 beth Barton denounced him, and prophesied that he would 
 die soon after his marriage. Afterwards she declared 
 that in the sight of God he was no longer king. Event- 
 ually an Act of attainder was passed against her: and 
 in April 1534 she was executed at Tyburn with her chief 
 accomplices. See M. W. Patterson, Hist.; tie D.N.B. 
 
 HOLY OFFICE. Another name for the Inquisition 
 <g.v.). 
 
 HOMA. The word Homa is explained in Garrett's 
 " Classical Dictionary of India " as " a sort of burnt- 
 offering which can be made by Brahmans only. It is 
 only made on special occasions, such as the celebration 
 of a festival, the investiture of a young Brahman with 
 the sacred thread, marriages and funerals. The method 
 of making it is as follows : During the utterance of 
 Mantras, five species of consecrated wood, together with 
 the Dharba grass, rice and butter, are kindled and burnt, 
 and the fire is then kept burning as long as the festival 
 or ceremony lasts. Great efficacy is ascribed to this 
 rite." See J. C. Oman, Cults. 
 
 HOME-ATECIAGUAT. A deity worshipped bv the 
 Nicarao (of Nicaragua). He is probably the Mexican 
 Omeciuatl. 
 
 HOME-ATELITE. A deity worshipped by the Nicarao 
 (of Nicaragua). He i.s probably the Mexican Ometecutli. 
 
 HONGWANJI SECT. A Japanese Buddhist sect. 
 Hongwanji sect is another name for the Shin sect (g.v.). 
 
 HORaYOTH. The title of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D., 
 and are included in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Horayoth is the tenth tractate of the fourth 
 group, wliich is called NezTkin (" Damages "). 
 
 HOREBITES. After the death of John Hus (1369-1415) 
 some of his followers became known as Calixtines (g.v.), 
 others as Taborites (g.v.). The Taborites were the mili- 
 tant party. The Horebites were a sub-division of these. 
 They were so called because they gave the name Horeb 
 to a mountain in Bohemia on wliich they encamped. 
 
 HORNS OF CONSECRATION. In Minoan religious 
 scenes is found a ritual object shaped like the horns of 
 an altar. H. R. Hall (.4. A.) thinks that it was not really 
 a horned altar, but " something which was used in re- 
 ligious exercises." It is associated with the sacred 
 double-axe or the sacred pillar. 
 
 HORSE, TREASURE OP THE. One of the seven 
 royal trea.sures which the Icing of kings, the ideal king, 
 of the Buddhists, or rather of the pre-Buddhists, is .sup- 
 posed to possess. It is de.scribed as " all white, with a 
 black head and a dark mane, wonderful in power, flying 
 through the sky, the charger-king whose name was 
 Thunder-Cloud." Rhys Davids thinks the iSea was bor- 
 rowed from ancient mythology. He compares the idea 
 of the horses of the sun. made familiar to us by the 
 Greeks. See T. W. Rhys Davids. 
 
 HORSES, SACRIFICE OF. The sacrifice of the horse 
 has heen noted among a number of peoples. The ancient 
 Persians are said to have sacrificed a horse every month 
 to Cyrus. The Vedic .\ryans and, according to Pliny, 
 the Romans sacrificed horses. The Massagetse. who were 
 found to the East of Seythia, sacrificed a horse to the 
 Sun, their only deity. According to Ridgeway. the horse- 
 sacrifice was a characteristic of the religion of the Teu- 
 tonic and Scandinavian peoples. The Iliyrians, Greeks, 
 and Persians preferred white horses. Dr. Jung jwints 
 out that " legends ascribe properties to the horse, which 
 psj'chologically belong to the uncon.scious of man: horses 
 are clainoyant and clairaudient: they show the way 
 when the lost wanderer is helpless: they have mantic 
 powers. In the Iliad the horse prophesies evil. They 
 hear the words which the corpse speaks when it is taken 
 to the grave — ^words which men cannot hear." In folk- 
 lore horses are symbolical of wind, fire, or light, etc. 
 See William Ridgeway, T.H., 1905; C. G. Jung, Psych., 
 1915. 
 
 HORUS. An Egyptian deity. (1) Horus was one of
 
 Horns, The Eye of 
 
 182 
 
 Hospitallers 
 
 the names of the sun-god. As such he bears a number 
 of different cognomens, according to the districts in which 
 he was worshipped. Thus we have " Honis the Elder " 
 (Greek Aroeris) of Letopolis; " Horus of the Two Eyes " 
 of ShedennO: " Honis I^rd of Not Seeing" of Letopolis: 
 " Horus on the Two Horizons " (Greek Harmakhis) of 
 Heliopolis; "the Golden Horus": "Horus the Bull" 
 (Saturn): "the Red Horus" (Mars); "Horus the 
 Opener of that which is Secret " (Jupiter). Horus the 
 Sun-god is represented as a falcon or as a man with a 
 falcon's head. Since tile Egyptian word for falcon, 
 hcru, is also Arabic. Naville finds in it support for the 
 view that the original home of the conquering Egyptian 
 was in Arabia. In several chronologies Horus is repre- 
 sented as the last of the prehistoric divine kings. The 
 legendary epoch is represented as the age of the " com- 
 panions "or followers of Horns." Naville explains that 
 " on the threshold of history, we find Horus and his com- 
 panions, a clan, a tribe who had the falcon as their sacred 
 animal or their god : every king is himself a Horus, and in 
 the oldest inscriptions that we possess, the king is not de- 
 signated by his prenomen, or personal name, he is a Horus 
 with this or that qualification or description added." 
 (2) Horus. the son of Isis, first referred to as " Horus 
 the child," and represented with human form, is one of 
 the chief characters in the Osiris myth. He was blended 
 with Horus the Sun-god at an early date, and is also 
 represented as hawk-headed. In the Osiris myth Horns 
 fights with Set (f/.ii.), and is declared victorious. The 
 gods assembled in the hall of Keb (q.v.) greet him with 
 the words : " Welcome, Horus, son of Osiris, courageous, 
 just, son of Isis and heir of Osiris! " See Alfred Wiede- 
 mann; Adolf Erman, Handbook; Naville, The Old 
 Egyptian Faith, 1909. 
 
 HORUS, THE EYE OF. In the Osiris myth, when 
 Horus fights with Set (g.r.) he loses an eye. Thoth 
 (Q.v.) thereupon spits on the eye and heals it. Horus 
 takes it and offers it to his father Osiris, who eats it. 
 The eye of Horus thus became the prototype and model 
 of all gifts, and frequent reference is made to it. Thus 
 when the officiating priest drew the bolt of the door of 
 the temple he said : " The finger of Set is withdrawn 
 from the eye of Horus, that is excellent. The finger of 
 Set is withdrawn from the e.ve of Horus, that is excel- 
 lent. I loosen the leather behind the god." See Alfred 
 Wiedemann: Adolf Erman, Handbook; Naville, The Old 
 Egyptian Faith, 1909. 
 
 HOSEA, BOOK OF. Hosea, the son of Beeri, is 
 assigned in the Old Testament the first place among the 
 Minor Prophets (q.v.). He was a prophet of the Northern 
 Kingdom. The book of Hosea falls 'nto two parts. The 
 first part (chaps, i.-iii.) recounts the unhappiness of his 
 domestic life. He had married a wife who proved her- 
 self to be unfaithful. And he came afterwards to realize 
 "that his own tragic domestic experiences had opened 
 his eyes to the appreciation of those supreme truths re- 
 garding Jehovah's character and will which constituted 
 his message and made him a prophet " (C. F. Kent). The 
 second part of the book (chaps, iv.-xiv.) contains a series 
 of addresses or sermons. The superscription to tie book 
 would seem to have been added by a later editor. 
 References in the book itself seem to many scholars to 
 suggest that Hosea's work must have begun before 740 
 and ended before 735 B.C. The background of chaps. 
 i.-iii., it is thought, reflects the closing years of the reign 
 of Jeroboam II! Afflictions and punishment seem to be 
 thought of as .still in the future. The background of 
 chaps, iv.-xiv., it is thought, "agrees precisely with what 
 we read in II. Kings xv. of the internal dissensions which 
 rent the northern kingdom after the fall of the house of 
 Jehu, when Menahem called in the Assyrians to help him 
 
 against those who challenged his preteusions to the 
 throne" (Encycl. Bibl.). See Hosea vii. 3-7, 1(5: x. 15; v. 
 13; vii. 11; viii. 9; xii. 2. There seems to be no allusion, 
 on the other hand, to the events of the Syro-Ephraimlte 
 war (735 B.C.) or to the first invasion of Tiglath-pileser 
 iv. (734 B.C.). O. C. Whitehouse, however, thinks that 
 a careful examination of Hosea's book gives a dift'erent 
 result. The "utter social disorganisation " of the 
 Northern Kingdom," as depicted. ix)iuts, he thinks, to 
 " a period subsequent to rather than before the invasion 
 of 734-2." Such passages as vi. 1, 2, S-9, vii. 9, viii. 4, 
 ix. 15, xii. 12 "are best explained when Tiglath Pileser's 
 campaign is placed in retrospect." The ijathetic appeals 
 in X. 12-14, xi. 5-8 are best understood if they are assigned 
 to the date 72t>-5 B.C. And xii. 1 refers, he thinks, to 
 the double-dealing of King Hoshea (II. Kings xvii. 4). 
 According to Prof. Whitehouse, " 725, rather than 735, is 
 the closing date of Ho.sea's oracles." C. Comill describes 
 the book as " individual and siibjective in character to a 
 degree that is hardly paraUeleti in the case of any other 
 prophetic writing." Variations of metre have been 
 noted, but these may well be explained as due to the 
 quicklv-changing moods of the prophet. See Encycl. 
 Bibl.; C. Comill, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse: 
 C. F. Kent, The Sermons, Epistles, and Apocalypses of 
 Israel's Prophets. 1910. 
 
 HOSPITALLERS. Hosiiitallers is the designation of 
 a number of diaritable brotherhoods in the Roman 
 Catholic Church, " associations of laymen, monks, canons, 
 and knights, which devoted themselves to nursing the 
 sick and the poor in the hospitals, while at the same time 
 observing certain monastic practices, generally according 
 to the rule of Augustine " (Schaff-Herzog). In 1190 
 Count Guido of Montpellier founded there the Hospital 
 Brethren of the Holy Spirit. The order was confirmed 
 by Pope Innocent III. in 119S. and the " Hospitale S. 
 Spiritus in Saxia " at Rome became its mother-house. 
 In 1212 the Hospitallers of Burgos were founded. In 
 1280 arose the Brethren of Charity of Blessed Mary, and 
 established its mother-house in the hospital " Les 
 Billets " in Paris. Hospital Sisters were instituted also, 
 who devoted themselves to the work of educating and 
 protecting girls, as well as to the care of the sick. The 
 Knights of St. John of Jerusalem and the Teutonic 
 Knights <q.%\) started as Hospitallers. The former grew 
 out of the Brothers of the Hospital of St. John the 
 Baptist. About the middle of the eleventh century a 
 convent aud hospital dedicated to St. John the Baptist 
 had been built at Jerusalem by merchants of Amalfi. with 
 the object of caring for pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre. 
 Later, after the conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, 
 the hospital was .separated from the convent, and received 
 the gift of a manor from Duke Godfrey of Bouillon. 
 Raymond du Puy, who succeeded Abbot (ierard in lllS, 
 became Master of the Order of the Brothers of the Hos- 
 pital of St. John the Baptist. He drew up a rule for 
 the order, which was confirmed by Pope Calixtus II. in 
 1120. The Brothers had to take the three vows of poverty, 
 chastity, and obedience. Knights now began to join the 
 order, and it became more and more military. From the 
 ta.sk of protecting pilgrims on their way to the Holy 
 City, they proceeded to that of defending the Holy 
 Sepulchre, and then to that of making war upon infidels. 
 In course of time. too. there grew up a rivalry between 
 them and the Knights Templars which led to a 
 pitched battle between them (32.59). In 1187 the Hos- 
 pitallers removed to Markab in Phoenicia, in 1193 to 
 Acre, in 1291 to C.vprus. In 1310 they took forcible 
 IX)ssession of the Island of Rhodes. Driven from here by 
 Sultan Solyman the Magnificent in 1.523, they removed 
 to Candia (Crete). In 1530 the Emperor Charles V.
 
 Hou Chi 
 
 183 
 
 Humanism 
 
 granted them possession of the Island of Malta. Here 
 they remained until 179S, when, through treachery, the 
 island was surrendered to the French. In 1800 the island 
 was captured by the English. Afterwards the head- 
 quarters of the order were iirst at Catana and then at 
 Ferra. Since 1799 most of the branches of the order 
 have been suppressed. There is a revived order or 
 Society in the Church of England, called "The Grand 
 Priory of the Order of the Hospital of S. John of Jeru- 
 salem in England," with its headquarters at St. John's 
 Gate, Clexkenwell, London. What is now the Anglican 
 Church of St. John the Baptist, Clerkenwell, was before 
 the dissolution of the monasteries the Priory of the 
 Knights of St. John of Jerusalem (consecrated in llSo). 
 The revived order has a new character. " Its efforts are 
 purely philanthropic : it distributes charity to con- 
 valescents who have just left hospital, maintains cottage 
 hospitals and convalescent homes in the country, and an 
 ophthalmic hospital at Jerusalem. It has founded the 
 street ambulance sjstem, and was chiefly concerned in the 
 origination of the Red Cross Society " (Chaml)er8). See 
 Schaff-Herzog : Cath. Diet.; Chambers's Enoycl.; Brock- 
 haus. 
 
 HOU CHI. A figure in the ancient religion of China. 
 The House of Chou is said to have originated with him. 
 On certain occasions he was worshipped as the Associate 
 of God, and his aid was often sought in hours of distress 
 or danger. In the Odes, as quoted by H. A. Giles, he is 
 represented as having been miraculously bom and pro- 
 tected. His mother conceived after treading in a foot- 
 print of God. In due time, " her firstborn came forth 
 like a lamb. There was no bursting, no rending, no 
 injury, no hurt, in order to emphasise his divinity. . . . 
 He was exixised in a narrow lane, but sheep and oxen 
 protected and suckled him: he was exiK)sed in a wide 
 forest, but woodcutters found him : he was exposed on 
 cold ice, but birds covered him with their wings." Hou 
 Chi was wonderfully successful in teaching the people 
 husbandry. See Herbert A. Giles, Reunions of Ancient 
 China, 1905. 
 
 HOUSE-CLEANING, FESTIVAL OF. One of the two 
 annual festivals of the Urfilis is the Thai nombu, held in 
 the month Thai (December — January). On this occasion 
 the whole house is cleaned. The Uralis referred to 
 dwell in the jungles of Dimbhum in the Coimbatore dis- 
 trict of Southern India. 
 
 HOW-TOO. Chinese go<l of earth, whose worship was 
 associated with that of mountains, rivers, and hills. He 
 was a special object of worship to the emperor. 
 
 HTUBHTUM. A tribal deity, god of gems, in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 HUEHUETEOTL. One of tie gods worshipped by 
 the ancient Mexicans, the Fire-god. Huehueteotl was 
 another name for Xiuhtecutli. 
 
 HUGUENOT SOCIETY OF LONDON, THE. A 
 Society founded in 1885 for the purpose of collecting and 
 publishing information relative to the History and 
 Genealogy of the Huguenots, especially of those who took 
 refuge in the United Kingdom. The Society's chief 
 publications are : (1) the History and Registers of all the 
 French and Walloon Churches formerly existing in the 
 United Kingdom ; and (2) Proceedings, containing reports 
 of meetings, papers read at meetings, and miscellaneous 
 information. 
 
 HUITZILOPOCHTLI. Huitzilopochtli, which means 
 " the Humming-bird on the left," was the name given to 
 the god of war by the ancient Mexicans. It would seem 
 to have been a popular name which came into use instead 
 of the original name, Mextli. J. M. Robertson com- 
 pares the story of the birth of Huitzilopochtli to that of 
 the birth of Mars. One day, when a widow Coatlicue or 
 
 Coatlantona entered the Temple of the Sun, a ball of 
 bright-coloured feathers fell at her feet. Picking it up, 
 she put It in her bosom. By touching it in this wav, she 
 TCcame impregnated and in cour.se of time gave birth to 
 Huitzilopochtli. Her son was born with a spear in one 
 hand, a shield in the other, and a plume of humming- 
 bird s feathers on his head. The feathers appeared also 
 on his left leg. Huitzilopochtli became a great hero in 
 the eyes of the Aztecs. When his mother died she was 
 translated to heaven, and became the Goddess of Flowers 
 Juno, too, the mother of Mars, when she became pregnant 
 was a virgin. She was impregnated bv touching a 
 flower. Robertson (i?.S.n\) thinks that originally Huit- 
 zilopochtli was, like Mars, a gj-lvan deitv. He was the 
 god of the Spring and Summer Sun. Then, since war 
 was usually begun in spring, the God of Spring became 
 Uie God of War. Lewis Spence holds that the humming- 
 bird was the original totem of the Aztecs. Its pugnacity 
 and courage would commend it to a warlike tribe. Their 
 standard was, in fact, a miniature of Huitzilopochtli, 
 and was called Huitziton or Paynalton, the " little 
 humming-bird " or '• little quick one." The totem 
 became the national war-god of the Aztecs. The adoption 
 of a solar cultus, according to Spence, came later. At 
 Huitzilopochtli's festival in December " an image of him 
 was modelled in dough, kneaded with the blood of 
 sacrificed children, and this was pierced by the presiding 
 priest with an arrow, in token that the sun had been 
 slain, and was dead for a season." See Lewis Spence, 
 Myth.; J. M. Robertson, " The Religions of Ancient 
 Mexico," in R.S.W.; Reinach, O.; J. M. Robertson, P.G. 
 HULARIA. The special deity of the Golarg (also 
 known as GoUams, Gollas, Golas. Golkars), the shepherd 
 ca.ste of the Telugu country in India. Hularia is wor- 
 .^hipped as the protector of cattle against disease and wild 
 
 HULSEAN LECTURES. The Hulsean Lectures were 
 founded from a fund bequeathed by John Hulse (1708- 
 1790) to Cambridge University. Among other founda- 
 tions was to be that of Christian Advocate and Christian 
 Preacher, or Hulsean Lecturer. The Lecturer was to 
 deliver and publish twenty sermons yearly on the 
 evidences of Christianity or on the difficulties of the Bible. 
 In course of time the number of lectures or sermons was 
 reduced, and in ISfiO the Christian Advocateship was made 
 a Hulsean Professorship. 
 
 HUMAN SACRIFICE. Luoian (§ 58) states that the 
 Syrians .sacrificed their children. Describing a special 
 kind of sacrifice, he says : " They adorn live victims with 
 ribbons and throw them headlong down from the temple's 
 entrance, and these naturally die after their fall. Some 
 actually throw their own children down, not as they do 
 the cattle, but they sew them into a sack and toss them 
 down, visiting them with curses and declaring that they 
 are not their children, but are cows" (transl. by H. A. 
 Strong). See further G. H. Payne, The Child inBuman 
 Progress, 191fi.. 
 
 HUMANISM. Humanism is the name given by F. C. 
 S. Schiller, of Oxford, to a form of Pragmatism (g.v.) 
 which he has himself developed. The name of the 
 philosophy .seems to be due " to the fact that it makes 
 ' man the measure' (homo mensura), or bases itself in 
 human nature and human experience " (Davidson). The 
 appeal is to exjierience and consequences. "Truth, in 
 order to be true, must have practical results, it must 
 work — yea more, in the wider humanism, it coiisists in 
 consequences, more especially if these are gooH. Our 
 beliefs are determined by practical interest. We believe 
 what serves our purpose, or what points to an end which 
 we desire, or what satisfies our needs : we disbelieve 
 what serves no purpose, or what has proved to be mis- 
 is
 
 Humanity, Religion of 
 
 Hutchinsonians 
 
 leading or inadequate to meet our wants. So, too, of 
 morality : human needs and their satisfaction determine 
 between right and wrong, and give us the ethical 
 notions." W. L. Davidson points out that pragmatism 
 or humanism on its negative side is a protest against a 
 priorism and Absolutism, neither of which submits to 
 experience. " Indeed, it owes its existence to reaction 
 against that extreme intellectualism which so long ruled, 
 where man was contemplated simply as a rational being, 
 his emotive and his volitional nature being ignored. It 
 is, consequently, essentially inductive in its method, and 
 breathes the scientific spirit throughout. It will not 
 permit truth to be relegated to a transcendent sphere to 
 which experience has no access, nor will it allow 
 experience to be dictated to by mere unverified and un- 
 verifiable a priori conceptions." The defects of 
 Humanism, according to W. L. Davidson, are (1) that it 
 over-emphasizes action or the will, and (2) that, though 
 strong psychologically, it is weak metaphysically. See 
 William L. Davidson, The Stoic Creed. 1907. 
 
 HUMANITY, RELIGION OF. A designation of the 
 system of religion formulated by Auguste Comte (1797- 
 185S). See POSITIVISM. 
 
 HUNABKU. A tribal deity, god of creation, in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. He is perhaps identical 
 with Hunahpu. 
 
 HUNAHAU. A tribal deity, lord of the underworld, 
 in the religion of the Mayan Indians. He is represented 
 sometimes as a skeleton with skulls and cross-bones ; and 
 corresponds to the Mexican god Mictlantecutli. 
 
 HUNAHPU. A tribal deity, god of creation, in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 HUNPIKTOK. A tribal deity, god of war, in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 HUNTINGDON'S CONNEXION, THE COUNTESS 
 OF. The followers of Selina, Countess of Huntingdon 
 (1707-1791). The countess was the wife of Theophilus 
 Hastings, ninth earl of Huntingdon. Her husband's 
 sister. Lady Margaret Hastings, married Benjamin Ing- 
 ham (1712-1772), who at Oxford was one of the members 
 of the " methodist " society of Charles Wesley (1707-1788). 
 John Wesley (1703-1791) was leader of his brother's 
 society. Through her brother-in-law the Countess of 
 Huntingdon made the acquaintance of the Wesleys. In 
 1738 John Wesley, and Peter Boehler, who had been 
 ordained by Zinzendorf, founded a religious " society " 
 in Fetter liine, London, of which the Countess became a 
 member. In 1739 Wesley opened a methodist chapel in 
 Ix)ndon, and in 1740 he withdrew from the Fetter-lane 
 Society. In the same year (1740) he abandoned Cal- 
 vinism. George Whitefield (1714-1770) then became 
 leader of the Calvinistic methodists, and an opponent or 
 a rival of John Wesley. The Countess of Huntingdon 
 supported Whitefield, and in 1748 made him one of her 
 domestic chaplains. He was an attractive preacher, and 
 even Lord Bolingbroke, Lord Chesterfield, and Horace 
 Walpole were glad to listen to him. In 1761 the Countess 
 opened a chapel at Brighton, and in 1765 another at Bath. 
 In 1768 she opened a College, Trevecca College, at Tal- 
 garth, near Brecon, that her " chaplains " might be suit- 
 ably trained. Other chapels were opened at Tunbridge 
 Wells (1769), Worcester (1773), and Spa Fields, London 
 (1779). At length the bishops refused to ordain her candi- 
 dates for Orders. Domestic chaplains were not supposed 
 to officiate in public chapels. The result was a secession 
 from the Church of England in 1783, and an independent 
 " ordination " (the first) in the chapel at Spa Fields. 
 In 1789 a chapel was opened at Swansea. In 1790 the 
 Countess made a will, and drew up a " plan of associa- 
 tion " for perpetuating the Connexion. In the following 
 year she died. In 1792 a college was opened at Cheshunt 
 
 in Hertfordshire, and in 1797 another chai)el at Canter- 
 bury. The Cheshunt College was removed to Cambridge 
 in 1906. In 1910 it was decided to sell the site of the 
 Spa Fields Church, and remove the Church to Golders 
 Green, Hampstead. See J. H. Blunt; the D.N.I!.; and 
 the Annual Reports of " The Countess of Huntingdon's 
 Connexion." 
 
 HUNTINGTONIANS. The followers of William 
 Huntington (1745-1813), who was a coalheaver originally 
 He became a preacher, and preached in Surrey and 
 Sussex. Removing to London, he ministered first to a 
 congregation in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, and 
 then built " Providence Chapel " in Titchfield Street, 
 London, where he preached for some yeans (1783-1810). 
 In 1811 he opened the " New Providence Chapel " in 
 Gray's Inn Lane, London. Huntington api>ended S.S. 
 to his name, which is supposed to have stood for the 
 words " Sinner Saved." " This popular preacher of his 
 day seems to have acquired considerable influence by 
 lireaching in an exaggerated form the two doctrines of 
 Faith and Indefectible Grace, which were made so pro- 
 minent by the Methodi.sts and the Calvinistic clergy, and 
 by spicing his sermons with coarse humour" (J. H. 
 Blunt). Rowland Hill (1744-1833) was one of those with 
 whom he entered into controversy. Before he became 
 rich, Huntington reproved the bishops for " rolling their 
 fat carcases about in chariots." Afterwards he excused 
 himself for riding in a chariot by referring to Acts xxi. 
 15, " And after those days we took up our carriages, and 
 went up to Jerusalem." Huntington's works include 
 Ood the Guardian of the Poor, and The Naked Bow. 
 See J. H. Blunt ; and the D.N.B. 
 
 HUNTOH. A tribal god in the religion of the Mayan 
 Indians. 
 
 HURAKAN. A figure in the mythology of the Quiche 
 Indians of Central America, a wind-god. Hurakan. who 
 seems to correspond to the Mexican Tezcatlipoca, is in 
 fact one of the central heroes of the QuichS sacred book, 
 the Popol Vuh. 
 
 HUSSITES. The name Hussites, as that of a religious 
 sect or .school, was suggested by that of John Hus or 
 Huss (1369-1415), the Bohemian. The name was given 
 to his followers by his opponents. But his followers 
 were, in reality, divided into two sections known as the 
 Calixtines (g.v.) and the Taborites (g.r.). In 1401 John 
 Hus became Dean of the Faculty of Arts in the Univers- 
 ity of Prague. In 1402 he was appointed also preacher 
 in the Chapel of Bethlehem at Prague. With a natural 
 gift of eloquence, he was inspired with enthusiasm by 
 the writings of John Wyeliffe (d. 1.384). His denuncia- 
 tion of ecclesiastical abuses and his popularity as a 
 preacher, however, soon brought him enemies. He was 
 accused of being a rebel, a heretic, and a Wycliffite. At 
 length the Emperor Sigismund persuaded him to submit 
 his case to the Council of Constance (1414-15), promising 
 him protection. The promised protection was not given, 
 and Hus was thrown into prison. He was formally 
 accused of denying Transubstantiation (g.v.). of teaching 
 the heresies of Wyeliffe, of inciting the people to enter 
 upon a religious warfare and of causing strife between 
 the civil and spiritual powers. He was condemned of 
 heresy, degraded from the priesthood, and burnt. The 
 literary remains of Hus consist of .sermons, tractates, 
 letters, and hymns. The Letters, as edited by E. de 
 Bonnechose, were translated into English in 1846. John 
 Hus's " De Ecclesia " (1413) bears unmistakable marks 
 of the influence of the writings of John Wyeliffe. See 
 J. H. Blunt; Prot. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 HUTCHINSONIANS. A school of theologians which 
 came into evidence at the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century. The founder was John Hutchinson (1674-1737),
 
 Hutchinsonians 
 
 185 
 
 Hysteria 
 
 who was for some time steward of the household of the 
 Duke of Somerset. The Duke procured him a sinecure 
 office as purveyor of the royal stables of George I., which 
 provided him until his deatli with a salary of about 
 £200 a year. This enabled him to devote much of his 
 time to the writing of books. He was a skilful mechanic, 
 and invented an improved timepiece for determining 
 longitude. He had some acquaintance with natural 
 ecience, and acquired a knowledge of Hebrew. Hutchin- 
 son's main purpose seems to have been to prove that 
 the Bible is supreme not only in the field of religion, but 
 also in the sphere of science and theologj-. A number of 
 eminent men became known as Hutchinsonians. though 
 some of them were not inclined to acknowledge their 
 indebtedness to the founder of the school. Hutchinson 
 attached great impSrtance to the study of the original 
 Hebrew of the Bible. " He had embraced, in a very 
 dogmatic spirit, some extraordinai-y doctrine about the 
 perfection of the Scriptures, that is, the original Script- 
 ures in the Hebrew language. He found deep meanings 
 in recondite etymologies, and supposed that the Hebrew 
 Bible contained all knowledge, human and divine. 
 Hutchinson was also a zealous student of nature, and 
 found the fact of Noah's Deluge proved by chinks in the 
 earth, and sea-shells on the tops of mountains. The rise 
 of Paganism he traced to the neglect of the Hebrew 
 language. The heathen worshipped the air instead of 
 the Deity. The .same, or similar idolatry, is very preval- 
 ent now, through our language being Pagan, and partly 
 through the influence of Greek and Roman learning. The 
 Bible was written to cure the madness of the naturalists 
 and the star-gazers. Modem philosophers, as, for 
 instance. Sir Isaac Newton and Dr. Samuel Clarke, are 
 ■ idiots in respect of languages, and in respert of things 
 ignorant.' Newton's doctrine of a vacuum in nature 
 with the laws of gravitation are continual subjects of 
 condemnation; and especially a theory to which Newton 
 seems to have given some countenance, that in nature 
 God sometimes works without the mediation of a second 
 cause. Hutchinson found in the Hebrew Elohim the 
 name of the Trinity, who agreed together that if man 
 fell, one of them would become incarnate. This Trinity 
 has its emblem in the elements which constitute nature — 
 light, fire, and air. The persons in the Godhead are made 
 so distinctly three intelligent agents that Unitarians, or 
 such as believe in the absolute personal unit.v of the 
 Deity, are said not to worship the God of the Christian 
 revelation " (John Hunt). "The Hutehinsonian theology 
 was thought to be a convenient weapon to use against 
 I'beral churchmen who were supposed to be under the 
 influence of such writers at Matthew Tindal (lfi53?-1733), 
 author of the rationalistic work " Christianity as Old as 
 the Creation" (1730), and .John Toland (lti70-1722). author 
 of " Christianity not Mysterious " (1696). It was 
 adopted for this purpose by Julius Bate (1711-1771), 
 
 .Ione.s (1(2()-1800), commonly known as "Jones of Nav- 
 land, who wrote a tract " An Essav on the First Prin- 
 ciples of Natural Philosophy " with the object of refuting 
 ^3j^n,^s»«£^^ewton (1642-1-27) and Samuel Clarke (1675- 
 11,^9). Ihe works of Hutchinson himself include Moses' 
 Pnncipia, 1.24, and Glori/ Mechanical, or the Agent of 
 Mature, and Manner of their Agencu Explained See 
 John Hunt ; J. H. Blunt : and the D A' B 
 
 HUTITBS. The followers of John 'nut, Huta, or 
 Hutter, of Moravia, in the sixteenth century. They seem 
 to have shared all things in common. See J H Blunt 
 
 HYDROMANCY. the term Hvdromancv ' mean^ 
 divination by means of water. Wo seem to" have an 
 example of this in the Old Testatment, where it is said, 
 " Is not this (cup) tiat in which my lord drinketh, and 
 whereby he divineth? " The ancient Babylonians poured 
 oil into a vessel of water, and from the movements of 
 the oil, in accordance with fixed niles of interpretation, 
 deduced omens. A modem parallel has been found in 
 the Travels of Norden (c. 17.50), in which a Nubian 
 sheikh is reported as saying: " I have consulted my cup, 
 and I find that you are Franks in disguise, who have 
 come to spy out the land." W. H. Bennett compares 
 the modern custom in which the tea-leaves or coffee- 
 grounds in a cup are made to give information about 
 IJersons' fortunes. See W. H. Bennett, Genesis in tie 
 " Century Bible"; J. Skinner, Genesis in the I.C.C. 
 
 HYPOTHETICAL UNIVERSALISTS. A name given 
 to persons who adopted the teaching of Moses Amyraut. 
 See AMYRALDISTS. 
 
 HYPSISTARIANS. A fourth century sect referred 
 to by Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzum. 
 The term means " followers, or worshippers of the Most 
 High." The H.vpsistarians appeared in Cappadocia. 
 They recognized only the Most High as God. They 
 ob-served the Jewish Sabbath, but disapproved of circum- 
 cision and sacrifices. As symbols of the Deity, they 
 used fire and lights. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 HY'STERIA. A festival (Gk. ia-Tr)pia) at Argos at 
 which swine (i?) were sacrificed to Aphrodite. It was 
 held on New Year's Day, and was characterized by 
 scenes of wild frenzy. In consequence of this emotional 
 excitement, the term came to be applied to tie excitement 
 itself, and eventually was adopted in medicine to describe 
 emotional derangements of a similar kind. " Thus both 
 the terms ' hysteria ' and ' lunacy ' are intimately asso- 
 ciated with the earlier phases in the moon-goddess's 
 history; and their survival in modem medicine is a 
 striking tribute to the strong hold of effete sui)erstition 
 in this branch of the diagnosis and treatment of disease" 
 (G. Elliot Smith, Dr., 1919).
 
 186 
 
 Immaculate Conception 
 
 I 
 
 I Goddess I is a designation used by antliropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of tlie Mayan Indians 
 of Central America. In tlie Dresden MS. stie wears on 
 her head a knotted serpent, and holds in her hands a 
 vessel from which water streams. She is represented 
 also as a death-deity with cross-bones, apparently be- 
 cause her activities as a water-goddess sometimes brought 
 floods 
 
 IBLIS A name of the devil in Muslim theology. 
 Another name is ShaitAn. He was created of fire and 
 was originaUy called 'AzSzil. The Qur'an represents 
 that he was a kind of angel who was expelled from 
 Paradise and stoned. 
 
 IDHUNN. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 She is a goddess, and is represented as the wife of 
 Bragl (q.v.). " Idhunn has the golden apples of youth 
 in her keeping. She falls into the clutches of the giant 
 Thjazi, but the ^sir compel Loki to bring her back 
 again " (Chantepie de la Saussaye). See Rel. of the 
 Teutons, 1902. 
 
 IDISI. The Idisi are divine figures in Old Teutonic 
 mythology. Thev are mentioned in the Merseburg 
 Charms (g.v.) as "female beings who, like the Walkyriea 
 (q.v.), were active during battles. 
 
 lERMAOGTTACAR. An earth-goddess worshipped in 
 the West Indies (Antilles). 
 
 IGIGI. An order of superhuman beings in Babylonian 
 religion. The name means " the strong ones." The Igigi 
 seem to correspond to the Anunnaki (q.v.); but the for- 
 mer are spirits of heaven, the latter of earth. They are 
 sent forth on missions by the higher gods such as Anu 
 (q.v.), their father, Bel (q.v.), Ninib (q.v.), Marduk 
 (q.v.). They are found throughout the whole period of 
 the history "of Babylonia and Assyria. In the Epic of 
 Marduk (see MARDUK, EPIC OF) the army of Tifimat 
 (q.v.) is described as " all the Igigi ": and when Marduk 
 has conquered and set all the world in order, he is 
 adored and praised by the Igigi. See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rel. 
 
 IGNATIANS. Another name for the Jesuits (q.v.). 
 They were so called because their founder was Ignatius 
 of Lovola ( 1491-1 55C). 
 
 IGNORANTINES. The abbot Baptiste de la Salle 
 founded the Ignorantines or Fratres Ignorantiae or 
 Fr&res ignorantins, or Freres des 6coles chretiennes in 
 France at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The 
 body was strongly supported by the Jesuits. " Its pur- 
 pose was to give free instruction to people, not only in 
 religion, but also in the elements of secular education, 
 and thereby prevent any idea inimical to the Roman 
 Church entering or taking possession of the young mind." 
 See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 IJMA'. Ijma' is an Arabic word meaning " agree- 
 ment." The term is used to designate " the unanimous 
 agreement of the Muslim nation, or rather of the repre- 
 sentatives of the same, the learned doctors of IslSm. 
 called the Mujtahldin, on certain legal or theological 
 questions, and corresponds with the Christian term ' the 
 unanimous consent of the Apostolic Fathers.' " The 
 
 Ijma' is the third foundation of Islflm. The agreement 
 is of three kinds : (1) of word ; (2) of action or prac- 
 tice; (3) of silence or tacit assent. See F. A. Klein. 
 
 IKTO. A deity in the mythology of the Sioux Indians, 
 worshipped as the inventor of language. 
 
 ILAMATECUTLI. A Mexican deity. She seems to 
 have been a maize-goddess. " She, Teteoinnan and 
 Xilonen were associated in a peculiar form of sacrifice 
 in which the victim was decapitated, and which perhaps 
 represented the reaping of the maize-ear " (T. A. Joyce). 
 ILLUMINATI. The designation of the French 
 Familists in Picardy, who in 1634 combined with the 
 followers of Peter Guerin. " They claimed a special 
 revelation as to the proper means whereby to attain 
 Christian perfection. This perfection resulted in 
 ' deificatio,' the ©emo-is so often recurring in the Greek 
 Fathers. The outcome was antinomian, for ' no act was 
 sinful in the case of the deified ' " (F. W. Bussell). The 
 Illuminati were exterminated by the ministers of Louis 
 XIII. 
 
 IMAM, THE. An Arabic word meaning a " leader " 
 in religion, from a root 'amma "to have precedence " 
 or " to lead." The word designates one who has been 
 appointed to be the vice-regent of Muhammad and the 
 leader of the Muslim nation. The office was established 
 after the death of the Prophet. To be qualified for the 
 Imamate, a person must be a (1) Muslim, (2) a sane 
 man of full age, (3) a free man, (4> not impious, (5) a 
 just man, and (6) a Quraish. " It is the duty of every 
 Muslim to obey the Imilm inwardly and outwardly, so 
 long as his commands and prohibitions are in harmony 
 with the doctrines of IsMm. Should he give orders 
 contrary to the same, i.e., positively wrong, or objection- 
 able, he is not to be obeyed. When he commands 
 what is allowable, if his orders are such as tend to 
 promote the interests of the Muslim nation, they are to 
 be obeyed ; if not, there is no obligation on the Muslim 
 to obey them." The rightful successor of Muhammad 
 was Abu Bakr. But the Shi'ahs contend that Muham- 
 mad nominated 'Ali. See F. A. Klein. 
 
 IMHOTEP. An Egyptian deity. Originally Imhotep 
 was a learned man, an architect to the early king 
 Zoser, and an author. He was afterwards made Into 
 a god, the patron of scribes, and regarded as a son of 
 Ptah (q.v.) of Memphis. As patron of scribes he was 
 also patron of learning. " Before the scribe dipped his 
 pen in the water-jar he poured out a few drops as a 
 libation to Imhotep, the physicians venerated him as 
 patron of their science, and the people finally accepted 
 him wholl.v as a god of medicine, Asklepios as the 
 Graeeo-Egyptians called him " (Erman). See A. Wiede- 
 mann; Adolf Ermann, Handbook. 
 
 IMMACULATE C0^•CEPT10N. Since December the 
 Sth, 1S54, the doctrine of the immaculate conception of 
 the Mother of Jesus (Immaculate Conception of the 
 Blessed Virgin) has been one of the accepted dogmas of the 
 Roman Catholic Church. It was decreed by Pope Pius 
 IX. But, it is pointed out in the " Catholic Dictionary," 
 that a distinction has been drawn, and has to be drawn,
 
 Immaterialism 
 
 187 
 
 Indeterminism 
 
 between active and passive coneeptiou. Active con- 
 ception is the generative act of the parents. Passive 
 conception is the reception into the body of a rational 
 soul infused by God. " It is the passive, not the active, 
 conception which Catholics have in view when they speak 
 of the Immaculate Conception. For there was nothing 
 miraculous in Mary's generation. She was begotten like 
 other children. The body, while still inanimate, could 
 not be sanctified or preserved from original ein, for it is 
 the soul, not the body, which is capable of receiving 
 either the gifts of grace or the stain of sin." The 
 doctrine of the Immaculate Conception was first advo- 
 cated and defended publicly by Duns Scotus (12t)5 or 1274- 
 1308), the " Doctor Subtilis." It became afterwards a 
 matter of fierce controversy between the Franciscans, 
 who were Scotists, and the Dominicans, who were 
 Thomists (followers of Thomas Aquinas, 1225 or 1227- 
 1274). See Cath. Diet.; Prot. Diet. 
 
 IMMATERIALISM. The term Immaterialism is 
 Bometimes used of the doctrine of the immortality of the 
 eoul. It is also employed to describe the philosophy of 
 George Berkeley (16S.5-1753). His system is eo called as 
 being the opposite of Materialism. It is known also as 
 Idealism. Berkeley denied the existence of matter as an 
 absolute substance. See BERKELEYISM. 
 
 IMPECCABLES. A name assumed by the sect other- 
 wise known as Brethren of the Free Spirit (q.v.). The 
 name was due to the belief that they were free from 
 sin. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, WORSHIP OF. On special occasions 
 it is a common practice among the occTjpational castes 
 in India to worship their implements or tools. The 
 Murhas, for instance, a Dravidian caste of navvies and 
 lal)ourers found in Jubbulpore and the adjoining districts, 
 invoke their implements as follows: " Oh! my lord the 
 basket, my lord the pickaxe shaped like a snake, and 
 my lady the ho<l, come and eat up those who do not pay 
 me for my work!" The Prabhus, the Maratha caste 
 of clerks and accountants, on the fifth day after the birth 
 of a child, worship their pens, paper, and ink. See R. 
 V. Russell. 
 
 INARI. A .Japanese rice-goddess, with whose worship 
 is a.ssociated the cult of the fox. 
 
 INCENSE. The Enrycl. Bihl. defines incense as "the 
 perfume arising from aromatic substances during com- 
 bustion, and the substances themselves which are burned 
 to produce the perfume." The use of incense in ritual 
 and religious ceremonies has been widespread. It is 
 referred to frequently in the Old Testament, where in- 
 cen.se appears either as the concomitant of certain obla- 
 tions or as an offering by itself; and in later Jewish 
 literature we read often of the perftiming of garments by 
 fragrant smoke, and the use of fumigatories after meals. 
 In Psalm cxli., 2, Rev. viii. 3, v. 8, the sweet smoke 
 which rises heavenwards seems to have become a symbol 
 or vehicle of prayer, but this is a comparatively late con- 
 ception. An earlier conception is represented by such 
 passages as Gen. viii. 21 where Jehovah is said to have 
 emelled with pleasure the odour of a burnt offering (ep. 
 IjCv. xxvi. 31). Another conception, by no means primi- 
 tive, is that incense or fumigation with the smoke of 
 incense is a powerful cleansing medium. Incense was 
 much used in the religion of the Babylonians and 
 Assyrians. In Sabaean inscriptions, again, mention is 
 made of various substances used for incense. In ancient 
 Egypt, as Cheyne says (E.Bi.). the offering of incense by 
 a king is a frequent subject on the monuments, and great 
 quantities of incense were consumed in the temples. It 
 was an important feature in Roman religion. W. Warde 
 Fowler states that when the Magna Mater of Pessinus 
 was brought to Rome, "all Rome poured out to meet 
 
 her,_ and burned incense at their doors as she passed 
 by." He notes also that among the things which the 
 Christian Church inherited from the Roman religion as 
 symbolic elements in worship was the use of holy water 
 and of incense. In Greek religion, according to Mac- 
 Culloch (Hastings' Encycl.), '• incense as such was not 
 used before the eighth centurv B.C., and is first men- 
 tioned in Euripides": but later it came to be used in 
 large quantities. In the Roman Catholic Church inc-ense 
 is used " before the introit, at the gospel, oflfertorv and 
 elevation in High Mass, at the Magnificat in vespers, at 
 funerals, etc." (Cath. Diet.); but it is said to be certain 
 from Tertullian and many other early writers down to 
 St. Augustine that the religious use of incense was un- 
 known in the primitive Church. In the Church of Eng- 
 land it does not seem to have been used in divine service 
 in the period after the Reformation, but its use was 
 revived by the ritualistic party in the 19th century. In 
 recent years the study of the lower religions has revealed 
 the fact that the use of incense is more world-wide than 
 it was formerly supposed to be. It was much used, for 
 instance, in the religion of ancient Mexico. To return 
 now to the problem of the origin of the use of incense. 
 Robertson Smith (R.S.) suggested that the religious value 
 of Incense was originally independent of animal sacrifice, 
 since, as a matter of fact, frankincense was the gum of a 
 very holy species of tree, which was collected with re- 
 Ugious precautions. " Whether, therefore, the sacred 
 odour was use<l in unguents or burned like an .iltar 
 sacrifice, it appears to have owed its virtue, like the gum 
 of the samora tree, to the idea that it was the blood of 
 an animate and divine plant." More recently much new 
 light has been thrown on the subject, at any rate as far 
 as ancient Egypt is concerned, by Dr. A. il. Blackman 
 and Professor G. Elliot Smith. According to the former, 
 the burning of incense before a corpse or statue in Egypt 
 was part of the procedure considered necessary to give 
 it a new life : it was intended primarily to convey to it 
 the warmth, the sweat, and the odour of life. Then, 
 according to Elliot Smith, from being an animating force, 
 incense came to be regarded as a divine .substance. In- 
 cidentally, " as the grains of incense consisted of the 
 exudation of trees, or, as the ancient texts express it, 
 ' their sweat,' the divine power of animation in course 
 of time became transferred to the trees." This, in fact, 
 is probably the origin of the sacredne.ss of trees; " it was 
 acquired from the incense and the aromatic woods which 
 were credited with the power of animating the dead." 
 The custom of burning incense, originally a ritual act 
 for animating the funerary statue, developed ultimately 
 into an act of homage to the deity. See A. M. Black- 
 man, " The Significance of Incense, etc.," in the Zeit- 
 schrift fiir Agj/ptisctie Sprache und AUertumskunde, Bd. 
 50, 1912; G. Elliot Smith, Dr., 1919. 
 
 INCUBI. Male demons, satyrs, and fauns, who were 
 -supposed to visit women and have sexual intercourse with 
 them. 
 
 INDEPENDENT METHODISTS. A separatist Metho- 
 dist body which arose in 1810. They differ from other 
 Methodists chiefly in their rejection of a paid ministry. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS. See BROWNISTS. 
 
 INDETERMINISM. Indetermini.sm is the opposite of 
 Determinism (17.1;.). It is explained by William James 
 in the following way. Indeterminism says that the parts 
 of the universe already laid down " have a certain 
 amount of loose play on one another, so that the laying 
 down of one of them does not necessarily determine what 
 the others shall be. It admits that possibilities may be 
 in excess of actualities, and that things not yet revealed 
 to our knowledge may really in themselves be ambiguous. 
 Of two alternative futures which we conceive, both may
 
 Index of Prohibited Books 
 
 188 
 
 Infallibility of the Pope 
 
 now be really possible; and tlie one become impossible 
 only at the very moment when the other excludes it by 
 becoming real itself. Indeterminism thus denies the 
 world to be one unbending unit of fact. It says there is 
 a certain ultimate pluralism in it: and, so saying, it cor- 
 roborates our ordinary unsophisticated view of things. 
 To that view, actualities seem to float in a wider sea of 
 possibilities from out of which they are chosen; and somc- 
 tchere, indeterminism says, such possibilities exist, and 
 form a part of truth." See William James, The Will to 
 Believe, 190S. 
 
 INDEX OF PROHIBITED BOOKS. The Index 
 Librorum Prohibitorum is a list of prohibited books made 
 by the Roman Catholic Church. The Council of Trent 
 at first appointed a Commission to compile an Index of 
 Prohibited Books, but afterwards it referred the whole 
 matter to Pope Pius IV. In 1564 Pius IV. issued an 
 index known as the Index Tridentinus. Subsequently 
 a Sacred Congregation was constituted with power to 
 deal with the matter. Its more complete organization 
 was due to Sixtus V. " The Congregation of the Index 
 of Prohibited Books consists of a competent number of 
 Cardinals, and has a secretary taken from the Order of 
 Preachers, and a great number of theological and other 
 professors who are called Consultors, the chief of whom 
 is the Master of the Apostolic Palace, the primary and 
 official Oonsultor of this Congregation " fFerraris, quoted 
 in the Catliolic Dictionary.). Rules as to the principles 
 and methods by which the Congregation was to be guided 
 were laid down very fully in 1753 by Benedict XIV. It 
 is the duty of the Congregation of the Index to prepare 
 also an Index Librorum Expurgandorum, a list of books 
 which may be read when they have been expurgated. See 
 Schaff-Herzog: the Prot. Diet.; the Oath. Diet. 
 
 INDRA. One of the deities in the religion of Hinduism. 
 The precise nature of Indra is difficult to determine. He 
 has been regarded as a Storm or Rain Giod, or as a Fire 
 God. More probably, however, he represents Lightning. 
 Hopkins points out that he is variously depicted by the 
 poets. He " is armed with stones, clubs, arrows, or the 
 thunderbolt (made for him by the artificer, Tvashtar), 
 of brass or of gold, with many edges and points. Upon 
 a golden chariot he rides to battle, driving two or many 
 red or yellow steeds: he is like the sun in brillianc.v. and 
 like the dawn in beauty: he is multiform, and cannol 
 really be described; his divine name is secret; in appear- 
 ance he is vigorous, huge ; he is wise and true and kind : 
 all treasures are his, and he is a wealth-holder, vast as 
 four seas: neither his greatness nor his generosity can 
 be comprehended ; mightiest of gods is he, filling the 
 universe: the heavens rest upon his head; earth cannot 
 hold him: earth and heaven tremble at his breath; he 
 is king of all: the mountains are to him as valleys; he 
 goes forth a bull, raging, and rushes through the air, 
 whirling up the dust; he breaks open the rain-containing 
 clouds, and lets the rain pour down." Indra came to be 
 regarded for a time as the most powerful god of all, the 
 All-god. See Monier-Williams: E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 INDULGENCES. An Indulgence is a remission of the 
 temporal punishment due to sin after contrition has been 
 shown (contritio cordis), confession has been made (con- 
 fessio oris), and absolution has been given. The prac- 
 tice is peculiar to the Roman Catholic Church. In 
 ancient times atonement {sati.tfactio) for great sins could 
 only be made by many years of severe penance. In course 
 of time, however, a lesser work, but a specific good work, 
 in virtue of the " treasure of merits " accumulated by 
 the saints, was substituted for a greater work. Such a 
 work might take the form of alms to the poor, to 
 churches, and to monasteries, or of pilgrimages, etc. In- 
 dulgences may be plenary {indulgentia plenaria) or par- 
 
 tial (indulgentia minus plena); temporal or perpetual; 
 particular, that is to say, for a special diocese, or general, 
 that is to say, for the whole Church. One of the most 
 famous of the plenary indulgences granted by the Roman 
 Catholic Church is that of her jubilee. Other well- 
 known examples are the indulgence granted to the dying 
 by priests, and the indulgence given with the Pope's 
 blessing. " The most celebrated local indulgences are 
 gained by visiting the seven chief churches and privileged 
 altars at Rome; by pilgrimages to the holy places in 
 Palestine; or visiting the stations mentioned in the 
 Missal " (Catliolic Dictionary). Indulgences are granted 
 also to persons who wear rosaries, scapulars, medals, etc. 
 " With respect to the natural consequences of sin, such as 
 disease, infamy, etc., the Roman Church does not pretend 
 to possess any power: but with respect to those punish- 
 ments which God inflicts on sinners, either in this world 
 or in purgatory, she claims to have absolute jurisdiction 
 c-onferred upon her by Christ, with the power of the 
 keys. ... If, now, the Church should remit those 
 punishments from mere mercy, and without any satis- 
 factio, she would violate the divine justice, which 
 demands that every sin shall be balanced by a good 
 work. But how, then, does the indulgentia of the Church 
 enter into the transaction? Partly through the doctrine 
 of good works as opera operata, that is, as values which 
 can be transferred from one to another; and partly 
 through the doctrine of communio sanctorum, or the co- 
 ownership of the Church in the inexhaustible fund of good 
 works which Christ and the saints have left, and of 
 which tiey have no need themselves " (Schaff-Herzog). 
 See Schaff-Herzog; William Benham: the Prot. Diet.; 
 the Cath. Diet. 
 
 INFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE. The decree of the 
 infallibility of the Pope was proclaimed in 1870 at the 
 last meeting of the Vatican Council (q.v.). It was after- 
 wards confirme<l by the Pope. In the papal bull " Pastor 
 ^Etemus " it is defined as follows : " Therefore faithfully 
 adhering to the tradition received from the l)eginning 
 of the Christian faith, for the glory of God our Saviour, 
 the exaltation of the Catholic Religion, and the salvation 
 of Christian people, the Sacred Council approving, we 
 teach and define that it is a dogma divinely revealed, 
 that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks e.r cathedra, that 
 is, when in discharge of the office of pastor and doctor 
 of all Christians, by virtue of his extreme Apostolic 
 authority, he defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals 
 to be held by the universal Church, by the Divine assist- 
 ance promised to him in blessed Peter, is possessed of 
 that infallibility which the Divine Redeemer willed that 
 his Church .should be endowed with for detining doctrine 
 regarding faith or morals; and that therefore such 
 definitions of the Roman Pontiff are in-eformable of 
 themselves, and not from the consent of the Church. 
 But if anyone, which may God avert, presume to con- 
 tradict this our definition, let him be anathema " (Pastor 
 JEternns, quoted in Benham). The Catholic Dictionary 
 is no doubt correct in claiming that the doctrine is simply 
 the logical consequence of principles already accepted. 
 Its exposition of the doctrine is interesting. " The Pope 
 in himself is subject to error like other men; his in- 
 fallibility comes from the spirit of Go<l, which on certain 
 occasions protects him from error in faith and morals. 
 He has no infallibility in merely historical or scientific 
 questions. Even in matters of faith and morals he has 
 no inspiration, and must use the same means of theologi- 
 cal inquiry open to other men. He may err as a private 
 doctor; nor is any immunity from error granted to books 
 which he may write and publish. Even when he speaks 
 with Apostolic authority he may err. The Vatican 
 Council only requires us to believe that God protects
 
 Infralapsarianism 
 
 189 
 
 Inquisition, Spanish 
 
 him from orror in definitions on faith or morals when 
 he im|)oses a belief on the Universal Church."' The 
 doctrine was not accepted unanimously, and led to the 
 formation of the body known as Old Catholics (q.v.). 
 See Sella ff-Herzog; William Benham; the Prot. Diet.. 
 1904; the C'atli. Diet. 
 
 INFRALAPSARIANISM. Infralapsarianism denotes 
 certain doctrines taught by the Calviuist.-,. For his 
 own glory God created the world. It was his pur- 
 pose to allow man to fall, and from among the fallen to 
 choose many for salvation. These he would send His 
 Son to redeem; the rest he would leave to suffer the 
 punishment due to their sins. 
 
 INGERSOLL LECTURESHIP. In pursuance of the 
 last will and testament of George Goldthwait Ingersoll, 
 his daughter. Miss Caroline Haskell Ingersoll (d. Jan. 
 20, 1893), bequeathed to Har\'ard University in Cambridge. 
 Massachussets, a sum of money to be regarded as a fund 
 for the establishment of a Lectureship on a plan some- 
 what similar to that of the Dudleian lecture. One 
 lecture was to be delivered each year, on any convenient 
 day between the last day of May and the first dav of 
 December, on the subject *' The Immortality of Man." 
 The lecture was not to form part of the usual college 
 course, nor to be delivered by any Professor or Tutor 
 as part of his usual routine of instruction, though any 
 such Professor or Tutor may be appointed to such ser- 
 vice. The choice of the lecturer was not to be limited 
 to any one religious denomination, nor to any one pro- 
 fession, but might be that of either clergyman or lay- 
 man, the appointment to take place at least six months 
 before the delivery of the lecture. The lecture was to 
 be called " The Ingersoll Lecture on the Immortality of 
 Man." The lecturers have already included the late 
 Professor William James of Harvard University, Pro- 
 fessor Josiah Royce of Harvard University, and Prof. 
 William Osier of Oxford University. 
 
 INGHAMITES. The followers of Benjamin Ingham 
 (1712-1772). As a student at Queen's College, Oxford, 
 Ingham became a Methodist. The " four young gentle- 
 men of Oxford " who were " the first Methodists," and 
 one of whom was John Wesley (1703-1791), formed them- 
 selves into a society in November, 1729, and were after- 
 wards joined by others, including Benjamin Ingham. In 
 1735 he went with John and Charles Wesley (1707-1788) 
 on a missionary journey to Georgia. On his return he 
 went with .John Wesley to Hemnhut. After this Ing- 
 ham proceeded to Yorkshire, and with the help of 
 Moravian friends, founded .societies there. He had come 
 under Moravian influence in his travels. In course of 
 time there were as many as eighty societies. In 1741 
 Ingham married Lady Margaret Hastings, sister of Lord 
 Huntingdon This brought him into close connection 
 with the Countess of Huntingdon (1707-1791), who was 
 the founder of " Lady Huntingdon's Connexion." He 
 also became closely acquainted with Count von Zinzen- 
 dorf (1700-17f)0), founder of the Hermhuter or the 
 Moravian Brethren. He expressed a willingness to unite 
 his forces to those of Wesley, but Wesley would not hear 
 of the union unless he returned to " the old Methodi.st 
 doctrine." .Sub.sequently Ingham became interested in 
 the teaching of Glas and Sandenian (.see GLASSITES). 
 He sent two of his preachers to study their principles, 
 witJi the result that they came back and converted the 
 majority of Ingham's followers. In 18.51 the number of 
 Inghamite chapels had dwindled to nine. See J. H. 
 Blunt: and the D.V.B. 
 
 INNERE MISSION, DIE. The Inner or Home Mis- 
 sion movement in Germany was founded by J. H. Wickem 
 (1808-1881) of Hamburg. It now has Associations or 
 Branches throughout (Jermany. The aim of the move- 
 
 ^Tl \ ^"^^ t™« Christian feeling, and to help 
 mose who are in need, whether spiritual or bodily. Thus 
 It has established Schools, Refuges, etc. See A S 
 
 f^^resTlS.,f%'ro.^Lu7'' ^"''"^^^ <" ^^"^^^" 
 
 hi^I?^^^^^^^'^' '^^^- '^^"^ Inquisition (Inquisitio 
 hwreticae pravitatis), also called the " Holy Ofl5ce " 
 (banctum Officium), is the name of a spiritual tribunal 
 I ^ f ^<>™a° Catholic Church whose duty it has been 
 to detect repress, and punish heretics. In the ancient 
 Church this was one of the duties of the bishops. Under 
 the Roman Emi»rors Theodosius and Justinian there were 
 special officials, " inquisitors," to prosecute before the 
 civil tribunals persons who opposed the national creed 
 In the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries the 
 sects known as the Cathari, the Waldenses (q v ) 
 and the Albigenses (q.v.) were thought to be a danger 
 both to Church and State. Legates were empowered 
 therefore by several Councils to cheek the abuse and in 
 1215 the bishops were urged by the Fourth Lateran 
 Council to take special measures. These consisted in 
 part in binding parishioners by oath to inform againsst 
 heretics. The mea.sures taken bv Innocent III were 
 approved and improved by the Council of Toulouse (1228) 
 Gregory IX. in 1232 and 1233 "appointed the Dominicans 
 a standing commission of inquisitors in Austria, Ger- 
 many, Aragon, Lombardy, and Southern France" (Schaff- 
 Herzog). In 1248 Innocent IV. instituted a special 
 tribunal, the Inquisition, to deal with the matter; and in 
 his bull Ad exstirpanda of 1252 he enacted that to extract 
 a confession from a suspected person, use must be made 
 of torture, if necessary. Persons found guilty were 
 punished by confiscation of property, " loss of civil and 
 ecclesiastical privileges, rigorous confinement, and death, 
 either by a simple execution, or by incarceration and the 
 flames " (Schaff-Herzog). The Inquisition was intro- 
 duced into Italy, Spain, Germany, Prance, Portugal and 
 the Netherlands. It could not establish itself in England, 
 Sweden, Norway, or Denmark. It was abolished first in 
 France. See, further, the following article. 
 
 INQUISITION, SPANISH. The inquisition was u.sed 
 against the Jews and Moors in Aragon in the thirteenth 
 century. Nicolaus Eymericus (f 1393), the author of the 
 " Inquisitor's Manual " (Directorium Inquisitorum), was 
 Inquisitor-General for forty-four years. But the strict 
 rules of procedure laid down by him were not fully intro- 
 duced until 1481. In 1483 Torquemada was appointed 
 Ijiquisitor-General for fifteen years. He organized the 
 movement in Spain, and availed himself of the help of 
 spies who were called " Familiars of the Holy Office." 
 In 1492 an edict of banishment was proclaimed against 
 aU the .Tews in Spain who refused to embrace Christ- 
 ianity. Tliousands of Jews left the country, but many 
 remained behind. Those who remained occupied the 
 attention of the Inquisition for centuries. Torquemada 
 was .succeeded by Diego Deza (1499-1500), and Diego Deza 
 by Ximenes (1.507-1517). Under the latter, according to 
 Llorente, 2,53(i persons suspected of heresy were put to 
 death. The Inquisition was very active in the sixteenth 
 centurJ^ After 1770, however, its powers began to be 
 curtailed, and in 1808 they were abolished for a time. 
 They were not finally abolished untjl 1834. It was com- 
 puted by Llorente, who from 1790-1792 was secretary to 
 the tribunal of Madrid, that during its .330 .years of 
 existence the Spanish Inquisition condemned 30,000 
 persons to death. Hefele, the writer of the article " In- 
 quisition " in Wetzer and Welte. defends the Inquisition 
 and questions the statements of Llorente. He does so 
 also in his " Life of Cardinal Ximenes " (Engl. Transl. 
 ISfiO). " First, there is the general fact of the greater 
 relative severity of penal justice in all countries alike,
 
 Inspiration 
 
 190 
 
 Inspiration 
 
 till within quite recent times. The Carolina, or penal 
 code, in force under Charles V., condemned coiners to the 
 flames, and burglars to the gallows. Burying alive and 
 other barbarous punishments were sanctioned by it, none 
 of which were allowed by the Inquisition. In England, 
 in the sixteenth century, persons refusing to plead could 
 be, and were, pressed to death. The last witch burned 
 in Europe was sentenced in the Canton Glams by a Pro- 
 testant tribunal as late as 1785. Secondly, Llorente omits 
 to draw attention to the fact that the Spanish kings 
 obliged the Inquisition to try and sentence persons 
 charged with many other crimes besides heresy — e.g., 
 with polygamy, seduction, unnatural crime, smuggling, 
 witchcraft, sorcery, imposture, personation, etc. A large 
 proportion of criminals of this kind would, down to the 
 present century, have been sentenced to death on con- 
 viction in any secular tribunal in Europe. Thirdly, 
 Llorente does not pretend to base the above statement as 
 to the number executed by the Inquisition on written 
 documents, but on calculations of his own making, in 
 some of which he can be proved to be inexi)ert and in- 
 exact '* (Oatholic Dictionary). See H. C. Lea, Hist, of 
 the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, 1888; Schaff-Herzog; 
 Chambers' Encycl.; the Prot. Diet.; the Oath. Diet.; 
 Broekhaus. 
 
 INSPIRATION. To be inspired in the religious sense 
 of the word is to be stirred and influenced by an outside 
 power, a power which is higher than anything human. 
 To Christians inspiration denotes the direct influence of 
 the divine upon the human mind. To the Jews of old 
 it meant often an audible communication made by God 
 to man; or at least it was represented in this way. The 
 messages which God gave to certain persons in this way 
 were at first proclaimed orally to the people in general 
 by prophets and preachers; they were subsequently com- 
 mitted to writing. Afterwards it often happened, where 
 the literary art was sufficiently developed, that a person 
 wrote down at once the message which he believed he 
 was inspired to deliver. In any ease, such messages 
 were gathered into books, which came to be regarded as 
 sacred. Nearly every religion has its sacred books. It 
 is claimed for the sacred books of Christianity that they 
 are inspired above all others. It used to be claimed that 
 they were verbally inspire<l, that is to say, that every 
 word or phrase was, as it were, dictated by God. That 
 claim has, it may be said, been abandoned by the 
 ma.lority of people. Is there such a thing at all as in- 
 spiration by an outside power? Do certain books belong 
 to a class by themselves? There are many persons now 
 who assert that the Bible is no more inspired than the 
 Koran, or the Vedas, or the Zend-Avesta, or even than 
 the Essays of Emerson. Now there is no reason to deny 
 that in a measure all these non-Jewish and non-Christian 
 writings are inspired. But there are grounds for think- 
 ing that Jewish writings were inspired in a peculiar and 
 unique sen.se. It is not uncommon to find individuals 
 revealing a gift or genius which is truly marvellous. 
 Shakespeare, even if the groundwork of some of his works 
 is not entirely original, stands in a class by himself. 
 And, although it is not so common, we find also whole 
 nations (or certain nations as a whole) displaying some 
 remarkable gift or genius. The Germans, for instance, 
 have a marvellous genius for music. One need only live 
 amongst them to realize how widespread this gift is. 
 The Jews of old had a peculiar and marvellous genius (or 
 taste, to use a milder term) for religion This stands 
 out clearly in their history. They had this marvellous 
 gift, and the early Christians inherited it. No people 
 has sought God so earnestly or listened so intently for 
 his voice. Just as Germany has produced a Mozart, a 
 Mendelssohn, and a Beethoven, Palestine has given birth 
 
 to prophets of extraordinary power. And just as in 
 Germany a musical genius of a quite exceptional character 
 might arise, so it might be expected that among the 
 Jews, in other words in the sphere of religion, a Prophet 
 would appear who would reveal God to man in a quite 
 peculiar way. Inspiration, we have said, is claimed for 
 certain books. It may be said, however, that boolis 
 never can be inspired to the same extent that men are. 
 In moments of ins-piration a man comes into communion 
 with a power outside of himself, above himself, with 
 God. He is spoken to by God. God breathes his spirit 
 into him. In what language does God communicate with 
 man? In no human language, it may be said. Spirit 
 communes with spirit. The man has acquired a spiritual 
 power, and is able to impart it, or some of it, to other 
 people (cp. what is said under APOSTOLIC SUCCES- 
 SION). The spiritual power of Christianity, and in fact 
 of every religion, is handed on far more by persons than 
 by writings. God does not deliver his message in human 
 language. The prophet, therefore, who wishes to express 
 it in words, spoken or written, has to translate it in 
 terms of human speech. To do this adequately is im- 
 possible. It is often said, with a sneer, of someone who 
 claims to have received a divine message that he cannot 
 tell us what it is, and that when he attempts to do eo he 
 only succeeds in saying something commonplace. The 
 truth is it is extremely diflBcult to give human expression 
 to a divine impression. Inspiration is a very real 
 experience. In earlier times, when prophets lived in 
 closer contact with nature and in more intimate com- 
 munion with God, the exi)erience known as inspiration 
 seems to have been more frequent and to some extent 
 bettef understood. The references to it in the Christian 
 Bible are well known. There are other references which 
 are not so familiar. Though, as Prof. Sanday says, 
 Philo (c. 20 B.C. -4.5 A.D.) " lays stress rather on the in- 
 spired person than on the inspired book," he speaks of 
 "sacred scriptures" (hierai graphai), "sacred books" 
 (hierai Mhloi), "the sacred word" (ho hieros logos), of 
 " oracles" (ehresmoi), etc. Philo clearly regarded every 
 word of the Scripture text as sacred. If it did not give 
 a suitable meaning when translated literally, it had to 
 be explained allegorically. According to Philo, Jeremiah 
 spoke " in the person of God Himself " (ek prosopou ton 
 Theou). He claims that there is " nothing superfluous " 
 in the Law. It is clear, moreover, that "he regarded 
 the Greek translation as itself a product of divine in- 
 spiration as much as tlie original. He is the first to add 
 to the story of Aristeas — which made the Seventy trans- 
 lators produce a harmonious text by comparing their 
 versions together — ^the further touch that this harmony 
 was obtained, not by comparison of results, but by super- 
 natural aid : the translators, according to him, were 
 inspired prophets who ' did not produce one one rendering 
 and another another, but all the same words and expres- 
 sions as though some invisible prompter were at the ear 
 of each of them' " (Sanday). Philo regards all good 
 men as inspired (e.g., Plato, the "most .'s;icred"; Herac- 
 litus, the "great and renowned": Parmenides, Emjied- 
 ocles, Zeno, Cleanthes). and he had had personal 
 experience of inspiration himself. Yet he " never quotes 
 as authoritative any but the Canonical Books." and " it 
 is clear that he attributes to them an authority which is 
 really unique in its kind." To turn to another writer, 
 .losephus (A.D. 37-38 to about A.D. 110), who represents 
 the views of the Phari.sees in Palestine during the second 
 half of the fir.st century A.D. Josephus speaks of 
 "sacred books" (hierai Bibloi), "sacred writings" 
 (hiera grammata), "books of sacred scriptures" (hieron 
 graphon Bibloi), etc. Josephus " speaks of ' the Deity 
 (to ©eiov) being present with ' a writer; of ' holding con-
 
 Institution of a Christian Man, The 
 
 191 
 
 loskeha 
 
 verse with God ' : of ' being possessed or inspired by 
 God ' : of • being filled with Deity ' : of ' being in a state 
 of Divine inspiration ' : of ' the Spirit of God taliing hold 
 of ' the prophet : of ' the Divine gift passing over ' from 
 one person to another. Josephus is almost as explicit 
 as Philo in regard to the manner of inspiration. He 
 describes Balaam as prophesying ' not as master of him- 
 self but moved to say what he did by the Divine Spirit ' " 
 (Sandav). He spealjs of the Jewish Scriptures as the 
 "decrees of God " (Ttteou dogmata). Every Jew from 
 the day of his birth recognises them to be such by 
 instinct, and is prepared " cheerfully to lay down his 
 life in their behalf." In these writings " not a .soul has 
 ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a 
 syllable" (.losephus. Contra Apionem, 1. 8). And they 
 do not disagree and conflict with one another. Such 
 writers as Philo and Josephus would seem to have re- 
 garded all the books of the Jewish Canon as equally 
 inspired. Some of the Jewish scholars, however, holding 
 the theory of the Synagogue that the whole Canon was 
 fixed at one time, and on this assumption finding it 
 difficult to explain the position of some of the books 
 (e.g., Daniel) among the Hagiographa (g.v.), argued that 
 there was a difference in inspiration. This was the line 
 taken bv Moses Maimonides (A.D. 1135-1204), David 
 Kimchi (died A.D. 1240), and Abarbanel (born A.D. 1437). 
 They supjiosed that the second group of books, the 
 Prophets, were inspired by the " spirit of prophecy," the 
 third group of books, the Hagiographa, by " the holy 
 spirit." The Torah was revealed, peh 'el peh, the Nebiim 
 (Prophets) by the ruach ha-nehuah, and the Kethubim 
 (Hagiographa) by the ruach ha-kodtsh. The theory, how- 
 ever, as G. Wildeboer r>oints out (Canon of the O.T., 
 1895) was peculiar to these later Jewish scholars. It 
 finds no support in the New Testament or even in the 
 Talmud. We have already suggested that in a so-called 
 inspired book there must be a human element, inasmuch 
 as it is difficult for a writer to give expression in human 
 language to a divine impression. When the Swi.ss or 
 Helvetic Consensus Formula (A.D. 1675) taught the literal 
 inspiration of Holy Scripture, it took up an impossible 
 position. A standard work on the subject is W. Sanday's 
 Inspiration, 1003 (" Bampton Lectures." 1893). 
 
 INSTITUTION OF A CHRISTIAN MAN, THE. The 
 title of a book of Christian doctrine, published in 1537. 
 It was drawn up by a committee of bishops of the Church 
 of England, and came to be known as the " Bishops' 
 Book " (g.v.). 
 
 INSTITUTE OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN MARY. A 
 religious order founded bv an English lady, Mary Ward 
 (1.585-1R45). Educated as a Roman Catholic, Mary Ward 
 left England in 1606 and went to St. Omer. Here she 
 entered the convent of the Colettines as a lay sister. In 
 1607, however, she left it with the idea of founding a 
 similar convent for English ladies. With the intention 
 of building a house under the rule of St. Clare (see 
 POOR CLARES), she obt.iined from the Archduke Albert 
 of Brussels a piece of ground at Gravelines. Meantime, 
 she lived with the Engli.sh ladies who had joined her 
 in a hired house at St. Omer. After living for a time 
 under the strict rule of St. Clare, she suddenly became 
 persuaded that she had received a call to a .somewhat 
 different kind of work. In 1609 she left the Poor Clares. 
 In course of time she became convinced that her vocation 
 was to found a teaching order, " recruited from the ranks 
 of her Catholic countrywomen, not cloistered, nor under 
 obedience to any other order, but living under the rule 
 of the Society of Jesus, and bound by terminable, not 
 perpetual, vows" (Cath. Diet.). In 1611 therefore she 
 founded in England the fir.st community of the " English 
 Virgins." A few years later ahe established a similar 
 
 community at St. Omer. Other establishments soon 
 grew up in Italy, and at Liege and Munich. But the 
 foundress was not exempt from persecution. On several 
 occasions she had to flee from one country to another, 
 and for a time her houses were closed by order of Pope 
 Urban VIII. Afterwards, however, her Institute again 
 met with hearty approval, and .since the death of Mary 
 Ward it has flourished greatly. It is said to do excellent 
 work in educating girls of every class in Bavaria, Hun- 
 gary, Roumania, Italy, and other parts of the Contineut. 
 See the Cath. Diet.; the D.N.B. 
 
 INTIN(3TI0N. Intinction is the name given to the 
 mode of administering the Eucharist to the laity in the 
 Greek Church. The consecrated bread is broken into 
 pieces, dipped in the consecrated wine, and given to the 
 communicant in a spoon. It is claimed that the custom 
 dates back to the time of Chrysostom (ft. A.D. 347). It 
 was .sometimes followed in the Western Church, but the 
 custom was condemned by Pope Julius I. (337-352) as un- 
 scriptural. See William Benham; Schafif-Herzog. 
 
 INTROIT. In the Roman Catholic Church, Introit is 
 the ntime of the anthem sung at the beginning of the 
 Mass or Communion Ser\-ice. It is sung after the (3on- 
 fiteor, and when the priest has ascended the altar. It 
 consists of an antiphon, Gloria Patri, and usually of part 
 of a P.salm. Sometimes, however, use is made of other 
 passages of Scripture, and even of passages from un- 
 inspired (e.g., apocryphal) writers. The introduction 
 of introits is ascribed by the "Liber Pontificalis" to 
 Pope Celestine (423 A.D.), by Le Brun and Benedict XIV. 
 to Gregory the Great (595 A.D.). The use of them is 
 enjoined in the first Prayer Book of Edward VI., and 
 psalms are prefixed to the Collects for the purpose. In 
 the revision of 1552, however, these were removed. The 
 Protestant Dictionary (1904) is distressed by the fact that 
 " both the term and practice have been adopted by 
 Ritualists of the Church of England." See William 
 Benham; Smith and Cheetham; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 INTUITIONISTS. It has been truly said that there 
 have been intuitionists in nearly all ages. The fact is 
 proved by the history of what is called heresy. In 
 modem times, however, the name has been assumed by 
 per.sons who have been influenced by the progress of 
 Science and historical criticism. Such men as Ralph 
 Waldo Emerson and Theodore Parker in America, and 
 Thomas Carlyle in England, are representatives of in- 
 tuitionism. J. H. Blunt says that intuitionism, as repre- 
 sented by Emerson and Theodore Parker, indicates " the 
 repudiation of all religion dependent on an external 
 revelation, and looks to the intuitions of the .soul as the 
 only guide of humanity." He thinks that this means 
 the substitution of the idolatry of self for the worship of 
 God. This is an absurd view of the matter. The in- 
 tuitions of the soul have led men to hold fast to the 
 worship of god, and to the belief in His extstenee, when 
 all other arguments have failed to satisfy them. Job 
 was an intuitionist. To despise or undervalue in- 
 tuitionism is to reject or undermine one of the firmest 
 foundations of religion. See William Benham. 
 
 INVISIBLES. Some of the Reformers were so called 
 because they " denied the perpetual visibility of the 
 Church, and in answer to the inquiry of Romanists as to 
 the whereabouts of the Church before the time of Luther, 
 asserted that it was invisible" (William Benham). 
 INWARD LIGHT, THE. See FRIENDS, SOCIETY 
 
 ibSKEHA. In the mythology of the Hurons two of 
 the principal gods are loskeha and Tawiscara (the 
 " White and Dark Ones"). In a conflict between them 
 Tawiscara was overcome. loskeha then founded the 
 human race, slew the great frog which had swallowed
 
 Ira 
 
 192 
 
 Irvingites 
 
 up tlie waters of tlie earth, and learned from the great 
 tortoise, the upholder of the earth, the secret of making 
 tire. 
 
 IRA. A Bab.vlonian deity, god of pestilence. He 
 tigures in the Babylonian story of the Deluge. 
 
 IRMINSUL. The Irminsul was an old Saxon ehrine. 
 It is mentioned in connection with the destruction of 
 Bresburg by Charles the Great in 774 A.D. Rudolph of 
 Fulda says : " The Saxons worship in the open air a 
 tree-trunlv of considerable size; this they call in their 
 language Irmin.sul, which in Ijatiu would be universalis 
 columua, that is to say, the column which sustains every- 
 thing." But the Irminsul would seem to liave embrace<l 
 more than a tree-trunk, for reference is made to it also 
 as a temple, a grove, or an Image. It is likely that the 
 first jjart of the term is a word meaning " large " or 
 " mighty " (universalis). It is not, it would .seem, the 
 name of a god. Irmin, however, does also seem to have 
 l)£en an eponymous tribal hero: and he seems sometimes 
 to be identified with the god Tin (q.v.). For the worsliiip 
 of a tree compare YGGDRASIL. 
 
 IRRATIONALISM. W. Windelband has given the 
 name Irratioualism to the pliilosophical system of 
 Schopenhauer (17SS-18t!0). and to the later theological 
 and philosophical speculations of F. W. J. von Schelling 
 (1775-18.54). Josiah Royce thinks this kind of philosophy, 
 which is based on the teaching of Kant, may be sum- 
 marized as follows : " The world as we see it exists only 
 in our ideas. We all have a common outer ^show-world 
 because we all possess a common deeper nature, wherein 
 we are one. You are essentially the same ultimate being 
 that I am. Otherwise we should not have in common 
 this outer projected world of seeming sea waves, star 
 clusters, and city streets. For, as ideas, those things 
 have no outer basis. As common to us all, they must 
 have a deep inner basis. Yet this their basis can't be 
 anything ultimately and universally rational. For in 
 .so far as we actually have reason in common, we think 
 npcessarj', clearly coherent, exactly interrelated groups 
 of ideas, such, for instance, as the multiplication table. 
 But. about the star clusters and the sea waves there is 
 no sucti ultimate rational unity and coherency. . '. . 
 The world of the true idealism is n't so much the world 
 of the rational and divine self, as it is the world of the 
 deep unrea.son that lies at the very basis of all of our 
 natures, of all our common selfhood. Why .should there 
 be, any world at all for us? Is n't it just because 
 we are all actually minded to see one? And is n't this 
 being minded to see a world as ultimately and brutally 
 unreasonable a fact as you could uame? Let us find 
 for this fact, then, a name not so exalted as Fichte's high- 
 .sounding speecli would love. Let us call this ultimate 
 nature of ours, which forces us all alike to see a world 
 of phenomena in the show forms of space and time, 
 simidy our own deep common Will. Let us drop the 
 divine name for it. Will, merely as such, is n't precisely 
 a rational thing: it's capricious. It wills because it does 
 will; and if it wills in us all to be of snch nature as 
 to see just these stars and houses, then see them we 
 must, and there is the end of it." See Josiah Royce, 
 The Spirit of Modern Philosophy, 1890. 
 
 TR'V^INCHTES. The followers of Edward Irving (1792- 
 18.^4). After studying at the University of Edinburgh, 
 Irving went to Haddington as a schoolmaster (1810-12). 
 In 1812 he was selected as the first master of a school at 
 Kirkcaldy. Here three years later he obtained the Pres- 
 byterian license to preach. In 1819 he preached in S. 
 George's, Edinburgh, before Andrew Thomson (1779- 
 1849), its minister, and Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847), then 
 minister of Tron parish, Glasgow. Towards the end of 
 the same vear he l)ecame assistant to Dr. Chalmers. 
 
 In 1822 he went to his native place Annan in Dumfries- 
 shire to be ordained. He had already in 1821 accepted 
 a call to the Caledonian Chapel, Hatton Garden, London, 
 which at the time was far from flourishing. '• The 
 Caledonian Church had been placed under the pastoral 
 care of two worthy ministers, who were successively 
 called to parochial charges in the Church of Scotland; 
 and by their removal, and for want of a stated ministry, 
 it was reduced to great and almost hopeless straits " 
 (Edward Irving). One of the stipulations for appoint- 
 ment was that the minister should be able to preach in 
 the Gaelic tongue ; but through the influence of the Duke 
 of York, who was President of the Royal Caledonian 
 Asylum, this stipulation was set aside. The " Royal 
 Caledonian Asylum " was instituted in 1815 by the High- 
 land Society of Ix)ndon for " Supporting and educating 
 the children of soldiers, sailors and marines, natives of 
 Scotland, who have died or have been disabled in the 
 service of tJieir country; and also the children of Indigent 
 Scottish Parents, residing in London not receiving Par- 
 ochial Relief." The Institution was not opened for the 
 reception of children until December, 1819. In that year 
 premises had been acquired in Cross Street, Hatton 
 Garden, Ix>ndon. The Caledonian Chapel was evidently 
 connected with this institution. In July 1822 Irving 
 began his work in London. By degrees he filled the 
 chapel, and there came a time when it was invaded by 
 streams of noble and fashionable hearers. The invasion 
 is said to have been due in the first instance to a reference 
 by George Canning (1770-1827) in the House of Commons. 
 Canning said he had heard a Scotch minister in one of 
 the most ixwrly endowed churches preach the most 
 eloquent sermon he had ever listened to. The scene 
 outside and inside the chapel is described by William 
 Hazlitt (1778-18.^0). " You can scarcely move along for 
 the coronet-coaches that besiege the entrance to the Cale- 
 donian Chapel in Hatton Garden; and when, after a 
 prodigious squeeze, you get in so as to have stapding- 
 room, you see in the same undistinguished crowd 
 Brougham and Mackintosh, Mr. Peel and Lord Liver- 
 pool, Lord Landsdowne and Mr. Coleridge. Mr. Canning 
 and Mr. Hone are pew fellows, Mr. Wa^ithman frowns 
 stem applause, and Mr. Alderman Wood does the honours 
 of the Meeting! The lamb lies down with the lion, and 
 the millennium seems to be anticipated in the Cale- 
 donian chapel, uuder the new Scotch preacher " (The 
 Round Table). Hazlett also gives a description of Irving 
 himself. " Mr. Irving's intellect itself is of a superior 
 order: he has undoubtedly both talents and accjuirements 
 beyond the ordinary run of every-day preachers. These 
 alone, however, we hold, would not account for a 
 twentieth part of the effect he has produced : they would 
 liave lifted him perhaps out of the mire and slough of 
 sordid obscurity, but would never have launched him 
 into the ocean-stream of popularity, in which he ' lies 
 floating many a rood ' ; — but to these he adds uncommon 
 height, a graceful figure and action, a clear and powerful 
 voice, a striking, if not a fine face, a bold and fiery spirit, 
 and a most portentous obliquity of vision, which throw 
 him to an immeasurable distance beyond all competition, 
 and effectually relieve whatever there might be of 
 common-place or bombast in his style of composition " 
 (The Spirit of the Age). In 1825 Irving published a 
 book, " Babylon and Infidelity Foredoomed," which he 
 dedicated to James Hatley Frere (1779-1S(!G), a person 
 with curious views about prophecy. In 1826 a number of 
 students of prophecy, amongst whom was Edward Irving, 
 began to meet together at Albury Park, Surrey, in the 
 house of Henry Drujumond (1786-1860) to deliberate about 
 prophetical questions. In May 1827 was opened a new 
 church in Regent Square which had been sfpecially built
 
 Irvingites 
 
 193 
 
 Isaiah, Book of 
 
 for Irving. Thus Irving became minister of the National 
 Scotch Church, Ix)ndon. In 1S2S he went to Scotland on 
 a preaching tour. On this occasion he visited Rosneath, 
 where he made a great impression upon many persons, 
 including an invalid. Mary Campbell. In the same year 
 Alexander John Scott (1805-1866) became Irving's 
 assastaat. Scott, who afterwards became the first Prin- 
 cipal of Owens College, Manchester (1851-57), was one of 
 those who believed "that the supernatural powers once 
 bestowed upon the Church were not merely the phenomena 
 of one miraculous age, but an inheritance of which she 
 ought to have pos.sessiou as surely and richly now as in 
 the days of the Apostles" (Oliphant). The same idea 
 had already occurred to Irving, and he seems to have 
 been impressed more and more by Scott's convictions. 
 In 1830 James Macdonald, q disciple of Scott, cured his 
 invalid sister by telling her in the words of Psalm xx. to 
 " Arise, and stand upright." He then wrote to Mary 
 Campbell, who apiiarently was on her death-bed, and 
 conveyed to her the same command. She has herself 
 described the effect of the message. " I received dear 
 brotier James M'Donald's letter, giving an account of his 
 sister's being raised up, and commanding me to rise and 
 walk. I had .scarcely read the first page when I became 
 quite overpowered, and laid it aside for a few minutes; 
 but I had no rest in my mind until I took it up again, 
 and began to read. As I read, every word came home 
 with power; and when I came to the command to arise, 
 it came home with a {X)wer which no one can describe ; it 
 was felt to be indeed the voice of Christ; it was such a 
 voice as could not be resisted. A mighty i)ower was 
 instantaneously exerted upon me. I felt as if I had been 
 lifted from off the earth, and all my diseases taken from 
 me at the voice of Christ. I was verily made in a 
 moment to stand upon my feet, leap and walk, sing and 
 rejoice " (Norton, Memoirs of J. and G. Macdonald). In 
 the same year, apparently before her cure, Mary Camp- 
 bell receivetl the gift of tongues. Irving himself, writing 
 later (18.32) in " Eraser's Magazine " says that " the 
 Holy Ghost came with mighty ix)wer upon the sick woman 
 as she lay in her weakness, and constrained her to speak 
 at great length and with superhuman strength In an un- 
 known tongue, to the astonishment of all who heard and 
 to her own great edification — for ' he that speaketh in 
 an unknown tongue edifieth himself.' " Towards the 
 end of 1830 Irving and .some Evangelical clergymen began 
 to conduct prayer meetings in order " to seek of (>od 
 the revival of the gifts of the Holy Ghost in the Church." 
 The Presbytery of I>ondon had already begun to doubt 
 his orthodoxy. Early in November 18.31 Irving preached 
 two sermons on the extraordinary gifts of the Spirit, and 
 .several members of the congregation began to reveal the 
 miraculous gift of tongues. In 1S.32 the Scotch Pres- 
 bytery in Ivondon decided " that the s;iid Rev. Edward 
 Irving has rendered himself unfit to remain the minister 
 of the National Scotch Church aforesaid, and ought to be 
 removed therefrom, in pursuance of the conditions of the 
 trust-deed of the said church." Irving's congregation 
 sought an asylum in a large room in Gray's Inn Road. 
 But here only the principal services were held. Irving 
 preached for a time in various places out of doors. Ijater, 
 he removed to a house in Newman Street. This con- 
 tained a large picture gallery which was to serve as his 
 new church. The ministerial organisation now under- 
 went a change. Robert Baxter of Doncaster declared 
 prophetically "that the Church no longer retained the 
 privilege of ordaining, and that all spiritnal offices were 
 henceforth to be filled by the gifted, or by those specially 
 called, through the gifted, by the Spirit of God " 
 (Oliphant). Irving himself on April the 5bh. 1833, was 
 re-ordained as " angel over the Church in Newman 
 
 Street." Irving died ou December the 8th. 1834. 
 Writing in 1836, Robert Baxter (Irvingism) describes the 
 chapel and its arrangements. " The room adopted for 
 their meetings was fitted up in the usual style of pews 
 and galleries, as in a church; instead of a pulpit, how- 
 ever, there was constructed at the upper end of the 
 church a raised platform, capable of containing perhaps 
 fifty persons. In the ascent to this platform are steps, 
 on the front of the platform are seven seats; tlie middle 
 seat is that of the angel; the three on each side of the 
 angel are elders. Below them on the steps, and in a 
 parallel line, are .seven other seats belonging to the 
 prophets, the middle seat being allotted to Mr. Taplin 
 as the chief of tlie prophets. Still lower in a parallel 
 line are seven other seats appropriated to the deacons, 
 the middle seat being occupied by the chief deacon. 
 This threefold cord of a sevenfold ministry was adopted 
 under direction of the utterance. The angel ordered 
 the service, and the preaching and expounding was 
 generally by the elders in order, the prophets speaking 
 as utterance came upon them." In 1832 the followers 
 of Irving had taken the title of the " Holy Catholic 
 Apostolic Church." In July 18.35 there were twelve 
 apostles, who ordained angels and elders. The ritual of 
 the Church developed considerably after this. In 1854 a 
 fine chapel was opened in Gordon Square, London. It 
 possesses a good liturgy. The ministry now comprises 
 angels, elders, prophets, evangeli-sts, and pastors, and is 
 supported by tithes. See Robert Baxter, Irvitiffism, its 
 Rise, Progress, and Present State. 1836; Mrs. Oliphant, 
 The Life of Edward Irving, 1862; J. H. Blunt; the 
 D.y.B. 
 
 ISAIAH, BOOK OF. The book of the prophet Isaiah 
 is one of the most remarkable products of Hebrew pro- 
 phetic genius found in the Old Testament. The prophet 
 himself describes in the sixth chapter of the book named 
 after him the iwwerful religious experience that made 
 him a prophet. The event took place about the year 
 740 B.C., the year in which " the startling news came 
 of the death of the great King Uzziah who for nearly 
 half a century had brought to Judah strength and in- 
 creasing prestige" (C. F. Kent). The prophet went up 
 to the temple at .Jerusalem to worship, and there in a 
 wonderful vision felt the presence of Jehovah and realized 
 that he had received a divine call. No doubt he was 
 ready for tJie call; but when it came it did so with all 
 the force of a new inspiration and revelation. " Wlien 
 Isaiah went forth from the temple, the world was ncher 
 because a new prophet had entered upon his life-work " 
 (C. F. Kent). So great was the prophet's fame that 
 otlier authors wrote afterwards in his name. Chapters 
 xl.-lxvi., for instance, of the present l)ook of Isaiah were 
 clearly not bv the prophet whose call is described in chap, 
 vi. This portion of the book is now commonly described 
 as II. Isaiah or Deutero-Isaiah. Kent thinks that the 
 original prophecies of Isaiah fall naturally into eight or 
 nine divisions. " Tlie general introduction, chapter 1. 
 is followed bv a group of social .sermons. 2-5. to which 
 also belongs 98-10^. These represent the first iieriod of 
 Isaiah's activity, from 740-735 B.C. The second stage of 
 Isaiah's work, which was in connection with the crisis 
 of 734 B.C.. is recorded in 7 and 8. These chapters are 
 introduced bv an account of the prophet's call, in 6 and 
 are .supplemented by the messianic prophecies in 9i -^ U. 
 12 The next group contains a collection of foreign 
 prophecies. 13-23. of various dates. Some of these are 
 from Isaiah, but the majority are, apparently, from 
 otherwi.se unknown later prophets. Chapters 24-2 < are 
 a very late apocalypse, describing Jehovah s finiil judg- 
 ment of the world. The original sermons in 28-^1 were 
 delivered in connection with the crisis of <01 B.C.
 
 Ishtar 
 
 194 
 
 Isma'iiiyeh 
 
 Chapters 34, 35 contain another post-exilic apocalypse. 
 The historical chapters, xxxvi., xxxvii., tell of Isaiah's 
 work in the fourth and last great period of his activity, 
 while 38 and 39 record certain events preceding the in- 
 vasion of Sennacherib in 701 B.C." A number of critics 
 distinguish a Trito-Isaiah as well as a Deutero-Isaiah. 
 To Trito-Isaiah are assigned chapters Ivi.-lxvi., and they 
 are supposed to have been written about 4.50 B.C. The 
 outloolc and environment seem to be quite different from 
 those of Deutero-Isaiah. The surroundings are not 
 Babvlonian, but Palestinian. See T. K. Ohevne. Intr. to 
 Book of Isaiah, 1895; G. A. Smith, The Book of Isaiah, 
 1899; B. Duhm, Das Buck Jesaia, 2nd ed., 1902; K. Marti, 
 Das Buck Jesaia, 1900; .1. Skinner, Isaiah, In the " Cam- 
 bridge Bible"; O. C. Whitehouse, Isaiah, in the "Cen- 
 tury Bible"; G. H. Box, The Book of Isaiah, 1908; C. 
 Comlll, Intr.; G. H. Box, Intr.; O. C. Whitehouse; C. 
 P. KeJit, The t^ermons, Epistles, and Apocalypses of 
 Israel's Prophets. 1910. 
 
 ISHTAR. A Babylonian deity. The goddess Ishtar, 
 " the brilliant goddess." is described as the kind mother. 
 But she came to be regarded as the goddess of war. It 
 is possible that in this two-fold character she represents 
 two aspects of Venus (q.v.), morning and evening star. 
 She appears also as Anunat (q.v.) and Nana (Q.v.). In 
 the Assyrian pantheon one of her titles is " the queen 
 of Kidmuru." She has become more than ever a goddess 
 of war, and as .such is placed by the side of Ashur (q.v.), 
 but not as his consort. She is described as " mighty 
 over the Anunnaki." She is the lady, Belit, of battle. 
 In the Gilgamesh Epic (Q.v.) Ishtar seeks the love of the 
 hero Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh not only rejects her (here a 
 goddess of love), but even upraids her for cruelty. Her 
 love turns to hate. Anu (Q.v.), the god of heaven, 
 creates for her a divine bull, which is to destroy Gil- 
 gamesh. But, with the help of his friend Eabani, he 
 kills it. Eabani even throws the carca.se into Ishtar's 
 face. Ishtar is represented elsewhere as having in her 
 train the Kizreti, Ukhftti, and Kharimfiti. These repre- 
 sent three classes of harlots, who were devoted to her 
 worship, as the goddess of fertility. In the storv of 
 the deluge (see DELUGE-STORT, BABYLONIAN), 
 where even the gods are represented as trembling at the 
 fury of the storm, Ishtar groans like a woman in travail. 
 At Nippur clay figurines of Ishtar have been found which 
 in one way or another represent her as the goddess of 
 fertility. But Ishtar ab.sorbed the qualities of all the 
 other goddesses. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ISHUM. A Babylonian deity. Ishum is one of the 
 gods mentioned before the time of Ilammurapi. He 
 was a solar deity. He appears as the me&senger of 
 Nusku (Q.v.) and as the attendant of Dibbarra. It is 
 he who recounts the deeds of Dibbarra (see DIBBARRA 
 EPIC). He is himself a warrior and wages war as an 
 agent of Dibbarra. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ISIS. An Egyptian deity. The goddess Isis was sister 
 and wife of Osiris (q.v.), sister of Set (q.v.) and 
 Nephthys (q.v.), and mother of Horus (q.v.). In the 
 Osiris myth (q.v.) Isis is the devoted wife who watched 
 over her hustKand and tried to protect him against the 
 plots of his enemy Set. " She was his safeguard and 
 warded off enemies, for she was .subtle, with an excellent 
 tongue, her word did not fail, and she was admirable in 
 command." TMien at length Set succeeded and caused 
 the dead body of Osiris to disappear, Isis sought it with- 
 out wearying. When she found it. Anubis (Q.v.), com- 
 missioned by the god Ra (q.v.). put the members together, 
 and Isis breathed into the body new life for a second, 
 but not earthly, existence. After a time Isis gave birth 
 to a son Horns (q.v.). When Horns grew up he fought 
 against Set and prevailed. In the Greek period Isis 
 
 assumed a compound form among the people and became 
 Isis-Hathor-Aphrodite. In Alexandria she became 
 patroness of mariners. This character was, no doubt, 
 as J. G. Frazer suggests, assigned to her by the sea-faring 
 Greeks. Frazer also thinks that the epithet of Stella 
 Maris as applied to the Virgin Mary as the guardian of 
 tempest -tossed sailors was suggested by the similar wor- 
 j^hip of Isis. The original signaficanc-e of the goddess 
 Isis is difficult to determine. Frazer gives reasons for 
 thinking that Osiris was the corn-god and Isis the corn- 
 goddess. She is .spoken of in inscriptions as " creatress 
 of the green crop " and " mistress of bread." The 
 Greeks identified her with Demeter, the Romans with 
 Ceres. In later times the conception of Isis was 
 refined and spiritualized. She became the model of 
 a tender mother and true wife. She resembles the 
 Jladonna. " Indeed her stately ritual, with its shaven 
 and tonsured priests, its matins and vespers, its tinkling 
 music, its baptism and asi>ersions of holy water, its 
 .«)olemn processions, its jewelled images of the Mother of 
 God. presented many points of similarity to the pomps 
 and ceremonies of Catholicism " (Frazer). The figure 
 of Isis and the infant Horns has sometimes been mis- 
 taken for that of the Madonna and child. The animal 
 sacred to Isis was the cow. Hence she is represented 
 as wearing horns, or even as having the head of a cow. 
 See A. Wiedemann: J. 6. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiri.^. 
 1906; Adolf Erman, Handbook; Naville, The Old 
 Egyptian Faith, 1909; Reinach, O. 
 
 ISLAM. The Arabic word 'Isldm means " the act of 
 resignation or submission." Muhammad himself gave this 
 name to has religion. " The true religion with God is 
 Islam," he says (Qur'an iii. 17). Again, "whoso 
 desireth any other religion than Islam, that religion shall 
 never be accepted from him, and in the next world he 
 shall be among the lost " (ibid. iii. 79). Muhammad is 
 also represented as saying, " This day have I perfected 
 your religion for you, and it is My pleasure that IslSm 
 be your religion " (ihid. v. 5). The sources for the re- 
 ligion, called " the traditional proofs," are the Qur'dn 
 (KORAN), the Hunna (Q.v.), the Ijm&' (Q.v.), and the 
 QiAs. These are the foundations for the doctrines of 
 the religion. See F. A. Klein. 
 
 ISMA'ILtYEH. A branch of the Muhammadan Shi'ah 
 sect. Whereas the Shi'ahs find the true Imrim in Musfi al- 
 Qasim, the second son of Ja'afar as-Sfidiq, the Isma- 
 'iiiyeh trace the succession from his eldest .son. Isma'U. 
 The sect was founded in Persia in the middle of the 
 eighth century. In the ninth century new life was 
 infused into it by the zeal and the missionary activity 
 of 'Abdu-Uah ibn Maymun. Missionaries went out in 
 all directions. " They captivated the ignorant multitude 
 by the performance of marvels that were taken for 
 miracles and by mysterious utterances that excited their 
 curiosity. To the devout they appeared as models of 
 virtue and religious zeal: to the mystics they revealed the 
 hidden meaning of popular teachings and initiated them 
 into various grades of occultism according to their capac- 
 ity. Taking advantage of the eager looking-forward 
 to a deliverer that was common to so many faiths of the 
 time, they declared to the Musalmans the approaching 
 advent of the Imfim Mahdl, to the Jews that of the 
 Messiah, and to the Christians that of the Comforter, 
 but taught that the aspirations of each could alone be 
 realised in the coming of 'All as the great deliverer " 
 (T. W. Arnold). In these and other ways the Isma'iltyeh 
 were able to unite together a very large number of 
 persons of different faiths. According to F. J. Bliss, 
 there is a large body of Isma'iiiyeh in Syria at the pre- 
 sent time, though the majority of the members are secret 
 adherents. They send yearly tribute to a Sultau
 
 Italapas 
 
 195 
 
 Jainism 
 
 Mohammed Sliah in Bombay, who claims to be descended 
 from the Old Man of the Mountain. Lord of the 
 Assassins. They believe him to be an incarnation of tie 
 Deity. They believe also that God dwells in a virgin 
 who lives on the edge of the Syrian desert. " This girl 
 is called the ro'dhah, which may be translated a green- 
 sward or pleasaunce. As long as she remains a virgin 
 she is regarded as .sacred, and the Isma'ilians wear bits 
 of her clothing or hair from her person in their turl)ans. 
 But should she marry — and she may do so honourably— 
 search is made for a succes.sor, who must be a girl bom 
 on a certain day in the year, and who should conform 
 to certain characteristics regarding her height and the 
 colour of her hair and eyes " (F. J. Bliss). A govern- 
 ment official, who surprised the Isma'iltyeh at a service 
 of adoration of the ro'dhah, found her seated in a white 
 robe on a high chair and wearing on her head a wreath 
 of fresh flowers. The worshippers knelt before her and 
 chanted sacred song.*;. F. J. Bliss thinks that the cult 
 of the ro'dhah is an ancient form of nature-worship which 
 was retained when the local inhabitants accepted the 
 strange ideas of the Isma'iliyeh. " In the resultant 
 synthesis both sets of ideas may have undergone altera- 
 tion. In its present form this nature-worship appears 
 to be symbolic rather than sensual. There is evidence 
 that woman is venerated as the symbol of tie earth- 
 mother." The cults of the Isma'iliyeh, the Druses, and 
 the Nuseirlyeh are secret. In all of them initiation 
 plays an important part. See T. P. Hughes; T. W. 
 Arnold; F. J. Bliss. 
 
 ITALAPAS. One of the principal deities in the 
 mythology of the Chinook Indians. He assisted Ikanam 
 in the creation of men, and then instructed them. 
 
 ITH. In Irish mythology Ith figures as one of the 
 deities in the world of the dead. 
 
 ITZAMATUL. A tribal deity, a god of healing, in 
 the religion of the Mayan Indians. He was known also 
 as Kabul. 
 
 ITZAMNA. A deity worshipped by the Maya Indians 
 in Yucatan. He was reputed to be the inventor of letters, 
 and resembles the Mexican god Tonacatecutli. 
 
 IXCHEBELTAX. A tribal deity, goddess of embroid- 
 erj- and art, in the religion of the Mayan Indians. She 
 resembles the Mexican deity Xochiquetzal. 
 
 IXCHEL. A tribal deity, goddess of child-birth, in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 IXTAB. A deity in the religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 She was the goddess who received the souls of those 
 who hanged themselves. 
 
 IXTLILTON. A Mexican deity, medical god of 
 children. A sacrifice was offered to him when a child 
 first began to speak. Children who were afflicted with 
 any malady were given to drink " black water " or tlilatj, 
 which was kept in little jars in the temple of the cod. 
 
 IZANAGI. In Shintoism (q.v.), the ancient religion 
 of Japan, Izanagi figures as the Creator. He is the 
 Father of all the heroes and demi-gods of Japanese 
 mythology and history, who are the chief objects of wor- 
 ship in Shintoism. One of the principal symbols of this 
 religion is a mirror. A Japanese legend (quoted by G. 
 A. Cobbold) presences a beautiful tradition concerning 
 this mirror. " When the time was come that Izauagi 
 and his consort should return together to the celestial 
 regions, he called his children together, bidding them dry 
 their tears, and listen attentively to his last wishes. He 
 then committed to them a disc of polished silver, bidding 
 them each morning place themselves on their knees before 
 it, and there see reflected on their countenances the 
 impress of any evil passions deliberately indulged ; and 
 again each night carefully to examine themselves, that 
 their last thoughts might be after the happiness of that 
 higher world whither their parents had preceded them." 
 Izanagi gave birth to Ama-terasu, the sun-goddess, from 
 whom again was descended Jimmu Tenno. who is sup- 
 posed to have been the first human sovereign of Japan. 
 See G. A. Cobbold, Rel. 
 
 IZAZALVOH. A tribal deity, goddess of weaving, in 
 the religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 IZDUBAR. This, according to the original decipher- 
 ment, was the name of the hero of the great national 
 epic of the Babvlonians. The name is now read as 
 Gilgamesh. See GILGAMESH EPIC. 
 
 J 
 
 JABARIYYA. The name of an Arabian sect, which 
 differs from the Sunnis on the question of predes- 
 tination. The name is derived from a root meaning 
 " to compel." The Jabariyya think that God's unalter- 
 able decree compels men to act as they do. " Man, 
 according to their view, is forced to act as he does like 
 a feather in the air which the wind moves about at will, 
 and he has neither power, nor will, nor choice any more 
 than an inanimate agent, and therefore no acquisition." 
 See F. A. Klein. 
 
 JACOBINS. A name by which the Dominicans (q.v.) 
 became known in France. They were so called from 
 the house of St. Jacob, in which a monastery was 
 founded. 
 
 JAGANNaTH. Lord of the world, one of the names 
 of the Hindu god Vishnu. 
 
 JAINISM. The .Jains are the followers of the religious 
 
 reformer Jiua. Jina, however, like Buddha, is not a 
 name but a title. The real founder of Jainism would 
 seem to have been Mahavira Jfiatriputra. Both Jainism 
 and Buddhism may be said to represent revolts against 
 Brahmanism. Of the two systems, Jainism appears to 
 have had the start of Buddhism; and in any case it may 
 be regarded as a religion intermediate Iwtween Brah- 
 manism and Buddhism. Another name for the Jains is 
 Nirgranthas. The Nigranthas claimed Nataputta as their 
 founder. It would seem, therefore, either that Nataputta 
 was one who prepared the way for Mahavira, or that he 
 was identical with Mahavira. In course of time the 
 Jains split up into two main bodies, the Svetambaras, 
 " white-attire men," and the Digambaras, " sky-attire 
 men," that is to say, naked devotees. The Digambaras 
 insist that ascetics must be naked. The Jains differ 
 from the Buddhists in this, among other things, that
 
 Jalia 
 
 196 
 
 Jansenists 
 
 they attach the greatest importance to asceticism. The 
 term .Tina means " conqueror," and Mahfivlra held that 
 the passions must be conquered by mortification of the 
 flesh. The Digambaras argued that where there is no 
 sin there can be no shame. Their nakedness Implied 
 the conquest of sin. The Svetambaras arose in protest 
 against this type of Jainism. They object even to nude 
 images of the twenty-four Jinas or chiefs venerated by 
 the Jaiu.s. They differ further from the Digambaras 
 in admitting women into their order of ascetics, and in 
 having sacred boolis of their own. The Jains in general 
 practically worship their chiefs or Jinas as gods. They 
 also worship the female energ}'. They do not believe in 
 an All-Spirit, but they believe in individual souls or 
 spirits existing iu stones, plants, drops of water, particles 
 of fire, etc. They cherish three moral gems or jewels, 
 Right-kuowledge, " Eight-intuition, and Right-conduct. 
 Their five principles of Right-conduct are : " (1) Non- 
 injury, (2) kindness and speaking what is true (in so 
 far as the truth is pleasant to the hearer), (3) honourable 
 conduct, typified by ' not stealing,' (4) chastity in word, 
 thought, and deed, (5) renunciation of earthly interests " 
 (Hopkins). The first principle is followed to an extrava- 
 gant extent, since, among other precautions against 
 killing living creatures they " often wear muslin before 
 their mouths to catch minute insects " (Monier-WUliams). 
 It is a rule with the Jains that their hair, instead of 
 being cut off, must he plucked out. Hence they have 
 been called " hair-pluckers." The Jains believe in re- 
 incarnation on earth. In this way salvation is attained 
 by degrees. After twelve years of strict asceticism the 
 Jain may commit suicide. The Jains do not erect Stflpas 
 or Dagobas to hold relics. See Monier-Williams, 
 Buddhism, 1890; E. W. Hopkins; J. A. Dubois and H. K. 
 Beauchamp. 
 
 JALIA. One of the deities worshipped by the Savaras 
 (also known as Sawaras or Saoras), an important hill- 
 tribe in Southern India. The deity, who is very 
 malevolent, appears to be regarded in some places as 
 male and in others as female. 
 
 JAMES, THE EPISTLE OF. The Epistle of James 
 is one of a small group of New Testament writings which 
 since the end of the second century have been known as 
 " Catholic Epistles," because they are addressed to 
 Christians in general. Eusebius (c. 325 A.D.) described 
 it as a disputed book, that is to say, as a book not 
 universally accepted by the Church. In the fourth cen- 
 tuxy, however, it was definitely recognised as canonical 
 (Council of Laodicea, 364 A.D. ; Council of Carthage, 
 397 A.D.). The epi.stle is very Hebraic in tone and 
 language, and it has been widely held that the James 
 whose name it bears was " James, the Lord's brother " 
 (Galatians i. 19), who became president of the Church 
 at Jeruisalem. The opening words, " James, a servant 
 of GkKi and of the Ix)rd Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes 
 which are of the Dispersion, greeting," have been sup- 
 posed to favour this view. But these words may well be 
 editorial. The fact is that the Epistle of James is a 
 puzzling writing. It may either be very early or rather 
 late. It was evidently written by a Jew for Jews. 
 There is little, if anything, in it that is distinctively 
 Christian, and it is not referred to by Christian writers 
 before the time of Origen. One is inclined to think, 
 with Spitta, that it is a pre-Christian Jewish writing 
 which was afterwards adapted to Christian use. Von 
 Soden also holds that, at any rate parts of the epistle 
 are of Jewish origin. New theories have been pro- 
 
 pounded by G. Currie Martin and J. H. Moulton. Currie 
 Martin's theory was first explained in The Expositor. 
 " The idea, briefly expressed, is that James, the brother 
 of the Lord, may have made a collection of sayings other- 
 
 wise not pre.served, and have made these the basis of 
 short homilies or reflections, which are collected together 
 in this present work. It may not have been designed at 
 all as a letter in the first instance, but after the death 
 of James some of his disciples may have realised the 
 value of such a record, and brought them all together in 
 his name, and sent them out with his authority '" (Hooka 
 of the N.T., 1909). The theory of J. H. Moulton is ex- 
 plained and commended by Prof. A. S. Peake. J. H. 
 Moulton thinks that the epistle, which contains a number 
 of sayings of Jesus not recorded elsewhere, was 
 addressed not to Christians but to Jews. " This has the 
 very great advantage that it explains why a Christian 
 writing should be so destitute of avowedly Christian 
 elements. The writer would not damage his appeal by 
 specific references to Christ, above all to the scandal of 
 His cross. But he included many sayings of Jesus in 
 the hope that their own intrinsic beauty and worth would 
 commend them to the readers and prepare them for a 
 truer estimate of the crucified Nazarene whom they hated 
 and despised. This involves that, as other scholars have 
 suggested, the references to Christ were not a part of the 
 original composition." See the Commentaries by J. B. 
 Mayor and R. J. Knowling; the EncycL Bibl.; J. A. 
 M'Clymont; G. Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake. Intr.: 
 J. Moffatt, Intr. 
 
 JANaRDAN. Protector of the people, one of the 
 names of the Hindu god Vishnu. 
 
 JANGAMS. The .langams or Jangamas are a Sivlte 
 order of wandering religious mendicants in India. Wor- 
 shipping as their one and only deity Siva or Mahadeo, 
 they act as priests or gurus to the Sivite sect of Lin- 
 gayats. Their great festival is the Shivr.atri (Siva's 
 night). The Jangams " reject the poems in honour of 
 Vishnu, Rama, and Krishna, such as the Bhagavad Gita 
 and Ramayana; they also deny the authority of Brah- 
 mans, the efficacy of pilgrimage and self-mortification, 
 and the restrictions of caste; while they revere principally 
 the Vedas and the teaching of the great Sivite reformer 
 Shankar Acharya " (R. V. Russell). They wear and 
 worship the lingam, the phallic sign of Siva, and are 
 vegetarians. 
 
 JANKI. A Hindu goddess, apparently another name 
 for Sita, the wife of Rrmia. 
 
 JANSENISTS. The Jansenists were a school rather 
 than a sect. Thev were so named after Cornelius Jansen 
 or Jansenius (1.585-1038). The theological question to 
 which thev attached si>eoial importance was that of 
 Grace. In 1.58S L. Molina (1.535-1600), a Spanish Jesuit, 
 published a work •' On the Agreement of Free- Will with 
 Grace and Predestination." His views have been sum- 
 marized as follows : " (1) A reason or ground of God's 
 predestination is to be found in man's right use of his 
 free will. (2) That the gracp which God bestows to 
 enable men to persevere in religion may become the gift 
 of perseverance, it is necessary that they be fore.seen as 
 consenting and co-operating with the Divine assistance 
 offered them, which is a thing within their power. (3) 
 There is a mediate prescience, which is neither the free 
 nor the natural knowledge of God, and by which he 
 knows future contingent events before he forms his 
 decree. (4) Predestination may be considered as either 
 general (relating to whole classes of per.sons) or parti- 
 cular (relating to individual persons). In general pre- 
 destination there is no reason or ground of it beyond the 
 mere good pleasure of God, or none on the part of the 
 persons predestinated; but in particular predestination 
 (or that of individuals) there is a cause or ground of it 
 In the foreseen good use of free-will " (Blunt, p. 330). 
 The Dominicans (Thomists) regarded these views 
 as Semi-Pelagian. The Jesuits denied that they
 
 Jansenists 
 
 197 
 
 Jasondhis 
 
 were such, and maintaiued that they might be 
 held. This led to hot disputes. In 1597 Pope 
 Clement VIII. instituted Congregations de Auxilils 
 (concerning the helps, i.e., of grace) to investigate the 
 views of Molina. These held a number of sessions, 
 which were continued under Pope Paul V. In 1607 the 
 College of Cardinals met and deliberated, with the final 
 result that " the theologians of each party were allowed 
 to hold and teach their respective opinions, provided tliey 
 did not .stigmatise their opponents with theological 
 censures " (Addis and Arnold). Cornelius Jansen became 
 in 1C17 Professor at Louvain, and in 1035 Bishop of 
 Yprfes. He was greatly interested in the study of St. 
 Augustine, and prepared a great work " Augustinus." 
 Before he could publish it, he died (1038). When it was 
 published (KHO), the Jesuits succeeded in getting it sup- 
 pressed ; and on its reappearance it was condemned by 
 the Inquisition (1041) and by Pope Urban VIII (1642). 
 It found a vigorous defender in Antoine Amauld (1612- 
 1694), Doctor of the Sorbonne. In lt;49, however, Nicolas 
 Cornet, a Jesuit father, submitted to the Sorbonne five 
 propositions which he professed to have drawn from the 
 "Augustinus." The Parliament, however, tooli the 
 matter out of the hands of the Sorbonne, and referred 
 it to an as.sembly of the clergy. In 1653 Pope Innocent 
 X. condemned the propositions in a Bull " Cum 
 oocasione." The five propositions were as follows : I. 
 " Some precepts of God are impos.<»ible to just men, 
 wishing and striving (to obey them), according to the 
 strength which they then have; also they lack grace 
 which would make them possible." II. " Resistance is 
 never made in the state of fallen nature to interior grace." 
 III. " For merit and demerit in tJie state of fallen nature, 
 there is not required in man freedom from necessity, but 
 freedom from compulsion is suflScient." IV. " The Semi- 
 Pelagians admitted the necessity of prevenient interior 
 grace for single actions, even for the beginning of faith ; 
 but they were heretical in holding that grace to be of 
 such a kind that the human will could resist or yield 
 to it." V. " It is Semi-Pelagian to say that Christ 
 did shed His blood for all men together." Jansen's 
 friend, Jean du Verger de Hauranne, who in 1620 became 
 the Abbe de St. Cyran, had founded a Jansenist Society 
 called the Port Royal Society. Its original members 
 Included Antoine Amauld, J^e Mattre, De Sericourt, and 
 De Saci. Others who became members of the Society 
 were : Nicole, Fontaine, and Blaise Pascal (1023-1662). 
 In 16.38 the Port Royal Society removed from Paris to 
 the monastery of Port Royal des Champs near Versailles. 
 In 1643, when St. Cyran died, Antoine Amauld became 
 leader of the Port Royalists, who had removed in the 
 meantime to a farm called r^es Granges in order to make 
 room for a body of nuns from Port Royal de Paris (Marie 
 Ang^lique Arnauld's Sisters). When Jansen's five pro- 
 positions were condemned by the Pope, Amauld was 
 expected to approve of their condemnation. But Amauld 
 was not preiwred to admit that the propositions could 
 be found in the book of Cornelius Jansen. Moreover, he 
 drew a distinction between things <le facto and de jure. 
 Whatever the tendency of Jansen's views de jure might 
 be, the terms of the propositions de facto were not his. 
 " The dictinction was pressed home, and while infalli- 
 bility was allowed to the Court of Rome in .synod 
 assembled ' de jure ' in matters of doctrine its complete 
 fallibility was shewn from several historical instances, 
 in which it was seen that the Holy See had often erred 
 in matters of fact " (J. H. Blunt). The Jansenists could 
 agree to the condemnation of the propositions regarded 
 from the de jure point of view. Arnauld's reasoning 
 was condemned by Pope Innocent X. (1654). It was con- 
 demned also by the Sorbonne, and Amauld was driven 
 
 from the ranks of its Doctors (]6.5(i). The next important 
 step in the controversy was the publication by Blaise 
 Pascal of his " Provincial Letters " (1050). These 
 attacked not only the doctrines, but aLso the morals of 
 the Jesuits. Pascal was a .satirist, and satirists always 
 exaggerate. But the letters contained a great deal of 
 truth, and at the time were of great servic-e to the Jan- 
 senists. " No one who has read the • Provincial Letters ' 
 is likely to lose the impression which they make; it mav 
 be said without exaggeration that thcv touch every chord 
 of the human heart, and the sudden transitions from 
 logic and wit to sublime and pathetic eloquence produce 
 an effect which can neither be resisted or effaced " 
 (Cath. Diet.). In 1665 Pope Alexander VII. demanded 
 submission to the condemnation de facto. The Bishops 
 of Alet, Angers, Beauvais, and Pamiers would only 
 silently submit on the question de facto. In 1669 
 the new Pope, Clement IX., restored them to the 
 papal favour, which they had lost. This was 
 called " the peace of Clement." Antoine Amauld 
 was succeeded by Pasquier Quesnel (1034-1719), of the 
 Oratory of Cardinal Beralle. In 1071 he published 
 a work, " Moral Reflexions on the Go.spels " (enlarged 
 later). He was afterwards bani.shed to Orleans, and 
 finally sought refuge in Brassels. In 1708 Quesnel's 
 book was condemned by the Pope. In 1710 the Port 
 Royalists of France were suppressetl or exterminated. 
 In 1713 the papal bull " Unigenitus " condemned one 
 hundred and one propositions dravra from Quesnel's 
 book. But the bull raised a constitutional question. 
 Those who accepted it formed a party called the Con- 
 stitutionists or Acceptants. Those who rejected it con- 
 .stituted another party called the Anticonstitutionists, 
 Appellants (because they wished to appeal to a general 
 Council), or Recusants. The Bull " Pastoralis Officii " 
 of Clement XI. excommunicated all who wi.shed to refer 
 the matter to a general Council. In 1727 a Jansenist 
 deacon, Frangois de Paris, died, and miracles are sup- 
 posed to have taken place at his tomb in the cemetery 
 of St. M^dard. People made pilgrimages to the tomb 
 and fell into ecstasies and convulsions. On this account 
 the Jansenists were called Convulsionnaires or Convuls- 
 ionaries, and from this time Jansenism in France began 
 to decay. The Jansenist Church of Holland has main- 
 tained itself down to the present time. It is an inde- 
 I>endent Roman Catholic Church, and claims to be Old 
 Roman or Old Catholic. When the Old Catholics (q.v.) 
 were in need of an episcopal successor of the apostles to 
 consecrate I'rof. J. H. Reinkens (1821-1896) as their 
 hi.shop, they applied to the Jansenist Church of Holland. 
 See J. H. Blunt; Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 JAR-BURIAL. In early Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, 
 and Palestine it was the custom sometimes to bury 
 children in jars. In Palestine the children were .some- 
 times foundation-sacrifices, but at other times they were 
 ordinary human sacrifices. At Taanach twenty jar- 
 buried infants were found near a rock altar. Their 
 proximity to the altar suggests that the infants in tiiis 
 case were sacrificed in the ordinary way. See P. S. P. 
 Handcock. 
 
 JASONDHIS. A small caste in India, a branch of 
 the Bhfits. They sang the ja.i or hymns in praise of the 
 chiefs at the Gond and Mariitha festivals. Some of them, 
 known also as Karohla, now go about as religious mendi- 
 cants, singing the praises of Devi. " They carry an 
 image of the goddess .su.spended by a chain round the 
 neck and ask for gifts of tilli (se.samum) or other vege- 
 table oil, which they pour over their heads and over the 
 image. Their clothes and bodies are consequently always 
 .saturated with this oil. They also have a little cup 
 of vermilion, which they smear on the goddess and on
 
 Jataka 
 
 198 
 
 Jesuits 
 
 their own bodies after receiving an offering " (R. V. 
 Rusaell and R. B. Hira Lai). 
 
 JATAKA. A Buddhist sacred book, a book of legends, 
 included in the collection appended to the second division 
 of the Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 JAWARAS. The Jawaras, sown by the Hindus, cor- 
 respond to the gardens of Adonis. The sowings take.'; 
 place before the sowing of the spring crop of wheat and 
 other grains, at the beginning of the harvest of the crop, 
 and sometimes also a third time during the rains. The 
 wheat sown before the sowing of the spring crop is sup- 
 posed to give a forecast of the success of the latter. 
 
 JEBAWI'YEH. Another name for the Sa'adi'yeh 
 (g.v.), an order of Dervishes. 
 
 JEHOVAH. The Hebrew divine name Y-h-v-h has 
 long been pronounced by Christians " Jehovah." 
 Modern scholars, however, think that the word should 
 be pronounced Jahveh or Yahveh (or Yahweh). See 
 TETRAGRAMMATON, and YAHWEH. 
 
 JBHOVIST. More correctly Jahvist or Yahwist (see 
 JEHOVAH). The name has been given to one (or more) 
 of the writers of the narratives of which the Hexateuch 
 is composed. The writer was so called because his work 
 was characterised by the use of the divine name Jehovah 
 (more correctly Jahveh or Yahweh) instead of Elohim. 
 Critics now discriminate between a First Jehovist, a 
 second Jehovist, and a Third Jehovist. 
 
 JEREMIAH, BOOK OF. The book of the prophet 
 Jeremiah itself gives an account of the origin of the 
 work. This is contained in chapter xxxvi. In the fourth 
 year of Jehoiakim, son of Josiah, king of Judah (604 
 B.C.), Jeremiah, after he had prophesied orally for 
 twenty-three years, was commissioned by Jehovah to 
 write out all the oracles which had been revealed to him. 
 The prophet therefore sought the help of Baruch, who 
 wrote down the book at his dictation. The next year 
 Baruch read the roll in the Temple in the hearing of a 
 great assembly of people on the occasion of a fast. The 
 roll was afterwards read before the princes. The king 
 then commanded that it should be brought to him and 
 read aloud. When three or four double columns had 
 been read, the king threw the roll into the fire. There- 
 upon Jehovah commissioned the prophet to take another 
 roll and write in it all the words that were in the first 
 roll. This was done. The words of the original roU 
 were written out again, "and there were also added to 
 them many other similar words." As Cornill says, " it 
 follows from this that we possess no authentic reports 
 from the first half-period of Jeremiah's active ministry, 
 but only a resume given by himself, in which he had 
 striven to recapitulate its fundamental thoughts and ideas 
 in as brief and impressive a way as possible." And the 
 original document cannot have been very voluminous, for 
 it was read through twice in a single day. The earliest 
 sections in the Book of Jeremiah would seem to be : 
 chapters i., ii.-vi., vii.-x., xi.-xii. 6, xxv., xviii. These 
 may be prior to the fourth year of Jehoiachim. But 
 even here there are pasi5ages which cannot be due to the 
 prophet himself. " Ch. iii. 6-lS breaks the connexion 
 between iii. 5 and 19: ix. 22-x. 16, which itself consists 
 of three discourses, dissevers the immediately continuous 
 verses ix. 21 and x. 17 from each other; xii. 4 stands 
 in an altogether unsuitable and impossible place " 
 (Cornill). The original roll was utilised in the com- 
 position of the existing Book of Jeremiah, but it has not 
 been preserved in its original form. In many ways the 
 Book of Jeremiah has undergone considerable reduction. 
 An example of this may be found in chapter iv. verses 5- 
 31. The foe referred to in this prophecy, the " foe from 
 the North," was probably the Scythians. We learn 
 
 from Herodotus (i. 105-S) that about 625 B.C. the 
 Scythians overran Western Asia, and advanced through 
 Palestine as far as Ashkelon, with the intention of in- 
 vading Egypt. By the time the prophecy was com- 
 mitted to writing, however, about 604 B.C., the Chal- 
 daeans had become dangerous, and were beginning to 
 march from the North. It has been suggested that the 
 prophecy was adapted or modified in parts to-meet the 
 new situation. The whole prophecy extends to chapter 
 vi. vs. 30; and Driver points out, as an instance of 
 adaptation, that the " lion " and " destroyer of nations " 
 in chapter vi. 7 are terms that apply better to an indi- 
 vidual leader like Nebuchadnezzar than to a horde. The 
 book of Jeremiah is remarkable, regarded as a propheti- 
 cal work, for the amount of biographical material that it 
 contains. This material is due to an editor, no doubt 
 to Baruch. It is to be found in chapters xix.-xx. 6, 
 xxvi.-xxix., xxxiv., and xxxvi. -xlv. Chapters xlvi.-li. 
 contain a number of oracles uttered against foreign 
 countries. It has been contended that none of these 
 oracles contains words actually spoken by Jeremiah. 
 This is an extreme position. Some of them no doubt 
 are not Jeremian. But as regards others, as ComiU 
 gays, " on a priori grounds we should expect to find dis- 
 courses against the heathen in the Book of Jeremiah, 
 for no other propihet had the feeling from the outset that 
 his commission included his having been sent to the 
 nations outside Israel as well, to the same degree as 
 Jeremiah (i. 5. 10; xxxvi. 2; xviii. 9 ff. ; cp. also xxvii. 
 2 ff.) : and if the announcement in xxv. 15-24 is certainly 
 authentic, this inclines us to take a favourable view of 
 its actual execution." The Septuagint exhibits a shorter 
 form of text than the Hebrew of the Book of Jeremiah. 
 Whitehouse thinks the Septuagint version is based on a 
 shorter and earlier edition of the collected prophecies of 
 Jeremiah. Cornill thinks " a connexion of the words 
 of Jeremiah with the Baruch-narratives must have been 
 effected some considerable time before the LXX." See 
 S R. Driver, The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah, 1906; 
 C. Cornill, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse; A. S. 
 Peake, Jeremiah, in the "Century Bible," 1910; C. F. 
 Kent, The Sermons, Epistles and Apocalypses of Israel's 
 Prophets, 1910. 
 
 JERUSAI.,EM FRIENDS. A religious community 
 founded in 1848 at Kirschenhardthof, near Marbach, in 
 Wiirttemberg by Christian Hoffmann. Their idea was 
 to establish the Kingdom of (Jod, and this kingdom was 
 to be in Palestine. (3on.sequently, in the year 1868 they 
 began to send out colonists to the Holy Land. Other 
 names for them are the Temple Society, the Temple 
 Union, the German Temple, and the Hoffmannites. See 
 C. Hofiinann, Mein Weg nach Jerusalem, 1881-1884; 
 Brockhaus. 
 
 JESUATS. A congregation founded by St. John 
 Colombini, a high official of Sienna. Colombini, becom- 
 ing convince<l that he ought to devote his life to the 
 service of God, converted his house into a hospital and 
 lived a life of austerity. Urban V. confirmed the order 
 in 1367. Alexander VI. required the Jesuats to add to 
 their title the words " of St. Jerome." Paul V. allowed 
 them to receive holy orders. In course of time they 
 were called " Aquavita Fathers," because many of them 
 practiced distillation and pharmacy and made alcoholic 
 liquor. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 JESUITS. The Roman Catholic order known as the 
 Jesuits or the Society of Jesu (Societas Jesu) was 
 founded by Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1 .i.W), after whom 
 the Jesuits are called sometimes Ignatians. Ignatius 
 was driven from the Spanish universities of Aleala and 
 Salamanca because he was thought to have an undesir- 
 able influence on the students, and went to the University
 
 Jesuits 
 
 199 
 
 Jihad 
 
 of Paris, where he gained the sympathy of Francis 
 Xavier, James Laj-nez, Alphonsus Salmeron, Nicholas 
 Bobadilla, Simon Rodriguez, and Peter Faber. These 
 companions, after practising the •' Spiritual Exercises " 
 of Ignatius, in 1534 took with him a solemn vow 
 According to Alban Butler (as quoted in the C'ath. Diet.), 
 the tenor of it was " to renounce the world, to go to 
 preach the gospel in Palestine, or, if they could not go 
 thither within a year after they had finished their 
 studies, to offer themselves to his Holiness to be 
 employed in the service of God in what manner he should 
 Judge best." Before long there were added to the society 
 Claude de Jay of Savoy. Codure of Dauphine, and 
 Pasquier Brouet of Picardy. All the members described 
 themselves as of the Company of Jesus. Ignatius decided 
 to place his order under " a general whom all, bv their 
 vow, should be bound to obey, who should be perpetual. 
 and his authority absolute, subject entirely to the Pope, 
 but not liable to be restrained bv chapters " (Albion 
 Butler, I.e.). On Sept. 27, 1540, Pope Paul III. confirmed 
 the order by the bull " Regimini militantis ecclesije," and 
 in April 1.541 Ignatius became its first general. The 
 membership of the Society was, and is, divided into four 
 grades; (1) Novices. (2) Scholastics, (.3) Coadjutors, and 
 (4) Professed. '• Novices are admitted only after a 
 minute and searching examination of their character and 
 social circumstances. The novitiate lasts for two years, 
 whieli are spent in houses established for the special 
 purpose. Time is there regulated from hour to hour. 
 Reading, meditation, prayer, and devotional exercises, 
 alternate with nursing in the hospitals, travels as 
 beggars, menial services, and ascetic practices. A course 
 of training is gone through which enables the novice to 
 completely break his individual will, and prepares him 
 to be a fit instrument for the will of the .societv. The 
 term of probation ended, the novice takes the three 
 monastic vows of poverty, cha.stity, and obedience, and 
 enters one of the colleges of the society as a scholastic. 
 There he studies grammar, rhetoric, and literature for 
 two years, and philosophy, phy.sics, and mathematics 
 for three: teaches these subjects through all the classes 
 of the college for five or six years; studies theology for 
 five or six years, and fimilly completes his education by 
 going through another novitiate of spiritual exercises. 
 . . . After the second novitiate, the scholastic is 
 ordained a priest, and becomes an active member of the 
 society, either as coadjutor or professed, adding to the 
 three common mona.stic vows, in the former case, that of 
 zealous devotion to the education of the .young, in the 
 latter, that of undertaking any task wliich the Pope 
 might see fit to confide to him " (Schaff-Herzog). 
 According to the Catholic Dictionary, the professed of the 
 four vows (professi quatuor votorum) now form only a 
 small class. In any case, the Jesuit course of training 
 is a very long and thorough one, and it is not surprising 
 that it ha.' produced great scholars and men of consider- 
 able admini.strative power. Their fault has been an over- 
 zealous, and. in the view of their opponents, unscrupulous 
 devotion to their cause. They are supposed to act, and 
 to have acted, very largely on the principle that the end 
 justifies the means. They have been charged with 
 mixing themselves up in all sorts of political plots and 
 intrigues. Nor can it be denied that the charge is a 
 lawful one But unfortunately there have been times 
 when plots and intrigues have been the order of the day. 
 To succeed in one's efforts and to promote one's cause, 
 good or bad, meant to meet one intrigue with another, 
 one plot with another plot. When a plot has failed, the 
 promoters of it have represented themselves to be the 
 most innocent of men, and their opponents, whose plot 
 has succeeded, the most execrable of monsters. This is 
 
 not said by way of excusing the Jesuits, but as a pro- 
 test against the many exaggerated statements made bv 
 iQn7 ^PPon'^nts. See Schaff-Herzog: the Prot. Diet.. 
 1904; the Cath. Diet.; Brockhaus 
 
 JEWEL-LOTUS FORMULA. The '-Jewel-lotus" 
 tormuia is a formula or prayer used by the Tibetan 
 tuddhists. It consists of six syllables, and is supposed 
 l^ ^^^*^„P**° composed by the tutelary deity of Tibet, 
 the Bodhi.sattva known as Avalokitesvara "or Padma- 
 g:^?^-, „^lP''ayer runs : " Om ! the Jewel in the Lotus! 
 Hum ! The first and last words are not real Sanskrit 
 words, but ejaculations having some mystic meaning 
 There are only two real Sanskrit words in the formula. 
 The prayer seems to have an occult meaning. Monier- 
 \\ illiams s;tys that no other prayer in anv part of the 
 world IS repeated .so often. "Every Tibetan believes it 
 to be a panacea for all evil, a compendium of all know- 
 ledge, a treasury of all wisdom, a summary of all re- 
 ligion." The word Om seems to have been borrowed 
 from the Hindus. Naturally good use was made of the 
 Jewel-Lotus formula in prayer-wheels or prayer-cylinders 
 (see PRATER-CYLINDER). See Monier-Williams, 
 Buddhism, 1890: H. Hackmann. 
 
 JEZREELITES. The followers of James Jershom 
 Jezreel, a name assumed by James White (1R40-1885) 
 The sect was also caUed " The New and Latter House 
 of Israel " (g.v.). 
 
 JHAGRA KHAND. A Hindu deitv, the two-edged 
 .sword, worshipped by the Kawars, a primitive tribe 
 living in the hills of the Chhattlsgarh Districts north of 
 the Mahanadi in India. 
 
 JHULaN DEVI. A deity worshipped by the Gonds 
 in Indm as a cradle goddess. 
 
 JIHAD. An Arabic word which means " a con- 
 tending " or a striving. Muhammed commanded his 
 followers to fight against unbelievers, and to win them 
 over to Islam or to exterminate them. The Jihad thus 
 became a sacred duty. It is defined by a learned Muslim 
 doctor as " the calling on unbelievers to receive the true 
 religion and fighting those who do not receive it." At 
 first Muliammad simply delivered his message, and 
 .sought to win adherents by means of discussion and argu- 
 ment. But after his flight to Madina " he gave out that 
 God had allowed him and his followers to defend them- 
 selves against the infidels, and, at length, pretended that 
 he had Divine leave even to attack them and destroy 
 idolatry and set up the true Faith by the sword " (Kleini. 
 The duty of fighting is emphasised in parts of the Kur'an. 
 " And when the sacred months are passed, kill those 
 who join other gods with God wherever ye shall find 
 them; and seize them, be.siege them, and lay wait for 
 them with every kind of ambu.sh : but if they shall con- 
 vert, and observe prayer, and pay the obligatory alms, 
 then let them go their way, for God is Gracious," Merci- 
 ful " (Sura, ix. .5). " Let those then fight on the path 
 of God, who barter this pre.sent life for that which is 
 to come; for whoever fighteth on God's path, whether 
 he be slain or conquer, we will in the end give him a 
 great reward " (iv. 70). " Say to the infidels : If they 
 desist (from their unbelief), what is now past shall be 
 forgiven them; but if they return (to it), they have 
 already before them the doom of the ancients! Fight 
 then against them till strife be at an end. and the religion 
 be all of it God's. If they desist, verily God beholdeth 
 what they do : But if they turn their back, know ye that 
 God is your protector: Excellent protector! excellent 
 helper! " (viii. 39-41). The infidels are first to be called 
 upon to embrace Isl.4m. If they do so, no war is neces- 
 sary. If they refuse to submit or to pay tribute: or if, 
 having submitted, they refuse to continue to pay tribute; 
 or if, whether Muslims or not, they rebel against the 
 
 u
 
 Jinn 
 
 200 
 
 Job, Book of 
 
 Imflm (q.v.), the Jihad must take its course. Cp. 
 ZIMMIS, and see F. A. Klein. 
 
 JINN. In Muslim theology the Jinn (from janna, " to 
 conceal " or " to hide ") are an order of beings who are 
 something between men and angels (Genii or demons). 
 Some of them are good, others evil. " And there are 
 among us good, and others among us of another kind; 
 we are of various sorts " (Qur'an Ixxii. 11). They were 
 created of fire. " We created man of dried clay, and 
 the Jinn had been before created of subtle fire" (xv. 20, 
 27). They listen to the reading of the Qur'an. '■ Say : 
 It hath been revealed to me that a company of Jinn 
 listened and said — ' Verily we have heard a marvellous 
 discourse (Qur'fm), etc' " (Ixxii. 1). They also hear 
 what passes in heaven. " O company of Jinn and men, 
 if ye can overpass the bounds of the Heavens and the 
 Earth, then overpass them. But by our leave only .shall 
 ye overpass them " (Iv. PS). They are also called " the 
 stoned ones " because the good angels throw f?tones at 
 them. " Moreover we have decked the lowest heaven 
 with lights, and have placed them there to be hurled at 
 the Satans, for whom we have prepared the torment of 
 the flaming fire " (Ixvli. 5). F. A. Klein points out that 
 five orders of Jinn are distinguished. (1) jann, (2) Jinn. 
 (3) Shaitan, (4) 'Ifrlt, (5) Marid. " The terms Jinn and 
 Jdnn are often used to designate the whole species, good 
 and bad. The weakest among them are the Jdnn, the 
 strongest the Marid. Their chief abode is said to be 
 the mountains of Quf, which are supix>sed to encircle the 
 world." Muhammad's conception of the Jinn seems to 
 have been derived, through the Jews, from the Persians. 
 See F. A. Klein. 
 
 JI SECT. A small Jai)anese Buddhist sect which is 
 .«aid to have been founded by Kiiya, a priest of the 
 fifteenth century. Kuya was called Odorinembutsu, 
 " dancing nembutsu," because he went about the country 
 dancing and repeating the Nembutsu. His idea was to 
 convert the people to a religious life. He was a prince 
 of the imperial house. The founder of the Ji Sect, how- 
 ever, according to A. Lloyd, is identified more generally 
 with Ippen-Osho (1239-1289 A.D.). Ippen was another 
 itinerant preacher, " and to this day the head of tie Ji 
 sect, which has its chief temple at Fujisawa on the 
 Tokaido, is supposed to spend all his time in itineracy." 
 See Arthur Lloyd. 
 
 JIZO. A figure in the mythology of Japanese 
 Buddhism, a ijatron-god of women, children, and 
 travellers. He carries a pilgrim staff, and as the pro- 
 tector of travellers, his image is often found at cross- 
 roads. 
 
 JIZZA. A kind of tribute, also called a capitation- 
 tax or a captivity-tax, imposed by the Muhamniadans 
 on people wiho have become subject but have not embraced 
 the Muslim faith. See ZIMMIS. 
 
 JOACHIMITES. The followers of Joachim (c. 1130- 
 1200) of Floris in Calabria. Joachim was Abbot of the 
 Cistercian monastery of Floris. He wrote books on the 
 prophecies of the Old and New Testament, and on the 
 doctrine of the Trinity. He held, as regards the 
 Trinity, that " the three divine Persons were one God 
 only in the same sense as many human persons are all 
 men or Christians one with each other and with Christ " 
 (Cath. Diet.). This teaching was condemned by the 
 Fourth Lateran Council (1215). As regards the New 
 Testament, influenced, as he claimed, by special spiritual 
 revelations. Joachim wished to persuade the clergy to 
 seek inward spiritualization by renouncing the world, 
 in the manner of the apostles, and practising a rigid 
 monast.icism. Tliis counsel appealed forcibly to some 
 of the Franciscans. The teaching in the work " The 
 Eternal Gosiiel," which was compiled and edited by one 
 
 of his disciples (probably a Franciscan), helped consider- 
 ably to prepare the way for the millenarianism of the 
 thirteenth century. P. Puenjer gives the outlines of 
 " The Eternal Gospel " as follows: " The history of the 
 Christian Church runs through three great periods ; the 
 Age of the Father, extending from the creation of the 
 world to .lohn the Baptist ; the Age of the Son. from 
 the incarnation of Chri.st to the year 12t;0; and the Age 
 of tlie Holy Spirit, which was regarded as beginning with 
 that year. 'This last period is prepared by a boundless 
 increase of abominations in the Church and life, as well 
 as by the appearance of the Antichrist, who is more or 
 less distinctly indicated as Frederick II. The charac- 
 teristic of this new Age is to l)e derived from the con- 
 templative life in which, with the right understanding of 
 Scripture, the whole of previous history will come to 
 appear in its true light." See J. H. Blunt; B. Puenjer. 
 
 JOANNAS. Another name for the Soutihcottians 
 ig.v.), the followers of Joanna Southc^ott (1750-1814). 
 
 JOB, BOOK OF. The most remarkable of the Hebrew 
 writings belonging to the class called Wisdom-Literature 
 (g.v.). It deals with the problem of suffering, seeking 
 to find an answer to the question, Why do the righteous 
 suffer? Job, from the land of Uz, is a " i)erfect and 
 upright " man. When the story opens he is also pros- 
 perous and happy, having been blessed with wealth and 
 children. Satan, however, suggests to God that Job's 
 piety would not be proof against misfortune. Let Job 
 be put to the trial, and its worthlessness would .soon 
 appear. God allows Satan to test this perfect and up- 
 right man, and he is overtaken by one misfortune after 
 another iu quick succession. Job loses not only his 
 possessions, but also has sons and his daughters. Grod 
 will not allow his life to be taken; but he is smitten with 
 a sore disease, either Elephantiasis, or the Oriental Boil, 
 or Ecthyma. So deplorable is his condition that his 
 wife advises him to " renounce God and die." But in 
 spite of all his sufferings. Job did not sin with his lips. 
 He now retires to a place outside the town and sits in 
 ashes. Hither came three friends. Eliphaz, Bildad. and 
 Zophar. to console with him. Out of respect for Job's 
 grief they sat with him in silence seven days and night.s. 
 Then they sought to convince him that his sufferings 
 were due to sin. Job canncit. and will not, admit this. 
 This debate t>etween Job and his three friends occupies 
 a large part of the book. At the end of chapter xxri.. 
 after Job has made a direct api^eal to God. it is said : 
 "The words of Job are ended." Afterwards, however, 
 a new speaker, Elihu, is introduced (xxxii.-xxxvii.>. 
 Elihu dwells upon tihe love and providential wisdom of 
 God manifested by the regulated course of the world. 
 As to the suffering of the righteous, tie ix>ints out that it 
 is CJod's instrument of education. " If man misinter- 
 prets this educative character of suffering, he thereby 
 commits a grave sin, and is justly punished by (Jod : if. 
 however, he recognises its true character and takes it to 
 heart, the suffering becomes to him a source of infinite 
 blessing, the highest practical proof of the divine love 
 towards him " (Comill). The Book of .Job consists of five 
 parts. (1) The Prologue, chapters i.-ii., written in 
 prose. (2) The Debate between .lob and his friends, 
 chapters iii.-xxxi., written in poetry. (3) The .Siieeches 
 of Elihu, chapters xxxii.-xxxvii., written in poetry 
 (except xxxii. 1-6). (4) The Speech and Answer of 
 Jehovah, chapters xxxviii. 1-xlii. 6, written in poetry. 
 (.")) The Epilogue, chapter xlii. 7-17, written in prose. It 
 has been thought that the Speeches of Elihu (xxxii. - 
 xxxvii.) have no claim to be regarded as an original 
 part of the book. There is no reference to Elihu in the 
 prologue or the epilogue. Chapter xxxviii., vs. 1, 
 appears to be the direct continuation of xxxi. 40, When
 
 Jocakuvague Maorocon 
 
 201 
 
 Jobn, The Gospel of 
 
 Job's friends have been silenced, and Job addresses him- 
 self to God Himself, we should expect the reply of 
 Jehovah to follow immediately. " Instead of this being 
 so, six chapters here intervene, with a new spealier who 
 up to this point has not received the smallest mention 
 or notice, and who never gets the smallest notice later 
 in the hook, and whose self-introduction (xxxii. 6-xxxiii. 
 7) cannot be regarded as particularly happy " (Comill). 
 But, as Comill says, the genuineness of the Speeches of 
 Elihu is quite possible. Up to this point the problem 
 raised in the book has found no solution. The poet, 
 gifted as he clearly was, must have had some solution 
 to offer. This is found in the Speeches of Elihu. " In 
 the entire range of Holy Writ there are few passages 
 which in profundity of thought and loftiness of feeling 
 can compare with the Elihu-speeches : in content they 
 form the summit and crown of the Book of Job, and 
 furnish the only solution of the problem which the poet. 
 from his Old Testament standpoint, is able to give, for 
 the true and final solution was shut out from him " 
 (Comill). The date of the Book of Job is difficult to 
 determine. According to an old Jewish tradition Moses 
 was the author. The thought and language would seem 
 to indicate a quite late date, a date, that is to say, not 
 earlier than 400 B.C. See A. B. Davidson, The Book 
 of Job, 1S93: A. S. Peake, Job, 1904; C. Comill, Intr.; 
 G. H. Box: O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 JOCAKUVAGUE MAOROCON. A sky-god worshipped 
 in the West Indies (Antilles). 
 
 JODO SECT. A Japanese Buddhist sect founded A.D. 
 1175. The teaching is concerned specially with the 
 western Paradise, which is ruled by Amida, Kwannon, 
 and Daiseishi; and great veneration is paid to these holy 
 ones. It is Amida in particular who grants admission 
 Into Paradise. See H. Haekmann. 
 
 JODO-SHIN SECT. The original naine of a Japanese 
 Buddhist sect, which afterwards received the name Shin 
 Sect (q.v.). 
 
 JOEL, BOOK OF. The book of Joel deals with '• the 
 great and terrible day of the Lord." The immediate 
 occasion for the prophecy was a plague of drought and 
 locusts. " Recent writers have vividly described the 
 appalling nature of this calamity. In great swarms 
 which obscure the sky these ravenous insects sweep over 
 large areas, destroying all vegetation, and leaving the 
 land as barren as a de-ijert "' (C. F. Kent). There are 
 no indications of the date of the book in the opening 
 verse. It has therefore to be inferred from internal 
 evidence. The period with which the prophet is familiar 
 is one in which " comparative peace prevailed in Palest- 
 ine, although the memories of past invasions and wrongs 
 are still fresh in the mind of the prophet " (C. F. Kent). 
 The prophet does not allude to a king or to princes; the 
 elders and the prie.sts are the prominent officials (i. 14; 
 i. 9, 13, ii. 17). .lehovah's heritage has already been 
 scattered among the nations (iii. 2-3). The Greeks are 
 represented simply as slave-traders (iii. 6). The sen-ices 
 of the Temple are properly maintained. The interruption 
 of the regular sacrifices is regarded as a great misfor- 
 tune (i. 9, 13, ii. 14). In fact, the writer .seems to assume 
 the existence and the Services of the Second Temple. 
 " With this agree the features that the whole people can, 
 and is called upon to, assemble in the Temple (i. 14: ii. 
 16), that the trumpet blown upon Mount Zion is heard 
 throughout the whole land (ii. 1), because it consists only 
 of Jerusalem and its immediate environs " (ComiU). It 
 used to be thought that on the whole the criteria suit a 
 date in the early part of the re'gn of Joash, king of 
 Judah (S37-801 B.C.). But the force of the evidence 
 against an early date and in favour of a very late one 
 has accumulated in recent research. Merx (quoted by 
 
 Cormll) seems to be correct in saying that the diction of 
 Joel • is the flowing diction of the scholar who is deeply 
 read m the ancient literature, not the spontaneous beautv 
 'T. f ^™,*'^^® ^^^ creations of genius." And Comill thinks 
 tnat Uolzinger has demonstrated convincinglv that Joel's 
 language exhibits the character of the latest period of 
 Hebrew hterature. The mention of Jemsalem's " walls " 
 (II. 9) implies a period subsequent to Xehemiah; and it 
 IS thought that there are clear indications of the in- 
 fluence of the great priestly reformation of about 400 B.C. 
 Prof. Whitehouse finds in iii. 19 (•• Egvpt shall become 
 a desolation, because of the violence done to the men of 
 Judah, because they shed innocent blood in their land ") 
 a reference to the destruction of the Jewish temple in 
 Elephantine about 409 B.C., " of which we are informed 
 in the Aramaic papyri recently discovered in that spot " 
 Prof. Comill would assign the book to about 400 B.C. 
 •• In the Book of Joel we possess a compendium of late 
 Jewish eschatology written about the year 4(i0— if any- 
 thing rather later than earlier— as develoi)e<l from later 
 prophecy, with its tendency to flow over into aiwralypse : 
 in its whole tone and spirit Joel belongs altogether to 
 apocalyptic, although in outward form it has preserved 
 more of the character of older prophecy than Zechariah 
 and Daniel." See S. R. Driver. Joel and Amos, 1897- 
 in "Cambridge Bible"; C. Comill, Intr.; O. C. White- 
 house; C. F. Kent, The Sermons, Epistles and Apoca- 
 lypses of Israel's Prophets, 1910. 
 
 JOHANNITES. Another name for the Waterlanders 
 (fj.v.). 
 
 JOHN, THE GOSPEL OF. The Gospel of John pre- 
 •sents a different view of Jesus from the view presented 
 on the whole in common by the three other (Synoptic) 
 (Gospels, and it is now almost a commonplace of criticism 
 to say that it represents a di.stinet and different stvle of 
 literature. Amo Neumann writes as follows (Jesus) : 
 " It cannot be placed earlier than the second century, 
 and arising as it did as a protest against Judaising parties 
 and as a defence of ideas of religion conceived in an 
 unhi.storical way, all tie details in the story, as regards 
 localities, time, and pensonal characteristics, have been 
 adapted to the requirements of that Christian philosophy 
 in which the Gospel is steeped, or have been misplaced 
 through its influence. To the author of this Gospel Jesus 
 is the ' Word of God,' that is to say, the second person 
 of the Gfodhead, who existed before Abraham, and in fact 
 took part in the creation of the world (i. 1-3; viii. o, 8; 
 xvii. 5). Holding this view, he is naturally obliged to 
 represent the appearance of Jesus as the thinly-veiled 
 manifestation of a Divine being. Thus the Jesus "of John 
 is neither baptized nor tempted, does not waver in Geth- 
 semane. has foreknowledge of everything, prays only for 
 the sake of the b.vstanders (xi. 41 f.): when hanging on 
 the cross says ' I thir.st.' only in order to fulfil an Old 
 Testament prophecy (xix. 28); calls upon his betrayer to 
 hasten his wicked deed (xiii. 26 f.) : and by a brief word 
 ' I am He ' makes .500 Roman .soldiers recoil and bend 
 the knee (xviii. 5 f.). The author's conception of the 
 religion of Jesus, pervaded throughout by the spirit we 
 have indicated, is certainly sublime enough, but it is far 
 removed from the simple, sober, naive facts of history 
 as we find them in the Gospels according to Mark, Mat- 
 thew, and Luke." This estimate of the Fourth (j0.spel. 
 however, is perhaps ba.sed upon a misunderstanding of 
 its language and purpose. At the beginning of the third 
 century it became known as " the spiritual gospel." That 
 was and is an accurate description. It is a spiritual 
 gospel, and has to be interpreted spiritually. (Jod is 
 Spirit. Jesus, full.v understanding the nature of God, 
 Spirit, realized his own eternity, and the closeness of his 
 union with God. It is quite conceivable that there was
 
 John, The First Epistle of 
 
 202 
 
 John, The Second Epistle of 
 
 among the Evangelists one John who penetrated deeper 
 than did the others into the spiritual essence of the 
 gospel of Jesus. It is quite natural that, this being so, 
 he should wish to write a new and rather different 
 account of the work and teaching of Jesus. " He is said 
 to have done so on the entreaty, and with the subsequent 
 approval, of the Aiwstle Andrew and other leading 
 members of the Church, in order to supplement tlie teach- 
 ing of the three Gospels already published, and to counter- 
 act the errors which were beguiling some from the sim- 
 plicity of the faith " (M'Clymont). Neumann admits 
 that at times there are statements In the Fourth GosiDel 
 which point us to an original element overlooked by the 
 other Evangelists. Examples are given by O. Holtz- 
 mann. It is only in the Fourth Gospel (ii. 19) that the 
 saying upon which the accusation in Mk. xiv. 58 and the 
 mockery in Mk. xv. 30 were based is represented as having 
 been actually uttered by Jesus himself and in the right 
 connection. From John x. 1-6 it is possible to disentangle 
 a parable of Jesus traditionally handed down to the 
 Evangelist (but no longer to be found In the Synoptic 
 tradition), the genuineness of which can hardly be 
 doubted. The Johannine Gospel is the only Source, 
 apart from the apocryphal Gospel of Peter, that correctly 
 gives the day of Jesus' death in so far as it places it on 
 the day before the beginning of the Passover festival, 
 while according to Mk. (Mt., Lk.) Jesus was crucified 
 on the first day of the actual festival. The same 
 accuracy characterises the date of the anointing in 
 Bethany (John xii. 1). Irenaeus accepted the Fourth 
 Gospel as the work of the Apostle John. This would 
 suggest that it was accepted also by his teacher. Poly- 
 carp, who had been a disciple of John. In a letter to 
 Florinus, Irenaeus writes (177 A.D.) as follows : " I can 
 describe the very place in which the blessed Polycarp 
 used to sit when he discoursed, and his goings out and his 
 comings in, and his manner of life and his personal 
 appearance, and the discourses which he held before the 
 people, and how he would describe his int.ercourse with 
 John and with the rest who had seen the Lord, and 
 how he would relate their words. And whatsoever things 
 he had heard from them about the Lord and about His 
 miracles, Polvcarp, as having received them from eye- 
 witnesses of the life of the Word, would relate altogether 
 in accordance with the Scriptures " (after M'Clymont). 
 It has of course been disputed whether the John of the 
 Fourth Gospel was the Aiwstle John, the son of Zebedee. 
 But the character of the Gospel, with its knowledge of 
 the inmost thought of Jesus, is best explained by accept- 
 ing the authorship of this intimate friend of Jesus, who 
 " held most tenaciously to the belief that he had found 
 the Way, the Trutih, and the Life " (W. Sanday). See 
 J. A. M'Clvmont: Oscar Holtzmann, The Life of Jems, 
 1904; Amo" Neumann, Jemnf, 190(>: P. W. Schmiedel, The 
 Johannine Writinys, 190S; C. F. Nolloth, The Person of 
 Our Lord and Recent Thought, 1908; W. Sanday, The 
 Life of Christ in Recent Research, 1907; G. Currie 
 Martin; Arthur S. Peake, Intr.; F. C. Conybeare, Hist, 
 of N.T. Grit.. 1910. 
 
 JOHN, THE FIRST EPISTLE OF. John, the son of 
 Zebedee, would seem to have earned the title " the 
 disciple whom Jesus loved " (John xix. 2fi) in the life- 
 time of his Master. This would indicate that he was 
 in closest sympathy with Jesus. And the importance of 
 loving Jesus with a perfect love, and of being loved by 
 him in return, would naturally impress itself upon him 
 with great force. We are told in the Gospel of John 
 that the disciple whom Jesus loved was present at the 
 crucifixion. We are told, moreover, that after the cruci- 
 fixion one of the soldiers pierced Jesus' side with a spear. 
 / whereupon there came out blood and water. Now the 
 
 First Epistle of .John dwells much upon the idea of divine 
 love. In chapter iv. vs. 10 we read : " And we know 
 and have believed the love which God hath in us. Grod 
 is love; and he that abideth in love abideth in God, and 
 God abideth in him." And the same epistle says of 
 JesuiS : " This is he that came by water and blood, even 
 Jesus Christ; not with the water only, but with the water 
 and with the blood." These facts make it psychologically 
 probable that John, the son of Zebedee, was really the 
 author of the First Epistle of John. Psychological con- 
 siderations suggest that he was also the John who wrote 
 the Fourth Gospel (see JOHN, THE GOSPEL OF). The 
 Epistle is probably quoted by Polycarp, and. according 
 to Eusebius, it was made use of by Papias. It is quoted 
 as the work of John by Irenaeus, Tertullian. Clement of 
 Alexandria, and Origen. It appears as his worls in the 
 Muratorian Canon. It cannot be established that the 
 false teaching attacked in the epistle is of the nature of 
 a somewhat developed form of Gnosticism. If any 
 particular heresies are attacked they are nothing more 
 than doctrines of a Docetie tendency. It has to be borne 
 in mind that before heresies arise as schools of thought, 
 the ideas which they represent have suggested them- 
 selves to many individual minds. Moreover, a writer 
 who is thoughtful and far-sighted, long forsees the lines 
 along which arguments or thoughts opposed to his own 
 may develop. He anticipates them without supposing 
 that he is attacking a particular heresy. The Epistle, 
 like the Gospel, has penetrated to the real kernel of the 
 teaching of Jesus. As Currie Martin .says. It " is full 
 of the most beautiful thoughts exquisitely expressed, 
 and as a practical treatise upon the love of God as 
 finding its truest expression in the love of our fellow- 
 men, ranks alongside Paul's great teaching on the same 
 subject in I. Cor. xiii." See P. W. Schmiedel. The 
 Johannine Writings, 1908; G. Currie Martin; Arthur S. 
 Peake, Intr. 
 
 JOHN, THE SECOND EPISTLE OF. In the Second 
 Epistle of .John there is again reference to false teachers 
 (vs. 7), but it is not necessary to think that particular 
 schools of thought are referred to. The terms, however, 
 are rather more severe than those of the First Epistle. 
 Emphasis is again laid on love, " and in its few sentences 
 we have the further expressions ' truth ' and ' the world ' 
 used in the sense in which they are emplo.ved both in the 
 Fir.st Epistle and in the Fourth Gospel '" (Currie Martin). 
 The Epistle is quoted as the work of John by Irenaeus 
 and Clement of Alexandria : and seems to be recognised 
 as his by the Muratorian Canon. The Epistle begins : 
 " The elder unto the elect lady and her children, whom 
 I love in truth." It Is a problem whether " the elect lady 
 and her children " designates an individual or a church. 
 Schmiedel thinks a church or community is meant. He 
 IK)ints out that elsewhere the community is thought of 
 as the Bride of Christ (Ephesians v. 31 f. ; Revelation 
 xix. 7) who had been exalted to heaven, just as In the 
 Old Testament the people of Israel is the Bride of God. 
 " Since Christ is called ' the Lord.' the community might 
 be called ' the lady.' It deserves to be called ' elect ' 
 because it consists of all the chosen. Its children are, 
 of course, the members of the community." According 
 to Schmiedel, the epistle was meant for the whole church. 
 But vs. 13 seems to require an individual church. " The 
 statement that the elect lady is greeted by her elect sister 
 is incompatible with a Catholic destination of the Epistle; 
 it could only mean that one Church greets another. In 
 that case the elect sister may possibly be identified with 
 the Church in Ephesus. where the author presumably was 
 writing. It is accordingly probable that the elect lady 
 should be Identified with one of the Churches of Asia, 
 perhaps with Pergamum, as Findlay has suggested " (A.
 
 John, Tbe Third Epistle of 
 
 203 
 
 Joshua, Book of 
 
 S Peake). See P. W. Sehmiedel, The Johanninc 
 Writings, 1908; G. Currie Martin: Arthur S. Peake, Intr. 
 
 JOHN, THE THIRD EPISTLE OF. The Third 
 Epistle of John is addressed to an individual, one 
 Gaius. Reference is made also to two other individuals. 
 One of these, Diotrephes, " loveth to have the pre- 
 eminence and receiveth us not . . . prating against 
 us with wicked words; and not content therevrith, neither 
 doth he him.»-elf receive the brethren, and them that would 
 he forbiddeth, and casteth tliem out of the Church." Of 
 the other, Demetrius, it is said that he " hath the witness 
 of all, and of the truth it.self." The writer again warns 
 his reader, not against an heretical school, but against 
 certain self-willed, self-assertive Christians who are in- 
 clined to interpret the truth in a way of their own. There 
 always are such persons. Even in the lifetime of .Te.s^is 
 there will doubtless have been people who were faithful 
 adherents of his, but who did not agree on every point 
 with other adherents. John, through his Intimacy with 
 Jesus, gaineil a deeper understanding of the Master's 
 teaching than was possible for many other followers. As 
 he grew older, the persistent misunderstanding which he 
 found in others perhaps made him a little intolerant 
 and imi>atient. In the Third Epistle empihasis is again 
 laid on " the truth." John naturally felt that there 
 can be no deviation from the truth. He did not 
 sufficiently realize perhaps that to many people the truth 
 mu.st come gradually, unless it come by a sudden inspira- 
 tion. In any case, the Third Epistle is not different 
 in style and outlook from the Second. " The affinities 
 with the Second Epistle are so close that we may assume 
 that it was written by the same author and in all pro- 
 bability at the same time. In that case it is possible 
 that the letters were sent to the same destination. It 
 is a plausible suggestion that the letter referred to in 
 !\ 9 is the Second Epistle, and that the writer sends this 
 letter to Gaius to guard against the suppression of his 
 letter to the Church by Diotrephes " {A. S. Peake). Eu.se- 
 bius includes the Epistle among the disputed books. See 
 J. A. M'Clymont; P. W. Sehmiedel, The Johannine 
 Writings, 1908; 6. Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake, 
 Introd. 
 
 JOHNSONIAN BAPTISTS. A sect founded by John 
 Johnson (1706-1791). Johnson was in charge of the 
 Byrom Street Baptist Chapel, Liverpool, from about 1741 
 to 1747-8, when he had to leave on account of his doctrinal 
 views. His followers opened a chapel in Stanley Street, 
 Liverpool, in 1750, and placed him in charge of it. John- 
 sonian Baptists arose in other places. Tliey existed for 
 some time at Wisbech in Cambridgeshire See the 
 D.N.B. 
 
 JOJITSU SECT. An early sect of Chinese Buddhists. 
 Kumarajiva brought it to Singanfu in 401 A.D. In 
 course of time it was absorbed by the Tendai (17.1-.). " It 
 appeared in ,Tapan only to disappear again " (A. Lloyd). 
 The members of the Jojitsu sect were opponents of the 
 doctrines of the Sarvastivadins (q.v.). 
 
 JONAH. The prophet Jonah is said to have started 
 on his sea-voyage from Joppa. At Joppa a sea-monster 
 was worshipped. It has been suggested therefore that 
 this worship " may have provided a theme for the writer 
 of the allegory of .Jonah " (B. S. Bouchier). 
 
 JONAH. BOOK OF. Tlie book of the prophet .Tonah 
 is in the form of a historical narrative, and the history 
 purports to be that of a prophet Jonah ben Amittai, of 
 Gath-hepher in Galilee, who lived in the time of Jeroboam 
 II. It is not possible, however, to regard the work as 
 a product of this early period. The language is .some- 
 times that of the latest style of Hebrew; at other times 
 it is modelled on that of late books (compare Jonah iii. 
 9 with Joel ii. 14; Jon. iv. 2 with Jo. ii. 13, Exod. xxxiv. 
 
 <>, Psalms Ixxxvi. 15, ciii. 8). It has been pointed out 
 also tljat the introduction of marvellous features is in 
 the style of the books of Chronicles and Daniel. The 
 book IS in fact a parable, the fundamental idea of which, 
 as Cornill .says, clearly points to a very late period. " It 
 IS a protest against the pernicious arrogance of the 
 Judaism that followed Ezra, which is jealous because 
 God IS so gracious, and which is in danger of losing its 
 faith because Jahve does not extirpate and annihilate 
 the heathen, as later prophecy had hoped and promised 
 that He .should." The book teaches that God is not 
 merely a God of the .Tev/s, but also of the Gentiles. The 
 story of Jonah is referred to in the New Testament (Luke 
 XI. 29 ff.; Matthew xii. 39 £f.). On this account many 
 persons would like to regard it as historical. But the 
 .story IS not necessarily referred to as anything more 
 than a story, which was familiar to everyone. It should 
 be noted that in the original Hebrew Jonah is swallowed 
 not by a " whale " but by a " great fish." The second 
 chapter of the book is composite, and is clearly a later 
 insertion. If the book is interpreted as an allegory, C. 
 H. H. Wright explains that " Jonah represents Israel 
 fleeing from the duty imposed on the nation in its pro- 
 phetic character as a witness for God. The sleep of 
 Jonah, the storm on the sea, Jonah's bold confession of 
 faith when aroused from slumber, admit of easy explana- 
 tion. The world-power is actually represented in the 
 prophets as a sea-monster (see Isa. xxvii. ; Jer. Ii. 34). 
 That sea-monster is represented as, in the person of 
 Nebuchadnezzar, swallowing up Israel (Ii. 34). Bel, the 
 god of Babylon, is forced to disgorge his prey (Ii. 44). 
 Israel's duration in exile is represented by Hosea as 
 lasting for three days " (Hosea vi. 1). See C. H. H. 
 Wright, Intr. to the O.T.; C. Cornill, Intr.; G. H. Box; 
 O. C. Whitehouse; C. F. Kent, The i<ermons, Epistles and 
 Jpocalup.'!es of Israel's Prophets. 1910. 
 
 JONATHAN, TARGUM OP. The Aramaic translation 
 (interpretation) of the Prophetical Books of the Old 
 Testament. The Targum on the Prophets is more para- 
 phrastic than the Targum (of Onkelos) on the Penta- 
 teuch. See TARGUM. 
 
 JORISTS. The followers of David Joris (or Joriszoon, 
 i.e., Georgeson: c. 1.501-1.550). Originally an Anabapti.st; 
 after receiving, as he asserted, visions and revelations, 
 he founded a sect of his own. The Jorists or Davidists 
 regarded their leader as the true Christ. 
 
 JOSHIS. The Joshis (also known as Jyotishis, 
 Bhadris, Parsis) are the caste of village priests and 
 astrologers in India. For the most part they are 
 Brahmans. " The Joshi officiates at weddings in the 
 village, selects au.spicious names for children according 
 to the nakshatra or constellation of the moon under which 
 they were bom, and points out the auspicious time or 
 mahUrat for all such ceremonies and for the commence- 
 ment of agricultural oiierations. He is also sometimes 
 in charge of the village temples " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 JOSHUA, BOOK OF. The Hebrew Canon of the Old 
 Testament (q.v.) groups the Book of Jo.shua. not with 
 the books of the Pentateuch, but with the Prophets. The 
 book of Joshua is the first, of the " Former Prophets." 
 In the Greek Bible it bears the title 'Ijjo-cd? or 'Irjo-ou? 
 I'ioy Novt), in the Syriac " The Book of .Joshua, the son 
 of Nun, the disciple of Moses." Modem scholars con- 
 nect the book with the Pentateuch, and speak of the six 
 books as the Hexateuch. The book continues the account 
 of the great movement which began with the exodus from 
 Egypt. The Sources of "Joshua " represent a continua- 
 tion of the sources used in the Pentateuch. The book 
 deals with the conquest and division of Canaan under 
 the leader.sbip of Moses' successor, Joshua. The con- 
 tents may be divided as follows : (1) Chapters i.-xii. the
 
 Jotunheim 
 
 204 
 
 Judaism 
 
 advance of Israel and the conquest of Canaan; (2) 
 Chapters xiii.-xxa. the allotment of the land among the 
 tribes; (3) Chapters xxii.-xxiv. accounts of the final 
 measures taken bv Joshua, of his farewell address, and 
 of his death and burial. The conclusion of the booli 
 therefore resembles that of the book of Deiiteronomy. 
 Josliua of course is only the hero of the book and not 
 the author. The greater part of the book was com- 
 mitted to writing long after the events happened which 
 it purports to describe. We have evidence of this in the 
 frequent recurrence of the formula " unto this day " (cp. 
 iv. 9, V. 9, vi. 25, vii. 26, vili. 29, ix. 27, etc.). The book 
 in fact wa.s not the work of a single author, but is com- 
 r>osed of a number of different works. There are con- 
 flicting statements and duplicate accounts (cp. xi. 21 f. 
 with XV. 13 ff.; xiv. 6 ff. with xv. 13 ff.). On the whole 
 the book of Joshua represents the conquest of Canaan as 
 haviing been effected by a united Israel under the leader- 
 ship of Joshua; but a different conception of the conquest 
 has also found its way into the book. In chapters xiii.- 
 xix. " there are considerable fragments of an account of 
 the conquest which, like Judg. i., represented it, not 
 as the work of .Joshua at the head of all Israel, but 
 as slowly and incompletely achieved by the several tribes ; 
 and in i.-xii. it is possible to distinguish an older and 
 simpler aec-ount of the invasion from a later version of 
 the same story in wMch a tendency to magnify the events 
 and exaggerate the miiraculous character of the history 
 is conspicuous" (G. F. Moore in Encycl. Bihl.). It has 
 been possible, in fact, to detect and distingui^ the same 
 documents P (Priestly writer), J (Jehovist), B (Elohist), 
 and D (Deuteronomist), which are found interwoven m 
 the books of the Pentateuch, and the basis of the book 
 is a deuteronomic history of Joshua. The book is much 
 more deuteronomic than the first four books of the Penta- 
 teuch See Enciicl. Bibl.; W. H. Bennett, Joslma, m 
 •• Sacred Books of the Old Testament " ; C. Steuernagel, 
 Das Buck Jostia, 1899; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby : 
 G H. Box; O. C. Wtltehouse. 
 
 JOTUNHEIM. Jotunheim was one of the nine worlds 
 in the cosmogony of the Ancient Teutons. 
 
 JUDAISM. The religion of the Jews, as developed 
 from the religion of the ancient Hebrews. Before the 
 settlement of the Hebrew tribes in Palestine tiheir religion 
 seems to have resembled that of other nomadic Semites. 
 Each trilx» probably had its own deity. Son^e of the 
 tribes, however, before the settlement seem to have 
 adopted the god Yahweh, for the statement (E) that the 
 name Yahweh was not known before the time of Moses 
 (Exod. iil 1-14) is hardly true of all the tribes. " There 
 are indications that Yahweh may have been a divine 
 name in North Arabia for a thousand years before Moses, 
 and that emigrants from this region to Babylonia and 
 Palestine had carried the name to those countries" (G. 
 A. Barton, R.^Y.). In the time of Moses Yahweh's pre- 
 sence with his people came to be represented by a box 
 or ark, containing presumably a i^acred stone; and his 
 commands were orally transmitted in ten sentences. The 
 ten commands (Exod. xxxiv.) seem to have been : 1. Thou 
 Shalt worship no other god. 2. Thou shalt make thee no 
 molten gods. 3. The feast of the Passover thou shalt 
 keep. 4. The firstling of an ass thou shalt redeem with 
 a lamb: all the first-born of thy sons thou shalt redeem. 
 5. None shall appear before me empty. (5. Six days tliou 
 Shalt work, but on the seventh thou shalt rest. 7. Thou 
 Shalt observe the feast of ingathering (of dates). 8. 
 Thou Shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with 
 leavened bread, neither shall the sacrifice of the Pass- 
 over remain until the morning. 9. The firstlings of thy 
 flocks thou Shalt bring unto Yahweh. thy God. 10. 
 Thou shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk. With 
 
 the conquest of Palestine and the union of the tribes, 
 life became gradually more settled. The shrines of the 
 old inhabitants were taken over, and agricultural feasta 
 became a prominent feature in the worship of Yahweh. 
 The sanctuary, with one or two exceptions (the temple 
 of Shiloh, I. Sam. i.-v. ; and Solomon's temple), was a 
 high place open to the sky. In the time of Elijah 
 and Elisha we note the beginnings of a new development. 
 More stress begins to be laid on ethics, and in a new 
 form of the ten commandments (E) ritualistic require- 
 ments almost disappear (see DECALOGUE). In the 
 I)eriod of the eighth-century prophets (755-690 B.C.) the 
 development is carried further by Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, 
 and Micah. These prophets introduced a practical mono- 
 theism, and Isaiah began to preach the Messianic Hope 
 (see MESSIAH). Then Hezekiah sought to centre the 
 worship of Yahweh in the temple of Jeru'salem (II. Kings 
 xv'iii. 1-6, 22). In the reign of King Manas.seh (686-641), 
 however, a religious reaction led to the restoration of the 
 old shrines and the revival of heathen Semitic customs. 
 To cheek this degeneracy the prophetical school composed 
 alK)ut 650 B.C. the Deuteronomic law {i.e., the kernel of 
 the book of Deuteronomy [q.v.]). This was found in 
 the temple in the reign of Josiah, and prompted the king 
 to introduce a great religious reform. Worship was 
 again centred at .Teru.salem; the old shrines were removed, 
 and the survivals of heathen Semitic religion (sacred 
 pillars, asherahf!, etc.) were abolished. We may see here 
 the fruit of Hosea's teaching. " Hosea's condemnation 
 of the worship at tie local sanctuaries and his supreme 
 doctrine of love and kindness toward man and all of 
 God's creatures, reappear in many of the enactments 
 found in the prophetic law-book of Deuteronomy. His 
 teachings regarding the love of God, the character and 
 effects of sin, the necessity of repentance, God's readiness 
 to forgive, and the duty of love and kindness from man 
 to man, are the essence of that gosiiel which Jesus pro- 
 claimed to all the world " (C. F. Kent, The Kings and 
 Prophet.i of Lirael and Judah, 1909). A further land- 
 mark is reached when we come to the prophet Jeremiah, 
 who reiterates and enriches the teachings of Hosea. As 
 Barton notes, he contributed four great and potent ideas 
 to the religion of Israel: theoretical monotheism; the 
 conception of Yahweh as God of the nations as well as 
 of the Jews; the doctrine of the inwardness of religion; 
 and the idea of individual responsibility. With Hosea, 
 .Jeremiah also conceived of Israel's relationship to 
 Yahweh as that of a covenant of marriage, and repre- 
 sented God as a God of love. The capture of Jerusalem 
 by Nebuchadrezzar in 5S6 B.C. and the destruction of the 
 temple was enough to revolutionize the ideas of the .Jews. 
 It led Ezekiel, the prophet-priest, who had been one of 
 those deix>rted by Nebuchadrezzar to Babylonia in 597, 
 to dream of the rehabilitation in Palestine of a Hebrew 
 state, in which prophetic ideals would be blended with 
 the ritual law. " Above all. he was an idealist, who 
 believed firmly in the ultimate future of his race " (C. 
 F. Kent). He, again, emphasized the great princijile of 
 individual resix)nsibility. Second Isaiah (jl. in Baby- 
 lonia from about 550 B.C.) encouraged the Jews to take 
 advantage of the decree of Cyrus by returning to Palest- 
 ine, and further conceived of Israel as the " suffering 
 Servant of Yahweh " who had been chosen to bear i;he 
 chastisement due not only to its own sins but to the sins 
 of the nations. It was perhaps during his time that 
 the Code of Holiness took shape. This w.is followed 
 later by the document known as P— an elaboration of 
 the priestly law and a re-editing of the earlier history 
 in the light of it. r.^ter still, in the time of Ezra and 
 Nehemiah (fl. 444 B.C.), with the adoption of this priestly 
 law in Palestine as the fundamental law of JewLsh re-
 
 Judaism 
 
 205 
 
 Jude, The Epistle of 
 
 ligion, Judaism in the specific sense of the name was 
 born — a compromise between the idealism of the prophets 
 and the ritualism of the priests. Most of the Jews who 
 were settled in Babylonia preferred to remain there, but 
 they too accepted the priestly law. The papyri from 
 Elephantine in Egypt show that the Jewish colony, 
 though it had a temple there, did not accept the new law 
 at once. With the rebuilding of the temple at Jeru- 
 salem, a hymn-book was introduced, and the Samaritans, 
 who built a rival temple on Mt. Gerizim, became a 
 separate sect. In the Greek period, after the conquest 
 of Palestine by Alexander (332 B.C.), the Jews became 
 more widely dispersed, many of them settling in Alexan- 
 dria, where they came under the direct influence of Greek 
 thought. The prophets ceased (c. 250 B.C.), and were 
 succeeded (after 200 B.C.) by the aix>calyptiist«, many 
 of whom wrote in Greek. Hellenic philosophy was one 
 thing. When imperial force was used to impose upon 
 the people Hellenic religion (lOS B.C.), the Jews rebelled 
 and found salvation in the Maccabees. Between this 
 time and the birth of Phalo (c. 20 B.C.), .several Jewish 
 parties or sects — the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the 
 Essenes — arose; the oral traditions of the law were 
 started, and schools of oral tradition became active (the 
 School of Hillel, the School of Shammai). Philo Judaeus 
 (b. about 20 B.C.) was contemporary with Jesus. His 
 doctrine of the Logos exercised a great influence on later 
 Christian thought. " Though Philo was a good and 
 loyal Jew, he stood, so to speak, apart from the real 
 centre of Jewish Intellectual and spiritual development. 
 He was on the one hand too closely dependent on Greek 
 thought, and on the other had only a limited knowledge 
 of Jewish thought and tradition. The Bible he knew 
 only in the Greek translation, not in the original Hebrew ; 
 and of the Halaka, which was still in the making in 
 Pale-stine, he knew still less " (I.saac Husik). The 
 Synagogue, as we know from the New Testament, was 
 already firmly e.stablished in the time of Jesus. It seems 
 to have originated much earlier, perhaps in Babylonia. 
 When .Jerusalem was destroyed in 70 A.D. Jabneh (Gk. 
 Janinia) had already become an important centre of 
 Jewish learning. Here the oral law was now further 
 developed, and the traditions were formulated in what 
 came to be known as the Mishnah (200 A.D.). This. 
 with the Gemara, which contains traditions later than 
 the Mishnah, constitutes what is known as the Talmud, 
 of which there are two recensions, one Palestinian (4th 
 cent.), the other Babylonian (('>th cent.). After the 
 Bible, the Talmud is the chief religious book of Judaism. 
 Prom the sixth to the eleventh century the rabbinical 
 school in Babylonia (the Geouim) enjoyed a great reputa- 
 tion for interpretation. In the Middle Ages Judaism 
 was interpreted on orthodox or unorthodox lines by many 
 famous philosophers and exegetes. The exegetes in- 
 cluded Rashi (1040-1105), Ibn Ezra (109.3-11.38). and Kimchi 
 (11(!0-1235). The philosophers included Ibn (Jabirol (1021- 
 105S), Judah Halevi (6. in the last quarter of the 11th 
 cent.), Ibn Daud (6. about 1110), Moses Maimonides (113.5- 
 1204), and Levi ben Gerson (12SS-1344). The theological 
 .system of Maimonides largely shaped the intellectual life 
 of the Jews for centuries. Maimonides propounded 
 thirteen articles of faith. These, " in setting forth a 
 Jewish Credo, formed a vigorous opposition to the 
 Christian and Mohammedan creeds: they therefore met 
 almost universal acceptance among the Jewish people. 
 and were given a place in the common prayer-book, in 
 spite of their deficiencies, as shown by Crescas and his 
 school " (K. Kohler). His first five articles were : 1, 
 the existence; 2, the unity; 3, tlie incoriwreality ; 4, the 
 eternity — of God: 5, that He alone should be the ob.1ect 
 of worship. His tenth article is divine Providence. 
 
 Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786), who belongs to a much 
 later period, is revered not only as a philosopher, but as 
 the emancipator of the modem Jew from the thraldom 
 of the Ghetto. What is known as Reform Judaism 
 started in Germany about 1845. It has recast the ancient 
 belief in the election and mission of Israel. On the one 
 hand, the founders " have reinterpreted the Messianic 
 hope in the prophetic spirit, as the realization of the 
 highest ideals of a united humanity. On the other, thev 
 have rejected the entire theory that Israel was exiled 
 from his ancient land because of his sins, and that he is 
 eventually to return there and to restore the sacrificial 
 cult in the Temple at Jerusalem. Therefore, the whole 
 view concerning Lsrael's future had to undergo a trans- 
 formation. The historic mission of Israel as priest of 
 humanity and champion of truth assumed a higher mean- 
 ing, and his peculiar position in history and in the Law 
 necessarily received a different interpretation from that 
 of Talmudic Judaism or that of the Church " (Kohler). 
 The movement known as Zionism (q.v.), through the 
 activities of Theodor Herzl, began to make great progress 
 after 1895. On the whole, it is, or has become, 
 nationalistic and cultural rather than religious. " The 
 nationalists expect the Jewish nation to awaken from a 
 sleep of eighteen hundred years to new greatness in its 
 ancient home, not as a religious, but as a political body, 
 and in renouncing all allegiance to the priestly mission 
 of Israel and its ancestral faith they are as remote from 
 genuine Orthodoxy as from Reform Judaism." Dr. Kohler 
 emphasizes the necessity of distinguishing two opposite 
 fiindamental tendencies in Judaism, the one expressing 
 the spirit of legalistic nationalism, the other that of 
 ethical or prophetic universalism. " These two work by 
 turn, directing the general trend in the one or the other 
 direction according to circumstances. At one time the 
 centre and focus of Israel's religion is the Mosaic Law, 
 with its .sacrificial cult in charge of the priesthood of 
 Jerusalem's Temple; at another time it is the Synagogue, 
 with its congregational devotion and public instruction, 
 its inspiring song of the Psalmist, and its prophetic con- 
 solation and hope confined to no narrow territory, but 
 Oldened wide for a listening world. Here it is the reign 
 of the Halakah holding fast to the form of tradition, 
 and there the free and fanciful Ilarni'idah. with its appeal 
 to the sentiments and views of tile people. Here it is 
 the spirit of ritualis7n, bent on separating the Jews from 
 tlie influenc-e of foreign elements, and there again the 
 spirit of rationalism, eager to take part in general culture 
 and in the progress of the outside world " (p. 13). See 
 G. A. Barton, R.W., 1917; Rel. of I.sr., 1918. 
 
 JUDE, THE EPISTLE OF. The Epistle of Jude. 
 one of the group of New Testament Epistles known as 
 Catholic or General Epi-stles, consists of only twenty-five 
 verses. The writer calls himself " Judas, a servant of 
 Jesus Christ, and brother of .Tames" (vs. 1). He is 
 commonly taken to be the Jude or Judas mentioned in 
 Matthew xiii. .55 as one of the brethren of the Lord. 
 Hegesippus, as quoted by Eusebiiis, has preserved a tradi- 
 tion that two grandsons of this Jude were summoned 
 before the Emperor Domitian to give an account of their 
 faith. The emperor found their religion to be harmless. 
 and sent them away in peace. Tradition further tells 
 that they died at an advanced age in the reign of Trajan. 
 If the epistle was composed by the grandfather of these 
 men, its date would be between (iO and 70 A.D. But the 
 name Judas was a common one. The Jude of the Epistle 
 may have been an otherwi.se unknown person, as Currie 
 Martin suggests, the description "brother of James" 
 being an editorial insertion. In any case, the epistle 
 can hardly be assigned to a very early date. Eusebius 
 speaks of it as one of the disputed writings, and Origen
 
 Judges, Book of 
 
 206 
 
 Jumping Dance of Echternach 
 
 also evidently knew that its authorship was disputed. 
 It is mentioned, however, in the Muratorian Canon, and 
 is quoted by Clement of Alexandria and TertuUian. One 
 of the curious features of the book is its use of apocry- 
 phal writings. Thus, in vs. 14 the Book of Enoch seems 
 to be quoted, and in vs. 9 the Assumption of Moses. It 
 is thought that this use of Apocrypha accounts for 
 the tardy recognition of the book. But there is another 
 very curious feature. There is a close resemblance 
 between the Epistle of Jude and the Second Epistle of 
 Peter — so close a resemblance that one must have copied 
 the other. " In the judgment of most scholars Jude is 
 the original from which 2 Peter borrowed. It is in the 
 first place curious that, if 2 Peter were the earlier, Jude 
 should have contented him.self with extracting simply the 
 .section against the false teachers. But, apart from this 
 general improbability, when we come to place the two 
 documents side by side and test them, it is generally 
 easy to explain why the author of 2 Peter has altered 
 Jude, but it is not easy to see why, if Jude had 2 Peter 
 before him, he should have altered his original to the 
 form that we find in his Epistle. Obscurities in 2 Peter 
 can in some cases be cleared up by reference to Jude " 
 (A. S. Peake). The reference to false teaching has been 
 taken to suggest .some form of antinomian Gnosticism 
 such as became prevalent in the second century. But the 
 false teaching was not necessarily Gnosticism. Currie 
 Martin thinks the epistle may have originated in Egypt, 
 " becau.se the churches there appear to have been more 
 generally fond of apocalypse, and also liable to the errors 
 in teaching and practice to whicJi this epistle refers." 
 See the Encycl. Bibl.; J. A. M'Clymont; G. Currie 
 Martin: Arthur S. Peake, Intr.; J. Moffatt, Intr. 
 
 JUDGES, BOOK OF. The Book of Judges in the 
 Hebrew Canon of the Old Testament (see CANON, i.) is 
 grouped with the books described as the " Former 
 Prophets." It purports to deal historically with a i>eriod 
 embracing more than three centuries. The Judges were 
 heroes who aro.se from time to time to lead the Israelite 
 tribes against their enemies, and whoi5e success resulted 
 in their becoming judicial rulers and in a sense the fore- 
 runners of the Israelite monarehs. The Hebrew word 
 for the.se and other judges is ^Iwjcthn. It has been 
 lH>inted out by G. F. Moore, C. H. H. Wright, and others 
 that the same word (Suffetcs) was used in Carthage, a 
 Phoenician colony, of rulers there (Livy, Hist. xxx. 7), 
 who were sometimes called also by the Romans reges, 
 consules, and dictators. The Book of Judges divides 
 itself into four sections. The first (chap. i. 1-ii. 5), 
 which is introductory, describes the conque-st 9f Canaan 
 after the death of Joshua (see JOSHUA, BOOK). It 
 is really an old account of the conquest: it differs from 
 that of the Book of Joshua and represents that the con- 
 quest was made, not simultaneously b.v all the tribes 
 acting together under the leadership of Joshua, but 
 gradually by individual tribes acting independently. 
 The second section (chap. ii. ti-iii. ti) has been described 
 as a Prelude to the history, " a moralising summary " 
 (Whitehouse) of the story that is to follow. The third 
 section (chap. iii. 7-xvi. 31), which is " the real kernel of 
 the history," recounts the adventures of twelve judges. 
 The chief of these were Othniel, Ehud, Deborah (with 
 Barak). Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson. The minor 
 judges were Shamgar, Tola and Jair, Ibzan, Elou, and 
 Abdon. In chapter 9 a story is introduced which describes 
 how one Abimeleeh became " king " of the Canaanite 
 town, Shechem. The story has been regarded by some 
 scholars as " a kind of prelude to the history of the 
 kingdom of Saul " (Moore). But as Prof. Moore says, 
 Abimeleeh was simply king of a town of the Canaanites. 
 among whom the city-kingdom was a common form of 
 
 government. "That he was also recognized as king by 
 purely Israelite towns or clans is not intimated, and is 
 not a necessary inference from the fact that he has the 
 Israelites at his back in his effort to suppress the revolt 
 of the (Canaanite cities (955)." The fourth section of the 
 book (chaps, xvii.-xxi.) is of the nature of an appendix 
 or a supplement. It tells the adventures (xvii.-xvlii) of 
 a man named Micah who had an image and prie.st, a 
 Levite, of his own. These were carried off by the 
 Danites. It tells further (xix.-xxi.) of a war between 
 the Israelites and the Benjamites, in which the latt;er 
 were nearly exterminated. The Book of Judges is com- 
 posite. In the sixth century B.C. a Deuteronomistic 
 author (D) would seem to have composed a " History of 
 Israel under the .Judges." From this are derived 
 cliapters ii. (i-xvi. 31. This writer (D) obtained his in- 
 formation about the Judges from a work known as the 
 " Prophetical Writings " or JE. This in turn was com- 
 posed in the seventih century B.C. by an author or com- 
 piler (RJE) who made use of two early narratives, a 
 "Judaic History" (J, ninth century B.C.) and an 
 " Ephraimite History " (E, somewhat later). The 
 author of the present Book of Judges after the Exile 
 supplemented D's work by adding from JE Judg. i. 1-ii. 
 5 and chapters xvii.-xviii., xix.-xxi. As regards the 
 chronology of the Judges, Whitehouse points out that 
 " there is nothing to forbid the assumption that some 
 (e.g., Samson and Jephthah. Barak, and Ehud) ruled 
 contemporaneously." Unless we assume this, the period 
 between the Exodus and Solomon would exceed the length 
 (480 years) given in the First Book of Kings (vi. 1). See 
 G. F. Moore, Judges (1895) in the I.C.C., and The Book 
 of Judges (1898) in the " Sacred Books of the Old Testa- 
 ment " (Engl.); C. H. H. Wright, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. 
 C. Whitehouse. 
 
 JUMPING, AS A RELIGIOUS CEREMONY. J. G. 
 Frazer mentions a number of instances in which .some 
 religious or magical virtue is ascribed to jumping over a 
 thing or person (cp. THRESHOLD). In Russia on the 
 Eve of St. .John (Mid-.summer Eve) young men and 
 maidens, carrying a straw figure of the mythic hero 
 Kupalo. jump over a bonfire in couples. Among the 
 Baganda of Central Africa, " when the beans were ripe, 
 a woman would call her eldest .son to eat some of the 
 first which she cooked ; if she neglected to do so, it was 
 believed that she would incur the displeasure of the 
 gods and fall ill. After the meal her hu.sband jiunped 
 over her. and the beans might thereafter be eaten by 
 all." According to J. Roscoe (The Baganda), the act 
 of stepping or leaping over a woman is accepted as a 
 ritual substitute for cohabitation with her. And among 
 several Bantu tribes cohabitation is enjoined as a re- 
 ligious and magical rite on certain solemn occasions, euch 
 as the circumcision of a child. The Baganda fisher- 
 man treats ceremonially the first fish taken. Some he 
 takes to the god Mukasa. The remainder he partakes 
 of with his wife after she has cooked them. Aftervrands 
 he jumps over her. Again, " in Uganda, when a man 
 returns from a journey, his wife takes some of the bark 
 cloths from the bed of one of his children and lays them 
 on her husband's bed; and as he enters the house, he 
 jumps over one of his wives who has children by him, 
 or over one of his children. If he neglects to do thifi, 
 one of his children or one of his wives will die." In 
 Uganda, before an army set out, the general and all the 
 chiefs, to ensure .success, had either to cohabit with their 
 wives or to jump over them. See J. G. Frazer. O.B., 
 Pt. II., 1911; Part III., 1912: Part V., vol. ii., 1912. 
 
 JUMPING DANCE OF ECHTERNACH. A festival 
 held annually on White Tuesday at Echternach in Luxem- 
 burg. It would seem that in the eighth century the
 
 Junkers 
 
 207 
 
 Kabir Panthis 
 
 malady knowu as the Dance of St. Vitus (Cliorea Sancti 
 Viti) was prevalent here. The Jumping Dance is a 
 festival of thanksgiving for its cessation. It has been 
 described as follows : " The procession starts from the 
 bridge, accompanied by .several bands of music; the 
 pilgrims of both sexes form in rows, and spring first 
 four steps forward and three back, then eight steps for- 
 ward and three back, and so on, continually incjeasing 
 the steps forward, but making no change in those back- 
 ward, until they reach the church, when they fall on 
 their faces and begin to pray " (Notes and Queries, 
 quoted by J. H. Blunt). Se« J. H. Blunt; Broekhaus. 
 
 JUNKERS. A religious body in America. E. Planta 
 Ne^it finds in their habits and modes of thought many 
 striking joints of resemblance to the Essenes (Q-V.). The 
 Junkers call themselves " Brethren." The designation 
 " Harmless People " is one by which they are often 
 known. " They live in little villages and groups of 
 farms. They permit marriage, like one sect of the 
 Bssenes did, but still hold celibacy in the highest honour " 
 (Nesbit). See E. Planta Nesbit, CJirist, Christians, and 
 Christianity, 1899. 
 
 JURUPARI PIPES. Sacred instruments used in re- 
 ligious m.Tsteries by the natives of Brazil. They serve 
 the same purpo.se as the bull-roarer (q.v.); and just as 
 women among the Australian Kumai are forbidden to 
 look upon the turndun. the Brazilian women are pro- 
 hibited from -seeing the jurupari pir)es on pain of death. 
 
 JUSTIFICATION BY F.VITH. According to Roman 
 Catholic doctrine, as stated in C. H. Bowden's Simple 
 Dictionary for Catholics (1900), Justification is " not only 
 the remi€!sion of sin, but the sanctifying and renewing 
 of the interior man by the voluntary reception of grace 
 and gifts, whence a man. from being unjust and an 
 enemy, becomes just and a friend of God, that he may 
 be heir according to the hope of life everlasting (Tit. iii. 
 7)." According to Article xi. of the Church of England, 
 '■ We are accounted righteous before God, only for the 
 merit of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ by Faith, 
 and not for our own works or deservings ; Wherefore, 
 that we are justified by Faith only is a most wholesome 
 Doctrine, and very full of comfort." 
 
 K 
 
 K. God K is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians 
 of Central America. Like God B, he is given an orna- 
 mental nose. He may in fact be simply a variant of 
 B. In that case, he is probably to be identified with the 
 rain-god Chac (= TIaloc). There is good reason to 
 suppose that B's protx>scis really represents an elephant's 
 trunk, and not merely a funnel through which gales were 
 emitted (see G. Elliot Smith. " Pre-Columbian Repre- 
 sentations of the Elephant in America," in Nature, Nov. 
 25, 1915). 
 
 KA, THE. Ka is a term used in the religion of the 
 ancient Egyptians. Every living person was " lord of a 
 ka." He received it at his birth. When the Sun god 
 created the two primeval gods he stretched out his arms 
 behind them, whereupon they received the ka and became 
 animate. Erman points out that "this stretching out 
 the arms must be si)ecially connected with the investing 
 with a ka, for from the earliest times two out.stretched 
 arms signified a ka." The ka is not the same as the 
 soul, for the Egyptians sjjeak of a .soul as well, which 
 at death flies away like a bird. The ka, though never 
 seen, is supposed to have the .same form as its pos.sessor, 
 or, as Erman says, to be " exactly the counterpart of the 
 man." Salomon Reinaeh speaks of it as a man's double, 
 a kind of tutelary genius or guardian angel. After 
 death, it was supposed, the ka continiied to take an 
 interest in its old body, and sometimes to re-animate it. 
 Food was placed in the grave to sustain it. Even the 
 gods were supposed to have kas. As an instance of the 
 close identification of the ka with the living body, Naville 
 points out that the expression " to thy ka " came to be 
 used instead of " to thyself." See Alfred Wiedemann; 
 Adolf Erman, Handbook; Edouard Naville, The Old 
 Egyptian Faith, 1909; Reinaeh, O. 
 
 KA'BA. The name of the temple to which devout 
 
 -Muhammedans make pilgrimages. It is '" a equate 
 primitive stone building at Mecca, which Muslims believe 
 to have been built by Abraham, and to which the pagan 
 Arabs had from ancient times performed pilgrimages as 
 to their national sanctuary, on which occasion they jier- 
 formed the very same rites and ceremonies now observed 
 by the Muslim Pilgrims." The " black stone," which 
 " is built up in one of the corners of this temple, forms 
 an object of .special veneration to the pilgrim." See F. 
 A. Klein; and compare HAJJ, THE. 
 
 KABBALAH. A Hebrew word meaning literally 
 " tradition." It is used especially in connection with 
 the mystical teaching of a movement in the thirteenth 
 century. The.se Kabbalists attached importance to every 
 letter in the Bible on the ground that it conveyed some 
 secret meaning to the initiated. The teaching is found 
 in an extravagant form in a large work called the Zohar, 
 which in its present form belongs to the thirteenth 
 century. Kabball.stic interpretation follows three prin- 
 ciples. " (1) Notariqon — to reconstruct a word by using 
 the initials of many, or a sentence by using all the letters 
 of a single word for initial letters of other words; (2) 
 Ghematria — the use of the numerical values of the letters 
 of a word for purposes of comparison with other words 
 which yield the same or similar combinations of 
 numbers; (.3) Temura — the permutation of letters by the 
 three Cabalistic alphabets. 'Atbach, 'Alham. and 'Ath- 
 bash " (C. A. Briggs). See C. A. Briggs, Intr. 
 
 KABIR PANTHIS. A modern Hindu sect founded 
 by Kabir. Kabir .seems to have lived partly at Benares 
 and partly at Magar, near Gorakhpur. between the .vears 
 1488 and 1512, and to have been originally a Muham- 
 madan. In course of time, however, he became a disciple 
 of Ramananda. The followers of Ramananda, the 
 Ramanandis, worship Vishnu (q.v.) under the form of 
 Rama, the hero-god. Kabir, in his further development.
 
 Kaboi 
 
 208 
 
 Kandrapat 
 
 became a reformer, and strove "to free the Vaishnava 
 creed from the useless and senseless incrustations with 
 which it had become overlaid " (Monier-Williamsf. He 
 assailed all worship of idols, and represented Vishnavism 
 as strictly monotheistic. The externalities of religion 
 are of no importance; all that matters is the state of 
 the " inner man." Monier-Williams describes him as 
 " the first to attempt a partial bridging of the gulf 
 between Hinduism and Islam." Kabir is claimed by 
 the Sikhs as one of their prophets. See Monier-Williams: 
 E. W. Hopkins; R.^.W.; and R. V. Russell. 
 
 KABOI. A deity worshipped by the Karaya Indians 
 of Brazil. He is said to have led his people from the 
 lower to the upper regions of the earth. 
 
 KABRAKAN. A tribal deity in the religion of the 
 Mayan Indians. He is described as the destroyer of 
 mountains. 
 
 KADAMPA SECT. A sect founded in the eleventh 
 century among the Buddhists of Tibet. The movement 
 was in the direction of reform. See YELLOW-CAP 
 BUDDHISTS. 
 
 KADAVUL. A divine being conceived by the Parai- 
 yans, a tribe or caste in India, as the supreme, omni- 
 present, personal .spiritual Being, the source of all. 
 ■' Kadaval possesses no temples, and is not worshipped, 
 but he is the highest conception of Paraiya thought " (E. 
 Thurston). 
 
 KAD BHAGAVADI. A Hindu deity, god of the 
 Jungles, the special god of the Paniyans, a tribe in India. 
 
 KaDIRS. The Ka^dirs (also known as K.'idaus) are a 
 tribe inhabiting the Anaimalai or elephant hills and the 
 great mountain range which extends thence southward 
 into Travancore, in Southern India. Their religion, 
 which has been described as an " ejaeulatory religion, 
 finding vent in uttering the names of the gods and 
 demons," consists in the worship of stone images or in- 
 visible gods. Thurston and Rangachari mention five 
 gods. Paikuttfitha is " a projecting rock overhanging 
 a slab of rock, on which are two stones set up on end." 
 Athuvisariamma is " a stone enclosure, ten or fifteen feet 
 square, almost level with the ground." There is a repre- 
 sentation of the god within the enclo.sure. Vanatha- 
 vathi is worshipped anywhere as an invisible god. 
 lyappaswami is a stone set up beneath a teak tree, and 
 worshipped as a protector against various forms of sick- 
 ness and disease. In the act of worshipping, a mark is 
 made on the .stone with ashes. Masanyatha is " a female 
 recumbent figure in stone on a masonry wall in an open 
 plain near the village of .\naimala1. before which trial 
 by ordeal is carried out." See E. Thurston. 
 
 KADRIYAH. THE. A Muhammadan religious order 
 which established itself in TimbTictoo early in the six- 
 teenth century. They were afterwards encouraged by 
 the Wahhabis ((j.v.) to propagate their faith more 
 zealously. " Their missionary work bears an entirely 
 peaceful character: it is founded merely upon personal 
 example and good teaching. uix>u the natural influence 
 of the teacher over the pupil, and upon the spreading of 
 higher civilization " (Oskar Mann). See T. W. Arnold: 
 Oskar Mann, " Mohammedanism " in Great Religions of 
 the World. 1902. 
 
 KAILaSA. Kailasa is one of the paradises or heavens 
 of the Hindus. It is the heaven of Siva {q-V.). tliat of 
 Vishnu ((?.):.) being Vaikuntha, and that of Krishna 
 (q.v.) being 6o-loka. Kailfisa is in the Himalaya, and 
 the temple there is said by Monier-Williams to be one 
 of the wonders of India and even of the world. Kailasa. 
 a city constructed on a triangular plan, is sometimes 
 called Parvata, " mountain." " It i>s a charming place. 
 Siva rules over it, and it is here that he resides with 
 his wife Parvati " (Dubois and Beauchamp). Kailasa 
 
 is the paradise reserved for the faithful followers of 
 Siva. See Monier-Williams; J. A. Dubois and H. K. 
 Beauchamp. 
 
 KALANDARIYEH. An order of Dervishes, an ofif- 
 shoot of the Bakhtashiyeh (g.v.). They practise celibacy, 
 and have an establishment in Aleppo. 
 
 KaLAPaT. A Hindu deity, the tutelary god of the 
 Taonlas, a small non-Aryan caste of the Criya States 
 in India, the members of which are generally farm- 
 servants and labourers. The Taonlas worship also the 
 cobra, and on the festival of Nawakhai a cattle-goad as 
 the symbol of their calling. 
 
 Kali. Kali is one of the deities worshipped by the 
 Hindus. The name is one of those given to the wife 
 of the god Siva (f/.t'.), and under this name she appears 
 in her most terrible form. " It is this goddess who 
 thirsts for blood, and especially for human blood; and 
 if the blood of animals is not offered to her, she takes 
 that of men. In one of the Tantras kings are directed 
 to api)ease her by blood, and even by human sacrifice " 
 (Monier-Williams). 
 
 KALOU. A name given by the Fijians to a power 
 that is supernatural, supernormal, or awe-in^iring. 
 
 KAMA. A term use<l in Theosoj)hy (q.v.). It denotes 
 the emotional and passional nature in man. 
 
 KAMA. A Hindu deity corresponding to Cupid. S. 
 (i. Roberts notes (Calcutta Review, 1902) that he is more 
 like Eros than the tiny little god of Roman mythology. 
 " He has beautiful attributes. His bow is of the sugar- 
 cane; his arrows are tipped with flowers; and his bow- 
 s-tring is a chain of bees — ^a pretty touch that recalls the 
 sra-allow song of the Homeric bowstring." The Hindu 
 Cupid, however, is a married man. 
 
 KAMBATA. Kambata or Kamata is an annual feast, 
 lasting about a fortnight, held in honour of the god Kama- 
 taraya by the Kota, an aboriginal tribe of the Nilgiri 
 Hills of India. The only work permitted on the second 
 day of the festival is the digging of clay and the making 
 of pots. 
 
 KaMDHENU. The sacred cow in Hindu mythology, 
 the giver of all wealth. 
 
 KAMI-NO-MICHI. Kaml-no-michi. the " Way of the 
 Genii, or Spirits," is the Japanese equivalent of the 
 Chinese Shinto. The expression is often rendered " Way 
 of the Gods." .\ccord1ng to D. Goh, however, there are 
 no gods (in the ordinary .sense) in Shinto; and Kami 
 is a word used by Jaijanese .subjects in speaking of their 
 sovereign and bv servants in addressing their master. 
 See SHINTOISM. 
 
 KAMMaLANS. a Tamil caste. A more original form 
 of the name Is Kannalan. which means one who rules the 
 eye or one who gives the eye. The Kammalans make 
 images of gods for the temple. When the eyes are 
 addetl. a special ceremony takes place, the ceremony of 
 painting the eyes of images. Before this ceremony the 
 block or lump is treated by the craftsman with no special 
 honour. The Kammalans claim descent from Vlsva- 
 karma. the architect of the gods. There Is an artisan 
 caste of Kammalans in Malabar, but they are regarded 
 as a lower caste, and are not allowed to enter temples 
 or Brahman houses. See E. Thurston. 
 
 KaNAPHaTS. Literally " Ear-splitters." An order 
 of Hindu a.scetics. worshippers of Siva (g.v.). They are 
 so called because they put heavy rings in their ears. 
 See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 KANDRAPAT. A Hindu deity, a goddess, perhaps a 
 deified tiger, worshipped by the Dehri Sudhs, a sub- 
 caste of the Sudhs, a cultivating caste in the Uriya 
 country in India. She is supposed to dwell always on 
 the summits of hills.
 
 Kanel 
 
 209 
 
 Keithians 
 
 KANEL. Kanel or Xkauel was a tribal god of fertility 
 iu the religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 KANHAITA. One of the names of the Hindu god 
 Krishna. 
 
 KAXIKA DEVI. A Hindu goddess. The original 
 was a maiden who is held to have been an incarnation 
 of Panati. She is worsliipped by the Komtis (or 
 Komatis), a Madras caste of traders. 
 
 KANITAXS. A caste of astrologers in Southern India. 
 In Malabar the name is si^lt and pronounced Kanisan. 
 Aocortling to Thurston and Rangachari. it is a Malayalam 
 corruption of the Sanskrit word for astrologer. O'aiiika. 
 Centuries ago the Kaniyans already enjoyed a great repu- 
 tation as diviners. They practise sorcery and exorcism 
 as well as astrologj-. They worship the sun. the moon. 
 Ganesa and Subnimanya. Vishnu. Siva, and Baghavati. 
 Ix)gan (quoted by Thurston and Rangachari) exislaius 
 that two things are essential to the astrologer, a bag of 
 cowry shells and an almanac. '• WTien anyone comes to 
 consult him, he quietly sits down, facing the sun. on a 
 plank seat or mat, murmuring some mantrams or sacred 
 verses, opens his bag of cowries, and pours them on the 
 floor. With his right hand he moves them slowly round 
 and round, .solemnly reciting meanwhile a .stanza or two 
 in prai.se of his guru or teacher, and of his deity, invok- 
 ing their help. He then stops, and explains "what he 
 has been doing, at the same time taking a handful of 
 cowries from the heap, and placing them on one side. 
 In front is a diagram drawn with chalk on the floor, 
 and consisting of twelve compartments (rasis), one for 
 each month in the year. Before commencing operations 
 with the diagrams, he selects three or five of the cowries 
 highest up in the heap, and places them in a line on the 
 right-hand side. These represent (ianapati (the belly 
 god, the remover of difficulties), the s-un, the planet 
 Jupiter, Sarasvati (the goddess of siK?ech), and his own 
 guru or preceptor. To all of these the astrologer gives 
 due obeisance, touching his ears and the ground three 
 times with both hands. The cowries are next arranged 
 in the compartments of the diagram, and are moved about 
 from compartment to compartment by the astrologer, 
 who quotes meanwhile the authority on which he makes 
 the moves. Finally he explains the result, and ends 
 with again wor.shipping the deified c-owries, who were 
 witue.ssing the operation as spectators." See E. 
 Thurston. 
 
 KARGYUPA SECT. A sect in Lamaism, founded by 
 a lama named Mari>a. The adherents pay special 
 reverence to a disciple of Marpa, Milaraspa. Great 
 importance is attached to the exorcism of demons, in 
 which art Milaraspa won great renown. A peculiarity 
 of the Kargyupa sect at fir.st was that the members 
 meditated in caves or deserts. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 KARMA. A term used in Theosophy (q.v.). The 
 word means " action," and is applied to the immutable 
 law of cause and effect. In virtue of this law, persons 
 are re- incarnated. " Every debt incurred must be duly 
 Iiaid in this or in .some other life, and as the wheel of 
 life turns round it brings with it the fruit of every see<l 
 that we have .sown " (Annie Besant, " Theosophv," in 
 /f..s'.W.). 
 
 KARR.IMIYYA. An Arabian sect, regarded by the 
 Sunnis as heretics. They derived their name from 
 Muhammad ibuKarrSm, and were also called the Mujas- 
 sima or Conwrealists. They " not only admitted a re- 
 semblance between God and created beings, but declared 
 God to be corporeal." They split up into twelve different 
 sects, each holding somewhat modified ideas about th(> 
 corporealitv of God." See F. A. Klein. 
 
 KaRTTIKEYA. Another name for Skanda ((/.v.). 
 one of the gods of the Hindus. 
 
 .i^"^^^- '^'^ Indian deity, the cobra, worshipped by 
 the Bharias. 
 
 KABUVANDARAYA BOMMADEVA. The caste god. 
 according to F. R. Hemingway, of the Uppiliyana. " He 
 has no temple, but all the Uppiliyans in a village join in 
 offering him an annual sacrifice in Tai (January- 
 February), before the earth is scraped for the first time 
 in the season for making saltpetre " (quoted bv E. 
 Thurston and K. Rangachari). The Uppilivans, Up- 
 paras, or Uppaligas of Southern India are employed in 
 the manufacture of salt. 
 
 KaSHINATH. The lord of Benares, one of the names 
 of the Hindu god Siva. 
 
 KATAPHANG. a ceremony observed every vear bv 
 the Nicobars, a people inhabiting the archipelago between 
 the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the 
 northern coast of Sumatra. (jn this occasion the 
 elpanam. c-ertain stnictures used as a guest-house for 
 strangers and as a town-hall for public gatherings, are 
 cleaned out with singing and dancing, and the rubbish 
 i.s cast into the sea. Then the doors of the houses in the 
 rlpanam are closetl, and the people go back to their 
 dwellings. For a month they must observe silence, and 
 are not allowed to show a fire or light, or to smoke a 
 cheroot. " The natives believe that during this time the 
 evil spirits from the jungle visit the cJpanam. When 
 the month is up, a great feast is given to the spirits and 
 they are sent back to the jungle " (Hutton Webster. 
 K.D.). 
 
 KATAPHRTGIAN CHURCH, THE. The Kata- 
 phrygian Church means the Chnrch according to the 
 Phrygians. The followers of Montanus were so called 
 because they were so numerous in Phrygia. See MON- 
 TANISM. 
 
 KATHAVATTHU. A Buddhist sacred book, a book 
 on heresies, in the third division of the Canon. See 
 CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 KAYASTHS. Tlie caste of writers and village 
 accountants in India. According to R. V. Russell and 
 R. B. Hira L.^1, the most probable hypothesis as to their 
 origin is that they were an off-shoot, of Brahmans of 
 irregular descent. " The rea.son for this is that the 
 Kayasths mu.st have learnt reading and writing from 
 some outside source, and the Brahmans were the only 
 class who could teach it them." 
 
 KEB. An Egyptian deity. Keb was god of the earth, 
 the husband of Nut (q.r.), the female personification of 
 the sky. Keb and Nut were the offspring of Shu (q.v.) 
 and Tefnet (q.^i.), and in their turn gave birth to Osiris 
 (q.v.) and Set (q.v.), Isis (q.r.) and Nephthys (q.v.). By 
 the Greeks Keb is identified with Kronos. The animal 
 sacred to him was the goose. See Alfred Wiedemann: 
 Adolf Erman. Handhoolc: Edouartl Naville, The Old 
 Egvptian Fnjth. 1909. 
 
 KEDARNATH. The lord of cedars, one of the names 
 of the Hindu god Siva. 
 
 KEENS. An Irish term denoting lamentations for the 
 dead in loud and mournful notes and verses. In a keen 
 " the pedigree, land, property, generosity, and good 
 actions of the deceased iier.son and his ancestors are dili- 
 gentl.v and harmoniouslj- recounted in order to excite 
 pit.y and compassion in the hearers, and to make them 
 sensible of their great loss in the death of the person 
 they lament " (O'Brien, Dictionary). The keener, or 
 person who makes lamentation, usually is an old woman. 
 Three hours must elapse after death liefore wails of grief 
 are raised. Otherwi.se, the noise might hinder the soul 
 from leaving the bodv. See W. G. Wood-Martin. 
 
 KEITHIANS. Tlie followers of George Keith (10.39?- 
 171fi), who was for a time a missionary of the Society 
 for the Propagation of the (3ospel. He gave literary
 
 Kelim 
 
 210 
 
 Khawarij 
 
 assistance to Robert Barclay (1648-1090), the Quaker 
 apologist, and went to Holland and Germany as a mis- 
 sionary with George Fox (1024-1691) and William Peun 
 (1644-1718). In 1089 he emigrated to America. On his 
 return to England, he collected a congregation in 
 Turners' Hall, Philpot Lane. Here he preached and 
 officiated for some years (1695-1700). In 1700 he became 
 a clergyman of the Church of England, and afterwards 
 was made Rector of Edburton in Sussex. He and his 
 followers called themselves Christian Quakers. George 
 Keith's works include "The Deism of William Penn 
 and his Brethren " (KiOO), '• The Standard of the Quakers 
 Examined " (1702), and " A Journal of Travels " (1706). 
 See J. H. Blunt; and the D.N.B. 
 
 KELIM. The name of one of the .Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D. and are 
 included in the Mishnah ((/.v.), a collection and compila- 
 tion completed by Rabbi .Tudah the Holy, or the Patri- 
 arch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of the 
 Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders (sedarim). 
 Kelim is the first tractate of the sixth group, which is 
 called Tohoroth (" Purifications '"). 
 
 KENOMA. A term used in Gnosticism (g.v.). The 
 Kenoma is the inferior world which is opposed to the 
 Pleroma (<i.v.). See VALENTINIANS. 
 
 KENOSIS. A term used in Christian theology. The 
 word is Greek, and means " emptying." The verb 
 occurs in the Epistle to the Philippians (ii. 7). The 
 whole passage (vss. .5-11) is as follows : " Let this mind 
 be in you, which was also in Christ Jesus, who, being in 
 the form of God, thought it not a thing to be snatched 
 to be equal with God, but emptied himself (heauton 
 pkenOsen). and took upon him the form of a ser\'ant, and 
 was made in the likeness of men. And being found in 
 fashion as a man, he humbled himself, and became 
 obedient unto death, even the death of the cross. 
 Wherefore God also hath highly exalted him, and given 
 him a name which is above every name, that at the 
 name of Jesus every knee should bow. of things in 
 heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth, 
 and that every tongue should confe-ss that Jesus Christ 
 is Lord, to the glory of God the father." Hilary of 
 Pictavium (A.D. 3.50) explained this passage to mean 
 that although the Divine Logos had entered into Chri.st 
 he did not at once make full use of it. but willed to 
 remain in a state of humiliation (just as he could will 
 not to sin) until his exaltation. A later explanation was 
 that Chri.srt. although he knew that his nature was divine, 
 would not make use of the divine majesty (as a thing 
 to be snatched at). A modem idea of the Kenosis is 
 that Christ identified himself with humanity (apart from 
 the fact that he willed not to sin) so entirely that he 
 .shared its infirmities even as regards human knowledge. 
 His knowledge does appear to have been limited. To 
 take only one subject, it must be frankly admitted, as 
 Prof. W. Sanday .says (/.), " that even when deductions 
 have been made, as .some deductions must be made, on 
 critical grounds, there i?till remains evidence enough that 
 our Lord while upon earth did use the common language 
 of His contemporaries in regard to the Old Testament; 
 that He did speak — if not of Daniel as the author of the 
 book which bears his name, yet of Moses as the author 
 of the Pentateuch, and of David as the author of one of 
 the later Psalms: and that He did apply to His own 
 day some part at lea.st of the story of Jonah and the 
 story of Noah as literal narrative." Conseqently, 
 " many of the mo.<»t reverent and most careful of our 
 theologians" have been forced to conclude " that limita- 
 tions of knowledge might be and were assumed along 
 with other limitations by Him Who was in all things 
 
 made like unto His bretiren, though without sin." See 
 J B. Heard, New Wine in Old Boltirs, 1862: C. Gore, 
 Bampton Lectures, 1891; W. S. Swayne, Our Lord's 
 Enoiciedge as Man, 1891; Bodington, Jesus the Christ, 
 1892. 
 
 KERIDWEN. A goddess of the under-water Elysium 
 in the mythology of the British Olts. A draught from 
 her mystic cauldron calle<l Amen had rx)wer to inspire 
 those who drank it. Originally she would seem bo have 
 been a goddess of fertility. 
 
 KERITHOTH. The title of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are included in the Mishnah {(/.v.). a collection and 
 cx)mpilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Kerithoth is the seventh tractate of the fifth 
 group, which is called Koddshlm (•' Holy Things "). 
 
 KESHO. Having long, fine hair, one of the names 
 of the Hindu god Krishna. 
 
 KETHUBIM. The Hebrew name of the third of the 
 groups into which the books of the Old Testamejit are 
 divided. The word means " Writings." See further 
 HAGIOGRAPHA. 
 
 KETHtJBOTH. The name of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century 
 A.D. and are included in the Mishnah ((/.r.), a collect- 
 ion and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy. 
 or the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. Tlie sixty-three tract- 
 ates of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or 
 orders (sedarim). Kethuboth is the second tractate of 
 the third group, which is called Ndshim (" Women "). 
 
 KHAMBESHWARI. A Hindu deity, the tutelary 
 goddess of the Sudhs, a cultivating caste in the Uriya 
 country in India. She is represented by a wooden peg. 
 KHALIFS. The Arabic word khalif means "a suc- 
 cessor " or " sub.s-titute." The term is iised of the suc- 
 cessors of Muhammad. The first four Khalifs were Abu 
 Bakr, 'Umar, 'DthmSn and 'AH. These, according to 
 the Sunnis, were the " rightly directed Khalifs." They 
 were also Companions of Muhammad (see (.'OMPANIONS 
 OF MUHAMMAD). See F. A. Klein. 
 
 KHANDHAKAS. Two Buddhist sacred books in the 
 tirst division of the Canon. See CANON. BUDDHIST. 
 KHANDOBA. An Indian deity, the principal god of 
 the Marathas, the military caste of southern India. 
 Khandoba (= khand-aha, sword-father) is a warrior 
 incarnation of Mahixdeo, and is regarded as the tutelary 
 deity of the Maratha country. The Kaikaris or Kaikadis 
 (also called Bargandis), for instance, a wandering tribe 
 of basket-makers, worship him as a god of war. The 
 Dhangars, the Maratha caste of shepherds and blanket 
 weavers, on the other hand, who worship him on Sundays 
 and identify him with the sun, revere him as a family 
 god. Khande Rao or Khandoba is also the favourite 
 god of the Hindu and Muhammadan Bhils. 
 
 KHARAK DEO. One of the special deities of the 
 Ahirs, a caste of cowherds, milkmen, and cattle-breeders 
 in India. He seems to be the spirit or god of the place 
 of assembly of the cattle (the khirkha). 
 
 KHARIM.\TI. Attendants upon the Babylonian 
 goddess Ishtar (g.v.). See GILGAMESH EPIC, and 
 UKHAT. 
 
 KHAWARIJ. A Muslim sect which differs from 
 the Sunnis on the question of the Imflmate (see 
 IMAM). They revolted from 'Ali, who according to the 
 Sunnis was one of the four "rightly directed Khalifs." 
 because he submitted the decision of his right to the
 
 Khepre 
 
 211 
 
 Kilhamites 
 
 Khalifete to arbitration when it was challenged. ■• They 
 blamed "Ali for referring a matter concerning the religion 
 of God to the judgment of man." The Khawarij also 
 declined to recognise Tthman. See F. A. Klein. 
 
 KHEPRE. An Egyptian deity. The word means 
 "he who is becoming," and Khepre is referred to as the 
 snn god. He is represented in the form of a beetle. 
 The snn god was created " while as yet there was no 
 heaven, when neither serpent nor reptile was formed. 
 He came into being in the form of Khepre. and there was 
 nothing that was with him in that place where he was." 
 The sun god is referred to also as Re (Ru), Horns, 
 Harakhti. Atum, etc. See A. Wiedemann: Adolf Erman. 
 Handbook. 
 
 KHERMATA. A Hindu deity, worshipped as the 
 mother of the village by the Kurmis, the representative 
 cultivating caste of Hindu.stan. 
 
 KHLISTI. The Khlisti or " Self-slashers " are a sub- 
 sect of the Russian dissenters known as Bezpopovtzi 
 (g.t-.). The body seems to have been formed about lf>4."> 
 by Daniel Philipitch, a deserter from the army, who 
 claimed to be divine. The Khlisti received the name 
 " self-slashers " or '• flagellants " because one of their 
 practices is to lash themselves. The.v are ascetics and 
 regard married life as sinful. One of their beliefs is 
 that Christ and the Virgin from time to time appear 
 among them. " Their meetings are marked by solemn 
 dances, becoming wild like the dervishes' ritual waltzes, 
 ending in convulsions, catalepsy, or prophesying with 
 tongues" (F. W. Bus.'jell). The.se dances are held in 
 secret. See Schafi'-Herzog : .J. H. Blunt. 
 
 KHXUM. An Egyptian deity. The god Khnum was 
 regarded as sculptor or modeller and creator. He is 
 represented as a ram or with a ram's head. At Elephant- 
 ine Khnum was worshipped as the cataract god. He is 
 described as " he who created all that is, who formed 
 that which is existent, the father of fathers, the mother 
 of mothers." See A. Wiedemann; Adolf Erman, Ha>id- 
 hook. 
 
 KHONDS. The Khonds or Kandhs are a Dravidian 
 tribe found in the Uri.va-speaking tract of the Sam- 
 balpur District and the adjoining Feudatory States of 
 Patna and Kalahandi in India. The Khonds used to 
 offer human sacrifices to the Earth-Goddess, Tari Pennu 
 or Bera Pennu, whiei were believed to insure good 
 crops. " The mode of performing these tribal sacrifices 
 was as follows. Ten or twelve days before the sacrifice, 
 the victim was devoted by cutting off his hair, which, 
 until then, had been kept unshorn. Crowds of men and 
 women assembled to witness the sacrifice: none might be 
 excluded, since the sacrifice was declared to be for all 
 mankind. It was preceded by several days of wild 
 revelry and gross debauchery. On the day before the 
 sacrifice the victim, dressed in a new garment, was led 
 forth from the village in solemn procession, with music 
 and dancing, to the Meriah grove, a clump of high forest 
 trees standing a little way from the village and untouched 
 by the axe. Here they tied him to a post, which was 
 sometimes placed between two plants of the sankissdr 
 shrub. He was then anointed with oil, ghee and 
 turmeric, and adorned with flowers; and 'a species of 
 reverence, which it is not easy to distinguish from adora- 
 tion,' was paid to him throughout the day. A great 
 struggle now arose to obtain the smallest relic from his 
 person; a particle of the turmeric paste with which he 
 was smeared, or a drop of his spittle, was esteemed of 
 sovereign virtue, especially by the women. The crowd 
 ■danced round the post to music, and addressing the Earth 
 said, ' O God, we offer this sacrifice to you; give us good 
 crops, seasons, and health.' On the la.st morning the 
 orgies, which had been scarcely interrupted during the 
 
 night, were continued tiU noon, when thev ceased, and 
 tne assembly proceeded to consummate the sacrifice The 
 J^ „^^Ti^^ '^"^'^ anointed with oil, and each person 
 touched the anointed part, and wiped the oil on his own 
 , ^,, ^°^^ places they took the victim in procession 
 round the village, from door to door, where some plucked 
 hair from his head, and others beggetl for a drop of his 
 sipittle, with which they anointed their heads. As the 
 victim might not be bound nor make any .show of re- 
 sistance, the bones of his arms and, if necessary, his legs 
 were broken; but often this precaution was rendered 
 unnecessary by stupefying him with opium. The mode 
 of putting him to death varied in different places. One 
 of the commonest modes .seems to have been strangula- 
 tion, or squeezing to death " (J. G. Frazer OB) See 
 E. Thurston; and R. V. RusseU. 
 
 KHONSU. An Egyptian deity, another name for 
 Thoth (?.(;.), the moon god. Khonsu was worshipped at 
 Ihebes " in purely human form as a child " (Erman) 
 
 KHUDDKANIKATA. A Buddhist sacred work a 
 collection of songs, tales, legends, etc., added as 'an 
 appendix to the second division of the Canon See 
 CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 KHUMBABA. A figure in the Babylonian Epic of Gil- 
 gamesh (see GILGAMESH, EPIC OF). Khumbaba is 
 a terrible foe fought against and overcome by Gilgamesh 
 and his companion Eabani (q.v.). 
 
 KHt'RIA RANI. A Hindu deity, the principal deity 
 in Sargiija of the Kor^\-as, a Kolarian tribe of the Chota 
 Nagpur plateau in India. Khuria Rani is the tutelarv 
 goddess of the Khuria plateau. Animal sacrifices are 
 offered to her. 
 
 KIANG-SHI. A Chinese term. A kiang-shi is a hor- 
 rible spectre which comes forth from a coffin and catches 
 and kills those who pass by. It chooses the night for 
 it^ raids, because daylight paralyzes its powers. It has 
 a l)ody. and is therefore stronger and more malicious 
 than other disembodied ghosts. To kill its prey, it com- 
 monly sucks its blood. " Its body is covered all over 
 with long, white hair, and its nails are exceedingly long, 
 which reminds us of a belief, al.so prevalent among Euro- 
 peans, that the hair and nails continue to grow after 
 death. The best way to render a kiang-shi harmless is 
 to destroy everything, coffin and all, by fire, or to take the 
 corpse out of the coffin, and fry it in a big iron pan. It 
 may also be reduced to the dead state by belabouring it 
 with a broom " (J. J. M. de Groot). The Chinese believe 
 that if a corpse remains too long unburiod, it may change 
 into a kianfr-f:lii. and kill the inmates of the house. See 
 J. J. M. de Groot, Rel. of the Chinese. 1910. 
 
 KIDDrSHIN. The title of one of the .lewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. and 
 are included in the Mishnah (q.r.). a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the Patri- 
 arch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of the 
 Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders (sedarini). 
 Kiddiishin is the seventh tractate of the third group, 
 which is called Nashim (" Women "). 
 
 KIL'AYIM. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. and 
 are included in the Mishnah ((j.v.). a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the Patri- 
 arch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of the 
 Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders (sedarim). 
 Kil'ayim is the fourth tractate of the first group, which 
 is called Zerd'im (" Seeds "). 
 
 KILHAMITES. The followers of Alexander Kilham 
 (1762-1798), the founder of the Methodist New Connexion 
 
 (Q.V.).
 
 Kina=Verse 
 
 212 
 
 Kishar 
 
 KINA-VBRSE. A form of Hebrew metre used in 
 lamentations. See LAMENTATIONS, BOOK OF. 
 
 KING'S BOOK. A book of Christian doctrine 
 published in 1543. It was a revised and reactionary 
 version of the boolJ published in 1537, and known as the 
 '• Bishop' Booli " (g.v.). The real title of the King's 
 Book " was the " Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for 
 any Christian Man." See M. W. Patterson, Hist. 
 
 KINGS, BOOKS OF. The books called First and 
 Second Kings in the Hebrew Bible are described in the 
 Septuagiut as the Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms 
 (the First and Second being the books called in Hebrew 
 First and Second Samuel). The contents of the books 
 naturally divide themiselves Into three sections. These 
 deal (1) with the reign of Solomon (I. Kings i.-xi.): (2) 
 with the history of the divided kingdom to the Fall of 
 Samaria (I. Kings xi'i.-II. Kings xvii.): (3) with the his- 
 tory of Judah from the Fall of Samaria (II. Kings xvni.- 
 XXV ) The history of Solomon is treated very fully. 
 The second section (2) is chiefly concerned with the 
 history of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. The third 
 section (3) deals for the most part with the religious 
 reformation of Josiah and with events iu which the 
 prophet Isaiah was concerned. For information on all 
 these and other matters the author indicates that he used 
 a number of Sources. These included the " Book of the 
 Acts of Solomon " (I. Kings xi. 41), apparently "a series 
 of narratives descriptive of the glory of Solomon 
 (Whitehouse) ; the " Book of the Chronicles of the Kings 
 of Israel " : and the " Book of the Chronicles of the Kings 
 of Judah." The two latter works seem to have been 
 of the nature of official annals kept by a minister called 
 the Recorder (Maxklr). It is clear that " they were 
 mainly if not exclusively of a political character, con- 
 taining much valuable information regarding the doings 
 of the .several kings " (Skinner). These three Sourc-es 
 are referred to for information which the compiler has 
 not included in his history, but there can be little doubt 
 that they were used to some extent for information which 
 he has included. A number of primary Sources, how- 
 ever can be detected. These include a Court-memoir of 
 the reign of David (I. Kings i.. ii.). Temple-archives (I. 
 Kings vi., vii.). Elijah-stories, Elisha-stories, and Isaiah- 
 stories. In the three latter different cycles of stories 
 have been distinguished. There are Early Ephraimite 
 Elijah Stories, Gilgal Elisha and Elijah Stories, and 
 Samaria Elisha Stories. There are two or three cycles of 
 Isaiah Stories. The Septuagint has preserved in I. 
 Kings viii. (after vs. 5S) an utterance by Scdomon (II. 
 Kings viii. 11, 12 in a corrupt Hebrew text) which would 
 .seem to have been derived from a " Book of Songs " or 
 from the " Book of Jashar " (q.v.). The utterance, as 
 restored with the help of the Septuagint, may be rendered 
 thus: 
 
 The sun in the heavens <hd Yahwch pivc. 
 But in darkness deep did he will to hide. 
 " Now build me a dwelling in wliieh to live," 
 He said, " for ever to be and abide." 
 
 The contents and structure of the Books of Kings were 
 greatly influenced by the Book of Deuteronomy (q.v.; 
 cp. CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT). Events in 
 the reigns of the successive monarchs of Israel and 
 Judah, and the characters of the monarchs, as White- 
 house says, " are estimated from the religious and legal 
 standpoint of the Book of Deuteronomy, which enforced 
 the legitimacy of the single sanctuary at Jerusalem only, 
 and forbad 1;he worship of the high places with their 
 stone pillars and Ashertm (mistranslated ' groves ')." 
 And the books as we have tJiem show signs of having 
 been edited by more than one Deuteronomic redactor. 
 
 The first was the redactor who edited all the hLstorical 
 books from (Jenesis (ii. 4b) to II. Kings (xxiv. 7). Thig 
 redaction belongs pertiaps to about 600 B.C. The .second 
 redactor was a later one who, amongst other things, con- 
 tinued the history from II. Kings xxiv. 7. This redaction 
 may belong to about 500-5-5.5 B.C. The hand of a third 
 redactor of a different character has been detectt^l. This 
 was a writer belonging to the later Priestly School (P; 
 r.g., I. Kings viii. 1-11). See I. Benzinger, Die Burcher 
 dcr Koenige, 1899; C. F. Bumey, The. Books of Kings, 
 1903; J. Skinner, Kings in the " Century Bible "; C. F. 
 Kent, Israel's Historical and Biographical NaiTatives, 
 1905; G. H. Box, Intr.; O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 KING'S EVIL. King's Evil was the name formerly 
 given to the disease now known as scrofula. It was 
 believed in England and France for many centuries that 
 this evil could be cured by the touch of the king. The 
 act of touching was regarded as a religious act, for in 
 England until 1719 the Prayer Book contained a si>eeial 
 service to accompany it. King Charles II. is said to 
 have ■' touched " thousands of persons. Samuel John.son 
 (1709-17S4) is said to have been the last child to receive 
 a king's touch. 
 
 KINGU. A demon in Babylonian mythology. In the 
 Epic of Marduk (see MARDUK, EPIC OF) Kingu 
 appears as the chief of the monsters who accomi>any 
 Tiamat (q.v.). Tiamat makes him ruler of the gods, 
 and gives him the tablets of fate. In the great battle 
 between Tiamat and Marduk, the latter captures Kingu 
 and snatcihes from him the tablets of fate. 
 
 KINICH AHAU. A tribal deity, a sun-god, in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 K INNIM. The Jewish Mishnah, a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. (see MISHNAH), comprises a 
 number of treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral 
 tradition or unwritten law as developed b.y the second 
 centurj- A.D. There are sixty-three tractates, divided 
 into six groups or orders (sedarim). Kinnim is the 
 eleventh tractate of the fifth group, which is called 
 Kodfishim (" Holy Things "). 
 
 " KIRCHENTAG. Kirchentag or Church Diet was the 
 name given in Germany to a periodical convention of 
 laymen and mini.sters of the Lutheran, the Reformed, 
 the United P^vangelical, and the Moravian Churches. 
 The object of the conventions, of which the first took 
 place in 184S, was to promote the interests of religion 
 on the basis of evangelical principles held in common. 
 The first convention was attended by more than five 
 hundred delegates. It was agreed " (1) that the evan- 
 gelical church communities of Germany should form a 
 unity ; (2) that the unity should not have the form of a 
 union, abolishing the differences of confession, but only 
 1he form of a confederacy; (3) that the confederacy, 
 based on the common evangelical principle of the con- 
 fessions, should leave to each Church to arrange its rela- 
 tions to the State, its constitution, its ritual, and 
 doctrinal system, as it pleased; wliile (4) the confederacy 
 as such should represent the unity, bear witness against 
 the non-evangelical churches, administer advice and sup- 
 port, defend the rights and liberties which belong to every 
 evangelical church, etc." (Schaff-Herzog). The con- 
 federacy was not e.stablished, and the Kirchentag has not 
 been convened since the year 1871. It is agreed, how- 
 ever, that its discussions have had a considerable 
 influence upon the religious life of (3ermany. See 
 Schaff-Herzog; William Benham. 
 
 KISHAR. A Babylonian deity. In the Epic of Mar- 
 duk (see MARDUK, EPIC OF) Anshar and Kishar are 
 represented as the second iMir of deities created. The 
 first pair were Lakhmu (g.v.) and Lakhamu. Apsu (q.v.)
 
 Kishi Bojin 
 
 213 
 
 Koravas 
 
 and Tiamat were already in existence. The pairs repre- 
 sent the male and female principles. In this case Aushar 
 i.s the male and Kishar the female. The first pair of 
 deities, Lakhmu and Lakhamu are of the nature of 
 monsters. The second pair, Anshar and Kishar, are of 
 a character intermediate between that of monsters and 
 that of gods proi>er. Anshar played a great role as 
 Ashnr (q.v.) afterwards. Kishar disappears. 
 
 KISHI BOJIX. A Japanese goddess. She is repre- 
 sented carrying a child and a pomegranate. 
 
 KITUNG. One of the deities worshipped by the 
 Savaras (also known as Sawaras or Saoras), an im- 
 portant hill-tribe in Southern India. Associated with 
 the deity are sacred groves. 
 
 KIZRETI. Attendants upon the Babylonian goddess 
 Ishtar (g.r.). See GILGAMESH EPIC, and UKHAT. 
 
 KNIGHTS OF MALTA. In 1.530 the Knights of the 
 Hospital of St. .lohn of Jerusalem came into posse-s.sion 
 of the Island of Malta. They held it for more tlian 
 two centuries, and became known as the Knights of 
 Malta. See HOSPITALLERS. 
 
 KNIGHTS OF RHODES. The Knights of the Hospital 
 of St. John of Jerusalem came to be known as the 
 Knights of Rhodes, because for over two centuries they 
 were in possession of the Island of Rhodes. See 
 HOSPITALLERS. 
 
 KNIGHTS OF THE HOSPIT.UL, OF ST. JOHN OF 
 JERUSALEM. An order of Hospitallers {(/.v.). 
 
 KNIPPERDOLLINGS. B. Knipperdollinck was born 
 at Milnster and became leader of the Anabaptists there. 
 In 1.534 he was Biirgermeister. He supported " John of 
 Leiden " (Bockold), and was executed with him in 1530. 
 His followers were called Knipperdollings. 
 
 KNOT, SACRED. A Russian example of the sacred 
 knot is quoted by R. R. Marett in the formula : " I attach 
 five knots to each hostile infidel shooter. . . . Do ye, 
 O knots, bar the shooter from every road and way. 
 . . . In my knots lies hid the mighty strength of snakes 
 — from the twelve-headed snake." Knots are represented 
 as playing some part in Minoan religious worship. 
 
 KOBOLD. A spirit in Grennan folklore resembling a 
 brownie (q.v.). 
 
 KOHELETH. Literally the " Preacher," the Hebrew 
 name of the Book of Ecclesiastes (g.v.). 
 
 KOJI-KI. A god in Japanese Buddhism, regarde<l as 
 a patron of seafarers. 
 
 KORAN. The Koran is the sacred book of the Muham- 
 madans. The word, which means the " reading " or the 
 '■ leetionary." is more correctly written Kur'an or 
 Qur'an. The work contains the revelations which are 
 supposed to have come to Muhammad through the angel 
 Gabriel. These are given in one hundred and fourteen 
 Suras {q.v.) or chapters. " Tlie style in which the 
 Qur'an is written is a kind of rhyming prose, /.('., 
 language having a final rhyme, without being measured, 
 a style much in use in the time of Muhammad, 
 and liked by the Arabs, and in which their .soothsayers 
 and poets u-sed to speak " (Klein). The Qur'an is .sup- 
 posed to contain all knowledge. Muhammad says that 
 " he who reads a letter or syllable of the Qur'an receives 
 for it the recompense of a good action, and this action 
 is worth teJi other good actions." Again, " the Qur'an 
 contains a thousand times and twenty thousand letters: 
 he who reads it with the desire of receiving a reward 
 from God, and with patience, will receive (in Paradise) 
 a ' Houri ' as wife." Muhammad professes to have 
 received divine and miraculous revelations. Muslim 
 doctors say that these came to him by direct inspiration 
 of the Angel Gabriel, " the Angel of Inspiration," or in 
 visions in which the Angel Gabriel appeared to him, or 
 by communication from God Himself when the prophet 
 
 was awake or asleep. The revelations were not arranged 
 in one book in the Prophet's lifetime. An amanuensis 
 T''*v1 ™ ''*^^° ^^ ^^ uttered them "on any material 
 that happened to be at hand, such as palm-leaves, bones 
 stones, leather, etc." After his death they were repeated 
 ^^ .? time from memory by the " Readers " of the 
 Qur an. The necessity of fixing and writing down the 
 Koran was suggested by the multiplication of various 
 readings. The Khalif Abu Bakr (632-034 A.D.) ordered 
 /aid_ bin Thabit to collect the various portions of the 
 Qur an into one book. No copies of this first edition, 
 however, have been preserved. It did not in anv case 
 S-".: ,^* '^T?", ^** ^^^ multiplication of various readings. 
 Khahf -Uthman (644-655 A.D.) therefore had a new re- 
 cension made. Persons having a thorough knowledge of 
 the Qur'an were called by Muhammad Qur'an-readers 
 The Suras are divided into Suras revealed before the 
 night of Muhammad to Madina, " Mecca Suras " and 
 Suras revealed after the flight, " Madina Suras."' The 
 Suras are arranged as to length and not arwrding to 
 chronology. " The long Suras were idaced first and 
 ihe short ones last. Within the Suras, some portions 
 have been arranged in chronological order, others on the 
 ground of similarity of matter; but in a variety of 
 instances passages are joined together without any 
 regard to either chronology or similarity of subject. 
 Thus we find ver.ses revealed at Mecca in" the midst of 
 Jiadina Suras, and pa.*sages revealed at Madina mixed 
 up in the earlier Mecca Suras, and occasionally most 
 heterogeneous materials put together without anv "regard 
 to logical connexion at all " (Klein). Tlie Qur'an is not 
 free from contradictions, and God Himself is represented 
 as saying (ii. 100) : " Whatever verse we abrogate, or 
 cause thee to forget, we will bring a better one than it, 
 or one like it." It is not certain that Muhammad wuld 
 read or write. Devoted followers have maintained that 
 he could not, and that therefore his revelations must 
 certainly have been received from God. But in any ca.se 
 he had other means of obtaining religious information, 
 and, as Klein says, it is " evident that by far the greater 
 Ix)rtion " of the Qur'an " eonsi-sts of materials collected 
 from .Jews, Christians, Sabeans, and pagan Arabs." J. 
 M. Rodwell gives the following transliteration of the first 
 Sura as an example of the rhyming prose in which the 
 Qur'an is written : 
 
 Bismillabi ' rabmani ' irahheem. 
 
 El-hamdoo lUIahi rabi ' lalameen. 
 
 .\iTahhmani rabecm. 
 
 Maliki yo\vnii-tI-deen. 
 
 Eyaka naboodoo, waeyaka nestaeen. 
 
 Ihdina 'ssirat almostakeem. 
 
 Sirat alezeena anhamta aleihim, Bbeiri-'I 
 
 mughdoobi aleihim. wala dsaleen. Ameen. 
 
 There are many c-ommentaries on the Qur'Sn. One of 
 the best, known is that of Al Baidawi (685 A.H.). The 
 Qur'an has been translated into English by (Jeorge Sale, 
 J. M. Rodwell, and E. H. Palmer. See J. M. Rodwell, 
 7'he Koran, 1861; G. L. Hurst, Sacred Literature, 1905; 
 F. A. Klein, The RcU'jion of Islam, 1906: T. Noeldeke, 
 Ge-icJiichte des Qoranx, part I., second edition, 1909. 
 
 KORATEU. Korateu or Kurzkarv, son of Teikirzi, is 
 one of the gods of the Todas. He seems to have been 
 a river god. 
 
 KORAVAS. A nomad tribe in India. In different 
 localities they are known by different names. According 
 to Thur.ston and Rangachari, the members of the tribe 
 are known as Korava from the extreme south to the 
 north of the North Arcot district; north of this district 
 they are called Koracha or Korcha, and in the Ceded 
 Districts tbey become Yerukala or Yerakala. They live
 
 Kotas 
 
 214 
 
 Kwei 
 
 by basket-making and fortune-telling. According to the 
 Censiis Report of 1901, the Koravas worship Subrah- 
 nianya, the sou of Siva; the Yerukalas Vishnu in the 
 form of Venkateswara and his wife Lakshmi. Other 
 gods include Kolapuriamma, the goddess of Kolhapur, 
 the chief town of the native state of that name in the 
 Bombay Presidency; and Perumalswami, the god of 
 Tirupati, the great place of pilgrimage in the North 
 Arcot district. In the southern districts the domestic 
 god of the Koravas is said to be Sathavu. Ttoe Koravas 
 are notorious thieves, and are said to worship as the pre- 
 siding deity of the criminal profession Moothevi, the 
 goddess of sleep, who is supiwsed to keep them awake 
 and alert while she sends their victims to sleep. The 
 Korava women, when telling fortunes, use a winnowing 
 fan and grains of rice. Good or evil is prophesied 
 according to the number of grains found on the fan. 
 •' They carry a basket, winnow, stick, and a wicker tray 
 in which cowrv shells are imbedded in a mixture of cow- 
 dung and turmeric. The basket represents Kolfi- 
 puriamma, and the cowries Poleramma. Whpn telling 
 fortunes, the Korava woman places on the basket the 
 winnow, rice, betel leaves and areca nuts, and the wicker 
 tray. Holding her client's hand over the winnow, and 
 moving it about, she commences to chant, and name all 
 sorts of deities. From time to time .she touches the 
 hand of the person whose fortune is being told with the 
 stick. The Korava women are very clever in extracting 
 information concerning the affairs of a client before they 
 proceed to tell her fortune " (Thurston and Rangachari). 
 The practice of the couvade, or the custom according to 
 which the father takes to his bed when a baby is born. 
 is found amongst the Koravas. A Tamil proverb says 
 that if a Korati [Koraval is brought to bed, her husband 
 takes the prescribed stimulant. See E. Thurston. 
 
 KOTAS. The Kotas are found on the Nilgiri hills 
 and plateau in India. Acc-ording to Shortt (Trihcx of 
 the Neilgherricf:, ISfiS), " some rude image of wood or 
 stone, a rock or tree in a secluded locality, frequently 
 forms the Kota's ob.iect of worship, to which sacriticial 
 olTerings are made; but the recognised place of worship 
 in each village consists of a large square of ground, 
 walled round with loose stones, three feet high, and con- 
 taining in its centre two pent-shaped sheds of thatch, 
 open before and behind, and on the riosts (of stone) that 
 support them some rude circles and other figures are 
 drawn. No image of any sort is visible here " (quoted 
 by E. Thurston and K. Rangachari). According to 
 Thurston and Rangachari, the sheds are dedicated to 
 Si\'a and his consort Parvati under the names of KSma- 
 tariiya and Kfilikai. Other deities are Mangkali, Vetta- 
 karaswami, Adiral, Udiral, Mfigali, and IVIariamma. 
 Magali, to whom outbreaks of cholera are supposed to 
 be due, " is represented by an upright stone in a rude 
 temple at a little distance from Kotagiri, where an 
 annual ceremony takes place, at which some man becomes 
 possessed, and announces to the people that Magali has 
 c-ome." See E. Thurston. 
 
 KRALITZ BIBLE. The name given to the Bohemian 
 version of the Bible which was published in 1.593. It 
 was the work of the Bohemian Brethren (q.v.). 
 
 KRISHNA. Krislina, oneof the heroes of the Epic 
 poem Maha-bharata (set» BHaRATA), was regarded aa 
 one of the incarnations of the Hindu god Vishnu ^q.v^. 
 In the Bhiigavata-purana he is said to have been a son 
 of Vasudeva. His father entrusted him to the care of 
 the wife of a herdsman named Nanda. Krishna began, 
 even as a child, to perform miracles. On one occasion 
 he protected the wives of the herdsmen against the anger 
 of Indra {Q.v.) by raising on his finger the mountain- 
 range Govardhana. He had eight favourites among the 
 
 wives or daughters of the cowherds. In the Vi.ghnu 
 Purana, which represents the most extravagant form of 
 Krishnaite Vishnuism, Krishna is described as a black 
 child, the son of Nanda, and is called (Jovinda, the cow- 
 boy. " Here he puts a stop to Indra -worship, over- 
 powers Siva, rescues Aniruddha, marries sixteen 
 thousand princesses, burns Benares, and finally is killed 
 himself, he the one bom of a hair of Vishnu, he that is 
 Vishnu him.self, who in ' goodness ' creates, in ' darkness ' 
 destroys, under the forms of Brahma and Siva " (M.-W.). 
 Krishna was deified, and his worship became more 
 popular than that of any other of the later deities. See 
 Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins; J. A. Dubois and H. 
 K. Beauchamp. 
 
 KUAN-TI. The Chinese god of war. Originally a 
 man, who met his death in A.D. 220, he was afterwards 
 deified. S. Couling notes that he is to the military 
 what Confucius is to the literary classes, and that some- 
 how he has come to be regarded also as a god of litera- 
 ture. 
 
 KUDUMI. A name by which the medicine-man is 
 known among castes and tribes of Southern India. 
 " His oflice implies a more or less intimate acquaintance 
 with the curative herbs and roots in the forests, and 
 their proper application to the different ailments result- 
 ing from venomous bites or stings. . . . He prays 
 over sprains and cricks, and binds the affected parts 
 with the .sacred cord made of the hair taken from the 
 patient's head " {Madras Mail, 1907, quoted by B. 
 Thurston and K. Rangachari). He is supposed to possess 
 a magic influence over wild animals and snakes. 
 
 KUKULKAN. A tribal god worshipped by the Mayan 
 Indians of Yucatan. In one account he appears as the 
 god of fevers. He is equivalent to the Mexican god 
 Quetzalcoatl. The QulchS called him Gnkumatz, and the 
 Tzental described him as " the feathered snake that goes 
 in the waters." T. A. Jo.vce (M.A.) thinks that the 
 description typifies " the ripple, bom both of wind and 
 water, the aspect of which suggests feathers, and the 
 motion a serpent." He became a god of creation. 
 
 KUL-DEVI. An Indian deity, the goddess of the 
 family, worshipped by the Dhangars, the Maratha caste 
 of fihepherds and blanket-weavers. Also the household 
 deity of the Ga.iars, a large caste in India. The word 
 kul means family. 
 
 KULINKARS. Kulinkars or Teikhars is one of the 
 gods of the Todas. 
 
 KUTCHI. A term used among the Australian Dieri 
 to denote a mystic potency in things. Kntclii seems to 
 be a force, and not a personal being, and corresponds to 
 the Melanesian viana. 
 
 KWANNON. Kwannon or Kwanyin is a Chinese and 
 Japanese title given to a deity who corresponds to the 
 Sanskrit Avalokitesvara {q.v.). G. A. Cobbold thinks 
 she represents an apotheosis of Mercy, a kind of alle- 
 gorical Mater Misericordiae who ministers untiringly to 
 all sorrow and distress. " In Japan the brines and 
 statues of Kwannon are to be met with everywhere : 
 many of her images being of enormous size, richly gilt 
 and beautifully wrought. Sometimes the statues are 
 kept concealed from view, either on account of alleged 
 miraculous proi)erties. or for .«ome other reason of special 
 sanctity " (G. A. Cobbold, Reliii'on in .Japan, 1894). 
 
 KWEI. A Chinese term. The Icn-ci are evil spirits, 
 a subdivision of Yin (q.v.), the darkness-soul of the 
 universe. A man's fcicei, also called poh, is supposed 
 to represent his pa.ssions and vices. Everything that is 
 evil comes from the kwei, regarded as devils, spectres, 
 or demons. The kwei swarm everywhere. No one can 
 escape from them. They are in frequented places, as 
 well as in lonely spots. " Public roads are haunted by
 
 Kwoten 
 
 215 
 
 them everywhere, especially during the night, when the 
 power of the Tin part of the universe, to which spectres 
 belong, is strongest. Numerous, in fact, are the tales 
 of wretches who. having been accosted by such natural 
 foes of man. were found dead by the roadside, without 
 the slightest wound or injury being visible : their souls 
 had simply been snatched out of them. Many victims 
 of such encounters could find their way home, but merely 
 
 Lstare Sunday 
 
 to die miserably shortly after. Others, Mt by devilish 
 arrows, were visited with boils or tumors, which carried 
 them oft or they died without even anv such visible 
 marks of the shots" (J. j. m. de Groot). See J J 
 M. de G-root, Rel. of the Chinese, 1910. 
 
 ^wR^^^- °°^ *»* *^« ^o'^s of the Todas. 
 
 KWUiO. Kwoto or Meilitars appears as one of the 
 gods of the Todas. 
 
 L. God L is a designation used by anthropologists for 
 one of the deities depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan 
 Indians of Central America. He occurs only in the 
 Dresden MS. One half of his face is painted black, 
 which suggests to Schellhas the description " The Old 
 Black God." But it should be noted that God M is even 
 blacker. Possibly God L is to be identified with the God 
 Votan of Central America, who in turn corresponds to 
 the Aztec earth-god Tepeyollotl. 
 
 LABADISTS. The followers of the French pietist 
 and mystic Jean de Labadie (1610-1674). Lahadie was at 
 first a .Jesuit priest. Afterwards he went over to the 
 Reformed Church (1650); and finally he became a 
 separatist. In 1666 he settled with his followers in 
 Holland. The Dabadists, who did not survive long after 
 the death of their leader, practised great austerity, 
 desiring to follow the example of the apostolic com- 
 munity. Moreover, they sought diligently the " inward 
 light." B. Puenjer points out that P. J. Spener (1635- 
 1705). the father of German Pietism (^.r.). was strongly 
 influenced by the profound mysticism of Labadie. See 
 J. S. Blunt. 
 
 LABAETU. An evil goddess or demon in Babylonian 
 mythology. In a series of incantation texts she is repre- 
 sented as a horrible monster who threatens the life of 
 the mother at childbirth. On a bronze plaque, belonging 
 probably to the later Babylonian period, she is repre- 
 sented holding a serpent in each hand, and with swine 
 sucking at her breasts. " She kneels on an ass, and is 
 apparently being driven off in a boat by the demon to 
 her left, who brandishes a weapon or whip in his up- 
 lifted hand " (Morris Jastrow, Civ.). In one text she 
 is described as " Mistress of the dark-haired men." To 
 cure a sick man possessed by her or her power and to 
 draw the evil out, a clay image of her was placed over 
 his head. 
 
 LABARUM. The Labarum was the military standard 
 used by the Emperor Constantine in his campaigns. It 
 was an adaptation of the ordinary .sitandard of the 
 Roman cavalry, the " vexiUum." The ordinary standard 
 was " a square piece of cloth stretched on top by a cross- 
 bar, and suspended from a gilt spear surmounted by an 
 eagle of victory " (Schaff-Herzog ; see O. Seyffert's Diet., 
 s.v. " Signum "). In consequence of the vision of a cross 
 seen by Constantine before his victory over Maxentius 
 (312 A.D.», it was given a Christian character and 
 adopted as the standard of the whole army. On the 
 banner itself were placed (Christian emblems. Above it. 
 
 in place of the Eagle of Victory, was put the monogram 
 of Christ. This consisted of the first two Greek letters 
 in the name of Christ intersected to form a kind of cross 
 
 \>f)- The monogram was enclosed within a crown of 
 gold. In course of time the name Labarum eame to 
 be applied to the monogram alone. See Smith and 
 Cheetham; Schaff-Herzog; the I'rot. Diet.: the Cath. 
 Diet. 
 
 L ABBA IS. A caste of betel vine growers in Southern 
 India. They are described as " a Musalman caste of 
 partly Tamil origin " {Madras Census Report, 1901). H. 
 A. Stuart (Manual of the North Arcot District) says 
 that the Labbais of the North Arcot district are "very 
 particular Muhammadans, and many belong to the 
 Wahabi section. Adhering to the rule of the Koran, 
 most of them refuse to lend money at interest, but get 
 over the difficulty by taking a share in the profits derived 
 by others in their loans. . . . They seem to have a 
 prejudice against repairing houses, and prefer letting 
 them go to ruin, and building new ones." See E. 
 Thurston and K. Rangachari. 
 
 LACrriCINIA. Lacticinia, Uterally " foods made of 
 milk," is an ecclesiastical term denoting " all those kinds 
 of food which are derived from the mammalia in a more 
 or less indirect way " (Schaff-Herzog). Such foods are 
 milk, butter, cheese, and sometimes eggs. All lacticinia 
 were forbidden during fasting by the Council of Laodioea 
 (351 A.D.) and the Trullan Ouncil of 692 A.D. In the 
 Eastern Church for the most part the rule is still 
 observed. In the Roman Church the use of lacticinia 
 was forbidden on the fasting days of Lent. In other 
 cases, in consideration of climate, etc., papal dispensa- 
 tions have been, or may be, granted. " In England, as in 
 other countries, the extent to which lacticinia may be 
 used in Lent is determined by the indult published in each 
 year " (Cath. Diet.). See Schaff-Herzog; the Cath. Diet. 
 LADY DAY. In England the festival of the Annuncia- 
 tion (q.v.), which commemorates the bringing of the news 
 by the angel Gabriel of the coming birth of Jesus to 
 Mary, is commonly called Lady Day. The day of the 
 festival is the 25th of March. 
 
 L.^TARE SUNDAY. The fourth Sunday in Lent is 
 called in the Roman Catholic Church Laetare Sunday 
 from the fir.«!t word (Laetare, Rejoice) in the antiphon of 
 the introit of the mass. It is also known as Mid-Lent 
 Sunday or Refreshment Sunday (Dies refectionis) , or 
 " Dominica de rosa." The last name is due to the fact 
 
 IS
 
 Lakhmn 
 
 216 
 
 Lamps, Feast of 
 
 that on this day the Pope Messes the golden rose, an 
 ornament sent to Catholic sovereigns or other persons 
 of distinction, as well as to churches, sanctuaries, and 
 cities. See Schaff-Herzog; the Gath. Diet. 
 
 LAKHMU. A Babylonian deity. In the Ei>ic of 
 Marduk (see MARDUK, EPIC OF) Lakhmu and Lakh- 
 amu are represented as the first deities created. 
 Lakhamu is simply the feminine form of Lakhmu. Apsu 
 (q.v.) and Tiftmat (g.v.) were already in existence. 
 Apart from this Epic, Lakhmu and Lakhamu do not play 
 active parts among the gods. Lakhmu came to be popu- 
 larly regarded simply as a mythical monster. 
 
 LAKSHMI. A deity in Hinduism. I./akshmI, the wife 
 of VLshnu (g.v.). Is the goddess of beauty and fortune. 
 She is not mentioned as a goddess in the Rig Veda, but 
 became popular as an object of worship afterwards. A 
 feasit to Lakshmi is held on the 2nd of February. This 
 is a literary festival. Such things as pens, inkstands, 
 and books are cleaned and worshipped. The explanation 
 of this is that in Bengal the Vishnuites have made Saras- 
 vatl. the goddess of learning, the wife of Vishnu, and 
 have identified her with Lakshmi. Lakshmi is wor- 
 shipped by the Ramaites (g.v.) in conjunction with 
 Vishnu. See Monier- Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 LaLBEG. A saint worshipped by the Mehtars, the 
 caste of sweepers and scavengers in India. He Is sup- 
 posed to have been originally one Ghazi Miyan, a saint 
 worshipped in the Punjab. At the Da.sahra festival a 
 cock is offered to him. The Mehtars are known also as 
 Lalbegis. 
 
 LAMENTATIONS, BOOK OF. The book of Lamenta- 
 tions is one of the books of the Old Testament included 
 among the Five Rolls or Megilloth. In the Jewish Canon 
 the book bears the title "How!" because a lament 
 usually begins with this word. There are five lamenta- 
 tions in the book, and all of them are concerned with the 
 destruction of Jerusalem. All the chapters, except 
 chapter v., are alphabetical, that is to say, each verse (in 
 chap. iii. every third verse) begins with a letter of the 
 alphabet. In the Sei>tuagint Version the following words 
 are prefixed to the book : " And it came to pass, after 
 Israel was led into captivity, and Jerusalem laid waste, 
 that Jeremiah sat weepiing, and lamented with this 
 lamentation over Jerusalem, and said . . ." The first 
 four chapters are composed in what has become known 
 as the " Kina-verse." The elucidation of the Kina-verse 
 owes much to K. Budde. " He had observed that 
 wherever the Hebrew text yields a song of lamentation a 
 well-defined and chaTacteristically constructed form, 
 clearly distinguishable from its context, shows Itself, and 
 that this consists of two members of unequal length so 
 arranged that the second Is the shorter. The second 
 shorter member is everywhere sharply marked off, and 
 therefore as a rule follows on the first longer clause 
 o(rwSerM5 : normally a first clause was composed of three, 
 a second of two, words " (Comill). Both Jewish and 
 Christian tradition regards Jeremiah as the author of the 
 book, and there is no reason to doubt his authorship. 
 The lamentations are for the destruction of Jerusalem 
 in 586 B.C., and the descriptions in part seem to be those 
 of an eye-witness. The English and German Bibles 
 follow the Septuagint and Vulgate Versions in connecting 
 Lamentations closely with the Book of Jeremiah. But if 
 Jeremiah was the original author, it must at least be 
 admitted that the work was afterwards edited and added 
 to. There are passages which can hardly have been 
 written by Jeremiah (e.ff., v. 7; ii. 9; Iv. 17; with v. 7 
 compare Jeremiah xxi. 29-30). See C. Comill, Intr.; 
 G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 LAMI.S;. Female demons or spirits who were sup- 
 iposed to visit men and have serual intercourse with them. 
 
 The belief is found among the ancient A.ssyrians and the 
 modem Arabs, as well as among other peoples. 
 
 LAMMAS DAY. The word Lammas is either the 
 Anglo-Saxon Hlaf Maesse, Loaf-mass, or Is a corruption 
 of Lamb Mass. The day is the first of August, and if 
 Lammas is loaf-mass, it was so called because it was an 
 old Saxon custom to make offerings of new grain on that 
 day. In the Sarum Manual the day is, in fa'ct, called 
 " Benedictio Novorum Fructuum." If Lammas is Lamb 
 Mass, the name may be due to the fact that lambs also 
 were offered. Dr. C. J. Casher notes that the tenants 
 of the chapter of York Minster used formerly on the 
 1st of August to pay a tribute of a live lamb (Prot. Diet.). 
 It is curious that in Italy it has been a practice at Baster 
 to eat a baked image of a lamb. In the Roman Church 
 Lammas has been explained as equivalent to Lamb Mass, 
 and as due to the fact that St. Peter (to whom Jesus 
 addres.sed the words " Feed my lambs") was the patron 
 of lambs. It is remarkable that on the same day, the 
 1st of August, a festival known as the Feast of Peter's 
 Chains has been celebrated at Rome since the beginning 
 of the seventh century. The Roman Breviary relates 
 that the Empress Eudocia, wife of Theodosius the 
 Younger, on a visit to Jerusalem obtained the chains with 
 which Peter had been bound (Acts xli.) and brought them 
 to Constantinople. One of them she placed in the church 
 of St. Peter there, the other she sent to her daughter 
 Eudoxia, wife of Valentinian III., at Rome. According 
 to another tradition, St. Peter was bound with chains 
 at Rome during the Neronian peri-'ecution. In the Acts of 
 Pope Alexander a St. Balbina is said to have found the 
 chains of St. Peter, presumably these. Elsewhere it is 
 said that Pope Alexander instituted a feast on the 1st 
 of August and built the church ad Vinculo. In the Greek 
 Church the corresponding feast is kept on the 16th of 
 January, and in the Armenian Church on the 22nd of 
 January. 
 
 LAMPETER BRETHREN. A Society of Welsh 
 students formed at Lampeter College by Henry James 
 Prince, who was himself a student there (having entered 
 in 1R.36). The members met together for prayer. 
 " revival," and study of the Bible. 
 
 LAMPBTIANS. One of the names given to the 
 Euehites (g.v.). They were so called after one of their 
 leaders, Lampetiua, a priest who had been ordained In 
 458 A.D. by Alypius, Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia. 
 
 LAMPS, FEAST OF. 1. According to the Jewish 
 historian Josephus (Antiquities, xii. 7, 7), the Jewish 
 Feast of Dedication, which commemorates the re-dedica- 
 tion of the Temple by Judas Maecabaeus (164 B.C.) after 
 the conflict with Antiochus Epiphanes, was popularly 
 known as the Feast of Lights or Lamps. It was so called, 
 and in the Talmud the Feast of Illumination, because 
 illumination was a prominent feature in the festival. 
 
 2. The Hindus observe a Feast of Lamps In autumn in 
 honour of Lak.shml, wife of Vishnu (g.v.), or of Parvati 
 (Bhavani), wife of Siva (g.v.). This festival, of which 
 again beautiful illuminations are a feature, is called 
 DivaU or DIpali or Dip.ivali. Monier-Williams gives 
 a description of it, as held at Benares. " All the boats 
 of the river are lighted up, and the city, under the serene 
 sky of an Indian autumn, is a blaze of calm effulgence." 
 
 3. A Feast of Lamps is observed by all Buddhists. With 
 the early Buddhists it was simply a day of rejoicing on 
 the termination of the rainy season (Vasaa). Among the 
 Tibetan Buddists a Feast of Lamps held on the twenty- 
 fifth day of the tenth month (Nov.-Dec.) is the occasion 
 of celebrating the ascension to heaven of the reformer 
 Tsong Khapa (see YELLOW-CAP BUDDHISTS). All 
 buildings, including temples, tombs, and monasteries, are 
 magnificently illuminated. See Monier-Wllliams. Btiddh-
 
 Lance, The Holy 
 
 217 
 
 «j. ±1. Box; J. C. Oman, Cults 
 
 T^n^^^h T°^ .^°^^- Tradition relates that the 
 pureed Jesus' side during the Passion. This laneTwas 
 ^A^f^^'t/''^^ ^■'"^'^ *° *^« Church of the Holy Sep^c^re 
 infl^^^V^ '^ supposed to have found its way to 
 n«Jt^^' ^^''''^ '° ^^^ " ^«^^ discovered bv one Pete? 
 Pet^r "^Th^ .^'^ ^'^*^'- t^'^^^'" '° fhe Church ofSt 
 i^t^^ i, /I V, ^^°** '^** "^^^ 'n front of the crusaders 
 I^f^ v*i ^'^^'^ disheartened, and encouraged them to 
 attack the Muhammadans. In wurse of timf rt travelled 
 to Constantinople; but in 1492 it was presented bv 
 };^3^f^.^];<>}rmocent VIII.. and the iron^h which 
 It was inlaid is now preserved in the basilica of the 
 Vatican According to another tradition, R^olnh of 
 Burgundy presented to Henry I. of Germanv a holv lan^ 
 
 Z^orZ' ""'.'^ '^''' ^'^^ ^^'^h Jesx,™ wis faSl^n^"^ 
 i^foh^^lf-^ In honour of this lance Innocent VI. in 1.5.54 
 established a festival. The knife used in the Gr^k 
 ?"h^v TaS::"^ t^« bread of the Eucharist is a^ ,In^ 
 a _^ holy lance. See Schaff-Herzog; Benham ; the Cath. 
 
 LANCASTERIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Re 
 garded purely from an educational standpoint fhe 
 twTf'f •^**'*^^"i^°™^^" (1778-1S3S) wasSkr to 
 ^fh to"^"""^ ^1^ (1753-1S.32). It occurred to them 
 both to t^ a system of mutual instruction bv ttie 
 scholars of their schools. This reduced the cost of 
 teaching, and removed, or seemed to remove, the diffiraltv 
 caused by a lack of adult teachers. Andrew Bell wS 
 system was <^lled the Madras System of Education ha^ 
 experienced this difficulty in Madras, where he was Suwr 
 intendent of the Madras Male Orphan A^l,^ ?^e 
 |Vstem of instniction in the Bell Sdiool« andTanca^r 
 Schools was the same. There was an important 
 difference, however, as regard.s the nature of the^S 
 
 ^ns'°^nt i^lf^r"^" 1 ^^^^^ ^''^ religSus^lS 
 t^ons but m the Lancaster schools the religion taught 
 was undenominational," all denominational ^teSsms 
 being excluded, whereas in the Bell schools use wa^ldl 
 
 ^is p^.rw ^^'^-''tii^"^?^*''"'^" ^'^^y " ^as founded 
 S^cfetv"' ^^''^ b^^*- *^e •' British and Foreign School 
 ^^oelety. Lancastenan Schools began to multlplv and 
 the name Lancaster was associat^ with undenomfna 
 t o^of'^tho ^5 l^'ll.f^\" National Society for t^e EduS- 
 rhn,;?/" *^ ^"^J '" *^^ principles of the Established 
 Church" was founded, and Bell was made SuwV^ 
 intendent. It should be added that Andrew Bell has ttie 
 
 mw s^rn^'o^/^n"'^' t^ *^^ ^^'^''^^^ inventor of lit 
 ^^i-If ™^^ education, the " Monitorial Sy.stem." See 
 
 r™ np"T«'TV./^S,^"'^-^-' ^- ^- Peterson, Hi^. 
 L,AN1) OP ISLAM THE Sa<» nXT?TT'T tot t hi 
 
 LAND OP WARFARE tHE.^S^DARuIharB 
 LAODICEANS, EPISTLE TO T^. In the Mura- 
 he^w'^^*'''*- T^?^ "^'^^^'''^ references to books^f 
 t« t^.T ^Tf^^^nt- it is said : "There is also an Epistle 
 
 Pi,nrsll^J7^"f;''v'**^*''" "^^ ^^'^ Alexandrians forgVd in 
 Paul s name for the heresy of Marcion, and many others 
 which cannot be received in the Catholic Church for it 
 IS not fitting to mingle gall with honev." Tertnllian 
 En?st ho J^'p''^ I^odiceans " was a title by tS he 
 Epistle to the Ephesians was known. Colossians iv. 16, 
 which speaks of the "Epistle from Laodicea," seems 
 to imply an epistle to Laodicea. A plausible theory is 
 that the epistle now known as the Epistle to the Ephesians 
 was really a circular letter. In that case it was known 
 to some people as the Epistle to the I>aodiceans. In 
 Ephesians i. 1 the words " in Ephe.sus " are omitted in 
 the two best manuscripts. An Epistle to the Laodiceans 
 
 Latitudjnarians 
 
 was produced with thp w. f ^""i Assembly (g.v.). It 
 1647 A.D. Thr«>nchi.im,f ^'''l?'' Confession (q.v.) in 
 but use was madrals^ of Herw pT ''^. *^<^ Confession, 
 and James U.s.shlr^s^' sj^f ^"^nf^.^T"" 1 Catechi.sm " 
 
 Swttish Assembly approved n as r-'li'"-!. ^'^ i''"*^ *^« 
 chizing such as have mT^o »^^ ^^ ^ ^ Directory for cate- 
 
 ledge "of the Vr^uldr'of TlS'-^'^^^^^iV"'^ '"""" 
 hundred and ninetv b!v r.,,,;,^- ^ , ihere are one 
 
 William A Curtjl*^ questions and answers. See 
 
 su^^J^d were'g^rs'^or'tSr '''' ^"""^"^ ^^ ^ 
 
 Of aeaa peopll l^^T^Z in^no ^iri'^i,:, 'owinT/^ 
 
 Seyffe^ ^"'^^^ /'"^'^ ^f^'°f "^^^ ^"^ ^me'InSv'" 
 
 nfff^'^^On TS^7ay"'f ^?ay ^-jlf rftr^f "^ '"^ 
 
 Rome ■Sifchnri ^ Lfteran, the chief Church of 
 
 There were five important Lateran Councils mi^^ 
 fu'!^2^'A''n° CounciKNinth Geneml CoiScil) wai h^l 
 ALl^ •■^•?- ,""*'*''■ P«P« Calix-tus II. (1119-1104) It 
 dealt principally with the question of Investiture (2) 
 
 Uioj-UM). It dealt with the question of the Election 
 of Popes and with discipline. (4) The Fourth La^ra^ 
 Council (Twelfth General Synod) was held in 12lf 1 D 
 under Pope Innocent III. (1198-1216). The Council ^,2i 
 seventy decrees concerning discipline and dX ne n 
 ,tS'"^*^.*^i ^ *^^ ^^« tl^e bread and wine are tran- 
 
 tKs^^bI^TAN^tV^T^^-^ % ^^e'' pffS^^^lt "^ 
 Council (Eighteenth General Oounciimgan 1^ L.'if T?>° 
 under Pope Julius II. (1503-1513), and end^ in 1517 under 
 It ^ ^^- (1513-Dec. 1521). It condemned the Prag- 
 matic Sanction (France, 1438; Germanv 1439) and 
 
 LATITUDE-MEN. Under the rule of Oliver Cromwell 
 
 who^Te^d?* '^^ ?j^"^.^^ ^°^'*°<^' ^^^ 1653 to r6(^: 
 
 Z^n.uZ l-^^^^^^ themselves to the undenomina^ 
 tionalism which he established, were, according to the 
 
 f^t'^fi/' ^ ^"^t^T;" ^'^'2 (S. p. CaSdgef. call^ 
 Ivatmide-men Not long afterwards the forerunners of 
 
 diMri^^a ( v') ^'^ ^^"''■•' '■*^'^«<* t^* °a™e Latitii- 
 
 ^.i^^J^^^^^^i^^*^- A term which came into nee 
 about the year 1670 to describe tho.se who took a " broad 
 ^t^ of Christian doctrine and of the relationship 
 between Christian Churches. The Latitudinarians were 
 forerunners of the later school of divines known as Broad 
 Churchmen (q.v.). They attached importance to the 
 moral, rather than to the doctrinal character of Christ- 
 ianity. " In words, in modes of speech, and generally 
 in their mode of thinking," sa.vs John Hunt. " they are 
 all in some respects at variance with the words, and fre-
 
 Latrocinium 
 
 21S League of Liberal Christian Thought & Social Service 
 
 quently with tlie tone of the Articles and formularies of 
 the Church of Eugland. It is not that they teach what 
 might be called new truth, but that they look at the old 
 truth in new ways. They were men of progress, who did 
 not think it a sin to differ either from the Fathers or the 
 Eeformers. Other parties did this, and denied that 
 they did it. The Latitudinarians, on the other hand, 
 recognized such differences in different ages, as the neces- 
 .sary conditions of mental and spiritual development." 
 But in spite of the general agreement of Latitudinarians, 
 two schools may be distinguished, one of which was more 
 philosophical than the other. The Latitudinarians have 
 Included : Gilbert Burnet (1643-1715), Bi.shop of Salis- 
 bury; WlUiam Chillingworth (1602-lfi44), Prebendary of 
 Salisbury; Ralph Cudworth (lfil7-1688), Regius Professor 
 of Hebrew at Cambridge; Benjamin Hoadly (1676-1701), 
 Bishop of Winchester; Henry More (1614-1687); John 
 Smith (1618-1652); Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667), Bishop of 
 Down and Coimor; John Tillotson (1630-1694); Benjamin 
 Whidicote (1609-1683); Provost of King's OUege, Cam- 
 bridge; Daniel Whitby (1638-1726); Precentor of Salisbury 
 Cathedral; and John Wilkins (1614-1672), Bishop of 
 Chester. M. W. Patterson explains Latitudinarianism 
 as being due to two tendencies. " A century of religious 
 strife and religious confusion had produced in many men 
 a sense of sheer weariness; they were willing to drop 
 the shibboleths of contending factions and ground them- 
 .'felves on what they considered to be " fundamental 
 Christianity." This sense of weariness was reinforced 
 by the appeal to reason; strife about " non-fundamental " 
 matters was not only wearisome, but also seemed to many 
 men irrational. The appeal to reason and the advocacy 
 of toleration for Protestant Dissenters were the chief 
 features of Latitudinarianism." The explanation rather 
 seems to suggest that the movement was produc-ed by the 
 peculiar circumistances of a particular age. The fact 
 seems to be that Latitudinarianism, in the best sense of 
 the word, goes back to the distant past, being a gradual, 
 but natural and inevitable growth from the seeds of the 
 Gospel. See John Hunt. Rcl. Thought in England, 1870- 
 73; A. I. Fitzroy, Dogma and the Church of England. 
 1891; M. W. Patterson, Hist.; the D.N. B. 
 
 LATROCINIUM. Latrocinium or "Robber Council " 
 was a name given by Pope Leo to a council which met 
 at Ephesus in 449 A.D. and acquitted Eutyches, who had 
 been condemned as a heretic at the Synod of Constan- 
 tinople held in 44S. The council was so called on account 
 of the violence of its proceedings. See further 
 BUTYCHIANISM. 
 
 LATTER-DAY SAINTS. Another name for the 
 Mormons (q.v.). The correct description of the Mormon 
 organization is " The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- 
 day Saints." Mormons is only a popular designation. 
 
 LAUDS. One of the seven Canonical Hours {q.v.} 
 contained in the mediaeval Service-book known as the 
 Breviary or Hour Book. The office of Lauds was said 
 or sung at break of day. 
 
 LAURA. The Greek word laura means properly an 
 alley or a lane, but in ecclesiastical usage it came to 
 denote a community of hermits who lived in separate 
 cells. The hermits lived in solitude for five days of the 
 week, making baskets or doing some other manual work, 
 and subsisting on bread and water. On the first and 
 last days of the week they took their meals together, 
 and worshipped together in the common chapel. In the 
 fourth and fifth centuries A.D. there were Lauras in 
 Egypt, Syria, and Palestine. Pachomius of Tabenna in 
 Upper Egypt (t about 349 A.D.) organized his monks 
 in a Daura, but he allowed three monks to occupy one 
 cell. He is said to have supported himself by weaving 
 shaggy tunics, and to have abstained much from food and 
 
 sleep. Euthymius of Palestine (f 473 A.D.) established 
 a Laura six miles from Jerusalem, and another later on 
 the road from Jerusalem to Jericho. Euthymius is said 
 to have healed sick persons by his prayers. Sabas of 
 Palestine (f 531 A.D.) founded a Laura on the river 
 Kidron. The Laura forms a transition between the 
 hermit life of St. Antony, " the founder of asceticism," 
 and the monastic life of St. Basil and St. Benedict. 
 Several great monasteries are now called Laura (e.g., the 
 monastery on Mt. Athos). See Smith and Cheetham; 
 the Cath. Diet; Waee and Piercy. 
 
 LAW, THE. Tlie designation of the first of the three 
 groups into which the books of the Old Testament are 
 divided. The Hebrew name is Torah. It embraces 
 Genesis (called in Hebrew Bereshith), Exodus (Shemoth), 
 Leviticus (Vayyilcra), Numbers (Bemidhar), and Deu- 
 teronomy (Debhdrim). The first of the three groups to 
 attain canonical authority, "it so far overshadowed the 
 other divisions that even in the New Testament the one 
 name ' Law ' is used to cover the rest. Even our Lord, 
 as rei)orted to us, so far accepts the current formulas as 
 to apply the term ' Law ' both to Prophetical Books and 
 Psalms " (W. Sanday). The Jews regarded it as the one 
 primary revelation, all else being secondary. " Even as 
 far back as the Book of Ecclesiasticus, the Law as given 
 by Moses was identified with Wisdom itself. This idea 
 was developed by the Rabbis, who regarded the Law as 
 existing before the Creation, and saw in it the plan on 
 which Grod had made the worlds. No second revelation 
 like it was possible. It had exhausted all the revelation 
 which God could give to man." It is called " the jewel 
 of jewels." In the tractate Sanhedrin (x. 1) it is said : 
 " Whoever asserts that the Torah is not from heaven 
 (from God), hath no part in the world to come." And 
 again (fol. 99a) : " Whoever saith, that Moses wrote so 
 much as a single verse out of his own knowledge, he (is 
 a liar and) a contemner of the word of God." The Law 
 was officially adopted and canonized by Ezra (444 B.C.). 
 The book that was brought to light in the reign of Josiah 
 (621 B.C.) was not the whole Law but the Book of 
 Deuteronomy (see BOOK OF THE COVENANT). 
 Another name for The Law is The Pentateuch. Cp. 
 PENTATEUCH and CRITICISM, HIGHER. See W. 
 Sanday, /.; G. Wildeboer; H. E. Ryle. 
 
 LAZARISTS. The Lazarists are more oorreetly known 
 as the "Congregation of the Priests of the Mission." The 
 congregation was founded by St. Vincent of Paul in 1624. 
 In 1632 it was confirmed by a bull of Urban VIII., and 
 the same year was established in the CoUege of St. 
 Lazare at Paris. It had three objects : (1) the improve- 
 ment of its own members by means of daily prayer, medi- 
 tation, etc. ; (2) the instruction of people living in the 
 country towns and villages by means of missions; (3) the 
 training of those who wished to become priests. " As a 
 rule, eight months in the year were devoted to missions, 
 which were conducted nearly on the same plan on which 
 Redemptorist and Passionists missions are conducted at 
 the present day " {Cath. Diet.). During the French 
 Revolution the College of St. Lazare was plundered by 
 the mob. At a later date the Lazarists were granted a 
 house in the Rue de Sfevres. They are now actively 
 engaged in mission work in many parts of the world. See 
 Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 LAZARISTS. Lazarists was the name of a religious 
 and military order in the time of the Crusades. The 
 members devoted themselves in the Holy Land to the 
 care of lepers. 
 
 LEAGUE OF LIBERAL CHRISTIAN THOUGHT AND 
 SOCIAL SERVICE. A league founded in connection 
 with the New Theology (q.v.). A more convenient 
 designation is " The Liberal-Christian League." The
 
 League of Progressive Thought <& Social Service 219 
 
 Legend, The Golden 
 
 President was Jlr. K. J. Campbell. The objeots, briefly 
 described, were spiritual fellowship, theological freedom, 
 and social regeneration. The League, as originally con- 
 stituted in June 1908 was called " The League of Pro- 
 gressive Thought and Social Servce." or, more popularly. 
 •• The Progressive League." By February 1909 the sub- 
 scribing meml>ership had increased to between three and 
 four thousand. Mr. Campbell said of the League (The 
 New Theology, popular edition) : " Not only does it aim 
 at providing spiritual fellowship for those whose religious 
 sympathies are with the Xew Theology, but it seeks to 
 articulate the social movement of the age from the side 
 of liberal Christianity." Some time before the actual 
 foundation of the League the " Christian Common- 
 wealth " had begun to register the names of persons who 
 were prepared to unite in such a movement. The objects. 
 as defined more completely, were fivefold. (1) To pro- 
 vide a common meeting-ground and fellowship for those 
 who are in sympathy with liberal Christianity and all 
 progressive religious thought. (2) To study impartially 
 tJie various manifestations of religious experience, and 
 to make known the assured results of the historic and 
 scientific study of religion. (3) To promote the systematic 
 study of social questions from the spiritual and moral 
 as well as from the economic point of view in tbe light 
 of the best available knowledge and experience: to create 
 a sense of individual, civic, and national resjwnsibility 
 for removing unjust social conditions; to encourage men 
 and women to be trained and organized for social work. 
 (4) To work for a social and economic reconstruction of 
 society which shall secure tie fullest opportunities and 
 the most favourable environment for individual develop- 
 ment, and shall have as its goal co-ofieration for life 
 instead of competition for existence. (.5) To promote the 
 development of international goodwill by concentrating 
 attention upon and seeking to strengthen the forces that 
 make for peace and union among the nations. The 
 League had three departments. (1) I^eague Studies 
 Department. The purpose of this is obvious. (2) Social 
 Service Department. The members of this department 
 were to do practical work of a u.seful social character. 
 (3) League Service Department. In this department, the 
 service took the form of arranging meetings, bazaars, 
 concerts, etc.. in aid of the funds. A corps of .special 
 preachers. Pioneer Preachers, was organised. " whose 
 work is to carry the League gospel into fresh fields." 
 See the popular edition of R. J. Campbell's A'etc 
 Theology. 
 
 LEAGUE OP PROGRESSIVE THOUGHT AND 
 SOCIAL SERVICE. The original name of the " New 
 Theology " organization which was afterwards called the 
 " League of Liberal Chri.stian Thought and Social Ser- 
 vice " (g.v.). 
 
 LEAGUE OF THE CROSS. The Catholic Total 
 Ab.stinence League of the Cross is a Roman Catholic 
 Temperance Society which was founded in 1S73 " for 
 the purpose of uniting Catholics in a holy warfare against 
 intemperance, and of thereby raising the religious, social, 
 and domestic state " of the Catholic people iCath. Diet.). 
 The members, who must be Roman Catholics, pledge 
 themselves to observe total abstinence and to live as 
 good, practical Catholics. See the Cath. Diet. 
 
 LEAGUE PIONEERS. A corps of special preachers 
 whose work was to carry into fresh fields the gospel of 
 the " League of Liberal Christian Thought and Social 
 Service " (g.v.). 
 
 LECANOMANCY. A species of divination. In the 
 practice of Lecanomancy use was made of a bason and 
 of wedges of gold or silver which were marked with 
 certain characters. " The wedge-s were suspended over 
 the water, and the demon formally invoked, when he 
 
 gave the response in a low hissing sound passing through 
 the fluid " (James Gardner. Faiths of the World). 
 
 LECTIONARIES. A general name for service-books 
 containing passages from the New Testament adapted 
 for public reading in the early Christian Church. Such 
 books also had siiecial names. Thus, a lection;irv con- 
 sisting of pa.ssages from the Gospels was called an Evan- 
 geliarium. A lectionary consisting of passages from the 
 Acts of the Apostles was called an Apostolos. The 
 passages were adapted in this sense that an alteration 
 was often made at the beginning and the end to make 
 the oijening and the close of the reading intelligible, and 
 that sometimes an interesting detail (a whole verse 
 perhaps) was added from another Gospel. Lectionaries 
 often afford help in the work of textual criticism (see 
 CRITICISM, TEXTUAL). It must be admitted, how- 
 ever, that " not only is their testimony almo.st valueless 
 on small points of wording, but it also carries no weight 
 when narratives are in question which have parallels " 
 (K. Lake). Lectionary systems are believed to be of 
 great antiquity. But of those which have been preserved 
 there is none in Greek earlier than the eighth century 
 or in Syriae earlier than the sixth century A.D. See K. 
 Lake. Text of the N.T., 1904; M. R. Vincent, Textual 
 Crit. of the y.T. 
 
 LECTISTERNIA. The Roman festivals known as 
 Lectisternia were borrowed from the Greeks. They 
 were banquets offered to the gods, whose images were 
 placed for the purpose on couches (leoti). At first such 
 banquet-s were provided for three pairs of non-Roman 
 deities, for Apollo and Latona, Heracles and Artemis, 
 Hermes and Poseidon, each pair being assigned a 
 separate lectu.s:. Later, they were offered to the six pairs 
 of Roman deities, Jupiter. Juno, Neptune, Minerva, Mars, 
 Venus, Apollo, Diana, Vulcan, Vesta, Mercury, and 
 Ceres. " Rude copies of the wooden statues of these 
 gods, which stood in the Forum, have come down to us 
 on a Gallo-Roman altar at Navilly (COte-d'Or) " — 
 Roinach. Robertson Smith thinks that the closest 
 parallel to the lectisternia is found in the Hebrew table 
 of Shewbread (g.v.). See W. Robertson Smith. R.&.; 
 O. Seyffert, Diet.; Reinaeh, O. 
 
 LEGEND, THE GOLDEN. The term legend means 
 literallv " something to be read," and originally cor- 
 respon(5ed largely to the term story. In mediaeval times 
 Legenda or Legendarii (libri) denoted collections of 
 extracts from the lives of saints and martyrs to be read 
 as lessons in divine service. Tlie practice of reading 
 such lessons had grown up in days when the stories of 
 the saints, as given for instance in such works as the 
 " Acta Martyrum," the " Acta Sanctorum," and Euse- 
 bius's book on the martyrs of Palestine, were more his- 
 torical. It appears tJiat in the time of Augustine the 
 custom of reading the passions of the martyrs on their 
 anniversaries was general in the Christian churches of 
 North Africa. In course of time, however, this kind of 
 literature degenerated. An example of this degeneracy 
 is provided by tie "Golden Legend" (Legenda Aiirea) 
 of Jacobus de Voragine. who was so called from his birth- 
 place Varaggia near Genoa. Jacobus was Archbishop 
 of Genoa in the thirteenth century. His work, divided 
 into 177 chapters was the earliest collection in the West 
 of the Lives of Saints. It became popular, was trans- 
 lated into a number of languages, and passed through 
 more than seventy editions before 1500; but. though 
 curious, interesting, and in some ways instructive, it is of 
 slight historical value. It is quite uncritical. It is 
 thought that the book provided the model for the 
 " Legenda Angliae " of John Capgrave (1393-1464). a work 
 printed bv Caxton. The Cath. Diet, suggests that the 
 work of "Capgrave prepared the ground for the great
 
 Leipzig Colloquy 
 
 220 
 
 Leviticus, Book of 
 
 compilation of the Bollandists (<7.i'.). See Benham; 
 Schaff-Herzog ; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 LEIPZIG COLLOQUY. A German Confession of 
 Faith (1631 A.D.). It was the result of a conference 
 convened by the Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony 
 with the idea of uniting the Reformed and Lutheran 
 forces against the forces of Roman Catholicism. The 
 Colloquy obtained a certain measure of authority in 
 Brandenburg, but " the times were not rii>e for a real 
 understanding" (W. A. Curtis). 
 
 LEONISTS. The name Leonists was given to the 
 followers of Peter Waldus, tie Waldenses {q.v.). because 
 the community was founded (1177) at Lyons. They have 
 also been called Pauperes de Lugdtino, " Poor of Lyons," 
 and Sabatati. 
 
 LEUCETIUS. Leucetius, the god of lightning, was 
 one of the deities worshipped by the ancient Celts. He 
 was identified with the Roman god Mars. 
 
 LEVELLERS. The followers of John Lilbume (1614?- 
 1657) in the time of Oliver Cromwell. The Levellers 
 formed an ultra-republican party. In 1638 Lilbume was 
 imprisoned by the Star Chamber for publishing unlicensed 
 books. Afterwards he fought for the Parliament (1642- 
 1645). In 1649 lie persuaded a part of the army to mutiny 
 in support of his extreme republican views. He soon 
 had to surrender to Cromwell. He was several times 
 e-viled or imprisoned. The Levellers ascribed supreme 
 importance to practical piety. The conscience and the 
 inner voice of the heart were regarded as more authorita- 
 tive than the dogmas of the Church, however Scriptural 
 these might be. " The supreme principle of the Levellers 
 was that the will of the people is the highest law of a 
 country, and that all authorities obtain their rights only 
 through the consent of the people. On the basis of this 
 principle they wished a purely dejnoeratic constitution in 
 tie State ; and they were the first to demand an absolute 
 separation of Church and State on the ground that all 
 union between them leads to intolerable constraint of con- 
 science and to endless civil misery. Every religious con- 
 fession, and even atheism itself, should find toleration; 
 and every ecclesiastical community .should regulate its 
 own affairs in entire independence " (B. Puenjer). See 
 B. Puenjer: the D.X.B. 
 
 LEVITICUS, BOOK OP. The Book of Leviticus is the 
 third book in the first division of the Canon of the Old 
 Testament (g.v.). In the Hebrew Bible it bears the title 
 Way-yikra " and he called." This is the first of the 
 opening words of the book : " And Jehovah called unto 
 Moses and spake unto him." The title in the Septuagint 
 is Leu(e)iUkon and in the Vulgate Leviticus. In each 
 case the word Book is to be supplied. The English title 
 is borrowed from the Vulgate. The " Levitical book" 
 is so called not because it deals specially with the 
 Levites, who in fact are mentioned only once (xxv. 32 ff.), 
 but l)eeause it contains " the law of the priests." In the 
 Mishnah (g.v.) it is called either Torath cohanim, " Ijaw 
 of Priests," or Sepher cohanim, " Book of Priests," or 
 Sepher korbanoth, " Book of Offerings." The subject- 
 matter and linguistic characteristics of the Book of 
 Leviticus show that it belongs entirely to the priestly 
 stratum of the Hexateuch, which is commonly designated 
 P. But though the book as a whole is clearly dLs- 
 tinguished from the other main .strata of the Hexateuch, 
 J (the Jehovistic or Judahite), E (the Elohistic or 
 Ephramite), and D (the Deuteronomic), it is not itself a 
 literary unity. As Prof. G. A. Barton says (Je^l■ish 
 Encyel.), Leviticus as it stands is not " a consistent code 
 of laws formulated at one time, but is the result of a con- 
 siderable process of compilation." There are sections in 
 P which differ linguistically from other sections; there 
 are duplicate laws which imply diversity of date and 
 
 origin. This has led to the separation within the main 
 stratum P, or the Priests' Code, of other strata which 
 have been designated Pg, Ph, Pt, and Ps. These symbols 
 may be explained in the order given. The letter G in Pg 
 is an abbreviation of the German word Grundschrift. 
 " groundwork." Pg denotes the matter which formed 
 the groundwork or basis of the Pentateuch, a legal and 
 historical nucleus, to which was added from time to time 
 matter of a different and varied character. The theme 
 of this nucleus or kernel is, as Prof. Kennedy says, " the 
 history of the establishment of the theocracy and of the 
 introduction of those laws, institutions, and rites by 
 which the divine sovereignty received visible expression." 
 To Pg belong in Leviticus the directions concerning the 
 consecration of the priesthood (Lev. ix.-x.), the Day of 
 Atonement (Lev. xvi.), the sacred calendar (xxiii. 4-8, 
 23-25, 33-38), the lamps and -shewbread (xxiv. 1-9). 
 According to Kennedy Pg was composed about 500 B.C. ; 
 according to Kent, somewhere between 450 and 400 B.C. 
 The letter H in Ph is an abbreviation of the word " Holi- 
 ness." Ph, or H alone, is a section of the Book of 
 Leviticus (xvii.-xxvi.) which is di-stinguished by linguistic 
 and other characteristics of its own. The underlying 
 thought of this Cotle of Holiness may be found in Lev. 
 xxii. 31-33 : " Te shall observe my commands and do 
 them : I am Jehovah. And ye shall not profane my 
 holy name; but I will be treated as holy among the 
 Israelites. I am Jehovah who maketh you holy, who 
 brought you out of the land of Egypt, to be your God : 
 I am Jehovah " (cp. xix. 2; xx. 7, 8, 26, xxi. 6-8, 15, 23; 
 xxii. 9, 16). Holiness, both moral and ceremonial, is 
 insisted upon. The Code of Holiness, like the Book of 
 the Covenant (Exodus xx. 24-xxiii. 19) and the Deu- 
 teronomic Code (Dent, xx.-sxvi.), opens with a law regu- 
 lating altar sacrifices and ceremonieii (Lev. xvii.), and 
 closes with an exhortation (Lev. xxvi.). Even Ph, short 
 as it is, is a compilation from various sources, and has 
 been interpolated to some extent by P. In ch. xvii., 
 for instance, vss. 1, 2, 15, 16, and referejices to " the tent 
 of meeting" and " the camp " in vss. 3, 4, 5, and 6 are 
 interpolations. So are verses 1, 2a, Sb, 21 and 22 in ch. 
 xix. An Interesting and important question with regard 
 to the Code of Holiness is : What is the precise relation- 
 ship of the Code to the Book of Ezekiel? There are many 
 parallels and resemblances between Ezekiel and H. 
 They are given fully in Carpenter and Harford-Batter^y 
 (i. 147 f.). Ezekiel was a priest as well as a prophet, 
 in fact he was born a priest. In 597 B.C. he was taken 
 captive to Babylonia. Here he devoted himself at first 
 to the work of a preacher. Towards the close of his 
 career, however, he occupied himself with the prepara- 
 tion of the Code contained in Ezek. xl.-xlviii. (572 B.C.). 
 Now, while this code reproduces many of the ceremonial 
 laws, etc., of the pre-exilic temple, it contains also regula- 
 tions which are quite new (e.g., xliv. 7, 8. xliv. 13). It 
 was not actually adopted as a whole, but it prepared the 
 way for the priestly codes that were ultimately accepted. 
 It is further noteworthy that in all Ezekiel's laws and 
 exhortations the greatest stress is laid on the holiness of 
 Yahweh and on the necessity that his people also Should 
 be hol.v. And, as we have seen, the same stress and 
 emphasis are found in the Code of Holiness. Kent con- 
 cisely presents the resemblances between H and Ezekiel 
 as follows : " The impressive refrain, / am Jehovah, is 
 repeated forty-six times, and is one of many common 
 characteristics that distinguish these laws. The same 
 expression is also found seventy-eight times in Ezekiel. 
 and not once In the writings of his earlier contemporaries. 
 Isaiah and Jeremiah. There are many other striking 
 points of contact both in vocabulary and idiom. The 
 unusual formula beginning. Every man of the house of
 
 Libanomancy 
 
 221 
 
 Libations 
 
 Israel (Lev. xvii. 3, S, 10, 13, 15), is found nowhere else 
 in the Old Testament except in Ezekiel, where it is very 
 common (e.g., Ezek. siv. 4, 7, S, xliv. 10, 12). The social 
 crimes especially prohibited in the Holiness Code {e.g., 
 xviii. S. XX. 10-12, 17, xix. 13, 15, 36, xx. 9, xxi. 1-5) are 
 denounced by Ezekiel in terms almost identical (e.g., xxii. 
 10, 11, xviii. 7, 8, 12, 16, xxxiii. 15, 25, xlv. 10, xxii. 7, 
 xliv. 25. 20). A like emphasis is also laid on the sanctity 
 of the temple (cf. Lev. xix. 30, xx. 3. xxi. 12, 23, xxvi. 
 2 and Ezek. v. 11, viii. 6, xxiii. 38, 39). Both seek to 
 guard the priesthood from all possible defilement. Thus 
 in language, thought and purjwse, Ezekiel and the laws 
 of the Holiness Code are bound together by closest ties." 
 The question then that arises is : Did H influence Ezekiel, 
 or did Ezekiel influence H? According to G. A. Barton, 
 tiis remains an open question. Various critics, how- 
 ever, have decided for the probability of the one view or 
 the other. Wellhausen, Kuenen. Baent.sch, and Addis 
 think H is later than Ezekiel. Barton, Kennedy, Kent, 
 and others think H is earlier. According to Kent, " a 
 detailed comiMriison of the two systems leads to the con- 
 clusion that both come from the same priestly circles 
 and approximately the isame date, but that Ezekiel was 
 acquainted with the nmjor portion of the laws in the 
 Holiness Code." He thinks the original draft of H was 
 made between the first and final captivity (597-586 B.C.). 
 Kennedy too regards it as " a pre-exilie document, dating 
 probably from near the close of the monarchy." Barton 
 again tiinks it probable that it was compiled In Palestine. 
 In the symbol Pt the T is an abbreviation of the 
 Hebrew word toroth. Pt denotes a stratum composed of 
 old sacrificial toroth, or priestly "decisions." In Ps 
 the S is an abbreviation of the word " Secondary." Ps 
 denotes secondary strata of the Priests' Code. Returning 
 to P as a whole. Barton thinks that in its main features 
 it was in the hands of Ezra and Nehemiah. The Book 
 of Leviticus, however, " is not the work of the P who 
 wrote the account of the sacred institutions, but of an 
 editor who dislocated that work at many points, and 
 who combined with it the Holiness C:k>de and other 
 elements." There is another interesting question : Was 
 the Levitical ritual influenced by Babylonian institutions? 
 The remarkable Babylonian Code of Khammurapi (q.v.), 
 which was discovered in 1901 and 1902, goes back to 
 about the year 22-50 B.C.. and it is itself no doubt a com- 
 pilation from much earlier laws and customs. At two 
 periods in their history the Israelites came into direct 
 contact with Babylonia^i culture, so that if one nation 
 was iKwerfully influenced by the other, it would not be 
 surprising. P. Haupt claims that the Levitical ritual 
 was so influenced. He even finds in it a number of 
 Babylonian loan-words. Barton and Kent, however, 
 decide, no doubt rightly, that any deep Babvlonian in- 
 fluence is to be doubted. The external analogies are 
 certainly striking, but, in the words of Kent, " the 
 majority of the Old Testament laws are informed by a 
 spirit and purpose which have no ancient parallel." See 
 J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, 1900; C. F. 
 Kent, Israel's Laws and Legal Precedents, 1907; B. 
 Kautzsch, Die Heilige Sohrift des Alten Testaments, 3rd 
 ed. 1908-10; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, Leviticus in 
 " Sacred Books of the Old Testament " : Hebrew, 1894; 
 English, 1898; A. Dillmann, Exodus und Leviticus, 1897; 
 B. Baentseh, Exodus-Leviticus, 1900; A. Bertholet. Levi- 
 ticus, 1961; D. Hoffmann, Das Buch Leviticus, 1905-6; 
 A. R. S. Kennedy, Leviticus and Numbers in the " Cen- 
 tury Bible." 
 
 LIBAJCOMANCY. A species of divination. Libano- 
 mancy was practised with frankincense (lihanos). 
 Frankincen.se was thrown into the fire, and observation 
 was made of the manner in which it burned and of the 
 
 odour which it gave forth. " If it burned quickly and 
 sent forth an agreeable smell, the omen was favourable, 
 but if the reverse happened, it was unfavourable" 
 (James Gardner, Faiths of the World). 
 
 LIBATIONS. The practice of offering libations of 
 blood, water, wine, and even of milk and beer, has been 
 widespread. Libations of blood or of wine are referred 
 to frequently in the Old Testament (cp. Ecclesiasticus 
 1. 15, where wine is clearly a surrogate for blood). They 
 usually appear as a mere accessory to a flre offering, but 
 there is good reason to suppose that the libation of blood 
 IS a common Semitic practice and is really older than 
 fire-sacrifices. The libation of wine mav be regarded 
 as a surrogate for the primitive blood-offering. There 
 is no certain reference to libations of water in the Old 
 Testament, but in the practice of later Judaism water 
 was poured out at the Feast of Tabernacles. " One of 
 the most striking ceremonies of the Feast of Taber- 
 nacles was the libation of water which was made every 
 morning during the seven days of the feast at the same 
 time as the libation of wine accompanying the morning 
 holocaust. The water was carried up from Siloam 
 through the water-gate, and poured into a basin on the 
 top of the altar at the S.W. comer, the wine being poured 
 into another. The bringing of the water into the pre- 
 cincts was accompanied by trumpet-blasts and loud 
 jubilation " (Encycl. Bibl., s.v. " Sacrifice "). In North 
 Semitic ritual, however, the libation usually consisted 
 of wine, which, even when it went with a fire-offering, 
 was poured out on the ground. " The Greeks and 
 Romans poured the sacrificial wine over the flesh, but 
 the Hebrews treated it like the blood, pouring it out at 
 the base of the altar " (Robertson Smith). That milk 
 was a very ancient Semitic libation is indicated by its 
 use in ritual both by the Arabs and by the Phoenicians. 
 Among tie Babylonians and Assyrians libations were 
 offered to the gods and to the dead. A large votive 
 tablet of Ur-Enlil (c. 3000 B.C.), unearthed at Nippur, 
 for instance, shows the ruler in the act of offering a 
 libation to Enlil. In a story of the descent of the goddess 
 Ishtar to Aralti, worshippers whose dead had gone like 
 Ishtar to " the land of no return " are instructed to turn 
 in prayer to Tammuz and to pour out libations of pure 
 water and oil to him (Morris Jastrow, Civ.). In ancient 
 Egypt libations of blood or of a liquid substitute for 
 blood and of water are a common feature in ritual and 
 religion (see further below). Among primitive folk, too, 
 the pouring out of blood has great religious significance. 
 Take the tribes of Central Australia for example. The 
 men of the Emu (totem) trace their sacred images on 
 ground saturated with blood. In .some of the clans the 
 young men open their veins and let streams of blood 
 flow on to a sacred rock, evidently with the idea of 
 revivifying the virtues of the rock and of reinforcing its 
 efiieacy (Emile Durkheim). What then is the origin of 
 the act of pouring out libations? As far as ancient 
 Egypt is concerned, new light has been thrown on this 
 question by Dr. A. M. Blackman and Professor G. Elliot 
 Smith. From a study of certain passages in the Egyptian 
 texts inscribed in the subterranean chambers of the Sak- 
 kara Pyramids of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasty, Dr. 
 Blackman thinks the idea in the mind of the Egyptians 
 is quite clear. " The corpse of the deceased is dry and 
 shrivelled. To revivify it the vital fluids that have 
 exuded from it [in the process of mummification] must 
 be restored, for not till then will life return and the 
 heart beat again. This, so the texts show us, was 
 believed to be accomplished by offering libations to the 
 accompaniment of incantations." In some passages the 
 libations are said to be the actual fluids that have Issued 
 from the corpse. In others a different notion is intro-
 
 LiberaI=Christian League, The 
 
 222 
 
 Linga Sarira 
 
 duced. " It is not the deceased's own exudations that 
 are to revive his shrunl^en frame but those of a <?ivine 
 body, the [god's fluid] that came from the corpse of 
 Osiris himself, the juices that dissolved from his decaying 
 flesh, which are communicated to the dead sacrament- 
 wise under the form of these libations." Professor Elliot 
 Smith thinks that the Proto-Egyptians clearly believed 
 in the validity of a general biological theory of the life- 
 giving properties of water. " Groping after some 
 explanation of the natural phenomenon that the earth 
 became fertile when water was applied to it, and that 
 seed burst into life under the same influence, the early 
 biologist formulated the natural and not wholly illogical 
 idea that water was the repository of life-giving powers. 
 Water was equally necessary for the production of life 
 and for the maintenance of life." These general 
 biological theories were current at the time of the Sak- 
 kara Pyramid texts, and had possibly received specific 
 application to man long before the idea of libations 
 developed. The original object of the offering of liba- 
 tions was to animate the statue of the deceased and so 
 to enable him to continue the existence whici had merely 
 \teen interrupted by the incident of death. " In course 
 of time, however, as definite gods gradually materialized 
 and came to be represented by statues, they also had 
 to be vitalized by offerings of water from time to time. 
 Thus the pouring out of libations came to be an act of 
 worship of the deity; and in this form it has persisted 
 until our own time in many civilized countries." Later, 
 water became also an essential feature in any act of 
 ritual rebirth. Cp. MUMMIFICATION, and see W. 
 Robertson Smith, R.S.; A. M. Blackman, "The Signific- 
 ance of Incense and Libations in Funerary and Temple 
 Ritual " in the Zeltschrift filr Agi/ptische Sprache und 
 Altertumskundp., Bd. .50, 1912: G. Elliott Smith, Dr. 
 
 LIBERAL-CHRISTIAN LEAGUE. THE. A con- 
 venient designation of the League which had as its full 
 description the designation " League of Liberal Ohri.stian 
 Thought and Social Service" (g.v.). Cp. NEW 
 THEOLOGY. 
 
 LIFE AND LIBERTY MOVEMENT, THE. A modern 
 reform movement in the Church of England, which 
 .started in a series of conversations between friends. The 
 chairman of the Council, which takes general control of 
 tbe movement, is tie Rev. W. Temple. The movement 
 aims at reforming the present conditions of the govern- 
 ment of the Church, and demands more liberty for a 
 fuller expression of Life. More liberty means self- 
 government. If the Church has not given effective 
 witness to the Mind of Christ in regard to such matters 
 as International Relations, Industrial Order, Wealth 
 and Poverty, etc.; if there are abuses in the system 
 of its administration which disqualify it for effectively 
 proclaiming the way of justice and love to others; this is 
 due largely to its being without any means of self-expres- 
 sion so that it is hampered by restrictions which, in pre- 
 sent conditions, it is powerless to alter. The Movement, 
 therefore, accepts in general outline the scheme of reform 
 set forth in the Report of the Archl)ishops' Committee 
 on Church and State. But it would go further. It would 
 make membership of all councils and the right to vote 
 for them open to women on the same terms as to men; 
 and it insistis that the Church Council should have power 
 to legislate on all matters relating to ecclesiastical 
 endowments, property, patronage, and tribunals. Fur- 
 tber, it demands a more vigorous prosecution of attempts 
 at mutual understanding with other religious bodies with 
 a view to re-union. 
 
 LIGHT OF GLORY. An expression used in oonneetion 
 with the Beatific Vision (VISION, BEATIFIC). 
 
 LIGHTNING BEFORE DEATH. The expression 
 
 " lightning (or lightening) before death " used to be 
 employed to describe a phenomenon wliich has often been 
 observed in sick persons just before death. In the 
 " Festivoue Notes " on Don Quixote by Edmund Gayton 
 (1608-1666) the lines occur : 
 
 " Not that I lightning or fell thunder feare, " 
 Unless that lightning before death appear." 
 
 In Ray's " Proverbs " it is said : " This is generally 
 obsen'ed of sick persons, that a little before they die 
 their pains leave them, and their understanding and 
 memory return to them; as a candle just before it goes 
 out gives a great blaze." See Robert Nares, Glossary, 
 1822. 
 
 LIGORIANS. Another name for the Redemptorists. 
 They were so called because the congregation was founded 
 by St. Alphonsus Maria de Liguori. 
 
 LI-KING. One of the Chinese Classics. Li is the 
 " Book of Rites " (g.v.). The word King simplv means 
 " Classic." 
 
 LIMBO, or LIMBUS. The I^tin word Limbus means 
 "fringe" or "border." In Roman Catholic theology 
 the term has been used since the Middle Ages to denote 
 one, or rather two, of the places of departed spirits. 
 Good men, after their souls have been purified in pur- 
 gatory (g.v.), go to heaven. Bad men go to hell. What 
 was the state of the saints of the Old Testament, the 
 good men who died before the gospel was proclaimed by 
 Christ? They were gathered into "Abraham's bosom " 
 or, in other words, into the Limbus Patruvi, there to 
 remain " in an intermediate state between blessedness 
 and punishment until the descent of Christ into Hades " 
 (Schaff-Herzog). What, again, is the state of infants 
 who have died without baptism? They are gathered 
 into a special place, tie Limbus Infantium. It has been 
 held by some theologians (by Augustine, for instance) 
 that here they are not only excluded from the joys of 
 heaven, but even suffer some measure of i>ain. According 
 to the majority of theologians, however, they are simply 
 excluded from heaven. They are not condemned to suffer 
 any " pain of sense." Having never sinned, they enjoy 
 natural happiness. The happiness attained in heaven 
 differs from this in being supernatural. See Benham; 
 Schaff-Herzog; the Prot. Diet.; tie Cath. Diet. 
 
 LIMENTINUS. A Roman god or spirit mentioned by 
 Augustine as the protecting spirit of the entrance to a 
 house. See THRESHOLD, THE. 
 
 LINGA. The Linga, that is to say, the phallus, or 
 male sexual symbol, plays a great r61e in tie worship of 
 the Hindu god Siva (q.v.). The god is commonly repre- 
 sented by an image of it. Members of the modem sect 
 called Lingayits (g.v.) wear it in a casket round their 
 necks. The figures are commonly of stone or glass. 
 The Linga symbolizes the reproductive power of Nature. 
 According to Monier-Williams. however, in the mind of 
 a worshipper of Siva it was never connected " with 
 indecent ideas nor with sexual love, though impure 
 practices have certainly been introduced in connection 
 with the worship of Siva's wife." One way of wor- 
 shipping the Linga is to pour Ganges water over the 
 stone image. There is a special Siva festival on tie 
 27ti of February wien offerings are made to tie Linga 
 witi prayer and fasting. " Tie Linga is bathed in milk, 
 decorated, wrapped in bilva leaves, and prayed to; which 
 ceremony is rei)eated at intervals with slight changes. 
 All castes, even the lowest, join in the exercises " (E. 
 W. Hopkins). See Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins: J. 
 A. Dubois and H. K. Beauehamp. 
 
 LINGA SARIRA. An expression used in Theosophy 
 ig.v.). It denotes the astral body, that is to say, the
 
 Lingayits 
 
 223 
 
 Loha=Sur 
 
 body formed of ethereal "astral" matter. It is the 
 double of the physical body. 
 
 LINGAYITS. Lingavats, Lingayits, or Lingaits is 
 the name borne by a modern Hindu sect. Tbey are a 
 section of Siva-worshipj;iers, the followers of Basava, a 
 priest of Siva (g.v.). They are worshippers of the Linga 
 (or phallus), which they wear " in a silver or metallic 
 casket suspended round their necks with a cord like a 
 necklace." The members of the sect are called also 
 Jangamas, " vajjrants." See Monier-Williams: E. W. 
 Hopkins; J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp; R. V. 
 Russell. 
 
 LITAVIS. One of the deities worshipped by the 
 ancient Celts. Reverence was paid to Litavis in Britain 
 as well as in Gaul. The goddess Litavis was paired with 
 a god CicoUuis who corresponded to the Roman Mars. 
 
 LITHOMANCT. A species of divination. Lithomaney 
 (Greek, lithos, a stone) was practised with stones. " The 
 stone used for this purpose was washed in spring water 
 by candle light, and the person engaged in divining, 
 having purified himself, covered his face, repeated a form 
 of prayer, and placed certain characters in a certain 
 order. Then the stone was said to move of itself, and 
 in a soft gentle murmur to give the answer" (James 
 Gardner, Faiths of th" World). 
 
 LITURGY OF THE ANCIENTS, THE. A Liturgy- 
 compiled by Edward Stephens (d. 170()|, whose theological 
 learning gained him the name " Abbat Stephens." The 
 title of his Liturgy, printed in 1096, shows the nature of 
 the " reformation " which he wished to introduce. It 
 is : '• The Liturgy of the Ancients, repre-sented, as near 
 as well may be, in English Forms. With a Preface con- 
 cerning the Restitution of the mo.st Solemn Part of the 
 Christian Worship in the Holy Eucharist, to its Integrity, 
 and just Frequency of Celebration." Stephens tefls us 
 in his Preface that he had received divine attestations 
 that the reformation he was engaged upon, the restitu- 
 tion of a daily celebration of the Holy Eucharist in 
 places proper for it and of a weekly celebration in all 
 Churches, was the special work of God. He felt that 
 he must obey God rather than man, and must prefer 
 the authority of the Catholic Church before that of any 
 society of men. Stephens was at first a barrister. 
 While still a layman, he went to work to try to persuade 
 people of the need of his reformation. He tried to 
 influence the clergy, published pamphlets, and even 
 petitioned Parliament. He exerted himself in this way 
 for thirty years, but without success. When he .saw no 
 hope of having daily celebrations in public, he found an 
 opportunity of having them in private. God. he says, 
 brought together a little company of constant weekly 
 Communicants, and amongst them one in Holy Ordere 
 according to the Church of England. These persons soon 
 agreed upon three things. 1. To meet daily, at five in 
 the morning, at a daily Communion. 2. To endeavour, 
 as far as they could, in all things to follow the example 
 of the ancient Christians. 3. To avoid giving offence to 
 any, but especially to the Church of England. After 
 nearly a year they were likely to lose the person who 
 officiated. Stephens therefore took Holy Orders him- 
 self, and obtained permi.ssion from the Bishop of 
 Gloucester to u.se his Church at Cripplegate The cele- 
 bration now became public, and the forms were suitably 
 adapted. " While we had it in private, we used such 
 enlargements of the Church Service as I thought most 
 agreeable to the ancient Form : bnt when we came into 
 the Church, we forbore most of that, and confined our- 
 selves to the CTiurch Forms, only supplying what I 
 thought defective therein as well as I could out of other 
 parts of our Liturgy." See Peter Hall. 
 LLETJ. Lieu or Llew was one of the gods or divine 
 
 heroes revered by the ancient Celts in Britain. He has 
 been comjiared or identified with the Gaelic god Lugh oi 
 Lug (f/.i-.t. His mother is said to have been Arianrod 
 a goddess who was as.sociated with the god Gwydion 
 (q.v.). Whether Gwydion was thought of as his father 
 IS uncertain. See Charles Squire, MytJi. 
 
 LLCDD. Llfidd was one of the gods or divine heroes 
 revereil by the ancient Celts in Britain. The name alsc 
 appears as Nfldd : and in Irish Mvthologv as Nuada The 
 god reapiieared in British mythologv as a king who gave 
 the city which afterwards l)ecame London the name Caer 
 Ludd. His name has been preserved in Lvdnev (Glouces- 
 tershire), where, as appears from inscriptions, he was 
 regarded as a kind of god of war resembling the Roman 
 Mars: and in Ludgate, where, according to legend, he 
 was buried. In Welsh legend he has a wife, Gwyar. 
 See Charles Squire, Myth.; cp. Reinach, O. 
 
 LLYR. The gods of the Celts in Ancient Britain are 
 in Welsh documents .sometimes referred to as the 
 " Children of Lljr." Ll.Cr is the British name. The 
 Gaelic form of the name is Ler. The wife of Lljr 
 appears as Iwerydd, that is to say, Ireland. The name 
 of the god has survived in Leicester, which is for Llj^r- 
 cestre. In the mythology the Gaelic Bron or the British 
 Bran (q.v.) is represented as the son of Lir or Ll^r. 
 See Charles Squire, Myth. 
 
 LOCI THEOLOGICI. As used by Aristotle and 
 Cicero, the term tnpoi or loci is used to denote the 
 sources or passages on which arguments are based. 
 Similarly in theological language, the expression loci 
 theologici has been used to denote the sources on which 
 theological arguments are based. The Roman Catholic 
 theologian, Melchior Canus (1.523-lofiO), Professor of 
 Theology at Salamanca, and afterwards Bishop of the 
 Canaries, cho.se the expression for the title of his great 
 work on the use of Scripture, the Councils, the Fathers, 
 Philo.sophy, etc. The great Reformer Melanchthon 
 (1497-15ti0) used the same expression to describe his own 
 representation of evangelical dogmatics as distinguished 
 from the sententiae of the Schoolmen. It was retained 
 by the Lutheran theologians as a convenient expression 
 to the middle of the seventeenth centurv. See Benham , 
 Schaff-Herzog; the Cath. Did. 
 
 LODHURR. Another name for the Scandinavian god 
 Loki (q.v.). 
 
 LOFX. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 The goddess Ix>fn l)elonged to the retinue of Frija (q.v.) 
 and Freyja (q.v.), and .seems to have been a goddess of 
 marriage. 
 
 LOGIA. THE. The name Logia has been given by 
 .scholars to a record of the sayings of Jesus which was 
 used in the compilation of the First and Third Gospels. 
 Papias of Hierapolis definitely states that Matthew made 
 a collection of Sayings in Hebrew. He also says that 
 •■ everyone interpreted them as he was able," which 
 would seem to mean that they were translated into Greek 
 by a number of persons. (Serman scholars call this 
 primitive source Q (from Quelle '• source "). In the 
 main the First and Third Gospels were based on two 
 sources — this, and another corresponding to the Gospel 
 of Mark. See Paul Wernle, The Sources of Our Know- 
 ledge of the Life of Jesus. 1907: C. F. Nolloth, The Person 
 of Our Lord and Recent Thought, 1908; Arthur S. Peake, 
 Intr. 
 
 LOHa-SUR. An Indian deity, the patron-god of the 
 Agarias. a caste of iron-smelters and an offshoot of the 
 Gond tribe. He is the Iron demon, to whom the Agarias 
 offer a black hen. On special occasions they worship 
 their smelting implements; and to these also they offer 
 fowls.
 
 Loki 
 
 224 
 
 Lugal=-Marada 
 
 LOKI. One of the gods of the old ScandinavJans. 
 I/oki, " the closer," is represented as one of the iEsir 
 (g.v.) and as the eompanion or rival of Wodan (q.v.) and 
 Thor {q.v.). He is called also Loptr and Dodhurr, names 
 which mean " the air " or " the hot air." His offspring 
 include the Midhgardh-serpent (g.v.), the Fenris-wolf 
 (g.v.), and Hel (q.v.). He is able to transform himself 
 into various shapes (e.g., that of a falcon) in order to 
 carry out his plans. It is curious that he should appear 
 In tlie twofold character of friend and enemy of the great 
 gods. If, as has been suggested, he was a fire-god, 
 equivalent to Agni (q.v.), the explanation may be that 
 fire is at one time a friend (supplying warmth, etc.) and 
 at another time a foe (bringing destruction). In 
 Scandinavian mythology Loki is the personification of 
 adroitness and cunning. In some myths Loki, Wodan, 
 and Hoenir (q.r.) form a triad. According to Qne, when 
 the first men were formed, Wodan gave them breath, 
 HoeniT souls, and Ix)dhurr (Loki) colour and warmth. 
 Logi, the fire-demon, has been explained as a doublet of 
 Loki. See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the 
 Teutons, 1902; Reinach, O. 
 
 LONDON-AMSTERDAM TRUE CONFESSION. A 
 Congregational Confession of Faith published in 1596 
 A.D. on behalf of the London fugitives who were living 
 in and near Amsterdam. " In doctrine, its articles agree 
 with Continental and Anglican Calvinism. As regards 
 Church government, they carry further the Congrega- 
 tional principles of the Confession of 1589 " (W. A. 
 Curtis). Op. LONDON CONFESSION OF 1589. 
 
 LONDON CONFESSION OF 1589. A Congregational 
 Confession of Faith prepared by Henr.v Barrowe and 
 John Greenwood. It was printed at Dort. It had been 
 preceded in 1582 A.D. by Robert Browne's " Statement 
 of Congregational Principles," published at Middelburg 
 in Holland. " Less democratic than Browne's work in 
 its view of the authority of the elders, it makes the same 
 claim to New Testament warrant for the free election 
 ot pastors and teachers, elders, deacons, and widows, by 
 the congregation " (W. .\. Curtis). 
 
 LONO. A god worshipped by the Hawaiians. Sacred 
 to him was the great New Tear's festival. " On the 
 twenty-third of the month Welchu, which nearly cor- 
 re.sponded to November, Lono's image was decorated and, 
 when night came on, all the i)eople went to bathe in the 
 sea. This rite of purification having been accomplished, 
 men and women donned new clothing in preparation for 
 the festival which began at sunrise on the morrow. 
 During the four da.vs of its continuance no fishing, no 
 bathing, no pounding of kapa, and no beating of drums 
 or blowing of oonchs was permitted. Land and sk.v and 
 sea were tabu to IX)no, and onlv feasting and games were 
 allowed " (Hutton Webster, R.D.). 
 
 LOPTR. Another name for ttie Scandinavian god Loki 
 (q.v.). 
 
 LORD'S SUPPER. A name given to the Christian 
 institution which commemorates the Last Supper of Jesus 
 with his disciples. The name seems to have been bor- 
 rowed from I. Corinthians xi. 20, " where, however, it 
 probably refers to the Agape or Love-feast, which was 
 held immediately before or after Communion " (W. R. 
 W. Stephens, Book of Common Prayer). Other names 
 are the Holy Communion, and the Euchariist (Thanks- 
 giving). 
 
 LORETTO NUNS. An order founded by Mrs. Mary 
 Teresa Ball in imitation of the Institute of the Blessed 
 Virgin Mary (q.v.). In 1822 Mrs. Rail opened a large 
 mansion at Rathfarnham, near Dublin, as a convent of 
 " Our Lady of Loretto." Other convents were estab- 
 lished not only in Ireland, but also in India and the 
 Colonies. See Oath. Diet. 
 
 LOTUS, THE. In Hindu mythology the lotus flower 
 is symbolical of the earth, and the creator of the world 
 rests upon a lotus. Benares, which, with its two 
 thousand temples, is a favourite place of pilgrimages, is 
 called " the lotus of the world." The Egyptian sun-god 
 Horus is represented as resting upon a lotus. This 
 suggests to Prof. Elliot Smith (Dr.) that the flower 
 represents his mother. " The familiar representation 
 of Horus (and his homologues in India and elsewhere) 
 being born from the lotus suggests that the flower repre- 
 sents his mother." But, since, according to his theory, 
 the original form of Hathor was a shell-amulet (that is 
 to say, a cowry-amulet), " it seems not unlikely that her 
 identification with the lotus may have arisen from the 
 confusion between the latter and the coWry, which no 
 doubt was also in part due to the belief that both the 
 sliell and the plant were expressions of the vital powers 
 of the water in which they developed " (p. ISO f.). 
 
 LUCIFERIANS. The i>arty of Lucifer, bishop of 
 Calaris (Cagliari) in Sardinia. Lucifer was a vigorous 
 opponent of the Arians and a strong supporter of 
 Athanasius. Constantius sent him into exile from 355 
 to Siil A.D. When in 361 the exiled bishops received 
 permission to return to their sees, Lucifer went to 
 Antioch, but he refused to hold communion with bishops 
 and clergy who had through pressure consented to 
 Arianism, that is to say, he would not accept tie decision 
 of the Council of Alexandria. According to Ambrose 
 he separated himself from the Church, and according to 
 Theodoret (H.E. iii. 5) he even framed new dogmas. But 
 Jerome describes him as heatns and honun pastor. He 
 may have been a leader of a party; he would hardly 
 seem to have been a schismatic. " The substance of 
 liUcifer's controversial pamphlets consists of appeals to 
 Holy Scripture, and they contain a very large number of 
 quotations from both Testaments " (Diet, of Christ. 
 Biog.). See J. H. Blunt; Waoe and Piercy. 
 
 LUCOPETRIANS. Euthymius Zigabenus gives this 
 name to the Euehites (q.v.) or a branch of them because 
 one of their leaders, whose original name seems to have 
 been Peter, came to be knovra as Lycopetrus (lukopetroa, 
 Wolf-Peter). He had proclaimed himself the Messiah 
 and had promised to reappear after his death. It is said 
 that on the third day after his death a wolf appeared 
 to his disciples. After this they called Peter, their 
 former leader, Lycopetrus. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 LUG. Lug was a god or divine hero revered by the 
 ancient Celts. The god, it is thought, reappears in 
 Lugoves, a name for the Celtic genii, and in the town- 
 name Lugdunum. The Gaelic Lug or Lugh has been 
 compared or identified with the British Lieu or Llew; 
 but more is known about the former. The Gaels seem 
 to have regarded him first as a sun-god, and then as a 
 fire-god or as both together. In Irish mythology his face 
 is represented as shining like the sun. " He was the 
 acknowledged master of all arts, both of war and of 
 peace" (Squire). The Milky Way was described as 
 Lug's Chain. See Charles Squire, Myth.; Reinach, O. 
 
 LUGAL-BANDA. A god in Babylonian mythology. 
 " When the hearts of the other gods failed them, he alone 
 recovered the Tablets of Fate, stolen by the bird-god Zfl 
 from Bnlil's palace " (L. W. King, Legends of Bahylon 
 and Egypt in relation to Hebrew Tradition, 1918). 
 
 LUGAL-MARADA. A Babylonian deity. The name 
 means " king of Marad." Lugal-Marada was a solar 
 deity who had a temple at Marad, the native place of 
 Gilgamesh. When Gilgamesh and Babani had slain 
 the divine bull Aid, sent against them by the goddess 
 Ishtar (q.v.), Gilgamesh offered its horns to Lugal- 
 Marada. See GILGAMESH EPIC. Lugal-Marada 
 seems to be equivalent to Shamash (q.v.).
 
 Luke, The Gospel of 
 
 225 
 
 Lupercalia 
 
 LUKE, THE GOSPEL OF. Like the Gospel of Mat- 
 thew, the Gospel of Luke seems to have been based in 
 the main on two documents, a document corresponding 
 very closely to the Gospel of Mark (g.v.) and a document 
 containing a collection of discourses and sayings of the 
 Lord (the Logia, or Q). But the compiler used also 
 other sources, written or oral, or both, for the Gosi)el of 
 Luke contains a large amount of matter peculiar to itself. 
 This matter comprises eighteen out of its twenty-three 
 parables, including those of the Good Samaritan, the 
 Prodigal Son, and Dives and Lazarus: the stories of the 
 draught of fish (v. 1-12), the raising of the widow's son 
 (vii. 11-19), the cure of a woman with a spirit of infirmity 
 (xiii. 11-18), the cure of a man with dropsy (xiv. 1-7), the 
 cure of ten lepers (xvii. 11-20), the healing of Malchus" 
 ear (xxii. 47-54). It includes a number of short sayings : 
 Satan's fall from heaven (x. lS-21) : fire on earth (xii. 49) ; 
 reply to a brother (xii. 14) ; reply to the greeting of a 
 woman (xi. 27); the message to Herod Antipas (xiii. 32): 
 and other.s. It includes a number of short narratives : 
 the names of the mini.stering women (viii. 2, 3) : 
 Samaritans refusing hospitality to Jesus (ix. 51-57); a 
 would-be disciple (ix. Hi, 02); the seventy disciples (x. 
 1 ff.): Mary and Martha (x. 38 ff.); the story of Zac- 
 chaeus (six. 2-11). P. Wernle thinks that some of these 
 may have been derived from a lost gospel. The matter 
 peculiar to Luke includes also certain sa.vings and in- 
 cidents in the story of the Passion and the Resurrection : 
 details of the agony in Gethsemane (xxii. 43, 44); the 
 sending of Jesus to Herod (xxiii. (5-13): the daughters of 
 Jerusalem (xxiii. 27-32): the first word from the cross 
 (xxiii. 34); the two thieves (xxiii. 39-44); St. Peter at 
 the tomb (xxiv. 12); the walk to Emmaus (xxiv. 13-33); 
 the appearance of Je.sus to the eleven (xxiv. 36 ff.) ; the 
 ascension (xxiv. 50 ff.). These additions also, it has been 
 thought, ma.v have been taken from an older source. 
 But this is quite uncertain. As Wernle says, " if Luke 
 really made use of traditions, they were not necessarily 
 written ones." Plummer, Hamack, and others have 
 called attention to the fact tiiat a very considerable 
 portion of the matter peculiar to Luke is feminine in 
 intere,«rt. Women figure prominently. Harnack sug- 
 gests that these special traditions came from Philip and 
 his four prophesying daughters. As regards Philip's 
 daughters, " it is known that St. Luke made their 
 acquaintance in Coesarea, and it is very probable that on 
 a later occasion he encountered them yet again in Asia. 
 Papias, who himself .saw the daughters, expressly states 
 that they transmitted stories of the old days." Harnack 
 further points out that another collection of stories in 
 Luke is distinguished by the interest shown in the 
 Samaritans, and that, according to the Acts of the 
 Apostles (viii. 14), the great achievement of Philip was 
 the evangelisation of Samaria. In his view, " this 
 coincidence of interest in the feminine element, in 
 prophecy (the Holy Spirit), and in the Samaritans, taken 
 together with the general standpoint — that of Jernsalcm 
 — of this source peculiar to St. Luke, makes it probable 
 that we have here a body of tradition which rests upon 
 the authority of St. Philip and his daughters." Harnack 
 thinks that the fir.st two chapters of the Gospel of Luke 
 are based upon a special tradition which Luke treated 
 very freely. Sanday (The Life of Christ iji Recent 
 Research) thinks that '• these two chapters— whatever 
 the date at which they were first committed to writing 
 — are essentially the most archaic thing in the whole 
 New Te.stament, older really in substance — ^whatever may 
 be the date of their actual committal to writing — than I. 
 and II. Thessalonians." The Apostle Luke was a 
 physician. It seems probable that it was actually 
 hie medical profession that led him to Christianitv. 
 
 " for he embraced that religion in the conviction 
 that by its means and by quite new methods he would 
 be enabled to heal diseases and to drive out evil spirits, 
 and above all to become an effectual phvsician of the 
 soul " (Harnack). Following Hobart (The Medical 
 Lanijuage of St. Luke), Hamack maintains that " verv 
 nearly all of the alterations and additions which the 
 third evangelist has made in the Markan text are most 
 simply and surely explained from the professional 
 interest of a physician." In the Third Gospel the repre- 
 sentation of Jesus ■' is dominatetl by the conception of 
 Him as the wondrous Healer and Saviour of the sick, as, 
 indeed, the Healer above all healers." Harnack finds 
 the same interest in medicine and healing in the Acts 
 of the Apostles, and argues powerfully in support of the 
 view that the Third Go.spel and the Acts were composed 
 by one and the same author, Luke the Physician. This 
 was also the belief of the ancient Church. See Adolf 
 Hamack. Luke the Physician. 1907; W. Sandav, The Life 
 of Christ in Recent Research, 1907; C. F. Xolloth, The 
 Person of Our Lord and Recent Thought, 1908; G. Currie 
 Martin, The Books of the N.T., 1909; Arthur S. Peake, 
 Intr.; F. _C. Conybeare. yew Test. Crit. 
 
 LUKMaN HAKIM. A Hindu deity, worshipped by 
 the Kaderas (or Kanderas), a small caste of makers of 
 fireworks, and reputed to have been the inventors of gun- 
 powder. The Kadera is known also as a Golandaz, 
 ■■ hall-thrower," Bandar, " rocket-thrower," or Hawai- 
 dfir. maker of fireworks. Lukman Hakim is worshipped 
 not in the house but in the shop, and with Muhammadan 
 rites. 
 
 LULLARDS. Lullards (equivalent to Lollards) was 
 a name given to a religious fraternity instituted at 
 Antwerp about the year 1300. In time of plague the 
 Lullards devoted themselves to the work of tending the 
 sick and of carrying dead bodies to the grave. The 
 word is derived from a root meaning "to sing softly." 
 and has reference to their solemn processions. The 
 proper name of the fraternity was " Cellile Brothers and 
 Sisters " or " Brothers and Sisters of St. Alexius." In 
 course of time the Lullards came to be regarded as 
 heretics; and then the term Lullard became equivalent 
 to "heretic." See J. H. Blunt; Brockhaus. 
 
 LUMAWIG. The supreme god of the Bontoc Igorot. 
 an Indonesian people of the Philippines, who dwell in the 
 Northern Luzon. IvCgend relates that he came down 
 from the sky, married one of the Bontoc women, and 
 lived at Chao-wi in the centre of the Bontoc district. 
 " Certain large flat stones, arranged in a circle, are 
 looked upon as the foundations of his house " (W. J. 
 Perry, The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia, 1918). He 
 is supposed to have taught the Bontoc to build their 
 council house and men's house, and to have instructed 
 them in the art of agriculture. 
 
 LUMINOUS TEMPLES. When in A.D. 636 a 
 Nestorian mission arrived in China, the meml)ers 
 obtained an imperial decree which authorized them to 
 erect a temple. From the year 7.56 the Nestorian 
 Churches became known as " luminous temples." When 
 the Buddhist patriarch Zendo (b. 614 A.D.) died, the 
 Emperor granted the temple in which he resided the 
 honorific title Komyoji. According to A. Lloyd, this is 
 only another form of " luminous temple." It is said 
 that from the works of Zendo which were preserved in 
 the library at the White Horse Monastery rays of light 
 issued. See Arthur Lloyd. 
 
 LUPERCALIA. The festival known as Lupercalia wias 
 held in Rome on February 15 from early times in 
 honour of Faunus (g.v.), a deity afterwards identi- 
 fied with the Greek Pan (q.v.). Faunus was wor- 
 .shipped under the name Lupercus, and the festival
 
 Lux Mundi 
 
 226 
 
 Ma'aser Sheni 
 
 was held in a grotto on the Palatine Hill which 
 was called the LuiJercal. The god was evidently 
 an ancient pastoral deity, a god of fertility. It has been 
 thought that the obje<?t of the Lupercalian rites was, at 
 least symbolically, to purify the land and thus to induce 
 the god to give fertility to fields, fiocke, and people. O. 
 Seyffert describes the procedure as follows. " After the 
 fiamen Dialis had sacrificed some he-goats and a dog, 
 two youths were touched on the forehead with a knife, 
 smeared with the blood of the goats. It was then 
 immediately wiped off with wool dipped in milk, where- 
 upon they were bound to laugh. After the ^sacrificial 
 fea.st the Lnperci [as tie priests were called], crowned 
 and anointed, and naked, except for an apron of goat- 
 •skin, ran round the ancient city on the Palatine with 
 thongs cut from the skin of the .sacrificed goats in their 
 hands. On their course women used to place themselves 
 in their way to receive blows from the thongs, which 
 was believed to be a charm against barrenness." Pos- 
 sibly in the most ancient and primitive form of the rites 
 the symbolism repre-sented not purification but fertiliza- 
 tion. See Chambers' Encych; O. Seyffert, Diet.; S. 
 Reinach, O. 
 
 LUX MUNDI. A theological work, a collection of 
 essays, published in 1889. The work produced a con- 
 siderable amount of excitement, and was much criticised. 
 The contributors were H. S. Holland, Canon of St. 
 Paul's, who wrote on "Faith": Aubrey Moore, 
 Honorar.v Canon of Christ Church, who wrote on the 
 " Christian Doctrine of God ": J. R. Illingworth, Rector 
 of Tx)ngworth, who wrote on " Tlie Problem of Pain, its 
 bearing on faith in God." and on " The Incarnation in 
 relation to Development ": E. S. Talbot, Vicar of Leeds, 
 who wrote on " The Preparation in History for Christ ": 
 R. C. Moberly, Vicar of Great Budworth, who WTX)te on 
 "The Incarnation as the Basis of Dogma": the Hon. 
 Arthur Lyttelton, Maister of Selwyn College, Cambridge, 
 who wrote on "The Atonement"; Charles Gore, Prin- 
 cipal of Pusey House. Oxford, who wrote on " The Holy 
 Spirit and Inspiration "; W. Lock. Sub-Warden of Keble 
 College, Oxford, who wrote on " The Church " : F. Paget, 
 Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, who wrote on " Sacra- 
 ments " : W. J. H. Campion. Tutor of Keble College. 
 Oxford, who wrote on " Christianity and Politics ": and 
 R. L. Ottley, Vioe-Principal of Ouddesdon Theological 
 
 College, who wrote on " Christian Ethics." The writers 
 were engaged together in the common work of University 
 education at Oxford between the years 1875 and 1885. 
 And they felt compelled both for their own saj^e and for 
 the sake of others " to attempt to put the Catholic faith 
 into its right relation to modern intellectual and moral 
 problems." They met together not infrequentl.v. The 
 collection of essays, " Lux Mundi," is a combined effort 
 to explain the Christian Creed. " We are sure that 
 Jesus Christ is still and will continue to be the Light 
 of the world. We are sure that if men can rid them- 
 selves of prejudices and mistakes (for which, it must 
 be said, the Church is often as responsible as they), and 
 will look afresh at what the Christian faith really means, 
 they will find that it is as adequate as ever to interpret 
 life and knowledge in its several departments, and to 
 impart not less intellectual than moral freedom. But 
 we are conscious also that if the true meaning of the 
 faith is to be made sufficiently conspicuous it needs dis- 
 encumbering, reinterpreting, explaining." Theology 
 must take a new development. But development is not 
 innovation, nor heresy. " The real development of 
 theology is rather the process in which the Church, 
 standing firm in her old truths, enters into the appre- 
 hension of the new social and intellectual movements of 
 each age: and because 'the truth makes her free' is 
 able to assimilate all new material, to welcome and give 
 its place to all new knowledge, to throw herself into the 
 sanctification of each new social order, bringing forth 
 out of her treasures things new and old, and shewing 
 again and again her power of witnes.sing under changed 
 conditions to the catholic capacity of her faith and life." 
 See Liix Mundi, edited by Charles Gore, twelfth edition, 
 1891. 
 
 LYCH-GATE. Lich is an Anglo-Saxon word meaning 
 " corpse." Lych-gate or Lich-gate therefore means 
 literally Corpse-gate. It is a gate at the entrance of a 
 churchyard covered with a roof or shed. Here the 
 bearers used often to pause and rest when bringing a 
 corpse for interment. Lych-gates are still found in 
 various parts of England, but they are rare in Scotland. 
 According to Parker, " the term is also used in some 
 I>arts of the country for the path by which a corpse is 
 usually conveyed to the church." See Benham: J. H. 
 Parker, Oloss. 
 
 M 
 
 M. Grod M is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians 
 of Central America. He is usuall.v represented as 
 entirely black. Since he seems to be a god of chapmen 
 or travelling merchants, like Yacatecutli, it has been sug- 
 gested (Marian Edwardes and Lewis Spence) that his 
 blackness may be symbolical of the tanned or bronzed 
 skin acquired by travelling merchants in Central America. 
 In the Codex Tro-cortesianus he is provided with the 
 scorpion's tail. 
 
 MA. A goddess .said to have been worshipped in Asia 
 Minor. She seems to have been equivalent to the nature- 
 goddess Atargatis, 
 
 MA'ASERoTH. The Jewish Mishnah, a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. (see MISHNAH), comprises 
 a number of treatises or tractates which reproduce the 
 oral tradition or unwritten law as developed by the 
 .second c-entury A.D. There are sixty-three tractates, 
 divided into six groups or orders (sedarim). Ma'aseroth 
 is the seventh tractate of the first group, wliich is called 
 Zera'im (" Seeds "). 
 
 MA'ASER SHENI. The name of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are included in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection and
 
 Maat 
 
 227 
 
 Magic 
 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah tbe Holy, or the 
 Patriarcli, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 {sedarim). Ma'aser Sheni is the eighth tractate of the 
 first group, which is calle<l Zera'lm (" Seeds "). 
 
 JIAAT. An Egyptian deity. Maat was the goddess 
 of truth and justice. She was regarded as the daughter 
 of Ra {q.v.) and wife of Thoth (q.v.). She is represented 
 as wearing on her head, as a symbol of trath, an ostrich 
 feather. Sometimes, in order to express the impartiality 
 of justice, she is represented with bandaged eyes. In 
 the Old Kingdom she is included already among the god- 
 desses. See A. Wiedemann: Adolf Erman, Handbook. 
 
 MACHA. An ancient Irish deity. Sister of Bav, and 
 wife of Neit, tie god of battle, she had charge of one 
 of the departments of battle and carnage, being active 
 amidst the bodies of the slain. Human crania, which 
 have been found in heaps, seem to have been offerings 
 to the goddess. 
 
 MACCHIAVELLISTS. Those who belong to the school 
 of thought of N. Machiavelli (14fi9-1527). Machiavelli 
 attached great importance to religion, but simply as a 
 means of lieeping the people in checli. He regarded it 
 not as a principle implanted in the soul by God, but a.s 
 a man-made political device. The device loses its value 
 as soon as men see through it. 
 
 MACEDONIANS. The followers or the party of Mace- 
 donlus, Bishop of Constantinople (341-3(50 A.D.), the 
 most prominent of those theologians who denied the God- 
 head of the Holy Spirit. " Confessing that the Son 
 was lilie the Father in substance, he held that the Holy 
 Ghost was a creature, like the angels, and a servant of 
 the Father and the Son " (Cath. Diet.). Those who held 
 this opinion were called later Marathonians. after Mara- 
 thonius. Bishop of Nicomedia. Another general name 
 for the Macedonians was Pneumatomachi, " adver.«aries 
 of the Spirit." The Macedonians were condemned in 
 374 by a Roman Synod, in 375 by an lUyrian Synod, and 
 in 381 by the Second Oecumenical Council (Constan- 
 tinople). Nevertheless, in Phrygia they continued to 
 exist down to the fifth century. The first canon of Con- 
 stantinople anathematizes especially, among other here- 
 sies, the heresy of " the Semi-Arian.s. or Pneumato- 
 machi." See K. R. Hagenbach; J. H. Blunt: Cath. 
 Diet. 
 
 MACMILLANITES. The followers of John Macmillan 
 (1670-1753). Macmillan was expelled from the Scottish 
 Kirii in 1703. In 1712 he established the " Reformed 
 Presbytery," and became the first pastor of the Reformed 
 Presbyterians. See C.\MERONIANS. 
 
 MADAN MOHAN. The enchanter of love, one of the 
 names of the Hindu god Krishna. 
 
 MaDHAVA. Honey-sweet, or belonging to the Spring, 
 vernal, one of the names of the Hindu god Krishna. 
 
 MADHAVACHARTA SECT. A Vishnuite ."sect of 
 Southern India, the followers of a saint Madhavacharya, 
 also called Mfidhavas. The founder sought to combine 
 the worship of Krishna with that of Siva and Parvati. 
 and thus to reconcile the Sivites and Vishnuites. The 
 members of the sect are called dualists, because they 
 maintain that the human soul is different from the 
 divine. " They admit a distinction between the divine 
 soul and the universe, and between the human soul and 
 the material world. They deny also the possibility of 
 Nirvana or the absorption and extinction of the human 
 soul in the divine essence " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 MaDHVAS. The followers of the Hindu religious 
 teacher, Ananda-tirtha or Madhva. Madhva is -said to 
 have been bom about the year 1200 A.D. He opposed 
 the Non-duality doctrine of Sankara and taught a 
 Duality. It has been supposed that the Madhvas were 
 
 influenced by Christian doctrines, but the influence was 
 more likely Muhammadan. According to Madhva, there 
 IS only one eternal Supreme Being. His chief name is 
 V ishnu or Hari. This Being is essentiallv different from 
 the individual spirit, and from matter. The Supreme 
 Spirit IS independent: the human spirit is dependent. 
 The Madhvas honour the Supreme Being in three ways : 
 (1) by naming: (2) by worship; and (3) by branding. A 
 child IS given one of the names of Vishnu. Worship is 
 performed with the voice, the body, and the heart. The 
 Madhvas brand themselves with the circular discus and 
 c-onch-shell as emblems of Vishnu. See Monier-Williams; 
 E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 MADHOSrOAN. Destroyer of the demon Madho 
 (honey or wine), one of the names of the Hindu god 
 Vishnu. 
 
 MADHTAMAYANA. When the widened form of 
 Buddhism known as Mahayfina, or the Great Vehicle, 
 was developed, the older form was called Hinayana, or 
 the Little Veliicle. There arose also a third fo'rm, of a 
 mediating nature, which received the name Madhvama- 
 .vana, or the Middle Vehicle. See VEHICLES, "THE 
 THREE. 
 
 MADIVALAl'YA. The tribal deity of the Tsakalas 
 of the Telugu country in India, a caste who.se occupation 
 is partly to prepare torclies for processional or other 
 ceremonial occasions. 
 
 MADRAS SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. A s.vstem 
 originated by Andrew Bell (1753-1S32), who was Super- 
 intendent of th<» Madras Male Orphan Asylum. Joseph 
 I>ancaster (177S-1S.'58) tried the same system. See 
 LANCASTERIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 
 
 MAGI. A priestly caste from whom, on account of 
 their practice of astrology and the interpretation of 
 dreams, the word magic is derived. Iranian scholars 
 find a marked difference between the Persians and the 
 Magi. The Magi were one of six tribes in Media. " They 
 made a temporarily successful bid for political power 
 when Gauniata the Magus seized the throne in the 
 character of Bardiya (Smerdis), the murdered brother 
 of Camby.ses. The Aryan aristocracy regained its power 
 under the leadership of the great Darius, and an annual 
 festival, the ilagophonia, celebrated the downfall of the 
 priests who had tried to be kings. After a generation 
 or two we find the Magi firmly established as a sacred 
 caste. Their general resemblance to the Brahmans is 
 very suggestive in the light of Dr. D. B. Spooner's in- 
 vestigations. They kept their distinctive practices for 
 centuries, and Greek witnesses expressly show that the 
 Persians did not share them. Conspicuous among these 
 were the exi)osing of the dead to vultures, and the prac- 
 tice of ne.\-t-of-kin marriage " (J. H. Jloulton). There 
 is no proof that the Persians made use of the vultures 
 before the Sa.ssanian age; and they rejected the Magian 
 doctrine of marriage, as well as other characteristics of 
 the caste. According to Plutarch, the Magi sacrificed a 
 wolf to the god of evil in a sunless place. Moulton 
 notes that while tiis is akin to the spirit of Mithraism, 
 the propitiation of evil powers never gained any footing 
 in Parsi.sm. " We may reasonably conjecture that only 
 the Magi resident in Persia identified themselves with 
 Zoroastrianism, and that a great many Magi living in 
 other countries kept up their own .special beliefs and 
 usages, which might easily be credited to Zoroastrian 
 Magi by misunderstanding." Those, however, who threw 
 in their lot with Zoroastrianism (probably in the fifth 
 century B.C.) profoundly modified its whole spirit. They 
 introduced, for in.stance, the great development of ritual. 
 Cp. F. W. Bussell. 
 
 MAGIC. According to J. G. Frawr (Tlie Magic Art. 
 1911), the principles of thought on which magic is based
 
 Magical Prayers and Names 
 
 228 
 
 Mahdi, The 
 
 resolve themselves into two : (1) that like produces like, 
 or that an effect resembles its cause (the Law of Simi- 
 larity) ; (2) that things which have once been in contact 
 continue to act on each other at a distance after the 
 physical contact has been severed (the Law of Contact 
 or Contagion). From the first of these principles, " the 
 magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires 
 merely by imitating it": from the second "he infers 
 that Whatever he does to a material object will affect 
 equally the person with whom the object was once in 
 contact, whether it formed part of his body or not. 
 Charms based on the Law of Similarity may be called 
 Homoeopathic or Imitative Magic. Charms based on the 
 Law of Contact or Contagion may be called Contagious 
 Magic." The same principles are believed to regulate 
 the operations of inanimate nature. Magic is therefore 
 a false iscience as well as a fallacious guide of conduct. 
 " Regarded as a system of natural law, that is, as a 
 statement of the rules whic^ determine the .sequence of 
 events throughout the world, it may be called Theoretical 
 Magic : regarded as a set of precepts which human beings 
 observe in order to compass their ends, it may be called 
 Practical Magic." The primitive magician, however, 
 knows magic only on its practical side. To him magic 
 is always an art, never a science. As regards the rela- 
 tionship of magic to religion, it has been much debated 
 whether tlie former originated before the latter, or 
 whether it is a degenerate form of religion. They have 
 much in common. Like religion, magic has its ceremonies, 
 sacrifices, lustrations, prayers, chants and dances. 
 Frazer thinks that, though magic is found to fuse and 
 amalgamate in many ages and in many lands, there are 
 reasons for thinking that this fusion is not primitive, 
 and that there was a time when man trusted to magic 
 alone for the satisfaction of his higher cravings. " In 
 the first place a consideration of the fundamental notions 
 of magic and religion may incline us to surmise that 
 magic is older than religion in the history of humanity. 
 We have seen that on the one hand magic is nothing but 
 a mistaken application of the very simplest and most 
 elementary processes of the mind, namely, the association 
 of ideas by virtue of resemblance or contiguity; and that 
 on the other hand religion assumes the operation of con- 
 scious or personal agents, superior to man, behind the 
 visible screen of nature. Obviously the conception of 
 personal agents is more complex than a simple recognition 
 of the similarity or contiguity of ideas; and a theory 
 which assumes that the course of nature is determined 
 by conscious agents is more abstruse and recondite, and 
 requires for its apprehension a far higher degree of 
 intelligence and reflection than the view that things suc- 
 ceed each other simply by reason of their contiguity or 
 resemblance." A. C. Haddon, and fimile Durkheim. 
 
 MAGICAL PRATERS AND NAMES. Papyri dis- 
 covered in recent years have revealed the fact that 
 Christians early adopted the pagan practice of using 
 prayers and name,s as charms and amulets " The name 
 of Jesus together with gospel texts and certain liturgical 
 formula were early used as amulets, and by the sixth 
 century the sign of the cross and other symbols for Christ 
 had quite widely taken on a magical import. Several 
 of the early fathers epeak of the Christian women wear- 
 ing diamond editions of the gospels round their necks 
 after the manner of Jewish tephilUn, and the i)apyri 
 .«ihow us the Lord's prayer as one of the most common 
 devices to ward off evil. Wilcken and others have 
 published a goodly number of Christian amulets from the 
 sixth century, in which prayers to God and the local 
 saints are made against the demons of asthma, croup, 
 hydrophobia. Insanity, indigestion, witchcraft, and pain. 
 These amulets often end with the Lord's prayer " 
 
 (Camden M. Cobern). In some of these conjurations 
 tie names of Greek, Roman, or Egyptian deities appea-r. 
 In one, for instance, which has been assigned to A.D. 
 300, we find the names Jesus — Anoubis. 
 
 MAHA-BHARATA. Maha-Bharata or Great Bharata 
 is a name sometimes given to the great Epic poem of the 
 Hindus, the ISharata. The term means thfe Great 
 Bharata. See BHARATA. 
 
 MAHaBIR. An Indian deity, another name for 
 Ilanuman, worshipped by the Garpagaris, a caste of 
 village menials in India, whose oc-cupation is to avert 
 hail-storms. 
 
 MAHADEO. An Indian deity, the .special god of the 
 Dhangars, the Maratha caste of shepherds and blanket- 
 weavers. The word means the great god, and is used 
 as one otf the names of Siva. 
 
 MAHATMAS. a tei-m used in Theosopliy. The 
 name has been given to members of a great Brotherhood, 
 persons who have reached a higher state of evolution 
 than that of average humanity, and who possess the 
 Secret Wisdom of Theosophy (g.v.). They " work ever 
 for the service of their race with a perfect and selfless 
 devotion, holding their high powers in trust for the 
 common good, content to be without recognition, having 
 lK>wer beyond all desires of the personal self " (Annie 
 Besant). See Annie Besant. " "Theosophy " in R.S.W. 
 
 MAHAVAGGA. A Buddhist sacred book, one of the 
 Khandhakas, in the first division of the Canon. See 
 CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 MAHAVIRA. Or Mahfibir, the strong one, one of the 
 names of the Hindu god Hanuman. 
 
 MAHATANA. Mahayana, or the Great Vehicle, is the 
 name that was given to a developed (widened) form of 
 Buddhism. See VEHICLES, THE THREE. 
 
 MAHDI, THE. A term used in Muhammadanism. 
 The word means " the Directed One," and is then used 
 in the sense of " One who is ordained to direct others, 
 as Guide or Leader." The Mahdi is an ideal figure, a 
 kind of Messiah (g.v.), to whose coming all Muslims have 
 looked forward. When he appears he is to set all things 
 Tight. According to al-Bukhari and other traditionists, 
 utterances of the prophet Muhammad concerning him 
 have been preserved. Tihey include the following. 
 •' The world will not come to an end until a man of my 
 tribe and of my name shall be master of Arabia. . . . 
 The Mahdi will be descended from me, he will be a man 
 with an open countenance and with a high no.se. He will 
 fill the earth with equity and justice, even as it has 
 been filled with tyranny and oppression, and he will 
 reign over the earth seven years. . . . Quarrelling 
 and disputation shall cease amongst men, and then shall 
 a man of the people of al-Madinah come forth, and shall 
 go from al-Madinah to Makkah, and tie people of 
 Makkah shall make him Imam. . . . The Mahdi shall 
 rule according to the example of your Prophet, and shall 
 give strength and stability to Islam. He shall reign 
 for seven years, and then die. . . . There shall be 
 much rain in the days of the Mahdi, and the inhabitants 
 both of heaven and earth shall be pleased with him. 
 Men's lives shall pass so pleasantly, that they will wish 
 even the dead were alive again." The Shi'ahs (ij.v.) 
 believe that the Mahdi has already appeared in the person 
 of Muhammad Ibn Hasan al-'Askari. Ibn Hasan dis- 
 appeared mysteriously about the year 878 A.D., when 
 he was still a child. One tradition says tliat he entered 
 a cave to seek for hie father and was never seen to come 
 out. He will emerge from his hiding-place and manifest 
 himself before tihe end of the world. As to his remanj- 
 festation F. J. Bliss quotes an account obtained by Dr. 
 Wortabet from a great Metawali leader. " At the 
 appointed time he (the twelfth imam) will manifest him-
 
 Maimins 
 
 229 
 
 Mana 
 
 tself to men. and will then be known by the name of 
 Guide (El-Muhdy), and with Jesus, the son of Mary, will 
 fill the whole world with the knowledge of God. ". . . 
 This set time is fast approaching. AU this is a part of 
 the settled faith of the Metawileh. Some of their learned 
 men believe also that after the appearand of the Muhdy 
 he will in due time die, and be succeeded by his own 
 father, or predecessor in the office, who will be raised 
 from death for this purpose; and a retrograde resur- 
 rection and succession will go one, until the twelve imams 
 shall have risen and completed the regeneration of the 
 world. After this will come the end, tiie judgment, and 
 eternity." The Sunnis believe that the Mahdi has not 
 yet appeared. See T. P. Hughes; F. J. Bliss. 
 
 MAIMINS. The Maimins or Donmes are a Jewish 
 sect of about 4.000 persons in Salonica. Jews by race, 
 but Muhammadan by religion, they arose under the in- 
 fluence of Sabbatai Zevi. 
 
 MAIR. A Hindu deity, a family god worshipped by 
 the Mochis, the occupational caste of saddlers and 
 cobblers in India. He is represented in the house by a 
 lump of clay. 
 
 MAIUMA. A nautical festival celebrated at Ostia in 
 Italy, probably of Philistine origin. 
 
 MAIYA ANDHIYAKI. An Indian deity, the goddess 
 of the dark fortnight of the month, worshipped by the 
 Dhanwars (also called Dhanuhars), a small primitive 
 tribe in India. " She is worshipped in the house con- 
 jointly by husband and wife on any Tuesday in the dark 
 fortnight of Magh (January-February), all the relatives 
 of the family being invited " (R. V. Russell). Other 
 names of the godde.sg are Rfit Devi or the goddess of the 
 night and Rat Mai or the night mother. 
 
 MAJJHIMANIK.\TA. One of the Buddhist sacred 
 books in the second division of the Canon. See CANON, 
 BUDDHIST. 
 
 MAKARA. A figure in Hindu mythology, a composite 
 creature on which the gi^at Vedic god Varuna is repre- 
 sented as sitting. Elliot Smith (Dr.) suggests that the 
 vehicle of Varuna corresponds to the composite animal 
 or " sea-goat " of the Babylonian Ea-Marduk, and points 
 out that the Makara was intimately associated with Indra 
 as well as with Varuna. " The monster assumed a 
 great variety of forms, such as the crocodile, the dolphin, 
 the sea-serpent or dragon, or combinations of the heads 
 of different animals with a fish's lK)dy " (see the illustra- 
 tions, p. 88). The forms even include, according to 
 Elliot Smith, one with the head of an elephant, " which 
 was adopted as far east as Indonesia and as far west 
 as Scotland." In a creation-story found in one of the 
 MSS. of the Mayan Indians, one of the figures Is a 
 " female whale with alligator-feet." This seems to be 
 another form of Makara. 
 
 M.\KHSHIRIN. The name of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century 
 A.D. and are included in the Mishnah (q.v.). a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holv, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or order.s 
 (sedarim). Makhshirin is the eighth tractate of the 
 sixth group, which is called Tohoroth (" Purifications "). 
 
 MAKKOTH. The Jewish Mi.shnah, a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holv, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. (see MISHNAH), comprises a 
 number of treatises or tractates which reproduce the 
 oral tradition or unwritten law as developed by the 
 second century A.D. There are sixty-three tractates, 
 divided into six groups or orders (.tedarim). Makkoth 
 is the fifth tractate of the fourth group, which is called 
 Nezikin (" Damages "). 
 
 MAKUTU. A personified witchcraft in Maori mytho- 
 
 M.U.A ARAYANS. A class of hill tribes in Southern 
 inoia. ihe Mala Arayans worship the spirits of their 
 ance-stors. The Arayans make •' little cells of pieces of 
 
 ^^t' f **'® forming a box a few inches square; and, 
 on the death of a member of any family, the spirit is 
 supposed to pass, as the body is being buried, into a brass 
 or silver image, which is .shut into this vault; if the 
 parties are very poor, an oblong smooth stone suffices " 
 (b. Mateer, Native Life in Tramncore, 18S3). In 
 memory of their ancestors, lamps are kept burning in 
 these nimiature cromlechs. See E. Thurston and K. 
 Rangaehan. 
 
 MALACHI, BOOK OF. One of the smaller prophetic 
 books of the Old Testament. The work belongs to a 
 lienod in which Judah is ruled by a governor (i 8) and 
 the Temple has been rebuilt (i. 10; iii. 1, 10); in which 
 also the people made defective offerings (i. 7, 8, 12) and 
 the priests desiMsed the name of Jehovah (i. (i). '"'The 
 conditions thus reflected are very similar to those which 
 Nehemiah found when he visited Jerusalem about 445 
 B.C. In many ways Nehemiah's reform work, especi- 
 ally in eliminating the social evils and in improving 
 the temple worship, was the fuhilment of the prophet's 
 hope that Jehovah would speedily send his messenger to 
 prepare the way for a better and nobler era. The pre- 
 sence of the evils which Nehemiah endevivoured to correct 
 and the absence of any references to that great restorer 
 of Judaism favour the conclusion that the book of 
 Alalachi was written not long before 445 B.C." (C. F. 
 Kent). Corniil points out that the book is noteworthy 
 on account of the way in which it anticipates the methods 
 of discussion practised by the later rabbis. We have, 
 in the style of Talmudic dialogue, assertion, objection, 
 refutation. Kent even .says that the work " also formu- 
 lates in words which might almost have been taken from 
 the mouth of Job the problems which are treated in the 
 great wisdom book which bears his name." It is not 
 unlikely that the work was anonymous. " Malachi " 
 (which means " my messenger ") was probably not 
 intended to be understood as a i)ersDnal name. In any 
 case, nothing is known about a per-son Malachi. See C 
 Comill, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse; C. F. Keot, 
 The Sermons, Epistles and Apocalypses of Israel's 
 Prophets, 1910. 
 
 MALIK. The name in Muslim theology of the angel 
 who presides over Hell. " And they shall cry : * O 
 Malik ! would that thy Lord would make an end of us ! ' 
 He .saibh : ' Here must ye remain.' " (xliii. 77). 
 
 MALAKHBEL. A solar deity, of Mesopotamian 
 origin, adopted by the Palmyrenes. 
 
 MaLIS. The Miilis are described as the functional 
 caste of vegetable and flower gardeners in India. The 
 name has been derived from mala, a garland, and it is 
 " a plausible hypothesis that the calling of the finst Malis 
 was to grow flowers for the adornment of the gods, and 
 especially for making the garlands with which their 
 images were and still are decorated " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 MAMA ALI>PA. A deity in Peruvian mythology, 
 goddess of the eartii and harvest. 
 
 MAMA COCHA. A deity in Peruvian mythology, 
 goddess of water and mother of mankind. 
 
 MAMA OULLO HUACA. A goddess in Peruvian 
 mji:hology, teacher of the arts of domestic life. 
 
 MANA. A term used in the Melanesian islands of the 
 S Pacific to denote a mystic power or Influence. It 
 seems to have been derived from Polynesia, where the 
 root-idea is an overwhelming, supernatural power or 
 energy in individual, personal beings. But the power,
 
 Mana 
 
 230 
 
 Manichsism 
 
 at anv rate in Melanesia, could be imparted to imper- 
 sonal "things. According to Codrington (The Melane- 
 sians, p. 118, N. 1), it is regarded as •' a force altogether 
 distinct from physical power, which acts in al! ways for 
 "ood and evil; and which It is of the greatest advantage 
 °o possess or control. . . ■ It is a power or influence, 
 not physical and in a way supernatural; but it shows 
 itself in physical force, or in any kind of power or excel- 
 lence which a man possesses. This mana is not fixed in 
 anything, and can be conveyed in almost anything. 
 All Melanesian religion consists, in fact, in 
 getting this mana for one's self, or getting it used for 
 one's benefit." 
 
 MAXA. A man-god, the principal deity of the Kanjars, 
 various small c-ommunities of a gipsy character in India, 
 who wander about the country. Mana is regarded as 
 the founder and ancestor, as well as the teacher and 
 guide, of the tribe. 
 
 MANANNAN. Manannan, son of Lir (LLYK), was 
 one of the gods or divine heroes of the ancient Celts. 
 He was the Gaelic god corresponding to the British 
 Manawyddan ((/.r. I. He figures most prominently in 
 Irish mythology. He was the patron of sailors and 
 merchants. As such he made his journeys in a wonder- 
 ful boat known as the " Wave-sweeper." He is also 
 represented as a knight who rode on a marvellously swift 
 steed known as " Splendid ilane." See Charles Squire, 
 Myth. ^^ 
 
 MANAS. A term used in Theosophy (Q.v.). The 
 ttrm is applied to the Ego in man, the Spiritual Intelli- 
 gence. Mrs. Besant describes it as "the immortal 
 entity, the link between Atma-Buddhi and the temporary 
 per.wnality " (" Theosophy " in R.S.W.). 
 
 MANASA DEVI. A Hindu deity, the queen of snakes, 
 worshipped bv the snake-charmers in India, the Saperas. 
 
 MANAWYDDAN. Manawyddan was one of the gods 
 or divine heroes revered by the ancient Britons. He 
 corresponds to the Irish god Manannan (q.v.). His 
 characteristics are rather contradictory. " On the one 
 hand he appears as a kind of culture-hero— hunter, 
 craftsman, and agriculturist; while on the other he is 
 the enemv of those gods who seem most beneficient to 
 man " (Squire). See Charles Squire, Mpth. 
 
 MANBHAOS. A caste belonging to the Maratha Dis- 
 tricts of the Central Provinces and to Berar in India. 
 By origin the Manbhaos are a religious sect or order. 
 They recognise only two of the Hindu deities, Kri.shna 
 and Dattatreya. the latter a celebrated devotee of Siva, 
 deified as an incarnation of the deity. They accept as 
 their sacred book the Bhagavat-Gita, rejecting the other 
 Hindu scriptures. There are three divisions of the order : 
 the Brahmachari or ascetics, who devote themselves to 
 meditation, prayer and spiritual instruction, and beg for 
 their living; the Gharbari, who lead a mendicant life, 
 but are allowed to marry; and the Bhope or Bhoall, who 
 are purely secular and are allowed to follow any occupa- 
 tion they choose. " One of the leading tenets of the 
 Manbhaos is a respect for all forms of animal and even 
 vegetable life, much on a par with that of the Jains. 
 They strain water through a cloth before drinking it. 
 and then delicately wipe the cloth to preserve any insects 
 that may be upon it. They should not drink water in. 
 and hence cannot reside in, any village where animal 
 sacrifices are offered to a deity. They will not cut down 
 a tree nor break off a branch, or even a blade of grass, 
 nor pluck a fruit or an ear of com. Some, it is said, 
 will not even bathe in tanks for fear of destroying insect- 
 life. For this reason also they readily accept cooked 
 food as alms, so that they may avoid the risk of the 
 destruction of life involved in cooking. The Manbhaos 
 dislike the din and noise of towns, and live generally in 
 
 secluded places, coming into the towns only to beg. 
 Except in the rains they wander about from place to 
 place " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 MANCO CCAPAC. A figure in Peruvian mythology, 
 reputed to be the founder of the royal Peruvian Incas. 
 He is said to have founded Cuzeo. the site of the ancient 
 Inca capital, and to have taught the inhabitants the arts 
 of civilisation. Bom of the sxm and moon, when he had 
 completed his work, he ascended to heaven with his 
 sister-wife Mama Oullo. 
 
 MANDAEANS. The Mandaeans are an oriental sect 
 of which representatives still exist to the South of 
 Bagdad. Their religion has grown out of a mingling of 
 Babylonian, Persian, Jewish, and Gnostic elements. The 
 word ilanda, from which their name is derived, does in 
 fact mean '• gnosis." The rite to which they attach the 
 greatest importance is baptism or ablution. This has 
 given them the names, Sabians (S«66d) which means 
 Baptists, Christians of St. John (the Baptist), and 
 Disciples of St. John. The chief of their .sacred books 
 are five in number. They are: (1) " The Great Book," 
 which is called also the Ginza or " treasure " ; (2) " The 
 Book of .John"; (.3) "The Completion," a book of 
 hymns; (4) "The Divan," a book of ritual; and (5) a 
 book on astrology. Acc-ording to the Mandaeans, John 
 the Baptist was the only true prophet. Jesus was one 
 of the false prophets. The Supreme Being, " The Great 
 Glory," can bo known only after death. The revealed 
 deity is " The First Life," from whom proceeded " The 
 Second Life " and " The Spirit of Life." From " The 
 Second Life " proceeded the Angels, one of whom. 
 Gabriel, formed the earth and man. " The Spirit of 
 Life " (Manda d'hayye) is the Saviour, who revealed 
 himself to man in three sons, of whom the chief wa;9 
 Hibil. Reinach thinks " it is not impossible that John 
 the Baptist may have belonged to a primitive sect of 
 Mandaeans; if at this early period they already called 
 themselves Nazarenes, we should have an explanation 
 of the tradition which made Nazareth the birthplace of 
 the Messiah, who was himself called a Nazarene." See 
 V. Brandt. Die Manddische Religion, 1S89; J. H. Blunt; 
 Reinach. 0.; Brockhans; Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 MANIBOZHO. A deity f" The Great Hare") in the 
 mythology of the Algonquian Indians of North America, 
 a god of the dawn and a culture-hero. He is supposed 
 to have been the inventor of the Algonquian hieroglyphs, 
 and the originator of all the arts and crafts. 
 
 MAXICHJr^ISM. A movement in the third century, 
 so called from Mani (6. 21.5 A.D.) of Ecbatana. Of 
 Persian stock, he was brought into contact with the 
 Gnostic sects known as Elkesaites and Mandeans. Mani 
 regarded himself as the last and greatest of a series of 
 prophets (including Adam, Noah, Abraham, and the 
 phantom CJhrist), and described himself as " leader," 
 " ambaasador," and " Paraclete." His religion was one 
 of physical redemption, and admits the worship of no 
 personal redeemer. "As might be expected from its 
 headquarters being in Babylon, the doctrines of the sect 
 were in the main akin to the old Babylonian nature re- 
 ligion, modified by Persian Dualism, with some admixt- 
 ure, especially in the West, of the Gnostic Christianity 
 of Basilides and Mareion. Owing partly to their minute 
 and sitrict asceticism and their rigid morality, partly also 
 to the great number ' of the cultured who sought for a 
 rational and yet to some extent CThristian religion, and 
 who had exalted free inquiry, especially as regards 
 the Old Testament, into a battle-flag' [Hamack], 
 Manichseism obtained considerable influence in Christian 
 circles, especially in North Africa, and at one time suc- 
 ceeded even in capturing Augustine " (H. B. Workman). 
 Mani wrote six works in Syriac, and a " Holy (Jospel "
 
 Manikya Devi 
 
 231 
 
 Marbod 
 
 in Persian. Tiie Gosiiel was written In opposition to the 
 New Testament. See F. W. Bussell. 
 
 MAXIKYA DEVI. The tutelary deity of the 
 Nagvansi, kings of Bastar in India before the fourteenth 
 oenturj-. 
 
 ALAJNITOr. A term used among the Algonquin of N. 
 America to denote a mystic potentiality ascribed to beings 
 whether human or non-human, living or not living. 
 Manitou seems to be a force, and not a iwrsonal being. 
 
 MANXIKINS. Lucian (§ 16) states that in the vesti- 
 bule of the great temple of Hierapolis there stood a pair 
 of phalli (or pillars) of great size bearing the inscrip- 
 tion : •• I, Dionysus, dedicated these phalli to Hera my 
 stepmother." He adds : '• The Greeks erect phalli in 
 honour of Dionysus, and on these they carry, singular 
 to say, mannikins made of woml, with enormous pudenda ; 
 they call these puppets. There is tiis further curiosity 
 in the temple : as you enter, on the right hand, a small 
 brazen statue meets your eye of a man in a sitting 
 IKtsture. with parts of monstrous size " (transl. by H. 
 A. Strong). The phalli are stated to have been thirty 
 fathoms high (§ 28). We are told that a man mounted 
 one of these twice every year and remained on the sum- 
 mit for seven days. It was believed popularly that " the 
 man who is aloft holds converse with the gods and prays 
 for good fortune for the whole of Syria, and that the 
 gods from their neighbourhood hear his prayers." 
 Lucian suggests that the custom was rather in honour of 
 Dionysus, and that the ascent was made in imitation of 
 the wooden mannikins. 
 
 MANXA. Mania is the Buddha in his character of a 
 god of healing, the " Healing Buddha." A cure may 
 be effected by touching his image. He is venerated in 
 China and Japan, Tibet and Manchuria. In China he is 
 known as the Healing Teacher and Medical King. 
 
 MAXOHAR. The heart-stealer, one of the names of 
 the Hindu god Krishna. 
 
 MANTRA. J. C. Oman gives the following explana- 
 tion of the term "Mantra" from the "Classical Dic- 
 tionary of India " by Garrett. " Mantra — a hymn of 
 invocation or form of prayer in the Sanskrit language. 
 JIantras are used in the performance of every religious 
 rite. They are of various sorts, invocatory, evocatory, 
 deprecatory, conservatory. They are beneficent or hurt- 
 ful, salutary or pernicious. By means of them, it is 
 believed that great and various effects may be produced. 
 Some are for casting out evil spirits, some inspiring love 
 or hatre<l, for curing diseases or bringing them on, for 
 causing death or averting it. Some are of a oontrarj- 
 nature to others, and counteract their effect : the 
 stronger overcoming the influence of tiie weaker. Some 
 are potent enough, it is said, to occasion the destruction 
 of a whole army : while there are others which the gods 
 themselves are constrained to obey." .John Campbell 
 Oman, Cults, 1908. 
 
 MAND, LAWBOOK OP. The Cofle or Lawbook of 
 Manu is one of the most remarkable of the literary pro- 
 ductions of Brahmanism. The work seems to be due to 
 a number of authors, some of whom perhaps lived in the 
 fifth century B.C., others in the second century B.C. The 
 Hindus ascribe it to Father Manu, their semi-divine 
 ancestor. A number of modern scholars think it to be 
 an elaboration of a code that was current among the 
 Manavas who seem to have lived in a district in the 
 North-west of India. According to the Code of Manu, 
 " the root of all law is the Veda and the traditions of 
 those who know the Veda." But a knowledge of the 
 sacred texts and a participation in the holy ceremonies 
 are permitted only to certain castes. " The enormity 
 of all crimes depends on who commits them, and against 
 whom they are committed. The three upi)er castes alone 
 
 have religious privileges " (Hopkins). The four chief 
 classes of men or castes are Brahmans (priests). 
 Warriors, Agriculturists, and Slaves or Servants. The 
 philosophical views of the Code are not always in agree- 
 ment._ The philosophies of the Vedanta School (see 
 VEDaNTISM) and of the Sankhya School (see SAX- 
 KHYA) are both represented. Some of the precepts of 
 the Code of Manu, as given by Monier-Williams, are : 
 " Even though wronged, treat not with disrespect thy 
 father, mother, teacher, elder brother. . . . Say what 
 is true, speak not agreeable falsehood. . . . Pride not 
 thyself on thy religious works ; give to the poor, but talk 
 not of thy gifts. By pride religious merit melts away, 
 the merit of thy alms by ostentation. . . . Thou 
 canst not gather what thou dost not sow; as thou dost 
 plant the tree so will it grow. . . . Contentment, 
 patience under injury, self-subjugation, honesty, re- 
 straint of aU the sensual organs, purity, devotion, know- 
 ledge of the Deity, veracity, and abstinence from anger, 
 these form the tenfold summary of duty." See Monier- 
 Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 MAPONUS. Maponus, " the great youth," was one 
 of the names given by the ancient Celts to a god of 
 healing who presided over thermal springs and cor- 
 responded to Apollo (q.v.). Another name for the god 
 was Graunus {q.v.). The name Maponus survived in 
 Mabon, one of the heroes in Welsh mythology. Mabon, 
 the son of Modron (probably equivalent to Matrona), 
 appears as a companion of King Arthur. See E. Anwyl; 
 Squire, Myth. 
 
 MaPPILLAS. a hybrid Muhammadan race of the 
 western coast of Southern India. The Mappillas seem 
 to have resulted from the alliances of early Arab .settler.s 
 on the Malabar coast with the women of the country. 
 They are either Sunnis or Shiahs. The chief seat of 
 their religious organisation is a college at Pomwni, the 
 Jammat mosque, said to have been founded in the 12th 
 or 13th century A.D. The mosques of the Mappillas are 
 quite different from those of any other Muhammadans. 
 According to Fawcett (Ind. Ant. xxx., 1901), they are 
 " much in the style of the Hindu temple, even to the 
 adoption of the turret-like edifice which, among Hindus, 
 is here peculiar to the temples of Siva " (quoted by E. 
 Thurston and K. Rangachari). The Mappillas practise 
 magic and witchcraft. " One of their methods of witch- 
 craft is to make a wooden figure to represent the enemy, 
 drive nails into all the vital parts, and throw it into the 
 sea, after curses in due form " (E. Thurs-ton and K. 
 Rangachari). One of these figures was washed ashore 
 at Calicut in_1903. 
 
 MARAI MaTA. a Hindu goddess, the goddess of 
 cholera, worshipped by the Kohlis, a small caste of 
 cultivators in India. Also by the Korkus, a Kolarian 
 tribe. 
 
 MARANG BURU. a Hindu deity, a mountain god 
 who is .supposed to control the rainfall; worshipped by 
 the Mundas (aLso called Kols or Hos), a large tribe in 
 Chota Nagpur, India. 
 
 MaR.-vNS. The Mfirans or Marayans are described 
 in the Madras Census Report (1901) as " temple servants 
 and drummers in Malabar." Their traditional occupa- 
 tion is " sounding or playing on the panehavadya or five 
 musical instruments used in temples " (Thurston and 
 Rangachari). One of these is the conch-shell. The 
 sounding of the asu and pani is left to the highest 
 dignitaries. " The beating of the pani is the accom- 
 paniment of expiatory offerings to the Saptamata. or 
 .seven mothers of Hindu religious writings, viz., Brahmi. 
 Mahesvari. Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani, and 
 Chamunda." See B. Thurston. 
 
 MARBOD. A Hindu deity worshipped by the Telis. 
 
 16
 
 Marcellians 
 
 232 
 
 Marduk, Epic of 
 
 the occupational caste of oil-pressers and sellers in India. 
 He is represented by the branch of a thorny creeper. 
 " In the middle of the rainy season the Teli women sweep 
 the house with the branches of a thorny creeper, which 
 they call Marbod, addressing to it the words, " Oh 
 aiarbod! sweep away all diseases, pains, coughs, bugs, 
 flies and mosquitoes" (R. V. Russell). 
 
 MARCELLIANS. The followers or the school of 
 aiareelluis. Bishop of Ancyra in Galatia. In his zeal to 
 defend the Nicene faith against the Arians, Marcellus 
 developed a form of Sabellianism (g.r.). The Marcel- 
 lians are condemned with the Sabellians in the fir§t canon 
 of the Council of Constantinople (381 A.D.). Marcellus 
 held that in tihe Divine Nature there was only one person 
 {l»osOi)oii), Father and Son being simply names or titles 
 of Almighty God and His eternal Word. The Word was 
 from all eternity in the One God. lu the Ineamation 
 this One God consented to expand or extend Himself. It 
 is Jesus, and not the Logos (as it were, an attribute of 
 God lilie the rea.son in man), who is the Son. the Image 
 of Gotl. the Christ, the Firstbegotten, the King. " And 
 when He has accomplished the object of His coming, 
 they [these titles] will cease to apply to Him : for He 
 will leave the flesh, return to God, and be merely the 
 Word as before; and His Icingdom, as being the kingdom 
 of the flesh or manhood, will come to an end " (J. H. 
 Blunt). At the Council of Constantinople the words 
 " Whose liingdom shall have no end " were added to the 
 creed to guard against the Marcellian heresy. Marcellus 
 based this part of his doctriue on I. Corinthians xv. 24- 
 2S. See J. H. Blunt; C'nf/i. Die/. 
 
 MARCBLLINIANS. The followers of a woman named 
 Marcellina. She was herself a follower of Cari>ocrates 
 (see CARPOCRATIANS). and came to Rome in the time 
 of Pope Anicetus (e. 15.5 A.D.). She gained many 
 adherents, and it is stated by Epiphanius (Hacres. 
 xxviii.) that images of her were worshipped by her fol- 
 lowers. See J. H. Blunt; Louis Duchesne, Hi^t. 
 
 MARCIANISTS. One of the names given to the 
 Euchites (q.v.). They were so called after one of their 
 leaders, Marcian, who lived in the middle of the sixth 
 century. 
 
 MARCOSIANS. A Gnostic sect, the followers of one 
 Marcus, who flourished in the middle of the second 
 century and belonged to the school of Valentinus. The 
 principal authority for his teaching is Irenaeus. To a 
 great extent Marcus was in agreement with Valentinus: 
 but he added features of his own. He found great 
 mysteries in numbers and names, and considered it of 
 vital importance to know the right name of each celestial 
 power. The Marcosians ihad sijecial formulae and sacra- 
 ments of redemption. " Some conferred this redemption 
 by baptism with special invocations: others added or sub- 
 stituted various anointings; others held that these appli- 
 cations could not procure spiritual redemption — only by 
 knowledge could such redemption be effected. This 
 knowledge inchided the jwssession of formulae, by the 
 use of which the initiated would after death become in- 
 comprehensible and invisible to principalities and powers, 
 and leaving their bodies in this lower creation and their 
 souls with the Demiurge, ascend in their spirits to the 
 Pleroma " (Wace and Piercy). Marcus was skilful as 
 a magician. " The eucharistic cup of mingled wine 
 and water was seen under his invocation to change to a 
 purple red." The explanation given was that Charis, 
 one of the highest J<:ons in the system of Marcus, had 
 dropped some of her own blood into tihe cup. Marcus 
 encouraged his female disciples to prophesy, choosing 
 them for the purpose by lot. He is .said also to have 
 been guilty of immoral practices. " Some of his 
 followers certainly claimed to have been elevated, by 
 
 their knowledge and the redemption they had exijerienced, 
 above ordinary rules of morality '; but this may have 
 been a misapplication of the teaching of Marcus. The 
 Marcosians do not seem to have been a large body. See 
 J. H. Blunt ; Wace and Piercy. 
 
 MARDUK. A Babylonian deity. The god Marduk 
 became the patron deity of the city of Babylon, and as 
 such ■n'B.s greatly glorified. He was not really one of the 
 older gods. He became prominent in the days of Ham- 
 murapi, and from this time grew more and more power- 
 ful. The result of this was that to him were transferred 
 qualities and powers which previously had belonged to 
 other gods. In the Epic of Marduk (see below), for 
 instance, he is more imix>rtant than the members of the 
 first triad. Ami (q.v.). Bel (q.v.), and Ea (f/.r.). He is 
 the creator of the heavenly bodies. It is he who. by 
 defeating Tiamat (q.v.), brings order out of chaos. 
 True, he is the child of Ea, but he is tiie first-born son 
 who has inlierited all the virtues of his father and more. 
 His name is even used as a title of other gods. Nergal 
 (q.v.) is described as " the Marduk of warfare " : Nebo 
 as "the Marduk of earthly possessions'": Ninib iq.r.) 
 as " the Marduk of sti-ength." Marduk is the " lord 
 of the Anunnaki and Igigi." To Nebuchadrezzar 
 he is the all-wise creator and king. The Epic of Marduk 
 represents Bel and Ea as voluntarily transferring their 
 own names to Marduk. Originally Marduk was a solar 
 deity. It is natural therefore that he should be 
 associated with the sun-god, Shamash (q.v.). He is 
 also associated with Ramman (q.^'.), biit during the Cas- 
 site dynast.v. Ramman seems to have been more 
 prominent. Marduk does not appear even in the second 
 triad. This consists of Sin (q.v.). Shamash, and Ram- 
 man. The consort of Marduk was SariKinitum. Her 
 name has heen explained as meaning " silvery bright 
 one." Marduk's great festival was the New Tear"s Day. 
 The Zagmuk (f/.r.) was converted into a Marduk festival. 
 The Zu myth (q.v.) describes how Marduk recaptured the 
 tablets of' fate from the bird Zu. See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rrl. 
 
 MARDUK, EPIC OF. The Babylonian creation-epic, 
 in which Marduk (q.v.), the head of the pantheon, is the 
 princii«l figure. Marduk is represented as battling with 
 a great monster, Tifimat. In the beginning there existed 
 only Apsu, the oceau, and Tiflmat, primaeval chaos. 
 Both reall.v represent the same thing, the one being 
 masculine, the other feminine. Then the gods were 
 created : first Lakhmu and Lakhamu. then Anshar and 
 Kishar, ne.xt Anu, Bel and Ea. Tiflmat had as her asso- 
 ciates great serpents, furious vipers, scorpion-men, and 
 other monsters, of whom the chief was Kingu. Kingu 
 is made ruler over all the gods. Tiamat seems to have 
 resolved to destroy them. Anshar sends Anu his son 
 to pacify her, but in vain. Then he sends Ea. but with 
 the same result. Finall.v he sends his son Marduk. The 
 news of his coming is conveyed to the army of Tiilmat, 
 "all the Igigi," by a messenger Gaga. Before Marduk 
 goes forth he is encouraged by the gods. They give him 
 a sign, which consists in his performing a miracle. He 
 makes a garment first disapiiear and then reappear. He 
 arms himself with a net of seven destructive winds, in 
 addition to ordinary arms, and mounts his chariot. When 
 he approaches Tifimat, Kingu and his monsters are 
 afraid. Marduk challenges Tiflmat to fight. They fight. 
 Marduk envelops her in his net. plunges his spear into 
 her, and kills her. Afterwards he captures her monsters, 
 and takes from Kingu the tablets of fate which Ti9mat 
 had given him. He cuts Tiamat in two. Of one half of 
 her he made the heavens. Of the other half, we may 
 .suppose, he made the earth. He makes a dwelling for 
 Ea in front of Apsu that he may control this subterranean
 
 Marghanites 
 
 233 
 
 Mark, The Gospel of 
 
 sea. Over Apsu he places Esharra, the vault of earth. 
 He assigns to Anu, Bel, and Ea their districts. He sets 
 up tie stars and constellations, and divides the year into 
 twelve months. He makes Xannar, the moon-god, and 
 gives him control of the night. When he has completed 
 his work, he is praised and adored by the Igigi. Bel and 
 Ba., the great gods, give him their own names. In an 
 epilogue all men are bidden to remember and acknowledge 
 llarduk'.s great achievements. See Morris Jastrow, 
 Hel.; Reiiiaeh, 0. 
 
 MARGHANITES. The followers of Sayed Aly el 
 Marghaui. The Marghanites are a iluhammadan sect, 
 of whose religion one of the features is a respect for the 
 life of the cat. Marghani crossed the Red Sea from the 
 Hedjaz to the Upper Nile valley in the first half of la.st 
 c-entury to preach the doctrine of Mohamed el Idrissi 
 among the Nubian tribes. The sect is for the most part 
 Muhammadan; but it has a cabalistic sign of its own 
 which possesses mystic powers, and reveres its chief as a 
 .saint. 
 
 MARIMaTA. A Hindu deity, a goddes.s worshipped 
 by the Kaikaris or Kaikadis (also called Bargandis), a 
 wandering tribe of basket-makers in India. 
 
 MARISTS. The Society of Marr is a religious order 
 which was founded in 1S98 by I'ere Colin (1790-1875) with 
 the object of preaching foreign Missions. It was 
 approved by Pope Gregory XVI. in 1836. when members 
 of the order volunteered to preach the gospel in Western 
 Oceania. The work of the Society made great progre.ss, 
 and was extended to all parts of the world. The members 
 are known as the Marist Fathers. In 1817 a congrega- 
 tion of Marist Sisters was founded. It was approved in 
 1884, and has a number of convents in England. There 
 are also Marist Brotliers, a teaching confraternity 
 founded by one of the Marist Fathers. The Marist 
 Brothers have a number of schools in England and Scot- 
 land^ See the Cath. Did. 
 
 MaRIYATTAL. a Hindu deity, worshipped as a 
 goddess of small-pox by the Paraiyans, a tribe or caste 
 in India. 
 
 MARK. THE GOSPEL OF. Papias makes the follow- 
 ing statement about the work of Mark : " And this also 
 the elder said : JIark, having become the interpreter of 
 Peter, wrote down accurately all that he remembered of 
 the things that were either .said or done by Chri.st, but 
 not in their order. For neitlier did he hear the Lord, 
 nor did he follow Him: but subsequently he attended 
 Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs of his 
 hearers, but had no idea of making a connected narrative 
 of the words of the Lord. So Mark, in thus writing 
 down things just as he remembered them, made no mis- 
 take, for he made it his one care to omit none of the 
 things that he heard, and to make no false statement in 
 his record of them." According to this statement, the 
 AiK)stle Peter was Mark's chief authority : and Justin 
 Martyr even seems to refer to the Gospel of Mark as the 
 Memoirs of Peter. We may, as A. S. Peake says, trust 
 the statement of Papias " to the extent of recognising 
 that reminiscences of Peter do lie behind the Second 
 Gospel. Peter's prominence in it is not to be accounted 
 for simply by the fact that he was the most important 
 member of the apostolic band, for .some of the incidents 
 are too trivial to have found their way into a story of 
 Christ's ministry had it not been for the personal interest 
 which they had for Peter." But Mark does not merely 
 reproduce the preaching of Peter. He " has so arranged 
 his material as to reproduce some of the main lines of 
 the historical development." The Gospel of Mark, 
 though it is placed .second in order in the New Testa- 
 ment, is really the earliest of the Gospels. In approxi- 
 mately its present form and compass it lay before the 
 
 compilers of the First and Third Gosiiels, and was freely 
 used by them. For discourses and sayings of Jesus they 
 used, in addition, another, more primitive, source, the 
 Ix>gia. '• With the exception of three or four incidents 
 the whole matter of St. Mark's Gosi)el is to be found 
 either in both or in one at least of the other evangelists. 
 And the order in which his incidents are arranged i« 
 always attested by one or by the other. It is clear that 
 they were anxious to lose nothing of his work which they 
 could find room to embody : but, on the other hand, they 
 must have recognised in it a serious deficiency, which 
 they on their part were in a position to supply " (J. 
 Armitage Robinson). One of the omissions in the earliest 
 gosi)el was an account of the birtla of Jesus. The pur- 
 pose of the Gospel of Mark would .>;eem to be to record 
 simply the main events in the public life of .le.sus, his 
 deeds rather than his words. " It omits the longer dis- 
 courses, with the exception of certain parables and the 
 great declaration on the End. It leaves even the Sermon 
 on the Mount without report. It gives few parables — 
 only four of the parables proijer, together with three of 
 the minor or germ parables. It deals with the acts of 
 .Tesus rather than his words. It has many more miracles 
 than parables — no less than eighteen. Most of these are 
 miracles of healing, and most belong to the period before 
 the Transfiguration " (S. D. F. Salmond). All this is 
 natural enough in the earliest gospel. More imjiortance 
 would be attached to traditions about the birth of Jesus 
 later. What impressed people at first was the fact that 
 Jesus demonstrated the truth of his teaching by curing 
 people of their ailments, intellectual and physical. In 
 the Gospel of Mark great emphasis is laid on the fact 
 that he " cast out devils " (evil thoughts, etc.). In 
 metaphorical language, it is said that " unclean spirits, 
 when they saw him, fell down before him, and cried, 
 saying, ' Thou art the Son of God.' " The author or the 
 reputed author of the Gospel would seem to have been 
 the per.son who is described at one time as Mark or 
 Marcus (Acts xv. 39: Col. iv. 10: II. Tim. iv. 11: Philem. 
 24; I. Pet. v. 1.3), at another as .John (Acts xiii. 5, 13), 
 af another as "John whose .surname was Mark " (Acts 
 xii. 2.5), and again as " .John, who was called Mark " 
 (Acts XV. 37). It is thought that he may have been 
 identic-al with the young man who on the night on which 
 Jesus was betrayetl followed him. " having a linen cloth 
 cast about him, over his naked body " (Mark xiv. 51, 52). 
 The writer of the (Jospel may have used Aramaic Sources, 
 but the language in which he wrote his own work would 
 seem to have been Greek from the beginning. The style 
 is not that of a translator. The author wrote for Western 
 readers. This is clear from the fact that he carefully 
 interprets Aramaic terms (iii. 17, v. 41, vii. 11, 34, x. 4f>, 
 xiv. 30. XV. 34), and explains Jewish cUvStoms, localities, 
 etc. (vii. 3. 4, 32, xii. 42, xiii. 3, xv. 42). The last few 
 verses of the (Jospel (xvi. 9-20) are not part of the original 
 work. An Armenian manuscript, discovered in recent 
 years, speaks of the .section as being " of the presbyter 
 Ariston." By Ariston seems to be meant Aristion, who, 
 according to Papias, was one of the disciples of the Lord. 
 The Sinaitic MS. and the Sinaitic Syriac VS. clo.se the 
 Gospel with vs. 8. So also does the Vatican MS., though 
 in this case a blank space is left. It is true that the 
 majority of MSS. have the verses, but the authorities for 
 their omi.ssion are supported by the language of the 
 passage which " is very different from that of the rest 
 of the Go.spel " (Currie Martin), and by the fact that the 
 ninth verse does not connect well with the eighth. It is 
 po.ssible that the original conclusion of the Gospel of 
 Mark is to be found in the last chapter of the Gospel 
 according to John. It should be added that in some 
 MSS. and VSS. the Gospel has in place of xvi. 9-20 a
 
 Mamas 
 
 234 
 
 Marsyas 
 
 shorter conclusion. But it is clear from the style that 
 this again is not original. See Allan Menzies, The 
 Earliest Gospel, 1901 : S. D. F. Salmond, S*. Mark in the 
 "Century Bible"; J. Armitage Robinson, The Study 
 of the Gospels, 1903; Oscar Holtzmann, The Life of 
 Jesus, 1904; G. Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake, Intr.; C. 
 F. Nolloth, The Person of Our Lord and Recent Thought, 
 1908; F. C. Conybeare, N.T. Crit. 
 
 MARNAS. A deity worshippetl at Gaza in the Graeco- 
 Roman age. His temple was allied Marneion. He is 
 identified by Mark the Deacon with the Cretan Zeus. G. 
 F. Hill (Some Palestinian Cults in the Graeco-Roman 
 Aye, 1912) compares JIamas with the Cretan word 
 mama = maiden. Mamas and his consort Britomartis 
 he identifies with the Cretan Zeus and the Cretan 
 Artemis. It has been held more commonly that Mamas 
 is a Syrian name = " Our Lord." 
 
 MABONITES. The Syrian body kno^Ti as Maronites 
 seem originally to have been a heretical sect, a remnant 
 of the Mouothelites ((?.-!'.) and Monophysites (q.v.). The 
 name is used of a body of heretics by John of Damascus, 
 who wrote in the eighth century, and afterwards by 
 Christian authors in Egypt. The Maronites themselves 
 derive their name from an old monastery on the Orontes 
 between Hamath and Emesa, dedicated to St. Maron, 
 who would seem to have lived about 400 A.D. It is 
 more likely that the name was derived from Maronea, 
 a village thirty miles east of Antioch, or from Johannes 
 Maron, the fir.st Patriarch of the " Maronites." In any 
 case, the home of the community was the Lebanon region 
 from Tripoli to Tyre and the Lake of Genesareth. In 
 course of time the Maronites spread all over Syria, and 
 became a small, but to some extent independent, nation. 
 Their liturgy is in Syriac, but the Gospels are read in 
 Arabic, their spoken language. In fiTfi Johannes Maron, 
 a monk of St. Maron, was appointed Bishop of Botrus 
 by the papal legate in Antioch. After converting all the 
 Monothelites and Monophysites in the Lebanon region 
 iie was elected Patriach of Antioch. Since that time the 
 head of the Church of the Maronites has been called the 
 " Patriarch of Antioch and all the East." The Maronites 
 remained spiritually independent until 1182, when, 
 through the influence of the Crusaders, they attached 
 themselves to the Church of Rome. In 1445 they entered 
 formally into union with the Roman Church. This union 
 was made more complete in 1591), when a large measure 
 of agreement, though not entire agreement, was reached 
 with respect to doctrines. " The Maronites retained the 
 celebration of the Lord's Supper under both kinds, the 
 Syriac liturgy, the marriage of the priests, their own 
 fast-days, their own saints, etc." (Schaffi-Herzog). In 
 1736, through the efforts of J. S. Assemani, the Maronites 
 accepted the Roman Catechism, the Gregorian Calendar, 
 and the Tridentine explanation of the doctrine of tran- 
 substantiation; they agreed to confine the marriage of the 
 clergy to the lower degrees, and to introduce the name 
 of the Pope into the prayers, the Mass, etc. Long before 
 this Pope Gregory XIII. had founded a College of 
 Maronites (Collegium Maronitarum) in Rome ('1584). 
 Since 18G0 the Maronites have been very much weakened 
 through conflicts with the Druses. They are said to 
 number now about 128,000. See SehafiE-Herzog; the Prot. 
 Diet.; the Cath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 MaROTI. Son of Marut, the Hindu god of the wind, 
 one of the names of the Hindu god Hanuman. 
 
 JIARRANOS. A name or rather nickname given to 
 those Jews of Spain who in the fifteenth century were 
 constrained to be baptised and to profess themselves 
 Christians. The name means " The Damned." The 
 Marranos became a separate class or sect, outwardly 
 Christians, but, as Graetz says, tut heart Jews. " As 
 
 far as they could they observed the Jewish rites and 
 customs, whether out of piety or habit. Even those 
 who, upon philosophical grounds, were indifferent to 
 Judaism, were none the less irreconcilably hostile to that 
 Christianity which they were compelled to confess with 
 their lips. Although they did not have their children 
 circumcised, they yet washed the heads of the infants 
 immediately after baptism. They were, therefore, rightly 
 looked upon by the orthodox clergy either as Judaising 
 Cliristians or as apostate heretics " (Graetz). They 
 suffered sadly under the Inquisition. In the middle of 
 the sixteenth century many of them took refuge in Bor- 
 deaux, and a flourishing congregation arose there (A.D. 
 1.^50-1750). Others followed their example and escaped 
 to Holland. There still survives a remnant of them 
 (about 6000) in the Balearic Islands, where they are 
 known as Anusim (" forced converts ") or Chuetas. See 
 H. Graetz; and A. Ruppin. 
 
 MARRI. An Indian deity, worshipped in Saugor by 
 the Chamars (also known as Chambhars), the caste of 
 tanners and menial labourers in Northern India. He is 
 a family god, represented by a lump of clay kept in the 
 cooking-room of the house (Russell and Hira Lai). 
 
 MARROW MEN. In 1640 there appeared, in the form 
 of a dialogue, a work on Justification and Sanotification 
 with the title " The Marrow of Modern Divinity." The 
 author was described simply as B.F., and it has been 
 thought by some that he is to loe identified with Edward 
 Fi.^er (/?. 1627-1655), a writer of anti-puritan tracts. 
 Later the book attracted the attention of Thomas Boston 
 (1677-1732), who recommended it to others. In 1718 it 
 was reprinted, a preface being added by Thomas Hog. 
 minister of Carnock, Fifeshire. The book was con- 
 demned by the General Assembly in 1720. Thomas 
 Boston, with eleven persons who shared his views. 
 defended the book and opposed the action of the General 
 Assembly. On this account they were called " the 
 twelve apostles " and " Marrow Men." Another name 
 given to them was the " Representers," because they 
 complained of the Act of Assembly in a document called 
 a " Representation." The Church of Scotland was at 
 this time divided into Moderates and Evangelicals. 
 Thomas Hog, who wrote the preface to the new edition 
 of " The Marrow of Modem Divinity," was an Evangeli- 
 cal. The real question as regards the book, says John 
 Hunt, was *' the question of the extent of the use of 
 reason in doctrines supposed to come by external revela- 
 tion. The Moderates virtually said that whatever the 
 Bible meant, or whatever their standards meant, they 
 could not regard as coming from God any doctrine which 
 they knew to be unworthy of (3od. The Evangelicals 
 said that however incomprehensible or apparently in con- 
 tradiction to our natural reason or conscience, any dogma 
 may be, at is to be received on the authority of external 
 revelation. Thomas Boston, sijeaking of the ' Marrow of 
 Modern Divinity.' says that the Gospel method of sancti- 
 fication and justification lies so far beyond natural reason, 
 that all the rationalists, philosophers, and divines in the 
 world could never have discovered it. But, on the con- 
 trary, if proposed for their acceptance on the ground of 
 reason, they would have rejected it as foolishness." 
 Another of the Marrow Men was Ralph Erskine (1685- 
 1752). See John Hunt; J. H. Blunt: the D.N.B. 
 
 MARSYAS. A figure in Phrygian mythology. Marsyas 
 was either a Phrygian .satyr or Siienus (g.v.), or a 
 shepherd or herdsman. In any case, he Is represented 
 as a .skilful player on the flute, an mstrument which 
 was closely associated with the worship of Cybele (g.v.). 
 Marsyas is said to have challenged Apollo (g.r>.) to a 
 musical contest. He played the flute, while Apollo per- 
 formed on the lyre. Apollo, on being declared victor,
 
 Martyr 
 
 235 
 
 Masters 
 
 tied Marsyas to a pine-tree and flayed him. Tlie skin, 
 it is said, was hung up in a cave at C«Iaenae, and used 
 to thrill at the sound of melodies plaved on the flute. 
 J. M. Robertson (CM., 1910. p. 321) thinks that originally 
 Marsyas was apparently a Phrygian variant of Pan, 
 figuring as Silenus. and that the story of his flaying may 
 have grown out of the fact that his symbol was a wine- 
 skin. J. G. Frazer ^Tites as follows. " In this 
 Phrygian satyr, shepherd, or herdsman who enjoyed the 
 friend-ship of Cybele, practised the music so characteristic 
 of her rites, and died a violent death on her sacred tree, 
 the pine, may we not detect a close resemblance to Attis, 
 the favourite shepherd or herdsman of the goddess, who 
 is himself described as a piper, is said to have perished 
 under a pine-tree, and was annually represented bv an 
 effigy hung, like Marsyas. upon a pine? We mav'c-on- 
 jecture that in old days the priest who bore the name 
 and played the part of Attis at the spring festival of 
 Cybele was regularly hanged or otherwise slain upon the 
 sacred tree, and that this barbarous cui3tom was after- 
 wards mitig-ated into the form in which it is known to 
 us in later times, when the priest merely drew blood 
 from his body under the tree and attached an effigy 
 instead of himself to its trunk," See O. Seyffert, Diet'; 
 J. M. Robertson. CM.; P.C.; 3. G. Fraser, Adonis, Attis, 
 Osiris, 2nd ed. 1907. 
 
 MARTYR. A term derived from Greek (""witness"), 
 and used to denote a witness for Christ, It was used 
 first of those who were witnesses for him bv their faith 
 alone, then of those who suffered for Him, and afterwards 
 (from the middle of the third century) exclusively of 
 those who suffered death for Him. Many accounts of 
 martyrdom have come to light in recent years. One of 
 these represents Diocletian " being inspired by the devil 
 in the guise of a .serpent." Another narrates with eager- 
 ness " the tortures of the martyrs crowned with red-hot 
 helmets, or boiled, after strips were cut from their back, 
 etc." fCamden M. Cobem). In the earlv Church works 
 doling with the lives of saints and martvrs were read 
 regularly in the monasteries with the liturgies. In Eng- 
 land a favourite book of private devotion used to be the 
 work of John Foxe (1.516-15.S7), popularly known as The 
 Book of Martyrs. 
 
 MARUTS. The name in Hinduism for the storm- 
 winds, the attendants upon Indra (q.v.) and Rudra 
 (g.v.). 
 
 MASKS. There are many in.stances of the use of 
 masks at funeral dances. It has been noted among the 
 Bantu-speaking peoples of the interior of the Kamerun, 
 among the inhabitants of the interior of Brazil, among 
 the Chinese, and among the Bohemians, The masks 
 represent various animals and demons, as well as human 
 wings. It has been suggested that in some cases tlie 
 Idea seems to be to terrify the evil demons who were sup- 
 posed to have been the cause of a death. In other cases 
 the masked persons are presumed to represent the ghosts 
 of the deceased : in the person of the masked dancer the 
 ghost IS still abve and able to visit his friends. 
 
 MASS, THE. The word Mass .seems to be derived 
 from a Latin word " missa," which is another form of 
 
 mis.sio and means " di-smi-ssal." Originallv it was 
 employed in law-courts and churches to denote dismissal 
 from further attendance. Then in the churches it came 
 to mean the services from which certain persons were 
 dismissed. Thus the service for catechumens, who were 
 dismissed after the Gospel and sermon, was called Mis<5a 
 Oatechumenorum, and the rest of the service ancludin" 
 ttie Eucharist) for which the faithful remained Missa 
 * idelium. I^ter the term came to be used specifically 
 of the Eucharist or Holy Communion. In the Anglican 
 Prayer Book of 1549 the title of the Eucharist was " The 
 
 Supper of the Lord and the Holy Communion, commonly 
 called the Mass." In that of 1552 the term Mass. •• which 
 had been common for more than a thousand vears in the 
 Western Church," was dropped. " no doubt from its 
 association with Roman ceremonial and teaching" rw 
 R. W. Stephens, Book of Common Prayer). According 
 to Roman Catholic doctrine, " the Mass is a sacrifice of 
 adoration, of praise and thanksgiving; it is al.«o a saeri- 
 hee of propitiation for sin, and a means of obtaining all 
 graces and blessings from God " (Cath. Diet.). Aeoord- 
 ing to Article sxxi. of the Thirty-nine Articles of the 
 Church of England, " the sacrifices of Mas.ses, in the 
 vrtiich It was commonly said, that the priest did offer 
 Christ for the quick and the dead, to have remission of 
 pain or guilt, were blasphemous fables and dangerous 
 deceits." The Roman Church recognises various kinds 
 of Masses. High Mass is " Mass with incense, music, 
 the assistance of deacon and sub-deacon, etc." Low 
 Mass is '• Mass said without music, the priest at least 
 saying, and not singing, the Mass throughout." Missa 
 cantata is " a Mass sung, but without deacon and sub- 
 deacon and the ceremonies proper to High Mass." Votive 
 Masses '■ are those which do not correspond with the 
 office of the day, but are said by the choice (votnm) of 
 the priest. Requiem Mass is a Mass for the dead. It 
 is so called from the opening words of the Introit : 
 Requiem jeternam dona eis, Domine. Mis.sa Adventitia 
 or Manualis is " a Mass for the intention of a person 
 who gives an alms." 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS METAPHYSICAL COLLEGE. An 
 institution founded and opened in Boston in 1R81 bv Mary 
 Baker Eddy for giving instruction in the principles and 
 practice of Christian Science (g.v.). Mrs. Eddv taught 
 in this college for .seven years, during which time over 
 four thou.«and students studied there. She closed the 
 college in 18S9 in order to give the next two vears of her 
 life to the preparation of the revision of her book 
 " Science and Health." It was re-owned in 1S99 as 
 auxiliary to her church. See Marv Baker Eddv, i^eience 
 and Health with Key to the Scriptures, 1911: Miscel- 
 laneous Writings, 1910. 
 
 MASSILIBNSES, HERESY OF THE. A designation 
 sometimes u.sed of Semijielagianism (q.v ) 
 
 MASSORAH, THE, The Massorah is the name of a 
 branch of Hebrew learning. The term itself seems to 
 mean " tradition." The tradition concerns the Hebrew 
 text of the Old Testament, the Massorah being a collec- 
 tion of critical and explanatory notes. At first these 
 notes were written on the margins of the manusc-ripts. 
 Afterwards, the collection grew to such an extent that 
 this by itself became impossible, and indeiiendent 
 treatises were written. The authors of the Massorah 
 " compiled lists of variations, noted and tabulated all 
 singularities, counted the letters and words in each 
 book." etc. (A. S. Geden). The earlier and simpler form 
 of the Ma.s.sorah is called " Massorah Parva." A later 
 and expanded form is called " Massorah Magna " These 
 two together are called " Massorah Marginalis." A 
 third division has the name " Ma.ssorah Finalis." It is 
 placed at the end of manuscripts. The scholar.^ who 
 compiled tiis body of learning are known as " Mas- 
 .»oretes." The same name was given to those earlier 
 scholars who invented a system of punctuation for the 
 Hebrew text, whicfi before their time had been un- 
 pointed. This system was based upon the traditional 
 punctuation of the Schools and Svnagognes. See C H 
 H. Wright, Intr. to the O.T., 1890: A. S. Geden, Ititr. to 
 the Bebreic BiWe, 1909: Gesenius' Hehreic Grammar, 
 1910. 
 
 MASTERS. In Theosophy (q.v.) the term Masters, like 
 that of Mahatmas (q.v.), is applied to members of a
 
 Maswasi 
 
 236 
 
 Mechitarists 
 
 great Brotherhood. Brothers, who possess the Secret 
 Wisdom of Theosophy. 
 
 MASWASI. An Indian deity, the mythical ancestress 
 of the Dlianwfirs (also called Dhanuhars), a small primi- 
 tive tribe in India. She is held to be the wife of 
 Karanljot and the daughter of Maiya Andhiyari. Since 
 the Dhanwars invoke her before they go hunting, she 
 would seem to be the goddess of hunting. 
 
 MATAK DEO. One of the special deities of the Ahirs, 
 a caste of cowherds, milkmen, and cattle-breeders in 
 India. He is the protector of the pen or enclosure for 
 cattle made in the jungle. 
 
 MATERA HUNDI. A Hindu deity, worshipped as the 
 goddess of hair\-est by the Bonda division of the Toro.ias, 
 a class of cultivators in India. 
 
 MATERIALiIZING MEDIUMS. An expression used in 
 spiritism (q.iK). The mediums are supposed to have the 
 power of materializing the spirits of the dead. The 
 spirits speak, play instruments, etc., and may be touched. 
 
 MATH. One of the gods or divine heroes revered by 
 the ancient Celts in Britain. He was a great magician. 
 C. Squire (Myth.) compares him with the Irish god 
 Dagda (q.r.). 
 
 MATIDEO. An Indian deity, the god of hunting, wor- 
 ^ipped by the Gadbas. a primitive trilje belonging to 
 the Vizagaixatam District of Madras, and by the Bhatras. 
 
 MATLALCUE. A Mexican deity, goddess of running 
 water, wife of the great raiu-god Tlaloc. 
 
 MATOWELIA. The chief god of the Mohave Indians 
 of Colorado, who led his people across the prairies. 
 
 MATRES. Matres (mothers) or Matronae (matrons) 
 is a term used of the mother-goddesses worshipped in 
 ancient times by the Celts. The cult reached from 
 Britain to Switzerland, and is supposed to have been 
 spread by Celtic soldiers. " These mother gotldesses 
 frequently form groups of three; they bestow a blessing 
 upon the fields and make them fruitful, and hence are 
 frequently represented with fruits and flowers, with ears 
 of corn or a horn of plenty " (Chantepie de la Saussaye). 
 See }frl. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL OF. It used to be thought 
 that Tapias in the first half of the .second century A.D. 
 was referring to the Gospel of Matthew when lie said 
 that " Matthew comiK)sed the Logia in the Hebrew 
 language, and each one interpreted these as he was able." 
 But it is now widely recognised that the work referred to 
 by Papias was not our Gospel of Matthew, but an earlier 
 document. The Gospel of Matthew, like the Gos-pel of 
 Luke, would seem to have been based in the main uix)n 
 two sources, a collection of discourses (Logia), and a 
 narrative resembling our Gospel of Mark (Unnarkus). 
 It was not the work of the Apostle Matthew, of whom 
 comparatively little is knov^ni, but incorporates work of 
 his. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke have a large 
 amount of matter that is common to both. But there Is 
 also matter peculiar to Matthew, which .shows that the 
 compiler of this Gospel made use of other traditions, 
 written or oral, or both. This matter peculiar to Mat- 
 thew comprises the narrative of the birth and infancy 
 of Jesus (chapters i. and ii.), the teaching about alms- 
 giving and fa.sting in the Sermon on the Mount (vi.). 
 certain parables (xiii., xviii., xxi., xxv.), certain savings 
 in xii. 5 ff., U ff.. xviii. 10, xix. 10-12, xxv. 31-40, and the 
 promise to Peter (xvi. 10 ff.). Some of the peculiarities 
 may be further explained by the fact that " both Matthew 
 and Luke had conceptions of the character and rdle of 
 Jesu« based partly on refiections of their own, partly on 
 the growing prophetic gnosis of the age, in obedience to 
 which they remodelled Mark's narrative " (F. C. Cony- 
 beare). The compiler of the Gospel of Matthew would 
 eeem to have been a Jewish Christian. This is suggested 
 
 by the genealog:*' at the beginning of the lKX>k, by 
 familiarity with Messianic prophecies, by the quotations 
 from the Old Testament, which are not dependent upon 
 the Septuagint, and by sympathy with the Jewish point 
 of view (for which cp. v. 18, x. 0, 23, xv. 24, xix. 3, 28, 
 xxi. 43, xxiv. 20). The.se characteristics might seem to 
 imply that the work was composed in Palestine or Syria. 
 But they do not preclude composition at Rome, which is 
 favoured by the ecclesiastical character of the gospel and 
 its interest in Peter. According to Currie Martin and 
 others, the gospel has upon it the mark of the early 
 Catholic Church. And " part at least of the Church in 
 Rome was strongly Jewish in character." Th. Zahn 
 thinks the work was composed about A.D. 85, Sanday 
 about A.D. SO, Currie Martin about 90 A.D. See J. 
 Armitage Robinson, The ^tiidii of the Gospels, 1903; C. 
 P. Nolloth, The Person of Our Lord and Recent 
 Thought, 1908; W. F. Slater. St. Matthew in the "Cen- 
 tury Bible": G. Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake, Intr.: 
 F. C. Conybeare, Ji.T. Crit., 1910. 
 
 MATWALES. A special sect of the Koshtis (or 
 Koshtas), the Maratha and Telugu caste of weavers of 
 silk and fine cotton cloth in India. According to R. V. 
 Russell and R. B. Hira Lai, the Matwales are so called 
 because they drink liquor at their religious feasts. They 
 worship, besides Siva and Sakti, Vishnu as Naravan. 
 
 MAULBRONN FORMI'LA. A formula drawn up by 
 Luke Osiander and Balthasar Bidenbaeh as the basis on 
 which the Lutherans might agree. It was a brief 
 formula, designed as an improvement upon the lengthy 
 formula suggested by James Andrew, the Swabian and 
 Saxon Formula of Concord (q.v.). 
 
 MAURICE HOSTELS. Settlement Houses established 
 in connection with the Christian Social Union (q.v.) and 
 named after Frederick Denison Maurice. 
 
 MAXIMIANISTS. The party of Maximianus. 
 
 Maximianns was a Donatist deacon at Carthage, and is 
 said to have been related to Donatus the Great. Primian, 
 on being appointed bi.shop of the Donatists at Carthage 
 (A.D. 391), found fault with Maximian and excommuni- 
 cated him. He was himself condemned and deposed by 
 a number of Donatist bishops, and Maximian was 
 ordained bishop. Thus arose one of the divisions among 
 the Donati.sts. " Notwithstanding the defection of the 
 Maximianists, who appear to have rebaptized those who 
 joined them, the validity of their baptism was not denied 
 by the other Donatistis, a point which Augustine fre- 
 quently u.ses against them " (Wace and Piercy). See 
 Wace and Piercy. 
 
 MaYa. A term used in Hinduism. Maya means 
 " illusion." According to Vedantism (i/.v.)', all that 
 really exists Is the One Spirit. The individual soul or 
 .spirit, if it will only realize its true nature, is one with 
 the eternal, infinite Being. Nothing else really exists. 
 It is all Maya or Illusion. Compare BERKELEYISM 
 and CITRISTIAN SCIENCE. 
 
 MAYaNDI. a Hindu deity, the god of the Paliyans, 
 a caste in Madura and Tinnevelly, Southern India. He 
 is usually represented by a stone, " preferably one to 
 which nature has given some curious shai)e, the serpent 
 form being e-specially valued " (E, Thurston and K. Ran- 
 gachari). 
 
 MAZDEISM. Mazdeism is another name for Zoroas- 
 trianism (q.v.) or Parseeism. It is so called because one 
 of the names of the principal gods of the sy.stem is Mazda. 
 Mazda, otherwise known as Ahura-Mazda, Hormuzd, or 
 Ormuzd, is the god of light, purity, and truth, the all- 
 wise creator. Mazdeism is dualistic, the god of light 
 being oppo.sed by a god of darkness, Angra-mainyu, other- 
 wise known as Ahriman. 
 
 MECHITARISTS. An order of Christian Armenian
 
 Mediating Theology 
 
 237 
 
 Megalithic Monuments 
 
 monks founded by Peter Mechitar (1()7<>-1749). A native 
 of Siwas. the ancient Sebaste, Mechitar went to Con- 
 stantinople and formed a congregation there in 1701. The 
 hostility of some of the Armenians drove him from Con- 
 stantinople, and he removed to Modon in the Morea. 
 Here in 1712 his congregation was approved by Clement 
 XI. In 1715. when war broke out and Modon was 
 capUired by the Turks. Jlechitar took refuge in Venic-e. 
 In 1717 he settled with his companions on the island of 
 San Lazzaro. Here he continued his work and built an 
 Armenian convent. Houses were afterwards established 
 in Vienna (1810) and other places. The Mechitarists 
 bave devoted themselves to Literary labours, and have 
 done excellent and remarkable service in perfecting the 
 Armenian language. Tliey have made, printed, and 
 published translations into Armenian of many Euroi)ean 
 books. See Cath. Diet.: Brockhaus. 
 
 MEDIATING THEOLOGY. Pfleiderer gives the name 
 Eclectic Mediating Theologians to a class of theologians 
 who have sought, independently of definite philosophical 
 vsystems, to reconcile the faith of the Church with the 
 thought of their times. Typical of this class or school 
 was Isaac Atigust Dorner (1809-1S84). One of his works 
 was on the history of the development of the doctrine 
 of the person of Christ (" Entwicklungsgeschichte der 
 Lehre von der Person Christi " : 2nd ed. lS4.5-5fi) : another 
 was a history of protestant theology (" (Jeschichte der 
 prot«stantischen Theologie." 1867). Dorner maintains 
 that " the method of Christian dogmatic theology must 
 be not simply productive, but rather reproductive: still 
 it mu.st not be merely empirical and reflective, but also 
 constructive and progressive. When the enlightened 
 Christian mind is in harmony by its faith and experience 
 with objective Christianity, which faith knows to be it« 
 own origin, and which is also attested by the Scriptures 
 and the scriptural faith of the Church, then such a mind 
 has to justify and develop its religious knowledge in a 
 systematic form." Our knowledge of God is incomplete 
 and relative, but it is real and growing. In revelation 
 the divine power works, in part outwardly (in miracles), 
 in part inwardly (in inspiration). Dorner taught that 
 " the primary seat of inspiration must not be sought in 
 books, but in men, and must not be .separated from the 
 general history of revelation. But tliough no specific 
 difference can be proved between men endowed with the 
 spirit and inspired men; still of the latter it is a dis- 
 tinctive and indeed unique characteristic, by virtue of 
 their being vehicles of revelation, that without being 
 personally absolutely incapable of error, they are yet 
 preserved from it in their teaching and preaching, and 
 proclaim only unerring truth, even in historical details, 
 as the word of God " (Pfleiderer). In Denmark the 
 school found an able representative in Hans Ija.ssen Mar- 
 tensen (180S-1884), who wrote on " Christian Dogmatics " 
 (4th German edition, 1897) and on " Christian Ethics " 
 (fith German edition, 1893). In reference to the latter 
 work, Martensen says : " The one-sided views against 
 which we have to contend are those of one-sided ecc-les- 
 iasticism, and one-sided individualism. Both negative 
 the great problem of the modem age— the living union 
 of Christianity and humanism. For a nomi.stic eccles- 
 iasticism which suppresses all intellectual, and especially 
 all .scientific freedom, and an individualism which tries 
 to isolate Christianity, and separate it from the varied 
 spheres of human life, are alike un-Christian and in- 
 human. The problem will continue to be the presentation 
 in life and doctrine of this tmion and combination of 
 Christianity and genuine and free humanity." Johann 
 Peter Lange (1802-1884), who wrote on " Dogmatics " 
 (1849-51), tried to put new life into dogmatic theology 
 with the help of thecsophical speculation. Daniel 
 
 Schenkel (1813-1S.S5), who wrote a book on " Christian 
 Dogmatics" (1858-59), and another on the character of 
 Jesus (" Das Charakterbild Jesu," 4th ed. 1873), thought 
 that theology ought thoroughly to revise its idea of re- 
 ligion. The Jesus of Schenkel is de.scribed by Pfann- 
 miiller as " an idealized and modernized Christ." 
 Albrecht Ritschl (1822-1889), who wrote on " The 
 Christian Doctrine of Justification and Atonement " (4th 
 eil. 1895), felt the need of an altogether new theology. 
 and sought to supply it. He founded a new school of 
 theology, the Ritsclilian School. Another representa- 
 tive of the Mediating Theology, though he differed 
 very much from RitseJil, was Richard Adelbert Lipsius 
 (1830-1892), author of a " Manual of Evangelical Pro- 
 testant Theology " (3rd ed. 1893). According to Lipsius. 
 •' the Christian faith regards the existence and course of 
 the world from the teleological point of view as the means 
 of securing the divine purpose of the world— without 
 prejudice to the scientific causal theory of the world. 
 The same cour.se of the world must be placed entirely 
 under the point of view of natural causation, and also 
 entirely under that of a divine purpose, since the divine 
 teleologj" manifests itself as the power immanent in the 
 cour.se of nature" (Pfleiderer). See Otto Pfleiderer. 
 Development of Theol.; G. Pfannmiiller, Jesux im Vrteil 
 der YahrliuiKierte, 1908; H. S. Nash, Higher Criticism 
 of the X.T., 1901. 
 
 MEDITATION. Meditation, as a form of Christian 
 prayer (see PRAYER), has been defined as " the appli- 
 cation of the three r>owers of the soul to prayer — the 
 memory proposing a religious or moral truth, the under- 
 standing considering this truth in its application to the 
 individual who meditates, while the will forms practical 
 resolutions and desires grace to keep them " (Cath. Diet.). 
 Meditation is of course a form of Mental or Silent 
 Prayer. 
 
 MEDIUMS. A name given by spiritists to those 
 persons who possess, or seem to possess, in a special 
 degree the power of establishing communication between 
 living beings and departed spirits. See SPIRITISM. 
 
 MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS. There are still to be 
 found in various parts of the world sepulchral monuments 
 of .stone which were erected in ancient times. Many 
 are to be seen even in Europe. Megalithic monuments 
 include dolmens, or table-like structures formed of several 
 slabs of stone, cromlechs, or stone circles, and menhirs 
 OT solitary upright stones. Examples of these three 
 types of monument have been found in Palestine east 
 and west of the Jordan, and would seem to have been 
 the work of a pre-Semitic rac-e. It used to be thought 
 that the dolmens were fables or altars of stone, but there 
 is a growing mass of evidence against this view. R. 
 Munro points out (Hastings' E.R.E.) that, as used by 
 .some English archseologists, cromlech is almost synony- 
 mous with dolmen; but, as defined by Continental 
 authorities, cromlech is exclusively applied to enclosures 
 " constructed of rude standing stones placed at intervals 
 of a few feet or yards, and arranged roughly on a circular 
 plan — circle, oval, horse-.shoe, or rectangle." Cromlechs 
 sometimes surround dolmens, tumuli, and cairns. It is 
 clear, from the discovery of bones, skeletons, etc., that 
 use was made of mo.st of the smaller cromlechs as 
 sepulchres. But he finds it diSicult to believe " that 
 burial was the sole purpose of the large cromlechs such 
 as Avebury, Stonehenge, the Giant's Ring near Belfast, 
 Mayborough near Penrith, etc. This last consists of a 
 circular mound composed of an immense aggregation of 
 small stones in the form of a gigantic ring, enclosing a 
 flat space 300 feet in diameter, to which there is access 
 by a wide break in the ring. Near the centre of the 
 area there is a fine monolith, one of several known to
 
 Megarics, The 
 
 238 
 
 Men 
 
 have formerly stood there." He thinks that such large 
 enclosures must have been used not only as cemeteries, 
 but also "for the performance of religious oeremomes 
 in connexion with tOie cult of the dead." Menhirs, 
 besides being sepulchral monuments, may sometimes have 
 been erected for other purposes (as oracular .stones, etc.). 
 They are often isolated, but they are also found in 
 groups forming a circle (cromlech) or an avenue. The 
 question of the origin of the megalithic monuments is 
 intere.sting and important. It has been discussed recently 
 (1912) at the meetings of the British Association for the 
 Advancement of Science. Mr. T. Eric Peet, author of 
 The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy (1909), pointed out 
 that the main point at issue is whether the megalithic 
 monuments were built by a single race or by a number 
 of entirely ditCerent races or peoples, and, in the latter 
 event, whether they arose independently among various 
 peoples or spread from a isingle centre. Prof. G. Elliot 
 Smith suggested that the idea of megalith-building 
 originated in Egypt soon after the invention of metal 
 tools, and spread from tribe to tribe until the whole 
 world was encircled by it. " No adequate explanation 
 of the significance of dolmens, cromlechs, alignments and 
 all the other works in stone associated with them, can 
 be found unless due recognition is given to (a) the 
 identity of the ideas which prompted their construction, 
 and the essential resemblances in their plan; (6) their 
 geographical distribution— their absence from large 
 central continental areas, and their wide extent alone 
 continuous coastal and insular territories; (c) the 
 chronological .sequence of their construction, the site of 
 their earlie-st appearance being somewhere in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the Eastern Mediterranean, and progressively 
 later in date as we go either west or east — ^towards Ire- 
 land and Scandinavia, or Japan and the Pacific Islands, 
 respectively ; (d) the coincidence of tiheir first appearance 
 in most lands with the last phase of the Stone Age or 
 the commencement of the Age of Metals; and (e) the 
 improbability of theories of independent evolution, among 
 W'dely separated races of mankind, of identical Ideas 
 which find expression in the same way an building of 
 similar design and materials." Prof. Elliot Smith 
 pertinently asked why, if the impulse to build megalithic 
 funerary monuments was a phase of culture through 
 which all mankind passed, the people of Central Europe 
 were exempt from this instinct, when their littoral rela- 
 tives in the Mediterranean area and on the noi-th-west 
 of Europe were stirred by it to cut rock-tombs and build 
 dolmens. " Why also, if this hyix)thesis has any basis 
 of fact, did the ancient inhabitants of Ireland not get 
 their ' impulse ' until more than a millennium later, and 
 the people of Japan until two millennia later, than the 
 people of Egypt? " See the " Discussion on Megalithic 
 Monuments and their Builders " in the Report of the 
 Meetings of the British Association (1912) ; W. J. Perry, 
 The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia. 1918; Reinaeh, 0.; 
 Peter Thomsen, Paliistina iind seine. Kultur in filnf 
 Jahrtausenden. 1909; Brockhaus; Hastings' E.R.E., s.v. 
 " Death and Disposal of the Dead," vol. iv. 1911. 
 
 MEGARICS, THE. The Megaric School of Greek 
 philosophers was so named because the founder was 
 Euclides of Megara (45.5-380 B.C.?). It was also called 
 the Eristic School on account of its misuse of dialectics. 
 Euclides tau^t a one, only, universal existence, which 
 is true in itself and is always the same. This one 
 existence is the Good. It is known also by other names, 
 such as God, Truth. The philosopher Stilpo developed 
 the teaching in an ethical and moral direction, and by the 
 union of Megaric and Cynic ideas paved the wav for the 
 Stoic School of Philosophy (see STOICISM). See C. J. 
 Deter. 
 
 MEGILLa. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D., 
 and are included in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The six-ty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 {sedarim}. Megilla is tlie tenth tractate of th& second 
 group, which is called Mo'ed (" Festival "). 
 
 MEGILLOTH. Literally " rolls," the Jewish designa- 
 tion of the five books of the Old Testament, Song of 
 Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Eeclesiast.es, and Esther. 
 These books are used in the service of the Synagogue, 
 and are called Megilloth because they are written upon 
 separate rolls. They are read on special occasions : 
 Canticles on the eighth day of the Passover, Ruth on the 
 second day of Pentecost, Lamentations on the 9th day of 
 Ab, Ecclesiastes on the third day of the Feast o.f Taber- 
 nacles, and Esther at Purim. 
 
 ME'lLA. The Jewish Mi.shnah, a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. (see MISHNAH), comprises 
 a number of treatises or tractates which reproduce the 
 oral tradition or unwritten law as developed by the 
 second century A.D. There are sixty-three tractates, 
 divided into six groups or orders (sedarim). Me'Ila is 
 the eighth tractate of the fifth group, which is called 
 Kodashim (" Holy Things "). 
 
 ' MELCHIORISTS. The followers of Melchior Hof- 
 mann (d. 1533) of Strassburg. Little is known about 
 them ; but they held millenarian views, and believed that 
 Hofmann would return to earth with the prophet Elijah. 
 J. E. Erdmann thinks that Melchior Hofmann gave 
 Sebastian Frank (c. 1495-1543) the first impulse to devote 
 himself to mysticism. 
 
 MEMRA. Memra is a Hebrew word meaning " word." 
 It first came to be used to designate God, because the 
 real name of the Divine Being was considered too sacred 
 to be pronounced. It was then employed to denote 
 some power which issued from God, and was, apparently, 
 thought of as a kind of personality. In the Aramaic 
 Targums both usages are found. In Exodus xix. 17 the 
 Hebrew text has : " And Moses brought forth the people 
 out of the camp to meet God." In the Targum of Onkelos 
 {q.v.) this is translated : " Moses led the people forth to 
 meet the Word of God." In Deuteronomy i. 30 the 
 Hebrew text has : " The Lord your God goeth before 
 you." In the Targum of Onkelos this is translated : 
 " Jehovah, your God, whose Word leads you." Oe.sterley 
 and Box quote a number of passages from the Targums 
 to show that by the time they were written the " Word " 
 had become a definite personality. The passages, how- 
 ever, do not necessarily prove this. All they need prove 
 is that at this time devout Jews did not like to ascribe 
 human actions or passions to God. In II. Samuel vi. 
 7 the Hebrew text has : " And the anger of the Lord was 
 kindled against Uzzah; and God smote him there for his 
 error; and there he died by the ark of God." Here the 
 Targum of Jonathan explains that : " The Memra of God 
 slew Uzzah." God Himself cannot l>e angry, and does 
 not slay people. Compare II. Kings xix. 28 where the 
 Targum of Jonathan has ; " Tliou ha'St angered my 
 Word." But there can be no doubt that " the Word " 
 came more and more to be thought of as a person commis- 
 sioned by God to act for Him. In the philosophy of 
 Philo the Memra has become the Logos, which is even 
 " after the likeness of man." See W. O. E. Oesterley 
 and G. H. Box. 
 
 MEN. The chief god of Antioch in early Christian 
 times, a god of prophecy and healing. He ie represented 
 on the coins standing with one foot on a bull's head
 
 Menachotb 
 
 239 
 
 Messiah, The 
 
 and wearing a Phrygian cap. He was paired witli 
 Demeter, and was closely associated with Artemis 
 (Diana). In 1910-13 the sanctuary of Men-Asli»nos in 
 Antioch was excavated by Sir William Ramsay. " It 
 is suggestive that no temple of Men was found, but only 
 this holy High Place on the top of the mountain, oi)en 
 to the sky, in the centre of which was the ancient hall 
 of initiation, and the high trough or baptismal font where 
 purifications were made by tie worshippers. There is no 
 doubt whatever that we may see in this newly-discovered 
 sanctuary the famous hall of Phrj-gian mysteries. The 
 hall proper was, doubtless, the central closed chamber. 
 Tlie soil above the stone floor of this chamber was full 
 of animal bones and teeth, and beneatli the floor the 
 teeth of pigs and wild boars were found. Emblems of 
 Men, a homed bull's head, and many engraved tablets 
 were excavated " (Camdi-n M. Cobem). H. R. Hall 
 (Ancient Eistory, 1913) thinks that Men was a moon- 
 god; and that he was not of Anatolian origin, but was 
 an Aryan or Proto-Iranian god introduced from the East. 
 
 MENaCHOTH. The name of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century 
 A.D., and are included in the Mishnah (9.r.), a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holv, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or ordejs 
 isedarim). Menachotb is the .sef^ond tractate of the fifth 
 group, which is called Kodashim ('■ Holy Things "). 
 
 MENANDRIANS. The followers of "Menander, who, 
 according to Irenaeus and Eusebius, was the successor 
 of Simon Magus (d. IDS A.D.). Menander was a 
 Samaritan belonging to Capparatea. He taught at 
 Antioch, and his teaching seems to have been an early 
 form of Gnosticism Cg.v.). Menander seems to have 
 taught that the Primary Power was unknown or unknow- 
 able, and that the world was made by angels, who pro- 
 ceeded from Ennoia (Supreme Thought). He claimed 
 to be divine, and to have the power to overcome tiie 
 angels and to give his disciples undying youth and 
 eternal life. The Menandrians seem to have been 
 absorbed in course of time by the Gnostics. See K R 
 Hagenbach; J. H. Blunt; rx)uis Duchesne, Hist. 
 
 MENT. An Egyptian deity. The name is written 
 also Mont (<?.«.). 
 
 MERIXTHIANS. Merinthians occurs as another name 
 for the Cerinthians (q.v.). 
 
 MERSEBIIRG CHARMS. In 1841 G. Waltz, the 
 German historian, discovered in the Cathedral at Merse- 
 burg in Saxony a tenth century manuscript, written in 
 Old German and containing magic formulas or charms. 
 Two of these charms are purely pagan and mav be of the 
 eighth century. They mention a number of old Teutonic 
 deities : the Idisi ; the gods Phol, Wodan, and Balder; the 
 goddesses Sinthgunt and Frija. The Idisi are female 
 beings who were active in battle. Thev seem to be 
 identical with the Walkyries (q.v.). Wodan and Balder, 
 unless the latter means simplv " lord " here, are the 
 well-known Teutonic gods. Phol has been supposed to 
 be a corruption of Apollo. It has al.so l>een suggested 
 that he is a figure borrowed from Christianitv, and is 
 none other than Paul the Apostle. Prija (q'v.) is the 
 well-known Teutonic godde.ss. The goddess Sinthgunt 
 IS not otherwise known. See P. D. Chantepie de Ja 
 Saussa.ve. Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 MBSSALIANS. Messalians was the original Svriae 
 name of the religious sect which was afterwards known 
 as the Euchites (q.v.). Both words, the one of Svriae, 
 the other of Greek, derivation, mean " the praying 
 jieople." The sect was found in Syria towards the end 
 of the fourth century A.D. 
 
 MESSIAH, THE. The term Messiah is the Hebrew 
 equivalent of the Greek Christos, and means " the one 
 anointed." The Jews in course of time, particularly in 
 the days when great calamities began to threaten' the 
 existence of the nation, developed tihe belief which has 
 come to be known as the Messianic hope— the belief that 
 God would send a hero chosen or anointed to be the 
 Saviour of his people. The first prophet of the Messianic 
 hope was Isaiah. In the Syro-Ephraimitish war of 735 
 B.C., when he was a young man, he loolvetl for a king to 
 come who should throw the great Assvrian king Tiglath- 
 pileser IV. into the shade (Isa. ix. 2-0). Later, in the 
 days of Sennacherib's second invasion of Judah (691 or' 
 after), when the prophet was an old man, he prophesied 
 the coming of a ruler who should inaugurate a rule of 
 ideal happiness and peace (Isa. xi. 1-9). " " The prophecy 
 is doubly significant, for it presents the noble.st ideal of 
 a ruler found in Hebrew literature, and also combines 
 closely with it those popular hopes of the golden era, 
 which were probably drawn from the traditions of 
 Paradise, inherited from the primitive Semitic past. In 
 its portrayal of the fruits that follow, as a result of a 
 just and righteous rule, it possesses a perennial value " 
 (C. F. Kent, The Sermons, Episths and Apocalypses of 
 Israel's Prophets, 1910, p. 475). During the Exile a new 
 type of Messianic hope emerged. " Jehovah would care 
 for his people as the shepherd cared for his sheep, and 
 the land to which they would return would be renewed 
 (Ezek. xxxiv. 11-31), while the nations would support 
 Israel and fear Jehovah (Isa. xlix. 22, 23). Jehovah 
 would make an evei'lasting covenant with his people 
 (Isa. Iv. 1-5), but the new nation would not be composed 
 of all those who had been i5wept into exile and their- 
 descendants. It would rather be a righteous community,, 
 purified by suffering" (Hastings' D.B.). In the late 
 canonical books the Messiah is not well defined, but the 
 Book of Daniel, in its apocalyptic sections, contains the 
 expectation of a political State founded by Jehovah in 
 Palestine, if not of a distinct personal Messiah. For 
 the Messianic expectations in the second century B.C. 
 (Apocalyptic Literature) Dr. Charles gives as the chief 
 authorities outside the Canon, the older sections of I. 
 Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Testaments of the xii. 
 Patriarcis, and I. and II. Maecaljees. Here, no doubt 
 on account of the part played by the family of Levi in 
 the history of the times, the Davidic Messiah gives place 
 to a Messianic King descended from Levi. In the first 
 century, however, no doubt on accomit of the degeneracy 
 of the great Maccabean family (descended from Levi), 
 we find the hope of a Messiah sprung from Levi aban- 
 doned. In Enoch xxxvii.-lxxi. the Messiah appears as 
 the supernatural " Son of Man " (xlvi. 3, xlviii. 2, Ixix. 
 27). He is " the Christ " (xlviii. 10), " the Righteous 
 One " (xxxviii. 2), " the Elect One " (xl. 5). In the 
 Psalms of Solomon (or P.salms of the Pharisees), on the 
 other hand, " the Messiah is conceived as embracing in 
 his own person all the patriotic aspirations of the nation. 
 The Messiah is, it is true, the righteous ruler of Israel, 
 but he is no less assuredly the avenger of their wrongs 
 on all the heathen nations. He is to be a militant 
 Messiah of the house and lineage of David " (Charles; 
 ep. W. Fairweather, The Background of the Gospels). 
 Turning to the New Testament — in what sense, if in any, 
 did .le.sus regard himself as the Messiah? There can 
 be little doubt that gradually he did come to regard him- 
 self as such, but only gradually. The conviction can 
 hardly have been inborn. " To affirm this would be to 
 quit the domain of what is humanly conceivable. Also 
 his quiet growth and his bapti.sm are insufficient to 
 account for the origin of such an idea. It cau only have 
 sprung up in the light of great publicity. On the other
 
 Messiah, The 
 
 240 
 
 Metaphysics 
 
 Laud, also, it must be said, the disciples can hardly have 
 been the first to suggest the idea. For, since at 
 CiPsarea Philippi he invites their opinion, he must him- 
 self already have been considering what his true 
 character was. At all i>oints he made them sharers in 
 his world of thoughts. Indeed, until now, he had not 
 given them the slightest occasion for spontaneously 
 associating their Jewish ideal of the Messiah with his 
 own person. On all the suggested assumptions, there- 
 fore, the psychological motives, on which everything 
 deiiends, would be missing. Unless we would abandon 
 all attempts to explain the matter, as most recent critiCH 
 do, we must look for the rise of this sublime self-con- 
 sciousness at a period between the baptism and Peter's 
 confession. The prominence previously given to the 
 purely religious and moral preaching in the life of Jesus 
 then receives an excellent explanation. We can then, 
 and then alone, realise how it was that Jesus could 
 believe in tilie practical coming of the ' kingdom of God ' 
 as the result of obedience to religious and moral com- 
 mands ' (Arno Neumann, Jesvs). In any case. When 
 Jesus took up the Messianic ideal of his people, there 
 can be no doubt that he transformed it in his own way. 
 To him the Messiah would seem to have been beyond and 
 above the king of the Davidic ideal. Moreover, he seems 
 to have discarded the warlike features of tJhe Messiah- 
 ship. And " naturally, when the sword and spear were 
 laid aside, prominence was given inevitably to the idea 
 of a religious and moral revival of the people." At the 
 same time Jesiis was forced by circumstances to cling to 
 the hope of a second coming from heaven. The Jews of 
 course did not recognise Jesus as the Messiah, and con- 
 tinued to look for a saviour or salvation. During the 
 Talmudic age, " the Messianic hope in its national char- 
 acter includes always the reunion of all Israel under a 
 victorious ruler of the house of David, who shall destroy 
 all ho.stile powers and bring an era of supreme prosjperity 
 and happiness as well as of peace and good-will among 
 men. The Haggadists indulged also in dreams of the 
 marvellous fertility of the soil of Palestine in the Mes- 
 sianic time, and of the resurrection of the dead in the 
 holy land " (K. Kohler). In the Middle Ages, 
 Maimonides in his commentary on the Mishnah and in 
 his Code formulated a new kind of Messianic belief. 
 His twelfth article of faith declares that " the Jew, 
 unless he wishes to forfeit his claim to eternal life, must, 
 in acceptance of the teachings of Moses and the prophets 
 down to Malaehi, believe that the Messiah will issue forth 
 from the house of David in the per.son of a descendant 
 of Solomon, the only legitimate king; and he shall far 
 excel all rulers in history by his reign, glorious in just'ce 
 and peace. Neither impatience nor deceptive calculation 
 of the time of the advent of the Messiah should shatter 
 this belief. Still, notwithstanding the majesty and 
 wisdom of the Messiah, he must be regarded as a mortal 
 being like any other and only as the restorer of the 
 Davidic dynasty. He will die and leave a son as his 
 .successor, who will in his turn die and leave the throne 
 to his heiT. Nor will there be any material change in 
 the order of things in the whole system of nature and 
 human life; accordingly Isaiah's picture of the living 
 together of lamb and wolf cannot be taken literally, nor 
 any of the Haggadic sayings with reference to the Mes- 
 .sianie time. We are only to believe in the coming of 
 Elijah as a messenger of peace and the forerunner of 
 the Messiah, and also in the great decisive battle with 
 the hosts of heathendom embodied in Gog and Magog, 
 through whose defeat the dominion of the Messiah will 
 be permanently estjablished " (quoted by Kohler). As 
 far as Reform Judaism is concerned, the nineteenth cen- 
 tury has seen another change of attitude. " Thus the 
 
 leaders of Reform Judaism in the middle of the nine- 
 teenth century declared themselves unanimously opposed 
 to retaining the belief in a personal Messiah and the 
 IX)litical restoration of Israel, either in doctrine or in 
 their liturgy. They accentuated all the more strongly 
 Israel's hope for a Messianic age, a time of universal 
 knowledge of God and love of man, so intimately inter- 
 woven with the religious mission of the Jewish, people. 
 Harking back to the suffering Servant of the Ix>rd in 
 Deutero-Isaiah, the.v transferred the title of Messiah to 
 the Jewish nation. Reform Judaism has Ihus aceefited 
 the belief that Israel, the suffering Messiah of the cen- 
 turies, shall at the end of days become the triumphant 
 Messiah of the nations " (Kohler). It should be added 
 that the idea of a Messiah is not confined to Judaism. 
 Cheyne cites a Babylonian parallel (Encucl. Bibl.). The 
 Egyptian " Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage" seems to 
 refer to an ideal king, a kind of Messiah. In Buddhism 
 we find the ideal king as the personification of Power 
 and Justice, and also the ideal perfectly Wise Man (T. 
 W. Rhys Davids, Hihbert Lectures, 1881). Zoroas- 
 trianism, again, " Io(5ked forward to the ultimate triumph 
 of Aliura Mazdah, just as the Jews looked forward to 
 the ultimate triumph of Yahweh and his Messiah " (G. 
 A. Barton, R.W.). Cp. I. Husik. 
 
 METAPHYSICS. The term " metaphysic " was used 
 by commentators on Aristotle to denote the books which 
 came after the writings of the philosopher on Physics. 
 Metaphysics then came to mean the inquiry into the 
 ultimate nature of Being, an inquiry which comprehends 
 morality, religion, and politics. Aristotle himself 
 described this part of philosophy as First (that is to say. 
 Fundamental) Philosophy, and the other part (Physics) 
 as Second Philosophy. Some systems of thought (Posi- 
 tivism, Naturalism, Agno.stieism, Materialism) are un- 
 metaphysical, since they deny the i>ossibility of meta- 
 physical knowledge. The metaphysical inquiry is a 
 search for truth, which is unending, because, as William 
 .Tames says, the only indefectible certain truth is the 
 truth that the present phenomenon of consciousness 
 exists. " No concrete test of what is really true has 
 ever been agreed uix)n. Some make the criterion 
 external to the moment of perception, putting it either 
 in revelation, the consensus gentium, the instincts of the 
 heart, or the systematized experience of the race. Others 
 make the i>erceptive moment its own test — Descartes, for 
 in.stance, with his clear and distinct ideas guaranteed by 
 the veracity of God; Reid with his ' common-sense '; and 
 Kant witih his forms of synthetic judgment a priori. The 
 inconceivability of the opposite; the capacity to be 
 verified by sense; the possession of complete organic unity 
 or self- relation, realized when a thing is its own other — 
 are standards which, in turn, have been used. The 
 much-lauded objective evidence is never triumphantly 
 there; it is a mere aspiration or Grenzhegriff, marking 
 the infinitely remote ideal of our thinking life. To claim 
 that certain truths now possess it, is simply to say that 
 when you think them tnie and they ore true, then their 
 evidence is objective, otherwise it is not. But practically 
 one's conviction that the evidence one goes by is of the 
 real objective brand, is only one more subjective opinion 
 added to the lot. For what a contradictory array of 
 opinions have objective evidence and absolute certitude 
 been claimed ! The world is rational through and 
 through— its existence is an ultimate brute fact; there is 
 a personal God — a personal God is inconceivable; there 
 is an extra-mental physical world immediately known — 
 the mind can only know its own ideas; a moral impera- 
 tive exists — obligation is only the resultant of desires; a 
 Iiermanent spiritual principle is in every one — there are 
 only shifting states of mind; there is an endless chain
 
 Metatron 
 
 241 
 
 Micah, Book of 
 
 of causes — there is an absolute first cause; an eternal 
 necessity — a freedom: a purpose — no purix)se; a primal 
 One — a primal Many; a universal continuity — an essential 
 discontinuity in things; an infinity — no infinity. There 
 is this — there is that; there is indeed nothing which some 
 one ihas not thought absolutely tnie, while his neighbour 
 deemed it absolutely false; and not an absolutist among 
 them seems ever to have considered that the trouble may 
 all the time be essential, and that the intellect, even with 
 truth directly in its grasp, may have no infallible signal 
 for knowing whether it be truth or no " (The Will to 
 Believe, 1908, p. 15). 
 
 METATRON. In post-Biblical Judaism Metatron 
 appears as the name of one of the beings intermediate 
 between God and man. Tlie derivation of the word is 
 uncertain. It has been connected with the Latin tnetator 
 in the sense of " guide." and even with the Zoroa.strian 
 Mithra (see MITHRAISM). It is more likely of Greek 
 origin. Weber thinks it is a Hebrew form of the Greek 
 Metathronos or Metatyrannos, which denotes one wlio 
 ranks nest to the ruler. Tlie first mention of Metatron 
 is found in the Babylonian Talmud. The ofl5ce and work 
 of Aletatron are similar to those of the Memra (q.v.) 
 and Logos. He represents God. And he does this 
 especially when God has to come into contact with mun- 
 dane affairs; hence his designation " Prince of the 
 World." He is al.so called " Prince of the Presence," 
 on account of liis constant attendance on God. As in the 
 case of Memra, it seems clear that Metatron takes the 
 place of God whenever human actions and feelings are 
 ascribed to the Divine Being. But, besides representing 
 GkKl, he can intercede with Him. He is called the 
 " Mediator." Another name for Metatron was the 
 " Great Scribe." He was so called because, like Enocli, 
 with whom the .Terusalem Targum identities him, he was 
 supix>sed to write down the merits of Israel. In the 
 Jerusalem Targum and in the Ascension of Isaiah (ix. 21) 
 he is identified with Michael the Archangel. 8ee W. O. 
 E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 METAWILEH. Metawileh is the plural form of 
 Metawali, which is a synonym for Shi'ah {q.v.). 
 
 METE:MPSYCH0SIS. The transmigration of the .soul 
 at the death of the body into .some other body, either 
 human, animal, or even material. See TRANSMIGRA- 
 TION OF SOULS. 
 
 METHODISTS, NEW CONNEXION. The New Con- 
 nexion Methodis-ts are an offshoot of the original 
 Methodists, the Wesleyan Methodists (q.v.). The body 
 was founded in 1797 by Alexander Kilham, after whom 
 the members were ealle<i Kilhamites {q-v.). At first 
 they were called also " The New Itinerancy." 
 
 METHODISTS, PRIMITIVE. A Christian body which 
 represents a secession from the Metliodism of John 
 Wesley (see WESLEYAN METHODISTS). They were 
 .so calle<l because they reverted, as they claimed, to the 
 original or primitive methods of Wesley and his followers. 
 They did this by " preaching in the open air, holding 
 camp meetings to promote revivals, singing through the 
 street, praying and preaching anywhere and everywhere 
 they could, .so as to save souls." The ministers of the 
 older community, the members of which are now called 
 Wesleyan Methodi.sts to distinguish them from the 
 Methodist New Connexion, disapproved of these irregular 
 proceedings. "The.se elders induced the Conference to 
 denounce the holding of a great camp meeting, May 31. 
 1807. on Mow Cop hill on the borders of Cheshire' and 
 Staffordshire. It was promoted by Hugh and James 
 Bourne, and was attended by thousands of people. The 
 two enthusiastic brethren were refused their tickets of 
 membership, and virtually driven from the society. Next 
 a class leader, named William Clowes, was suspended 
 
 for his symjMthy and co-operation in the movement; and 
 in the .same year (ISIO) ten persons, who had been con- 
 verted at a village service in Stanley, were refused admis- 
 .sion to the society. These with Clowes and the Bournes 
 formed the nucleus of the new community, which from 
 that time continued to grow and flourish. Its mem,bers 
 were mos-tly poor and uneducated; yet they were 
 thoroughly devoted to its interests, and were, moreover, 
 always ready to make great sacrifices to promote them. 
 In their Conference the Primitive Methodists have two 
 laymen to one minister; and they were amongsi: the first 
 to encourage the public preaching of women " (J. A. 
 Houlder). 
 
 METHURGEMAN. When Aramaic took the place of 
 Hebrew as the six)ken language of the Jewish people, it 
 was necessary for someone in the Synagogue to interpret 
 the original language of the Hebrew Scriptures. This 
 person was called the Methurgeman or Targoman. See 
 TARGUM. 
 
 MEVLEVITES. An order of Dervisaies, founded in 
 the thirteenth century by Jelalu-'d-Din, surnamed Er 
 Rnmi. They are known to Europeans as the Dancing 
 Dervishes from their peculiar dance [dcvr), in which 
 they imitate the planets circling round the sun. Rumi's 
 great work, tiie Mesncvi, was dictated to Hasan, his 
 friend and scribe, after the year 12.58. The Mevlevites 
 " pass through the severest trials in the noviciate : before 
 the candidate can be received at all he must work as a 
 'jackal' at menial tasks for 1001 days; if he fail on 
 one day, he must begin his servitude afresh." They 
 profess " pantheist views and are regarded with disfavour 
 and .suspicion by the regular clergy; but they are tolerant 
 and broadminded " (F. W. Bussell). 
 
 MEXTLI. The original name of the war-god of the 
 ancient Mexicans. A more iwpular name was Huitzilo- 
 poehtli (q.i\). 
 
 MICAH, BOOK OF. The prophet Micah, whose book 
 is one of the twelve Minor Prophets, is described as tlie 
 Morashtite, i.e., as a native of Moresheth. The prophet 
 Jeremiali quotes Micah iii. 12 and refers to him as pro- 
 phes.ving " in the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah " 
 (.Jeremiah xxvi. 18). Whitehouse thinks that " the 
 clo-sely analogous passage, Micah i. .5-9, clearly proves 
 that he prophesied in the reign of Ahaz, .shortly before 
 the overthrow of Samaria (722-1 B.C.)." The super- 
 scription to the book (i. 1) is no doubt due to an editor. 
 The book may be divided into three sections. The first, 
 chapters i.-iii., is a prophecy of denunciation and judg- 
 ment. Samaria is to be puni.shed for idolatry. So also 
 Judah, which has been guilty not only of idolatry, but 
 also of social and moral corruption. The second section, 
 chapters iv.-v., opens with a Messianic passage (iv. 1-5) 
 which in large part recurs in the book of Isaiah (ii. 2-4). 
 There is another Messianic passage in v. 2-(i (Heb. 1-.5) 
 whieli makes definite reference to the overthrow of 
 A.ssyria. Tlie third section, chapters vi.-vii., is of the 
 nature of a controversial dialogue between Jehovah and 
 his people. In Chap. vli. 8-20, however, the standpoint 
 changes. These verses are assigned by Cornill to an 
 editor who revised the whole book. It seems hardly 
 possible to ascTibe the whole book to Micah. Robertson 
 Smith thought that chapters i.-v. formed a single well- 
 connected Book of Micah. Whitehouse thinks that " it is 
 not possible to assign to Micah and the latter part of the 
 eighth century more than chaps, i.-iii." In any case, 
 chap. vi. 1-vii. is different in character and style from 
 the rest of tlie book, and H. Ewald. who thought that 
 the section was comjio.sed by an anonymous writer in the 
 reign of Manasseh, has found many followers. See 
 Encyol. Bihl. ; T. K. Chevne. Micah in the " Cambridge 
 Bible," 1S82; J. Wellhau'sen, Klei^ie Propheten, 3rd ed..
 
 Michelianites 
 
 242 
 
 Minims, The Order of 
 
 1S98; W. Nowaek, Kleine Propheten. 2iid ed., 1904- C- *• 
 Kent Sermons, Epistles, and Apocalupses, 1910; C. 
 Cornill, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 MICHELIANITES. The name " Micbeliauer " was 
 eiven to a German Pietistic sect founded in Wtirttemberg 
 Iv Johann Michael Hahn (1758-1819). Hahn wa.s in- 
 fluenced by Jacob Boehme (1.575-1624), the theosophiKt 
 and mystic The svstem of theology which he developed 
 was o"f a theosophical nature. He profes-sed to have 
 received a sr>ecial inward light. The Michelianites lived 
 in expectation of a " restoration of all things." See J. 
 H. Blunt; Brockhaus. 
 
 MICTLAN. Mictlan was one of the deities worshipped 
 by the ancient Mexicans. He corresponded to Pluto. 
 In the drear and dismal region over which he ruled, he 
 was attended on by terrible demons. See Lewis Spence, 
 Myth. 
 
 MIDDOTH. The title of one of the .Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D., 
 and are included in the Mishnah (q.v.), a. collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Middoth is the tenth tractate of the fifth 
 group, which is called Kodnshim {•• Holy Things "). 
 
 MIDER. Mider, a god of the Underworld worshipped 
 by the ancient Gaels (Goidels), seems to have resembled 
 the British god Pwyll (q.v.). 
 
 MIDHGARDH. A term u.se<I in the cosmology of the 
 Ancient Teutons. By Midhgardh is meant " either the 
 inhabited earth as the centre of the universe, situated 
 between heaven and the lower world, or the centre of the 
 earth conceived as a disk, .surrounded by the sea (Midh- 
 gardh-serpent)." It is a fair place for men to inhabit. 
 See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 
 1902. 
 
 MIDHGAEDH-SERPENT. The name of a sea- 
 monster, a giant, in the mythology of the Ancient 
 Teutons. He is said to be one of the offspring of the 
 god Loki (q.v.). Sometimes he represents the sea. 
 Legend tells of a struggle between the god Thor iq.v.) 
 and the Mldhgardh-serpent. See P. D. Chantepie de la 
 Saussaye, Rel. o/ the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 MID-LENT SUNDAY. Another name for Lstare 
 Sunday (q.v.), the fourth Sunday in Lent. 
 
 MIDRASH. The name of a branch of Rabbinical 
 literature. The word occurs in the Hebrew text of the 
 Old Testament, and means " exposition " or exegesis. 
 This exegesis is sometimes legalistic or halakic (see 
 HALAKAH), sometimes illu-strative or haggadic (see 
 HAGGADAH). The Midrashim (plural of Midrash) 
 range from the second to the thirteenth century A.D. 
 C. J. Ball (quoted by Oesterley and Box) ix)ints out that 
 Jewish teachers had an inveterate tendency " to convey 
 their doctrine, not in the form of abstract di.seourse, but 
 in a mode appealing directly to the imagination, and 
 seeking to arouse the interest and .sympathy of the man 
 rather than the philosopher. The Rabbi emlwdies his 
 Jes.son in a story, whether parable or allegory or seeming 
 historical narrative; and the last thing he or his disciples 
 would think of is to ask whether the selected persons, 
 events, and circumstances which .so vividly suggest the 
 doctrine are in themselves real or fictitious. The doctrine 
 is everything; the mode of presentation has no inde- 
 pendent value. To make the storj- the fir.st considera- 
 tion, and the doctrine it was intended to convey an after- 
 thought as we, with out dry Western literalness are pre- 
 disposed to do, is to reverse the Jewi.sh order of thinking, 
 and to do unconscious injustice to the authors of many 
 
 edifying narratives of antiquity." For a li.st of Mid- 
 rashim and further riarticular-s about these esp<xs-itory 
 commentaries, see C. A. Briggs, Intr.; W. O. E. Oesterley 
 and G. H. Box. 
 
 MIKWA'OTH. The name of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the sec-ond centdry A.D., 
 and are included in the MLshnah (q.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriaeh, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Mikwa'oth is the sixth tractate of the sixth 
 group, which is called Tohoroth ("Purifications"). 
 
 MILK AND HONEY. It was an ancient baptismal 
 custom to give tie newly-baptised milk and honey to 
 drink. Sidney Heath explains the cu.stom by a quotation 
 from Clement of Alexandria. " As soon as we are born 
 we are nourished with milk, which is the nutriment of 
 the Ix)rd : and as .soon as we are born again, we become 
 entitled to the hope of rest, the promise of Jerusalem 
 which is above, where it is said to rain milk and honey, 
 for by these material things we are assured of that 
 heavenly food." 
 
 MILLENIAL CHURCH, THE. Anotiher name for the 
 Shakers (q.v.). 
 
 " MILL YARD " SABBATARIAN CHURCH. This 
 church claims to be the mother Church of the Seventh- 
 day Denomination. It is so called because from 1091 
 to 1885 the "Meeting House" of the denomination was 
 in Mill Yard, Leman Street, Goodman's Fields. London. 
 The exact date of the foundation of the Church is not 
 known. John Trask. however, would seem to have been 
 a member in 1618. Peter Chamberlen (1001-16S3), after- 
 wards physician to Charles II., was a leader of the 
 Church. In 1691 the " Meeting House" in Mill Yard 
 was purchased by the Church. The services are now 
 held in Momington Hall, Canonburj- Lane. Islington, 
 London. The distinctive features of the denomination 
 consist in the beliefs " that Christians are required to 
 keep the Sabbath according to the Commandment (com- 
 monly called Saturday) as was the practice of Chri-st and 
 His disciples; also that it is their duty to follow Him 
 through the watery grave of ' immersion ' on confession 
 of their faith, which is the only true baptism. Hence 
 the title ' .Sabbatarian ' or Seventh-day Baptist." The 
 .seventh day is reckoned from Friday sunset to Saturday 
 .sun.set. 
 
 MIMAMEIDHR. Literally " the tree of Mimir," a 
 name for the sacred tree of the gods of the Edda. It is 
 also called Yggdrasil's ash. See YGGDRASIL. 
 
 MIN. An Egyptian deity. The god Min " was wor- 
 shipped in that part of Upper Egypt where the Nile and 
 the Red Sea approach each other most closely, and which 
 was therefore at all periods the starting point of the 
 caravan route to the Eastern world " (Erman). Travel- 
 lers sought his protection. He was the " lord of foreign 
 lands." The figure of Min Is ithyphallic. On his head 
 are two feathers; on his upraised right arm he bears a 
 scourge. Erman thinks it probable that Min is another 
 name for the sun gwl. He also identifies Min with 
 Amon (q.v.) of Thebes. The temple of Min was at 
 Koptos. In the New Kingdom his name was regarded 
 as another form of Horus (q.v.). According to Wiede- 
 mann, Min had as his sacred animal the ram ; and he 
 was the god of the generative power of nature, to whom 
 harvest festivals were dedicated. See A. Wiedemann; 
 Adolf Erman, Handbook. 
 
 MINIMS. THE ORDER OF. The Order of Minims, or 
 rather of Minim-Hermits (Ordo Minimorum Eremitarum 
 Sancti Francisci de Paula) was founded by St. Francis 
 of Paula (?1416-1507). They were called Minims, "the
 
 Minoan Worship 
 
 243 
 
 Miracles 
 
 least," to indicate that they regarded themselves as lower 
 than the Franciscans {g.v.) who called themselves Minor 
 (Friars Minor) " the less." In Paris before the Revolu- 
 tion they were called Bons Hommes. In Spain they 
 were known as " Brothers of Victory." Francis of Paula 
 (Paola) began by establishing communities in various 
 places in Italy without any written rule. In 1473 his 
 communities were approved by Pope Sixtus IV. under the 
 title of the •' Hermits of St. Francis of Assisi." In 1493, 
 when the first Rule was composed by Francis and 
 approved by Pope Alexander VI., the title of the order 
 was changed to " Minim-Hermits of Francis of Paola." 
 The friars of St. Francis had always observed a per- 
 petual Lent. In 1-501 this was established as a vow. In 
 the same year Francis added a Rule for Tertiaries, 
 affiliated persons of either sex who preferred to live in 
 the world: and in 1502 the two Rules were approved by 
 the Pope. In 150t5 the two Rules, together with a third 
 Rule for nuns, were approved and confirmed. The 
 Minim-Hermit undertook to live under the vows of 
 poverty, chastity, obedience, and of the life of Lent. He 
 use<l to go barefoot or in sandals, but is now shod. 
 Francis introduced the order into France, Spain, aud 
 Germanv. See Schaff-Herzog: the Cath. Diet. 
 
 MINOAN WORSHIP. Discoveries in Crete and other 
 centres of the Miuoan-Mycenaean culture have furnished 
 certain facts about the Minoan worship. According to 
 L. R. Famell, " the most striking figure in the Minoan 
 worship was a great goddess, conceived mainly as a 
 mother but here and there also as virginal, imagined as 
 a mountain goddess, whose familiar animals were the 
 lion and the snake, and ethnically related to the 
 Phrygian Cybele and the ancestress of the Cretan Rhea 
 and probably of some Hellenic goddesses. By her side 
 is sometimes represented a youthful deity imagined prob- 
 ably as her lover or son. We discern also the figure 
 of a sky-god. armed and descending through the air." 
 But the predominant and immemorial cult seems to have 
 been that of the goddess. " The Minoan imagination of 
 the divinity was clearly anthropomorphic, but probably 
 admitted the idea that it might occasionally be embodied 
 in animal form; that is to say, the anthropomorphism 
 was not yet stable." The divine ancestor would seem 
 to have been worshipped. " As regards the ritual of 
 this period, the famous sarcophagus found at Hagia 
 Triada reveals a ceremony of blood-offering, in which the 
 blood of the sacred ox is first caught in a receptacle, and 
 then poured on an altar; we may take this as evidence 
 of the idea of a my.stic potency inherent in the blood of 
 the victim." Four of the worshippers are represented 
 as wearing the skin of the sacrificed ox. Another feature 
 of Minoan wor.ship is "a communion-service in wliich the 
 mortal was absorbed into the divine nature by the simu- 
 lated fiction of a holy marriage." See L. R. Farnell, 
 Greek ReUnion, 1912: D. A. Mackenzie, Myths of Crete. 
 
 MINORESSES. Nuns of the second order of Francis 
 of Assisi. For his male followers he chose the name 
 Friars Minor. The Minoresses or Poor Clares were 
 establisihed in London in 1293 in a house which became 
 known as " the Minories," and the name still survives 
 in the neighbourhood. 
 
 MINORITES. Another name for the Franciscans 
 {q.v.). or male followers of Francis of Assisi. 
 
 MINOR PROPHETS, THE. In the Jewish Canon 
 (see CANON, OLD TESTAMENT) the .second group of 
 Old Testament books, The Prophets, is sub-divided into 
 (1) The Former Prophets and (2) The Latter Prophets. 
 The Former Prophets comprise Joshua, Judges, I. and 
 II. Samuel, and I. and II. Kings. The Latter Prophets 
 comprise Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve 
 Prophets. The Twelve Prophets were commonly called 
 
 simply " The Twelve " and were counted as one book. 
 Christian scholars further sub-divide the Latter Prophets 
 into (a) The Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel; 
 and (b) The Minor Prophets : Hosea, Joel, Amos, 
 Obadiah, Jonah, Mioah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, 
 Haggai, Zechariah. Malachi. 
 
 MINOTAUR. A figure (Bull of Minos) in Cretan 
 mythology, a monster with the head of a bull and the 
 body of a man. A sijecial building, a labyrinth, was 
 built for it, according to Cretan legend, at Knossos. 
 Donald A. Mackenzie (Crete) remarks that the Minotaur 
 overshadows all the other (Cretan monsters, and thinks 
 the fact highly suggestive. " Possibly the explanation is 
 that the bull clan of Minos, which was established at 
 Knossos, attained political supremacy over tlie whole 
 island, with the result that its Minotaur became the chief 
 deity. This would account also for the myths regarding 
 the sea-bull forms of Poseidon and Zeus, and the notorious 
 ceremonies associated with the bull-ring at Knossos. The 
 Minos clan may have invaded and conquered the island." 
 L. R. Farnell (Greece and Babi/ton, 1911) notes that " a 
 few of the Zakro .sealings show the sealed figure of a 
 human body with bovine head, ears, and tail; and a clay 
 seal-impression found at Knossos presents a bovine human 
 figure with possibly a bovine head sealed in a hieratic 
 attitude before a warrior in armour." 
 
 MIQUETANTEOT. One of the gods of the Nicarao (of 
 Nicaragua). He was the lord of the underworld, and 
 was equivalent to the Mexican Mictlantecutli. 
 
 MIRACLES. According to one definition, a miracle is 
 " anything beyond human i>ower, and deviating from the 
 common action of the laws of nature" (Chambers's 
 Etymol. Diet.). Miracles in this sense have, it is claimed, 
 often been i)erformed by prophets and other great re- 
 ligious leaders. Indeed, in ancient times a prophet was 
 expected to prove his divine authority by the performance 
 of marvellous works, and he did often prove it in this 
 way. The marvellous works were believed at the time 
 to be above Nature, supernatural, or contrary to Nature. 
 Modern Science, on the other hand, will not concede that 
 events have ever taken place in defiance of the laws of 
 Nature. If marvellous things have taken place tiere 
 must be laws of Nature which can explain them, though 
 these laws may be new in the sense of being hitherto 
 unknown. The matter may be illustrated by reference 
 to what used to be called miracles of healing. Prophets 
 by inspiring people with a faitii, in them or in a divine 
 power, of .such strength as to remove instantly all fear 
 have cured them of sickness and disease. Such healing 
 is wonderful, but it is no longer described as miraculous, 
 for it has been found to be in accordance with certain 
 laws the working of which may still be te-sted and proved 
 by experience. The remarkable fact in the case of the 
 prophets is that they should have had intuitive knowledge 
 of these laws. Are there other laws, still not generally 
 known, of which they had intuitive knowledge? This 
 is quite possible, and a cautious student would hesitate 
 now to .say that other wonderful works ascribed to them 
 could not have been performed. It has to be borne in 
 mind, however, at the same time that in ancient times 
 objective and subjective phenomena were not clearly 
 distinguished. We know that in modern times phantasms 
 of the living, for instance, are seen not infrequently, 
 and we know that they are only mental pictures tele- 
 pathieally transmitted. They will have been .seen quite 
 as frequently in ancient times, and were then no doubt 
 taken to be real appearances. Telepathy (q.v.) explains 
 many such phenomena. Miracles in the sense of wonder- 
 ful events have happened, are happening, and will 
 happen. Our highest conception of the nature of God 
 excludes the possibility of their being confined to any
 
 Miru 
 
 244 
 
 Mitra 
 
 one age or clime. God is no respecter of persons If 
 one person has been healed by the divine power, all can 
 be healed It is not a divine license, but a divine law. 
 
 MIRU A wieljed goddess in Maori mythology. 
 
 MISHNAH. The Jewish Mishnah (Hebrew shanah, 
 Aramaic tend, " to repeat ") comprises for the most part 
 the discu-ssious of the Rabbis who lived between A.D. 
 70 and about A.D. 200. These legal discussions were 
 gradually codified and committed to writing by a suc- 
 cession of scholars known as Tannaim (" repeaters "), 
 and the final codifier who gave the work its present form 
 (V. A.D. 200) was Rabbi Jehudah the Holy (see TAN- 
 NAIM). After tihis the Mishnah itself became the sub- 
 ject of discussion by a succession of scholars who were 
 called Amoraim (q.v.). These discussions received the 
 name Gemarii ("supplement" or "completion"; see 
 GBMARA). The Gemara is entirely of the nature of 
 Haggadah (q.v.); the Mishnah is mostly, though not 
 entirely, in the style of Halakhah (see the articles HAG- 
 GADAH and TALMUD. The Mislmah contains sixty- 
 three treatises or tractates, which are arranged in six 
 groups or sedfirim. The names of the tractates (with 
 the number of the groups to which they belong are 
 as follows : 'Aboda zfira (iv. 8) ; Ab<")th (iv. 9) ; 'Arakhln 
 (V. 5): Bfiba Bathra (iv. 3); Baba Kamma (iv. 1); 
 Bfiba Mesi'a (iv. 2); Bekhoroth (v. 4); Berakhoth (i. 1); 
 Besa (ii.'7); Bikkurim (i. 11); Chagiga (ii. 12); Challa 
 (i. '9); Chullin (v. 3); Demdi (i. 3): 'Ediiyoth (iv. 7); 
 'Ei-iibin (ii. 12); Gittin (lit. 6); Horfiyoth (iv. 10); 
 Kelim (vi. 1); Keritlioth (v. 7); Kethiiboth (ill. 2); 
 Kiddiishin (iii. 7); Kil'dyim (1. 4); Kinnim (v. 11); 
 Jla'aser ShenI (i. 8); Ma'aseroth (1. 7); Makhshirin 
 (vi. 8): Makkoth (iv. 5); Megilla (ii. 10); Me'ila (v. 8); 
 Menachoth (v. 2); Middoth (v. 10); Mil^wa'oth (vi. 6); 
 Mo'ed Katan (ii. 11); Nazir (iii. 4); Nedarim (iii. 3); 
 Negfi'Im (vi. 3); Nidda (vi. 7); Ohaloth (vi. 2); 'Orla 
 (i. 10): Para (vi. 4); Pe'a (i. 2): Pesachim (ii. 3); Rosh 
 ha-Shana (ii. 8); Kanhedrln (iv. 4); Shabb.'ith (ii. 1); 
 Shebu'oth (iv. 6); Shebi'ith (i. 5); Sheknlim (ii. 4); 
 Sota (iii. .5: Sukkfi (ii. 6); Ta'anith (ii. 9); Tamld 
 (v.' 9); Tebul Yom (vi. 10); Temura (v. 6); Tertimoth 
 (i. 6); Tbhoruth (vi. 6); 'Uksin (vi. 12;; Yaddyim (vi. 
 11); Yebamoth (iii. 1); YOma (ii. 5); Zabim (vi. 9); 
 Zebfichlm (v. 1). See Enciid. Bibf., .-^.v. " Bibliographical 
 Notes" (prefatory matter) and "Law Literature"; W. 
 O. E. Oe-sterlev aiid G. H. Box ; A. S. Geden, Intr. to the 
 Hebrew Bible, 1909. 
 
 MISSAL, THE. The Mi.ssal was one of the Service 
 Books used in the Church of England before the Reforma- 
 lion of the Ifith century. It was in four parts. (1) 
 The Antiphoner, Gradual, or Grail contained those parts 
 Of the Service which were sung by the choir at High 
 Mass. (2) The Lectionary contained the lessons from 
 the Epistles of the New Testament. (3) The Evan- 
 geli'Starium contained the Gospels. (4) The Saera- 
 mentary which contained the prayers of the Mass. This 
 last was called distinctively the Missal or Mass-book in 
 the eighth century. Missals which contained more than 
 the Saeramentary were afterwards called Completa Mis- 
 salia. " The Roman Missal was carefully revised and 
 printed under Pius V., who carried out a decree of the 
 Council of Trent on the matter, and .strictly enjoined the 
 use of this Missal, or faithful reprints of it, in all 
 churches which could not claim prescription of two 
 hundred years for their own u.se. It was revised again 
 Tinder Clement VIII. and Urban VIII." (Cnth. Diet.). 
 From time to time new Masses have been added. 
 
 MITHRAISM. The doctrines and rites of the old 
 Persian deity Mithras or Mithra. S. Reinach points out 
 (0.) that the Iranians and Hindus, who about the year 
 1400 B.C. were .still united, have several gods with similar 
 
 names. One of these is Mithra (see MITRA). After 
 the reign of Alexander the Great Mithra came to be wor- 
 shipped in all the Oriental kingdoms. The introduction 
 of the worship into the Roman provinces in the West 
 is supposed to have taken place during the first half of 
 the first century B.C. By the beginning of the second 
 century A.D. it had spread throughout the Roman 
 empire. " The immen.se popularity of his wor.ship is 
 attested by the monuments illustrative of it which have 
 been found scattered in profusion all over the Roman 
 empire. In respect both of doctrines and of rites the 
 cult of Mithra appears to have presented many points of 
 resemblance not only to the religion of the Mother of 
 the Gods but also to Christianity. The similarity struck 
 the ChrLstiau doctors themselves and was explained by 
 them as a work of the devil, who sought to seduce the 
 souls of men from the true faith by a false and insidious 
 imitation of it. . . . However that may be, there can 
 be no doubt that the Mithraic religion proved a formid- 
 able rival to Chris'tianity, combining as it did a solemn 
 ritual with aspirations after moral purity and a hope of 
 immortality. Indeed the issue of the conflict between the 
 two faiths appears for a time to have hung in the balance. 
 An instructive relic of the long struggle is preserved in 
 our festival of Christmas, which the Church seems to 
 have borrowed directly from its heathen rival " (J. G. 
 Frazer). S. Reinach (Cults) gives the following account 
 of the god Mithra. " Mithra was a young god. beautiful 
 as the day, who, clothed in Phrygian garb, sojourned of 
 old among men and won their love by doing good. He 
 was bom of n.> mortal mother. One day, in a grotto 
 or stable, he issued from a stone, to the astonishment 
 of the shepherds who alone were present at his birth. 
 Waxing in strength and courage, he overcame the pesti- 
 lent creatures that infested the world. Most redoubt- 
 able of these was a bull, himself divine, whose blood, if 
 shed upon the ground, would render it fruitful and cause 
 miraculous crops to spring. Mithra gave him battle, 
 gained the victory, plunged a knife into his breast, and 
 by this sacrifice as.sured riches and peace to men. Then 
 he ascended into Heaven, where he still keeps watch 
 over the children of earth. He grants the petitions of 
 them that pray to him. Those who are initiated into his 
 mysteries, in caverns like that where he first saw the 
 day, receive after death his powerful protection against 
 those enemies beyond the tomb who threaten the tran- 
 quillity of the dead. Furthermore, he will one day give 
 to them a better life, and has promised a resurrection. 
 When the fate-appointed time comes round, he will cut 
 the throat of another celestial bull, the source of life and 
 felicity, whose blood ^all revive the flagging energies of 
 earth and restore a life of happiness to all who have 
 believed on Mithra." The rites by which persons were 
 initiated into the mysteries of the god were called sacra- 
 ments (sacramenta). " One of them was baptism by 
 blood — the blood of a bull; and there was also a baptism 
 by pure water, as well as anointings of the forehead with 
 honey. Further, it was the custom to consecrate bread 
 and wine by certain formulae, and then to distribute the 
 elements among the faithful." The head over the 
 initiated was called Father, while the initiated were 
 called Brethren. See .1. G. Frazer, O.B., Pt. iv. 2nd 
 ed., 1907; O. Seyffert, Diet.; Reinach, O.; J. M. Robert- 
 son, P.O.; Reinach, Cvlts. 
 
 MITRA. Mitra is referred to in the Rig Veda in clo.se 
 connection with Vanina (q.v.) as one of the deities of the 
 Hindus. It is said for example : " On their wonted path 
 go Varuna and Mitra when in the sky they cause to rise 
 Surya, whom they made to avert darkness." Hopkins 
 thinks that, excluding those names which describe purely 
 physical characteristics, Mitra is perhaps the oldest name
 
 Mixcoa 
 
 245 
 
 Monolatry 
 
 for the sun, though in the Rig Veda he is always sub- 
 ordinate to Varuna. He ix>ints out that " Mithra in 
 Persian keeps the proof that this title was given to the 
 Indo-Inanic god before the seiiaration of the two iieoples."' 
 The name Mitra means " friend." See E. W. Hopkins. 
 MIXCOA. One of the gods of the Nicarao (of 
 Nicaragua). He was the god of trade, and is equivalent 
 t» the Mexican Jlixeoatl. Worshippers offered to him 
 Bonus of their own blood. 
 
 MIXCOATL. The Aztec god of hunting. The name 
 means '" Cloud Serpent," and the god is often repre- 
 sented as carrying a bundle of arrows. Mixcoatl was 
 thus, like other gods of the chase, a thunder god as 
 well. 
 
 MOABITE STONE, THE. Also called the Mesha 
 Stone or the Mesha Inscription. A block of basalt in- 
 scribed by Mesha, king of Moab, and dedicated by him 
 to the Moabite god Chemosh. The inscription is 
 written in the Phoenician character, and the language 
 differs very slightly from the Hebrew of the Old Testa- 
 ment. The Moabite Stone rec-ords Mesha's victory over 
 the Israelites after the death of Ahab (ii. Kings i. 1), 
 and dates from the ninth century B.C. It was discovered 
 ia 1808 at DibSn (Dibon) on the east of the Jordan, and 
 Is now preserved in the Museum of the Louvre at Paris. 
 MOCCUS. The name AIoccus is found on inscriptions 
 as that of one of the gods worshipjied by the ancient 
 Celts. Anwyl identifies the name with the Welsh mocti 
 " swine," and jioints out that old coins in Britain often 
 bear the image of a boar. It would seem that in Italy 
 the pig was offered to deities of the earth. This, togetier 
 with its diet of acoms, .suggests to Mr. Anwyl a con- 
 nection between the pig and the earth-spirit or the oak- 
 spirit. But in any case we know that in ancient times 
 the boar was worshipped. See Anwyl. 
 
 MOD.ALISTS. The Medalists were one of the schools 
 of theologians produced by the doctrine of the Logos. 
 They would not recognize any intermediary between 
 God and the world. .Jesus Christ, according to them, 
 was an incarnation of the one God. " According 
 to them the names of Father and Son corresponded 
 only to different aspects of the same Person, playing 
 transitory parts, and not to divine realities " (Duchesne). 
 Modalism .spread from Asia to Rome. Here early in the 
 third century Praxeas became a leading exponent of it. 
 In course of time, however, he was brought to admit that 
 the doctrine was erroneous. Noetus taught similar 
 doctrines in Smyrna, for which he was excommunicated. 
 He said : ■■ I know but one God: it is no otJier than He 
 who was bom. who suifered, and who died." For this 
 kind of teaching the Modalists were called also Patri- 
 passians. Epigonus, a disciple of Noetus, opened a 
 school in Rome. He was succeeded, fir.st by Cleomenes, 
 and (hen by Sabellius (see SABELLIANISM). See.!. H. 
 Blunt; Louis_ Duchesne, Hist. 
 
 M(J-ED KaTaN. The title of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as develoi>ed by the .second century 
 A.D., and are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.), a coi- 
 lection and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the 
 Holy, or the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three 
 tractates of the Mii^inah are divided into six groups or 
 orders (sedarim). Mo'ed Katfin is the eleventh tractate 
 of the .second group, which is called 316'ed (" Festival "). 
 MOGOUNUS. Mogounus or Mogons was one of the 
 names given by the ancient Celts to a god who cor- 
 re.sponded to the Roman Apollo (g.v.). Another name for 
 the god was Grannus (q.v.). 
 
 MOLINISTS. The school of theologians founded by L. 
 Molina (1535-1001), a Spanish Jesuit, in the sixteenth 
 century. His work " On the Agreement of Free- Will 
 
 with Grace and Predestination," published in 1.5S8. marks 
 the beginning of the struggle between the Jesuits and the 
 Augustmian school of theologians known as Jansenists. 
 See JANSENISTS. 
 
 MOLOKANEH, THE. The Molokaneh or " Milk- 
 eaters " are a sub-sect, of the Russian dissenters known 
 as Bezpopovtzi. They were so called because on fast- 
 days they lived on milk. The name which thev 
 chose for themselves was ■• the trulv spiritual Christ- 
 ians " or the " Gosi)ellers." They reject baptism bv 
 water : true baptism is a spiritual cleansing of the soul 
 from sin. They reject all externals, sucih as temples, 
 prayers, crossing. Their bishop and high-priest is Christ 
 alone. Accepting the principle that "where the Spirit 
 of the Lord is, there is liberty " (II. Cor iii 17) they 
 refuse to be bound by State laws. See Schaff-Herzog; 
 J. H. Blunt. 
 
 MOLOKI. A malignant spirit of whom the Bayaka 
 of the Kasai district in the Congo State stood in awe 
 
 MONARCHY MEN, FIFTH. See FIFTH MONARCHY 
 MEN. 
 
 MONISM. As distinguished from Pluralism, Monism 
 IS that philosophy which traces back all phenomena 
 to a single physic-al or .spiritual principle. Physical 
 (materialistic) Monism is represented by such a writer 
 as Ernst Haeckel. " A broad historical and critical 
 comparison of religious and philosophical systems, 
 as a whole, leads as a main result to the conclusion that 
 every great advance in the direction of profounder know- 
 ledge has meant a breaking away from the traditional 
 dualism (or pluralism) and an approach to monism. 
 Ever more clearly are we compelled bv reflection to 
 recognise tliat Gotl is not to be placed over against the 
 material world as an external being, but must be placed 
 as a ' divine power ' or ' moving spirit ' within the cosmos 
 itself. Ever clearer does it become that all the wonder- 
 ful phenomena of nature around us, organic as well as 
 inorganic, are only various products of one and the same 
 primitive matter. Ever more irresistibly is it borne in 
 upon us that even the human soul is but 'an insignificant 
 part of the all-embracing 'world-soul': just as the 
 human body is only a small individual fraction of the 
 great organised physical world." Again, "the monistic 
 idea of Goil, which alone is compatible with our present 
 knowledge of nature, recognises the divine spirit in all 
 things. It can never recognise in God a ' jiersonal 
 being,' or, in other words, an individual of limited extens- 
 ion in space, or even of human form. God is every- 
 where. As Giordano Bruno has it : ' There is one spirit 
 in all things, and no body is so small that it does not 
 contain a part of the divine substance whereby it is 
 animated.' Every atom is thus animated, and so is the 
 ether; we might, therefore, represent God as the infinite 
 sum of all natural forces, the .sum of all atomic forces 
 and all ether-vibrations." Spiritual Monism may be 
 described in the terms of The New Theolor/i/. " The 
 philosophy underlying the New Theology, as I under- 
 stand it, is monistic idealism, and monistic idealism 
 recognizes no fundamental distinction between matter 
 and spirit. The fundamental reality is conscious- 
 ness. The so-called material world is the product 
 of consciousness exercising itself along a certain limited 
 plane; the next stage of consciousness above this 
 is not an absolute break with it, although it is an expan- 
 sion of experience or readjustment of focus." See Ernst 
 Haeckel, Monism as connecting Relipion and Science, 
 1895; R. J. Campbell, The New Theology, New Popular 
 Edition: and cp. Max B. Weinstein, Welt-und Leten- 
 Anschaitungen, 1910. 
 
 MONOLATRY. The term designates the wor^ip of 
 one God only in distinction from monotheism, which
 
 Monophy sites 
 
 246 
 
 Montanism 
 
 denotes the belief in the existence of one God only. 
 C. F. Bu-mey thinks that monoLatry " embodies the true 
 description of the early stage of Israel's national religion, 
 because at this earlier stage Yahwe was thought of, not 
 as the only Divine Being in existence, but as the only 
 Divine Being with whom Israel as a nation bad any con- 
 cern, or to whom they were bound by any obligation. 
 Yahwe, in short, was the national God, and, as national 
 God, He made an exclusive claim ui>on Israel's alle- 
 giance, and would not tolerate the worship of any other 
 god beside Himself. Such a view, however, of Israel's 
 relationship towards Yahwe obviously did not hinder the 
 belief that other nations might also have their national 
 gods, and that these gods, though concerned only with 
 their own nations, and in no position to exact worship 
 or any other form of notice from Isi-ael, were not merely 
 false "gods or idols, but had a real existence of their 
 own." See C. F. Bumey, Outlines of Old Testament 
 Theology, 1903. 
 
 MONOPHYSITBS. Monophysitism, the teaching of 
 the Monophysites, repre.sented a reaction against tlie too 
 zealous protest against the teaching of Nestorius (see 
 NESTORIANS). The first to protest was Eutyches 
 (see EUTYCHIANISM), and the protest was carried 
 farther. The distinctive tenet of the Monophysites, J. 
 H. Blunt explains, " was developed out of the heresy of 
 Eutyches, but was not identical with it : Eutyches main- 
 taining that the Union of Christ's Divine and Human 
 Natures in the Incarnation resulted in the ultimate 
 ex-tinction of the latter, so that the glorified Saviour is 
 wholly and only Divine, while the Monophysites held that 
 the two Natures were so unitetl, that although the ' One 
 Christ ' was partly Human and partly Divine, His two 
 Natures became by their union only one Nature (/lovi; 
 i^iicri?). See William Benham; J. H. Blunt; Wace and 
 j?iercy. 
 
 MONOTHELITES. The Monothelites agreed witfli the 
 Monophysites in holding that Christ had only one nature, 
 and added the claim that since he had only one nature, 
 he must have had only one will. " Monothellsni was the 
 simple and natural consequence of Monophysitism, and 
 originated from the endeavours which the State Church 
 made, in the seventh century, of conciliating the Mono- 
 physites " (Schaffi-Herzog). Several attempts were made 
 to establish the Monothelite doctrine, but in A.D. 080 the 
 Council of Constantinople, with the co-operation of the 
 Bishop of Rome, " adopted the doctrine of two wills and 
 two energies as the orthodox doctrine, but decided that 
 the human will must always be conceived as subordinate 
 to the divine" (Hagenbach). See Schaff-Herzog; K. R. 
 Hagenbach. 
 
 MONT. An Egyptian deity. The god had temples 
 near Karnak and in Hermonthis. He was a god of war, 
 and is represented with the head of a hawk. In the 
 New Kingdom Amon-Re assumed the r61e of a number of 
 other gods, including Mont of Thebes. In later times 
 also Mont himself was often combined with Re the sun- 
 god as Mont Re, " and as such (he stands in the prow of 
 the solar bark armed with a lance and ready to pierce 
 the enemies who oppose the progress of the Sun " 
 (Wiedemann). See Alfred Wiedeniaiin; Adolf Erman, 
 Eandbook. 
 
 MONTANISM. Montanism may be regarded as an 
 effort to retain or revive the liberty of prophesying. In 
 itself the movement was not necessarily one to be con- 
 demned, but it arose at a difficult i)eriod in the history of 
 the Church, and tended to encourage movements which 
 were or might be dangerous. We read of prophets and 
 of a kind of prophetic ministry in the New Testament, 
 and it is not easy to understand wliy the prophets or 
 their activity should suddenly have come to an end. 
 
 Montanus was one of those who claimed that it had not 
 done so as late as, or later than, the middle of the second 
 century. It seems to have been about the middle of the 
 second century that Montanus became active at Arda- 
 ban, a village in Phrygian Mysia. The worship 
 of Cybele (identified with the Cretan goddess Rhea 
 [g.v.]) had long prevailed in Phrygia, and it is 
 thought that before his conversion to Christianity, 
 Montanus was a priest of Cybele. In any case, he 
 attracted attention by becoming at times ecstatic 
 and in his transports uttering strange words. The kind 
 of phenomena which were associated with his ecstasies 
 have been observed even in modem times. He seemed 
 to become as it were a passive instrument through which 
 some other agent six)ke. In other words he seemed, 
 and in fact claimed to be, inspired. He himself repre- 
 sents the inspirer as describing his condition thus : 
 " Behold the man is as a lyre, and I sweep over him 
 as a plectrum." The inspiration of a prophet has often 
 been described in this way. Dr. Lindsay ix>ints out 
 that Athenagoras describes the Spirit of God as inspiring 
 the prophets as "a flute-player breathes into his flute," 
 and that the author of the " Cohortatio ad Gentes " says 
 that " the divine plectrum descends from heaven and 
 uses righteous men as an instrument like a harp or lyre." 
 The description is a good one; but in ancient times the 
 lX)wers and operations of the Subjective Mind ((i-v.) were 
 not scientifically understood, with the result that a dis- 
 tinction could not easily be made between an utterance 
 derived from a treasure-house of human thought and 
 experience and an utterance transmitted, as it were tele- 
 pathically (see TELEPATHY), from a Divine Mind. In 
 any case, Montanus became a prophet, and soon two 
 prophetesses attached themselves to him, Prisca or Pris- 
 cilla and Maximilla, women who manifested the same 
 spiritual phenomena. Montanus claimed that the person 
 who s]x>ken through him was the Paraclete (q.v.). As 
 Dr. Salmon says, he does not seem to have claimed that 
 he himself was the Paraclete. Through him the Para- 
 clete was speaking and proclaiming a new dispensation. 
 " The Paraclete confidently announced the speedy return 
 of Christ, and the Vision of the Heavenly Jerusalem 
 descending from above, which was to appear first in the 
 clouds, and then rest on the earth, at a spot indicated. 
 This was a plain on the further side of Phrygia, between 
 the two little towns of Pepuza and Tymion. The three 
 prophets transported themselves thither, when or where- 
 fore is not precisely known : they were followed by an 
 immense multitude. In some places the people were so 
 entirely won over to the movement that all the Christians 
 left. In the feverish exi>ectation of the last day, 
 country, family, and all earthly ties were disregarded. 
 Marriages were dissolved ; and community of goods and 
 the most severe asceticism prevailed. This state of 
 mental exaltation was fostered by the words of the 
 possessed prophets; the voice of the Paraclete was heard, 
 and his exhortations animated them afresh " (Louis 
 Duchesne). The Montanists were orthodox in so far as 
 they did not reject the isacred writings or the doctrines 
 of the Church. Their heresy consisted in the belief that 
 they received new revelations which supplemented and 
 explained the.se. In such writings as the Gospel and 
 Apocalypse of St. John they believed that they oould find 
 particular support for their views. A curious result of 
 this was that, as a protest, a body arose, the Alogi (g.v.). 
 which rejected the writings of St. John altogether. But 
 if the Montanists were not unorthodox, the Church was 
 not prepared at this critical time to tolerate long the 
 doctrine of a progressive revelation. The promised 
 Heavenly Jerusalem did not appear; but a terrestrial 
 Jerusalem was established, the name of Pepuza being
 
 Monto Sect 
 
 changed to that of New Jerusalem. The movement spread 
 from the East to the West and caused divisions in the 
 Church. The result was that in course of time Mon- 
 tanism was discouraged or condemned both in the East 
 and in the West, in spite of its great moral austerity. 
 This did not prevent the great Tertullian from becoming 
 a Montanist. He was chosen head of the Montanists in 
 Africa, and they were even called Tertullianists there. 
 But the opiK>sition to Montanism became more and more 
 pronounced. Under the Emperor Constantine, according 
 to Sozomen, they were exterminated everywhere but in 
 Phrygia. Sterner measures were taken against them by 
 later Emperors. The Emperor Justinian even sent 
 soldiers against them. They were so harried that they 
 set fire to their churches in which thev had taten refuge. 
 See Schaff-Herzog: T. M. Lindsay in the Prot. Diet.; the 
 Cath. Diet.; Louis Duchesne, Hist.; G. Salmon in Waee 
 and Piercy. 
 
 MONTO SECT. A Japanese Buddhist sect. Monto 
 Sect is another name for tie Shin Sect (q.v.). 
 
 MOORHOnSB LECTURESHIP. A lectureship founded 
 in memory of the Australian episcopate of the Right Rev. 
 James Moorhouse, D.D., St. John's College, Cambridge, 
 Bishop of Melbourne 187fi-18S0. The electors, the Bishops 
 of the metropolitan sees of Australia and Tasmania, and 
 the Primate of New Zealand, may elect anyone in Holy 
 Orders in the Church of England at home or abroad, or 
 in a Church in communion with her. The subjects of the 
 lectures must be : (1) the defence and confirmation of the 
 Christian faith as declared in the Apostles' and Nicene 
 Creeds: (2) questions bearing upon the historv and 
 authority of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New 
 Testaments: and (3) the social aspects of the Christian 
 faith in their widest application. The lectures are 
 delivered annually in St. Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne, 
 and must be published afterwards. 
 
 MORALITIES. The " Moralities " of the Middle 
 Ages, which were introduced into England from France, 
 were a class of religious drama. But instead of Biblical 
 characters and subjects being represented, the char- 
 acters were allegorical representations of the virtues and 
 vices. Moralities were more secular than Miracle-plays 
 and Mysteries, and prepared the way for the regular 
 drama. " Even in the oldest religious dramas, alle- 
 gorical characters such as Mercy, Justic-e, the syna- 
 gogue, etc., occur: and when the drama fell into "the 
 hands of the laity, it was quite natural that they, more 
 especially under the influence of the Renaissance, should 
 develop a taste for a drama of a more secular ebaraeter— 
 a drama which to a certain extent mirrored their own 
 life, and expressed their own ideas" (Schaflf-Herzog) 
 See Schafif-Herzog: W. Benham : Chamhers's Encycl. 
 
 T.9^'*^^^^^^- "^^^ community of Christians known 
 as Moravians had its origin in Bohemia, and the con- 
 nection of Bohemian Christianity with England goes 
 back to the 14th century. At various periods Bohemian 
 refugees sought freedom of conscience in England. About 
 the beginning of the 16th century there was a colony of 
 Moravian Walden.ses at I^erwick, and in 1583 we find a 
 member of the Brethren's Church. John Bernardus, 
 graduating B.D. at Oxford. In 1641 J. A. Comenius 
 Bishop of the Brethren's Church, visited England, and in 
 1(16 Christian Sitkovsky. In 1734 A. G. Spangenberg 
 came to London to make arrangements for sending out a 
 colony of Moravian emigrants to do mission work among 
 the Indians. In 1735 Bishop David Nitschmann brought 
 to London a second party of emigrants for Georgia 
 Before the end of the year they sailed for America in 
 company with John and Charles Wesley, Benjamin Ing- 
 ham, and Charles Delamotte. In 1737 Count Zinzendorf 
 came to London and rented a house in Chelsea. Here his 
 
 247 
 
 Morisonians 
 
 daily meetings for household worship were attended by 
 other Germans resident in London, and a small society 
 was forme<l When Peter Bohler came to London in 
 i(u^ ne worked amongst the members of a small societv 
 which met in Little Wild Street. This Societv was mor^ 
 fully organised on the lines of the Hermhut " Band " 
 system^ and rules were drawn up for it by Bohler and 
 John Wesley. Later in the same year its place of meeting 
 was moved to a ro<->m in Fetter Lane. The Wesley! 
 withdrew from the Society later (1740). During the 
 years 1, ,,9-1, 41 a number of new Societies sprang up in 
 various parts of the country. In 1741 Spangenberg 
 
 v?!',^^.'' 'I ^'^S^T ^^"* " «"■ Central Office in LittlS 
 Wild Street, London, and in 1742 a "Pilgrim Congrega- 
 tion " was settled for Yorkshire. On September 7th of 
 the same year the Fetter Lane Societv was registered as 
 a Dissenting Congregation, under the name of " iloravian 
 Brethren, formerly of the Anglican Communion"- and 
 on November 10th it was " settled " as a Congregation of 
 the Moravian Church. The General Synod of Hirsch- 
 berg, held in 1743, decided that Loudon was the " Pilo-rim 
 Congregation " or headquarters for England. In course 
 of time Societies or Congregations were formed in Wales 
 Ireland, and Scotland. In 1860 a Theological College 
 was opened at Fulneck. In 1878 this was moved to Fair- 
 held, m order that use might be made of Owen's College 
 Manchester, and since 1904 it has been affiliated with the 
 Theological Faculty of Manchester University The 
 Aloravian Church is described as " that bran(i of the 
 visible body of Christ which took a separate form at 
 L;tiz m Bohemia in 1457: which was crushed in it.s first 
 home by Roman influence, as the result of the Thirty 
 Years' War, and was renewed in 1722 at Herrnluit in 
 Saxony. The Moravians have an episcopacy of their 
 own, and the Church as a whole is represented by a con- 
 stitutional body knovra as the General Synod The Holy 
 Scriptures are the only rule of faith and life On 
 individual points of doctrine no detailed standard is 
 allowed to bind the conscience and auench the Spirit 
 All worship is scriptural and congregational, and is to be 
 m Spirit and in Truth, and not in dead cold form. The 
 Moravians " have always been distinguished for the 
 simplicity of their evangelical faith and worship, the 
 purity and beneficence of their lives, and the ardour of 
 their mtssionary zeal " (J. A. Houlder). They exercised 
 considerable influence upon the Weslevs. It was indeed 
 at a meeting of the Moravian Brethren in London (1738) 
 that John Wesley experienced his " conversion ■" See 
 the Moravian Church Almanack. 
 
 ,.^2^}^.9^^^^^- '^^^^ followers of James Morison 
 (lSlb-189.3), minister of Kilmarnock. In 1840 Morison 
 published a tract on the Atonement, which resulted in 
 his being suspended by the Presbytery. He taught that 
 Christ died for all men alike: "that repentance is not 
 sorrow for sin, but simply the change of mind from dis- 
 belief m .salvation to belief; that those who ultimately 
 will be condemned, will be condemned onlv for dis- 
 believing the tnith of Christ's dying for them, and con- 
 sequently failing to secure forgivene.ss through Him; that 
 all men are able of themselves to believe, and that 
 Adam's fall has not so corrupted mankind as to render 
 them liable to eternal punishment on account of his sin " 
 (J. H. Blunt). In 1843, Morison, in conjunction with 
 a number of other suspended ministers, t'orme<i " The 
 Evangelical Union and affiliated Churches." In the same 
 year they founded also a theological college with Morison 
 as Principal. " The sect is of the Congregational kind, 
 each separate congregation maintaining individual free- 
 dom: and consequently, although generally agreeing in 
 maintaining Morisonian views, there is not in it any 
 necessary unanimity in opinion " (J. H. Blunt). Morison 
 
 17
 
 Mormon, The Book of 
 
 248 
 
 Morrigu 
 
 retired from the ministry nearly ten years before his 
 death. See J. H. Blunt; the D.N.B. 
 
 MORMON THE BOOK OF. The sacred booli of the 
 Mormons, in addition to the Bible. It is regarded as 
 divineJy inspired, and as in perfect harmony with the 
 Bible It is claimed that the second inspired worls is 
 alluded to in the Bible itself in the Booli of Ezekiel 
 (xxxvii. 15-19). The " stick of Judah " there referred to 
 is the Bible: the " stick of Ephraim " is the other record, 
 the Book of Mormon. It is said that an angel named 
 Moroni appeared to Joseph Smith, the Prophet of the 
 Mormons, and told him that in A.D. 420 he had buried a 
 sacred record in the hill Cumorah in the northern part 
 of the State of New York. The plates of the work, 
 with a Urim and Thummim, were committed to the care 
 of Joseph Smith for translation. " Each plate was six 
 inches wide and eight inches long, and not quite as thick 
 as common tin. They were tilled with engravings in 
 Egyptian characters, and bound together In a volume, 
 as "the leaves of a book, with three rings running through 
 the whole. The volume was something near six inches 
 in thickness, a part of it being sealed. The characters 
 on the unsealed part were small and beautifully engraved. 
 The whole book exhibited many marks of antiquity in 
 its construction, and much skill in the art of engraving. 
 The Urim and Thummim consisted of two transparent 
 stones set in the rim of a bow fastened to a breastplate. 
 The unsealed portion of the plates was translated, and 
 the whole were again takea charge of by the angel " 
 (James H. Anderson). The part translated was 
 published in 1830. This Book of Mormon purports to 
 be an abridgment of the records of his forefathers made 
 by the Prophet Mormon, father of Moroni. See J. H. 
 Blunt; James H. Anderson. "The Church of Jesus 
 Christ of 1/atter-Day Saints," in R.S.W. 
 
 MORMONS. The Mormons are the followers of 
 Joseph Smith (180-5-1844). Smith was bom at Sharon, 
 Windsor County, Vermont, in the United States of 
 America. He became greatly interested in religion when 
 he was little more than fourteen years old. This interest 
 was in time rewarded, it is said. He received revela- 
 tions from heaven which were noted down in the Book 
 of Mormon (.see MORMON, BOOK OF). In 1829 he was 
 ordained first to the Aaronic Priesthood by John the 
 Baptist, and then to the Apostleship by the Apostles 
 Peter, James, and John. He then re-established the 
 Church of Jesus Christ in preparation for the millennial 
 reign of Christ on earth. He erected a temple in Kirt- 
 land, Ohio, and the State of Missouri became the chief 
 gathering-place of the believers. But Smith's followers 
 were not popular. Their neighbours persecuted them 
 and drove them from their dwellings. Those who 
 escaped, to the number of about twelve thousand, settled 
 in Illinois and founde<l the city of Nauvoo. They were 
 again persecuted, and on June 27, 1844, their Prophet, 
 Joseph Smith, was assassinated. He was succeeded by 
 a body of men called the Twelve Apostles. The Pre- 
 sident of these was one Brigham Young. Another temple 
 was soon completed at Nauvoo. The Mormons again 
 suffered cruel persecution. They were again driven 
 into exile. This time they made their way into the 
 valley of the Great Salt Lake, where in 1850 the Terri- 
 tory of Utah was created. Seventy -five per cent, of the 
 inhabitants of Utah are Mormons. The Church of Jesus 
 Christ of Latter-Day Saints, to give the Mormons their 
 correct title, has thirteen Articles of Faith. 1. We 
 believe in God, the Eternal Father, and in His Son, 
 Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost. 2. We believe that 
 men will be punished for tiieir own sins, and not for 
 Adam's transgression. 3. We believe that through the 
 atonement of Christ, all mankind may be saved, by 
 
 obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel. 4. 
 We believe that these ordinances are : First, Faith in 
 the Lord Jesus Christ; second. Repentance; third. 
 Baptism by immersion for the remission of sins; fourth. 
 Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost. 5. 
 We believe that a man must be called of God, by " pro- 
 phecy, and by the laying on of hands," by those who 
 are in authority, to preach the GSospel and administer 
 in the ordinances thereof. fi. We believe in the same 
 organization that existed in the primitive Church, viz., 
 apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, evangelists, etc. 7. 
 We believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy, revelation, 
 visions, healing, interpretation of tongues, etc. 8. We 
 believe the Bible to be the word of God, as far as it is 
 translated correctly; we also believe the Book of Mormon 
 to be the word of God. 9. We believe all that God has 
 revealed, all that He does now reveal, and we believe 
 that He will yet reveal many great and important things 
 pertaining to the Kingdom of God. 10. We believe in 
 the literal gathering of Israel and in the restoration of 
 the Ten Tribes. That Zion will be built upon this con- 
 tinent. That Christ will reign personally upon the earth, 
 and that the earth will be renewed and receive its para- 
 disic glory. 11. We claim the privilege of worshipping 
 Almighty God according to the dictates of our conscience, 
 and allow all men the same privilege, let them worship 
 how, where or what they may. 12. We believe in being 
 subject to kings, presidents, rulers and magistrates, in 
 obeying, honouring and sustaining the law. 13. We 
 believe in being honest, true, chaste, benevolent, 
 virtuous, and in doing good to all men; indeed, we may 
 say that we follow the admonition of Paul : " We believe 
 all things, we hope all things "; we have endured many 
 things, and hope to be able to endure all things. If 
 there is anything virtuous, lovely, or of good rejiort, or 
 praiseworthy, we seek after these things. One of the 
 features of Mormonism that have attracted special atten- 
 tion is the adoption of the patriarchal order of marriage. 
 The Mormons point out that the prophets of God in 
 ancient times had a plurality of wives, and regard this 
 as a good example in agreement with the laws of God 
 and of nature. " Many people revile against it, fre- 
 quently because they are ignorant of its harmony with 
 natural laws, but it ill becomes those who profess a 
 belief in Christianity to say that Gofl ever gave to His 
 children a law that was sinful in its nature or pernicious 
 in its elt'ects; to thus reproach the .iustice and righteous- 
 ness of the Almight.v is blasphemy " (James H. Ander- 
 son). Plurality of wives does not, however, seem to have 
 been ordained by Joseph Smith, but to have been pro- 
 claimed by Brigham Young, his successor. The faithful 
 followers of Joseph Smith, the " Smithite " or 
 " Josephite " Mormons, refused to accept the new 
 ordinance or to follow Brigham Young to Utah. They 
 adhered to the original principles of tie first Prophet. 
 " These ' Smitbite ' or ' Josephite ' Mormons have spread 
 and flourished exceedingly, and have missionaries in 
 every English-speaking country, also in Norway, Sweden, 
 and Switzerland " (L. Dougall in the Manchester 
 Guardian). It appears from the United States census 
 that between 1900 and 190('> their numbers increased from 
 21.773 to 40,8.51. See J. H. Blunt; James H. Anderson, 
 •' The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints," in 
 R.S.W. 
 
 MORRIGAN. An ancient Irish deity. Sister of Bav. 
 and wife of Neit, the god of battle, she had charge of 
 one of the departments of battle and carnage, inciting 
 men to deeds of strife and valour. 
 
 MORRIGU. A goddess of war worshipped in ancient 
 Britain and associated with the god of war Llfldd (g.v.). 
 See NBMETONA.
 
 Mosques 
 
 249 
 
 Madras 
 
 MOSQUES. Muhaniinadan places of worship. The 
 primitive name was masjid " place of prayer." Towards 
 the fourth century a distinction was made between great 
 and small mosques. The Great Mosque was called first 
 masjid al-jamd'a. and then simply al-jdmi\ After this 
 the word masjid was reserved for the most part for 
 mosques of the second rank. The original plan of the 
 mosque, which is oriented in the direction of Mecca, is 
 simple. It forms a large square court, surrounded with 
 porticoes. Over these is a flat roof, supported by arches 
 with .«!tone columns or brick pillars. " The elements of 
 this plan seem to be borrowed, on the one hand, from 
 the Persian palaces of the Achsemenian type, perhaps, 
 but indirectly, from the Egyptian palaces, and, on the 
 other hand, from the Christian churches of Egypt and 
 Syria" (Hastings' Encycl., s.v. Architecture). In some 
 cases Christian churches were transformed into mosques. 
 Examples of this are the Great Mosque at Damascus and 
 the al-Aqsa Mosque at Jerusalem. The mosques in 
 Cairo include the great Mosque of Ahmad ibn Tiilun 
 (S79) and the great Mosque of the Nilonietje (1092).' In 
 Isfahan in Persia a handsome mosque called Masjiri-i 
 f>hdh. •' Mosque of the King," was founded by Shah 
 Abbas in 1612. In Tabriz there is a well-known specimen, 
 the Masjid-i Kabud or Blue Mosque, which dates from 
 the middle of the fifteenth century (A. V. Williams Jack- 
 son, Persia). J. C. Ewald Falls notes that in the Libyan 
 desert an open circle of stones serves as a mosque {Three 
 Years in the lAbyan Desert, 1913). 
 
 MOUNT CAKMEL, FRIARS OF OUR LADY OF. The 
 title under which the order of Carmelites (q.v.) was con- 
 firmed bv Pope Innocent IV. 
 
 MOUNT OF A HUNDRED FLOWERS, THE. The 
 Mount of a Hundred Flowers is associated with Taoism 
 (q.v.). one of the religions or ethical systems of China. 
 The founder of Taoism, Lao-tsze (sixth century), recom- 
 mended a life of simplicity, quiescence, purity, content, 
 and inaction (or non-interiference). Such a life, when 
 faithfully practised, no doubt resulted in longevity. 
 When Taoism degenerated, the later Taoists sought to 
 attain longevity by more artificial practices. One of 
 these was a practice known as Self-training. The ascetic 
 sat cross-legged in an upright position, not, as in the 
 case of the Buddhist, that he might attain to Nirvana 
 ((?.!•.), but that he might lengthen out his days to an 
 extent .surpassing that of the old Taoists. " This atti- 
 tude was believed to promote longevity, since it tended 
 to keep the breath in the lungs, and thus to ward off 
 deati, which is the final result of the unceasing expira- 
 tions. The fact also of remaining still, and excluded 
 from the world, helped to suppress that other enemy of 
 life, the passions " (R.K.D.). This ideal of longevity or 
 even of eternal life is illustrated by the legend of the 
 Mount of a Hundred Flowers cherished by the mountain- 
 eers of China. The Mount of a Hundred Flowers is a very 
 sacred peak in the mountain range which runs from 
 Peking across the provinces of Chih-!i and Shan-tung. 
 The mount is covered with wild flowers. " There, 
 according to the legend, live, partly embedded in the 
 soil, certain ancient Taoist hermits. By a long course 
 of absolute conformity with Nature [Tao^ they have 
 attained immortality, and are now in the enjoyment of 
 unearthly bliss. To use a Taoi.?t phrase, their ifaces are 
 washed by the rains of heaven, and their hair combed by 
 the wind. Their arms are cros.sed upon their breasts, 
 and their nails have grown so long that they curl round 
 their necks. Flowers and grass have taken root in their 
 bodies and flourish luxuriantly; when a man approaches 
 them, they turn their eyes upon him, but do not speak " 
 (Balfour). vSome of these old sages are more than tihree 
 hundred years old. See Robert K. Douglas, Con- 
 
 fucianism and Taouism; Frederic H. Balfour, " Taoism," 
 in R.S.W. 
 
 MOUNTAINS, SACRED. In ancient Egypt the sun 
 was supposed to come forth from one mountain in the 
 morning and to enter another in the evening. In the 
 Babylonian Gilgamesh epic reference is made to "the 
 mountain of the Sunset." The Hittite deities was asso- 
 ciated with mountains. So also was the Israelite god 
 Yahweh. In Palestine Lebanon, Hermou, Peor, Sinai 
 or Horeb, and Carmel were all sacred mountains, 
 lamblichus (Vit. Pyth. iii. (1.5)) speaks of Mount Carmel 
 as " sacred above all mountains and forbidden of access 
 to the vulgar." Robertson Smith (R.S.) notes that in the 
 oldest poetry of the Hebrews, when Yahweh rides over his 
 land in the thunder-storm, he issues forth, not from 
 heaven, but from Mount Sinai. Sinai or Horeb, which 
 was obviously sacred before the theophanv described in 
 Exodus iii., is called " the Mount of God." It became 
 siiecially sacred to Yahweh, who was perhaps originally 
 a moon-god. C. F. Burney (Book of Judges, 1918) thinks 
 that the mountain at which God revealed Himself to 
 Moses under the name of Yahweh, " which is called Sinai 
 in the narratives of J and P, must have been so called 
 on account of an ancient connexion with the moon-god 
 Sin, who gives his name to the whole district in which 
 the mountain is situated (' the wilderness of Sin ')." 
 The Greeks, the Romans, the Gauls, and the Celts had 
 their sacred mountains. So also have the Slavs, the 
 Chinese, and the Hindus. In fact, the association of 
 gods with mountains is world-wide. 
 
 MOUSE, THE. According to a story in I. Samuel vi., 
 when the Philistines sent back to the Israelites the Ark 
 of Yahweh, which they had captured, they sent back 
 also " golden mice " as a votive ofifermg. And Isaiah 
 Ixvi. 17 condemns the mystic sacrifice of mice as a 
 heathen abomination. According to Maimonides, field- 
 mice were sacrificed by the Harranians. The Encycl. 
 Bibl. states: "Small votive offerings in the shape of 
 mice have even been found (see Frazer, Paus, 5, S90), and 
 it is possible that the worship of mice (esi)ecially white 
 mice) may have originated not so much from the survival 
 of a mouse-totem as to propitiate mice in general and to 
 induce them not to ravage the cornfields (cp. Frazer, 
 Paus, 5, 289t.)." Donald A. Mackenzie thinks that " the 
 mouse feasts referred to by ancient writers may have 
 been held to ensure long life among those who, like the 
 Egyptians, connected the mouse with the moon, the 
 source of fertility and growth and tie measurer of the 
 days of man." In Egypt the mouse was associated with 
 the lunar god Thoth, and in Greece with Apollo. Homer 
 refers to a Smintheus Apollo, that is to say, " Mouse 
 Apollo." In several counties of England and in Scot- 
 land mice were at one time used as a cure for various 
 child-ailments. They seem to have been u.sed for the 
 same purpose in ancient Egypt. Professor G. Elliot 
 Smitli writes (A.E., p. 43) : " The occasional presence of 
 the remains of mice in the alimentary canals of children, 
 under circumstances which prove that the small rodent 
 had been eaten after being skinned, is a discovery of very 
 great interest, for Dr. Netolitzky informs me that the 
 body of a mouse was the last resort of medical practi- 
 tioners in the East several millennia later as the remedy 
 for children in extremis." 
 
 MOWLAWlYEH. An order of Dervishes, founded by 
 Jelal'^ ed-Din Mowla'wa (d. 1273 A.D.). These have been 
 called the whirling dervishes. " The cap of the ordej, 
 always a conspicuous object in a crowd, is of a yellowish 
 white felt in the form of a truncated cone " (P. J. Bliss). 
 See DERVISHES, WHIRLING. 
 
 MUDRaS. a term found in Hinduism. Mudras are 
 mystical figures made by intertwining or twisting the
 
 Muggletonians 
 
 250 
 
 Muhanunadanism 
 
 fingers and hands. The figures are supposed to resemble 
 various animals and objects, and to possess great power 
 as occult forces. See Monier-Williams. 
 
 MUGGLETONIANS. A religious sect named after 
 Lodowicke Muggleton (1609-1698). Muggleton in 1631 
 began to act as journeyman tailor to his cousin, John 
 Reeve (160S-165S), who was a Puritan. In 1651-2 Muggle- 
 ton professed to have received revelations, and in 1652 the 
 two men gave out that they were the " two witnesses " 
 of Revelation xi. In the same year tiey published the 
 " Transcendent Spirituall Treatise." Reeve was sup- 
 IK)sed to represent Moses, and Muggleton, as the 
 " mouth " of Reeve, Aaron. They claimed the power 
 to curse and destroy their enemies. They asserted " that 
 earth and water were not created, but self-originated; 
 that the Evil One became incarnate In Eve: that the 
 Father was the sufferer uiwn the Cross, having left Elijah 
 to govern heaven, while He came to earth to die " (J. 
 H. Blunt). Muggleton was imprisoned for blasphemy in 
 1G53, and in 1677 was arrested again on the same charge 
 and made to pay a heavy fine. He entered into con- 
 troversy with the Quakers, and was replied to by William 
 Perm (1644-1718) and George Fox (1624-1691). When 
 Reeve died, Muggleton professed to have received a double 
 portion of the Spirit. The Muggletonians survived into 
 the nineteenth century. See J. H. Blunt; the D.N.B.; 
 and Ohamters' Encycl. 
 
 MUGTASILA. The Mugtasila or the Washers were a 
 religious body which flourished about 215 A.D. on the 
 Lower Tigris near the Arabian frontier. They seem to 
 have been the ancestors of the Mandaeans. FStflk, the 
 father of Manes or Mani (see MANICH.aiISM), may have 
 founded the sect. In any case, he joined it, and Mani 
 lived among the Mugtasila for some years. The 
 descendants of the Mugtasila, the modern Mandaeans, 
 have a .sacred book, " The Treasure " or " Great Book " 
 or " Book of Adam," which " shows that in the doctrine 
 of these baptizers there was a certain blending of old 
 Babylonian legends with the teachings of the Bible " 
 (Duchesne). Duchesne thinks that "a strange form of 
 Christianity, recalling that of the serpent-worshipping 
 isect.s, and Elkasaism especially, must have arisen in the 
 second century, upon the ruins of the old Chaldean 
 civilization." See Duche-sne, Hist. ; Wace and Piercy, 
 S.V., " Manes." 
 
 MUHAMMADANISM. The religion founded by 
 Muhammad, son of Abdullah, of the Arab tribe of the 
 Quraish, who was bom at Mecca in 570 A.D. Left an 
 orphan when he was five or six years old, Muhammad 
 became the ward, first of his grandfather, and then of 
 his uncle Abu Talib. Wlien twelve years old his uncle 
 took him as a companion through parts of Syria, and 
 on this journey he is said to have met a Christian monk 
 who prophesied his future greatness. At the age of 
 twenty-five he married a ridi widow Khadijah, who 
 became one of his earliest converts. Soon after he was 
 forty years old he began to receive revelations. " From 
 these revelations, treasured up, written down, and finally 
 compared together and brought into harmony, the Qur'an 
 was formed, as it is known and read by the millions of 
 adherents of Islam at the present day. No attempt, 
 however, seems ever to have been made to preserve the 
 chronological sequence of the revelations. It is tradition 
 alone that associates the various utterances with partic- 
 ular epochs or circumstances of the Prophet's experience, 
 and in tracing in outline the history of his outward life, 
 and the development of his doctrine and character, it is 
 upon tradition, more or less reliable and consistent, that 
 dependence has to be placed " (A. S. Geden, Studies). 
 It has been thought that he could neither read nor write 
 (cp. Qur'an, vii. 156), but this is not likely. And since, 
 
 especially in later life, his inspired utterances fell from 
 him while he was in a trance, it has been held that he 
 suffered from some nervous disorder. Weil, in 1862. tried 
 to prove that his symptoms pointed to epilepsy as opposed 
 to catalepsy. " More recently Profe.S8or Margoliouth, in 
 his Life of Muhammad (p. 46), has urged the same based 
 on such symptoms as this unconsciousness, the sound of 
 a bell, the belief that someone is present, a resultant 
 headache, violent perspiration, and others, such as turn- 
 ing of the head to one side, foaming at the mouth, 
 reddening or whitening of the face, all which are char- 
 acteristics of epilepsy. But as Sprenger (Vol. III., p. 
 C5) rightly points out, the traditions are too contradictory 
 to afford a sure basis. What is certain is the existence 
 of some pathological condition in Muhammad, resulting 
 in trances, and it is not at all impossible that Sprenger'a 
 judgment (Vol. I. pp. 207f.) that 't was some form of 
 hysteria under which he suffered, may be correct " (D. 
 B. Macdonald, K.A.L.I.). The Qurai^ showed such 
 hostility to Muhammad's followers that in 615 A.D. some 
 of them with his permission sought refiige in Abyssinia 
 (the First Hijrah). Others (about 100) followed them 
 less than a year later. In 622 A.D. the prophet himself 
 was obliged to leave Mecca — this is the Hijrah or Flight 
 which forms the start ing-ix)int of Muhammadan chrono- 
 logy throughout the world. His wife and uncle had died, 
 and he had married a second wife 'Ayi.shah, daughter 
 of Abu Bakr. He went from Mecca to Medina, a cos- 
 mopolitan city, in which he came into touch with and 
 felt the influence of Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians. 
 Here the number of his adherents (Muhdrijiin, or 
 " emigrants" from Mecca; and Ansdr, " helpers," or con- 
 verts won in Medina) grew, in spite of the continued 
 opposition of the Quraish, who now resorted to armed 
 warfare. In 630 A.D. Muhammad marched against Mecca 
 with an army and took possession of it. From this time 
 ^his power and authority extended until they were 
 established over practically the whole of Arabia. Before 
 the prophet, died (632 A.D.) he designated Abii Bakr as 
 his successor. " The cardinal doctrine of Mohammed 
 was the oneness and aloneness of God, whom he called 
 Allah, ' The God.' The one God was conceived by him 
 as a great human being or a transcendent man. He 
 had hands, eyes, and human attributes. He was thought 
 to be all-wise and all-powerful, and to be the absolute 
 despot of the world. It was useless for man to hope 
 to understand him, but God would be merciful if man 
 submitted to him. Next in imiwrtance to the doctrine 
 of God was the doctrine of the prophetic function of 
 Mohammed. Through Mohammed, God made his final 
 revelation; Mohammed was the seal of the prophets; no 
 prophet was to come after him. . . . To the.se 
 doctrines Mohammed added, from the time of his earliest 
 ministry, a doctrine of material rewards and punish- 
 ments. Believers were to be rewarded with a material 
 paradise, and unbelievers were to be tortured in a very 
 material hell. . . . The outward duties of believers 
 were to pray five times a day, as well as to be jtist and 
 kind to the poor. The doctrines of angels and of Satan 
 were taken over from Judaism, though the figure of 
 Satan was blurred toy conceptions of tihe jinn inherited 
 from Arabian heathenism " (G. A. Barton, R.W.). Abu 
 Bakr's succession was accepted by the Sunnis, the tradi- 
 tionalists, who follow the orthodox traditions of Islam, 
 but was contested by the ShT'ahs. who contend that the 
 right of succession belonged fo Ali, the son-in-law of the 
 Prophet. Of the first four Khallfs (successors). Abu 
 Bakr, Omar, Othman, and Ali, therefore, all but the last 
 are held by the Shi'ahs to have been usurpers. When 
 Othman died, Mu'awiya, the governor of Syria and 
 Damascus, refused to recognise Ali as his successor. The
 
 Muhammadanism 
 
 251 
 
 Muhammadanism 
 
 result was civil war, and Ali moved his capital from 
 Medina to Kufa, not far from ancient Babylon. Hasan, 
 Ali's elder eon, succeeded his father, but soon abdicated 
 in favour of Mu'awiya. Husain, his younger son, who 
 had settled at Mecca, relying on help from Kufa, cou- 
 teated tie rule of Mu'awiya's son and successor Tazld 
 unsuccessfully, and was killed by the Klialif's horsemen 
 on the tenth of Muharram, the first month of the 
 Muhammadan year, A.H. 01 (Oct. 10, 6S0 A.D.). " Husain 
 is regarded as a martyr by the Shi'ah sect of the Muslims, 
 who reverence him and his father with a passionate 
 devotion. The memory of his name and fate is kept 
 alive on the anniversary of his death by the yearly 
 festival of the Muharram, with services and processions 
 and lamentation " (Geden). The Khalifs of the Quraish 
 dynasty were succeeded by the Umayyads (fiOl-750 A.D.), 
 who took their name from Umayya, the great-grandfather 
 of Mu'awiya, and reigned at Damascus. At the close 
 of this dynasty Muhammadanism had spread throughout 
 North Africa and the south-western half of Spain, and 
 in parts of Southern France. " The armies of tiiis 
 caliphate also carried the conquests eastwards to the 
 borders of India and into Turkestan and Samarcand 
 be.vond the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers " (Barton). In 
 750 A.D. the Ummayad dynasty was overthrown by Abul- 
 Abbas, a descendant of Abbas, an uncle of Muhammad, 
 and the "Abbasids were established in its place. The 
 first of the Abbasid Khalifs. Saffah, held his court at 
 Anbar on tihe east bank of the Euphrates; but his suc- 
 cessor, Mansiir, founded the city of Baghdad, Which 
 became the centre of Abbasid power for five centuries — 
 until the end of the d.vnasty, in fact. The Muslims of 
 North Africa and Spain, however, refused to recognise 
 the 'Abbasids. Abd-er-Rahman, a scion of the Umayyad 
 house, was made ruler in Spain, and his descendants 
 established a Spanish Khalifate. which lasted until 102T 
 A.D. At Baghdad and Cordova literature and philosopjiy 
 flourished, and a brilliant period of intellectual life 
 began. The study of philosophy produced many sceptics, 
 who were often called Mu'tazilites or Seceders, The 
 power of the 'Abbasids gradually waned, and practically 
 came to an end when Baghd.ad was captured by Mongol 
 hordes in l^.^S A.D. Another Khalifate had risen at 
 Kairwan in North Africa in 909 A.D., and had conquered 
 Egypt in 968. This was known as the Fatimid Khalifate. 
 These Khalifs who exercised a more or less independent 
 rule at Cairo from 1258-1517 A.D., claimed to be directly 
 descended from Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet. 
 In 1517, when Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman 
 Turks, the office of Khalif was sold to the Sultan of 
 Turkey, who thus came to be regarded as the successor 
 of tie Prophet. Muhammadanism has made, and is 
 etill making, great missionary efforts. " In the course 
 of tie centuries it has penetrated India, China, Africa, 
 and the isles of the Pacific, and has made many converts. 
 . . . It is estimated that at present tliere are about 
 240,000,000 Mohammedans in the world. If this is true, 
 they constitute nearly one-sixth of the population of the 
 globe " (Barton). The sacred book of the Muhammadans 
 is of course the Qur'iin (g.v.). "The Qiir'dn is written 
 in rhymed prose throughout. The portions rhymed, 
 verses as we may call them, vary greatly in lengti. In 
 the earlier chapters these verses are short, just as the 
 etyle is lively and fiery; in the later chapters they are 
 of lumbering length, prosaic and slow, and the rhyme 
 comes in with often a most absurd effect. It is very 
 plain that Muhammad's first utterances were in genuine 
 kdhin form and knhin spirit [i.e., in the form and .spirit 
 of the Arab soothsayer] ; that they boiled forth from him 
 as though under uncontrollable external pressure" (D. 
 B. Macdonald). His utterances seem therefore to have 
 
 taken that form of language which is peculiar to the 
 ecstatic life. There are other sources of authority for 
 Muhammadan faith and practice besides the Qur'an. 
 These are the Sunnat. which means " usage " or " rule," 
 and embraces the rule of faith or observance founded on 
 the traditions; the Ijmd', which means " unanimity," 
 and denotes the unanimous comsent of the early doctors 
 and teachers regarding new rules and precedent.s; and 
 the Qiyas, which means " measure " or " comparison," 
 and is applied to analogical reasoning or inference based 
 upon, and supplementary to, the Qur'an, Sunnat, or 
 Ijma'. Muhammadan law above and l>eyond the revealed 
 law of the Qur'an was developed by four great orthodox 
 schools, the leaders (Imams) of which were Abii Hanifah 
 (d. about 708 A.D.). Ibn Malik ibn Anas (6. 716 A.D.), 
 Ash-Shafi'I (d. about 820 A.D.), and Aimad ibn Hanbal 
 (ft. 780 A.D.). There are five so-called "pillars of 
 religion." The first of tiese is the recital of the Kalimah 
 or creed : " There is no god but God, and Muhammad is 
 the Prophet of God " (ep. Qur'an xlvii. 21, xlviii. 29). 
 The second is Salat or prayer (the five daily prayers). 
 The third is Fasting, particularly the thirty days' fast 
 of the month Ramadhan. The fourth is Zakdt or alms- 
 giving. The fifth is the Eajj or pilgrimage to Mecca in 
 the twelfth month of the Muhammadan year. This 
 statement looks simple enough, but Muhammadan 
 theologians and philo.sophers have found plenty of 
 material for exposition and speculation in the doctrine 
 of the unity of God. One of the most famous of these 
 theologians and philosophers is al-Ghazzali (1059-1109), 
 who began by being a sceptic or Mn'tazilite, was con- 
 verted, and ended by being a Sufi or my.stic and a 
 defender of the faith (see Macdonald for an interesting 
 account of his religious experiences). The prayers may 
 be offered individuall.v and privately, or in a mosque 
 (witi a leader. Imam). " The form observed consists 
 in the recital of passages from the Qur'an. with other 
 formulae or expressions of faith .such as ' God is great,' 
 accompanied b.y bowings and prostrations of the body. 
 The summons to prayer is given by the mu'azzin from the 
 minaret, or if there is no minaret from the side of the 
 mosque " (Geden). Muhammadanism has produced many 
 sects. The Shi'ahs, who quarrelled with the orthodox 
 Sunnis over tie succession to the Khalifate, have been 
 mentioned already. The Shi'ahs were mostly Persians, 
 and the Per.sians are still Shi'ahs. The Isma'ilians took 
 their name from Ismfi'il, the adopted son of ibn Maimun, 
 the sixth Imam. They are a sub-sect of the Shi'ahs, 
 and are sometimes called the " Seveners," because they 
 claim that Isma'il (and not Miisa) was rightfully tie 
 seventh and last Imam. The Druses or Druzes owe their 
 name to ad-Duruzi, who was the Persian minister of al- 
 Hakim (996-1020 A.D.), the si.xth Fatimid Khalif. They 
 revere al-Hakim as the last and greatest Incarnation of 
 God. Their tenets, however, are those of a teacher 
 named Hamzah rather than those of ad-Daruzi, who 
 came to be regarded as a heretic. The Druses are still 
 a numerous sect in the Hauran and mountains of 
 I^eljanon. The As.sassins is a name given by Europeans 
 to the Hashsfliashln. devotees of the drug hashshish. 
 They were the followers of Hasan, the " Old Man of tie 
 Mountain," who claimed to be an incarnation of God. In 
 the time of the Crusaders they were a terror throughout 
 Syria, and well earned the name Assassins. The Sufis, 
 who were influenced by Gnosticism and Greek mysticism, 
 are mystics who attained to union with God through an 
 " inner light." They rely upon knowledge gained by 
 ilham (a kind of inspiration) rather than upon that 
 acquired by .study. "Books and proofs they shun. 
 Their path (tarlq), rather, is to cleave to spiritual 
 st^i^'^ng, to remove blameworthy qualities, to sever all
 
 Mujassima 
 
 252 
 
 Mummification 
 
 ties, to advance with the utmost zeal toward God. 
 Whenever these things take place, God takes charge of 
 the heart of his creature, and illumines it with know- 
 ledge, and opens the breast of the seeker so that he 
 accepts guidance and trusts God; there is revealed to him 
 the secret of the heavenly kingdom (al-malakfit), and 
 there is cleared away from the surface of his heart the 
 veil of error, and so the essences of divine things shine 
 in it. All that he has to do is to prepare himself by 
 simple purifying, by showing zeal joined to pure will, by 
 thirsting and watching and expecting. If any turn thus 
 to God, God will turn to him " (IVIacdonald). From 
 among the Sufis the various orders of Darwiahes (Der- 
 vishes) have arisen, such as the Qadiriyah; the Maula- 
 wiyah, or "dancing Darwlshes"; the Rufa'iyah, or 
 "howling Darwlshes"; the Bakhtashiyah, who are 
 mostly soldiers ; the Sanusiyah, who show great hostility 
 to European civilization. The Wahhabis, who belong to 
 the close of the eighteenth and beginning of the nine- 
 teenth centuries, represent a military and fanatical 
 reform movement in Arabia. In recent years the Babis 
 and Bahais of Persia have attracted great attention. 
 The founder of the Babis, MIrza 'AH Muhammad (ft. 
 1820), claimed to be the Bab or the " Door " through 
 which it was possible to communicate with the " Con- 
 cealed Imam (the twelfth Imam, who disappeared at the 
 beginning of the fourth century after the Hijrah, 940-1 
 A.D.). Afterwards he proclaimed himself an incarnation 
 of Gfod. Tlie BahilTs were the result of a schism after 
 tie death of the Bab. They were founded by Baia'ullah 
 (d. 1892), who proclaimed himself " He whom God mani- 
 fests," and claimed that his coming had been foretold 
 by the Bab. Bahiiism claims to be a universal religion. 
 While Babism has declined in numbers and influence, 
 Bahfiism has grown in importance, and has had con- 
 siderable success in America. See, in addition to the 
 works mentioned above, D. B. Macdonald, Muslim 
 Theology, 1903; D. S. Margolionth. Mohammedanism in 
 the " Home University Library " ; I. Goldziher, Moham- 
 med and Islam, 1917; F. W. Bussell. 
 
 MUJASSIMA. An Arabic word meaning " cor- 
 poreali'Sts." It is another name for the Karramiyya 
 (Q-v.). 
 
 MUJTAHIDIN. Mujtahid is an Arabic word meaning 
 " one who exerts himself or takes pains." The term 
 came to be used of learned doctors of Islam who applied 
 their minds diligently to problems of Muslim theology. 
 It was thought by some that only the Companions of the 
 Prophet could be true Mujtahidln. " The majority of 
 Muslim theologians, however, are of opinion tliat there 
 may be true Mujtahidin In any age and in any place, 
 and that their unanimous agreement is to be accepted 
 as conclusive in any legal or theological question." 
 There are Mujtahids of different kinds. Some of them 
 are authorities on the whole Law, otiers on the doctrines 
 of a particular school of theology, and others on ques- 
 tions of special difficulty. See F. A. Klein. 
 
 MULAHIDA. An Islamic sect, referred to by Moiz 
 Mohammed Haidar (d. 1551-2) in his History of the 
 Moguls. " Most of the people of Badakshan are 
 adherents of this sect; they hold the world to be without 
 beginning or end : they do not believe in resurrection or 
 a future state. They say that while the Prophet was 
 alive all the faithful were bound to abide by the statutes 
 of the Holy Law; but at the present day the whole duty 
 of man is to speak fitting words and be faithful to their 
 meaning. All other ordinances are futile : sexual inter- 
 course with kindred is lawful and its enjoyment need not 
 depend on marriage-rites; if one has a jmssion for some- 
 one — be it daughter or son or mother — it is lawful to 
 gratify it if it be practicable. It is also lawful for them 
 
 to take one another's lives or property." As Ismaili the 
 sect still survives in Shignan and Roshan. 
 
 MULCTRA, THE. In Christian art, Christ, when 
 represented as the Good Shepherd, sometimes has hanging 
 on His arm a mtilctra or milk-pail. This is interpreted 
 as a symbol of the spiritual nourishment derived from 
 Him as the Lamb. See Sidney Heath. 
 
 JIULLO. A god worshipped by the continental Celts 
 as the patron of mule-drivers. He was regarded by the 
 Romans as equivalent to Mars. 
 
 MULUNGU. A term used among the Yao to denote 
 a mystic potency in things. Mulvngu seems to be a force, 
 and not a personal being, and corresponds to the 
 Melanesian mana. 
 
 MUMMERS. Les MSmiers or " the hypocrites " was 
 a name given to the strict Calvinists in liie French 
 cantons of Switzerland, who were followers of Robert 
 Haldane (1764-1842) and C6sar Malan (1787-1804). Hal- 
 dane lectured in his own house to theological students of 
 the University of (Jeneva. Malan, forbidden by the 
 Venerable Association of Pastors at Geneva to preach 
 on such subjects as hereditary sin and predestination, 
 also gathered his adherents round him in his own house, 
 though without separating from tihe Established Church. 
 Afterwards he built a small chapel for them, " Chapelle 
 du T^moignage." See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 MUMMIFICATION. It is thought by Professor Elliot 
 Smith that the art of mummification, as practised in 
 ancient Egypt, was mainly resiK)nsible for prompting the 
 earliest great maritime expeditions of which the history 
 has been preserved, and even supplied tie foundation on 
 which the knowledge of anatomy and the science of 
 medicine has been built up. The practice of course had 
 great religious significance, the object being to preserve 
 the body of the deceased for a continued existence, not 
 merely the corpse, but the body with its tissues. The 
 Egyptian embalmer at the outset was eager (1) to pre- 
 serve the actual tissues of the body with as little dis- 
 turbance of its superficial appearance as possible, and 
 (2) to preserve a likeness of the deceased as he exiirted in 
 life. Tlie first attempts to reproduce the features of the 
 deceased were made upon the wrapped mummy itself. 
 " In the earliest known (Second Dynasty) examples of 
 Egyptian attempts at mummification the corpse was 
 .swathed in a large series of bandages, which were 
 moulded into .shape to represent the form of the body. In 
 a later (probably Fifth Dynasty) mummy, found in 1892 
 by Professor Flinders Petrie at Medtim, the isuperficial 
 bandages had been impregnated with a resinous paste, 
 which while still plastic was moulded into the form of 
 the bod.v, special care being bestowed upon the modelling 
 of the face and the organs of reproduction, so as to leave 
 no room for doubt as to the identity and the sex " (G. 
 Elliot Smith, Dr.. p. 16). In two cases the head, and 
 not the whole body was covered with a layer of stucco. 
 In the Pyramid Age a new procedure seems to have been 
 devised — the making of a death-mask. The custom also 
 arose of making a life-size portrait statue of the dead 
 man's head (" reserve heads ") and placing it in the 
 burial chamber with the actual body. Then, in the 
 Old Kingdom, a life-like stone statue of the deceased 
 was made to represent him. The original idea of 
 restoring the form of the mummy itself, however, was 
 never abandoned, for even in the New Empire and in 
 Roman times the wrapped mummy was sometimes 
 modelled into tie form of a statue. To convey to the 
 statue the breath of life, as well as the vitalising fluids, 
 the odour, and the sweat of the living body, certain cere- 
 monies were performed. The physiological functions of 
 the heart (the seat of knowledge and feeling) were stimu- 
 lated by offerings of blood. Water being regarded as a
 
 Mungilamma 
 
 253 
 
 Mylitta 
 
 fertilizing and vitalizing power, libations of water were 
 made to restore to the body its vital fluids. Tbus it 
 happened that when in course of time gods came to be 
 represented by statues, libations were regarded as an act 
 of worship, and water became an essential part of any 
 act of ritual rebirth. To give to the body the warmth, 
 the sweat, and the odour of life, incense was burned 
 before the corpse or statue. Later this custom of burn- 
 ing incense, like the custom of pouring out libations, 
 came to be regarded purely and simply as a religious act 
 of homage to a god. But the most important incident in 
 the ritual of reanimating the mummy or the statue was 
 the ceremony of imparting to it the breath of life by the 
 "opening of the mouth." If the heart was the seat of 
 knowledge and feeling, the breath of life was still re- 
 garded as necessary to set the heart working. Thus, 
 " the ceremony of ' opening the mouth,' which aimed at 
 achieving the restoration of the breath of life, was the 
 principal part of the ritual proc-edure before the ^statue 
 or mummy " (Elliot Smith, op. cit., p. 43). Great im- 
 portance was attached also to the painting of eyes on the 
 wrapped mummy or on the statue. The eyes were 
 regarded as one of the chief sources of vitality (cp. the 
 article EYES). At first the Egyptians buried their bodies 
 in the sand. Later on. they constructed coffins of wood 
 and stone, and plac-ed them in subterranean chambers. 
 These chambers in which the body was housed developed 
 into dwellings with many rooms. " But when the statue 
 took over the function of representing the deceased, a 
 dwelling was provided for it above ground. This 
 developed into the temple where the relatives and friends 
 of the dead came and made the offerings of food which 
 were regarded as essential for the maintenance of 
 existence " (op. cit., p. 22). Recent archieologieal re- 
 search has shown that " the early Egyptian Christians 
 were mummified clear up to the Arab conquest, and used 
 the old Egyptian forms connected with the burial rites to 
 enforce their new doctrine" (Camden M. Cobem). It 
 should be noted, in conclusion, that the practice of 
 mummification has not been confined to Egypt. As Hart- 
 land .says (Hastings' Encucl., iv., p. 418), it is widely 
 practised. It has been found more or less throughout 
 the west of Africa and elsewhere. For instance, the 
 Macleay Museum in the University of Sydney contains 
 a mummy from Torres Straits, and the Anatomical 
 Museum in the University of Manchester four Peruvian 
 mummies. The Incas practised embalming not only for 
 their kings, chiefs and priests, but al.so for the popula- 
 tion in general. See G. Elliot Smith, op. cit.; also .A..E., 
 19U: Migration.^, 1915: A. M. Blaekman, "The Signifi- 
 cance of Incense and Libations in Funerary and Temple 
 Ritual," in the Zeitsclirift fUr Agyptische Sprache und 
 AUertumskunde, Bd. .50, 1912. 
 
 MtlNGILAMMA. A Hindu deity, bamboo goddess, 
 worshipped bv the Paraiyans. a tribe or caste in India. 
 
 MURATORIAN FRAGMENT. The Muratorian Frag- 
 ment is so called because it was fir.st published (in 1740) 
 by Muratori. It is a list of the books of the New Testa- 
 ment, and was found in the Ambrosian Library at Milan 
 in a manuscript of the seventh or eighth century. " The 
 MS. had come from the Irish monastery of Bobbio, and 
 the fragment seems to have been a copy of a loose leaf or 
 two of a lost volume " (Did. of Christ. Biof/r.). (". R. 
 Gregory thinks the volume may have been an apologetical 
 book. " It is defective in the beginning, and breaks o£C 
 in the middle of a sentence, and the mutilation must have 
 taken place in the archetype of our present copy. This 
 copy was made by an illiterate and careless scribe, and is 
 full of blunders: but it is of the greatest value as the 
 earliest-known list of N.T. books recognized by the 
 Church " (Diet.). C. R. Gregory would date it about 
 
 170 A.D. See C. R. Gregory, Canon; J. Moffatt, Intr.; 
 Wace and Piercy. 
 
 MURJIA, THE. A Mohammedan sect. The name is 
 derived from a word meaning either (1) to po,stpone or 
 (2) to cause to hope. The Murjia were so called either 
 because they subordinate (postpone) works to intention 
 (profession), or becau.se they think that the judgment of 
 the sinner will be postponed until the resurrection, or 
 because they say that " disobedience joined with faith 
 hurteth not," and in this way allow hope (cause to 
 hope). See F. A. Klein. 
 
 MUSHABBIHA, THE, A Mohammedan sect the 
 members of which held that God bore a resemblance to 
 his creatures, having a body and members capable of 
 motion. See F. A. Klein. 
 
 MUSHAF. Al-Mushaf is another name for the Qur'Sn 
 (KORAN). The word means thr collection of leaves or 
 sheets, and so the Volume. Other names for the Qur'an 
 are Al-Kitab (g.v.) and Al-Furqan (see FURQAN). 
 
 MUSLIM. A disciple of Muhammad, one who pro- 
 fesses Islam (g.v.). In the Qur'an it is said (iii. 60) : 
 " Abraham was neither Jew nor Ghri.stian, but he was 
 sound in the faith, a Muslim, and not of those who add 
 gods to God." 
 
 MUSPELLSHEIM. MuspelLsheim was one of the nine 
 worlds in the cosmogony of the Ancient Teutons. It 
 was located in the South. 
 
 MUSPILLI. The " Muspilli " is a Bavarian poem of 
 over one hundred lines dating from the ninth century. 
 It depicts the end of the world. There will be first a 
 struggle between Eliah and the Antichrist, and then a 
 universal conflagration. Ohantepie de la Saussaye thinks 
 that the mythology here is Christian and not pagan, but 
 it has been adapted by the Teutons. See P. D. Chantepie 
 de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 MU'TAZILA. An Arabian sect, regarded by the 
 Sunnis as heretics. As a body, they " entirely re- 
 ject the eternal attributes of God, in order, as they 
 say, to avoid the distinction of persons made by the 
 Christians, and they hold that eternity is the proper 
 attribute of God's essence, that God is omniscient, not 
 by reason of His knowledge, is omnipotent, not by reason 
 of His omniijotence, as the Sunnis say, but by reason of 
 His essence." The Mu'tazila hold also that " all those 
 verses of the Qur'an which contain a comparison of God 
 to creatures mu.st l>e explained allegorically." They 
 differ from the Sunnis on the important question of 
 predestination, since they regard man as a free agent. 
 They are al.so called Qadariyya, " either because they 
 deny the f/adar or predestination, or as others .say, more 
 correctly, because they assert man's power (qadrat) to 
 act freely. They consequently believe that he deserves 
 either reward or punishment in the next world in 
 accordance with his actions." See F. A. Klein. 
 
 MUTUA DEO. A Hindu deity, worshipped by the 
 Korkus. a Kolarian tribe in India. A village deity, 
 Mutua Deo is represented within the village by a heap 
 of stones. 
 
 MYLITTA. A Babylonian goddess, referred to by 
 Herodotus, She is perhaps to be identified with the old 
 Sumerian goddess Ninkharsagga, who came to be re- 
 garded as the goddess of birth, " the Lady of Child- 
 bearing." According to Herodotus (i. 199), every Baby- 
 lonian woman was obliged once in her life-time to pre- 
 sent herself in the temple-precincts of the goddess 
 Mylitta and to sacrifice her virginity to any stranger who 
 might claim her. The stranger threw money into her 
 lap and said, " I invoke the go<ldess Mylitta for you." 
 The idea seems to have been to con.secrate to the goddess 
 " the firstfruits of the woman's virginity before mar- 
 riage " (L. R. Famell, Greece and Babylon, 1911).
 
 Myrddin 
 
 254 
 
 Mysticism, Christian 
 
 MYRDDIN The Mvrddin who figures prominently 
 in'uie Arthurian legend" would seem to have been wor- 
 Khinned originally in ancient Britain as a god. m 
 mvKgy he fs described "as the master of all know- 
 tedge owner of all wealth, and lord of Fairyland 
 
 ^^MYSTKRIES ' The Greeks, and afterwards the 
 Romans, used the term Mysteries of certain f^fret and 
 mysterious forms of worship which could only be partici- 
 nated in after solemn initiation. Some of these Mysteries 
 were re.^tricted to particular classes of persons (cp. 
 THESMOPHORIA): others were open to anyone who 
 was willing to be duly initiated. In course of time many 
 foreign elements were introduced into the -n^rship. ine 
 ceremonies " consisted usually in the recital of certain 
 legends about the fortunes of the deity celebrated, which 
 differed from the ordinary myths in many respects {e.g.. 
 the names and genealogies), and were often accompamed 
 by a dramatic representation, with which was connected 
 the exhibition of oerUin holy things, including symbols 
 and relics In many cases the symbols were not hidden 
 from the public eye, but their meaning was reyealed to 
 tie initiated alone " (Seyffert). Compare, in particular, 
 ELBUSINIAN MYSTERIES, ORPHICS, and MITH- 
 
 MYSTICISM, CHRISTIAN. Mysticism is the effort 
 to enter into close touch or union with the Divine Being, 
 with Eternal Life. Tlie my.stic seeks to penetrate into 
 and to absorb himself in that Life which is infinite. 
 " By getting rid of everything that makes for separation 
 and distinction, by casting off the chains of what men 
 call happiness, and by freeing himself from all the 
 narrowness and insufficiency of tlie mere unit, the mystic 
 believes tiat in extinction itself he gains an incompar- 
 ably higher life and genuine blessedness " (Rudolf 
 Eucken). Mysticism " strives to free human life more 
 and more from every element of time, to make man 
 younger every day, and to transport him entirely into a 
 ' permanent present.' The man for whom time becomes 
 as eternity and eternity as time, seems to escape all 
 pain and to be brought into a state of pure bliss." Such 
 a state of mind does not necessarily preclude joyous 
 activity in the world. It may even bring quite the 
 opposite of this. " The close connection between God 
 and the world whicfli mysticism stands for, may reduce 
 both tlie visible world and time to an illusion and a 
 dream, a morning-glow which disappears at the rising of 
 the sun. But this may easily lead to the thought that 
 the world and time, as expressions of eternal being, gain 
 a closer connection and a greater significance." Rudolf 
 Bucken thinks it a remarkable feature that in the pre- 
 sent day Mysticism is regaining its old power of attrac- 
 tion. The Americans, it may be added, have discovered 
 that mysticism of a kind, whether Christian or not, is of 
 great practical value (see HIGHER THOyGHTI. The 
 Christian mystics are associated particularly with the 
 Middle Ages. According to Inge, the medieval mystics 
 were " steeped in " Dionysius the Areopagite. The sup- 
 posed works (sixth century) of Dionysius were trans- 
 lated into Latin by John Scotus Brigena (ninth century). 
 At the same time Brigena worked up the theories of 
 Dionysius " into a consistent philosophical system " 
 (Inge). In the twelfth century Mysticism had in France, 
 in particiilar, very eminent representatives. One of 
 these was Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153). Another 
 was Hugo of St. Victor near Paris (1097-1141). To a 
 later period belongs, in France, Bonaventura (John of 
 Fidanza), the " Doctor seraphicus" (1221-1274). In the 
 fourteenth century Germany produced mystics of great 
 fame and influence. One of these wsjS Master Eckhart 
 
 (c. 12G0-1329), the " Doctor Ecstaticus," who has been 
 
 described as the greatest of all speculative Mystics. 
 According to Eckhart., God is Being. To God time is 
 Now, which embraces together i>ast, present, and future. 
 The ground of the .soul is an " uncreated and uncreatable 
 light," a •' soul-spark " which is divine. This spark 
 enables man to penetrate intuitively into the kingdom of 
 light. If we are to see and know God we mlist turn 
 away our gaze from everything that belongs to time and 
 space. Another of these Mystics was John Tauler (1300- 
 1361), the " Doctor Illuminatus." His mysticism was 
 less speculative. He has been classed as one of the 
 Devotional Mystics. But he attached great importance 
 to practical Christianity. If nece.s.sary, a man should 
 interrupt his devotions in order to do a service for a 
 sick person, " believing not only that God would be with 
 him, but that He would vouch-safe him, it may be, even 
 greater grace and blessing in ttiat external work, under- 
 taken out of true love, in the service of his neighbour, 
 than he should perhaps receive in the loftiest contempla- 
 tion." Jan van Ruysbroek (1293-1.3S1), another " Doctor 
 ecstaticus," was a famous Flemish mystic. Ruysbroek 
 si^eaks of " being swallowed up in the unfathomable 
 abyss of eternal happiness." Max B. Weinstein describes 
 him as the most thoroughgoing theosophist of the Middle 
 Ages. Another famous mystic was Henry Suso (von 
 Berg; 1295-13fi(i), who wrote a " Book of Eternal 
 Wisdom." He was a pupil of Eckhart and friend of 
 Tauler. Suso was an ascetic, a visionary, and a poet. 
 The name of Thomas h Kempls (Thomas Hamerken of 
 Kempen; 1380-1471) may \>e said to be a household word. 
 Mysticism continued to be a force in Germany. In 1518 
 Martin Luther (1483-154fi) published a remarkable work 
 by an unknown writer, " German Theology," which is 
 thought to have prepared the way for the Reformation 
 and given it a mystical tone. The book seems to have 
 been written about 1350. The author contends that " the 
 more the Self, the I, the Me, the Mine, that is, self- 
 seeking and selfishness, abate in a man, the more doth 
 God's I, that is God Himself, increase in him." Sir 
 Frederick Pollock finds much in common between this 
 book and parts of the Ethics of Baruch Spinoza (1632- 
 1677; see SPINOZISM). J. H. Blunt thinks that it 
 exhibits the germ of the " Reine Vemunft " of Immanuel 
 Kant (1724-1804). A different kind of mysticism was 
 introduced by Paracelsus (Philippns Aureolus Paracelsus 
 Theophrastus von Hohenheim; 1493-1541), who was a 
 physician and chemist. His mysticism was affected by 
 his acquaintance with astrology and astronomy, alchemy 
 and medicine. It has been described as Nature 
 Mysticism, or as Theosophy. According to Mrs. Besant 
 (" Theosophy " in R.S.W.), Paracelsus was one of the 
 disciples of the Secret Wisdom. " Now and then one 
 of its disciples appeared in Christendom, and gave to the 
 world some ' discovery ' which started thought on some 
 new and fruitful line; thus Paracelsus, with his ' dis- 
 covery ' of hydrogen, his magnetic treatment for the cure 
 of disease, and his many hints at secrets of nature not 
 even yet worked out." The followers of Paracelsus have 
 been called Paracelsists. Another Reformation mystic 
 and theosophist was Valentine Weigel (1533-1588). He 
 founded a new system, and gave birth to a new school. 
 Weigel ians. He held that God is conscious in man of 
 His own being, and that in pitying man He has pity 
 on Himself. There were Weigelians even In the 
 eighteenth century. Another famous Nature mystic was 
 .Jacob Boehme or Behmen (1575-1624), the shoemaker of 
 Goerlitz. In 1612 he published a work, " Aurora oder 
 Morgenrote im Aufgang," vrlilch was condemned by the 
 Church authorities. Before this he had had wonderful 
 visions and reveries. Boehme held that no knowledge 
 is i)08Sible without opposition and division. All things
 
 Mysticism, Non-Christian 
 
 255 
 
 Mysticism, Non-Christian 
 
 consist of Yes and No. They are either divine or devilish 
 or e&rthly. The Yes is rhe Divine it-self. simply power 
 and love. The No is the retort to the Divine. Through 
 it the Divine is made manifest. It is a necessary con- 
 trary in which divine love becomes operative. God repre- 
 sent* £ ix>larity, a conflict with Himself. He is both 
 Good aad Evil. ■' For the holy world God and the dark 
 world God are not two gods: they are a single God. He 
 is in Himself all Being. He is Evil and GJood. Hea%-en 
 and Hell. Light and Darkness. Eternity and Time, 
 Beginning and End. Wherever in a being His love is 
 hidden, there His anger is manifest." Boehme's mystical 
 ■work, •' The Supersensual Life," was translated into 
 English by William Law (l(>8fi-17fil), the author of the 
 " Serious Call." Law was a disciple of Jacob Boehme. 
 The founder of Quietism (q.vA. Michael Molinos (IMO- 
 1696) is an example of Spanish mysticism. His teaching 
 influenced the French mystic, Mme. Guyon (1648-1717). 
 A " modem " Catholic mystic of great repute is St. .John 
 of the Cross fSan Juan de la Cruz: 1542-1591). He is 
 spoken of as a Doctor in Mystical Theology, " whose 
 works are the most complete and luminous, the most 
 sublime, and at the same time the most philosophically 
 exact and precise, and whose authority is the highest 
 which any private theologian can have" (Catfi. DictA. 
 See B. Puenjer: J. H. Blunt: Chr. Joh. Deter, AbHss 
 tier Gesctiichte der Philosophie. 1906: E. C. Gregory, 
 Introduction to Christian Mysticism. 1908: Rudolf 
 Bucken, The Life of the Spirit, 1909: Max B. Weinstein, 
 Welt-und Lehen-Anschauvngen. 1910: William James, 
 Varieties of Religious Experience : E. Underbill. 
 
 MYSTICISM, NON-CHRISTIAN. In Christian myst- 
 icism the aim is to enter into communion with a per- 
 sonal God. Where a personal God is recognised, the 
 same aim is pursued in other religions. But before we 
 oome to the higher types of religion, it should be noticed 
 that even in lower or primitive religions a sort of myst- 
 icism is common in which communion is sought with 
 divine or supernatural powers. Primitive folk have 
 their my.«teries of initiation, in which a state of ecstasy 
 is attained. To them various animals and things are 
 holy and able to communicate holiness as being instinct 
 •with divine power or life. The heathen Semites had 
 their mystic sacrifices. Robert«)n Smith notes, for 
 instance (R.S.). that the Harranians offered sacrificial 
 gifts to the dog. " and in certain my.steries dogs were 
 solemnly declared to be the brothers of the mystae." We 
 find traces of primitive m.v.stical cults even in the Old 
 Testament. It appears from Isa. Ixv. .3 S.. Ixvi. .3, 17, 
 Ezek. viii. 10, that during the Exile there was a tendency 
 to revive certain cults of a primitive type. "This teii- 
 dency was not confined to the Hebrews, nor did it reach 
 Its chief development among them. The causes which 
 produced a resuscitation of obsolete mysteries among 
 the Jews were at work at the same period among all the 
 Northern Semites: for everywhere the old national 
 deities had shown themselves powerless to resist the gods 
 of Assyria and Babylon. And among these nations the 
 tendency to fall back for help on primitive superstitions 
 was not held in check, as it was among the Hebrews, bv 
 the counter-influence of the Prophets and the Law. From 
 this period, therefore, we may date with great probability 
 the first rise of the mystical cults which played so large 
 a part in the later developments of ancient paganism, 
 and spread their influence over the whole Graeco-Roman 
 world. Most of these cults appear to have begun among 
 the Northern Semites, or in the parts of Asia Minor that 
 fell under the empire of the As.syrians and Babvlonlans. 
 The leading feature that distinguishes them from the 
 old public cults, with which they entered into competi- 
 tion, is that they were not based on the principle of 
 
 nationality, but sought recruit.s from men of every race 
 who were willing to accept initiation through the mystic 
 .sacraments: and in pursuance of this object they carried 
 on a missionary propaganda in aU parts of the Roman 
 Empire, in a way quite alien to the spirit of national 
 religion." The naturalization of Oriental cults in Greece 
 and Rome, however, led to the introduction there of a 
 more personal element into religion. Thus the cult of 
 the Thracian god Dionysos, a deitv of Oriental origin (see 
 Gladys M. N. Davis, The Asiatic Dionusos, 1914), as intro- 
 duced into Greece, promised the realization of a personal 
 salvation. In Rome the Oriental mvstery-religions which 
 exerted a wide influence were the cult of Cvbele of 
 Phrygia, of Isis of Egypt, and of Mithra of Persia. 
 " These religions appealed to the imagination on account 
 of their great antiquity, their elaborate mvths, their 
 mystic rites, their promises of regeneration and of salva- 
 tion " (G. A. Barton, B.W.). We have noted references 
 in the Old Testament to a lower type of mysticism which 
 was condemned by the great prophets. We mav presume 
 that this was condemned all the more .sternly, because 
 the prophets themselves knew by experience the difference 
 between the lower and higher types. The great prophet 
 was a true mystic (cp. the article " The Language of 
 the Prophets " In The Quest, July, 1919). He '• is carried 
 away by the divine i)ower and speaks as the mouthpiece 
 of God. using lofty poetic diction while in a state of 
 ecstacy" (K. Kohler). In later Judaism, as Kohler 
 notes, there has always been a current of mysticism. We 
 find the beginnings of a developed form in the religion 
 of the Es.senes, in the allegorizing methods of Philo, in 
 the speculations about the " Chariot " (.merkaiah) of the 
 book of Ezekiel, and in the mystical interpretation of 
 the O.T. book, the " Song of Songs." In the Merkabah 
 Mysticism the Chariot, as J. Abelson says (Jewish 
 Mysticism, 1913), became a kind of "mystic way " lead- 
 ing up to the final goal of the soul. " Or, more precisely, 
 it was the mystic • in.strument,' the vehicle by whirih 
 one was carried direct into the ' halls ' of the unseen. It 
 was the aim of the mystic to be a ' Merkabah-rider,' so 
 that he might be enabled, while still in the trammels of 
 the fle-sh, to mount up to his spiritual Eldorado." As 
 regards the " Song of Songs " (or Canticles), the Rabbis 
 saw in its imagery of human love and marriage a true 
 symbol of the union of Israel with the Divine Father. 
 " The intimate and secret experiences of the soul of the 
 •Tew, the raptures of its intercourse with God in .senses 
 which no outsider could understand, were best reflected 
 in the language of that augtist and indefinable passion 
 which men call love." But the Jews were not content 
 .simply to interpret O.T. writings mystically. They pro- 
 duced a large mystic literature which, though starting 
 with the Old Testament, contains many new speculations. 
 Famous examples of this literature are the book " Yet- 
 sirah " and the " Zohar." The Sefer Yetsirah (Book 
 of Creation) is of uncertain authorship and date. Judah 
 Halevi (end of 11th century) attributed it to Abraham. 
 Reitzenstein (Poimandres), connecting it with Gnostic 
 activities, assigns it to the second centurv. It has also 
 been assigned to Rabbi 'Akiba (50-130 A.D.). on account 
 of his skill in the mystic lore of numbers. But the most 
 likely date is about the sixth century A.D., since, as 
 Al)eIson ixvints out, this century marks the beginning of 
 the Gaonic epoch, in which several important Rabbinic- 
 my.stical works were compo-sed. In any ca.se, the work 
 has been held in high esteem from the tenth century, and 
 has exercised a great influence on the general develop- 
 ment of Jewish Mysticism, " It is a mystical philosophy 
 drawn from the .sounds, shapes, relative positions, and 
 numerical values of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet." 
 Abelson notes that although the nucleus of much of the
 
 Mysticism, Non-Christian 256 
 
 teacHing is to be found in the Talmud, the Rabbis were 
 not the originators, but borrowed from older sources, 
 Egyptian, Babylonian, and Mandtean. He points out 
 also that if Alexandrian Neoplatonism is the pith and 
 core of the emanation doctrines of Plotinus, it is also 
 the root of the emanation doctrines of the Book Tetsirah, 
 the Zohar, and indeed of all branches of the mediaeval 
 Kabbalah. The Zohar ("Shining" or "Brightness"; 
 ep. Dan. xii. 3) is in particular the text-book of Jewish 
 medispval m.vsticism. Its authorship is uncertain, though 
 it purports "to be the record of a divine revelation to 
 Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai (b. second centurj- A.D.). It 
 made its first appearance in Spain in the thirteenth 
 century, obviously had a number of authors, and quite as 
 clearly drew from various faiths and philosophies. Neo- 
 platonism, Gnosticism, the Talmud and Midrashim, and 
 Persian Suflsm all seem to have helped to form and 
 fashion it. While the Zohar claims to be a commentary 
 on the Pentateuch, it is really an indejiendent compend- 
 ium of Kabbalistic theosophy. The work emphasises 
 tie fact that in the phenomena of the world there is an 
 esoteric as well as an exoteric really. The universe is 
 the outward expression of the inner Divine thought. 
 3Ian, " having the privilege to behold everywhere the 
 Divine imag^— the world being an embodiment of God — 
 can, if he will, make his way to the Invisible Author of 
 all: can have union with the Unseen." In addition to 
 such lofty teaching, the work is rich in angelology and 
 in mediaeval astrology. The treatment of the problem 
 of evil is noteworthy. " Evil, sin, and their personifica- 
 tions, the demons, are termed kilifoth, i.e., the coverings, 
 wrappings, externals of all existing things. Just as the 
 covering (or husk) of anything is not the real thing and 
 far inferior to it, so sin and evil are, as it were, the 
 gross, inferior, imperfect aspects of creation. And as 
 the world is an emanation of the Divine, it follows that 
 whatsoever in the world is evil, and not of the Divine, 
 cannot be real. Hence evil is that which has no being; 
 it is a sort of illusion; it is a state of ab.sence. negation; 
 it is a thing which merely appears to be but is not " 
 (Abelson). The general name in Jewi.sh literature for 
 every kind of mystical interpretation is Kabbalah 
 (" esoteric tradition "). Its secret lore is described by 
 Kohler as ill-adapted to the teaching of Judaism and as 
 simply the reaction to the excessive rationalism of the 
 Spanish-Arabic period. " The legalism and casuistry of 
 the Talmud and the Codes appealed too much to the 
 intellect, disregarding the deeper emotional sources of 
 religion and morality; on the other hand, the mysticism 
 of the Cabbalists over-emphasized the emotional element, 
 and eliminated much of the rational ba.sis of Judaism." 
 In Arabic. Persian, and Turkish the word ' mystic ' is 
 represented by .S'it/f, though this word is restricted to 
 mystics who are Moslems, and at &t?A, (c. SOO A.D.) bore 
 a humbler meaning. The Sufis are .so CTlled from snf 
 " wool," becau.se they were ascetics who wore rough 
 woollen garments. " The earliest Sijfis were, in fact, 
 
 Mysticism, Non- Christian 
 
 ascetics and quietists rather than mystics" (R. A. 
 Nicholson, The Mystics of Islam, 1914). In course of 
 time, however, they came to regard asceticism as only 
 the first stage of a long spiritual pilgrimage, anl Dr. 
 Nicholson thinks the es.sence of Sufism is best displayed 
 in its extreme type, which is pantheistic and speculative 
 rather than ascetic or devotional. The Sii'fi is a 
 "traveller" by slow "stages" along a "path" the 
 goal of which is union with Reality. When he attains 
 illumination, he is endowed with a supernatural power 
 of discernment. When he attains ecstasy he is united 
 with God. " The whole of Siifism rests on the l>elief 
 that when the individual self is lost, the TJniver.sal Self 
 is found, or, in religious language, that ecsta.sy affords 
 the only means by which the soul can directly communi- 
 cate and become united with God. Asceticism, purifica- 
 tion, love, gnosis, saintship — all the leading ideas of 
 Sufism — are developed from this cardinal principle." The 
 Sufi obtains, as divine gifts, gnosis (mystic knowledge) 
 and love; and " gnosis and love are .spiritually identical : 
 they teach the same truths in different langtiage " (cp. 
 further SUFIISM). Mysticism in India is characterised 
 by Dr. E. Lehmann (Mysticism in Heathendom and 
 Christendom, 1910) as a mysticism of meditation and of 
 renunciation. " The mysticism of the Hindus did not 
 originate in philosophy, any more than their religion from 
 the first was a philosophical religion. The beginning 
 was adoration, wor.ship, and therein the earliest elements 
 of mysticism are to be found." The Hindu mystic for 
 the most part seeks a life of seclusion and meditation. 
 Union with the divine principle, Brahma and Atman, 
 is only to be attained by way of meditation. " Insight 
 is what is needed, and Brahma, thus thought out, is 
 meditation." But in practice ordinary meditation is 
 found to be insufficient. It is therefore improved by art, 
 " the art above all arts to which the Hindu applies him- 
 ,self assiduously, the art of raising himself above the life 
 of this world by rapture, forgetting himself in ecstasy, 
 and iiroducing this ecstasy by penances — the art which 
 in India is known as Yoga" (see TOGA). In China, 
 according to Lehmann. the temperament of the people is 
 absolutely oppo.sed to anything of a mystical nature. 
 Nevertheless, Laotze (6. (>04 B.C.). the founder of Taoism 
 (</.r.1 and the second in importance of China's great 
 .sages, produced here a work in which are found all the 
 properties of true mysticism. " It would seem as if 
 here, in tJie Far East, the groundwork had been laid for 
 that which in the subsequent peregrinations of mysticism 
 should receive more solid form. The three chords which 
 mysticism always strikes, namely, alienation from the 
 world, the doing away with personality and with self, 
 reverberate here also, and they sound — ^and this is the 
 remarkable part of it — perfectly Chinese, although con- 
 stantly clashing with the normal system of Confucian 
 doctrines, with all its practical and personal activity." 
 In addition to the works mentioned above, .<<ee J. C. 
 Oman, Mystics: L. M. J. Gamett; Isaac Huslk.
 
 N 
 
 257 
 
 Namdeo Sect 
 
 N 
 
 N. God N is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians of 
 Central America. He has the head of an old man, and 
 wears a head-omament which contains the sign for the 
 year of 3ii0 days. He is described by Sehellhas as " The 
 God of the end of the Year." 
 
 NAASSENI. A name derived from the Hebrew word 
 nachash, " seri)ent." It is equivalent to the name 
 Ophites (g.v.). 
 
 NABU. A Babylonian deity. The god Nabu or Nebo 
 is represented as embodying divine wisdom. Ja.strow 
 thinks that as the Babylonians associated wisdom with 
 the watery deep, the origin of Nabu was aqueous. He 
 thinks that Nabu and Ea iq.v.) were originally related. 
 In any case, Nabu is referred to as the irrigator and 
 fertilizer of fields, and became a patron of agriculture. 
 He was especially the god of Borsippa. but in the days 
 of Hammurapi he had to give place to Marduk (g.v.). 
 He reappeared, however, as the son of Marduk, and in 
 some cases received greater prominence than his father. 
 The Assyrian kings paid him great homage, and several 
 of them were named after him (Nabupolassar, Nebu- 
 chadrezzar, Nabonnedos). Marduk-baladan II describes 
 himself as " worshipper of Nabu and Marduk." As the 
 herald of tie go<ls he was called Papsukal, the supreme 
 me.ssenger. His .symbols were the stylus of the writer 
 and the sceptre of the ruler. His consort would seem 
 to have been originally Erua ; afterwards it was 
 Tashmitum (g.v.). In the Deluge-story (see DELUGE- 
 STORY. BABYLONIAN) Nabu figures prominently 
 among the gods who are active in storm. Nabu was 
 sometimes identified with Nusku (g.v.). He came to be 
 identified also with Mercury. In the procession on New 
 Year's Day Nabu was carried in a magnificent ship. See 
 Morris Jastrow, Bel. 
 
 NaG DEO. A deity, really the cobra, worshipped by 
 the Baigas and others. Nag Is an object of special 
 veneration among the Barais (also known as Tambolis or 
 Pansaris), who observe a festival in his honour called 
 Nag-Panchmi (Cobra's fifth). 
 
 NAGUALISTS. Members of a cult formed in Mexico 
 after the conquest. " The Nagualists were suppo.sed to 
 have animal familiars, whose shape they could assume, 
 and to hold regular ' witches' sabbaths.' " (T. A. Joyce, 
 il.A.). It was the avowed object of the cult to eliminate 
 Christianity. 
 
 NAHUM, BOOK OF. The original sections of the 
 book of Nahum (chaps, i. 1, 11, 14: ii. 1, 3-1.3: iii. 1-19) 
 are ooneemed with the approaching fall of Nineveh. 
 This gives us the terminus ad guem for the date of the 
 book. Nineveh was not overthrown until (506 B.C. On 
 the other hand, its end had .seemed near on several earlier 
 occasions. If Herodotus is to be trusted, Cyaxares, the 
 Mede, besieged it in 625 B.C. In any case, as C. F. 
 Kent points out, in 626 B.C., when the great Assyrian 
 king Aahurbanipal died, the people of Judah no doubt 
 felt convinced that now at length the days of Nineveh 
 
 were numbered. The terminus a giio for the date of the 
 book is supplied by a reference to the capture and sack 
 of Thebes. This took place about 660 B.C.. and it seems 
 to have been still vividly remembered at the time Nahum 
 wrote. Nahum's prophecy therefore can hardly be dated 
 later than 626 B.C. An introduction has been prefixed 
 to the book by a later editor (chaps, i. 2-15: ii. 2). It 
 takes the form of an acrostic p.salm, which describes 
 tJie just rule of Jehovah. As far as the original prophecy 
 is concerned, " Nahum voices, in language of surpassing 
 literary beauty and vigour, the universal cry of exulta- 
 tion which burst from the lips of a great family of 
 nations, when at last the news came that Nineveh was 
 falling" (C. F. Kent). See C. Cornill: G. H. Box: O. 
 C. Whitehouse: C. F. Kent, The Sermons, Epistles and 
 Apocalypses of Israel's Prophets, 1910. 
 
 NAKHIS. Literally " Nail " men. An order of Hindu 
 ascetics, worshippers of Siva (g.v.). They are so called 
 because they allow their nails to grow long and to pierce 
 through their clenched hands. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 NAKSHIBENDI. A Dervish order. Their service 
 consists of one prayer called the Jklah. which is repeated 
 a thousand and one times. " This number of pebbles 
 is distributed among the brethren who are seated in a 
 circle on the floor: and, as each one completes the mental 
 recitation of an Iklah, he lays down before him a pebble 
 until the whole number are deposited within the circle " 
 (L. M. J. Gamett). 
 
 NAKTI DEVI. An Indian deity, the " Noseless 
 Goddess." In Bilaspur she is the principal deity of the 
 Bhainas. When a man dies, a cock is offered to her: 
 when a woman dies, a hen. 
 
 NAMBUTIRIS. The Nambutiris or Nambutiri Brfih- 
 mans are de.scribefl by Thurston and Rangachari as the 
 .socio-spiritual aristocracy of Malabar in India. " The 
 characteristic features of the Nambutiri are his faith in 
 God and resignation to his will, hospitality to strangers, 
 scrupulous veracity, punctiliousness as regards the 
 ordinances prescribed, and extreme gentility in manners. 
 The .sustaining power of his belief in divin/r providence 
 is so great that calamities of whatsoever kind do not 
 exasperate him unduly " (E. Thurston and K. Ranga- 
 chari). Tlie Nambutiris devote much of their time to 
 the study of the Vedas. and are said to be probably more 
 familiar with Sanskrit than any other Brfihrnaiis. They 
 are forbidden to use liquor and flesh. They may keei> 
 cows and buffaloes, but not the horse, which is a sacred 
 animal. They are not allowed to swear or take an oath, 
 but may make a solemn asseveration. Bathing is one 
 of their most important religious duties. " All objects, 
 animate or inanimate, organic or inorganic, are believed 
 to be permeatefl by the divine .'qiirit. Animals, trees, 
 plants, and flowers are animate, and therefore 
 venerate<l." Horses, snakes, and cows are worshipped, 
 the last being held the most sacred of all animals. See 
 E. Thurston. 
 
 NaMDEO sect. An Indian sect, founded by Namdeo
 
 Name, Change of 
 
 258 
 
 Nanakshahi 
 
 Sadhu, a Chhipa or dyer, who is said to have been a con- 
 temporary of Kabir, founder of the sect of Kablr 
 Panthis (q.v.), and to have flourished in the twelftli or 
 thirteenth century. " He was a great worshipper of the 
 god Vithoba of Pandharpur, and Is considered by the 
 Marathas to be their oldest writer, being the author of 
 many Abhangs, or sacred hymns. He preachetl the 
 unity of God, recognising apparently Vitioba or Vishnu 
 as the one deity, and the uselessness of ceremonial " (R. 
 V. Russell). To this sect belong many of the Darzis, 
 the occupational caste of tailors. 
 
 NAME, CHANGE OF. In the Old and New Testa- 
 ments we read of persons' names being changed. In 
 Genesis xxxii. 28 it is represented that the name of Jacob 
 was changed to Israel. Jesus gave his disciple Simon 
 the name Peter (Luke vi. 14). The Apostle Paul was 
 originally called Saul (Acts vii. 28). Prof. O. C. White- 
 house suggests (Isaiah in the " Century Bible ") that the 
 name Isaiah was perhaps not his original name. He 
 may have assumed it in reference to his prophetic 
 mission. It would almost seem that in certain circum- 
 stances it was a fairly common practice among the 
 Hebrews to take or receive new names. The practice is 
 found among the Arabs. Burton notes (AT Madinah 
 and Meccah, new edition of Bohn, 1. p. 14, N. 3) that 
 " when a man appears as a Fakir or Darwaysh, he casts 
 off, in process of regeneration, together with other 
 worldly sloughs, his laical name for some brilliant coat 
 of nomenclature rich iu religioiis promise." In the West 
 Indies, again, when two prominent men were very 
 friendly, they would bind themselves together more 
 closely by exchanging their names. The ceremony served 
 to make the parties friends for all time. The Mehtars, 
 the caste of sweepers and scavengers in India, worship a 
 saint named Valmiki. He was originally a hunter named 
 Ratnakar. When he was purified and became a saint, 
 Brahma changed his name from Ratnakar to Valmiki. 
 There are several definite examples of change of name in 
 the Bible. It is possible that the change was made also 
 in other cases — cases in which the Biblical writers have 
 forgotten to mention the fact. In the Old and New 
 Testaments the practice seems to be specially associated 
 with what may be described as causes of a " call " or of 
 conversion. But not exclusively. Naomi, if we may 
 interpret the passage literally, became Manah. One of 
 the kings of Judah is sometimes referred to as Azariah, 
 sometimes as Uzziah. Prof. K. Marti suggests in his 
 Commentary on Isaiah that Uzziah was perhaps the real 
 name borne by Azariah before he ascended the throne. 
 It is po.ssible that David — ^which is probably an abbrevia- 
 tion of Dodiel, " darling of God " — was not the famous 
 king's original name. David's original name may have 
 been Elhanan, " God is gracious." In I. Samuel xvii. 
 David, tiie son of Jesse, is said to have slain the Philistine 
 giant (k)liath. In II. Samuel xxi. 19 we read : " and 
 Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim the Bethlehemite slew 
 Goliath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was like a 
 weaver's beam." In the parallel passage of the Book of 
 Chronicles (I., xx. 5) we read : " and Elhanan the son of 
 Jair slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath the Gittite, etc." 
 In both these passages there are corruptions, and it is 
 likely that the original and correct text was in both cases 
 the same. In the first passage "oregim " ("weavers ") 
 has evidently crept in after Jaare from the following line. 
 In the second passage " Lahmi the brother of " Is 
 evidently a corruption of " the Bethlehemite." In both 
 passages " Jaare " and " Jair " are protebly corruptions 
 of " Jesse." Originally therefore the two texts may 
 have read : " And Elhanan the son of Jesse the Bethle- 
 hemite slew Goliath the Gittite." Most modem critics 
 assume that the story of David's killing Giollath is a 
 
 later tradition, and that the exploit of Elhanan, one of 
 David's warriors, was transferred to his royal master. 
 It is hardly likely, however, that this could have hap- 
 pened. Possibly Elhanan and David were one and the 
 same person. In II. Kings xxiil 34 we are told that 
 " Pharaoh-necoh made Eliakim the son of Josiah king in 
 the room of Josiah his father, and changed his name to 
 Jehoiakim " (similarly, II. Chronicles xxxvi. 4). In 
 II. Kings xxiv. 17 we are told that the king of Babylon 
 made Mattaniah brother of the father of Jehoiachin king 
 in place of Jehoiachin, and changed his name to Zedekiah. 
 ^'\^ly should the king of Egypt have changed the name 
 Eliakim " God establishes " to Jehoiakim " Yahweh 
 establishes"? Why should the king of Babylon have 
 changed the name Mattaniah, " gift of Yahweh " to 
 Zedekiah " righteousness of Yahweh "? It Is more likely 
 that the two kings had already borne these two names. 
 The Hebrew word for name is often used, in reference 
 to Yahweh, in the sense of character. It may have been 
 a common practice for persons when they changed their 
 character to change their name. There is much to recom- 
 mend the practice. The Tolstoy of later years, to take 
 a modern example, felt him.self to he an entirely different 
 person from the Tolstoy of an earlier period. 
 
 NAMTAR. A Babylonian deity. Namtar was a god 
 of pestilence. He appears in the service of Allatu (g.v.). 
 the goddess of the nether world. In the story of the 
 descent of Ishtar (q.v.) to the nether world, Allatu com- 
 mands Namtar to smite Ishtar with disease. In the 
 story of the conflict between Nergal and Allatu, Namtar 
 is told by Nergal to announce to Allatu his approach. 
 See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 NANA. A Babylonian deity. The name Nana means 
 " the lady." Nana was the principal goddess of the city 
 of Uruk. She was the planet Venus (9.1'.), the daughter 
 of Sin (q.v.), the moon-god. As the descendant of Anu 
 (q.v.), ^e was called also Anunit. Shalmaneser II. callH 
 her the consort of Nabu (q.v.). See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rel. 
 
 NANAI. A nature-goddess of pre-semitic Babylonia, 
 equivalent to the Babylonian Ishtar. 
 
 NANAKPANTHI SECT. An Indian sect founded by 
 P.aba Nanak of the Lahore District (lived between A.D. 
 1469 and 1538-39), whose teaching paved the way for the 
 development of Sikhism (q.v.). N.^nak was a religious 
 reformer who wished to abolisih idolatry and superstition 
 and to inculcate the worship of one invisible deity. 
 " The burden of his teaching was that there is no Hindu 
 and no Muhammadan. He believed in transmigration, 
 but held that the successive stages were but purifications, 
 and that at last the soul, cleansed from sin, went to dwell 
 with its maker. He prescribed no caste rules or cere- 
 monial obser\'ances, and indeed condemned them as un- 
 necessary and even harmful; but he made no violent 
 attack on them, he insisted on no alteration in existing 
 civil and social institutions, and was content to leave 
 the doctrine of the equality of all men in the sight of 
 God to work in the minds of his followers. He respected 
 the Hindu veneration of the cow and the Muhammadan 
 abhorrence of the hog, but recommended as a higher rule 
 than either total abstinence from flesh. Nothing could 
 have been gentler or less aggressive than his doctrine, 
 nothing more unlike the teaching of his great successor 
 Govlnd " (R. V. Russell and R. B. Hira Lai). In 1901 
 the persons in the Central Provinces of India who 
 returned themselves as Nanakpanthis numbered 13,000. 
 See R. V. Russell and R. B. HTra LAI, The Tribes and 
 Castes of the Central Provinces of India, 1916. 
 
 NANAKSHAHI. A mendicant order in India, a branch 
 of the Nanakpantliis (q.v.). They are known also as 
 Suthra Shahis (q.v.).
 
 Nandkishore 
 
 259 
 
 Nazir 
 
 NANDKISHORE. Nandkishore and Nandkumar, 
 
 child of Xand (Krishna's foster-father), are names of the 
 Hindu god Krishna. 
 
 NANGA. yanga or Mhaki was a secret society among 
 the western tribes of Viti Levu, the largest of the Fiji 
 Islands. By initiation into the nanga. the youth of the 
 tribe, it was supposed, were brought into relations with 
 the ancestral spirits. " The sanctuary and lodge of the 
 association formed the earthly dwelling-place of the 
 spirits; it was a tabernacle as holy to these Fijians as 
 was the structure in the Wildeme-ss to the Israelites; 
 there the first-fruits of the yam harvest were solemnly 
 presented to the ancestors; and there the young men of 
 Viti Levu were introduced to the mysteries of the tribe. 
 When the manga enclosure was being raised for the initia- 
 tory performances, the people susjiended all other work " 
 (Hutton Webster, R.D.). 
 
 NANNAE. A Babylonian deity. Xannar was a name 
 for the moon-god, who was worshipi)ed at Ur. Nannar 
 was called the " heifer of Anu," that is to say, the off- 
 spring of Anu (q.v.). He was also called the '" lord of 
 the crovrn." In the Epic of Marduk (see MAEDUK. 
 EPIC OF) it is said that Marduk made Nannar and gave 
 him control of the night. Another name for the moon- 
 god was Sin (q.v.). 
 
 XANTOSVELTA. A goddess in the mythology of the 
 British Celts. She is connected in some way with the 
 siin-god_ Sulis. 
 
 XaRaYANA. Narayana or Narayan is one of tie 
 names or forms under which the great Hindu god Vishnu 
 (q.v.) was worshipped. In the Law-l)ook of Manu (i. 10) 
 Narayana is a name for the Universal Spirit, which was 
 so called because it was thought of as moving on the 
 waters. Monier-WiUiams points out that in harmony 
 with this idea " Vishnu is often represented in sculptures, 
 images, and pictures as Narayana in human form, re- 
 posing on the thousand-headed serpent and floating on 
 the ocean." See Monier-WiUiams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 NARSIXGHA. The man-lion, one of the incarnations 
 of the great Hindu god Vishnu. 
 
 NASTRAXD. In tie religion of the Ancient Teutons, 
 Nastrand (and not Hel [q.v.]) appears as a place of 
 punishment in which sin is expiated. The doors of the 
 Hall which .stood on Nastrand faced northward; the Hall 
 was " entwined with the backs of serpents." Xo sun- 
 light penetrated its darkness; through the roof dripped 
 venom. See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussage, Rel. of the 
 Teutons, 1902. 
 
 XAT BaBA. a Hindu deity, a village god wor.shipped 
 by the Nats. He is a deified Nat. The term Xat 
 (literally a dancer), according to R. V. Russell and R. B. 
 Hira Lai, seems to be applied indefinitely to a number of 
 groups of vagrant acrobats and showmen in India. 
 
 XATIOXAL PROTESTAXT LEAGUE. A league in 
 connection with the Church As.s»ciation (q.v.). Its 
 objects are : to maintain unimpaired " the Protestant 
 Reformed Religion, established by law," and to defend 
 it against all encroachments of Popery; to sjrread sound 
 Protestant tmth in the Church of England; to unite in 
 prayer for the increase of spiritual religion; to co-operate 
 with the Church Association in upholding Reformation 
 principles; to educate the young in evangelical truti; to 
 disseminate .sound and wholesome literature; to secure 
 the return of Protestant candidates at Parliamentarv 
 elections. 
 
 NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE EDUCATION OF 
 THE POOR IN THE PRINCIPLES OF THE ESTAB- 
 LISHED CHURCH. A Society founded in ISll. The 
 Superintendent was Andrew Bell (175.?-1832), founder of 
 the Madras System of Education, which was similar to 
 the Lancasterian System of Education (q.v.). 
 
 NATIOXALSOZIALER VEREIX. A political associa- 
 tion in Germany founded by Friedrich Xaumann (6. 1860). 
 It seeks, by working along national and Christian- 
 socialist lines, to improve the condition of the working 
 classes. 
 
 NATURAL THEOLOGY. As distinguished from 
 Revealed Theology or Positive Theology. Natural 
 Theology denotes the evidence of God's existence and 
 character derived from a study of Nature. From the 
 standpoint of the sceptic, the .subject is discussed in the 
 • Dialogues on Natural Religion " (1779) bv David Hume 
 (17U-1776) ; from the standpoint of an orthodox theologian 
 of the old school in the '■ Natural Theologv " (1S02) of 
 William Paley (1743-1805), Archdeacon *of Carlisle. 
 Natural Theology, as distinguished from Revelation 
 (q.v.). seeks to find evidence of the existence and goodness 
 of God in Nature. It has been claimed that Natural 
 Theology is the only true theology, and that its revelation 
 of God is complete and sufficient; but it has been objected 
 that it leaves important questions unanswered. To say 
 the least, it requires to be supplemented by Revelation. 
 We may go further and say that the highest revelation 
 of (iod is not physical in any sense but metaphysical. It 
 is intuitional knowledge that comes by in.spiration. A 
 lifelong .study of Nature may fail to reveal the goodness 
 of God, whereas a sudden intuition may make it known 
 in such a way that it will never again be doubted. 
 Natural Theology works too much on the assumption 
 that things are as they appear to be. See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 NAUALA. A term used among the Kwakiutl of N. 
 America to denote a mystic potentiality ascribed to beings 
 whether human or non-human, living or not living. 
 Nattala seems to be a force, and not a personal being, and 
 oorresix>nds to the Melanesian mana. 
 
 XAZARAEANS. Nazaraeans (also written Nasarteans 
 and X'assara?ans) is the name of a .Jewish sect referred 
 to by Epiphanius (Ear. xviii.). J. H. Blunt suggests 
 that they are to be identified with the (Jenistae. The 
 Genistap (q.v.) are said to have claimed tiat they were 
 the stock of Abraham; and the Hebrew word net sir, from 
 which Nazara.€ans may be supposed to be derived, means 
 " branch." The Nazaraeans would have a patriarchal 
 religion. Consequently they did special reverence to 
 the patriarchs (including Moses and Joshua). They 
 practi.sed circumcision, were vegetarians, and refused to 
 .sacrifice animals. See .1. H. Blunt. 
 
 NAZARENES. In the Gospels Jesus is represented 
 as a Nazarene, that is to say, as one who belong<-d to 
 Nazara or Nazareth in Galilee. In the Acts of the 
 Apostles (xxiv. .5) the name appears as one used bv 
 opponents of the followers of .Jesus. In the fourth cen- 
 tury Epiphanius and Jerome give the name Nazarenes to 
 a body of Jewish Christians. The Nazarenes were 
 Christians who continued to observe the law of Moses. 
 To what extent, if any, they were identical with a section 
 of the Ebionites (q.v.) is a disputed point. Augustine 
 says they were called Symmachians sometimes. This 
 name may have been derived from that of Symmachus. 
 one of the translators of the Old Testament into Greek, 
 an Ebionite who flourished towards the end of the second 
 century. See K. R. Hagenbach ; J. H. Blunt; Ix>uis 
 Duchesne. Eist. 
 
 NAZARENES. A name by which the Manda>ans 
 (q.v.) refer to themselves. In this case the word would 
 -seem to be derived from nazir, " separated, or pure." 
 
 Nazir. The name of one of the Jewish treati.ses or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D.. and are 
 incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.). a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of
 
 Nebiin 
 
 260 
 
 Neo-Pythagoreanism 
 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Nazir is the fourth tractate of the third 
 group, which is called Nasliim ("Women"). 
 
 NEBIIN. The Hebrew name (" Prophets ) of the 
 ^cond of the three groups into which the books of the 
 OW Te^lment are divided. See PROPHETS, THE 
 
 NECESSARIANISM or NECBSSITARIAJS'ISM. Ano- 
 ther name for Determinism {q.v.). 
 
 NBDARIM. The title of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. and 
 are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (.sedarim^. Nedarim is the third tractate of the third 
 group, which is called Nashim (" Women "). 
 
 NEGa'IM. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduced the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second c-entury A.D. and 
 are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Nega'im is tie third tractate of the sixth 
 group, which is called Tohoroth (" Purifications "). 
 
 NEHALENNIA. One of the deities of the Ancient 
 Teutons. Nehalennia seems to have been a goddess of 
 fertility and navigation. She is known from inscriptions 
 found on the island of Walcheren. " Her attributes are 
 a dog, a basket with fruit, and the prow of a ship; at 
 times sihe is repre.sented as accompanied by Hercules and 
 Neptune " (Chantepie de la Saiissaye). The goddess 
 herself is depicted on some of her monuments. See P. 
 D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902; 
 Eeinach, O. 
 
 NEHEMIAH, BOOK OF. The Book of Nehemiah, 
 though it now appears in Hebrew Bibles as a separate 
 work, originally in the Jewish Canon formed one work 
 with the Book of Ezra. In the Septuagint the two books 
 still appear as one (Second Esdras). See EZRA- 
 NEHBMIAH. 
 
 NEIT. An ancient Irish deity. Neit. Ned, or Nudd 
 was the god of war. He is supposed to have had three 
 wives, Neman, Morrigan, and Macha. These took charge 
 of various departments of battle and carnage. Neit 
 seems to have been equivalent to the god who was wor- 
 shipped as Mars by the natives of Gaul. 
 
 NEMAN. An ancient Irish deity. Sister of Bav, and 
 wife of Neit, the god of battle, she had charge of one of 
 the departments of battle and carnage, afflicting her 
 victims with madness. 
 
 NEMBTONA. Nemetx>na is the name of one of the 
 goddesses worshipped by the ancient Celts. She is paired 
 with Mars, but it is not known what relationship 
 was intended. From an inscription found at Bath it 
 appears that she was worshipped in Britain. She has 
 been compared or identified with another British goddess 
 Nemon, " venomous." C. Squire suggests again that 
 Nemon is probably the same as M(5rrlgu, who, as a 
 goddess of war is associated with the British god of war 
 Llfldd (q.v.). See Anwyl; Squire, Myth.; cp. Reinach, 
 O., 1909. 
 
 NBMOLIAKI. A sub-sect of the Russian dissenters 
 known as Bezpopovtzi. It was founded by Cossak 
 Zimin. The fundamentals of religion were to him and 
 his followers spiritual prayer and a p\ire life based upon 
 the study of the New Testament. Cossak Zimin believed 
 that a new age started in l(>6f5 A.D., the age of the Holy 
 Ghost. In this age no external rites are needed. See 
 Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 NEMON. A goddess of war worshipped in ancient 
 Britain. She has been compared or identified with 
 Nemetooa (q.v.). 
 
 NEONOMIANS. A name given by the followers of 
 Tobias Crisp, the Crispians (q.v.), to their opponents. 
 Blunt quotes the following definition by one .of their 
 writers. " One that asserts the Old Law is abolished, 
 and therein is a superlative Antinomian, but pleads for 
 a New Law, and justification by the works of it, and 
 therefore is a Neonomian." 
 
 NEO-PLATONISM. In Neo-Platonism ancient Greek 
 philosophy took a religious and mystical turn. It was 
 eclectic in the sense that with the ideas of Plato and 
 Pythagoras were combined Oriental ideas and doctrines. 
 Founded by Ammonius Sakkas of Alexandria (175-200 
 A.D.), the philosophy was developed and systematized 
 by Plotinus of Lycopolis in Egypt. " All existence is 
 referred, not to two principles, but only to one. God, 
 or the primal Essence, is the simple unity that lies above 
 all multiplicity. As such, God is without thought, 
 because thinking requires plurality; and without will, 
 because willing pre-supposes duality. God Is the abso- 
 lutely transcendent One, exalted above everything, above 
 consciousness and unconsciousness, above rest and 
 motion, above life and being. Hence God is entirely un- 
 attainable in our knowledge. Thinking must here 
 abandon itself and become Not-thinking, if it is to appre- 
 hend God in blessed vision, and unite itself with Him. 
 But at tlie same time God is the original source and 
 ground of all things; finite things arise out of Him by 
 emanation of what is absolutely simple unfolding itself 
 into an ever-advancing series of finite things, that are 
 always the more imperfect the farther they are removed 
 from God. In all things, therefore, there is only one 
 divine ix>wer and essence, but in different degrees of x)er- 
 fection, so that every higher existence embraces the lower 
 with itself. Finite things long for a return to their 
 origin, and tiiis is especially true of the human soul, 
 which, banished into this earthly life as a punishment for 
 former sin, strives to soar aloft to its higher home. . . 
 The highest goal is immediate intuition of the primal 
 divine Being. This is the true philosophy, the perfection 
 of the spirit, and likewise the highest happiness. By 
 such intuition the soul becomes completely one with the 
 primal Being, and sinks in ecstacy into deity " 
 (Puenjer). Porphyry of Phoenicia (233-304), the disciple 
 and biographer of Plotinus, further developed Neo- 
 Platonism on its religious side. He even accused the 
 Christians of stealing and adulterating the teaching of 
 his master. lamblichus of Coele-syria (t 333), a disciple 
 of Porphyry, is largely responsible for the degeneration 
 of Neo-Platonism. He distinguished between gods, 
 angels, and demons, and taught a system of theurgy and 
 magic. The down-n-ard tendency was even more marked 
 in the theosophical teaching of Proclus (412-485), who 
 erected what has been described as " a veritable pantheon 
 of pagan dogmas and philosophies." Synesius of Cyrene 
 ( t c. 4.30), a disciple of the Neoplatonist Hypatia of 
 Alexandria, afterwards l>ecame a Christian and was 
 made Bishop of Ptolemais, but he did not entirely 
 abandon his Neo-Platonism. It is possible that Boethius 
 also, one of the last of the Neoplatonists, was a Christian. 
 See SchafC-Herzog; J. H. Blunt; P.. Piienier; C. J. Deter. 
 NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM. Neo- Pythagorean ism bears 
 much the same relation to Pythagoreanism that Neo- 
 Platonism does to Platonism. Apollonius of Tyana in 
 Cappadocia. who lived in the first century A.D., is re- 
 garded as its chief representative. He is said to have 
 travelled to India, and to have learned there the secrets of 
 the Brahmans. A strict ascetic and a worker of marvels, 
 he made so great an impression on the i)eople that he
 
 Nephtbys 
 
 261 
 
 Nethinim, The 
 
 was worshipped as a god. The Emperor Alexander 
 Sevems gave him a place of honour in his private chapel 
 bv the side of Orpheus and Jesus. See Hastings' E.R.E., 
 s.v. " Apollonius of Tyana " : Max B. Weinstein, WeU- 
 und Leben-anschanuHfjen , 1910. 
 
 NEPHTHYS. An Egyptian deity. Nephthys is the 
 sister of Isis (q.v.). The name in Egyptian is Neb-hat, 
 and means " I>ady of the House." Nephthys is little 
 more than one of the actors in the Osiris myth. When 
 Set (g.v.) succeeded in l;illing Osiris. Isis his wife sought 
 for the body without rest until she found it. Then she 
 and her sister Nephthys sat down by it and made lament- 
 ation. Erman si:)eaks of the lament as one " which has 
 become the model of all funerary lamentations." The 
 gods of Heliopolis formed an Ennead or company of nine. 
 In the oldest list in the Pyramid Texts, and in the ritual 
 of Abydos Nephthys appears as one of the Nine. See 
 Alfred Wiedemann; Adolf Erman, Handbook; Bdouard 
 Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith, 1909. 
 
 NERG.AL. A Babylonian deity. The god Nergal is 
 one of the gods mentioned prior to the days of Ham- 
 murapi. He was the god of Cuthah, and his association 
 with this city is referred to in the Old Testament (II. 
 Kings xvii. 30). Nergal was the god of war and pesti- 
 lence, and of the former more particularly in its violent, 
 destructive, aspect. He was " king of the nether world." 
 Sometimes he is described as the " god of fire," a descrip- 
 tion which seems to connect him with the sun in its 
 destructive, burning, character. As ruler of the nether 
 world, Nergal is chief of its monstrous, half-human 
 demons. In the Gilgamesh Epic (g.v.) it is he who opens 
 the earth and brings up the spirit of Eabani. With 
 Nergal was identified another, originally distinct, god 
 of plague and war Gir-ra. The name Gir-ra was at first 
 read as Dibbarra (see DIBBARRA EI'IC). A legend 
 has survived among the Amama tablets which makes 
 Nergal the hero of a battle rather similar to that between 
 Marduk and Tiflmat (see MARDDK, EPIC OF). A 
 goddess Allatu of the lower world enters into conflict with 
 the gods on high. Nergal is chosen to represent the 
 godi. He has fourteen companions of the nature of 
 demons. He sends the plague-demon Namtar to announce 
 his arrival to Allatu. She is obliged to admit him. He 
 drags her from her throne with the idea of killing her, 
 but when she bursts into tears and offers to become his 
 wife and to place " the tablets of wisdom " in his hands, 
 he spares her. Nergal is sometimes associated with 
 Ninib (17. r.) as a god of the chase. His symbol was a 
 lion. Naturally he was identifietl with Mars. See 
 Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 NERTHUS. One of the deities of the Ancient 
 Teutons. The goddess Nerthus was worshipped by the 
 Ingsevonic tribes, and mention is made by Tacitus of her 
 temple and grove. He identifies her with Mother Earth. 
 In her grove, we are told ((renmnia, xi.), is a con- 
 secrated chariot, which the priest alone is allowed to 
 touch. On festivals this chariot, accompanied by the 
 priest, is drawn about by cows. After such a procession, 
 " the chariot, with its cover, and. if it appear credible, 
 the deity her.self. thereupon undergo ablution in a 
 secluded lake. This .service is performed by slaves, 
 whom this very lake instantly swallows up." The 
 festival of Nerthus was celebrated on an island: this 
 seems to have been Seeland. A similar festival was 
 held in Sweden in honour of the god Freyr (q.v.). The 
 chariot of the god, however, was accompanied by a 
 priestess. How exactly the goddess Nerthus was repre- 
 sented, whetJier by an image or by a symbol, is not 
 certain. It is possible that there was nothing but an 
 empty seat in the chariot or car. It should be added 
 that the car had a cover. See P. D. Chantepie de la 
 Saus-saye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902; Reinach. O. 
 
 NESTORIANS. The followers of Nestorius (fl. 431 
 A.D.), patriarch of Constantinople, who in turn was an 
 adherent of Theodore of Mopsuestia. The tendency of 
 Nestorianism was to fix attention on the human element 
 in Jesus Christ. Objecting to the designation of the 
 Virgin Mary as theotokos, "who gives birth to God," 
 Nestorius followed Theodore of Mopsuestia in contending 
 that " she only gave birth to a man in whom the union 
 with tlie Logos had its beginning, but was incomplete 
 until His baptism." Jesus Christ was not God but ■• God- 
 bearer " (theoi)horos). Nestorius was condemned in his 
 absence by the synod of Ephesus (ATn. A.D.), but Nes- 
 torianism was not checked in its career. " An energetic 
 Nestorian Church, in its missionary zeal, carried the con- 
 demned tenets first to Edessa, and then, on the suppres- 
 sion of that school in 489, to the ends of the earth. 
 Persia. India. China— as the tablets of Si-ngan-fu (630- 
 781) bear evidence — alike witnessed their activity. From 
 the eleventh century until almost blotted out by Tamer- 
 lane, the Nestorian Church was the largest Christian 
 body in the world, whose patriarch at Bagdad was 
 acknowledged by twenty-five metropolitans. On the con- 
 quest of Persia and the East by the Muslim, Nestorianism 
 was thrown into an alliance, by no means unfriendly, 
 with the new faith. To this we trace the rise in 
 Mohammedan Spain in medieval times of a new form of 
 this Nestorian doctrine to which the title of Adoptionism 
 is more strictly applied" (H. B. Workman). Nestorian 
 missions had great success in China. In fact, the 
 activity of the missionaries cx>vered a whole continent, 
 and, according to Marco Polo (c. 1274 A.D.), the Nes- 
 torians had an unbroken series of see-towns along the 
 trade-routes from Bagdad to Pekin. " The present 
 patriarch of this dwindled sect lives in the Kurd Moun- 
 tains near Lake Urumiyah. with a flock of 70,000 souls, 
 the Assyrian Christians, sole remnants of a once mighty 
 organization " (F. W. Bussell). 
 
 NETHINIM, THE. The Nethinim are a religious 
 order referred to in the Old Testament. They are men- 
 tioned in Ezra-Nehemiah (q.v.) in the lists of" those who 
 returned from exile with Ezra. Another name for them, 
 or for a section of them, was the " children of Solomon's 
 servants " (Ezra ii. 55 = Nehemiah vii. 57). Five 
 classes of Temple ministers are distinguished— priests, 
 Levites, singers, porters, and Nethinim. As compared 
 with the Levites, the Nethinim were clearly a sub- 
 ordinate class of Temple-servants. But with the priests 
 and Levites they shared immunity from taxation (Ezra 
 vii. 24) ; and, though they do not appear among the signa- 
 tories to the covenant, it is clear that they " were really 
 regarded as forming part of the privileged personnel 
 attached to the temple-worship " (I. Benzinger). In 
 Joshua ix. 27 (JE) it is said that Joshua made the 
 Gibeonites " hewers of wood and drawers of water for 
 the congregation, and for the altar of the Lord." This 
 has suggested the identification of the Nethinim, who 
 were regarded as foreigners, with the Gibeonites. E. 
 L. Curtis and A. A. Madsen (Chronicles, 1910) think that 
 probably the Nethinim " were of Canaanitish origin- 
 most likely to be connected with the Gibeonites (Joshua 
 ix. 23) and the foreigners mentioned in Ezekiel xliv. 7." 
 Benzinger, on the other hand, regards this view as quite 
 unhistorical. The ix>st-exilic Nethinim were regarded 
 as descendants of slaves who had been give " by David 
 and his princes " to the Levites as their servants (Ezra 
 viii. 20). This is on the whole an acceptable view of 
 their origin. They would seem to have been foreign 
 captives taken in war who were made temple-slaves. In 
 course of time they became free men, and eventually 
 perhaps even Levites. In any ease, as time went on, 
 " the distinction of rank between the Levites and the
 
 New and Latter House of Israel, The 
 
 262 
 
 New Theology, The 
 
 inferior grades of temple servants diminished more and 
 more" (I. Benzinger). See I. Benzinger in tlie Encycl. 
 BiU. 
 
 NEW AND LATTER HOUSE OF ISRAEL, THE. A 
 sect founded in 1875 by James White (1840-1885) and 
 others. In 1876 White assumed the name James Jershom 
 Jezreel. He professed to be the messenger of God and 
 to have received divine revelations. In course of time 
 be established the headquarters of his sect at Gilling- 
 ham, near Chatham, in Kent, England. The members 
 gave all ttieir property to a common fund. They 
 " allowed their hair to grow long, tiicked it up at the 
 back, and wore purple velvet caps" (D.N.B.). The 
 death of Jezreel caused a division in the sect, and in 
 course of time the members began to fall away. See 
 the D.lSf.B. 
 
 NEW-BORN, THE. A religious sect in America in 
 the eighteenth century. It was founded by Matthias 
 Bowman '(d. 1727), a German, who settled in Pennsyl- 
 vania in 1719. The New Born believed in regeneration 
 bv inspiration and visions. They also held that by 
 communion with God men could be deified and made 
 incapable of sinning. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE CONFESSION, THE. A Cal- 
 vinistic Baptist Confession of Faith drawn up in 1833 
 A.D. by J. Newton Brown of New Hampshire. A con- 
 fession' in eighteen articles, it was adopted by the New 
 Hampshire Convention, and has been accepted generally 
 by American Baptists. " The language is often felicitous 
 in its attempt to express the essence of Calvinism in 
 terms which shall not repel " (W. A. Curtis). 
 
 NEW HOUSE OP ISRAEL. THE. Another name for 
 the Southcottians (q.v.). the followers of Joanna South- 
 oott (1750-1814). 
 
 NEW IDEALISM, THE. The religious philosophy 
 known as " The New Idealism " is associated with the 
 name of Rudolf Eucken, Professor of Philosophy in Jena. 
 His philosophy has also been described as a " Religious " 
 or " Spiritual " Idealism. Its central theme " is ' The 
 Struggle for Spiritual Existence', and its central per- 
 suasion is this, that nothing .short of an Independent 
 Spiritual Life in intimate communion with our own can 
 give to the struggle a meaning and a value. The con- 
 ceptions of ' immanence ' and ' independence ' are not 
 easy to define, but it should be noted that, from Eucken's 
 standpoint, the immanence of the Spiritual Life within 
 us Implies at once its transcendence over us and its 
 indei)endence of us. By the very intimacy of its in- 
 dwelling, the Spiritual Life awakens our reverence for 
 its own distinctive standards, values, and obligations; 
 and at the same time convinces us that its authority, 
 which is spiritual only in relation to our freedom, is yet 
 not of our own making, and exists in its own right." 
 The New Idealism " is mystical in the stress is la.vs on 
 the reality and immediacy of the Spiritual Life, and on 
 the intimacy of personal union between the human and 
 the divine: it is actii-istic in its insistence that all 
 spiritual communion is a challenge to our moral nature. 
 and can be mantained as an inspiration only through the 
 earnestness with which we adopt its values as authorita- 
 tive over our action; it is profoundly humanistic in the 
 breadth and depth of its historical insight, and in its 
 close identification of the welfare of our race with the 
 dominance of these spiritual values " (L. J. Gibson and 
 W. R. Bovce Gibson in " Preface " to The Meaning and 
 Value of 'Life, 1909). See W. R. Boyce Gibson, Rudolf 
 Eucken's Philosophy of Life (2), 1907; Rudolf Eucken,- 
 The Meaning and Value of Life, 1909; Christianity and 
 the Neto Idealism, 1909; The Life of the Spirit (2), 1909. 
 
 NEW ISLAM. A Muhammadan sect founded in North 
 India in recent years by Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan of 
 
 Aligarh. According to E. M. Wherry, it represents 
 really a restoration of the rationalism of the old Muta- 
 zillas. " Its followers are progressive, and number 
 among them many of the most learned and intelligent 
 Moslems of North India. The interesting feature of the 
 movement is the readiness to give reason a place in the 
 discussion of religious questions." By orthodox Muham- 
 medans it is regarded as heretical. See E. M. Wherry. 
 
 NEW ITINERANCY, THE. An early name for the 
 New Connexion Methodists or the Kilhamites {g.v.}. 
 
 NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH. The disciples of 
 Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772) first formed a society, 
 " The Theosophieal Society," for the purpose of " pro- 
 moting the heavenly doctrines of the New Jerusalem, by 
 translating, printing, and publishing the theological 
 writings of the Honourable Emanuel Swedenborg." lu 
 1788 the name " The New Church " was substituted, and 
 an " Order of worship for the New Church signified by 
 the New Jerusalem in the Revelation " was agreed upon. 
 See SWEDENBORGIANS. 
 
 NEW MORAL WORLD. See OWENITBS. 
 
 NEW PELAGIANS. A religious sect which appeared 
 after the Reformation. They were found mostly in 
 Holland. As the name New Pelagians or Pelagiani Novi 
 implies, some of their views were those of Pelagianism 
 (q.v.). 
 
 NEW THEOLOGY, THE. In January 1907 the 
 preaching of the Rev. R. J. Campbell, who was then 
 Minister of the City Temple, London, attracted consider- 
 able attention. His sermons were quoted in the religious 
 and secular Press, and a controversy was soon raging 
 under the newspaper heading " The New Theology." 
 Mr. Campbell, feeling, with a number of his friends, that 
 " recent criticisms of what has come to be called the 
 New Theology ought to be dealt with in some compre- 
 hensive and systematic way," wrote a book to explain 
 his teaching. This book was published in 1907 with the 
 title The New Theology. The title could hardly be 
 avoided. " My only reason for calling this book by that 
 title," said Mr. Campbell, " is that a considerable section 
 of the public at present persists in regarding me as in a 
 special way the exponent of it [the New Theology] ; 
 indeed, from the correspondence which has been pro- 
 ceeding in the Press, it is evident that many people credit 
 me with having invented both the name and the thing." 
 The name was not really new. "The New Theology is 
 only new in the sense that it seeks to substitute simplicity 
 for complexity, and to get down to moral values in its 
 use of religious terms. Our objection is not so much to 
 the venerable creeds of Christendom as to the ordinary 
 interpretations of tho.'se creeds." It is further explained 
 as follows. " The New Theology is an untrammelled 
 return to the Christian sources in the light of modem 
 thought. Its starting-i)oint is a re-emphasis of the 
 Christian belief in the Divine immanence in the universe 
 and in mankind. This doctrine requires to be placed 
 eflFectively in the foreground of Christian preaching. In 
 the immediate past, the doctrine of the Divine 
 transcendence — that is, the obvious truth that the infinite 
 l)eing of God must transcend the finite universe — has been 
 presented in such a way as to amoun*^ to a practical 
 dualism, and to lead men to think of (Jod as above and 
 apart from His world instead of expressing Himself 
 through His world. I repeat that this dualism is prac- 
 tical, not theoretical; but that it exists is plain enough 
 fi-om such statements as that of the present-day 
 theologian who speaks of God's ' eternal eminence, and 
 His descent on a created world.' This kind of theolo- 
 gizing leads straight to the conclusion that God is, to all 
 intents and purposes, quite distinct from His creation, 
 although He possesses a full and accurate knowledge of
 
 New Thought, The 
 
 263 
 
 all that goes on in it and reserves to Himself the right 
 to interfere. In what sense language like this leaves 
 room for the Divine immanence it is difficult to see. The 
 New Theology holds that we know nothing, and can know 
 nothing, of the Infinite Cause whence all things proceed, 
 except as we read Him in His universe and in our own 
 souls. It is the immanent God with whom we have to do, 
 and if this obvious fact is once firmly grasped, it will sim- 
 plify all our religious conceptions and give us a working 
 faith." The movement, it was claimed, was also related 
 to Socialism. '• The great social movement which is now 
 taking place in every country of the civilized world 
 towards universal peace and brotherhood, and a better 
 and fairer distribution of wealth, is really the same move- 
 ment as that which, in the more distinctively religious 
 sphere, is coming to be called the New Theology. This 
 fact needs to be realized and brought out. The New 
 Theology is the gospel of the kingdom of God. Neither 
 Socialism nor any other economic system will perma- 
 nently save and lift mankind without definitely recognized 
 spiritual sanctions— that is, it must be a religion. The 
 New Theology is but the religious articulation of the 
 social movement. The word ' theology ' is almost a mis- 
 nomer; it is essentially a moral and spiritual movement, 
 the recognition that we are at the begrinning of a great 
 religious and ethical awakening, the ultimate results of 
 which no man can C'ompletely foresee." Finally, the 
 New Theology claimed to be the religion of science 
 " Science is supplying the facts which the New Theology 
 is weaving into the texture of religious experience." 
 The New Theology made considerable progress, and gave 
 birth to a large organization which was called at first 
 (June 190S) the " League of Progressive Thought and 
 Social Service," or, more iwpularly, the " Progre.ssive 
 League," and afterwards the " League of Liberal Chris- 
 tian Thought and Social Service " (g.v.). The organ of 
 the movement was " The Christian Commonwealth " 
 (q.v.). It should be added that Mr. Campbell modified 
 liis views in course of time, and became a clergyman in 
 ttie Church of England. See R. J. Campbell, The New 
 Theology, New Popular Edition. 
 
 NEW THOUGHT, THE. The kind of idealistic and 
 mystical philosophy which is sometimes called the " New 
 Thought " is perhaps more fittingly designated the 
 " Higher Thought " (q.v.). 
 
 NEWTON HALL. Newton HaU was so named after 
 Sir Isaac Newton, who purchased the site for the Royal 
 Society in 1710. For more than twentv years it has been 
 used by the Positivists (see POSITIVISM) as a kind of 
 Academy, a free School and Institute for the people. Free 
 lectures have been given there on Positivist philosophy 
 science, morality, and religion. '■ The greater names 
 in the Positivist Calendar of .5.5S Worthies of all ages 
 and nations have been commemorated on special c-en- 
 tenaries, those of musicians by appropriate musical 
 Srf^^ (Frederic Harrison). In connection with 
 NewtoD Hall pilgrimages, ."^ccial parties, guilds, and 
 libraries have been organized. " There is, on Positive 
 principles, no road to stable reUgious convictions except 
 by the way of knowledge of real things; and there is no 
 Toyal road to real knowledge other than the teaching of 
 competent instructors and the systematic study of science 
 In the widest sen.se " (first Report, l&Sl). See Frederic 
 Harrison m Great Religions of the World, 1902. 
 
 NGAI. A name given by tie Masai to a power which 
 is supernatural, supernormal, or awe-inspiring By 
 some writers it is pronounced en-gai. Hollis thinks that 
 m en-gai " we have primitive and undeveloped religious 
 sentiment where the personality of the deity is hardly 
 separated from striking natural phenomena " (The 
 Masai, p. six.). 
 
 Nimbns, The 
 
 „i^^^ .H^^.^?^°- O'^® <>f ^^ tliree creeds in common 
 use m the Christian Church. The Nieene Creed (which 
 in Its present form is more correctly described as the 
 Nicaeno-(:onstantmoiiolitan Creed) is so called because 
 the greater part was framed at the Council of Nicaea 
 "'in-i™T t?- ^.- " ^""^^^ originally with the cK 
 «nn^r i^ ^''^^ '°, ^^^ ^^'y ^^^•^■" The final clauses 
 appear m a work;^ written by Epiphanius, Bishop of 
 Salam.s, in 3<4 A.D and the creed in its present form. 
 ^^1 !SS^*'?^ f '^*^ '^-^t three words of the clause 
 Who proceedeth from the Father and the Son " was 
 recognized by the Councils of Constantinople (A.D. 381) 
 
 ^flS}'^^"^^^ ^^■^: •^^^'- ^^^ 'ast three words of the 
 clause quoted were msert^i at a Council held at Toledo 
 in A. p. o89, and the creed in its present form does not 
 seem to have come into general use before the middle of 
 the sixth century. 
 
 h.^M^?^^^^A^^*^?o-o ^ Japanese Buddhist sect founded 
 by Niehiren A.D. ]2o3. It was formed in opposition to 
 the Shmgon and J6do sects, and is of an aggressive and 
 fanatical character. The founder wished to givl the 
 historic Buddia Gautama his rightful place, as compared 
 with Amida, faith in whom is regarded as a heresy But 
 Hackmann points out that the historic Buddha is every- 
 where regarded in a my.stical light. " The true Buddha 
 is a greatness permeating all being, the great illumina- 
 tion which we must find in ourselves. Prayer, recitation 
 of the sacred writings (or even of the sacred formula, 
 
 *v J"", ™-I" ^^ ^^^^^ '^y^'" '^'I'cli means " Praised be 
 the book of the lotos of the good law! "), and a number 
 S i'i?"^ f *^' '^ad to the right communion witi the 
 Bud(ma of the true illumination." See H. Hackmann 
 
 f J^; . o.-^^*^ "*''' '^^ '^^^ <>f t^** Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D., and are 
 incorporated in the Mishnah (^.r.), a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-tiree trartates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedanm). Nidda is the seventh tractate of the sixth 
 group, which is called Tohoroth (" Purifications "). 
 
 NIFLHEIM. In the cosmogony of the Ancient 
 reutons, Niflheim was one of the nine worlds. It was 
 located m the North. 
 
 A ^'^^ANGS. A fanatical order of Sikh ascetics. 
 Another name for the Akalis (q.v.). 
 
 NIKUR. A Scandinavian water-spirit. In the Middle 
 Ages he was identified with St. Nicholas, who became the 
 patron of sailors. 
 
 NILKANTH The blue-jay sacred to Siva, one of the 
 names of the Hindu god Siva. 
 
 NIMANANDIS. The followers of the Hindu religious 
 teacher, Nimbarka or Nimbaditya. who seems to have 
 flourished about the twelfth century. They worship the 
 goddess Radha in conjunction with Krishna The 
 religious philosophy of Nimbarka was called ' dualistic 
 non-dualism. " He held that every man's spirit was 
 capable of being ab.sorbed into God's Spirit, and that such 
 an end was to be aimed at " (Monier-Williamsl. Nim- 
 barka IS held to be an incarnation of the Sun-god. See 
 Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 NIMaVATS. a name by which the followers of Nim- 
 barka or Nimbaditya, the Hindu religious teacher, are 
 known. They are called also Nimanandis (q.v.) 
 
 NIMBADITYA SECT. Another name for the Indian 
 sect, the Nimanandis (q.v.). 
 
 NIMBUS, THE. The nimbus or halo of light was at 
 first an emblem of power. Thus it was used by the 
 Byzantines to adorn the figure of Satan. It was" used 
 also to glorify the figures of men eueh as King Herod, 
 
 18
 
 Nine Heads of Agreement 
 
 264 
 
 Nominalism 
 
 Trajan, Justinian, and Charlemagne. Its use to adom 
 the heads of gods and saints is found in Greek, Eoman, 
 Buddhist, Hindu, and Chinese mythology, as well as m 
 the Christian religion. It does not appear in Christian 
 art before the sixth century. Its use in pagan mythology 
 suggests to Sidney Heath that it was a Christianised 
 form of the solar disc. Its early forms were circular. 
 Until about the fifteenth century it was placed, like a 
 flat plate, on the back of the head. In the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries it takes the form of a circlet or 
 ring hovering over the head. In the eleventh century 
 the triangular form, and, in the ease of living persons, 
 the square form came into use. In the figure of Christ, 
 the cruciform nimbus is common. See Sidney Heath 
 and Francis Bond. 
 
 NINE HEADS OP AGREEMENT. A Confession of 
 Faith defining points of agreement between Congrega- 
 tionalists and Presbyterians in London and district. They 
 were published in 1691 A.D. " They are more Congrega- 
 tionalist than Presbyterian, anything like a Presbyterian 
 system of courts being an impossibility at the time " (W. 
 A. Curtis). And they exerted more influence in America 
 than in England. See William A. Curtis. 
 
 NIN-GIRSU. A Babylonian deity. Nin-gir-su is one 
 of the gods mentioned prior to the days of Hammurapi. 
 He is sometimes identified with Ninib (q.v.). Nin-gir-su 
 was " Lord of Girsu," a district of Lagash, and is 
 described as the warrior of Bel (g.v.). He appears also 
 as a god of agriculture. The ship in which he was carried 
 in procession is called the " beloved ship." The consort 
 of Nin-gir-su was Bau (g.v.). See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 NINGMAPA SECT. A sect in Lamaism, which has 
 preserved many of the features of the ancient Bon 
 religion of Tibet. The adherents pay special reverence 
 to Padma Sambhava, the founder of Lamaism. The 
 headgear and upper garments of these monks are red. 
 See H. Hackmann. 
 
 NINIB. A Babylonian deity. The god Nin-ib was a 
 god of war, invincible in battle. His temple was in 
 Oalah. He is also, like Nergal (g.v.). a god of the chase. 
 Originally he seems to have been a solar deity, a personi- 
 fication of the sun. He was early identified with the 
 solar deity Nin-girsu (g.v.). He is described as the off- 
 spring of Ekur, the earth, and as " the one who 
 pursues his path over tihe wide world." Sargon cele- 
 brates him as " Nin-ib, who lays the foundations of the 
 city." In the Deluge-story (see DELUGE-STORY, 
 BABYLONIAN) he plays an active part in producing the 
 storm. And it is he who tells Bel (g.v.) that Ea (g.v.) 
 has allowed some of mankind to escape. His consort 
 was Gula (g.v.). He was identified with Saturn (g.v.). 
 It has been pointed out that the morning sun came to be 
 represented by Ninib. the sun of the early spring by 
 Marduk (g.v.), and tihe mid-day sun by Nergal. See 
 Morris Jastrow. 
 
 NINIGI-NO-MIKOTO. A figure in Japanese mytho- 
 logy, grandson of Ama-Terasu, the Japanese sun-goddess. 
 
 NINKHARSAGGA. A goddess in the Sumerian 
 pantheon, who assisted the gods Anu, Bnlil, and Enki in 
 the work of creation. Her principal seat was probably 
 the city of Adab (Mod. Bismdya). The " Lady of the 
 Mountains," she is described also as The Builder of that 
 which has Breath, The Carpenter of Mankind, The Car- 
 penter of the Heart, The Coppersmith of the Gods, The 
 Coppersmith of the Land, and The Lady Potter. See 
 L. W. King, Legends of Babi/lon and Egypt in relation 
 to Hebrew Tradition, 1918. 
 
 NIRANKARI8. An Indian order of ascetics in the 
 Punjab, related to the Udasis. They worship Nirankal, 
 the deity without shape or form, the supreme god of 
 Nanak (founder of tihe Nanak-panthi Sect). 
 
 NIRGRANTHAS. Nirgnanthas is another name for 
 the Jains (g.v.). Possibly it vs an earlier name. 
 
 NIRVANA. The term Nirvana denotes literally " the 
 state of a blown-out flame." Hopkins, however, points 
 out that it has acquired three distinct meanings. To the 
 Jains (see JAINISM) and to some of the Buddhists it 
 means eternal blissful repose. To other Buddhists it has 
 meant extinction and complete annihilation. To Buddha 
 himself it meant the extinction of lust, anger, and 
 ignorance. Gautama did not invent the term or the 
 doctrine. The term occurs in the Maha-bharata. The 
 idea, or one of the ideas associated with Nirvana, is well 
 expressed in a imssage in the Bhagavad-gita, to which 
 Monier-Williams calls attention. " That Yogi who is 
 internally happy, internally satisfied and internally 
 illumined, attains extinction in the Supreme Being, and 
 becomes that Being." A distinction is drawn between 
 Nirvana and Pari-nirvfina. Monier-Williams describes 
 Pari-nirvfaja as being " simply the absolute termination 
 of a series of conscious bodily organization." As a rule 
 Nirvana does not mean extinction, for the state can be 
 attained even in the present life. It is a state of absolute 
 painlessness. This idea of Nirvana is " the idea of, so 
 to speak, floating in perfect repose and peace and cessa- 
 tion from all pain, and all work, and even all thought, 
 on a liind of ocean of half conscious, half unconscious 
 beatitude. It is not consciousness, neither is it uncon- 
 sciousness. It is symbolized by a full-blown, perfectly 
 formed lotus — a frequent emblem of perfection — reposing 
 on a calm mirror-like lake " (Monier-Williams). See 
 Monier-Williams, Buddhism, 1890: E. W. Hopkins; J. C. 
 Oman, Cults; H. Hackmann. 
 
 NIRVANA SECT. An early sect of Chinese Buddhists. 
 It flourished from 386 to 589 A.D., and " was one of the 
 first sects to construct a ' Harmony ' of the numerous 
 miscellaneous Sutras " (A. Lloyd). The Nirvana sect 
 was in course of time absorbed by the Tendai (g.v.). 
 
 NISKAI. The Niskai, or the water-sprites, were a 
 group of goddesses worshipped by the ancient Celts. 
 There were several .such groups, another of which was 
 called Proximae (g.v.). 
 
 NJORDHR. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 In Norway the name of Njordhr is borne by a number of 
 places. He is usually represented as god of the sea. 
 The Finnish goddess Skadhi (g.v.) chose him in marriage, 
 mistaking him for Balder (g.v.). Chantepie de la Saus- 
 saye points out that there is a close connection between 
 Njordhr and Nerthus on the one hand, and between 
 Njordhr-Nerthiis and Freyr-Freyja on the other. He 
 suggests that perhaps Njordhr has been deduced from 
 Nerthus, and Freyja from Freyr. See P. D. Chantepie 
 de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 NOLLARDS. A name given to the Alexlans (g.v.). 
 
 NOMINALISM. The Nominalist school of philosophy 
 was founded by Ro.scellinus, who was bom about 1050, 
 and was Canon in Compi^gne about 1090. According to 
 Nominalism, Universals (universalia) are simply sub- 
 jective products of abstraction; they are not real things, 
 but only names. Real existence belongs only to indi- 
 viduals (existentia e-st singulomm). The watchword of 
 the Nominalist school was " Universalia post rem." 
 When Roseellinus came to apply this doctrine to the 
 dogma of the Trinity, he incurred the charge of tritheism. 
 " The ' person ' is in his view the substantia rationaUs, 
 and in application to God this notion can signify nothing 
 eLse. The three persons are eternal, and therefore there 
 are three eternal persons. There are accordingly three 
 separate persons, although they are one in will and 
 power " (Puenjer). To satisfy the ecclesiastical authori- 
 ties, Rosoellinus recanted at the Council of Soissons in 
 1092, but privately he continued to hold the same views.
 
 Noncomala 
 
 265 
 
 Numbers, Symbolism of 
 
 Nominalism was revived by William of Occam (c. 1280- 
 13-19). who was a pupil of Duns Scotus (1274-130S). 
 " Only individuals, as individual things, have meaning. 
 Universals as common conceptions are only abstractions 
 made by our own understanding from these individual 
 things {conceptus mentis signi/icantes univocc plura 
 singularia)." Puenjer points out that this teaching 
 paved tie way for " the empirical method of thought 
 through observation of individual things and the deriva- 
 tion of universal principles from inductive experience." 
 It at the same time excluded the approach to a Rational 
 Theology. To faith is to be assigned all Imowledge that 
 transcends experience. " To faith also belong the pre- 
 cepts of morality; for, in virtue of his unlimited freedom, 
 God could also sanction other precepts as good and just." 
 The Xominalists included : Peter D'Ailly (1350-1425) and 
 John Gerson (13i!3-l-129), whose Nominalism developed 
 into Mvsticism, Gabriel Biel ^d. 1495), Robert Holkot (d. 
 1349), and Raymond of Sabundi (c. 1430). See B. 
 Puenjer: J. H. Blunt; C. J. Deter; Max B. Weinstein, 
 Welt- und Lehen-Anschauungen, 1910. 
 
 NONCOMALA. A deity in the mythology of the 
 Indians of Oosta Rica, the creator. After the creation 
 of men, the god became angry with them and flooded the 
 earth ; but another deity, Nubu, succeeded in saving their 
 
 " NONCONFORMISTS. John Hooper (d. 1555), who 
 was made Bishop of Worcester in 1552, but was after- 
 wards deprived by Queen Mary and sentenced for heresy, 
 has been called the " Father of Nonconformity," because 
 he was unwilling to conform to the rites and ceremonies 
 of the Church of England. Nonconformists was really 
 a later name for the Puritans, the reformers who sought 
 to purify the Church from error and corruption, though 
 it was not generally used until the passing of the Act of 
 Uniformity in 10(52, when a body of clergymen seceded 
 from the Church rather than conform. The name Dis- 
 senters was preferred afterwards. When many of the 
 Nonconformists of the Church of England became 
 Separatists or Sectaries, the name Puritan was generally 
 limited to those reformers who remained in the Establish- 
 ment. 
 
 NONJURORS. A name given to a body of clergymen 
 and laymen in England who refused to take the oath of 
 allegiance to William and Mary and seceded from the 
 national Church (1091). They included five bishops. 
 " Obedience to conscience, when it involves great sacri- 
 fice, deserves supreme respect, and the Church of Eng- 
 land could ill afford to lose men of such spiritual lives 
 and such single-minded integrity. But the theory of 
 Divine right on which they acted is now completely dis- 
 credited, and therefore their action cannot be approved " 
 (M. W. Patterson). The succession of the nonjuring 
 bishops was continued after the death of Bancroft (1093). 
 " Many of their clergy .served as chaplains in Jacobite 
 families, and the schism was only finally closed at the 
 beginning of the nineteenth century." A famous Non- 
 Juror was William Law (1086-1761), author of A Serious 
 Call to a Devout and Holy Life. 
 
 NORBERTINES. An order of regular canons founded 
 by St. Norbert (d. 1134). In England they received the 
 name White Canons. Another name for them is Pre- 
 monstratensians. 
 
 NORMALISM. A term invented by Prof. T. W. Rhys- 
 Davids. He explains it in his Cosmic Law in Ancient 
 Thought (1917). " If one glances over the tables of con- 
 tents to the best and latest treatises on the early religious 
 beliefs of the four or five countries where early records 
 have been found— such as de Groot on China, Hopkins on 
 India, Jastrow on Mesopotamia, or Breasted on Egypt — 
 one sees tiat they are mainly, if not quite exclusively. 
 
 concerned with Animistic ideas or with the applications 
 of such ideas. In the course of my ten years' lectures 
 on Comparative Religion I came across quite a number of 
 early religious beliefs and practices which by no stretch 
 of ingenuity could be brought under Animism. They were 
 not explained in the books, and could not be explained, 
 by the theory of a detachable soul. I found myself 
 forced to the conclusion that we must seek for at "least 
 one additional hypothesis, as far-reaching as Animism, 
 and altogether different from it, before we could explain 
 all the facts. I say ' at least one,' for it seemed at first 
 that more than one would be required. But though the 
 number of non-Animistic beliefs was very great, it was 
 found possible to arrange them in more or less over- 
 lapping groups; and behind all the groups can be dis- 
 cerned, I venture to think, one single underlying prin- 
 ciple. That principle is the belief in a certain rule, 
 order, law. We must invent a name for it— a name that 
 does not imply or suggest a law-giver, and that does not 
 suffer from the disadvantage of being still in common 
 use, and liable therefore to have vague and modern con- 
 notations wrapt up in it. Such a word is Normalism, 
 witi its convenient adjective Normalistic." Professor 
 Rhys-Davids thinks that to this term we can attach a 
 specific, scientifically exact, meaning. 
 
 NORNS. An order of supranatural beings in the re- 
 ligion of the Teutons. They were goddesses of war and 
 fate. They are sometimes referred to as being three in 
 number. Snorri Sturluson, as quoted by Chantepie de 
 la Saussaye, writes as follows : " These maidens appoint 
 the fate of men and we call them Noms. There are, 
 however, still other Noms (i.e., aside from the three 
 already mentioned, Urdhr. Verdhandi, and Skuld), who 
 come to every new-bom child and dispen.se its fate. . . 
 VTh^n the Noms determine the destinies of men. they 
 divide the fortunes very unequally : to some they grant 
 a life full of joy and honour, to others little happiness 
 and glory: to some a long life, to others a short one. 
 . . . The good Norns, who are of noble descent, dis- 
 pense a happy fate." It often happened that two Norns 
 bestowed a blessing on a child, whereas a third contri- 
 buted .something that impaired this blessing. They were 
 active at marriages as well as at births. In some 
 respects they resembled Walkyries (g.c.) and Swan- 
 maidens; but Noms were i9ometimes worshipped, whereas 
 these other divine beings were not. See P. D. Chantepie 
 de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons. 1902. 
 
 NOTIRZI. One of the deities of the Todas, a goddess. 
 
 NUDD. The name of an ancient Celtic god or divine 
 hero. Also pronounced Neit (q.v.) or Ned. The god was 
 the same as Llfldd (q.v.). 
 
 NUDITY PARADES. Some of the Doukhobdrs {q.v.) 
 settled in Canada were per.suaded that they ought strictly 
 to follow the example of Jesus who gave up manual 
 labour and went about preaching. Accordingly, they 
 went on pilgrimages. On one occasion (1903) they decided 
 to follow the example of Adam and Eve in Paradise. 
 Before entering a town or settlement, both men and 
 women stripped off their garments and presented them- 
 selves naked. The enthusiasts were stopped by the police 
 and sent to prison. 
 
 NUMBERS, SYMBOLISM OF. In the Old and New 
 Testaments there is frequent use of symbolical numbers. 
 Seven, for instance, is a significant number. We read 
 of a seven-branched candlestick, of a sevenfold sprinkling, 
 of seven .sacrificial lambs, of seven angels, seven stars, 
 seven churches of Asia. As W. H. Bennett says 
 (Hastings' D.B.), " a similar use of ' seven ' is found in 
 the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Persian religions, and is 
 often derived from astral worship of the seven heavenly 
 bodies, the sun, moon, and the five planets known to the
 
 Numbers, Book of 
 
 266 
 
 Nuseiriyeb 
 
 ancients " In Egyptology there is frequent reference to 
 the seven Hathors. The seven-headed dragon is found 
 in the Scottish dragon-myth, as well as in the legends of 
 Cambodia, India, Persia, Western Asia, East Africa, and 
 the Mediterranean area. According to Elliot Smith 
 (Dr ) "the seven-headed dragon probably originated 
 fn>m the seven Hathors." The moon determined the 
 earliest sub-division of time into months: and the moon- 
 <'oddess (the Great Mother) " lent the sanctity of her 
 divine attributes to the number tvrenty -eight." The 
 number four derives its sanctity from the four cardinal 
 points, and was associated especially with the sun. 
 " Having invested the numbers four and twenty-eight 
 with special sanctity and brought them into association 
 with the measurement of time, it was a not unnatural 
 proceeding to subdivide the month into four parts and so 
 bring the number seven into the sacred scheme. Once 
 this was done the moon's phases were used to justify and 
 rationalize this procedure, and the length of the week 
 was incidentally brought into association with the moon- 
 goddess, who had seven avatars, perhaps originally one 
 for each dav of the week. At a later period the number 
 seven was arbitrarily brought into relationship with the 
 Pleiades." 
 
 NUMBERS, BOOK OF. The fourth book in the 
 Hebrew Canon of the Old Testament (9.i'.) is called 
 Arithmoi, because it begins by giving an account of a 
 numbering or census of the Israelites, made in the second 
 year of the Exodus. This title was adopted for the 
 Vulgate (.Niimeri), and then for the English Version. In 
 the Hebrew Bible the book bears the name Be-midbar, 
 this being the fifth word in the opening verse. The con- 
 tents of the Book of Numbers are as follows : Chapters i.- 
 X. 10 deal with the first census (i.) and the disposition 
 of the camp and the tribes (ii.), with the number and 
 duties of the Levites (iii.-iv.), with various laws, in- 
 cluding those relating to the ordeal of jealousy and the 
 Nazarite (v.-vi.), with the offerings of the princes of the 
 tribes when the Tent of Meeting was consecrated (vii.), 
 with the consecration of the Levites (viii.) and with the 
 Passover (ix. 1-x. 10). Chapters x. U-xx. 13 deal with 
 the journey from Sinai to Kadesh (x. 11-xii. 16), with 
 the sending of the spies (xiii.-xiv.), with laws relating to 
 offerings, etc. (xv.), with the rebellion of Korah, Datlian, 
 and Abiram, and the privileges of priests and Levites 
 (xvi.-xviii.), with the rite of purification associated with 
 the Retl Heifer (xix.), with the death of Miriam and the 
 episode of tiie " waters of strife" (xx. 1-13). Chapters 
 XX. 14-xxxvi. 13 deal with the journey of the Israelites 
 from Kadesh to the plains of Moab (xx. 14-xxi. 35), with 
 the story of Balak and the prophet Balaam (xxii.-xxiv.), 
 with various episodes, including the taking of a second 
 census, and the appointment of Joshua as Moses' suc- 
 cessor (xxv.-xxvii.), with a calendar for regulating the 
 sacrifices for the stated festivals (xxviii.-xxix.), with the 
 law of women's vows (xxx.), with a war of vengeance 
 against Midian (xxxi.), wit!h the assignment of territory 
 east of the Jordan to Reuben, Gad, and part of Manasseh 
 (xxxii.), with an itinerary of the marches to the Jordan 
 (xxxiii. 1-49), with laws relating to the borders of 
 Canaan, cities of refuge, etc. (xxxiii. 50-xxxvi. 13). The 
 Sources which were used in the compilation of the Book 
 of Numbers were the same as those used for the books 
 of Exodus and Leviticus (see EXODUS, and LEVIT- 
 ICUS). Chapters i.-x. 28 are from P (the Priestly 
 Writer). Chapters x. 29-xxv. IS are largely narrative, 
 and for the most part the narrative portions of Numbers 
 belong to J and E. Sections here and there, however, 
 are to be assigned to P (e.g., xiii. l-17a; xiv. 2C)-38; xv. 
 1-41; xvi. 1-35; xvi. 3(5 [Heb. xvii. l]-xx. 13; xx. 23-29; 
 XXV. 6-19). Chapters xxvi.-xxxvi. may be assigned almost 
 
 entirely to P. The fragments of poetry in chapter xxl. 
 are due to E who took them from the collection of poems 
 known as the " Book of the Wars of the Lord " (q.v.). 
 E. Kittel (The Scientific Study of the O.T., 1910) thinks 
 that probably in the story of the prophet Balaam (chaps, 
 xxii.-xxiv.) we have a true description of an ancient seer. 
 In chapter xxiv. 3-4 the ecstatic state is clearly -described. 
 " The outward eye closed, physically unconscious, tihe 
 seer lies there and utters his oracle. But his inner eye 
 is opened that he may see the face of the Almighty, his 
 ear uncovered that he may hear His words and counsel." 
 Kittel thinks that the oracles of Balaam are the oldest 
 extant literary witness to an early form of a kind of 
 Messianic hope. " They are probably the product of the 
 early monarchic period, perhaps of the reign of Saul or 
 the early part of the reign of David, since Saul's victory 
 over Agag seems to be still fresh in the memory of the 
 writer, and not yet eclipsed by the greater conquests of 
 David. The climax of the oracles of Balaam is reached 
 where he predicts that a star shall come out of Jacob 
 and a sceptre from Judah, which will arise and defeat 
 the enemies of Israel. Apparently the reference is to the 
 exjiected Saviour. It may be possible that the success- 
 ful David is meant, but even in that case the figure has 
 been borrowed from the general conception of a future 
 saviour." See Encycl. Bihl.; Carpenter and Harford- 
 Battersby; B. Baentsch, Numeri, 1903; H. Holzinger, 
 Numeri, 1903; G. B. Gray, Nwmbers, 1903; C. P. Kent, 
 Israel's Laws and Legal Precedents, 1907; A. R. S. 
 Kennedy, Leviticus and Numbers in the " Century 
 Bible "; G. H. Box, Intr.; O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 NUN. An Egyptian deity. The god Nun represents 
 the primeval waters. He was the father oi the gods, 
 existing at first alone. From him came Ra (q.v.). Ra 
 created out of himself the god Shu (q.v.) and the goddess 
 Tefnet (q.v.). The offspring of Shu and Tefnet were 
 Keb (q.v.), the god of earth, and Nut (q.v.), the goddess 
 of sky. Keb and Nut gave birth to Osiris (q.v.), Set 
 (q.v.), Isis (q.v.), and Nephthys (q.v.). See A. Wiede- 
 mann; Adolf Erman, Handbook. 
 
 NURTUNJA. A ritual instrument found among the 
 northern Arunta and their immediate neighbours in 
 Central Australia. It is " made up principally of a 
 vertical support which is either a single lance, or several 
 lances united into a bundle, or of a simple pole. Bunches 
 of grass are fastened all around it by means of belts or 
 little cords made of hair. Above this, down is placed, 
 arranged either in circles or in paraUel lines which run 
 from the top to the bottom of the support. The top is 
 decorated with the plumes of an eagle-hawk. This is 
 only the most general and typical form; in particular 
 oases, it has all sorts of variations " (fimile Dnrkheim). 
 The nurtunja is fixed in the earth or carried b.v an 
 officiant, and marks the central point of a religious 
 ceremony. 
 
 NUSEIRITEH. A branch of the Muhammadan Shi'ah 
 .sect. Unlike the Isma'illyeh (g.v.). they agree with the 
 Shi'ahs in finding the true Imam in Musa al-(3asim, the 
 second son of Ja'afar as-Sadiq. Otherwise they have 
 much in common with the Isma'illyeh and the Druses. 
 All three are secret cults in which an important part is 
 played by initiation. According to F. .T. Bliss, who gives 
 an account of the Nuseirlyeh in Syria, they pray only 
 in secret, or at any rate not before members of other 
 sects. " At tihe ceremony of initiation wine is used, as 
 it is also at the annual feast of the quddds, which is 
 the ordinary word for the Christian mass. Whether the 
 Nuseirlyeh borrowed this use of wine from Christian 
 sources or whether it is the survival of older heathen 
 practices is not clear. Some influence of Christianity 
 is indicated by tJie observance of Christmas. At the
 
 Nusku 
 
 267 
 
 Obadiah, Book of 
 
 feast of the quddas a bowl of wine, tlie symbol of light, 
 is placed before the imam, who, after a service of read- 
 ing, presents a cupful to each initiate present." The 
 Nuseirlyeh believe in the transmigration of souls. They 
 believe in seven incarnations of the Deity, that of 'Ali, 
 the son-in-law of Muhammad, transcending all the rest 
 in importance. They even hold that 'Ali created 
 Muhammad, his father-in-law. As F. J. Bliss says, it 
 is difficult to believe that such doctrines could have 
 developed from the pure monotheism of Islam. But he 
 points out that the followers of ' Ali " have always been 
 characterized by minds hospitable to new ideas, or rather 
 to the old ideas of other cults, including Persian Dualism 
 and Christian Gnosticism." See F. J. Bliss. 
 
 NUSKU. A Babylonian deity. Nusliu was a fire- 
 god. He came to be identified with Nabu (q.v.) and 
 amalgamated with Gibil (q.v.). He is the wise god, tie 
 
 messenger of the gods, and the bearer of the brilliant 
 sceptre. He is spoken of as spning from Ea (q.v.), and 
 as the flr.stt-bom of Bel (q.v.). See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rel. 
 
 NUT. An Egyptian deity. Nut was a goddess, the 
 female personification of the sljy, wife of Keb ((/.i'.), god 
 of the sky. Nut and Keb, who were themselves the off- 
 spring of Shu (q.v.) and Tefnet (q.v.), gave birth to 
 Osiris (q.v.) and Set (q.v.), Isis (q.v.) and Nephthys 
 (q.v.). Nut, the sky, at first lay upon Keb, the earth. 
 The two had to be separated before the present world 
 could be set in order. See Alfred Wiedemann: Adolf 
 Erman, Handbook; Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith, 
 1909. 
 
 NZ.\MBI. A great goddess worshipped by the Bantu 
 of South-West Africa. 
 
 O 
 
 O. Goddess O is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for one of the deities depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan 
 Indians of Central America. She appears only in the 
 Madrid MS., where she is represented as an old woman. 
 
 CANNES. A figure in Babylonian mythology, a fisih- 
 like monster, who, according to Berossus, came up from 
 the Erythraean Sea, where it borders upon Babylonia, 
 to instruct the people. Cannes " taught them the use of 
 letters, sciences and arts of all kinds, the rules for the 
 founding of cities, and the construction of temples, the 
 principles of law and surveying; he showed them how 
 to .sow ajQd reap; he gave them all that contributes to the 
 comforts of life. Since that time nothing excellent has 
 been invented " (Ma.spero, Dawn of Civilisation, p. 54(i). 
 
 CATH. An oath is defined in the Encycl. Brit. (9th 
 ed.) as " an asseveration or promise made under non- 
 human penalty or sanction." It is sanctified by reference 
 or appeal to a sacrefl person (God, for instance) or object 
 (.such as the Bible), and involves a curse in penalty of 
 violation. If it is taken falsely, the sacred person or 
 object will exact vengeance. Sometimes it is accom- 
 panied by some action, such as the lifting up of the right 
 hand, or by some .special ceremonial, which adds 
 solemnity to the occasion. There are many examples of 
 oaths in the Old Testament. The occasions are very 
 varied. Among the old Arabs the .sacred obligation to 
 treat a guest as inviolable was often confirmed by oath 
 at a sanctuary. The oath is a kind of covenant. When 
 Hannibal made a covenant with Philip of Macedon. he 
 swore before all the deities of Carthage and of Hellas, 
 including " the sun, the moon, and the eartlh, rivers, 
 meadows (?) and waters " (Kobertson Smith, R.H.). In 
 Babylonia the oath was the most solemn feature in con- 
 nection with legal documents. In the earliest days it is 
 taken in the name of the king. who. as representing tie 
 deity, has the quality of sanctity attached to him. " In 
 the days of Hammurapi, the gods either take the place 
 of the king or the name of the king is added to that of 
 
 the gods, and frequently also the name of the city or 
 temple in which the document is drawn up. The change 
 points to the growing secularization of the royal oSiee, 
 leading to the substitution of the gods as a more solemn 
 affirmation. The oath was taken by the ' raising ' of the 
 hand, and the place where it was taken was naturally 
 in the temple. Before the civil courts, sitting outside 
 of the temple, no oath could be taken, and when it became 
 necessary in a suit brought before such a tribunal to 
 introduce the oath, the case was transferred to the 
 'temple' judges" (Morris Jastrow, Civ.). Some 
 Christian sects (such as the Friends and the Moravians) 
 consider that they are forbidden by passages in the New 
 Testament (Matthew v. 34, James v. 12) to take any oath, 
 even in a Court of Justice. 
 
 OBADIAH, BOOK OF. The smallest prophetic book 
 in the Old Testament. The book of tie prophet Obadiah 
 contjains a denunciation against Edom for its hostility to 
 Israel. It is stated that when aliens entered into the 
 gates of Jerusalem and cast lots over it, Edom was as 
 one of tiem. The Edomites not only exulted over the 
 land of Judah in the day of its disaster, but even cut off 
 its fugitives in the day of distress (vss. 11-14). The 
 verses in which these statements are made evidently 
 describe the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 The prophecy, therefore, at least in its present form, 
 must be later than the year 586. There are other ver.ses 
 in Obadiah (vss. 1-9) which exhibit many points of con- 
 tact with an oracle against Edom found in the Book of 
 Jeremiai (xlix. 7-22). On eompari.son, it would appear 
 that the passages in Obadiah are more original. Ewald 
 thinks that the prophecy of Jeremiah emanates from the 
 fourth year of Jehoiachim. This obliges him, as Cornill 
 sa.vs, to assume a third source common to both Jeremiah 
 and Obadiah, "an original Obadiah, which Jeremiah 
 freely, and our Obadiah, on the other hand, faithfully, 
 reproduced." C. F. Kent thinks that the prophecy in 
 Jeremiah xlix. is late and that the author quotes from
 
 Obaku Sect 
 
 268 
 
 Odes of Solomon 
 
 Obadiah. As a further indication of the date of Obadiah, 
 in addition to the references to the destruction of Jeru- 
 salem, he ix>iuts out that it is clear from vs. 7 that a 
 great calamity has overtaken Edom itself. The allusion 
 seems to be to " the expulsion of the Edomites from their 
 territory by the Nabataeans, vrhich took place sometime 
 between COO and 400 B.C." Kent would therefore assign 
 the prophecy to some date between 500 and 450 B.C. He 
 thinks that' the second half of the prophecy comes from 
 the same period as the first half. See 0. Cornill, Intr.; 
 G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse: C. F. Kent, The Sermons, 
 Epistles and Apocalypses of Israel's Prophets, 1910. 
 
 OBAKU SECT. A Japanese Buddhist sect of the Zen 
 (g.v.), founded in 1654 A.D. by Ingen. a famous priest 
 from China. It was decided to read the Buddhist 
 Scriptures and Services in modem Chinese. This was an 
 important reform. " The great mass of the Buddhist 
 worship is in a dead language, the Chinese of fifteen 
 centuries ago: in the Obaku worship, the ordinary Sinioo- 
 Japanese of the modem literary style, has been, as it 
 were, c-onsecnated to the puriK>ses of religion " (Lloyd). 
 See Arthur Lloyd. 
 
 OBERLINVEREINE. The Oberlin Associations in 
 Germany have worked on tilie lines of the .philanthropist 
 J. F. Oberlin (1740-1820), who, as pastor at Waldersbach 
 in the Steinthal, did so much to improve the spiritual 
 and material conditions of his people. Oberlin was not 
 only the first to start Infant Schools, etc., but he made 
 a desolate district fruitful by improving agriculture, con- 
 structing roads and bridges, etc. See the Encyol. Brit., 
 s.v. " Oberlin " ; Brockhaus. 
 
 OBI. Obi was a name by which medicine-men or 
 magicians were known in the West Indies. Longfellow 
 uses the term in one of his dramas (Giles Corey of the 
 Salem Farms) : " He was an Obi man, and taught me 
 magic: taught me the use of herbs and images." He 
 Quincey has suggested a connection with the Hebrew 
 term Obh. The Septuagint usually translates the Hebrew- 
 word by a Greek term meaning " ventriloquists." In 
 Isaiah xxix. 4 it is said : " and thy voice shall be as 
 an ob/t out of the ground, and thy words (speech) shall 
 chirp out of the du.st." In I. Samuel xxviii. 7 the witch 
 of Bndor is said to be the "possessor" of an obh. 
 Leviticus xx. 27 is translated by Driver (Deuteronomy) : 
 " a man or a woman when there is in them an 66 or a 
 yidde'oni." But " in them " might be translated " with 
 them " or " among them." Kennedy thinks that the 
 necromancer is " supposed to have a daimon or spirit in 
 attendance upon him or even residing within him " 
 (Leviticus in the " Century Bible "). See B. Edwards, 
 West Indies, 1819: De Quincey, Collected Works (A. and 
 C. Black), vol. viii., pp. 287 f., 412. 
 
 OBO. It is noted by Burton (Al Medinah and 
 Mcccah, new edition of Bohn, i., p. 155. N. 1) that " in 
 Hue's travels we are told that the Tartars worship 
 mountain spirits by raising an ' Obo ' — dry branches hung 
 with bones and strips of cloth, and planted in enormous 
 heaps of stones." 
 
 OBJECTIVE MIND, THE. The study of psychic 
 phenomena is suppose<l to have demonstrated that there 
 exists in man a duality of mind. One of these minds 
 is t!he ordinary mind which is active in the daytime. 
 This is called the Ob.lective Mind. The other mind, to 
 which the name Subjective Mind has been given, as a 
 rule is active only during sleep. This is what F. W. H. 
 Myers (1S4.'5-1901) called the Subliminal Self (g.v.). See 
 DUALITY OF MIND. 
 
 OBSCHIE, THE. The Obschie or " Communists " are 
 a branch of tie Russian Molokaneh (q.v.), who again are 
 a sub-sect, of the Russian dissenters known as Bezpo- 
 povtzi. They hold their property in common. 
 
 OBSERVANTINES. The Franciscans (q.v.), in course 
 of time, became divided into two great branches, the Con- 
 ventuals and the Observantines. The Conventuals have 
 remained seijarate, but the Obsen-antines in 1897 were 
 reunited to tie general body. 
 
 OCCASIONALISM. A system of philosophy founded 
 by Arnold Geulinx (1025-l(;fi9), professor of philosophy 
 at. Leiden. Geulinx points out that there are many 
 thoughts or modes of thinking in us which do not arise 
 from ourselves. They come without our willing them, 
 and they must be due to some other conscious power. 
 Since these ideas are manifold, and are excited by means 
 of the Ixtdy, " they arise not from the body as at rest and 
 continuing always the same, but from its movements. 
 The body, however, and its movements are entirely with- 
 out the capacity to excite thoughts, and hence the body 
 is neither the efficient nor the occasioning, but merely 
 tie occasioiml cause of our thoughts. The body, on 
 whose occasion, " occasione ciijiis,' those ideas that are 
 independent of me arise in me, is my body. My union 
 with this body is not my work ; for birti and death take 
 place without my knowing and willing. It is the work 
 of One who works by means of the body and its motion 
 uix)n me; and on the occasion of my willing, works in like 
 manner uix)n Ixxly " (Puenjer). Further, God must be 
 a Mind, and He is the only true Mind. Other minds 
 are particular and limited. Geulinx declared that 
 " ideas and eternal truths, such as that two and three 
 are five, are in the divine mind, and in ours only when 
 we see them in God. and consequently contemplate God 
 Himself." See B. Puenjer; C. J. Deter; Max B. Wein- 
 stein. Welt- und Lehen-Anschauungen, 1910. 
 
 OCTAPLA, THE. A name sometimes given in early 
 times to Origen's Hexapla. See HEXAPLA. 
 
 OCTATEUCH. A word of Greek derivation which 
 has .sometimes been used as a collective title for the first 
 eight (Greek octo) books of the Old Testament. The 
 books are : Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, 
 Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth. 
 
 OCTLI. A Mexican term denoting an intoxicating 
 drink made from the maguey or American aloe. There 
 were a number of gods of fertility who presided over 
 octli. Among these were Tezeatzoncatl, Tei)oztecatl, 
 Izquitecatl, and Patecatl. 
 
 OCTOPUS, THE. It has been pointed out by Professor 
 G. Elliot Smith that the goddess Aphrodite seems to have 
 been associated not only with the cowry, the pearl, and 
 the mandrake, but also with the octopus. This con- 
 nection with the octopus and its kindred " played a very 
 obtrusive part in Minoan and Mycentean art; and its 
 Influence was spread abroad as far as Western Euroi)e 
 and towards the East as far as America. In many ways 
 it was a factor in the development of such artistic designs 
 as the spiral and the volute, and not improbably also of 
 the swastika " (Dr.). In a sculptured representation of 
 the Great Mother on a number of stone slabs from 
 Manabi in Central America, the head of the goddess is a 
 conventionalized octopus. This seems to demonstjate 
 that the American Aphrodite was identified with the 
 octopus. Again, wherever the swastika is found, it is 
 supposed to be an amulet which has power to confer good 
 luck and long life. " Both this reputation and the 
 association with the female organs of reproduction link 
 up the symbol with the cowry, the Ptcrocera. and the 
 octopus. It is clear then that the swastika has the same 
 reputation for magic and the same attributes and associa- 
 tions as the octopus: and it may be a conventionalized 
 representation of it, as Houssav has suggested." 
 
 ODES OF SOLOMON. In 1909 Dr. J. Rendel Harris 
 published under the title Odes and Psalms of Solomon 
 a large Syriac manuscript of 04 leaves which he had dis-
 
 Odtiin 
 
 269 
 
 Old Catholics 
 
 covered or recovered. In 1911 Professor F. C. Burkitt 
 found another manuscript of the tenth century in the 
 British Museum which also contains a large part of the 
 Odes. The Psalms wore known already. They were 
 composed by various authors, and were collected by the 
 Pharisees about half a century before Christ. The Odes, 
 which are a distinct collection, are a new discovery. 
 According to Harnack, we have here a Psalm-book of the 
 time of Jesus, which was edited by tie Christian com- 
 munity in Palestine about the year A.D. 100. It con- 
 tains •• all-important pieces of the Johannine theology 
 together with their religious tone colour," which are 
 epoch-making for the higher critic of John's gospel. 
 " Dr. Harris and many other specialists regard the 
 ' Odes ' as the work of a Jewish Christian of the tirst 
 century, though some think them to be wholly Jewish, 
 adopted with certain Christian interpolations to form 
 the earliest Christian hymnal " (Cobern). 
 
 ODHIN. Another form of Wodan (q.v.), one of the 
 chief deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 
 ODHR. Odhr is one of the deities referred to in 
 Ancient Teutonic mythology. One legend relates that the 
 goddess Freyja was the wife of Odhr. When Odhr went 
 to distant lands, Freyja roamed about in search of him. 
 She had already shed tears of gold. Probably, however, 
 Odhr is identical with Odhin (see WODAN). See P. D. 
 Chantepie de la Saussa.ve, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 ODHRERIR. The name in Norse mythology of the 
 cauldron containing the magic mead made of honey mixed 
 with the blood of Kvasir, the wisest of men. The potion 
 was supposed to have power to confer wisdom and poetic 
 inspiration. Odhin, for instance, received from the 
 giant Mimir, the keeper of the cauldron, a draught which 
 increased his wisdom. 
 
 OENOMANCY. A species of divination. Oenomancy 
 (Greek oinos, wine) was practised by the ancients with 
 wine. They found omens in " the colour, motion, and 
 other circumstances connected with the wine used in 
 libations to the gods " (James Gardner). 
 
 OGMIOS. The name Ogmios, though not found on 
 inscriptions, is mentioned by Lucian (c. A.D. 170) as that 
 of a go<l worshipped by the ancient Celts and aur- 
 responding to Heracles (q.v.). He is depicted as a white- 
 haired old man who carries a lion-.skin, a club, and a 
 bow. Reinach thinks Ogmios was a culture-hero. The 
 name resembles the Gaelic Ogma which was the name of 
 the god of literature and writing, who is supposed to have 
 invented the ogam alphabet. See Anwyl, Celtic Religion, 
 190t>; Squire, Myth.; Reinadi, O. 
 
 OGUN. A deity worshipped by the Toruha tribes of 
 the Slave Coast of Africa. In some parts of Yonibaland 
 he seems to have taken the place of the deity Odudua. 
 
 OHaLOTH. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D., 
 and are incorporated in the Mishnah (7. v.), a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Ohaloth is the second tractate of the sixth 
 group, which is called Tohornth (" Purifications"'). 
 
 O'HARAI. A ceremony of general purification in 
 Shintoism, held twice a year. Expiatory offerings were 
 brought by the people, and they were given ab.solution 
 either by the emperor or by his representative. 
 
 OHONAMOCHI. A deity in the mythology of the 
 Japanese, the earth god. His great shrine at Kitzuki, 
 in Idzumo, is resorted to yearly by thousands of pilgrims. 
 In Tokyo aliw) a great festival is held in his honour. 
 
 OJHAS. A community in India the members of which 
 were originally the soothsayers and minstrels of the 
 
 Gonds. The name is derived from the word ojh meaning 
 '• entrail." According to R. V. Russell and R. B. Hira 
 Lai, the name is Sanskrit and not Gond, and " is applied 
 by the Hindus to the seers or magicians of .several of the 
 primitive tribes, while there is also a class of Ojha 
 Brahmans who practise magic and divination." 
 
 OKI. A term used among the Iroquois of N. America 
 to denote a mystic ix>tentiality ascribed to beings whether 
 human or non-human, living or not living. Olci seems 
 to be a force, and not a personal being, and corresponds 
 to the Melanesian mana. 
 
 OLD CATHOLICS. The body known as the Old 
 Catholics (Alt-Katholiken) arose in Germany in protest 
 against the definition of Papal infallibility made by the 
 Vatican Council in 1870. The Council was held under 
 the presidency of Pope Pius IX. The proclamation was 
 as follows : " If, therefore, anyone says that the Roman 
 Pontiff possesses only the office of Inspection or Direction, 
 but not the full and highest power of Jurisdiction over 
 the Universal Church, not only in things pertaining to 
 faith and morals, but also in those pertaining to the 
 discipline and government of the Church spread over the 
 whole world: or that he has only the more important 
 share, but not the fulness of this highest power; or that 
 such his power is not an ordinary and immediate one, 
 as well over all and .several Churches as over all and 
 several pastors and faithful, let him be anathema." It 
 was further taught and defined as a dogma divinely 
 revealed that •' when the Roman Pontiff sjwaks ex 
 cathedra, i.e., when in the exercise of his office as the 
 Pastor and Doctor of all Christians, through his supreme 
 apostolic authority, he defines the teaching which is to be 
 received by the Universal Church regarding faith or 
 morals, then, by virtue of the Divine assistance promised 
 to him in St. Peter, he is invested with the infallibility 
 with which it was the will of the Divine Redeemer that 
 His Church should be endowed, in the definition of 
 doctrine touching faith and morals; and that therefore 
 such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are unalterable in 
 themselves, and not by consent of the Church." This 
 new doctrine met at once with coni?iderable opposition, 
 and was repudiated in particular by forty-two Professors 
 of the University of Munich, the chJef of whom was 
 Dollinger (1799-1890). In 1870 an assembly was held at 
 Nuremberg at which the Vatican declaration was rejected 
 publicly by a still larger number of professors. Early 
 in the next .vear Dollinger made his famous declaration 
 in which he explained that " as a Christian, as a 
 theologian, as an historian, as a citizen," he could not 
 accept the new Vatican doctrine. This declaration came 
 to be regarded in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and 
 France as the authoritative reply of the Old Catholics 
 to the Vatican claim. On the 18th of April in the same 
 year Dollinger was excommunicated by the Archbishop 
 of Municli. This of course widejied the breach. In 
 September 1871 a conference of Old Catholics was held 
 in Munich, and was attended by eight hundred delegates. 
 The programme adopted was as follows : " The reten- 
 tion of the old Catholic faith; as.sertion of rights as 
 Catholics: rejection of the new dogmas; retention of the 
 constitution of the ancient Church, with omission of such 
 declarations of the faith as were not in harmony with 
 the actual belief of the Church: reform of the Church, 
 with such co-operation of the laity as was consistent 
 with its comstitution; efforts towards the reunion of 
 Christian confessions; reform of the training and posi- 
 tion of the clergy; allegiance to the State, in opposition 
 to the attacks of Ultramontani.sm ; rejection of the 
 Jesuits; solemn protest in favour of claims as Catholics 
 upon the endowments of the Church." It was decided 
 also to form Unions and Congregations. When this had
 
 Old Independents 
 
 270 
 
 Ophites 
 
 been done, it Ijecame necessary to elect a bishop. The 
 choice fell upon Joseph Hubert Reinkens (1821-1896), Pro- 
 fessor of Theology at Breslau. He was consecrated at 
 Rotterdam by the Jansenist Bishop of Deventer according 
 to the Roman rite. The Old-Roman or Jansenist Church 
 of Holland had been for nearly two hundred years a 
 Catholic Church independent of Rome, but it had pre- 
 served the apostolic succession. Addis and Arnold state 
 that the Dutch Jansenists (see JANSENISTS), unlike 
 mo.st other .sects, remain just where they were on their 
 separation from Rome. " They have retained valid 
 orders, the celibacy of the clergy, the Mass and other 
 services in Latin." The Old Catholics allow the laity 
 to communicate in both kinds. They have abolished com- 
 pulsory celibacy of the clergy, indulgences, the worship 
 of the Blessed Virgin Mary, etc. They have made private 
 confession voluntary. In 1876 the Old Catholics in 
 Switzerland felt the need of a bishop. They elected 
 Professor Eduard Herzog (b. 1841), and he was con- 
 secrated at Rheinfelden by Bishop Reinkens. R. S. 
 Oldham points out that there has been an active sympathy 
 between the Old Catholic Churches and the Churches of 
 the Anglican Communion, and that Bishop Reinkens and 
 Bishop Herzog have been welcomed as equals by English 
 prelates at Lambeth, Farnham, and Cambridge. Accord- 
 ing to the same writer, the Old Catholics in 1889 num- 
 bered about 120,000 or 130.000. See J. H. Blunt; Prot. 
 Diet.; Oath. Diet., 1905: R. S. Oldham, " Old Catholi- 
 cism," in R.S.W. 
 
 OLD INDEPENDENTS. A name assumed by David 
 Dale and his followers. See DALEITES. 
 
 OLD TESTAMENT. The expression Old Testament 
 is a Christian (cp. II. Corinthians iii. 14), not a Jewish, 
 designation of the Hebrew canonical writings. It is 
 Paul who speaks of the Jewish writing as ^ jraAota 
 SioS^Kr;, and this the Authorised Version wrongly trans- 
 lates " Old Testament." The correct meaning of the 
 Greek expression is the " Old Covenant." The canonical 
 writings of the Jews were so named by the Christians 
 because they describe the making of a covenant between 
 Yahweh (Jehovah) and his people. Similarly the " New 
 Covenant " (commonly called " New Testament " [(j.v.'\) 
 was so called because this collection of writings describes 
 the making of a new covenant, which was intended to 
 take the place of the old one. It is convenient to retain 
 the familiar expressions " Old Testament " and " New 
 Testament." The Old Testament is a collection of books 
 of different dates and of varied character. It includes 
 Historical Books such as the Pentateuch and Joshua, 
 Judges, I. and II. Samuel, I. and II. Kings, I. and II. 
 Chronicles, etc. ; Prophetical Books, such as Isaiah, Jere- 
 miah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets; Poetical Books, 
 such ais Psalms, Ijamentations, Canticles; Wisdom 
 Literature, such as Proverbs, Ecclesiastes ; and Apoca- 
 lyptic Literature, such as the Book of Daniel. Cp. 
 CANON OP THE OLD TESTAMENT, and see the articles 
 on the separate books 
 
 OMECIHTTATL. The name given to the moon by the 
 Aztecs of Mexico. They called the sun Ometicutli 
 (g.v.). 
 
 OMBTECDTLI. Ometecutli, " twice Lord," was the 
 name given to the sun by the Aztecs of Mexico. Lewis 
 Spence thinks that when the Aztecs emerged from 
 totemism the sun and the moon were probably the first 
 deities worshipped by them. They called the moon 
 Omecihuatl, " twice lady." See Lewis Spence, Myth. 
 
 ON. One of the gods of the Todas, the son of Pithi. 
 He was the creator of buffaloes and of the Toda. The 
 first Toda woman he created from a rib which he took 
 from the right side of the first man. Eventually he 
 departed to the world of the dead, and became ruler there. 
 
 ONKELOS, TARGUM OF. The Aramaic translation 
 of the Pentateuch. The name Onkelos is the same as 
 Aquila. The Targum on the Pentateuch is more literal 
 than the Targum (of Jonathan) on the Prophets. See 
 TARGUM. 
 
 ONNIONT. A figure in the mythology of the Huron 
 Indians, a gigantic serj^ent with a great horn which it 
 used for piercing mountains and rocks. A beverage 
 made by the medicine-men, as they claimed, from pounded 
 pieces of its horn was supposed to impart vigour to 
 warriors. 
 
 ONTOLOGISM The philosophy known as Ontologism 
 had its roots in the teaching of the Platonist Marsilius 
 Fieinus (143.3-1499), the author of a work called " Pla- 
 tonica Theologia " (1482). But the principles of Fieinus 
 were developed first by Nicole Malebranche (163S-1715), 
 and then by Vincenzo Gioberti (1801-1852). Ontologism 
 means the "doctrine of Being." Malebranche taught 
 that knowledge is not in ourselves; it is possible only in 
 God. " There is in fact only One Reason; as only an 
 infinite reason can grasp the idea of the infinite, and as 
 it is only under this supposition that universal validity 
 can belong to the cognitions of the innumerable individual 
 men. The Universal Reason and the Intelligible Extens- 
 ion correspond to each other. God is the Universal 
 Reason, and along with it He is the Intelligible Extens- 
 ion ; and therefore He is the ground of all individual 
 things. Our clear and distinct knowledge, in contrast 
 to the unclear and indistinct knowledge of sense, is the 
 knowledge which arises from universally valid thinking 
 of reason or from ideas. These ideas are in (Sod. and 
 therefore we are also in God, in so far as we have ideas, 
 and know by them ; or conversely, we can know things 
 Teally only in God " (Puenjer). The teaching of Gioberti 
 are summarized in the seven propositions which were 
 censured by the Roman Catholic authorities in a decree 
 of the Inquisition, dated September 18, 1861. (1) An 
 immediate cognition of God, at least habitual, is essential 
 to the human intellect, so that without this it can have 
 cognition of nothing, inasmuch as it is the intellectual 
 light itself. (2) The being which we i)erceive by the 
 intellect in all things, and without which we intellectually 
 perceive nothing, is the divine being. (3) Universals, 
 considered a parte rei, are not really distinguished from 
 God. (4) The congenital knowledge of God as being 
 in the simple sense of the term, involves in an eminent 
 mode every other cognition, .so that by it we possess an 
 implicit cognition of every being under every respect in 
 which it is cognoscible. (5) AH other ideas are nothing 
 but modifications of the idea in which God is intellectually 
 perceived as being, in the simple sense of the term. (6) 
 Created things are in God as a part is in a whole, not 
 indeed in a formal vi^ole, but in one which is inlinite 
 and most simple, which places its qua.H parts outside of 
 itself, without any division or diminution of itself. (7) 
 Creation can be thus explained : God, in the special act 
 in which He intellectually cognises and wills Himself 
 as distinct from any determinate creature — e.g., man — 
 produces that creature. See B. Puenjer; J. E. Erd- 
 mann, vol. ii., 1890; Oath. Diet. 
 
 OONAWLBH UNGGI. A deity, '• The Oldest Wind," 
 in the mythology of the Cherokee Indians, a wind-god. 
 
 ONYCHOMANCY. A species of divination. Ony- 
 chomancy was practised by examining the nails of a boy. 
 " For this purpose they were covered with oil and soot, 
 and turned to the sun. The images represented by the 
 reflection of the light upon the nails gave the answer 
 required " (James Gardner, Faiths of the World). 
 
 OPHIOLATRY. The worship of snakes. See ANIMAL 
 WORSHIP. 
 
 OPHITES. A name (from Gk. ophis, " serpent ")
 
 Opochtli 
 
 271 
 
 given to a number of sects of a Gnostic character, because 
 the serpent played a r31e in their symbolism. Thev were 
 (1) Cainites, (2) Perates, (3) Sethians, (4) ' Gnostics ' of 
 Irenaeus, (5) Naassenes, (6) Barbelo-Gnostics, (7) 
 Severians, (8) Nicolaitans, (9) Archontics, (10) Justinians. 
 The serpent appears for the most part as the enlighteuer, 
 and the benefactor of men. The original sect .seems to 
 have been the Ophianoi referred to by Origen. The 
 members made the serpent an object of reverence. They 
 made use of a seal, bearing the formula, " ' I have been 
 anointed with white ointment from the tree of life,' and 
 mystical observances of various kinds played a great part 
 in their worship " (Hastings' Encycl.). Irena-us con- 
 nects all such sects with Simon Magus. E. P. Scott 
 thinks that Ophitism represents in the main a primitive 
 phase of the Gnostic movement. *' It had its true ante- 
 cedent.*; in tho.se theosophical sects which had grown up 
 in Egypt and the East during the age of syncreti.'im, and 
 it marks the beginning of the alliance of those alien sects 
 with Christianity. In this consists the historical 
 importance of Ophitism. It reflects the Gnostic move- 
 ment in its earlier stages, and helps us to determine the 
 sources and intrinsic character of its beliefs" (op. cit.). 
 
 OPOCHTLI. A Mexican deity, a god of fishing and 
 hunting. He was one of the Tlaloque, subsidiary deities 
 associated with TIaloc. To him was ascribed the inven- 
 tion of the ashing-rod and the harpoon. At the fea-st 
 held in his honour the beverage called octli wais imbibed; 
 and the offerings made to him included maize, flowers, 
 and tobacco. 
 
 OPUS OPERATUM. An expression which means 
 literally " the work wrought." It was used by mediaeval 
 theologians to denote the effect of the sacramental rites. 
 Bellarmine ('• De Sacramentis." ii. 1) explains that 
 "that which actively, proximately, and in.strumenta]ly 
 effects the grace of justification, is onlv that external 
 act, called sacrament, and thiK is the sen.-se of ' Opus 
 Operatum,' the word o/ieratum being taken passively, so 
 that when we say the sacrament confers grace ex ope re 
 operato, our meaning is that grace is conferred bv virtue 
 of tie sacramental act itself instituted by God for this 
 end, not by the merit of the minister or "the recipient " 
 (quoted by Addis and Arnold). See f'ath Diet 
 
 r^S^^"^^^^^^- ^^ ORATORY, THE FRENCH, and 
 ORATORY OF ST. PHILIP NERI. 
 
 ORATORY, THE. A Church and Service carried on 
 by .lohji Henley (ir,92-175fi). Henley began to deliver 
 
 orations " at an Oratory in Newriort Market. In 1726 
 we find him established at an Oratory in Clare Market, 
 London. In the same year The Oratory was planned' 
 and on Sunday, July the 3rd, 1726, it was opened. The 
 Oratory, he claimed, was an Ecclesiastical Institution 
 It was a Church. But it was more than this, for it was 
 an Academy of the Sciences and languages as well As 
 a Church, we are told, its principles are three. 1 In 
 belief, a liberty of conscience from all secular restraints 
 2. In morality, the religion of nature, of which revela- 
 tion, an this respect, is only declarative. 3. In historical 
 or revealed religion, that of the primitive Church, in the 
 first ages. Its view is impartially to examine the pleas 
 of all religions, proposing that as the truest standard 
 and centre of union. The Service of the Oratory is (1) 
 in the model, primitive, (2) in the language, entirely 
 scriptural. But sometimes the Primitive Liturgies shall 
 be performed. Persons who have been eminent in or 
 great patrons of. arts and literature, if they have been 
 virtuous, or penitents, shall be commemorated. As to 
 the religious im-jtruetion. a) In the .<?ermons, it shall 
 be performed with the most exact composition, speaking 
 and action, (2) Both in the sermons and lectures, it shall 
 take in the whole circle of divinity, regularly faith- 
 
 Oratory, The French 
 
 fully, clearly, and elegantly represented. In the morning, 
 a sermon will be delivere<l : in the evening, a lecture will 
 be read • the former on some part of practical theology; 
 the latter, on the critical, historical, speculative or 
 hterary parts of It. A special " Primitive Liturgy " was 
 prepared for the use of the Oratory. It had eighteen 
 Rubrics. 1. I^t the Reading of the Liturgy be always 
 performed according to the laws of speaking and action 
 established m the Oratory, foundetl on a just impression 
 in the mind and heart of the Reader, and a ready com- 
 mand and memory of the whole Service; the voice and 
 gesture varying, as the thing requires. 2. Let all the 
 Sermons and Orations be delivered according to the same 
 niles of sjieaking and acUon. 3. Ixt the Lectures and 
 Readings be read with distinctness and propriety in the 
 speaking and address. 4. Let the Prayer before Sermon 
 be (very short, and) entirely left to the discretion of 
 the Preacher. 5. Let the Members of the Oratory form 
 an Amicable Society, for mutual defenc-e and convenience 
 (). Let the Rules of the Primitive Church be observed in 
 all things, as far as the prejudices of the world and the 
 circumstances of things will allow. 7. Let nothing con- 
 trary to the Laws of the Realm be said or done in the 
 Oratory. S. Let the Sermons and Ivcctiires be a com- 
 plete and regular course of Practical and Primitive 
 Theology, in all its branches. 9. Ou the Lord's-day 
 between Easter and Pentecost, let all pray standing: 
 let all stand, when any part of the Gospel is read 10 
 Feasts are aU Lord's-days, all Sabbath-days or Satur- 
 days; Easter-day, its Octave; the fifty days' from Easter 
 to Pentecost; Ascension, and Penteco.s't ; besides the 
 Feast of the NaUvity, and Days of the Apostles, etc., of 
 later institution. 11. The Men and Women are to sit 
 .separate in the Public Assemblies. 12. The Fasts are 
 Passion-Week, especially Friday and Saturday, till day- 
 break; all Wednesdays and Fridays (except between 
 Easter and Pentecost) and the five middle Days before 
 Passion-Week, till the ninth hour, or till evening. 
 Alms, Devotion, Abstinence from Flesh and Wine etc 
 are essential to Fasting. 13. The Litany should be said 
 at noon, on Wednesdays and Fridays. 14. Let the 
 P.salmody be before Prayers, and before and after 
 Sermon, and before the Third Service at the Altar ; one, 
 two, three, or four ver.ses, or more, as the Institutor 
 directs. Let the Psalmodist say. To the Praise of God 
 let us sing a part of the — Psalm, verse the — . etc. 15. 
 Let any eminent Preacher, properly recommended, be 
 admitted to preach in the Oratory, and to use his own 
 method of Prayer before Sermon, the Common Prayers 
 not being always in themselves essential. l(i. I.«t'the 
 Ostiaries [door-keepers] perform their duty; taking care 
 that the avenue to the seat-door be properly guarded, 
 and no disturbance ari.se in the time of Service. 17. Ivet 
 all things be done decently, and in order : and the Laws 
 of the Land, which favour Religious Assemblies publicly 
 authorized, be strictly put in execution. IS. Let Primi- 
 tive Antiquity be the constant search of the Oratory: 
 and its prevailing maxims be gradually opened, settled, 
 and put in practice. See Peter Hall: and the D.N.B. 
 
 ORATORY, THE FRENCH. The French Oratory 
 was founded at Paris in 1611 by Cardinal de B^rulle (d. 
 1629), and was declare<l a ro.val foundation in 1612. A 
 .society of priest.s, it was approved by Paul V. in 1614, 
 and received the title " Congregation of the Oratory of 
 our Lord Jesus Christ in France." In 1616 it was estab- 
 lished in tie Rue St. Honors. " To deepen devotion, 
 promote professional studies, and .spread an ecclesiastical 
 spirit among the secular clergy, that through them the 
 whole population might be reached and influenced, were 
 the principal objects of tie institute" (Cath. Diet.) 
 Cardinal de B6rulle instituted a number of seminaries
 
 Oratory of St. Philip Neri 
 
 272 
 
 Orpheus 
 
 and colleges. At the time of tbe Revolution the French 
 Oratorians resisted the Civil C-onstitution of the Clergy. 
 In 1792 the Congregation of the Oratory was dissolved. 
 In 1852, however, it was succeeded by " The Oratory of 
 the Immaculate Conception," which adopted the same 
 rule See Cath. Diet.; Brockhaus' Konversationslexikon. 
 
 ORATORY OF ST. PHILIP NERI. The " Oratorj' '" 
 was the name given to a chapel which Philip Neri 
 obtained i)errQission to build over one of the aisles of 
 the Church of St. Jerome in Rome (1558). It had long 
 been a practice of Ills to gather round him a uumlaer of 
 men and to instruct them in spiritual things. He began 
 this practice as a layman, and continued it after his 
 ordination (1551). At first he used a room of his own, 
 then a larger room, and finally an oratory. These 
 gatherings developed into evening services with hymns, 
 popular devotions, and sermons. In 1.5H4 a number of 
 Philip's followers were ordained. In 1575 they obtained 
 possession of the old church of the Vallicella. On its 
 site Philip built the " Cshiesa Nuova " (completed 1577). 
 The Congregation was approved and confirmed by Gre- 
 gory XIII. in 1575: its constitutions were approved by 
 Paul V. in 1012. The members consist of simple priests 
 who agree to a rule of life, but take no vows. Each 
 house is indei^endent. In 1847 the Congregation was 
 introduced into England. In 1849 a house was opened 
 in Birmingham, and soon after another in the Strand, 
 I/ondon. The London house was eventually transferred 
 to Brompton, and is now the Brompton Oratory. See 
 Vath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 ORDE.'VLS. Among the Pardhia, a low caste of 
 wandering fowlers and hunters in India, the primitive 
 method of trial by ordeal is still practised. " If a woman 
 is suspected of misconduct she is made to pick a pice 
 coin out of laoiling oil; or a pipal leaf is placed on her 
 hand and a red-hot axe laid over it, and if her hand is 
 burnt or she refuses to stand the test she is pronounced 
 guilty. Or, in the case of a man, the accused is made 
 to dive into water: and as he dives an arrow is shot 
 from a bow. A swift runner fetches and brings back 
 the arrow, and if the diver can remain under water until 
 the runner has returned, he is held to be innocent " (R. 
 V. Russell). 
 
 ORENDA. A term used among the Iroquoian tribes 
 of N. America to denote the ix)tejitiality that belongs to 
 beings whether human or non-human, living or not-living. 
 A hunter, a prophet, a bird, and even a storm possess 
 orenda. Where this is superior in quality, it enables 
 the possessor to overcome every kind of antagoni.stic 
 orenda. Hewitt (as quoted by Emile Durkheim, p. 193) 
 says : " The savage man conceived the diverse bodies col- 
 lectively constituting his environment to possess in- 
 herently my.stic potence . . . (whether they be) the 
 rocks, the waters, the tides, the plants and the trees, 
 the animals and man, the wind and the storms, the clouds 
 and the thunders and the lightnings." 
 
 ORIEL SCHOOL. A party or school of theologians 
 who were members of Oriel College, Oxford. The leader 
 was Richard Whately (17R7-1S63), afterwards Archbishop 
 of Dublin, who was fellow of Oriel College from 1811 to 
 1S22. Other members of the partv were .John Davison 
 (1777-1834), who become a Fellow in 1800: Edward Cople- 
 ston (1770-1849), afterwards Bishop of Llaiidaff, who was 
 Fellow of Oriel from 1795 to 1814 and Provost from 1814 
 to 1828; Thomas Arnold (1795-3842), afterwards Head- 
 ma.ster of Rugby, who became Fellow in 1815: and R. 
 D. Hampden (1793-1808), afterwards Bishop of Hereford, 
 who became Fellow in 1814. They were Broad Church- 
 men (see BROAD CHURCH), and were opposed by the 
 Tractarians (q.v.). 
 
 'ORLa. The title of one of the Jewisih treatises or 
 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D. and are 
 incorpoi-ated in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). 'Orlfi is the tenth tractate of the first group, 
 which is called Zera'im (''Seeds"). 
 
 ORMUZD. The personification of Good In the 
 dualistic religion of Zarathustra, Zoroastrianism {q.v.). 
 
 ORNITHOMANCY. A species of divination. Ornitho- 
 mancy was practised by the ancient Greeks by means of 
 birds. 
 
 OROTAL. A deity worshipped by the ancient Arabs 
 of Egypt. In his honour worshipi>ers shaved the fore 
 part of their heads. Robertson Smith thinks tliat this 
 was done as a formal initiation into the worship of the 
 god. See W. Robert.son Smith, 7?.iS. 
 
 ORPHANS. A division or sub-division of the Hussites 
 {q.v.). When Jolin Ziska (1300-1424), the leader of the 
 Taborites (q.v.) died, he was succeeded by the brothers 
 Proeopius. Some of the Taborites, however, contended 
 that no one could properly succeed Ziska. They there- 
 fore formed a new division and called themselves 
 Orphans. 
 
 ORPHEUS. The Greek hero Orpheus was revered by 
 the Greeks as an earlier poet than Homer. They ascribed 
 to him a wonderful power of song by which he was able 
 to charm the wildest beasts and to move even trees and 
 stones. When his beloved wife Eurydice died he 
 descended to the underworld and by his power of song 
 persuaded Persephone to allow him to carry back the 
 beloved one to the upper world. Consent was given on 
 condition of his not looking round, a condition which 
 was not kept, with the result that Eurydice had to return. 
 According to legend he met his end by being torn in 
 pieces by the Thraeian Monads (women in a state of 
 Bacchic ecstasy). He came to be regarded by tie Greeks 
 as a hero of civilisation wlio taught the Thracians the 
 useful arts and induced them to give up cannibalism, 
 besides being a wonderful poet and the founder of a 
 religion. According to Reinach, " he was in reality an 
 old totemic god of Northern Greece, whose violent death 
 and resurrection were the articles of faith of a mystic 
 form of worship." In consequence of his reputation as 
 a poet, a number of jwems were attributed to him (Orphic 
 Poems). Some of these are hymns to gods and demons. 
 " 0)neeming the dates and the manner of growth of 
 tiese poems volumes of erudition have been compiled. 
 As Homer is silent about Orpheus (in spite of the posi- 
 tion which the Mythical Thraeian bard acquired as the 
 inventor of letters and magic and the father of the 
 mysteries), it has been usual to regard the Orjihic ideas 
 as of late introduction. We may agree with Grote and 
 Lobeck that these ideas and the ascetic ' Orphic mode of 
 life ' first acquired importance in Greece about the time 
 of Bpimenides, or, roughly speaking, between 020 and 
 500 B.C. That age certainly witnessed a curious growth 
 of superstitious fears and of mystic ceremonies intended 
 to mitigate spiritual terrors . . . We may suppo.se that 
 the Orphic poems were collected, edited and probably 
 interpolated, in this dark hour of Greece. 'To me,' 
 says Lobeck, ' it appears that the verses may be referred 
 to the age of Onomacritus, an age curious in the writings 
 of ancient ixiets. and attracted by the allurements of 
 mystic religions.' The style of the surviving fragments 
 is sufficiently pure and epic: the .st.range unheard of myths 
 are unlike those which the Alexandrian poets drew from 
 fountains long lost. But how much in the Orphic myths 
 is imported from Asia or Egypt, how much is the in- 
 vent ion of literary forgers like Onomacritus, how much
 
 Orphic Poems 
 
 273 
 
 Osiris 
 
 should be regarded as the first guesses of the physical 
 poet-pliilosophers. and how much is truly ancient popular 
 legend recast in literary form, it is impossible with 
 certainty to determine " (Andrew Lang). Cp. ORPHICS. 
 See Andrew Lang, ilt/th. Ritual and Religion, 1S99; O. 
 Seyffert, Diet.; Reinach, O. 
 
 ORPHIC POEMS. See ORPHEUS. 
 
 ORPHICS. The founder of the OnJhJe Mysteriei; and 
 of the sect known as the Orphics is supposed to have been 
 Orpheus (^.i-.) The Orphics believed in re-incarnation, 
 but they believed also that souls could escape the " cycle 
 of reincarnation. " by initiation into the mysterious 
 Orphic mysteries. " To avoid new birth, certain magic 
 formulae were learnt by heart: the dead man was allowed 
 to drink the water of a living spring, whereupon he cast 
 off his carnal nature in which sin inhered, and thus 
 purified • reigned among the heroes ' " (Reinach). They 
 believed also in original sin. " The soul was enclosed 
 in the body as in a tomb or prison, to punish a very 
 early crime committed by the Titans, the ancestors of 
 man, who had treacherously slain the young god 
 Zagreus."' It needed to be purified by religious conse- 
 cration and by the mean« of expiation taught by Orpheus. 
 The cosmogony of the Orphics, as found in the poems 
 attributed to Orpheus, is curious and interesting. At 
 the beginning was Time (Chronos). "Time was when 
 as yet this world was not." Time, personified, pro- 
 duced (gave birth to) Chaos, " the monstrous gulph," 
 and .i;ther. In course of time Chaos produced a silver- 
 white and shining egg. '• We have now three primitive 
 generations, time, chaos, the egg, and in the fourth 
 generation the egg gave birth to Phanes. the great hero 
 of the Orphic cosmogony " (Lang). J. M. Robertson 
 finds here tie origin of the Easter Egg ; the Gnostics took 
 it from the lore of the Orphics. Phanes, who is both 
 male and female, has in him " the seed of all the gods." 
 He is represented as being, in the form Phanes- 
 Ericapaeus- Metis, a kind of trinity. Phanes produces, as 
 the last of a series of gods, Zeus, who swallows the rest, 
 including Phanes, and then produces the real world. 
 Orphism had great success, and spread throughout the 
 Greek world and into Southern Italv. See Andrew 
 Lang, M.R.R.; O. Se.vffert, Diet.: Reinach, 0.: Max P.. 
 Weinstein, Welt- und Leben-ansehauungen . 1910. 
 
 ORTHIA. The name (recorded in the seventh century 
 B.C.) of a goddess who.se temple at Sparta has been exca- 
 vated in recent years. Many archaeologists are inclined 
 to identify her with the great Nature-goddess mostly 
 called Artemis. Prof. R. S. Conway suggests that she is 
 equivalent to a goddess worshipped by the people known 
 to the Romans as Teneti, the goddess Rehtia {q.v.). 
 
 ORTLIBERIANS. The Ortliberians (also Ortli- 
 benses) are said to have been organised as a sect in the 
 thirteenth century by one Ortlieb of Strassburg. In 
 any ease, they had much in common with the Amalricians 
 (q.v.). •' They held that the external orders of tie 
 Church are of no value, and that the rejection of them 
 when conjoined with rigid asceticism leads to the highest 
 perfection, and even to the reception of immediate divine 
 revelation. Thereby man is raised to God: nav more, 
 by a process of deification he attains, as his highest goal, 
 complete oneness with God " (B. Puenjer). See J. H 
 Blunt; B. Puenjer. 
 
 OSIANDRIANS. The party of the Lutheran theolo- 
 gian. Andreas Osiander (really Hosemann; 149S-1.5.52), 
 who taught that Justification meant not merely a 
 " declaring righteous," but a " making righteous." This 
 teaching gave rise to the " Osiandrian Controversy." In 
 1549 Osiander went as Professor to Kriiiigsberg. The 
 party disappeared after ISOfJ, when Osiander's son-in- 
 
 law Funch was executed for high treason. See J. H 
 Blunt: Brockhaus. 
 
 OSIRIS. An Egyptian deity. Osiris, Set iq.v.), Isis 
 (q.v.). and Nephthys (<7.!,-.) were supposed to be the off- 
 .spnng of Keb (q.v.) the god of earth and Nut (q.v.) the 
 goddess of sky. Osiris became lord of the underworld. 
 and we are told how he attained to this ix>sition in the 
 Osiris mj-th or legend. Osiris became the husband of 
 his sister Isis (q.v.). Set (q.v.) the husband of his sister 
 Nephthys (q.v.). Keb made Osiris ruler of the world, 
 giving him " the government over the two Egypts." He 
 was a just ruler and a great warrior. But for some 
 reason or other Set became his enemy and tried to kill 
 him. Isis, the devoted wife of Osiris, guarded her 
 husband and for a time succeeded in protecting him 
 against Set. At length, however, by means of cunning 
 Set contrived to achieve his purpose. Osiris was killed, 
 and his body disappearetl. Isis sought for it without 
 wearying. When She found it she sat dowTi by it with 
 Nephthys, and the two made lamentation. Re took pity 
 on her and sent Anubis (q.v.) from heaven to bury Osiris. 
 Anubis set the dismembered body in order. Thereupon 
 Isis breathed into the body nevt- life. But Osiris was 
 to live a new existence. He became king of the dead. 
 In course of time Isis gave birth to a son, whom she 
 brought up .secretly in the Delta for fear of Set. This 
 was Horus (q.v.). Attempts were made upon his life, 
 but he cscaiied them. When Horus grew up, he fought 
 with Set and was victorious. He lost an eye, however. 
 And when Thoth (q.v.) healed him and restored it, Horus 
 presented it as an offering to his father Osiris, who ate 
 it. Herodotus identifies Osiris with Dionvsos. Accord- 
 ing to Plutarch, Osiris is Good, " the reasoning power 
 of the soul and law and order in the world " (Erman). 
 Typhon, that is to say Set, is Evil, " the lack of sense, 
 the indiscretion of the .soul, and disease and disorder in 
 the world." Osiris is commonly represented as a human 
 being with a crown on his head and a sceptre and whip 
 in his hand. In Busiris, one of the chief seats of his 
 worship, however, he was represented as a p'fllar, the 
 upper part of which was repeated several times. The 
 precise meaning of this pillar is doubtful. Perhaps the 
 mcsl: likely explanation is that the pillar stands for the 
 backbone of Osiris. When his dismembered body was 
 set in order, one of the most imjx>rtant parts of the 
 undertaking was the restoration of the backbone. It 
 was commemorated and celebrated annually at Bu.siris. 
 The resiurection of Osiris became a guarantee for the 
 resurrection of every man. " As surely as Osiris lives, 
 -so shall he live also; as surely as Osiris did not die, so 
 .shall he not die: as Osiris is not annihilated, so shall he 
 too not be annihilated " (Egyptian test). Figures of 
 Osiris which were buried with deceased persons have 
 been found in Egyptian cemeteries. In .some cases thev 
 were made of cloth and stuffed with corn. J. G. Frazer 
 gives reasons for thinking that originallv Osiris was in 
 the main a corn-god, " a personification of the com, 
 which may be said to die and come to life again every 
 .vear." He suggests that in prehistoric times the 
 Egyptian kings actually personated Osiris, " the god of 
 fertility in general and of the corn in particular." 
 Osiris was also a tree-spirit, and probablv he was this 
 before he became a corn-spirit. Frazer thinks that " the 
 backbone of Osiris " (the column with several cro.ss-bars 
 at the top: .see above) represents the bare trunk and 
 branches of a tree. The worship of Adonis at Amathus 
 resembled so closely the Egyptian worship of Osiris that 
 by some people the two were identified. See A. Wiede- 
 mann: J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis. Osiris, 1906: Adolf 
 Erman, Handbook; Naville, The Old Egi/ptian Faith, j 
 1909; Reinach, 0. ^ —
 
 Owenites 
 
 274 
 
 Pacari Tampu 
 
 OWENITES. The followers of Robert Owen (1771- 
 1858) who was a contemporary of St. Simon (1760-1825; 
 see SIMONIANISM, ST.). After being assistant in a 
 draper's shop at Stamford in Northamptonshire, Owen 
 went to Manchester, where in course of time he became 
 manager of a large cotton mill. In 1799 he purchased 
 for a Oomiiany the cotton-mills of David Dale (see 
 DALBITBS) at New Lanark, and married his daughter. 
 He devoted himself zealously to philanthropic work, and 
 opened schools for infants and others. In 1813 he pro- 
 duced a publication " A New View of Society, or Essays 
 on the Principle of tlie Formation of the Human 
 Character," which embodied a new social and religious 
 creed. In 1817 he explained a scheme of " villages of 
 unity and co-operation." From co-operation he advanced 
 to Socialism and Communism, and wished to found a 
 " New Moral World." The religion of the new system 
 comprised eight articles or principles. 1. That all facts 
 yet known to man indicate that there is an external or 
 internal cause of all existences by the fact of their exist- 
 ence; that this all-pervading cause of motion and change 
 in the universe is the jwwer which the nations of the 
 world have called God, Jehovah, Lord, etc. : but the facts 
 are yet unknown to man which define what that power 
 is. 2. That all ceremonial wor.ship by man of this cause, 
 whose qualities are yet so little known, proceeds from 
 ignorance of his own nature, and can be of no real utility 
 in practice: and that it is impossible to train men to 
 become rational in their feelings, thoughts, and actions, 
 until all such forms shall cease. 3. That it is man's 
 highest duty to himself and his fellowmen to acquire an 
 accurate knowledge of those circumstances which produce 
 evil to the human race, and of those which produce good; 
 to exert all his powers to remove the former from society, 
 and to create around it the latter only. 4. That this 
 invaluable practical knowledge can be acquired solely 
 through an extensive search after truth, by an accurate, 
 ixatient, and unprejudiced inquiry into facts, as developed 
 by Nature. 5. That man can never attain to a state of 
 superior and permanent happiness, until he .shall be sur- 
 rounded by those external circumstances which will train 
 him, from birth, to feel pure charity and sincere affection 
 towards the whole of hia .species ; to speak the truth only 
 on all occasions, and to regard with a merciful disposi- 
 tion all that has life. fl. That such superior principles 
 and feeling.s can never be given to man under those 
 institutions of society which have been formed on the 
 mistaken supposition that man forms his feelings and 
 convictions by his will, and therefore is responsible for 
 them. 7. That under institutions formed in accordance 
 witli the Rational System of Society, these superior 
 principles and dispositions may be given to the whole of 
 the human race, without chance of failure except in the 
 case of organic disease, and influenced only by the 
 natural consequences of our actions. 8. The religion of 
 
 the New Moral World will therefore consist in the un- 
 ceasing practice of promoting the happiness of every 
 man, woman, and child, to the greatest extent In our 
 power, without regard to their class, sect, party, or 
 colour. In the new constitution of Society all are to 
 bave absolute religious freedom, and no one is to be held 
 responsible for his physical, intellectual, or moral 
 organization. All are to be provided by public arrange- 
 ments with the best of everything, including the best 
 ix>ssible education. All children are to be educated 
 together, and to be under the special care of the com- 
 munity. " Both sexes shall have equal education, rights, 
 privileges, and personal liberty; their associations will 
 arise from the general sympathy of their nature, un- 
 influenced by artificial distinctions." There is to be 
 no u-seless private property and no individual punishment 
 or reward. " Society shall not be composed, as at pre- 
 sent, of single families, but of communities or associa- 
 tions of men, women, and children in the usual proitor- 
 tions, from three hundred to two thousand, as local cir- 
 cum-stances determine." All the communities are to 
 possess as far as possible the same advantages. Each 
 community is to be governed by two Councils, one for 
 tlie Home, the other for the Foreign department. The 
 latter is for the purix>se of keeping in touch with other 
 associations or communities. If persons become diseased 
 physically, intellectually, or morally, " the council shall 
 remove tbem into the hospital for bodily, mental, or 
 moral invalids, where they shall remain until they shall 
 be recovered by the mildest treatment which can effect 
 their cure." Towards the end of his life Robert Owen 
 became a Spiritualist. See Owen's Autobiography, 
 1857-8; Edward Vansittart Neale, The GharaOterlstic 
 Features of some of the Principal Siistcms of Socialism, 
 1851; G. J. Holyoake, History of Co-operation in Eng- 
 land, 1875; Mark Hovell, Chartist Movement, 1918: and 
 the D.N.B. 
 
 OWL, THE. The owl, whidi is often associated with 
 night and gloom, appears in the MSS. of the Mayan 
 Indians of Central America as the symbolical bird of the 
 god designated God A by anthropologists. Among the 
 ancient Grermans, according to Tacitus, every tree in the 
 sacred forests had its genius, and this genius sometimes 
 took the form of an owl. 
 
 OXFORD DECLARATION. A manifesto on " Eternal 
 Punishment " drawn up and signed in 1864 by Edward 
 Bouverie Pusey (1800-1882), Regius Professor of Hebrew 
 at Oxford and Canon of Christ Church, and George 
 Anthony Denison (1805-1896), Archdeacon of Taunton and 
 Editor of the " Church and State Review " (18C2-I>5). 
 More than three thousand other clergymen signed the 
 declaration. 
 
 OXFORD MOVEMENT, THE. Another name for the 
 Tracta-rian Movement (g.v.). 
 
 P. God P is a designation used by anthropologists 
 for a deity depicted in the MSS. of the Mayan Indians 
 of Central America. In the Codex Tro-cortesianus he is 
 provided witii a blue background representing water, and 
 
 himself has the fins of a frog. Schellhas therefore 
 describes him as " The Frog God." He seems to be a 
 god of agriculture. 
 PACARI TAMPU. The name (House of the Dawn)
 
 Pacbacamac 
 
 275 
 
 in Peruvian mythology for the cave from which came 
 the brothers who founded various Peruvian systems of 
 worship. ■■ The first brother would apjiear to "represent 
 the oldest religion of Peru, that of Pachacamac, the 
 second that of a fetishtic stone-worship, the third that of 
 Viracocha, and tie last sun-worship pure and simple " 
 (Edwardes and Spence). 
 
 PACHACAMAC. The two chief deities of the ancient 
 Peruvians were Pachacamac and Viracocha (q.v.). Like 
 Viracocha. Pachacamac was adopted by the Peruvians 
 from an older civilisation. The name means " earth- 
 generator." which in itself suggests a similarity to Vira- 
 cocha. Both were civilising powers, and legend relates 
 that there was in fact rivalry and conflict between them. 
 According to the legend. Virac'Ocha was defeated by 
 Pachacamac and put to flight. Pachacamac thereupon 
 '• created a new world more to his liking by the simple 
 expedient of transferring the race of men then upon earth 
 into wild animals, and creating a new and higher 
 humanity." Pachacamac would seem to have forced his 
 way into the pantheon of tie Incas after Viracocha. 
 Lewis Spence points out that the god of volcanoes, earth- 
 quakes, and subterranean fire, Pachacamac. would 
 naturally be hostile to the god of water, Viracocha A 
 legend of the Collas (S.W. of Cuzco) seems to implv that 
 the ordej in which the Peruvian deities was intro<luced 
 was : Pachacamac, Viracocha. the Sun. The mvth, how- 
 ever, which was authorised, so to say, bv the Incas them- 
 selves, implies the order : Viracocha, Pachacamac. See 
 Lewis Spence, Myth.; J. M. Robertson, P.O. 
 
 PACT OF FRATERNITY, THE. A declaration of 
 principles for the progress of humanitv drawn up in 1836 
 by Giuseppe (Joseph) Mazzini (1S05-1ST2) for a secret Asso- 
 ciation composed of German, French, Italian, and Polish 
 exiles, and called " Young Europe." As a young man 
 Mazzini had joined the secret association in Italv called 
 the " Carbonari " (literally " charcoal-burners " or 
 " colliers "). In 1830 he was intrusted with a secret 
 mission, and, having been betrayed, was imprisoned in 
 the fortress of Savona on the western Rivieis. In prison 
 he conceived the idea of founding a new religious and 
 republican association, to be called " Young Italy." In 
 1831 he was banished to France. Here, at Marseilles, 
 in the same year, his association was founded. The 
 members swore to devote their lives to the mission of 
 uniting their dismembered countrv into •' one free inde- 
 pendent, republican nation." But Mazzini was not a 
 mere politician. Republicanism with him " was a faith 
 —the logical and necessary consequence of his religious 
 faith in the oneness of humanitv " (E. A. Venturini) A 
 tew years later he was obliged to flee to Switzerland. 
 While he was there he founded " Young England " 
 Banushed from Switzerland towards the end of 183f! he 
 took refuge in London. About this time he was 'dis- 
 tressed by religious doubts, but he succeeded in arriving 
 at a confirmation of his first faith. '• I came to niv 
 better self alone: without aid from others, through the 
 help of a religious conception, which I verified by his- 
 tory. In London for some years he had a struggle for 
 existence. During the whole of 1837 and half of 1838 
 he suffered " ab.solute poverty." But he sought to help 
 his neighbours. He opened a school for poor Italian 
 boys, and kept it open from 1841-1848. " During those 
 seven years we gave both moral and intellectual instruc- 
 tion to several hundred youths and children 'who were 
 in a state of semi-barbarism: and who. half afraid at 
 first, and urged only by curiosity, came to our humble 
 rooms at 5 Hatton Garden, to be graduallv tamed and 
 civilized by the gentleness and kindness of the masters- 
 until at length they learned to rejoice with a certain con- 
 scious pride in the idea of returning to their country 
 
 Pact of Fraternity, The 
 
 possessed of education." They attended the school 
 ^^f '^ .^ne and ten o'clock at night, bringing th^r 
 organs with them: they also met on Sunday evenings for 
 a lecture. In 1848 he left London to take jLrt & the 
 form^ ^i^^lutions. In March 1S49 he was a^p?ini^ to 
 
 ^ %fT^Z'^^^ll '"'i}^ ^*® ^d Armellini at ^me 
 Soon afterwards the Republic fell before the French 
 
 "^nrli*"*".™^.*** ^'i^lon- Here he founded tte 
 
 ls72 l^Tp^T '''J}'''^'^^^ o^ the 10th Of March, 
 a-itetor HP wVc *^^^^'^^ ^a.s no ordinary political 
 agitator. He was a prophet, and a religious force of 
 considenible significance. He' was radicaUv opS to 
 Materialism. In his essays " On the Dut^L Tl^n^ 
 f^V^*" ^y^that It^lJ- has suffered and is suferhi- 
 from two great sores, MacchiaveUism and MatISm 
 He sa.vs elsewhere ("A Letter to the Mem^rs of the 
 
 ^s'St^' o?°«n''" i*^'"' *^* "*>^"y Materfall^m is 
 disnherited of all criterion of right, or principle of 
 collective education; scientifically Tt s baled uwn a 
 peri<^ical infusion in men's minds of thel^strament^ 
 fj^t^^'"'"' "'^ i*'^'*' l^^^orically^it is inexomWy, °n 
 \ariably representative and characteristic of a period of 
 transition between one religious faith and another As 
 
 anTsn!rit''"''''B:'/^''" ?%^« antagonism betw^n mat^r 
 and spirit. But Revelation is progressive. '• Revela- 
 
 lZ.7^±'^;, ^ ^^""'°^ ^^'^y^' t^e education of the 
 nro^h^,vH^- *^®^«^ds continuaUy from God to man; 
 ^^ f !i*^*^ ^^ ^*^'"®' ^^ol^*^ by virtue and sacrifice and 
 accepted and proclaimed from epoch to epoch TvlhT'g^t 
 religious evolutions of wUec-tive humanity:" E^ery 
 
 artistic and religious expression. From time to time 
 orullT"' ^^'f^^^^t solution of the i-^t prob S^ 
 ? I'f^^-but assuredly it wiU never be a mere negation 
 F?;h .?f>,^''''^r'« ^'*^^ ""^ ">^ Italian Quelt'on ''^86?^ 
 for ever "i?^^',^''"'f- ^^^t^ins a truth destined to live 
 J^lll^ , F"^^^^ religion sets before mankind a new 
 educational idea as its aim: each is a fragment 
 enveloped m symbols, of eternal truth. . . Havin- 
 ^^^6'^^ '*^' mission, that religion disappears; leav" 
 mf«,^^fv°'H*^'' portion of truth it contained, the unknown 
 quantity di.^engaged by it from its svmbol. a new 
 immortal star in humanity's heaven. As the discoveries 
 of science have revealed, and will reveaX iar u^ ISr 
 Ar wT" '^'^^"•"^d"^ of/1^^ -celestial system of wTch the 
 Milky Way is^zone and the earth a part, be complete so 
 Idri fi'fh? i^'^}^^'''^ ''^ humanity have added, and wm 
 add, faith to faith, until the entire truth we are capable 
 of comprehending be complete" (" Letter to the 
 CEcumen. Council," 1870). Mazzini felt that he himself 
 ?^tfh IT^ ? a transition period. But a new religious 
 faith was already dawning. " The religious synthesis 
 whi<ai IS slowly but infallibly taking the place of the 
 synthesis of the past, comprehends a new ^erai— the con- 
 tmuou^ collective life of humanity-and this alone is 
 suflicient to change the aim, the method, and the moral 
 
 T^'f^ ".l*'^''^''?*^; • • • When once all belief in the 
 past synthesis shall be extinct, and faith in the new 
 synthesis established, the State itself will be elevated 
 into a church : it will incarnate in itself a religious prin- 
 ciple, and become the representative of the moral law in 
 the vanoiLs manifestations of life " (" The Religious Side 
 of the Italian Que.stion." 1807). Mazzini did not believe 
 in the mira«ilous as commonly under.<rt^ood, but in the 
 gradual working out of divine law. " We believe in the 
 Lnknown: in the Mysterious— to be one dav solved— 
 ■vrtiich now encompasses us on everv side: in the secrets 
 of an intuit inn inaccessible to amilvsis; in the truth of 
 our strange presentiment of an Ideal, which is the primi- 
 tive fatherland of the soul; in an unforeseen power of
 
 Pact of Fraternity, The 
 
 276 
 
 Pagodas 
 
 action granted to man in certain rare moments of faitb, 
 love and supreme concentration of all tlie faculties 
 towards a determinate and virtuous aim— deserved there- 
 fore—and analogous to the power of revelation which the 
 increased concentration of rays in the telescope communi- 
 cates to the human eye : but we believe all these things 
 the pre-ordained consetiuences of laws hitherto with- 
 held from our linowledge " (Letter of 1870, as cited 
 above). He believed in " one heaven, in which we live, 
 and move, and love; which embraces — as an ocean 
 embraces the islands that stud its surface— the whole 
 indefinite series of existences through which we pass." 
 He believed in an indefinite series of re-incarnations of 
 the soul, from life to life, from world to world. He 
 believed in the slow, progressive divinisation of man, in 
 the possibility of slowly elaborating in man the angel. 
 True priests and counsellors are those wlio have proved 
 worthy to be such by long years of tried virtue and of 
 study of things eternal. " Prophets and guides upon the 
 weary pilgrimage of humanity are the men upon whose 
 brow God has set the seal of genius sanctified by virtue; 
 but forget not that the Divine element exists also in 
 vourselves; never yield up the liberty of your immortal 
 souls into the hands of your brother man " (Letter of 
 1870). In answer to the question. What is Life? he tells 
 us that Life is Love; Life is movement, aspiration, pro- 
 gress; Life is communion (a word, he says, taught us 
 by Christianity)—" communion with nature and with 
 man, wheresoever he loves, struggles, or hoises, and with 
 God." The social Gospel of Mazzini is inseparably con- 
 nected with his religious convictions. " The first real, 
 earnest religious Faith that shall arise upon the ruins 
 of the old worn-out creeds, will transform the whole of 
 our actual social organization, because every strong and 
 earnest faith tends to apply itself to every branch of 
 human activity; because in every epoch of its existence 
 the earth has ever tended to conform itself to the Heaven 
 in which it then believed : and because the whole history 
 of Humanity is but the repetition — in form and degree 
 varying according to the diversity of the times — of the 
 words of the Dominical Christian Prayer: Thij Kingdom 
 come on Earth as it is in Heaven " (" On the Duties of 
 Man," 1844). Labour should be the ba.sis of civil society, 
 and the distribution of its fruits should be according to 
 works. If a man will not labour, he should possess 
 naught. The religious Word of the epoch is Association. 
 " Association of labour, and the division of the fruits of 
 labour, or rather of the profits of the sale of its product- 
 ions between the producers, in proportion to the amount 
 and value of the work done by each — this is the social 
 future " (" Duties," 1844). We must strive to make of 
 Humanity one single family. But property, though it 
 is ill-constituted is not an evil. The prineiple of pro- 
 perty is in fact eternal. " We must not seek to abolish 
 property because at present it is the possession of the 
 few : we must open up the paths by which the many 
 may acquire it " (" Duties."). We must make it, how- 
 ever, the result of labour alone — labour rightly re- 
 munerated. Nor is wealth in itself an evil. " Wealth 
 is sacred when diffused like healing balm upon the 
 wounds both of mind and body, by which your brothers 
 are afflicted; accursed, when emplo.ved to minister to 
 selfish passion, pleasure, or pride " (" Tetter " as cited 
 above). It has already been said that Mazzini opened a 
 night-school for working lads in Ix)ndon. He attached 
 -supreme importance to education. In his essays " On 
 the Duties of Man " he says that his whole doctrine is 
 included and summed up in this grand word. " The 
 vital question in agitation at the present day is a question 
 of Education. We do not seek to establi^ a new order 
 of things through violence. Any order of things 
 
 established through violence, even though in it.self 
 superior to the old, is still a tyranny. What we have 
 to do is to propose, for the approval of the nation, an 
 order of things which we believe to be superior to that 
 now existing, and to educate men by every possible means 
 to develop* it and act in accordance with it." In a 
 chapter on duties towards the family he says that the 
 conception of the family is divine, and no human power 
 can extinguish it. The Angel of the family is Woman. 
 To her belong by nature equal rights with man. " Cancel 
 from your minds every idea of superiority over Woman. 
 Ton have none whatsoever. Long prejudice, an inferior 
 education, and a i)erennial legal inequality and injustice, 
 have created that apparent intellectual inferiority which 
 has been converted into an argument of continued oppres- 
 sion. ... In the sight of God the Father there is 
 neither man nor woman. There is only the human 
 being, that being in whom, whether the form be of male 
 or female, those characteristics which distinguish 
 humanity from the brute creation are united — namely, 
 tlie social tendency, and the capacity of education and 
 progress." In 1847 Mazzini published some very 
 interesting " Thoughts upon Democracy in Euroi)e." See 
 P. A. Taylor, Joseph Mazzini: A Memoir &;/ E. A. V., 
 With Two Essays bij Mazzini, 2nd ed. 1877; Fore- 
 shadowings of the Coming Faith by Joseph Mazzini, 1888. 
 
 PADAITHALAIDAIVAM. The name in Tanjore of 
 one of the sea gods worshipped by the Pattanavans, a 
 caste of fishermen in India. He is represented by a 
 large conical heap of wet sand and mud. 
 
 PAGANALIA. An Italian festival of the old village 
 communities. It was moveable, but was held after the 
 winter-sowing in January. A pregnant sow was sacrificed 
 to Tellus or Ceres. At this festival also " we are told 
 that small images of the human figure, or masks, or 
 simply round balls (pilae), were hung up on trees or door- 
 ways, and left to swing in the wind " (Warde Fowler). 
 These figures were commonly called osciJla, whence the 
 verb oscillare. J. G. Frazer has shown that swinging 
 has been, and is, practised in various parts of the world 
 as a religious or magical rite (see SWINGING). This 
 suggests that the oscilla were imitations of men and 
 women. As Frazer explains, in some ciases the object 
 of the swinging is to promote fertilit.v, perhaps by 
 clearing the air of dangerous influences. In the festival 
 described by Virgil in the second Georgia (380 foi.), which 
 seems to be some form of Paganalia, " the object would 
 seem to be prosperity of the vine-crop " (Fowler). See 
 O. Seyflfert, Diet.: W. Warde Fowler. 
 
 PAGODAS. The Pagoda has developed out of the 
 Dagaba. The Dfigaba was at first simply the casket in 
 which the Buddhists preserved the relics of their great 
 saints. Then in course of time it came to denote not 
 only the casket containing the relies but also the monu- 
 ment containing the casket. Next the monument grew 
 to an enormous size, and Dagabas became Pagodas. 
 Monier-Williams gives a description (after Scott) of the 
 great Rangoon pagoda, which contains relics of Gautama 
 and his three predecessors. " The stately pile stands 
 upon a mound — partly natural, partly artificial — cut into 
 two recta ngnilar terraces one above the other, the upper 
 being 166 feet above the ground, and each side facing one 
 of the cardinal points of the compass. The ascent is by 
 very dilapidated steps, some of stone, some of ' sun-dried 
 bricks, worn almost into a slope by the bare feet of 
 myriads of worshippers.' From the centre of this 
 springs, from an octagonal plinth, the ' profusely gilt 
 solid brick pagoda '. which has a circumference of 135.5 
 feet, and rises to a height of about 328, ' or nearly as 
 high as St. Paul's Cathedral.' On the summit is ' the 
 Tee,' a gilt umbrella-shaped ornament with many tiers
 
 Pan 
 
 277 
 
 Paracelsists 
 
 of rings, on each of whicli ' hang multitudes of gold and 
 silver jewelled bells.' It was • placed there at a cost 
 of not mudi less than £50,000.' At the foot of the pagoda 
 are four chapels, having colossal figures of Buddha at 
 the sides, and their gilded interiors darliened by the 
 vapour of thousands of burning tapers. ' Hundreds of 
 Gautamas ', large and small, white and black, gilded and 
 plain, sitting, standing, and reclining, surround the 
 larger images." Compare STOPAS. See Monier- 
 Williams, Buddhism, 1890; and H. Hackmann. 
 
 PAN. The worship of tie Greek god Pan originated 
 in Arcadia, where he was the divinity of hills, woods, 
 and pastures, and the patron of hunters, herdsmen, and 
 flocks. He is represented as having shaggy hair, a beard, 
 a puck-nose. 1;wo horns, a tail, and goat's feet. He was 
 supposed to wander by day " through hill and dale with 
 the Nymphs, guarding the flocks, especially the goats, 
 and chasing wild animals." At noonday, when he slept, 
 hunters or shepherds could not blow their horns without 
 incurring his wrath. He is supposed to have been fond 
 of music and dancing, and to have invented the syrinx 
 or Pan's pipe. In the forest he was wont to come upon 
 the traveller unexpectedly and to inspire him with sudden 
 terror (" panic "). As a god of hills, he had special 
 mountains in Attica and Arcadia, which were named 
 after him. Some of the rocks were called Pan's goats. 
 As a god of woods, he was an oracular deity, a god of 
 prophecy. The offerings which his worshippers brought 
 to him consisted of the simple products of the country, 
 milk, honey, must, cows, goats, or lambs. He was identi- 
 fied with Faunus by the Romans. And with him were 
 associated young Pans (Pdnisci). just as with Faunus 
 were associated Fauus, and with Silvanus (Q.v.) Sil- 
 vanuses. See, further, FAUNUS. See O. Seyffert, Diet.; 
 Chambers' Encycl.; J. M. Robertiwn, CM., 1910; J. 6. 
 Frazer, G.B., Part V. vol. ii. 
 
 PANDARAMS. A kind of caste in India. According 
 to H. A. Stuart (quoted by E. Thurston), Pandaram is 
 " the name rather of an occupation than a caste, and 
 used to denote any non-Brahmanical priest." 
 
 PaNDURANG. Yellow-coloured, one of the names 
 of the Hindu god Vishnu. 
 
 PANENTHBISM. A term used by Dr. Inge to denote 
 the belief in the immanence of a God who is also tran- 
 scendent. " In its true form it is an integral part of 
 Christian philo.sophy, and indeed of all rational theology." 
 But, according to Inge, it is apt to degenerate into the 
 worst form of pantheism. 
 
 P'AN-KU. The name of the fir.ft man in Chinese cos- 
 mogony. He is depicted as a giant with mallet and 
 chisel, the implements used by him in his task of breaking 
 the primeval rocks and shaping the world. 
 
 PANTHEISM. Pantheism has been defined in various 
 ways. The word is said to have been used first in the 
 title to one of Toland's books (1705). Weissenborn 
 defines Pantheism as the system which identifies God and 
 the all of things, or the unity of things (K. R. Hagen- 
 bach. History of Christian Doctrines, iii., p. 323). Six 
 forms have been distinguished. (1) Mechanical, or 
 materialistic pantheism : God being the mechanical unity 
 of existence. (2) Ontological (abstract unity) pantheism : 
 God being the one substance in all (Spinoza). (3) 
 Dynamic pantheism. (4) Psychical pantheism : God 
 being the soul of the world. (.5) Ethical pantheism : God 
 being the universal moral order (Pichte). (6) Logical 
 pantheism (Hegel). The Christian mystics are loosely 
 charged with being pantheists. But. as H. B. Work- 
 man says, however much they might play with pantheistic 
 phrases, there are few of them who do not seek to con- 
 serve personality. " For the mystics were conscious that 
 
 the originality of Christianity consists in its revelation 
 through the person of Christ of the depth and in- 
 exhaustibleness of human personality. Accordingly, in 
 the Christian mystics, dangerous as their language with 
 reference to absorption may be at times, there is always 
 ail emphasis of purpose; in the later mystics, for 
 instance, much is made of the will— and this in itself is 
 fatal to pantlieism." 
 
 PANTISM. Pantism, the theory of the All, differs, as 
 Paul Cams iJoiuts out, from Pantheism (q.v.), the theory 
 which identifies the All with God. Pantism is " a theory 
 according to which the All alone (or rather the con- 
 ception of the absolute as the All) is possessed of reality,, 
 while all concrete existences are considered as a mere 
 sham, an illusion, a dream " (Paul Cams, History of the 
 Devil and the Idea of Evil, 1900.). 
 
 PARA. The name of one of the Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D., and are in- 
 corporated in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 I'atriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 [sedarim). Para is the fourth tractate of the sixth 
 group, which is called Tohoroth (" Purifications "). 
 
 PARABLES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. The 
 Gospels contain a large number of parables, and these 
 may be regarded as only a selection of those spoken by 
 Jesus. Jesus seems to have employed this figurative 
 style of speech as a means of enforcing and elucidating 
 his lessons. The parables were not always understood 
 by His disciples. An explanation had to be sought 
 privately. As an excu.se for their own dullness they 
 seem to have cherished the thought that the Master spoke 
 in parables for the very purpose of disguising some of 
 his message from the people. " In Mark iv. 10-12 = 
 Matthew xiii. 10-15 = Luke viii. 9f. the idea of the 
 Evangelists is that the Master specially favours the 
 disciples by explaining to them figurative language which 
 has been contrived in such a way as to disguise the truth 
 from the people. As a matter of fact, the explanation 
 was necessitated simply by their defective insight " (Amo 
 Neumann). It is not likely that Jesus taught esoteric 
 and exoteric doctrines. Some of the parables are cer- 
 tainly difficult for us to understand, but this is no doubt 
 Ijecause they have not been preserved in quite their 
 original forms. It is possible in some cases that two 
 parables which were originally distinct have been made 
 into one. There is another possibility with regard to 
 some of the narratives in the New Testament. It is that 
 parables have been converted into history. The story of 
 the miraculous feeding of five thousand or four thousand 
 people has been explained in this way. The story is to 
 the effect that a multitude was fed with a few loaves 
 and fishes, and that after it had been satisfied, a large 
 quantity of food remained. It is suggested that originally 
 this was a parable with a deep spiritual meaning. " The 
 following figure will make the meaning quite clear : — 
 When a mother divides a loaf of bread between twelve 
 children, each one, of course, receives le«s than if there 
 were only two children. But if she is able to share her 
 love or her knowledge with twelve instead of with two, 
 love and truth do not decrease, but increase. An 
 explanation like this has not been invented by perplexed 
 scholars: it has been rediscovered" (Amo Neumann). 
 The Fourth Gosi)el does not contain a single real parable. 
 See O. Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, 1904: Amo Neumann, 
 Jesus, 1906; Paul W. Schmiedel, The Johannine Writings, 
 1908. 
 
 PARACBLSISTS. The followers of Paracelsus (Philip- 
 pus Aureolus Paracelsus Theophrastus von Hohenheim;-
 
 Paraclete 
 
 278 
 
 Parthenogenesis 
 
 1493-1541), the theosophist or mystic. See MYSTICISM, 
 (CHRISTIAN 
 
 PARACLETE. The term Paraclete (Gk. parakletos) 
 «ccura four times in the Gospel of John (xiv. 16, 26; xv. 
 26 xvi 7) and once in the First Epistle of John (n. 1). 
 In Job'xvi 2 it is used by Aquila and Theodotion in the 
 plural to render the Hebrew word ■menaohdmim , which 
 means " comforters " (" wearisome comforters are ye 
 all ") In Isaiah xl. 1, vvhere the Hebrew has, " Com- 
 fort ye comfort ye my people," the Septuagint renders 
 toy paracaleite, paracaleite. The Greek word paraclesis 
 frequently means " consolation." It also means " en- 
 couragement." Philo sometimes uses the word " para- 
 cletos in the sense of " helper " or " adviser." The 
 ■word, it is true, is passive in form and most naturally 
 means " one called in," or " called to the side of 
 another," and eo " an advocate." This is perhaps the 
 meaning in I. John ii. 1 : "We have an Advocate with 
 the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous." But it seems 
 also, perhaps on the analogy of Hebre\\^ usage, to have 
 been used in an active sense and as the equivalent of the 
 Hebrew menacliem, " comforter." Origen and Chrysos- 
 tom understand the word in this sense. The Hebrew 
 ■word often means to " console " those who are mourning, 
 tut it also means to "encourage" (Gen. 1. 21). In 
 Psalm Ixxxvi. the verb is made parallel to the verb 
 'azar " to help," and in Jeremiah xxxi. 13 to the verb 
 " to cause to rejoice." The Paraclete, then, may be 
 regarded as some agency which consoles, comforts, 
 encourages, and helps. Used as an equivalent of the 
 Hebrew term, there is in the word no idea of acting as 
 an advocate or pleader. And in the Gospel of John the 
 word is no doubt to be understood as the equivalent of 
 menachem. Thus, John xiv. It! says : " And I will pray 
 the Father, and he shall give you another Comforter (not 
 necessarily a person), that he may be with you for ever, 
 the spirit of truth." Vs. 26 reads: "But the Com- 
 forter, the holy spirit, whom the Father will send in my 
 name, he shall teach you all things, and bring to your 
 remembrance all that I said unto you." In xv. 26 it 
 is said : " But when the Comforter is come, whom I will 
 send unto you from tie Father, the spirit of truth, which 
 proceedeth from the Father, he shall bear witness of 
 me." Lastly, in xvi. 7, Jesus is represented as saying : 
 " If I go not away, the Comforier will not come unto 
 you; but if I go, I will send him unto you." And he 
 «xplains that it is necessary for the CK>mforter to come 
 to convince (not " convict " in the sense of condemn) the 
 world of the true nature of sin, righteousness, and judg- 
 ment. The Comforter, therefore, is the ^spirit of truth, 
 which will comfort, help, encourage and enlighten men. 
 Or as A. Juelicher expresses it : "in place of the Son 
 about to return to the Father, the seemingly forsaken 
 disciples are to receive the patronvs, the " helper " 
 Kor' e^oxiv, the Spirit of truth, who will take them up 
 -and lead them up, in the struggle for light and life, step 
 by step, from victory to victory." See A. Juelicher in 
 tile Enoycl. Bibl.; also the Prot. Diet.; and the Cath. 
 Diet. 
 
 PARAKUTTI. One of the chief gods of the Nayadis, 
 a Hindu caste in Malabar. " Parakutti is he who aids 
 them in their hunting expeditions, bringing the game to 
 them, and protecting them from wild beasts " (E. 
 Thurston and K. Rangachari). The other chief gods are 
 Mallan and Malavazhi. 
 
 PARASHRaM. One of the incarnations of the Hindu 
 god Vishnu. 
 
 PARDHaNS. The Pardhans (also known as Patharis, 
 or Panals) are described by R. V. Russell and R. B. Hira 
 Lai as an inferior branch of the Gond tribe whose occu- 
 pation is to act as the priests and minstrels of the Gonds. 
 
 PAEERMENEUTAB. An early religious body, the 
 members of which declined to follow other men's judg- 
 ments with regard to the Scriptures, and insisted on 
 interpreting them themselves. 
 
 PARI-NIRVaNA. One of the forms of NirviSna (q.v.). 
 PABIVARA. One of the Buddhist saored books. A 
 kind of appendix to the books in the first division of the 
 Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 PARJANYA. Parjanya is one of the rain-gods in 
 Hinduism. Hopkins points out that he is identical with 
 the Slavic Perkuna. He is a personification of the rain- 
 cloud, and is therefore associated with Indra {q.v.). 
 " Occasionally he is paired with Wind; and in the curious 
 tendency of the poets to dualize their divinities, the two 
 become a compound, Parjanyavdtd (" Parjanya and 
 Vata ")." Sometimes no distinction seems to be made 
 between Parjanya and Indra. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 PARMARTHI SECT. A Vishnuite sect in India, which 
 in 1901, according to the census, numbered 26,000 persons. 
 Originally the adherents devoted themselves to the pure 
 worship of Krishna, but later their worship, at any rate 
 in the case of a considerable part of the sect, " has been 
 degraded by sexual indulgence and immorality, and this 
 appears to be the main basis of its ritual at present " 
 (R. V. Russell). 
 
 PARMESHWAR. A god worshipped as the supreme 
 deity by the Kurmis, the representative cultivating caste 
 of Hindu.stan. He seems to be equivalent to Siva or 
 Mahadeo. 
 
 PARNAPISHTIM. Parnapishtini or Utnapishtim is 
 the hero of the Babylonian Deluge-story. To some 
 extent he resembles the Noah of the Old Testament. See 
 DELUGE-STORY, BABYLONIAN, and GILGAMBSH 
 EPIC. 
 
 PAHRAPOTAMMa. a Hindu deity, a goddess sup- 
 posed to cure cattle diseases, worshipped by the 
 Paraiyans, a tribe or caste in India. 
 
 PARSON LOT. " Parson Lot " was the nom-de-plume 
 assumed by Charles Kingsley (1819-1S75) as the writer of 
 some of the tracts known as " Politics for the People." 
 On one occasion when the leading contributors to this 
 .series were assembled at the house of Frederick Denison 
 Maurice (1805-1872), in some discussion Kingsley found 
 himself in a minority of one. This prompted him to say 
 jokingly " that he felt much as Lot must have felt in 
 the Cities of the Plain, when he seemed as one that 
 mocked to his sons-in-law." It was thereupon suggested 
 that he should call himself " Parson Lot." See C. W. 
 Stubbs, Charles Kingsley and the Christian Soeiai Move- 
 ment, 1899. 
 
 PARTHENOGENESIS. The myth that certain divine 
 beings or culture-heroes have owed their birth, to a 
 mother without the co-operation of a father has been 
 found to be widespread. For example, Isis, Cybele, Leto, 
 Demeter, and Venus are all represented as " virgin " 
 mothers. The Chinese culture-hero Hon Chi was bom of 
 a mother who conceived by treading in a footprint of 
 God. The principal deity of the Uapes Indians of 
 Brazil, Jurupari, was bom of a virgin who conceived 
 after drinking a draught of native beer. The idea may 
 be a survival from a time when the fact of physical 
 paternity was unknown. To this day many Australian 
 tribes seem to have remained ignorant of this fact (sec 
 J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, 3rd ed., i., p. 99 ff.). 
 It is said, for instance, that the Arunta is ignorant of 
 the exact relation between generation and the sexual act, 
 supposing every act of conception to be due to a sort of 
 mystic fecundation. " According to him, it is due to 
 the entrance of the soul of an ancestor into tie body of 
 a woman and its becoming the principle of a new life 
 there. So at the moment when a woman feels the
 
 Parthians, Letter to the 
 
 279 
 
 Peach, The 
 
 first tremblings of the child, she imagines that one of the 
 eouls whose principal residence is at the place where she 
 happens to be, has just entered into her " (fimile Durk- 
 heim). 
 
 PARTHIANS, LETTER TO THE. Augustine quotes 
 a verse from the First Epistle of John and says that it 
 occurs in John's letter " to the Parthians." Since, how- 
 ever, the Greek word for " virgins" resembles the word 
 " Partiians." it has been suggested that the one was 
 mistaken for the other. It has been inferred from a 
 passage in tie Book of Revelation (xiv. 4) tiat perhaps 
 the First Epistle of John was known by the title " To 
 the Virgrtns." See G. Currie Martin, Books of the X.T. 
 
 PaRVATI. Parvati is one of the deities worshipped 
 by tie Hindus. The name is one of those given to the 
 wife of the god Siva (Q-v.). Another name is Durga 
 (q.v.). 
 
 PASSALORYNCHITES. A body of early mystics. 
 They are iJerhaps to be identified with the Tasoodrugites 
 (q.v.). 
 
 PASSIONISTS. A Roman Catholic order founded in 
 1720 by Paul Francis Danei (1G94-1775) or Paul of the 
 Cross. The founder could not at first obtain papal sanc- 
 tion for his order; but in 1746 the rules of the congre- 
 gation were approved by Benedict XIV. In 1S67 Paul of 
 the Cross was canonised by Pius IX. The real descrip- 
 tion of the order is : " Congregation of the Discalced 
 Clerks of the most holy Cross and Passion of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ." Its motto is " Jesu Christi passio sit 
 sempex in cordibus nostris." Paul of the Cross was 
 very anxious to extend his work to England, and there 
 are now a number of Passionist houses in this country. 
 Soon after the Passionists obtained a footing in England 
 (1S42), tiey established themselves in the United States, 
 where the.v now have a province. " The life of a 
 Passionist is very austere. They fast three days in every 
 week, besides Advent and Lent; they wear nothing on 
 their feet but sandals: they rise at night to say Matins, 
 and, indeed, recite the office in choir at all the canonical 
 hours. They divide their time between contemplation 
 and action: being indefatigable in giving missions and 
 retreats, especially to persons living in community. 
 Besides the three usual vows, they make a fourth — that 
 they will do their utmost to keep alive in the hearts of 
 the faithful the memory of our Ixtrd's passion. On 
 the day of their profession they make a vow of persever- 
 ance in the congregation. Nevertheless, tbey only take 
 simple vows " (Addis and Arnold). See Prot. Diet.; 
 and the Cath. Diet. 
 
 PASTORAL EPISTLES, THE. Three EpLstles in the 
 New Testament are commonly called the Pastoral 
 Epistles because they deal with the ministry and are 
 addressed to two pastors in the early Church. 
 Timothy and Titus. The Epistles are First Epistle to 
 Timothy, Second Epistle to Timothy, and the Epistle to 
 Titus (qq.v.). The Epistles are attributed to Paul, but 
 their genuineness is open to grave doubt. A. S. Peake 
 summarises the arguments against the genuineness as 
 follows : " It is strange that Paul should have written 
 letters of this kind to such companions and disciples as 
 Timothy and Titus, and that he should have felt it neces- 
 sary to assert to them his apostleship and warn them 
 to keep clear of heretical teaching. If the letters fall 
 outside the period covered by the Acts they are probably 
 not genuine, since Paul's imprisonment, there recorded, 
 seems to have ended, not in release, but in death. As 
 to organisation, we find much stress on ecclesiastical 
 appointment, little on the spiritual gifts, and it is not 
 quite like Paul to be occupied .so much with details of 
 this kind. The general emphasis on the importance of 
 sound doctrine and the use of faith as almost equivalent 
 
 to orthodoxy are strange in Paul. So too the tone of 
 the letters is moralistic rather than evangelical, though 
 the latter element is not absent. And finally the style 
 is quite unique and unlike that of the other Epistles, and 
 the ring of the letters does not remind us of Paul." 
 Peake thinks that tlie Epistles contain not a little Pauline 
 material, but that in their present form they cannot have 
 come from Paul's hand. Cuxrie Martin points out that 
 in ancient writings it is not always a question only of 
 authenticity or forgery. The question also of pseudonym- 
 ity comes in. It was a practice among Jewish writers 
 to produce a book under the name of some famous person 
 (e.g., Moses, Isaiah, Enoch) of an earlier day. " It is 
 quite possible, therefore, that with no evil intention or 
 purpose of leading readers astray, the name of the great 
 Apostle may have been used by some of his friends and 
 followers who were anxious to furtier his work, promul- 
 gate his ideas, and, in all prolwbility, find a hearing for 
 teaching that they knew was derived from himself in 
 letters that, in their present form at least, do not 
 emanate from him at all." See J. A. M'Clymont; G. 
 Currie Martin: Arthur S. Peake, Intr. 
 
 PASTORAL STAFF. The official emblem of a bishop. 
 See CROSIER. 
 
 PATERINES. The Paterines or Patarenes were 
 Manichaean heretics who appeared in Italy in the 
 eleventh century. A number of them were burned by the 
 Archbishop of Alilan. They were opposed to marriage, 
 and regarded matter as evil. The name seems to have 
 been suggested by Pataria, a designation of an evil 
 quarter of Milan. It came to be used as a term of 
 reproach. Those who reproached the Lombard marrietl 
 clergy were taunted with being Paterines (1057). In the 
 twelfth century the Cathari are referred to as Paterines. 
 See J. H. Blunt; Oath. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 PATERNIANI. A Manichiean sect referred to by 
 Augustine (Hreres. Ixxxv.) and Prtedestinatus (Hwres. 
 Ixxxv.). The Patemiani, who were also known as 
 Venustiani, held that God created the upper part of the 
 body, but the Devil the lower or sensual part. They 
 were condemned by Poi^e Damasus I. (366-384). See J. 
 H. Blunt. 
 
 PATRIPASSIANS. The Patripassians were a school 
 of theologians produced by the doctrine of the Logos. 
 They were so called because they held that He who 
 became incarnate in Jesus Christ was none other 
 than (Jod the Father. Thus Noetus said : " I know but 
 one (Jod ; it is no other than He who was born, who 
 suffered, and who died." The Patripassians were called 
 also Modalists (q.v.). See J. H. Blunt; Louis Duchesne, 
 Hist. 
 
 PATTHANA. A Buddhist sacred book in tlie third 
 division of the Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 PAVADAIRaYAN. The name in Tanjore of one of 
 the sea gods worshipped by the Pattanavans, a caste of 
 fishermen in India. He is represented by a large conical 
 heap of wet sand and mud. 
 
 PB'a. The title of one of the JewikSh treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D. and are 
 incorporated in the Mishnah (r/.v.), a collec-tion and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Pe'ii is the second tractate of the first group, 
 which is called Zerd'im (" Seeds "). 
 
 PEACH, THE. The oldest sacred books of China teach 
 that the Universe has two souls or breaths, Yang (q.v.) 
 and Yin (q.v.). Yang represents the heavens, and with 
 them light, warmth, productivity and life. Yin repre- 
 sents the earth, and with it darkness, cold, and death. 
 
 19
 
 Pearl among Women 
 
 280 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 The peach tree, like the oock, is associated with Tang. 
 " The triumplial progress of the Yang in early spring is 
 tSiaracterized by the flowering of the peach. Therefore 
 this tree and the red, hrilliant colour of its blossoms 
 represejit the destruction of the Yin or winter, and the 
 epectnal world which is identified with it. Therefore, 
 from the oldest times to this day, branches, boards, and 
 human images of peach wood have been fixed on New 
 Year's day to doors and gates. At present those things 
 are replaced by sheets of red paper, which nobody who 
 has set foot on Chinese soil can have failed to notice. 
 Red, in consequence, is under all circumsftances a colour 
 expressing felicity, seeing that felicity consists in 
 destruction of spectres, the enemies of human welfare " 
 (Degroot). See J. J. M. Degroot, Rel. of the Chinese, 
 1910. 
 
 PEARL AMONG WOMEN. One of the seven royal 
 treasures which the king of kings, the ideal king, of the 
 Buddhists, or rather of the pre-Buddhists, is supposed to 
 possess. She is described as " graceful in figure, lovely 
 in appearance, charming in manner, and beautiful in com- 
 plexion, surpassing human beauty " ; and it is said that 
 " she had attained unto the beauty of the gods." See 
 T. W. Rhys Davids. 
 
 PECTORAL CROSS. As a special privilege granted 
 by the Pope, bishops, abbots, and sometimes canons and 
 others are allowed to wear on the breast a small cross 
 of precious metal as a mark of their office. This is called 
 a pectoral cross. 
 
 PECULIAR PEOPLE. A religious sect founded at 
 Plumstead near London in 1838, and called also 
 " Plumstead Peculiars." They are Faith-healers, and 
 have much in common with the American Tunkers 
 (q.v.). Their principles are based on a passage 
 in the Epistle of James (v. 13-15). " Is any among 
 you suffering? let him pray. Is any cheerful? let 
 him sing praise. Is any among you sick? let him call 
 for the elders of the chnrch; and let them pray over him, 
 anointing him (or, having anointed him) with oil in the 
 name of the Lord : and the prayer of faith shall save 
 him that is sick, and the Lord shall raise him up; and 
 if he have committed sins, it shall be forgiven him." The 
 peculiar people put faith in prayer and in anointing with 
 oil by the elders rather than in medicine and medical 
 treatment (apart from surgery). Cp. CHRISTIAN 
 SCIENCE. 
 
 PELAGIANISM. The doctrine and principles of the 
 British monk Pelagius (fl. 400-418). He was often called 
 Pelagius Brito to distinguish him from another Pelagius. 
 He went from the British Isles, probably from Ireland, 
 to Rome, where he made the acquaintance of Paulimis 
 (353-431), Rufinus of Aquileia, and Coelestius. In 410 he 
 went with Ccelestius to Africa, where he met Augustine. 
 From Africa he went alone after a few years to Palestine. 
 Jerome was living at tiis time in Bethlehem. In 415 
 Pelagius was accused of heresy by Paulus Orosius, acting 
 on behalf of the African Church. The matter came 
 before a Synod at Jerusalem, with the result that it was 
 decided to refer it to Pope Innocent I. Innocent I. died 
 soon afterwaids (A.D. 417). and was succeeded by 
 Zosimus. Zosimus declared in favour of the orthodoxy 
 of Pelagius, and in a circular letter to the African epis- 
 copate commanded that the charge of heresy should be 
 abandoned. The Emperor Theodosius, however, having 
 been induced to exert himself against Pelagius, he was 
 condemned by African Councils in 417 and 418. In 418 
 Zosimus also, having reconsidered the matter, anathema- 
 tized Pelagius and Coelestius. In 431 Pelagianism was 
 condemned by the third General Council, the Council of 
 Ephesus. In the first canon any one who is of Coelestius' 
 ©pinion is " entirely cast off by the Synod from all 
 
 Church communion, and suspended." The fourth canon 
 declares : '• The holy Synod gives it in charge, that all 
 clergy who fall away, and either publicly or privately 
 adhere to the opinions of Nestorius and Coelestius, be 
 deposed." Pelagius had been vigorously opposed by 
 Augustine and Jerome. A favourite principle with 
 Pelagius was the declaration, " I ought, therefore I can." 
 " In his view, Augu.stine's doctrine of total depravity, 
 and of the consequent bondage of the will, cut the nerve 
 of all human effort. He insisted, accordingly, that man 
 is able to do all that God commands. In keeping with 
 this, he denied original sin, holding that since obligation 
 implies ability, the power of choosing the good exists 
 after the Pall precisely as before it. It is apparent that 
 these positions rest upon a theory of freedom quite 
 different from Augustine's. Augustine believed in free- 
 dom in the ordinary actions of life, but taught that in 
 its highest form, as the power to keep God's law, freedom 
 is a lost gift, which only grace can restore. By free- 
 dom Pelagius meant an equipoise of the will, which 
 enables us at any time, whatever our previous history 
 may have been, to choose between the evil and the good " 
 (Prot. Diet.). Cp. further SEMI-PELAGIANISM. See J. 
 H. Blunt: Prot. Diet.; Oath. Diet. 
 
 PELICAN. In mediaeval art the pelican appears fre- 
 quently as an emblem of Christ. The symbolism is 
 explained by St. Augustine in a comment on Psalm cii. 6. 
 "The pelican fervently loveth her young birds. Yet 
 when they be haughty and begin to wax hot, they smite 
 her in the face and wound her. and she ismiteth them 
 and slayeth tliem. And after three days she mourneth 
 for them ; and then striking herself in the side till the 
 Blootl runs out, she sprinkleth it upon their bodies, and 
 by virtue thereof they quicken again. In like manner 
 Christ was beaten and buffeted by the children of men, 
 and yet shed His Wood to give them eternal life " (quoted 
 by Francis Bond). The emblem is called the " Pelican 
 in Piety " or the " Pelican in her Piety." The repre- 
 sentation survives in a number of Churches (e.g., in S. 
 Nicholas Church, Yarmouth). See also Sidney Heath; 
 and cp. W. Carew Hazlitt. 1905. 
 
 PENANCE. The Hindu view of penance is aptly 
 described by S. G. Roberts, Calcutta Review, 1902, quoted 
 by E. Thurston and K. Rangachari. " Briefly stated, it 
 is that anyone who performs any penance for a sufficiently 
 long time acquires such a store of power and virtue that 
 the very gods themselves cannot stand against it. Hindu 
 mythology affords many examples of this belief. Siva 
 himself, in one of his incarnations, saved the whole 
 Indian Olympus and the universe at large from a demi- 
 god, who. by years of penance, had become charged, as 
 it were, with power, like a religious electric ' accumu- 
 lator.' The earl.v sages and heroes of Indian story had 
 greater facilities for the acquisition of this reserve of 
 power, in that their lives lasted for centuries or even 
 a»ons." 
 
 PENITENTIAL PSALMS. A name given to seven of 
 the psalms of the Old Testament, because they express 
 repentance for sin. They are : Psalms vl., xxxii., 
 xxxviii, M., cii., cxxx., cxliii. (in the Latin numeration, 
 vi., xxxi., xxxvii., 1., ci., cxxix., cxlii.). In the Roman 
 Breviary they are placed together, and Pope Innocent 
 III. ordered that they should be recited in lyent. It is 
 not. however, obligatory to recite them in the private 
 recitation of the Breviary. In the Breviary an antiphon 
 " Ne reminiscaris " from Tobit iii. 3 is now attached to 
 them. It was added, it is thought, in the sixteenth 
 century. See the Oath. Diet. 
 
 PENTATEUCH. A term of Greek derivation which 
 is commonly used as a collective title for the first five 
 books of the Old Testament. The Jewidi title is " The
 
 People of God, The 
 
 I^aw" (Torah). The books are: Genesis, Exodus, 
 lyeviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. Modem criticism, 
 however, has shown that the compiler of the sixth book 
 of the Old Testament (Joshua) has made use of the same 
 sources, and that in fact " the book of Joshua originally 
 was an essential member of the group " (C. A. Briggs, 
 Hex.). It is therefore more convenient and correct to 
 speak of the Hexateuch. 
 
 PEOPLE OP GOD, THE. A sect founded by Mary 
 Anne Girling (1827-lS8fi) in Battersea. London. In 1864 
 she declared that in her the Deity had again become 
 incarnate. Her followers .siettled in Hampshire. See 
 the D.:!i.B. 
 
 PEPUZAXS. Another name for the Montanists. 
 They were so called because Pepuza in Phrygia became 
 their headquarters. See MONTANISM. 
 
 PERATICI. Another name for the Essenes (7. v.). 
 They were so called from their settlement at Peraea. 
 
 PERCHTA. Perchta is a figure in Teutonic mythology. 
 She belongs more especially to Southern Germany. 
 Sometimes she is repre.sented as a godde,ss of fertility. 
 In Switzerland and the Tyrol at the beginning of January 
 a procession has long been held in her honour called 
 the Perch ten la u fen or Berchtenlaufen. In Upper Ger- 
 many Perchta or Berehta is represented as surrounded 
 by the children who have died. See P. D. Ohantepie 
 de la Saussaye, Eel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 PERES DU BEAU CHANT, LES. A name given to 
 the fathers of the French Oratory on account of their 
 interest in music. See ORATORY, THE FRENCH 
 
 PERFECTIONISTS. A .sect founded about the year 
 1831 by John Humphrey Noyes (lSll-iS8fi) in Norti 
 America. Xoyes established his community at Oneida 
 Creek in New York State. The principles of the sect are 
 that its members, being reconciled with God, are perfect ; 
 that the two sexes are equal: and that there should be 
 a perfect community of families and goods. Since the 
 members of the sect are perfect, all that they do must 
 be good and pure. Their community of families means 
 a community of women. Hence the Perfectionists are 
 known also as " Free Lovers." Another name for them 
 is Bible Communists. There are now four settlements 
 in America. See J. H. Blunt: Brockhaus. 
 
 PERICOPE ADULTERAB. The section in the Gospel 
 of John containing the story of the adulteress (John vii. 
 53-viii. 12) is thus designated. It is clearly an interpola- 
 tion. It does not appear in a large number of manu- 
 scripts, and " in many a copy it has been merely added, 
 often in a small hand, on the margin " (C. R. Gregory). 
 The verses did not originally form part of the Gospel of 
 John. The story seems to have been widely circulated 
 (at first orally) and read. Eusebius .says that it found 
 a place in the Gospel according to the Hebrews. But 
 there are many various readings. Dr. Gregory thinks 
 that " there are in the whole New Testament no other 
 dozen verses that exhibit such a manifold variation of 
 reading." One of the variations, chiefly found in manu- 
 scripts on Mount Athos, makes the story, as described 
 by Dr. Gregory, very dramatic. " At the close of the 
 eighth verse, when Jesns again turns away from the 
 Pharisees and again writes on the ground, we are told 
 what He wrote. For the sentence is made to say : He 
 wrote upon the ground the sins of each single one of 
 them. Of course, that is aimed at these accusing 
 Pharisees. We see the people crowding around Jesus. 
 In the midst of the group are half a dozen or more scribes 
 and Pharisees, who have brought the woman to Jesus 
 and have stated her sin. They think to lay a snare for 
 Him. They have no fear for themselves. The ninth 
 verse completes the change that turns the tables upon 
 the Pharisees. It does not read : And they when they 
 
 281 Peter, The First Epistle of 
 
 heard it. It reads : And they when they read it The 
 Pharisees accused the woman. Jesus wrote on the 
 ground, affecting not to hear them, as also an old reading 
 suggests They badger Him until He looks up at them 
 and curtly says : He that is without sin among you let 
 him first cast a stone at her. And then He stoops down 
 f^f^^^^^'l'^^'**'® "P<*° ^^^ ground. What is He writing 
 there? The foremost Pharisee is of course the oldest. It 
 wa.s his right to be in front. He looks down at the sand 
 at the word that Jesus has just written, and sees there 
 the name of a great sin that he has done, but which he 
 
 i Jt^l'® T.**"^ *''• ""? ''°'^- ^"^e a flash his conscience 
 wakens. Verse ninth says : And they, when thev read 
 It, being convicted by their conscience, went out one by 
 one, beginning from the eldest unto the last. This olde^ 
 Pharisee has turned and edged his way out of the crowd 
 as fast as he could. Jesus has swept His hand across 
 the sand to .smoothe it over, and has again written some- 
 thing. This word the next Pharisee reads, and recognis- 
 ing a hidden sin of his own, he too flees And thus it 
 goes on till the accusers are all away. And Jesus is left 
 alone with the woman in the centre of the group of 
 people. Jesus looks up at her and asks her— we can hear 
 the scathing irony of the words— Where are thev' Doth 
 no man condemn thee? Yes, indeed. He may' well a«k 
 where they are. They have gone ofT. thinking of their 
 own sms. Their own thoughts are now accusing and 
 perhaps weakly excusing them, but chiefly oond»mning 
 them. And the woman answers : No man. Lord \nd 
 Jesus said : Neither do I condemn thee. Go thv way 
 and from henceforth sin no more." See C R Gre'-orv 
 PERIODEUT^. The Periodeutre are mentioned by 
 Cosmas Indicopleustes as an order of Xestorian itinerant 
 preachers who were active in N.W. India (535 A D ) 
 Losmas Indicopleustes was a Greek merchant who vi.sited 
 India. 
 
 PERUMaL. a synonym of Vishnu, the great Hindu 
 deity The name is taken by some of the Pallis, a caste 
 m India. 
 
 PERUNU. Perunu was the supreme god of the ancient 
 nJn\^T^ '^^^ ^^^ ^ wooden idol of the god at Kief in 
 9.S0 A.D., with a silver head and a golden beard, holding 
 in his hand a thunderbolt " (Reinach). This seems to be 
 the god of the Slavs referred to by Procopius as forging 
 thunderbolts and as being the sole master of the universe 
 He would correspond to .some extent to Jupiter and 
 Thor (q.v.). The name for Thur.sdav among the Baltic 
 Slavs is Perendan. Reinach thinks this implies that the 
 god of thunder and of heaven had a name akin to 
 Perunu. See Reinach, O. 
 
 PERVIGILIUM. This was the name given bv the 
 ancients to a vigil in honour of a deity The " Per- 
 vigilium Veneris " is also the name of a Latin hvmn 
 dating from the third century A.D. 
 
 PESaCHIM. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D and 
 are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holv, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Pesachim is the third tractate of the second 
 group, which is called Mo'ed (" Festival ") 
 
 PETER, THE FIRST EPISTLE OF. The First 
 Epistle General of Peter claims to be bv the well-known 
 apostle of that name, and the claim is strongly attested 
 by the external evidence. The Epistle was known to the 
 author of the Second Epistle of Peter, to Polvcarp, to 
 the author of the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, and 
 (according to Eusebius) to Papias. It is quoted as the 
 work of Peter by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Ter-
 
 Peter, The Second Epistle of 
 
 282 
 
 Philemon, Epistle of Paul to 
 
 tullian and Origen. It is reckoned by Ensebius and 
 Origen as one of the quite authentic books of the New 
 Testament. It is not, it is true, included in the Mura- 
 torian Canon; but it is found in the earliest versions. 
 The internal evidence is not so strong. No visit of Peter 
 to the " sojourners of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, 
 Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia." to -whom the letter is 
 addressed is known. Paul was closely assoc-iated with 
 them, and yet he is not mentioned. If the Babylon in v. 
 1.3 is a name for Rome, Mark and the author of the 
 epi-stle were in Kome when it was written. Does this 
 mean that Paul, who is not mentioned, was dead? The 
 author seems to have made use of some of the Epistles of 
 Paul (Romans xii. and siii. ; Galatians iii. and v.: 
 Ephesians ii. and iv.), and his whole epistle is Influenced 
 bv Pauline teaching. Prof. Peake thinks it ds no use 
 minimising the extent of the Pauline influence. " We 
 mav rather state the problem in this form. Granting 
 that the dominant influence is that of Paul, is this incom- 
 patible witii Petrine authorship? It should be observed 
 that the influence of Christ's teaching is not wholly 
 absent, and there are reminiscences which gain much of 
 their point if they are seen to rest on the personal recol- 
 lections of an eye-witness." Peake thinks it not un- 
 natural that Peter should have come to assign a chief 
 place to the death and resurrection of Christ, and points 
 out that in this particular epistle the writer wishes, at 
 a time when a State persecution has begun, " to 
 encourage the readers to patient endurance, and even .ioy 
 in their distress." But what was this State persecution? 
 That is another difficulty. If Peter wrote the epistle, it 
 must have been the persecution in the time of Nero. 
 Ramsay thinks, however, that the relations of Church 
 and State, as they are indicated in the Epistle, imply a 
 date not earlier than 80 A.D. Others (e.g., P. W. 
 Schmledel) think the date implied Is not earlier than the 
 edict of Trajan in his letter to Pliny. Others again 
 (e.g.. Von Soden) assign the epistle to about 92-96 A.D. 
 (reign of Domitian). On the other hand, Mommsen 
 thinks that the circumstances do not preclude the time 
 of Nero. If Peter was not the author of the Epistle, it 
 has been suggested that it may have been written by 
 Paul, Barnabas, or Silvanus. Barnabas is .supposed to 
 have written two other epistles, the Epistle to tiie 
 Hebrews, and the Epistle of Barnabas. A number of 
 writings were fathered on Peter [e.g., the "Gospel of 
 Peter." the " Preaching of Peter." the " Apocalypse of 
 Peter). See the Encjicl. Bihl.; J. A. M-Clymont: G. 
 Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake, Intr.: J. Moffatt, Intr. 
 PETER, THE SECOND EPISTLE OF. What is 
 known as the Second General Epistle of Peter is one of 
 the most puzzling books in the New Testament. In 
 jrart it so clo.sely resembles the Epistle of .Tude that one 
 writer must have c-opied the other (cp. II. Peter ii. 1- 
 iii. 3 with Jude vss. 4-18). There are good grounds for 
 thinking that it was the author of II. Peter who came 
 second (.see JUDE). In that case the author can hardly 
 have been Peter. It is true that the author speaks in 
 the name of Peter (cp. iii. 1; i. 16-lS), but the style of 
 the Epistle is different from that of the First Epistle of 
 Peter. Again, there are references to the Epistles of 
 Paul which can hardly be reconciled with Petrine author- 
 ship. " They are spoken of as if a collection of them 
 had been formed; they had already been the object of 
 considerable misinterpretation. What is most remark- 
 able of all is that they are spoken of as Scripture " (A. 
 S. Peake). Further, as Currie Martin says, the whole con- 
 tent of the Second Epistle of Peter "points to a much later 
 period in the history of the Church than anything that 
 could be covered by the Ife of the Apostle." The external 
 evidence for the Epistle is very weak. Origen (third 
 
 century) is the fir.st to mention it, and he is doubtful 
 about its authorship. Eusebius speaks of it as a work 
 the genuineness of which was disputed. It is not in- 
 cluded in the Muratorian Canon, nor in the old Latin 
 or Syriac Versions. Other writings besides this were 
 fathered on Peter, and Prof. Peake points out that the 
 authenticity of the "Apocalypse of Peter" 'is better 
 attested by the Early Church than that of the First 
 Epilstle of Peter. Currie Martin thinks the date of the 
 Second EpLstle must be later than 140 A.D. Peake also 
 thinks it can hardly be much earlier than the middle of 
 the second century. This seems to be suggested by the 
 nature of the false teaching to which reference is made. 
 " This date is also confirmed by the close relationship 
 with the Apocal.vpse of Peter. No certain conclusion 
 can be reached as to the place of composition, but the 
 affinities with Philo and Clement of Alexandria point to 
 Egypt, in which also the Apocalypse of Peter was pro- 
 bably written" (A. S. Peake). See J. A. M'Clymont; 
 G. Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake, Intr.; J. Moffatt, 
 Intr. 
 
 PETER'S CHAINS. FEAST OF. A festival in honour 
 of St. Peter observed in the Roman Church on the 1st 
 of August. See LAMMAS DAY. 
 
 PHAISTOS DISK. A monument containing strange 
 hieroglyphs which have not been deciphered yet. It 
 originated perhaps in Lycia or Oaria. According to Sir 
 Arthur Evans, it may be a religious chant composed in 
 honour of the Anatolian Great Mother. 
 
 PHANBBALOS. A deity worshipped at Ascalon in 
 the Graeco-Roman age. It is doubtful whether the deity 
 was a war-god or a solar god. 
 
 PHENOMENALISM. The term Phenomenalism is 
 used sometimes to describe the philosophy of George 
 Berkeley (16S.5-1753). Berkeley contends that so-called 
 material things are in reality only phenomenal. They 
 are appearances, and are not copies of real things. 
 Matter is not an absolute substance. The only absolute 
 substance is Mind or Spirit. See BERKELBTISM. • 
 
 PHILADELPHIAN CHCRCH. A name assumed by 
 the followers of Joanna Southcott (1750-1814). See 
 SOUTHCOTTIANS. 
 
 PHILADELPHIANS. A name assumed by the 
 followers of Jane Lead or Leade (1623-1704). Jane Leade 
 was an enthusiastic student of the mystical writings of 
 Jacob Boehme (1575-1624). She herself claimed to have 
 had prophetic vi.sions. She gave an account of them in 
 a work publi-shed in 1683, " The Revelation of Revela- 
 tions." In 1695 she founded, with the help of her friends, 
 a society described as " The Philadelphian Society for 
 tie Advancement of Piety and Divine Philosophy." The 
 idea was to form a union of all persons of every church 
 and sect who were really regenerate. The " Theosophical 
 Transactions " of the Society were edited by Francis Lee 
 (1661-1719). See J. H. Bhnit; the D.Ti.B. 
 
 PHILEMON, EPISTLE OF PAUL TO. The Epistle 
 of Paul the Apostle to Philemon is one of the briefest 
 compositions in the Bible. It consists of only twenty- 
 five verses. It is in fact a short private letter — so short 
 and in-signlficant that in the fourth century A.D. certain 
 writers thought it could not have been written by the 
 Apo.stle Paul. In more recent times it has been held 
 (e.g., by F. C. Baur) to have been invented in order to 
 depict the ideal relations that should subsist between 
 master and slave. This view, however, has not found 
 much acceptance. It is true that there is not much 
 external evidence for the epistle. It is not referred to by 
 many early Christian writers. But it is found in the 
 Canon of Marcion and the Muratorian Canon; and it has 
 been reasonably urged that the silence of early Christian 
 writ/ers is no doubt due to the fact that the Epistle is
 
 Philippines 
 
 283 
 
 Phylacteries 
 
 not of a doctrinal character. To many scbolars the 
 epistle seems thoroughly Pauline. " The internal 
 evidence," says Prof. Peake, " is decisive. No one could 
 have imitated Paul in so inimitable a way, nor could any 
 plausible reason be assigned for its composition in Paul's 
 name." Moreover, it is closely connected with the 
 Epistle to the Colossians (cp. Oolossians iv. 7-18; 
 Philemon, v.ss. 2, 10-12. 23, 24). Philemon had a slave 
 Onesimus who robbed his master and ran away to Rome, 
 where he came under the influence of Paul and became 
 a convert. The Apostle became much attached to him, 
 but since the slave was the lawful possession of Philemon. 
 he felt he could not retain him. When Tychicus returned 
 to Asia the ApostJe sent back the slave to his master. 
 At the same time he sent a letter to Philemon pleading 
 for a merciful reception and restoration. " Paul does not 
 write an abolitionist pamphlet, but presents the neces- 
 eary solvent of slavery in the doctrine of universal 
 brotherhood in Christ Jesus " (G. Currie Martin). The 
 Epistle may perhaps have been written at Rome in 62-fi.3 
 A.D. See the Encycl. Bihl.; J. A. M'Clymont; G. Ciirrie 
 Martin: A. S. Peake, Intr.; J. Moflfatt, Intr. 
 
 PHILIPPINES. A sub-sect of the Russian dissenters 
 known as Bezpopovtzi. They refused to do military 
 service or to swear allegiance to the Czar, and they 
 observe only two Sacraments, Baptism and the Ix>rd'"s 
 Supper. 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 Another name for the Victoria Institute iq.v.). 
 
 PHISIOLATRY. The worship of the forces and 
 phenomena of nature. 
 
 PHCBNIX. The phoenix was adopted in Christian art 
 as a symlx)] of the resurrection. It is represented in 
 the Catacombs of Rome by the side of St. Paul, and over 
 the doorway of the ancient basilica of St. Paul at Rome 
 is a sculptured figure of it. Sidney Heath quotes a 
 passage by St. Clement of Rome which dwells upon the 
 suitability of the emblem. " Let us consider that 
 wonderful sign which occurs in the Eastern countries; 
 that is to say, Arabia. There is a certain bird called a 
 Phuenix. It is the only one of its kind, and dt lives iiOO 
 years. When tJie time of its dissolution draws near that 
 it must die, it makes itself a nest of frankincense, mvrrh, 
 and other spices, into which, when its time is fulfilled. 
 It enters and dies. But as its flesh decays, a certain 
 kind of worm is generated, which being nourished with 
 the juice of the dead bird, puts forth feathers; and when 
 it is grown to a perfect .state, it takes up the nest in 
 which the bones of its dead parent lie, and carries it from 
 Arabia, in Egypt, to the citv called Heliopolis." See 
 further W. Carew Hazlitt. 
 
 PHOL. Phol seems to have been one of the deities 
 of the Ancient Teutons. The name occurs in one of the 
 Merseburg Charms (q.v.') in close conjunction with that 
 of Wodan (q.v.). But Phol does not appear elsewhere, 
 except in German place-names. It has been suggested 
 that Phol is identical with Balder (q.v.). or is a corrupt 
 form of the name Apollo. Another .suggestion is Ihat 
 Phol is none other than the Apo.stle Paul. See P. D. 
 Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Tputon.i, 1902 
 
 PHOTINIANS. The followers or .school of Photinus. 
 Photinus was bishop of Sirmium in Pannonia and a 
 disciple of Marcellus of Ancyra fsee MARCELLIANS). 
 He was condemned by a .<!ynod held at Antioch A.D. 344, 
 and afterward.s by several other svnods. In the first 
 canon of the Council of Con.stantinople C3S1 A.D.) the 
 heresy of the Photinians is anathematized together with 
 that of the Sabellians, Marcellians, and others. These 
 schools had much in common. Tyrannius Ruflnus, 
 presbyter of Aquileia, writing about 400 A.D.. refers to 
 Photinus as the successor of Paul of Samosata, from 
 
 which It would appear that to a large extent he 
 identified the teaching of the two men. Photinus 
 agreetl with other Monarchians In holding " that 
 Jesus Christ was born of the Holv Ghost and the 
 Virgin Mary; that a certain iiortion of the Divine Sub- 
 stance, which he called the Word, descended uiK>n and 
 acted through the man Jesus Christ; that on account of 
 this association of the Word with the human nature 
 .Jesus was called the Son of Go<l, and even God Himself; 
 that the Holy Ghost was not a di.stinct Person, but a 
 celestial virtue proceeding from the Deity " (J. H. Blunt) 
 I'hotinus differed from I>anl of Samosata in regarding 
 the Divine element in Jesus' Person as " substantivum " 
 or " ousiodes " (substantial), whereas Paul regarded it 
 as " pro.sphorikon." Photinus held, with the later Sabel- 
 lians " that there acted in and through the man Jesus 
 an element from the nature of tlie Deity, impersonal, yet 
 sub.stantive, which is to be again resumed into the 
 Deity." See J. H. Blunt; Catli. Diet. 
 
 PHOTISMS. A term applied to certain psychic 
 phenomena associated with profound religious experi- 
 ences. A knowled.ge of such experiences probably lies 
 behind the Old Testament story of the Burning "Bush 
 (q.v.), the New Testament story of St. Paul's conversion, 
 and the story in Church History of the Emperor Con- 
 .stantine's conversion fsee CONVERSION). The appear- 
 ance of luminous phenomena or photisms has been re- 
 ported frequently. One of the examples given by William 
 James is as follows. President Finney writes": " All at 
 once the glorj- of God shone upon and around about me 
 in a manner almost marvellous. ... A light perfectly 
 ineffable .shone in my soul, that almost prostrated me on 
 the ground. . . . This light seemed like the bright- 
 ness of the sun in every direction. It was too intense 
 for the eyes. ... I think I knew something then, by 
 actual ex-perience, of that light that prostrated Paul on 
 the way to Damascus. It was surely a light such as I 
 could not have endured long." In some cases, however, 
 the language is merely metaphorical. See William 
 James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, 1900. 
 
 PHYLACTERIES. In tie Gospel of Matthew (q.v.) 
 Jesus is represented as saying (xxiii. 5), with reference 
 to the Scribes and Pharisees : " But all their works 
 they do for to be seen of men : they make broad 
 their phylacteries, and enlarge the borders of their gar- 
 ments." The word phylacteries is Greek. It was used 
 as the equivalent of the Hebrew word Totafoth (FRONT- 
 LETS). In the Old Testament it is .said (Deuteronomy 
 vi. 8), with reference to the words of God : " And thoii 
 .Shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, and they 
 shall be for frontlets between thine eyes." The practice 
 of writing sacred words or formulason pieces of parch- 
 ment and using them as amulets and charms has been 
 common among primitive folk. The passage in 
 
 Deuteronomy may be understood in this way. It is 
 possible, however, that originally the words "were not 
 intended to be taken literally. In any case, in course 
 of time they came to be interpreted " literally, and it 
 became the custom to wear phylacteries. The phylactery 
 was a small black square box made of skin. The box 
 contained passages from the Old Testament (the Torah) 
 written on i>archment. It was attached to the arm or 
 head of a per.son by long leather straps. The box, the 
 parchment, and the straps had to be made of the skin 
 of a "clean" animal. In the Targums the Aramaic 
 equivalent of phylacteries is Tefillln (the Hebrew word 
 in the Singular, tefillah, means " pra.ver "). This is the 
 term which has come into common use among the Jews. 
 They speak of the " Arm-Tefillah " (or Hand-Tefillah) 
 and the " Head-Teflllah." The Tefillln are now worn 
 during the daily morning service; but it is not considered
 
 Pietism 
 
 284 
 
 Pirqe Aboth 
 
 necessary to wear them on Sabbaths or Holy Days. They 
 are not worn bv women; nor by boys until they are 
 thirteen years oid. See W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. 
 Box. 
 
 PIETISM. A religious movement in Germany in the 
 seventeenth century. Its founder was P. J. Spener 
 (1635-1705) ; its centre in course of time was Halle. The 
 Pietists attached importance rather to a religion of the 
 heart than to a religion of dead formalism and orthodoxy. 
 In 1(570 Spener held in his own house at Frankfort 
 gatherings at which the Bible was read and explained. 
 In course of time (about 1675) this institution came to 
 be linown as Collegia Pietatis, and the school of Spener 
 as Pietists. In 1675 Spener published a work which 
 attracted widespread attention : " Pia Desideria, or 
 Earnest Wishes for the Good Improvement of tie True 
 Evangelical Church, with some Christian Proposals for 
 that end." In 1686 Spener went to Dresden as Chief 
 Court Preacher. Here amongst his pupils were A. H. 
 Francke (1663-1727) of the University of Leipzig, P. 
 Anton, and C. Schade. Francke established Pietism in 
 Leipzig by instituting the Collegium Philobiblicum. At 
 Francke's gatherings amongst other matters Luther's 
 translation of the Bible was criticised. At this and at 
 the simple life and dress of the Pietists the Theological 
 Faculty of Leipzig, which was conservative, took offence. 
 The Pietists had to leave the University of Leipzig. In 
 1691 Spener removed from Dresden to Berlin, as Provost 
 of the Church of St. Nicholas. In 1692 Francke was 
 appointed Professor at Halle, which now became the 
 centre and home of Pietism. The famous Francke Insti- 
 tutions (Franckesche Stiftungen; Schools, Home for 
 Orphans, Dispensary, Printing-house, etc.), which are so 
 extensive as to form a town within a tovpn, are a living 
 witness to the practical Christianity of Pietism. 
 Pietism as a theological movement, however, was opposed 
 In various parts of Germany. The orthodox Lutheran 
 party probably regarded it, as K. F. A. Kahnis (1814- 
 1888) regarded it, as ministering indirectly to Rationalism. 
 Two reforms in particular were demanded by the Pietists. 
 " First, that the theological schools should be re- 
 formed by the aboliton of all systematic theology, 
 philosophy, and metaphysics, and that morals and not 
 doctrine should form the staple of all preaching; secondly, 
 that only those per.sons should be admitted into the 
 Lutheran ministry whose lives were examples of living 
 piety " (J. H. Blunt). After the death of Francke in 
 1727 Pietism degenerated into a kind of fanaticism. See 
 A. S. Farrar, Crlt. Hist, of Free Thought, 1862; B. 
 Puenjer: J. H. Blunt; Brockhaus; Chambers' Encycl. 
 
 PI(3E0NS. According to Lucian, pigeons were sacred 
 in Hierapolis, and were not u.sed for food. He tells 
 us also that the lower half of Semiramis took the form 
 of a pigeon. A special sanctity seems to have been 
 ascribed to the pigeon by the Hebrews (ep. Lev. xix. 4, 
 49; Num. vi. 10). 
 
 PILLAN. The name (Supreme Essence) in the 
 mythology of the Araucanian Indians of Chili for the 
 supreme deity. Pillan seems to be a thunder-god 
 resembling the Mexican Tlaloc. 
 
 PILLAR OF CLOUD AND FIRE. The Old Te.stament 
 relates that after the Exodus of the children of L«rael 
 from Egypt, Jehovah went before the people in a pillar 
 of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night (Exodus 
 xiii. 21 f.). On one occasion the pillar of cloud moved 
 to the rear of the people to prevent the Egyptians from 
 overtaking them (Exodus xiv. 19b, 206.). This is the 
 representation of the Jehovist (J). The Pillar. of Cloud, 
 as the Elohist (E) knows it, is a cloud which descends 
 from time to time in front of the " Tent of Meeting " 
 {q.v.) to indicate the divine presence (Exodus xxxiii. 7-11; 
 
 Numbers xii. 5; Deateronomy xxxi. 15). The Priestly 
 Writer (P) thinks of the cloud as being present over the 
 Tabernacle from its completion until the end of the 
 wanderings of the children of Lsrael (Exodus xl. .38; 
 Numbers ix. 16). By night there was fire in the cloud. 
 A rationalistic explanation of the cloud would be that 
 in front of the caravan was carried a fire which indicated 
 tie line of march by its smoke in the daytime and by its 
 flames at night. It was the practice of the ancient 
 Babylonians, Persians, and others to carry such a fire in 
 a brazier. It is not impossible, however, that the C'on- 
 ception of the pillar of cloud and fire originated in a 
 spiritual experience (cp. BURNING BUSH). Moses, 
 having once in an in.spired and ecstatic state seen a burn- 
 ing light, would always associate the divine presence with 
 fire and smoke. So when the children of Israel journeyed 
 from Egypt Moses felt that Jehovah was leading them, 
 and in front of them he saw, or believed he saw, some 
 physical manifestation of the divine presence. G. B. 
 Gray points out that the word used for cloud in this con- 
 nection, 'dndti, may mean a cloud of smoke as well as an 
 atmospheric cloud. See Encycl. Bibl. 
 
 PILLAR-SAINTS. To stand on a pillar was an early 
 form of asceticism. The practice was adopted by 
 Christian ascetics and mystics, such as Simeon Stylites 
 (A.D. 388-460) and Joshua Stylites (fl. A.D. 507), when 
 apparently it had come to be regarded as pious because 
 it was painful. This, however, was hardly the original 
 idea. Lucian states that at the entrance to the temple 
 of Hierapolis there were two phalli (or pillars) erected 
 in honour of Dionysus, and tiat twice every year a man 
 mounted to the top of one of them and remained there 
 seven days. He describes his ascent by means of a 
 chain (§ 29). Then he continues : " When he has climbed 
 to the top, he lets down a different chain, a long one, 
 and drags up anything that he wants, such as wood, 
 clothing, and vases; he binds these together and sits upon 
 them, as it were on a nest, and he remains there for the 
 space of time that I have mentioned. Many visitors 
 bring him gold and silver, and some bring brass; then 
 those who have brought these offerings leave them and 
 depart, and each visitor gives his name. A bystander 
 shouts the name up; and he on hearing the name utters 
 a prayer for each donor; between the prayers he raises 
 a sound on a brazen instrument which, on being shaken, 
 gives forth a loud and grating noise " (transl. by H. A. 
 Strong). The man never sleeps. This is said to be from 
 fear of a scorpion; but Lucian suggests that his wakeful- 
 ness was due rather to his fear of falling off the pillar. 
 It was believed popularly that the man mounted the 
 pillar to be nearer to the god (cp. E. S. Bouchier). 
 
 PILZINTECUTLI. A Mexican deitv, a sun-god. 
 
 PIONEER PREACHERS. A band of preachers who 
 disseminated the gospel of the " I^eague of Liberal 
 Christian Thought and Social Service " {q.v.). 
 
 PIRQE ABOTH. The work which bears this title 
 (literally " Chapters of the Fathers"; but often trans- 
 lated " Sayings of the Fathers") may be described as a 
 Hebrew classic. It has been honoured with a place in 
 the Hebrew Prayer Book. The work is included .in the 
 Mislmah as the ninth tractate of the fourti series. Its 
 purpose, as H. L. Strack says, is in the first place to 
 prove the continuity and oonsequentl.v the authority of 
 tradition, and in the second place to give practical advice. 
 The opening i>ortion of the book professes to give in 
 chronological order the names of the oldest scribes who 
 were members of what is known as The Great Syna- 
 gogue (q.v.). The line is traced up to Hillel and 
 Shammai. There follow sayings bv men of the House 
 of Hillel up to Gamaliel ben Jehudah (c. 230 A.D.), by 
 Hillel himself, by Hillel's disciple, Johanau ben Zakkai,
 
 Pirzada Sect 
 
 285 
 
 Platonism 
 
 and by Jolianan's five disciples. The rest of the book 
 contains a number of sayings by Tannalm (q.iK). some 
 anonymous sayings, and sayings by Jehudah ben TemA, 
 by Ben Bag Bag, and by Ben He He. The oolleefrion is 
 probably to a considerable extent the work of Rabbi 
 'AqibS, but the original collection was supplemented. 
 The following is an example of one of the sayings in the 
 latter portion of the book. " Rabbi Jos? ben Qosma 
 eaid, ■ Once I was walking along the road, when a man 
 met me and greeted me and I returned his greeting. He 
 said to me. Rabbi, what place do you come from? I 
 said, I come from a great city, a city of sages and scrilies. 
 He said to me. Rabbi, if thou wilt consent to dwell with 
 us in our place. I will give thee a million denars of gold 
 and precious stones and pearls. I said to him. My son, 
 if you were to give me all the silver and gold and precious 
 srtones and pearls in the world I could only dwell in a 
 place where the I^w is, for at the hour of a man's 
 decease it is not silver or gold or precious stones or pearls 
 that can accompanying him, but only the law and good 
 deeds' " fvi. 9 6). In 1877 Charles Taylor published an 
 edition of The Sayings of the Jewish Fathers with 
 critical and illustrative Notes. H. L. Strack's edition. 
 Die Spriiohe der Vdter (1888), gives the Hebrew text with 
 notes. 
 
 PIRZaDA sect. a religious sect in India. It has 
 " a kind of reformed creed, based on a mixture of Hin- 
 duism and Islam " (R. V. Russell and R. B. Hira Lfil). 
 
 PISCINA. Piscina, literally a {tool for fish, is one of 
 the names used by ancient writers for the Christian 
 baptismal font. According to Optatus (c. A.D. 371), 
 '• the name piscina, given to the baptismal font of which 
 the water, the element of fishes, purifies us from all stain 
 and becomes the means of salvation, is derived from fish, 
 symbolising Him from whom we are nourished, healed, 
 and redeemed " (quoted by Sidney Heath). 
 
 PISHaRATIS. A sub-caste of the Amhalavasi caste 
 in India. The name appears also as Pishfirodis. '• Their 
 primary occupation is to prepare garlands of flgwers for 
 Vaishnava temples, but they frequently undertake the 
 talikazhakam or sweeping service in temples. . . . 
 They are strict Vaishuavites. and the ashtiikshara, or 
 eight letters relating to Vi.shnu, as opposed to the 
 panchak.fhara or five letters relating to Siva, forms their 
 daily hymn of prayer " (E. Thurston). 
 
 PITHI. Pithi or Ptithi or Pithioteu is one of the gods 
 of the Todas. He is said to have been bom in a cave. 
 
 PIX, THE. The pix or pyx was a box in which the 
 consecrated wafer, or the host, was placed. For the use 
 of the term Sidney Heath quotes the second of the 
 ordinances for the government of the army made in the 
 reign of Richard II. (138«1. "Also that "no man be so 
 hardy to touche the sacrament of the aulter nor the pyxe 
 wherein it is enclosed upon payne to be draune, hanged, 
 and his hedde to be .<?meten of." 
 
 PIZLIMTEC. A tribal deity, god of singing, in the 
 (religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 PLACENTA, THE. The ancient Egyptians made a 
 statue of a deceased person for the " soul " to dwell in 
 after death. They made the statue because they were 
 not able to make an adequately life-like reproduction of 
 the dead man's features upon the mummy itself or its 
 wrappings. Then gradually the idea took .«hape that the 
 life-substance could exist apart from the body as a 
 "double" or "twin" (ka) which animate<l the statue. 
 WTiat was there to substantiate this curious idea of a 
 double? An ansrwer to this question has been suggested 
 by Elliot Smith and others. " When an infant is bom 
 It is accompanied by the after-birth or placenta to which 
 it is linked by the umbilical cord. The full comprehens- 
 ion of the significance of these stmctures is an achieve- 
 
 ment of modem science. To primitive man they were an 
 incomprehensible marvel. But once he began to play 
 with the idea that he had a double, a vital essence in his 
 own shape which could leave the sleeping body and lead 
 a seimrate existence, the placenta obviously provided 
 tangible evidence of its reality. The considerations set 
 forth by Blackman, supplementing those of Moret, 
 Murray and Seligman, and others, have been claimed as 
 linking the placanta with the ka " (G. Elliot Smith, Dr., 
 1919). The ka is conceivtKi as a double who is born along 
 with the individual, and then as a kind of guardian 
 angel who inhabits the statue of a deceased person. 
 " This material conception of tJie ka as a double who is 
 bom with and closely linked to the individual is, as 
 Blackman has emphasized, very suggestive of Baganda 
 beliefs and rites connected with the placenta. At death 
 the circumstances of the act of birth are reconstituted, 
 and for this rebirth the placenta which played an 
 essential imrt in the original process is restored to the 
 deceased. May not the original meaning of the expres- 
 sion " he goes to his An " be a literal description of this 
 reunion with his placenta? The identification of tlie ka 
 with the moon, the guardian of the dead man's welfare, 
 may have enriched the symbolism." A Chinese work 
 recommends the storing away of the placenta in a 
 felicitous spot under the salutary influences of the sky 
 or the moon in order that the child may be ensured a 
 long life. 
 
 PLATONISM. The philo.sophy of Plato (427-347 B.C.), 
 whose real name was Aristocles, is a form of Idealism. 
 He denied the real existence of the objects of sense which 
 are changing continually. Real Being belongs only to 
 Ideas, which are unchangeable and eternal. The objects 
 of sense are but imperfect copies of Ideas, the perfect 
 types. And the highest Idea of all is tie Idea of the 
 Good. This is the foundation or first cause of know- 
 ledge and of all Being. This, " the Good in itself," is 
 God. It is explained in the Repiihlic (bk. vi.) that as 
 the .sun is the cause which makes things to be and to 
 grow and to become visible, so the Gooil is of such power 
 and beauty that it bestows Truth and Being upon every- 
 thing that is an object of knowledge, and as the snn is 
 high above the visible, so the Good in it.self is high above 
 Knowledge and Truth. From the point of view of re- 
 ligion, the important question with regard to Platonism 
 is : Does it comfort and console men? Or the question 
 may be put in another way : What then is Plato's con- 
 ception of happiness? The answer may be given in the 
 words of Rudolf Eucken. " His conception of happiness 
 involves an energetic negation and rejection of the usual 
 human existence : all the happiness which is there offered 
 and commended seems to him fleeting, external, and 
 illu.s!ory. But science reveals to the thinker the possi- 
 bility of contemplating an ex-temal order of things which, 
 in accordance with his characteristic tendency towards 
 grandeur and vividness of conception, becomes co- 
 ordinated into a whole, the world of ideas. This ideal 
 world, with all its superiority, is not intrinsically alien 
 to us, but he who strives with all his might to attain it 
 can gain complete possession of it and make it his own 
 life and being. In this appropriation of a real and per- 
 fect world the thinker finds a happiness which is beyond 
 compari.son with anything else that life offers. But even 
 the individual life of man takes another course when a 
 higher world is thus revealed to him : it is in particular 
 the combination of scientific thought with the formative 
 activity of art which everywhere reveals great tasks and 
 leads to genuine happiness. ... In the possession of 
 such happiness, which is grounded in his own nature, 
 man may feel himself .sui)erior to all fate, for this inner 
 harmony cannot be destroyed or even diminished by any-
 
 Pleroma 
 
 286 
 
 Poseidoniastae 
 
 thing tliat comes from outside. Thus Plato sketches 
 that magnificent picture of the suffering just man, who 
 is misjudged and persecuted even unto death, but 
 through all the attacks upon him actually gains in inward 
 happiness . . The chief distinction of this doctrine 
 
 of happiness lies in the fact that it brings the internal 
 disposition and its manifestation, the good and the beauti- 
 ful, into the closest connection, but represents the whole 
 as finding its joy and motive force immediately in itself. 
 Here all petty calculation of private advantage, all 
 thoughts of reward and punishment, have sunk out of 
 sight" See O. Sevffert. Diet.; C. J. Deter: Kndolf 
 Eucken, The Life of the Spirit, 1909; Max B. Weinstein. 
 Welt- und Leten-anschavungen, 1910. 
 
 PLEROMA. Pleroma means literally "that which is 
 filled " or " that with which a thing is filled " or the 
 " full number." The term is used in Gnosticism (q.v.) 
 of the complete number of seons or ineffable beings. See 
 VALENTINIANS. 
 
 PLUMSTEAD PECULIARS. A designation of the 
 Faith-healers who are better known as Peculiar People 
 (q.v.). 
 
 PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. The followers of J. N. 
 Darby. The body known as Plymouth Brethren in the 
 British Empire and in America are on the Continent 
 commonly called Darbyites (q.v.). 
 
 PLYNTERIA. An Athenian festival, the washing 
 festival of the goddess Athene, held on the twenty-fifth 
 or twenty-ninth of Thargelion. Athene's image was 
 carried in procession to the sea and bathed in the waters. 
 Plutarch says that on that day " the Praxiergidfe 
 solemnize their secret rites : they remove all the orna- 
 ments from her image and cover it up "; and according 
 to Xenophon, " none of the Athenians would venture to 
 transact anv serious business on this day " (both quoted 
 by Button Webster). Hutton Webster thinks it probable 
 that at one time the Plynteria was " a rite of purifica- 
 tion preliminary to the bringing-in of the first-fruits, and 
 hence a rite which must have existed long before its 
 ascription to the protecting deity of Athens." See Jane 
 E. Harrison, Prol.; and Hutton Webster, K.D. 
 
 POKUNT. A term used among the Shoshune of N. 
 America to denote a mystic potentiality ascribed to beings 
 whether human or non-human, living or not living. 
 Pokunt .seems to be a force, and not a personal being. 
 
 POLYGLOT. A term applied to editions of the Bible 
 containing the text in several languages. The most 
 important Polyglots are : (1) the Oomplutensian Polyglot 
 which Cardinal Ximenes had published at Alcala (Com- 
 plutum) in six volumes (1514-1.517) ; (2) the Antwerp 
 Polyglot, which was published in eight volumes (1569- 
 72); (3) the Paris Polyglot, which was produced in ten 
 volumes (1629-45); and (4) the London Polyglot in ten 
 languages, edited by Bryan Walton (1600?-lf)61) in six 
 volumes (lfi54-.57). In 1669 a Ivexicon in two volumes by 
 Edmund Oastell (1606-1685) was added to Walton's Poly- 
 glot. Bag.ster'8 Polyglot, published in 1831, gives the 
 Old Testament in Hebrew, Greek, Latin. English, 
 German, Italian, French, and Spanish; and the New 
 Testament in nine languages. The Polyglot published by 
 Stier and Theile in (Jermany (five editions, 1875-94) is in 
 Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German. 
 
 PO-NAGAR. The goddess of agriculture among the 
 Chams of Binh-Thuan in Indo-China. J. G. Frazer 
 explains that the tilling of the earth seems to be regarded 
 as " a crime which must be perpetuated secretly and 
 afterwards atoned for." The owner of the land pretends 
 to be unaware who has ploughed it, and then brings 
 offerings to Po-Nagar and the other deities. When the 
 rice has grown high enough to hide pigeons, offerings are 
 
 again made, and finally first-fruits are presented. See 
 J. G. Frazer, Spirits of the Corn, 1912. 
 
 POOR CLARES. An order of nuns (called in French 
 Clarisses) founded by Clara Seiffi of Assisi (1194-1253), 
 who had come under the influence and inspiration of 
 Francis of Assisi. Clara Seiffi practised a very severe 
 form of asceticism. Under the constitutions drawn up 
 by Cardinal Ugolino, the Nuns of St. Clare, " observed 
 a perpetual fast, and on three days of the week in Lent 
 fasted on bread and water; they lay on boards; their 
 ha'bit was rough and of coarse material; and they could 
 not speak to one another at any time without the 
 superior's leave " (Catholic Dictionary). In the rule 
 written by St. Francis in 1224. and approved by Pope 
 Innocent IV. in 1246, the severity of these practices was 
 mitigated .somewhat. In a rule drawn up in 1264, and 
 approved by Pope Urban IV., the practices were further 
 mitigated. This led to a division of the order into two 
 branches, the Urbanists, who adopted the mildest form 
 of the rule, and the Clarisses, who adhered to the stricter 
 rule. In 1436 Colette of Corbie founded the Congrega- 
 tion of St. Colette for the observance of the stricter rule. 
 In 1631 Francisca of Jesus Maria founded the Congrega- 
 tion of the Strictest Observance. Another apostle of 
 strict asceticism, Peter of Alcantara, in 1676 founded the 
 Congregation of the Hermitesses of Alcantara. See 
 Schaff-Herzog; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 POOR OF LYONS, THE. The name " Pauperes de 
 IjUgduno" was given to the followers of Peter Waldus, 
 the Waldenses (q.v.), on account of the poverty which 
 they assumed in imitation of the apostles. 
 
 POOR PRIESTS. An order of itinerant preachers 
 in-stituted by John Wyclifife (d. 1384). They were sent 
 about the country, the Midlands and the South of Eng- 
 land, to propagate his gosi)el and principles. They re- 
 ceived the name Lollards. 
 
 POPOL VUH. A book of the annals of the Quiche 
 Indians of Guatemala. It contains the QuichS legends 
 and myths. 
 
 POPOVTZI. One of the two clas.ses into which the 
 Russian dissenters or Raskolniks (q.v.) are divided. The 
 Popovtzi have priests and bishops, whereas the other 
 class of dissenters, the Bezpopovtzi have no regular 
 priests. 
 
 PORENUTIUS. It appears from Saxo Gramma ticus 
 that Porenutius was one of the gods worshipped by the 
 ancient Slavs. He had five faces, one of them being 
 on his breast. 
 
 PORT-ROYALISTS. Tlie Jansenists (q.v.) have been 
 called Port-Royalists. The Abb(5 de St. Cyran, Jan.sen's 
 friend, founded a Jansenist Society which in 1638 removed 
 from Paris to the monastery of Port Royal des Champs 
 near Versailles. 
 
 POSEIDON. The Greek god of the Sea, son of 
 Cronus and Rhea. According to Homer, he was a 
 younger brother of Zeus, according to Hesiod, an elder 
 brother. He was identified by the Romans with 
 Neptune. " Rejected as patron of Athens, in favour of 
 his accomplished niece, he was understood to have a 
 special regard for the Isthmus of Corinth, that focus of 
 navigation from east and west. His sceptre was the 
 trident fishing spear of the Mediterranean; and he rode 
 forth in a chariot drawn by dolphins, .sea-horses, or other 
 marine mon.sters. Horses came into his province as well 
 as waves, an idea not far to seek in the comparison of 
 leaping and rearing billows that has occurred to many 
 a poet " (A. R. Hope Moncrieff). 
 
 POSEIDONIASTAE. A name given to some of the 
 merchants of Delos in the second century B.C. They 
 were so called after their divine patron Poseidon.
 
 Positivism 
 
 287 
 
 Pragmatism 
 
 POSITIVISM. A system of religion foiinde<I by 
 Auguste Comte (1797-1S5S). a French mathematician and 
 philosopher, author of Coitrs de Philosophic Positive 
 (1839) and Traits de Sociologie (lS51-o4). Comte con- 
 tended that only phenomena can be known, and these 
 only relatively. The sciences fall into two classes, 
 abstract and concrete, the latter being first in time. A 
 theory of concrete phenomena, which is really scientific, 
 can be established only when the general laws which rule 
 phenomena have been understood. A science is made 
 " positive " when its truths are linked with those of the 
 other sciences, and worked out to their logical conse- 
 quences. '■ Positivism raises each science in succession 
 from its empirical condition, and incorporates it with 
 every other positive science as a co-ordinate<l and 
 coherent body of doctrine " (J. H. Blunt). As regards 
 an Absolute Supreme Power, since our powers of mind 
 are finite and relative, we cannot prove its existence. 
 The power of which we have positive proof is Humanity. 
 This is a Power whose operations go backward into the 
 dim past and forward into the distant future. It is a 
 power that is present in us and with us. Positivism is 
 the Religion of Humanity. " The revelation, the in- 
 spiration, the incarnation so long and passionately 
 dreamed of by the religious souls of men through such a 
 long vista of ages, are realized at last. The true revela- 
 tion of the will of the great Being is science itself. 
 Human genius and love is that Inspiration. The sum 
 of demonstrated Law is the Gospel. The Bible of the 
 Hebrews, the Gospel of Christ and of Paul, becomes a 
 real, but a simple, part of the true Gospel. There is no 
 one Book of the Law. All great books alike reveal the 
 Law. All great thinkers and teachers, aU true workers 
 and rulers have been inspired. There is no single in- 
 carnation of the son of a carpenter and a maiden of 
 Judah. Humanity is incarnate in all great men in a 
 supreme degree: it is incarnate in every worthy man and 
 woman alike: every son of Humanity, who doe-s not 
 repudiate his birthright, is the son of Man, is a Christ. 
 is or may be. the Messiah, of some honest family or home ; 
 every daughter of Humanity is, at least in nature, the 
 mother or the sister of some Christ to be — is herself a 
 transfigured type of Humanity itself " (Frederic Harri- 
 son). It is claimed that the Positive creed is scientific, 
 fQuuded on real scientific bases. There are organized 
 bodies of Positivists throughout the world. In England 
 different bodies emphasize different aspects of the Posi- 
 tivii!t synthesis, but they all agree in essential principles. 
 The school or educational centre of Positivism in London 
 is Newton Hall (17. r.). Comte attached great importance 
 to Love as the principle of Sociology. This great prin- 
 ciple he termed Amour d'autrui or Altruism. His motto 
 was " Vivre ix)ur altrui." See .1. H. Blunt: Frederic 
 Harrison, " Positivism " in Great Religions of the World, 
 1902: "Humanity" in Religious Systems of the World, 
 1908: C. J. Deter. 
 
 POT, THE MOTHER. It is pointed out by G. Elliot 
 Smith (Dr.) that the Proto-Egyptian biologist, groping 
 after some explanation of the natural phenomenon that 
 the earth and seed were made fruitful by water, formu- 
 lated the idea that water was the repository of life-giving 
 powers. Tlie realization that animals could be fertilized 
 by the seminal fluid would seem to have been brought 
 within the scope of the same theory. .Just as water 
 fertilized the earth, so the semen fertilized the female. 
 Then, as both the earth and women could be fertilized by 
 water, they were homologized one with the other. " The 
 earth came to be regarded as a woman, the Great Mother. 
 When the fertilizing water came to be personified in the 
 person of Osiris, his consort Isis was identified with the 
 earth which was fertilized by water " (p. 29). A new 
 
 view then developed. Woman was regarded no longer as 
 the real parent of mankind, but as the matrix in which 
 the seed was planted and nurtured during the course of 
 its growth and development. " Hence in the earliest 
 hieroglyphic writing the picture of a (JOt of water was 
 taken as the symbol of womanhood, the ' vessel ' which 
 received the s^eed " (p. 178). This idea of the Mother 
 Pot is found in India as well as in Babylonia, Egypt, and 
 the Eastern Mediterranean. Among the Dravidian 
 people at tlie present day the seven goddesses are often 
 represented by seven \H)ts. According to E. Thurston 
 and K. Rangaehari. the Padma Sales in the Madras 
 Presidency of India celebrate annually a festival in which 
 their god and goddess are represented by two decoratetl 
 pots placed on a model of a tiger. The idea is wide- 
 spread also among the C«ltic-speaking peoples. " In 
 Wales the pot's life-giving powers are enhanced by 
 making it« rim of pearls. But as the idea spread, its 
 meaning also became e.vtended. At first; it was merely 
 a jug of water or a basket of figs, but elsewhere it became 
 also a witch's cauldron, the magic cup, the Holv Grail," 
 etc. (G. Elliot Smith, p. 181). 
 
 PRAGMATISM. A system of philosophy with which 
 are closely associated the names of the American 
 philosophers William James and John Dewey and the 
 English philosopher F. C. S. Schiller. The term, which 
 is derived from the Greek pragma " practice," was first 
 employed (1878) by Charles Peirce of America. William 
 James explains that the pragmatic metJiod in itself 
 implies not particular results, but simply an attitude of 
 orientation. " The attitude of looking away from first 
 things, principles, ' categories,' supposed necessities: and 
 of looking towards last things, fruits, consequences, 
 facts." To the pragmatist Truth in our ideas and beliefs 
 means their power to work. It means that " ideas 
 (which themselves are but parts of our experience) 
 become true just in so far as they help us to get into 
 satisfac-tory relation with other parts of our exjjerience." 
 As regards its attitude towards theology, it i.s pointed 
 out that pragmatism has no a priori prejudices against 
 this. " If theological ideas prove to have a value for 
 concrete life, they will be true, for pragmatism, in the 
 sense of being good for .so much. For how much more 
 they are true will depend entirely on their relations to 
 the other truths that also have to be acknowledged." 
 If a theological idea is pragmatically successful, its truth 
 ought not to be denied. In Pragmatism the " only test 
 of probable truth is what works best in the way of lead- 
 ing us, what fits every part of life best and combines with 
 the collectivity of experience's demands, nothing being 
 omitted. If theological ideas should do this, if the 
 notion of God. in particular. Should prove to do it. how 
 could pragmati.sm possibly deny God's existence? " If it 
 be asked whether pragmatism is optimi.stic or pessimistic, 
 the an.swer is that it is be.st describe<l by a term that 
 denotes a position midwa.v between optimism and pessi- 
 mism : pragmatism is melioristic. It should be added, 
 finally, that pragmati.sm favours pluralism. " Prag- 
 matism, pending the final empirical ascertainment of just 
 what the balance of union and disunion among things 
 may be, must obviously range herself upon the pluralistic 
 .side. Some day. she admits, even total union, with one 
 knower, one origin, and a universe consolidated in every 
 conceivable way, may turn out to be the most acceptable 
 of all hypotheses. Meanwhile the opiK>site hypothesis, 
 of a world imperfectly unified .still, and perhaps always 
 to remain so, must be sincerely entertained. This latter 
 hypothesis is pluralism's doctrine. Since absolute 
 monism forbids its being even considered seriously, 
 branding it as irrational from the .start, it is clear that 
 pragmatism must turn its back on absolute monism, and
 
 Prajapati 
 
 288 
 
 Praying Pebble 
 
 follow pluralism's more empirical patli." See William 
 James, Pragmatism, 1907. 
 
 PRAJAPATI. Prajapati, " lord of creatures," is a 
 designation of the Father-god in the religion of the 
 Hindus. Originally no doubt it was a title of the Sun. 
 Then it came to be used as a title of the chief god. The 
 name occurs in a passage that anticipates the later 
 development of a trinity. With reference to Vishnu 
 (q.v.) it is said : " Having the form of Brahma he 
 creates; having a human body (as Krishna) he protects, 
 in the nature of Siva he would destroy — these are the 
 three appearances or conditions (avasthas) of the Father- 
 god (Prajapati)." See Monier-Williams; B. W. Hopkins. 
 
 PRANA. A term used in Theosophy (q.v.). Mrs. 
 Besant explains that it denotes " the animating life- 
 principle of the personality " (R.iS.W.). 
 
 PRANNATHI SECT. A Hindu sect, named after its 
 founder, Prannath. Its adierents are called also Dhamis 
 (q.v.). 
 
 PRAYER. Man has been described as a praying 
 animal, and it has been claimed that prayer is a human 
 instinct. This is hardly true of prayer in a high sense 
 of the word. " Nobody dreams of propitiating gods or 
 spirits by prayer while magic is universally practised," 
 says Andrew Lang (Magic and Religion). Prayer is in- 
 tuitional rather than instinctive. The truth about its 
 value has come to men by Revelation (q.i'.). Prayerless- 
 ness is characteristic either of a savage state or of a 
 degenerate civilisation. In either case It is due to a 
 laclj of real knowledge. In the latter ease the knowledge 
 was at one time present, but it has run to seed. Prayer, 
 where it has not become mechanical, is characteristic of 
 a high stage of culture. The Egyptians, Babylonians, 
 Arabians, Jews, Romans, Greeks, and early Chrisbians 
 have given iis examples. The Hebrew Psalms and the 
 Babylonian Psalms (q.v.) contain beautiful prayers. J. 
 A. Farrer (Pagnnism and Christianity) quotes a beauti- 
 ful prayer to Zeus, composed by Simplicius (sixth century 
 A.D.). It is as follows : " I beseech Thee, O Lord, the 
 Father and Guide of our rea-son, to make us mindful of 
 the noble origin Thou hast thought worthy to confer 
 upon us; and to assist us to act as becomes free agents; 
 that we may be cleansed from the irrational passions of 
 the body and may subdue and govern the same, using 
 them as instruments in a fitting manner; and to assist us 
 to the right direction of the reason tliat is in us, and 
 to its participation in what is real by the light of truth. 
 And. thirdly, I beseech Thee, my Saviour, entirely to 
 remove the darkness from the eyes of our souls, in order 
 that we know aright, as Homer says, both God and 
 Man." In the best sense of the word, prayer of course 
 assumes that the Supreme Power is good and is knowable. 
 The truth of this assumption is vouched for by a know- 
 ledge which is intuitional. And goodness involves 
 righteousness, justice, impartiality. God is no respecter 
 of persons. This of itself means that prayers cannot 
 always be answered, because they are .such as a good 
 and impartial ruler cannot grant. A benefit granted to 
 one individual or to one nation could often be granted 
 only at the expense of another individual or another 
 nation. This has been well expressed by Matthew Arnold 
 in the poem " Consolation." Prayer nnist ever be made 
 with humility and with resignation to the will of a good 
 and impartial God. What can he objected to the practice 
 Is that it has so often been misused and abused. But 
 so long as the petition is a good one. it is better to have 
 prayed in vain than never to have prayed at all. W. 
 M. Salter complains (Ethical Religion) that " men have 
 heretofore conceived of the Supreme Power of the world 
 as a personal being like themselves; and they have had 
 so slight a notion of the order of nature and the fixity 
 
 of nature's laws that they have thought they might pray 
 to him and ask him to do for them what they could not 
 do for themselves." This is true, but the moral should 
 be not that men should give up praying, but that they 
 should learn to pray rightly. Salter thinks that prayer 
 to what he chooses to call the Unknown (Jod " involves 
 a double vice — first, distrust of the beneficence of that 
 order through which he is already manifested, and which 
 holds fast whether we pray or not; second, a despair of 
 our ability to act as proximate causes and to bring about 
 the results we wish ourselves." But no intelligent person 
 prays for the suspension of a law which he knows to be 
 beneficent. Discrimination has to be exercised. One 
 cannot abolish divine laws, but one can pray to under- 
 stand them. And one can, by prayer, abolish violations 
 of divine laws. Who shall say that Slavery was not 
 abolished by prayer? And as to the second point, man 
 does not despair of his own ability, but, believing in a 
 God of Goodness, Power, and Love, he naturally seeks 
 His help. And this leads us to the highest kind of 
 prayer. Prayer is not merely a petitioning for some 
 material benefit, but is also an act of praise and adora- 
 tion. It is also, and pre-eminently an act of communion 
 with Gfod. As such it has power to bring such substantial 
 benefits as health and happiness. This kind of prayer 
 was better understood and more widely iwactised in days 
 when faith was more fervent and thought was less 
 materialistic. Its power was well known in the early 
 days of Christianity, and though in many quarters 
 effectual prayer has become a lost art, the power has 
 never ceased to operate. Prayer of course need not 
 always be vocal. Mental or Silent Prayer is of the 
 highest value. Here a distinction has been drawn 
 between Meditation (q.v.). Affective Prayer, and Con- 
 templation. In Affective Prayer " the soul goes straight 
 to God by affection of the will without need of formal 
 discourse or reasoning" (Oath. Diet.). Contemplation 
 " is either natural or infused in an ext-raordinary manner 
 by God, and in the latter the soul is said to be passive — 
 i.e., to be in some special sense moved by God." See 
 Schaff-Herzog; Benham; Vernon Staley, The Catholic 
 Religion, 1893; the Cath. Diet.; P. Vivian, The Churches 
 and Modern Thought, 190S; Reinach, O. 
 
 PRAYER-CYLINDER. A contrivance which figures 
 prominently in Lamai.sm. The prayer-cylinder, which 
 has commonly been called a prayer-wheel or prayer-mill, 
 may be regarded as an improved or developed form of 
 the ordinary charm-papers or mantras (q.v.). " The 
 sacred formula (or a number of them) is printed on a 
 long strip of paper rolled round the cylinder, which is 
 enclosed in a box, and by means of a stick, which is the 
 axle on which it revolves, it is fastened to a handle 
 or in a case. Every turn of the cylinder sets the word 
 in motion, and makes its wholesome influence operative." 
 The prayer-cylinder can be held in the hand and swung. 
 Or it can be set in motion in a still more mechanical way 
 —by the power of wind or water. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 PRAYING-FLAGS. Flags in.scribed with prayer- 
 formulas are used in that form of Buddhism known as 
 I.rfimaism. Monier-Williams found a whole village near 
 Darjiling decorated with flagstaffs from which long flags 
 were flying. " Every time the wind, which happened to 
 l>e blowing fresh, extended the long flags, a va.st number 
 of prayers were credited to the inhabitants who were 
 themselves all absent, and probably hard at work either 
 in the fields or at Darjiling." See Monier-Williams, 
 Buddhism, 1890. 
 
 PRAYER-OIL. The name in the Eastern Church for 
 the sacrament of Unction. See EXTREME UNCTION. 
 
 PRAYING PEBBLE. Muhammadans of the Shi'ah 
 sect, according to F. J. Bliss, should always carry with
 
 Praying-Shawl 
 
 289 
 
 Priesthood 
 
 them a sejdi, " or praying pebble, a cake of baked clay, 
 made of earth from Mecca or Medinah or Kerbela. or 
 some other notable place of visitation. TTiis is to be 
 placed on the ground before him so that his forehead 
 may touch it in the due course of prostration. In 
 case it is lost or unavailable, he may substitute as a re- 
 minder a round stone or a bit of green paper, or leaves 
 from any plant that does not bear fruit." F. J. Bliss 
 speaks of having handled a sejdi octagonal in shape and 
 measuring one incb and three-quarters across. See F. 
 J. Bliss. 
 
 PRATIXG-SHAWL. This is a kind of shawl worn 
 by Jews in the Synagogue. It has taken the place of the 
 ancient ■•garment with fringes" (see FRINGES). The 
 Hebrew term is Talith (g.v.). 
 
 PRATING-WALLS. Praying-walls are a feature in 
 that type of Buddhism known as Lamaism. They are 
 stone-structures set up at the side of high-roads. In 
 the walls are inserted slabs inscribed with prayer- 
 formulas. " Passing travellers acquire merit by keeping 
 them on their left side, so that they may follow the 
 letters of the inscription without necessarily repeating 
 the words " (Monier- Williams). See Monier-Williams, 
 Buddhism, 1890. 
 
 PREACHING BROTHERS. Preaching Brothers. 
 Fratres Praedieantes, was the original name of the 
 Dominicans (,Q.v.). 
 
 PREADAMITES. The French Calvinlst Isaac de la 
 Peyreyre in a book published in 10.55 maintained that 
 there must have been Preadamites, men before Adam, on 
 the earth. •' He held that Adam was the progenitor of 
 the Jews only, and that the Fiood. which was local 
 merely, did not destroy the nations who had inhabited the 
 earth long before Adam's creation " (Cath. Diet.). 
 
 PRE-ANIMISM. The term pre-animistic was invented 
 by R. R. Marett to denote a stage in the evolution of 
 religion anterior to that known as Animism, in which the 
 rites are addressed to impersonal forces like the 
 Melanesian mana and the North American orenda. 
 According to Edward Clodd (" Pre-Animism " in The 
 R.P.A. Annual, 1917), " the root idea in this Naturism, 
 or Pre-Animism, as it may be called, is that of power 
 everywhere — power vaguely apprehended but immanent, 
 and as yet unclothed with supematuial or personal 
 attributes." 
 
 PRECISIANS. Another name for the Puritans (q.v.). 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS. The first Presbyterian church in 
 England was formed at Wandsworth in 1572 under the 
 pastorate of John Field. It was part of the programme 
 of the Puritan reformers to remodel the Church on 
 Presbyterian lines. They insisted on the " parity of 
 ministers," and held that the Episcopacy ought to be 
 abolished. " Each single congregation was to be ruled 
 by a minister and elders, forming a consistory; the 
 minister was to be admitted to his ministry by a con- 
 ference, a wider assembly, which representatives of the 
 different churches in the district were to attend " (M. 
 W. Patterson). The minister was to be called and elected 
 by a congregation, and the elders were to be associated 
 with him in the government of his church. " In each 
 congregation deacons, who were not an order of ministry, 
 were to be chosen to look after the poor. A whole series 
 of councils was arranged : representatives from each con- 
 gregation were to form the conference of a district: above 
 the conferences were to be synods provincial, synods 
 national, and ultimately .si/norfs international. Each of 
 these was to be attended by representatives of the 
 couneiLs immediately subordinate. This presbyteral 
 scheme of government was supposed to be enjoined by 
 Scripture. The divine right of Presbyterianiam was 
 matched against the Anglican's divine right of Episco- 
 
 pacy." Through the zeal and energy of John Knox (1505- 
 1572), and after the triumph of Protestantism in 1560. 
 Presbyterianism was established in Scotland: and in 1.567 
 Knox obtained confirmation of the Presbyterian reforma- 
 Hon in the Scottish Parliament. When the Westminster 
 Assembly met in IPA?,. a " Solemn League and Covenant" 
 was taken, and in St. Margaret's Church was subscribed 
 by the members of the House of Commons. " This bound 
 the part of the nation under the control of Parliament 
 to a new ecclesiastical system, which should exclude 
 Popery, Prelacy, Superstition, Heresy and Schism; and 
 which was to be similar to that of Presbyterian Scotland, 
 and was to be imix>sed, as far as possible, on Roman 
 Catholic Ireland. The Assembly then proceeded to 
 arrange the form of the new system. The draft was 
 finished and sent up to the Parliament in July, 1645, and 
 duly confirmed: but owing to disputes on the question 
 of the independence of the Church, the carrying out of 
 the scheme was delayed, and as a matter of fact it never 
 came into full operation " (J. A. Houlder). By 1646, 
 however, there were twelve presbyteries in London, and 
 in ll"i47 the First Provincial Synod met there. In 1649. 
 when a I*rovineial Synod met at Preston, there were nine 
 presbyteries in Lancashire. From the year 1694 the 
 Presbyterians in England began to decrease in numbers, 
 and to decline as a separate organisation. During the 
 eighteenth century several secessions from the Church of 
 Scotland took place. Thus some " United Societies " of 
 Covenanters formed themselves into a " Reformed 
 Presbyterian Church," indejiendent of the State. In 1733 
 Ebenezer Erskine led a secession which formed the 
 " Associate Presbytery " or the " Secession Kirk." A 
 further secession in 1752 led to the establishment of the 
 " Belief Church." These two bodies combined in the 
 " United Presbyterian Church," in 1847. In 1848 a body 
 called the " Evangelical Union " aro.se, which in 1896 
 was amalgamated with the " Congregational Union of 
 Scotland." In 1843 David Welsh and Thomas Chalmers 
 led another secession which resulted in the " Free Church 
 of Scotland." Subsequently the Free Church united 
 with the " Reformed Presbyterian Church." Attempts 
 to unite the various sections of the Free Presbyterian 
 Church were in course of time successful to this extent 
 that at a meeting of the Synods of the Presbyterian and 
 the United Presbyterian Churches at Liverpool in 1876 
 these two bodies agreed to constitute them.selves the 
 Presbyterian Church of England." This union resulted 
 in con.stant and steady progress. 
 
 PRESENTATION OP THE BLESSED VIRGIN 
 MARY, ORDER OF THE. In some of the Apocryphal 
 Gospels it is said that Marj- was presented in the temple 
 when she was three years old and stayed there until her 
 marriage. The Order of the Presentation was founded in 
 1777 by Nano or Honora Nagle (172S-1784), of County 
 Cork, Ireland, with the object of instructing the poor. 
 The nuns took simple vows, renewable from year to 
 year: and were not enclosed, but visited the houses of 
 the poor. In this form the institution was confirmed in 
 1791 by Pope Pius V. When, however, in 1S05 Pius VII. 
 made it a religious order, he introduced solemn vows and 
 strict enclosure. The order has many houses in Ireland. 
 See the Cath. Diet.; the D.N.B. 
 
 PRIESTHOOD. In Babylonia priesthoods had 
 developed in the prehistoric period. Elaborate liturgies 
 were developed later. " As time advanced, the duties 
 of the priests were differentiated : some gave themselves 
 to the ordinary duties of a priest, while others were set 
 apart for the observ-anee of omens, and .still others for the 
 recitation of the incantations which were supposed to 
 drive out the demons of sickness " (G. A. Barton, R.W.. 
 p. 29 f.). The priesthood in Babylonia was the learned
 
 Priests of Calvary 
 
 290 
 
 Profanity 
 
 class. " In addition to the purely religious duties in con- 
 nection with the temple service, the priests were also the 
 scribes, tlie judges and the teachers of the people— ^all 
 three functions following naturally from the religious 
 point of view involved in writing, in legal decisions and 
 in knowledge in general. The tradition once establi.shed, 
 the priests continued to act as the official scribes in the 
 case of the thousands upon thousands of legal and com- 
 mercial documents that have come down to us from all 
 periods, though, to be sure, in later days we occasionally 
 come across a scriibe who does not appear to have been 
 a temple official " fJastrow, Civ., p. 27.3). In ancient 
 Egypt the priesthoods as finally organized consisted of 
 various classes of priests, prophets, and others with 
 different duties. " Greek writers tell of festivals at 
 which priests acted out the myths of the gods. At some 
 of the temples (probably at all) schools existed for the 
 instruction of candidates for the priesthood in the 
 mysteries of their work and the culture of their time " 
 (Barton, p. 51). Among the Hebrews, the priests, apart 
 from their ordinary duties, acted as scribes and codifiers 
 of the laws. The priests of Zoroast nanism under the 
 Achaemenians were the Magi (originally a Median tribe) 
 who had gradually attained power through royal 
 patronage. The completion of the Avesta by the addi- 
 tion of the Yashts and the Vendidad was probably due 
 to their influence. The priests of the Avesta " formed 
 a hereditary caste, the members of which were alone 
 competent to offer sacrifices or perform the rites of puri- 
 fication; the priest was bom, not made. They lived on 
 the proceeds of their ritual, which were strictly defined 
 by law, and also on the numerous fines they exacted 
 in return for indulgences. They were, in short, a regular 
 Clergy " (Reinaoh. O., p. 0,3). In India the priests are 
 known as Brahmans (q.v.). In the Greek states of the 
 classic period, the priests were never associated in com- 
 mnnities, nor set apart as instructors, like the Druids of 
 Gaul. They learned the ritual of a god, not in seminaries 
 for priests, but by serving him. " Thus the Greek priests 
 never constituted a clergy like those of India, Persia or 
 Gaul : the only attempt at such a constitution was the 
 one Grote has compared to the foundation of the Society 
 of JesuiS, the confraternity formed in Southern Italy by 
 Pythagoras, which was a failure " (ibid., p. 91). In 
 Germany in primitive times the king was also the priest. 
 
 PRIESTS OF CALVARY. Another name for the 
 Calvarians (q.v.). 
 
 PRIMIANISTS. The party of Primianiis, vs^ho in A.D. 
 392 succeeded Parmenian as Donatist bishop of Carthage. 
 The arbitrary action of Primian in finding fault with 
 some of his deacons and in excommunicating Maximian 
 resulted in a Donatist schism. There aro.se two hostile 
 parties, Primianists and Maximianists (g.v.). 
 
 PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY, SOCIETIES FOR PRO- 
 MOTING. See SOCIETIES FOR PROMOTING PRIMI- 
 TIVE CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 PRIMITIVE IRISH METHODISTS. The Primitive 
 Irish Methodists are " primitive " in the sense that they 
 hold fast to John Wesley's original intention, that of 
 forming Societies which were to remain a part of the 
 Church of England. See WESLEYAN METHODISTS. 
 
 PRIMITIVE METHODISTS. An offshoot of the 
 original Methodists, the Wesleyan Methodists (o.v.). 
 Primitive Methodism represents an effort to revive ttie 
 field-preaching methods of Wesley, Whitfield, and others. 
 Soon after the formation of the body known as the 
 Kilhamites or the New Connexion Methodists, members 
 of the parent body began to hold " revival services " 
 in Cornwall, Lancashire, Staffordshire, and elsewhere. 
 When in 1807 the American Methodist Lawrence 
 Dow introduced " camp-meetings " into Staffordshire, his 
 
 methods were approved and adopted by two local 
 Methodist preachers, William Clowes and Hugh James 
 Bourne. The members of the old Jlethodist body in 
 general, however, did not approve of this kind of revival, 
 and decided in the Conference of 1807 that '• even sui> 
 I)osing such meetings to be allowable in America, they 
 are highly improper in England, and likely' to be pro- 
 ductive of considerable mi.schief. And we disclaim all 
 connection with them." The expulsion of Bourne (1808) 
 and Clowes (1810) led to the formation of a new .sect and 
 to the secession from Wesleyan Methodism of a number 
 of congregations and preachers in Lancashire and 
 Cheshire. The new body increased rapidly, and has 
 become flourishing and important, especially in the 
 northern counties. It has a large theological college in 
 Manchester, Hartley College (named after a great bene- 
 factor. Sir W. P. Hartley, of Liverpool), which is 
 affiliated to the Manchester University. See J. H. 
 Blunt. 
 
 PRISCILLIANISTS. One of the names by which the 
 Montanists were known in the time of Epiphanius. 
 Prisca or Priscilla was one of the women who, as 
 prophetesses, were associated with Montanus of Phrygia. 
 See MONTANISM. 
 
 PROCESSIONAL ROAD. In recent excavations 
 carried out in Babylon under the super intendenc-e of Dr. 
 Robert Koldewey an interesting discovery was made in 
 the space between the palace and the chief temple. " A 
 .sacred procession street was laid bare, a via sacra built 
 high above the low houses of the city and along which 
 the images of the numerous gods and goddesses, who 
 formed a court around Marduk, were carried in proces- 
 sion on festive occasions, and more particularly on the 
 New Year's Day, which was the most solemn occasion 
 of the year. The walls along this .street were lined with 
 glazed tiles representing a .series of lions surmounted by 
 rows of rosettes and other ornamental designs. The 
 .street was paved with large blocks of a composite 
 material and contained at frequent intervals a dedicatory 
 in.scription indicating the name of the street as " Aibur- 
 shabu," " may the enemy not wax strong," and the name 
 of the builder as the great Nebuchadnezzar. A magnifi- 
 cent gateway, known as the Ishtar gate and consisting 
 of an outer and inner gate, formed the approach to the 
 street. The six square towers of the gateway contained 
 on all sides a series of glazed tiles with alternate repre- 
 sentations of homed dragons and unicorns, so arranged 
 that a group of dragons running as a pattern around the 
 fonr sides of the tower was succeeded by a group of 
 unicorns similarly arranged. It was found that there 
 were eighteen such alternate groups, one above another 
 (Morris Jastrow, Oiv.). 
 
 PROFANITY. Professor G. T. W. Patrick distin- 
 guishes two kinds of swearing, asseverative or legal, 
 and ejaculatoTy or profane. The latter he defines as 
 " the ejaculatory or exclamatory use of a word or phrase, 
 usually the name of the deity or connected in some way 
 with religion or other sacred things, having no logical 
 connection with the subject in hand, and indicative of 
 strong feeling, such as anger or disapproval." This 
 definition would include the severer forms of profanity, 
 such as cursing, and blasphemy, as well as the milder 
 and more common forms. As far as religion is affected, 
 .such profanity makes use of : names of deities, angels, 
 and devils: names associated with the sacred matters of 
 religion (e.g.. Cross); names of saints and .sacred persons 
 (e.ff.. Holy Moses); names of sacred places (e.;;.. Jeni- 
 .salem); and terms relating to the future life (c.?/.. 
 Heavens. Hell). There is of course also a vulgar kind 
 of profanity which scoffs at religion and holds it up to 
 ridicule. This is described usually as blasphemy Pro-
 
 Prophecy of Ahijah 
 
 291 
 
 Prostitution, Religious 
 
 fanity may be said to be common to all religions. Tlie 
 vice was common among the Hebrews and the Arabs. It 
 is common still in countries which are not irreligious 
 (e.g.. England and America). How is the habit, which 
 is considered sinful by strictly religious people, to be 
 accounted for? Professor Patrick, examining the matter 
 psychologically, offers a noteworthy explanation. Pro- 
 fanity is a reaction in the civilized man against the sup- 
 pression of the combative instinct in his primitive nature. 
 Profane outbursts are like the " noises which an animal 
 may make in order to ' strike terror to the heart ' of the 
 opponent, such as the growl, the snarl, the roar, the 
 bellow, and tlie hiss, all of which are, like the curse or 
 oath of anger in human beings, harmless in themselves, 
 but useful as indirect means of defense, since they 
 induce in the opponent the reactions of flight instead of 
 combat." Profane oaths do this because "they ix)ssess 
 that which all weapons possess, the power of producing 
 a shock in the one against whom they are directed." 
 
 PROPHECY OF AHIJAH. A record referred to in 
 II. Chronicles (ix. 29). We read as follows : " Now the 
 rest of the acts of Solomon, first and last, are they not 
 written in the history (or " acts " or " words ") of 
 Nathan the prophet, and in the prophecy of Ahijah the 
 Shilonite, and in the visions of Iddo the seer concerning 
 Jeroboam the son of Nebat? " It is probable that " these 
 (sources were not independent works, but were either 
 sections of the canonical books " or of the Book of the 
 Kings of Israel and Judah. " Nathan the prophet 
 appears at the beginning of Solomon's reign (I. Kings 
 i.), Ahijah near its close (I. Kings xi. 29 ff.), hence in 
 tlie acts or history of Nathan and in the prophecy of 
 Ahijah we probably have references to I. Kings. 
 Whether this is so in the visions of Iddo the seer is more 
 doubtful. This may refer to the Chronicler's other 
 source (cf. xii. 15: xiii. 22): yet the unknown prophet of 
 I. Kings xiii. is called by Josephus Jadon, a name equiva- 
 lent to Iddo (Ant. viii. S, 5). and he may thus have been 
 known at the time of the Chronicler " (E. L. Curtis and 
 A. A. Madsen). See E. L. Curtis and A. A. Madsen, 
 Chronicles, 1910. 
 
 PROPHESTINGS. The Prophesyings inaugurated in 
 England in 1.571 were religious exercises suggested by the 
 iwssage in the New Testament : " Ye shall all prophesy 
 one by one that all may learn and all be comforted " (I. 
 Corinthians xiv. 31). " Every fortnight the clergy of a 
 district met on a week-day in the chief town under a 
 moderator or president : each minister would then for a 
 quarter of an hour or so handle the same passage of 
 Scripture. The whole prophesying took some two hours, 
 and at its close tie moderator would sum up the discus- 
 sion and prescribe a text for the next meeting" (M. W. 
 Patterson). By means of these Prophesyings preaching 
 was improved and knowledge increa.sed. But Queen 
 Elisabeth was told that they promoted Puritanism, and 
 sought to suppress them. Edmund Grindal (1519?-loS.3), 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, was suspended for refusing to 
 carry out the Queen's order. In the reign of James I. 
 the Puritans wi.shed to revive the Prophesyings, but they 
 were opposed by the King. See J. H. Blunt: M. W. 
 Patterson, Hist. 
 
 PROPHETS, THE. The title of the second of the 
 three groups into which the books of the Old Testament 
 are divided. They are sub-divided into two smaller 
 groups. (1) The Former Prophets (Nebiim rish6nim) : 
 Joshua. Judges, I. and II. Samuel, I. and II. Kings. 
 These are what we should call historical writings. (2) 
 The Latter Prophets (Nebiim akharOnim) : Isaiah, .Jere- 
 miah, Ezekiel, the twelve Minor Prophets. These are 
 etrictly prophetical writings. Certain hi-storical books 
 are regarded as prophetical writings (The Former Pro- 
 
 phets), because the prophets were regarded as the 
 writers of the age. '• The idea was that the history of 
 each successive generation was written by a contemporary 
 prophet : and as the prophetic literature in the najrower 
 sense does not begin until the reign of Jeroboam II. in 
 Israel and Uzziah in Judah, the narratives of whose 
 reigns fall in the second half of the Second Book of 
 Kings, it was natural that the great bulk of the his- 
 torical writings (Joshua-II. Kings xiv.) should be roughly 
 described as the work of the older prophets " (W. 
 Sanday. Inspiration. 1903). The order of the books as 
 given by the Talmud and Jerome is somewhat different. 
 The Talmud has : .Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jere- 
 miah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, Minor Prophets. Here the posi- 
 tion of Isaiah (last instead of first of the great jTophets) 
 is remarkable. The Talmud accounts for this order " by 
 saying that the Books of Kings end with desolation, that 
 Jeremiah is all desolation, that Ezekiel begins with deso- 
 lation and ends with con.9olation, and that Isaiah is all 
 con.solation, so that desolation is fitly joined to desola- 
 tion and consolation to c-onsolation : an idea which is not 
 without its pathos and beauty, but which belongs rather 
 to the time when the harps were hung up and the Rabbis 
 were occupied with the wistful retrospect of their past 
 history, than to the simpler motives at work when the 
 books were first collected. That the place assigned to 
 Isaiah has been affected by the incorporation of the last 
 twenty-seven chapters, which are really later than Jere- 
 miah and Ezekiel, would be a welcome supjiosition if it 
 were probable, but it appears more likely that Jere- 
 miah was placed next to the later chapters of II. Kings, 
 with which his book is so closely connected, and Isaiah 
 immediately before his contemporary Ho.sea " (W. 
 Sanday). The order given by Jerome is : Joshua, 
 Judges and Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah and 
 Lamentations, Ezekiel, Minor Prophets. See G. Wilde- 
 boer: H. E. Ryle, Canon. 
 
 PROPHETS, MOHAMMEDAN. The Mohammedans 
 believe that the prophets have been sent by God, and 
 as an act of free grace. They make a distinction, how- 
 ever, between ordinary prophets and apostles. The 
 apostles, such as Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed, were 
 prophets entrusted with a special message and book. 
 Prophets cannot sin. They may have sinned before they 
 became prophets, but not afterwards. It is not possible 
 to ascribe to prophets want of intelligence, dulness, con- 
 cealment of tic message, unfaithfulness, or falseness. 
 " God has given tie prophets and apostles the power to 
 perform miracles, i.e., the doing of things contrary to 
 custom in proof of their prophetic mission, and the truth- 
 fulness in what they deliver to men as a divine message. 
 One single miracle is considered sufficient to prove the 
 prophetic character of him who performs it." See F. 
 A Klein. 
 
 PROSTITUTION. RELIGIOUS. There are several 
 references in the Old Testament to the heathen practice 
 of religious prostitution. In Hosea iv. 14, for instance, 
 reference is made to " holy " or " consecrated " women, 
 that is to .say, women who sacrificed their virtue in 
 honour of Astarte. The practice was common in ancient 
 sanctuaries, and " the temples of the Semitic deities were 
 thronged with sacred prostitutes " (Robertson Smith, 
 U.S.): hut anything of the kind was forbidden by the 
 Deuteronomic Code of the Hebrews (Deut. xxiii. 17 f.). 
 It is found in the religion of Babylonia and Assyria. 
 Women took a large part as priestess?es in the temple 
 service — as singers, " howlers " (in lamentation), musi- 
 cians, exorcisers, etc. " We find also several classes of 
 holy women leading a secluded life in special homes 
 which would corre.sspond to our cloisters and nunneries, 
 and who were regarded as constituting in a measure the
 
 Protestant Alliance, The 
 
 292 
 
 Proverbs, Book of 
 
 harem of the god to whose service they were dedicated^ 
 Some of these were " sacred prostitutes, and it is m 
 connection with this class of priestesses that rites were 
 practised in the temples which, while prohably regarded 
 as purely symbolical to promote fertility among man- 
 kind and'in the animal world, were unmistakably o;bscene, 
 or at least degenerated into obscene rites (Morris 
 
 "^^PROTESTANT ALLIANCE, THE. The Protestant 
 Alliance was instituted in 1845. With it are associated 
 a number of other similar Societies, including the bcot- 
 tish Protestant Alliance. The object of the alliance is 
 to^ maintain and defend, against all that it considers 
 encroachments of Popery, the Scriptural doctrines of the 
 Reformation and the principles of civil and religious 
 liberty, as the best security under God for the temporal 
 and spiritual welfare of the British Empire. For this 
 purpose it makes in the main two great efforts. (1) io 
 unite the Protestants of the Empire in a firm and per- 
 severing demand, both in Parliament and out of it, that 
 the national support and encouragement given to Topery 
 should be discontinued. In this demand would be 
 included all endowTnents of Popery in every form and of 
 every kind drawn from the public revenues, the conces- 
 sion of rank and prece<lence to Romish Eoclesiastios, 
 and the allowanc-e of conventual establishments not sub- 
 ject to the inspection and control of the Law." (2) " To 
 extend as far as may be practicable, the sympathy and 
 eupport of British Christians to those in foreign countries 
 who may be suffering oppression for the cause of the 
 Gospel: and to seek to call forth the influence of the 
 British Government to obtain for Protestants, when 
 residing in Roman Catholic countries, religious liberty 
 equal to that which is granted to Roman Catholics in 
 Great Britain and its dependencies, esiiecially the liberty 
 of public worship, and of burying their dead according 
 to their own rites: and above all, freedom in the use and 
 circulation of the Word of God." The Alliance pro- 
 fesses to be non-political. 
 
 PROTESTANT FRIENDS. Another, and later, name 
 for the Friends of Light (q.v.). The Free Congregations 
 (q.v.) formed in Prussia in 1841 adopted the name Friends 
 of Light. In course of time this was changed to Pro- 
 testant Friends. 
 
 PROTEVANGELIUM, THE. A name given to a verse 
 in the Book of Genesis (iii. 5). The verse belongs to the 
 Jahwistic narnative. It reads : " I will put enmity 
 between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and 
 her seed; it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise 
 his heel." This has been called the first announcement 
 of the gospel of redemption. Christ, it is interpreted, 
 will destroy the power of sin and Satan (bruise the Ser- 
 pent's head), though at the cost of suffering (since Satan 
 bruises his heel). But, as A. R. Gordon says, the words 
 can hardly " be regarded as a prophecy of the final 
 victory of Good. At the most, they imply only unceasing 
 conflict between good and evil." Prof. Skinner thinks it 
 " possible that in its primary intention the oracle reflects 
 the protest of ethical religion against the unnatural 
 fascination of snake-worship. It is psychologically true 
 that the instinctive feelings which lie at the root of the 
 worship of serpents are closely akin to the hatred and 
 loathing which the repulsive reptile excites in the healthy 
 human mind: and the transformation of a once sacred 
 animal into an object of aversion is a not infrequent 
 phenomenon in the history of religion (see Gres. I.e. 3<i0). 
 The essence of the temptation is that the serpent-demon 
 has tampered with the religious instinct in man by 
 posing as his good genius, and insinuating distrust of 
 the goodness of G«d: and his punishment is to find him- 
 self at eternal war with the race whom he has seduced 
 
 from their allegiance to their Creator. And that is very 
 much the light in which serpent-worship must have 
 appeared to a believer in the holy and righteous God of 
 the Old Testament." R. Kittel interprets the pas.'mge 
 to mean that at some time in the history of the human 
 race c-ertain individuals or one individual will arise who 
 will bring the moral war to victory in the name and on 
 behalf of the whole race. " Closely connected with this 
 idea is that of tlie saviour of the future, which is thus 
 transferred from the naturalistic to the moral sphere." 
 He thinks it quite possible that we ought to ascribe the 
 passage to a much earlier date than the Jahwistic docu- 
 ment itself, and that it is really the " first Gospel." See 
 W. H. Bennett, Genesis in the " Century Bible"; A. R. 
 Gordon, The Early Traditions of Genesis. 1907; J. 
 Skinner, Genesis, 1910; R. Kittel, The Scientific Study 
 of the O.T., 1910. 
 
 PROVERBS, BOOK OF. Tlie Book of Proverbs 
 belongs to that class of Hebrew literature known as 
 Wisdom-literature, of which there are several examples 
 in the Old Testament (Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes). It 
 is a collection of sententious maxims (meshdlim) which 
 enforce a practical rather than a speculative wisdom. 
 C. H. Toy points out (Encycl. Biil.) that this wisdom 
 has much in common with the thought of the preceding 
 and contemporary literature. It accepts monotheism : 
 takes monogamy for granted ; and retains the traditional 
 division of mankind into good and bad. As in the I'ro- 
 phets and the Pvsalms, miracles play little or no part, 
 except as reminiscences. On the other hand, its character 
 is relatively non-national, little stress being laid on 
 national institutions, laws, and hopes. Characteristic 
 of the Wisdom-literature is its conception of virtue. As 
 regards this, " in Job and Proverlis and the succeeding 
 books we meet a conception of the moral life which, 
 while not without a point of connection with the prophetic 
 thought, .still goes far beyond anything in the earlier 
 literature; virtue is practically identified with knowledge. 
 Knowledge, at is true, is a necessary condition of 
 obedience, and is so spoken of in the Prophets (Is. i. 3, 
 vi. 9, Jer. iv. 22, v. 4) : but the sages treat it as if it were 
 the same thing as obedience. The central fact in the 
 books just named is wisdom, which is made to include all 
 the duties of life from the lowest to the highest. The 
 ideal person, he who stands for the right against and 
 above the wrong, is the wise man. . . Instead of the 
 simple demands of earlier times, the sole worship of 
 Yahwfe and obedience to his ritual and moral laws, there 
 has now arisen a science of living, in which intellectual 
 insight is the central faculty, it being assumed that he, 
 and only he. who sees will do " (C. H. Toy in Encycl. 
 Bibl., s.v. "Wisdom Literature"). The Book of Pro- 
 verbs is called in the Hebrew Bible Mishle, this being the 
 first word in tlie description " Proverbs of Solomon " 
 (Mishle Shelomoh). In the Vulgate the title is " Para- 
 bolas Solomonis." Certain portions of the book have 
 siJecial superscriptions. Thus chapters x. 1-xxii. 16, in 
 which has been found the real kernel of the Book of 
 Proverbs, has the superscription " Proverbs of Solomon." 
 The verses, many of which are antithetical in structure. 
 are independent wholes. Chapters xxii. 17-xxiv. have 
 the superscription " Words of the Wise." Chapter xxx. 
 )irofesses to be the " Words of Agur the son of Jakeh." 
 Chapters xxv.-xxix. are ascribed to the literary activity 
 of Hezekiah. They have the heading : " These also are 
 Proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah. king 
 of Judah, copied out." Prof. Driver thinks that the 
 .statement may be correct. The opening section, chapters 
 i.-ix., " forms a treatise of moral instruction specially 
 intended for young men. presented in the form of exhorta- 
 tions by a father to his son to take Wisdom as his guide "
 
 Proximae 
 
 293 
 
 Psychical Research, The Society for 
 
 (O. C. Whiteliouse). It is doubtful whether King Solo- 
 mon can be regarded as the author even of the oldest 
 section of the book (chaps, x. 1-xxii. 16), though no doubt 
 oontemponary and even older proverbs have been incor- 
 porated. A number of scholars assign chapters i.-ix. to 
 a period a little before the Exile. Others regard prac- 
 tically the whole of the Book of Proverbs as post-exilic. 
 The use of Solomon's name would be suggested by his 
 reputation for wisdom. C. H. Toy thinks that, as regards 
 rhythm, " the line in Proverbs has usually three beats (a 
 form which may be called ternary), sometimes two 
 (binary), sometimes four (quaternary). ... In a few 
 cases it is difficult to detect rhythm at all; but in such 
 cases there is ground for supposing the trouble to be in 
 the text." See C. H. Toy, " Proverbs" and " Wisdom 
 Literature" in the Encycl. BiU.; and Proverhs in the 
 I.C.C, 1899; C. ComiU, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. C. White- 
 house. 
 
 PROXIMAB. Proximae, the kinswomen, was the name 
 given by the ancient Celts to a group of goddesses. There 
 are other such groups. Edward Anwyl (Celtic Reliqion, 
 190f>) thinks that " these grouped goddesses take us back 
 to one of the most interesting stages in the early Celtic 
 religion, when the earth-spirits or the com-spirit.s had 
 not vet been completely individualised." Cp. MATRES. 
 PSALMS, BOOK OF. In the Canon of the Old Testa- 
 ment (q.v.) the Book of Psalms (Hebrew Sepher tehilltm; 
 Greek Psalmoi) is one of the books of the Third Division 
 or Hagiographa {q.v.). It is a collection of religious 
 poems of various date, and also, though a large proportion 
 of the poems were popularly ascribed to David, of various 
 authorship. The ascription of so many psalms to David 
 was due no doubt to his fame as a minstrel and to the 
 tradition that he organised the worship and music of the 
 temple. The Psalms are divided in the Hebrew Bible 
 into five books, the five-fold division having perhaps 
 been suggested by that of the Pentateuch. The five 
 books are: (1) Psalms i.-xli. : (2) xlii.-lxxii.; (3) Ixxiii.- 
 Ixxxix. ; (4) xc.-cvi. ; (5) cvii.-cl. In the first three books 
 (for the most part) many of the Psahns have titles or 
 superscriptions. Often these are of the nature of musical 
 directions. Sometimes they are notes as to author.ship. 
 Thus eleven psalms are said to be by or to belong to 
 " the Sons of Korah " (xlli., xllv.-xlix., Ixxxiv., Ixxxv., 
 Ixxxvii.. and Ixxxviii.). One psalm is ascribed to " Ethan 
 the Ezrahite " (Ixxxix.), and another group to " Asaph " 
 (1., Ixxiii.-lxxxiii.). Such superscriptions indicate that 
 there are psalters within the Psalter. This is clearly 
 the case. There are a number of psalms each of which 
 is called " a song of degrees (or ascents)." These are 
 Psalms cxx.-cxxxiv. There are Jewish traditions which 
 explain that they were so called because at the Feast 
 of Tabernacles they were sung by the Levites on the 
 fifteen steps or degrees leading from the temple-court of 
 the women to that of the men. Roliertson Smith, how- 
 ever, thinks (Encycl. Bibl.) that they must originally 
 have been a hymn-book intended not for the Levites, but 
 for laymen who went up to Jerusalem at the great 
 pilgrimage feasts. He thinks that the title of this hymn- 
 book was simply " Pilgrimage Songs." Other g'poups of 
 psalms have been distinguished and described as the 
 Eoiiu-pssilvaa (cv.-cvii.). the Hallelujah-psalms (cxi.- 
 cxiii., and cxlvi.-cl.) and the i/a^ei-psalms (cxiii.-cxviii.). 
 These groups, apart from other considerations, indicate 
 that the P-salter is a compilation. A large number of the 
 P.ssalms were not composed by David. Prof. Cheyne 
 writes (E. Bi.) : " That the song of triumph in II. Sam. 
 xxii. (= Ps. xviii.) and the ' last words of David ' in 
 xxiii. 1-7 (both highly religious compositions) are 
 Davidic, is not, on grounds of criticism, tenable. Nor 
 can any of the psalms in the Psalter be ascribed with any 
 
 probability to David." But this is an extreme position. 
 As O. C. Wliitehouise and R. Kittel say, there is no reason 
 why David should not have composed songs for religious 
 worship (cp. II. Sam. i. 17 ff., iii. .S.S ff.). However great 
 David's sliortcomings were, it may be claimed as a his- 
 torical fact, as Kittel says, that he was deeply religious. 
 His biographers do not fail to tell us his faults. They 
 also depict him in his greatness. " And when they do 
 this, they describe him as a man of extraordinary genius, 
 head and shoulders above his contemporaries, both as 
 a man and as a religious personality. As a man full of 
 genuine magnanimity, he laments the death of his 
 bitterest enemy in accents of unalloyed sorrow, is chival- 
 rously faithful to a friend even unto death, and he 
 frankly admits his guilt to the prophet. And as a re- 
 ligious personality he is in keeping with the spirit of 
 his day, which he truly reflects, and is not free from 
 superstitions and eccentric religious tendencies. He 
 reveals this side of his character in his lifelong child- 
 like simplicity, which was more pronounced perhaps in 
 David than in any of his contemporaries — in this respect 
 again proclaiming himself to be a man in the truest sense 
 of the term. But this characteristic of his nature is due 
 to the influence of true religion. It is the expression of 
 strong, genuine, deep piety " (Kittel). H. Ewald has 
 ascribed sixteen psalms to David (ill., iv., vli., viii., xi., 
 XV., xviii., xix. 1-6, xxiv. 1-6, xxiv. 7-10, xxix., xxxii., Ix. 
 6-9 [Heb. 8-11], Ixviii. 1.3-18 [Heb. 14-19], cxliv. 12-14, cl.). 
 The religious lyric in Israel no doubt goes back to an 
 ancient date. " We find very early traces of religious 
 poetrj- in Egypt, which has many aflinities with the 
 poetry of the psalms, and in the Babylonian penitential 
 psalms we are taken back to a period prior to 3000 B.C." 
 (R. Kittel). See S. R. Driver, The Parallel Psalter, 
 1898; F. Baethgen, Die Psalmen, 1904; T. K. Cheyne, 
 Book of Psalms (translation), IOC): C. Cornill. Intr.; 
 G. H. Box: O. C. Whitehouse: R. Kittel. The Scientific 
 Stiidi/ of the Old Testament, 1910. 
 
 PSATHYRIANS. The followers of Theoctistus 
 Psathyropola (the "cake-seller") of Constantinople 
 about 390 A.D. They were Arians. They held " that 
 the First Person of the Trinity was in a proper sense 
 Father, and so to be styled before the Son existed; while 
 their opponents, the followers of the Antiochene Doro- 
 theus, maintained that He was onlv a Father after the 
 existence of the Son" (G. T. Stokes). See J. H. Blunt; 
 Wace and Piercy. 
 
 PSEUDEPIGRAPHA. The Pseudepigrapha of the Old 
 Testament are apocryphal and apocalyptic writings 
 which were " falsely " ascribed to certain authors with 
 well-known names. See APOCALYI'TIC LITERATURE 
 and APOCRYPHA OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 
 
 PSEUDO-DIONYSIAN WRITINGS. The writings 
 which purport to have been composed by Dionysius the 
 Areopagite seem to have been written in Syria by a 
 Christian bishop between about 490 and 500 A.D. The 
 writer assimilated much of the teaching of the great 
 Hellenistic philosopher Proclus (410-485 A.D.) ; and. in 
 fact, according to F. von Hiigel. his writings " constitute 
 the most wholesale adoption of non-Qiristian philosophy 
 ever, so far, endorsed bv the official Christian Church."' 
 
 PSYCHICAL RESEARCH, THE SOCIETY FOR. 
 The Society for P.sychical Research was founded at the 
 beginning of 1882, and incorporated in August, 1895, " for 
 the purpo.se of making an organised and systematic 
 attempt to investigate various sorts of debatable 
 phenomena which are prima facie inexplicable on any 
 generally recognised hypothesis. From the recorded 
 testimony of many competent witnesses, past and present. 
 including observations recently made by scientific men of 
 eminence in various countries, there appeared to be.
 
 Psychic Phenomena of Religious Experience 294 Psychic Phenomena of Religious Experience 
 
 amidst much illusion and deception, an important botly 
 of facts to which this description would apply, and which, 
 therefore, if incontestably established, would be of the 
 very highest interest. The task of examining such 
 residual phenomena had often been undertaken by indi- 
 vidual effort, but never hitherto by a .scientific society 
 organised on a .sufficiently broad basis." The principal 
 departments of work at present undertaken by the 
 Society are five in number. 1. An examination of the 
 nature and extent of any influence which may be exerted 
 "by one mind upon another, otherwise than through the 
 recognised sensory channels. 2. The study of hypnotism 
 and mesmeriism; and an inquiry into the alleged pheno- 
 mena of clairvoyance. 3. A careful investigation of any 
 reports, resting on testimony sufficiently strong and not 
 too remote, of apparitions coinciding with some external 
 event (as, for instance, a death) or giving information 
 previously unknown to the percipient, or being seen by 
 two or more persons independently of each other. 4. 
 An inquiry into various alleged phenomena apparently 
 inexplicable by known laws of nature, and commonly 
 referred by Spiritualists to the agency of extra-human 
 intelligences. 5. The collection and collation of existing 
 materials bearing on the history of these subjects. " The 
 aim of the Society is to approach these various problems 
 without prejudice or prepossession of any kind, and in 
 the same spirit of exact and unimpassioned inquiry 
 which has enabled Science to solve so many ijroblems, 
 once not less obscure nor less hotly debated. The 
 founders of the Society have always fully realised the 
 exceptional difficulties which surround this branch of re- 
 search; but they nevertheless believed that by patient 
 and systematic effort some results of permanent value 
 might be attained." The Society publishes " Pro- 
 ceedings," and a Monthly Journal is issued to mem'bers 
 and associates. The Society for Psychical Research, it 
 may be said, is having a considerable influence upon the 
 thought of the age. 
 
 PSYCHIC PHENOMENA OF RELIGIOUS EXPERI- 
 ENCE. It iis still a common belief in some quarters 
 that the religious experiences of tie Hebrew prophets, 
 of the early Christians, and even of the Christians of the 
 Middle Age differed widely from those of the adherents 
 of other religions, and from those of modem Christians. 
 By a curious process of reasoning it is claimed that in 
 distant ages the power of the Spirit manifested itself in 
 marvellous ways, and then changed its method of opera- 
 tion. Whenever in modem times it has been reix)rted 
 that marvellous things have happened the disposition has 
 been to smile or even to scoff. It is true that the Society 
 for Psychical Research has brought about a change, but 
 the prejudice against such investigations and against the 
 trend of thought which such investigations represent is 
 amazingly strong. Yet, if marvels happen at all, why 
 they should happen in one age and not in another, no 
 one has been able satisfactorily to explain. To many 
 people the simplest explanation seems to be that they 
 never have happened. And of course the simplest ex- 
 planation is often the wrong one. The truth is that 
 what were undenstood as man'els in distant ages do 
 happen still. It is impossible to suppose that the Divine 
 Power, which is the same yesterday, to-day, and for 
 ever can ever have left itself without unmistakeable 
 evidence in any age. JlaiTels do happen quite similar to 
 some of those which happened in the days of the Hebrew 
 Prophets and the Early Christians. There can no longer 
 t)e any doubt tliat people in the.se days are being healed 
 bodily and reformed morally in a way that .seems miracu- 
 lous. One need only Tefer to such works as W. Soltau's 
 Bat Jestis Wvnder gHan? H. Dresser's Health and the 
 inner Life (1907), the book published in 1908 with the 
 
 title Religion and Medicine, and Hugo Muensterberg's 
 Psychotherapy (1909). Marvels still happen. But there 
 is a fundamental difference between our age and the 
 early ages to this extent that at least in some cases the 
 progress of the Science of Mind, which is still new, has 
 taught us to interpret the marvellous phenomena of re- 
 ligious experience in another way. We are .better able 
 to distinguish between subjective and objective pheno- 
 mena. This is a matter of far-reaciing significance. 
 The failure in ancient times to make this distinction not 
 only fostered an extravagant belief in palpable marvels, 
 but influenced the whole style and language in which 
 even ordinary historical events were described. The 
 profound and remarkable subjective experiences of men 
 like Moses, for instance, dictated the style in which the 
 history of his people was written. One example may be 
 taken, though it may not be the best for our purpose. 
 We are told that when the people of Israel journeyed 
 from Egypt, Jehovah went before them in a pillar of 
 cloud by day and in a pillar of fire by night. This is 
 none other than the fire and smoke which Moses saw 
 subjectively in his vision of the Burning Bush, and which 
 he ever afterwards associated with the Divine Presence 
 (see further BURNING BUSH, and PILLAR OF CLOUD 
 AND FIRE). The Bible is probably full of instances 
 of the kind, and in this respect no sharp line of distinc- 
 tion can be drawn between the Old Testament and the 
 New. Profane history in any age is but a poor reflexion 
 of historical truth. Sacred history, history written from 
 a religious standpoint, bears a still slighter resemblance 
 to history as the term is commonly understood. But let 
 this fact be emphasized at once, the style in which sacred 
 history is composed bears witness to religious experiences 
 which stirred men to their inmost depths. And the 
 history does reflect and enshrine in great measure that 
 knowledge which is of priceless worti. the knowledge of 
 divine truth. This is the treasure hid in a field which 
 one would do well to search out and buy at any price. 
 To interpret sacred history too literally then is to mis- 
 understand it. This was pointed out long ago by De 
 Qninee.v, a rather conservative writer when he came to 
 deal with theology. The language of sacred books is 
 coloured b.v religious experience. And yet, where the 
 writer is not a mere second-hand reporter or editor, but 
 one who has himself had exceptionally profound religious 
 experiences, divine inspiration may be said to cling to 
 every word. In a sense the idea expressed by Verbal 
 Inspiration is still true. Be that as it may, the claim 
 that certain books as a whole are inspired is well sup- 
 jiorted. It is supported powerfully in one way by the 
 effect which they produce when they are rightly under- 
 stood. The philosophy known as Pragmatism seems to 
 be based upon the principle that the truth of a philosophy 
 will be demonstrated by its practical results. The prin- 
 ciple is a right one. Experience shows that there is 
 nothing wrong with Inspiration and Revelation, but only 
 with the way in which the.v have been understood. 
 Certain books are inspired. The point that requires to 
 l)e emphasized is that by the time inspiration has 
 reached a book it has passed through several proces.ses or 
 stages. According to Mr. Laurie Magnus (' Religio 
 Iiaici ' Judaica. 1907), even traditional Judai.sm " recog- 
 nizes at least three elements in the insi^ired text, as we 
 receive it. First, the message; next, the interpreter: 
 lastly, the audience. Human agents were chosen to 
 communicate the divine will, and something doubtless 
 was lost in the fir.st process of transmission. Further, 
 the transmitting agent had to make his communication 
 to a heterogeneous audience, and that .second process of 
 removal from the original Voice involved a fresh adapta- 
 tion of the message. The Pentateuchal formula is com-
 
 Psychic Phenomena of Religious Experience 
 
 295 
 
 Psychic Phenomena of Religious Experience 
 
 monly : ' And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, Speak 
 unto the children of Israel, and say unto them.' Now 
 taking the thing quite literally, it is obvious that in any 
 attempt to repeat to a large mixed class the ■w<jrds of a 
 supreme authority, a certain admixture must take place. 
 There is not only the mind of the transmitter, but the 
 mind of the receivers to be considered. Each will colour 
 the message on its way : and there will be in the re-sniltant 
 text the element of Moses and the element of the children 
 of Israel, as well as the original code." This, according 
 to Mr. Laurie Magnus, is the view of traditional Judaism. 
 But we can go even deeper to the root of the matter. 
 Gotl is spirit. This of itself suggests that he would not 
 use a human language. The general experience of man- 
 kind supports the suggestion that he does not do so. 
 When God inspires, Spirit communes direc-tly with spirit. 
 The language of God is the language of the soul. Light 
 is thrown on this matter by the exj.erience known as Con- 
 version (q.v.). A sudden conversion is the result of in- 
 spiration. It is not as a rule the inspiration of a religious 
 genius; but it is real inspiration, though of a lesser 
 degree. What happens? A person suddenly receives a 
 subjective message, a divine intuition. He feels, or 
 rather he knows, that an imiwrtant change has taken 
 place in him. He knows that somehow or other his out- 
 look has been radically altered. He experiences a sense 
 of relief, of happiness, unknown before. Ask him what 
 exactly has happened. That is to say, ask him to trans- 
 late his subjective, his divine message into the language 
 of human speech. In most cases he cannot do it. Pro- 
 bably the most he can do is to repeat mechanically old 
 formulas, perhaps the old formulas of his childhood re- 
 ligion, which seem to have some connection with his pre- 
 sent state of mind and may express his new feeling but 
 not his new knowledge. The divine intuition never 
 ceases to influence his life. It does not fail to colour 
 his language, but it may never receive adequate expres- 
 sion in human speech. The man's faith cannot be ex- 
 plained in such a way as to satisfy merely intellectual 
 inquiries. He has, however, the kind of knowledge that 
 made Job proof against all the attacks of those who 
 sought to destroy his faith in God, the kind of know- 
 ledge which aU persons whose religion is not a mere 
 form do somehow or other obtain. Such is an ordinary 
 case of sudden conversion. Now the inspiration of a 
 prophet or a religious genius, we may suppose, differs 
 from the inspiration of ordinary conversion, not in kind 
 but only in degree. The difference seems to be that it 
 comes with greater ix>wer and does in course of time 
 receive more or less adequate expression. Yet even in 
 this case, as far as ordinary lauguage is concerned, only 
 more or less adequate, by no means perfect, expression. 
 Inspired i)ersons are always more inspired than their 
 spoken or written utterances. The priests of some of 
 the Zen sects in China and Japan seem to have realized 
 this, though they may be mistaken in thinking them- 
 selves inspired. Mr. Arthur Llo.vd writes of them (The 
 Religion of Half Japan, 1911) : " It is diflBcult to talk 
 with them on purely spiritual issues, because they hold 
 that Truth is not communicated orally from mouth to ear, 
 but without the intermediary of words, by a kind of 
 wireless telegraphy from heart to heart." Bodhidharma, 
 an Indian priest, who arrived in China in the year 526 
 A.D. and played a prominent part in the development of 
 the Zen sects, is quoted as having said : " You cannot get 
 Buddhism from books. If you want Enlightenment, you 
 must get it as S'akyamuni did, as the great Ka.syapa 
 did, as Xagarjuna and Vasubandhu did — by meditation. 
 Books will only tell you about it — meditation and con- 
 templation will procure it for you." The divine message 
 to a prophet, like the divine mes.sage to an ordinary 
 
 converted person, is received subjectively or telepathi- 
 cally. It comes as a kind of intuition. We know that 
 in the case of ordinary telepathic messages, the message 
 only in rare cases rises from the sub-conscious mind to 
 the waking mind. It requires some peculiarly endowed 
 person to bring even a simple message to the surface. 
 The prophets were i^eculiarly endowed. But even in 
 their ease, we may suppose, the difficulty of translating 
 profound subjective religious experiences or intuitions 
 into the language of the ordinary speech of a particular 
 period and place is almost insuperable. And when at 
 length, perhaps after a long interval, the inspired words 
 are written down, they may be supiwsed to give but a 
 poor reproduction of the original inspiration. The in- 
 spiration is there. It is there in and behind the mere 
 words, and in some subtle way it does not fail to make 
 itself felt. It is never really lost. This explains the 
 power of the Bible. Head as a whole, it does succeed 
 in giving very forcible expression to divine intuitions. 
 In days when it was read with a simple childlike faith it 
 did often work marvels. Another of the phenomena of 
 religious experience seems to point in the same direction 
 as Conversion, the phenomenon known as Speaking with 
 tongues (see TONGUES, GIFT OF). In many cases it 
 is the result of a real religious exi)erience, a divine in- 
 spiration. Here again what seems to happen is that 
 I)eople try to express in human language a message 
 which has been received in a different way, that is to 
 say, subjectively or telepathically, with the result that 
 they only succeed in uttering strange unintelligible 
 sounds. We have reference to this kind of experience 
 in the New Testament (I. Corinthians sii. 10, xiv. 2, 14, 
 23). J. Massie (I. and II. Corinthians in the " Century 
 Bible") explains that "there appears to have been in 
 those days of infant Christianity an inarticulate yearning 
 to praise, an inexpressible joy, which because it had no 
 vocabulary commensurate with its requirements, broke 
 forth in unintelligible utterance." He adds : " Surely 
 such incoherence when joy is overwhelming is not beyond 
 conception; perhaps it is not altogether contrary to ex- 
 perience." The messages of God pass directly and sub- 
 jectively to the minds or souls of men. It is true that 
 reference is often made to a voice. Those who have 
 had remarkable religious experiences often testify to 
 having distinctly heard a voice. We are often told in 
 the Bible that men heard the voice of God. There is 
 no reason to doubt that a voice was heard, but as heard 
 it was hardly the voice of God. Such a voice is heard 
 subjectively. If two persons are together it will be 
 heard as a rule by one, but not by both. If, however, 
 the two persons are in very close sympathy, it may be 
 heard by both, just as the same remark is sometimes 
 made by two persons at the same moment. In any case, 
 the voice is really secondary. It is the voice, subjec- 
 tively heard, not of God but of man. It is said tliat on 
 the occasion of Paul's conversion he was not the only 
 person who heard the voice. We read : " And the men 
 that journeyed with him stood speechless, hearing the 
 voice, but beholding no man." Thi.s is possible, for Paul 
 was just in that condition in which he might have acted 
 as a medium. But it may be that the statement does 
 not necessarily mean more than that the men who were 
 with Paul heard him carrying on a conversation with, 
 as they thought, some unseen person. The knowledge, 
 then, which comes through inspiration differs, it would 
 seem, from the knowledge acquired through the ordinary 
 efforts of the intellect. It is intuitional, and is con- 
 veyed by a different language, a language, if we can call 
 it such, of its own. But it need not come by an imme- 
 diate or direct inspiration as in the case of a sudden con- 
 version. In many cases no doubt it is inherited. A
 
 Psycho-Analysis 
 
 296 
 
 Puranas 
 
 religious genius transmits it subjectively to his disciples, 
 and these transmit it to others. For there is truth m 
 the idea of an Apostolic Succession, and an Elisha does 
 inherit the mantle of an Elijah. It may be transmitted 
 by an inspired boolj, if the ordinary intellect is not 
 allowed to as.sert itself too iinoompromisingly. In some 
 way or other, one must suppose, it is a knowledge within 
 the reach of all. For experience seems to teach that if 
 the pur.suit of religious truth is persevered in, sooner or 
 later, however black for a time the prospect may be, the 
 light will burst forth. The trouble is that .so many 
 people too soon abandon the pursuit in despair, adopt 
 some party label. Agnostic, Rationalist, and so forth, 
 accepting all Its shibboleths without more ado, and hence- 
 forth think no more. Books have been referred to in 
 the course of the article. 
 
 PSYCHO-ANALYSIS. That there was some inkling 
 of the Freudian ijsycho-analytic method of treating 
 nervous disorders many centuries ago is shown by a 
 narrative in Luclan's tract The Syrian Goddess. 
 According to this story (§§ 17 and 18), the .stepson of 
 Stratonice, wife of the king of the Assyrians (i.e., 
 Syrians, the king thought of being probably Seleucus 
 Nicator of Antioch). was enamoured of his stepmother. 
 He lost his colour, and became daily more frail. Seen 
 by a doctor, the doctor could find no definite disease, and 
 perceived that the malady was erotic. He noted that 
 when the stepmother was near, the patient became worse : 
 he paled, sweated, trembled, and suffered from violent 
 beating of the heart. The doctor summoned the patient's 
 father, and explained to him that the malady was due 
 to a wrongful action. Slightly dissembling the truth, 
 he said : " he has no painful sj'mptoms; he is possessed 
 by love and madness. He longs to possess what he will 
 never obtain; he loves my wife, whom I will never give 
 up " (transl. by H. A. Strong). The father pleaded for 
 his son, explaining his guilt as involuntary. Thereupon 
 the doctor professed to be scandalized, and asked : 
 " What would you do, if it were your wife? " The 
 father replied that even if his son were enamoured of 
 his own stepmother, he would not begrudge him his life. 
 The doctor then announced that the object of the young 
 man's love was actually his father's wife. On hearing 
 this the father decided to give up his wife and kingdom; 
 and the young man was cured. In the words of Pro- 
 fessor R. C. Cabot (What Men Live By, 1915), the essence 
 of the Freudian doctrine is this: " People suppress and 
 try to bury a disappointed hope or an evil desire; but 
 accidentally they bury it aUve, so that it struggles and 
 shrieks beneath the weight of daily life piled on top of 
 it." Jane E. Harrison (Rationalism and Rplif/ious 
 Reaction, 1919) observes with truth that, if Dr. Freud's 
 books are in some ways unpleasant reading, no one now 
 doubts the substantial soundness of his conclusions or the 
 reality of his cures. " He can 
 
 He does 
 
 Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow. 
 Raze out the written tablets of the brain. 
 
 Cleanse the stuffed bosom of that perilous stuff 
 Which weighs upon the heart. 
 
 A host of obsciire diseases — on the borderland of insanity 
 —diseases gnawing at and corrupting the very sources 
 of life, are caused, he finds, by repressed emotions, and 
 most of all by repressed desires. vSuch di.seases are 
 hysterias, claustro- and other pholtias. multiple personali- 
 ties, and the like." To find a remedy, " the suppressed 
 desire is to be fished up, brought into relation with the 
 conscious, harnessed to reality, sublimated." For a 
 popular exposition of Freudian and other P.sycho-ana lytic 
 fiiethods, see Wilfrid Lay, Man's Unconscious Conflict, 
 1918. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGICAL HEDONISM. gee HEDONISM. 
 
 PSYCHO-THERAPEUTIC SOCIETY. This Society, 
 which vras established in 1901, rightly claimed to be 
 scientific, charitable, and useful. It deserves notice here 
 because it had also a religious significance. The Rev. 
 Clinton A. Billig, for instance, came to England to study 
 the Society's methods, and " returned to his church in 
 America to put their ideas into practice." As in the 
 case of the " Church and Medical Union," the in- 
 stitution was clearly another of the results of the 
 modern sympathetic study of faith-healing. " The 
 Society exists for the Study, Investigation, and Practice 
 of Health Reform, Medical Hypnotism, Suggestive 
 Therapeutics, Curative Human Radiations, and Drug- 
 less Healing, with due regard to Diet, Hygiene, and 
 the observance of Natural Laws of Health, and Monthly 
 Lectures and Instruction Classes are held in connection 
 with these antere>sting and important subjects." At the 
 time of its institution it could be said that " the only 
 Philanthropic Institution in the United Kingdom at 
 which Free Treatment may be obtained along the above 
 Psychological and Mental Lines." The Society published 
 a journal, which was called " The Health Record." See 
 the 'Ninth Annual Report of the Society, 1910. 
 
 PTAH. One of the deities of the ancient Egyptians. 
 The root from which Ptah seems to be derived is common 
 in the Semitic languages in the sense " to open." The 
 meaning of Ptah, as the name of a god, however, is un- 
 certain. In the Book of the Dead (q.i\) it is Ptah who 
 performs the ceremony of " opening the mouth" for the 
 dead ; but, as Wiedemann says, this function was pro- 
 bably suggested by his name. From the earliest times 
 Ptah has been associated with Memphis. The god is 
 depicted as a bandaged mummy. Two hands, however, 
 are represented in front of the bo<ly, in which is held 
 a sceptre symbolizing truth and just measurement. Ptah 
 is the divine sculptor, and became the patron deity of 
 artists and artizans. He is called " Father of the 
 mighty fathers, father of the beginnings, he who created 
 the sun egg and the moon egg." Under the name Ptah 
 Tatftnen he is depicted at Philae sitting in front of a 
 potter's wheel and turning the egg of the sun or moon. 
 See Alfred Wiedemann, Rel.; Adolf Erman, Handboolc; 
 Edouard Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith, 1909. 
 
 PUERIS SIMILES. A name given to a sect of Ana- 
 baptists, who sought to carry out the precept of Jesus 
 reported in the New Testament, and to become like little 
 children. They seem to have mistaken childishness for 
 childlikeness. 
 
 PUGGALAPA5JNATTI. A Buddhist sacTed book In 
 the third division of the Canon. See CANON, 
 BUDDHIST. 
 
 PUISLAM. Puislam or Putiya Islam (new Islam) is 
 a name given to converts to Islam among the Mukkuvans, 
 the caste of sea fishermen on the Malabar coast of India. 
 The Puislams also follow the pursuit of fishing. 
 
 PULLUVANS. The Pulluvans of Malabar are 
 described as a.strologers. medicine-men, prie.sts and 
 singers in snake groves. They are sometimes known 
 as Vaidyans, physicians. Their special deities include 
 Velayuthan, Ayyappa. Rfihu, Muni, Ohathan, Mukkan, 
 Karinkutti, and Parakutti. 
 
 PURANAS. Puriina is a term used in Hinduism. It 
 means " ancient lore." In the late Vedic period Purana 
 means " ancient history " (details about ancient history) 
 as distinguished from Itha.sa. "story." The term is 
 used also of parts of the Epic. But it came to be applied 
 particularly to writings held sacred by sectarian wor- 
 shippers of Siva (q.v.) and Vishnu (q.v.) of a much later 
 date. They were written after the sixth century A.D.,
 
 Purgatory 
 
 297 
 
 Pushan 
 
 and, according to Hopkins, perhaps as late as 1500 A.D. 
 He thi'niis tliat ■• what is ancient in them is a more or 
 less fugitive resemblance to the epic style and matter; 
 what is new is the more i)ronounced sectarianism with 
 its adventitious growth of subordinate spirittialities and 
 exaggerated miracles." See K. W. Hopkins. 
 
 PURGATORY. The idea of Purgatory (from Latiu 
 piii-ffo ■' to cleanse ") as a developed doctrine may be 
 said to be the work of tJie Roman Catholic Church. The 
 position, if certain principles are accepted, is a logical 
 one. The purest of earthly souls c-au hardly be fit to 
 pass immediately into the spiritual i)rt\seuce of God. 
 Purgatory is thought of therefore, not indeed as a place 
 of proliation, for those who reach it have already shown 
 their titness to enter heaven, but as a place of purifica- 
 tion. It is "a place in which .'touls who depart this life 
 in tie grac-e of God suflfer for a time because they still 
 need to be cleansed from venial, or have still to pay 
 the temporal punishment due to mortal sins, the giiiit 
 and the eternal punishment of which have been remitte<l '" 
 (Cath. Diet.). Not only is there such a plac-e, but the 
 sufferings of those who are there may be relieved bv the 
 prayers of the faithful. The eighth article of the' Pro- 
 fession of the Tridentine Faith or the Creed of Pius IV. 
 states : " I firmly hold that there is a purgatorj-, and 
 that the souls therein detained are helped by the suffrages 
 of the faithful. Likewise, that the s;iints reigning with 
 Christ are to be honoured and invoked, and that they 
 offer up prayers to God for us, and that their relics are 
 to be had in veneration " (quoted in Schaff-Herzog). It 
 has been widely believed that the purification in purga- 
 torj' is by fire, and that not merely spiritual but material. 
 This was the belief of Thomas Aquinas. r.onaveutura, 
 Gerson, and other doctors of the Middle Ages. On this 
 point, however, the Greek differed from the Latin 
 Church, and at the Council of Florence (14.39) they agreed 
 to differ. The doctrine of a purgatorial fire was"opix>sed 
 by the Cathari, the Waldenses <q.v.). and other sects. 
 The Reformers protested against the whole theory. See 
 Schaff-Herzog: Chambers's Encycl.; the Prot. Diet.; the 
 Cath. Diet.; K. R. Hagenbach. 
 
 PURIM, THE SARAGOSSAN. A yearly anniversary 
 celebrated by a few of the .lews resident at Jerusalem 
 on the 17th of Shebat (February) to commemorate the 
 deliverance of the Jews of Saragossa from a plot framed 
 against tiem about the year 1420. The plot was due to 
 a Christian Jew named Marcus of Damasc-us, who sought 
 to rouse the anger of Alphonso V., the king of Arragon, 
 against his Jewish brethren, and. like Haman of old, 
 was foiled and punished. See J. E. Hanauer, Folk-lore 
 of the Holu Laiiil. 1910. 
 
 PURIST CONTROVERSY, THE. A controversy which 
 arose at the beginning of the .seventeenth century con- 
 c-eming the text of the New Testament. " The Purists 
 maintained that to deny that (3od gave the New Testa- 
 ment in anything but pure cla.ssical Greek was to imperil 
 the doctrine of inspiration. The Wittemberg Faculty, 
 in 16.38. decreed tiat to si)eak of barbaxi.'jms or solecisms 
 in the New Testament was blasphemv against the Holy 
 Ghost " (M. R. Vincent, Text. Crit. of the N.r.. 190.3). " 
 PURITANS. A name given to reformers in the 
 Church of England, because they .sought to purifj- the 
 Church from what they regarded as error and corrui>tion. 
 The Puritan controversy began to become acute during 
 the reign of Elizabeth. Originally it was confined for 
 the mo.st part to forms, wremonies and vestments used 
 in divine worship, but in eour.se of time it was extended 
 to the nature and government of the Church and its rela- 
 tion to the State. " In the first of the Admonitions to 
 Parliament (1.572), which was written by Field and 
 Wilcox, and constituted one of the mast important Puri- 
 
 tan manifestoes of the day, although there was a dis- 
 cussion of forms of worship and clerical vestments, it 
 was .said, • Neither is the controversy between them and 
 us as for a cap, a tippet, or a surplice, but for great 
 matters concerning a true ministry and regiment of the 
 Church according to the Word. Which things once 
 established, the others melt away of themselves ' " (A. 
 C. M-Giffert). In the second Admonition of the same 
 year, the ix>licy of the Church api>ears as the principal 
 subject of discussion. •• In this document prelacv was 
 attacked, and presbyterianism declared to be the' only 
 lawful government because taught in the Scriptures, the 
 independence of the Church was asserted, and its sub- 
 .lection to the State rejected in good (3alvinistic fashion. 
 Strict ecclesiastical discipline was also insisted upon in 
 the spirit of Calvin." M'Giftert. notes that the same 
 general iwsition is maintained by Walter Travers in his 
 work A Full and Plain Declaration of Ecclesiastical 
 Discipline out of the Word of God, and of the Declining 
 of the Church of England from the same (1.574), which 
 became the recognised text-book of Puritanism. The 
 controversy came indeed to centre more and more round 
 questions of ix>lity and discipline, though doctrine also 
 became involved owing to the fact that the Puritans 
 emphasi-sed a high and rigid Calvinism. " When they 
 gained c-ontrol of the government under the Common- 
 wealth, they immediately undertook to put their prin- 
 ciples into practice and to reform the Church in 
 accordance with their long-cherished ideas. The West- 
 minster standards (1(;45 ff.) were for a short time the 
 official standards of the English Church. They repre- 
 .sented an ex-treme Calvinism in theology, Presbyterianism 
 in polity (though without the assertion of its exclusive 
 divine right), and Puritanism in worship. With the 
 Restoration in KKiO the old Anglican order was re- 
 establi.shed, and Puritanism was again proscribed, and 
 since the Revolution of IfiSS it has existed only in the 
 form of legalised dissent." In Scotland, through the 
 zeal of .John Knox, " Calvinism in doctrine, Presby- 
 terianism in polity, and Puritanism in worship were 
 permanently stampetl upon the Protestantism of the 
 country, and in 1(190, after the English revolution, the 
 We.stmin.ster standards were made binding by law upon 
 the .Scottish Church." The Puritans started with the 
 idea of reforming the Church from within. T\1ien in 
 course of time many of them, finding it impossible to 
 remain m the Church, were obliged to form independent 
 churches of their own, or in other words, when they 
 became Separatists or Sectaries, tJie name Puritan came 
 m general to be limited to " those Episcoipalians who, 
 whilst remaining in the Establishment, still sought to 
 bring about its further reformation " (J. A. Houlder). 
 
 PUSEYITES. Persons belonging to the theological 
 .school of Edward Bouverie Pu.sey (1,S00-1822) Regius 
 Professor of Hebrew at Oxford. "The tractarian move- 
 ment (q.v.) came to be called Puseyite on account of the 
 prominent part taken in it by Profes.sor Pusey. Pusey 
 himself, however, writing in 1S70, says : " I never was a 
 party leader. I never acted on any system. My name 
 was u.sed first to designate those of us who gave them- 
 selves to revive tie teaching of forgotten truth and piety, 
 because I first had occasion to write on Baptismal 
 Regeneration. But it was used bv opponents, not by con- 
 federates " (Eirenicon). See the D.N.B. 
 
 PCSHAN. One of the names of the Sun, as a deity, 
 in the religion of Hinduism. The moaning of the name 
 IS nearly equivalent to that of Savifar (f/.v.). He is the 
 guardian of cattle and the god " with braided hair." He 
 is depicted also as warlike, but his characteri.stics are in 
 the main bucolic. He is repre.sented as using the goad 
 and as directing the furrow. He is the finder of lost
 
 Pushpakans 
 
 298 
 
 Qias 
 
 cattle. In the last part of the Rig Veda he escorts the 
 souls of the departed to heaven. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 PUSHPAKANS. The name of a class of Ambalavasis 
 In Malajbar and Travaneore, Southern India. They are 
 so called from pushimm, a flower, because their employ- 
 ment is to brins flowers and garlands to the temples. 
 
 PUZI. Puzi or Purzi is one of the deities worshipped 
 by the Todas. Perhaps she is identical with Teikirzi. 
 
 PWYLL. A god of the Underworld worshipped by 
 the ancient Celts in Wales. His wife was Ehiannon, who 
 seems to be identical with the earlier Rigantona, " the 
 great Queen." Pwyll resembles in some respects the 
 Gaelic Mider. 
 
 PTRE, FESTIVAL OF THE. According to Lucian 
 (§ 49), this was the greatest of the spring festivals of 
 the Syrians. He gives the following description of the 
 sacrifice. " They cut down tall trees and set them up 
 In the court; then they bring goats and sheep and cattle 
 and hang them living to the trees: they add to these 
 birds and garments and gold and silver work. After all 
 is flni.shed!^ they carry the gods around the trees and set 
 fire under; in a moment all is in a blaze " (transl. by H. 
 A. Strong). 
 
 PYRRHONISTS. An ancient school of sceptic philoso- 
 phers. The Pyrrhonists were so called because they 
 followed in the footsteps of Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-270 
 B.C.). According to Pyrrho, part of the i>roblem of 
 philosophy is to know how things are constituted and 
 what our attitude towards them should be. He decided 
 that the correct attitude is to say nothing about things, 
 to suspend one's .judgment. We must not vsay " things 
 are so," but " so it appears to me." We must say 
 " Perhaps " or " I assert nothing definitely." Pyrr- 
 honism was revived by .3Dnesidemus of Onossus, a 
 younger contemporary of Cicero (106-43 B.C.). According 
 to JDnesimus, the true sceptic avoids carefully every 
 kind of dogmatism. He will not assert that there can 
 1)6 only probability. " He neither aflSrms, nor denies, 
 nor doubts, but merely investigates " (Erdmann). See 
 J. E. Erdmann. 
 
 PYTHAGOREANS. The followers of Pythagoras of 
 Samos (584-500 B.C.), who was the first person to describe 
 himself as a philosopher. Little is known of Pythagoras 
 himself. Our knowledge of Pythagoreanism is chiefly 
 derived from Aristotle, who in turn seems to have been 
 dependent upon the oral communications of Pythagoras's 
 disciple Philolaus. Pythagoras is said to haye travelled 
 through Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and Egypt. Then he 
 settled in Crotona (520-509 B.C.), where he founded a 
 society whose members by a secret covenant pledged 
 themselves " to a piire and devout life, to the closest 
 friendship with each other, to united action in upholding 
 morals and chastity as well as order and harmony in the 
 commonweal" (Seyffert). They were known as Esoterics 
 or Exoterios. They seem in particular to have developed 
 the theory of numbers. Number is the principle of 
 things. Measure and harmony constitute the highest 
 law of the All. But the doctrine that may be ascribed 
 to Pythagoras with most confidence is that of the trans- 
 migration of souls, though even this he seems to have 
 borrowed from the Orient. The body is regarded as a 
 pri.son of the soul, which latter belongs to the higher 
 world. At death the soul leaves the body. At first 
 it hovers in the air; then it passes into another organism, 
 a higher one, if it has been good, a lower one, if it has 
 been evil. Pythagoras himself is said to have identified 
 certain armour in the temple of Hera as that which he 
 bore before Troy in an earlier esi-stence, and to have 
 recognized in a certain dog the soul of a deceased friend. 
 Gautama the Buddha professed to have an equally good 
 memory. It is thought that the asceticism of the Pytha- 
 goreans infiuenced the Essenes of Palestine and the 
 Therapeutae. They abstained from wearing wooUen 
 garments and from eating flesh and beans. Pythagoras, 
 it is said, drank only water, and preferred to eat honey 
 and bread. Cp. NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM. See 
 Chnmhers's Encyclopwdia; O. Seyffert, Diet. ; C. J. 
 Deter; Reinach, 0., 1909; Max B. Weinstein, Welt- und 
 IjChen-anschauungen, 1910. 
 
 Q 
 
 Q. The letter Q, as an abbreviation of the German 
 word Quelle " Source," 's used by New Testament 
 scholars as a designation of the sections of the Gospel 
 story which are common only to Matthew and Luke (the 
 Double Tradition). The matter is for the most part of 
 the nature of discourse, and the original document would 
 seem to have been identical with the " Logia " referred 
 to by Papias as composed by Matthew. The work of 
 Matthew is said to have been composed in Hebrew, and it 
 is hardly possible to conclude that it was the same as our 
 Gospel of Matthew. See Arthur S. Peake, Intr.; F. C. 
 Conybeare, Hist, of N.T. Crit., 1910. 
 
 QADARIYYA. Another name for the Arabian sect 
 called MU'TAZILA (g.v.). 
 
 QADIRIYEH. The mother order of the most 
 influential group of Dervish orders. It was founded by 
 
 'Abd-el-Qadir ej-Jilani (d. 1165), a descendant of the 
 prophet Muhammad. The founder was buried at 
 Baghdad, and his shrine there " has ever continued to 
 attract crowds of pilgrims whose voluntary gifts add 
 greatly to its revenues" (F. J. Bliss). The order has 
 now a number of more or less independent offshoots. F. 
 .1. Bliss mentions for example that in Algeria and 
 Tunisia there are three important monasteries which are 
 independent not only of the mother zawiyeh or monastery 
 but even of each other. See T. P. Hughes; F. J. Bliss. 
 
 QAT. An object of prayer and worship in Melanesia. 
 " Qat appears to hover between the estate of a lowly 
 creative being, bom of a rock, and that of a culture- 
 hero, and rather resembles the Zulu Unkulunkulu " 
 (Andrew Lang, Social Origins, 1903). 
 
 QIAS. An Arabic word meaning " measuring or
 
 Qosh 
 
 299 
 
 QuetzalcoatI 
 
 measure." The QIas is the fourth foundation of Islam. 
 It denotes "the reasoning by analogy of the learned 
 doctors of Isldm, the ilujtahidin. with regard to certain 
 difficult and doubtful questions of doctrine and practice. 
 by comparing them with similar cases already settled 
 by the authority of the Qur'iln, Sunna or Ijma' and thus 
 arriving at the solution of undecided questions." The 
 doctors were not all agreed as to the value of QIas. 
 There were two parties, one of which was called the 
 People of QIas or the people of private opinion, while 
 the other was described as the People of Tradition. See 
 F. A. Klein. 
 
 QOSH. The name of an Edomite god. The najne 
 has been preserved in compound proper names. Q6sh 
 would seem to have been a storm-god, like Adad (g.v.), 
 and to have been the national god of the Edomites. He 
 may also have been a moon-god. See E. Schrader; A. 
 Jeremias. 
 
 QUADRIVI^. The ancient Celts worshipped certain 
 goddesses in groups. One of these groups was called 
 Quadrivije, or the goddesses of cross roads. Another 
 was knovm as Proximae {g.v.). 
 
 QUAHOOTZE. One of the chief deities, apparently 
 a vrar-god, in the mythology of the Indians of the Nootka 
 Sound country in North America. 
 
 QUAILS. According to Atienjeus (ix. 49. p. 392 d.). 
 the Phoenicians sacrificed quails to the Tyrian Baal, to 
 commemorate the resurrection of Heracles. This may 
 be a misunderstanding. Robertson Smith points out 
 that, as a matter of fact, the ancients regarded quail's 
 flesh as dangerous food, but seem to have made an oint- 
 ment from the brain to cure epilepsy. With this we may 
 compare the use of the mouse (g.v.). 
 
 QUAKER BAPTISTS. Another name for the 
 Keithians (g.v.), the followers of George Keith. 
 
 QUAKERS. The name Quakers was originally a nick- 
 name given to a religious body whici arose about 1650 
 A.D. The founder of the body was George Fox (1024- 
 1691). Another of the original leaders of the move- 
 ment was James Naylor (1612-1660). James Naylor, 
 writing in 1653, " quotes many texts of Scripture to 
 shew that the earth trembled and quaked, that Isaac 
 trembled exceedingly, that Moses feared and quaked, 
 that the Lord bade His disciples quake for fear, and 
 that therefore saints ought to be Quakers " (Diet, of 
 Sects). Originally the followers of George Fox called 
 themselves " The people of the Lord " or " The people 
 of God," or " Children of Light," or " Friends." Then, 
 in reference to their nickname, they described them- 
 selves as " the i)eople called Quakers " or " the poor 
 Quakers " or " the despised Quakers." or " The i)eople 
 of God. in scorn called Quakers." Later they described 
 themselves as the Society of Friends, and this is now 
 regarded as their correct name. See FRIENDS, 
 SOCIETY OF. 
 
 QUAKERS, SHAKING. Another name for the 
 American sect known as Shakers (g.v.). 
 
 QUASIMODOGENITI. A Latin expression meaning 
 " as newly-born." In France and Germany it is a 
 designation of Low Sunday. The name was suggested 
 by the first words of the introit in the Mass (I. Peter ii. 
 2). 
 
 QUATUOR CORONATI. Quatuor Coronati was the 
 name given to four Christian soldiers, Carpophoms, 
 Severus, Severianus, and Victorinus. who were martyred 
 for refu-sing to obey the command of the Emperor 
 Diocletian, when he required his troops to offer sacri- 
 fice to Aesculapius (g.v.). They were flogged to death. 
 See Wace and Piercy. .5. v. " Sirmium, Stonemasons of." 
 
 QUEEN OF HEAVEN. In the Book of Jeremiah (vii. 
 17-20, xliv. 15-30) reference is made to melelceth Jia.ih- 
 
 shantayim, and the words have been rendered " the queen 
 of heaven " (on the supposition that meleketh is equiva- 
 lent to malkath). In the Revised Version of Jeremiah 
 vii. 17 f. we read : " Seest thou not what they do in the 
 cities of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem? The 
 children gather wood, and the fathers kindle the fire, 
 and the women knead the dough, to make cakes to the 
 queen of heaven, and to pour out drink offerings unto 
 other gods, that they may provoke me to anger." The 
 word meleketh, however, has also been taken to be 
 equivalent to mel'eketh, which means " work." It has 
 then been supposed (e.g., by Jewish scholars) that the 
 worship of " the work (cultus) of heaven " was the same 
 as the worship of "the host of heaven" (Jer. viii. 2, 
 xix. 13, Dent. iv. 19, xvii. 3, etc.). But the interpretation 
 " queen of heaven " is more likely. The worship would 
 seem to have been that of one of the heavenly bodies. 
 In Babylonian mythology the goddess Ishtar (g.v.), who 
 was regarded as the planet Venus (g.v.), is called belit 
 shame and sharrat shame; and, as G. F. Moore says, the 
 latter exactly corresponds in meaning to malkath hash- 
 shamayim. Thus the cult would .seem to have been of 
 Babylonian origin. It was probably introduced into 
 Judah in the reign of Manasseh. " The description 
 points to its prevalence among the poorer classes, who 
 have to collect firewood and do all the work themselves. 
 From xliv. 19 we learn that the cakes ' pourtrayed ' 
 (RVmg.) the goddess. By this is meant, either that they 
 were modelled to represent her, or that her image or 
 symbol was impressed on them " (A. S. Peake). See G. 
 F. Moore in the Eticycl. BiU.; A. S. Peake, Jeremiah, 
 vol. i., in the " Century Bible," 1910. 
 
 QUEST SOCIETY, THE. The objects of the Quest 
 Society are : (1) To promote investigation and compara- 
 tive study of religion, philosophy and science, on the 
 basis of experience; and (2) to encourage the expression 
 of the ideal in beautiful forms. The Society is essentially 
 a body of seekers and learners. Its objects briefly indi- 
 cate the general tendency of its programme, which is 
 designed to help those who are seeking for a better 
 understanding of the purpose of life and the means of 
 self-realization. The Society desires especially to pro- 
 mote inquiry into the nature of religious and other supra- 
 normal experiences and the means of testing their value, 
 to strengthen that love of wisdom which stimulates all 
 efforts to formulate a practical philosophy of life, and to 
 emphasise the need of a vital science to crown and com- 
 plete the discoveries of physical research. It also 
 interests it.self in whatever throws light on the nature and 
 purpose of art, in the expression of the ideal in forms of 
 beauty, and generally in works of inspiration and of the 
 creative imagination. The endeavour of tie Council is 
 to provide the members and guests of the Society with 
 the most competent lecturers procurable on the many 
 subjects which fall within the wide field of its intere.sts. 
 The Honorary Secretary is Mrs. L. M. Mead (47, Cami)den 
 Hill Road, Kensington, London. W.S). 
 
 QUETZALCOATL. QuetzalcoatI, which means 
 
 " Feathered Serpent," was one of the deities of the 
 ancient Mexicans. He was not originally a god of tie 
 Aztecs, but was adopted by them from the Toltecs. whom 
 they drove out. His worship was more humane than that 
 of the Aztec gods, Huitzilopochtli (g.v.) and Tezcatlipoca 
 (g.v.). And legend relates that it was resented and 
 resi-sted by Tezcatlipoca. The myth represents that 
 QuetzalcoatI suffered a kind of perstK^ution. " It tells 
 that he was once high-priest at Tula, in Anahuac, where, 
 ever clothed in white, he founded a cultus, and gave 
 beneficent laws to men, teaching them also the arts of 
 agriculture, metal-work, stone-cutting, and civil govern- 
 ment ; the while a king named Huemac held with him the
 
 Quiateot 
 
 300 
 
 Quimbyism 
 
 eeeular rule, and framed the law book of the nation. 
 But the God Tezcatlipoca came to earth in the guise of 
 a young nierchaivt, who deceived the king's daughter, 
 and again in the gui.se of an old man. who ijer.guaded 
 Quetzalcoatl to drink a mystic drink, wOiereuiwn he was 
 seized with an irresistible impulse to wander away " (J. 
 M. Rol)ertson). Quetzalcoatl wandered about for a time, 
 and at length disappeared. His worshippers exi>ec-ted 
 him to return, and when Cortes came, the appearanc-e of 
 the white man was regarded by the Aztecs as a fulfil- 
 ment of their exi>ectation. According to Rol)ertson. 
 Quetzalcoatl was god of the air. D. Brinton and A. 
 R6ville see in him the eaiSt-wind which brings the bene- 
 ficent rain, but is driven away for a time and then 
 again returns. Lewis Spence, on the other hand, points 
 out that Quetzalcoatl was " Lord of the Dawn." He 
 holds him to have been a culture-god. It is probable, 
 he thinks, that " Quetzalcoatl was one of tho.se early 
 introducers of culture who sooner or later find a place 
 among the deities of the nation they have assisted in its 
 early struggles to-uTirds civilisation. By the strife 
 between Tezcatlii»ca and Quetzalcoatl is typified the 
 struggle between culture and barbarism." The wor- 
 shippers of Quetzalcoatl did not approve of human isacri- 
 fiee. E. B. Tylor thinks too that Quetzalcoatl was a real, 
 and not a mythical, personage. Lewis Spence points out 
 that he is represented .sometimes as quite European in 
 appearance, with fair beard, blue eyes, and white com- 
 plexion. To J. M. Robertson, who is fond of finding 
 parallels to a Christian Christ who, according to him, 
 never existed, Quetzalcoatl is not a man who was con- 
 verted into a god, but a god who was converted into a 
 man : he is the " Mexican White Christ." See Lewis 
 Spence; J. M. Robertson, "The Religions of Ancient 
 Mexico" in R.S.W.: Reinach, O.,- .T. M. Robertson, P.C. 
 
 QUIATEOT. One of the gods of the Nicarao (of 
 Nicaragua). He was the lord of rain, thunder, and 
 lightning. Sacrifices of boys and girls were made to 
 him. 
 
 QI'IETISM. As tJie name .suggests. Quietism implies 
 an effort to reach a state of quietude. The m.vstic 
 sy.stem of religion known as Quietism originated, as a 
 modern movement, with Michael Molinos (KHO-lfinO). a 
 Spanish priest. In KiT.^i Molinos publisheil " Guida 
 Spirituale," a work which sets forth the principles of 
 his method. The title of the English translation of the 
 work, published in IfiSS. explains its nature as follows : 
 " The Spiritual Guide which disentangles the soul and 
 brings it by the inward way to the getting of perfect con- 
 templation and the rich treasure of eternal peace." 
 Molinos maintained " that our perfection consists in an 
 uninterrupted act of c-ontemplation and love: that in 
 this state the sonl does not consciously reflect either on 
 God or itself: that true jtrayer is this state of quietude, 
 and that in prayer the first act of faith, tlie fir.st inten- 
 tion of resignation prevails to constitute the whole act 
 of worship " (C. H. H. Wright and C. Neil). The spirit 
 of this teaching seemed to be quite opposed to the 
 ordinances and institutions of the Church. Molinos was 
 condemned by the Inquisition in KiS.'i. and was impri- 
 soned. In lfi87 he was iirevailed u]K>n to recant sixty- 
 eight of his erroneous projiositions. Molinos was 
 evidently tempted to carry his doctrine, in theory at 
 least, to extremes. This is clear, it has been ttiought. 
 when we read .such statements as this : " It is never 
 good to love thy neighlx>ur to the detriment of thine own 
 spiritual good. To please God in purity ought to be the 
 only scope of thy works." Madame Guyon (Jeanne 
 Bouvier de la Motte: t('i4S-1717> adopted a modified form 
 of Quietism. In l('iS4 stie published her well-known work. 
 " Moyen Court et tr^s facile pour faire I'Oraison," which 
 
 appeared in Engli.sh as " A Short and Easy Method of 
 Prayer." This and other writings were examined by a 
 Commission in 1(;94 and declared to contain erroneous 
 doctrines. One of the Commission was .Jacques B^nigne 
 Bossuet (1627-1704), who regarded Madame Guyon's ideas 
 as " a mass of extravagances, illusions, and puerilities." 
 Madame Gu.von found a sympathizer in her friend 
 F6nelon (1651-1715). Archbishop of Cambray, who adopted 
 rather similar views. In his " Explication des Maximes 
 des Saints .sur la Vie int^rieure " (1697) he defended the 
 principle of holy indifference and of disinterested love. 
 He was opposed by Bos.suet, and in 1699 was condemned 
 by Pope Innocent XII., whereuix)n he submitted. E. C. 
 Gregory descril)es the teachings of Madame Gu.von and 
 Peneloii as " practical, lofty, inspiring, and second to 
 none for the lift and insight which they afford." See 
 E. C. Gregory, I)itr. to Christian Mi/xtieism : .1. H. Blunt; 
 Prot. Diet.;' Oath. Diet. 
 
 QUIMBYISM. The principles and teaching of Phineas 
 Parkhurst Quimby (1802-18C)6). Quimby was t>0Pn in 
 Lebanon, New Hampshire, but two years afterwards his 
 i>arents moved to Belfast:. His father was a black- 
 smith, and the son did not receive a good education. 
 Phineas Quimby, however, according to his son. " had a 
 very inventive turn of mind, and was always interested 
 in mechanics, philosophy, and scientific subjects." 
 When the French mesmeriser Charles Poyan visited 
 America about the year 1836. Quimby l)ecame interested 
 in the new science. He began to experiment himself, 
 believing the new power to be animal magnetism. In 
 cour.se of time, however, he came to realize that the real 
 factor was the influence of one mind uf>on another. This 
 led him to develop a science of mental healing. " To 
 reduce his discovery to a science, which could be taught 
 for the benefit of suffering humanity, was the all- 
 ab.sorbing idea of his life. To develop his ' theory ' or 
 ' the truth,' as lie alwa.vs termed it, so that others than 
 himself could understand and practise it, was what he 
 lalxjured for. Had he been of a .sordid and grasping 
 nature, he might have acquired unlimited wealth ; but for 
 that he seemed to have no desire" (Dresser). Quimby lost 
 faith in the efficacy of Mesmerism. " Instead of putting 
 the patient into a mesmeric sleep. Mr. Quimby would sit 
 by him: and. after giving him a detailed account of what 
 his troubles were, he would simply converse with iiim, 
 and explain the causes of the troubles, and tliu« change 
 the mind of the patient, and disiibuse it of it.s error.s and 
 establisii the truth in its place: which, if done, was tie 
 cure." Quimby claimed that " uiiud was .siiiritual matter 
 and could be changed "; that " disease was an error, or 
 belief, and that the truth was the cure." In 1859 he 
 went to I'ortiand, where ho practised until 1865. Annetta 
 G. Dresser went to Quimby as a f'atient in 1S()2, and she 
 has given an account of her experience. She sa.vs that 
 her first interview with him marked a turning-point in 
 her life. He had a large practice. " People were 
 coming to Mr. Quimby from all iiarfs of New England, 
 usuall.v those who had been given up by the best practi- 
 tioners, and who had been persuaded to try this new 
 mode of treatment as a last resort. Many of the.se came 
 on crutches or were assisted into the office by some 
 friend: and it was most interesting to note Iheir progress 
 day by day. or tlie remarkable change produced by a 
 single .sitting witli the doctor. I remember one woman 
 who had used crutches for twenty years, who walked 
 without them after a few weeks." Mary Baker Eddy 
 was one of those who visited Quimby. Annetta G. 
 Dresser says she well remembers " the day when she was 
 helped up the stei>s to his office on the occasion of her 
 first visit for mental treatment." She adds : " She was 
 cured by him, and afterwards became very much
 
 Quintillianists 
 
 301 
 
 Rama 
 
 interested in his theory. But she put her own con- 
 struction on much of liis teaching, and developed a 
 doctrine which is for the most part a one-sided inter- 
 pretation of the Quimby philosophy." The two state- 
 ments in the last sentence are a little difficult to under- 
 stand. The first admit.s the original and independent 
 bent of Mrs. Eddy's mind : the .second looks like an 
 attempt to weaken this admission (see CHRISTIAN 
 SCIENTISTS). See Horatio W. Dresser, Health and 
 the Inner Life, 1907. 
 
 QUINTILLIANISTS. Another n.ame for the Priscil- 
 lianists (q.v.), followers of Montanu« (second century). 
 Quintilla .seems to have been the name of a prophetess 
 (see Augustine, Hwer. xxvi., xxvii.). 
 
 QUR'AN. A more correct spelling of the word com- 
 monly known as KORAN iq.v.). 
 
 QURWN-READERS. A name given by Muhammad 
 to persons who were well-versed in the Qur'an (see 
 KORAN). 
 
 R 
 
 Ra. One of the deities of the ancient Egyptians. Ra 
 was one of the names of the Sun god, or rather of the 
 Sun. The deity is depicted with the body of a man 
 and the head of a hawk. He holds in one hand the 
 sign of life, and in the other a royal sceptre. Alwve his 
 head is represented the solar disk surrounded by the 
 symlwl of power over life and death, the coil of the 
 Tiraeus. The serpent was supposed to protect the sun 
 Bgain.<t its enemies who tried to opitose its progress. 
 The hawk's head indicates either that the passage of 
 the sun across the heavens is like the flight of tiie hawk, 
 or perhaps that the sun is supposed to have the form of 
 a sparrow hawk. The latter is the view of Wiedemann. 
 " Probably this bird of prey — which now hovering high 
 in air seems to disappear into the blue heaven and to 
 merge it.self in the sun, and anon shoots down suddenly 
 to earth like a ray of light — was regarded as the mes- 
 senger and even as part of the Sun god. and hence it was 
 concluded that he himself bore the form of a sparrow 
 hawk." In course of time other gods were combined 
 with R.'i. Amon-Ra, for iiLstance. became for a thousand 
 years the most prominent of all the gods of Egypt. See 
 Alfred Wiedemann; Adolf Erman, IJandhook; Edouard 
 Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith. 1909. 
 
 RAB. A Hebrew word meaning " master " or 
 " teacher." It was employed as a title for the doctors 
 of the Talmudic Schools (the Amoraim; see TALMUD). 
 Abba Arikha (A.D. 17.5-247) of the Babylonian School 
 was called simply Rab as being the teacher par excel- 
 lence. He founded (A.D. 219) the t^ollege at Sura on 
 the Euphrates. " The Palestinian Amoraim who had 
 been ordained by the Patriarch (Nasi) bore the title of 
 Rabbi ; those of Babylonia who had received ordination 
 bore the title of Rab " (W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. 
 Box). The title " Rabl>an " was reserved for Patri- 
 archs and heads of the Sanhedrin. Instead of Rab, 
 " Rabba " or " Rabbah " was also used. Rabbana, 
 " our teacher," was another title. 
 particular to Rab Ashi of Babvlonia. 
 ridge, Intr. to Heb. Lit.. 18.56; W. O 
 G. H. Box. 
 
 RABBA. A1.SO written " Rabbah," a Hebrew word 
 used as a title. See RAB. 
 
 RABBAN. Literally " master " or 
 Hebrew word used as a title. See RAB. 
 
 It was given in 
 See J. W. Ethe- 
 E. Oesterley and 
 
 teacher,' 
 
 SABBANA. Literally "our Teacher" or "our 
 Master," a Hebrew word used as a title. See RAB. 
 
 RABBI. A Hebrew word meaning " my master" or 
 " my teacher " and used as a title. See RAB. 
 
 RACOVIAN CATECHISM, THE. The Racovian 
 Catechism of ltiO-5-9 A.D. is a Soeinian statement of 
 doctrine. W. A. Curtis speaks of it as one of the longest 
 of Catechisms, controversial and argumentative, theolog- 
 ical rather than religious, rationalistic yet also super- 
 naturalistic. " The positions maintained are in many 
 cases far removed from those of present-day Unitar- 
 ianism, and they are maintained on Scriptural grounds. 
 . . . The work abounds in flashes of true insight, 
 and in the evidences of minute scholarship. Not 
 a few of its criticisms of prevailing theories have a 
 permanent value, some, indeed, have passed into common- 
 places of modern thought " (W. A. Curtis). See 
 William A. Curtis. 
 
 RaDHA. a Hindu godde.ss, the beloved of Krishna. 
 
 RAKELIMALAZA. The name of a Malagasy god. It 
 means " renowned, although diminutive." It is curious 
 that horses were not allowed to enter his sacred place. 
 But other animals and objects were also excluded, .such 
 as guns, gunpowder, pigs, onions, sifotra (explained as a 
 shell-flsh resembling a snail), sitry (explained as a .small 
 animal resembling the young crocodile), striped or 
 spotted robes, anything of a black colour, goats, meat 
 distributed at funerals, cats, and owls. See J. G. Frazer, 
 SpirHs of the Corn, 1912. 
 
 RaKSHASAS. An order of demons in Hindui.?m. 
 They are mentioned in the Ramayana (({.v.) as opponents 
 of gods and men. They devour men, and disturb re- 
 ligious rites. They have the power of transforming 
 themselves. One of the most hideous of these monsters 
 is called Viradlia. The chief of them, however, is 
 Ravana. He has a brother, Vibhishana, who is repre- 
 sented as a virtuous demon. See Monier-Williams ; B. 
 W. Hopkins. 
 
 RAMA. One of the divine beings worshipped by the 
 Hindus. R."ima was originally a man. He became one 
 of the human incarnations of the god Vishnu (g.v.). the 
 other being Krishna (f/.r.). He was the son of a king, 
 it is said, but his father banished him to the southern 
 forests. Here the tyrant-demon Ravana, king of Ceylon, 
 carried off his wife Sita. The hero Rama, assisted by
 
 Ramacandra 
 
 302 
 
 Rammaa 
 
 Hanuman (q.v.), who was probably chief of an ape-like 
 tribe but is represented as a monkey-like semi-divine 
 being, recovered her. After his death Rama was deified. 
 His exploits are described and enlarged upon in the Epic 
 called Ramayana (q.v.), " The Wandering of Rama," of 
 which he is the hero. " From Kasmir to Cape Comorin 
 the name of Rama is on every one's lips. All sects 
 revere it, and show their reverence by employing it on 
 all occasions " (Monier-Williams). Rama was commonly 
 called Rama-candra, that i« to say, " the moon-like 
 Rama." See Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins; J. A. 
 Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 Ramacandra. Rama-candra, that is to say, " the 
 moon-like Rama," is a common designation of Rdma 
 (q.v.). 
 
 RAMADAN, FAST OF. Ramadan is the ninth month 
 of the Muslim calendar. It is sacred because in this 
 month God is supposed to have sent down the Kur'iln. 
 In it every Muslim, male and female, if of mature years, 
 is required to fast thirty days (not nights). " O 
 believers! a Fast is prescribed to you as it was prescribed 
 to those before you, that ye may fear God, for certain 
 days " (QuT'an ii. 179-180). The fast begins as soon as 
 two reliable witnesses have seen the new moon of the 
 month of Ramadan. " As to the month RamadSn in 
 which the Koran was sent down to be man's guidance, 
 and an explanation of that guidance, and of that illumina- 
 tion, as isoon as any one of you observeth the moon, let 
 him set about the fast " (ii. 181). If the new moon of 
 Ramadan cannot be seen distinctly, one witness sufiices; 
 " but when the beginning of the fast rests on the testi- 
 mony of one witness only, the fast must be continued and 
 cannot be broken till the appearance of the new moon of 
 the following month (ShawTval) is affirmed by two trust- 
 worthy witnesses " (Klein). Various forms of abstinence 
 have to be observed. The traditional practice of the 
 Prophet has to be followed. For instance, the Suhfir, the 
 meal taken a little before daybreak, has to be delayed as 
 long as possible. A date or a little water should be taken 
 before prayer. Alms should be bestowed, and the Qur'an 
 should be read. See F. A. Klein. 
 
 RAMAITES. Worshippers of the Hindu man-god 
 Rama. Some of the Hindus maintain that Vishnu (q.v.) 
 was incarnated in Krishna (q.v.), others in Rama. 
 Rama " is celebrated throughout India as the model son, 
 brother, and husband, who was banished by his father to 
 the southern forests." When Sita, his wife, was carried 
 oSf by Rilvana, Rama by a heroic effort succeeded in re- 
 covering her with the help of a chieftain Hanuman. 
 Rama thus became the hero of the great Indian Epic, 
 the Ramayana iq.v.). When after his death Rama was 
 made into a god, Hauuman also was regarded as divine. 
 The Ramaites have split up into parties on the question 
 of free-will. The Southern, Calvinistic, Ramaites are 
 called Ten-galais. The Northern Ramaites, who hold 
 that free-will must be exerci.sed, are called Vada-galais. 
 The Ramaites agree, however, in accepting Rama as the 
 human avatar of Vishnu, and in acknowledging Vishnu 
 as the deity. In conjunction with Vishnu, they wor- 
 ship his wife Lakshml. See Monier-Williams; E. W. 
 Hopkins. 
 
 RAMANANDIS. The followers of the Hindu religious 
 teacher Ramananda, who is .said to have been born in 
 the thirteenth century. " They worship Vishnu under 
 the form of Rama (the hero of the Ramayana) either 
 singly or conjointly with his wife STtJi, and they are not, 
 like the Ramanujas, hyper-serupulous about the privacy 
 of their meals " (Monier-Williams). They worship also 
 the divine ape, Hanuman. A number of Ramananda's 
 disciples founded new sects. See Monier-Williams; E. 
 W. Hopkins. 
 
 RaMaNUJAS. The followers of the Hindu religious 
 teacher, Ramanuja, who was bom about A.D. 1017. 
 Ramanuja settled at Sri rahgam near Trichinopoly, and 
 it is said that he did not die until 1137. In opposition 
 to the doctrine of Sankara (see SMaRTAS), he acknow- 
 ledged a triad of p^rinciples : (1) the Supreme Spirit ; 
 (2) the separate spirits of men; and (3) non-spirit. The 
 spirits of men he regards as essentially different from 
 the Supreme Spirit. He holds that " God is himself 
 both the creator (Karta) of the world and the substantial 
 cause or material out of which it is formed " (Monier- 
 Williams). He believes that periodically human spirits 
 are re-absorbed into God. He distinguishes five ways or 
 stages in which the Supreme Being can be worshipped, 
 each of them higher than the other. The lowest is in 
 forms and images; the highest Is the worship of the 
 internal Spirit. Ramanuja himself appointed seventy- 
 four special teachers. In the thirteenth century one of 
 his followers undertook to purify the faith of the Master 
 and remove incrustations. He caused divisions by re- 
 garding the doctrines of the Northern Brahmans as 
 purer than those of the Southern. Two parties or 
 schools arose : the Vada-galai or northern school, and 
 the Ten-galai or southern school. The two schools 
 developed some differences of doctrine. For instance, 
 they differ on the question of free-will. Both parties 
 agree in branding themselves with the discus, the conch- 
 shell, the club, and the lotus as emblems of Vishnu, and 
 in preparing and eating their food in great secrecy. See 
 Monjer- Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 RaMAVATS. a name sometimes given to the followers 
 of the Hindu religious teacher Ramananda. They are 
 called also RaMaNANDIS (q.v.). 
 
 RaMaYANA. Two sacred writings among the Hindus 
 are called Ramayana, " the wandering of Rama." (1) 
 A great legendary heroic poem, composed by Valmiki, 
 and based upon the ancient legends of Eastern India. (2) 
 A later poem composed in the sixteenth century by the 
 great Hindu poet, Tulasl-das. " What the Divine Song 
 and the Bhagavata Purana are to the Krishnaite, the 
 older (epic) Ramayana of Valmiki and Tulasida.sa's new 
 I>oem (of the same name) are to the Ramaite " (E. W. 
 Hopkins). See Sir Monier Monier-Williams; E. W. 
 Hopkins. 
 
 RaMBAKSH. The gift of Rama (King of Ayodhia. a 
 great incarnation of Vishnu), one of the names of the 
 Hindu god Rama. 
 
 RaMCHANDI. a Hindu deity, a goddess, perhaps 
 the personification of Mother Earth, worshipped by the 
 Koltas (also known as Kolitas or Kultas). an agricultural 
 caste of the Sambalpur District and the adjoining Uriya 
 States in India. 
 
 RaMCHANDRA. The moon of Rama (King of 
 Ayodhia, a great incarnation of Vishnu), one of the mimes 
 of the Hindu god Rama. 
 
 RaMCHARAN. The footprint of Rfima (King of 
 Ayodhia, a great incarnation of Vishnu), one of the names 
 of the Hindu god Rama. 
 
 RaMJI DEO. A god worshipped in Hoshangabad by 
 the Jats, the representative cultivating caste of the 
 Punjab in India. Another god worshipped in the same 
 place is Bairam Deo. The chief deity of the Jats, how- 
 ever, is Siva or Maha-deo. They worship also their 
 swords and horses. 
 
 RAMMAN. a Babylonian deity. The older name of 
 the god was perhaps Adad (Syrian Hadad), Ramman 
 being only an epithet. Ramman, " the thunderer," was 
 the god of storms. During the Cassite dynasty Sin 
 (q.v.), Shamash (q.v.), and Ramman (q.v.) formed a 
 second triad of gods. Afterwards he was held in high
 
 Rao 
 
 303 
 
 Rector 
 
 honour by Nebuchadrezzar I. as the god of battle. He 
 was not onJy the thunderer, but also the bringer of 
 lightning. He even appears also as a solar deity asso- 
 ciated with the sun-god, Shamash (g.v.). As the bringer 
 of rain he had a two-fold character : at one time he was 
 the producer of destruction, at another of blessings. 
 But It was more natural to contrast Kamman as the 
 destructive power with Shamash as the beneficent iK>wer. 
 In the description of the storm in the Deluge-story (see 
 DELUGE-STORY, BABYLONIAN) Ramman is of course 
 made to take a chief part. In the Zu myth (g.r.) he is 
 called upon by the other gods to attack Zu, who has 
 stolen the tablets of fate (g.v.). He declines the con- 
 test, with the excuse that Zu by gaining possession of the 
 tablets has become invincible. The consort of Ramman 
 was the goddess Shala (g.v.). See Morris Jastrow, Ifel. 
 
 RAN. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. Ran 
 is represented as goddess of the sea. She drags men 
 down Into her depths. She is the wife of the sea giant 
 JEgir (g.v.). Her nine daughters represent " the surf 
 and the turbulent waves of the sea." See P. D. Chante- 
 pie de la Saussave, Sel. of the Teutons. 1902. 
 
 R.4>fDALLITES. The followers of Benjamin Randall 
 (1749-1808), better known as Free-will Baptists. Randall 
 was at first an ordinarT,- Baptist, but he became 
 convinced that every man's will is free to the extent 
 that he can choose or refuse salvation. This conviction 
 led to a division among the Baptists. 
 
 RANT^ERS. (1) A name sometimes given to the Primi- 
 tive Methodists (g.v.). (2) A sect which was prominent 
 in England during the Commonwealth. They are said 
 to have declared that sin is imagination; or that they 
 were unable to .sin. being in the state of Adam before 
 the Fall. Richard Baxter (161.5-1691) says that they used 
 blasphemous oaths and curses; " and this all uttered as 
 the effect of knowledge and a part of their religion, in 
 a fanatic strain, and fathered on the Spirit of G!od." 
 They are said also to have practised community of 
 women. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 RAPPISTS. The followers of George Rapp (1757- 
 1847). They are also known as the Harmony Society, 
 or the Harmonists, or the Harmonites (g.v.). 
 
 RASHNU. A deity worshipped by the Persians as a 
 god of justice. With Mithra he decides the fate of the 
 soul after death. " After death," writer Prof. Geldner 
 (Encycl. Bibl., s.v. ZoroastrianJsm), " at the end of the 
 third night, the soul arrives at the head of the Cinvato- 
 Peretu, or Accountant's Bridge, over which lies the way 
 to heaven. Here takes place the revealing and dis- 
 closure of all its past life, the judicium particulare. The 
 angel Mithra and the angel Rashnu make up the account 
 and reckoning (SBE 24=58). or Rashnu the Just weighs 
 the good and the evil deeds over against each other in 
 the impartial balance that does not vary a hair's breadth 
 in favour of any man, not even a monarch (SBE 17'*)." 
 
 RASKOLNIKS. A general designation of Russian 
 schismatics or dissenters. The term is derived from a 
 word meaning " cleft." The great schism was the result 
 of a much-needed revision of the books used by the 
 Established Church of Russia, the Greek-Ea.stem 
 Church. When the Patriarch Nikon (16.52-1658 A.D.) 
 effected this reform, the Church was divided into Staro- 
 veri or the " Old Believers " (the dissenters) and 
 Nikonians or the " New Believers." The original 
 Easkolniks " held sacred certain points modified by the 
 revision; namely, they used only the unrevised service- 
 books; they crossed themselves with two fingers and not 
 with three; they repeated hallelujah only twice: they 
 used seven and not five altar-breads in the Eucharistic 
 service; they used only an eight-pointed cross; during 
 divine services they turned from left to right, ' according 
 
 to the sun,' and not from right to left; they attended 
 only their own churches, and regarded the outsiders as 
 impure; they said Isoos (Jesus) instead of lisoos; they 
 never shaved their beard, being afraid of spoiling God's 
 image; they never used tobacco, or practised vaccina- 
 tion " (Schafif-Herzog). See Schaff-Herzog ; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 RATIONALIST PRESS ASSOCIATION. The objects 
 of this Association are " to stimulate the habits of reflec- 
 tion and inquiry and the free exercise of individual 
 intellect ; to promote a rational system of secular educa- 
 tion; to assist in publishing the works of capable 
 thinkers, and in popularising the great discoveries of 
 modem science and scholarship; to re-issue, in cheap 
 form, notable books of a critical, philosophical, or ethical 
 character; and generally to assert the supremacy of 
 reason, as the natural and necessary means to all such 
 knowledge and wisdom as man can achieve." Rationalism 
 is defined as " the mental attitude which unreservedly 
 accepts the supremacy of reason and aims at establishing 
 a system of philosophy and ethics verifiable by experience 
 and independent of all arbitrary assumptions." 
 
 RATU-MAI-MBULU. A deity worshipped in the Fiji 
 Islands. The name means Lord from Hades. " Through 
 him the earth gives her increase. In December he comes 
 forth from Mbulu, and pours sap into the fruit-trees, and 
 pushes the young yam -shoots through the soil. Through- 
 out that month it is tabu to beat the drum, to sound the 
 conch-shell, to dance, to plant, to fight, or to sing at 
 sea, lest Ratu-mai-Mbulu be disturbed, and quit the earth 
 before his work is completed " (Basil Thomson, The 
 Fijians, 1908). 
 
 RaVULOS. a class of temple servants in Southern 
 India associated with the Mails and the Munis. "The 
 Ravulos blow c-onches (shells of Turbinella rapa) in the 
 Saivite temples and at Brahmans' we<ldings, sell flowers, 
 and regard themselves as superior to the other two. The 
 Malis do .service in Saivite or Vaishnavite temples and 
 sell flowers, but the MQnis are employed only in the 
 temples of the village goddesses " (Madras Census 
 Report, 1901, quoted bv E. Thurston). 
 
 RECEPTIONISTS. A term used of those who hold a 
 certain doctrine as to the presence of C!hrist in the 
 Eucharist. '■ Christ is present, according to this 
 doctrine, not in the Sacrament, but in the worthy 
 receiver : not by virtue of the act of Consecration, but 
 by virtue of each act of Communion " (B. J. Kidd, The 
 Thiftii-ninc Articles, 1908). 
 
 RECORDING ANGELS. A class of angels referred 
 to in the Cjur'an. "Think they that we hear not their 
 .secrets and their private talk? Yes, and our angels who 
 are at their sides write them down " (xliii. 80). They 
 observe men's actions and write them down. " Yet truly 
 there are guardians over you — illustrious recorders — 
 cognizant of your actions " (Ixxxii. 10). " Of such angels 
 every man is said to have two, one standing on the right 
 to write down his good actions, the other on his left to 
 write down his bad actions; they are constantly watching 
 and always present except on certain occasions. These 
 angels never change, but remain with man till his death, 
 and then stand at his grave, praising and writing down 
 his reward, if he was a believer; cursing him to the day 
 of the resurrection if he was an infidel " (Klein). See F. 
 A. Klein. 
 
 RECTOR. The clergyman who is in peri)etual charge 
 of an Anglican church is commonly called a vicar. If the 
 tithes are not impropriate, he is called a Rector. But 
 the tithes often are impropriate. In former times it 
 became a not uncommon practice to transfer the revenues 
 of a l)enefice to a layman on the understanding that he 
 would make suitable provision for the carrying out of 
 the cure of souls. Where this has happened the Rector
 
 Recusants 
 
 304 
 
 Relic Sunday 
 
 is a layman. The clergyman who performs the spiritual 
 duties is called the Vicar. He may, in addition to other 
 emoluments, receive the '•small tithes" of tie i)arish, 
 tout the " great tithes " belong to the Rector. The same 
 title Rector is gi\eu to the head of some of the Colleges 
 at Oxford; and to the head of some of the Universities 
 in Scotland (equivalent to Chancellor elsewhere). In 
 Scotland and in the Episcopal Churches of the United 
 States all incumbents are now called Rectors. 
 
 RECUSANTS. A name given to tho.se theologians who 
 rejected the papal Bull " Unigenitus" (1713), which con- 
 demned the views of the Jansenist leader Pasquier 
 Quesnel (1034-1719). See JANSENISTS. 
 
 RED. Red is said to be pre-eminently the lucky colour 
 of the Hindus. According to R. V. Russell and R. B. 
 Hira Lai, this is due to the imiwrtant part played in 
 former times by the blood-covenant and blood-offerings. 
 Among the lower castes the blood of animals is still 
 ofl'ered to the deities. " But the higher castes of Hindus 
 have abandoned animal sacrifices, and hence cannot make 
 the blood-offering. In place of it they smear the stone 
 with vermilion, which seems obviously a substitute for 
 blood, since it is used to colour the stones representing 
 the deities in exactly the same manner. Even vermilion, 
 however, is not offered to the highest deities of Neo- 
 Hinduism, Siva or Mahadeo and Vishnu, to whom animal 
 .sacrifices would be abhorrent." It is offered to Hanumfin. 
 REP-CAP BUDDHISTS. In course of time the 
 Tibetan Buddhi.sts split up mto two chief bodies or 
 parties, a strict party and a lax or less strict party. 
 They came to be distinguished by the colour of their 
 clothing, the strict party wearing yellow, the lax party 
 red. The Yellow-cap Buddhists ((1A-.) maintained celi- 
 bacy. One of the changes made by the Red-cap Buddhists 
 consisted in allowing the monks under certain conditions 
 to marry. The real founder of the Red<-ap Buddhi.sts 
 was Padma-sambhava, who was the first to make a 
 Tibetan version of the whole Buddhist Canon. The 
 Tibetans gave him the title Guru Riniix) Che, " tJie 
 glorious teacher." He is said to have founded the 
 monastery of Sauiye in 74!) A.D. See Monier-WiJliams, 
 Buddhism. 1S90; H. Hackmann. 
 
 RED POTTAGE. According to the writer of the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews, Esau sold his birthright to .Jacob 
 for " one mess of meat " (xii. 10). The Old Testament 
 narrative (Gen. xxv. 29-34) is interpreted by commenta- 
 tors on tlie Bible in the same way. It is suppo.sed that 
 Esau was simply ravenous with hunger. " He fancies 
 himself dying! Anything for a good meal! " (Peake's 
 Ooninientarii on tlie Bible, 1919). But that he should 
 have valued his birthright so lightly has long been a 
 puzzle to readers of the Bible. Is it likely that he did 
 so? It is not. The narrative has been niisunderstoo<l. 
 Esau came in from the field, not merely faint from 
 hunger, but faint from exhaustion. " Behold," he says, 
 " I am going to die. What good is the birthright to 
 me? " Jaeoi) had boiled .ssome ix)ttage. Wliat the in- 
 gredients were is not certain. That it was a " lentil 
 .stew " (vs. 34) is i)robably a later assumption. All that 
 we know is that it was red. Esau sees the red stuif 
 ami exelainis (vs. .30), " Let me swallow the red. this 
 red! " It is not food he wants, but medicine. The red 
 stuff which he caught sight of in his extremity was, or 
 seemed to him to be an elixir of life. For this, that is 
 to say, for a draught which would give him rebirth and 
 new life, he was willing to barter his birthright. A 
 kind of beer coloured red, red wine, and other red i>ota- 
 tions have served among various peoples as substitutes 
 for blood, which was an elixir of life. If bl4X»d was life 
 (" the blood that is the life thereof "), it would obviously 
 seem a rational procedure to offer blood to jierswns whose 
 
 vitality was defective. " It became an elixir to restore 
 youth, to ward off danger to life (by adding to the vital 
 substance), and to increase the supply of vitality to the 
 dead, in whom life was not regarded as ended but simply 
 reduced in volume " (Elliot Smith, "The Giver of Life," 
 in Journ. of the Manch. Eg. & Or. /S'oc, 191S, p. 55). Cp. 
 ELIXIR OF LIFE. 
 
 REEVITES. The followers of John Reeve (1008-1G53), 
 who was associated with Lodowicke Muggleton as one 
 of the founders of the Muggletonian theologj'. See 
 MUGGLETONIANS. 
 
 REFA'IYEH. An order of Dervishes, founded by 
 Sheikh Ahmed er-Refa'i (d. 1182 A.D.). They have been 
 called the howling den-ishes, because during the ziUr 
 ("remembrance"), a i)erformance which consists of a 
 chanting recitation of the divine name, accompanied by 
 a swaying of the body or even by a whirling dance, they 
 sliriek. The frenzy induced by the zikr leads the 
 Refa'i.veh " into horrible demonstrations of their boasted 
 immunity from the burning of fire, such as licking red- 
 hot irons, biting them and cooling them in the mouth " 
 (P. J. Bliss). They relate that their founder " once put 
 his legs in a basin of burning coals, but was cured by the 
 holy breath and siiliva of 'Abd-el-Qadir." See T. P. 
 Hughes; F. J. Bliss. 
 
 REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH. A dissentient 
 epi.scopal community. It " retains the historical succes- 
 sion through an American seceded bishop: not as in itself 
 necessarj' or important, but that the validity of its 
 ministerial acts may be unimpeachable by those who think 
 otherwise " (J. A. Houlder). 
 
 REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. A seces- 
 sion from the Church of Scotland. See PRESBY- 
 TERIANS. 
 
 REFRESHMENT SUNDAY. Another name for 
 Lrotare Sunday {q.v.'), the fourth Sunday in I^ent. 
 
 REHTIA. A goddess worshipped by the people known 
 to the Romans as Veneti. She had a temple near the 
 modern town of Este, the ancient Ateste, about 15 m. 
 S. of Padua, and her cult seems to have flourished in the 
 third century B.C. The objects presented to the 
 goddess as votive offerings included bronze statuettes 
 of race-hor.ses, rectangular bronze nails, and bronze 
 alphabetic tablets. Professor R. S. Conway infers upon 
 the latter that the goddess " was regarded as a being of 
 superior intelligence, who took a particular interest in 
 written symbols, and might be exiiected to be influenced 
 by their proper use." The name Rehtia means " straight- 
 iiess." So also does Orthia, the name of a goddess 
 whose temple at Sparta has been excavated in recent 
 years. This, with other resemblances, suggests a pos- 
 sible identificatiou of the two deities. See R. S. Con- 
 way, '■ Some Votive Offerings to the Venetic goddess 
 Rehtia," Jonrnnl of the Royal Anthropological Institute. 
 vol. xlvi., .Jan. -June, 1910. 
 
 REINCARNATION. The doctrine is held by a number 
 of the Hindu castes or sects. For in.stanee, by the 
 Taonlas, a small non-Aryan caste of the Uri.va States 
 in India, the members of which are generally farm- 
 sen-ants and labourers. " They believe in re-birth, and 
 when a child is lx)rn they proceed to ascertain what 
 ancestor has become reincarnate by dropping rice grains 
 coloured with turmeric into a i>ot of water. As each 
 one is dropped they repeat Ihe name of an ancestor, and 
 when the first grain floats eouchide that the one named 
 has been born again " (R. V. Russell). The Turis, a non- 
 Aryan caste of cultivators, workers in bamboo, and 
 basket-makers use grains of rice for the same purpose. 
 
 RELIC SUNDAY. What was called Relic Sunday 
 was observed on the third Sunday after Midsummer-day.
 
 Religion 
 
 305 
 
 Rhabdomancy 
 
 It was so called because " holy relics in the cliurdies 
 aud other ecclesiastical iiistitutious were exhibited for 
 worship or public curiosity " (W. Carew Hazlitt). 
 
 RELIGION. The etymology of the word religion is 
 doubtful: aud the thing itself is difficult to define in such 
 a way as to include all varieties. E. B. Tylor defines it 
 simply and briefly as being " a belief in spiritual beings." 
 To S. Reinach it meaus " a sum of scruples which imjiede 
 the free exercise of our faculties ": to B'euerbach " it is 
 a desire which manifests itself in prayer, sacrifice, and 
 faith." According to Max Miiller, " religion is a faculty 
 of the mind which enables a man to grasp the infinite 
 independently of sense and reason." According to A. 
 Reville, " Religion is the definition of man's life by the 
 connection of the human with that mysterious spirit, the 
 power of which over the universe aud himself he 
 recognises and with which he feels himself united." 
 According to Goblet d'AIviella, " religion i,s a certain 
 method by which man realises his relation to the super- 
 human and mysterious powers upon whom he regards 
 himself as dependent." Marie-Jean Guyau defines re- 
 ligion as follows : " Religion is a universal socio- 
 morphi.^m. The religious sense is the sense of dependence 
 in relation to wills which primitive man places in the 
 universe." A more comprehensive definition is that given 
 by .Jean Reville. " Religion is essentially a principle 
 of life, the feeling of a living relation between the human 
 individual and the powers or power of which the uuiver.se 
 is the manifestation. What characterises each religion 
 is its way of looking uT>on this relation and its method 
 of applying it." W. Warde Fowler approves the defini- 
 tion of an American writer : " Religion is the effective 
 desire to be in right relation to the Power manifesting 
 itself in the universe." He thinlis that this definition 
 at any rate suits very well the early Roman religious 
 ideas. " The ' Power manifesting Itself in the uni- 
 verse ' may be taken as including all the workings of 
 nature, which even now we most imperfectly understand, 
 and which primitive man .so little understood that he 
 misinterpretefl them in a hundred different ways. The 
 effective desire to be in right relations with these 
 my.sterious powers, so that they might not interfere with 
 his maten'al well-being — with his flocks and herds, with 
 his crops, too. if he were in the agricultural stage, with 
 his dwelling and his land, or with his city if he had 
 got so far in social development — tliis is what we may 
 call the religious instinct, the origin of what the Romans 
 calle<l religio." Perhaps one of the best definitions of 
 religion is that of .1. G. Frazer. " B.v religion I under- 
 .stand a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior 
 to man which are believed to direct and control the course 
 of nature and of human life." What Toli?toy under- 
 .stands to be true relifjion he defines as follows. " True 
 religion is the establishment by man of such a relation 
 to the Infinite life around him. as, while connecting his 
 life with this Infinitude and directing his conduct, is also 
 in agreement with his reason and with human know- 
 ledge" (What is Religion? 19021. W. Trotter (Inxtinctx 
 of the Herd in Peace and War. 1910) rightly emphasises 
 the fact that religious ft»eling is " a character inherent 
 in the very structure of the human mind, and is the 
 expression of a neetl which must be recognised b.v the 
 biologist as neither suiierfieial not transitory." 
 
 RBLLTANISTS. The followers of .Tames Relly (1722?- 
 177S^. Relly was at first one of the preachers attached 
 to George Whitefield (1714-1770). About the year 1701. 
 however, he became a Universalist and a leader of the 
 movement in London. See T'NIVERSALISM. 
 
 REPHAIM. The term rrphd'im is found in the Old 
 Testament, and is used in two different senses. In .some 
 passages (e.g.. Genesis xv. 20. .Joshua xvii. l."/) it is a 
 
 proper name for an old race of giants. In other pas.sages 
 the word denotes " shades " or " ghosts." The literal 
 meaning, it has been suggested, may have been " sunken, 
 ix>werless, ones " from the root rapha " to sink." 
 Another suggestion, however, is that the word comes 
 from rapha in the sense " to hurl down." It was first 
 applied to a race of giants. When they were hurled 
 down to Sheol they became its chief inhabitants and gave 
 their name to the rest of the inhabitants. Cheyne 
 (Encycl. Bihl.) thinks " the word ought to mean ' the 
 terrible,' or ' the wise," or the like." He adds that " in 
 the later Old Testament books the condition of those in 
 Sheul is iK>rtra.ved in very gloomy colours: but these 
 l)Ooks do not express the primitive iiopular belief. No 
 doubt Kephd'im is a mutilated or modilietl form of some 
 primitive religious term." In Job xxvi. 5 it is said : 
 " the shades (repha'imj tremble beneath the waters and 
 the inliabitants thereof." Other references are found 
 in Lsaiah xiv. 9, xxvi. 14 (parallel to "dead"), Psalm 
 Ixxxviii. 11 [10] (parallel to " dead "), Proverbs ii. 18, 
 ix. IS. xxi. (!. See Encucl. Bibl. 
 
 REPRESENTERS. Another name for the Marrow 
 Men ((/.v.). They were so called on account of a Repre- 
 sentation which they drew up protesting against the con- 
 demnation by the General Assembly of the teaching con- 
 tained iu the work " The Marrow of Modern Divinity " 
 (reprinted. 171S). 
 
 REQUALIVAHANUS. This name has been found on 
 an inscription, and seems to be that of a god worshijiped 
 by the Ancient Teutons. The name sugge-Sts the dark- 
 ness either of a forest or of the lower world. See P. D. 
 Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 RESTORATIONISTS. A religious sect which was an 
 offshoot from the American Universalists. It was 
 formed in the year 1831. The Restorationists were 
 persons who had accepted the teaching of Hosea Ballow 
 of Boston. Ballow taught that sin is inseparably con- 
 nected with the living body, aud that when the body dies 
 and the soul is set free, no sin remains to be punished. 
 
 REVELATION. It is a firmly-rooted religious con- 
 viction that, apart from the knowledge which man obtains 
 in an ordinary way. there is a divine knowledge which is 
 revettled to him by inspiration. Psychology is lending 
 more and more .suiijwrt to this belief or conviction. See 
 INSPIRATION, and PSYCHIC PHENOMENA OF 
 RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE. 
 
 REVELATION. THE BOOK OF. The Latin title of 
 the book of the New Testament which in Greek is called 
 the Apocalypse. As the Greek indicates, it belongs to 
 the literature now described as Apocalyptic. It is there- 
 fore probably pseudonymous, written not b.v but in the 
 name of one of the Johns. It can hardly have been 
 written by the .John of tlie fourth Gospel, from which it 
 differs greatly in style and character. Irenaeus assigns 
 the Revelation to the end of the reign of Domitian. See 
 A. S. Peake, The Revelation of John. 1919. 
 
 RHABDOMANCY. In ancient times it was a wide- 
 spread iiractice to take omens from the flourishing or 
 withering of cuttings or .slips. Robertson Smith thinks 
 we have an example of tin's in the Old Testament .story 
 of the budding of Aaron's rod (Numbers xvii.). He 
 writes : " We have such an omen in Aaron's rod (Numb, 
 xvii.): and Adonis rods, .set as slips to grow or wither, 
 seem to be referred to in Isa. xvii. 10 .s^/^/.. a passage 
 which would certainly gain force if the withering of the 
 .slips was an ill omen." B. Baentsch also thinks that the 
 story of the rod indicates that the ancient Israelites were 
 familiar with rhabdomancy and practised it in the wor- 
 shi[) of Jehovah. G. P.. Gray finds different parallels to 
 the story of Aaron's rod. One of these is the story of 
 Hercules' club. Concerning this Pausanias (as trans-
 
 Rhjetian Confession, The 
 
 306 
 
 Romans, Epistle to the 
 
 lated by J. G. Frazer) says : " They say thajt Hercules 
 leaned liis club against this image [a Hermes], and. the 
 club, which was of wild olive wood, struck root in the 
 ground, if you please, and si>routed afresh ; and the tree 
 is still growing." See W. Robertson Smith, U.S.; B. 
 Baentsch, Numeri (Commentary on the Book of Num- 
 bers), 1903; G. B. Gray, Numbers in the I.C.O., 1903. 
 
 RHJ5TIAN CONFESSION, THE. The " Confessio 
 Rhiptica " was composed by Saluz Gallicius. It wias 
 " intended to establish a uniform system of doctrine in 
 place of the existing theological chaos, in which Ana- 
 baptist, Lutheran, Zwinglian. Romanist, Socinian, and 
 l>antheistic teachings mingled " (W. A. Curtis). The 
 Confession wag approved in 1552 A.D. at a Synod of the 
 Reformed Churches in the Rhaetiau Alps. See William 
 A. Curtis. 
 
 RHEA. The Rhea of Greek mythology was originally 
 a Cretan nature-goddess. She is fabled to liave been 
 the daughter of Uranus and Gfea, and the wife of the 
 Titan Cronus, her brother. She was called the Mother 
 of the Gods, because she was siupix)sed to have given birth 
 to the Olympian deities, Zeus, Hades, Poseidon, Hera, 
 Hestia, and Demeter. The Cretan Rhea was identified 
 in early times with the Asiatic nature-goddess Cybele. 
 See, further, CYBELE. According to Lucian, a goddess 
 with the same name was worshipped in Syria. 
 
 RHEINBERGBRS. Another name for the Collegiauts 
 (g.v.) or followers of John James, Hadrian, and Gisbert 
 van der Kodde in Holland. They were called Rhein- 
 bergers because after a time they removed to Rheinberg 
 near Ley den. 
 
 RHBTORIANS. The followers of the Alexandrian 
 Rhetorius. The Rhetorians seem to have been anti- 
 dogmatists. According to Philaster, they found no harm 
 in any heresy. According to Pnedestinatus, they thought 
 Christian fellowship should be maintained with all who 
 believed in the Incarnation. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 RIDWAN. The name in Muslim theology of the angel 
 who has charge of heaven, the keeper or guardian of 
 Paradise. 
 
 RIFAJB, ORDER OF THE. An order of dervishes 
 in the Nile valley. The members throw .stones at their 
 chests, eat burning coals, and stick iron nails in their 
 eyes. 
 
 RIGANTONA. Rigantona, " the great Queen," was 
 the name of a gwldess worshipped by the ancient Celts. 
 It is thought that the goddess survived in Rhiannon, a 
 figure in Welsh mythology, the wife of the divine hero 
 Pwyll ((I.V.). See Anwyl: Charles Squire, Myth. 
 
 RIG VEDA. The Rig Veda is one of the chief col- 
 lections of hymns held sacred by the Hindus. It is the 
 earliest of the Vedas (see VEDISM). It may go back 
 to about 2000 B.C. or even to 3000 B.C. Hopkins, how- 
 ever, thinks that the bulk of it is to be assigned to about 
 1000 B.C. He divides the hymns of tlie Rig Veda into 
 three classes : first, those in which the older divinities 
 are specially adored: .second, those in which the sacri- 
 ficial gods are specially prominent: third, those in which 
 pol.ytheism is giving place to a more sy.stematic 
 pantheism. " In each category there are hymns of 
 different age and quality, for neither did the more ancient 
 with the growth of new divinities cease to be revered, nor 
 did panthei-sm inhibit the formal acknowledgment of the 
 primitive pantheon." See E. W. Hopkins: Reinach, 0. 
 
 ROGATIANI. The followers of the Donatist Rogatus 
 (flourished about A.D. 372-3). See DONATISM. 
 
 ROGERIANS. The followers (c. 1(>77) of one .John 
 Rogers in New England. They were a branch of the 
 Puritan Ranters (g.v.). and oppo.sed worship on the 
 Lord's Day as being idolatrous. 
 
 ROMAN PSALTER, THE. The Roman Psalter was 
 the first (383) of the three revisions of the Book of 
 Psalms made by Jerome. It was so called because it was 
 introduced by Pope Damasus, at whose request it was 
 made, into ecclesiastical use in the Roman Church. It 
 remained in general use until the time of Pope Pius V., 
 when the Gallic-an Psalter (q.v.) was substituted. The 
 third version, made direct from the Hebrew, was never 
 admitted to public use. Cp. VULGATE. 
 
 ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. The Epistle to the 
 Romans is one of the four " practically non-disputed " 
 Epistles of the Apostle Paul. Even so uncompromising 
 a critic as P. W. Schmiedel holds that the genuineness 
 of at least the four principal Epistle of Paul (the Haupt- 
 briefe) is unassailable. They have of course been 
 attacked, but only by scholars who are notorious for the 
 extremeness and extravagance of their criticism. The 
 Epistle to the Romans was declared by Luther to be 
 the chief book of the New Testament, and by 0)leridge 
 to be the most profound work ever written. It is just 
 the kind of work that Paul, with his intellectual training 
 and spiritual experience was qualified to write. As 
 Currie Martin says, " no epistle is more clearly his than 
 is this one." The external evidence for the epistle is 
 equally strong. It seems to have been used by the author 
 of the First Epistle of Peter (compare I. Peter ii. 5 with 
 Romans xii. 1; and I. Peter iii. S-9 with Romans xii. 16- 
 18), and to have been known to the autiors of the Epistle 
 of James and the Epistle to the Hebrews. It is quoted 
 by Clement of Rome. There are reminiscences of it in 
 the Letters of Ignatius and in the Epistle of Polycarp. 
 It is included in the Canon of Marcion and in the Mura- 
 torian Canon. It is one of the Epistles ascribed to 
 Paul by Irenaeus. What has already been said does 
 not mean that there are no difficulties in the Epistle. 
 There are a number. What, for instance, was the com- 
 position of the Church to which it was addressed? Baur 
 thought that it was in the main Jewish Christian. This 
 would account for the many quotations from the Old 
 Testament and allusions to " the Law." But these, it 
 is thought by many scholars, are explained b.v the sup- 
 position that there was a Jewish Christian element in 
 the Church. Currie Martin admits that there are parts 
 of the Epistle which seem to bear very distinctly upon 
 Jewish life and thought, but he thinks "they are so 
 written as to be quite applicable to Jews who formed 
 part of a church the ma.iority of whose members were 
 Gentiles." Prof. Peake points out that for some of those 
 passages which have been supposed to postulate Jewish 
 readers, xiarallels may be quoted " from Epistles which 
 were certainly not written to Jews." Another difficulty 
 is presented by the facts (1) that chapters xv. and xvi. 
 seem to have been lacking in Marcion's copy of the 
 Epistle, and (2) that the Doxology in chapter xvi. vss. 
 25-27 is in some manaiscripts placed at tlie end of chapter 
 xiv., in others is found in both places, and in others is 
 omitted altogether. These facts have suggested the 
 theory that different sections of the Epistle were 
 addressed to different Churches. " Renan made the 
 ingenious suggestion that the main part of the Epistle 
 was sent to several Churches, but with different endings 
 in each case, i.-xi. with xv. to the Romans, i.-xiv. with 
 xvi. 1-20 to the Ephesiaus, i.-xiv. with xvi. 21-24 to the 
 Thessaloninns, and i.-xiv. with xvi. 25-27 to an unknown 
 Church. The Epistle came to its present form through 
 a combination of these separate endings " (A. S. Peake). 
 The theory is intended also to remove the difficulty that 
 as the Epistle stands the Apostle sends greetings to many 
 persons in a Church which he had not visited. On the 
 other hand he had laboured among the Ephesians: the 
 warning in xvi. 17-20 would .suit Ephesus better than
 
 Romanticism, Modern French 
 
 307 
 
 Rosicrucians 
 
 Rome; and some of the i)ersons greeted were, we know, 
 closely connected with Asia Minor. Those who defend 
 the integrity of the Epistle emphasize the fact that Rome 
 was a place to which all roads led, and many of Paul's 
 friends mav easilv have found their way there. And, as 
 Prof. Peake says, •■ in spite of the verj' large acceptance 
 which the hnwthesis that the greetings were sent to 
 Ephesus has received, it is still rejected by several of 
 the most eminent scholars, including Hamack, Zahn. 
 Sandav and Headlam, Denney, Ramsay and Lietzmann." 
 A comparison of Romans xv. 22-26 with Acts xx. 1-'!. 
 xxiv. 17-19, I. Corinthians xvi. 1-4, II. Corintiians viii. 
 1-4, ix. 1. 2 suggests that the Epistle was written about 
 the year -58 A.b. It would seem to have been written 
 soon after the Second Epistle to the Corinthians. See 
 R. J. Knowling, The Witness of the Epistles, 1892: the 
 Encycl. Bibl.; J. A. M'Clymont: G. Currie Martin: Arthur 
 S. Peake, Intr. : 3. Moffatt, Intr. 
 
 ROMANTICISM. JIODERN FRENCH. The romantic 
 view of the world, which may be described as Roman- 
 ticism, has been well described by William James. 
 " Look at the last runnings of the romantic school, as 
 we see them in that strange contemporary Pari.sian 
 literature, with which we of the less clever countries 
 are so often driven to rinse out our minds after they 
 liave become clogged with the dulness and heaviness of 
 our nati-\-e pursuits. The romantic school began with 
 the worship of subjective sensibility and the revolt 
 against legality of which Rousseau was the first great 
 prophet : and through various fluxes and refluxes, right 
 wings and left wings, it stands to-day with two men of 
 genius. M. Renan and M. Zola, as its principal exponents 
 — one speaking with its masculine, and the other witJi 
 what might be called its feminine, voice. I prefer not 
 to think now of less noble members of the school, and 
 the Renan I have in mind is, of course, the Renan of 
 latest dates. As I have used the term gnostic, both he 
 and Zola are gnostics of the most pronounced sort. Both 
 are athirst for the facts of life, and both think the facts 
 of human sensibility to be of all facts the most worthy 
 of attention. Both agree, moreover, that sensibility 
 seems to be there for no higher purpose — certainly not, 
 as the Philistines say, for the sake of bringing mere out- 
 ward rights to pass and frustrating outward wrongs. 
 One dwells on the sensibilities for their energy, the other 
 for their sweetness: one .speaks with a voice of bronze, 
 the other with that of an ^olian harp: one ruggedly 
 ignores the distinction of good and evil, the other plays 
 the coquette between the craven unmanliness of his 
 Philosophic Dialogues and the butterfly optimism of his 
 Souvenirs de Jeunesse. But under the pages of both 
 there sounds Incessantly the hoarse bass of vanitas 
 tmnitatum, omnia vanitas, which the reader may hear, 
 whenever he will, between the lines. No writer of this 
 French romantic school has a word of rescue from the 
 hour of satiety with the things of life — the hour in which 
 we say, ' I take no pleasure in them ' — or from the hour 
 of terix)r at the world's vast meaningless grinding, if per- 
 chance .stich hours should come. For terror and satiety 
 are facts of sensibility like any others: and at their own 
 hour they reign in their own right. The heart of the 
 romantic utterances, whether itoetical, critical, or his- 
 torical, is this inward remedilessness, what Carlyle calls 
 this far-off whimpering of wail and woe. And from this 
 romantic .■^tate of mind there is absolutely no possible 
 theoretic escape. Whether, like Renan. we look upon 
 life in a more refined way, as a romance of the spirit: 
 or whether, like the friends of M. Zola, we pique our- 
 selves on our ' scientific ' and ' analytic ' character, and 
 prefer to be cynical, and call the world a ' roman experi- 
 mental ' on an infinite scale — in either case the world 
 
 apiwars to us potentially as what the same Carlyle once 
 called it, a vast, gloomv. solitarv Golgotha and mill of 
 death." See William James, The Will to Believe, 1908. 
 
 RONSDORF SECT. A sect of religious enthusiasts 
 in Germany, founded by Elias Eller (&. I(i90). They were 
 also called Zionites (f/.v.). 
 
 ROSARY, IN HINDCISM. The rosary is used in 
 Hindiii.sm by the worshippers of Siva (q.v.) and 'V^i.shnu 
 (q.v.). That of the Saivas generally consists of tiiirty- 
 two or sixty-four berries of the Rudr.'iksha tree (Elseo- 
 carpus Ganitrus) on a string. Sometimes, however, the 
 rosary is made of the teeth of dead bodies. The rosary 
 of the Valshnavas consists of one hundred and eight 
 beads made of wood of the Tulasi shrub (see TULASI). 
 The rosaries are usually carried and used in the recita- 
 tion of prayers or of the names of the deity: but some- 
 times they are worn as necklaces. Monier- Williams, in 
 describing the devotions of a naked ascetic, describes the 
 use as follows : " Hanging over his left shoulder and 
 under his right arm was the .sacred cord of three coils 
 of cotton — the mark of his second birth — ^and his right 
 hand was inserted in a Gomukhi or rosary bag. I asked 
 wliat he was doing. ' He is counting the beads of his 
 rosarj'.' said a bystander, ' and each time he tells his 
 beads he repeats one of the 1008 names of the god Siva 
 over and over again, but this operation must on no 
 account be seen, and so the hand and ro.sary are con- 
 cealed in the bag.' " See Monier-Williams; E. W. 
 Hopkins. 
 
 ROSENFELDERS. The followers of a German 
 fanatic Hans Ro.senfeld, who professed (c. 1763) to be 
 the Messiah, and proposed to rule the world with the 
 a.ssistanee of twenty-four elders. In 1782 proceedings 
 were taken against him, with the result that he was 
 imprisoned. 
 
 RUSH HASH-SHANa. The title of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century 
 A.D. and are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.). a col- 
 lection and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the 
 Holy, or the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three 
 tractates of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or 
 orders (sedarim). Rosh hash-shana is the eighth trac- 
 tate of the second group, which is called Mo'ed 
 (" Festival "). 
 
 ROSICRUCIANS. In the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 century the name Rosicrucians was assumed b.v members 
 of certain secret societies. The derivation of the name 
 is matter of di-spute. The most likely explanation 
 perhaps is that given in a Rosicrueian pamphlet, " Fama 
 Fratemitatis " published in Germany in A,p. 1614. 
 According to this pamphlet the Rosicrueian fraternity 
 was founded by a German, Christopher Rosenkreutz (ft. 
 A.D. 13SS), who had travelled in the Ea-st and learned 
 from wise men there valuable secrets. On his return to 
 Europe he founded the fraternity with the object of 
 reforming human knowledge. The Rosicrucians pro- 
 fessed to have a .special knowledge of alchemy, medicine, 
 and the healing art. Another explanation of the name 
 is that it is derive<l from the two Latin words rasa 
 " rose " and crux " cross." In that case the reference 
 would be to certain symbols. The Rosicrucians were 
 not all of one mind. According to J. H. Blunt, how- 
 ever, they agreed upon the following ix>ints : " first, that 
 the only true knowledge was to be derived by analysis 
 of all bodies by the agency of fire; secondly, that God 
 oi>erates by the same laws in the kingdom of Grace as 
 in the kingdom of Nature, and that there is therefore 
 a complete analogy and coincidence between .science and 
 religion: thirdly, that a divine soul or energy is diffused 
 through the fabric of the universe — this incorporeal
 
 Rosin Bible 
 
 308 
 
 Ruth, Book of 
 
 existence being bv some called ' Achaeus.' by otbers the 
 Universal Spirit." The Rosienieian doctrines were of 
 the nature of theosopliy (q.v.). See R. Puenjer; J. H. 
 BJunt: Chambers' Eiicyd.; Brockhaus. 
 
 ROSIN BIBLE A popular designation of an edition 
 of the Bishops' Bible (fj.r.) published in 1009. It was so 
 c-alled on account of a passage in Jeremiah viii. 22 C Is 
 there no balm in Gilead? "), which was rendered, " Is 
 there no rosin in Gilead? " 
 
 ROSKOLNIKS. The designation of Nonconformists 
 or Schismatics in Russia, that is to say, of those who 
 have seceded from the Greek Church. They arose chiefly 
 in the seventeenth century in opiwsition to the revision 
 of Holy Scripture and the liturgical books, and in the 
 eighteenth centurv in opposition to the reforms of Peter 
 the Great (1689-1725). . 
 
 ROSMERTA. A goddess worshipped by the ancient 
 Celts. She is paired, perhaps eitlier as mother, sister, 
 or wife with Mercurius, Mercury. 
 
 ROSMINIANS. The founder of the Fathers of the 
 lastitute of Charity or the Rosminians (1828) was the 
 Italian philosopher Antonio Rosmini (1797-1855). He 
 desired the members of his society to devote themselves 
 wholeheartedly to every branch of charity. This desire 
 was fulfilled, and during the first ten years of the 
 society's existence its operations " consisted in giving 
 retreats, preaching, sick-visiting, taking care of prisons 
 and hospitals, teaching, missions abroad, literary work, 
 and almsgiving " (Catholic Dictionarii). The rule of the 
 Institute of Charity was approved by Gregory XVI. in 
 1S3S, and in 1839 Rosmini was nominated its Superior- 
 General. See Coth. Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 ROWITES. Another name for the English Camp- 
 bellites (q.v.), the followers of John McI.#od Campbell 
 (1800-1872), who was Minister of Row, Dumbartonshire. 
 
 RUDRA. A deity in Hindu religion. Rudra, " the 
 ruddy one," appears as an imix>rtant deity in the Veda. 
 He is the Vedic prototype of Siva (r/.v.). He is closely 
 associated with the Rain-god, Indra (q.r.) and the Fire- 
 god, Agni (g.v.). Rudra is the god of gales and tem- 
 pests. But he is present in healWi-giving winds as well 
 as in storm-winds. In course of time he became more 
 and more comprehensive. His terrific and ungodlike 
 character was " kept well in the background, and his 
 epithet ' the blessed or auspicious one (Siva)', who 
 brought life out of death, who re-created after dissolu- 
 tion, passed into his principal name " (Monier-Williams). 
 The storm-winds are called Rudras or Maruts. They 
 nccomiiauy Rudra and Indra. In a Marut hymn, as 
 translated" by Miiller, it is .said : '• Truly they are terrible 
 and powerful : even to the desert the Rudriyas bring rain 
 that is never dried up. The lightning lows like a cow, 
 it follows as a mother follows after her young, when the 
 shower has been let loose. Even by day the Maruts 
 create darkne.ss with the water-bearing cloud, when they 
 drench the earth." Originally there were seven Maruts. 
 Afterwards the number was greatly increased. See 
 Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 RUGIBVIT. Rugievit was the name of one of the 
 gods worshipped by the ancient Slavs. He appears to 
 have been a god of war. He had seven faces. 
 
 RUFA'I. A Dervish order founded by Aehmet Rtifa 
 in the twelfth century, and known to Europeans as the 
 " Howling Dervishes." The devotees cut themselves 
 with knives and lancets, eat pieces of glass, snakes, and 
 live coals: but the founder of the order is said to have 
 conferred uix)n them the jxKwer of miraculously healing 
 their wounds. " The knives, red-hot irons and coals, 
 and other instruments used by the Rufa'i Order in their 
 extraordinary religious exercises, are called by the 
 symbolic name of ' Roses ' " (L. M. J. Gamett). 
 
 RUKHMINI. A Hindu goddess, the bright or shining 
 one, a consort of Vishnu. 
 
 RUMBALD. It was formerly a custom among the 
 fishermen of Folkestone, on returning from a fishing 
 expedition, to set apart eight of the largest and best, 
 whiting, to be sold separately. With the money thu.s 
 obtained they made a feast on Christmas Eve, which 
 they called a rumbald. It has been suggested that 
 originally the feast was held in honour of St. Rumbald. 
 According to Francis Bond, there are eight dedications 
 to St. Rumbald in England. See W. Carew Hazlitt. 
 
 RUNCARI. A Waldensian sect, the members of which 
 held that since sin is of the heart, no part, of the body 
 that is below the waist can commit sin. 
 
 RUTH, BOOK OF. One of the books of the Old Testa- 
 ment. The events with which it deals are said to have 
 belonged to the period of the Judges. The book might 
 therefore be expected to follow the Book of Judges 
 (g.r.). This is the place assigned to it by the Septua- 
 gint, Josephus, and the English Bible. In the Hebrew 
 Canon, however, it appears among the Hagiographa as 
 one of the five " Rolls " or Megilloth (q.v.). Conserva- 
 tive scholars explain that it was classed with the Megil- 
 loth because, like them, it was set apart for .special use 
 in the Synagogue. Higher critics find in its separation 
 from the historical books supix)rt for the view that the 
 origin of the book belongs " to a period when the c-ol- 
 lection of the historic-al books had already been closed " 
 (C. Comill). Cornill describes the story as " a charming 
 idyll." The story is this. In the days of the judges. 
 Elimeleeh. a man of Bethlehem, goes with Naomi, his 
 wife, and their two sons, to sojourn in the land of Moab. 
 Here the two sons marry Moabite women, Orpah and 
 Ruth. Naomi .'■joon loses her husband and both her sons. 
 She decides to return to Bethlehem, and her daughter-in- 
 law clings lovingly to her and refuses to leave her. 
 When they have settled in Bethlehem, Ruth goes to glean 
 in the field of Boaz. a kinsman of Elimeleeh. She finds 
 favour in his e.ves, and is treated with exceptional kind- 
 ness. Naomi, having noted this, thinks of a means of 
 suggesting to Boaz that he should marr>' Ruth. Boaz 
 is willing to do so. but he knows of a nearer kin.sman 
 who ha.s a better claim. When the other kinsman re- 
 fuses to press his claim. Boaz marries Ruth. She 
 becomes the ancestress of David. Conservative scholars 
 maintain that th» events of the book occurred about a 
 hundred years before the time of David. The Tnarriage 
 of an I.sraelite with a Moabite. it is argued, would have 
 .seemed offensive to a pious Israelite of post -exilic times. 
 The higher critic, on the other hand, thinks that the 
 time-indication (ch. 1. K " presupposes the rigidly fixed 
 chronological system of the Deuteronomic Exilic History 
 of Israel " (Comill). The conservative scholar explains 
 peculiarities of language as " instances of the spoken 
 patois": the higher critic finds in them post-exilic 
 Aramaisms. The conservative scholar finds no reference 
 to the levirate law of Deuteronomy (xxv. 7-9) in Ruth 
 iv. 7; the higher critic finds that in Ruth "a custom 
 which was current in the times of Deuteronomy is 
 expres.sly explained as if it were an antiquarian 
 curiosity " (Cornill). If the book is post-exilic, it may 
 be regarded as a protest against the ^strict view regarding 
 intermarriage with foreign wives, the view enforced by 
 Ezra and Nehemiah (see Ezra ix., x. : Neh. xiii. 23-29). 
 Perhaps Prof. Whitehouse is right in thinking that " the 
 present book may have ari.sen from a pre-exilian docu- 
 mentary basis, and have owed its jiresent form to a 
 writer who. like the author of the Book of Jonah, was 
 opposed to the narrower traditions of the time of Ezra 
 and Nehemiah." See C. H. H. Wright. Inti: to the O.T.. 
 1890; C. Comill. Inti:; G. H. Box; O. C. Whitehouse.
 
 Ryobu=Bukkyo 
 
 309 
 
 Sabhoraim 
 
 RYOBU-BUKKYu. Another name for tlie Japanese 
 religion known as Ryobu-Shinto (q.v.). 
 
 RYOBU-SHINTO. In the sixth century A.D. Buddhism 
 was introduced into Jai)an from Korea and China. It 
 did not, however, displace the old religion, which now 
 came to be known as Shinto, that is to say, " The way 
 
 of the Genii, or Spirits." The two religions borrowed 
 from each other, and the mixed form of faith that 
 resulted came to be known as Ryobu-Shinto. In 1S(!8 
 Shintoism was made the State religion. To distinguish 
 it from Ryobu-Shinto, the ancient faith is called " pure 
 Shinto." See SHINTOISM. 
 
 SA'ADI'YEH. An order of Dervishes, founded by 
 Sa'ad-ed-DIn ed-Je'bawi (rf. 1.335 A.D.); also called 
 Jebawi'yeh. 
 
 SAB AT ATI. A name given to the followers of Peter 
 Waldus, the Waldenses (q.v.), because they wore wooden 
 shoes. 
 
 SABAZIUS. A Phrygian deity. Sahazius is tie 
 Phrj'gian Jupiter or Dionysus. According to Cumont, 
 Sabazius was frequently confounded with Attis, a con- 
 fusion due to the great -similarity of their mysteries. 
 '■ By mean« of an audacious etymology that dates back 
 to the Hellenistic period, this old Thraco-Phrygian 
 divinity has been identified with ' Yahveh Zebaoti,' the 
 Biblical • Lord of Hosts.' The corresponding expression 
 in the Septuagint has been regarded as the equivalent 
 of the kiirios )>aba:ios of the barbarians. The latter 
 was worshipped as the supreme, almighty and holy Lord. 
 In the light of a new interpretation the purifications 
 practised in the mysteries were believed to wipe out the 
 hereditary impurity of a guilty ancestor who had aroused 
 the wrath of heaven against his posterity, much as the 
 original sin with which Adam"s disobedience had stained 
 the human race was to be wiped out. The custom 
 observed by the votaries of Sabazius of dedicating votive 
 hands which made the liturgie .sign of benediction with 
 the first three fingers extended (the betiedictio latino of 
 the church) was probably taken from the ritual of the 
 Semitic temples through the agency of the Jews. The 
 initiates believed, again like the Jews, that after death 
 their good angel (angelus honH«) would lead them to the 
 banquet of the eternally happy, and the everlasting joys 
 of these banquets were anticipated on earth by the 
 liturgie repasts. This celestial feast can Xte seen in a 
 fresco painting on the grave of a prie-st of Sabazius 
 called Vincentius, who was buried in the Christian cata- 
 comb of Praetextatus, a strange fact for which no satis- 
 factory explanation has as yet been furnished. Fn- 
 doubtedly he belonged to a Jewish-pagan .sect that 
 admitted neophytes of everj- race to its mystic cere- 
 monies." The worship of Sabazius was introdiic-ed into 
 Greece and Italy. It invaded every I>atin province, and 
 extended as far as the most remote limits of Germany. 
 See Franz Cumont, Oriental Religions in R.P., 1911. 
 
 SAEBATIANS. 1. The followers of a Jew Sabbatius. 
 Sabbatius had been converted and had been made a 
 presbyter by Marcian. Hi.s .sect was an offshoot of the 
 Novatlans. Sabbatius contrived to have himself made 
 a bishop. The Sabbat ians were condemned by the 
 Council of Constantinople (A.D. 381; seventh canon). 
 See the Ecclesiastical Histoiii of Socrates (Bohn); The 
 Canons of the First Four General Councils, Oxford, 
 1880. 2. The followers of a Jewish fanatic, Sabbatai 
 
 Z'vi (1626-1676), of Smyrna, who declared himself to be 
 the Messiah. Afterwards he became a Muhammadan. 
 See H. Graetz, History of the Jcirs. 
 
 SABBOTNIKI. A Jewish sect in Russia. They live 
 according to the Jewish law. In the Jewish colonies of 
 Palestine, where some of them have settled, they are 
 known as " Gerim." 
 
 SAF.ELLIANISM. The doctrine of Sabellius and his 
 school. Sabellius was a presbyter at Rome towards the 
 end of the .second century. Modalism (r/.v.) had 'been 
 introduced into Rome by Praxeas, who, according to 
 Tertullian, '■ had put to flight the Paraclete, and crucified 
 the Father." The Medalists received the name Patri- 
 passians (fj.v.). About 230 A.D. this kind of teaching 
 led to the excommunication of Noetus of Smyrna. 
 Noetus declared: " I know but one God; it is no other 
 than He who was born, who suffered, and who died." 
 Epigonus, a disciple of Noetus, opened a school in Rome 
 and acted as head of it. He was .succeeded first by 
 Cleomenes, and then by Sabellius. According to Diony- 
 sius, Bishop of Rome, Sal)ellius blasphemed by " saying 
 that the Son himself is the Father, and I'ice versa." 
 Novatian refers to Sal)eJliu:s as being one " who calls 
 Christ the Father." The Modalists made great use of 
 the term " Monarchy " to describe their strict mono- 
 theism, and their movement is known as Modalist 
 Monarchianism. A form of the Apostles" Creed known 
 (c. 400 A.D.) to Tyrannius Rufinus, Presbyter of 
 Aqulleia, begins : " I believe in Gkxl the Father 
 Almighty, invisible and Impassible." Commenting on 
 the last three words. Rufinus says : " They were added 
 in our Church, as is well known, on account of the 
 Sabellian heresy, called by us ' the Patripassian,' that 
 is, which .says that the Father Himself was bom of the 
 Virgin and became visible, or affirms that He suffered 
 in the flesh " tCommentari/ on the Apostles' Creed). 
 Sabellius was exc-ommunicated by Callistus, Bishop of 
 Rome (219-222). His doc-trine was afterwards developed 
 or, it might be said, mo<lifled. The three prosopa or 
 personae of God came to be regarded as three characters 
 of God. It was held that " the same Person is the Holy 
 Ghost, so far as He manifests Himself in the Christian 
 Church, and by parity of reasoning the Son, so far as 
 He aiipeared in Christ" (Cath. Diet.). He who gave 
 the law as Father, He who became flesh in Christ as 
 Son, and He who descended on the Apostles as Holy 
 Ghost, was one and the same Person or H.vpostasis. See 
 C. A. Heurtley, On Faith and the Creed, 1889; J. H. 
 Blunt: Prot. Diet.: Cath. Diet.: Louis Duchesne, Hist. 
 
 SABHORAIM. Literally " thinkers " or " ex- 
 plainers," a name applied to the Jewish scholars of the 
 sixth century who supplemented the work of the
 
 Sabians 
 
 310 
 
 Sacrifice 
 
 Amoraim (see TALMUD) by giving " the fimahing 
 touches to the compilation of the Babylonian Talmud 
 (Oesterley and Box). See J. W. Ethendge, Intr. to Heh. 
 Lit, 1856; W. O. B. Oesterley and G. H. Box, A. to. 
 Geden, Intr. to the Heb. Bible, 1909. 
 
 SABIANS Another name for the Mandasans (q.v.). 
 The word means " Baptists," and they were so caUed 
 because they paid special reverence to John the Baptist 
 and made baptism their most important rite. 
 
 SABITUM A Babvlonian deity. Sabitum appears 
 as a sea-goddess in the Epic of Gilgamesh (see GIL- 
 GAMBSH EPIC). When Gilgamesh wishes to cross the 
 ocean, " the waters of death," he has to ask Sabitum 
 
 SACRAMENTS. Robertson Smith (R.S.) contends 
 that the sacramental meal stands out as the very essence 
 of the ritual of Semitic sacrifice. In course of time the 
 primitive crudity of the ceremonial was modified, but 
 originally in the shedding of the blood of a victim upon 
 the altar and the eating of the flesh by worshippers there 
 were two significant features : " the conveyance of the 
 living blood to the godhead, and the absorption of the 
 living flesh and blood into the flesh and blood of the 
 worshippers." The fundamental idea of sacrifice 
 throughout the Semitic field " is not that of a sacred 
 tribute, but of communion between the god and his wor- 
 shippei's." In the field of Eg.\T)tian religion. Dr. A. M. 
 BlaeUman has shown how great a part is played by rites 
 of a sacramental character. In the religion of the 
 Greeks, Dr. L. R. Famell (Orcck Relimon) points out 
 that " in the earlier period at least, and frequently also 
 in the later, the offering of the animal at the altai was 
 felt to be something more than a bribe to the deity. The 
 holy spirit of the altar passed into the animal that was 
 consecrated and brought into contiict with it; and those 
 who afterwards partook of it might be conscious of 
 eating holv flesh and thus enjoying temporary communion 
 with the spirit of the divinity." He thinks that m other 
 details of the Homeric sacrifice and in ritual records of 
 the later period we can discover clear traces of sacra- 
 mental communion. In the Eleusinian M.ysteries, again, 
 the means of grace seem to have included " a form of 
 sacrament, the drinliing of the sacred cup into which the 
 personality of the goddess might be infused by transub- 
 stantiation." In the mysteries of the Orphic brother- 
 hoods the means of grace " were a ritual of purification 
 more elaborate than the Bleusinia and fixed as a per- 
 petual rule of life, and at times a mystic sacrament, in 
 which the initiated drank the blood or devoured the 
 body of his god. The form was savage, but the act was 
 pregnant of religious consequences." The term sacra- 
 ments is applied by TertuUian (c. 200 A.D.) to the 
 Mithraic ceremonies of initiation, " which comprised 
 baptism, purification by honey, the use of consecrated 
 water, bread and wine: they were regulated by the 
 I)riests called ' fathers ' of whom the ' father of fathers ' 
 was the chief " (S. Reinaeh, O.). In the Christian 
 Church there was for centuries great vagueness as to the 
 number of sacraments owing to the fact that the word 
 sacramenUnn was used in the Old Latin and Vulgate 
 versions as the equivalent of the Greek mnsterion. Pro- 
 testants now recognize only two sacraments, Baptism 
 and the Lord's iSupper. The Roman Catholics recognize 
 seven : Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, 
 Extreme Unction, Holy Orders, and Matrimony. " The 
 Protestant view is grounded on the fact that baptism 
 and the Supper are the only two ritual observances which 
 spring directly out of the historical revelation of Jesus 
 Christ as given in the New Testament, which rest clearly 
 upon His personal appointment, and are bound up with 
 His own word " {Prot. Diet.). It should be added that 
 
 in the light of more recent researches, Robertson Smith's 
 theory of sacrifice requires to be modified. The sacri- 
 ficial meal came in course of time to be interpreted in the 
 way an which he has interpreted it, but its original signifi- 
 cance does not seem to have been such as he imagined 
 (see Emile Durkheim). 
 
 SACRIFICE. It is ix)inted out by Robertson Smith 
 (R.S., p. 213 f.) tJiat in ancient times the oblation at an 
 altar had so central a place among certain prescribed 
 rites and ceremonies of worship that " among the Greeks 
 and Romans the words Upovpyia. and sacrificium, which 
 in their primary application denote any action within the 
 sphere of things sacred to the gods, and so cover the 
 whole field of ritual, were habitually used, like O'ur Eng- 
 lish word sacrifice, of those oblations at the altar round 
 which all other parts of ritual turned. In English idiom 
 there is a further tendency to narrow the word sacrifice 
 to such oblations as involve the slaughter of a victim." 
 It is convenient to include both kinds of oblation under 
 the term sacrifice. What the sacrificial act really means, 
 and why in the antique religions it should be the typical 
 form of all complete acts of worship, is, as Robertson 
 Smith says, a difficult problem, and one which does not 
 belong to any one religion. In the Semitic field the only 
 system of sacrifice of which we have a full account is 
 that of the second temple at Jerusalem. This, of course, 
 is not primitive, but it contains primitive elements. The 
 Levitieal law of the Hebrews recognises three main types 
 of sacrifice: the whole burnt-offering; the sacrifice fol- 
 lowed by a meal consisting for the most part, of the flesh 
 of the victim; and the sin-offering. The whole burnt- 
 offering and the sacrifice followed by a meal are often 
 mentioned in the older literature. So also is the use of 
 sacrifice as an atonement for sin (especially the burnt- 
 offering) ; but before the time of Ezekiel there is little 
 trace of a si:>ecial kind of sacrifice devoted to this pur- 
 iwse. The pre-exilic literature makes certain distinc- 
 tions. It distinguishes between animal and vegetable 
 oiblations; between offerings which were consumed by 
 fire and such as were simply set forth on the sacred 
 table; ttetween sacrifices in which the gift was wholly 
 made over to the god and such as were partaken of by 
 the god together with his worshippers. "To the latter 
 class belong the zehahlm, or ordinary animal sacrifices, 
 in which a victim is .slain, its blood poure<l out at the 
 altar, and the fat of the intestines with certain other 
 pieces burned, while the greater part of the flesh is left 
 to the offerer to form the material of a sacrificial 
 banquet" (R.S., p. 217). Among the offerings from the 
 vegetable kingdom made by the Hebrews, the chief were 
 meal, wine, and oil. Wine was used also even in 
 Arabia, where it was scarce. Milk was offered by the 
 Arabs and the Carthaginians, but not apparently by the 
 Hebrews. Pruit in its natural state was used by the 
 Carthaginians, and probably by the ancient Hebrews. 
 The Babylonians offered dates, figs, cucumbers, butter, 
 and oil (Jastrow, Civ., p. 277). The Egyptians filled the 
 trunks of animal victims with honey, raisins, figs, 
 incense, myrrh, etc. The most important oblations 
 among the Semites and other peoples, however, are 
 animal sacrifices. According to Robertson Smith, the 
 leading idea in the animal sacrifices of the Semites " was 
 not that of a gift made over to the god, but of an ait of 
 communion, in which the god and his worshippers unite 
 by partaking together of the fiesh and blood of a sacred 
 victim " (p. 227). He therefore draws a sharp line of 
 distinction between the cereal oblation. " in which the 
 dominant idea is that of a tribute paid to the god." and 
 animal sacrifices, "which are essentially acts of com- 
 munion between the god and his worshippers." In animal 
 sacrifices the victim is a sacred animal. The Harranians
 
 Sadasheo 
 
 311 
 
 Sadhus 
 
 sacrificed awine and, according to Maimonides, field- 
 mice (ep. Isa. Ixvi. 17). At Rhodes, " where religion is 
 throughout of a Semitic type, four horses were cast into 
 tie sea as a sacrifice at tie annual feast of the sun " 
 (i?.6'., p. 293). The Babylonians, according to lists 
 embodied in Gudea's inscriptions, offered oxen, sheep and 
 goats, doves and various other domesticated birds 
 chickens, ducks and geese (?), and various kinds of fish 
 (Jastrow, Civ., p. 277). The ancient Egyptians sacrificed 
 gazelles, antelopes, and wild goats: but, according to 
 Herodotus, the sacrifice to one of the principal goddesses 
 consisted of bullocks. The importance of the bullock in 
 Hebrew .<=acrifice is well known. Among the Hindus the 
 victims included horses: among the Chinese sheep and 
 pigs. But if the practice of sacrificing animals is wide- 
 spread, hardly less prevalent is that of offering a human 
 victim. Indeed, "in the later ages of antiquity there was a 
 very general belief," says Robertson Smith (p. 361), "that 
 in strictness the oldest rituals demanded a human victim, 
 and that animal sacrifices were substitutes for the life 
 of a man." D. G. Brinton (R.P.P., p. 189) states that 
 " traces of human sacrifice are discovered in the early 
 history of even the noblest religions, and the rite 
 extended so widely that scarce a cult can be named in 
 whici It did not exist." Porphyry gives examples of 
 human sacrifices, of which many subsisted within the 
 Roman Empire down to the time of Hadrian (ie.,S'., p. 
 36fiV Among the Saracens the favourite victims were 
 young and beautiful captives. Among the Carthaginians, 
 too, choice captives were sacrificed. In an Old Testa- 
 ment narrative (I. Sam. xv. 33>, the captive king Agag 
 seems to be treated as a human victim. Prisoners of 
 war were sacrificed to the Norse god Odhin. Virgins 
 and young children were sacrificed to the Mexican god 
 Tlaloc. Human victims were offered to the Aztec god 
 Xipe; to god P (q.v.) of the Mayan Indians: to tie Frisian 
 god Forseti: to the Teutonic god Tlwaz. They seem 
 also to have been offered to Danu, the Mother of the 
 gods among the Irish Celts. " The ancient Germans 
 laid it down that in time of famine beasts should first 
 bi^ slain and offered to the gods. Did the.se bring no 
 relief, then men must be slaughtered; and if still there 
 was no aid from on high, then the chieftain himself must 
 mount the altar: for the nobler and dearer the victim 
 the more pleased were the gods.' " (Brinton, R.P.P., p' 
 1S8). One is tempted to think that human sacrifice 
 must have been more primitive than animal sacrifice. 
 It would be a natural development for animals to be sub- 
 stituted in course of time for human beings. Cp the 
 article BLOOD. ^ 
 
 SADASHEO. Siva the everla.sting, one of the names 
 of the Hindu god Siva. 
 
 SADDUCEES. The Sadducees were so called after 
 Zadok, who was high-priest in the reign of Solomon (I. 
 Kings ii. .3.5: Ezekiel xl. 40). The name has been wrongly 
 connected with a Hebrew word meaning " just." The 
 Sadducees were the Jewish aristocracy^ '" They were 
 partly the courtiers, the .soldiers, the "diplomatists, and 
 other superior officials who had risen into prominence in 
 the Maccabaean war, and partly the old high-priestly 
 families who had fallen into the background in the early 
 stages of the revolt, but who came once more to the 
 front under Simon Maccabaeus " (W. D. Morrison) 
 They were the successors of the Hellenists. They were 
 more a political party than a religious sect; but in so far 
 as they were the latter, some of their views were remark- 
 able. We are told in the New Testament (Acts xxiii 
 8) : " the Sadducees say that there is no resurrection 
 neither angel nor spirit: but the Pharisees confess both " 
 Josephus says (AnUquities i. 4) their doctrine was that 
 souls perish with the body. They differed widely from 
 
 the Pliarisees. And not only in these matters, but also 
 in their estimation and interpretation of Holy Scripture 
 The Pharisees attached great Importance to oral 
 traaition. The Sadducees would acknowledge only the 
 Jr^iof v5 , ^i"en law, which they interpreted "with 
 grmt litenalness. In the time of Jesus the party of the 
 Sadducees was no longer the great patriotic party that 
 it had been under the Hasmonaeans. For the most part 
 they cherished and discussed their ideas of enlightening 
 the people privately. They proclaimed them iS public 
 only on very rare occasions, especially when thev seemed 
 to have an opportunity of refuting the views "of their 
 opponents, the Pharisees. It is natural that they should 
 r>*I® «;ossed swords with Jesus. As Neumann says, 
 the Phari.sees and Sadducees were at one in their 
 ? l^ S^- ^f^'^ ^^''ssiah who smote them with the sword 
 ot the Spirit and the scourge of His words." The idea 
 that the Messiah would suddenly appear in the heavens 
 surrounded by angels, and would awaken the dead to 
 i"'?.".™*^'^*' ^^^^ ^^'^^ ^^^ particularly obnoxious to the 
 Sadducees. The party disappeared soon after the 
 destruction of Jerusalem. See W. D. Morrison The 
 Jews umler Roman Rule, 1890; Oscar Holtznann' The 
 fn'/f °^ '^''*"*' ^^''^' J- H. Blunt; Amo Neumann, Jesus, 
 
 190t>. 
 
 Sadhus. The word means literally "holy men" 
 and corresponds to " clergy." The disciples of the Hindu 
 religious reformer, Svami Narayana, who was bom near 
 Lucknow aibout 1780, are divided into two classes— 
 Sadhus, " holy men," and Grihasthas, " householders " 
 The latter term corresponds to " laity." Svami Nara- 
 yana was an assumed name. His real name was 
 Sahajananda. A Vaishnava, Saha.i;"inanda became dis- 
 psted with the debased practices of the Vallabhas 
 
 v-'Vv. '^^"'^ ^^^^ ''^ ^^^^ l^is home to study under a 
 chief Guru, Rfimananda-Svami. In 1804 the Guru went 
 to Ahmedabad, and Sahajananda followed him. The 
 latter in course of time collected about him a large band 
 of disciples of his own. His popularitv provoked such 
 jealousy that he was obliged to escaiie from Ahmedabad 
 to a place called Jetalpur. Here he was arrested and 
 imprisoned, but was soon released. The place became 
 the focus of a great religious gathering, and thousands 
 ot persons enrolled themselves as his followers His 
 influence has been attriiuted to a mesmeric ' power 
 Monier-Williams, however, tiinks it probable that he 
 
 owed his success to a remarkable fascination of manner 
 combined with consistency of moral cliaracter, and other 
 qualities which singled him out for a leader " His 
 doctrines are a protest against the Vallabhas His 
 crusade against them was principally carried on from 
 Wartal as a centre, a village to which he retired for 
 seclusion and in which he erected a temple to the Supreme 
 Being, Narayana (Krishna, Vishnu). His sect is 
 said to number now not less than a quarter of a million 
 per^ns. The clergy devote themselves completely to 
 the Supreme Being, suppressing their passions and seek- 
 ing to purify the life of all. Some of the precepts of 
 Svami-Narayana, as given by Monier-Williams, are as 
 follows : " Abstaining from injury is the highest of all 
 duties. Holy men should patiently bear abusive 
 language, or even beating, from evil-minded persons, and 
 wish good to them. Every day all my followers should 
 go to the Temple of Gkxl, and there repeat the names 
 of Krishna. The story of his life should be listened 
 to with the greate.st reverence, and hvmns in his praise 
 should be .sung on festive days. All males and females 
 who go to Krishna's temple should keep separate and 
 not touch each other. On no account let it be supposed 
 that difference in forms (or names) makes any difference 
 in the identity of the deity. Those males and females 
 
 21
 
 Sadites 
 
 312 
 
 Samaritans, The 
 
 of my followers who will act according to tbeae directions 
 shall certainly obtain the four great objects of all human 
 desires— religious merit, wealth, pleasure, and beati- 
 tude." See Monier- Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 SADITES. An order of Dervishes. " All claim 
 powers of healing, and there are divisions with different 
 rights; one may eat glass but not serpents, another ser- 
 pents but no glass. Some sects or brotherhoods are anti- 
 nomian, that is, consider all acts (even the vilest) as in- 
 different when done in a state of coma or ecstasy; the 
 soul is then supposed to be in heaven and both uncon- 
 scious of bodily deeds and not responsible for them " (F. 
 W. Bussell). 
 
 SAGA. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 The goddess Saga, who is associated with water, belongs 
 to the retinue of Frija ((/.f .) and Freyja ((j.v.). 
 
 SAKHaRAM. The friend of Rama (King of Ayodhia, 
 a great incarnation of Vishnu), one of the names of the 
 Hindu god Rama. 
 
 SAKTISM. Saktism is a form or kind of worship 
 among the Hindus. It is connected closely with Saivism 
 or the worship of Siva (g.v.). In fact it is the worship 
 of the female side of Siva, the female energy. Monier- 
 Williams points out that the duality of the divine nature 
 (male and female) is first enunciated clearly in the 
 Brahmanas and Upanishads. According to Manu, the 
 Self-existent divided his own substance and became half 
 male half female. Siva came to be depicted sometimes 
 as a male on his right side and a female on his left side. 
 But it is the latest of the sacred writings, the Tantras, 
 that make the female energy, personified as a goddess, a 
 special object of worship. In course of time a large 
 section of the Hindus devoted themselves exclusively to 
 the worship of the female side of Siva and Vishnu, to 
 the worship of Durga or Kali, wife of Siva, of Radha, 
 wife of Krishna, of Situ, wife of Rama, of Ambfi or 
 Devi, the Mother-goddess, and of Sakti, the great Power 
 of Nature. Sakti, however, came to be regarded by the 
 worshippers of the female energy as the embodiment of 
 all the powers and virtues of all the other deities, male 
 and female. As might be expected, Saktism developed 
 into gross sensuality. " In Saktism we are confronted 
 with tie worst results of the worst superstitious ideas 
 that have ever disgraced and degraded the human race. 
 It is by offering to women the so-called homage of sensual 
 love and camaJ passion, and by yielding free course to 
 all the grosser appetites, wholly regardless of social rules 
 and restrictions, that the worshippers of the female 
 power (Sakti) in Nature seek to gratify the goddess 
 representing that power, and through her aid to acquire 
 supernatural faculties, and even ultimately to obtain 
 union with the Supreme Being. Incredible as it may 
 appear, these so-called worshippers actually affect to 
 pride themselves on their debasing doctrines, while they 
 maintain that their creed is the grandest of all religions, 
 because to indulge the grosser appetites and passions, 
 with the mind fixed on union with the Supreme Being, 
 is believed to be the highest of all pious achievements " 
 (Monier-Williams). See Monier-Williams; E. W. Hop- 
 kins; J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 SaLAGRaMA. Salagrama is one of the objects wor- 
 shipped by the Hindus. It is a black pebble; and " what 
 the Linga is to Sivaite the Siilagriima is to the Vish- 
 nuite " (Hopkins). Sacrifices are offered to it daily, for 
 it is regarded as a metamorphosis of Vishnu (Q.v.) or 
 Krishna ((].t\). Thus the Salagrama stone is a god. 
 On the other hand the sacred Tula si-plant (see TULASI) 
 is a goddess, and in some parts of India the TulasX is 
 married annually to the Salagrama. To indicate this 
 union a Tulasi leaf is always kept on the Salagr.Tma 
 etone. Salagrama stones are handed down from father 
 
 to son as precious heirlooms. Even the water in which 
 they have been washed is precious. " There is nothing 
 more efficacious for the remission of sins, no matter how 
 grievous they may be, than to ix)ssess some water in 
 which the salagrama has been washed. Forgiveness of 
 sins may even be obtained by simply touching the water 
 which has been thus sanctified " (Dubois and Beau- 
 champ). See Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins; J. A. 
 Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 SALAMANDER, THE. The salamander seems to be 
 used in Christian art to symbolise fire. It was an old 
 superstition that the creature lived in fire or at any rate 
 that it oould endure the flames of fire. According to 
 Gregory of Nazienzen it could extinguish fire also. It 
 Is depicted, as a lizard or serpent, on Church-fonts (e.g., 
 at Norton and Youlgrave, Derbyshire), and is supposed to 
 symbolise baptism with the " Holy Ghost and Fire." See 
 Sidney Heath and W. Carew Hazlitt. 
 
 SALM. A god mentioned in an Aramaic inscription 
 (c. the fourth century B.C.). 
 
 SALVATION ARMY, THE. William Booth (6. 1S29), 
 the founder of the Christian body known as the Salva- 
 tion Army, was originally a ministex of the Methodist 
 New Connexion. He left that Church in 1861 in order 
 to take up independent evangelistic work. The result 
 was his " Bast London Mission," which, with the exten- 
 sion of its activities, became the " Christian Mission." 
 The Mission then began to acquire halls, etc., for its 
 meetings, and steps were taken to give it a legal title 
 to its property. " In January, 1877, finding that the 
 semi-democratic conference committee system which he 
 had inaugurated did not run smoothly, and was not 
 likely .satisfactorily to accomplish the end in view, Mr. 
 Booth established a tsystem of government more closely 
 allied to the autocracy of Wesley; and, with the consent 
 of his fellow workers, constituted himself its head " (J. 
 A. Houlder). The new organisation was called The 
 Salvation Army. " With the name army came military 
 phraseology. Prayer was termed knee-drUl, the leader 
 a general; evangelists, offlcers; and candidates, cadets. 
 A semi-military attire was assumed, barracks were built 
 instead of separate residences, and when the army went 
 out to take a place by storm, it was with banners dis- 
 played and hands of music" (William Benham, Diet.). 
 The Salvationists wage war against the devil, and seek 
 to convert and to " save " those who are in danger of 
 being lost souls. By means of their brass bands, etc., 
 they aim at reaching a class of the community which is 
 unmoved by other religious appeals. In 1880 the Army 
 began to extend its operations beyond the British Isles, 
 and to enter upon a world-wide crusade. 
 
 SAMARITANS. THE. An account of the origin of 
 the Samaritans is found in the Old Testament in II. 
 Kings XV. When the Israelites were deported from the 
 province of Samaria, Sargon, king of Assyria, 'brought 
 colonists from Babylonia and elsewhere to take their 
 place. These colonists seem to have come from Babylon, 
 Kutu, and Sippar; as well as from Hamath in northern 
 Syria. The Hebrew population which remained in 
 Samaria mingled with the foreign colonists with the 
 result that a new Semitic group was evolved. In B.C. 
 .'i.SS the Davidic prince Zerubbabel and the priest Jo.^^hua, 
 with the permission of Cyrus, proceeded to Judali in 
 order to rebuild Jerusalem and the Temple. They found 
 the Samaritans firmly established and possessing some 
 measure of power in the North. After the Jews had 
 begun to rebuild the Temple, the Samaritans desired to 
 help them; and when their aid was declined, they became 
 hostile and thwarted the Jews for some years (Ezra iv. 
 4, ij). Finally, the Samaritans, claiming to be the true 
 successors of ancient Israel, built a temple of their own
 
 Samaritan Pentateuch, The 
 
 313 
 
 Samuel, Books of 
 
 on Mount Gerizim and adopted the Law as tbeir sacred 
 book (see SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH). The Samari- 
 tans have survived down to the present time. " A little 
 group of them, less than a hundred, still live together 
 at Nablus, the ancient Shechem, under the shadow of 
 their sacred mountain Gerizim, and worship Jehovah as 
 did their ancestors at the same hol.v site. Of all the 
 many petty peoples which lived in Palestine in ancient 
 times, tiey alone remain " (C. F. Kent). Not long ago 
 little was known about them. But since the visits of 
 Edward Robinson (1838 and 1852) to Sheehem our in- 
 formation has accumulated year by year. A number of 
 Samaritan manuscripts have been brought to Euroiie. 
 " Beside many texts of the Hebrew Pentateuch and its 
 Targum, we have extensive theological treatises and 
 Midrashim, commentaries which show some exegetical 
 skill, chronicles whose defect is their chronology, gram- 
 matical and scientific works, and, most imiK>rtant of all 
 for studying the spirit of the Samaritan religion, tomes 
 of their liturgy " (J. A. Montgomery). An anthroix)- 
 logical study of the Samaritans has revealed the fact that 
 they have become Hebrews of the Hebrews. Dr. Mont- 
 gomerj- thinks that the study of their religion and 
 manners shows further that they are really nothing less 
 than a Jewish sect. Their religion " is a monotheism 
 identical with that of Judaism, whose very terms they 
 use throughout, while it bitterly opix>ses any attempt to 
 associate with God other deities, as in polythei.sm. or to 
 find in him any distinctions, as in Christianity. It is a 
 spiritual religion, which not only rejects any representa- 
 tion of Deity, but even eschews, after the letter of the 
 Second Commandment, all pictorial designs. It is more- 
 over an ethical religion which has flowered in just such 
 virtues and which is circumscribed by just such limita- 
 tions as mark what is known as orthodox Judaism." 
 The head of the Samaritan church is the high-priest. 
 The priests, who are also the doctors of the Law, obsen-e 
 the Naziirite rule, allowing no razor to touch their head. 
 The laymen wear white robes in the services. They do 
 not use the Tephillin, because the law is to be observed 
 spiritually. When the priest reads the Law he wears a 
 talith without fringes. The only sacrifice celebrated by 
 the Samaritans is the Passover. Montgomery describes 
 the solemnity as " a veritable Haj, or pilgrim-feast." As 
 regards the treatment of the dead, he points out that 
 '■ it is not forbidden to the Samaritans, as has been fre- 
 quently stated, to handle their dead, except in the case 
 of the high-priest." It is the custom to bum caudles 
 before burial at the head and foot of the corpse. The 
 dead are placed in coffins, which is an excvptional practice 
 in modern Palestine. "The mourning ceremonies last 
 until the following Sabbath, the community going each 
 day to the tomb, where they read and pray. On the 
 Sabbath the community again visit the tomb, where 
 they partake of a meal, while further approprite services 
 are held in the .'sj'nagogue. The Samaritans appear to-day 
 to make a point of forgetting their dead, and have no 
 subsequent commemorations, except their visits to the 
 tombs of the Patriarchs. However, the liturgy contains 
 requiem hymns." See Encycl. Bihl.: C. F. Kent. The 
 Kings and Prophets of Israel and Jtidah, 19()9; J. A. 
 Montgomery, The 'Samaritans, 1907. 
 
 SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH, THE The Samaritan 
 Pentateuch is to be carefully distinguished from the 
 Samaritan Targum. The Samaritan Targum is a ver- 
 sion: the Samaritan Pentateuch is simply the Hebrew 
 text of the " five books of Moses " written and preserved 
 iu the Samaritan character. When the Jews after their 
 return from exile proceeded to rebuild the temple, the 
 Samaritans offered to help them. This help was declined. 
 The Samaritans thereupon left or were driven away and 
 
 formed a .separate community in Samaria. About the 
 .year 333 B.C. Darius Codomannus gave a certain 
 Manasseh, gra-nd.son of the high-priest Eliashib (Nehe- 
 miah xiii. 23-31: Josephus, Antiquities xi. 7, viii.), permis- 
 sion to erect a temple on Mount Gerizim. He seems to 
 have taken with him a copy of the Book of the Law in 
 Hebrew. This became the only Sacred Scripture of the 
 Samaritans. A few changes were made in order to 
 magnify the importance of Mount Gerizim and to adapt 
 the book to the new worship. " The value and authority 
 of the Samaritan text of the Pentateuch has been 
 variously estimated. By De Rossi it was regarded as 
 an independent witness to the original, and therefore of 
 equal weight with the Hebrew: others have estimated it 
 even higher. These views are now generally abandoned, 
 and it is conceded that for critical purposes no great 
 value can be attached to the Samaritan form of the text " 
 (A. S. Geden). See Encycl. Bibl., s.v. "Text and Ver- 
 sions ": A. S. Geden, Intr. to the Heh. BiMv, 1909. 
 
 SAMARITAN TARGT'M, THE. A Targum (see 
 TARGUM) or version of the Pentateuch based on the 
 Samaritan Pentateucli (g.r.). It is in the Samaritan 
 dialect. There seems to have been a Greek translation 
 of this version, since the Fathers of the third and fourth 
 centuries speak of a ^amarcitikon. 
 
 SaMA VEDA. The Sama Veda is one of the three 
 principal Vedas (see VEDISM) or collections of hymns 
 held sacred by the Hindus. The Sama Veda is a liturgical 
 collection of hymns for special (Soma) .sacrificial cere- 
 monies. 
 
 SAMPSAEANS. An early Christian sect, worshippers 
 of the sun. They are called by Epiphanius (Eaer. liii. 2) 
 heliakoi. 
 
 SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. The two books of Samuel 
 originally formed one book. The original work was 
 divided by the authors of the Septuagint into the First 
 and Second Book of Kingdoms. Afterwards Jerome 
 gave the books the title, The First and Second Book of 
 Kings. Samuel gave his name to the work in the Hebrew 
 Canon, not because he was its author, but because he 
 plays a large and prominent part in the narrative. The 
 history covered extends from the birth of the prophet 
 Samuel to the close of the life of King David. The 
 contents of the books have been divided as follows : (1) 
 Eli and Samuel (I. Sam. i.-vii.): (2) Samuel and Saul 
 (I. Sam. viii.-xiv.); (3) Saul and David (I. Sam. xv.- 
 xxxi.): (4) David (II. Sam. i.-xx.); (5) Appendix of mis- 
 cellaneous matter (II. Sam. xxi.-xxiv.). These narratives 
 are composite, having clearly been compiled from a 
 number of .sources. There are different and divergent 
 accounts of the same events : for instance, in the origin 
 of the monarchy and tie appointment of Saul as king; 
 and of the introduction of David to Saul (cp. I. Sam. 
 ix. 1-x. l(i with X. 17-27, and I. Sam. xvi. 14-23 with I. 
 Sam. xvii. l-sriii. 5). There are marked differences in 
 the .style of different sections. The compilers of the 
 Books of Samuel would in fact .seem to have drawn upon 
 several different e.veles of stories. C. F. Kent dis- 
 tinguishes early Judean Saul narratives, early Judean 
 David narratives, later Ephraimite Samuel narratives, 
 very late Popular Prophetic Traditions, and Popular 
 Judean David stories. The early Jtidean Saul narra- 
 tives, which present sympathetically and appreciatively 
 the character and work of Israel's flrs* king, include 
 chaps, ix. 1-x. 1(5, xi. 1-11, 15 6, xiii. 1-xiv. 4(). The early 
 Judean David narratives comprise : I. Sam. xvi. 14-xvii. 
 11. 32-40, 42-49, .51-.54, xviii. (!-S, 12-16, 20-29a, xix. 1-17, 
 XX. 1-.39, xxl. 1-9, xxii. 1-xxiii. 14a, xxv. 2-xxviii. 2, 
 xxix.-xxxi.: II. Sam. i. 1-4, 11, 12, 17-iii. 1, 7-v. 13, 17-24, 
 vi., viii. 7-10, ix. 1-xxi. 14, xxiii. 8-.39, xxiv. Kent thinks 
 that " viewed either as literature or as historical sources.
 
 Samyuttanikaya 
 
 314 
 
 Sannyasi 
 
 tlie early Judean David narratives are unsurpassed by 
 any others in the Old Testament. The pictures which 
 they give of the actors and events in this epoch-making 
 i>eriod in Israel's history are not only interesting and 
 full of life and local colour, but they may be accepted 
 as substantially true, even in detail, to the historical 
 facts. They and tie relatetl Saul stories probably repre- 
 sent the first extensive Hebrew writings." Kent assigns 
 the early Judean Saul and David stories to the reign of 
 Jehoshaphat (87G-851 B.C.). No use is made in the 
 Books of Samuel of the Early Bphraimite prophetic 
 narratives. But later Bphraimite Samuel narratives, 
 in which the interest is religious and the purpose didactic, 
 are found in I. Sam. i. 1-v. 1, vii. 2b-\m. 22, x. 17-25, 
 xii. and xv. These, according to Kent, were committed 
 to writing .some time after the days of the prophet Hosea 
 and before the reformation of King Josiah ((121 B.C.). 
 Examples of very late Prophetic Traditions, which are 
 rather of the nature of Jewish mid rash im (see MID- 
 RASH), are found in I. Sam. xv. 35 &-xvi. 13, xix. 18-xx. 
 la. Finally, Popular Judean David Stories are found 
 in I. Sam. svii. 12-31, 41, 50, 55-58, xviii. 1-5, 10, 11, 17- 
 19, 29!), 30, xxi. 10-15, xxiii. IC-xxiv. 22, II. Sam. 1. 5- 
 10. According to Kent, most of these were committed 
 to writing " before the late prophetic editor compiled 
 his history of the period— that is before the first capture 
 of Jerusalem in 597 B.C." H. P. Smith and W. R. 
 Harper distinguish in like manner between an early and 
 a later history of the times of Saul and David. To 
 these additions were made by a first and a second 
 Deuteronomist redactor. To the first are due I. Sam. 
 X. 25 6-27, xi. 12-14; to the second 1. Sam. ii. 1-11, xiii. 1, 
 XX. 1-xxi. 1; II. Sam. xxi 15-21, xxii. 1-23, xxix. Accord- 
 ing to Harper, the contemix>rary literary sources may 
 include : the Song of Hannah (I. Sam. 11. 1-10; according 
 to Whitehouse and others, on the other hand, a post- 
 exilic production); David's Elegy on Saul and Jonathan 
 (II. Sam. i. 19-27); David's Lament over Abner (II. Sam. 
 iii. 33, .34) : Nathan's parable of the ewe lamb (II. Sam. 
 xii. 1-15); the " last words of David " in a more original 
 form; Psalm xviii. (II. Sam. xxii.). The prophet Samuel, 
 who has given his name to these books, was probably 
 the founder of certain prophetic schools. " In his days, 
 it appears that the prophets had united together to make 
 a common cause against the Canaanitish influences. 
 Bands of ecstatic men— looking like madmen — went 
 through the land preaching a holy war, and sweeping 
 away everything that hindered their progress. . . . 
 Samuel gathered them together and took them into his 
 service, and so began to refine their innate passionate 
 and unruly natures and to guide their energies to new 
 paths" (R. Kittel, The Scientific Stndy of the O.T., 
 1910). See Encycl. BiU.; H. P. Smith, The Hooks of 
 Samuel in the I. CO., 1899; A. R. S. Kennedy. I. and II. 
 Samuel in the "Century Bible"; W. R. Harper. The 
 Prophetic Element in the Old Testament, 1905; C. F. 
 Kent, Israel's Historicul and Biographical Narratives, 
 1905; G. H. Box. Intr.; O. C. Whitehouse. 
 
 SAMYUTTANIKAYA. One of the Buddhist sacred 
 books in the second division of the Canon. See CANON, 
 BUDDHIST. 
 
 SANCTUARY. Persons accused of a crime formerly 
 enjoyed the right of seeking " sanctuary " in certain 
 churches. At fir.«t only the altar and inner buildings 
 could be used for the purpose, but since refugees were 
 not allowed to eat or sleep in a church, the boundaries 
 of a-sylum were enlarged. Sometimes they extended to 
 a miie on every side of the building. The boundary- 
 lines were marked by four crosses known as Sanctuary 
 Crosses. Durham Cathedral has preserved a famous 
 Sanctuary Knocker (of the 14th century). It has the 
 
 form of a dragon's head with a ring in the mouth. See 
 Sidney Heath. 
 
 SANDAN. Sandan or Sandes was a Hittite deity. On 
 the Hittite sculpture of Ivriz he is associated with corn 
 and grapes. He has a beard, and wears the Hittite 
 dress and hat. According to Garstang, he is the original 
 of the bearded and robed Apollo of Lucian (§ 35). 
 
 SANDEMANIANS. The followers of Robert Sande- 
 man (1718-1771), who adopted and developed the views of 
 John Glas (see GLASSITES). In 17r,0 Sandeman formed 
 a congregation in London ; but in 1704 he went to America 
 and in the following year founded a congregation at 
 Portsmouth in New Hampshire. In 18.51 there were six 
 churches in England and six in Scotland. Michael 
 Faraday was one of the elders of the congregation in 
 London. Sandeman taught that faith is "a bare belief 
 of the bare truth"; it does not difl'er from belief in 
 ordinary human evidence. The Sandemanians had a 
 number of peculiar observances. " They obsen'e various 
 primitive practices with great strictness : e.j/., weekly 
 administration of the Lord's Supper, with a weekly offer- 
 tory; love-feasts, i.e., the dining together between morn- 
 ing and afternoon .services; the kiss of charity at the 
 admission of a new member, and at other times; washing 
 each other's feet as an occasional work of mercy; 
 abstinenc-e from things strangled and from blood; com- 
 munity of goods, in so far as that they consider the 
 whole of their property liable for calls on behalf of the 
 Church and the i)Oor, and condemn the .storing up of 
 money for future and uncertain use " (Blunt). Believing 
 that the lot is sacred, they disapprove of all games of 
 chance. They refuse to hold communion with other 
 denominations. See J. H. Blunt; and the D.N.B. 
 
 SANDRAUDIGA. The name of a goddess worshipped 
 by some of the Ancient Teutons. A stone discovered at 
 Breda in the Netherlands was consecrated to her by the 
 "priests of the temple" (cultores templi). 
 
 SANHEDRIN. The name of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are incori>orated in the Mishnah {q.v.), a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedurim). Sanhedrin is the fourth tractate of the 
 fourth group, which is called A>:fA?H (" Damages "). 
 
 SANJOGIS. The Sanjogis of Southern India are 
 described as an Oriya class of religious mendicants, who 
 wear the .sacred thread, and acts as priests for Panos 
 and other lowly people. " The name indicates con- 
 nection, and that they are the connecting linli between 
 ordinary people and those who have given up earthly 
 pleasures (Sanya.«is). The Sanjogis follow the ordinary 
 as well as the ascetic life " (E. Thurston). 
 
 SaNKHYAS. The Sankhyas are adherents of the 
 Hindu dualistic philosophy known as the Sankhya 
 system. Oolebrooke describes the system as " partly 
 heterodox, and partly conformable to the established 
 Hindu creed." Two schools, having much in common, 
 are distinguished as the Sankhya and the Yoga. The 
 S.inkhya system was founded by Kapila. It teaches 
 •• that the .soul is simply a part of Gk>d, and tiat the 
 wisdom acquired by yoga, or contemplation, ends in 
 either actual or spiritual unity with God " (Dubois and 
 Beauchamp). See E. W. Hopkins; J. A. Dubois and H. 
 K. Beauchamp. 
 
 SANNYASI. Literally " one who renounces," a 
 Brahman ascetic. The state of a Sannyasi is the fourth 
 stage in the life of a good Brahman. At this stage all 
 worldly ties are renounced. The ancient lawgiver Manu 
 " ordained that the discharge of household duties Is in-
 
 Sanron Sect 
 
 compatible with the attaiuuient of greater nearness to 
 the Supreme Being, and that therefore every twice-born 
 man as he advances in life is bound to give up all familv 
 ties " (Monier-Williams). The Sannyasi does not reallV 
 die. He passes from this world in a liind of trance Con- 
 sequently his body must not be burned but buried See 
 Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopliins; J. A. Dubois and H 
 K. Beauchamp. 
 
 SANEON SECT. A Chinese and Japanese Buddhist 
 ?^n'c,o /t.^?"'"'*^'^^ '° *^^^"a during the Sui dynasty 
 (D^y-bit) A.U.), and was introduced into Japan in (;24 A D 
 Its teaching was metaphysical. The sect was called also 
 T?^,/'''""'^'""'''"''*''"'' ^^ "Sect of the Teachings of 
 Buddha s whole life," for " it made it a feature of its 
 teachings that it professed to accept every one of the 
 many thousand volumes of the Mahayfina Canon as of 
 equal authority, without assigning to anv single one a 
 pre-eminent place among its compeers " (A. Lloyd) It 
 aimed at the greatest comprehensiveness. But it was 
 not a success in Japan, and no longer exists as a separate 
 organization. See Arthur Lloyd. 
 
 .. f^O^^^^^'T- A term in Zoroastrianism meaning 
 deliverer or strictly '• he that shall deliver " 
 According to the Oatlias, certain persons will arise as 
 the future deliverers of the provinces." The deliver- 
 ance will take place at the Great Consummation, which 
 /arathustra exix^eted to come soon. 
 
 SARASVATI A deity in Hinduism. SarasvatT is a 
 goddess, the wife of Brahma (q.v.). In the Rig Veda 
 however, she is a river-goddess, and is not connected 
 with Brahma. She became the goddess of language and 
 I'terature. In Bengal a festival is held in her honour 
 in the Spring, when pens, inkstands, pai>er etc are 
 worshipped a.s repre*;enting the goddess (cp. LAKSHMI) 
 Sarasvati is almost the only fair goddess. She is re- 
 presented not as a horror, but as a beautiful woman 
 sitting on a lotus, graceful in shape, a crescent on her 
 brow (Hopkins). See Monier-Williams: B. W 
 Hopkins. 
 
 SAEPANITUM. A Babylonian deitv. The goddess 
 Sarpanitum appears after the time of Hanimurapi as the 
 consort of JIarduk (q.v.). She was popularly regarded 
 as the offspring-producing " goddess, and seems to have 
 been worshipped as one who possessed secret knowledge 
 and protected the foetus. Sarpanitum was amalgamated 
 with a water goddess Eurua, who also appears as 
 the consort of Marduk. Her place of worship in E-Sagila 
 was called " the gate of widespread splendour " Her 
 festival was on the 2.5th day of the third month, Siwan 
 See Moms Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 SARUM, USE OF. The term Use was applied to 
 different modes of celebrating the Ma.ss or Holy Com- 
 munion One of the most important of these was tlie 
 L^**L^o inn^^ or Sarum. Osmund, Bishop of Salis- 
 bury (1078-1107 A.D.), seems to have begun in his Cathe- 
 
 ,} f J«vision of the Service Books, which was com- 
 pleted by Bishop Poore (1215-1242 A.D.). The Use of 
 barum then became a model in many parts of England 
 especially in the South. " The Sarum Liturgy, like the 
 other ancient Liturgies, had two main divisions com- 
 monly called the ' Ordinary ' and the ' Canon ' of the 
 Mass. The Ordinary ' contained the variable parts of 
 the Service; the ' Canon ' or Rule, corresponding to what 
 in Eastern Liturgies is called the Anaphora or offering 
 contained the fixed portion, which never varied " (W R 
 W. Stephens, Book of Common Prayer) 
 
 SARVASTIVADINS. One of the early Buddhist sects 
 or the School of the Hinayana (.q.v.). The Sarvasti- 
 yadins believed in the real existence of the universe and 
 the soul, and in the reality of life after death 
 
 SASKYAPA SECT. A sect in Lamaism. which 
 
 315 
 
 Saturnalia 
 
 attaches special importance to magic. It treasures a 
 number of forms of incantation which have been handed 
 down to It from its special patron the Bodhisattva 
 ManjusrI. The hoods and upper garments of these 
 monks are red. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 SASTHAN. The chief deity of the Kanikars, a lungle 
 tribe inhabiting the mountains of South Travanci)re in 
 Southern India. 
 
 T ^';^'^'^^^- ^ '^^^^^ ^^ temple servants in Southern 
 India. They are described by H. A. Stuart as " a mixed 
 religious sect, recruited from time to time from other 
 castes, e.xcepting Paraiyans, leather-workers, and 
 Muhammadaus. All the Siltanis are Vaishnavites, but 
 principally revere Bashyakar (another name for R.ama- 
 nuja), whom they assert to have been an incarnation of 
 \ ishnu. The Satanis are almost entirely confined to the 
 large towns. Their legitimate occupations are perform- 
 ing menial services in Vi,shuu temples, begging tending 
 flower gardens, selling flower garlands, making fans 
 grinding sandalwood into powder, and selling perfumes 
 They are the priests of some Sudra ca.stes, and in this 
 character correspond to the Saivite Pandarams " (quoted 
 by E. Thurston). 
 
 SATNAMIS. The Satnamis, " worshippers of the 
 true name," are a modern Hindu sect. It seems to have 
 been founded by Jag-jivan-das, who flourished aboiit 
 A.D. 17o0. The doctrines are based on the theology of 
 the great reformer Kabir (see KABIR PANTHIS). The 
 Satnamis are Vaishnava Theists. Their name is taken 
 from the name which they give to God, Satnam. The 
 following are some of their principles and precepts, as 
 given by Monier-Williams : " God pervades the universe 
 He IS present in every single thing. The title Lord 
 (Sahib) .should be added to every object in which God is 
 present. God is the spring and source of everything 
 good and evil. Idols must not be worshipped. The 
 ordained religious teacher (Guru) is holv. Even the 
 water in which his feet are washed is holy, and should 
 be drunk by his disciples. Distinctions of caste are not 
 to be observed. Fa.sts need not be kept." See Monier- 
 Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 SATURN. An ancient Roman deity, a god of seed-time 
 and harvest. The name Saturniiius is derived from a 
 root meaning " to sow." In an inscription it occurs as 
 Saeturnus. The special festival of the god was called 
 Saturnalia (q.v.). In course of time Saturn came to be 
 identified with the Greek god Kronos. Kronos, defeated 
 in a war which Zeus waged against him, fled to Italy, 
 was received by Janus, and settled at the foot of the 
 Capitoline Hill. Thus, " Saturn, the old homely deity 
 of the Latin husbandmen, was transformed into a" divine 
 king, who ruled the happy aborigines of the Italian 
 peninsula with paternal mildness and beneficence, taught 
 them agriculture and the usages of a simple and innocent 
 civilisation " (Chamhcrs' Encycl.). See O Sevffert 
 Diet.; J. G. Frazer, G.B., Pt. I., vol. ii., 1011 
 
 SATURNALIA. A festival held on December 17 in 
 honour of the Roman god Saturn (q.v.). Sacrifices were 
 offered and a banquet was held in the open air. " The 
 festival was also celebrated in private society; .schools 
 had holidays, law-courts were closed, all work was 
 stopped, war was deferred, and no jiuni.shment of 
 criminals took place for seven days from December 17 
 to 23 " (O. Seyffert). It was a kind of Christmas. 
 People presented gifts to one another, especially wax 
 tapers and dolls, and gave themselves up to every kind 
 of amusement and entertainment. An ancient account 
 of the Saturnalia was discovered and published some 
 years ago by Franz Cumont of Ghent. " From that 
 account we learn that down to the beginning of the fourth 
 century of our era, that is, down nearly to the establish-
 
 Saturninians 
 
 316 
 
 Savoy Declaration, The 
 
 ment of Christianity by Constantine, the Roman soldiers 
 'Stationed on the Danube were wont to celebrate the 
 Saturnalia in a barbarous fashion which must certainly 
 have dated from a very remote antiquity. Thirty days 
 before the festival they chose by lot from among them- 
 selves a young and handsome man, who was dressed in 
 royal robes to resemble the god Saturn. In that 
 character he was allowed to indulge all his passions to 
 the fullest extent; but when his brief reign of thirty 
 days was over, and the festival of Saturn was come, he 
 had to cut his own throat on the altar of the god he 
 personated " (J. G. Frazer). In 303 A.D. a Christian 
 soldier, St. Dasius, was put to death for refu.«ing to play 
 the part of Satum at the Saturnalia. Saturn was the 
 god of seed, and the Saturnalia was the festival of sowing 
 celebrated in December, " when the autumn sowing was 
 over and the husbandman gave himself up to a season 
 of jollity after the long labours of summer and autumn " 
 (Frazer). J. G. Frazer thinks that formerly the part of 
 the god Saturn was played by the Roman king himself, 
 and that in the licence accorded to the human representa- 
 tives of Saturn may perhaps be detected a trace of the 
 Sacred Marriage. In some ways the festivals of the new 
 yams, celebrated by the Ashantees early in September, 
 resembles the Saturnalia. So also does the festival of 
 the new fruits celebrated by the Caffres of Natal and 
 Zululand at the end of Deeeml)er or the beginning of 
 January {Ct.B.. Pt. v. vol. ii., 1912). See O. Seyffert, 
 Diet., ioth ed. 1908; J. G. Frazer, G.B., Pt. i., vol. ii., 
 1911. 
 
 SATURNINIANS. The followers or school of the 
 Gnostic Saturninus or Saturnilus, who flourished about 
 the time of Trajan (98-117 A.D.). The Saturninians, or 
 most of them, abstained from animal food of every kind; 
 and they held marriage and the procreation of children 
 to be the work of Satan. According to Saturninus, there 
 is one Supreme, unknowable God, the Father, who 
 created the angels, archangels, iK>wers, etc. Seven of 
 these angels created the visible world. " They created 
 man after the likeness of a brilliant vision, which had 
 appeared to them for a fleeting moment from the 
 Supreme God; but at first their work was imperfect. 
 Primitive man crawled on the ground, unable to stand 
 erect. (Jod took compassion on him. becaii.se He recog- 
 nised his likeness to Himself : He sent, therefore, a spark 
 of life which completed his creation. After man's death. 
 this sqiark of life is set free, and returns to its primary 
 cause " (Duchesne). One of the angels is the God of 
 the Jews, a Demiurge. The Saviour came to destroy 
 the power of this Demiurge, and to save those men who 
 were capable of salvation. This Saviour emanated from 
 the Supreme God. He was not born, and had no human 
 body. He was a man only in appearance, not in reality. 
 See J. H. Blunt; Vath. Diet.; Douis Duchesne, Ui.'it. 
 
 SATYRS. The Satyrs of Greek mythology were spirits 
 or demons who lived in mountains and woods. They 
 are represented as having ears like those of a goat, 
 bristling hair, and short tails. Following in the train 
 of Dionysus, they made merry with pijie and flute. 
 " They were considered as foes to mankind, because they 
 played people all kinds of roguish pranks, and frightened 
 them by impish tricks " (Seyffert*. Dr. A. B. Gough 
 points out that at the earliest period to which we can 
 trace them. Satyrs, Seileni, Cyeloiies, and Centaurs were 
 very similar to one another, but in course of time they 
 were differentiated. In the Old Testament demons of a 
 similar kind seem to be referred to as Se'Inm, a term 
 which means literally " hairy ones." Since a word 
 Se'irim also means " he-goats," it has been assumed that 
 these Hebrew demons were goat-shaped, but tie assump- 
 tion is not necessary. The Se'irim were wild and semi- 
 
 human in appearance. In Isaiah xiii. 21 they are spoken 
 of as dancing amid the desolate ruins of Babylon. The 
 Se'irim have been connected by some scholars with an 
 Egyptian god corresponding to Pan (g.r.). It is possible, 
 however, that they may preserve a hint of early tradi- 
 tions concerning some tribe or tribes of real men, 
 " hairy beings " who were supix>sed to dwell (and play 
 pranks) in the desert, were regarded as formidable, and 
 looked upon as devils. Jane Harrison {Prolegomena, 
 2nd ed., 1908) thinks that the Satyrs of the Greeks were 
 to Homer and Pindar " the representatives of an actual 
 primitive population." They were in fact identical with 
 the Satrae, a wild Thraeian tribe. See Encycl. Bibl.; O. 
 Seyffert, Diet.; Alfred B. Gough, The Primitive Savage 
 in Early Art and Tradition, 1910. 
 
 SaUGATAS. The Saugatas are a division of the 
 Buddhists who believe that the essence of religion con- 
 sists in kindness. Compare SITTARS. 
 
 SAVADAMMAN. The goddess of the weaver caste in 
 Coimbatore, India, an avatar of Parvati, the wife of the 
 great Hindu god Siva. 
 
 SAVIOUR. The title Saviour was given in ancient 
 times to deities, and to eminent men, such as kings, 
 princes, and heroes. In the Old Testament it is used of 
 ordinary men (Neh. ix. 27) and of (Jod. In the Neiw 
 Testament the term is applied to God (Luke i. 47, etc.) 
 and to .Tesus Christ or the Messiah (Luke ii. 11; Acta 
 V. 31; II. Peter i. 11). J. M. Robertson points out (Pagan 
 Christs, 1911) that the title was given by the Greeks to 
 Zeus, Helios, Artemis, Diony.sos, Herakles, the Dioscuri, 
 Cybele, and ^sculapius. But there is nothing remark- 
 able in this. The word is an ordinary one. The 
 important question is : Was it used of Jesus in an 
 ordinary sense? The fact is that it was not. It was 
 always used in a moral sense. It was popularly under- 
 stood to mean that Jesus, by converting men from sin, 
 would save them from the future punishment which 
 would otherwise befall them. In Jesus' own under- 
 standing of the term, it evidently had a more spiritual 
 meaning. This is clear from the famous utterance : 
 " For whosoever would save his life shall lose it; and 
 whosoever shall lose his life for my sake and the gospel's 
 shall save it" (Mark viii. 35; Luke ix. 24; Matthew 
 xvi. 25). To save a man is to bring him to realize fully 
 in this present life that to live in a material way and 
 sense is not really to live at all. The material sense of 
 life must X» lost that the spiritual and real sense of life 
 may be gained; and when this is gained eternal life is 
 already present. This is the sense in which Jesus was 
 the Saviour : he saved men from a false sense of life, 
 and so from death. Cp. Thayer-Grimm, Oreek-English 
 Le.Tieoti to the N.T., 18%. 
 
 SAVITAR. A Vedic deity, the " vivifler," who in the 
 morning awakens the universe and men from sleep. 
 Savitar is a form under which Surya, the Sun, is invoked. 
 The daily formula of supplication addressed to Savitar 
 <^the Snvitri) runs : " On the surpassing splendour of that 
 divine Vivifler let us meditate; and may he enlighten our 
 minds." 
 
 SAVOY DECLARATION, THE. The " Savoy Declara- 
 tion " was the result of the Conference held at the 
 Savoy Palace in Ix>ndon. Though arranged by Crom- 
 well, the Conference did not meet until some weeks after 
 his death. Its task was to draw up a new Confession of 
 Faith which should satisfy the Independents, and there 
 were representatives of one hundred and twenty Congre- 
 gational Churches. The new Confession (1658 A.D.) 
 consists of a " Preface " which urges " toleration in 
 matters non-essential among Churches that held the 
 necessary foundations of faith and holiness " (W. A. 
 Curtis); a " Declaration of Faith " which comprises " the
 
 SavBS 
 
 317 
 
 Seekers 
 
 doctrinal matter of the Westminster Confession slightly 
 modified": and what is called the "Institution of 
 Churches," a System of Polity providing for the organiza- 
 tion and constitution of Congregationalism. See 
 William A. Curtis. 
 
 SAVUS. One of the gods worshipped by the ancient 
 CeJts. He was paired with the goddess Adsalluta. 
 
 SAXNOT. Another form of Seaxneat (Q.v.), the name 
 of an Anglo-Saxon deity. 
 
 SATBROOK PLATFORM, THE. In the declaration 
 known as the " Saybrook Platform" (170S A.D.), the 
 Connecticut Churches of America adopted the Boston 
 Declaration of KiSO A.D. (which accepted the Savoy 
 Confession and the Cambridge Platform) together with 
 tJie Nine Heads of Agreement (q.v.) which the Congre- 
 gationalists and Presbyterians of London agreed upon in 
 1691 A.D. In 1801 A.D. the Connecticut Churches 
 further adopted a " Plan of Union." See William A. 
 Curti«. 
 
 SAYINGS OF THE FATHERS. The English title of 
 a collection of .sayings and maxims of .some of the Jewish 
 Doctors. The Hebrew title of the work Is Pirgg AhOth 
 (g.i'li. 
 
 SCHWENKFELDIANS. The followers of Caspar von 
 Scbwenkfeld (1490-1561), who was a nobleman of Silesia 
 and a Councillor to the Duke of Liegnitz at the time of 
 the Reformation. He was at first in sympathy with the 
 ideas of the Reformation, but afterwards sought to 
 develop a Protestant theology of his own along the lines 
 of mysticism and religious enthusiasm (cp. his work 
 " Bekanndtnus uud Rechenschaft von den Hauptpunkten 
 des christl. Glaubens," 1547). As early as 1527 he 
 explained a new doctrine of the Holy Eucharist which he 
 professed to have received by special revelation. " This 
 was that our Lord's words of Institution are to be under- 
 stood as if He had said ' My Body is this '—a spiritual 
 food, which nourishes the soul as bread does the body, 
 ' My Blood is this ' — a spiritual drink, which nourishes 
 the soul as wine does the body. His theory went on 
 to maintain that the Sacraments are not means, but only 
 signs of grace, and that the benefit which they signify 
 comes, not in, through, or with them, but directly from 
 God" (J. H. Blunt). Scbwenkfeld was banished from 
 Silesia in 1527, and settled at Strassburg. Luther opiK)sed 
 him bitterly and gave him the nickname " Stenckfeld." 
 In 1725 many of the Schwenkfeldians removed to Saxony. 
 A few years later they emigrated to Pennsylvania and 
 formed congregations there. See J. H. Blunt; Brock- 
 haus. 
 
 SCIENCE. As employed by the autior of " Science 
 and Health," the term Science is used interchangeably 
 with the expressions Divine Science, Spiritual Science, 
 Christ Science, and Chri.stian Science (Q.v.). 
 
 SCIENCE AND HEALTH. The title of the work by 
 Mary Baker Eddy, which has become the textbook of 
 Christian Scientists (g.v.). Mrs. Eddy claims that the 
 book was entirely the result of a study of the Bible. 
 The real meaning of the Bible, however, dawned upon 
 her as a revelation. "The Scriptures were illumined; 
 reason and revelation were reconciled, and afterwards 
 the truth of Christian Science was demonstrated. No 
 human pen nor tongue taught me the Science contained 
 in this book. Science and Health; and neither tongue nor 
 pen can overthrow it. This book may be distorted by 
 shallow criticism or by careless or malicious students, 
 and its ideas may be temporarily abused and misrepre- 
 sented; but the Science and truth therein will forever 
 remain to be discerned and demonstrated " (Science and 
 Health, p. 110). The first edition of " Science and 
 Health " was published in 1875. A revised edition was 
 published in 1891. Many persons testify to having been 
 
 cured of various diseases simply by reading the book. 
 The work may be borrowed from any Christian Science 
 Reading Room. See Mary Baker Eddy, Science and 
 Health with Key to the Scriptures, 1911. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC STATEMENT OF BEING, THE. The 
 Scientific Statement of Being may be described as the 
 " Creed " of Christian Scientists (g.f.). It is as follows : 
 "There is no life, truth, inteUigence. nor substance in 
 matter. All is infinite Mind and its infinite manifesta- 
 tion, for God is All-in-all. Spirit is immortal Truth; 
 matter is mortal error. Spirit is the real and eternal; 
 matter is the unreal and temporal. Spirit is God, and 
 man is His image and likeness. Therefore man is not 
 material; he is spiritual." See Mary Baker Eddy, 
 Science and Health, 1911, p. 4C8. 
 
 SCILLITAN MARTYRS. The Scillitan Martyrs are 
 so descril)ed because they came from the town of Seillita 
 in Africa. They were twelve persons who were martvred 
 at Carthage about 180 A.D., when Praesens II. and Con- 
 dianus were consuls. The Acts of these martvrs have 
 been preserved in two forms. G. T. Stokes thinks that 
 " to the Biblical critic tiese Acts in both shapes are 
 interesting, as indicating the position held by St. Paul's 
 Epistles in 180 in the N. African Church. The pro- 
 consul asked the martyr Speratus what books they kept 
 laid up in their bookcases. He replied, Our books) or as 
 the Ijatin version puts it, the four Grospels of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, and in addition the Epistles of Paul the 
 holy man." See Wace and Piercv. 
 
 SCOTTISH UNITARIAN ASSOCIATION. This was 
 founded in 1813 by James Yates (1789-1871) in conjunction 
 with Thomas Southwood Smith (1788-18C1), the sanitary 
 reformer. See UNITARIANS. 
 
 SEAL OF PROPHECY. This name was given to a 
 large mole which the prophet Muhammad had on his 
 back. It was supposed to be the divine seal predicted 
 by the Scriptures. T. P. Hughes quotes Shaikh 'Abdu'l- 
 Haqq as saying: " it was a piece of flesh, very brjlliant 
 in appearance, and according to some traditions it had 
 secretly inscribed uithin it, ' God is one and has no 
 Associate.* " See T. P. Hughes. 
 
 SEAXNEAT. Seaxneat appears as one of tie deities 
 worshipped by the Anglo-Saxons. The god seems to be 
 identical with the Ancient Teutonic Tiu (q.v.). 
 
 SE-BAPTIST. The origin of this name is explained 
 in Daniel Neal's " His-tory of the Puritans " (ii. 49. 1732). 
 " Mr. Smith was a learned man and of good abilities, 
 but of an unsettled head, as appears by the preface to 
 one of his books, in which he desires that his last writings 
 may always be taken for his present judgment. He 
 was for refining upon the Brownists' scheme, and at last 
 declared for the principles of the Baptists; upon this he 
 left Amsterdam, and settled with his disciples at Ley, 
 where, being at a loss for a proper administrator of the 
 ordinance of baptism, he plunged himself, and then per- 
 formed the ceremony upon others, which gained him the 
 name of a Se-Baptist. He afterwards embraced the 
 tenets of Arminius, and published certain conclusions 
 upon these points in the year 1611, which Mr. Robinson 
 answered; but Smith died soon after, and his congrega- 
 tion dissolved." 
 
 SEBEK. An Egyptian deity, the crocodile-god, wor- 
 shipped at Ombos and in other towns of the Fayyiim. 
 Sebek, who is represented as a crocodile or as a man with 
 a crocodile head, developed into a deity that was 
 essentially evil. 
 
 SECESSION KIRK. A secession from the Church of 
 Scotland, which took place in 1733. See PRESBY- 
 TERIANS. 
 
 SEEKERS. Richard Baxter (1615-1691), writing in
 
 Seidhr 
 
 318 
 
 Senussi 
 
 1650, refers to a sect of Puritans with this name. He 
 mentions them in connection with the Familists (q.v.), to 
 whom they seem to have been related. The.v were 
 seekers for the true Church, Ministry, Scripture, and 
 Ordinances, believing them to have been lost. The 
 Scriptures as commonly accepted they regarded as un- 
 certain. Another of their tenets was that present miracles 
 are necessary to faith. See John Hunt; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 SEIDHR. " A Norse form of witchcraft or magic. It 
 was employed usually to bring harm, but ^sometimes also 
 to protect against harm or to divine the future. The 
 man who practised it was called Hcidhmadhr, the woman 
 Seidhkona. The magician .sat on a raised seat and sang 
 suitable songs. See P. D. Ohantepie de la Saussaye, 
 Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 SBKHMET. An Egyptian deity. The goddess Sekh- 
 met, "the mighty one," is represented with the. head of 
 a lioness. The head is crowned with the solar disk and 
 uraeus serpent. In her hand she carries a knife. Since 
 the head of Sekhmet resembles that of Bast (a cat's 
 head), the two goddesses have been connected. Erman 
 thinks the two developed originally from a single sky 
 goddess, Hathor (q.v.). Hathor was the goddess of love 
 and joy. Bast delights in dancing and music. A Philae 
 text says with reference to Isis Hathor : " Kindly is she 
 as Bast, terrible is she as Sekhmet." In the New King- 
 dom deities are combined in a curious way. " In the 
 temple at Koptos the goddess Mut of Thebes was called 
 at one time Bast, and at another time Sekhmet of 
 Memphis, although she was neither cat- nor lion-headed, 
 but figured as a vulture " (Ermanj. See A. Wiede- 
 mann; Adolf Erman, Handbook. 
 
 SELF-DETERMINATION. Self-determination is a 
 philosophical position that stands midway between 
 Determinism (q.v.) and Indeterminism (q.v.). " All 
 voluntary action is motived — so far Determinism Is true; 
 but Determinism is wrong when it assumes that the rela- 
 tion between motive and action Is the same as the rela- 
 tion between cause and effect in the physical world. For 
 motives are the motives of a self, and are not to be 
 taken as isolated phenomena. And it is this self which 
 ultimately chooses or re.iects. What is free, then, is not 
 some pure faculty of willing, but rather the self. 
 Deliberation and uncertainty arise because this self is of 
 such a nature that certain elements, e.g. impulses, in it 
 may conflict with certain other elements " (A. Butler). 
 
 SEMINARISTS. A term applied to the English 
 Romanists who were trained in the Seminary at Douay 
 founded by William Allen (1532-1594), Fellow of Oriel 
 College, Oxford, in 1508. Allen was anxious that there 
 should be an unfailing supply in England of Romanist 
 priests thoroughly instructed in the Tridentine theology 
 and in the general learning of their age. One of his 
 students was Edmund Campion (1540-1581). See M. W. 
 Patterson, Hist. ; the D.N.B. 
 
 SEMIPELAGIANISM. Semiijelagianism, a modified 
 form of Pelagianism (q.i\) was a reaction against the 
 Auguistinian views of predestination and grace. It has 
 been called the heresy of the Massilienses, because it was 
 defended by the monks of Marseilles in opposition to the 
 teaching of Augustine. " The monks ob,iected to the 
 Augustinian doctrine that the number of the elect was 
 absolutely fixed by the decree of Gk)d. They made pre- 
 destination the mere foreknowledge of God that some 
 would, others would not, persevere. They also held 
 that God allowed some infants to die without baptism, 
 some adults without hearing the Gospel, only because 
 He knew they would have made no use of these graces 
 had they been offered " (Oath. Diet.). They maintained 
 also that the desire to be healed by Christ was due to 
 the use of the natural human faculties. The doctrines 
 
 of Semi pelagianism were further developed by the monk 
 Cassian who had come to Marseilles from the East and 
 founded the monastery of St. Victor there (c. 415 A.D.). 
 Cassian wrote a work called "XXIV. Conferences" 
 (423-428). In this he declared, among other things, that 
 Job's victory over Satan and the Centurion's faith in the 
 power of Jesus to heal were due to their own natural 
 efforts. The next prominent Semipelagian was Faustus, 
 Abbot of Lerins and afterwards Bishop of Riez (d. 491). 
 His book " De Gratia Dei et Humana Mentis Libero 
 Arbitrio " was condemned by a number of African 
 bishops who had been exiled to Sardinia. Finally in 
 529 Semipelagianism was condemned by the Synod of 
 Orange, in South Gaul, and the sentence was confirmed 
 by Pope Boniface II. The Synod, presided over by 
 C.Tesarius of Aries (d. 542), passed four canons. (1) That 
 by the sin of Adam free-will has been so perverted and 
 weakened that none have since then been able to love 
 Grod, or believe in Him, or to do good actions for His 
 sake, unless Divine grace has prevented them. (2) 
 After grace has been received by baptism, all baptized 
 persons are able by the divine assistance and co-operation, 
 to do all things that belong to the soul's salvation, if 
 they are willing to work with faith. (3) We not only 
 do not believe that some persons have been predestined 
 to evil by the divine power, but we pronounce anathema 
 against all who incline to hold such an opinion. (4) We 
 also profess and belie%'e that in every good work it is not 
 we who begin, and who are afterw'ards assisted by the 
 mercy of God; but God Himself first inspires faith and 
 love, without any previous good works on our part, so 
 that we faithfully demand the sacrament of baptism, and 
 after baptism are able, with His assistance, to accom- 
 plish what is pleasing to Him. Whence it is most clearly 
 to be believed that the marvellous faith of the thief 
 whom the Lord summoned to Paradise, of the centurion 
 Cornelius to whom an angel was sent, and of Zacchseus 
 who was found worthy to entertain our Lord, was not 
 natural but the gift of God. See J. H. Blunt; Prot. 
 Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 SEMIRAMIS. A goddess who figures in mythology as 
 founder with Ninus of Nineveh. She is represented as 
 the daughter of Derceto, the fi.sh-goddess. Originally she 
 would seem to have been a historical character, Saiumu- 
 ramat, wife of Samsi-Adad (c. B.C. 820), of Assyria. 
 
 SENGEN. A Japanese deity, goddess of the sacred 
 mountain of Fuji, to which pilgrimages are made. 
 
 SENSUALISM. The term Sensualism is used some- 
 times to describe the philosophy of George Berkeley 
 (1085-1753). He contends that we have knowledge only 
 of our feelings. Material things are nothing else but 
 so many physical qualities or combinations of physical 
 qualities. Appearances cannot be regarded as copies of 
 real things. They are onlv objects of experience. See 
 BBRKELBYISM. 
 
 SBNTENTIARIES. A name given to tne pupils of 
 Peter Ix)mbard (d. 1164), called Magister Sententiarum, 
 or to those who studied his great comjiendium " Sentent- 
 iarum Libri Quattuor." See SUMMISTS. 
 
 SENUSSI. A Muhamraadan brotherhood, founded by 
 an Algerian, Sidi Mohammed ben Ali es-Senflsi (d. 18.59). 
 His son, Sidi Mohammed el-Bedr (1844-1902) pla.ve<i an 
 active part as the Mahdi for some years in the east of 
 North Africa. His followers believe that he still lives. 
 " On a white horse, surrounded by white gazelles and 
 antelopes, he wanders unseen through the desert, makes 
 long journeys, and then suddenly appears among his 
 adherents at fixed places, sometimes in two places at 
 once " (J. C. Falls, Three Year.'i in the Libyan Desert, 
 1913). The rule of the Senussi order is strict. It 
 requires abstemiousness, and prohibits the use of tobacco.
 
 Sepharim Genuzim 
 
 319 
 
 Seraphim 
 
 ooflfee. dancing, and music. See T. W. Arnold; Oskar 
 Mann, ' Mohammedanism," in G.R.M'. 
 
 SEPHARIM GEXrZIM. The expression means 
 ■■ books hidden away." We find in the Talmud echoes 
 of controversies about some of the Jewish sacred books 
 which finally secured a place in the Canon. The question 
 raised was whether certain books (f.<i., Proverbs and 
 Ezekiel) were really suitable for use in the Synagogue. 
 or whether it would not he better to withdraw (ganaz) 
 them. Sepharim genuzim never include books which are 
 uncanonical in the sense of heretical. The Jews call 
 these CliitsOnim, that is to say, hbrl estranei. To with- 
 draw a book was not the same as to pronounce it un- 
 canonical. In the Talmudic treatise Hhahbath (30 6) we 
 read : " Some desired also to withdraw (ganaz) the book 
 of Proverbs from use. because it contained internal con- 
 tradictions, but the attempt was abandoned, because the 
 wise men declared, " We have examined more deeply into 
 the Book of Eeclesiastes and have discovered the solu- 
 tion of the difficulty: here also we wish to enquire more 
 deeply.' " The Book of Ezekiel also was in danger of 
 being hidden away because in several points it seemed 
 to be in conflict with the law of Moses (Menachoih). As 
 to this we read in the Talmud (ShabbdtJi 13 b, Chaqiga 
 13 o, 6) : " But as for Hananiah, the son of Hezekiah, 
 blessed be his memory — if it had not been for him, the 
 P^ook of Ezekiel would have been hidden, because its 
 words contradict the words of the Torah. What did he 
 do? They brought hJm 300 measures of oil: and he sat 
 down and explained it." See G. Holscher, Kanonisch 
 II nd Apokryph. 190.5. 
 
 SEPTUAGIXT. THE. This Greek translation of the 
 Old Testament, which was the Bible of Greek-speaking 
 Jews, was called the Septuagint because it was supix>sed 
 to have been made by seventy or seventy-two Jewish 
 elders. The full title in Latin is '• Interpretatio septua- 
 ginta vironim (or senionim)," and in Greek it is referred 
 to as the version Kara tov<; i^ioiiT]KovTa. The tradition as 
 to how the translation was planned and prepared is 
 given in the Epistle of Aristeas, a Jewish-Alexandrine 
 production which must have been written earlier than 
 198 B.C. The work purports to be a letter written by 
 Aristeas, an officer of King Ptolemy II. Philadelphus 
 (284-247 B.C.). to his brother Philocrates. It tells how 
 the king's librarian. Demetrius Phalereus, advised the 
 king to add a Greek translation of the I^w of the Jews 
 to the royal librarj- of Alexandria. The king sends to 
 the High Priest Eleazar at Jerusalem and begs him to 
 send scholars to undertake the work. " The high priest 
 is filled with joy at the request of the king, and seventy- 
 two men, six from every tribe, are sent to Alexandria 
 with a copy of the Law written in golden letters. During 
 seven days they have daily audiences of the king, and 
 excite the admiration of all by the wisdom with which 
 they anuswer the seventy-two questions proposed to them 
 in philosophy, politics, and ethics. Thereafter they are 
 transported to the island of Pharos, where, in a beautiful 
 residence, they engage diligently in the work of trans- 
 lation. Every day they all translate, each one by him- 
 .«elf, a portion of the Law. and then, after comparison 
 of the various renderings, they produce a common text. 
 In seventy-two days the work is completed " (F. Buhl, 
 Canon and Text of the Old Testament, 1S92). Philo (c. 
 20 B.C. -45 A.D.) adds that all the translators were 
 inspired to choose the same expressions fep. INSPIRA- 
 TIOX). The Church Fathers further embellish the story 
 by stating that each of the translators was shut up in 
 a separate cell. There is no reason to doubt that Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus encouraged the Greek translation in its 
 earliest form, which included only the five books of the 
 Law. This was the first Greek Bible. The other books 
 
 followed in due c-ourse. In the Preface to Ecclesiasticus, 
 Ben Sira, who arrived in Egypt in 132 B.C., implies the 
 existence of a Greek version of the Former and Latter 
 Prophets and of some at least of the Hagiographa, as 
 well as of the Law. He says: " For things originally 
 spoken in Hebrew have not the same force in them, 
 when they are translated into another tongue : and not 
 only these, but the law itsi>lf, and the prophecies, and 
 the rest of the books, have no .small difference, when 
 they are sijoken in their original language." This may 
 be taken to mean that the books had been translated 
 before 1.32 B.C. There is a footnote to the Greek version 
 of E.sther which says that it was brought to Egypt in the 
 fourth year of Ptolemy and Cleopatra. If, 'as seems 
 probable, Ptolemy VI. Philometor is referred to, the 
 date would l>e 178 B.C. It is probable, however, that 
 some of the books of the Hagiographa (q.v.) were not 
 translated much before the Iwginning of the Christian 
 era. The different styles in which books are translated 
 is a further indication that the translations were the 
 work of a number of authors. Some of the translations 
 are extremely literal; others are very paraphrastic. The 
 Septuagint, as we have it, includes our Apocrypha. The 
 apocryphal books are not printed as an appendix, but 
 are placed among the canonical works; and, in general, 
 the books of the Greek Bible are placed together 
 according to similarity of character or subject. Some 
 other i>eculiarities call for remark. The apocryphal 
 additions to Esther are distributed through the Book of 
 Esther. Some of the apocryphal additions to Daniel, in- 
 cluding the writings known to us as " The Song of the 
 Three Holy Children " and " The Prayer of Azarias," 
 are distributed through the Book of Daniel. The Epistle 
 of Jeremy is appended to Baruch. Further. I. and II. 
 Samuel and I. and II. Kings are regarded as four books 
 of " Kingdoms" (basileion): our Ezra-Nehemiah is called 
 Second E.sdras; while First Esdras ("Greek Esdras "> 
 " consists of an Independent and somewhat free version 
 of portions of II. Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah, broken 
 by a long context which has no parallel in the Hebrew 
 Bible " (H. B. Swete, Intr. to the O.T. in Greek, 1900). 
 The order of books in Swete's standard edition of the 
 Septuagint is as follows : The Pentateuch in the usual 
 order. Jo.shua, Judges, Ruth, four books of Kingdoms, I. 
 and II. Chronicles, I. and II. Esdras. Psalms, Proverbs, 
 Eeclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Job, Wisdom of Solomon, 
 Wisdom of Sirach, E.sther, Judith, Tobit, Hosea, Amos, 
 Micah, Joel. Obadiah, Jonah. Nahum, Habakkuk,. 
 Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Isaiah, Jere- 
 miah, Baruch, Lamentations, Letter of Jeremiah, 
 Ezekiel, Daniel, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, and the 
 four books of Maccabee.?. The common or accepted text 
 of the Septuagint is found in the Hexapla of Origen. 
 Lucian (died A.D. 311) of Antioch issued a revised text, 
 and Hesychius (died in Egypt A.D. .310-11) another. 
 Paul de Lagarde published a restoration of part of the 
 Lucianic recension in 1SS3. Cp. further GREEK 
 VERSIONS. See H. B. Swete, Intr.; A. S. Geden. Intro, 
 to the Heb. Bible, 1909. 
 
 SERAPHIC BRETHREN. A name by which the 
 Franei.scans (f/.v.) are sometimes known. 
 
 SERAPHIM. Heavenly beings referred to in the Old 
 Testament in connection with the vision of the prophet 
 Lsaiah. Isaiah saw the Ix)rd sitting on a high throne. 
 •' Above Him were standing the seraphim. Each one 
 had six wings. W^ith twain he was covering his face, 
 and with twain he was covering his feet, and with twain 
 he was flying." As this (Isa. vi. 2) is the only mention 
 of the Seraphim in the Old Testament, their precise 
 nature is doubtful. An identical word, found in the 
 Singular, means " a (fiery) serpent." In Isaiah xiv
 
 Serapis 
 
 320 
 
 Set 
 
 29, XXX. 6 it occurs in the expression " flying serpent" 
 (or, dragon). This would suggest that the Seraphs were 
 serpentine in form. It would appear also from Isaiah 
 vi. that these attendants on Jehovah had human hands 
 and voices and six wings. The Seraphim have been 
 compared with the Egyptian Seref, a winged griffin, 
 which is repre.sented as the guardian of graves, etc., and, 
 according to Pietschmann, was a feature in the religion 
 of Syria as well as in that of Egypt. Assyriologists 
 compare the name sharrapu, " the burner," which is used 
 of the Babylonian solar flre-god Nergal (q.v.). Cheyne 
 (Encyclopaedia Bihlica) inclines to the view that the 
 Seraphim were originally serr>ents (cp. Isa. xiv. 29; Nu. 
 xxl. 8). " Arabian and Hebrew folklore placed flying 
 serpents, with burning venemous bite, in the desert, and 
 Hebrew mythographers may have represented winged 
 .serpents as the guardians of the dwelling of the Deity." 
 But why should we seek to ascribe any particular form 
 to the Seraphim? They were probably thought of simply 
 as "dazzling (burning; Hebrew sdraph "to bum") 
 ones." Their brightness was so dazzling that probably 
 as a rule no form could be distinguished. In so far as 
 the picture seen by Isaiah assumed a form, it took the 
 shape of six wings, two at the top, two at the l)ottom. and 
 one on either aide. It is useless to seek a parallel figure 
 in mythology and folklore. The Seraphim, as seen by 
 Isaiah, belong, like Moses' vision of the burning bush 
 (see BURNING BUSH), purely to the realm of psychic 
 phenomena. True, we are told that one of the Seraphim 
 flew to Isaiah with a live coal in his hand and touched 
 his mouth with it. But the words were hardly intended 
 to be taken literally. It is not iK)ssible to describe in 
 human speech the kind of experience that Isaiah had. 
 When the attempt is made to do so, words have to be 
 used which are in reality quite inadequate and very liable 
 to be misunderstood. See Encycl. Bihl.; Hastings' D.B.; 
 O. C. Whitehoiise, Isaiah in the " Century Bible." 
 
 SERAPIS. An Egyptian deity, or rather a deity half 
 Egyptian and half Greek. Serapis belongs to the 
 Helleni.stic Period in Egypt. He is identical with Wser- 
 hap, the deceased Apis bull (see APIS). " The soul of 
 the Apis was supposed to have been received into heaven 
 as the Osiris Apis, and was regarded henceforth almost 
 as a Double of Osiris. It was indeed in this form that 
 Osiris was generally recognized by the Greeks, who, 
 having endowed him with attributes derived from Pluto 
 and Asklepios, named this half Greek, half Egyptian 
 deity Sarapis or Serapis " (A. Wiedemann). Serapis 
 was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. See 
 Adolf Erman; Alfred Wiedemann. 
 
 SERMON ON THE MOUNT, CHRISTIAN. A dis- 
 course of Jesus, so called because in the Gospel according 
 to Matthew (chap, v.) it was delivered on a mountain. 
 It might equally well be called the Sermon in the plain, 
 since in the Gospel according to Lnke (vi. 17, 20-49), it is 
 said to have been delivered in a plain. Our most valu- 
 able source for the Christianity of Christ, the Sermon 
 on the Mount is In its present form an artificial combina- 
 tion of sayings ot the Lord (Arno Neumann, .Jesus, 1906). 
 " The discourse, which in both Evangelists begins with 
 the beatitudes and ends with the parable of the prudent 
 and the foolish builder, is in Mt. interspersed with a 
 great number of sayings of the Lord, which Lk. gives 
 in other parts of his gospel; and even what is peculiar 
 to Mt. in the diseour.se may have been taken from another 
 setting " (Oscar HoUzman, Life of Jesus, 1904). 
 
 SERMON ON THE MOUNT, MUHAMMADAN. A 
 sermon delivered by Muhammad on the occasion of his 
 last pilgrimage to the Kaaba. It was delivered on the 
 Mount of 'Arafah, the " Mount of Recognition," sltuate<l 
 twelve miles from Mecca. Here the pilgrims stay on the 
 
 ninth day of their pilgrimage. To account for the name 
 of the Mount there is a legend recounted by Burton (and 
 quoted by T. P. Hughes). " When our first parents for- 
 feited heaven for eating wheat, which deprived them of 
 their primeval purity, they were east down upon earth. 
 The serpent descended upon Ispahan, the peacock at 
 Cabul; Satan at Bilbays (others say Sejnnan or'Seistan), 
 Eve upon 'Arafat, and Adam at Ceylon (Sarandib). The 
 latter, determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to 
 which the earth owes its present mottled appearance. 
 Wherever our first father placed his foot, which was 
 large, a town afterwards arose; and between the strides 
 will always be country. Wandering for many years, he 
 came to the Mountain of Mercy, where our common 
 mother was continually calling upon his name, and their 
 recognition of each other gave the place the name of 
 'Arafah." The sermon of Muhammad, which has been 
 only partly preserved, is given by Syed Ameer All. " Ye 
 people! listen to my words, for I know not whether 
 another year will be vouchsafed to me after this year to 
 find myself amongst you. Your lives and property are 
 sacred and inviolable amongst one another until ye 
 appear before the Lord, as this day and this month is 
 sacred for all: and remember ye shall have to appear 
 before your Lord, who shall demand from you an account 
 of all your actions. Ye people, ye have rights over 
 your wives, and your wives have rights over you . . . 
 treat your wives with kindness . . . verily ye have 
 taken them on the security of God, and made them law- 
 ful unto you by the words of God. And your bondsmen 
 and bondswomen. See that ye feed them with such 
 food as ye eat yourselves, and clothe them with the stuff 
 ye wear; and if they commit a fault which ye are not 
 inclined to forgive, then part from them, for they are 
 the servants of the Lord, and are not to be harshly 
 treated. Ye people ! listen to my words, and understand 
 the same. Know that all Moslems are brothers unto 
 one another. Ye are one brotherhood. Nothing which 
 belongs to another is lawful unto his brother, unless 
 freely given out of good will. Guard yourselves, from 
 committing injustice. Let him that is present tell it 
 unto him that is absent. Haply he that shall be told 
 may remember better than he who hath heard it." See 
 T. P. Hughes; Syed Ameer Ali, Isldm, 190(>. 
 
 SERPENT, BRAZEN It is of interest to note that 
 a bronze figure of a cobra has been found in the " High 
 Place " at Gezer (cp. II. Kings xviii. 4). 
 
 SERPENTINIANS. Another name for the Ophites 
 (q.v.). 
 
 SERVITES. The Servites or the " Religious Ser- 
 vants of the Holy Virgin " were founded in 1233 by seven 
 merchants of Florence. These merchants met together 
 on the Festival of the Assumption, and agreed to renounce 
 the world. They sold their goods, took up their abode 
 in a house outside the city, practised great austerity, 
 and begged their bread in the streets. They next built 
 a convent on the top of Monte Senario. In 1306 Juliana 
 Falconieri, niece of one of the seven merchants. Alexia 
 Falconieri, foundetl the Servite Third Order, a branch 
 for women. In 1487 Innocent VIII. " bestowed on the 
 Servites equal privileges and prerogatives with those 
 enjoyed by the other four mendicant orders — viz., the 
 Franciscans, the Dominicans, the Augustinian Hermits, 
 and the Carmelites " (Cath. Diet.). The Servites are 
 well represented In Italy, Austria, and Germany. See 
 Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet., 1905; Brockhaus. 
 
 SET. An Egyptian deity. Set was tie personifica- 
 tion of Evil, of such things as drought, darkness, disease, 
 etc. As such he was greatly feared by gods and men 
 alike. The kings of the Old Kingdom, in order to be on 
 good terms with the ix)weps of Good and Evil, repre-
 
 Seven Bishops, The 
 
 321 
 
 Shamanism 
 
 sented tiemselves as being Set as well as Horus (q.i\). 
 In late times fear was converted into hatred, and his 
 adherent* were I'ersecuted. In the New Kingdom he 
 became known as Sfltekh. a name which is simply a 
 lengthened form of Set. His figure was human, but he 
 is represented with the head of an animal, perhaps that 
 of a camel. He holds a sceptre. In the Osiris myth. 
 Set is the wicked brother of Osiris and is defeated" by 
 Horns. Herodotus in his identification of Greek with 
 Egyptian gods, identifies the gigantic Typhon with Set. 
 See Alfred Wiedemann: Adolf Erman Hand-book; Na- 
 ville. The Old Egyptian Faith. 1909. 
 
 SEVEN BISHOPS, THE. In 1(187 James the Second 
 of England issued a Declaration of Indulgence which 
 provided that Roman Catholics, as well as Protestant 
 Nonconformists, should have full right of public worship. 
 In 1G.88 he ordered the clergy of the Church of England 
 to read it publicly in their churches. Thereupon seven 
 bishops drew up, and presented to the King, a petition 
 protesting against the Declaration. They said, more- 
 over, that they could neither read it them.selves nor order 
 it to l)e read. In consequence of this action it was read 
 only in a few churches. The King had the bishops 
 arrested and prosecuted. When, however, the trial took 
 place, the bishops were acquitted. The seven rebels 
 were : (1) William Sancroft (1(117-1693), Archbishop of 
 Canterbury; (2) Thomas Ken (16.37-1711), Bishop of Bath 
 and Wells: (?.) William Lloyd ac.27-1717). Bishop of St. 
 Asaph: (4) Francis Turner (16.3.S7-1700), Bishop of Elv: 
 (o) John Lake a624-lfi89). Bishop of Chichester: (6) 
 Thomas White (1(;28-169S). Bishop of Peterborough: and 
 (T) Sir Jonathan Trelawny (1650-1721). Bishop of Bristol. 
 See M. W. Patterson. Hist; and the D.y.B. 
 
 SEVENTH DAT MEN. A name given afterwards to 
 those who were called originally Traskites (q.i-.). 
 
 SEVERIANS. The Severians were an Encratite body 
 or sect. According to Eusebius (H.E. iv. 29) they were 
 so named from one Sevenis who flourished soon after 
 Tatian. According to Epiphanius he preceded Tatian. 
 The .statement of Eusebius, who is supported by Theo- 
 doret and .Terome, is more likely to be correct. Eusebius 
 tells us also that the Severians used the I^w, the Pro- 
 phets, and the Gospels, but interpreted them in their 
 own way: but they rejected the Pauline Epistles and the 
 Acts of the Apostles, and abused the Apostle Paul. G. 
 Salmon suggests that this shews Ebionite features, and 
 that ■' these Severians may have been of Ebionite origin, 
 for great diversity probably existed between the teaching 
 of persons elas.sed together as Encratites. The Severians 
 are described by Epiphanius (H<rr. 4.5) with all the 
 features of an Ophite sect : but evidently from hearsay 
 only, as he .'.•peaks of the sect as having almost died 
 out" (Diet, of Christian Biogr., a.v. "Encratites"). 
 According to Augustine (Haer. xxiv.), the Severians' 
 belief that matter is essentially evil led them to deny 
 the resurrection of the body. See J. H. Blunt: Wace 
 and Piercy. 
 
 SEWARAM. Servant of Rama (King of Ayodhia, a 
 great incarnation of Vishnu), one of the names of the 
 Hindu god Rama. 
 
 SGANA. A term u.sefl among the Haida of N. 
 America to denote a mystic potentiality ascribed to 
 l>eings whether human or non-human, living or not living. 
 Sgana seems to be a force, and not a i)ersonal being, and 
 corresponds to the Melanesian muna. 
 
 SHABBaTH. The title of one of the Jewi.sh treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the .second century A.D. 
 and are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.). a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi .Judah the Holv, 
 or the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three trac- 
 
 tates of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 {sedarim). Shabbath is the first tractate of the second 
 group, which is called Mo'ed (" Festival"). 
 
 SHADDAI. One of the names given to God iu the 
 Old Te.stament. The precise meaning of the word is 
 uncertain. Rabbinic .scholars understood it to mean " he 
 who is sufficient " (shp-daii). The Vulgate has " omni- 
 potens." Some modern .scholars have explained it to 
 mean " almighty " (from shddad ■■ to deal violently "): 
 others " the high one " (from Assyrian sadi), " high "). 
 Others would pronounce the word .shedi. This would 
 mean "my sovereign lord" (literally, "my protecting 
 spirit "). By others the word has been connected with 
 a root xhadah "to pour forth." The reference would 
 then be to God as the rain-giver. See the Oxford Heb. 
 Lex. 
 
 SHAITAN. A name of the devil in Muslim theology. 
 Another name is IBLlS (q.v.). 
 
 SHAKERS. The Shakers, as foundtd in 1776 in North 
 America by Ann Lee (1736-1784). were an offshoot of the 
 Society of Friends or tJie Quakers (q.v.). In 1758 Ann 
 I.iee had joined in England some seceders from the 
 Society of Friends, who had already received the nick- 
 name " Shaking Quakers " or " Shakers." She became 
 head of these in 1770, being elected " spiritual Mother in 
 Christ." In 1774 she went to America and founded a 
 Shaker Society there. Ann Lee professed to be a pro- 
 phetess and worker of miracles. The Shakers believe 
 that sacraments are unnecessar>-, that celibacy is a holier 
 state than matrimony, and that goods should be held in 
 common. The name Shakers was suggested by a 
 peculiar kind of jerk or movement which they used at 
 their religious services. They called themselves also 
 " The United Society of Believers" and " The Millennial 
 Church." See J. H. Blunt: the D.N.B.; Brockhaus. 
 
 SHALA. A Babylonian deity. The goddess Shala 
 appears as the consort of Ramman (q.v.). The name 
 Shala means simply " lady." Jastrow suggests that it 
 may have been applied also to other goddesses. See 
 Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 SHAMAN. A term used by anthropologists to denote 
 those who exercise the functions of priest, sorcerer, and 
 medicine man. Its adoption was suggested by its use 
 among the Tunguz, a tribe of South-Eastern Siberia. 
 
 SHAM.\NISM. Shamanism is a term used to descril)e 
 the religion of the Turanian races of Siberia. The term 
 was suggested by Shaman, the name for the Siberian 
 priest^magician. The Shaman undertakes to cure 
 disease, or avert death, or safely conduct souls to the 
 other world. In the performance of their magical rites, 
 they work themselves up into a state of ecstasy or 
 delirium to the sound of music. According to Reinach. 
 the priests are actually chosen from among epileptics or 
 persons who know how to work themselves up into a 
 state of ecstasy. They deal in talismans, and sacrifice 
 hor.ses to good and evil spirits. In order to knit one 
 another closely together, to form a Blood Brotherhood, 
 they drink or mingle blood. F. J. Gould, follow- 
 ing A. R^ville, gives a lively description of the priest- 
 magician. A strange figure suddenly appears. " Amid 
 his rags little bells tinkle, and rude images of beasts and 
 fishes, .shaped out of old iron and connected by iron 
 rings, cla.sh together as he advances. The.se figures are 
 endowed with magical virtue. The sorcerer's head- 
 dress is decorated with two iron horns. In one hand 
 he holds a magic rod enveloped in rat or sable skin; with 
 the other he continually beats a sort of tambourine: both 
 hands being gloved with bearskin. He leaps and capers, 
 cros.ses his legs in a wild dance, howling and tambouring 
 all the time. When his ecstasy has reached its pitch his 
 look becomes fixed. He falls as if in a swoon, oblivious
 
 Shamash 
 
 322 
 
 Shewbread 
 
 of all around. At length the prophetic spasm passes off. 
 The Shaman quietly rises, and is ready to declare to his 
 questioners the decision of the gods." The Shaman in- 
 vest.s all the mysterious phenomena of nature with spirits, 
 good and evil. These spirits he believes he can control. 
 The chief spirit is Ukko, the Heaven-god. The term 
 Shaman is a corrupt form of Sramana, a name which 
 was given to Buddha and then to all Buddhist priests. 
 See F. J. Gould, Concise Hist, of Rel., 1907; Reinach. O., 
 1909; E. H. Parker, studies; Max B. Weinstein, Welt- 
 und Leben-anschauungen, 1910. 
 
 SHAjVIASH. a Babylonian deity. Shamash was the 
 sun-god. Important as he was, he was regarded as sub- 
 ordinate to the moon-god. Sin {q.v.}, and his name means 
 ■' servitor." In the early days he was worshipped partic- 
 ularly at Sippar. He was called the king or the shep- 
 herd. He is the light which gives life, and banishes 
 darkness, that is to say, misfortune and disease. He 
 is the judge who decides the fates of men. Righteous- 
 ness represents bis light : wickedness the absence of his 
 light, darkness. This righteousness in connection with 
 Shamash comes to be more emphasized under the 
 Assyrian kings. Shalmaneser II. calls himself " the 
 sun " of the world. He describes Shamash as the mes- 
 senger of the gods, the lord of law. But Shamash is 
 still the warrior who gives help in battle. Sargon II. 
 called one of the eastern gates of his palace " Shamash, 
 who grants victory." In the Gilgamesh Epic (<?.!'.) 
 Shamash is represented as the patron of Gilgamesh, who 
 has given into his hand '" sceptre and decision." 
 He is the patron also of Etana (See ETANA). Etana 
 beseeches Shamash to give him " the plant of birth." 
 The eagle who helps Etana in his search for the 
 plant would seem to have been sent by Shamash. But 
 afterwards it loses the favour of Shamash and is 
 destroyed by a serpent with the help of the sun-god. In 
 the same legend there is a reference to a conflict between 
 Shamash and Zu, which implies that Shamash had 
 canght Zu in his net. In the Zu-myth (.q.v.), however, 
 in the form in which it has been preserved to us, Marduk 
 (g.v.) appears as the conqueror of Zu. Shamash is some- 
 times called Malik. His consort appears as Malkatu. 
 See Morris Jastrow, Fel. 
 
 SHANKAR. He who gives happiness, one of the 
 names of the Hindu god Siva. 
 
 SHAPE-SHIFTING. The belief that i>ersons may be 
 re-born in a new shape is almost universal. In the new 
 birth the form may not be human, and the sex may be 
 changed. The Warramuuga and tfrabuuna, two of the 
 tribes of Central Au.stralia, according to Si)encer and 
 Gillen, believe that with each successive birth the sex 
 changes. 
 
 SHEBI'TTH. The Jewish Mishnah, a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. (.see MISHNAH), comprises a 
 number of treatises or tractates which reproduce the 
 oral tradition or unwritten law as developed by the 
 second century A.D. There are sixty-three tractates, 
 divided into six groups or orders (sedarim). Shebi'ith 
 is the fifth tractate of the first group, which is called 
 Zerd'im (" Seeds "). 
 
 SHEBP'OTH. The name of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are incorporated in the Mishnah ('/.v.), a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, 
 or the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three trac- 
 tates of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or 
 orders (.sedarim). Shebii'oth is the sixth tractate of the 
 fourth group, which is called Xezikln (" Damages "). 
 
 SHEKaLIM. The name of one of the Jewish 
 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.). a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi .Judah the Holy, 
 or the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three trac- 
 tates of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or 
 orders (sedarim). Shekalim is the fourth tractate of 
 the second group, which is called Mo'ed (" Festival "). 
 
 SHEKHINAH. The word Shekhinah is derived from 
 a Hebrew root meaning " to dwell " (.shaken). It is 
 used in the Talmud (g.v.) of some divine influence which 
 dwells with men. This influence seems at times to be 
 regarded as a person. In the " Sayings of the Fathers" 
 it is said that " two that sit together and are occupied 
 in words of Torah have the Shekhinah among them." 
 Oesterley aud Box compare the passage in the Gospel of 
 Matthew (xviii. 20) : " Where two or three are gathered 
 together in My name, there am I in the midst of them." 
 The Shekhinah seems in fact to correspond sometimes to 
 what Christians understand by the Holy Ghost. It also 
 corresiX)nds to the Logos. " Hfiekhinah is .sometimes 
 equivalent to Memra (Logos), but we may distinguish 
 between them by regarding the one as the medium of a 
 passive, the other of an active manifestation; the one a 
 creative, the other as over-shadowing or indwelling. 
 The two are brought together by St. John, in whose 
 theology the conceptions assume a new definiteness, and 
 the medium becomes a Mediator : The Word (Logos) 
 hecame flesh and tahernacled among us (i. 14) " (Taylor 
 in Sayings of the Jewish Fathers). See W. O. E. 
 Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 SHEN. A Chinese term. The .^hen are good souls 
 or spirits, a sub-division of Yang (q.v.). the light-soul of 
 the universe. A man's shen, also called hwun, " imma- 
 terial, ethereal, like heaven itself from which it 
 emanates, constitutes his intellect and the finer parts of 
 his character, his virtues" (J. J. M. de Groot). The 
 evil spirit or kuei is responsible for the passions and 
 vices in a man. But the universe is full of shen and 
 kvvei. " The gods are such shen as animate heaven, sun, 
 moon, the stars, wind, rain, clouds, thunder, fire, the 
 earth, seas, mountains, rivers, rocks, stones, animals, 
 plants, things — ^in particular also the souls of deceased 
 men. Innumerable kwei swarm everywhere." De Groot 
 points out that " in effect, each member of the human 
 race, since he has a shen, is a god, and each god may 
 become a man by descending into a human body." See 
 J. J. M. de Groot, Rel. of the Chinese, 1910. 
 
 SHEN NUNG. A legendary emperor of China, who is 
 supposed to have reigned from 2838 to 2G98 B.C. He 
 is reputed to have been miraculously conceived, and to 
 have taught his people agriculture and the iises of certain 
 plants in medicine. 
 
 SHEO PRASAD. Gift of Siva, one of the names of 
 the Hindu god Siva. 
 
 SHESH NAG. A figure in Hindu mythology. One 
 of the su]ierstitions lield by the Kurmis, the representa- 
 tive cultivating caste of Hindustan, is concerned with 
 Shesh Nag. " When an astrologer is alwut to found 
 a house he calculates the direction in which Shesh Nag, 
 the snake on whom the world repo.ses, is holding his 
 head at that time, and plants the first brick or stone to 
 the left of that direction, because snakes and elephants 
 do not turn to the left but always to the right. Conse- 
 quently, the house will be more secure and less likely 
 to be shaken down by Shesh Nag's movements, which 
 cause the phenomenon known to us as an earthquake " 
 (R. V. Ru.ssell). 
 
 SHEWBREAD. The Hebrew e.'cpression translated 
 Shewbread (from Luther's Schaubrot) means literally 
 " bread of the face " or " presence-bread " (lechetn hap-
 
 Shi'ab, The 
 
 323 
 
 Shintoism 
 
 pdnlm). It is also described as " the continual bread " 
 or " bread of ordering " or " hallowed bread." In I. 
 Samuel xxi. 4-0 we are told that David, when ordinary 
 bread could not be found, commandeered shewbread. 
 •• So the priest gave him holy bread, for there was no 
 bread there but the shewbread, that was talien from 
 before Jehovah in order to put hot bread there the dav 
 it was taken away " (after C. F. Kent). Shewbread 
 was bread which was set before Jehovah in the sanc- 
 tury. t-he original idea being tiat he would accept it as 
 his food. A. Jeremias thinks that the name " bread of 
 the countenance " has reference to beholding God in the 
 mysteries of the cult. He compares the Babylonian te.\ts 
 of ritual, according to which twelve loaves were laid 
 before the deity. They had to be made of fine flour, and 
 to be sweet. The custom of ofifering food to the gods 
 was widespread in ancient times. Among the Romans, 
 banquets (lectinternia) were sometimes ofifered to the 
 twelve great gods (cp. Isaiah Isv. U: Baruch vi. 30). See 
 Encycl. Bibl.; A. Jeremias, The O.T. in the Light of the 
 Ancient East, 1911; S. R. Driver, Th^' Book of Eaodus, 
 1911. 
 
 SHI-AH, THE. A Muslim sect which differs from 
 the Sunnls on the question of the Imamate (see 
 IMAM). The name means " followers or companions." 
 The ShI'ahs maintain that 'All was really the first legiti- 
 mate Imam, and that he, and not Abu Bakr, was the 
 immediate successor of the Prophet. Thev would only 
 recognise 'Ali and his descendents. " Many of the 
 Shl-ahs carried their veneration for 'Ali " and his 
 descendants so far that they transgressed all bounds of 
 reason and decency, though some of them were less 
 extravagant than others. The branch of the • Ghdlia ' 
 (extravagant, fanatic) raised their Imdms (descendants 
 of 'Ali) above the degrees of created beings and attributed 
 to them divine properties. Some affirmed that -Ali was 
 not dead, but would return again in the clouds and fill 
 the earth with justice. They held the doctrine of 
 metempsychosis, and what they call the immanency, the 
 indwelling of God in man." See F. A. Klein 
 
 SHIAMSUNDAR. The dark and beautiful one, one 
 of the names of the Hindu god Krishna. 
 
 SHIBBOLETH. A Hebrew word meaning "a 
 flowing stream." According to a story in the Old Testa- 
 ment (Judges xii. C), it was made a test of dialect during 
 a battle between Gileadites and Ephraimites. " And 
 the Gileadites seized the fords of the Jordan to intercept 
 the Ephraimites; and when one of the sun-ivors of the 
 Ephraimites would say : Let me cross, the men of Gilead 
 would ask him : Art thou an Ephraimite? And if he 
 answered: No, they would bid him say Shibboleth; and 
 if he said Sibboleth, and could not pronounce it as thev 
 did. they took him. and slaughtered him at the fords of 
 the Jordan " (G. F. Moore's translation, " The Sacred 
 Books of the Old and New Testaments," 1898). 
 
 SHI-KING. One of the Chinese Classics. The .S'/ii is 
 the " Book of Ode^ " (g.v.). King simply means 
 '■ Classic." 
 
 SHINGON SECT. A Japanese Buddhist sect founded 
 by K6b0 Daishi (A.D. SOO). Hackmann describes it as 
 " the mantra school of Japan," becau.se it attaches 
 special importance to the magic word or spell (.see 
 MANTRA). The teaching of the school is of a mvstical 
 and esoteric character. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 SHIN SECT. A Japanese Buddhist sect founded bv 
 Shinran Shonin A.D. 1224. It was originally called the 
 JMoshin sect. It attaches the greatest important to 
 faith. " This faith is an inward firm conviction of the 
 good-will and help of the deity, more especially of Amida, 
 who almo.st entirely holds the position of a "highest god 
 in the Western sense. Faith is the foundation of the 
 
 whole religious life. Compared with the power of faith, 
 all other religious devices— prayer, good works, asceti- 
 cism, a monastic life— are of secondary value." In this 
 sect no sjjecial importance is attached to monasticism 
 or celibacy. The priests are allowed to marrv and to 
 live an ordinary human life. Thev are said to be dis- 
 posed to adopt Western methods; but their faith in 
 Buddhism^ remains unimi^aired. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 SHINTdISM. When Buddhism was introduced into 
 Japan from Korea and China, some term was needed to 
 designate the ancient faith of the Japanese as distinct 
 from the new religion. The term chosen was in Japane.se 
 Kami-no-michi, and in Chinese Shinto. Both expressions 
 mean the " Way of the Genii, or Spirits." In c-ourse of 
 time Shinto borrowed features from Buddhism. It then 
 became necessary to distinguish between this mixed 
 religion and Pure Shintoism. The former received the 
 name Ryobu-Shinto or •' double religion." Although 
 Buddhism was favoured by the ancient nobility, in ISfiS 
 Shintoism was decreed to be the State or Established 
 Religion. The Government undertook to pay a large 
 sum of money annually for its maintenance. And 
 whereas for several centuries Buddhist and Shinto 
 priests had officiated in turns at the same altars in the 
 same temples, the temples had to be declared either 
 Shinto or Buddhist. G. A. Cobbold points out that, 
 as far as the practice of the people is concerned, this 
 has made little difference. " The people still practise 
 the obsen-ances of both religions alike ; the only difference 
 being that, to effect this, they have now to visit two 
 temples instead of one. A new-bora child, for instance, 
 is taken by its parents to both Shinto and Buddhist 
 temples, for the purpose of solemn dedication." D. Goh 
 thinks that Shintoism cannot be classified as one of the 
 religions of the world. It is simply the State religion 
 of Japan, in its main and original features a simple 
 religion of filial piety (reverence for ancestors) and 
 patriotism (reverence for the Imi>erial dynastv). He 
 holds that Shinto is distinguished by five peculiarities. 
 One of these is that it has no sacred books or moral code. 
 The absence of sacred books is not, however, a pecu- 
 liarity. The Druids, for example, had no sacred (that is 
 to say, written) books. And it hardly seems true to 
 say that Shintoism has no moral code. Another pecu- 
 liarity is said to be that Shintoism makes no distinction 
 between the mythology and the history of the nation. 
 This is not. however, a i>eculiar feature", but is common 
 to other religions (e.g.. the religions of the ancient 
 Americans, Celts, and Teutons). A third peculiarity is 
 said to be that, as regards a future state, Shintoism. 
 though it believes in the eternal existence of spirits, 
 recognises no Paradi.se or Hell. But the fact seems 
 to be that some of the real principles or doctrines of 
 pure Shintoism are uncertain. D. Goh himself declares 
 that Shintoism has been oornipted by contact with 
 Buddhism. There does not really .seem to be much that 
 is peculiar to Shintoism. Its development appears to 
 have been very similar to that of other religions. 
 Reverence has been paid not only to heroes, sovereigns, 
 and other men, but also to animals, .such as foxes and 
 serpents, and to natural objects, such as trees, rocks. 
 rivers, mountains, etc. These and other features suggest 
 on the whole a common and well-known line of develop- 
 ment. There are .some .special points which have remark- 
 able parallels in other religions. Shintoists believe that 
 the human breath may cause ritual defilement. The 
 priests, therefore, when they offer sacrifice, wear masks. 
 Similarly we learn from Saxo Grammatieus that the 
 priests of the Slav deity Svantovit (q.v.) were not allowed 
 to breathe in the temple. 'U'henever they wanted to 
 breathe they had to go outside. Again, the symbol of
 
 Shorter Catechism, The 
 
 324 
 
 Sikhism 
 
 the ancient Mexican god Tezcatliiioca (.q.v.) was a mirror 
 of metal or stone ; and a minor is one of the chief symbols 
 in Shintoism. As regards Shinto worship, the first his- 
 torical emperor, Jimmu Tenno, who is isaid to have 
 ascended the throne on the seventh of April fiOO B.C., 
 was deified and is worshipped in a thousand temples. 
 From him everv Mikado has claimed direct descent. 
 Jimmn Tenno himself, it is said, was fifth in descent 
 from the sun-gotldess Ama-terasu, who in turn was bom 
 from the left eve of the creator of Japan, Izanagi. The 
 heroes of Japanese mythology and history, who are the 
 chief objects of worship in Shintoism, are all the children 
 of Izanagi. Properly spealJing, there is no public wor- 
 .ship The priests perform a service of their own every 
 morning and evening. The ordinary person when he 
 wishes to worship in a temple, goes to one and attracts 
 the attention of the deity by ringing a bell or sounding a 
 gong. Then, after throwing down a coin, he prostrates 
 himself, says a silent prayer, and finally clai>s his hands. 
 Forms of prayer, though they exist, are not necessary. 
 It is enough " to frame a wish without uttering it, and 
 most ShintSists content them.selves with turning to the 
 sun in the earlv morning, rubbing the hands slowly to- 
 gether, and bowing " (I. Bishop). But if there is no 
 public worship, worship in the home is not neglected. 
 Every house has its Kamidana, or god-shelf, on which 
 stands a miniature t<-mple of wood. Here are placed 
 paper-covered tablets inscribed with the names of the 
 patron deities of the household, as well as the monu- 
 mental or ancestral tablets of the family. And here 
 also are offered sprigs of the sacred evergreen cleyera 
 japonica, rice beer, and a portion of the rice cooked 
 daily for the household. One of the gods whose names 
 are written on the paper-covered tablets is always Ten- 
 shSkO-daijin, the chief deity of Is6, the centre of 
 Shintd. The Ten-sh6k0-daijin tablet contains inside 
 " some shavings of the wands used by the priests of Is6 
 at the two annual festivals, and is able to protect, its 
 possessor from misfortune for half a year" (I. Bishop). 
 One of the emblems of Shintoism is a slender wand to 
 which are attached strips of white paper. Another is a 
 structure, commonly made of wood, which is called 
 " birds' rest," because the birds offered to the gods used 
 to rest on it. The rope of rice straw, another emblem, 
 hangs across temple entrances or house doors or round 
 sacred trees. But the chief symbol, which has been men- 
 tioned already (see also IZANAGI), is the mirror. 
 Above the altar in many Shinto temples a large circular 
 steel mirror is to be seen. In a box below a sword and 
 a stone are commonly kept. As votive offerings stone 
 lanterns are erected in the grounds of the temples. Is(5 
 is a kind of Mecca to the Shintoists, and throughout the 
 year pilgrimages are made to its temples. Relics of ls6 
 are taken home as precious treasures and potent charms. 
 The number of Shinto gods is endless. In addition to 
 those already mentioned, two of the most popular gods 
 are Binzuru (q.v.), the medicine god, and Daikoku (q.v.). 
 the household god and guide, whose image is to be found 
 in every home. Reinach notes that there is evidence 
 of fire-worship in Shintoism. Tlie custom of " passage 
 through fire " is a ceremony or ordeal of purification. 
 In earlier times, it is said, human sacrifice was in vogue, 
 but afterwards clay statuettes were substituted. See 
 G. A. Cobbold, Rel. in Japan. 1894: K. Florenz, "Die 
 Religionen der Japaner " in Orimtalische RelUiionen, 
 1000: D. Goh and I. Bishop, " Shintoism." in R.f^.W., 
 190S; Reinach, O., 1909; Max B. Weinstein, Welt- und 
 Lehen-Anfichavvnqen. 1910. 
 
 SHORTER CATECHISM, THE. The Shorter Cate- 
 chism was one of the results of the eons-ultations of the 
 Westminster Assembly of Divines (q.v.). It was pre- 
 
 pared in 1647 by a small committee, which made use of 
 the Westminster Confession (q.v.), the Larger Catechi.sm, 
 and a number of other catechisms In 1648 it was 
 approved by the Church of Scotland, in which " it became 
 at once, and has remained, a household book, a Bible in 
 miniature, and the working Creed of the nation " (W. 
 A. Curtis). Curtis speaks of the Catechism 'as "an 
 acknowledged masterpiece, a triumph of happy arrange- 
 ment, of condensed and comprehensive instruction, of 
 lucid and forceful expression." See William A. Curtis. 
 
 SHU. An Egyptian deity. The god Shu was the 
 " supjwrter of the heavens." Shu and the goddess 
 Tefnet {q.v.) were the offspring of Re (or RS), the Sun- 
 god. Shu appears as a man with a feather on his head. 
 When represented with Tefnet, however, he appears as 
 a lion. The offspring of Shu and Tefnet, Nut. the sky. 
 and Keb, the earth, had to be separated by Shu. Shu 
 came to be regarded as the protector against evil spirits 
 and other foes. In the later magic his figure, " repre- 
 sented as a young prince in his chariot slaying lions," 
 ix>ssesses great efficacy. See A. Wiedemann; Adolf 
 Erman, Handbook. 
 
 SHU-KING. One of the Chinese Classics. Shu is 
 the " Book of History " (q.v.). King simply means 
 " Classic." 
 
 SHUNAMITE'S HOUSE, THE. According to a narra- 
 tive in the Old Testament (II. Kings iv.), the prophet 
 Elisha was entertained by a Shunammite woman. It 
 appears that there existed formerly in London an estab- 
 lishment called " The Shunamite's House," in which were 
 lodged clergymen who came to I/ondon to preach at 
 Paul's Cross. Walton in his Life of Hooker (1.581) 
 speaks of it as " a house, so called, for that, besides the 
 stipend paid the preacher, there is provision made also 
 for his lodging and diet, for two days before, and one 
 after his sermon." See Robert Nares. Glossary, 1822. 
 
 SIBI. A Babylonian deity. The god Sibi is men- 
 tioned in the Dibbarra Epic (q.v.). He is described as 
 "a warrior without rival." Since Sibi means " seven," 
 it has been suggested that the god is a i)ersouifieation of 
 tie seven evil spirits. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 SIDEROMANCT. A species of divination. Sidero- 
 mancy was practised in ancient times " by placing straws 
 on red-hot iron, and drawing inferences as to the will of 
 the gods from the manner of their burning " (Jamee 
 Gardner, Faiths of the World). 
 
 SIKHISM. The Sikhs, literally the " disciples," are 
 a body which was founded in India by the great religious 
 teacher Nanak (1409-1538 A.D.). who was himself a fol- 
 lower of Kabir (see KABIR PANTHIS). Nanak's dis- 
 ciples idolized him after his death, and, amongst other 
 things, declared that his birth had been proclaimed by all 
 the Hindu gods. He was announced as a saviour of the 
 world. In any case, after studying diligently the religion 
 of Vishnu (q.v.) in the sacred books, he became an earnest 
 teacher and a zealous reformer. Living in a part of India 
 in which there were many Muhammadans, his ideal seems 
 to have been to unite the Hindus and Muhammadans in 
 a common form of theistic religion. He acknowledged 
 One Supreme Ivord, whom he preferred to call Hari 
 (Vishnu), but to whom he gave also other names such 
 as Brahma, Grovinda. The Universe is evolved out of the 
 Supreme Being. It is a kind of extension of himself 
 (cp. SPINOZISM). Separation between God and the 
 human soul or between God and the world is caused 
 simply by M.ayfi (q.v.) or Illusion. Reduced to a single 
 formula, it has been pointed out that the principles of 
 Nanak amounted to the Unity of God and the Brother- 
 hood of Man. The jiractieal application of the.se 
 principles " led to the formation of a new nationality, 
 the disciples of the great teacher becoming a republican
 
 Siienus 
 
 325 
 
 Simonianism, St. 
 
 fraternity, wliicli gradually consolidated into a separate 
 nation by the necessity for struggling for the liberty they 
 claimed " (F. Pincott). Instead of Hindus and Muham- 
 madans being drawn together, Sikhs and Muhammadans 
 became bitterly opi>osed to one another as political Ixxlies 
 with conflicting aims and ambitions. Nanak was suc- 
 ceeded by nine other chief Gurus. The fourth Guru, 
 Ram-das, built the lake-temple at Amritsar. The fifth 
 Guru, Arjun, united the Sikhs more closely by compiling 
 for them their first bible, the Granth or Book, by making 
 Amritsar the centre and metropolis of Sikhism. and by 
 ruling the Sikhs as a kind of pontiff. Arjun was impri- 
 soned as a rebel, and perhaps was killed by the Muham- 
 madans. From this time the Sikhs began to develop 
 their warlike propensities. 'OTien the ninth Guru was 
 cruelly tortured by the Muhammadan Emperor Aurang- 
 Bib, the Sikhs l)ecame. as Monier-Williams says, a nation 
 of fighting men. It was under the tenth Guru, Govind, 
 that the Sikhs became a nation. They now assumed the 
 name Singhs or " Lions of the Punjab." Govind com- 
 pleted their organization. He compiled a second bible 
 and wrote a book for it called the Book of the tenth 
 Guru. '■ In hie own supplement (Jovind adhered to the 
 religious teaching of the Adi-Granth, but he introtluced 
 precepts the direct object of which was to rouse the 
 martial ardour of his followers" (Monier-Williams). 
 The original Granth came to be called Adigranth, the 
 First Book, to distinguish it from this later and larger 
 compilation. The new Granth was to take the place of 
 the last of the Gurus, to be a Granth-Sahib. The Sikhs 
 have a special objection to the worship of images, but 
 they have made their sacred book into a kind of idol. 
 Monier-Williams found that at Amritssir " the Granth is, 
 in fact, the real divinity of the shrine, and is treated 
 as if it had a veritable personal existence." It is said 
 that many of the Sikhs have now returned to the ordinary 
 practices of the Hindus. See Monier-Williams; E. W. 
 Hopkins: Sir Lepel Griflfin in Great Reliyions of the 
 ■H'of-M. 1902: F. Pincott in fl.S'.'H".; J. C. Oman, Oult». 
 
 SILENUS. A god of Asia Minor. A divinity of woods 
 and fountains, people tried to catch him and to make 
 him prophesy and sing to them. It is said that King 
 Midas of Phrygia thus learned all kinds of wisdom. 
 Siienus came to be regarded as the teacher and constant 
 companion of Dionysus. To him Dionysus owed his 
 highest aspirations and much of his success and fame. 
 To his inspiration was due the cultivation of the vine 
 and the keeping of bees. In the famous group in the 
 Vatican at Rome he is represented as nursing the infant 
 Dionysus. With him were associated t^ilcnuses (SUeni), 
 woodland deities corresponding to the young Pans and 
 the Fauns (see FAUNUS). Siienus and the Silenuses 
 are supix>sed to have taught men the use of the flute. 
 In later art the god presents a degraded figure. He 
 appears " as a little old man, pot-bellied, with bald head 
 and snub nose, his whole body very hairy : never witliout 
 his skin of wine, always drunk, and hence usually riding 
 on an ass, and led and snpiiorted by the other Satyrs " 
 (O. Sevfifert). See O. Sevflfert, Diet.; J. M. Robertson, 
 CM.: 3. G. Frazer. G.B.. Pt. v., vol. ii. 
 
 SILVANT^S. An ancient Italian deity, worshipped 
 originall.v as a god of woods and trees. He resembled 
 Faunus if/.r.}. In course of time Silvanus came to be 
 regarded as the protector of the house, of shepherds and 
 flocks, and of boundaries. He ca.me also, like Faunus, 
 to be identified with tie Greek god Pan (q.r.). And 
 Silvanus was supposed to have his Silvanuses (Silvani). 
 just as Pan had his young Pans, and Faunus his Fauns. 
 On this see further FAUNUS. See O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 SIMIA. A Syrian deity. A daughter of Hadad, she 
 was worshipped at Hierapolis. In Latin inscriptions she 
 
 appears as Juno Regina. Simla is associated with 
 Aphrodite and Hadad, and is represented with a dove on 
 her head. 
 
 SIMONIANISM, ST. The School of thought founded 
 by Count St. Simon (17ri0-182o), who seems to have been 
 influenced by the philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau 
 (1712-177S). The origin and aims of St. Simonianism 
 are described admirably by Edward Vansittart Neale 
 (lSlO-1892), who l)e«ime one of the flr.st members of the 
 Christian Social Union. " St. Simon was nurtured 
 among the stirring scenes of the last half of the 
 Eighteenth Century. Sprung from an ancient family of 
 French noblesse, he grew up to manhood while the power 
 of the Grand Monarque was still unbrolien. He took an 
 active part in that war of American Independence, the 
 prelude to the great European movement, becoming a 
 colonel under Washington at the age of twenty-three. 
 He saw society shaken to its basis by the hurricane of 
 the French Revolution, terminating in the dazzling but 
 brief effort of Naix>leon to create a new Eurojjean unity 
 by military ix>wer." After pnxlucing several preliminary 
 works which aimed at explaining methods of reorganizing 
 society upon a new basis, he published his " Treatise du 
 Nouveau Christianisme," which soon after his death 
 became the foundation of the system known as St. 
 Simonianism. The philosophy of the Simonians had an 
 essentially religious character. " The destination of 
 mankind, they taught, bound up in God with that of the 
 globe they inhabit, was accomplished progressively. The 
 end of man was happiness, which he could obtain only 
 by a religious union with those of his own race and with 
 the world which surrounds him. The grandest desire 
 which mankind could form for social and individual 
 happine.ss was that of the religious and political as.socia- 
 tion of all nations among themselves, of all the families 
 of the .same nation, and of all the individuals of the 
 same family, and of the harmony between the two halves 
 of the human race, the man and the woman, whose union 
 by the institution of marriage forms the type and germ 
 of all other associations. Association was defined to be 
 the union of men to work together and enjoy fjeaceably 
 the fniits of their labour: the worth of man in associa- 
 tion would be measured by the special portion which 
 he could iiersonally accomplish jof the common task : this 
 constituted his capacity, otherwise called his iiersonality 
 or liberty. But men were t>orn with unequal and different 
 capacities: this was the law of Go<l, a holy law, which 
 man should love as the condition of his progress. In 
 consequence association implied a hierarchy, that is a 
 division of different tasks according to men's different 
 vocations or aptitudes, and a combination of efforts by 
 the subordination of the inferior to (he superior capac- 
 ities, terminating in the result of the union of all in 
 one social work which had as its basis the desires and 
 the wants of all, and as its object the moral, intellectnal, 
 and physical amelioration of all: and was so arranged 
 that every one would take part in it according to his 
 capacity, and share in the results according to his work. 
 In its complete form association would consist of artists. 
 or priests: men of science, or theologians: and men of 
 industry, otherwise called theurgists: and its outward 
 object would l>e tiie embellishing and making useful to 
 man the terrestial globe. The progress of mankind con- 
 sisted in the degree of iierfection attained in acting upon 
 this law of association. In the most imperfect stage of 
 human progress, from man's apiiearanee upon the earth 
 to the Christian era, the nature of the work assigned 
 to each man and the reward allotted to him had 
 depended upon his birth. Oa.stes, slavery, serfdom, in- 
 heritance, the servitud(! of the most numerous class, 
 V exploitation de I'homme par I'homme, with their con-
 
 Sin 
 
 326 
 
 Siva 
 
 sequences war, iguorance. misery, and disease, were the 
 cljaracteristics of this period; as, in the opposite stage, 
 the emancipation of the most numerous class by the 
 abolition of all the privileges of birth, with its results 
 peace and love, the moral amelioration of mankind by 
 the continual progress of religion expressed by the fine 
 arts their intellectual amelioration by the continual pro- 
 gress of science, and their physical amelioration by the 
 conHnued progress of industry, would characterise tlie 
 future after the adoption of the perfect law announced 
 bv St. Simon." Unfortunately these doctrines lent them- 
 selves to abuses. To community of proi^rty was added 
 aftenN-ards community of women, and in 1832 St. 
 Simonianism bad to be suppressed by the French Govern- 
 men .\uguste Comte (170S-1S57), however, was a dis- 
 ciple of St. Simon, and iu bis own philosophy. Positivism 
 Ui V ) revived much of the teaching of his master. See 
 Edward Vansittart Neale, The Characteristic Features 
 of some of the Principal Bystvms of Socialism, IS.jl; J. 
 H. Blunt; cp. Giuseppe Mazzlni, Thoityhts upon Demo- 
 cracy in Europe, 1847. 
 
 SIN. A Babylonian deity. Sin was the moon-god, 
 who. as Xannai-. in the early times was worshipped 
 particularlv at Ur. and was regarded as more important 
 than the sun-god, Shamash (q.v.). The worship of Sin 
 is particularly associated with Harran. But after the 
 time of Hammurapi, Nannar and Sin became identical. 
 Nannar was the " illuminator," and this character was 
 transferred to Sin. Sin was represented as being the 
 father of the goddess Ishtar (g.r.). As in the case of 
 Marduk {q.v.), the child seems in course of time to a 
 large extent to have taUen the place of the parent. When, 
 moreover, the lunar cycle was accommodated to the 
 movements of the sun, Shamash naturally became more 
 prominent than Sin. The Assyrian kings refer to sin 
 as a war-god who inspires terror. The consort of Sin 
 was Nin-gal. The ship in which Sin was carried in pro- 
 cession was called " ship of light." See Morris Jastrow, 
 ReX. 
 
 SIN-EATER. A name which has been applied to a 
 rierson who figured in funeral observances in Great 
 Britain. He ate some food placed on the chest of the 
 deceased, and by so doing was supposed to relieve the 
 latter of his sins and take them ■a\^o^\ himself. The 
 practice may have come to be interpreted in this way, 
 but its original significance was probably identical with 
 that of the so-called corpse-cakes (q.v.) in the Highlands 
 of Bavaria. 
 
 SINGBONGA. A Hindu deity, the sun, worshipped 
 by the Turis, a non-Aryan caste of cultivators, workers 
 in bamboo, and basket-makers in India. Singbonga is 
 also the chief deity of the Mundas (also called Kols or 
 Hos), a large tribe in Chota Nagpur. 
 
 SINGHBAHANI. A Hindu deity, a goddess wor- 
 shipped by the Tameras. the professional caste of copper- 
 smiths in India. She is represented riding on a tiger. 
 
 SINTHGUNT. An old Teutonic goddess mentioned in 
 one of the Merseburg Charms {q.v.). 
 
 SIRMIUM, STONEMASONS OF. The famous Stone- 
 masons of Sirmium were five Christians belonging to 
 Pannonia who were martyred in the reign of Diocletian. 
 They were employed in the imperial quarries, and 
 worked with such skill that they excited the jealousy 
 of the pagans. Ordered by the emperor to make, among 
 other statues, a statue of Aesculapius (g.r.) they refused 
 to do -SO. Thereupon their enemies were able to obtain 
 an order for their execution. The five Christian stone- 
 masons — one of them originally a pagan — ^were put in 
 lead coffins and thrown into the Save. See Wace and 
 Piercy. 
 
 SIRONA. Sirona appears as the name of one of the 
 
 goddesses worshipped by the ancient Celts. She is paired 
 with Grannus {q.v.), the Celtic Apollo. E. Anwyl thinks 
 that probably the name meant " the long-lived one," and 
 was used of the eartJi-mother. 
 
 SISTERHOOD OF ST. MARGARET'S, EAST GRIN- 
 STEAD. A Church of England Sisterhood founded in 
 18.54. The Sisters are engaged in the conduct of 
 Orphanages and Homes of Rest, in working ecclesiastical 
 embroidery, and in education. Their books include 
 " services in honour of the Saints, Invocation of Saints, 
 Offices for the Dead, and for Corpus Christi Day " 
 (Walsh). See Walter Walsh, '■ Sisterhoods, Ritualistic," 
 in the Prot. Diet. 
 
 SISTERS OF THE CHURCH. A Church of England 
 Sisterhood mainly devoted to educational work. The 
 Sisters also conduct Convalescent Homes and Orphanages. 
 They publish tracts and books of devotion, " several of 
 them teaching Auricular Confession. Prayers for the 
 Dead, and the Eucharistic Sacrifice " (Walsh). See 
 Walter Walsh, " Sisterhoods, Ritualistic," in the Prot. 
 Diet. 
 
 SISTRUM. A kind of rattle borrowed by the Romans 
 from the Egyptians. The instrument, as shaken before 
 Hathor or Isis or some other deity, was roundetl at the 
 top and had four transverse bars. Andrew Lang com- 
 pares it with the "bull-roarer" (Australian turndun) 
 used as a call to the ceremonial obson"ance of tribal 
 ritual. In ancient Egvpt it was used also as a musical 
 instrument. Cp. BULL-ROARER and CHURINGA. 
 
 SITA. A Hindu goddess, the wife of Rama. 
 
 SITALA DEVI. An Indian deity, the Hindu goddess 
 of small-pox, worshipped by the Parwars, a sub-caste of 
 the Jains^ 
 
 SITaRaM. Rama (King of Ayodhia, a great incarna- 
 tion of Vishnu) and Sita, his wife, one of the names of 
 the Hindu god Riima. 
 
 SITTARS. The name Sittars taken by a modern sect 
 in Southern India is equivalent to the old term Siddhas. 
 " saints " or " perfect ones," which is used in reference 
 to attendants upon Indra {q.v.), and to those who are 
 initiated into the mysteries of Saktism {q.v.). The 
 Sittars may have been influenced either by Islam or by 
 Christianity. The essence of religion they understand 
 to be " kindness to all." Hopkins thinks that they seem 
 to be the modem representatives of the Buddhistic divis- 
 ion called Sfiugatas {q.v.). " In these sects there is 
 found quietism, a kind of quakerism, pure morality, high 
 teaching, sternest (almost bigoted) monotheism, and the 
 doctrine of positive altruism, strange to the Hindu 
 Idolator as to the Brahman." See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 SIVA. Siva is one of the principal Hindu deities. He 
 has developed out of the Vedic deity Rudra {q.v.). He is 
 one of the triad, Brahm.n. Vishnu {q.r.), and Siva; for 
 at one time Brahma was regarded as the Creator, Vishnu 
 as the Preserver, and Siva as the Dissolver and Repro- 
 ducer. Orthodox Brahmans are generally worshippers 
 of Siva, or Vaishnavas, worshippers of Vishnu. The 
 ferenee for the worship of one or the other. The Hindus 
 of modem times are usually either Saivas. worshippers 
 of Siva, or Vaishnavas, worshippers of Vishnu. The 
 Saivas worship one personal god Siva as the Supreme 
 Being. Monier-Williams points out that Siva is repre- 
 sented as less, human and more mystical than the incarn- 
 ated Vishnu. " The character In which he is most 
 frequently worshipped is that of an omnipotent (Jod, 
 taking the place of Brahma the Creator, and granting 
 new life to all created things, but only thixjugh death and 
 disintegration. Hence he is not represented by the image 
 of a man, but by a mystic symbol — perhaps the best 
 symbol of delegated creative power — which is not dressed 
 or fed or put to sleep like Vishnu's idols, but is supposed
 
 Sivachars 
 
 327 
 
 to be in a condition of perpetual heat and excitement, and 
 requires to be cooled and appeased bv constant sprinklings 
 (abhisheka) of cold (ranges water and cooling Bilva 
 leaves applied throughout the day by those who worship 
 him." This symbol is the Linga (g.v.). which is often 
 made of white stone, just as Vishnu is represented by a 
 black stone, the Salagrama (g.v.). Although Siva never 
 became incarnate in the sense that Vishnu did, he assumed 
 a distinct personality and a variety of characters. His 
 worshippers gave him more than a thousand names or 
 epithets (1008). These include: The Mother (Mata)- 
 The Father (Pita): Extinction (Xirvanam): The Great 
 Illusionist (Mahamayah): The White One (Suklah); The 
 Mule (Haya-gardabhih). Of his many characters, 
 Monier-Williams thinks that five stand out prominently. 
 1. Siva personifies the dissolving and disintegrating 
 powers of nature. 2. He personifies the reproductive 
 power of nature. .3. He is the type of asceticism and self- 
 mortification. 4. He is the learned sage and contempla- 
 tive philosopher. 5. He is the jovial mountaineer, who 
 is fond of hunting, dancing, and drinking. The wife of 
 Siva appears with several names, which include Durga 
 or Kali. The female energy corresponding to Siva is 
 caUed Sakti (see SaKTISM). See Monier-Williams; E. 
 W. Hopkins: J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 SIVACHARS. According to the Mysore Census 
 Report, 1901. the Lingayats call themselves Vira Saivas, 
 Sivabhaktas, or Sivachars. " The VIrasaiva religion con- 
 sists of numerous castes. It is a religion consisting of 
 representatives from almost everv caste in Hindu 
 society." 
 
 SIX PRIN'CIPLE BAPTISTS. A body of Baptists in 
 America, descendants of the Baptists of the first Baptist 
 Church founded at I'rovidence in Rhode Island (1639) by 
 Roger Williams (ir,04?-l6S3). They caUed themselves 
 " The Ancient Order of the Six Principles of the Doctrine 
 of Christ and His Apostles." The principles were : 
 repentance from dead works, faith in God, the doctrine 
 of baptisms, laying on of hands ((Confirmation), resur- 
 rection of the dead, and eternal judgment. S^ J H 
 Blunt; cp. the D.N.B. 
 
 SJOFX. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons 
 The goddess Sjofn belonged to the retinue of Frija (g.v.) 
 and Freyja (g.v.), and seems to have been a goddess of 
 love. 
 
 SKADHI. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons 
 The goddess Skadhi, daughter of the giant Thjazi, and 
 wife of the god Njordhr (g.v.), was Furnish. She is 
 represented as hunting game with bow and arrow. 
 Temples and groves are said to have been con.secrated to 
 her. See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the 
 Teutons, 1902. 
 
 SKAXDA. Skanda. often called Karttikeva and more 
 often still Su-brahmanya, is one of the gods of the 
 Hindus. He is one of the sons of Siva (g.v.). To the 
 extent that Skanda is the leader of the hosts of good 
 demons against the evil demons he is the god of war. 
 His name Su-brahmanya, however, means " very pious 
 or sacred." His brother, Ganesa (g.v.), is represented 
 as being unmarried, but Skanda has two wives. " These 
 like their husband, are believed to grant children to 
 prevent the attacks and thwart the malice of devils and 
 when evil spirits have actually taken possession of any 
 one, to be capable of casting them out " (Monier- 
 Williams). The difference between Skanda and Ganesa 
 seems to be that Skanda leads the demon-host as a 
 ■warrior, whereas Ganesa controls it as a king. The 
 demons of Skanda who possess people are represented as 
 being both male and female. It should be added that the 
 animals of Skanda are the cock and the peacock See 
 Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 Snake Worship 
 
 SKOPTZI. The Skoptzi or " Self-mutilators " are a 
 branch of the Russian Khlisti (g.v.), who again are a sub- 
 sect of the Russian dissenters known as Bezpopovtzi. 
 ±hey adhere closely to the principle contained in 
 Matthew V. 30 : " And if thy right hand causeth thee to 
 stumble, cut it off, and ca.st it from thee, for it is profit- 
 able for thee that one of thy members should perish and 
 not thy whole body go into hell." They are ascetics, and 
 practise flagellation and self-mutilation. Their own name 
 for themselves is Karablik, a term meaning 'a small 
 ?^\ .^ ,® Skoptzi do not obsen-e Sunday, and they 
 o^l^L S*' doctrine of the resurrection of the "body. See 
 Schaff-Herzog; J. H. Blunt. 
 
 SMaRTAS. One of the three principle classes into 
 which the Hindus are divided for religious classification. 
 The Smartas believe in the Tri-miirti, the three personal 
 gods, Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu; but they regard them 
 " only as co-equal manifestations of the one eternal 
 impersonal Spirit, and as destined ultimately to be re- 
 absorbed into that Spirit and so disappear " (Monier- 
 VViUiams). The spirit of man is identical with that one 
 Spirit which is the essence of the Universe. The Smarta 
 Brahmans are followers of the great eighth century 
 teacher Sankara. Sankara, who was a strict Brahman 
 and • a typical representative of Brahmanieal doctrines " 
 founded a number of monasteries in India. He would 
 seem to have regarded Siva and Vishnu as equal mani- 
 festations of the Universal Spirit, though most modem 
 .Smarta Brahmans have a preference for the worship of 
 Siva. According to Sankara, " the separate existence 
 of the spirit of man, as distinct from the one Universal 
 Spirit, was only illusory. Illusion (Mava), too— existin<' 
 from all eternity— was the only material or .<5ub.stantial 
 cause (upadana-karana) of the external world, though 
 this eternally creative Illusion was powerless to create 
 the world except in union with the one Spirit " (Monier- 
 Williams). See Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins 
 
 SMECTTMNIAXS. The name of a theological school 
 or party. The leaders of the party were Stephen Mar- 
 .shal, Edmund Calamy (1000-1666). Thomas Young (1.587- 
 16oo), Matthew Newcomen (1G10?-1669), and William 
 Spurstowe (16057-1666). When Joseph Hall (1.574-10.56) 
 Bishop of Exeter, published the " Divine Right of 
 Episcopacy" (1640), these five men entered into a con- 
 troversy with him and sought (1641) to refute his claim 
 m a work " Smectymnuus." The title of the work was 
 sugge.sted by the initial letters of the names of the 
 authors, and the party has been called the " Smectymn- 
 ians." See John Hunt. 
 
 SNAKE-GODDESS. Snake-goddesses figured in 
 
 Minoan worship. At Knossos a representation of a group 
 of these was discovered. Some of them are well 
 described by H. R. Hall (A. A.). •' The two weird women 
 stand there, figures of polychrome-faience a little over a 
 foot high, attired in the latest Minoan female fashion of 
 their day, and holding at arm'is-length with strong and 
 imperious gesture writhing and twi.sting serpents. A 
 ' spotted snake with double tongue ' curls itself round 
 the high head-dress of the chief figure, while on the head 
 of the other, above what looks like a wreath, sits a 
 spotted cat, with face looking straight at the worshipper." 
 Mr. Hall points out that the association of the cat with 
 the snake seems to have been a definite item of Minoan 
 .superstition, since it is paralleled elsewhere. 
 
 SNAKE WORSHIP. Among the Kunbis, the great 
 agricultural caste of the Maratha countrv in India, " if a 
 man dies of snake-bite they make a little silver image 
 of a snake, and then kill a real snake, and make a 
 platform outside the village and place the image on it, 
 which is afterwards regularly worshipped as Naeoba 
 Deo " (R. V. Russell).
 
 Snotra 
 
 328 
 
 Socialists, Sacred 
 
 SNOTRA One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. 
 The goddess Snotra, who belonged to the retinue of Frija 
 (q.v.) and Freyja (q.v.), is represented as a goddess of 
 
 SOCIALISM See, in addition to the articles below, 
 FOURIERISM, SIMONIANISM ST., and OWENITES. 
 
 SOCIALISM, CHRISTIAN. The need of the move- 
 ment known as Christian Socialism was suggested by the 
 great social distress of the working classes which cul- 
 minated in the great Chartist demonstration of April 
 the 10th, 1848. In May, 1848, Frederick Denison Maurice 
 (1805-1S72) and his friends commenced the publication of 
 a series of " Tracts for the Times " in which they pro- 
 posed to " consider the questions of the relation of the 
 capitalist to the labourer, of what a government can or 
 cannot do, to find work or pay for the poor." The friends 
 with whom Maurice had takeu counsel were Charles 
 Kingsley (1819-1875), Julius Charles Hare (179o-lSo5), 
 Alexander John Scott (1805-1806), J. M. Ludlow, Charles 
 Blackford Mansfield (1819-1855), J. W. Parker (1(92- 
 1870), and Thomas Hughes (1822-1890). The tracts were 
 also described as " Politics for the People." The con- 
 tributors, in addition to Maurice, Kingsley, Ludlow, 
 Mansfield, and Scott, included Richard Whately (1783- 
 1803). Archbishop of Dublin, R. C. Trench (1807-1880), 
 Archbishop of Dublin, Connop Thirlwall (1797-1875), 
 Bishop of St. David's, Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (1815- 
 1881), Dean of Westminster, Professor Connington, Dr. 
 Guy, James Spedding (1808-1881), Daniel Macmillan 
 (1813-1857), founder of Maemillan's publishing company, 
 Ix)rd Sidney Godolphin Osborne (1808-1889), Sir Edward 
 Strachev, and Sir Arthur Helps (1813-1875). All these 
 Dr. Stubbs describes as pioneers of the Christian Social 
 movement in England. Charles Kingsley adopted as a 
 nom dc plume the name " Parson Lot." It was under 
 this name that he wrote his famous pamphlet " Cheap 
 Clothes and Nasty." In the summer of 1849 a series of 
 meetings were held at the house of Maurice, with the 
 result that a Co-operative Association of Tailors was 
 formed. The next step was the establishment in 1850 of 
 the Society for the Promotion of Working-men's Associa- 
 tions, " the practical application of Christianity to the 
 purposes of trade and industry." With this was asso- 
 ciated the plan of publishing Tracts on Christian 
 Socialism. The new Society enlisted the sympathies of 
 a mimber of new workers. These included Dr. Walsh, 
 Augustus Vansittart, E. Vans'ittart Neale (1810-1892), 
 founder of the Central Co-operative Agency and one of 
 the first members of the Christian Social Union (q.v.), 
 Cuthbert Ellison, a friend of Thackeray, Charles Sully, 
 and Llovd Jones (1811-1&S0), a disciple of Robert Owen 
 (1771-1858). E. Vansittart Neale found the capital for 
 starting two Working Builders' Associations, and he 
 established the first London Co-operative Stores. Mr. 
 Neale in a lecture on the characteristic features of 
 Socialism, after passing in review the principal systems, 
 seeks to justify the designation Christian Socialism. 
 " The remarks which I have made upon the systems of 
 the Social Reformers with whom we have been occupied 
 to-night, must serve as my .iustification for claiming the 
 epithet Christian as the proper distinctive adjunct to 
 Socialism, and calling upon all Socialism to announce 
 itself as Christian, if it would be at once truly social 
 and historically just. We have in these systems the 
 theories of four independent, fearless, original minds, 
 earnest in their own views, propounding them as exclu- 
 sively the truth on the questions to which Socialism 
 relates. Now if we are not to commit ourselves to any 
 of these teachers alone, if we assume that each one saw 
 some side or portion of social truth; if. therefore, we are 
 to seek for a principle which shall harmonize them 
 
 among themselves, I know not where we shall find one 
 unless we accept as true that profound saying of the 
 gospel, which I select as pre-eminently expressive of the 
 tone of many others of the Christian precepts : ' Except 
 ye become as little children ye cannot enter into the king- 
 dom of God.' For consider what, according to these 
 several authors. Socialism demands : A fearless trust- 
 fulness towards God, a readiness to be guided by our 
 natural superiors, a disposition for enjoyment, a general 
 feeling of interest in the objects around us, an absence 
 of the pride of outward distinction, a readiness to be 
 satisfied with the exercise of our powers as such without 
 troubling ourselves as to the reward ; all these are quali- 
 ties which according to one or another of our isocialist 
 philo-sophers, are to make up true Socialism. And do 
 not these constitute the very essence of childhood in its 
 healthy manifestations, that is the essence of that char- 
 acter which Christianity eighteen centuries since 
 declared to be an indispensable condition of man's true 
 well-being? I say then, if as socialists we would be just, 
 we must acknowledge Socialism to be the offspring of 
 Christianity." It has been stated recently by a number 
 of clergymen that, as far as the ultimate aims are con- 
 cerned, there is no difference between Christian Socialism 
 and Socialism as commonly understood. In that case 
 the real difference of opinion now is as to the means. 
 Socialism is itself of the nature of a religion. While, 
 however, one section of Socialists, Christian Socialists, 
 identify Socialism with Christianity and the best work 
 of the Christian Church, the other section, composed of 
 Secular Socialists, repudiates Christianity, and asserts 
 that it has been a hindrance rather than a help to the 
 cause. To the one section belong such men as Canon 
 S. Holland, Father Adderley, and Mr. R. J. Campbell; 
 to the other such men as Robert Blatchford. To describe 
 Socialism, therefore, either as Christian or Secular is 
 convenient and appropriate. To regard the term 
 " Christian " in this application as being a natural and 
 inevitable description of Socialism is unwise. The 
 Gospel of Jesus is indeed democratic. God is, in his view, 
 no respecter of persons. But his message seems to have 
 been essentially religious. He .seems to have taught 
 that, whatever a person's outward circumstances may 
 be, he may develop within himself a i>eace of God which 
 passeth all understanding. The words of Jesus, as W. 
 Herrmann .says, seem to have been intended to " reveal 
 to us that -spirit which enables us to gain independence 
 in the inward man — that is to say, true life." It may 
 well be asserted tliat Jesus was as much an individualist 
 as a socialist. See the Tracts on Christian Socialism; 
 J. M. Ludlow. Christian Socialism and its Opponents, 
 1851; Professor Maurice, The Reformation of Society, 
 1851; Edward Vansittart Neale, The Characteristic 
 Features of sotne of the Principal Sy.items of Socialism, 
 1851; Thomas Ramsay, Is Christian Socialism a Church 
 Matter? 1851; C. W. Stubbs, Charles Kingsley and the 
 Christian Social Movement, 1899; A. Hamaek and W. 
 Herrmann, Essays on the Social Oospel, 1907. 
 
 SOCIALISTS, SACRED. Sacred Socialists was the 
 name of a small band of men who formed a kind of 
 branch of Robert Owen's followers under the leadership 
 of James Pierrepont Greaves (1777-1842). Greaves was 
 of a mystic turn of mind, and was influenced by the 
 writings of Jacob Boehme (1575-1024). Greave's Socialism, 
 in contrast to the rather materialistic system of Robert 
 Owen, was of a spiritual character. He had in view 
 " the soul's spiritual ends and the interior world." He 
 would seek to discover scientific arrangements to make 
 human beings everywhere and at all times dwell without 
 the wants or wishes of wealth, without desire for indi- 
 vidual accumulation, or any inequality of condition."
 
 Societies for Promoting Primitive Christianity 329 Societies for Promoting Primitive Christianity 
 
 The great need is for the soul to be " possessed and 
 exercised by the Love Spirit." This should make the 
 " science of the influence of circumstances and the indi- 
 vidual man both correspond with the universal man, and 
 by this universal man hold through all ages the individual 
 man and his sciences under control, and secure him from 
 miser}' and inferiority, which could onlv be done by 
 enlarging the antecedent parental relationship so as to 
 secure to the new beings a superior organ.'' Greaves' 
 system is somewhat ascetic in character, as E. Vansittart 
 Neale points out. " The use of cold water abundantly 
 abstinence from all but vegetable diet, and all drinks but 
 water; and, for the attainment of the highest state, the 
 union of what he calls the life, light, and love natures, 
 the use only of undyed and flowing robes of linen, above 
 all, marriages between • unions of Spirit, selected pairs 
 in sympathetic harmony with Love': these are some of 
 the conditions which he proposes." Greaves was Secre- 
 tary of the London Infant School Society. See Edward 
 Vansittart Neale, The Characteristic Features o/ some of 
 the Principal l^ystems of Socialism, 1,S51: and the D N li 
 SOCIETIES FOR PROMOTING PRIMITIVE CHRIS- 
 TIANITY. The theologian who conceived the idea of 
 forming these Societies, William %^Tiiston (1067-1752), in 
 spite of his eccentricity, deserves, as Leslie Stephen has 
 pointed out, more attention than has usually been given 
 to him. He may be said to some extent to' have antici- 
 pated movements which have attained important dimens- 
 ions in recent years. William Whiston was bom in 
 166<, his father. Josiah WTiiston, at the time of his birth 
 being Rector of Norton in Leicester. He was educated 
 at home by his father until 1684, when he went to Tam- 
 worth School. Two years later he was entered at Clare 
 Hall, Cambridge, where we are told his motto was " plain 
 living and high thinking." He worked eight hours a 
 day, chiefly at mathematics: and the plainness of his 
 living IS shown by the fact that his expenses amounted 
 to less than £100 for three years and a half His 
 industry was rewarded in 1693. when he became a Fellow 
 and Tutor of his College. His next step was ordina- 
 tion, which led to his appointment as Chaplain to John 
 Moore {1646-17:4), Bishop of Norwich, a position which 
 he held from l(i94 to 1698. Meantime he had devoted 
 himself to the study of the " Philosophiae Naturalis 
 Principia Mathematica " (16.87) of Isaac Newton (1(;42- 
 17J7). The next important event in his life was the 
 publication of his tirst book, " A New Theory of the 
 Earth " (1096), the object of which was to confir'a the 
 story of Genesis on Newtonian grounds. In 1698 P.ishop 
 Moore presented him with the living of Lowestoft 
 Suffolk. After the publication of his first book, others 
 followed in rapid succession. We learn that in 1710 his 
 writings made " a great noise In Germany." He had 
 already m 1703 succeeded Sir Isaac Newton as Lucasian 
 Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge. But his theo- 
 logical investigations leading him to regard a form of 
 Ananism as the most primitive type of Christianity, he 
 was banished from Cambridge at the end of 1710, and in 
 1(11 we find him settled in London. Proceedings were 
 taken against him on account of his teaching: but they 
 did not lead to any definite action, and apparently they 
 did not disturb Whi.ston's equanimity. " Continuing to 
 act boldly, according to my duty and conscience [I] 
 enjoyed a great calm within, how roughly .soever the 
 waves and billows abroad seemed readv to overwhelm 
 me Nor do I remember that during all the legal pro- 
 ceedings against me, which lasted in all four or five 
 years at Cambridge and I»ndon. I lo.^^t my sleep more 
 than two or three hours one night to that account " In 
 January 1711 Whiston's address is: Lower end of Cross- 
 etreet, Hatton Garden. The nearest church in those 
 
 days was St. Andrew's, Holborn, of which in 1713 the 
 i^T-"!? ^'■-v,??'^'^ Sacheverell (1674?-1724) became Rector, 
 in 1(11 Whiston published his book " Primitive Christ- 
 lamty Revived." On Easter Day, 1715, he says, " we 
 began to have a solemn assembly for worship, 'and the 
 Lucharist, at my house in Cross-street, Hatton Garden, 
 according to the form in my Liturgy (about fifteen com- 
 municants present)." This assembly was held three 
 times a year for several years. The title of the book 
 containing the hturgy is as follows: "The Liturgy of 
 the Church of England, Reduced nearer to the Primitive 
 Standard Humbly proposed to Public Consideration by 
 \\illiam Whiston, M.A. (A.D. 1713)." On July the 3rd, 
 Ido in pursuance of ^\Tiiston's proposals '• for erecting 
 Societies for promoting Primitive Christianity," such a 
 Society was erected " and " met weekly at the Primitive 
 L.brary which was at my house in Cross-street, Hatton 
 ^ ?V^ l^ '^^*^^ "°"^ "^'^"« 28, 1717. On the institu- 
 tion of the Society, Joshua (Josiah?) Martin (1683-1747) 
 the most learned of all the people called Quakers that 
 I ever knew, offered himself to be a member, and was 
 readily received as such. I then proposed that we should 
 use ^some short collects, taken out of our Common-Prayer 
 Hook, before we began and after we ended every meetin"- 
 to implore the blessing of God upon our enquiries- To 
 which proposal all readily agreed but Mr. Martin, who 
 entirely scrupled joining with us in such prayers, unless 
 when the Spirit moved him. Which occasioned a good 
 deal of (lifficulty to the Society. Yet at last we agreed 
 to leave him to himself, to stay either with his hat on or 
 off, as he pleased, and he gave us leave to say our prayers 
 ourselves: nor did he di.sturb us, nor was he afterward 
 an unuseful member, when he came to the Society " 
 Whiston fasted regularly on Wednesdays and Fridays- 
 thus he '• kept the old rule of Christians." But it was 
 not always easy to induce others to follow his example 
 .'-.o?"'^'^''^*'"^^ *''■• Rundle [Thomas Rundle (1088?- 
 1(43), Bishop of Derry, 1735-43] was at first so zealous 
 tor religion, as a member of our Society, yet did not 
 he keep himself in so temperate and abstemious a way 
 of living as one that seemed disposed to be a confessor 
 ought to use himself to: which made that real confessor 
 Mr. Emlyn [Thomas Bmlyn (1663-1741)] then say, "that 
 Mr. Rundle did not seem cut out for such sufferings as 
 c-onfessors are to expect.' Accordingly Mr. Rundle once 
 in\nted me to eat a cheese-cake, as he termed it, with 
 Mr. Talbot [? William Talbot (1659?-17.30)] and himself- 
 to which invitation I agreed, without suspicion of any 
 particular design. But when I came, I found such a 
 collation of wine and sweet-meats prepared, as little cor- 
 re.sponded to the terms of the invitation. After some 
 time the grand secret was disclosed, and I was informed 
 that they were both determined to sign the Thirty-nine 
 Articles, and take Holy Orders and preferment " In 
 1(19 Whiston published " A Letter of Thanks to the 
 Bishop of London [John Robinson (1650-1723)] for his 
 late Letter to his Clergy against the Use of New Forms 
 of Doxology," and rebuked the bishop " in a way of 
 banter or ridicule." On the Queen's remonstrating With 
 him, he said: "When the Bishop will beg St. Paul's 
 and St. Peter's, etc., pardon (for calling their doxologies 
 n?w and heretical do.xologies), I will beg his pardon." 
 It was the publication of this letter that gave ri.se to a 
 scene in St. Andrew's Church in which Dr. Sacheverell 
 and Whiston were the actors. The Rector ordered 
 Whiston to leave his church. This was his parish 
 church. After the altercation with Dr. Sacheverell, he 
 seems to have attended either St. George's, Queen's 
 Square, or St. Dunstan's in the East. He was not 
 exactly a persona grata in any church. The Athanasian 
 Heresy, as he called the established doctrine, whenever
 
 Society of the Holy Trinity 
 
 330 
 
 Socinians 
 
 he was specially reminded of it, as at the reading of the 
 Athanasian Creed, excited his anger to an almost intoler- 
 able degree. (In 1746 he made a solemn resolution re- 
 "■arding it He decided " to go out always from the 
 public worship of the Church of England, whenever the 
 reader of Common Prayer read the Athanasian Creed,' 
 which he esteemed " a public cursing of Christians." 
 He put this resolution into practice for the first time at 
 Lincoln's Inn Chapel on October the 28th, 1746. When 
 Mr. Rawlins began to read the Creed he went out, coming 
 in again when it was over. He acted in the same way 
 on November the 30th when Mr. Harrison began to read 
 it at St. George's Church, Queen's Square. Later on he 
 contented himself with sitting down while it was read). 
 In 1720 certain friends wished to propose Whiston as a 
 member of the Ro.val Society, but tlie proposal was 
 dropped on account of the opposition of Sir Isaac Newton, 
 the President. In 1721 "Whiston published " The Longi- 
 tude and Latitude found by the Inelinatory or Dipping 
 Needle "; and towards the end of the same year a large 
 subscription was made by his friends for the support of 
 his family and for the carrying on of his experiments. 
 William Whiston held strong views on the question of 
 second marriage. I^eslie Stephen has pointed out that 
 " in many respects he strongly resembles the Vicar of 
 Wakefield, who adopted his principles of monogamy." 
 He thinks " it is not improbable that Whiston was more 
 or less in Goldsmith's mind when he wrote his master- 
 piece." He addressed Dr. Hoadley (Benjamin Hoadly, 
 1676-1761) in the following terms : "In direct contra- 
 diction of the laws of Christ, you left your first church, 
 and though now advanced to a more lucrative bishopric, 
 duriug a good part of the year you abandon the duties 
 of your ecclesiastic office, to become a political member 
 of our civil constitution. Though a very old man, and 
 in express contradiction to the letter of the Holy Script- 
 ures, you have married a second time a young woman. 
 These notorious practices, together with your injudicious 
 and unlearned treatise on the Lord's Supper, will hand 
 you down in no very favourable light to posterity." In 
 1724 Whiston removed from Cross Street to Great Russell 
 Street, over against Montague House. In 1730 he 
 publi-shed his " Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Samuel 
 Clarke." It was in 1737 that lie iniblished the work by 
 which he is known most widely, " The genuine Works 
 of Josephus, the Jewish Historian, in English." This 
 was followed by various works on his pet subjects. In 
 addition to the Athanasian Creed, another stumbling 
 block to Whiston was the inclusion of Canticles (q.v.) 
 among the Canonical Books. Thus he once inquired of 
 Bishop Sherlock (1678-1761) " how the Church of England 
 could pretend to be so pure and primitive, as she has long 
 boasted herself to be, wliile she still retains the Book of 
 Canticles in her Bible, and the Athanasian Creed in her 
 Common Prayer Book." The Bishop made no answer. 
 In 174.5 was published the " Primitive New Testament in 
 English." Whiston's "darling motto" was "Consider 
 well and act steadily." His " immoveable Guide and 
 Standard " he found in tlie Aix>stolical Constitutions and 
 Canons. The Athanasian Creed he calls " that shame 
 and reproach of the public worship of the Church of Eng- 
 land." He notes that he " continued in the Communion 
 of the Church of England till Trinity Sunday, 1747." His 
 conscientious scruples in politics and religion brought 
 him to the verge almost of abject beggary. See especially 
 his Memoirs of my own Life; also the D.N.B. 
 
 SOCIETY OF THE HOLY TRINITY. A Church of 
 England Sisterhood founded in 1845. The Sisters devote 
 themselves to education, nursing, and visiting. There 
 is an inner circle called " Sisters of the Sacred Heart." 
 See Walter Walsh, " Sisterhoods, Ritualistic," in the 
 Prot. Diet. 
 
 SOCIETY OF THE SACRED MISSION, THE. An 
 Anglican Brotherhood which trains working-men for the 
 foreign mission field. Those who seek admission to its 
 training institution promise to serve for their whole life 
 without pay, receiving only the necessaries of life. They 
 also undertake to rejnain unmarried. See BROTHER- 
 HOODS, MODERN ANGLICAN. 
 
 SOCIETY PEOPLE. Another name for the Camero- 
 nians (g.v.). 
 
 SOCINIANS. The Socinians took their name from 
 two Italian theologians, Ltelius Socinus (1525-1562) and 
 his nephew, Faustus Socinus (1539-1004). Lselius Socinus 
 was a lawyer, who seems to have felt that jurisprudence 
 ought to rest uix>n a positive divine basis. He searched 
 the Scriptures to find this basis, and in his search found 
 himself confronted by a number of problems. His 
 nephew Faustus Socinus corresponded with him. He 
 also studied the manuscripts of his uncle. After 
 sijending some years in Switzerland, he settled in Poland, 
 which at this time was a haven of refuge for lil)eral 
 theologians. Unitarianism was already strongly en- 
 trenched in Poland, but it was infected with Anabaptist 
 notions. Socinus .set to work to form a compact com- 
 munity, and to formulate a consistent system of theology. 
 In 1605, immediately after his death, appeared the Rakow 
 or Socinian Catechism {Catechismus Racovensis), which 
 is a good compendium of the theology. It is not, how- 
 ever, a confession of faith, for the Socinians recognised 
 no authoritative Confessions. It was called the Rakow 
 Catechism from tlie city of Rakow where the general 
 synod of the Socinians met yearly. But interesting as 
 the Oat€chism is, the doctrinal system of the Socinians 
 is best drawn from the Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum 
 (eight volumes, 1656), in which a number of the writings 
 of the leading Socinians are included. The editor waa 
 Andreas Wissowatius {d. 1678). One of the most prolific 
 writers and daring thinkers was J. Crell. A study of 
 the Socinian writings makes it clear that their doctrines 
 are very different from those of modem Unitarianism 
 ((/.v.). In some ways the Socinians held firmly to a 
 IJositive supranaturalism. " The genuine Socinianism 
 decidedly desiderates a divine revelation. This revela- 
 tion is not regarded as some sort of internal working of 
 the divine spirit uix>n man, but as a purely external com- 
 munication of trutiis of a practical and theoretical 
 nature " (Puenjer). The revelation is to be found in 
 the Bible, particularly in the New Te-stament. The 
 writers wrote under the impulse and at the dictation of 
 the Divine Spirit. At the same time it was held that 
 only the essential parts were divinely inspired in the 
 sense of being free from error. Man has to exercise his 
 Reason, which is his spiritual eye. Only through Reason 
 can he receive, know, comprehend, and judge the divine 
 revelation. But Reason is not allowed an unlimited 
 right of criticism. " On the contrary, it is always 
 emphatically maintained by the Socinians that religion 
 is above reason, because it is revealed by God." Miracles 
 are not contrarj' to reason, but above reason. " A dis- 
 tinction between what is above reason and what is con- 
 trary to reason is attempted, by holding that it is entirely 
 different to say that a thing cannot be conceived, and to 
 conceive that a thing cannot be." Puenjer points out 
 that " in the application of this principle, reason is re- 
 garded as the supreme, indisputable judge of religious 
 doctrines: and an unlimited rationalism is thus intro- 
 duced." From this position Socinianism proceeded to 
 criticise the profoundest. Christian dogmas, and " almost 
 all that has been presented with reference to Christianity 
 in this connection, even to the present day, may be found 
 already contained in the writings of Faustus Socinus." 
 The Socinians found the doctrines of the Trinity and the
 
 Sodality 
 
 331 
 
 Spinozism 
 
 Deity of Christ to be contrary to Reason. Christ was 
 not a deity. At tie same time they held that he was 
 more than a man, having been conceived of a Virgin and 
 being perfectly holy. They found that the doctrine of 
 Satisfaction also was open to severe criticism. " Satis- 
 faction is imiKi.-isible in the abstract, as well as in the 
 concrete. It is imix)ssible in abstracto, because a satis- 
 faction by ohedientia activa and a satisfaction by 
 obedientia passiva mutually exclude each other. . . . 
 In lilie manner, satisfaction i^ impossible in concrrto, 
 and chiefly because we have brought upon us eternal 
 death, while Christ only underwent bodily death." The 
 Socinians flourished in Poland. They were more success- 
 ful in Holland than in Germany. Compare, further, 
 UNITARIANS. See Schaff-Herjsog : B. Puenjer; J. H. 
 Blunt. 
 
 SODALITY. In the Roman Catholic Church the term 
 sodality is used of a religious association of la.v persons, 
 male or female, or both male and female. " meeting 
 together at stated times under ecclesiastical direction, 
 for the performance of pious exercises, and recommending 
 to each of its members conformity in life and conversation 
 to a body of niles. framed in order to promote the honour 
 of God, devotion to the Blessed Virgin, the spread of good 
 works, and the spiritual advancement of those who faith- 
 fully observe them" (the Cath. Diet.). 
 
 SOLIFIDIANISM. The name given to the teaching 
 of Martin Luther (14S3-1.54G), according to which man is 
 saved bv faith alone and not by works. 
 
 SOLOMON'S SERVANTS, CHILDREN OF. The 
 " children of Solomon's servants " (Ezra ii. 5o, 58; Nehe- 
 miah vii. 57, tiO. xi. 3) would seem to have been another 
 name for the Nethlnlm (rj.v.). They were iHjrhaps slaves 
 of Solomon who were made temple-servants (see I. Kings 
 ix. 20 /.). 
 
 SOMA. An alcoholic drink made in India. In Vedic 
 times it was esteemed so highly by the Aryans that they 
 made it one of their principal gods, but its use is now 
 prohibited by the higher castes of Hindus. " It is said 
 in the Rig-Veda that Soma grows uix>n the mountain 
 Mujawat. that its or his father is Parjanya, the rain- 
 god, and that the waters are his sisters. From this 
 mountain, or from the sky, accounts differ. Soma was 
 brought by a hawk. He is himself represented in other 
 places as a bird ; and as a divinity he shares in the praise 
 given to Indra. It was he who helped Indra to slay 
 Vritra, the demon that keeps back the rain. Indra, 
 intoxicated by Soma, does his great deeds, and indeed 
 all the gods depend on Soma for immortality Divine, a 
 weaiK)n-bearing god, he often simply takes the place of 
 Indra and other gods in Vedic eulogy. It is the god 
 Soma himself who slays Vritra, Soma who overthrows 
 cities, Soma who begets the gods, creates the sun, upholds 
 the sky, prolongs life, sees all things, and is the one best 
 friend of god and man, the divine drop (imlu), the friend 
 of Indra. As a god he is associated not only with Indra 
 but also with Agni. Rudra, and Pushan " (Hopkins, 
 quoted by R. V. Russell). 
 
 SOMLAI. A Hindu deity. Somlai (or Devi) is one 
 of the principal deities of the Lobars, the occupational 
 caste of blacksmiths in India. 
 
 SOMMONOCODON. A Siamese deity. He seems to 
 have been a form of Buddha. 
 
 SONG OF SOLOMON. Another name for the book of 
 Canticles ((}.v.). 
 
 SONG OF SONGS. Another name for the book of 
 Canticles (g.v.). 
 
 SOTa. The name of one of the .Jewish tractates or 
 treatises which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D. and are 
 
 Inoorjiorated in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection and com- 
 pilation oompletetl by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Sota is the fifth tractate of the third group, 
 which is called NOshim (" Women "). 
 
 SOUTHCOTTIANS. The followers of Joanna South- 
 oott (1750-1S14). Joanna Southcott was at first a 
 Methodist. In 1792, she says, she began to receive divine 
 revelations. These were written down and sealed, to 
 be oi)ened some years later. In 1801 she began to publish 
 " prophecies" which had been revealed to her ten years 
 before. When she was sixty years old she announced 
 that, through supernatural conception, she would bear a 
 son who was to be Shiloh or tie Prince of Peace and was 
 to introduce the Millennium. " Since this powerful 
 visitation of tie Ix)rd came to me," she says in her 
 Second Book of Wonders, " like that in ninety-two 
 [1792], I have fre-sh things revealed to me every day. I 
 am awaked every morning between three and four 
 o'clock: I sit up in my bed till the day breaks: and have 
 communications given to me as soon as I am awake. 
 When the day breaks I rise and go down into the dining- 
 room by myself; the moment I enter the room I feel as 
 though I was surrounded with angels; feeling a heavenly 
 joy which I cannot describe, and which has taken from 
 me my natural appetite." A London physician. Dr. 
 Reece, who visited Joanna Southcott four months before 
 her death, believed her to be pregnant in .spite of her age 
 and virginity. Only a post mortem examination con- 
 vinced him of his mistake. She died on December the 
 27th, 1814. Her followers believed that she would revive. 
 In 1825 one Charles William Twort announced that he 
 was the Shiloh whose advent had been prophesied. He 
 published epistles, which were sealed with a special seal 
 and signed " Zion, the Ix)rd is here." The epistles were 
 called " Epistles of Shiloh." Another writer of similar 
 epistles was a George Turner of Leeds (1821). John 
 Wroe (1782-18(13) came under his influence, and in 1822 
 claimed to succeed him. His followers afterwards called 
 themselves Christian Israelites (g.v.). Joanna South- 
 cott's publications include "The Book of Wonders" 
 (1813-14) and " Prophecies concerning the Birth of the 
 Prince of Peace " (1814). See J. H. Blunt; the D.N.B.; 
 and Chambers' Enci/cl. 
 
 SOUTH INDIA UNITED CHURCH. A union of Con- 
 gregationalists, Methodists, and Presbyterians. At the 
 fir.st General As.sembly, held in 1908, a basis of union was 
 adopted. This included a Confession in five articles. 
 The Church reserved the right to revise its general Con- 
 fession of Faith whenever the consensus of opinion of 
 the United Body demands it. See W. A. Curtis. 
 
 SPIDER. The spider was sometimes used by the early 
 Christians in exorcisms. This " is shown by a very 
 curious I^atin text, recently published, in which the 
 exorcist denounces his enemy in tie name of the Lord 
 Jesus Christ, declaring that he shall not be able to ' cross 
 the river ' because of the ' fiery spider ' " (Cobern). 
 
 SPINOZISM. The principles of Benedict or Baruch 
 de Spinoza (l(;.32-lfi77). He was the son of a Jewish 
 merchant of Amsterdam. At a comparatively early age 
 Spinoza showed a great interest in learning. He was 
 encouraged and helped in his studies by the Chief Rabbi 
 of Am-sterdam, Saul Levi Morteira. But he lost the 
 sympathy of his Jewish friends, and even of his own 
 family, when he developed religious views wiich were 
 considered heterodox. He was excommunicated in 1650, 
 and had to leave his father's house and earn his living 
 as best he could before he was twenty-four years old. 
 The study of Descartes (Cartesius, 1596-1650) had given 
 him a deep and abiding interest in philosophy. After
 
 Spinozism 
 
 332 
 
 Spiritism 
 
 the publication of Spinoza's Principia Philosophiae Car- 
 tesianae, he was ofifered the chair of Philosophy in the 
 University of Heidelberg. He declined it, being unable 
 to comply with one of the conditions of acceptance, 
 namely, that he would not teach anything contrary to th<^ 
 established religion. The persons with whom he cor- 
 responded included Henry Oldenburg (1615?-1677), first 
 Secretary of the Royal Society, and G. W. Leibnitz (1646- 
 1716). Spinoza died of consiimption in 1077, when he was 
 only forty-five years old. His worli, Tractatus Theo- 
 log'ico-Poiiticus (1670) caused a great sensation, and its 
 eale was prohibited nearly everywhere. In it he con- 
 tends that the Word of God had been greatly misunder- 
 stood, and that the Bible required to be re-examined and 
 re-interpreted. Prophecy he explains in a natural way, 
 denying that it was a gift i)eculiar to the Jewish people. 
 Miracles, he argues, in the sense of interferences with 
 Nature, do not happen. Nothing contrary to Nature 
 can possibly happen. Miracles have been understood in 
 the Old Testament where they were not intended. Meta- 
 phorical language has been misinterpreted, understood 
 literally. The authorship of books of the Old Testament 
 was not such as commonly it has been supposed to be. 
 The Pentateuch and other lx)oks were written long after 
 the events which they describe. The Pentateuch was 
 written, not by Moses, but by Ezra. The books of 
 Chronicles were perhaps written by Judas Maccabaeus. 
 The P.salms were collected in the days of the Second 
 Temple. The Word of God is a living revelation from 
 the Divine Mind, and is not confined to any one book, or 
 indeed to any book. Holy Scripture supplies, not a body 
 of speculative theology, but a c-ollection of simple rules 
 or principles. The spheres of theology and philosophy 
 are distinct. The main principles of a universal faith are 
 as follows: "That there is a God, a Supreme Being, 
 who is most just and merciful, by whose example every 
 man ought to regulate his life; secondly, that this God 
 is One, which opinion is absolutely necessary to make a 
 man adore, admire, and love God — for devotion, admira- 
 tion, and love, are caused by that excellency which is in 
 one above all others; thirdly, that He is everywhere 
 present, or that all things are known to Him, for if any- 
 thing were hidden from Him, or if men did not think 
 that He seeth all things, we might doubt of His equity 
 and justice, whereby He govemeth all things: fourthly, 
 that He hath supreme power and dominion over all 
 things, that He doth nothing by compulsion, but of His 
 own goodwill and pleasure; fifthly, that the worship of 
 God, and obedience to Him, consists only in justice and 
 charity towards our neighbours: sixthly, that only they 
 who obey God by such a course of life will be saved; 
 and others, who are slaves to their lusts and pleasures, 
 will be condemned; lastly, that God pardoneth the sins 
 of those that repent, because there is no man living with- 
 out sin: therefore, if this were not an article of faith, 
 all would despair of salvation " (aft«r Sir Frederick 
 Pollock). Spinoza contends that everyone should be 
 free to think what he likes and to say what he thinks. 
 In his Ethics (1677), puhli.shed after his death, Spinoza 
 seeks to construct from human reason a mathematically 
 demonstrated system of ethics. The work, in part, treats 
 of God, who Is regarded as the foundation of all exist- 
 ence. Substance is that which stands under (Lat. 
 substans) all appearance, making it seem real. The one 
 ab.solute eternal substance is God. God is the cause 
 of all things, but He is immanent and not transient. 
 Whatever exists, exists in God, and without God notbing 
 can exist or be conceived. The one eternal Substance has 
 eternal Attributes. Of these Attributes there are only 
 two which can be apprehended by man. Extension 
 (Extensio) and Thought (Cogitatio). Everything material 
 
 is a Mode of God's Extension; everything intellectual is 
 a Mode of His Thought. The material runs quite parallel 
 to the intellectual. The order and connexion of ideas 
 is the same as the order and connexion of things. From 
 the infinite power or infinite nature of God has followed 
 neces.sarily the immanent, invisible Cause, Natura 
 naturans, and the visible Material, Natura nuturata. 
 Nothing happens by chance. The Ethics treats also of 
 the mind. The body of man is a Mode of God's Exten- 
 sion; the mind of man is a Mode of God's Thought. 
 Particular things are only Modes of expressing God's 
 Attributes in a definite way. " In so far as our mind 
 perceives things truly, it is part of the infinite intelli- 
 gence of God; and it is as much matter of necessity that 
 all clear and distinct ideas of the mind should be true 
 as that the idea of God in our mind is a truth." As to the 
 Human Will, it is not absolutely free. As to Good and 
 Evil, they are only relative ideas. True existence is 
 knowledge; the highest knowledge is the knowledge of 
 good. 'The greatest good is intellectually to know and 
 to love God. That part of the human mind which 
 experiences the intellectual love of God is eternal. 
 Happiness is not merely the reward of virtue; it is virtue 
 itself. According to Sir Frederick Pollock, the central 
 idea of Spinoza's philosophy is that of the union of man 
 with the order of the world, or, in other words, with God. 
 Spinoza's private life was blameless. He lived very 
 simply. Heinrich Heine (1797-1856) has said that the 
 only iife with which that of Spinoza can be compared is 
 the life of Jesus Christ. See Spinoza: Four Essays by 
 Land, Kuno Fischer, J. Van Vloten, and Ernest Renan, 
 18S2; B. Puenjer; Kuno Fischer, Oeschichte der neuem 
 Philosophic, vol. i., pt. 2, 4th edition, 1897: J. H. Blunt; 
 C. J. Deter; R.S.W.; Rudolf Bucken, The Life of the 
 Spirit, 1909; Max B. Weinstein, Welt- und Lcben- 
 Anschauungen, 1910. 
 
 SPIRITISM. A belief in the continued activity of 
 departed spirits and of their interference in mundane 
 affairs may be said to be characteristic of primitive 
 religion. It is not necessarily on that account a wrong 
 belief. The child, the savage, the primitive man may in 
 some ways be in closer touch with the reality of things 
 than are mature, educated, and cultured persons. Edu- 
 cation, as commonly understood, is not necessarily 
 identical with real advancement. An uneducated person 
 who has been endowed with an intuitional under-standing 
 of reality has received a gift of priceless value compared 
 with the accumulation of a stock of educated beliefs. 
 But truth is unfolded gradually. The spiritism of the 
 savage is in most cases probably nothing more than an 
 inkling of the truth. In any case, the term Spiritism 
 is now used to denote not certain beliefs prevalent among 
 primitive folk, but certain views and practices which 
 have been adopted by a number of educated persons in 
 modern times. The modem belief in spiritism ma.v be 
 said to date from 1847. In this year extraordinary 
 phenomena are said to have been observed in an American 
 family of German origin named Fox. John Fox, with his 
 wife and three daughters, had settled in the county of 
 Wayne, New York. His eldest daughter married soon 
 afterwards. It is said that not many days after the 
 wedding strange noises began to be heard in the house. 
 They were repeated .so often that the Fox family grew 
 quite accustomed to them. One evening Catherine Fox, 
 the youngest daughter, rapped with her fingers and is 
 said to have heard raps in re.sponse. The girl called her 
 mother's attention to this remarkable experience. The 
 author of the phenomena, it is said, was then invited to 
 count ten by means of raps, and did so. " To similar 
 demands were then given quite comprehensible answers 
 by means of raps. When the unknown being was asked
 
 spiritism 
 
 333 
 
 Spring and Autumn Annals 
 
 whether it were a man. there was no reply. But when 
 asked if it were a spirit, clear and rapid blows took the 
 place of an evident affirmative " (Joseph Lapponi). It 
 is said that neighbours were called in to witness these 
 occurrences. " Thus was modern Spiritism bom in 
 America, and from the first it was undertaken to enter 
 into communication with the supposed author of the 
 singular phenomenon by means of a conventional 
 language, based on the number of the raps given. After- 
 wards other means of communication were found." The 
 next stage was reached when it was realized that com- 
 munication with a so-called spirit depended on the pre- 
 sence of some persons rather than of others. In the case 
 of the Fox famil.v, the spirit was more communicative 
 when Catherine Fox was pre.sent. This suggested that 
 certain persons possess in a special degree the power of 
 establishing communication with the spirit-world. To 
 such persons the name " megLium " was applied. With 
 the help of mediums people were anxious to communicate 
 with their departed friends. This led to the establish- 
 ment of spiritistic unions and circles. In lSo2 spiritism 
 ■was introduced into Scotland. It soon spread into Eng- 
 land, Germany, France, and Russia. In 1858 it was 
 introduced into Italy. It was natural that the table 
 round which those who were interested in spiritism sat 
 should be used for rapping. This gave rise to table- 
 rapping and table-turning. This early kind of spiritism, 
 in which questions and replies were made by means of 
 raps, was called " typtologlcal spiritism." The mediums 
 were called " typtologlcal mediums." In course of 
 time writing was introduced. This kind of spiritism was 
 called " graphological spiritism." The mediums were 
 called '■ graphological mediums." It was next held that 
 the medium was possessed for a time by a spirit, and dur- 
 ing this possession acted like an automaton. The mediums 
 were called " possessed mediums " and the spiritism 
 '• spiritism by invasion." A further development of 
 spiritism was called " visible spiritism," because it was 
 claimed that the spirits were visible not only to the 
 mediums, but also to those who assisted at the stances. 
 The final development has been " spiritism of materializa- 
 tion." Here the mediums are called " materializing 
 mediums," because they are supix)sed to be able to 
 materialize the spirits of the dead. The spirits can touch 
 or be touched, .speak, play instruments, etc. All this 
 kind of thing lends itself to imposture, and frauds have 
 been practised. Nevertheless, it can hardly be doubted 
 that mediumship does produce remarkable phenomena 
 which require examination and explanation. When care- 
 fully examined, they can be explained without resorting 
 to a belief in the return of spirits from the dead. T. J. 
 Hudson claims that they can be explained by three well- 
 supported propositions?. 1. The mind of man is dual — 
 objective and subjective. 2. The subjective mind is con- 
 stantly controlled by suggestion. 3. "The subjective 
 mind, or entity, possesses physical power; that is, the 
 power to make itself heard and felt, and to move ponder- 
 able objects." The most difficult of these propositions 
 is the third. Hud.son, however, claims to have seen 
 enough to know the reality of the leading physical 
 phenomena. But he explains all the phenomena tele- 
 pathieally (see TELEPATHY). They are produced not 
 by spirits, but by persons possessed of peculiar powers, 
 in other words, by mediums. Lapponi, on the other hand, 
 believes that they are produced by immaterial beings. 
 " In view of the imprint of intelligence, of will, of 
 tendencies, of affections, and of passions that undeniably 
 characterize many of the singular manifestations which 
 we are considering, it seems quite logical to admit that 
 the phenomena ix)int to the existence of immaterial l)eings 
 who prove their existence by means of these singular 
 
 manifestations." See T. J. Hudson; Joseph Lapponi, 
 Hypnotism and Spiritism, 1907; Der Spiritismus vnd 
 seine Geschichte in the " Miniatur-Bibliothek " ; Arch- 
 deacon Colley, Sermons on Spiritualism, 1907. 
 
 SPIRITUAL HEALING. Spiritual healing is not 
 identical with mental healing. They have much in 
 common, it is true, but spiritual healing is definitely 
 religious. The difference is illustrated by the operations 
 of the Psycho-therapeutic Society (q.v.) and Christian 
 Science {q.v.). The former s.vstem was purely mental ; the 
 latter is strictly spiritual. In both cases the aid of Mind 
 is invoked. But on tlie one hand, it is Human Mind; 
 on the other hand. Divine Mind. The healing power in 
 Christian Science is the full realization of the goodness 
 of God and of the unreality of evil, the acceptance 
 of a new view of mind and matter. Mental healing 
 requires a great effort of the human mind. Spiritual 
 healing requires no effort, because the mind that heals is 
 the omniiX)tent Divine Mind. There have been mental 
 healers in all ages. Jesus Christ, it has l)een Qlaimed, 
 was the first to reveal the science of Spiritual Healing. 
 T. J. Hud.son maintains (1) " that Jesus Christ was the 
 first who c-orrectly formulated the exact conditions neces- 
 sar.v and indispensable to the exercise of the power to 
 heal the sick by psychic methods"; and (2) "that the 
 conditions which he declared to be necessary to enable 
 him to exercise that power are the same conditions which 
 are indispensable to-day." An essential condition in 
 both healer and patient is faith. This was " the key to 
 health and to heaven." This faith, as explained by 
 Christian Science, springs from a discer.Tiont of sjur'tual 
 truth. Week after week persons testify, orally and by 
 writing, that they have been healed of diseases by 
 Christian Science. The testimonies are given with such 
 obvious truthfulness and sincerity that it is impossible 
 to doubt the genuineness of the cures. This suggests 
 that Jesus possessed a secret, which was aftenvards lost; 
 and that this secret has been rediscovered in modem 
 times. " If the nineteenth century was materialistic 
 and critical, the first half of the twentieth century pro- 
 mises to be mystical and spiritual " (Religion and 
 Medicine). See Horatio W. Dresser, Health and the 
 Inner Life, 1907; T. J. Hudson, Psychic Phenom^nu, 1907 
 (tenth impression) ; E. Worcester, S. MoComb, and I. H. 
 Coriat, Religion and Medicine, 1908. 
 
 SPIRITUAL SCIENCE. Another designation of 
 Christian Science (q.v.). The author of " Science and 
 Health " (q.v.) uses the expressions Divine Science, 
 Spiritual Science, Christ Science, Christian Science, or 
 Science alone interchangeably. 
 
 SPIRITUALISM. The term Spiritualism is commonly 
 used to denote a belief that certain phenomena are due 
 to the influence of departed spirits, this influence being 
 put into operation through a living person called a 
 " medium." A belief in such phenomena, however, is 
 more correctly described as Spiritism (q.v.). Spiritualism 
 means strictly a belief either that soul or spirit is the 
 only reality, or that .spirit, if not the only reality, 
 possesses a real existence apart from matter. It denotes 
 the opposite to materialism (q.v.), a belief in matter as 
 the real and all-important existence. All Christians are 
 spirituali.'rts. They are not all spiritists. 
 
 SPRING AND AUTUMN ANNALS. The book called 
 " Spring and Autumn Annals " was composed by Con- 
 fucius (5.51-479 B.C.). It was accepted by the Chinese 
 as one of their five Classics. The Annals are those of 
 the State of Lu, and extend from 722 to 4S4 B.C. Prof. 
 Giles speaks of the annals as " bald entries set against 
 each year." No allusion is made to any interjxtsition in 
 human affairs on the part of God. In the Commentaries 
 on the book, which are more interesting, the Supreme
 
 Sraosha 
 
 334 
 
 Stigmata 
 
 Being is alluded to sometimes. See H. A. Giles, Religions 
 of Ancient China, 1905. 
 
 SRAOSHA. Tiie name (meaning " Obedience ") of an 
 angel in Zoroastrianism, an Angel of Judgment. Among 
 the Parsis, when a person dies the relatives for tJie first 
 three days after death address prayers to Sraosha on his 
 or her behalf. When each day the bour approaches 
 (midnight) for the &x)urs destiny to be formally deter- 
 mined, a sijecial ceremony is performed in honour of 
 Sraosha. Another ceremony talies place on the dawn 
 of the fourth day when the soul talies it flight to its 
 permanent abode. 
 
 SRI VAISHNAVA. A Vishnuite sect in India, another 
 name for the Ramanu.iis and Riimanandis. The name 
 characterises them as the principal or original Vaishnava 
 sect. 
 
 STAR IN THE EAST, THE ORDER OP THE. An 
 order founded at Benares, India, on January 11th, 1911. 
 According to the founders, there is in many parts of the 
 world to-day a rapidly growing expectation of the near 
 coming of a great spiritual Teacher. In all the great 
 faiths at the present time, and in practically every race, 
 there are people who are looking for such a Teacher; and 
 the hope is being expres.sed quite naturally in each case, 
 in the terms appropriate to the religion and the locality 
 in which it has sprung up. It is the object of the Order 
 of the Star in the East, so far as is possible, to gather 
 up and unify this common expectation, wherever and in 
 whatever form it may exist, and to link it into a single 
 great movement of preparation for the Great One whom 
 the age awaits. The objects of the Order are embodied 
 in a declaration of six principles, the acceptance of which 
 is all that is necessary for membership. (1) We believe 
 that a Great Teacher will soon appear in the world, and 
 we wish so to live now that we may be worthy to know 
 Him when He comes. (2) We shall try, therefore, to 
 keep Him in our mind always, and to do in His name 
 and, therefore, to the best of our ability, all the work 
 which comes to us in our daily occupation. (3) As far as 
 our ordinary duties allow, we shall endeavour to devote 
 a portion of our time each day to some definite work 
 which may help to prepare for His coming. (4) We shall 
 seek to make Devotion, Steadfastness, and Gentleness 
 prominent characteristics of our daily life. (5) We shall 
 try to begin and end each day with a short period devoted 
 to the asking of His bles.sing upon all that we try to do 
 for Him and in His name. (0) We regard it as our special 
 dnty to try to recognise and reverence greatness in whom- 
 soever .shown, and to strive to co-operate, as far as we 
 can, with those whom we feel to be spiritually our 
 superiors. The official organ of the order is The Herald 
 of the Star. 
 
 STATES, THE FOUR FORMLESS. According to 
 Buddhism four kinds of trances and four kinds of form- 
 less states are produced bv deep meditation. See 
 TRANCES, THE FOUR. 
 
 STATIONS OP THE CROSS. The Stations of the 
 Cross (via Criicis, via Calvarii) are pictures depicting 
 Incidents in the Passion of .Jesus. " Usually, they are 
 ranged round the church, the first station being placed 
 on one side of the high altar, the last on the other " 
 (Catholic Dictionary). The pictures are used in a form 
 of devotion originated by the Franciscans (g.w.), the 
 guardians of the holy places in Jerusalem. The devout, 
 by contemplating the pictures, are able in .spirit to follow 
 Jesus' footsteps on the path of His Passion. In l(i94 
 Innocent XII. " declared that the indulgences granted 
 for devoutly visiting certain holy places in Palestine 
 could be gained by all Franciscans and by all affiliated to 
 the order if they made the way of the cross devoutly — 
 i.e., passed or turned from station to station meditating 
 
 devoutly on the stages of the history " (Cath. Diet.). In 
 course of time the indulgences have oome to be extended, 
 by authority, to all churches. The authorized Stations 
 of the Cross are fourteen. (1) Christ before Pilate: (2) 
 the receiving of the cross; (3) Christ's first fall; (4) His 
 meeting with His mother; (5) Simon of Cyrene bearing 
 the cross; (6) the wiping of Christ's face with a hand- 
 kerchief by Veronica (a legend of the Middle Ages); (7) 
 His second fall; (8) His words to the women of Jeru- 
 salem; (9) His third fall; (10) His being stripped of His 
 garments; (11) His crucifixion; (12) His death; (13) the 
 taking down of His body from the cross; (14) His burial. 
 See Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet.; op. P. W. Farrer, The Life 
 of Chri.it as represented in Art, 1894. 
 
 STEEPLE. The tower of a church, etc., together with 
 any superstructure .standing upon it, such as a spire or 
 lantern. Morris Jastrow thinks there is a direct and 
 continuous line of tradition leading from the Babylonian 
 zilckurat or stage tower to the towers of the Moham- 
 medan mosques (note the Mohammedan tower at 
 Samarra on the Tigris, of the ninth century A.D., which 
 was clearly modelled on the pattern of a Babylonian 
 zikkurat) on the one hand, and to the belfries, campaniles 
 and steeples of Christian churches on the other. " In 
 Babylonian and Assyrian architecture the tower is always 
 .separate from the temple proper— as though to symbolize 
 the independent origin of the two structures, the moun- 
 X&m-motif and the house-nio/i/. Generally the tower is 
 back of the temple, at times to one side, but, even when 
 it is accorded a position immediately adjacent to the 
 temple, as in the case of the two zikliurats attached to 
 the temple of Anu and Adad at Ashur, one standing to 
 the right, the other to the left of the double temple, the 
 tower is yet a distinct structure, the ascent being inde- 
 pendent of the temple. In the case of many mosques the 
 Babylonian-Assyrian tradition is followed through the 
 virtual independence of the minarets as adjuncts to the 
 mosque, though in others the minaret is directly attached 
 and eventually becomes a steeple placed on or at the side 
 of the mosque. Similarly in the church architecture of 
 Italy we find a tower built quite independently of the 
 church as in the case of St. Mark's in Venice and of the 
 cathedrals in Florence and Pisa, while in Norman archi- 
 tecture the belfry becomes attached to the church, and in 
 Glothic architecture the tower becomes a steeple placed 
 on the church, and with a complete departure from its 
 Babylonian-Assyrian counterpart is looked upon as a 
 symbol of the spirit of Christianity, calling upon its 
 followers to direct their thoughts heavenward " (Civ.). 
 
 STHULA SARIRA. An expression used in Theosophy 
 (q.v.). It denotes the physical body in man. 
 
 STIGMATA. The word Stigmata means marks or 
 brands. St. Paul speaks (Galatians vi. 17) of bearing in 
 his body the marks (stirjin-ata) of the Lord Jesus. He is 
 speaking metaphorically. It is claimed, however, that 
 there have been a number of cases in which marks have 
 appeared on the bodies of very devout persons resembling 
 the wounds of .Tesus. It is claimed further that these 
 marks were miraciTlous. St. Francis of Assist (1182- 
 1220) in 1224 .saw in a vision a man fastened to a cross. 
 After this there appeared on the body of St. Francis the 
 mark of the stigmata of Jesus — the wounds on the hands 
 and feet and in the side. These marks were concealed 
 from most people during the life of St. Francis, but on 
 his death they were seen by a number of persons, by fifty 
 of the Brethren and very many seculars. Pope Benedict 
 XII. instituted a Feast of the Stigmata of St. Francis. 
 St. Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) told her confessor, 
 Raymond of Capua, that the Ixvrd had impressed upon 
 her the stigmata. Painters were forbidden by Sixtus 
 IV. to represent her stigmatisation, but " a special feast
 
 Stoicism 
 
 335 
 
 Stone of Destiny, The 
 
 in commemoration of it was granted to the Dominicans 
 by Benedict XIII." {Oath. Diet.) In 1C,94 the marks of 
 the crown of thoms and of the crucifixion are said to 
 have appeared on Veronica Giuliani. In 1S31 she was 
 canonized. The stigmata of Anna Katharina Emmerich 
 (1774-182-}). who became a nun, are said to have bled 
 every Friday from the year 1812. Louise Lateau (ISoO- 
 1883) was another noted example of .stigmatization. The 
 phenomenon was not contined to Catholics. Mary Anne 
 Girling (lS27-lSStJ), for instance, who founded the sect 
 known as " The People of God," is said to have had a 
 similar experience. Formerly, when stigmatization was 
 not regarded as miraculous, it was treated as imaginary 
 or fraudulent. We now know that it need not be either 
 the one or the other. Stigmata may arise, not through 
 miracle, but through concentration of the human mind. 
 This has been proved by experiments in " hvpnotism." 
 For instance, in the Hospital Marie at St. Petersburg, a 
 man was told that after warming himself at a stove, 
 which had not been lighted, a redness would appear on 
 his arm and blisters would break out. He touched the 
 door of the cold stove and uttered a crv of pain. This 
 was followed first by a redness and swelling on the arm 
 and then by a number of blisters (Olston, p. 174 f.). The 
 writers of "Religion and Medicine" have in fact good 
 reason for saying that much in the experience of the 
 mystics and monks of the Middle Ages " which has been 
 rejected by the scientific mind as incredible, and accepted 
 by the religious mind as miraculous, is now seen to be 
 neither one nor other, but a reality to be explained in 
 terms of ps.vchical processes." Thev make special 
 reference to stigmatization. ■' Perhaps the most striking 
 of these phenomena is that of stigmatization which has, 
 however, been paralleled in our own time in the case of 
 .'^me hysterical iwtients. I^'rom St. Franci.s of Assisi 
 and Catherine of Siena to the famous case of Louise 
 Lateau there has been a succession of .su.sceptible souls 
 who by intense mental conceatration on the sufferings of 
 the Saviour, on the wounds in His hands and feet and 
 side, have in some way, inexplicable to physiology, so 
 affected the bodily organism as to reproduce in it the 
 .sorrows of the Crucified. And thus in a very real sense 
 they may be said to have borne brande<l on their bodies 
 the marks of the Lord Jesus'." See Prot. Diet.; Cath. 
 Diet.; A. B. Olston, Hind Power, 190t); E. Worcester, S. 
 McComb, and I. H. Coriat, Relipion and Medicine, 1908. 
 
 STOICISM. The Stoic School of Greek philosophv 
 was founde<l by Zeno of Citium in Cyprus (302-204 B.C ), 
 who is .said to have had Phoenician blood in his vein.s! 
 He was influenced greatly by early schools of philo.«ophv, 
 for he had been in turn the disciple of the Cynic Crates, 
 the Megaric Stilpo, and the Academic Polemon. He was 
 even accused of being a plagiarist or an eclectic without 
 any originality. Stoicism was so called because Zeno 
 opened a school of his own in the Stoa Poikile, a colon- 
 nade in Athens adorned with pictures. Zeno was suc- 
 ceeded by his disciple Cleanthes from As.'w)s in the Troad 
 (3.31-232 B.C.), and Cleanthes by Chrvsippus of Soli in 
 Cihcia (282-209 B.C.). These three constitute what has 
 been called the Older Stoa. Thev were followed by a 
 number of other Greek philosophers known a.s the Middle 
 Stoa. and the.se Ijy a number of Roman philosophers 
 usually known as the Later Stoa. The Roman philo.so- 
 phers were L. Annaeus Seneca (3-05 A.D.) Epictetus 
 who left Rome in 94 A.D. and went to live and teach iii 
 Nieopolis in Epirus, and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 
 who was Emperor from If.l to 180 A.D. The Stoicism 
 with which we are most familiar is that of the Roman 
 period. Only fragments of the writings of Zeno 
 Cleanthes, and Chrysippus have been preserved. The 
 philosophy of the Stoics embraced three great branches 
 
 of knowledge, Logic, Physics, and Ethics. Logic in their 
 use of the term was of wide scope. To quote W. L. 
 David.sou, " not only did it cover to them what has been 
 regarded by many as alone Logic, namely, ' the science 
 and art of reasoning ' or of ' thought,' but it included 
 also Rhetoric (or the art of style) and Epistemologv (or 
 Theory of Knowledge)." Physics meant to the Stoics 
 not merely what it means to the modern phvsicist, but 
 also, and even more, "tlie metaphysical interpretation 
 of the uuiver.se." " Their great achievement was their 
 Cosmogony or Theory of the world, and their Theology 
 or philosophical conception of God. Their phvsics, 
 therefore, was pre-eminently Ontology : it was Science 
 of Being— occupied with the three great entities, God, the 
 World, and the Human Soul." Again, Ethics to the 
 Stoics meant Practical Philo.sophy. " As philosophv 
 was to them a substitute for religion. It was, above all 
 things, their aim to make it a rule of life, 'a wav of 
 living '-—not merely, as now, a necessary part of a 
 University curriculum, but a power operative for good 
 in daily action. If, then, men were to be guided jn their 
 conduct, it was not enough to teach them to reason, or to 
 harangue, or to speculate. You may feed the imagina- 
 tion on cx)smogony, you may shari>en the intellect by 
 logic, you may train literary faculty through rhetoric, 
 but .vou cannot nourish the soul, or produce a robust, 
 manly character, unless .vou bring .your cosmogony into a 
 definite immediate relation with living, and utilize your 
 logic and your eloquence for the defence and establish- 
 ment of life-directing truth " (Davidson). It is an 
 interesting fact that the leading Stoics were of non- 
 Hellenic nationality. " Zeno was from Citium, a 
 Phoenician colony in Cyprus, and himself belonged to 
 the Semitic race. ... Of his disciples, Persa?us came 
 also from Citium; Herillus was from Carthage; Atheno- 
 dorus from Tarsus; Cleanthes from Assus in the Troad. 
 The chief disciples of Cleanthes were Sphoerus of the 
 BosiX)rus, and Chrysippus from Soli in Cilicia. Chrysip- 
 pus wa.i succeeded by Zeno of Sidon. and Diogenes of 
 Babylon: the latter taught Antipater of Tarsus, who 
 taught Pan»tius of Rhodes, who taught Posidonius of 
 Apamea in Syria. There was another Athenodorus. 
 from Cana in Cilicia; and the early Stoic Archedemus 
 is mentioned by Cicero as belonging to Tarsus. The 
 names of Nestor, Athenodorus, Cordvlion, and Hera- 
 clides may be added to the list of Stoical teachers 
 furni.shed by Tarsus. Seleucia .sent forth Diogenes; 
 Epiphania, Euphrates; Scythopolis, Basilides; Ascalon, 
 Antibius; Tyre, Antipater; Sidon, Boethus; Ptolemais, 
 Diogenes " (Sir A. Grant, The EtJiic-i of Aristotle, quoted 
 by W. L. Davidson). See W. L. Davidson. Tlic Stoic 
 Creed, 1907; C. J. Deter, Gesch. der Phiiosophie, 1900; 
 Max B. Weinstein, Welt- und Lchrn-anitchauinKirn, 1910. 
 STONE OF DESTINY, THE. The " Stone of Destiny " 
 is a name by which an ancient piece of rock now enclosed 
 in the British Coronation Chair is known. The stone 
 and chair are kept in Edward the Confessor's Chapel in 
 We.st.minster Abbey. The .stone is that upon which in 
 early times the Scottish monarchs were crowned at Scone, 
 in Perthshire. It was brought from Scotland by Edward 
 I. There was an old prophecy in rhyme concerning it : 
 
 " If fates go rieht. where'er this stone be found. 
 The Scots shall monarchs of that realm be crowned." 
 
 The prophecy was fulfilled, it has been said, in 1003 
 when James the Sixth of Scotland and the First of Eng- 
 land was crowned, at Westminster, seated on the Corona- 
 tion Chair with the Stone of Destiny beneath it. As 
 regards the origin of the stone it has even been claimed 
 that this is the identical piece of rock that .served the 
 Old Testament patriarch Jacob for a pillow, or the piece 
 of rock from which water flowed when Moses struck it.
 
 stones, Sacred 
 
 336 
 
 Sucellus 
 
 The truth, however, is that for one treason or another 
 the worship of stones or pieces of rock has been common 
 in primitive religions. It appears from Irish mythology 
 that Ireland too had its " Stone of Destiny," a mysterious 
 stone " which would cry out with a human voice to 
 acclaim a rightful king " (C. Squire). It is true indeed 
 that some people would identify this stone with the 
 •'Coronation Stone" in Westminster Abbey; but there 
 i? every reason to believe that there were a number of 
 euch stones, and, as Charles Squire says, " it is more 
 probable that it [the Irish ' Stone of Destiny '] still 
 stands upon the hill of Tara, where it was preserved as 
 a kind of fetish by the early kings of Ireland." See H. 
 O. Amold-Forster, Our Great City, 1907; Squire, Myth. 
 
 STONES, SACRED. An early example of a stone 
 being held sacred is found m the O.T. story of Jacob. 
 Jacob called the place where he rested on a stone and 
 saw the vision of a ladder reaching to heaven Bethel 
 (Gen. sxviii. 10-22). The term ba-tyls or bsetuli. applied 
 to sacred stones, is probably a Graeeized form of Bethel. 
 The Phoenicians of Paphos represented Astarte by a cone- 
 shaped stone. The Arabian deity Dusares was wor- 
 shipped in the form of a large stone, and on coins of 
 Seleucla Zeus Casius appears as a stone. 
 
 STRANGERS. The ascribing of a semi-supernatural 
 character to strangers is very general. As a being 
 possessed of unknown powers for good or ill, " he must 
 be either repulsed at once as a foe or received and treated 
 with extraordinary respect " (E. S. Hartland, Ritual). 
 The former course would be adopted only when hostility 
 was suspected. "The latter course has given birth to 
 laws of hospitality recognized all over the world, how- 
 ever the exact procedure may differ among different 
 peoples. But even in this case the stranger is looked 
 upon With suspicion until he has undergone what M. van 
 Gennep calls rites of aggregation to the group or society 
 to which he has come. These rites may be of the most 
 simple character, such as spitting upon his host or 
 drinking a cup of water or coffee from his host's hand ; 
 or they may involve a trial of strength, an exchange of 
 gifts, the offering of sacrifices or entry into a blood- 
 covenant " (p. 285 f.). 
 
 STRANNIKI. A sub-sect of the Russian dissenters 
 known as Bezpopovtzl. The Stranniki or " the Travel- 
 lers " are so called because they do not remain anywhere 
 more than a few days. They believe that Christians 
 are already living in the future age and the new heaven, 
 and that men rise from the dead whenever in the present 
 life they repent and lead a good life. See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 STUNDISTS. A pietistic and evangelical sect in 
 Eussia. They are descendetl. it is thought, from Russian 
 soldiers who seceded from the Greek Church through 
 the influence of German missionaries. Down to the year 
 190.5 they were persecuted by the Government. They 
 are said to number half a million. 
 
 STtJPAS. Stupa is one of the names for the receptacle 
 in which the Buddhists preserve the relics of their great 
 saints. At first the ashes or remains were placed under 
 heaps or tumuli. These heaps were called Caityas and 
 afterwards Stupas. Then Caitj-a came to denote a relic- 
 structure in an assembly-hall, and Stupa a relic- 
 structure outside in the open air. The ashes, teeth, 
 nails, etc., were deposited in a casket, and the casket was 
 deposited inside the Caitya or Stupa. The casket was 
 called in Pali Dagaba. In course of time this term 
 Diigaba or Pagoda came to denote not only the casket but 
 also the monument, and Pagodas have developed into 
 Immense buildings (see PAGODAS). It should be adde<l 
 that Caityas and Stupas were not always used to hold 
 relics. Sometimes they were simply monuments in the 
 form of pyramids. Hackmann points out that the Sans- 
 
 krit word Sttipa meant originally " a tuft of hair " and 
 then acquired the meaning " a dome-.shaped monument." 
 See Monier-Williams, Buddhism, 1890; H. Hackmann. 
 
 SUA. A culture-god, and apparently a solar deity, in 
 the mythology of the Muysca Indians of Central America. 
 He is known also as Nemquetaha or Bochica. 
 
 SUBJECTIVE MIND, THE. It is believed by 
 students of psychic phenomena that there are in man two 
 minds. One, the objective mind, is active in the day- 
 time; the other, the subjective mind, is active during 
 sleep. The latter was called by F. W. H. Myers (1843- 
 1901) the Subliminal Self (q.v.). See DUALITY OF 
 MIND. 
 
 SUBJECTIVISM. The term Subjectivism is used 
 sometimes to descril)e the philo-sophy of George Berkeley 
 (1685-175.3). Berkeley contended that the material world 
 exists subjectively, and not objectively. It Is a mistake 
 to think that an objective world of matter exists outside 
 of us. Matter is not an absolute substance. The 
 only absolute substance is siMrit. See BERKELETISM. 
 
 SUBLAPSARIANISM. A doctrine held by the less 
 extreme Calvinists. When God created man, he did 
 not decree his fall, but he foresaw it. See INFEA- 
 LAPSARIANISM. 
 
 SUBLIMINAL SELF. Students of psychic phenomena 
 believe that they have discovered in man a duality of 
 mind. The one mind is the conscious mind, and is active 
 in daily life; the other mind is subconscious, and as a rule 
 is active only during sleep. Another name for the con- 
 scious mind is the objective mind. The subconscious 
 mind is then called the subjective mind. F. W. H. Myers 
 (1843-1901) designated this the Subliminal Self. See 
 DUALITY OF MIND. 
 
 SUBRAHMANYA. Another name for Skanda (q.v.), 
 one of the gods of the Hindus. 
 
 SUBSTANCE. In philosophical and theological usage 
 Substance does not denote anything material or solid, 
 but the essence which makes a thing what it is. As 
 used by Aristotle, the substance " is regarded as an inde- 
 pendent existence, a permanent subject of which the acci- 
 dents are predicated, and to which they belong as its 
 qualities or states " (Chambers's Encyclopaedia). In 
 the philosophy of Spinoza, Substance is the all-compre- 
 hending Reality. " It is infinite, and manifests itself in 
 an infinite number of finite forms or " modes.' It has 
 two main attributes. Thought and Extension, the res 
 cogitans and the res extensa " (A. Butler). The founder 
 of "Christian Science" defines Substance as follows: 
 " Substance is that which is eternal and incapable of dis- 
 cord and decay. Truth, Life, and Love are .substance, 
 as the Scriptures use this word in Hebrews : ' The sub- 
 stance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not 
 seen.' Spirit, the .synonym of Mind, Soul, or CJod. is the 
 only real sub-stance. The spiritual universe, including 
 individual man, is a compound idea, reflecting the divine 
 sub.stance of Spirit " (Marv Baker Eddv. Science and 
 Health. 1911). Compare TRANSUBSTANTIATION. 
 
 SUCCUBI. Female demons who were supposed to 
 visit men and have sexual intercourse with them. 
 
 SUCELLUS. Sucellus, " the good striker." appears as 
 the name of one of the deities worshipped by the ancient 
 Gauls. He is represented as wearing a wolf-skin and as 
 holding a long mallet. The god would seem originally 
 to have been worshipi)ed as a wolf. Afterwards he was 
 represented as a man. We are reminded of Silvia the 
 she-wolf, who was reputed to have been the mother of 
 Romulus and Remus; and of the ancient Roman god 
 Silvanus, the fore.ster, who would seem also originally to 
 have been a wolf. A Celtic god is often paired with a 
 Celtic goddess, though it is uncertain what the relation- 
 ship is supposed to be. The goddess who is paired with
 
 Sufiism 
 
 337 
 
 Sunna, The 
 
 Sacellus is Nantosivelta. See Anwvl, Celtic Religion, 
 190«; Reinach, O. 
 
 SCFIISM. Siifiism is the name given to a kind of 
 mysticism practised by Mohammedans. The word is 
 derived either (1) from an Arabic word meaning '• wool," 
 or (2) from an Arabic word meaning " purity," or (3) 
 from the Greek word sophia " wisdom." In the first 
 case the Siilis would be so called because they wore 
 woollen clothes. In any case, the early Sufis devoted 
 themselves to a life of devotion and seclusion. They 
 renounced pleasures and amusements, and despised riches 
 and honours. Later Siifiism seems to have borrowed 
 from Indian philosophy. " Its chief doctrines axe that 
 the souls of men differ in degree, but not in kind from 
 tBe Divine Spirit, of which they are emanations, and to 
 which they will ultimately retuni: that the Spirit of God 
 is in all He has made, and it in Him: that He alone is 
 perfect love, and l)eauty, and that hence love to Him is 
 the only real thing and all besides is mere illusion: that 
 this present life is one of separation from the Beloved: 
 tliat the beauties of nature, music and art revive in man 
 the divine idea and recall his affections from wandering 
 from God to other objects." The highest state of bliss is 
 oneness with God, absorption in the Eternal. The 
 Silfis are required blindly to obey their leader, the 
 Murshid. See F. A. Klein. 
 
 SUITEXGC A deity worshipped by the Japanese as a 
 god of the sea. He has a temple at Tokyo. 
 
 SUKKa. The title of one of the Jewish treati.ses 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. and 
 are incorporated in the Mishnah tq.v.). a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holv, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided 'nto six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Sukka is the sixth tractate of the second 
 group, which is called ilo'ed (" Festival "), 
 
 SULIS. A deity worshipped by the British Celts as 
 A sun-god. 
 
 SULPICIAXS. In 1650 (or a few years earlier) M. 
 Olier founded the theological sexninarj- of St. Sulpice in 
 Paris. The Sulpicians, " a society of priests who devote 
 themselves to the care of theological seminaries " (Cath. 
 Diet.), derive their name from this institution. 
 
 SUMMISTS, THE. The Summists is a designation of 
 certain mediaeval theologians who compiled theological 
 Summnp. The name is said to have been suggested by 
 the work of Hugo of St. Victor (1097-1141) entitled 
 " Summa Sententiarum." The first of the Summists was 
 Robert Pnllen (or Robertas Pullus: d. 1147?>, who was 
 bom In England. Pullen published a work " Sentent- 
 iarum Libri Octo." A more famous Summist was Peter 
 Lombard (Petrus Lombardus: d. 1104), a pupil of Abe- 
 lard. His work " Sententiarum Libri Quattuor," which 
 became the standard compendium of dogmatic theology 
 for some centuries, gained him the title " Magister Sen- 
 tentiarum." His students were called Sententiaries. 
 The most remarkable of the Summists was Alanus ab 
 Insulis (really Alain: 1114-1202), who became known as 
 " Doctor Universalis." He wrote an important work, 
 " De Arte, seu de Articulis Catholicae Fidei. Libri 
 Quinque." His poem ■' Anticlaudianus " made him even 
 more famous. See J. E. Erdmann, Hist, of Philosophy, 
 vol. i., 1890. 
 
 SUN WORSHIP. The Kurmis, the representative 
 cultivating caste of Hindustan, observe Raviwar as the 
 day sacred to Vishnu or the Sun, Sunday. " A man 
 salutes the sun after he gets up by joining his hands 
 and looking towards it, again when he has wa.shed his 
 face, and a third time when he has bathed, by throwing 
 a little water in the sun's direction. He must not spit 
 
 in front of the sun nor perform the lower functions of 
 the body in its sight. Others say that the sun and moon 
 are the eyes of God, and the light of the sun is the 
 effulgence of God, because by its light and heat all moving 
 and immobile creatures sustain their life and all com 
 and other products of the earth grow " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 SUNDAY SCHOOLS. The Catholic Dictionam claims 
 that before Sunday Schools were thought of in England, 
 one was established at St. Sulpice (1699) by St. J. B. de 
 la Salle, and that even before this similar schools, open 
 on festivals, had been established at Milan (c. loSO) by 
 St. Charles Borromeo. The St. Sulpice Sundav School 
 was open from noon to three o'clock. In both eases the 
 purpose was to give secular instruction. These were not 
 Sunday Schools in the modern sense: and it could no 
 doubt be shown that such schools as thev were were 
 found here and there at a much earlier "date. The 
 founder of modern Sunday Schools as an organised 
 system was Robert Raikes of Gloucester (1735-1811). 
 Raikes started by collecting a few children from the 
 streets on Sundays and instructing them or having them 
 instructed in religious knowledge. In 178.5 a society 
 was formed to establish and maintain Sunday Schools in 
 all parts of the kingdom. In 1803 the " Sunday School 
 Union " was founded, to promote Sunday School work 
 and raise Its standard. The Union is unsectarian, but 
 mainly nonconformist. A series of simultaneous " Inter- 
 national Lessons " are drawn up for three months in 
 advance, in order that the same lessons may be studied 
 by all schools belonging to the Union. For these lessons 
 careful expository notes by duly qualified writers are 
 published a week or two in advance. " Other helps are 
 published and supplied at the lowest possible prices, and 
 public training, lessons, lectures, and examinations are 
 also carried on " (William Benham). The American 
 Sunday School Union, a development of earlier Unions 
 (since 1791), was established in 1S24. See William Ben- 
 ham: the Cath. Diet.; Chambers' EneyeL: the D.N.B. 
 
 SUNNA. Sunna would seem to have been one of the 
 deities of the Ancient Teutons. The name seems to 
 occur as that of a goddess in one of the Merseburg Charms 
 (q.v.). It is possible, however, that the reading, " Then 
 charmed it Sinthgunt, Sun(na) her sister: then charmed 
 it Frija, Vol(la) her sister," should rather be, " Then 
 charmed it Sinthgunt. Sun's sister: then charmed it Frija, 
 Vol's sister." See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, The 
 Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 SUNNA, THE. Sunna is an Arabic word meaning 
 " way, rule, mode of acting or conduct." The term is 
 used to describe the traditioiMl sayings, actions, etc., of 
 Muhammad. These are rules and patterns for all devout 
 Muslims. This kind of information is also called Hadlth. 
 It ranks next in importance to the Qur'Sn. " The science 
 of Tradition is considered the noblest and most excellent 
 after that of the Qur'an. and its study the next in im- 
 portance to that of the Holy Book. Muhammad him.self 
 is said to have encouraged his followers to keep and 
 transmit his sa.vings " (Klein). There is the Sunna of 
 Saying, which consists of oral laws and utterance derived 
 from the Prophet; the Sunna of Action, which consists 
 of his deeds and practice: the Sunna of Approbation or 
 Confirmation, whdch consists of his silent sanction of 
 acts done by others. In course of time it was thought 
 neee-ssary to have the oral traditions sifted and written 
 down. Khalif 'Umar II. (99-101 A.H.) ordered this to 
 be done al)out one hundred years after Muhammad's 
 death. There are six collections of e.xceptional authority, 
 called " The Six Books." (1) The traditions of Bukhari 
 ft. A.H. 194), which profes-ses to include only genuine 
 traditions. Klein quotes a learned doctor of Islflm as 
 .saying : " The collection of Bukhdri is the most excellent
 
 Supay 
 
 338 
 
 Supplementary Hypothesis, The 
 
 book of Islam after the Book of God." (2) The tradi- 
 tions of Muslim (d. 201 A.H.), a ddsciple of BukhSri. 
 This again was supposed to include only genuine tradi- 
 tion (3) The traditions of Abu Dftud {d. 27o A.H.). 
 (■1) The traditions of Tirmidhi (d. 279 A.H.). (5) The 
 traditions of An Nisa'i (d. 303 A.H.)- (6) The traditions 
 of Ibn Maja (d. 273 A.H.). See F. A. Klein. 
 
 SUPAY. Supay was one of the deities worshipped 
 by the ancient Peruvians. He was the god of the dead, 
 and corresponded to Pluto. 
 
 SUPERMAN, THE. The German term Leiermensch 
 " superman," used by Goethe in " Faust," is employed by 
 Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) to describe the ideal man 
 of his philosophy. In 1888 Nietzsche became insane, and 
 his last literary production, Der Antichrist, in its 
 extravagance already bears the stamp of insanity. In- 
 fluenced at first by Schopenhauer (1788-18G0), the disciple 
 went far beyond his master. Nietzsche is usually re- 
 garded as a gloomy pessimist and a brutal materialist. 
 He is of course in .some respect.s pessimistic and 
 materialistic. But probably he is very much misunder- 
 stood. He is thought to have done young people in 
 Germany much harm. But young people will have read 
 his works, without understanding them, with tJie idea of 
 finding in them something (outrageous) which is not 
 necessarily there. Forbidden books are always attrac- 
 tive to certain people, and a reputation for outrageous- 
 ness acts as a powerful suggestion. Certain people want 
 to be outraged. Writers like Ibsen and Nietzsche are 
 the tools which they sharpen for themselves. It has been 
 rightly observed that the strength of Nietzsche's Super- 
 man " could hardly be won and maintained without the 
 austerest self-discipline " (A. Butler). One can do 
 Nietzsche justice without accepting or admiring his 
 philosophy. " Nietzsche represents a passionate indi- 
 vidualism in opposition to the social and democratic 
 tendencies of the present time. His ideal is the powerful 
 individual who has risen above the ' slave-morality ' of 
 Christian civilisation, with its sympathy and compassion, 
 its indulgence towards weakness, and its weak love of 
 neighbours and enemies. The mass, he thinks, has by 
 mere force of numbers overcome the strong individuals 
 whose power he conceives to be the only intrinsic good. 
 Tlie ma.ss has made morality, determined the scale of 
 life's values; and it has done this, thinks Nietzsche, .n 
 its own interest and in the strength of mere majority " 
 (Butler). According to Nietzsche, we need a trans- 
 valuation of all values (" Umwertung aller Werte "). 
 See C. J. Deter, Geschichte der Philosophie, 190(5; Arthur 
 Butler, Diet, of Philosophical Terms. 
 
 SUPERNATURAL RELIGION. The title " Super- 
 natural Religion" was given to a work by Walter R. 
 Cassels, vrtiich appeared in 1874, and created a consider- 
 able stir. The author contended that the Gospels of 
 Matthew and Mark as they have been preserved to us 
 are not those referred to by Eusebius. He also discussed 
 from a rationalistic standpoint the questions of Miracles, 
 the Incarnation, the Resurrection, and the Ascension. 
 The book was replied to by Bishop J. B. Lightfoot (1828- 
 1889) in his Essays on the Work called " Supernatural 
 Relifiion." F. C. Conybeare, himself a keen critic and 
 advanced theologian, thinks that Lightfoot succeeded in 
 refuting Cassels' thesis that our Gro.spel of Luke is 
 merely a later edition of Maroion's Go.spel, as well as his 
 contention with regard to Eusebius. He thinks that 
 Cassels' book has other grave shortcomings. " In general 
 it underestimates the external evidence in favour of the 
 age of the Synoptic gospels; and its author has no clear 
 idea either of the relations in which they stand to each 
 other, or of the supreme importance of ascertaining those 
 relations correctly. He moved exclusively in the circle 
 
 of Baur's ideas, and had neglected other German books 
 of equal weight, like those of C. H. Weisse and C. G. 
 Wilke, published in 1838." Cassels' great opponent, 
 Lightfoot, however, held no superiority in critical out- 
 look, " though he was a better scholar and, within the 
 narrow circle of his premises, a more careful aqd accurate 
 worker." See F. C. Conybeare, Hist, of N.T. Crit.; op. 
 P. Vivian, The Churches and Modern Thought, 1908. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY HYPOTHESIS, THE. This name 
 has been given to one of the theories put forth by the 
 Higher Critics (see CRITICISM, HIGHER) to explain 
 the composition of the Hexateuch. It was pre- 
 ceded by the Documentary Hypothesis (q.v.) and the 
 Fragmentary Hypothesis (q.v.). All that was best in 
 these it adopted. Their mistakes it corrected. The 
 Supplementary Hypothesis is largely associated with the 
 name of the German scholar W. M. L. De Wette U). 1780), 
 because he prepared the way for it. After some hesita- 
 tion, De Wette ro.se above the two earlier hypotheses and 
 pressed " for the unity of the Pentateuch in its present 
 form as the plan of one mind. He fixst stated that 
 Deuteronomy is an independent part of the Pentateuch, 
 composed in the age of Josiah. He subsequently adopted 
 into his system the improvements suggested by other 
 Biblical .scholars who followed in his footsteps " (C. A. 
 Briggs). A later scholar, F. Bleek (1793-1859), put the 
 Supplementary Hyiwthesis into shape. According to 
 him, the original narrative of the Elohist (the writer 
 who uses the divine name Elohim) was supplemented by 
 the Jahvist (less correctly .lehovist; the writer who 
 uses the divine name Jehovah). H. Ewald (180.3-1875) 
 afterwards showed that throughout the Pentateuch it 
 was possible to distinguish the ElohivStic and Jahvistic 
 (Jehovistic) <locuments. It was then disc-overed that this 
 was true of Joshua as well, so that it became convenient 
 to speak of the Hexateuch. In 1853 H. Hupfeld 
 of Halle independentlv revived the discovery of C. D. 
 Ilgen (see DOCUMENTARY HYPOTHESIS), who had 
 claimed that a number of documents were used in the 
 composition of Genesis. He analysed the book of Genestia 
 very carefully, and was able to discriminate an Elohist, 
 a Second Elohist, a Jahvist (Jehovist), and a Redactor. 
 He found that the Redactor differs from the other three, 
 " in that he is distinguished for the conscientiousness 
 with which he reproduces the ancient documents, word 
 for word, and the skill with which he combines them in 
 the unity and order which characterize bis work " (C. A. 
 Briggs).' Heinrich Ewald (180.3-1S75), a many-sided and 
 brilliant scholar, found in the Elohistic document a Book 
 of Origins, which had drawn upon older writings : a 
 biography of Moses, the Book of the Wars of Jehovah 
 <g.v.), and the Book of the Covenants. This frame- 
 work (German " Grundschrift) was supplemented at 
 later dates by the Second Elohist, the Jahvist. the 
 Redactor, and the Deuteronomist. According to E. 
 Schrader (vtriting in 18fiS). " there are two chief docu- 
 ments : the Annalistic (Elohist) and Theocratic (2d 
 Elohist). composed, the former in the earlier part of the 
 reign of David, the author a priest who u.sed earlier 
 written sources; the latter soon after the division of the 
 kingdom in the northern realm, 975-950 B.C.. also using 
 ancient documents. The third prophetic narrator 
 
 (Jehovist) combined the two. freely appropriating, and 
 rejecting, and enlarging by numerous additions, making 
 a complete and harmonious work, in the reign of Jero- 
 boam II., 825-800 B.C., in the northern kingdom. The 
 Deuteronomist in the prophetic spirit composed the law 
 of Moses contained in Deuteronomy, and became the final 
 redactor of the Pentateuch in its present form, imme- 
 diately before the reform of Josiah. 622 B.C.. being a 
 man closely associated with the prophet Jeremiah." In
 
 Supralapsarianism 
 
 339 
 
 Svarga 
 
 England the Supplementary Hypothesis was advocated by 
 Samuel Davidson (1800-1899). Cp HEXATEUCH. See 
 C. A. Briggs, Hex.; A. Duff, Hist, of O.T. Crit., 1910. 
 
 SUPRALAPSARIANISM. A doctrine held by the 
 extreme Calvlnists. When God created man, he decreed 
 his fall, both foreseeing and permitting it. He over- 
 ruled it for man's redemption. " It is logically the 
 most consistent type of Calvinism, but borders on fatalism 
 and pantheism, and hence was excluded from the 
 Reformed Confessions, all of which deny emphatically 
 that God is the author of sin" (Schaff-Herzog). 
 
 SURA. The Qur'an is divided into Suras. The 
 word Sura means a row or series. As used of the 
 Qur'an, it corresponds roughly to our chapter. Each 
 Sura has a special title which is supposed to relate to its 
 contents. Thus, the first is called " Mecca," the second 
 "The Cow," the third "The Family of Imran," etc. 
 The verses are designated 'Ayat, which means literally 
 " signs " or " miracles." They are so called because 
 each verse was supposed to be a miracle. In Sura xvii. 
 vs. 90 Muhammad is reported to have said : " Verily, were 
 men and genii a.ssemble<:l to produce the like of this 
 Koran, they could not produce its like, though the one 
 should help the other." There are one hundred and 
 fourteen Suras of different lengths. Every Sura, except 
 the ninth, is prefaced by the words : " In the name of 
 <xod, the Merciful, the Compassionate." 
 
 SURaDEVI. a Hindu deity, goddess of wine, wor- 
 shipped by the Sundis, the liquor-distilling caste of the 
 Uriya country in India. The Sundis regard her as their 
 mother. 
 
 SrRTA. The chief of the Vedic solar deities, the son 
 of Dyaus or the sky. He is closely associated with Agni, 
 and sometimes seems to be identified with him. The car 
 In which he makes his daily journey is drawn by seven 
 mares. 
 
 SUSA-NO-O. A figure in the mythology of the 
 Japanese. He was bom from the nose of Izanagi, and, 
 whatever he was at first seems to have developed into a 
 god of the underworld. From one of his children the 
 Mikado is supposed to be descended. 
 
 SCTEKH. An Egyptian deity. Sflteki is a later and 
 lengthened form of the name Set iq.v.). 
 
 SUTHRA SHaHIS. A mendicant order in India, an 
 offshoot of the Nanakpanthis {q.v.). They are said to 
 have been founded by a di.sciple of Nanak. Their 
 distinctive badges are the Seli, a rope of black wool bound 
 round the head like a turban, and the Syahi. the ink 
 which they use to draw a black line on their foreheads. 
 See R. V. Russell. 
 
 SUTTAPITAKA. The second division of the Buddhist 
 Canon. See CANOX, BUDDHIST. 
 
 SUTTAVIBHANGA. One of the Buddhist sacred 
 books in the first division of the Canon. See CANON, 
 BUDDHIST. 
 
 SUTTEE. Suttee or Sati is the designation of the 
 Hindu practice of burning the widows of deceased 
 persons. A good wife showed her devotion by burning 
 her.self on the funeral pile of her husband. The prac- 
 tice seems to have originated in the noble caste of Rajahs. 
 It was an honour claimed first by the pet wife, then by 
 the first wife, and finally by any devoted wife. Dubois 
 gives vivid descriptions of the Suttee ceremony. One 
 relates to the case of a widow, aged about thirty years, 
 who had decided to accompany her dead husband to the 
 funeral pyre. " The news having rapidly spread abroad, 
 a large concourse of people flocked together from all 
 quarters to witness the spectacle. When everything was 
 ready for the festival, and the widow had been richly 
 clothed and adorned, the bearers stepped forward to 
 remove the body of the deceased, which was placed in a 
 
 sort of shrine, ornamented with costly stuffs, garlands 
 of flowers, green foliage, etc., the corpse being seated in 
 it with crossed legs, covered with jewels and clothed in 
 the richest attire, and the mouth filled with betel. Immed- 
 iately after the funeral car followed the widow, borne 
 in a richly decorated palanquin. On the way to the 
 burning-ground she was escorted by an immense crowd 
 of eager sight-seers, lifting their hands towards her in 
 token of admiration, and rending the air witi cries of 
 joy. She was looked upon as already translated to the 
 paradise of Indra, and they seemed to envy her happy 
 lot." On her way she distributed leaves of "betel, which 
 were treasured as relics. On leaving the palanquin, she 
 dragged herself or was dragged to a pond not far from 
 the pyre. Into this she plunged before being led to the 
 pyre, which " was surrounded by Brahmins, each with 
 a lighted torch in one hand and a bowl of ghee in the 
 other." At length the fatal signal was given. "The 
 I>oor widow was instantly divested of all her jewels, and 
 dragged, more dead than alive, to the pyre. There she 
 was obliged, according to custom, to walk three times 
 round the pile, two of her nearest relatives supporting 
 her by the arms. She accomplished the first round with 
 tottering steps; during the second her strength wholly 
 for.«ook her, and she fainted away in the arms of her 
 conductors, who were obliged to complete the ceremony 
 by dragging her through the third round. Then, at last, 
 senseless and unconscious, .she was cast upon the corpse 
 of her husband. At that moment the air resounded with 
 noisy acclamations. The Brahmins, emptying the con- 
 tents of their vessels on the dry wood, applied their 
 torches, and in the twinkling of an e.ve the whole pile 
 was ablaze. Three times was the unfortunate woman 
 called by her name. But. alas! she made no answer." 
 There is no authority for the Suttee custom in the Hindu 
 religious books. The Hindu thelstic reformer, Ram- 
 mohun Roy (b. 1774) denounced the practice, and in 1S29 
 it was abolished by statute throughout British India. 
 But it is said still to prevail on the borders of British 
 territory in the Independent Hill States. E. W. Hopkins 
 is inclined to think that the present existence of widows 
 is more horrible than death on the funeral pyre. See 
 Monier-W^illiams: E. 'W. Hopkins; J. A. Dubois and H. 
 K. Beauchamp; J. Campbell Oman, Cults. 
 
 SUWA'H. An Arabian deity mentioned in the Qur'Sn 
 (Ixxi., 22). The idol Suwa'h is supposed to have been 
 antediluvian. Legend says that after lying under water 
 for some time after the Deluge, it was discovered by 
 the pagan Arabs. Suwa'h was worshipped in the shape 
 of a woman. See E. H. Palmer, The Qur'an, ISSO. in the 
 " Sacred Books of the East"; E. M. Wherry, Compre- 
 hensive Conunentart) on the Quran, 1896. 
 
 SVANTOVIT. Svantovit is said to have been the 
 chief god of the ancient Slavs. Saxo speaks of his wor- 
 ship on the island of Ruegen. He was represented, it 
 seems, as having four heads and necks, and as holding in 
 one hand a lx)w and in the other a drinking-horn. " Near 
 the idol were a saddle and bridle destined for the white 
 horse of the god, which only the priest might mount " 
 (Reinach). Thus the god was, amongst other things, 
 a god of war. The horse was u.sed al.so in .some form of 
 divination. See Reinach. O., 1909. 
 
 SVARGA. Svarga is one of the paradises or heavens 
 in Brithmanism. It is the heaven presided over by Indra 
 (g.v.), and the paradi.se to which orthodox Brahnians 
 hope to be transported. In the centre is the palace of 
 Indra, adorned with gold and precious stones, and there 
 is another palace for his wife Sati. In the paradise 
 thrive the Kalpa-tree with its golden fruit of exquisite 
 flavour and the cow Kamadhenu with its delicious milk. 
 These supfply food for the gods. The Kalpa-tree has in
 
 Svartalfaheim 
 
 340 
 
 Swedenborgians 
 
 fact " the power of satisfying all tlie desires of men wlio 
 put their trust in it," and the cow Kamadhenu " can, 
 among other things, grant milK and butter in abundance 
 to anybody who invokes her with sincere faith and devo- 
 tion " (Dubois and Beauehamp). See Monier-Williams; 
 J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauehamp. 
 
 SVARTALFAHEIM. Svartalfaheim would seem to 
 have been one of the nine worlds In the cosmogony of 
 the Ancient Teutons. 
 
 SVETAMBARAS. The Svetambaras or " white-attire 
 men " are one of the two main bodies into which the 
 Jains (.g.v.) have split up. They were so called because 
 they insisted on the need of wearing some attire (in their 
 case, white), whereas the other body, the Digambaras or 
 " sljy-attire men," on principle wore no covering. 
 
 SWABIAN AND SAXON FORMULA OF CONCORD. 
 A German Confession drawn up by James Andrea; of 
 Tubingen in 1575 A.D. In 1573 Andrea; suggested as the 
 basis on which the Lutherans might agree the substance 
 of six irenic lectures. Martin Chemnitz, the famous 
 pupil of Melanchthon, criticised this document, with the 
 result that Andres then drew up the Swabian and Saxon 
 Formula of Concord. This was rather lengthy, and as 
 an improvement Luke Osiander and Balthasar Bidenbach 
 at once drew up a brief formula, the Maulbronn Formula. 
 These two formulas were .superseded by the Book of 
 Torgau ((/.v.). See William A. Curtis. 
 
 SWADDLERS. A nickname bestowed upon the early 
 Methodists by Roman Catholics in Ireland. It is sup- 
 posed to have been suggested by some reference made by 
 John Cennick (1718-1755) in a ^sermon to the "babe 
 wrapped in swaddling-clothes." 
 
 SWALLOWS. In the mythology of the Dragon, the 
 monster is represented as being fond of roasted swallows. 
 This partiality of dragons for swallows was due, accord- 
 ing to Elliot Smith (Dr.), to the transmission of a very 
 ancient story of the Great Mother, who in the form of 
 Isis was identified with the swallow. " In China, so 
 ravenous is the monster for this delicacy, that anyone 
 who has eaten of svrallows should avoid crossing the 
 water, lest the dragon whose home is in the deep should 
 devour the traveller to secure the dainty morsel of 
 swallow. But those who pray for rain use swallows to 
 attract the beneficent deity. Even in England swallows 
 flying low are believed to be omens of coming rain — ^a 
 tale which is about as reliable as the Chinese variant of 
 the same ancient legend." 
 
 SWAMI-NARAYAN SECT. A Vaishnava sect in India, 
 founded by Sahajanand Swami (b. A.D. 1780). He was 
 made a Sadhu of the Rumanandi order (see RAMANAN- 
 DIS). and was nominated Ramiinandi's successor. Then 
 he became head of a new sect, named after him, although 
 his tenets did not differ much from those of Raniftnandi. 
 He preached with such success in Gujarat that in 1901 
 there were about 300,000 members of his sect there. He 
 taught the worship of one sole deity, Krishna or Nara- 
 yana, identified with the sun. By his followers he seems 
 to have been regarded as a new incarnation of Vishnu. 
 " It is said that he displayed miraculous powers before 
 his disciples, entrancing whom.soever he cast his eyes 
 upon, and causing them in this mesmeric state (Samadhi) 
 to imagine they saw Sahajanand as Krishna with yellow 
 robes, weapons of war, and other characteristics of the 
 god, and to behold him seated as chief in an assembly 
 of divine beings " (Russell and Hira Lai). He prohibited 
 the u.se of animal food, intoxicating liquors, and drugs. 
 His followers were required to abstain from promiscuous 
 intercourse with women, theft, robbery, false accusations, 
 and suicide. They were taught also to bear injury with- 
 out retaliation. See R. V. Russell. 
 
 SWEDENBORG SOCIETY. In 1810 a few private 
 
 persons formed a Society in London for the purpose of 
 publishing the writings and disseminating the views of 
 Emanuel Swedenborg. Chiefly through the efforts of 
 John Clowes (see article below), the translator of many 
 of Swedenborg's works, a similar institution, had been 
 established in Manchester in 1782. The London Society 
 may be regarded as a continuation of the Manchester 
 Society. " Thus the voluminous writings of an author 
 unknown to the public in general were, shortly after their 
 publication, taken under the especial guardianship of 
 a few earnest Christian men, deeply impressed, from a 
 careful study of their contents, with a sense of their 
 unspeakable value to the Church at large." It is pointed 
 out that three things require to be distinguished care- 
 fully by the reader of Swedenborg's works. (1) The 
 claims of Swedenborg to supernatural illumination. (2) 
 The records of events heard and seen by him in the 
 spiritual world. (3) The doctrines he has delivered, as 
 derived from, and confirmed by, the express and 
 undoubted statements of the Divine Word, and illustrated 
 by rational considerations. 
 
 'SWEDENBORGIANS. The disciples and followers of 
 Emanuel von Swedenborg (11)88-1772). His real name 
 was Swedberg. His father Jesjjer Swedberg (1G53-1735) 
 was Bishop oif Skara in West Gothland. After studying at 
 Upsala University, Emanuel sought to extend his know- 
 ledge and experience by travel. He acquired an exten- 
 sive knowledge of physical science, and on his return to 
 his o^-n c-ountry he started a scientific journal called 
 " DiBdalus Hyperboreus " (1710-1718). He was brought 
 to the notice of Charles XII., and in 1716 was appointed 
 Assessor Extraordinary in the Royal College of Mines 
 at Stockholm. When Charles XII. was besieging 
 Frederickshall, a fortress in Norway, Emanuel Swed- 
 berg's mechanical skill vras of great service to him. In 
 1719 Swedberg was ennobled by Queen Ulrica Eleanora, 
 successor of Charles XII., and his name was changed to 
 Swedenborg. After this he began a literary career of 
 great fruitfuluess, publishing papers on the longitude^^ 
 algebra, physics, mechanics, etc. In 1724 he was invited 
 to become Professor of Mathematics in the University of 
 Upsala, but declined. In 1734 he published at Leipsic, 
 at the expense of the Duke of Brunswick, a work in three 
 volumes on the various methods of mining and smelting 
 and on the origin of creation. Opera Philosophica et 
 Mineralia. The first volume was called " Principia, or 
 the First Principles of Natural Things, being New 
 Attempts towards a Philosophical Explanation of the 
 Elementary World." In the same year he published a 
 more metaphysical and theological work entitled " Philo- 
 sophical Argument on the Infinite, and the Final Cause 
 of Creation; and on the Mechanism of the Operation of 
 Soul and Body." After more travels, he published in 
 1740 his " Economy of the Animal Kingdom." The year 
 1743 marks the turning-point in his life. In this year he 
 claims to have received supernatural revelations. In one 
 of his most important works, published some years later, 
 " True Christian Religion," he says : " I foresee that 
 many who read the Memorable Relations annexed to 
 each chapter of this work, will believe them to be the 
 fictions of imagination; but I protest in truth they are 
 not fictions, but were really seen and heard ; not seen 
 and heard in any state of the mind in sleep, but in a 
 state of complete wakefulness; for it has pleased the 
 I»rd to manifest himself to me, and to send me to teach 
 tliose things which will belong to his New Church, which 
 is meant by the New Jerusalem in the Revelation. For 
 this purpose he has opened the interiors of my mind or 
 spirit, by which privilege it has been permitted me to 
 be with angels in the spiritual world, and with men in 
 the natural world at the same time, and that now for
 
 Swedenborgians 
 
 341 
 
 Swedenborgians 
 
 twenty-seven years." In 1745 he published a philosophi- 
 cal work calletl "The Worship and Love of God," but 
 he had not yet reached the complete change in the direc- 
 tion of his life. His characteristic philosophy is to be 
 gleaned from the worlds that followed. In 1747 he 
 resigned his assessorship in order to devote all his time 
 and energies to his spiritual work. His philosophy was 
 developed in " Arcana Cuflestia," an exposition of the 
 Books of Genesis and Exodus (1749-51)) ; " Heaven and 
 Hell " (175S); " The Last Judgment and the Destruction 
 of Babylon " (1758-1763), described as •" being a relation 
 of things heard and seen"; "The White Horse, men- 
 tioned in the Revelation, chap, six." (1758); "Angelic 
 Wisdom concerning the Divine Love and the Divine 
 Wisdom" (1763); "Angelic Wisdom concerning the 
 Divine Providence" (17ti4): " The Apocalypse Revealetl " 
 (17(iG); " Conjugal Love and its Chaste Delights " (17()S) ; 
 " The True Christian Religion " (1771). The " Areana 
 Coelestia " was written in Ix)ndon while Swendenborg 
 was living at 2(i Great Bath Street, Coldbath Fields, 
 Clerkenwell. He died in London on the 29th of March, 
 1772. His disciples before his death were not many. 
 One of them was Thomas Hartley (17()9?-17S4), who trans- 
 lated one of Swedenborg's works. After Swedenborg's 
 deati, his writings gradually became better known. 
 John Clowes (1743-1831), Vicar of S. John's, Manchester, 
 in 1780 founded a Swedenborgian printing society, which 
 in 1781 began to issue translations of Swedenborg's works 
 made by Clowes himself. In 17S3 Robert Hindmarsh 
 (1759-1835), a Clerkenwell printer, formed a small 
 Swedenborgian Society, which met at 8. Paul's Coffee- 
 House, St. Paul's Churchyard. Out of this grew " The 
 Theosophical Society " which was " instituted for the 
 purpose of promoting the heavenly doctrines of the New 
 Jerusalem, by translating, printing, and publishing the 
 theological writings of the Honourable Emanuel Sweden- 
 borg." It held its meetings in New Court, Middle 
 Temple. In 1788 Robert Hindmarsh opened a chapel in 
 East Cheap; tlie name of the Society was changed to 
 " The New Church " ; and an " Order of worship for the 
 New Church signified by the New Jerusalem in the 
 Revelation " was agreed upon. Hindmarsh acted as 
 priest, and was charged afterwards to ordain others. 
 In 1793 he built a chapel in Cross Street, Hatton Garden. 
 In the same year a chapel was opened in Peter Street, 
 Manchester. In 1815 three orders of ministers were 
 established. The doctrines of Swedenborg have been sum- 
 marized by J. Clowes. As regards the Sacred Writings, 
 he thinks no one else has explained so clearly their divine 
 original, and the nature of their divine inspiration. " He 
 not only venerates their Divine authority on all occa- 
 sions, therein grounding, and thereby confirming every 
 doctrine which he delivers; he was not only well read in 
 the sacred oracles, almost above the example of any other 
 person, in the present or former times; but he likewise 
 asserts, and proves indisputably, that there is contained 
 in the Holy Books an internal spiritual sense heretofore 
 little known, to which the outward literal sen.se serves as 
 a basis, or recpptacle, answering or corresponding thereto 
 in a figurative, allegorical, or symbolical way, as a type 
 answers to its archetype, or as a representative to the 
 thing represented. He shews that in this internal sense 
 consists the spirituality and Divinity of the Sacred 
 Writings, whereby they essentially differ from all other 
 books whatsoever; and that by virtue of this sense they 
 are adapted, not only to the use of men on earth, but of 
 angels in heaven ; containing the great eternal laws of 
 that Order, whereby the heavens are formed, preserved, 
 and governed, and whereby man is reformed, regenerated, 
 and restored to heavenly order : being thus accommo- 
 dated to the instruction and perfecting of all intelligences 
 
 from the highest to the lowest " (p. 50 f.). As regards 
 the Christian life, Swedenborg declares that a man can- 
 not be .saved by charity, or faith, or good works alone ; 
 by a moral life without a spiritual life, or by a .spiritual 
 life witliout a moral life; by divine grace without his 
 own free exertious, or by his own free exertions without 
 divine grace. " A truly Christian life is a life which 
 leads to heaven; and to be led to heaven is the same 
 thing as to be formed in the image, likeness, and spirit 
 of heaven, according to our Lord's declaration, ' The 
 kingdom of heaven is within you.' A truly Christian 
 life, therefore, is that which tends most perfectly to open 
 and form in man the image, likeness, and spirit of heaven. 
 But whereas man consists of dillerent parts or prin- 
 ciples, each of them callable, in its degree, of receiving 
 this heavenly image, likeness, and spirit, therefore this 
 heavenly image, likeness, and spirit cannot be fully 
 opened and formed, unless it he opened and formed in each 
 part or principle. These i>arts or principles are, in 
 general, the will, the understanding, and the act or 
 operation thence proc-eeding. A truly Christian life 
 therefore hath resi^ect to these three several parts or 
 principles of man, to open and form each of them accord- 
 ing to the image, likeness, and spirit of heaven. The 
 Kill is thus opened and formed by charity, with all its 
 heavenly attendant graces and virtues. The under- 
 standing is thus opened and formed by faith, with all 
 the bright knowledges and i>erceptJons of holy truth 
 thereto appertaining. And, lastly, the act or operation 
 is so formed by good irorks, or an obedient practice of 
 the things which charity and faith dictate. A truly 
 Christian life, therefore, or a life which leads to heaven, 
 is a life of charity, of faith, and of good works con- 
 jointly " (p. 57 f.). As regards qualifications for admis- 
 sion into the kingdom of heaven, poverty is not neces- 
 .sarily one of them. " It is tlie love of wealth, and not 
 the mere possession thereof, which is a hindrance to 
 man's salvation. The.se writings clearly prove that it 
 is self-love and the love of the world that oppose and 
 obstruct man's entrance into heaven; becatise these two 
 kinds of love are principally opposite to the pure love of 
 CiOd and of our neighlwur; in which the life of heaven 
 consists, and by which it is opened and formed in man. 
 In living therefore a life which leads to heaven, the chief 
 difficulty is, according to the testimony of Baron Sweden- 
 borg, to remove self-love and the love of the world, with 
 their various attendant concupiscences, so that the love 
 of God and neigh'bourly love may have free admission 
 into the heart, and formation in the life. It is therefore 
 of no consequence, in this respect, whether a man be rich 
 or poor as to his outicard circumstances, because in 
 either case he may remain in self-love and the love of 
 the world, or he may purify himself from those unclean 
 affections " (p. 63 f.). The New Church demands a new 
 state of mind, not a radical change in the ex-temal .state 
 of civil society. " There will, therefore, still continue 
 to be a difference of station, of office, and of character 
 amongst men, but the pride and vanity arising from that 
 difference will be removed and lost; for every member 
 of the New Jerusalem, from the highest to the lowest, 
 will consider him.self as a servant of the public, in the 
 station appointed for him by an all-wise Providence, to 
 promote the common good under the influence of the same 
 common spirit of good-will and charity. And thus, 
 though there be a difference of office, employment, and 
 character, yet all being influenced by one and the same 
 spirit, ' the first will be last, and the la.st first.' Kings 
 therefore, and those who are in authority, will execute 
 judgment and justice in the earth. Priests, and those 
 who have spiritual administration, will wait on their 
 ministry, publishing the pure laws of spiritual order and
 
 Sweet Slugers 
 
 342 
 
 Symbolism 
 
 truth from the pure love thereof. Soldiers will be 
 courageous from principle, and will be valiant in defence 
 of the just laws of nations, but without violence, injus- 
 tice, or cruelty. Merchants will pursue commerce, not 
 in the spirit of eovetousness, but of universal good-will, 
 to open the doors of communication between di.stant 
 people, in the way of mutual comfort, convenience, and 
 benevolence. Mechanics will be skilful and industrious, 
 each in his several occupation, but without vice and arti- 
 fice. Scholars will study the sciences, not in the pride 
 thereof, but in the pure affection of truth." Sweden- 
 borg says little about forms of external worship, though 
 he evidently attached importance to the outward rites of 
 Baptism arid the Lord's Supper. In other respects he 
 seems to have felt that people should be free to use such 
 forms as best suited their spiritual requirements. They 
 are even ■n'arned to be slow to reject tiose forms of wor- 
 -ship which are publicly sanctioned and in which they 
 have been educated. Like certain other religious leaders, 
 apparentlv he himself had no idea of founding a sect. 
 Swedenborg's philosophy is essentially spiritual. "Accord- 
 ing to the testimony of the Sacred Writings, as opened 
 by Baron Swedenborg, every man hath communication 
 and association with the invisible world of spirits — 
 whether he knows it or not— according to the nature, 
 quality, and e.^ent of his wisdom, as grounded in, and 
 derived from, that love. If, therefore, the ruling prin- 
 ciples of man's will be formed according to heavenly 
 love, which is love to the Lord, and love towards his 
 neighbour, and the ruling persuasions of his under- 
 standing be formed according to the wisdom of such love 
 —which is the genuine truth of The holy commandment 
 or Word of God— he then lives, wills, thinks, speaks, and 
 acts proportionably from heaven, and in conjunction 
 therewith, and is in invisible association continually with 
 the blessed inhabitants thereof, being internally, as to his 
 spirit, united to, and one with them." See the 
 biographies by Schaarschmidt (1802), W. White (1807, 
 new ed. 1871), and J. J. Garth Wilkinson (2nd ed. 1880) ; 
 R. L. Tafel, Documents concerninf) the Life and Character 
 of Swedenborg, 3 vols., 1875-77; J. Clowes. Outlines 
 of Swedenborg's Doctrines. 1873; the publications of the 
 "Swedenborg Society"; J. H. Blunt; and Chambers' 
 Encycl. 
 
 SWEET SINGERS. 1. A band of religious enthusiasts 
 in Scotland (1081) who followed a person called John Gib 
 of Borrowstounness. They abandoned their ordinary 
 occupations, turned their backs on what is commonly 
 accepted as civilised life, and fasted and prayed in the 
 open fields. They received the name Sweet Singers from 
 their habit of chanting some of the Psalms. See J. H. 
 Blunt. 2. Another name for the English Ranters (q.v.) 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 SWINE. Among the Hebrews, Syrians, and Saracens 
 swine's flesh was taboo, as indeed it was among all the 
 Semites. The reason seems to be that the pig was at 
 one time a sacred animal, especially as we are told that 
 it i)ossessed magical powers (CazwinT, i. 393, cited by 
 Robertson Smith). " According to Al-Nadim. the heathen 
 Harranians sacrificed the swine and ate swine's flesh 
 once a year. This ceremony is ancient, for it appears 
 in Cyprus in connection with the worship of the Semitic 
 Aphrodite and Adonis. In the ordinary worship of 
 Aphrodite swine were not admitted, but in Cyprus wild 
 boars were sacrificed once a year on April 2 " (Rol>ertson 
 Smith, R.S.). In Egypt, Osiris, Isis, and especially Set, 
 were identified with the pig; and throughout the Eastern 
 Mediterranean the pig was identified also with the Great 
 Mother and associated with lunar and sky phenomena. 
 " In fact at Troy the pig was represented with the star- 
 shaped decorations with which Hathor's divine cow (in 
 
 her rdle as a sky-goddess) was embellished in Egypt. To 
 complete the identification with the cow-mother, Cretan 
 fable represents a sow suckling the infant Minos or the 
 youthful Zeus-Dionysus as his Egyptian prototyi^e waa 
 suckled by the divine cow " (G. Elliot Smith, Dr.). The 
 Mesopotamian god Rimmon when worshipped as a 
 tempest-god was known as " the pig." According to 
 Elliot Smith, the use of the words xo'Pos by the Greeks, 
 and porcus and porculus by the Romans, reveals the fact 
 that the terms had the double significance of pig and 
 cowry-shell. " As it is manifestly impossible to derive 
 the word ' cowry ' from the Greek word for ' pig,' the 
 only explanation that will stand examination is that the 
 two meanings must have been acquired from the identifica- 
 tion of both the cowry and the pig with the Great Mother 
 and the female reproductive organs. In other words, 
 the pig-associations of Aphrodite afford clear evidence 
 that the goddess was originally a personification of the 
 cowry." In New Guinea the place of the sacrificial pig 
 may actually be taken by the cowry-shell. 
 
 SWINGING. A number of examples of the practice 
 of swinging in various parts of the world as a religious 
 or magical rite have been collected by ,T. G. Frazer. At 
 a feast held by the Dyaks of Sarawak at the end of har- 
 vest, "when the soul of the rice is secured to prevent 
 the crops from rotting away," a number of old women 
 are accustomed to rock to and fro on a rude .swing. In 
 the East Indian island of Bengkali swinging is one of the 
 ceremonies ]>erformed to secure a good catch of fish. The 
 ancient Athenians kept an annual festival of swinging. 
 " Boards were hung from trees by ropes, and people 
 sitting on them swung to and fro, while they sang songs 
 of a loose or voluptuous character. The swinging went 
 on both in public and private." The festival was 
 explained as an expiation for a suicide or suicides by 
 hanging. Swinging was also a feature of the great Latin 
 festival, Feriae Latinae. J. G. Frazer suggests that 
 " perhaps we can reconcile the two apparently discrepant 
 effects attributed to swinging as a means of expiation 
 on the one side and of fertilisation on the other, by sup- 
 posing that in both cases the intention is to clear the air 
 of dangerous infiuences, whether these are ghosts of the 
 uuburied dead or spiritual powers inimical to the growth 
 of plants." Swinging is still practised as a festal rite in 
 Greece and Italy. See J. G. Frazer, G.B., Pt. 111., 
 1912. 
 
 SYMBOLICS. The Christian creed known as the 
 Apostles' Creed was called the Symbolum Apostolicum. 
 Used as the baptismal confession, it was called a 
 " symbol " as being a kind of watchword by which 
 Christians were recognized. Luther and Melanchthon 
 adopted the word and used it of other creeds. P. C. 
 Marheineke (1780-1840) adopted the word Symbolics in 
 1810 to describe the study of the origin, contents, and 
 history of the various Christian creeds. See Schaff- 
 Herzog. 
 
 SYMBOLISM. Camden M. Cobem has pointed out 
 that in the early Christian centuries it was the practice 
 of Christians in all lands to use the native symlwlism 
 wherever possible to express their religious ideas. At 
 Deir-el-Bahari Dr. Naville found the embalmed body of 
 a Christian. The deceased held in his right hand a cup 
 containing a red liquid and in his left what appeared to 
 be a handful of wheat. These, according to Naville, 
 were emblems of the Eucharist. " On the left shoulder 
 Is the swastika (Ifj) which was used as a Christian 
 emblem from the earliest times not only in the Roman 
 catacombs but also in Egypt. Yet the lower part of the 
 robe covering the deceased contains a painting of two 
 jackal-headed gods, probably Amubis and Apuat, adoring 
 the sacred bark of Socharis " (Oobem).
 
 Symmachians 
 
 343 
 
 Syrian Christians 
 
 SYMMACHIANS. A name by which the Ebionites 
 (q.v.) are sometimes referred to. They were so called 
 after Symmachus, the author of one of the Greek versions 
 of the Old Testament. 
 
 STN. One of the deities of tie Ancient Teutons. The 
 goddess Syn, who belonged to the retinue of Frija (q.v.) 
 and Freyja (q.v.), is represented as protecting people who 
 have to take an oath. 
 
 SYNAGOGUES. Jewish places of worship. The word 
 Synagogue is Greek and means " assembly " or " con- 
 gregation." The Hebrew (post-Biblical) expression for 
 the Synagogue is Beth ha-keneseth, " House of 
 Assembly." The institution seems to have arisen in the 
 Greek period. " It probably did not become a regular 
 institution In Palestine till after the beginning of the 
 Maccabean period, and seems to have grown up first in 
 the Dispersion. By the time of the New Testament, as 
 everybody knows. Synagogues had become a widespread 
 institution, and it was owing to their existence that 
 Judaism was able to perpetuate itself after the destruc- 
 tion of the Temple " (W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box). 
 The remains of ancient Synagogues have l)een discovered 
 in Pale.stine in recent years. " In April and May, 1905, 
 the German Oriental Society excavated a Hebrew syna- 
 gogue of the Roman period at Tell-Hum. It was 78 feet 
 long by 59 feet wide, was built of beautifvil white lime- 
 stone almost equal to marble, and was in every way 
 more magnificent than any ever before found in Pales- 
 tine, that in Chorazin being the next finest. Its roof 
 was gable-shaped, and it was surprizingly ornamented 
 with fine carvings representing animals, birds, fruit, etc.; 
 though in some cases these ornamentations had been in- 
 tentionally mutilated. In January. 1907, Macalister and 
 Masterman reported tliat they had made sufficient excava- 
 tions at Khan Minyeh to prove that it was not the 
 ancient Capernaum, as it contained no ix>ttery older than 
 the Arab time. This report being accepted, Tell-Hum 
 :s left without a rival in its claim to be Capernaum, and 
 makes it probable that the synagogue excavated there is 
 the very one referred to in Luke 12. 5 " (Col)ern). The 
 Synagogue of course has its peculiar institutions and 
 ceremonies, but it differs from the Christian Churches in 
 having, according to K. Kohler, no sacraments. " Its 
 institutions, such as the festivals, aim to preserve the 
 historic memory of the people; its ceremonies, called 
 ' signs ' or ' testimonies ' in the Scripture, are to sanctify 
 the life of the nation, the family, or the individual." 
 The .Jew becomes a member of tie Jewish community 
 by right of birth. The most important institution of 
 the Synagogue is the Sabbath. " The highest point of 
 religious devotion in the synagogue is reached on the 
 New Year's day and the Day of Atonement preceding the 
 I'east of Sukkoth." Kohler thinks that the weakness 
 of the Synagogue was its Orientalism, which was marked 
 particularly by its former attitude to women. Full rights 
 of membership have only been accorded them in our own 
 time, owing to the reform movement in Germany and 
 Austria. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. The name Synopsis has been given to 
 works in which, for convenience, the texts of the Synoptic 
 Gosjjels Olatthew, Mark, and Luke) are printed in 
 parallel columns. It is a more scientitic term than 
 " Harmony " (.see HARMONIES OF THE GOSPELS). 
 
 SYNOPTIC PROBLEM. The three Gospels which 
 I)resent on the whole a common view of the Gospel story, 
 the Gospels of Matthew. Mark, and Luke, present also 
 a problem of great difficulty. For many as are the 
 sections in which they are in agreement, there are many 
 others in which they differ from one another consider- 
 ably. " It is this combination of agreement and 
 difference that has given rise to what is known as the 
 
 Synoptic Problem. The problem is to frame a theory 
 which .shall account for the relations between the first 
 three Gospels, setting them in their chronological order, 
 tracing the sources from which they have been compiled, 
 and explaining both the coincidences and differences which 
 they present " (A. S. Peake). See Allan Menzies, The 
 Earliest Gospel. 1901; J. Armitage Robinson. The Htudy 
 of the Gospels, 1903; C. E. Scott-Moncrieff. St. Mark and 
 the Triple Tradition, 1907; Paul Wemle, The Sources of 
 Our Knoicledge of the Life of Jesus, 1907; A. S. Peake, 
 Intr. 
 
 SYNOPTICS. In Scientific Theology the name 
 Synoptics has been given to the Gospels of Matthew, 
 Mark, and Luke. Synopsis means " common view." 
 Tiese gospels have so much in common that they mav 
 be " viewed together." There are indeed many 
 differences, but, as compared with the Gospel of John 
 (q.v.), the other three gospels may be regarded together. 
 See SYNOPTIC PROBLEM. 
 
 SYRIAN CHRISTIANS. A community in India. 
 According to a tradition cherished by the Syrian Christ- 
 ians in Southern India, the Apostle St. Thomas founded 
 seven churches in Cochin and Travancore, and then 
 extended his labours to the Coromandel coast, where he 
 was martyred. The apostle is supposed to have landed 
 about 52 A.D. In the second century Demetrius of 
 Alexandria is said to have been requested by natives of 
 India to send a Christian teacher to them. Pantaenus 
 of Alexandria, who undertook to go. and sailed between 
 180 and 190 A.D., found some " to whom Bartholomew, 
 one of the apostles, had preached," already in pos-session 
 of the Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew. The traditions in 
 fact (whatever their value) waver between St. Thomas 
 and St. Bartholomew. According to Dorotheus of Tvre 
 (254-313 A.D.) and Jerome (.390 A.D.), St. Thomas was 
 martyred at Calamina in India. According to Rufinus, 
 his remains were taken from India to Ephesus. It has 
 been urged by some that the Thomas who introduced 
 the Gospel into India was rather Thomas the Manichspan. 
 He is supposed to have gone to India in 277 A.D. But 
 still a third Thomas is associated with the evangelization 
 of India. About the middle of the fourth century one 
 Thomas Cana, a Syrian merchant, is .said to have con- 
 ducted a mission to the Malabar coast to improve the 
 conditions of the Christians there. In any case, from 
 this time until the arrival of the Portuguese in India the 
 natives of Malabar seem to have welcomed the visitations 
 and teachings of Nestorian and Jacobite Bishops without 
 troubling to distingdish between them. In the sixteenth 
 century they seem to have come under the authority of 
 the Ne.storian Patriarch of Mesopotamia. When the 
 Portuguese came, they lost little time in converting the 
 Malabar Church into a branch of the Roman Church 
 (A.D. 1599). But the conduct of the Jesuits led before 
 long to a split in the Malabar Church and the rise of two 
 parties, the Romo-Syrians and the Jacobite Syrians, who 
 acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the Patriarch 
 of Antioch. The Romo-Syrians are now known as 
 Catholics of the Syrian rite. The converts made among 
 the various castes of the Hindus by the Portuguese formed 
 a third party, known as Catholics of the Latin rite. A 
 long dispute between the claims of Rome, Babylon, and 
 Antioch sharpened the divisions of the Malabar Church. 
 In 1893 Titus Mar Thoma was chosen to preside over a 
 Reformed Party of Jacobite Syrians, who prefer to be 
 known as St. Thomas' Syrians. The original Jacobite 
 Syrians are under Mar Dionysins. and owe allegiance to 
 the Patriarch of Antioch. There are besides the Chal- 
 dfean Syrians who are so called because in 18.56 a large 
 .section of the Syrians asked the Catholic Chaldsean 
 Patriarch of Babylon to send them a Chaldsean Bishop, 
 
 23
 
 Ta'anith 
 
 344 
 
 Taborites 
 
 ■which he did in 1861. It seems that " while the Jacobite 
 Syrians have accepted and aclinowledged the ecclesiasti- 
 cal supremacy of the Patriarch of Antioch, the St. 
 Thomas' Syrians, maintaining that the Jacobite creed was 
 introduced into Malabar only in the seventeenth century 
 after a section of the church had shaken off the Roman 
 supremacy, uphold the ecclesiastical autonomy of the 
 church, whereby the supreme control of the spiritual and 
 temporal affairs of the church is declared to be in the 
 hands of the Metropolitan of Malabar. The St. Thomas' 
 Syrians hold that the consecration of a Bishop by, or 
 with the sanction of the Patriarch of Babylon, Alexan- 
 dria, or Antioch, gives no more validity or sanctity to 
 that office than consecration by the Metropolitan of 
 Malabar, the supreme head of the church in Malabar, 
 inasmuch as this church is as ancient and apostolic as 
 any other, being founded by the Apostle St. T.homas; 
 
 while the Jacobites hold that the consecration of a Bishop 
 is not valid, unless it be done with the sanction of their 
 Patriarch. The St. Thomas' Syrians have, however, no 
 objection to receiving consecration from the head of any 
 other episcopal apostolic church, but they consider that 
 such consecrations do not in any way subject their church 
 to the supremacy of that prelate or church " (E. Thurston 
 and K. Rangachari). The Catholics of the Syrian rite 
 use the liturgy of the Church of Rome in Syriac; the 
 Catholics of the Latin rite use the same in Latin. The 
 Chalda?an Syrians use the Roman liturgy, but they have 
 introduced differences in practice. According to Thurston 
 and Rangachari most of the Syrians of the present day 
 trace their descent from the higher orders of Hindu 
 society, and, in spite of being Christians, many of them 
 observe certain customs more or less prevalent among 
 high-caste Hindus. See E. Thurston. 
 
 TA'ANITH. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are incorporated in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Ta'anith is the ninth tractate of the second 
 group, which is called Mo'ed (" Festival "). 
 
 TABLETS OF FATE. In Babylonian mythology the 
 possession of the tablets of fate gives power and authority 
 over gods and men. In the Epic of Marduk TiSmat 
 gives them to Kingu, from whom Marduk takes them 
 after he has conquered Tiamat. In the Zu myth we find 
 Bel or En-lil in possession of them. The storm-god Zu 
 snatches them from him and escapes to the mountains. 
 Marduk is the only god who ventures to attack Zu. He 
 is successful, and captures the tablets of fate. Thus he 
 gains the power formerly possessed by Bel. See 
 MARDUK, EPIC OF; ZU MYTH. 
 
 TABOO. The word tahoo is Polynesian, and means 
 withdrawn from current use. '' The field covered by 
 taboos among savage and half-savage races in very wide, 
 for there is no part of life in which the savage does not 
 leel himself to be surrounded by mysterious agencies and 
 recognise the need of walking warily. Moreover, all 
 taboos do not belong to religion proper, that is, they are 
 not always rules of conduct for the regulation of man's 
 contact with deities that, when taken in the right way, 
 may be counted on as friendly, but rather appear in many 
 cases to be precautions against the approach of malignant 
 enemies — against contact with evil spirits and the like. 
 Thus alongside of taboos that exactly correspond to rules 
 of holiness, protecting the inviolability of idols and sanc- 
 tuaries, priests and chiefs, and generally of all persons 
 and things pertaining to the gods and their worship, we 
 find another kind of taboo which in the Semitic field has 
 its parallel in rules of uncleanness. Women after child- 
 birth, men who have touched a dead body and so forth. 
 
 are temporarily taboo and separated from human society, 
 just as the same persons are unclean in Semitic religion, 
 in these cases the person under taboo is not regarded as 
 holy, for he is separated from approach to the sanctuary 
 as well as from contact with men; but his act or con- 
 dition is somehow associated with supernatural dangers, 
 arising, according to the common savage explanation, 
 from the presence of formidable spirits which are shunned 
 like an infectious disease. In most savage societies no 
 sharp line seems to be drawn between the two kinds of 
 taboo just indicated, and even in more advanced nations 
 the notions of holiness and uncleanness often touch " (W. 
 Robertson Smith, U.S.). Among the Syrians, and indeed 
 among all the Semites, swine's flesh was taboo; it might 
 not be eaten. Among the Syrians again the dove was 
 taboo; it might not be touched. Among the Israelites 
 it was not i)ermitted to touch the sacred ark; and among 
 the natives of Central Australia no ordinary person dares 
 to approach a churinga. 
 
 TABORITES. The Taborites were one of the sections 
 into which the followers of John Hus (1369-1415; see 
 HUSSITES) were divided. Tabor means " tent," and 
 the Taborites or " men of the tent " were so called 
 because in 1419 they met and encamped on a mountain 
 near Prague in Bohemia in order to received the Com- 
 munion in both kinds. Unlike the Calixtines (Q-V.), the 
 more peaceful section of the Hussites, the 'Taborites 
 sought to promote and defend their principles by the 
 power of the sword. They were led by John Ziska 
 (1360-1424). In 1419 he marched into Prague and com- 
 mitted acts of pillage and violence. This was the 
 beginning of that vandalism and iconoclasm that deprived 
 Bohemia of most of its beautiful churches. The 
 Taborites regarded the Word of God as the sole authority 
 in religious matters. They lived in expectation of the 
 personal descent of Christ. From their fourteen articles, 
 published in 1420, it appears that they rejected all polite 
 literature, the decrees of the Fathers, the use of holy oil, 
 the use of consecrated water in Baptism, the practice of
 
 Talith 
 
 345 
 
 Tammuz 
 
 having sponsors, auricular confession, office books, vest- 
 ments, etc., fasts, and in fact tlie whole ritual of tie 
 Church. In 1422 Zislva defeated the Emperor Sigismund 
 in a battle near Deutsehbrod. In 1424 he died. He was 
 succeeded by the brothers Procopius. Some of the 
 followers of Zisl^a, however, refused to acknowledge that 
 anyone could properly succeed their old leader. They 
 therefore called themselves Orphans and formed a new 
 body, though they were willing to fight with the Taliorites 
 against the common foe. Warfare continued, and the 
 Taborites won a number of victories. At length in 14.S4 
 they were severely defeated at Boehmischbrod. In 1453 
 they were again defeated and dispersed. Those who 
 remained formed the nucleus of the Bohemian Brethren 
 (q.v.). See J. H. Blunt; Frot. Diet.; Cath. Diet.; 
 Brockhaus. 
 
 T.YLITH. The Talith is a kind of sliawl made of silk 
 and ornamented with fringes. It is worn by orthodox 
 Jews in the Synagogue. In the Old Testament one of the 
 commands given to the Jews is this (Deuteronomy xxii. 
 12) : " Thou Shalt make thee fringes upon the four comers 
 of thy vesture wherewith thou coverest thyself." This 
 original garment was a piece of linen or wool large 
 enough to cover the whole body. In course of time it 
 became necessary to avoid attracting attention by wear- 
 ing fringes or ta-ssels on the outer garment. A smaller 
 garment with fringes was therefore worn underneath the 
 ordinary clothing. The modem praying-shawl is called 
 Talith (a corruption of the Greek stole), and a distinction 
 is made between the " Little Talith " and the " Large 
 Talith." The Large Talith corresponds to the ancient 
 " garment with fringes." The fringes have again been 
 attached to it, so that now both the Ijarge Talith and the 
 Little Talith have them. See W. O. E. Oesterley and 
 G. H. Bos. 
 
 TALMUD, THE. The Talmud, the great literary pro- 
 duction of the Jewish Schools, consists of the Mishnah 
 and the Gemara. The Mishnah for the most part repro- 
 duces the traditional discussions of the Rabbis who lived 
 between 70 A.D. and al)out 200 A.D. The.se discussions 
 seem to have been written down about 200 A.D. After 
 this the Mishnah (q.v.) was discussed in the Schools of 
 Palestine and Babylonia, and the new discussions received 
 the name Gemara. The Rabbis who were active in the 
 Schools from 220 to 500 A.D. are designated Amoraim, 
 " Speakers " or " Interpreters." The Palestinian or 
 Jerusalem Talmud was completed towards the end of the 
 fourth century or during the fifth century A.D. The 
 Babylonian Talmud was completed attout 500 A.D. The 
 Mishnah is the text, to which the Gemara Is a kind of 
 commentary. In both recensions of the Talmud the 
 Mishnah is the same. The Gemara is not identical, that 
 of Babylon being very much amplified. In neither case 
 is the Gemara complete. Certain tractates are omitted 
 m each, and these are not the same in the two Gemaras. 
 The Mishnah consists of sixty-three tractates or treatises 
 which are arranged in six groups or Sedarim. For the 
 names of these see MISHNAH. The discussions in the 
 Mishnah are mostly of the kind called Halachah : those 
 in the Gemara are entirely of the kind known as Hag- 
 gadah. Halachah means literally the act of walking or 
 going. Then it comes to mean (1) a walk (life) in 
 accordance with the Law, (2) the Law in accordance with 
 which the walk of life must be guided. Ha.ggadah means 
 literally " telling " or " recitation." Halachah aims 
 at establishing legal rules. Haggadah is homiletical. 
 See further HAGGADAH and HALACHAH. Through- 
 out the Talmuds are also found what are known as 
 Baraitha sections. Baraitha means in Aramaic " the 
 outside " or " the external." It denotes a Tannaite 
 tradition (see TANNaIM) which has not been incor- 
 
 porated in the Mishnah. The Baraitha sections are in 
 Hebrew, whereas the Gemara is in Aramaic. Moreover, 
 the Baraithas are in the style of both halachah and hag- 
 gadah. C. A. Briggs (Intr.) gives an example of Baraitha 
 and Gemara from the tractate Baba Bathra. Part of 
 it is as follows : (Baraitha) " The rabbins have taught 
 that the order of the Prophets is, Joshua and Judges, 
 Samuel and Kings, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Isaiah and the 
 Twelve (minor prophets)": (Gemara) "How is it? 
 Hosea is first because it is written, ■ In the beginning the 
 I/ord spake to Hosea.' But how did he speak in the 
 beginning with Hosea? Have there not been so many 
 prophets from Moses unto Hosea? Rabbi Jochanan said 
 that he was the first of the four prophets who prophesied 
 in the same iJeriod, and these are : Hosea, Isaiah, Amos, 
 and Micah. Should then Hosea be placed Iwfore at the 
 head? (Reply) : No, since his prophecies had been 
 written alongside of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malaehi, and 
 Haggai, Zechariah, and Malaehi were the last of the 
 prophets, it was counted with them. (Question) : Ought 
 it to have been written apart and ought it to have been 
 placed before? (Reply) : No; since it was little and might 
 be easily lost. (Question) : How is it? Isaiah was 
 before Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Ought Isaiah to be placed 
 before at the head? (Reply) : Since the book of Kings 
 ends in ruin and Jeremiah is, all of it, min, and Ezekiel 
 has its beginning ruin and its end comfort, and Isaiah is 
 all of it comfort; we join ruin to ruin and comfort to 
 comfort." See J. W. Etheridge, Intr. to Heh. Lit., 1856; 
 Encycl. BiU., s.v. "Law Literature"; W. O. E. Oester- 
 ley and G. H. Box; A. S. Geden, Intr. to the Heb. Bible, 
 1909. 
 
 TAMAGOSTAD. The chief god of the Nicarao (of 
 Nicaragua). He seems to have been equivalent to the 
 Mexican Oxomoco. With the help of the goddess Cipal- 
 tonal, he created the earth and mankind. 
 
 TAMBALAS. A class of Hindu priests in Southern 
 India. They are descril)ed as Telugu-speaking temple 
 priests. 
 
 TAMFANA. Tacitus (Annals, i., 51) mentions a temple 
 of a goddess Tamfana, which was levelled to the ground 
 by Germanicus. Tamfana was worshipped by the Marsi, 
 and seems to have been a goddess of fertility. Her 
 festival was in the autumn. See P. D. Chantepie de la 
 Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 TaMID. The title of one of the Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D. and are 
 incorxwrated in the Mishnah (g.v.), a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Tamid is the ninth tractate of the fifth 
 group, which is called Koddshim (" Holy Things "). 
 
 TAMMUZ. The name of a god worshipped in Bab.v- 
 lonia. It appears from a Sumerian Dynastic List that 
 the Sumerians believed him to have been a man who 
 reigned in Erech for a hundred years. He seems also to 
 be described as a hunter: " Dumuzi, the hunter (?), 
 whose city was . . ., ruled for a hundretl years " (L. 
 W. King, Legends of Babylon and Egypt in relation to 
 Hebrew Tradition, 1918). This description, as Professor 
 King points out, recalls the death of Adonis in Greek 
 mythology. Tammuz became a god of vegetation, and 
 reference is made to the annual festival of mourning 
 for the death of the god in Ezekiel viii. 14. This aunual 
 mourning for Tammuz (or Adonis) is " the scenic com- 
 memoration of a divine tragedy in which the worshippers 
 take part with appropriate wailing and lamentation " (W. 
 Robertson Smith, R.S.): and it is thought that in i)oint 
 of form it supplies the closest parallel to the festing and
 
 Tamu 
 
 346 
 
 Taoism 
 
 humiliation on the Hebrew Day of Atonement. The 
 mother of Tammuz was Ishtar, but in course of time she 
 came to be regarded as his wife, just as the Egyptian 
 Isis became the wife of Osiris. Both the Babylonians 
 and the Hebrews named the fourth month of the year 
 after the god. 
 
 TAMU. A deity worshipped by the Caribs of Brazil 
 as a culture-god. He is said to have taught the i)eople 
 the art of agriculture. 
 
 TANIT. A goddess referred to in Carthaginian in- 
 scriptions. In one passage she is described as " The 
 Great Mother." Elsewhere she is addressed as the 
 " Lady Tanit, the Face of Baal." 
 
 TANNAIM. The word means " Teachers " (Literally 
 "repeaters" or "reciters"; Aram tend, Heb. shdndh 
 " to repeat "). It is a name given to the Jewish Rabbis 
 who flourished from A.D. 10 to A.D. 220 and were the 
 predecessors of the Amoralm (q.v.). Hillel and Sham- 
 mai, the famous leaders of rival schools of learning, 
 belonged to the first generation of them (A.D. 10-SO). To 
 the second generation (A.D. 90-130) belonged Eabban 
 Gamaliel II. and Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph. To the third 
 generation (A.D. 130-100) belonged Rabbi Meir, Rabbi 
 Simon ben Jochai, and Rabbi Simon b. Gamaliel, disciples 
 of Rabbi Akiba. To the fourth generation (A.D. 160- 
 220) belonged Rabbi Jehudah ha-Nasi or "the Prince" 
 (A.D. ltJO-210). He was also called Rabbi Jehudah the 
 Holy, " Our master the saint," or simply Rabbi, i.e., the 
 Rabbi par e.Tcellence. It was he who finally compiled 
 and codified the Mishnah (q.v.) in its present form. And 
 it was during his presidency that the centre of Jewish 
 learning was transferred from Jamnia to Tiberias. See 
 J. W. Etheridge, Intr. to Heb. Lit.; W. O. E. Oesterley 
 and G. H. Box; A. S. Geden, Intr. to the Heb. Bible, 1909. 
 TANTRA. Tantra is a term found in Hinduism. It 
 denotes a kind of sectarian tract or rite-book. In 
 Saktism (q.v.) they are held in such high honour that 
 they are said to constitute its bible. They are generally 
 believed to have been revealed by Siva (q.v.). " As a 
 general rule they are written in the form of a dialogue 
 between the god Siva and his wife; and every Tantra 
 ought, like a Puriina, to treat of five subjects — the 
 creation, the destruction of the wx>rld, the worship of the 
 gods, the attainment of superhuman power, and the four 
 modes of union with the Supreme Spirit " (Monier- 
 Williams). Many of the Tantras deal with the use of 
 charms and .spells, Yantras (q.v.), Bijas (q.v.), and 
 Mudras (q.v.), alchemy, etc. See Monier- Williams; E. 
 W. Hopkins. 
 
 TAOISM. Taoism is one of the religions of China, or 
 it might be better to say, Taoism has become one of the 
 superstitions of China. For Taoism, as expounded by 
 its reputed founder, was a philosophy rather than a 
 religion, and when it came to be regarded as a religion, it 
 had degenerated into a superstition. According to R. 
 K. Douglas, Taoism was originally a purely politico- 
 ethical system. It passeil, in fact, through three stages. 
 There was first the pure Taoism which was systematized 
 about fiOO B.C. by Lao-tsze. but had been in exi.stence since 
 about 1100 B.C. This flourished until about 200 B.C. 
 There was secondly the Taoism as developed by the fol- 
 lowers of Lao-tsze, Lieh-tsze and Chwang-tsze. There 
 has been, thirdly, the Taoism of modern times, which is 
 so degenerate that it hardly deserves the name. The 
 Yellow Emperor Hwang Ti (2700 B.C.) is supposed to have 
 bequeathed to his people a number of valued and vener- 
 able precepts. And, according to E. H. Parker, " there 
 can be little doubt that Lao-tsze in the sixth century B.C. 
 simply gave a name (Tao) to a floating group of ethical 
 principles already for many centuriejs spread far and 
 wide over China, and already known aiS the Maxims of 
 
 Hwang Ti." The difficulty is to know what exactly 
 Lao-tsze meant by the term Tao. It appears in the title 
 of the book in which he expounded his philosophy, the 
 Tao-teh-King (q.v.). The word King means " classic " 
 or " orthodox work " and was added subsequently when 
 the work came to be regarded as classical. .The subject 
 of the book is therefore Tao-t6h, an expression which was 
 already in use in the " Book of Changes " and the " Book 
 of Rites." E. H. Parker explains Teh as follows: 
 " Teh is an emanation from Tao, and signifies that rule 
 of action which naturally follows from faith in Tao; not 
 charity or forgiveness, as many have thought : its modem 
 signification as a noun is " virtue," " efficacy," " power 
 for good"; and, again, in verbal senses, " to be grateful 
 for," " to like one for," " to take credit to one's self 
 for " " (Chinese Religion, p. 71). From this one would 
 suppose that the word corresponds to our -Ism (or value). 
 But Prof. Parker decider in favour of the word " Grace," 
 which, in view of its theological associations, seems un- 
 fortunate. For Tao, he tells us, Lao-tsze himself could 
 not find a suitable definition or circumlocution. Literally 
 " the road," it is here simply a makeshift like the letter 
 X as used in our expression X Rays. He decides in 
 favour of " Providence." which again seems unfortunate. 
 The primary meaning of the word Tao is " The Way." 
 In this sense it was used frequently by Confucius (equiva- 
 lent to Greek methodo.s). 3. Legge thinks that of the 
 three English terms that suggest themselves, the Way, 
 or the Reason, or the Word, the most suitable is the Way 
 in the sense of Method. He goes so far as to say : " If 
 Methodism and Methodist had not been so well appro- 
 priated in English, I should have recommended their 
 employment for Taoism and Tiloist." But, as R. K. 
 Douglas says, to Lao-tsze it seems to have meant more 
 than the way. It is something impalpable. " You look 
 at it, and cannot see it. You listen to it, and you cannot 
 hear it. You try to touch it, and you cannot reach it. 
 You use it, and cannot exhaust it. It is not to be 
 expressed in words. It Is still and void; it stands alone 
 and changes not: it circulates everywhere and is not 
 endangered. It is ever inactive, and yet leaves nothing 
 undone. From it phenomena appear, through it they 
 change, in it they disappear. Formless, it is the cause 
 of form. Nameless, it is the origin of heaven and earth; 
 with a name, it is the mother oif aU things. It is the 
 ethical nature of the good man and the principles of his 
 action." F. H. Balfour would translate the word by 
 Nature or Principle — Nature, that is to say in the sense 
 of Spinoza's natura naturans (see SPINOZISM), " the 
 abstract Cause, the initial I'rinciple of life and order, 
 the hypostatic quiddity which underlies all phenomena, 
 and of which they are a manifestation onl.v." Other 
 meanings that have been suggested are : The Absolute in 
 the sense of Schelling, and Substance in the sense of 
 Spinoza. The Tao-teh-King, as rendered in English by 
 Prof. E. H. Parker, the latest translator, does not create 
 such a favourable impression as one would exjiect from 
 quotations in other books; but his renderings no doubt 
 follow the original more closely. Prof. Parker, in addi- 
 tion to his translation, gives a summary of the teaching 
 of the Tao-teh-King. The following are quotations from 
 the summary : " Providenc-e [Tao'\, without origin itself, 
 is the origin of everything: being without body and with- 
 out palpable existence; invisible, imperceptible, spon- 
 taneous, and impalpable. Heaven and Earth have their 
 beginnings in it; that is. in this eternal principle of 
 pure being which determines the Universe. ... It 
 knows no distinction between spirit, mind, and matter, 
 between what men call existence and non-existence; it 
 contains all potentialities. . . . Providence [Tao] is 
 incorruptible, perfect, eternal. . . . Providence is
 
 Taoism 
 
 347 
 
 Targum 
 
 always reetful, yet never idle: knows no time, limits, or 
 wants; has no inclinations or preferences: and absorbs 
 or takes unto itself those who regulate their conduct by 
 faith in it. ... A man who regulates his conduct by 
 and has faitJi in Providence avoid.s display and self-asser- 
 tion: is humble, modest, calm, ready for all emergencies, 
 and fearless of death. . . . He is always rich, because 
 contented : his body is always safe, foi- the mind has no 
 apprehensions : he has no ill-will, and devotes his efforts 
 to the amelioration of others. ... He prefers reality 
 to appearances, and strives for pure truth. . . . The 
 natural powers should be economized, and all agitation, 
 mental or physical, studiously avoided. ... Do not 
 trouble to have any fixed aim in life. The man who 
 has attained to a mental oneness with Providence [Tao] 
 is superior to the highest rulers. . . The King 
 
 should avoid luxury, over-legislation, and over-taxation, 
 which tend to the poverty, evasiveness, and misery of the 
 people. . . . Too much cooking spoils the fish, as too 
 much handling irritates the people. . . . The people 
 should not be raised from their Ignorance to the intel- 
 lectual level of their ruJers. . . . Restrictions tend to 
 hamper industry: consequently these should be as few 
 and as simple as possible. At the same time, mechanical 
 skill should not be too much encouraged, as it leads to 
 excessive effort, emulation, and luxury." To bring one- 
 self into complete harmony with Tao (Substance, Tniti, 
 Principle)— this Is the great ideal. As R. K. Douglas 
 points out. Taoism is a kind of mysticism. Such was 
 the Taoism of Lao-tsze. Lieh-tsze and Chwang-tsze 
 thought to improve upon it. with the result that it began 
 to degenerate. Lieh-tsze (fifth century B.C.) was fond 
 of depicting ideal states of .society in the form of dreams. 
 He makes one of the Emperors dream, for in.stance, of a 
 country •' where the people were without rulers, for they 
 were masters of themselves — were without passion, for 
 they controlled their desires. They regarded life with- 
 out pleasure and death without dread, and therefore 
 were overtaken by no untimely fates. They knew neither 
 relations nor connections, and so were free from love 
 and hate. . . . They walked in water without being 
 drowned, they threw them.selves into the fire without 
 being burnt, and they might he cut and struck without 
 receiving hurt. They mounted into the air and walked 
 as on the ground. They slept in space as though thev 
 were on their beds, and the clouds and the mists inter- 
 fered with them not" (R. K. Douglas). This allegory, 
 as Douglas says, foreshadows the way in which Taoisin 
 was to degenerate. Chang-tsze (four century B.C.) fol- 
 lowed his master more closely. According to Douglas, 
 his main theme was the vanity of human effort. " If the 
 world were but left to itself, people would wear that 
 which they spun and eat that which grew. The moun- 
 tains would be without paths, and the waters without 
 ships. All created things would rejoice in life. Wild 
 animals would wander in troops, and trees and shrubs 
 would flounsh. among which birds and beasts might roam. 
 Then would men enjoy a golden age. No knowledge 
 would .separate them from virtue, and no desires would 
 taint their purity." Chwang-tsze came in time to believe 
 that life was largely a matter of mere phantasmata or 
 deceptive appearances. The later Taoists devoted them- 
 selves to alchemy and magic, putting their faith in 
 charms and in the elixir of life. The old Taoism was 
 further corrupted by the introduction of Buddhism into 
 China in A.D. (iS. Nevertheless, there are still to be 
 found Taoi.sts who cherish the old ideal — " men who are 
 almost entirely uncontaminated by the follies and impos- 
 tures of modern popular Taoism, and who may be said to 
 represent the true Apostolic Succession in " the Taoist 
 Church " (F. H. Balfour). See Joseph Edkins, Religion 
 
 "i Ohinn. 1878; James Legge, The Religions of China, 
 1880: R. K. Douglas, Confucianism and Taoisin; H A 
 Giles, Religions of Ancient China, 1905: Frederic H Bal- 
 four, •• Taoism," in R.^.W.; E. H. Parker, Studies; J. 
 J. M. De Groot; Rel. of the Chinese. 1910; Max B. Wein- 
 stein. Welt- und Leben- Anschainingen, 1910 
 
 TAO-TEH-KING. One of the sacred books of the 
 Chinese. Composed or compiled bv Lao-tsze, it gives the 
 principles and precepts of pure or original Taoism (q.v.). 
 TAPU. A Polynesian term. According to R. R. 
 Marett, it " serves as perhaps the chief nucleus of 
 embryonic reflection with regard to mvstic matters of all 
 kinds; m some of the islands the name stands for the 
 whole sy.stem of religion." 
 
 TARANIS. One of the deities worshipped by the 
 ancient Celts, the god of thunder. See TEUTATES and 
 compare ESUS. ' 
 
 TARANUCUS. Taranucus, " the thunderer." was one 
 of the names given by the ancient Celts to a god who 
 corresponded to the Roman Jupiter. 
 
 TARGOMAN. Literally " interpreter," corresponding 
 to the modem " Dragoman." An official of the Jewish 
 synagogue who interpreted the Hebrew Scriptures in the 
 language of the people. Cp. METHURGEMAN and 
 TARGUM. 
 
 TARGUM. The designation of a Jewish version of 
 certain books of the Old Testament. After the Exile, 
 Aramaic took the place of Hebrew as the spoken language 
 of the people. Consequently, the text of the Hebrew 
 Scriptures became unintelligible to the general public. 
 It became necessary therefore in the Synagogue service, 
 an important part of which consisted "in readings from 
 the Law and the Prophets, to have .someone to interpret 
 the original language. As the reader in the Synagogue 
 read a passage of Scripture, an interpreter, " Methur- 
 geman, rendered the .sense in Aramaic, the language of 
 the people. Naturally this translation was apt to become 
 paraphrastic. In the case of the Law, an effort seems 
 to have been made to give the translation as literallv 
 as poss;ible, though even here the interpreter was tempted 
 to explain and to expound. In the case of the Prophets, 
 a free paraphrase was almost unavoidable. In any case, 
 it was not necessary to guard against it so carefiillv, as 
 the reading from the Prophets (introduced at a later 
 date) was of minor importance. The frequent repetition 
 of these interpretations will have resulted in their assum- 
 ing in course of time a more or less fixed or stereotyped 
 form. These interpretations or translations were called 
 Targums. Transmitted at first orally, they were after- 
 wards committed to writing, though it was forbidden to 
 use these written translations in the Svnagogue service. 
 The Targums originated in Palestine, but were not held 
 in high esteem there. Amongst the Babylonian Jews, by 
 whom they were adopted, they received greater honour. 
 The Torah (Law) Targum of the Babvlonians is called 
 the Targum Onkelos. It seems clear that Onkelos is a 
 variation of Aquilas, which again is the same as Aquila, 
 the name of the author of a very literal translation (Gk.) 
 of the Old Testament. The Targum was so called either 
 through confusion, or because it was made in the literal 
 style of Aquila. The Babylonian Targum on the 
 Prophets is called the Targum of Jonathan, i.e., of Jona- 
 than ben Uzziel. It has been .suggested that Jonathan 
 is equivalent to Theodotion. the name of the author of 
 another (fragmentary) translation (Gk.) of the Old Testa- 
 ment. The two names, the one Hebrew, the other Greek, 
 have the same meaning. In that case this Targum may 
 have been so called because it was made in the style of 
 Theodotion, i.e., in a freer and more paraphrastic style. 
 The Palestinian Torah (Law) Targum has been preserved 
 in two forms, tlie one complete, the other fragmentary.
 
 Tartarus 
 
 348 
 
 Tekmorian Guest-Friends 
 
 The complete form has been called Targum Jonathan 
 (Pseudo- Jonathan). This has been owing to a mistake. 
 The real name was Targum Yenislialmi (Jerusalem 
 Targum). The abbreviation T.Y. was wrongly interpreted 
 Targum Yonathan (Jonathan). The Palestinian Targum 
 on the Prophets has only been preserved in fragments. 
 The Targums on the Hagiographa were confined to 
 Palestine, and were never recognised officially. There 
 were no Targums on the books of Daniel and Ezra, which 
 belong to this group. There is also a Samaritan Torah 
 (Law) Targum. See F. Buhl, Canon; C. A. Briggs, Intr.; 
 W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 TARTARUS. The Greek Tartarus in earlier times 
 was a dark abyss below the surface of the earth. In 
 later times it came to correspond to Hades; it denoted the 
 lower regions, the place of torment in which the wicked 
 were punished. See O. SeyfCert, Diet. 
 
 TASCODRUGITES. A name given to a religious sect 
 which arose in Galatia in the fourth century. The name 
 is formed from the Greek words taskos " a wooden 
 nail " and drouggos " a nose." According to Epiphanius 
 {Bmr. xlviii.), the Tascodrugites were so called because 
 while praying they placed the finger on the nose. They 
 are .said to have rejected the Creeds and Sacraments (so 
 Theodoret). They are perhaps to be identified with the 
 Passalorynchites, a body of early mystics. This name is 
 formed from the Greek words passalos " a gag " and 
 rugchos " a muzzle." The Passalorynchites seem to 
 liave been so called because they placed a finger across 
 the mouth and nose to prevent the possibility of speaking. 
 See Schaff-Herzog, Religious Encyclopaedia; J. H. Blunt. 
 TASHMITUM. A Babylonian deity. Tasbmitum 
 appears as a goddess in the time of Hammurapi. She 
 is the consort of Nabu (g.v.). Originally the consort of 
 Nabu was Erua. When Erua was amalgamated with 
 Sarpanitum (g.v.) and assigned to Marduk (g.v.), a 
 new consort had to be found for Nabu. The new con- 
 sort was Tashmitum (" revelation "). She is always 
 coupled with Nabu ("Nabu and Tashmitum"), and 
 never appears alone. Jastrow thinks that originally 
 the name was a title given to Nabu. It was afterwards 
 converted into a goddess. See Morris Jastrow, Bel. 
 
 TATTOOING. In a passage in the Old Testament 
 (Leviticus xix. 28) tattooing is referred to as one of the 
 heathen practices which the Israelites must avoid. They 
 are forbidden to " tattoo any marks " upon them. The 
 reference is perhaps to marks which indicated consecra- 
 tion to a special deity and served as signs by which 
 members of the same cult recognized one another. 
 Reinach mentions that among the negroes tattoo-marks 
 attest dependence on a particular fetish, and among the 
 Polynesians alliance with the god of the tribe. Bertholet 
 notes that the people of Mecca make three incisions in 
 each cheek of their children to protect them against the 
 evil eye. Robertson Smith points oiTt that in Lev. xix. 
 2S tattooing " is immediately associated with incisions 
 in the flesh made in mourning or in honour of the dead." 
 This, he thinks, " suggests that in their ultimate origin 
 the stigmata are nothing more than the permanent scars 
 of punctures made to draw blood for a ceremony of self- 
 dedication to the deity." According to Lucian (§ 59). 
 the Syrians all tattooed themselves, some on the hands 
 and some on the neck. Tattooed bodies of Nubians of 
 the time of the Middle Empire (c. 2000 B.C.) have been 
 found. The practice has been noted also among some 
 of the tribes in the Sudan. See W. Robertson Smith, 
 R.S.; A. Bertholet, Leviticus, 1901; Reinach, O. 
 
 TAUROBOLIUM. A Roman sacrifice connected with 
 the worship of the Asiatic goddess Cybele (Q.v.). A 
 priest having sacrificed a bull, " its blood was made to 
 drip between the boards of the floor upon the head of 
 
 the person who made the offering, and was supposed to 
 render him divine " (Reinach, O.). 
 
 TA-URT. An Egyptian goddess, the female hippo- 
 potamus, a goddess of maternity. She was reputed to be 
 the mother of Osiris, and was in fact fused with Isis. 
 
 TAWAF. The Arabic name for the ceremony of going 
 round the Ka'ba. See HAJJ, THE, and compare CIR- 
 CUMAMBULATION. 
 
 TAYAMMUM. An Arabic name for the practice of 
 using sand, instead of water, in ablutions. Where water 
 is scarce or not to be found, the Muslim is allowed to 
 use fine clean sand or earth as a substitute. In the 
 Qur'an (v. 9) it is said : " And if ye have become unclean, 
 then purify yourselves. But if ye are sick, or on a 
 journey, or if one of you come from the place of retire- 
 ment, or if ye have touched women, and ye find no water, 
 then take clean sand and rub your faces and your hands 
 with it." Klein describes the practice more fully. " In 
 order to perform the Tayammum, the Muslim places both 
 his hands, the fingers being joined together, on the ground 
 covered with clean sand or dust and then carefully wipes 
 with it his face once, proposing to himself the lawfulness 
 of prayer after this kind of ablution; then, if he has 
 any ring on his finger, he takes it olf, places the palms 
 of his hands on the dust again, this time with his fingers 
 spread out, and then rubs his arms up to his elbows." 
 See F. A. Klein. 
 
 TEACHING OF THE TWELVE APOSTLES. See 
 DIDACHE. 
 
 TEBtJL YOM. The name of one of the Jewish 
 treatises or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition 
 or unwritten law as developed by the second century 
 A.D. and are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.). a col- 
 lection and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the 
 Holy, or the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three 
 tractates of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or 
 orders (sedarim). Tebiil Yom is the tenth tractate of 
 the sixth group, which is called Tohoroth (" Purifica- 
 tions "). 
 
 TEFILLIN. The word Teflllln is Hebrew (or rather 
 Aramaic), and means literally " prayers." In the Jewish 
 Targums it is used as the equivalent of the Greek term 
 Phylacteries iq.v.). Phylacteries were so called because 
 they consisted of small boxes containing prayers written 
 on parchment. The Hebrew name for them in the Old 
 Testament is Totafoth (q.v.). 
 
 TEFNET. An Egyptian deity. Egyptian legend 
 represents the Sun-god Ra (q.v.) as creating out of him- 
 self two supporters of the heavens, the god Shu {q.v.) 
 and the goddess Tefnet. These in turn gave birth to 
 Keb (q.v.), god of the earth, and Nut (q.v.), goddess of 
 the sky. In the Book of the Dead (q.v.) Shu and Tef- 
 net, together with Atflm appear as rulers of Helio- 
 polis. Tefnet is represented as a lioness, or as a human 
 being with the head of a lioness. In Nubia .she was 
 regarded as the mother of Thoth (q.v.). In Abydos the 
 goddess created by Re was not Tefnet, but the frog Hekt 
 (q.v.). See A. Wiedemann; Adolf Erman, Handliook. 
 
 TBIKIRZI. Teikirzi, sister of On (q.v.), is one of the 
 chief deities of the Todas. She seems to have become 
 their ruler when On loft them to rule the world of the 
 dead. According to one legend, when the people of 
 Mysore came to fight against her, she turned .them into 
 stones. 
 TBIKUTEIDI. One of the gods of the Todas. 
 TEIPAKH. Teipakh or Tirshti. brother of TelklrzI, 
 is one of the chief gods of the Todas, a river god. 
 
 TEKMORIAN GUEST-FRIENDS. An anti-Christian 
 secret society established on the imperial estates of 
 Pisidian Antioch. They are referred to in an inscription
 
 Telepathy 
 
 349 
 
 Tendency Theory, The 
 
 (A.D. 300) found by Sir WilUam Ramsay in 1882. 
 '•These 'brothers of the sign' spoke of the pagan 
 devotees as saints ' (Sywi), and doubtless sought to re- 
 build the decayed temples and to win new votaries to the 
 old faith in their homeland, which had become wholly 
 Christian by an imitation of the languages and virtues 
 of the new Way " (C-ol)ern). 
 
 TELEPATHY. The word telepathy has been coined 
 to express the power of one mind to communicate with 
 another directly, that is to say, without the aid of the 
 ordinary organs of sense. Telepathy is not necessarily 
 a religion, but it is of vast religious significance. It 
 re-establishes the importance of prayer (q.v.), re-enforces 
 the value of worship, and gives new meanings to old 
 creeds. It establishes communication between sympa- 
 thetic minds among mortals; it renders possible real com- 
 munion between a divinely disposed human mind and 
 the divine mind itself. The efficacy of mental and 
 spiritual healing is largely due to telepathy. A healthy 
 mind can impart healing to a mind that is sick. Thom- 
 son Jay Hudson maintains that " the power of telepathic 
 communication is as thoroughly established as any fact 
 in nature." This is due to the work of the London 
 Society for Psychical Research. Telepathy is the normal 
 means of communication between subjective minds. 
 " The reason of the apparent rarity of its manifestation 
 is that it requires exceptional conditions to bring its 
 results above the threshold of consciousness. There is 
 every reason to believe that the souls, or subjective 
 minds, of men can and do habitually hold communion 
 with one another when not the remotest perception of the 
 fact is communicated to the objective intelligence. It 
 may be that such communion is not general among men : 
 but it is certain that it is held between those who, from 
 any cause, are en rapport. The facts recorded by the 
 Society for Psychical Research demonstrate that proposi- 
 tion. Thus, near relatives are oftenest found to be in 
 communion, as is shown by the comparative frequency 
 of telepathic communications between relatives, giving 
 warning of sickness or of death. Next in frequency are 
 communications between intimate friends " (T. J. Hud- 
 son). It would seem that " the subjective minds of those 
 who are deeply interested in one another are in habitual 
 communion, especially when the personal interest or wel- 
 fare of either agent or percipient is at stake." In any 
 case, " it is certain that telepathic communication can 
 be established at will by the conscious effort of one or 
 both of the parties, even between strangers." Albert 
 B. Olston thinks " telesthesia " would be a better term 
 than " telepathy." See Albert B. Olston, Mind Power, 
 1906; T. J. Hudson, Psychic Phenomena; and cp. Prentice 
 Mulford. The Gift of the Spirit, 1908 (second edition). 
 
 TELLUS. Tellus or Tellus Mater was an Italian 
 goddess worshipped as mother-earth. She was the 
 goddess of marriage and of fniitfnlness. As the latter, 
 a festival of sowing was held in her honour in January. 
 In April cows in calf were sacrificed to her. A male 
 deity, Tellumo, was also worshipped. See O. Seyffert, 
 Diet. 
 
 TEMPLARS. Following the example of two knights, 
 one from Burgundy, the other from Northern France, 
 who in 1119 undertook to defend pilgrims in the Holy 
 I-and, a small body of men took an oath to the Patriarch 
 of Jerusalem and constituted themselves a religious com- 
 munity and a military order. " The members lived in 
 chastity, poverty, obedience; and found their chief active 
 duty in guarding the public roads in Palestine. Baldwin 
 the king gave them the (so-called) Temple of Solomon 
 in the Holy City, and they derived their name from it. 
 They devoted themselves to reclaiming and converting to 
 I)enitence and sacred uses the rabble of excommunicate 
 
 and stranded knights who had come to the Holy Land 
 rather for plunder than holy ends. Later, the Templars 
 were for this reason immune from sentences of excom- 
 munication pronounced by bishops and parochial minis- 
 ters " (F. W. Bussell). The rules of the Order were 
 drami up in 112S, and in the course of two centuries the 
 Templars became the richest corporation in Christendom, 
 and a force to be reckoned with by Emperors and Popes. 
 They enjoyed all sorts of papal privileges (control of 
 their own churches and churchyards, freedom from tithe, 
 etc.). But their career was not uncheckered. They 
 had to meet charges of treachery and corrupt practice. 
 For instance, when the Emperor Conrad III. failed to 
 take Damascus in 1149, this was said to be due to a secret 
 understanding between the Templars and the garrison. 
 The fact that the Templars carried on their rites of 
 initiation in secret excited curiosity and unfavourable 
 comment. " Chapters were held in guarded rooms with 
 strictest privacy and at break of day: no participant 
 might reveal what took place at each lodge-meeting even 
 to a brother-member. Suspicious or prurient minds 
 invented the usual tales aboxit esoteric societies : at his 
 reception, the postulant spat on the crucifix, denied 
 Christ, and was required to bear sexual outrage without 
 complaint. At the Mass the words Hoc est Corpus Meum 
 were omitted, and on Good Friday the Cross was 
 trampled underfoot. A form of devil-worship was used 
 —either of a black cat or a black idol called Baphomet." 
 In France it was even believed that the Templars roasted 
 children. Modem apologists have sought to prove the 
 innocence of the Templars, and in large measure seem 
 to have succeeded in their efforts, though " it is beyond 
 question that the Templars had long and profitable 
 dealings with the Assas.sins " (Bussell). It may be re- 
 called that charges similar to some of those "brought 
 against them have frequently, and even in our own days, 
 been brought against the Jews. In 1312 by papal Bull 
 most of the estates of the Templars were transferred to 
 the Knights of St. John. 
 
 TEMPLE SOCIETY. A religious community founded 
 m 1848 by Christian Hoffmann. Other names for them 
 are the Temple Union and the Jeru.salem Friends (q.v.) 
 
 TEMtJRA. The title of one of the Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D. and are 
 incorporated in the Mtshnah (q.v.). a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-tiree tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Temurfi is the sixth tractate of the fifth 
 group, which is called Koddshlm (•' Holv Things "). 
 
 TBNDAI SECT. A sect or school of Japanese 
 Buddhists. They are so called because the headquarters 
 of the sect are on a mountain in China which bears the 
 .same name. The teaching is of the nature of mysticism. 
 
 TENDENCY THEORY, THE. A theory concerning 
 the composition of the New Testament writings, asso- 
 ciated chiefly with the name of the German critic, F. C. 
 Baur (1792-1860). The use of the word " tendency " in 
 this connection (Tendenz) is German rather than Eng- 
 lish. A Tendenz-schrift is " a piece of writing written 
 with a (polemical) purpose"; a Tendenz-roman is what 
 we call "a novel with a purpose." F. C. Baur claimed 
 to show that the New Testament writings are not purely 
 historical, but were written with a purpose (Tendenz). 
 The first Christians were soon divided into two parties, 
 Jewish Christians and Pauline Christians. Each was 
 rather bitterly opposed to the other; and there was a 
 fundamental opposition between Paul and the original 
 apostles. The New Testament writers are supposed to 
 share in this conflict, and often to write with the purpose
 
 Tenebrae 
 
 350 
 
 Tertiaries 
 
 of supporting the claims of the one party or the other. 
 In Baur's criticism, " each booli was assigned its position 
 in time and space by reason of the conscious relation of 
 its author to the supposed mortal conflict between the 
 two wings of Apostolic Christianity" (H. S. Nash). 
 There was, of course, an element of truth in Baur's con- 
 tention. Unless we adhere to the old idea of verbal 
 inspiration, it is hardly possible not to admit that to 
 some extent the New Testament writers, like all writers 
 of this class of works, are likely to have written with 
 a special purpose or tendency (Tendenz). But in the 
 sense in which Baur pressed the theory, the matter was 
 greatly exaggerated. He did a service, however, in 
 calling attention to the tendency and in putting people 
 on their guard. Herbert Spencer has done a similar 
 service in pointing out (Study of Sociology) that in every 
 field of study— in Science as well as in Theology— this 
 tendency or bias has to be guarded against. See R. W. 
 Maokay, The TuMngen School and its Antecedants, 1863; 
 H. S. Nash, Higher Gnticsm of the N.T., 1901. 
 
 TENEBRAE. In the Roman Catholic Church the name 
 Tenebrae is given to the Matins and Lauds of the three 
 last days of Holy Week. They are said or sung on the 
 previous afternoon or evening. As a sign of sorrow, the 
 lessons of the first nocturn are taken from the Book of 
 the Lamentations of Jeremiah. The name Tenebrae 
 ("darkness ") seems to be due to the practice of extin- 
 guishing lights. " At the beginning of the office fifteen 
 lighted candles are placed on a triangular candelabrum, 
 and at the end of each psalm one is put out, till only 
 a single candle is left lighted at the top of the triangle. 
 During the singing of the Benedictus the candles on the 
 high altar are extinguished, while at the antlphon after 
 the Benedictus the single candle left alight is hidden at 
 the Epistle comer of the altar, to be brought out again 
 at the end of the office " (the Catholic Dictionary). The 
 darkness is supposed to represent the gloom of the time 
 when Jesus, the light of the World, was taken away. See 
 the Oath. Diet. 
 
 TENJIN. Also called Temmangu, a Japanese deity, 
 god of learning and caligraphy. His vehicle is a cow, 
 and with his worship is associated the plum-tree. 
 
 TEN-SHOKO-DAIJIN. Ten-sh6k6-dai3in figures in 
 the .Japanese religion known as Shintoism (q.v.) as the 
 chief god of Is^, the centre of Shinto. Is6 is in the 
 province of Yamato in Central Japan. The name of the 
 god Ten-sh6k6-daijin is alwa.vs one of those inscribed on 
 the paper-covered tablets or tickets which are placed on 
 the household " shelf for gods " (Eamidana). 
 
 TENT OP MEETING. The Tent of Meeting, Ohel 
 Mo'ed, was a tent pitched outside the camp of the 
 Israelites by their leader Moses (Exodus, xxxiii. 7 ff.). 
 It was so called becau.se here Jehovah met Moses and 
 spoke to him, revealing himself in a pillar of cloud which 
 descended in front of the door of the tent. Tent of 
 Meeting, as Driver says (Deuteronomy), is practically 
 equivalent to Tent of Revelation. Exodus xxxiii. 7-11 
 represents E's conception. J's conception seems to be 
 the same (see Numbers, xi. 24-20). In D there is no 
 reference to such a tent. In P the Ohel Mo'ed is referred 
 to 131 times. The Tent of Meeting was a simple, portable 
 tent-sanctuary. The use of portable shrines and of tents 
 as sanctuaries seems to have been familiar to the ancient 
 Semites. And, as I. Benzinger says (Encyclopaedia 
 Biblica, s.v. " Tabernacle ") " it is noteworthy that the 
 portable chapels of the heathen Semites were mainly used 
 for divination (cp. Joum. of Phil. 13, 283 f.), just as the 
 Mosaic tabernacle is described by the Elohist, not as a 
 place of sacrifice (such as the tabernacle of the Priestly 
 Code is), but as a place of oracle." We hear of an Ohel 
 Mo'ed again at Shilo (I. Samuel ii. 22) and at Gibeon 
 
 (II. Chron. i. 3, 6, 13). See EncycH. Bill.; the Oxford 
 Behrew and English Lexicon. 
 
 TEPEYOLLOTL. A Mexican deity, a cave-god. He 
 was represented as bear-headed. 
 
 TERAPHIM. A term used in the Old Testament with 
 reference to idolatry. The word seems to .denote a 
 particular kind of idol, for in GJenesis xxxi. 30, 32 the 
 Terdphim are designated elohim (" gods "). We have 
 no very definite information about their form or char- 
 acter. It is thought that it cannot certainly be inferred 
 from Genesis xxxi. 34 that the images were small, or 
 from I. Samuel xix. 13, 10 that they were large and in 
 the form of a man. In Hosea iii. 4 they are mentioned 
 with the ephod (g.v.), sacrifices, and massebahs (sacred 
 pillars) as a natural part of the apparatus of religion. 
 Daban had teraphim in his house; the Ephraimite Micah 
 had an ephod and ter.iphim in his sanctuary (Judges 
 xvii. f.). In I. Samuel xix. 13, 16, the reference to the 
 teraphim in David's house implies tiat it or they might 
 be found in every household. They seem in fact to 
 have been household gods (penates). It has been sug- 
 gested that they were images of the ancestors. This, it 
 is thought, explains their use as oracle-givers (in con- 
 nection with the oracular ephod in Judges xii. f., Hosea 
 iii. 4: cp. I. Samuel xv. 23, Zechariah x. 2, Ezekiel xxi. 
 26, 27). In II. Kings xxiii. 24 they are associated with 
 mediums and wizards. The Plural form probably denotes 
 a singular idea, being what is known in Hebrew syntax 
 as a " Plural of Majesty." On the assumption that the 
 word denotes images of ancestors, it has been connected 
 with rephd'im (g.v.) which is used of " shades " or 
 "ghosts." See Encycl. Bibl.; W. H. Bennett's Genesis, 
 and J. Skinner's Kings in the " Century Bible." 
 
 TBRATISM. A term derived from the Greek word 
 teras " power." The use of the term is suggested by R. 
 R. Marett to denote supematuralism in pre-animistic 
 religion. 
 
 TERMINISM. The teaching of pietistic theologians 
 (see PIETISM) in the seventeenth century, according to 
 which God has fixed a limit (terminus gratia-) to the 
 period within which persons can be converted, repent, 
 and be forgiven. The teaching gave rise to a Termini.stic 
 Controversy. 
 
 TERMINUS. Terminus was the Roman god who pro- 
 tected the stones that marked boundaries. Such a stone 
 was set with great ceremony. An animal was 
 slaughtered, and its blood was sprinkled over the hole in 
 which the stone was to be set. The stone Itself was 
 anointed and decorated. In Rome there was an annual 
 ceremony in February in honour of the landmarks. This 
 was called the Terminalia. See O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 TERTIARIES. Francis of Assisi was perhaps the 
 first to introduce an order of persons called Tertiaries 
 (Tertiarii). In any case he was the first to organize 
 the institution properly. In the Franciscan foundation 
 they constituted a third order, and were called by St. 
 Francis Brothers and Sisters of Penance. They were 
 intended to be representatives of a life intermediate 
 between that of the world and the cloister, an order, 
 " the members of which, men and women, should be 
 bound by rule to dress more soberly, fast more strictly. 
 pray more regularly, hear Mass more frequently, and 
 practise works of mercy more sy.stematically than 
 ordinary persons living in the world " (CC). The desire 
 of many tertiaries to live in community and take solemn 
 vows, while continuing to conform to the nile of the 
 Third Order, led to the institution of a number of con- 
 gregations of tertiary monks and nuns. The example 
 of the Franciscans was followed by the Dominicans 
 (g.v.) and other monastic orders. See Schaff-Herzog ; 
 the Oath. Diet.
 
 Tertullianists 
 
 351 
 
 Tezcatlipoca 
 
 TERTULLIANISTS. Tertullian was born at Carthage 
 about the middle of the second century A.D. He was 
 converted to Christianity about 185, and afterwards 
 defended it with great skill and zeal against pagans and 
 heretics. Later, however, he becam? attracted by the 
 austerity of the Montanists (see MONTANISM). About 
 202 he openly joined them, and became head of the Mon- 
 tanists of Africa, who often called themselves after him 
 Tertullianists. He wrote Montanist works, including a 
 treatise in seven books on ecstasy, " De Extasi," which 
 has not survived. In itself Montanism was not un- 
 orthodox, so that Tertullian was still a great champion 
 of the fundamental truths of Christianity. What re- 
 pelled him in the Church was the lax discipline of so 
 many of its members. As J. M. Fuller says, he remained 
 '• staunch to the faith of that church whose discipline 
 and ritual he abjured or carried with him to a schismatic 
 body. . . . His theology, if developed by Montanism, 
 is in substance that which the Church accepted, and 
 accepts." Cyprian (200-2iiS A.D.), Bishop of Carthage, 
 greatly admired his writings. See Louis Duchesne, 
 Bist.; Wace and Piercy. 
 
 TERrMOTH. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. and 
 are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.). a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The .sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Teriimoth is the sixth tractate of the first 
 group, which is called Zera'Im (" Seeils ") 
 
 TESHUP. A Hittite deity. Teshup is tbe god of 
 thunder, and corresponds to the Babylonian Ramman 
 (q.v.) or Adad. A. Jeremias thinks that Jupiter 
 Dolichenus, whose emblems are the same, " is Ramman- 
 Teshup imported into Rome and Germania by Syrian 
 traders." It has been suggested that the idea of the 
 double hammer, which is the symbol of the Babylonian 
 Ramman-Adad and of the European Thor ((/.!?.) " passed 
 into Europe from pre-Mycensan Crete, where Zeus 
 appears with the double hammer." See A. Jeremias, 
 Thp O.T. in the Light of the Ancient Ea.9t, 1911. 
 
 TETEOINNAN. A Mexican deity, the patroness of 
 doctors and midwives. She was also the goddess of ripe 
 maize. 
 
 TETRAGRAMMATON, THE. A technical expression 
 for the Hebrew divine name, consi-sting of four letters, 
 which was considered too .sacred to be pronounced. The 
 letters are Y-h-v-h. They are volcalized Yehovah, but 
 the vowels are those of another word, Adonay, meaning 
 " My Lord." When Adonay itself precedes, the word 
 Y-h-v-h is given the vowels of Elohlm. the Hebrew word 
 for " God." and the word Is pronounced " Elfihim." The 
 true pronunciation of the word Y-h-v-h was lost at an 
 early date. There is a word haiiah or havah in Hebrew, 
 which means " to be " or " to become." Many modem 
 scholars, therefore, think that the original pronunciation 
 of the word was Yahveh, which would mean " he who is " 
 (third pers. m. Imperf. of the verb havah). It Is pos- 
 sible, however, that the word never had a meaning. The 
 letters may have had some mystical and mysterious 
 significance. If they were pronounced, certain vowels 
 of course had to be added. But vowels were not added 
 in order to form a known word. There are examples 
 of such mvstical words in other religions. See, further, 
 YAHWEH. 
 
 TETRAPLA. THE. An edition of the Septuagint com- 
 piled by Origen. See HEXAPLA. 
 
 TETRATHBISM. In the controversies with regard 
 to the Christian doctrine of the Trinity ((7.t\), some of 
 the oontraversialists were accused of being Tetratheists, 
 
 that is to say, persons who recognized four Gods. The 
 charge was brought for instance against Damianus of 
 Alexandria (see DAMIANITBS), who. by distinguishing 
 between God Himself, as the autotheos, and the Father, 
 seemed to introduce a fourth Person. Gillwrt of Poitiers 
 (Bishop of Poitiers, 1142 A.D.), called " Peripatetieus," 
 also seemed to teach a kind of tetratheism. He acknow- 
 ledged the unity of the Father, the Son, and the Spirit. 
 But he maintained that they are one only in reference 
 to the (iiio est (the substantial form), not in reference to 
 the quod est (the divine essence as such). Jerome of 
 Prague is charged with having taught that in God or In 
 the Divine Essence there is not only a Trinity of persons, 
 but also a quaternity of things, and a quintemity, etc. 
 See K. R. Hagenbach: J. E. Erdmann, Bist. of Philo- 
 sophu. 1S90. 
 
 TEUTATES. Teutates, the " god of the people," was 
 one of the names given by the anc'ent Celts to a god 
 who corresponded to the Roman Mercury. He is men- 
 tioned b.v Lucan (c. A.D. CO) with Taranis, the god of 
 thunder, and Esus (9. v.), as a deity who demanded 
 hiiman sacrifices. Reinach and Anwyl point out that 
 these were local deities. They did not constitute, as has 
 been supposed, a Celtic Trinity. See Anw\"l: Reinach, O. 
 
 TEUTONIC KNIGHTS. The Teutonic Knights were a 
 German military-religious order that arose during the 
 Crusades. In 1190. during the siege of Acre, some 
 German merchants provided a hospital for wounded 
 Christians called the Hospital St. Mary of the Germans 
 in Jerusalem. The persons connected with the hospital 
 then formed themselves into a religious order like the 
 Brothers of the Hospital of St. John the Baptist (see 
 HOSPITALLERS). This order became in a few years 
 a military order, the Order of the Teutonic Knights, and 
 was approved by the Pope in 1199. " The Knights, in 
 addition to the usual monastic vows, bound themselves 
 to tend the sick and wounded and wage incessant war 
 upon the heathen " (Chambers). In 1240 they were 
 invited by the Duke of Masovia in Poland to help him 
 defend his frontiers against the heathen Prussians. In 
 1252 they were strengthened by amalgamation with the 
 Order of Christ or Brethren of the Sword, which had 
 already taken possession of Livonia. Acting together, 
 the.v " became iwssessed of all the territory between the 
 Vi-stula and the Memel, the coast-line reaching from 
 Nan-a, on the Gulf of Finland, to the south-western 
 jhoint of Pomerania " (Schaff-Herzog). They acte<l with 
 great harshness, hut gradually civilized the country. In 
 the fifteenth century they lost much of their territory, and 
 in 1.525 they were driven from the country. In 1809 
 Napoleon I. formally alwlished the order. See William 
 Benham: Schaff-Herzog; the Caih. Diet.; Chambers's 
 Encucl. 
 
 TBZCATLIPOCA. Tezcatlipoca, which means " vShin- 
 ing Mirror," was the name of one of the deities wor- 
 shipped by the ancient Americans. As a Sun-god. he was 
 held to be the brother of Huitzilopochtli <q.r.): but he 
 was the god of the cold season, whereas Huitzilopochtli 
 was the god of the warm season. Spence thinks that 
 Tezcatlipoca may have been originally a wind demon of 
 the prairies, and then in another clime, an ice-god. The 
 latter character is suggested by his season and by the 
 shining mirror. In any case he became to the Aztecs, 
 nominally at least, the greatest god. According to D. 
 Brinton (.imerican Bero Myths, 18S2), Tezcatlipoca was 
 " the most sublime figure in the Aztec Pantheon." He 
 was the Creator and the " Soul of the World." He was 
 the God of Justice and Retribution, " in whose mirror 
 the thoughts and actions of men were reflected " (Spence). 
 He is called also the " Night Wind." He was sup- 
 posed to wander from one riart of the city of Mexico to
 
 Thakur Deo 
 
 352 
 
 Theistic Church, The 
 
 another, and the inhabitants erected for him in the streets 
 stone resting-places or seats. At one of the annual 
 festivals of Tezmtlipoca, as the Winter Sxm, a young 
 male captive of great beauty was sacrificed. He was 
 chosen a year before, and during this year he lived in 
 regal splendour, and was worshipped. A victim for 
 Huitzilopochtli was sacrificed at the same time. During 
 the year he acted as a kind of companion to Huitzilo- 
 pochtli, but was not worshipped. This victim was called 
 the " Wise Lord of Heaven." See Lewis Spence, Myth; 
 J. M. Robertson, "The Religions of Ancient Mexico " in 
 R.fi.W.; Reinach, 0.; J. M. Robertson, P.O. 
 
 THAKUR DEO. An Indian deity, the god of the 
 village land and boundaries among the Baigas who 
 inhabit the eastern Satpura hills in the Mandla, Bfila- 
 ghat and Bilaspur Districts. The Baigas offer him a 
 white goat. He is worshipped by the Bhainas as the 
 deity of cultivation. 
 
 THaKURANI MaTA. An Indian deity, also called 
 Burhi Mata, the goddess of smallpox and rinderpest, wor- 
 shipped by the Gadbas, a primitive tribe belonging to 
 the Vizagapatam District of Madras. 
 
 THARGBLIA. The Thargelia was a feast held in 
 Athens in honour of Apollo (q.v.). Firstfruits were 
 offered to him; and to induce him to refrain from sending 
 parching heat and pestilence, two persons, a man and a 
 woman, were sacrificed. They were sacrificed on the 
 seashore, and when their bodies had been burned, the 
 ashes were thrown into the sea. In course of time, 
 however, for the latter custom a more humane practice 
 was substituted. The victims were thrown into the sea 
 from a height, but they were caught as they fell. Instead 
 of being condemned to die, they were banished from the 
 country. The victims seem to have been of the nature 
 of scapegoats who bore awav the sins of the people (cp. 
 AZAZEL). See O. Seyffert, Diet.; J. M. Robertson, 
 P.O. 
 
 THEATINES. An Order of " Regular Clerks ' (Clerici 
 regnlares Theatini) founded in 1524 by Cajetan of Thiene, 
 Boniface of Colle, and Bishop Oaraffa of Chieti or Theate 
 (whence their name) who afterwards became Pope Paul 
 IV. Cajetan was the real originator of the foundation. 
 " The reform of the lives of Christians, and especially 
 of the irregularities too common at that time among the 
 clergy, presented itself to him as the object to which 
 God willed him to devote his life" {.Catli. Diet.). The 
 Order was confirmed by Paul III. in 1540 and by Pius V. 
 in 15<i8. The members renounced all property or rents 
 and refused to ask for alms, relying simply on Providence 
 and on the freewill offerings of the faithful. From Italy 
 the movement spread to Spain, Poland, Bavaria, and 
 France. In 15Si! Ursula Benineasa founded an order of 
 Theatine nuns. The Theatines are sometimes called 
 Cajetani or Chietini. See Schaff-Herzog ; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 THEISM. Theism was defined by Charles Voysey 
 {Religious Systems of the World, 1908) as " a belief in 
 a God whom we can thoroughly trust and love, and whom 
 to obey is a delight; a belief based on indisputable facts 
 and eai>able of expansion and elevation with every addi- 
 tion to our knowledge and with every rise in our moral 
 nature." The earliest use of the term he finds in the 
 works of Lord Bolingbroke, though in his day he and 
 other writers of the same school were oalletl Deists and 
 not Theists. The first writers in England to give the 
 term a definite and formal signification were Francis 
 William Newman (1805-1897), Prances P. Cobbe (who 
 wrote in 1803), and Theodore Parker (who wrote in 18.S4). 
 The Herzog-Sehaff Encyclopaedia explains the term thus : 
 " Theism in its etymological and widest acceptation is a 
 generic term for all .systems of belief in the existence of 
 the Divine. Thus understood, it includes pantheism, 
 
 ix)lytheism, and monotheism, and excludes only atheism ; 
 but this acceptance of the term is rare. Common usage 
 has determined that theism must be identified with 
 monotheism, and consequently opposed to polytheism and 
 pantheism, as well as to atheism." Cp. DEISM. 
 
 THEISTIC CHURCH, THE. A Church and Congre- 
 gation established by Charles Voysey (6. 1828).' Voysey 
 was at first a clergyman of the (jhurch of England. He 
 was curate of St. Mark's, Whitechapel, London, but had 
 to give up his curacy after a few years on account of a 
 sermon which he preached against endless punishment. 
 In 1804 he became Vicar of Healaugh in Yorkshire, but 
 he did not become more orthodox. The extreme orthodox 
 party at length moved the Archbishop of York to take 
 legal proceedings against him. The case was finally 
 taken to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. 
 Voysey was deprived of bis living and ordered to pay 
 costs. Since 1885 his Services were held in Swallow 
 Street, Piccadilly, London. He has explained his religion 
 in a number of books and in a great many sermons. In 
 three sermons on " Objections to Theism " will be found 
 a summarized statement. "The Theistic view," he 
 says, " begins with a refusal to discuss the mystery of 
 the mode of God's existence and of the mode of Hia 
 relation to the cosmos. Theism also repudiates the idea 
 of God's omniiK>tence when the term is used to cover 
 impossibilities or absurdities. All that Theism aflBrms 
 of God's power is that He is perfectly able to carry out 
 His purposes and can never suft'er final obstruction or 
 defeat. And because this cannot be proved it is wholly 
 a matter of belief, but a belief which is entirely rational, 
 based upon overwhelming probability and upon induction 
 .so large and comprehensive as almost to amount to cer- 
 tainty." Only One Being is the Author of all the order, 
 beauty, and progress of the cosmos. " Theism does not 
 concern itself with the problem of the origin of matter 
 or whether it be self -existent. Theism is satisfied with 
 the abundant proofs of the superiority of mind over 
 matter and with the obvious fact that matter is controlled 
 and regulated by mind." From the higher faculties of 
 human nature. Theism infers the nature of the faculties 
 of the Author of those faculties. " Man knows that 
 before all things the order of the world ought to be 
 right, and that conviction he gained solely from God who 
 gave him a conscience and made him a moral being. This 
 enables Theism to affirm as a matter of certainty that 
 the purposes of God are good and only good, in the best 
 sense of producing true and lasting welfare." This of 
 course is nothing more than an inference. It is wholly 
 a matter of faith, but it is a most reasonable faith. 
 Again, the conviction that God is able and willing " to 
 accomplish His good purposes down to the very last and 
 smallest detail " is an inference from tokens around and 
 within us. Man is not constructed to be a blind wor- 
 shipijer of sheer Power and even sheer Intellect. " There 
 must be something more to excite his reverence and to 
 win his homage. So Theism seeks some moral ground 
 as a basis for belief in the adequate power of God to 
 carry out His good puriK>ses. And here it lies all ready 
 in the human heart. It would be against reason, against 
 conscience and against love for any Being to dare to 
 create a single sentient being only for fruitless suffering 
 and annihilation, still worse to create for endless degra- 
 dation and torment." But all these considerations involve 
 the existence of the two worlds — the material and the 
 .spiritual. " If either be denied it disqualifies the denier 
 from accepting the proofs. If there be nothing more 
 than the body, the whole of religion and morality too 
 tumbles down like a house of cards. Granting now the 
 goodness of God's purposes and His certain ability to 
 carry them out; in this life we cannot see the final issue.
 
 Theodicy 
 
 353 
 
 Theoriae 
 
 We can only believe in it and hope for it. But our faith 
 and hope are enormously increased by analysing the 
 processes which are already going on before "our very 
 eyes wherein the good purjwses of God are being wrought. 
 Even here and now we can see what steps are being taljen 
 by the Great Ruler of our lives and destiny to promote 
 our highest welfare." If the process is slow, it is sure 
 and is " gradually mending the life that now is and 
 giving promise of the life that is to come." See Charles 
 Voysey. Objections to Theism, 1905; Religion for all Man- 
 kind, 1903. 
 
 THEODICY. The term Theodicy denotes the attempt 
 to vindicate the wisdom and goodness of God in the 
 creation and government of the world, and to rebut the 
 charge that these are brought into question by the exist- 
 ence of evil and sin. An early example of a theodicy 
 is provided by the Book of Job in the Old Testament. 
 But in its true philosophical form the most famous 
 theodicy is the Essais de Theodic^e (1710) of G. W. Leib- 
 nitz (1646-1710). This was written to refute P. Bayle's 
 claim that the doctrines of faith were irreconcilable with 
 reason. According to Leibnitz " metaphysical evil— the 
 defect and inadaptation that is to be seen in the world 
 — is due to the Finiteness of created things. Physical 
 evil or pain exists as a punishment or as a hindrance to 
 greater evil. Moral evil or sin is not willed by (Sod, yet 
 it is an indispensable means of achieving the good. Good 
 is positive, while Evil is only negative " (A. Butler). See 
 Schafif-Herzog : C. J. Deter. 
 
 THEODOTIANS. The first Theodotus to whom the 
 Theodotians owed their name was a tanner of Bvzantium, 
 who went to Rome in the time of Pope Victor I. (193- 
 202 A.D.). He taught that Jesus, though bom of a virgin, 
 was only a man. He exhibited, however, a very high 
 degree of piety and holiness ; and at his baptism in Jordan 
 the Christ descended upon Him. From this time he was 
 able to worlj miracles. He did not, however, become God 
 until after His resurrection. For this teaching Theo- 
 dotus was excommunicated. The second Theodotus. a 
 disciple of the first, \\^s a banlier. Another disciple 
 •was named Asclepiades. A fourth disciple was the 
 Artemon or Artemas, against whom, according to Euse- 
 bius, a booli " The Little Labyrinth," from which he 
 gives extracts, was written. " The Little Labvrinth " 
 was probably composed by Hippolytus (Jl. 190-23.5), the 
 author of the Philosophumenn. The Theo<lotians seem 
 to have recognized, besides (Jod, a divine power called 
 Christ, or the Holy Ghost. Theodotus the banker seems 
 also to have worshipped Melchisedech, and to have iden- 
 tified him with the Son of God, the Holv Spirit. Mel- 
 chisedech he ranked higher than the Christ, who was 
 God only by adoption. The Theodotians seem to have 
 accepted the Church Canon of Scripture, but they had 
 versions of their own. They were familiar with positive 
 philosophy, and did honour to such sages as Aristotle, 
 Theophrastus. and Euclid. See J. H. Blunt; Louis 
 Duchesne, Hist. 
 
 THEOLOGIA GERMANICA. The mystical work, 
 ■ Theologia Germanlca," whose author is unknown, had 
 a considerable influence on the tiought of Germanv, and 
 is even supposed to have paved the wav for the Reforma- 
 tion. Written about 13.50, it was published bv Martin 
 Luther (14S3-154G) in 1518. See MYSTICISM,' CHRIS- 
 TIAN. 
 
 THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES. The virtues Faith, Hope, 
 and Charity are called theological virtues, because they 
 have God for their immediate object. According to the 
 Catholic Dictionary, " these virtues are supernatural, 
 because they are beyond the reach of man's natural 
 powers, and because they enable him to attain a super- 
 natural end." 
 
 THEOLOGY. Theology is the science which teaches 
 about God. The term was used by Plato and Aristotle 
 to denote teaching about the Greek Gotls. Among Christ- 
 ians the word came into use in the third and fourth 
 centuries. In Scholasticism it came to be used more 
 definitely of the whole body of Christian doctrine, and 
 this use of the term prevails at the present day. The 
 field embraced is so wide that it has been very much 
 sub-divided. Natural Theology is the knowledge of God 
 gamed by the study of Nature. Positive or Revealed 
 Theologj- is the knowledge of GoA revealed through In- 
 spiration. Dogmatic Theology deals with the history, 
 development, and exixtsition of Christian doctrines. 
 Moral Theology deals with the regulation of conduct as 
 dictated by the principles of Revelation. Mystical 
 Theology treats of the communion of the soul with God 
 in prayer and other spiritual exercises. Pastoral 
 Theology explains the duties of the parish priest. 
 Theology is further sub-divided into Anthropology, the 
 teaching about man ; Christology, the teaching about the 
 person and work of Christ; Pneumatology, the teaching 
 about the Holy Spirit; Soteriology, the teaching about 
 Salvation; Ecclesiology, the teaching about the Church, 
 its Sacraments, etc. ; and Eschatology, the teaching about 
 the last things, about the state of tlie soul after death, 
 etc. See SchafiC-Herzog. 
 
 THEOPATHY. A term invented by William James 
 to describe one of the varieties of religious experience. 
 " In gentle characters, where devoutness is intense and 
 the intellect feeble, we have an imaginative absorption 
 in the love of God to the exclusion of all practical human 
 interests, which, though innocent enough, is too one- 
 sided to be admirable. A mind too narrow has room 
 but for one kind of affection. When the love of God 
 takes iX)ssession of such a mind, it expels all human loves 
 and human uses. There is no English name for such a 
 sweet excess of devotion, so I will refer to it as a 
 theopathic condition." Mr. James' description of this 
 kind of experience will be felt by many persons to be 
 wanting in sympathy and understanding. See William 
 James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, 190t>. 
 
 THEOPHILANTHROPISTS. In 177G David Williams 
 (17.38-1810), afterwards founder of the Royal Literary 
 Fund, opened a chaiiel in Margaret Street, Cavendish 
 Square, London. He described himself as a Priest of 
 Nature, and used a si)ecial form of theistic service 
 called a " Litiirgy on the universal principles of Religion 
 and Alorality." This undertaking became known in 
 B'rance through Voltaire (11)94-1778). In France .«ome 
 of the deists thought this kind of religion— the ruling 
 principles being simply a love of God and a love of man 
 —a good substitute for Christianity. One D'Aubermenil 
 established a new kind of worship in which a perpetual 
 fire represented the Deity. His disciples were called 
 Theoandrophiles. Out of this sect grew the Theophilan- 
 thropists. In 1796 the French Directory authorised 
 Theophilanthropism, and placed at its service twenty 
 churches in Paris. The new creed acknowledged God, 
 virtue, and the immortality of the soul. The Theo- 
 philanthropists held festivals in honour of Socrates (6. 
 470 B.C.), St. Vincent de Paul (6. 1570 A.D.), .lean Jacquea 
 Rousseau (1712-1778), and George Washington (1732-1799). 
 In cour.se of time the new religion fell into disfavour, 
 and was deprived of its churches. In 1802 there was 
 no church left, and the Theophilanthropists disappeared. 
 See J. H. Blunt; Reinach, 0. 
 
 THEORIZE. Theorite was a name given by the Greeks 
 to sacred embassies .sent by individual States, partly at 
 their expense, to the great national festivals and to the 
 festivals of friendly States. The ambassadors were 
 treated as honoured guests. See O. Seyffert, Diet.
 
 Tbeosophical Society, The 
 
 354 
 
 Therapeuts 
 
 THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. THE. 1. A Society 
 instituted in 1784 " for the purpose of promoting tlie 
 heavenly doctrines of the New Jerusalem, by translating, 
 printing, and publishing the theological writings of the 
 Honourable Emanuel Swedenborg." In 1788 the name 
 of " The New Church " was substituted. See SWEDEN- 
 BORGIANS. 2. A modern Society, the objects of which 
 are stated to be : (1) to form a nucleus of the Universal 
 Brotherhood of Humanity, without distinction of race, 
 creed, sex, caste or colour; (2) to encourage the study 
 of comparative religion, philosophy and science: (3) to 
 investigate the unexplained laws of nature and the 
 powers latent in man. According to a statement in The 
 Times (May 30. 1913), the Tbeosophical Society is com- 
 posed of students, belonging to any religion of the world, 
 or to none, who are united by tiieir approval of the above 
 subjects, bv their wish to remove religious antagonisms, 
 and to draw together men of goodwill, whatsoever their 
 religious opinions, and by their desire to study religious 
 truths, and to share the results of their studies with 
 others. Their bond of union is not the profession of a 
 common belief, but a common search and aspiration for 
 Truth. They hold that Truth should be sought by study, 
 by reflection, by purity of life, by devotion to high ideals, 
 and they regard Truth as a prize to be striven for, not 
 as a dogma to be imposed by authority. They see every 
 religion as an expression of the Divine Wisdom, and 
 prefer its study to its condemnation, and its practice to 
 proselytlsm. Peace is their watchword, as truth is their 
 aim. 
 
 THEOSOPHY, MODERN. Theosophy as interpreted 
 by the Tbeosophical Society has been explained in a 
 statement in The Times (May 30. 1913). It is the body of 
 truths which forms the basis of all religions, and which 
 cannot be claimed as the exclusive possession of any. It 
 offers a philo-sophy which renders life intelligible, and 
 which demonstrates the justice and love which guide its 
 evolution. It puts death in its rightful place, as a re- 
 curring incident in an endless life, opening the gateway 
 of a fuller and more radiant existence. It restores to 
 the world the Science of the Spirit, teaching man to know 
 the Spirit as himself, and the mind and body as his 
 servants. It illuminates the Scriptures and doctrines of 
 religions by unveiling their hidden meanings, and thus 
 justifying them at the bar of intelligence, as they are ever 
 justified in the eyes of intuition. Members of the 
 Theosophical Society study these truths, and Theosophists 
 endeavour to live them. Theosophy, as understood by 
 Mrs. Annie Besant. is explained in an article in the 
 Religious Systems of the World. It claims to be a great 
 body of Secret Wisdom which is in the hands of a 
 Brotherhood. The Brothers are also described as 
 Adepts, Masters, or Mahatmas. They are " living men. 
 evolved further than average humanity, who work ever 
 for the service of their race with a perfect and selfless 
 devotion, holding their high powers in trust for the 
 common good, content to be without recognition, having 
 power beyond all desires of the jiersonal self." Theosophy 
 postulates, to start with, the existence of an Eternal 
 Principle. The Universe, visible and invisible, is built 
 up of " spirit-matter." There are seven Kosmic planes 
 of manifestation. The substance in all is the same, but 
 each plane is denser than its predecessor. Each plane 
 has its own characteristics. The first plane is that of 
 pure Spirit. The second is that of Mind or loftiest 
 spiritual intelligence. The fourth is that of animal 
 passions and desires. The fifth is " that of the vivid 
 animating life-principle, as absorbed in forms." The 
 sixth is the astral plane, " in which matter is but slightly 
 rarer than with ourselves." The seventh is the plane 
 with which we are familiar, the plane of the objective 
 
 universe. Mrs. Besant explains that " a plane may 
 be defined as a state, marked ofE by clear characteristics: 
 it must not be thought of as a place, as though the 
 universe were made up of shells one within the other 
 like the coats of an onion." A man may pass from one 
 plane to another. And it is a mistake to think that the 
 intangible is necessarily unreal. " All the 'mightiest 
 forces are those which are invisible on this plane, visible 
 though they be to senses subtler than our own." It is 
 possible to pass from plane to plane because man him- 
 self is the universe in miniature. He is built up of 
 .seven "principles," or in other words "is himself a 
 differentiation of consciousness on seven planes." Each 
 of these states of consciousness has a distinctive name. 
 The Spirit in man is called Atma. Its vehicle is Buddhi, 
 the Spiritual Soul. The Spiritual Intelligence is called 
 Manas. This is the Ego. the immortal entity, in man. 
 The Emotional and Passional Nature is called Kama. 
 The Animating Life-principle in man is called Prana. 
 The Astral Body, formed of ethereal " astral " matter, 
 is called Sthula Sarira. The individual and true man, 
 imperishable and immortal, is made up of a trinity. Atma- 
 Buddhi-Manas. The other states characterize the transi- 
 tory and perishable perxnn. " The consciousness of the 
 normal man resides chiefly on the physical, astral, and 
 kamie planes, with the lower portion of the Manasic. 
 In flashes of genius, in loftiest aspirations, he is touched 
 for a moment by the light from the higher Manasic 
 regions, but this come.s — only comes — to the few, and to 
 these but in rare moments of sublime abstraction. 
 Happy they who even thus catch a glimpse of the Divine 
 Angoeides, the immortal Ego within them. To none 
 born of women, save the Masters, is it at the present 
 time given by the law of evolution to rise to tie Atmic- 
 Buddhic planes in man; thither the race will climb mil- 
 lenniums hence, but at present it boots not to speak 
 thereof " (Annie Besant). Theosophists attach supreme 
 imi)ortance to the doctrine of Re-incarnation. In Theo- 
 sophy this does not mean that the Ego in man may 
 become incarnate in lower animals, but that it may dwell 
 successively in a number of personalities. The vast 
 differences, mental and moral, between men is explained 
 by this reincarnation of the Ego. By reincarnation men 
 rise or fall as the result of good or bad action. There is 
 an immutable law of cause and effect. This law is 
 called Karma or "action." There must be " Re-incama- 
 tion under Karmic law, until the fruit of every experience 
 has been gathered, every blunder rectified, every fault 
 eradicated; until compassion has been made perfect, 
 strength unbreakable, tenderness complete, self-abnega- 
 tion the law of life, renunciation for others the natural 
 and joyous impulse of the whole nature." Mrs. Besant 
 explains in a beautiful passage that the doctrines of Re- 
 incarnation and Karma, that is to say, of One Universal 
 Spirit common to all humanity, inevitably result in the 
 Universal Brotherhood of Man. 
 
 THERAPEUT.E. An order of hermits among the 
 Hellenistic Jews of Egypt. They are described in the 
 " De Vita Contemplativa." a work which is commonly 
 supposed to have been written by Philo of Alexandria. 
 It is a mistake to regard them as ,<in Alexandrian variety 
 of the Palestinian Essenes. though, like these, they were 
 ascetics and vegetarian.s. The members of the order 
 included both men and women; but they all lived apart, 
 devoting themselves to the study of the sacred writings 
 and to spiritual exerci.ses. Once a week they assembled 
 together for common worship, men and women apart; 
 and every fifty days they observed a great festival in 
 which a sacred meal and choral songs were prominent 
 features. They cultivated a hios theoretikos. a life of 
 study and contemplation. W. Staerk compares them
 
 Thesmophoria 
 
 355 
 
 Thor 
 
 •witli the Egyptian philosopher-priests and -prophets, of 
 whom we hear in the time of Xero. He suggests that 
 the Therapeutae -were in fact imitators of the Egyptian 
 hermits, and. like these, exercised a kind of mysticism, 
 partly oriental and partly hellenistic. See W. Staerk, 
 Neutestamentliclie Zeitgeschichte, 1907. 
 
 THESMOPHORIA. A Greek festival in honour of 
 Demeter, the goddess of agriculture and fertility 
 and the foundress of marriage. It was celebrated at 
 Athens in particular, and only by virtuous married 
 women. On the last day of the festival the goddess was 
 invoked as Kalligeneia, the goddess of fair children. 
 See O. Seyflfert, Diet. 
 
 THESSALONIANS, FIRST EPISTLE TO THE. The 
 Apostle Paul visited the important city of Thessalonica 
 and made converts there, esi)ecially among the Gentiles. 
 He left Thessalonica and went to Athens (I. Thess. iii. 
 1). Thence he sent Timothy back to Thessalonica (iii. 
 2), and Timothy rejoined him at Corinth (iii. G; Acts 
 xvii. 5). From Corinth, it would seem, was sent the 
 First Epistle to the Thessalonians. It was written soon 
 after his visit, but probably not until about six months 
 had elapsed. It was written at a time when Paul 
 believed that he himself might live to see the sudden 
 realization of the Second Coming of Christ, fle assures 
 those to whom he writes that if this should happen in 
 his and their lifetime, their friends who had already 
 died would not be at a disadvantage. " The difficulty 
 created with reference to the destiny of those members 
 of the Church who had died before the Second Coming 
 points to a very early stage in the history of the Thes- 
 salonian Church. The question must have been obsolete 
 long before Paul's death. . . . The organisation is in 
 a rudimentary stage; we meet with no technical titles 
 for the officials " (A. S. Peake). Prof. Peake thinks 
 that " the Epistle must have been written in Paul's life- 
 time, and it may therefore be taken for granted that it 
 was written by Paul himself." The external evidence 
 for the Epistk is sufficiently adequate. It was included 
 in the Canon of Marcion, and is found in the Muratorian 
 Canon. Irenaeus definitely quotes it as one of the letters 
 of Paul. It is included in the Syriac and Old Latin 
 Versions. Naturally such an early letter differs in some 
 respects from those that followed. But it contains, as 
 Currie Martin says, " the germ of many ideas which were 
 afterwards more fully developed in later communications 
 of the Apostle." See R. J. Knowling, Witness; J. A. 
 M'Clvmont; G. Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake, Jntr.; 
 J .Mofifatt. Intr. 
 
 THESSALONIANS. SECOND EPISTLE TO THE. 
 Certain close resemblances between the Second Epistle to 
 the Thessalonians and the First have led some scholars 
 to believe that the Second was modelled on the Fir.st by a 
 writer who a.ssumed the name of Paul with the idea of 
 correcting some of the ideas of the earlier letter. In the 
 First Epistle the Second Advent is imagined to be 
 imminent ; in the Second it is not imminent, but is to be 
 preceded by another event which itself still lies in the 
 future. The really difficult section in the Epistle is 
 chapter ii. vss. 1-12. which is in the style of Apocalypse. 
 A solution of the difficulty would be to remove this fiartic- 
 ular section as an interpolation. But strong objections 
 may be urged against this. Prof. Peake thinks " it 
 would be out of the question to rescue the authenticity 
 of the Epistle by sacrificing this section as a later inter- 
 polation. The Epistle was written for the sake of that 
 paragraph ; remove it and we cannot understand what 
 object could be served by the comix)sition of the rest. If 
 ii. 1-12 is not the work of Paul the authenticity of the 
 whole must be surrendered." The section speaks of the 
 Son of Perdition who opposes and exalts himself against 
 
 all that is called God or that is worshipped, and sits in 
 the temple of God, setting himself forth as God. It 
 says that the Mystery of Lawlessness is already at work, 
 but there is one that restrains until he shall be taken out 
 of the way. The Lord will come, and will slay the Law- 
 less One with the breath of his mouth. Attempts have 
 been made to identify the Son of Perdition and the One 
 that Restrains with various historical persons and 
 empires. The former, for example, with Nero or even 
 with Luther: the latter with the Roman Empire, and 
 even with the German Empire. Currie Martin thinks 
 that the Son of Perdition represents the Judaizing 
 teachers who figure so prominently in the Epistle to the 
 Galatians (g.v.), and that the One that Restrains repre- 
 sents the Roman power. Prof. Peake thinks the Son of 
 Perdition represents a form of heathenism. " There is 
 nothing that so closely corresjionds to Paul's description 
 as the deification of the Roman Emperors, which had 
 gone to insane lengths with Caligula. Panl's language 
 especially reminds us of Caligula's orders to have his 
 statue placed in the temple at Jerusalem. The mystery 
 of lawlessness was already at work in Paul's time, held 
 in check for a time by Claudius the reigning Emperor, 
 but destined on his removal to receive its final consum- 
 mation in a monster of impiety who would be slain by 
 Christ at the Second Coming. It was not unnatural that 
 concurrently with this there should be a great apostasy 
 within the Christian Church itself, such as is also pre- 
 dicted in the Gosi)els." The external evidence for the 
 Second Epistle to the Thessalonians is fairly strong. 
 The Epistle seems to be quoted by Polycarp in his letter 
 to the Philippians. Justin Martyr seems to be acquainted 
 with the second chapter. The Epistle is mentioned by 
 Irenaeus. It is included in the Canon of Marcion and 
 in the Muratorian Ca.non. See R. J. Knowling, Witness; 
 J. A. M'Clymont; G. Currie Martin; Arthur S. Peake, 
 Jntr.; J. Moffatt, Intr. 
 
 THIASUS. The Greek term Thiasus was used (1) of 
 " a society which had selected some god for its patron, 
 and held sacrifices, festal processions, and banquets at 
 stated times in his honour " (Seyffert) ; (2) of the festivals 
 held in honour of Dionysus: and (3) of the mythical 
 retinue of Dionysus. See O. Seyffert. Diet. 
 
 THNETOPSYCHITAE. Certain Arabian heretics (see 
 ARABES) were given this name by John of Damascus 
 and Nicetas. 
 
 THOM.4SITES. The followers of John Thomas of 
 Brookl.vn, United States of America (1805-1871). They 
 are better known as Christadelphians (q.v.). 
 
 THOR. One of the chief deities of the Ancient 
 Teutons. He was worshipped by the Frisians and Saxons 
 as Thuner, by the Anglo-Saxons as Thunor, and by the 
 High Germans as Donar. But originally Thor was the 
 chief god of Norway. Sweden too came to pay him very 
 great honour. He was the god of thunder and lightning, 
 wind and rain. As such he was naturally also the 
 I)atron god of agriculture. The Norwegians took the cult 
 to Iceland. WTien Odhin (see WODAN) was introduced 
 into Norway he became a formidable rival to Thor, but 
 the Thunder-god continued to exercise great power, and 
 at times thought it necessary to frustrate the plans of 
 Odhin. Thor is called " the roarer." He is also called 
 " god of the chariot " and " riding Thor," and is repre- 
 sented as driving a chariot drawn by two he-goats. He 
 has red hair and beard. His strength is symbolised by 
 a hammer, iron gauntlets, and a girdle of strength. In 
 Norse mythology he is made tie son of Wodan. In the 
 Snorra Edda (see EDDA) and the Eddie songs he is 
 represented as having great contests and adventures with 
 the giants, in which his hammer plays a great part. His 
 name has been presen-ed in the English Thursday and
 
 Thorgerdb Holgabrudh 
 
 356 
 
 Thundering Legion, The 
 
 the German Donnerstag. See P. D. Chantepie de la 
 Saussave, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 THORGERDH HOLGABRUDH. One of the deities of 
 the Ancient Teutons. The goddess Thorgerdh Holga- 
 brudh was Finnish. Jarl Hal£on, when he was fighting 
 with the Jomsviliings, in order to gain her help, sacrificed 
 to her his young son. Mention is made of her image. 
 In one place, we are told, it stood on a car or wagon 
 together with those of Irpa and Thor (q.v.). See P. D. 
 Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 THOUGHT-TRANSFERENCE. See TELEPATHY. 
 
 THOTH. An Egyptian deity. Thoth is the moon god, 
 and is represented as ibis-headed. In the judgment 
 scene described in the Boole of the Dead (f/.v.) Tboth acts 
 as the " scribe of the gods." When the heart of the 
 dead is weighed in the balance, he writes down the result 
 on his tablets. He was the god of writing, the god of 
 letters, the tutelary deity of scril)es. His skill in magic 
 made him the god of medicine, since magic and medicine 
 were closely connected. Again, sinc-e the moon deter- 
 mined the measurement of time, Thoth became the god 
 of time. At the beginning of the New Kingdom the 
 Pharaohs were named after him (e.g., Thothmosis, " Son 
 of Thoth "). He Is identifietl by the Greeks with Hermes. 
 See Alfred Wiedemann; Adolf Erman, Handbook; Naville, 
 The Old Egyptian Faith. 1909. 
 
 THREE DENOMINATIONS. A designation used of 
 the Presbyterians, Independents (Congregationalists), 
 and Baptists in 1727 as representing the majority of Dis- 
 senters in England. The three denominations obtained 
 the privilege of appealing directly to the king by means 
 of the presentation of joint addresses. 
 
 THREE-REFUGE FORMULA. The formula known as 
 the three-refuge formula was the only prayer used by 
 the early Buddhists. It is the prayer which the novice 
 is required to repeat three times at the ceremony at which 
 he is admitted into the order of monks. It runs : " I 
 go for refuge to the Buddha ; I go for refuge to the Law ; 
 I go for refuge to the Order." Monier Williams points 
 out that it resembles the Gayatri Prayer (g.v.) of the 
 Veda in being composed of three times eight syllables (in 
 the original). It is still regarded by many of the 
 Buddhists as the only legitimate prayer. See Monier- 
 Williams, Buddhism, 1890; H. Hackmann. 
 
 THRESHOLD, THE. The threshold of a house or 
 temple figures in the religion of certain peoples as a 
 sacred spot or a dangerous po;nt. According to Hero- 
 dotus (ii. 48) every Egyptian sacrificed before the door 
 of his house a hog to Osiris (g.v.). According to H. Clay 
 Trumbull, In modern Egypt the incoming master of a 
 house may be welcomed by a threshold sacrifice. In 
 modern Syria it is unlucky to tread on a threshold ; and 
 in Upper Syria the friends of a bridegroom sometimes 
 carry the bride across the threshold of the bridegroom's 
 house. The Hebrew word for Passover, pesah , is derived 
 from a root meaning "to leap, dance." This has sug- 
 gested that perhaps the Passover was so called because, 
 after the performance of a special rite, the Israelites, in 
 recognition of the sanctity of the threshold, leaped over 
 it or performed a ritual dance near it. In Zephaniah 
 (i. 9) it is said : " And I will punish all who leap over 
 the threshold, who fill the house of their lord with 
 violence and deceit." T. K. Cheyne paraphrases this 
 (Encycl. Bibl.) : " And on that day I wiU punish those 
 who, though they leap with scrupulous awe over the 
 sacred threshold, yet bring with them into Yahw&'s house 
 hands stained with cruelty and injustice." But the 
 reference here may be to some superstitious practice of 
 foreign origin. The threshold of the house has been 
 regarded by many peoples as the favourite abode of 
 demons or the ghosts of the dead. W. Warde Fowler 
 
 mentions that among the Romans a man who returned 
 home after his supixvsed death in a foreign country was 
 made to enter the house by the roof instead of by the 
 door. He might be a ghost or have evil spirits about 
 him, and against such the door had to be kept barred. 
 There was a curious Roman ceremony immediately after 
 the birth of a child, the object of which was " to prevent 
 Silvanus, who may stand for the dangerous spirits of the 
 forest, from entering in and vexing the baby " (Warde 
 Fowler). St. Augustine mentions a protecting spirit of 
 the entrance to a house named Limentinus. See H. Clay 
 Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant, 189G; the Encycl. 
 Bihl.; W. Warde Fowler, Religious Experience of the 
 Roman People. 1911. 
 
 THRITA. The second of the two chief gods of healing 
 in the Iranian pantheon. He is equivalent to the Indian 
 Trita. He is, like Trita, an old, wise, very beneficent 
 deity, and a bestower of long life. " Though he is not 
 explicitly represented as a curer of diseases, his con- 
 nection with the plant of life, the soma, makes him a 
 Ijowerful healer. While Thrita offered the haoma- 
 sacrifice in primeval times, Trita is tbe great preparer 
 of soma " (A. Camoy, "The Iranian Gods of Healing." 
 Journal of the American Oriental Society, %x>l. 38). 
 
 THRONE BEARERS. A class of angels referred to in 
 the Qur'iln. " And the angels shall be on its sides, and 
 over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne of 
 thy Lord " (Ixix. 17). " They who bear the throne and 
 they who encircle it, celebrate the praise of their Lord 
 and believe in Him, and implore forgiveness for the 
 believers " (xl. 7). The usual number is four, which is 
 to be augmented to eight on the day of resurrection. See 
 P. A. Klein, The Religion of Islam. 
 
 THUGS, THE. A Hindu sect, worshippers of Kali 
 (g.v.) as goddess of destruction. The Thugs or Thags 
 murdered people as a religious act. But they always 
 strangled their victims, because they objected on principle 
 to the spilling of blood. E. W. Hopkins even thinks 
 that " the sect originated among the Kali-worshippers 
 as a protest against blood-letting." The Thugs are 
 described by Lieutenant Reynolds as " mostly men of 
 mild and unobtrusive manners, possessing a cheerful dis- 
 position." Aft^r strangling their victims, tbey robbed 
 them. The bodies they buried. They did not kill women. 
 The Thugs were suppressed by the year 1840. See 
 Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins; and R. V. Russell. 
 
 THUNDERING LEGION, THE. Eusebius (v. 5). on 
 the authority of Apollinarius and Tertullian, says that 
 this name was given to a legion of Christian soldiers in 
 the army of the Roman Em|)eror Marcus Aurelius. He 
 gives the following story to account for the name ; " But 
 it is said that Marcus Aurelius Caesar, the brother of 
 tlie former, when about to engage in battle with the 
 Germans and Sarmatians, and his army was suffering 
 with thirst, was greatly at a loss on this account. Then, 
 however, those soldiers that belonged to the Melitine 
 legion, as it was called, by a faith which has continued 
 from that time to this, bending their knees upon the 
 earth whiLst drawn up in battle array against the enemy, 
 according to our peculiar custom of praying, entered 
 into pra.ver before God. And as this was a singular 
 spectacle to the enemy, a still more singular circum- 
 stance is reported to have happened immediately: that 
 the lightning drove the enemy into flight and destruction, 
 but that a shower came down and refreshed the army of 
 those that then called upon God, the whole of which 
 was on the point of perishing with thirst " (Eccles. Hist., 
 Bagster's English edition). Neander has sought to show 
 that the story is a mixture of tmth and fiction. Duchesne 
 writes : " The precarious position of the army is un- 
 doubted. And we also know that the Romans in their
 
 Thuner 
 
 357 
 
 Tin 
 
 extremity invoked all the different divine powers whose 
 rites the soldiers affected. But when the column com- 
 memorative of the victories of Marcus Aurelius in Ger- 
 mania was erected in the Campus Martius, the miracle 
 was ascribed to the gods of the State. In those cele- 
 brated bas-reliefs, Jupiter Pluvius is .still to be seen with 
 the saving torrential rain — which enabled the legions to 
 escape thirst and defeat — streaming from his hair, his 
 arms, and his whole person."' See William Benham; 
 Louis Duchesne, Hist. 
 
 THUNER. The name by which the Teutonic deity 
 Thor (q.v.), the .god of thunder, was known to the 
 Frisians and Saxons. 
 
 THUXOR. The name by which Thor (g.v.) was 
 known to the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 TIAMAT. A Babylonian deity. The goddess Tiamat 
 with the god Apsu (g.v.) is represented in the Epic of 
 Marduk (see MARDUK, EPIC OF) as existing from the 
 first. The two deities are virtually identical, one being 
 the male, the other the female principle. Both personify 
 primaeval chaos. Ti^mat both in sound and meaning 
 resembles the Hebrew word Tehom. Tiamat appears as 
 a great monster with a train of other monsters, chief of 
 which is Kingu. The other gods are created after 
 Tiamat, and there ensues a battle between them and 
 Tiamat with her monsters. In this battle Marduk is the 
 champion and representative of the other gods. The 
 result is that Marduk (Order) conquers Tiamat (Chaos). 
 
 TIHAX. A tribal deity, god of the stone knife, in 
 the religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 TIJ.\NIYAH. A Muhammadan religious order in 
 Africa. The order, which has Wahhabite tendencies 
 (see WAHHABIS), sought at first to spread its faith by 
 the ix>wer of the sword. " But," says Oskar Mann, 
 " the real inward conversion only took place when, laying 
 aside their swords, the victors began to be teachers of 
 the subjugated heathen in the truest sense of the word ; 
 and, according to travellers' reports, this peaceful work 
 is being carried on without interruption at the present 
 day " (Oskar Mann). See T. W. Arnold, Preaching of 
 Islam, 1896; Oskar Mann, " Mohammedanism," in G.R.W. 
 
 TIMOTHY, THE FIRST EPISTLE TO. The First 
 Epistle to Timothy, one of the Pastoral Epistles (q.v.). is 
 ascribed to the Apostle Paul by Irenaeus and in the 
 Muratorian Canon, but was rejected by Tatian, Marcion, 
 and Basilides. It is possible that it is quoted by Poly- 
 carp. There are passages in the Epistle (e.g., iii. 16) 
 which look very like fixed liturgical formulae, and its 
 descriptions of Christian life suggest a somewhat 
 developed organisation. The references to false teaching 
 rioint, it is thought, to a form of Gnosticism such as 
 flourished in the sec-ond century. But it is not necessary 
 to suppose this. As A. S. Peake says, " it must he 
 remembered that similar allegations have been made 
 with reference to the Colossian heresy, but probabl.v 
 erroneously." The false teaching was evidently Jewish 
 in origin (ep. i. 7), though there may have been associated 
 with it foreign elements. According to Hort, there is no 
 reference in the " antitheses of knowledge falsely so 
 called " fvi. 20) to the work of Marcion called Antithe-^efs. 
 The word " antitheses " describes " the endless contrasts 
 of decisions founded on endless distinctions which pla.ved 
 so large a part in the casuistry of the scribes as inter- 
 preters of the Law." Others have thought that the 
 false teachers were Essenes. Harnack places the Epistle 
 as late as 140 A.D. But, as Currie Martin .says, so late 
 a date is hardly possible. See M'Clymont : G. Currie 
 Martin: Arthur S. Peake, Intr.: J. Moffatt, Intr. 
 
 TIMOTHY. THE SECOND EPISTLE TO. It is not 
 unlikely that what is now called the Second Epistle to 
 Timothy really preceded what is now known as the First 
 
 Epistle. " The picture given of Timothy is very hard 
 to accept as historically accurate if this is really later 
 than the first epistle, for he is dealt with as a .vounger 
 and less strong personality than in the first epistle " 
 (Currie Martin). But in any case, there are the same 
 diflJculties of language, teaching, and relationship to the 
 Acts of the Apostles, as in the Fir.st Epistle. Attempts 
 have been made to get over some of the difficulties by 
 regarding the Epistle as composite. Two or three letters 
 have been found in it. One theory is that these comprise 
 (a) i. 1-iv. 8 (with the addition perhaps of iv. 19-21) and 
 (6) iv. 9-lS. Another theory is that thev comprise (a) 
 ii. 14-iii. 9 and (6) iv. 9-15 and 19-21 and (c) the remainder 
 of the Epistle. The passage ii. 11-13 seems to be part of 
 a Christian hymn. There are not .«o many references to 
 false teaching as in the First Epistle, and these are in- 
 definite. A special feature of the Epistle is the large 
 number of proper names. There are twenty-three, of 
 which ten are mentioned elsewhere. " The letter con- 
 tains a very beautiful portraiture of the Christian 
 minister in the twofold aspects of the writer as a man 
 with his course completed, and of the ideal set before the 
 younger preacher with his work largely before him. 
 These remain of permanent value to all time, whatever 
 decision we may come to with regard to the author- 
 ship " (G. Currie Martin). See J. A. M'Clymont, G. 
 Currie Martin: Arthur S. Peake Intr.; J. Moffatt, Intr. 
 
 TIQQUNE SOPHERIM. Literally " corrections of the 
 Scribes." The ex-pression is used of emendations pro- 
 posed by the Jewish Scribes for certain passages in the 
 Old Testament which they thought had been altered 
 because they offended against a sense of propriety. 
 There are eighteen of these passages. To take an 
 example, the present text of Genesis xviii. 22 says that 
 •' Abraham was still standing before Jehovah." The 
 Scribes think that the original text said, " Jehovah was 
 still standing before Abraham," but that it was not con- 
 sidered fitting that Jehovah should be represented as 
 waiting upon a man. See A. S. Geden, Intr. to the Eeb. 
 Bible, 1909. 
 
 TITI USI. A Samoan village deity. The god, whose 
 name means Glittering Leaf Girdle, was worshipped at 
 the new moon, when all work was suspended for a day 
 or two. 
 
 TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO. One of the Epistles of 
 the New Testament known as the Pastoral Epistles 
 (Q.v.). It appears from this letter that Titus, to whom 
 it is addressed, was in charge of the work of the (Thurch 
 in Crete. Titus was a Gentile who was converted by the 
 Apostle Paul. With Paul and Barnabas he visited Jeru- 
 salem (Galatians ii. 1-4). The Epistle to Titus has the 
 same linguistic and stylistic characteristics as the 
 Epi.stles to Timothy. Like the other Pastoral Epistles, 
 it refers to false teaching of a semi-Jewish character (i. 
 10, 14: iii. 9). In the case of Crete, a corruption of 
 Christian doctrine can easily be understood, for the 
 character of the Cretans was proverbially bad. The 
 Epistle Itself in 1. 12 refers to a description of them by 
 Epimenides (600 B.C.). " One of them.selves, a prophet 
 of their own said, Cretans are always liars, evil leasts, 
 idle gluttons." It has been thought that the letter is 
 not a unity. " Attempts have been made, not very satis- 
 factorily, to split this letter into Pauline and non-Pauline 
 sections, the only part about which there is absolute 
 unanimity among such critics l)eing that the last few 
 verses are certainly to be attributed to the Apostle " 
 (Currie Martin). See J. A. M'Clvmont: G. Currie Martin; 
 Arthur S. Peake, Intr.; J. Moffatt, Intr. 
 
 TIU. One of the gods of the Ancient Teutons. It 
 has been suggested that Tin is identical with Irmin, the 
 eponymous hero of the Irmin.sleute or Hermiones. He
 
 Tiwaz 
 
 358 
 
 Tolstoyans 
 
 was one of the chief gods of the Frisians; and was wor- 
 shipped by the Anglo-Saxons as Tiw, and by the Norse- 
 men as Tyr. Cut his worship was common to all the 
 Teutons. Tiu appears often as a god of war, but 
 •originally he seems to have been a sljy god. The sword 
 would seem to have been one of his symbols, and sword- 
 dances to have been performed in his honour. The 
 .sword-dances were accompanied by sacrifice. The name 
 ot the god survives in the English Tuesday. See P. D. 
 Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 TIWAZ. An ancient deity worshipped by many of the 
 Teutonic tribes. According to Tacitus, the Semnones 
 offered human sacrifices to him. Originally a sky-god 
 and storm-god, he developed into a god of war and 
 justice, and is associated by Latin writers with Mars. 
 Our name Tuesday represents Tiwes-daeg. The Norse 
 name of the god is Tyr. 
 
 TITANS, RELIGION OF THE. The Tiyans are 
 described as the Malayiilam toddy-drawing caste of 
 Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore in India. Their 
 religion is connected largely with Sakti worship, that is 
 to say, the worship of the life principle in nature. The 
 Hinduism of Malabar " is very largely imbued with the 
 lower cult, which, with a tinge of Hinduism, varied in 
 extent here and there, is really the religion of the people 
 at large all over Southern India. The Tiyans have a 
 large share of it. To the actions of evil and other spirits 
 are attributable most, if not all, of the ills and joys of 
 life. The higher Hinduism is far above them. Never- 
 theless, we find among them the worship of the obscure 
 and mysterious Sakti, which, unfortunately, is practised 
 in secret." Every individual is believed to be a simrk of 
 the divinity and to be capable of attaining godhood. The 
 Tiyans regard the Sakti goddess, Bhagavati, as their own 
 guardian spirit. And it may be said that " Sakti wor- 
 ship is perhaps more peculiarly theirs than others', owing 
 to their being able to use arrack, a product of the i)alm, 
 and therefore of their own particular metier. The 
 highest merit in Sakti can be reached only through 
 arrack " (E. Thurston). 
 
 TITARS. A small caste of boatmen and fishermen in 
 India. On the special festival of the goddess Durga, 
 they make to her offerings of fish and lotus flowers. " In 
 honour of Durga they observe a fast on the four Tuesdays 
 of the months of Chait and Kunwar (March and 
 September). In Chait they also worship their hooks and 
 nets " (R. V. Russell. 
 
 TLALOC. Tlaloc was the name of one of the earliest 
 •deities of the ancient Mexicans. The name means " the 
 nourisher," for Tlaloc was the god of rain. His seat in 
 the mountains was also called Tlaloc, and that in heaven 
 Tlalocan. Naturally, as god of rain, he was also god of 
 fertility. "When rain was wanted he had to be propitiated 
 by the sacrifice of .sucking infants. If they wept on the 
 way to the sacrifice, this was a sign that there would 
 be plenty of rain. Tlaloc would be kind. " One-eyed 
 and open-mouthed, he delighted in the sacrifice of 
 children, and in seasons of drought hundreds of innocents 
 were borne to his temple in open litters, wreathed with 
 blossoms and dressed in festal robes " (Lewis Spence). 
 His children, the Tlalocs, would seem to have been the 
 rain-clouds. His wife, Chalchihuitlicue, "the lady Chal- 
 chihuit," or Cioacoatl, was the goddess of Water. 
 Prayer was made to her when children were baptised. 
 See" Lewis Spence, Myth.; J. M. Robertson, "The 
 Religions of Ancient America," in R.S.W.; P.O. 
 
 TLAZOLTEOTL. Tlazolteotl was one of the deities 
 worshipped by the ancient Mexicans. She was the 
 goddess of love, and lived in a beautiful garden. Here 
 she was attended on by musicians, jesters, dwarfs, and 
 others. She first espoused the Rain-god Tlaloc, but 
 
 afterwards forsook him in favour of Tezcatlipoca (q.v.). 
 With her worship were associated a number of grossly 
 sensual practices. See Lewis Spence, Myth.; J. M. 
 Robertson, P.C. 
 
 T.N.K. A formula used in the later (Massoretic) 
 Hebrew literature to designate collectively the three 
 divisions of the Jewish Bible : — the I>aw (T)^ the Pro- 
 phets (N) and the Writings (K). The formula is thus 
 au abbreviation of the three Hebrew words, Torah, 
 Nebi'lm, and KethuMni. 
 
 TOBACCO. In the West Indies tobacco is found to 
 have played a part in religion. Its importance in re- 
 ligious ceremonial " is shown by the fact that it was 
 known by the same word, cogioha, as prayer, and to pray 
 and to offer tobacco were alike called ' making cogioba ' " 
 (T. A. Joyce, C. A. W.I. A.). The tobacco was inhaled 
 through a Y-shaped tube, the two branches being placed 
 in the nostrils. The prie.sts inhaled tobacco in order to 
 produce a state of ecstasy, in which they communicated 
 with the unseen jiowers. In healing the sick, both doctor 
 (priest) and patient were rendered ecstatic by the use of 
 tobacco. This enabled the doctor to discover the cause 
 of the sickness. Among the Bribri of Costa Rica the in- 
 cantations of the medicine-men, when they seek to control 
 the rain, to cure ill-luck, or to banish snakes, " consist 
 in blowing clouds of tobacco-smoke in certain directions." 
 Tobacco was offered to the Mexican god Oix»chtli. Even 
 in Ireland, according to W. G. Wood-Martin, the tobacco- 
 pipe has become a religious symbol. " In many i>arts 
 of the country new clay pipes and packets of tobacco are 
 distributed among the funeral guests, who sit around and 
 smoke while the grave is being dug. It is believed that 
 it is the duty of the ghost of the last arrival in a church- 
 yard to watch the other graves, and attend upon their 
 occupants; but the recently made spirit hankers after 
 tobacco, and dearly loves a last smoke, so unused tobacco 
 and unused pipes are not removed from the graveyard; 
 the guests are, however, at liberty to take away the pipes 
 they themselves have smoked." 
 
 TOHIL. A deity in the religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 He was worshipped as a thunder-god by the Quieh6 of 
 Guatemala, and resembles the Mexican god Quetzalcoatl. 
 
 TOHOROTH. The title of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are incorjwrated in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection 
 and compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Tohoroth is the fifth tractate of the sixth 
 group, which is called Tohoroth (" Purifications "). 
 
 TONATIUH. A Mexican deity, the sun. He is repre- 
 sented as carrying a sun-disc. 
 
 TOLSTOYANS. Followers of Count Leo Tolstoy (1828- 
 1910), the Russian social reformer. Tolstoy was educated 
 in the faith of the Orthodox Greek Church. But he 
 gradually lost the faith of his childhood. From the age 
 of sixteen he ceased to attend the services of the Church. 
 " I no longer accepted the faith of my childhood, but I 
 had a vague belief in something, though I do not think 
 I could exactly explain what " {How I came to Believe). 
 In early manhood, he tells us, he gave free rein to his 
 passions. After serving in the Crimean War, he became 
 an author. At St. Petersburg he associated with the 
 authors of the day, and " met with a hearty reception 
 and much flattery." But as time went on he became more 
 and more disgusted with his own life and with the life 
 of the people around him. He went abroad and made 
 the acquaintance of many eminent and learned men. On 
 his return he organised schools for the peasantry. He 
 went abroad again to study methods of teaching. He-
 
 Tolstoyans 
 
 359 
 
 turning to Russia, he accepted the office of a country 
 magistrate or arbitrator, and began to teach the un- 
 educated people in the schools, and the educated classes 
 m journals -sv-hich he published. But the work was a con- 
 stant worry to him, " trying to teach, without knowing 
 how or what." and he became ill. On his recovery he 
 luarned (1862): and family life for a time diverted' his 
 thoughts. In 1874 his mental difficulties became again a 
 source of worry and depression. •• Till I know the 
 reasons for my own acts, I can do nothing— I cannot live " 
 Life no longer seemed to have any meaning for him 
 He sought for its meaning in Art, Poetrv, Science, and 
 Fhi osophy, but in vain. He next sought for its meaning 
 in life Itself, in the men who surrounded him. The 
 life of those who occupied the same position as himself 
 offered no satisfactory solution of his difficulties. Having 
 failed here, he decided to study the life of the labouring 
 Classes. This .seemed to suggest that throughout man- 
 kind ttiere was given to the meaning of life a sense which 
 he had neglected and despised. He was forced to the 
 conclusion that besides the reasoning knowledge which 
 he once thought the only true knowledge, "there was in 
 every living man another kind of knowledge, an un- 
 reasoning one. but which gives a possibility of living— 
 taith. This led him to turn his attention to religion 
 again, especially to Christianity. But he could not dis- 
 cover among the so-called believers of his own class the 
 taith he sought. Once more he studied the lives of the 
 people, and became " convinced that a true faith was 
 among them, that their faith was for them a necessary 
 thing, and alone gave them a meaning in life and a possi- 
 bility of living." After living among them for two years, 
 the life of his own circle of rich and learned men became 
 repulsive and lost all its meaning. " The life of the 
 working classes, of the whole of mankind, of those that 
 create life, appeared to me in its true significance I 
 understood that this was life itself, and that the meanin" 
 given to this life was a true one, and I accepted it " The 
 tormenting feeling which Tolstoy had had was really he 
 felt afterwards, a searching after God. " Tliis search 
 after a God was not an act of my reason, but a feeling 
 and I say this advisedly, because It was opposed to mV 
 way of thinking: it came from the heart." Gradually 
 he returned to " a belief in God, in moral perfectibility, 
 and in the tradition which gives a meaning to life " He 
 decided to renounce the life of his own class, and to 
 adopt the simple life of the working classes He also 
 returned to the Orthodox Faith. But he found after a 
 time that he could not continue to be an ortho<lox member 
 1 \. wished to be a brother to men of every creed 
 
 and he was horrified because in time of war Russians 
 slew their brethren in the name of Christian love He 
 Tf ^ I*"^ ^'■?.? .^^? Orthodox Church. His criticisms 
 of orthodox Christianity have since been very searching- 
 «^J'' T*^^-,o:?=r ^^'^ excommunicated by the Russian 
 te.vnod. In 1S95 Tolstoy had renounced his property in 
 r^^r^'i.'^.' ^^.'"^- *°^ money. When Tolstoy came back 
 to Chri.stianity and re-read the Gospels again and again 
 he discovered a new meaning in .sayings of Jesus. He 
 £^n°"'T, '°-''*«°^<'' that when Jesus said. "Resist not 
 evil, he gave utterance to a principle of supreme im- 
 portance^^ He says with perfect clearness and simpli- 
 city : The law of resistance to evil by violence, which 
 ^^nL?^""®, ™^*^lr *^*'. Pi"'°eiPle of your fives, is false and 
 uiinaturaL He gives another basis-the non-resistance 
 of evi , which, according to his teaching, can alone deliver 
 mankind from evil. He says : ' You think that your laws 
 of violence correct evil: they only increase it For 
 thousands of years you have tried to destroy evil bv 
 evil, and you have not destroyed but increased it Db 
 What I say, and you will know the truth of this ' " (What 
 
 Tolstoyans 
 
 if^tilZ' l^^I- „ ^^'*'°' "^^e" J<^s^« condemned the use 
 ?R,?f T ' ^^ ?"-^ ™*'''»°'^ ^^at he said. " Jesus said. 
 
 i<raV ,in^^o"°^ •'■''"• ^1"^*^^ °<*'^ ""^ *!"•' 'T^'s expression 
 is as simple, clear, and unhesitating as the words 'Judge 
 not and Condemn not,' and requires as little explanl- 
 tion, particularly as it is farther e.xplained that what- 
 ever IS required of us more than the answer Tea, or Nay 
 IS from the source of evil." War is the most frightfi 
 wickedness; and to take a military oath is to reb^ 
 ^flin •" precepts of the Gospels. Our evil social con- 
 ditions are due to violence. "The cause of the miwr 
 able condition of the workers is s^aven^ The ^Sle of 
 vioTpnL '^ rffl!''"*"!. Legislation rests on organised 
 If ti?i^ *, ^^'.l^^^^s that an improvement in the condition 
 of the i^ple is possible only through the abolition of 
 organised violence " (The Slaver,, of Our Times, im) 
 Governments ought to be abolished-but not by violence 
 People must be persuadetl that disciplined arm'ies are not 
 necessary, except for keeping tie masses of the people in 
 slavery. _ People must feel that their participation in 
 the criminal activity of Governments, whether bv giving 
 part of their work, in the form of money, or by direct 
 participation in military service, is not, a« is generally 
 supposed, an indifferent action, but besides being harm- 
 ful to oneself and to one's brothers, is a participation in 
 the crimes unceasingly committed by all Governments, 
 and a preparation for new crimes which Governments 
 Dy maintaining disciplined armies, are always preparin<' " 
 ihey must feel this and communicate the feeling to 
 others. They must not think of meeting violence with 
 violence. "The inconsistency of violence as a means of 
 communion between men, its incompatibility with the 
 demands of contemporary conscience, is too obvious for 
 the existing order to be able to continue. But external 
 conditions cannot change without a change in the inner 
 spiritual condition of men" (The One Thing Needfnl) 
 ihe means of deliverance lies only in one thing " the 
 inner work of each man upon himself." Tolstoy was 
 the prophet of the simple life. It is natural that he 
 should have become a vegetarian. But he did not main- 
 tain that in order to be moral, people must cease to eat 
 m^t. I only wish to say that for a good life a certain 
 order of good actions is indispensable; that if a man's 
 aspiration toward right living be serious, it will inevit- 
 ably follow one definite sequence; and that in this 
 sequence the fir.st virtue a man will strive after will be 
 abstinence, self-renunciation. And in seeking to be 
 abstinent a man will inevitably follow one definite 
 .sequence, and in this sequence the first thing will be 
 ab-stinence in food, fasting. And in fasting, if he be 
 really and seriously seeking to live a good life, the first 
 thing from which he will abstain will always be the use 
 Of animal food, because, to say nothing of the excitation 
 of the passions caused by such food, its use is simply 
 immoral, as it involves the performance of an act which 
 IS contrary to the moral feeling— killing; and is called 
 ^^ ?,°'-^ ^^ greediness, and the desire for tasty food " 
 (The First Step, 1900). As an ideal, Tolstoy seems to 
 have recommended also abstinence from marriage " The 
 Christian's ideal is love to God and to one's neighbour; 
 It IS the renunciation of .self for the ^service of God and 
 one s neighbour. Whereas sexual love, marriage, is 
 service of self, and therefore in any case an obstacle to 
 the .service of God and man; consequently, from a 
 Christian point of view, a fall, a sin." He repeats this 
 teaching in a number of letters to correspondents. One 
 more example. " If man be already living a human 
 spiritual life, then being in love and marriage will be for 
 him a fall : he will have to give part of his powers to 
 his wife or family or the object of his love. But if he 
 be on the animal plane, the eating, working, writing
 
 Tongues, Gift of 
 
 360 
 
 Totemism 
 
 plane, then being in love will be for him an ascent, as 
 with animals and insects " (The Relations of the Sexes, 
 1901). Tolstoy disapproved of the current conceptions 
 of Art, and offered a new definition. " To evoke in one- 
 self a feeling one has once experienced, and having evoked 
 it in oneself, then, by means of movements, lines, colours, 
 sounds, or forms expressed in words, so to transmit that 
 feeling that others may experience the same feeling— 
 this is the activity of art. Art is a human activity, con- 
 sisting in this, that one man consciously, by means of 
 certain external signs, hands on to others feelings he has 
 lived through, and that other people are infected by these 
 feelings, and also experience them " (What is Artf 1898). 
 The i-esult of false conceptions of Art has been that " the 
 ecclesiastical and patriotic intoxication and embitter- 
 ment of the people " has been perpetuated (cp. Guy de 
 Maupassant, 1898). See, in addition, to the works quoted 
 above : The Kingdom of God is Within You, 1894 ; What 
 to do; On Life, 1902; What is Religion? 1902; Popular 
 Stories and Legends. 
 
 TONGUES, GIFT OF. A religious phenomenon to 
 which special reference is made in the New Testament. 
 In the Acts of the Apostles (li.) we are told that soon 
 after the death of Jesus, when the disciples were 
 assembled together on the day of Pentecost, they 
 were suddenly filled with the Holy Spirit and began to 
 speak with other tongues. The passage ought to 'be 
 quoted. " And when the day of Pentecost was fully 
 come, they were all with one accord in one place. And 
 suddenly there came a sound from heaven, as of a 
 rushing mighty wind, and it filled all the house where 
 they were sitting. And there appeared unto them cloven 
 tongues, like as of fire, and it sat upon each of them. And 
 they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and began to 
 speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them 
 utterance. And there were dwelling at Jerusalem Jews, 
 devout men, out of every nation under heaven. Now 
 when this was noised abroad, the multitude came 
 together, and were confounded, because that every man 
 heard them speak in his own language. And they were 
 all amazed, and marvelled, saying one to another. Behold, 
 are not all the«e which speak Galileans? And how hear 
 we every man in our own tongue, wherein we were 
 born? " '(vss. 1-8). It is clear from this report that the 
 disciples were stirred and agitated in a way that seemed 
 very strange. They uttered strange sounds. These 
 sounds were understood to be words spoken in foreign 
 languages. And this view is shared by many Christians. 
 With God all things are possible, it is argued. It is true 
 that, in the Christian view, God is omnipotent; but it is 
 widely felt now that God does not arbitrarily break 
 through the natural order of things, and that where two 
 explanations of an event are possible the simpler and 
 more natural one is to be preferred. In the present case 
 there is a more natural explanation. The study of this 
 class of phenomena has revealed the fact that often when 
 people's religious feelings are deeply stirred and agitated 
 they fall into a kind of trance and mutter sounds which 
 are unintelligible. Unsympathetic persons will describe 
 their condition by saying that they have become afflicted 
 with hysteria. And it is true that excessive religious 
 emotion is often a disea.se. But it is bad logic and worse 
 taste to say that because two persons are similarly 
 agitated the causes are always the same. This is to sug- 
 gest that there is no difference, to take an instance, 
 between heartfelt grief and the hysterical sobbing of a 
 criminal. In the Acts of the Apostles we have the report 
 of a true spiritual experience. The language of rhe Holy 
 Spirit is different from the language of men. It cannot, 
 especially at first, easily be translated into human 
 speech. If the attempt is made, it only results in 
 
 language which is incoherent and unintelligible. No one 
 knew this better than St. Paul, who had made the 
 experience at his conversion (see CONVERSION). Con- 
 sequently we find him giving the true explanation of the 
 Gift of Tongues (I. Corinthians xiv.). A few quotations 
 are necessary. " For he that speaketh in an unknown 
 tongue, speaketh not unto men, but unto God; for no 
 man understandeth him, howbeit in the spirit he speaketh 
 mysteries." . . . "He that speaketh in an unknown 
 tongue edifieth himself; but he that prophesieth edifieth 
 the church." ..." Now, brethren, if I come unto 
 you speaking with tongues, what shall I profit you, except 
 I shall speak to you either by revelation, or by know- 
 ledge, or by prophesyiQg, or by doctrine? And even 
 things without life giving sound, whether pipe or harp, 
 except they give a distinction in the sounds, how shall 
 it be known what is piped or harped? For if the trumpet 
 give an uncertain sound, who shall prepare himself to 
 the battle? So likewise ye, except ye utter by the tongue 
 words easy to be understood, how shall it be known what 
 is spoken? for ye shall speak into the air." The whole 
 chapter should be read. People have been known to show 
 a knowledge of a foreign language which has not been 
 acquired in the ordinary way. But this also has admitted 
 of an ordinary psychological explanation. It has been 
 due to the abnormal working of the subjective mind (see 
 SUBJECTIVE MIND). Compare, generally, CONVER- 
 SION, ECSTASY, INSPIRATION. 
 
 TOPE. Tope is one of the names for a Buddhist Stupa 
 (q.v.). Tope is a corrupt form of the Pali Thupa, which 
 again is equivalent to the Sanskrit Stupa. 
 
 TORTOISE. A Hindu legend relates that the world 
 was fished up out of the waters by the god Brahma (q.v.), 
 with the help of a boar, a fish, and a tortoise. The tor- 
 toise figures prominently in the religion of the Chinese. 
 One of the precepts of the " Book of Rewards and 
 Punishments " (g.v.) is, " Don't needlessly kill tortoises 
 and serpents." In ancient times the shell of the tortoise 
 and the stalks of a particular kind of grass were sup- 
 posed to possess spiritual powers and to be very 
 efficacious in divination. The tortoise would become an 
 object of reverence on account of its longevity. " To 
 explore what is complex, to search out what is hidden, to 
 hook up what lies deep, and to reach to what is distant, 
 thereby determining the issues for good or ill of all events 
 under the sky, and making all men full of strenuous 
 endeavour, there are no agencies greater than those of 
 the stalks and the tortoise shell " (after Giles). Russell 
 and HIra Lai note that among the Bhunjias of India 
 great reverence is paid to the tortoise. " They call the 
 tortoise the footstool (pidha) of God, and have adopted 
 the Hindu theory that the earth is supported by a tortoise 
 swimming in the midst of the ocean." In the mythology 
 of the Hurons, the earth is supported by a great tortoise. 
 See Robert K. Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism; 
 Herbert A. Giles, Religions of Ancient China, 1905; 
 Reinach, O. 
 
 TOTAFOTH. Totftfoth is the Hebrew word which is 
 translated " Frontlets " (g.v.; Deuteronomy vi. 8). The 
 Greek equivalent is Phylacteries (q.v.). 
 
 TOTEMISM. Totemism, as Salomon Reinach says, is 
 difficult to define. The word totem or rather otam (mark 
 or sign) was adopted at the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century from the Indians of North America. It was 
 found to be the term employed by the Ojibway, an Algon- 
 quin tribe, to designate usually the animal or plant the 
 name of which the clan bears, and which is recognised 
 as an ancestor, a protector, and a rallying sign. 
 " Totemism seems to have been as widespread as the 
 animism from which it is derived; we find it to some 
 extent everywhere, if not in the pure form and unmixed
 
 Totemism 
 
 361 
 
 Tractarian Movement, The 
 
 will! more recent religious conceptions, at least as a sur- 
 vival more or less clearly defined. The religions of 
 lOs.vpL, of Syria, of Greece, of Italy and of Gaul are all 
 iiuiircgnatert will) toteiuism " (Reinach, O., 1909). That 
 till' Semites iMisscd through the totem stage seems clear 
 from tlu' fads adduced by Robertson Smith (R..S.). Pro- 
 fessor /.aplelal {Of-r 'J'otemisinus und die Hfligion 
 Israels, 11101) has opposed this view, and denied that the 
 Israelites were tot ULists. but without success, as Stanley 
 A. Cook has sho>. m ('■ Israel and Totemism " in the 
 Jcicish Quarterly h'triew, April, 1902). But in the light 
 of new discoveries, tlie data collected by Spencer and 
 (;ill(>ii among the tribes of Central Australia, it is felt 
 tl;at Rotwrlson Smitli's general conception of totemism 
 and especially his thiKny of a " totem sacrament " will 
 not stand. Dr. Fra/. r (as quoted by Cook) says that 
 Robertson Smith's theory inferred "a totem community 
 uniled in reverence, awe and love of tile totem animal, 
 s<ilemnly and sorrowfully killing it once a year, and par- 
 taking of its flesh, not as common food to fill their 
 sloMiaclis, but as a means of entering into a mystic com- 
 niuniou witli the divine animal." What are the facts? 
 " We find a community of which the greater part regu- 
 larly kills and eats the animal in question whenever they 
 can lay hands on it, whilst the remaining section (which 
 lias the aiiinial for its totem) does its best to multiply 
 I hi' ereatnre In order that all the rest of the people may 
 devour it. .\nd since, in order to breed the animal for 
 eating, they think it neceis.sary to have part of its sub- 
 stance in their l)oilies. they do ceremonially partake of 
 its tle.sh. not in order to acquire certain mysterious divine 
 qualities, but ultimately in order that the majority of 
 their fellows may feed on roast kangaroo, roast emu, or 
 w hatever It may l)e. Instead of a mystic religious rite 
 lil;e the Christian .sacrament of tJie Eucharist (which 
 was clearly in Robert.son Smith's mind), we see a 
 magical ceremony of the most practical and business-like 
 inlention." Dr. ^>a7.er thinks that the relation of the 
 group to the totem cannot proi)erly be described as wor- 
 ship. The most primitive form of totemism he finds 
 now among the .\runta of Central Australia. The Arunta 
 have a iK'culiar theory of conception. " The child has 
 neither the totem of his father nor that of his mother, 
 but the one whose centre Is at the spot where the mother 
 believes that she felt the first symptoms of approaching 
 maternity. For it is .said that the Arunta is ignorant 
 of the e.vaet relation existing between generation and the 
 s«'xual act: he thinks that every conception is due to a 
 sort of mystic fecundation. According to him, it is due 
 to the entrance of the soul of an ance.stor into the body 
 of a woman and its becoming the principle of a new life 
 there. So at tlie moment when a woman feels the first 
 tremblings of the child, .she imagines that one of the souls 
 whose princii)al residence is at the place where she 
 happens to be, has .lust entered into her. As the child 
 who is presently born is merely the reincarnation of this 
 ancestor, he nece.s.sarily has the same totem; thus his 
 totem is determined by the locality where he is l)elieved 
 to have been mysterioiisly conceived " (fimile Durkheim). 
 Durkheim gives a brief .summary of Frazer's theory. 
 "At the exact moment when the woman realizes that 
 she is pregnant, .she nnist think that the spirit by which 
 she feels herself jiossessed has come to her from the 
 objects alKjut her. and esTiecially from one of those which 
 attract her attention at the moment. So if she is engaged 
 in iihuking a plant, or watching an animal, she believes 
 that the soul of this plant or animal has passed into her. 
 Among Ihi' things to wh'ch she will be particularly 
 inclined to attribute her condition are, in the first place, 
 the things she has just eaten. If .she has recently eaten 
 emu or yam, she will not doubt that an emu or yam has 
 
 been bom in her and is developing. Under these con- 
 ditions, it is evident how the child, in his turn, will be 
 considered a sort of yam or emu, how he regards himself 
 as a relative of the plant or animal of the same species, 
 how he has sympathy and regard for them, how he refuses 
 to eat them, etc. From this moment, totemism exists 
 in its essential traits : it is the native's theory of con- 
 ception that gave rise to it, so Frazer calls this primitive 
 totemism concept ional." The weakness of this theory 
 is that it assumes too much, for the probability is that 
 this so-called primitive totemism was preceded bv the 
 better known tyr^e, hereditary totemism, either in the 
 paternal or the maternal line. Salomon Reinach in his 
 Cults has formulated a code of (animal) totemism. 1. 
 Certain animals are neither killed nor eaten, but man 
 rears specimens and tends them. 2. Mourning is worn 
 for the accidental death of a member of a particular 
 animal species; and it is buried with the same honours 
 as a member of the clan. 3. Occasionally the alimentary 
 interdiction applies only to a part of the animal's bmly. 
 4 When animals, ordinarily spared, are killed under the 
 stress of urgent necessity, the slayers address excuses to 
 them, or strive by various artifices to extenuate the viola- 
 tion of the taboo ; in other words, the murder. 5. The 
 tabooed animal is mourned for after it has been ritually 
 sacrificed. G. Men put on the skins of certain animals, 
 especially in religious ceremonies. Where totemism 
 exi.sts, these animals are totems. 7. Clans and indi- 
 viduals take the names of animals. Where totemism 
 exists, these animals are totems. 8. In many instances, 
 the clan carries the image of an animal on its ensigns 
 and arms. The individual may paint this image on his 
 body, or tattoo himself with it. 9. The totemie animal, 
 if dangerous, is supposed to spare the members of the 
 totemie clan, but only when they belong to it by birth. 
 10. Animal totems help and protect the members of the 
 totemie clan. 11. Animal totems foretell the future to 
 the faithful, and serve them as guides. 12. The members 
 of a totemie clan frequently believe themselves related 
 to their animal totem by the bond of a common descent. 
 
 TOUTIORIX. Toutiorix, " lord of the people," was 
 one of the names given by the ancient Celts to a god 
 who corre-sponded to the Roman god Apollo (q.v.). He 
 was a healing god. He would seem to have l)een con- 
 founded with Theodoric the Goth. The worship of the 
 Celtic Apollo under the name Grannus (q.v.) was adopted 
 by the Roman soldiers. See Anwyl; Squire, Myth.; 
 Reinach, O. 
 
 TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT, THE. The Tractarian 
 Movement, like other new and important movements in 
 the history of the Church, was produced by a crisis. The 
 Church of England was, or seemed to be, in a perilous 
 condition. At a time when reforms were being demanded 
 on all hands, a time when Reform was in the air, the 
 time of the Reform Bill (1831), it is reputed to have been 
 weak, spiritless, and impotent — so much so indeed that 
 it appeared to be open to easy and successful attack and 
 to be in danger of losing some of its privileges. Dean 
 Church in his book " The Oxford Movement " gives a 
 forcible description of the state of affairs. " The idea 
 of clerical life had certainly sunk, both in fact and in 
 the popular estimate of it. The disproportion between 
 the purposes for which the Church with its ministry was 
 founded and the actual tone of feeling among those re- 
 sponsible for its .service had become too great. Men were 
 afraid of principles; the one thing they most .shrank from 
 was the suspicion of enthusiasm. . . . The typical 
 clergyman in Engli.sh pictures of the manners of the day, 
 in the Vicar of Wakefield, in Miss Austen's novels, in 
 Crabl)e's Parish Register, is represented, often quite 
 unsuspiciously, as a kindly and respectable person, but
 
 Tractarian Movement, The 
 
 362 
 
 Traducians 
 
 certainly not alive to the greatness of his calling. He 
 ■was often much, very much to the society round him 
 but there was much— much even of what was 
 good and useful— to obscure it. The beauty of the Eng- 
 lish Church in this time was its family life of purity and 
 simplicity ; its blot was quiet worldliness." Dean Church 
 points out that •• the fortunes of the Church are not safe 
 in the hands of a clergy, of which a great part take their 
 obligations easily. It was slumbering and sleeping when 
 the visitation of davs of change and trouble came upon 
 it." It is clear that great efforts were needed to 
 strengthen and revive the Church at this critical period. 
 In July 1S33 Hugh James Rose (1795-1838), Rector of 
 Hadleigh in Suffolk, Richard Hurrell Froude (1803-1S3C), 
 William Palmer (1803-188.3), and the Hon. A. P. Perceval 
 met together at Hadleigh to discuss plans for putting new 
 life into the Church. At this consultation, which lasted 
 about a week, it was decided that a great effort should 
 be made to maintain doctrine and discipline. Froude was 
 Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Conferences were also 
 held here, in which John Henry Newman (1801-1891), 
 Fellow and Tutor of Oriel, and John Keble (1792-1866), 
 Fellow and Tutor of Oriel and author of " The Christian 
 Tear " (1827), also took part. The result was an attempt 
 to form an " Association of Friends of the Church." The 
 objects of this Association were : " (1) To maintain pure 
 and inviolate the doctrines, the services, and the dis- 
 cipline of the Church; that is, to withstand all change 
 which involves the denial and suppression of doctrine, a 
 departure from primitive practice in religious offices, or 
 innovation upon the apostolic prerogatives, order, and 
 commission of bishops, priests, and deacons. (2) To 
 afford Churchmen an opportunity of exchanging their 
 sentiments, and co-operating together on a large scale." 
 This, however, did not prove to be the best plan, and 
 was not attended by great success. In the same year, 
 18.33, John Keble preached a sermon on National Apostasy 
 which is supposed to mark the initiation of the Oxford 
 Movement. In any case, it was decided by the " Friends 
 of the Church " to follow up this line of teaching, and to 
 do so by issuing " Tracts for the Times," the aim of 
 which was to prove that the doctrines of the Church of 
 England are identical with those of the primitive Catholic 
 Church. On ac^count of these tracts the movement 
 became known as Tractarian. Keble, who wrote seven 
 of the tracts, insisted upon "deep submission to 
 authority, implicit reverence for Catholic tradition, firm 
 belief in the divine prerogatives of the priesthood, the 
 real nature of the sacraments, and the danger of inde- 
 pendent speculation " (Church). The first tract, pub- 
 lished in 1833, was written by J. H. Newman. Others 
 followed down to 1841, when Tract xc. put an end to 
 the .series. The chief writers, besides J. H. Newman 
 and J. Keble, were R. H. Froude, E. B. Pusey, and Isaac 
 Williams (1802-1865). The latter wrote a remarkable 
 tract. No. 80, on " Reserve in communicating Religious 
 Knowledge." But Tract xc. is the mo.st famous, or, 
 according to bitter opponents of Tractarianism, the mo.st 
 Infamous of all. It was an essay by Newman on the 
 Thirty-nine Articles. " His aim was to determine how 
 far as a matter of fact the Articles were capable of a 
 • Catholic ' interpretation, and to what extent they were 
 directed against Roman doctrine. He drew a distinction 
 between Romanism as a popular worlving system and 
 Roman authoritative dogma. While he did not go the 
 full length of stating that the Articles were not directed 
 at all against Rome's authoritative dogma, he pointed 
 out that the Tridentine decrees had not been ratified 
 when the Articles were first drawn up. and that there- 
 fore the Articles were not directed against them. The 
 general drift of the tract was to show that the articles 
 
 were directed against the dominant errors of popular 
 Romanism, and not for the most part against Roman 
 dogma. The general conclusion was that, after the gloss 
 placed upon the Articles by Calvinists and other Pro- 
 testants had been removed, they were capable of a per- 
 fectly ' Catholic ' interpretation, and did not c-ondemn 
 prayers for the dead, the doctrine of the ducharistic 
 sacrifice, the belief in some form of purgatory, etc." (M. 
 W. Patterson). The tract was at once repudiated (March 
 8, 1841) by four Oxford tutors : T. T. Churton, Henry 
 Bristow Wilson (1803-1888), who afterwards contributed 
 to " Essays and Reviews," John Griffiths (1806-1885), 
 who afterwards become Warden of Wadham College, and 
 A. C. Tait (1811-1882), who afterwards became Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. Soon afterwards (March 18, 
 1841) it was condemned by the Hebdomadal Board. The 
 Bishop of Oxford also, and later other bishops, expressed 
 disapproval of the tract. In 1842 Newman retired to 
 Littlemore, not far from Oxford, where he had estab- 
 lished a kind of monastery. Fuel was added to the 
 flames in 1844 when W. G. Ward (1812-1882), an extreme 
 Tractarian, who claimed the right, as a member of the 
 Church of England to hold " the full cycle of Roman 
 doctrine," published his book "The Ideal of a Christian 
 Church." Newman had resigned the living of .St. Mary's, 
 Oxford, in 1843. In 1845 he was received into the Roman 
 Church. But the Tractarian Movement could not be 
 arrested. The Tractarians were reinforced by such 
 notable men as W. F. Hook (1798-1875), who l)ecame Dean 
 of Chichester, J. B. Mozley (1813-1878), who later became 
 Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford. R. W. Church 
 (1815-1890), Dean of S. Paul's, W. E. Gladstone (1809- 
 1898), Sir John Taylor Coleridge (1790-1876), and Sir 
 Roundell Palmer (1812-1819). The centre of the move- 
 ment was no longer in Oxford. The Oxford Movement 
 was ablv opposed and denounced by such Broad-church- 
 men as R. D. Hampden (1793-1868), Bi.shop of Hereford, 
 A. P. Stanley (1815-1&S1), F. D. Maurice (1805-1872), and 
 Charles Kingsley (1819-1875). Whatever the merits of 
 the movement, unless it is wisely guided, it is exposed 
 by its insistence on authority to grave dangers. What 
 D. Hampden said about the Tractarians has, at the least, 
 an element of truth in it (Some Memorials of Renn 
 Diclcson Hampden, 1871, p. 90). See R. W. Church, 
 Hist, of the Oxford Movement, 1891; W. Walsh, Secret 
 Hist, of the Oxford Movement; M. W. Patterson, Hist.; 
 J. H. Blunt; Prot. Diet. 
 
 TRADITIONALISM. L. G. A. de Bonald (1754-1840) 
 is regarded as the author of Traditionalism fcp., how- 
 ever, FIDEISM). This .system of philosophy has been 
 described as the " philosophy of antiphilosophy " 
 (Madame de Stael) or the " extreme of anti-rationalism " 
 (Cath. Diet.). In its stricter form, as expounded by de 
 Bonald, " this sy.stem reduces the intellect to a merely 
 receptive faculty, capable of acquiring knowledge by 
 instruction, which comes originally from God by a primi- 
 tive revelation given to the first progenitors of the human 
 race " (Cath. Diet.). In its modified form, as expounded 
 by Bonnetty, " it restricts the absolute necessity of a 
 traditional instruction derived from revelation to meta- 
 physical, religious, and moral truth, admitting the 
 capacity of the human mind to discover other intellectual 
 truths by its Innate power." Traditionalism was con- 
 demned by the Congregation of the Index in 1855, and 
 again by the Vatican Council in 1870. See Addis and 
 Arnold : Reinach, O. 
 
 TRADUCIANS. Traducianism, the opposite of Crea- 
 tionism, is one of the theories as to the origin of 
 the soul. The Traducians hold that " both eonl and 
 body are derived from the human parents, and that, 
 therefore, the Fall of Adam was naturally the direct
 
 Trances, The Four 
 
 363 
 
 Traskites 
 
 cause of the sinfulness which attaches to human beings 
 from the very beginning of their existence " (Prot. Diet.). 
 TRANCES, THE FOUR. The deep meditations of 
 Buddhists are supix)sed to produce four kinds of trances 
 and four kinds of formless states. This is the teaching 
 of the Buddha himself. " Of one who has entered the 
 tirst trance the voice has ceased: of one who has entered 
 the second trance reasoning and reflection have ceased; 
 of one who has entered the third trance joy has ceased; 
 of one who has entered the fourth trance the inspirations 
 and expirations have ceased ; of one who has entered the 
 realm of infinity of space the perception of form has 
 ceased : of one who has entered the realm of the infinity 
 of consciousness the perception of the realm of the 
 infinity of space has ceased ; of one who has entered the 
 realm of nothingness the perception of the infinity of 
 consciousness has ceased; of one who has entered the 
 realm of neither perception nor yet non-perception, the 
 perception of the realm of nothingness has ceased: of one 
 who has entered the cessation of perception and sensa- 
 tion, perception and sensation have ceased. Of the 
 priest who has lost all depravity, passion has ceased, 
 hatred has ceased, infatuation has ceased." See H. 
 Hackmann, Buddhism. 
 
 TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS. The belief that at 
 death the soul pas.ses into another body has been widely 
 held. According to Herodotus (II., 123) the Egyptians 
 believed that the soul at death entered immediately upon 
 another existence. " After three thousand years, during 
 which it had experienced all the various forms of life 
 that exist on land, in the water and in the air, it would 
 once more re-enter a human being " (Adolf Erman, 
 Handbook). But though Herodotus describes the belief 
 correctly, he is perhaps wrong, as Erman thinks, in 
 ascribing it to the Egyptians. In any case, it is held by 
 Brahmans, Buddhists, and Greeks, is found to prevail 
 among certain primitive people, and is even cherished by 
 many individuals in modern civilised countries. The 
 Hindu " feels himself at one with all about him; he 
 thinks that his soul, before animating his body, may 
 have existed in beings of every kind, organic and even 
 inorganic, and believes that, after his death, it will pass 
 into a great variety of bodies " (Reinach). The doctrine 
 was one of the di,stingui.shing marks of the Greek Pvtha- 
 goreans (q.v.). And the Orphics (q.v.) believed that by 
 initiation into the Orphic Mysteries their souls were 
 spared the " cycle of reincarnation." The Romans to 
 some extent borrowed the belief from the Greeks. There 
 are traces of it also among the ancient Celts. The 
 Algonquins believed that the soul of a dead child might 
 enter another mother and be bom again. Natives of 
 Africa and Australia sometimes think that white men 
 are the reincarnations of the .souls of black men. Red- 
 skins, Esquimaux, and Zulus believe that the souls of 
 dead men enter animals. The doctrine of the trans- 
 migration of souls as taught in Europe and America 
 (United States) has naturally changed its character to 
 some extent. " Animals, birds, fish, and reptiles are re- 
 embodied. To deny a spirit to one form of intelligence 
 is to deny it to all forms, man included. The animal 
 re-appears in a series of births, each birth giving to its 
 spirit a new form. Each of these is a slight improve- 
 ment on the last, if the animal is in its wild or natural 
 state. Progression, improvement, and continual change 
 from a coarser to a finer organisation, are not confined 
 to man. . . The spirit of an animal can actuallv be 
 re-embodied in a man or woman, and its prominent 
 character will appear in that man or woman " rPrentice 
 Mulford, The Gift of the Spirit. 1908). See F. J. Gould 
 Concise Hist, of Ttel., vol. i., 1907; Reinach, O. 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION. In instituting the Lord's 
 
 Supper, Jesus said of tie bread, " Take, eat, this is my 
 Body which is given for you," and of the wine, " Drink 
 ye all of this, for this is my Blood of the New Testa- 
 ment." The Council of Trent decreed that in the Lord's 
 Supper or Eucharist there is a " change of the whole 
 substance of the bread into the body, of the whole sub- 
 stance of the wine into the blood [of Christ], only the 
 appearances of bread and wine remaining; which change 
 the Catholic Church most fitly calls transubstantiation." 
 The term " trans-substantiatio " was first used by Hilde- 
 bert. Archbishop of Tours {d. 1134). But some such 
 doctrine was at least as early as Paschasius Radbertus 
 {fi. 844-865). In the eleventh century, Berengarius (c. 
 1000-1088), after attacking those who maintained a carnal 
 presence of the Body and Blood, was forced by Pope 
 Hildebrand to recant (1079), and the terms of his recanta- 
 tion reveal the kind of doctrine that had become current. 
 " The bread and wine placetl upon the altar are, by the 
 mystery of holy prayer and the words of the Redeemer, 
 converted into the true, actual, and life-giving fiesh and 
 blood of our Ix>rd Jesus Christ, and are, after consecra- 
 tion, the true body of Christ which was born of the 
 Virgin, and which hung on the cross an offering for the 
 salvation of the world, not only in the way of a sign 
 and in virtue of a sacrament, but also in propriety of 
 nature and truth of substance." After this the 
 schoolmen, members of the Realist school, set to work 
 to improve the doctrine. Emphasis was laid on the 
 Aristotelian distinction between substance and accident. 
 Essence or substance is that which makes a thing what it 
 is, its inner reality. An accident or quality is that 
 which inheres in substance as its substratum. A sub- 
 stance may remain the same, while its accidents or 
 qualities change. Applying this teaching, it is main- 
 tained that in the Lord's Supper the change in the 
 elements is substantial. The bread and wine are changed 
 substantially into the body and blood of Christ. " In 
 one respect, however, this substantial change differs from 
 all other substantial changes. In other cases, when one 
 substance changes into another, the accidents also change. 
 Here the accidents of bread and wine remain unaltered; 
 and so long as they remain, the body and blood of Christ 
 also remain concealed beneath them " {Catholic Dict- 
 ionary). The doctrine, as thus improved, was in 1215 
 proclaimed by the Fourth Lateran Council, and in 1.551 
 re-affirmed by the Council of Trent. See Prot. Diet.; 
 Cath. Diet., 1905: B. J. Kidd, The Thirty-nine Articles, 
 1906; cp. K. R. Hagenbach. 
 
 TRAPPISTS. A Roman Catholic order, a branch of 
 the Cistercian order. They were so called after the 
 Cistercian monastery of La Trappe in La Perche near 
 S6ez, which was founded in 1140 by Count Rotrou. The 
 order was founded in 1663 bv Armand Jean de Ranc6 
 (1626-1700), titular Abbot of La Trappe, with the idea of 
 reforming the lives of the monks there. The Abbot 
 began by reviving the Strict Observance of the Cistercian 
 order, and proceeded to introduce a still stricter discipline 
 of La Trappe. The most remarkable feature of this 
 discipline was the imposition of silence. The monks 
 were not allowed to speak to one another on any occas- 
 ion. Each monk had manual work assigned to him; 
 the food was vegetarian. The Trappists were expelled 
 from France in 1790. In 1817, however, some of them 
 were again in possession of La Trappe. In 1892 they 
 were reorganized. They now have about sixty monas- 
 teries. See Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet.; Broekhaus. 
 
 TRASKITES. The followers of John Trask. Bom 
 in Somersetshire, about the year 1617, he became a 
 preacher in Ix>ndon. With some difficulty he seems to 
 have taken Holy Orders. He had a loud voice " which 
 indeed had more strength than anything else he
 
 Travel Document, The 
 
 364 
 
 Trinities 
 
 delivered " (Fuller). His followers were enjoined tx> 
 fast; to sell all their possessions and give to the poor; 
 and " to eat their bread with quaking, and to drink their 
 water with trembling." Everything was to be done 
 according to the law of Scripture. A disciple, Hamlet 
 Jackson, led TrasU to carry this principle farther than 
 he thought originally of doing. Thus he regulated the 
 dress and domestic life of his followers, and required 
 them to observe the Sabbath, Saturday, instead of Sun- 
 day. Trask and his wife were in course of time brought 
 before the Star Chamber and reproved by Bishop 
 Andrewes. He was also put in the pillory, while hia 
 wife was imprisoned. The Traskites came in time to be 
 called also Seventh-day Men. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 TRAVEL DOCUMENT, THE. Scholars have given 
 the name •' The Travel Document " to certain sections of 
 the Act« of the Apostles (xvi. 10-17; xx. 5; xxi. 18; xxvii. 
 1: xxviii. 10), which are distinguished from the rest of 
 the book by the fact that the writer speaks of himself 
 as an eye-witness of the things which he records, using 
 the pronoun " We." The section has been called also 
 " The ' We ' Section " or " The Journey Record." See, 
 further, ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. 
 
 TREACLE BIBLE. A popular designation of the 
 Bishops' Bible, published in 15*)8. It was so called on 
 account of a passage in .Jeremiah viii. 22 (" Is there no 
 balm in Gilead? "), which was rendered, " Is there no 
 treacle in Gilead? " 
 
 TREASURE OF MERITS. The Treasure of Merits 
 (Thesaurus Meritorum) is an expression used by Roman 
 Catholics to denote the fund of good works accumulated 
 by Christ and the .saints. The trustee of this fund ia 
 the Pope. See the article INDULGENCES. 
 
 TREASURES, THE SEVEN ROTAL. The Buddhist 
 Ideal king, or king of kings, is represented as being 
 " possessor of the seven royal treasures. One of these 
 is the Wheel (g.v.), the second is the White Elephant 
 (see ELEPHANT, WHITE), the third is the Horse (see 
 HORSE, TREASURE OF THE), the fourth is the Gem 
 (g.v.), the fifth is the Pearl among Women (g.v.). The 
 sixth and seventh are two faithful servants, a Treasurer 
 and an Adviser. 
 
 TREES, SACRED. There is abundant evidence, says 
 Robertson Smith (R.S., p. 18-5), that trees were adored 
 as divine in all parts of the Semitic area. The sacred 
 date-palm was worshipped by the Arabs. " It was 
 adorekl at an annual feast, when it was all hung with 
 fine clothes and women's ornaments." At Mecca there 
 was a tree which is described as a " tree to hang things 
 on." The goddess Al-'Ozza was believed to reside in a 
 sacred acacia. The Syrians, the Phoenicians, and the 
 Oanaanites all seem to have worshipped trees. Without 
 its sacred tree no Canaanite high place was complete. 
 Tree worship was common in Phrygia and Greece. The 
 ancient cj'presses of Heracles at Daphne were believed 
 to have been planted by the god himself. In Babylonian- 
 Assyrian art a " favorite scene was the representation 
 of the semi-divine beings in front of the sacred tree, 
 appearing again in many variations" (Jastrow, Civ., p. 
 421). In the Old Testament we are told that Abraham 
 planted a .sacred tree in Beersheba. " It was under an 
 oak at Shechem that Jacob hid his treasures; it was 
 under an oak that Gideon met the angel of the Lord and 
 there built an altar, and, long before, the mirse of 
 Rebecca was buried at Bethel under an oak " fS. G. 
 Smith, Rel. in the Making, p. 118). The ancient Germans 
 seem to have believed that they were the offspring of their 
 sacred trees. " In the sacred forests, every tree had its 
 genius, which took the form of an owl, a vulture or a 
 wild cat. The guardian spirit of a family inhabited 
 a tree near the dwelling; the gods of the Edda had their 
 
 own sacred tutelary tree, Yggdrasll. He who cuts down 
 a tree destroys a genius " (Reinach, O., p. 13.3). The 
 oak seems to have been the sacred tree of the chief god 
 of the Baltic Slavs. The walnut was also sacred among 
 them. Like the ancient Germans, they had their sacred 
 woods. Sacred trees are found also in .Japan. " In 
 most American stories where we hear of the fifst of men 
 emerging from the imderworld, it is by climbing a tree. 
 This tree also supports the sky, and is so represented in 
 the native t)ooks of the Ma.vas and Nahuas. The Yuru- 
 cares of Bolivia relate that their god Tiri, when he would 
 people the earth with men, cleft a tree, and from the 
 opening came forth the various tribes of the world " 
 (Brinton, p. 151). 
 
 TRIAD SOCIETY. A secret sect in China, known also 
 as Heaven and Earth Society or the Hung League, and 
 said to have been founded in the year ](i74. One of the 
 founders was an ardent student of Taoist occultism. 
 This accounts for the mingling of Buddhist and Tnoist 
 elements in the ritual. The original object of the Society 
 was the extinction of the dynasty, and its members were 
 frequently engaged in rebellions. The ceremonial for 
 initiation, called " Entering the Hung doors," is very 
 complicated. As many as thirty-six oaths are tiiken by 
 the initiate. See S. Couling. 
 
 TRIANGLE. Tlie triangle was used in Christian art 
 to symbolise the Trinity. In the Catacombs, for instance, 
 the equilaterial triangle appears. Sidney Ileal h sug- 
 gests that this was perhaps the earliest symbol of the 
 Trinity. 
 
 TRIMBAK. The three-eyed one, one of the names of 
 the Hindu god Siva. 
 
 TRINE BAPTISM. Trine Baptism Is the designation 
 of the usual form of Christian baptism. Tlio per.son 
 baptized is immersed three times in the water, or is 
 sprinkled with water three times, in the name of the 
 Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Eunoniius, the 
 Arian, introduced bapti.sm by single immersion and 
 rejected the use of the trinitarian formula. 
 
 TRINITARIAN BIBLE SOCIETY. The Trinitarian 
 Bible Society exists " for the circulation of rroiest;int 
 or unoorrupted versions of the Word of Go<l." The 
 British and Foreign Bible Society was formed in 3804. 
 In the early years of its existence three things gave 
 offence to a number of its members. 1. Tlie aid of 
 Unitarians was invited. 2. The meetings were not ofK^ned 
 with prayer. 3. It printed and circulated " For 
 Catholics " what the objectors describe as " erroneous 
 Romish Versions, made by Roman Catholics." The third 
 point in particular led to disruption. Separate Societies 
 were formed in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen. In 
 1861 these were amalgamated into the " National Bible 
 Society of Scotland." In England the objectors agitated 
 for some time for alterations in the jwlicy of the British 
 and Foreign Bible Society. Their etT'orts were not 
 successful, however, and in 1S.S1 they foundefl " The 
 Trinitarian Bible Society." The British and Foreign 
 Bible Society removed the second of the three causes of 
 offence on June the 8th, 18.57, by resolving that their 
 meetings should be opened witli prayer. As regards the 
 third cause of offence, some of the versions objected to 
 have been withdrawn; but versions to which the Trini- 
 tarian Bible Society objects are still jirinted and circu- 
 lated. See the pamphlets and leaflets of the Trinitarian 
 Bible Society. 
 
 TRINITIES. The belief lliat a special sanctity 
 attaches to the number three is widesjircnd. It Is 
 natural therefore to find in many primitive faiths myths, 
 idols, rites, etc., .s)o devised as to reflect and iiicnloate 
 a belief in the triplicate nature of divinity. " Such is
 
 Trinity, Holy 
 
 365 
 
 Trumpets, Sacred 
 
 the caso. and it is easy to quote examples, whether we 
 turn to the Indians of America or the Indians of Hindo- 
 stan, whether we touch on the triads of ancient Egypt or 
 those of the Druids, whether we recall the three Noms 
 of Teutonic mvth or the three Fates of the Hellenes " (D. 
 G. Brinton, R.P.P., p. 121). Dr. Brinton quotes West- 
 cott as saying (Symbolism of Numbtis, p. 7) : " It is 
 impossible to study any single system of worship through- 
 out the world without l)eing struck witii the peculiar 
 I)ersistence of the triple number in regard to Divinity." 
 
 TRINITY, HOLY. The doctrine of the Holy Trinity 
 —the Trinity in Unity, and Unity in Trinity— is one of 
 the profound mysteries of Christian doctrine. It is a 
 doctrine which was formulated by the Church when it 
 became necessary to construct Symbols, Creeds, or Con- 
 fessions. It was one of the fruits of doctrinal develop- 
 ment. Dr. F. C. Conyl)eare thinks that both the name 
 and tie idea of a divine Trinity were derived from an 
 Alexandrine source, " for Philo taught that the divine 
 being or nature is a three-in-one and one-in-three, and 
 two of the persons with which he tills up his formula — 
 namely, the king and father, and the son or Logos — are 
 identical with those which Christian orthodoxy put for- 
 ward in this scheme." In any case, the doctrine was 
 first elaborated in the Creeds. In the Nicene Creed (325 
 A.D.) Jesus Christ is said to be " of the substance (ek 
 tes ousiax) of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, 
 Very God of Very God, begotten, not made, consub- 
 stantial ihomoousion) with the Father." In the Constan- 
 tinopolitan Creed (381 A.D.) He is said to \>e " Begotten 
 of His Father before all worlds, God of God, Light of 
 Light, very God of very God. Begotten, not made, being 
 of one substance (homoousion) with the Father." The 
 Holy Ghost is said to be " Tlie Ix)rd: and the Giver of 
 Life, Who proceedeth from the Father, Who with the 
 Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified. 
 Who spake by the Prophets." The Council of Chalcedon 
 (451 A.D.) confirmed the Creeds of the Councils of Nicaea 
 and Constantinople. The Creed which defined the 
 doctrine of the Holy Trinity most fully was that com- 
 monly called the Creed of St. Athanasius. He was not 
 the author. It seems to have been called after him 
 because it embodied, or was supposed to embody, his 
 teaching. It really belongs to the sixth, seventh, or 
 eighth century. Here the Catholic Faith is said to be 
 this : " That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity 
 in Unity, neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing 
 the substance." We are forbidden by the Otholic 
 Religion to say that there are three Gods or three Lords. 
 There are not three Lords, but one Ix)rd. " And in this 
 Trinity none is afore or after other, none is greater or 
 less than another : but all the three Persons are co-eternal 
 together and co-equal." See The Definitions of the 
 Catholic Faith, and Canons of Discipline, Oxford, 1874; 
 C. A. Heurtley, On Faith and the Creed, 1.S89; Cath. 
 Diet.; F. C. Conybeare, il.M.M. 
 
 TRIPITAKA. " The Three Baskets," tlie designation 
 of the threefold division of the Buddhist Canon. See 
 CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 TRISACRAMENTARIANS. A name given to those 
 Reformers who held that only three sacraments are 
 necessary to salvation — Baptism, Penance, and the 
 Eucharist. 
 
 TRITO-ISAIAH. Chapters IvI.-lxvi. of the Book of 
 Isaiah <(i.r\) have l)een called Trito-Isaiah because they 
 clearly form a group of prophecies different from those 
 of Isaiah (chapters i.-xxxix.) and Deutero-Isaiah 
 (chapters xl.-lv.). I^anguage, style, and historic back- 
 ground are different, and imply a different date and 
 authorship. See ISAIAH, BOOK. 
 
 TRO.IANU. A god Trojanu appears among the deities 
 
 worshipped by the ancient Slavs. He seems to have been 
 a demon who was popularly identified with the Roman 
 Emperor Trajan. 
 
 TRUCE OF GOD. In the Middle Ages the institution 
 called a Truce of God was intended to limit the right of 
 private warfare and to mitigate its violence. Hostilities 
 were to cease during certain solemn or sacred hours. 
 These were from Thursday to Sunday evening every 
 week, the whole seasons of Advent and Lent, and the 
 octaves of certain festivals. " Respect was shovm to 
 Thursday as the day of Christ's ascension; to Friday as 
 that of His Passion; to Saturday because on that day 
 He lay in the grave; and to Sunday because it was the 
 day of His resurrection " (Cath. Diet.). The institution 
 was first proposed in 989 A.D. It was first practised in 
 Aquitaine (after 1027), but afterwards spread throughout 
 France. In 1042 it was introduced in England and Italy. 
 It was discussed at a number of Councils, and was con- 
 firmed by the Second and Third Lateran Councils (1139 
 and 1179). See William Benham; the Cath. Diet. 
 
 TRUE BRITISH CATHOLIC CHURCH, THE. A 
 Church founded at Manchester by Thomas Deacon (1697- 
 1753), one of the Nonjurors (q.v.). In 1733, with the aid 
 of Scotch bishops. Deacon was consecrated a nonjuring 
 bishop. In 1734 he published a " Complete Collection of 
 Devotions, l)oth Public and Private," in two parts. The 
 first part was devoted to the " Public Ofiices of the 
 Church," the second part to a " Method of Daily Private 
 Prayer." The Collection of Devotions is founded upon 
 two principles. 1. That the best method for all Churches 
 and Christians to follow is to lay aside all mo<iern hypo- 
 theses, customs, and private opinions, and to submit to 
 all the doctrines, practices, worship, and discipline, not 
 of any Particular, but of the Ancient and Universal 
 Churci of Christ, from the l>eginning to the end of the 
 fourth century. 2. That the Liturgy in tie Apostolical 
 Constitutions is the most ancient Christian Liturgy 
 extant; that it is perfectly pure and free from interpola- 
 tion; and that the book itself, called the Apostolical Con- 
 stitutions, contains at large the doctrines, laws, and 
 settlements, which the three first and purest ages of the 
 Gospel did with one consent lielieve, ol)ey, and submit to, 
 and that as derived to them from Aiwstolical men : that 
 therefore the said book, where it does not disagree with 
 the tradition of the Primitive Catholic Church (as upon 
 examination it will hardly ever be found to do, but on 
 the contrary may be corroborated thereby, and by the 
 consentient testimony of the holy Fathers of the three 
 first centuries), ought to be received, .submitted to, and 
 allowed its due authority. If these two principles were 
 once put in practice. Deacon believed, a truly Catholic 
 union would be restored among all Christian Churches. 
 " That I may contribute my mite towards so desirable 
 an end, I have here ventured to present the world with 
 what in my humble opinion will be the only means to 
 attain it; which is what some will call a new, but which 
 I presume to recommend to every pious Christian as the 
 oldest, and therefore the best. Collection of Devotions 
 extant in the whole Christian world. This I dare ven- 
 ture to say, because I have omitted no practice or cere- 
 mony that appears to be supported by antiquity, univer- 
 sality, and consent; and because I have taken in all the 
 Devotional part of the Apostolical Constitutions (except 
 a few particulars foreign to the present purpose), at the 
 same time that I have herein included such parts of the 
 Common Prayer Book of the Church of England, as were 
 necessary to complete the design." See Peter Hall, 
 Fragmenta Liturgica, 1848, and the D.N.B. 
 
 TRUMPETS, SACRED. Tlie trumpet figures in 
 Minoan religious worship; large imitation trumpets of 
 clay, with serpents round them, have been discovered
 
 Tsui 'Kalu 
 
 366 
 
 Tunkers 
 
 in a household shrine. The conch-shell served the same 
 purpose. , ^, 
 
 TSUL 'KALU. A deity in the mythology of the 
 Cherokee Indians, a hunter-god. 
 
 TUATHA DE DANANN. A name for the gods of the 
 Irish Celts, meaning " Tribe of the goddess Danu." 
 They were worshipped by the race which drove out the 
 older inhabitants of Ireland. 
 
 TUEBINGEN SCHOOL. A School of theology in 
 Germany of which the real founder was Ferdinand 
 Christian Eaur (1792-1860). In 1835 appeared the famous 
 " Life of Jesus " by David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874), 
 in which the mythical theory was applied rigorously to 
 the gospel history. " The author's method is to apply 
 the principle of inyth to the whole extent of the story 
 of the life of Jesus, to find mythical narratives, or at 
 least embellishments, scattered throughout all its parts " 
 (Strauss). The book caused a sensation, and the author 
 was fiercely attacked. But Strauss's work was apprec- 
 iate<l and defended by his Tuebingen teacher, F. C. 
 Baur, and the critical method was continued and 
 developed by Baur's School. Baur had already published 
 (1831) his essay on the Epistles to the Corinthians, " Die 
 Christuspartei in der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegen- 
 satz des patilinischen und petrinischen Christenthums in 
 der altesten Kirche, der Apostel Petrus in Rom," in 
 which he sought to show that in the early Church there 
 was opiwsition between a Pauline and a Petrine party. 
 This was followed by works on the other books of the 
 New Testament, works which were characterised by what 
 came to be known as " Tendenzkritik " (cp. TENDENCY 
 THEORY). Baur found the New Testament writings to 
 be " products of a definite party movement," and he 
 thought it possible to determine " their place in the his- 
 tory of primitive Christianity by means of their sup- 
 posed dogmatic or ecclesiastical ' Tendem ' " (Pflei- 
 derer). Baur and Strauss were reinforced by Eduard 
 Zeller (1814-1908), Albert Schwegler (1819-18.57), Karl 
 Planck (1819-1880), and Karl Kostlin (1S19-1S94) ; and 
 the Tuebingen School had an organ in the " Theologische 
 Jahrbiicher." Planck and Kostlin, however, tried to 
 correct the extravagances of A. Schwegler. They were 
 followed by Albreclit Ritschl (1822-1889), who carried his 
 corrections so far that, from being a sympathiser, he 
 became an opponent of the School (so in the second 
 edition of his book, " Die Entstehung der altkatholischen 
 Kirche." 1857). Other opponents were G. V. Lechler 
 (1811-1888), B. Weiss (6. 1827), Eduard Reuss (1804-1891), 
 H. Bwald (1803-1875), and Karl Hase (1800-1890). But 
 the Tuebingen School found again able defenders in such 
 scholars as A. Hilgenfeld (182.3-1907). who was editor of 
 "Die Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie " ; 
 Volkmar, author of " Jesus Nazarenus und die erste 
 christliche Zeit " (1882); and Holsten. Hilgenfeld pre- 
 ferred fo speak of his method as " Literarkritik," not as 
 " Tendenzkritik." Other important representatives of 
 the School were Adolf Hausrath (&. 1837), who was also 
 a novelist (George Taylor), and Otto Pfleiderer (h. 1839). 
 An important work by Hausrath was his " Neutesta- 
 mentliche Zeitgeschichte." " As this work is further 
 distinguished by a beauty of style rare in German 
 theologians, it has attracted .attention even among the 
 laity, and contributed much to the diffusion of the results 
 of modem research " (Pfleiderer). Pfleiderer, referring 
 to his own book, " Das Urchristenthum," writes as 
 follows. " In it I have tried to show that the develop- 
 ment of primitive Christianity into the Catholic Church 
 must not be conceived as a continued struggle and 
 gradual reconciliation between Paulinism and Jewish 
 Christianity, as Baur had thought; nor (with Ritschl) 
 as a falling away from the apostolical religion and a 
 
 degeneration of Paulinism; but as the natural evolution 
 of the Christian Hellenism Introduced by Paul, which 
 soon cast off the Pharisaic elements in Paul's doctrines, 
 and developed, on the one hand, in a speculative direct- 
 ion, into the Johannine tJieology of Asia Minor; on the 
 other, in a practical direction, into the Church life of 
 Rome (Epistle of James). But notwithstanding my 
 difference from Baur, both in my general view and in my 
 estimate of individual books (especially the Apocalypse, 
 the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, the Acts and others), 
 I shall never forget how much I, with all our generation, 
 owe to the epoch-making achievements of the great 
 Tubingen Master." See R. W. Mackay, The Tubingen 
 School and Us Antecedents, 1863; Otto Pfleiderer, The 
 Development of Theol.; and Henry S. Nash, Higher 
 Orit. of the N.T. 
 
 TUISCO. A god whose praise was sung, according to 
 Tacitus, by the ancient Germans. He is said to have 
 been "born of the earth." 
 
 TUI TOKBLAU. A Polynesian deity. At Fakaofo, 
 or Bowditch Island, in the Union group, he was wor- 
 shipped during the month of May, when all work was 
 laid aside. The people assembled from the three islands, 
 and prayed for life, health, and an abundant supply of 
 fish and cocoa nuts. 
 
 TULASI. The Tulasi (Ocymum sanctum) is a plant 
 or shrub worshipped by the Hindus. In the first instance 
 it would seem to have owed its worship to its many 
 medicinal properties. Its leaves, which have a sweet 
 aromatic scent, were used to prevent colds, chills, and 
 other complaints. In course of time it became sacred 
 to Vishnu (q-v.), and even came to be identified with the 
 wife of Vishnu or Krishna (q.v.). On the other hand, 
 the Siilagrama stone is regarded as a metamorphosis of 
 Vishnu or Krishna themselves: and every year in some 
 parts of India the Tula.si plant is married to the Sala- 
 grama stone. The plant is to be found in nearly every 
 Hindu household in India; and persons who are well- 
 to-do have one planted in the courtyard of the house in 
 such a position that it is possible to practise ciraim- 
 ambnlation (see CIRCUMAMBULATION). The Tulasi 
 is particularly a woman's deity. Daily the women walk 
 round it, pray to it, or make offerings of flowers and 
 rice to it. " In one village, especially," says Monier- 
 Williams, " I watched a woman who was in the act of 
 walking 108 times round the sacred plant with her right 
 shoulder always turned towards it. Her simple object, 
 no doubt, was to propitiate tlie goddess with a view to 
 securing long life for her husband and gaining a large 
 family of sons for herself." When a man is dying a 
 Tulasi plant is placed near him, or some of its leaves are 
 put on his face and chest. To its medicinal properties 
 was added the power of removing sin and purifying from 
 defilement. See Monier-Williams; B. W. Hopkins; J. 
 A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 TUMBLERS. A nickname given to the American 
 Tunkers ((j.v.) on account of the attitude which they 
 assume when they are being baptised. 
 
 TUNKERS. A religious sect in America. The name 
 is derived from a German word tunken " to dip." As 
 tlie word suggests, the sect originated in Germany. It 
 appeared at the beginning of the eighteenth century in 
 Rhineland and Westphalia. In 1719 the members for 
 the most part removed to America. The Tunkers at first 
 lived a kind of monastic life. They recognize only adult 
 baptism, and this is effected by rrine immersion. They 
 practise the " Lavipedium," that is to say, on special 
 occasions they wash one another's feet. The.v celebrate 
 " Love-feasts " and give one another (members of their 
 own sex) the kiss of charity. They decline to take oaths, 
 and to engage in litigation, politics, or war. They
 
 Tupan 
 
 367 
 
 Ukhat 
 
 anoint the sick with oil, and do not much favour the use 
 of medicine. At first their services resembled those of 
 the Qual£ers (q.v.). Now they have deacons, ministers, 
 and bishops, all of whom are usually unpaid. See J. H. 
 Blunt: Chambers' Encych; and BrocUhaus. 
 
 TUPAN. A deity wor.shipped by many Brazilian 
 tribes. " The Tupan of the Indians of the period imme- 
 diately subsequent to the discovery of Brazil was by no 
 means a beneficent deity, but typified the thunder, or 
 any agency terrible or majestic " (Hastings, Encycl., 
 s.v. Brazil). By the first missionaries in the southern 
 part of Brazil, however, he was identified with God the 
 Father. He hovers over the people in the form of a 
 great bird. 
 
 TURLUPINS. The name by which the Brethren of 
 the Free Spirit (q.r.^ were known in France. 
 
 TURXERITES. The followers of George Turner (d. 
 1821). Turner himself was a follower of Joanna South- 
 oott. See SOUTHCOTTIANS. 
 
 TVASTRI. A figure in Hindu mythologv. corres- 
 ponding to Vulcan. He is represented in the" Vedas as 
 the architect of the universe, and in the PurSnas is re- 
 garded as divine. He carries a club, and has three eyes. 
 
 TWELVE NIGHTS, THE. It is an old Teutonic 
 belief that the souls of the departed dwell in the air, 
 and that sometimes at night they rush through the air 
 in a kind of procession. This happens especially during 
 the Twelve Nights, which fall usuallv between Christmas 
 and Epiphany. Company WILD HUNT. See P. D. 
 Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 TWEXTT-FIVE ARTICLES, THE. A recension of 
 the Thirty-nme Articles, made bv Wesley and adapted 
 to the siM?cial circumstances of his Methodi.<?t Episcopal 
 Church in America. " The Twenty-five Articles, as they 
 ?f^, ca^P*!- ■"■ere adopted by Conference in Baltimore in 
 liS4, with the exception of sxiii., recognizing the inde- 
 pendence of the United States, which was not approved 
 till 1804. They reveal Wesley's precise attitude to the 
 Thirty-nine " ( W. A. Curtis). 
 
 TWENTY-FOUR, THE. A name given to the Old 
 Testament in the Talmudic period. The twelve Minor 
 Prophets are counted as one book. So also are I. and 
 II. Samuel, I. and II. Kings, I. and II. Chronicles, 
 tzra and Nehemiah, respectively. Jerome (Prologus 
 Galeatus) gives an enumeration of twenty-two books 
 This number is obtained by combining Ruth with Judges 
 and Lamentations with Jeremiah. In our English 
 versions the books are counted as thirtv-nine. It should 
 be noted that the number twenty-four corresponds to the 
 number of letters in the Greek alphabet, and twenty-two 
 to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet 
 
 TYPTOLOGICAL SPIRITISM. The early kind of 
 spiritism in which questions and replies were made by 
 means of raps. It is also described as spirit-rapping 
 See SPIRITISM. ^^ ^' 
 
 TTR. The name given to Tiu (q.v.) in Norse 
 mythologv. 
 
 TZAPOTLATENAN. A Mexican deity, a goddess of 
 medicine. She was a deified woman. 
 
 U 
 
 UATCHET. An Egyptian deity, svmbolised by a 
 winged serpent, tutelary goddess of the north of Egypt 
 The Greeks called her Buto, and identified her with Leto 
 When the god Set sought to kill the child Horus. his 
 mother Isis fled with him to Uatchet, who, to escape 
 Set, took the form of a shrew mouse. 
 
 UBBONITES. Ubbonites or better Ubbenites were a 
 body of Anabaptists {q.v.) formed bv Ubbo Philipps of 
 I^uwarden in 1.533. The Ubbonites rejected divorce, and 
 "differed from the rest of the Anabaptists bv denying 
 that the kingdom of Christ was an earthlv kingdom in 
 which the pious were to exterminate the wicked " fSchaff- 
 Herzog). See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 UBIQUITARIANS. A name given to those Lutheran 
 theologians in Germany who maintained that the body 
 of Christ was everj'where (nbique). Others asserted that 
 the body was present in many places (muUipresence) 
 that IS to say, in those places in which he had promised 
 to be. According to this .school, it might be in several 
 placesat the same time. 
 
 UDaSIS. An Indian order of ascetics belonging to 
 the Nanakpanthi or Sikh faith. The order was founded 
 by Sri Chand, younger son of Nanak (founder of the 
 Nanakpanthi sect). They venerate the Granth of 
 Govind Singh, as well as the Adi-Granth of Nanak 
 According to R. V. Russell, " in the Central Provinces 
 
 members of several orders which have branched off from 
 the main Nanakpanthi communitv are known as Udasi '* 
 
 UITZILOPOCHTLI. A Mexican deity, the warrior- 
 god. 
 
 UIXTOCIUATL. A Mexican deity, goddess of salt. 
 
 UKEMOCHI. A deity in Japanese mythology, goddess 
 of food or cereals. 
 
 UKEWALLISTS. A division of the Mennonite Bapt- 
 ists. They derived their name from Uke Walles, 
 a native of Friesland. Uke Walles became associated 
 with one John Lens, and the two together develojied 
 a doctrine which gave offence to the orthotlox Men- 
 nonites. Their teaching was influenced by the belief 
 that there was hope of salvation even for a Judas 
 Iscariot. They were thus in line with a number 
 of modem thinkers who hold the view that Judas, ter- 
 rible as his crime was, was not an ordinary criminal (see 
 De Quincey's theological essays). 
 
 UKHAT. A figure in the Babvlonian Epic of Gil- 
 gamesh (see GILGAMESH EPIC). In Babylonian 
 mythologv- the goddess Ishtar (q.v.) is represented as 
 having in her train the Klzrfiti, Ukhflti, and KharimSti. 
 These are three classes of sacred prostitutes. In the 
 Epic of Gilgamesh, Ishtar sends Ukhat to entice EabanI 
 (q.v.), the divine hero created by the goddess Araru, 
 away from the animals with which he is living. This
 
 Ukko 
 
 368 
 
 Unitarians 
 
 she succeeds in doing. He follows her to Uruk to 
 be a companion to Gilgamesh. 
 
 UKKO. Ukko is the chief deity, or rather the chief 
 of the spirits, worshipped by the Shamans. He is the 
 Heaven-god. See SHAMANISM. 
 
 'UKSIN. The name of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. 
 and are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.), a c-ollection 
 or compilation completed by Kabbi Judah the Holy, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). 'Uksin is the twelfth trac-tate of the sixth 
 group, which is called Tohoroth (" Purifications "). 
 
 ULEMA. Ulema, an Arabic word meaning " learned 
 ones," is used in Muhammadan countries to denote the 
 body of learned men consisting of theologians, doctors of 
 divinity, and lawyers. These are all in one way or 
 another interpreters of the Koran (g.v.). They include 
 the imdms, who are readers of the public prayers in the 
 mosques; the muftis, who are Imrristers and assessors; 
 and the mollas or kddis, who are magistrates. 
 
 ULLR. One of the deities of the ancient Teutons, 
 whose name has been preserved in a number of place- 
 names. The god Ullr was worshipped in Sweden. He 
 was regarded as a stepson of Thor (i-v.) and as one of 
 the .aCsir {q.v.). He is the god of the bow, shield, hunt, 
 etc. People used to gwear by the ring of Ullr. Chante- 
 pie de la Saussaye points out that the identitieation with 
 Holler, the " infemi dominus," is uncertain. See P. D. 
 Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 ULTRAMONTANE. The word Ultramontane is used 
 to designate that party in the Roman Catholic Church 
 which recognizes the Pope's claim to absolute authority 
 over the whole Church of Chri.st, as well as his personal 
 Infallibility. The word means literally " Beyond the 
 Mountains " {i.e., the Alps). Originally it was used by 
 the Italians of the French, the Germans, and others. 
 Then it came to be usetl of the Italians themselves by 
 the northern nations. 
 
 UMA. Uma is one of the names given to Siva {q.v.), 
 the great god of the Hindus. Monier-Williams points 
 out that in Bengal when Uma, the wife of Siva, is wor- 
 shipped as a tyiie of beauty and motherly excellence, she 
 is always regarded as a virgin. Another name for the 
 wife of Siva is Durgfi {q.v.). Durga in a hymn is 
 described as " Umfi, the slayer of demons." See Monier- 
 Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 UMBILICAL CORD. It is noted by D. G. Brinton 
 {R.P.P., p. 194) that various rites and opinions connected* 
 with the umbilical cord are widely prevalent among 
 primitive peoples. " As it united the unborn infant to 
 the life of the mother, it was generally held to retain 
 that power in a mystical .sense. Among the American 
 Indians it was a frequent custom to carry it to a distance 
 and bury it, and it became the duty of the individual, 
 in his later life, to visit alone from time to time that 
 spot, and perform certain ceremonies." Cp. PLACENTA. 
 
 UMBILICANIMI. Another name for the Hesychasts. 
 They were so called because they believed "that if 
 they remained perfectly still in a bent position with 
 their gaze intently fixed in the direction of the navel 
 (Latin umbilicus), they could attain spiritual illumina- 
 tion or the " inner light." 
 
 UMBRELLA. The use of the umbrella as a symbol 
 of sovereignty in Asia prevailed centuries before its 
 adoption by Europeans as a protection against the 
 weather. Among the ancient Eg>'ptians it served to dis- 
 tinguish persons of quality, and among the Assyrians 
 royal personages. The modem state umbrellas of China 
 and Burma have a long history. R. V. Russell and R. 
 
 B. HIra Lai note that " when one of the early Indian 
 monarchs made extensive conquests, the annexed terri- 
 tories were described as being brought under his 
 umbrella; of the king Harsha-Vardhana (C06-648 A.D.) 
 it is recorded that he prosecuted a methodical scheme of 
 conquest with the deliberate object of bringing all India 
 under one umbrella, that is, of constituting it into one 
 state." Over the " Wheel of Light " which symbollsea 
 Buddha in Buddhist architecture is placed an umbrella. 
 Nor is the importance attached to the umbrella peculiar 
 to Orientals. Rajendra Lixl Mitra points out {Indo- 
 Aryans) that " the Greeks used it as a mystic symbol in 
 some of their sacred festivals, and the Romans intro- 
 duced the custom of hanging an umbrella in the basilican 
 churches as a part of the insignia of office of the judge 
 sitting in the basilica." According to W. W. Skeat {The 
 Past at our Doors), from about the year 1717 a " parish " 
 umbrella was used In England by the priest at open-air 
 funerals. Russell and Hira Lai suggest that this eccles- 
 iastical use may have been derived from its employment 
 as a symbol in Italian churches. According to Skeat, 
 some kind of umbrella as a protection against the weather 
 was used in England at least as far back as 1709, though 
 usually Jonas Hanway is said to have been the first 
 person to use an umbrella in the open street (1750.) The 
 Muhammadans associate with the umbrella a sun-symbol 
 {nftdda). The fact that both were carried over the head 
 of a royal personage suggests to Russell and Hira Lai 
 that " the umbrella represents the sky, while the king's 
 head might be considered analogous to the sun." It 
 was part of the principal business of the Dahaits (or 
 Dah.ayat.s), a caste of village watchmen in India, to carry 
 the royal umbrella above the head of the king. See R. 
 V. Russell. 
 
 UMM-ATTAR. A goddess referred to in the Sabaean 
 inscriptions of South Arabia. The name means Mother- 
 Attar (or Mother- Astarte). 
 
 'UMRA, THE. A Muslim pilgrimage of less import- 
 ance than the Hajj {q.v.). It must not be performed on 
 the 8th, 9th, or 10th of Zu'1-Hijja, for these days are 
 claimed for the Hajj. The Prophet him.self is reported 
 to have said : " Join the 'Umra with the Hajj, for truly 
 the joining of both brings a blessing on your days and 
 your possessions, and wipes out your sins and purifies 
 you." The 'Umra " can be performed before or after 
 the great pilgrimage, jointly with or separately from 
 the same. It is not of the same importance or meri- 
 toriousness, nor a duty of the same obligation as the 
 Hajj ; but .still it is a Sunna duty in imitation of the 
 Prophet's example and in obedience to his exhortation." 
 See F. A. Klein. 
 
 UNCTION. See EXTREME UNCTION and ANOINT- 
 ING. 
 
 UNDINES. Paracelsus of Hohenheim (1493-1541), 
 whose writings are full of astrological, cabbalistic, and 
 theosophical ideas, as well as of apolocalyptic and mystic 
 fancies, saw spirits everywhere. Amongst these were 
 female water-siiirits called Undines, who could inter- 
 marry with human beings and in bearing children could 
 themselves receive human souls. 
 
 UNION OF PROTESTANT FRIENDS. A religious 
 body founded in Germany in 1841 by Leberecht Uhlich 
 (1799-1872). The members were also called Friends of 
 Light {q.v.). 
 
 UNION STATEMENT. THE. A Confessional state- 
 ment drawn up in the United States in 190fi A.D. with 
 a view to uniting Congregatlonalists, Methodist Pro- 
 testants, and United Brethren. It has met with wide 
 acceptance. W. A. Curtis speaks of it as bearing the 
 same character as the Commission Creed {q.v.). 
 
 UNITARIANS. It has been claimed with justice that
 
 Unitarians 
 
 369 
 
 Unitarians 
 
 Unitarianisni is older than the Christian Church. The 
 Jews themselves, of course, were Unitarians, and it can 
 liardly be doubted that the Jewish Christians remained 
 such for a long time. No emphasis is laid on Trini- 
 tarianism (see TRINITY) in the writings of the New 
 Testament. The doctrine is one that was develoi>ed 
 gradually by the Church. And it was not accepted with- 
 out protest. Tlie stubborn resistence of Arius, which 
 brought him into conflict with Athanasius. is famous (see 
 ARIANISM). Unitarianism is the more modern form 
 of protest, and it is not identical with that of Arius. In 
 any case, the early movement failed, and a Trinitarian 
 Creed was formulated, which became the authoritative 
 religion of the Christian Church. For some centuries 
 Trinitarianism was too strongly entrenched and too 
 powerfully snivjiorted to be resisted with any hope of 
 success. A change came at the time of the Reformation, 
 not because the Reformers were anti-Trinitarian, but 
 because criticism and Questioning along one line led to 
 criticism and questioning along others. The time was 
 ripe for the birth of Alodem Unitarianism. Among the 
 students who were seized by the ardour of the Reforma- 
 tion was Servetus, the Spaniard. He is commonly re- 
 garded as a Initarian. In some respects he was, but 
 his system has been described by M. Reville as a crude 
 mixture of rationalism, pantheism, materialism, and 
 theosophy. His teaching was so little to the ta.ste of 
 the Reformers that in 1553 he was burned at the instance 
 of John Calvin. More in the line of direct development 
 of Unitarianism were Lielius Socinus and his nephew 
 Faustus Socinus (1539-1604). though Unitarians are not 
 described correctly as Socinians (g.v.). J. W. Chadwick 
 thinks there is no name of which Unitarians have more 
 reason to be proud than that of Socinus, so great a leap 
 did the uncle and nephew of this name make " out of 
 the darkness of the ancient and the mediajval, into the 
 light and beauty of the modem world." But the first 
 organised Unitarian Church arose in lofio in Poland, a 
 country remarkable at that time for its religious liberty, 
 whither Socinus and Georgio Blandrata had fled. " The 
 history of Polish UnitarianLsm is a history of efficient 
 organization, and a success so positive that "it drew upon 
 Itself the arm of persecution with its utmost strength, a 
 decree of e.\pulsion marking the first centennial of 
 Blandrata's arrival in Poland " (Chadwick). From 
 Poland Unitarianism spread to Tran.sylvania. where it 
 met with remarkable success. In IGfiO the Unitarians 
 were driven out of Poland. In Transylvania also great 
 efforts were made to repress them, but though the number 
 of their churches was greatly reduced, they succeeded 
 in maintaining themselves. After 1857 thev began to 
 revive, and they are now growing stronger continuallv. 
 rheir Church government is partly Episcopalian, partly 
 Congregational. In England a number of persons were 
 burned in the sixteenth century for holding views .similar 
 to those of the Unitarians. In 1654 all the anti- 
 trinitarian books of John Biddle (161.5-1602) were ordered 
 to be burned by the common hangman. But in the seven- 
 teenth century such efforts at repression had little chance 
 of success, for the objectionable views were largely shared 
 by such men as John Milton, John Locke, and Sir Isaac 
 Newton. Nevertheless, the first Unitarian Church in 
 England was not established until 1774. Its founder was 
 Theophilus Uindsey (172.3-1808), a clergvman of the 
 Church of England, " one of the holiest of men, one of 
 the gentlest, purest, truest that the world has ever 
 known " (Chadwick). He resigned his living, and 
 started the first Unitarian Church in Es.<9ex Street 
 Strand. The chapel was afterwards removed to Kensing- 
 ton, and the Essex Street establishment was converted 
 into Essex Hall, the headquarters of the British and 
 
 Foreign Unitarian Association. In 1787. under James 
 Freeman (1759-1835). who also had changed his views, 
 King's Chapel. Boston. " the oldest Episcopal Church 
 in New England, became the first Unitarian Church of 
 America " (Schaff-Herzog). In England a great impetus 
 was given to the movement by Joseph Priestley (1733- 
 1804). Priestley, famous both as a man of science and 
 as a theologian, was educated for the presbyterlan 
 ministry, and had charge of various churches. But his 
 views on the inspiration of the Bible and on the doctrines 
 of the Church became very liberal, and in 1791 for these, 
 as well as for liberal views in politics, his house in 
 Birmingham was destroyed bv a mob. In 1794 he 
 emigrated to New York. In Philadelphia he was instru- 
 mental in organising a Unitarian Church. In America 
 nearly all the members of the new Church were drawn 
 from the Congregationalists, just as in England they 
 were from the Presbyterians. Here a great leader arose 
 in the person of William Ellery Channing (1780-1842). 
 Greater as a preacher and a practical reformer than as 
 a theologian, his preaching was " so fervent that about 
 half the churches in Massachusetts accepted Uni- 
 tarianism. and it numbered among its adherents many 
 statesmen, writers, and thinkers, eminent throughout the 
 world " (Brooke Herford). These included Longfellow, 
 Lowell, and Ralph Waldo Emerson (1S03-1S82). At 
 Lexington, Massachusetts, was l)orn Theodore Parker 
 (3810-1860), a leader who had studied well all the philo- 
 sophical and critical literature of the time. J. W. Chad- 
 wick thinks that, compared with the philosophy of 
 Schelling or Fichte, that of Theodore Parker was "as a 
 mountain to a cloud. To him •• God, Immortalitv, the 
 Moral Law were intuitional certainties of irrefragable 
 stability. It was as if he had set aside a public super- 
 natural revelation only to substitute for it a private 
 one in each several mind and heart." He was too out- 
 spoken to please even the Unitarians of his own time, but 
 he is now regarded as one of the chief representatives 
 of modern Unitarianism. In England the greatest 
 modem representative of Unitarianism has l)een James 
 Martineau (1805-1900), a philosopher as well as a 
 theologian. The Unitarians do not impose a creed or 
 dogmatic articles of faith on the members of their con- 
 gregations or on their ministers. Their churches for the 
 most part have free and open trusts. This accounts for 
 considerable differences of belief among them. •• Some 
 Unitarians believe that Jesus Christ wrought miracles: 
 others reject as legendary those parts of the Bible which 
 record such ' wonderful works,' and yet claim to be 
 ' Christians ' ; some pray to their (Jod ' through Christ ' ; 
 others humbly seek direct access to the spirit of their 
 Heavenly Father, and in the most solemn moments of 
 their lives would be 'alone with the Alone'; some call 
 themselves 'Christian Theists,' or simply 'Theists'; 
 others cherLsh a firm faith that a special and peculiar 
 revelation of the will of God was made through an 
 accredited and superaaturally endowed ' Messiah ' " 
 (H. W. Crosskey). It is a principle with all alike that 
 the human intellect must be free to reject what is un- 
 reasonable. And rea.«on requires them, they hold, to 
 believe in one God. who.se one supreme demand of them 
 is a noble life, and in a Kingdom of Heaven the realiza- 
 tion of which is possible In the present life. It requires 
 them to believe in the rise rather than in the fall of man. 
 It requires them above all to believe in the goodness of 
 God. " Parker's great premise, from which flowed forth 
 the sum of his religion, was ' God is ahsoUitely good.' 
 And by that he meant good with the same goodness that 
 man strives after and can admire. For did he not find 
 in all men, and in himself most deeply, a wondrous 
 spiritual 8en.se by which, when the brave, the noble, the
 
 Unitas Fratrum 
 
 370 
 
 Universal Restorationists 
 
 pure, the generous, the holy, was once set before them, 
 they admired and revered, and by which, conversely, 
 when baseness and cowardice, and avarice, and cor- 
 ruption, were truly painted for them, they dissented and 
 abhorred? And how could such sense lie so deeply 
 engrained in man, unless it came to him, an inalienable 
 gift and inheritance, from Him who created man? 
 Parker knew in this way that, whatever more that awful 
 Power which men name God might be, by whatsoever 
 immensity he might transcend the scope of the bounded 
 understanding of mankind, that, at least God must be; 
 he knew that any theology which made God act in such 
 fashion as an enlightened conscience would condemn in 
 the human father of children, capriciously, cruelly, 
 revengefully, must be by that very fact a lie, aud that 
 they who thought to hold off such criticisms by rebuking 
 the man that would dare judge God, quibbled with con- 
 science, and aimed a death-blow at true religion" (R. A. 
 Armstrong). Theodore Parker like<:l to speak of God 
 not only as " Our Father." but also as " Father and 
 Mother " (compare the " Father-mother God " of Christ- 
 ian Scientists). See R. A. Armstrong, Latter Day 
 Teacliers, 18S1 (the quotation is from a reprint for the 
 Theodore Parker Centenary, 1910): J. W. Chadwick. 
 " The Unitarian Church in England and America," in 
 Common-Sense Theology, 1893; Brooke Herford, A Brief 
 Account of Vnltarianism, 1903; Schaft-Herzog; J. H. 
 Blunt: Henrv W. Crosskey, "The Unitarians " in JR.S.W. 
 
 UNITAS FRATRUM. Literally " The Unity of the 
 Brethren." Unitas Fratrum is claimed by the Moravians 
 as the correct and original name of their Church (see 
 MORAVIAN CHURCH). In 1457 remnants of the Calixt- 
 Ines (q.v.) and Taborltes (^.r..- see also HUSSITES) 
 united to form a religious body of Bohemian (and 
 Moravian) Brethren with the name " Unitas Fratrum." 
 The unity was to consist of a brotherhood of Christians 
 of every denomination. This was the beginning of the 
 Moravian Church. See BOHEMIAN BRETHREN. 
 
 UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST. A sect formed 
 in America in 1800 by a German Reformed Lutheran, P. 
 W. Otterbein (1720-1813). Otterbein had gone to America 
 in 1752 to take charge of a congregation at Lancaster 
 in Pennsylvania. He soon conceived the idea of trying 
 to unite members of different sects on a broad religious 
 basis; and congregations, composed of Lutherans, 
 Reformed Lutherans, Mennonites, and Methodists were 
 formed in several States. Otterbein was then appointed 
 Superintendent. In course of time the original freedom 
 as regards doctrine and rites had to be restricted, and 
 " the subsequent form into which the sect settled was 
 very similar to that of the Moravians " (J. H. Blunt). 
 See J. H. Blunt; Brockhaus. 
 
 UNITED GREEKS. A name used to include " all who 
 follow the Greek rite and, at the same time, acknowledge 
 the authority of the Pope — i.e., the United Melchites in 
 the East: the Ruthenian Catholics, who use the Greek 
 liturgy in a Slavonic version; the Greek Catholics of 
 Italy; and the Catholics of the Greco-Roumaic rite in 
 Hungary and Sil)enburgen " (Cath. Diet.). 
 
 UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. A body formed 
 in 1847 by the union of two other bodies, the " Associate 
 Presbytery " or " Secession Kirk " and the " Relief 
 Church," which had seceded from the Church of Scot- 
 land. See PRESBYTERIANS. 
 
 UNITED SOCIETY OF BELIEVERS, THE. Another 
 name for the Shakers (q.v.). 
 
 UNITY OF CHRISTENDOM. ASSOCIATION FOR 
 THE PROMOTION OF THE. An As.sociation founded 
 in 1857. At first the members were drawn from the 
 Church of Rome and the Greek Church as well as from 
 the Church of England, but after a few years the Pope 
 
 required the Roman Catholic members to withdraw. 
 " The members are required to pray daily for the restora- 
 tion of visible unity between the Church of England, the 
 Church of Rome, and the Eastern Churches, while the 
 clergy are required to offer the ' Holy Sacrifice ' at least 
 once in three months for the ' intention ' of the Associa- 
 tion " (Walsh). See Walter Walsh, " Ritualistic Secret 
 Societies," Prot. Diet. 
 
 UNIVERSAL COMMUNITY OF CHRISTIAN BRO- 
 THERHOOD. A name assumed by the religious com- 
 munity which is commonly known as the Doukhob6rs 
 (q.v.). 
 
 UNIVERSALISM. Universalism claims " that all 
 .souls will finally be saved, that evil is temporary, that 
 good is permanent, and will achieve a complete and per- 
 fect triumph in the divine economy " (Schaff-Herzog). 
 It claims to be ba.sed on the two fundamental principles 
 of Christianity: (1) the parental love of God: (2) the 
 solidarity of mankind, a mankind which is to be con- 
 formed to the image of the Son of God. God is infinite, 
 eternal, and unchangeable; and man, the child of God, 
 was made in His image and likeness. The Universalist 
 " sees tlie whole creation in one vast, resistless move- 
 ment, sweeping towards the grand finality of universal 
 holiness and universal love " (Schaff-Herzog). A 
 di.'sciple of what has been called the Larger Hope, he 
 protests vehemently against the doctrine of Eternal 
 Puni.shment. God is love. " The terms are equivalent. 
 They can be interchanged. God is not anger though He 
 can be angry, God is not vengeance though He does 
 avenge. These are attributes, love is essence. There- 
 fore, God is unchangeably love. Therefore, in .iudgment 
 He is love, in vengeance He is love — ' love first, and last, 
 and midst, and without end.' But in fact the traditional 
 creed knows nothing of what love really is. For love Is 
 simply the strongest thing in the universe, the most 
 awful, the most inexorable, while the most tender. 
 Further, when love is thus seen in its true colours, there 
 is less than ever an excuse for the mistake .still so 
 common, which virtually places at the centre of our 
 moral system sin and not grace. This it is which the 
 traditional dualism has for centuries been doing, and is 
 still doing. Doubtless retribution is a most vital truth. 
 Universalists rejoice to admit it ; nay, largely to base 
 on it their system ; but there is a greater truth — ^which 
 controls, and dominates the whole, the truth of Love. 
 We must not, in common phrase, put the theological cart 
 before the horse. Retribution must not come first, while 
 love brings up the rear: nor must we put the idea of pro- 
 bation before that of God's education of His human 
 family. In a word, to arrive at truth is hopeless, so long 
 as men virtually believe in a quasi-trinity — God and the 
 Devil, and the Will of Man." So writes a modern 
 Universalist (Thomas Allin). Universalism as a 
 denominational creetl was preached first by .James Relly 
 (17227-1778). Originally one of Whitefield's preachers, 
 about 17f)l he became a Universalist. One of his disciples 
 was John Murray (1741-1815), who in 1770 went to 
 America and. after preaching in various places for some 
 years, established a number of churches in the New Eng- 
 land and Middle States. .\ famous American Univer- 
 salist was Hosea Ballou (1771-1852), but his views differed 
 considerably from tho.se of John Murray. In course of 
 time Universalism made great progress in the United 
 States, and the Universalists became a ix>werful 
 denomination. See Schaff-Herzog; Chamhers's EneycL: 
 Thomas Allin, Universalism Anserted as the Hope of the 
 Gospel. 9th ed.. 1905. 
 
 UNIVBRSALISTIC HEDONISM. See HEDONISM. 
 
 UNIVERSAL RESTORATIONISTS. Another name 
 for the American Restorationists (q.v.).
 
 Unkulunkulu 
 
 371 
 
 Uxellimus 
 
 rXKULUNKULU. A term (meaning " the old, old 
 one '■) used among the Kaffirs to denote a mystic potency 
 in things. The conception seems to be that of a force, 
 Jilie the Melanesian mana, and not of a personal being. 
 
 UNNIS. Unni in Travancore, Southern India, is a 
 title common to four castes of the Ambalavasi group : 
 the Pushpakans, Bnihmanis, Tiyattunnis, and Nattu 
 Pattars. The Pushpalsans prepare flower garlands for 
 use in the temples, and assist to prepare materials for 
 the daily offering. The Brahmanis (also called Pappinis) 
 are so called because they perform for the Siidra popula- 
 tion of Travancore some of the priestly functions of the 
 Brahmans. The word Tiyattn seems to be a corruption 
 of Daivamattu, which denotes dancing to please the 
 deity. This would explain the name Tiyattunnis. The 
 Nattu Pattars (also known as Pattar Unnis and Karap- 
 puram Unnis) are said to be mostly agriculturists. The 
 Brahmanis and Tiyattunnis .show a partiality for the 
 deity Bhadrakali. See E. Thurston. 
 
 UPAXISHADS. The Upanishads are a class of litera- 
 ture held in sacred esteem by the Hindus. They are 
 tractates containing the oldest philosophical speculations 
 of the Indians, and are based upon the Vedas, being 
 intended to supplement them. E. W. Hopkins says 
 '"it is known that the Uisanishads, as a whole, i.e., the 
 literary form and philosophical material which char- 
 acterize Upanishads, were earlier than the latest 
 Brahmanic period and subsequent to the early Brahmanic 
 I)eriod; that they arose at the close of the latter and 
 before the rise of the former." See Monier-Williams; 
 E. W. Hopkins: J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 URBANENSES. A small sect of Donatists (q.v.) in 
 Numidia mentioned by St. Augustine. 
 
 URBANISTS. A branch of the Franciscan order Poor 
 Clares (q.v.). 
 
 URDHR. One of the three Norns or fates in Norse 
 mythology. She had a fountain at the foot of the ash 
 yggdrasil, the waters of which had wonderful power to 
 purify. 
 
 URDHVABaHUS. Literally " Up-arms." An order 
 of Hindu ascetics, worshippers of Siva (q.v.). They are 
 so called because they raise one or both arms over the 
 head and keep them raised for years. Monier-Williams 
 saw one of these ascetics who.se arm " was quite withered, 
 and his fist was so tightly clenched that the nails were 
 growing through the back of his hand." See Monier- 
 Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 URIEN. Urien is represented sometimes as a god of 
 the ancient Britons corresiwnding to the god Brftn. 
 
 URSULINES. An order founded by Angela Merici 
 (1470-1540) in 1.537 with the object of instructing young 
 girls and nursing the sick. The members, the "Com- 
 pany of St. Ursula," met at first in the kitchen of 
 Angela's house, and it was not her wish to impose strict 
 conventual rules. In 1544 the Order was confirmed by 
 Pope Paul III. Soon afterwards a uniform costume was 
 
 introduced. " They wear a black dress bound by a 
 leathern girdle, and a black cloak without sleeves, and 
 a tight-fitting fabric about the head, with a white veil 
 and a longer black veil " (Schaff-Herzog). In 1594, by 
 the help of Frangoise de Bermont, they were introduced 
 into France: and in 1010 a monastery for Ursulines was 
 established at Paris. This meant a change in their mode 
 of life. Pope Paul V. made the order subject to the rule 
 of St. Austin. These nuns, •' religious " Ursulines, 
 '■ were to be strictly enclosed: they were to take solemn 
 vows; and were to add a fourth, that of instructing the 
 young" (Cath. Diet.). But others, "congregated" 
 Ursulines {Ursulines conyrigiies). were unwilling to 
 abandon the mode of life intended by St. Angela. In 
 l(i39 the Order was introduced into Canada, where in lfiS2 
 it was affiliated to the congregation of Paris. The 
 Ursulines have a number of houses in Ireland and Eng- 
 land. See Schaff-Herzog: the Cdth. Diet. 
 
 USHEBTI. A term used in Egyptian religion. The 
 Ushebtis were small statuettes in the form of mummies. 
 They were inscribed with magic formula?, and placed in 
 the tombs. It was believed that they would come to 
 life in the other world and work in the fields of Aalu 
 for him in whose tomb they had been placed. Originally, 
 ir would seem, a man's servants were sacrificed at 
 his tomb that they might accompany him. The use 
 of Ushebtis was an improvement on this practice. 
 Erman mentions that " in some cases the deceased 
 had 305 ushebtis, so that each of these little men served 
 him for one day in each year." See A. Wiedemann; 
 Adolf Erman, Handbook. 
 
 UTILITARIANISM. Modern Utilitarianism is asso- 
 ciated with the names of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and 
 J. S. Mill (180C-1873). Bentham was the author of the 
 phrase " the greatest, happiness of the greatest number." 
 He held that the true and proper aim of life is Pleasure 
 or Hai)piness or Utility. But the Utilitarianism of Ben- 
 tham and Mill differs from the utilitarianism of the 
 ancient Epicureans (see EPICUREANISM) in being 
 social and universalistic. The happiness that is to be 
 sought is not merely that of self, but also of others. 
 
 UTNAPISHTIM. Utnapishtim or Parnapishtim is the 
 hero of the Babylonian Deluge-storv. See DELUGE- 
 STORY, BABYLONIAN, and GILGAMESH EPIC. 
 
 UTO. An Egyptian deity. Uto, who has the form of 
 a serpent, is more commonly called Buto (q.v.). Her 
 city was Buto. See Adolf Erman, Handbook. 
 
 UTRAQUISTS. The term is derived from the Latin 
 words sub utrdque specie, " in each kind," and has been 
 used to describe tho.se who claim that in the Holy 
 Eucharist the laity .should receive the cup as well as the 
 bread, (p.r/.. CALIXTINES [q.v.]). 
 
 UXELLIMUS. Uxellimus, " the highest," was one of 
 the names given by the ancient Celts to a god who cor- 
 responded to the Roman Jupiter.
 
 Vac 
 
 372 
 
 Valentinians 
 
 V 
 
 VAC. In Hinduism Vac appears as the name of a 
 female divine being. It is in fact one of tlie names for 
 the female side of the god Brahma, in addition to Savriti 
 or Sarasvati. It appears in one of the hymns of the 
 Rig Veda. Since Vac means " speech " or " word," the 
 application of this name Vac has been compared with 
 that of the Greek Logos. " In the Brahma nic period 
 Vac becomes more and more like the Greek Logos, and 
 it may truthfully be said that in this period ' the Word 
 was God ' " (Hopkins). Hopkins ijoints out. however, 
 that Vac — ^the word itself is feminine — is simply one of 
 many female abstractions. See E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 VADA GODS AND SHRINES. The Vadas are a caste 
 of sea fishermen on the coast of Ganjam and Vizaga- 
 patam, Southern India. They make clay figures of their 
 gods and put them in shrines. " Separate families 
 api)ear to have sejjarate shrines, some consisting of large 
 chatties (earthern pots), occasionally ornamented, and 
 turned upside down, with an opening on one side. Others 
 are made of brick and chunam (lime). All that I have 
 seen had their opening towards the sea. Two classes of 
 figures are placed in these shrines, viz., clay figures of 
 gods, which are worshipped before fishing expeditions, 
 and when there is danger from a particular disease 
 which they prevent; and wooden figures of deceased rela- 
 tions, which are quite as imaginative as the clay figures. 
 Figures of gods and relations are placed in the same 
 family shrine " (H. D'A. C. Reilly, quoted by E. Thurston 
 and K. Rangachari). The chief sea goddess of the Vadas 
 is said to be Orusandiamma, who is represented with four 
 arms. She has a brother, Ramasondi, who rides an 
 elephant. Marulupolamma, another sea-goddess, " is 
 housed in a small shed made of date palm leaves" 
 (Thurston). The goddess BGlokamma is worshipped at 
 the burial-ground. The goddess Kalimukkamma " is 
 represented by a paper or wooden mask painted black, 
 with protruding tongue," and has for her shrine a low 
 hut made of straw. She has a brother Baithari. Other 
 goddesses are Peddamma or Polamma, Maridiamma, 
 Samalamma, who is associated with a god Bengali Babu, 
 represented as wearing a bat and riding on a black horse, 
 Rfijamma, a goddess, represented as carrying a sword 
 and riding on a black elephant, Yerenamma, a goddess, 
 represented as carrying a sword and riding on a white 
 horse, Bhagirathamma, represented as having eight or 
 twelve hands and as riding on an elephant, and Koralu 
 Sakthi. See B. Thurston. 
 
 VADIANI. The Audlani (q.v.) are referred to by 
 Augustine as the Vadiani. 
 
 VAGANTES. " Clerici vagantes " was the name given 
 to ordained clerks who roamed about in search of 
 employment. It was forbidden by a canon of the Council 
 of Chaleedon (4^\ A.D.) to confer an " ordinatio absoluta 
 sive vaga " without any " titulus ordinationis." Never- 
 theless, the evil continued, and there were many " clerici 
 aeephali " or " clerks without head," that is to say, 
 " missionary bishops and priests who recognized no 
 jurisdiction or any settled authority, but hung loose on 
 
 the Christian community " (Sehaff-Herzog). It was 
 finally enacted that a bishop who ordained a clcvk with- 
 out giving him an ofiice must support him at his own 
 table. See Sehaff-Herzog. 
 
 VAIKUNTHA. Vaikuntha is one of the paradises or 
 heavens of the Hindus. It; is the heaven of Vishun {(j.v.). 
 The heaven of Siva (9. v.) is Kailasa; that of Krishna 
 {q.v.) is Go-loka. To Vaikuntha the faithful followers 
 of Vishnu are transported. " It is above Kailu.sa, and 
 occupies a most charming site; hence tlie name 
 Vaikuntha, signifying ' Pleasant.' Gold and iirocious 
 objects of all sorts sparkle on every side. In the midst 
 of this enchanting abode rises a superb palace inhabited 
 by Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi ; close to them are Prad- 
 yumna, their eldest eon. and a host of other children. 
 . . . In this abode, as in the rest, there are flowers, 
 trees, quadrui^eds, birds, and especially i)eacocks in great 
 numbers " (Dubois and Beauchamp). See Monier- 
 Williams: J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 VALDENSES. Another name for the Waldenses 
 (q.v.). 
 
 VALENTINIANS. The followers of the Egyptian 
 Gnostic Valentinus (d. c. 100). Valentinus went from 
 Alexandria to Rome alwut 140 A.D. By 200 A.D. his 
 followers seem to have become very numerous. His 
 theolog.v or philosophy is full of symbol i.sni. The 
 original, invisible, and ineffable Existence is a self- 
 existent Abyss, Butho.f, whose consort is Silence, Siq^. 
 Buthos and Sig6 give birth to Mind, Nous, who is a being 
 like the Supreme Buthos, and to his con.sort Tnilh, 
 Aletheia. These four form a tetrad of leons. Mind and 
 Truth give birth to Word, Lor/os, and his consort, Ijife. 
 ZOc. Word and Life give birth to Man, Anthropos. and 
 his consort, the Church, Ecclesia. These together form 
 an ogdoad of asons. Word and Life further give birth 
 to five other pairs, and Man and Church to six other 
 pairs. This completes a Pleroma of thirty icons, an 
 Ogdoad, a Decad, and a Dodecad. The Ogdoad consists 
 of higher leons. Wisdom, Sophia, one of the two last 
 .-eons in the Dodecad (the other being Will, Thrlftos), is 
 seized by an irregular passion to know the Father, the 
 Abyss. She is stopped by the i^oxx Horos, the Boundary 
 set round the Pleroma. But she has already conceived 
 an illegitimate being through her contact with Chaos. 
 This is called Hachnmoth, the Desire of Wisdom (Hebrew 
 chokhmah, "wisdom"). To introduce order and har- 
 mony into the Pleroma, Mind and Truth, the second 
 pair of ;pons, now produce a sixteenth pair, Clirist and 
 the Holy Spirit. After this all the teons combine to 
 produce a tliirty-third apon, .lesivs, the Saviour. Thix>ugh 
 the sending to Hachamoth of, first, the Christ, and 
 secondly Jesus, three kinds of substance aro.se in the 
 universe, material inanimate substance (hnlikr), 7>sychic 
 animate substance (psiichikc), and pneumatic or spiritual 
 substance ipneumatike). This is the world of the 
 Kenoma. Hachamoth, expelled from the Pleroma, forms 
 the Demlurgos out of psychic animate substance. The 
 Demiurgos, without knowing it, makes the universe an
 
 Valesians 
 
 373 
 
 Varuna 
 
 inferior copy of the Pleroma. He creates mankind, 
 material and psyciiic. Some of these, through Hacha- 
 nioth, catch a spark of the spiritual substance, aud become 
 superior or spiritual men. The spiritual men do not 
 need to be saved : the material men cannot be saved. The 
 psychic men can be saved if they are heljied. " The 
 scheme of Redemption is intended for them. Tlie 
 Redeemer is formed of four elements. The first, with- 
 out being actually material, has the semblance of matter; 
 the semblance is sufticient, as matter does not need salva- 
 tion. The second element is ps.vchic, the third pneu- 
 matic, the fourth divine : this is Jesus, the last npon. 
 These three last elements then proceed respectively from 
 the Demiurge, Hachamoth. and from the Pleroma. The 
 jpon Jesus did not, however, descend into the Redeemer 
 until the moment of his baptism : at the moment of his 
 being brought before Pilate, he returned to the Pleroma, 
 taking with him the pneumatic or spiritual element, and 
 leaving the ps.vchic element, clothed with his material 
 semblance, to suffer " (Duchesne). P'inally Hachamoth 
 and the spiritual men will pass into the Pleroma. The 
 Demiurgos and the best of the ps.vchic men will follow. 
 See R. A. Lijisius, Valentinus und seine Schule, 1887: J. 
 H. Blunt: Louis Duchesne, Hist.: Max B. Weinstein, 
 Welt- und Leben-Anschauunyen, 1930. 
 
 VALESIANS. A sect mentioned by Epiphanius 
 (Hares. Iviii) and other early writers. They are said 
 to have held Gnostic views. One of their practices was 
 to mutilate themselves. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 VALHALLA. Another form of the term Walhalla 
 (Q-v.). 
 
 VALI. One of the gods of the .\ncient Teutons. Vail, 
 who is called also Ali and Bous. is represented as the 
 son of Wodan <g.v.). In the myth of Balder (q.v.) Vali 
 avenges Balder, w^ho is his brother. With Vidharr 
 (Q.v.) he is one of the survivors in the final world- 
 catastrophe. See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. 
 of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 VALKYRIE. A name in Teutonic mythology for 
 warrior women who waited on the heroes of Valhalla. 
 Their niler was the goddess Freyja. They were 
 symtwlized by swans, which were in fact supposed to be 
 transformed Valkvries. 
 
 VALLABHACHARYA SECT. A Vishnuite sect in 
 India, founded by Vallabha (b. A.D. 1479), after whom 
 the members are called also Vallabhas (q.v.). Another 
 name for the order is Vishnu-Swami. 
 
 VALLABHAS. The followers of the Hindu religious 
 teacher. Vallabha or Vallabh.ndarya, " Teacher Val- 
 labha." Vallabha is said to have been bom about A.D. 
 1479. He is said to have shown great precocity at the 
 age of seven, and at the age of twelve to have formulated 
 a new form of the Vaishnava creed. He travelled for 
 some years, and then settled in Benares. Here he com- 
 posed a number of works, including a commentary on 
 the Bh.^gavata-purana. He disapproved of fasting and 
 self-mortilication. The body ought to be reverenced and 
 fostered because the soul contained in it is a portion of 
 the Supreme Soul. This doctrine expo.sed him to the 
 charge of Epicureanism. His creed has been called 
 Pushti-mSrga, " the way of eating, drinking, and en.ioy- 
 ing oneself." Vallabha taught, or professed to teach, a 
 pure non-duality : individual human .spirits are like 
 sparks from the Supreme Spirit; in essence the two are 
 identical. His teaching in general lent itself to abuse. 
 His successors acquired such power and renown that 
 they received the title Maharajas. " great kings." The.v 
 have indulged in great luxury and sensuality. Men and 
 women do homage to them as representatives, or incarna- 
 tions, of Krishna. They devour the leavings of their 
 food and the dust on which they have trodden. They 
 
 drink the water in which their feet have been washed. 
 In a peculiar rite called Self-devotion, they make over 
 to Krishna's vicars upon earth body, soul, and property^ 
 " and women are taught to believe that highest bliss will 
 be secured to themselves and their families by the 
 caresses of Krishna's representatives " (Monier-Wil- 
 liams). See Monier- Williams; B. W. Hopkins. 
 
 VALMIKI. A saint (also calle<l Balmik or Bfilnek), 
 the reputed author of the Ramayana, worshipfied by the 
 Mehtars, the caste of sweepers and scavengers in India. 
 Vulmiki was originally a hunter called Ratnakar. 
 
 VALLUVANS. A Hindu caste, the members of which 
 are described as the priests of the Paraivans and Pallans. 
 
 VAM-MaRGI SECT. Also known as Bam-Margi, and 
 Vama-Chari. An Indian sect which worships the female 
 principle in nature (the female energy being known as 
 Sakti). The membership of tlie sect is kept secret as 
 far as possible. " Among the VSm-Margis both men and 
 women are said to as.^emhle at a secret meeting-place, 
 and their rite con.sists in the adoration of a naked woman 
 who stands in the centre of the room with a drawn eword 
 in her hand. The worshippers then eat fish, meat and 
 grain, and drink liquor, and thereafter indulge in 
 promiscuous debauchery " (R. V. Russell and R. B. Hlra 
 Lai). They are said to worship in their houses a figure 
 of the double triangle drawn on the ground or on a metal 
 plate. See R. V. Russell. 
 
 VANAHBIM. Vanaheim would seem to have been one 
 of the nine worlds in the cosmogony of the Ancient 
 Teutons. 
 
 VANAPRASTHA. In the religion of the Hindus the 
 Vanaprastha is the anchorite. The life of an anchorite, 
 according to Manu, is one of the four stages in the life 
 of a good Brahman. The Vanaprastha has been treated 
 with the greatest respect. By repressing the animal 
 passions, by mortifying the flesh, and by practising medi- 
 tation, they .strove to gain perfect wisdom and purity. 
 They rejected the claims of caste and wealth, rank and 
 honours, land and women, cold and heat, wind and rain, 
 pain and sickness. By meditating for a long time every 
 day they sought to attain complete and blessed union 
 with the Divine Being. When the Vanaprasthas died 
 their bodies were burned in order that the purification of 
 their .souls might be completed by fire. See Monier- 
 Williams; J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 VANIR, THE. A group of ancient Teutonic deities. 
 It consists of a ma.sculine deity Njordhr corresponding 
 to a feminine deity Nerthus, and a masculine deity Freyr 
 corresponding to a feminine deity Freyja. They seem 
 to have been the gods of the Ingaevonic peoples, and to 
 have passed from their home, the Isle of Seeland, to 
 Sweden and then to Norway. Mythology tells of a great 
 war between the Vanir and the JCsir (q.v.), in which the 
 Vanir were victorious. In one account Gullveig, also 
 called Heidhr, " the sorceress," appears as queen of the 
 Vanir. This Gullveig .seems to be identical with Fre.v.ia 
 (q.v.). Chantepie de la Saussa.ve thinks the war between 
 the Vanir and the JSsir cannot be explained as a nature- 
 myth, but points to an ethnic difference between the two. 
 See P. D. Chantepie de la .Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 
 1902. 
 
 VANISTS. A name given by Richard Baxter (1615- 
 lfi91) to the Antinomians in New England, t)ecause he 
 thought they were disciples of Sir Henry Vane (1613-1662), 
 who was Governor of Massachusetts from 16.36 to 1637. 
 Vane was a religious enthusiast, and in Massachusetts 
 came under the influence of Anne Hutchinson (1590?-1643), 
 who preached against the Massachusetts clergy. Ann 
 Hutchinson was tried for heresy in 1637, condemned, and 
 banished from the colony. 
 VARUNA. One of the chief deities in Hinduism..
 
 Varuni 
 
 374 
 
 Vendidad 
 
 Vanina is one of the forms of the Sun. In a hymn to 
 Vanma from the Atharva-veda, as given by Monier- 
 Williams, it is said: "The mighty Varuna, who rules 
 above looks down upon these worlds, his kingdom, as 
 if close at hand. . . Whate'er exists within this earth, 
 and all within the sky, yea, all that is beyond, king 
 Varuna perceives." Varuna appears In turn as a rain- 
 god a day-god, and a night-god. In the early Rig Veda 
 " he is the covering sky united with the sun, or he whose 
 covering is rain and dew " (Hopkins). Hopkins thinks 
 that at the time when the Vedic Aryans became Hindus, 
 Varuna may have been the great god that he appears in 
 the great hymn of the first book of the Eig Veda com- 
 posed in hi.s honour, but beyond this iieriod " lies one 
 in which Varuna was by no means a monotheistic deity, 
 nor even the greatest divinity among the gods." See 
 Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 VARUNI. A deity in Hindu mythology, the goddess 
 of wine. She was held to be the consort of Varuna. 
 See above. 
 
 VaSUDEVA. Vasudeva is the name or form under 
 which the Bhaktas (q.v.) worship the great Hindu deity 
 Vishnu (q.v.). He is represented as being the father of 
 Krishna (q.v.), who was one of the incarnations of 
 Vishnu. Hopkins quotes a model prayer from the Vishnu 
 Purana, which runs: "Glory to Vfisudeva, him of per- 
 fected wisdom, whose unrevealed form is (known as) 
 Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva." See Monier-Williams; E. 
 W. Hopkins. 
 
 VATICAN, THE. The Vatican comprises a group of 
 buildings in Rome on the right bank of the Tiber and 
 on the Vatican Hill. The Palace, built by Pope Sym- 
 machus (498-514), rebuilt by Innocent III. (U98-121(i), and 
 continuallv enlarged from the time of Nicholas III. (1277- 
 1281), has for centuries been the chief residence of the 
 Pope. The Sistine Chapel, built by Bacio Pintelli for 
 Sixtus IV. (1471-1484) in 1473, is adorned by the work 
 of Michael Angelo and Raphael. The Vatican Library 
 contains priceless treasures. Biblical, Classical and 
 Literary. See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 VATICAN COUNCIL. The Vatican Council was a 
 General Council which met on the Sth of December, 18G9. 
 and was prorogued on the 20th of October, 1870. It was 
 not dissolved, and consequently, as a Roman Catholic 
 writer says, it is not .vet concluded (Cath. Diet.). The 
 Council defined the dogma of Papal Infallibility, and the 
 Pope (Pius IX.) confirmed the decree. Other important 
 matters were discussed, such as Discipline, and the 
 preparation of a Short Catechism. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 VAUD CANTON, FREE CHURCH OF THE. The 
 Free Church of the Vaud Canton in Switzerland was 
 founded in 1845, as a protest agaiu.st the high-handed 
 measures of the Established Church. See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 VAUDOIS. Another name for the Waldenses (q.v.). 
 
 VAYANIS. A section of the Mndigas in Southern 
 India. The Vayanis (also known as Vayinis, Vaguniyans, 
 or Parvinis) " play on a single-stringed mandoline, and 
 go about from village to village, singing the praises of 
 the village goddesses " (Thurston and Rangaehari). 
 
 VAYU. One of the nature-gods of the Vedic Ar.vans. 
 Vayu, the wind, is associated closely with Indra (q.v.), 
 the Rain-god. In the cosmogony of Manu, vayu, air, was 
 the second of the five elements created. See Monier- 
 Williams. 
 
 VEDANTISM. The Vedanta .school of Brahmanism 
 is a metaphysical school which was founded by the great 
 teacher Sahkara who lived at about the beginning of the 
 eighth century A.D. According to Vedantism, all that 
 really exi.sts is the One Spirit, Atma or Brahma. The 
 Ego is really one with the infinite eternal Being. All 
 
 else is Maya or Illusion. " In other words, the separate 
 existence of man's spirit and of all natural phenomena 
 is only illusory " (Monier-Williams). This being so, one 
 who is seeking union with the One Spirit or true happi- 
 ness will strive to escape from Illusion. •' True wisdom 
 consists in obtaining deliverance from this illusion by 
 diligent contemplation of Self, by persuading oneself that 
 one is the unique, eternal, and infinite Being, and so 
 forth, without allowing one's attention to be diverted 
 from this truth by the effects of Mam" (Dubois and 
 Beauchamp). The soul is hindered from enjoying union 
 with the One Spirit by a belief in matter, which is really 
 an illusion. See Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins; J. 
 A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp; Max B. Weinstein, 
 Welt- und Lehen-AnscJtauungen, 1910. 
 
 VBDISM. Vedism is that form of Indian religion 
 represented by the Veda, a compilation of songs, 
 prayers, etc. The authors of these compositions are 
 supposed to have been inspired men or Rishis. At this 
 stage the powers worshipped were the forces of Nature 
 (Sun, Fire, etc.). The hymns, which belong to different 
 dates, the earliest going back perhaps to the fifteenth 
 century B.C., are arranged in three principal collections 
 or Vedas. (1) The Rig-veda is a collection of hymns for 
 devotional recitation. (2) The Yajur-veda is a liturgical 
 collection of hymns for sacrificial ceremonies. (3) The 
 Sama-veda is a liturgical collection of hymns for special 
 sacrificial ceremonies (Soma). (4) The Atharva-veda is 
 a collection of later hymns composed by the Atharvans, a 
 special class of priests. This Veda came to be used in 
 magic. " It is a sort of conjuring book, professing to 
 teach the magic art of injuring by means of spells and 
 enchantments " (Dubois and Beauchamp). See Monier- 
 Williams; E. W. Hopkins; J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beau- 
 champ: J. C. Oman, Cults; Reinach, 0. 
 
 VEHICLES, THE THREE. Triyana, or " the three 
 vehicles," is a term used by the Tibetans in reference 
 to three schools or kinds of Buddhism. Hackmann 
 points out that " the picture of a vehicle was frequently 
 used in Buddhism to symbolize the doctrine, which bore 
 the disciples across the world to the goal of NirvSna." 
 When in Northern India the more original Buddhism 
 underwent a change, being developed and widened, the 
 new form received the name Mahayana or the Great 
 Vehicle. The older form was then called Hinayana or 
 the Little Vehicle. There also arose a third form, of 
 much less imix)rtanee, called Madh.vamayuna, or the 
 Middle Vehicle. In general the inhabitants of Nepal, 
 Tibet, China, Manchuria, Mongolia, and Japan prefer 
 the Great Vehicle; those of Ceylon, Burma, and Siam 
 the Little Vehicle. The Mahayana teaches the existence 
 of many Bodhisattvas. It develops a theism and ix>ly- 
 theism which are far removed from the original creed of 
 Buddhism. See Monier-Williams, Buddhism, 1890; E. 
 W. Hopkins: H. Hackmann. 
 
 VELCHANOS. A Cretan god. He seems to have been 
 the only male deity of the Cretans. Later, the Northern 
 Greeks identified him with Zeus. " In Crete, however, 
 the god preserved most of his old Minoan idiosyncracy, 
 and all sorts of barbarous tales were told about him 
 which the other Greeks would have nothing to do with. 
 The Cretans, for instance, said that he had died, and 
 pointed out the mountain, with the sacred cave, where 
 his death had taken place" (H. R. Hall, A.A.). On 
 rings from Mycenae and on a coffin (or larnax) from 
 Milatos, Zeus-Velchanos is represented as a youth armed 
 with spear and shield and descending from the .<akv. 
 
 VENDIDAD. The Vendidad (literally " laws "given 
 against demons ") is one of the divisions of the Zenda- 
 vesta (q.v.), the oldest collection of writings sacred to 
 the old Persians. It consists of laws, rules for exorcis-
 
 Venkatramana 
 
 375 
 
 Vicar 
 
 ing demons, myths, etc., and seems to be the latest section 
 of the Zenda vesta. 
 
 VENKATRAMANA. One of the special deities of the 
 Stanlkas. a class of temple servants in Southern India. 
 The other special deity is Ganapati. 
 
 VENUS. A Latin goddess who came in course of time 
 to be identified with the Greek goddess of love. Aphro- 
 dite (g.v.). Originally Venus was worshipped in parti- 
 cular by gardeners and vinedressers as a goddess of 
 Spring who presided over flower-gardens and vines. She 
 came to be regarded as the mother of the Roman people, 
 and in her honour as such {Genetrix) Caesar and Hadrian 
 erected temples. The first day of April was a day sacred 
 to her. Venus sometimes appears of double sex,' just as 
 in Sparta sometimes Aphrodite was represented as 
 bearded. See O. Seyffert, Diet.: Reinach, O. 
 
 VENUSTIANI. Another name for the Manichc-ean 
 sect, Patemiani (q.v.). 
 
 VERETHRAGHNA. One of the most prominent angels 
 (Victory) in the religion of the Later Avesta, the angel 
 of war. 
 
 VER.MITTLUNGS-THEOLOGIE. A German expres- 
 sion for that type of theology which seeks to reconcile 
 the religion of the Churches with the claims of modem 
 science. See MEDIATING THEOLOGY. 
 
 VERONICA. The name Veronica was given by 
 medieval writers to face-cloths from the catacombs " on 
 which Christian reverence and affection have painted the 
 features of the Saviour " (Diet, of Christ. Biogr.). Such 
 a face-cloth was described as vera icon " true image." 
 Matthew of Paris (ad ann. 1216) speaks of " the repre- 
 sentation of our Lord's face, which is called Veronica." 
 A late legend (but earlier than the eleventh century) con- 
 verted the face-cloth into a woman. It told how one 
 Veronica accompanied Christ on his way to the Cross 
 and offered him her veil as a sudarium. ' After he had 
 wiped the perspiration from his face with it, his features 
 were found impressed upon the linen. See the Cath. 
 Diet., s.v. " Christ. Appearance of"; Wace and Piercy; 
 Sidney Heath; Francis Bond. 
 
 VER SACRUM. Ver Sacrum or " Sacred Spring " 
 was the name given to a kind of vow taken by the Italian 
 tribes in critical times. They undertook to" sacrifice all 
 the produce of the coming spring. Children who were 
 bom then were dedicated to heaven, and banished from 
 the country as soon as they were grown up. The last 
 vow was made in the Second Punic War, though it was 
 not fulfilled until 19.5-194 B.C., twentv-one years after- 
 wards. See O. Sevffert, Diet. 
 
 VERSCHOORISTS. The followers of James Verschoor 
 td. 1,00), of Flushing, in the seventeenth centurv. They 
 are .said to have attached importance to a knowledge of 
 Hebrew, and even to have been called Hebrews Ver- 
 schoor was influenced by the views of J. Cooceius (1603- 
 1669). founder of the Federal Theology (q.v.). and of 
 Barach Spinoza (1632-1677). See B. Puenjer; J. H Blunt 
 VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE. Sea the separate 
 headings. 
 
 VERTUMNUS. Vertumnus. " the changer," was the 
 name of an Italian god of fruits. He was supposed to 
 preside over the changing year, and is depicted as a 
 gardener holding a praning knife in his hand and fruits 
 in his lap. He was popularly believed to have the power 
 of transforming him.self into various shapes. Naturally 
 the produce of gardens and orchards was offered to him 
 See O. Seyffert, Diet. 
 
 VESPERS. Vespers or " Evensang " is one of the 
 seven " Hours " or Services of the Breviary (a v ) The 
 hour is 6 p.m. 
 
 VESTA. A Latin goddess corresponding to the Greek 
 goddess Hestia. The goddess and guardian of fire, 
 
 and so of the private and public hearth, she was so 
 important as to be worshipped by the State, as well as 
 by the family. The worship was introduced from 
 i^vinium by Numa, who also built the Temple of Vesta 
 Vesta came to be worshipped as the goddess of everv 
 sacrificial fire. The fire in her temple which sensed as 
 her symbol could not be allowed to go out without danger 
 
 T7pl^,T*?- ^** °- Seyffert. Diet.; Reinach, O. 
 vJr ^ C ^ festival in honour of the Latin goddess 
 vesra ((/.r.). it was observed on the ninth of July. 
 
 ihe matrons of the town walked barefooted in proces- 
 sion to her temple, to implore the blessing of the goddess 
 
 I, ^^"5 households, and to offer sacrifice to her in 
 rude dishes, m remembrance of the time when the hearth 
 served generally for the baking of bread " (Seyffert). 
 
 ^^^^^^ ''°*^ "''"^'■^ '"^'^ t««l^ part in the festival, 
 and placed crowns on the mills. See O Seyffert Diet 
 
 VESTALS Vestals or Vestal Virgins were priestesses 
 m the temple of the Latin goddess Vesta (q.v.) Their 
 chief duty was to tend the sacred and eternal fire the 
 symbol of the goddess. They were under the control of 
 izf PP^^ifes. When they entered upon their duties 
 they had to be not more than ten vears of age " The 
 time of service was by law thirty vears, ten of which 
 were set apart for learning, ten for performing, and ten 
 for teaching the duties. At the end of this time leave 
 was granted to the Vestals tx> lay aside their priesthood, 
 return into private life, and marrv " (Sevffert) If any 
 of them broke their vows, they were beaten with rods 
 and buried alive. There is no need to see in this anv- 
 thing more than a severe form of punishment intended 
 to act as a deterrent. J. M. Robertson (Pagan Chri.xts, 
 19U) compares the custom of Suttee (q.v.). and the 
 custom among the Peruvians with whom good widows 
 especially those of the Ineas, were at one time expected 
 to bury themselves alive when their husbands died But 
 It IS difficult to see the connection between good widows 
 *''°^,:.^™^'"^''^x ■ ^** °- Seyffert, Diet.; Reinach, O. 
 
 V^SIKY. In the ancient church-building Vestiarium 
 or Vestry was the name of the room in which the vest- 
 ments of the clergy and the sacred vessels of the church 
 were kept. It must often have been verv spacious for 
 .several of the Councils of Carthage as well as the Svnod 
 ot Aries were held " in secretario eeclesife," and secre- 
 tanum was equivalent to ve.stiarium. In modem times 
 in the English Church a Vestry came also to denote a 
 meeting of the ratepayers of a parLsh, held, not neoes- 
 ^"^ I'^ItJ^^^^' *<> <liscuss the affairs of the parish. 
 See Schaff-Herzog: Chambers'!} Enci/rl 
 
 VIATICUM. The Latin term viaticum means " pro- 
 vision for a joumey " (cp. the Greek ephodion). As an 
 ecclesiastical term it came to be applied to the Holy 
 Communion when administered to persons who were 
 thought to be dying. In this application the word would 
 mean provision for the la.st joumey. In the thirteenth 
 canon of the Council of Nicsea the Holy Communion is 
 described as the "last and most necessary ephodion 
 (viaticum)^ In the Middle Ages the Viaticum followed 
 Extreme Unction (q.v.). In the Roman Catholic Church 
 the Viaticum is now given first. See Prot. Diet.; Cath 
 Diet. 
 
 VIBHANGA. A Buddhist sacred book in the third 
 division of the Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 VICAR. The ordinary meaning of the word Vicar 
 (Lat. viearius) is a representative or .substitute (qui 
 altenus vices agit). In the Roman Catholic Church the 
 Apostle Peter is described as the Vicar of Christ, because 
 It IS held, he was appointed by Christ his substitute on 
 earth as the head of the Church. The office passed from 
 Peter to the Bishop of Roman, who became both Vicar 
 of St. Peter and Vicar of Christ (Viearius S. Petri, 
 
 25
 
 Victoria Institute, The 
 
 376 
 
 Virgin Birth, The 
 
 Vicarius Christi). In the early Catholic Church, how- 
 ever, all bishops were Vicars of Christ. The Pope, the 
 one Vicar of Christ, has his own vicars. There are 
 Vicars-Apostolic. These were formerly bishops or arch- 
 bishops or even ordinary but specially delegated eccle- 
 siastics; but now they are nearly always titular bishops 
 " stationed either in countries where episcopal sees have 
 not yet been established, or in those where the succes- 
 sion has been interrupted " (Catholic Dictionary). There 
 are Vicars-general both in the Church of Rome and in 
 the Church of England. In the Roman Catholic Church 
 he is also called " official " (officialis). " In Transalpine 
 countries the name of ' official ' is commonly given to the 
 ecclesiastic administering the contentious .iurisdiction of 
 the bishop, and that of ' vicar-general ' to him who exer- 
 cises his voluntary jurisdiction " (Cath. Diet.). A bishop 
 is not obliged to have a vicar-general, but he may have 
 two or more. In the Church of England some of the 
 bishops have a vicar-general. The Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, for instance, has one. The London Diocese. Book 
 (1912) explains that for the Province of Canterbury " The 
 Vicar-General's Office grants marriage licences through- 
 out the province, transacts the legal business relating to 
 the Consecration of Bishops, and legalises the appoint- 
 ment of clergy to churches within the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury's jurisdiction." There are also in isome of 
 the cathedrals of the Church of England Vicars-Choral, 
 clergy or laymen, who assist the Dean and Chapter in 
 matters relating to the choir and music. Further, the 
 clergyman who is in permanent charge of an Anglican 
 church is commonly called the Vicar, though he is some- 
 times called the Rector (q.v.). The Roman Catholic 
 Church has its Vicars-forane, who resemble the Anglican 
 Rural Deans. " A vicar forane is either a dignitary or 
 at least, if possible, a parish priest, who is appointed 
 by the bishop to exercise a limited jurisdiction in a 
 particular town or district of his diocese " (Cath. Diet.). 
 See Sehaff-Herzog: William Benham: the Cath. Diet. 
 
 VICTORIA INSTITUTE, THE. The Victoria Insti- 
 tute or Philosophical Society of Great Britain has three 
 primary objects. 1. To investigate fully and impartially 
 the most important questions of Philosophy and Science, 
 but more especially those that bear upon the great truths 
 revealed in Holy Scripture. 2. To associate men of 
 science and authors who have already been engaged in 
 such investigations, and all others who may be interested 
 in them, in order to strengthen their efforts by associa- 
 tion; and by bringing together the results of such labours, 
 after full discussion, in the printed Transactions of an 
 Institution, to give greater force and influence to proofs 
 and arguments which might be little known, or even dis- 
 regarded, if put forward merely by individuals. 3. To 
 consider the mutual bearings of the various scientific con- 
 clusions arrived at in the several distinct branches into 
 which Science is now divided, in order to get rid of con- 
 tradictions and conflicting hypotheses, and thus promote 
 the real advancement of true Science; and to examine 
 and discuss all supposed scientific results with reference 
 to final causes, and the more comprehensive and funda- 
 mental principles of Philosophy proper, based upon faith 
 in the existence of one Eternal God, Who in His wisdom 
 created all things very good. 
 
 VICTORINBS. The Victorines were a mediaeval 
 school of theologians whose chief centre was the August- 
 ine monastery of St. Victor in Paris founded by William 
 of Champeaux. The Victorines have been described as 
 " the religious Anthropologists or teachers of piety, the 
 pietists of the twelfth century." They approved of a soli- 
 tary life, a life devoted to contemplation. They differed 
 from the Summists (q.v.) in being inclined to neglect the 
 doctrinal side of theology. Richard of St. Victor (d. 
 
 1173?), a native of Scotland, attached special imjjortance 
 to mystic contemplation. Walter of St. Victor, who suc- 
 ceeded Richard, inveighed against the writers of Sum- 
 maries and the Dialecticians (such as Socrates, Aristotle, 
 and Seneca). See J. B. Brdmann. 
 
 VIDHARR. One of the gods of the Ancient Teutons. 
 Vidharr is represented as the .son of Wodan (q.v.), and 
 as the slayer of the monster known as the Fenris-wolf 
 (q.v.). With Vali (q.v.) he is one of the survivors in the 
 final world-catastrophe. According to P. Kauffmann, he 
 is the great Teutonic god of the forest. He is repre- 
 sented as a god of great strength, only second to that 
 of Thor (q.v.). See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. 
 of the Teutons, 1902. 
 
 VIDHYaDHAR. The lord of learning, one of the 
 names of the Hindu god Ganpati or Ganesh. 
 
 VIGILANCE SOCIETIES. In the United States of 
 America the name Vigilance Societies has been given to 
 " illegal associations which spring up from time to time 
 in all i>arts of the country for the compulsory improve- 
 ment of local morals, and the punishment of those who 
 either refuse or fail sufficiently to reform their lives " 
 (Chambers's Encycl.). One of these .societies has been 
 known as the White (Japs, because the members, who 
 have been in the habit of visiting the homes of supposed 
 offenders for the purpose of whipping them or of destroy- 
 ing their property, have concealed their faces by wearing 
 white hoods. 
 
 VIGILS. Originally a Vigil was the watch kept on 
 the night before a feast. In the eleventh or twelfth cen- 
 tury the term came to denote both the day and night 
 preceding a feast. In the Roman Catholic Church the 
 practice of keeping Vigils has been retained only in the 
 Matins and Ijauds and the midnight Mass before Christ- 
 mas. The Vigil was spent in watching (Latin vigilare) 
 and prayer. In course of time it became also a fast. 
 The Prayer Book of the Church of England contains a 
 Table of Vigils. See W. R. W. Stephens, Book of 
 Common Prayer, 1901; Cath. Diet. 
 
 VIGNESA. Vignesa, " Lord of Obstacles," is another 
 name for Ganesa (q.v.), one of the gods of the Hindus. 
 
 VIHANSA. Vihansa, as appears from an inscription, 
 was the name of a goddess worshipped by some of the 
 Ancient Teutons. 
 
 VINaYAK. The remover of difficulties, one of the 
 names of the Hindu god Ganpati or Ganesh. 
 
 VINAYAPITAKA. The first division of the Buddhist 
 Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 VINTIUS. Vintius was one of the deities worshipped 
 by the ancient Celts. He seems to have been a god of 
 the wind. He was identified with the Roman god Mara 
 
 VIRACOCHA. Among the ancient Peruvians Vira- 
 cocha was a name for divine beings in general, as well 
 as the name of one of the chief deities. Viracocha 
 means " Foam of the Water." The god is supposed to 
 have emerged from the sacred waters of Lake Titicaca. 
 The creator, he first created the sun, the moon, and the 
 stars. When he created men, he first made them stone 
 figures. Viracocha was taken over by the Incas from 
 an earlier civilisation. Lewis Spence points out that the 
 story of Viracocha 's creation clashes with the legend of 
 the solar origin of the Incas. To the Incas he was the 
 water-god, the fertiliser of the country round about Lake 
 Titicaca. The lake was his sister and consort, (3ocha. 
 The worship of Viracocha would .seem to have been rather 
 more humane than that of the Mexican gods. Compare 
 further PACHACAMAC. See Lewis Spence; J. M. 
 Robertson, P.C. 
 
 VIRGIN BIRTH, THE. The orthodox Christian faith 
 teaches that Jesus, the founder of Christianity, was " eon-
 
 Virgin Birth, The 
 
 377 
 
 Vision, Beatific 
 
 ceived of the Holy Gliost, bom of the Virgin Mary " 
 (Apostles' Creed). It is believed also by many Christians 
 that with a view to her future destiny she was specially 
 sanctified from the womb. •• It was to tJie pure maiden of 
 Nazareth, thus chosen and prepared by God, that the 
 angel Gabriel came, bearing the offer from God of an 
 honour so amazing, that compared with it, every earthly 
 honour is as nothing. The angel's message was nothing 
 less than that Almighty God would, with her consent, 
 take human form in her womb. . . . Then arose in 
 Mary's mind the wondering question, how could she, a 
 virgin, bear a child? Had ever a maiden become mother 
 without the agency of human father? ... It was then 
 tiiat Gabriel announced to Mary that the agency of the 
 human father would be suiX'rseded, and that, through 
 the power of God. a virgin-birth would be accomplished. 
 He a.ssured her that in conceiving and bringing forth her 
 Child, her virgin-chastity would remain, that she would 
 still be a virgin. He taught her that she should fulfil 
 the mother's part, God the Holy Ghost quickening the 
 powers of nature. • And the angel answered and said 
 unto her, the Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the 
 ix>wer of the Highest shall overshadow thee : therefore 
 also that Holy Thing which shall be bom of thee shall 
 be called the Son of God." " What did this announce- 
 ment involve to Mary? " She must have seen, by a pure 
 w^omanly instinct, that there lay before her a time of 
 keenest trial, of suspicion and agonizing doubt. If she 
 accepted her amazing destiny, would not the finger of 
 reproach be pointed at her as tie Holy Child grew in 
 her womb? How could she explain her condition even 
 to those nearest and dearest to her? How terrible must 
 the facing of all this have been to one whose soul was as 
 pure as the driven snow? What would Joseph, to whom 
 she was about to be married, think of her? WTiat he did 
 think we know; for we are told at first ' he was minded 
 to put her away privily,' to hide her from the shame 
 which he began to think she had brought upon herself. 
 Only a voice from heaven rea.ssured him, and relieved 
 him from the painful suspicion. Beyond all this, there 
 was the thought of the strangely mysterious association 
 with Almighty God and His deep purposes, and all it 
 would cost her to maintain such a dignity, which must 
 have tempted the Blessed Virgin to hesitate in accepting 
 the Divine call. . . . The decision lay with Mary, 
 and we may well thank God that it was the right decis- 
 ion. In the face of all that awaited her, by the grace 
 of God, the Blessed Virgin accepted with complete self- 
 surrender the wondrous call of God. and uttered the 
 eventful words—' Behold the handmaid of the Lord : be 
 it unto me according to Thy Word.' In that central 
 moment, the everlasting Son of the Father, Who took 
 upon him to deliver man, did not abhor the Virgin's 
 womb. He began to take human form, and Marv became 
 the Mother of God" (Vernon Staley, The ' Catholic 
 Religion). Such is the orthodox belief, which is based 
 upon a literal interpretation of narratives in the Fir.«:t 
 and Third Gospels. It is the belief held by orthodox 
 Christians. But it is a belief which, in this form, is 
 no longer held by many persons who claim to be called 
 Christians. Apart from the question whether the 
 nativity-narratives are an original part of the primitive 
 Gospel story, it is felt by many that they are onlv an 
 effort to express in human language a spiritual truth. 
 Jesus was the .son of a Virgin in the sense that he was 
 the first-bom son of one Mary who conceived him in 
 perfect innocence and purity. He was the son of a 
 Virgin in the sense that he was spiritually conceived as 
 a perfect man in the mind of Mary long before she was 
 betrothed to Joseph. This is the real meaning of the 
 nativity stories. Jesus was not bom like an ordinary 
 
 child. All material thought was excluded, and the spirit 
 reigned supreme. God is Spirit, and Jesus or the Christ 
 was the true and only-begotten Son of the Father See 
 Vernon Staley, The Catholic Religion, 1893; Oscar Holtz- 
 mann. The Life of Jesus, 1904; Arno Neumann, Jesus, 
 lyoii. 
 
 VISHNU. Vishnu is one of the principal deities in 
 Hinduism. He is one of the triad, Brahma, Vishnu, and 
 S>iva. If Brahma is the Creator, Vishnu is the Pre- 
 server and Siva the Dissolver and Reproducer. Monier- 
 Williams points out tiat Vishnu Is the most human, and 
 the most humane in his character and sympathies and 
 consequently is the most popular. His divine nature 
 has been imparted to certain chosen men and in a 
 measure to all good men. " Whether, in fact, Vishnu 
 be connected with light, with heat, with air, or with 
 water, it is evident that his function is that of a divine 
 Pervader, infusing his essence for si)ecial puriwses into 
 created things, animate and inanimate; for example into 
 stones, such as the black Salagrama; into rivers, .such as 
 the Ganges; into trees and plants, such as the Tulasi; 
 into animals, such as a fish, a tortoise, a boar; and lastly' 
 into men " (Monier-Williams). Orthodox Brahmans are 
 worshippers of Vi-shnu and Siva (g.r.) alike. Other 
 Brahmans reveal a tendency to prefer the worship of one 
 or the other. The Hindus of modern times are generally 
 either Vaishnavas, worshippers of Vishnu, or Saivas 
 worshippers of Siva. The Vaishnavas worship one 
 personal god Vishnu as the Supreme Being, especially in 
 the form of his two incarnations Riima iq.v) and 
 Krishna [q.r.). They believe that Vishnu has power 
 to deliver his worshippers in this life from di.sease and 
 sin, and from evils inflicted by cruel beasts, wicked men, 
 and invisible demons. They believe that when this life 
 IS over he has power to transport them to his blissful 
 paradise, Vaikuutha (q.v.). In the Puranas it is said 
 that he has four arms and holds in his four hands a 
 wheel, a conch-shell, a club and a lotus-flower. He is 
 also represented as riding on the semi-human bird 
 Garuda to the help of his worshippers. His worshippers 
 have given him a thousand names and epithets These 
 include : the Holy Being, the Pure Spirit, the Way, the 
 Tmth, the Father, tie Holy of tie Holy. Vishnu has 
 become incarnate in nine forms, and is to become incarn- 
 ate in yet another. The first was The Fish (Matsya)- 
 the .second The Tortoise (Kurma); the third The Boar 
 (Varaha); the fourth The Man-lion (Nara-sinha) ; the 
 fifth The Dwarf (Vamana) ; the sixth Rama with the Axe 
 (Parasu-rama); the seventh Rama-candra, "the moon- 
 like Rama"; the eighth Krishna ((?.!'.); and the ninth 
 Buddha. The tenth is to be in the form Kalki or 
 Kalkin. He will api^ear in the sky on a white 
 horse and with a flashing sword in his 'hand, ready to 
 destroy the wicked, redeem the good, renew creation, 
 and restore the age of purity. Vishnu is represented as 
 having a wife Lakshmi or Sri. She is the goddess of 
 beauty and fortune. See Monier-Williams; E. W. 
 Hopkins; J. A. Dubois and H. K. Beauchamp. 
 
 VISHNU-SWaMI. a Vishnuite sect in India, founded 
 by Vallabha (6. A.D. 1479), after whom tie members are 
 called also Vallabhas (9. v.). 
 
 VISHWANATH. Lord of the universe, one of the 
 names of the Hindu god Siva 
 
 VISIBLE SPIRITISM. The designation of that kind 
 of spiritism in which the spirits have been supposed to be 
 visible not only to the mediums but also to those who 
 assist at the stances. 
 
 VISION, BEATIFIC. What is known as the Beatific 
 Vision is, in human language, the bliss of seeing God 
 face to face (cp. in the New Testament, I. John iii. 2, 
 I Cor. xiii. 12). The Council of Florence declares that
 
 Visions 
 
 378 
 
 Vomitijig as a Religious Rite 
 
 the " souls of those who after receiving baptism have 
 incurred no stain of sin whatsoever, or who after in- 
 curring such stain have been purified, in the body or out 
 of the body . . ■ are at once received into heaven 
 and clearly see God Himself as He is, in three Persons 
 and one substance, some, however, more perfectly than 
 others, according to the diversity of their merits." In 
 consequence of some of the cruder, anthropomorphic con- 
 ceptions of the ancient Hebrews, according to which a 
 theophany was accompanied by flames of fire, etc., it 
 was believed that no man could .see God's face. In 
 course of time, however, after the development of the 
 Christian conception, it came to be realized that God, 
 who is incorporeal, can be seen by the e.ves of the soul. 
 But, according to the schoolmen, for beatific vision the 
 intellect requires to be illuminated by what is meta- 
 phorically spoken of as the " light of glory " (Council Of 
 Vienne). " Just as the natural eye, in order that it may 
 see, requires first the presence of the object, and then 
 light, in order that the image of the obiect may be 
 received, so the inteUect, in order to see God, requires 
 not only the proximity of the divine essence, but also an 
 interior disposition by which it is elevated to an act 
 above its natural powers " (Oath. Diet.). See Schaff- 
 Herzog: Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 VISIONS. The seeing of visions is one of the common 
 phenomena of religious experience. In ancient times 
 and among primitive peoples visions are believed to be 
 objectively real. Modem psychology and psychical re- 
 search have demonstrated that they are subjective and 
 unreal. They may be explained by the working of Tele- 
 pathy (q.v.) and the Subconscious Mind {q.v.). Certain 
 persons have the power of calling up images in the minds 
 of other persons. " The percipient sees a vision repre- 
 senting the incident sought to be communicated by the 
 agent. He sees the image of the object or person which 
 the agent desires him to see. Thus, when a person con- 
 sults a medium he generally expects and desires to learn 
 something of his deceased friends. The medium goes 
 into the subjective condition for that purpose. The 
 visitor's mind is full of anticipation and hope that he will 
 be put into direct communication with the loved and lost. 
 Presently the medium sees a vision of some person. He 
 believes that he sees a spirit. He describes it, and it is 
 found to correspond with one of the visitor's deceased 
 friends. The visitor recognizes the description, and says 
 so. He asks for the name, and it is given. Then the 
 medium sees a vision known only to the visitor and the 
 deceased. He describes the incident, not, perhaps, as a 
 vision which he sees, but as a statement of fact imparted 
 to him by the spirit. The visitor very likely knows that 
 the medium knew nothing of him or of the deceased 
 before that hour. He is convinced that the medium 
 has seen and conversed with the spirit of his dead friend, 
 and he is a convert to spiritism from that moment. Now, 
 has the medium actuall.v seen a spirit, or has he merely 
 read the sitter's subjective mind? Is there any more 
 rea.son for supposing that he has seen a spirit of a dead 
 man than there is for supiK>sing that a mind-reader sees 
 the spirit of the Jack of clubs when the image of that 
 card is telepathed to him? Obviously not. The condi- 
 tions are precisely the same in both cases. The percipient 
 sees the image of that which is in the mind of the agent " 
 (T. J. Hudson). The agent of course need not be a pro- 
 fessional medium. The faculty is common to many 
 persons who do not use it professionally. It has often 
 happened that a person in great danger or at the point 
 of death has been able to transmit an image of his con- 
 dition to someone with whom he is en rapport. Cp. 
 APPARITIONS. See T. J. Hudson. 
 VISIONS OF IDDO THE SEER, THE. A record 
 
 referred to in II. Chronicles (ix. 29) as one of the com- 
 piler's sources. See PROPHECY OF AHIJAH. 
 
 VISPARAD. The Visparad is one of the divisions of 
 the Zendavesta {q.v.), the oldest collection of writings 
 sacred to the old Persians. It seems to have been 
 intended to supplement the Ya-sna (q.v.), the liturgy of 
 .sacrifice. It consists of litanies and invocations. 
 
 VISWAKARMA. An Indian deity, the celestial archi- 
 tect, worshipised by the Barhais (also known as Sutars, 
 Kharadis, or Mistris), the caste of carpenters. On the 
 Dasahra festival the Barhais worship also their trade 
 implements. Viswakarma is worshipi)ed also by the 
 Urias (also known as Sansias), a caste of masons and 
 navvies of the Uri.va country. 
 
 VITALIANS. The Antiochenes called the Apollina- 
 rians (q.v.) Vitalians, because Vitalis became an Apol- 
 linarian bishop. 
 
 VITTOBA. Vittoba is the name of one of the modern 
 gods of the Hindus, an incarnation of the Supreme 
 Triad. Sir Alfred C. Lyall states (Asiatic Studies) that 
 he is one of the four most popular gods in the province 
 of Berar in Central India. He thinks that not so very 
 long ago he must have been a notable living man. By 
 the Dhangars. the Maratha caste of shepherds and 
 blanket-weavers, he is worshipped on Wednesdays. 
 
 VITUCADRUS. Vitucadrus, " the brilliant in energy," 
 was one of the names given by the ancient Celts to the 
 war-god, a deity who corresponded to the Roman god 
 Mars. 
 
 VIVASVAT. The name of a deity in Hinduism. 
 Vivasvat, or, as the name is also written Vivasvant, is 
 the Sun. In the Rig Veda Yama (q.v.), the first man, 
 and his si.ster and wife Yima are said to be children of 
 Vivasvat. Vivasvat corresponds to the Iranian Vivang- 
 vant. In the Avesta, Yima (Yama) is said to be the son 
 of Vivanghvant. See Monier-Williams ; E. W. Hopkins. 
 VIZTBOT. A god worshipped by the Nicarao (of 
 Nicaragua). He was the god of hunger. 
 
 VOLLA. VoUa, it has been thought, was one of the 
 deities of the ancient Teutons. The name Volla or Vol 
 occurs as that of a goddess in one of the Merseburg 
 Charms (q.v.). The words may be read either, " Then 
 charmed it Sinthgunt, Sun(na) her sister; then charmed 
 it Frija, Vol(la) her sister," or " Then charmed it Sinth- 
 gunt, Sun's sister; then charmed it Frija, Vol's sister." 
 Volla, however, seems to be the .same as Fulla, who is 
 referred to elsewhere as the handmaid of Frija (q.v.). 
 See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 
 1902 
 
 VOLOSU. Volosu is one of the gods worshipped by 
 the ancient Slavs. He was the god of flocks. Volosu 
 has been identified with St. Blasius. 
 
 VOLUNTARYISM. Voluntaries are those who con- 
 tend that the Churches and their clergy ought to be sup- 
 ported solely by the contributions of their congregations. 
 Voluntaryism would separate entirely the Church and the 
 State by disestablishment and disendowment. 
 
 VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA. A philanthropic and 
 Christian movement in the United States organized on 
 military lines. It was founded in 1896, and may be 
 compared with the Salvation Army (q.v.) and Church 
 Army (q.v.) in England. See F. M. Colby and A. L. 
 Churchill, The New International Year Book, 1910. 
 
 VOMITING AS A RELIGIOUS RITE. In the celebra- 
 tion of the festival of first-fruits among the Creek Indians 
 of North America, vomiting appears as a rite of purifica- 
 tion. In order to purge their sinful bodies, the men 
 drank a bitter decoction of button-snake root which 
 caused vomiting. The same practice is still observed by 
 the Yuchi Indians of Oklahoma. The rite is supposed to
 
 Vor 
 
 379 
 
 Vulgate 
 
 have been instituted by the Sun. " He taught the Indians 
 to steep the button-snake root and the red root in water 
 and to drink the decoction, in order that they might 
 vomit and so purify their bodies against sickness during 
 the ensuing year. They think that if they did not thus 
 purge themselves before eating the new corn, they would 
 fall sick. The chief of the town is charged with the 
 solemn duty of preparing the nauseous concoction, and 
 he is assisted by four boys who have been initiated into 
 the mysteries. The pots containing the stuff are 
 decorated on the rim with a pattern representing the 
 sun. and they stand east of the fire near the middle of 
 the public square. The order of drinking is regulated 
 by the rank of the drinkers. . . . When they feel the 
 inward workings of the draught, they step out of the 
 square and discharge the contents of their stomachs in a 
 place set apart for the purpose " (.1. G. Frazer, Spirits of 
 the Corn, 1912). At a public religious ceremony (agri- 
 cultural) in Santo Domingo, West Indies, the partici- 
 pants, in order to attain a condition of ceremonial purity, 
 made themselves vomit by thrusting sticks down their 
 throats. Afterwards •' bread was offered to the idol 
 and then distributed by the priests among those present, 
 who took it home and carefully preserved it until the 
 next year as a powerful amulet against fire and hurri- 
 canes " (T. A. Jo.vce, C. A.W.I. A.). Originally at least, 
 those present would seem to have eaten some of the 
 bread. This would account for the purification of the 
 body by vomiting. 
 
 VOR. One of the deities of the Ancient Teutons. The 
 go<ldess Vor, who belonged to the retinue of Frija (q.v.) 
 and Freyja (q.i-.), is represented as a goddess of vows 
 and oaths. 
 
 VOTAN. A tribal deity in the religion of the Mayan 
 IndiauvS. He was worshipped as a culture-hero, and was 
 equivalent to Itzamna. 
 
 VOWS. Vows and votive offerings are well defined 
 by G. F. Moore in the Encycl. Bihl. " A vow is a volunt- 
 ary obligation solemnly assumed toward God to do somt*- 
 thing not otherwise required, but believed to be accept- 
 able or influential with him. The promise may be either 
 simple or conditional. In the former case it is usually 
 a pledge to perform at a futtire date— for example, at the 
 next recurrence of a feast— an act of wor.ship which is 
 less convenient or suitable at the time the vow is made; 
 and the motive may be any which would prompt man to 
 the act itself, such as gratitude to God, the desire to 
 secure his favour, etc. A conditional vow is commonly 
 made in circumstances in which the urgent need of God's 
 protection or help is felt, as in illness, an attack by the 
 enemy, or for the obtaining of a greatly desired end, such 
 as the birth of a child, the Increase of flocks and herds, 
 victory in battle, and the like. In such a case a man 
 solemnly binds him.self, if God does for him what he 
 wishes, to do such and such a specified thing for God." 
 Thu.s a vow often has the force of an oath. In ancient 
 religions conditional vows were the common accompani- 
 ment of prayer. "The thing vowed might be anything 
 with which it was conceived that God would be pleased 
 — a sacrifice, a .service, a dotation of gold and silver, 
 houses and lands, cattle, or per.sons to God. that is, to 
 the temple. It might also be an interdict imposed by 
 the maker upon himself for a time or for life in the u.'ie 
 of things otherwise lawful: thus fasting, ab.stinence from 
 particular kinds of food— as the grape and its products 
 in the Nazirite's vow— from the wearing of ornaments, 
 sexual intercourse, etc., were often vowed. Such 
 arbitrary self-denial was thought, like the scrupulous 
 observance of the similar restrictions imposed by religion 
 itself, to be a proof of devotion." There are many 
 examples of vows in the Old Testament. Examples in 
 
 Greek and Roman religion are also familiar. In Egypt 
 Innumerable votive offerings have l)een found. In Arabia 
 votive offerings frequently consisted of weapons. In 
 Buddhism the monks had imposed upon them ten vows 
 of abstinence called the ten precepts : " abstinence from 
 destroying life, from theft, from impurity, from false- 
 hood, from strong drink; abstinence from eating at for- 
 bidden times, from dancing, singing, music and 
 spectacles, from garlands, scents and finery, from high or 
 broad couches, and from receiving gold or" silver " (A. S. 
 Geden, Studies). In the Christian Church the practice 
 of making vows was adopted at an early period, and two 
 classes of vows in particular came to be recognised. 
 " Vota realla were vows to present a material gift; and 
 in Roman Catholic countries examples of such gifts may 
 still be .seen in the offerings of wax candles, or in the 
 models of ships which are suspended in certain churches 
 by sailors who have been delivered from the danger of 
 -shipwreck. Vota personalia, again, were vows bearing 
 directly upon personal conduct. The vow to go on a 
 pilgrimage is an example, but the most frequent and 
 imixvrtant of personal vows were those of abstinence or 
 self-limitation, which, again, reached their crowning 
 height in the great monastic vows of poverty, chastity. 
 and obedience, whereby devotion to God was supposed 
 to reach its consummation through a definite entrance 
 uix)n what came to be known as tJie status rrliriiosns " 
 (Prot. Diet.). 
 
 VOZDTKHANTZI. The Vozdykhantzi or "the 
 Sighers " are a sub-sect of the Russian dissenters known 
 as Bezpopovtzl. They believe that after the seventh 
 thousandth year from the creation of the world a 
 third spiritual reign began, the reign of the Holy Ghost. 
 The Holy Ghost is to be served by means of sighing and 
 spiritual prayers. See Schaff-Herzog. 
 
 VULCAN. Vulcanus or Volcanus is the name of the 
 Roman god corresponding to the Greek god Hephiestus. 
 He was the god of tire and of the forge. As 
 such, he was also a beneficent god of Nature, husband 
 of Mai or Majesta, the godde.ss of Spring, and on the 
 other the god of conflagrations. His chief festival was 
 the Volcanalia, kept on the twenty-third of August. On 
 this occasion It was customary to throw certain fish 
 into the fire on the hearth. See O. Seyffert, Diet.; 
 Reinach, O. 
 
 VULGATE. The term " Vulgate " or " Vulgata 
 editio " was used by Jerome of the Septuagint Version 
 as compared with the original Hebrew; of the common 
 or corrupt text of the Septuagint as contrasted with the 
 text in Origen's Hexapla ; of the Old Latin version which 
 was made from the Sejituagint; and of the New Testa- 
 ment of the Old Latin Version. The Council of Trent 
 no45-1.5fi3) declared .Jerome's own version to be the 
 " vetus et vulgata editio " of the Scriptures as I>ejng the 
 common and authentic version of the Church, and from 
 that time the term has been used of this version alone. 
 The work was undertaken by Sophronius Eusebius 
 Hieronymus, commonly called Jerome f331-420), at the 
 request of Pope Damasus. In the fir.st instance (3S3) he 
 was asked to revise the current I^atin version of the 
 New Testament. He therefore produced a revised vers- 
 ion of the Gospels. Whether he revised the rest, of the 
 New Testament in the same way we do not know. His 
 next task was to revise the P.salms. The revision which 
 he made at this time (.383) was made by compari.son with 
 the Septuagint and is known as the Roman Psalter, 
 because Pope Dama.sus introduced it into ecclesiastical 
 use in the Roman Church, in which use it remained until 
 the time of Pope Pius V. At St. Peter's and in the 
 Ambrosian rite it is still retained. In 387 .Jerome made 
 a more careful revision by comparison with the text of
 
 Wadd 
 
 380 
 
 Wahhabis 
 
 Origen's Hexapla. This is Imown as the Galliean 
 Psalter, because it is said to have been introduced into 
 Gaul by Gregory of Tours. In 1566 Pope Pius V. assigned 
 this the place of honour formerly held by the Roman 
 Psalter. Jerome next revised the rest of the Old Testament 
 by compari.son of the Hexaplar text. But apart from the 
 Psalms, only the Book of Job in this revision has been 
 preserved. It now became his aim to make his revised 
 version of the Old Testament direct from the Hebrew, 
 and with this intent he learned Hebrew at forty-five years 
 of age under the guidance of a converted Jew. In 392 
 he began a translation of the Books of Samuel and 
 Kings, and he published them with the Preface Prologits 
 galeatus, which gives an account of the Hebrew Canon. 
 The rest of the books, including a large part of the 
 Apocrypha, followed, and the work was completed in 
 405. No revision or translation at this time seems to 
 have been made of Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus. or the Books 
 of Maccabees; and other books, such as Esther, Judith, 
 and Tobit were translated in haste. In the age in which 
 Jerome lived a thorough knowledge of Hebrew was im- 
 po.ssible. With this qualification, " it is admitted on all 
 hands that Jerome's version from the Hebrew is a 
 ma.sterly w^ork, and that there is nothing like it or near 
 it in antiquity " (Oath. Diet.). The demand for Jerome's 
 undertaking was due to the existence at the end of the 
 fourth century of a great variety of Latin renderings. 
 " Three groups of Old Latin manuscripts are recognised, 
 each representing a distinct type of text : (1) African, 
 agreeing generally with quotations in Tertullian and 
 Cyprian: (2) European, either independent or based on 
 the African; (3) Italian, formed on the European t.vpe, 
 and revised with the aid of later Greek manuscripts. 
 Many of the Old Latin manuscripts, however, present 
 texts which cannot be assigned to either of these classes " 
 (M. R. Vincent). Jerome's labours were devoted mostly 
 
 to the Old Testament. " In all parts of the New Testa- 
 ment, except the Gospels, his revision was cursory. The 
 text.s which preceded his version remain to us only in 
 fragments, and are to be gathered, largely, from citations 
 by the Fathers. These patristic citations may be found, 
 not only in writings composed l)efore Jerome, but also 
 in later compositions, since a long time elapsed before 
 Jerome's work obtained general currency. Down to the 
 end of the sixth century different texts were used at the 
 writer's pleasure. Accordingly, we find in some exclus- 
 ively an old text, in others only Jerome's version, while 
 others again employ both." In course of time the text 
 of Jerome's version became corrupt through scribal 
 errors. Another revision was needed. At the request 
 of Charlmagne, Alcuin (735-804) undertook to revise the 
 Latin text in 802. He did so by comparing older Latin 
 manuscripts. Other revisions were made, and in the 
 thirteenth century valuable lists of variant readings were 
 drawn up called " Correetoria biblica." When printing 
 was invented, the Latin Bible was one of the first books 
 printed. When later Cardinal Ximenes (1437-1.517) issued 
 his Complutensian Polyglot (1502-1517) he issued a revised 
 Latin texi:. But Robert Stephanus (1503-1559) was the 
 first to produce (in 1528) a really critical edition based 
 on the collation of a number of manuscripts. After this 
 the Roman Church felt the need of a pure and authentic 
 text. This was undertaken by Pope Sixtus V. ^1585-1590), 
 and the Sixtine edition was published in 1590. This in 
 1.592 was withdrawn by Pope Clement VIII., and in the 
 same year the Clementine Vulgate was published. This 
 was decreed to be the standard and authorised text of 
 the Roman Church. See Schaff-Herzog ; Cath. Diet.; 
 the Enciicl. BiU.; J. Paterson Smyth, The Old Docu- 
 ments and the Neio Bible, 1890; Marvin R. Vincent, Text. 
 Criticism of the N.T.; K. Lake, Text, of the N.T., 1904; 
 C. R. Gregory. 
 
 W 
 
 WADD. An Arabian deity, mentioned in the Qur'Sn 
 (Ixxi., 22). The Arabic word means " love." The idol 
 Wadd is supposed to have been worshipped originally by 
 the antediluvians. The worship was adopted by the 
 pagan Arabs, who gave Wadd the shape of a man. He 
 is said to have represented the heaven. See B. H. Palmer, 
 The Quran, 1880, in the " Sacred Books of the East "; 
 B. M. Wherry, Commentary on the Quran, 1896. 
 
 WADDAHGUDJAELWON. A deity in the religion 
 of the Euahlayi tribe of Australia. A goddess, she has 
 charge of spirit-babies. These she sends " to hang pro- 
 miscuously on trees, until some woman passes under 
 where they are, then they will seize a mother and be 
 incarnated " (K. Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe, 
 1905)^ 
 
 WaGHYAS. An order of mendicants in India, 
 belonging to the Mariitha Districts and Bombay. They 
 are devotees of the god Khandoba, an incarnation of Siva. 
 " In Bombay the Waghyas force iron bars through their 
 
 calves and pierce the palms of their hands with needles. 
 To the needle a strip of wood is attached, and on this 
 five lighted torches are set out, and the Waghya waves 
 them about on his hand before the god " (R. V. Russell). 
 
 WAFERS. The small cakes used in the Latin Church, 
 in the celebration of the Holy Eucharist or Holy Com- 
 munion are called wafers. These are a convenient sub- 
 stitute for broken pieces of bread. They are made with- 
 out leaven, and it has been contended that this has been 
 the practice from Apostolic times. As a matter of fact, 
 the practice of the ancient Church is uncertain. In all 
 probability either leavened or unleavened bread was con- 
 sidered suitable. In the Oriental Church, except in the 
 case of the Maronites and Armenians, unleavened bread 
 is used. See Prot. Diet.; Cath. Diet. 
 
 WAHHABIS. A Mohammedan sect founded by 
 Muhammad Ibn 'Abdu'l-Wahh!\b (A.D. 1691-1765). 
 Wahhdb, on returning to his native village after visiting 
 Mecca and other places, became a religious teacher. He
 
 Wakan 
 
 381 
 
 Walkyries 
 
 had become oonvinced that the Mohammedans were not 
 living in strict accordance with the real and primitive 
 principles of their faith. " The use of omens and 
 augurals, the veneration of sacred shrines and the tombs 
 of saints, the use of intoxicating drugs, the wearing of 
 silk and satin and all sorts of luxury which had found 
 favour in the Muslim world were all opposed to the 
 principles of true religion, and Isl^m must be purged of 
 these idolatrous practices " (Klein). Wahhab naturally 
 met witli a good deal of opposition. His protector, how- 
 ever, Muhammad ibn Sa'tid, became the founder of the 
 Wahhabi dynasty, by marrying Wahhab's daughter. 
 Sa'iid's grandson, also named Sa'iid, was a great 
 reformer, and established the Wahhilbi rule at Mecca and 
 Madina for nine years. He died A.D. 1814. The Wah- 
 hiibis describe themselves as the Unitarians. See F. A. 
 Klein : and R. V. Russell. 
 
 WAKAN. A name given by the North American 
 Indians to a ix)wer that is supernatural, supernormal, 
 or awe-inspiring. It is described as a force, and not as 
 a personal being. All life is wal^an. " It is not a 
 definite and definable iK)wer, the ix>wer of doing this or 
 that; it is Power in an absolute sense, with no epithet 
 or determination of any sort. The various divine ix>wers 
 are only particular manifestations and personifications 
 of it; each of them is this power seen under one of its 
 numerous aspects " (fimile Durkheim). 
 
 WAKEMANITES. The followers in 1855 of Rhoda 
 Wakeman in New Haven, Connecticut. She professed 
 to be a divinely inspired prophetess and to have risen 
 from the dead. She exercised so great an influence over 
 her adherents that she persuaded them to kill a man, 
 with his own consent, who was supposed to be possessed 
 of an evil spirit. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 WALDENSES. The Waldenses are a religious body 
 who have inhabited for centuries the valleys of the south 
 of France and north of Italy. Another form of the name 
 is Vallenses. This has been derived from the Latin, 
 French, and Italian word for " valley " (Latin rallifi), 
 and explaine<l as equivalent to " valesmen." It has also 
 been contended that the Waldenses or Vallenses date 
 back to Apostolic times. The truth seems to be that 
 the sect was organized about 1177 in Lyons by Petnis 
 Waldus. Waldus had come forward in 1160 as a re- 
 former of the abuses of the Church. The Waldenses 
 (also Vaudois) are identical with the " Poor of Lyons " 
 or Leonists, the Sabatati or SabOtiers (from their wooden 
 shoes), and the Humiliati. Petrus Waldus is also called 
 Peter of Waldo, Pierre de Vaud, and Pierre de Vaux. 
 He was a merchant of Lyons, who came to feel that the 
 ideal life meant a return to the simplicity and poverty of 
 Apostolic times. In 1170 he had portions of the Bible 
 translated into the Provengal dialect. He then trained 
 a numl)er of his followers as preachers of the Gospel. 
 They were excommunicated by the Archbishop of Lyons, 
 and forbidden to preach by Pope Alexander III. (1179). 
 In 1184 the Waldenses were condemned at the Council 
 of Verona. Nevertheless, they spread rapidly. The 
 Waldenses had no idea originally of separating from the 
 Church. They were driven to thi.s, however, by the 
 opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities. They now 
 denied the authority of the Church and the efiicacy of 
 her ordinances. The Church of Rome was the Babylon 
 and the harlot of the Apocalypse; the Waldenses repre- 
 sented the true Church of Christ ; laymen, and even 
 women, were entitled to preach ; consecration and abso- 
 lution by a bad priest were invalid, whereas absolution 
 by a good layman was valid; tithes and religious endow- 
 ments were unlawful; much of the ceremonial of Baptism 
 was unnecessary; in the Eucharist, transubstantiation 
 was only subjective; Extreme Unction was useless. As 
 
 a Roman Catholic writer puts it, " they made a clean 
 sweep of all the beautiful and touching ceremonies — all 
 the salutary institutes — with which the Church had sur- 
 rounded the life of Christians here below " (Cath. Diet.). 
 Great and violent efforts were made to suppress the 
 Waldenses, and they suffered cruel and continual perse- 
 cution. In 1530 they entered into communication with 
 the Swiss and German Reformers. Georges Morel and 
 Pierre Masson were sent to meet .1. CEoolampadiua 
 (Heussgen; 1482-1531) in Basle, Berthold Haller in Bern, 
 Wolfgang Capito (Koepfel; 1478-1541), and Martin Bueer 
 (or Butzer; 1491-1.5-51) in Strassburg. The result .seems 
 to have been that the Waldenses were willing to abandon 
 '.some of their extravagant tenets, and to make some of 
 their other tenets conform more closely to those of the 
 Reformers. In 1532 they renounced communion with 
 the Roman Catholic Church. In 1.5.5G they expressed to 
 the German Reformers their belief In the Old and New 
 Testament, the Apostles' Creed, the Athanasian Creed, 
 the Creeds of the first four Councils, the Holy Sacra- 
 ments as in.stituted by Christ, the Ten Commandments, 
 and submission to divinely appointed superiors. In IfiSO, 
 when they suffered from a dearth of pastors, ministers 
 went to their help from Geneva and Lausanne. This 
 involved a still closer approximation to the theology of 
 the Protestant Reformers. In l(io5 they accepted the 
 Confession of Augsburg. In the same year and in l(i85 
 supreme elTorts were made to crush them. The latter 
 was so far successful that thousands of the Waldenses 
 were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. Some of the exiles 
 returned in 1(589, and more between the years 1690 and 
 1696. But they were not safe until 1848, when the Turin 
 Edict of Emancipation was signed. The Waldenses are 
 said to number now more than 20,000. See Karl Mueller, 
 Die Waldcnser, 1880; J. A. Chabrand, Vaiidoi.^ et Pro- 
 tpxtants des Alpes, 1886; J. H. Blunt; Prot. Diet.; Cath. 
 Diet.; Brockhaus. 
 
 WALHALLA. In Scandinavian mythology Walhalla 
 or Valhalla, " the Hall of the Slain," is a mansion of 
 tlie gods into which are admitte<l warriors who have been 
 slain in battle. It was the paradi.se of these heroes. 
 Here in the Viking period they are represented as leading 
 .'1 life not only of joyous feasting, but also of continuous 
 combat. See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the 
 Teutons, 1902. 
 
 WAIjI, a. a term Ujsed in Muslim theology. F. A. 
 Klein explains that a Muslim saint or Wali is so called 
 (from a root meaning " to possess " or " to be in charge 
 of ") " because God takes charge of his concerns and also 
 because he himself only cares for the worship of God. 
 He is able to do things contrary to custom, and such acts 
 are called ' beneficence.' Such miracles do not appear 
 in his lifetime, but after his death. Such a saint, if no 
 miracles appear through him, is not a true Wali." See 
 F. A. Klein. 
 
 WALKERITES. The followers of John Walker (1768- 
 1833), a Fellow of Trinity College. Dublin. In 1S04 
 Walker left the Church of England, and founded a Cal- 
 vinistic sect, " The Church of Gfod." The Walkerites 
 have also been called Separatists. See the D.N.B. 
 
 WALKYRIES. Goddesses of the Edda. They are 
 goddesses of war, who decide which of the warriors are 
 to fall in the battle and which of them will win the 
 crown of victory. It is they who admit the warriors to 
 the banquet in the halls of Walhalla (q.v.). Chantepie 
 de la- Saussaye thinks that the Walkyries of the Viking 
 period may be connected " on the one hand with the war- 
 like Teutonic women of the ancient times, and on the 
 other hand with the goddesses of battle and victory." 
 In Norse mythology they are found in the train of Odhin 
 (g.v.). They are the " battle- maidens " who give victory
 
 Walpurgis Night 
 
 382 
 
 Watts's Nazarenes 
 
 to Odhin's favourites or conduct them to Walhalla. 
 Sometimes they assume the form of swan-maidens. 
 The Walkvries seem to have much in common with the 
 Noms (q.v.). See P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. 
 of the Teutons, 1902; Reinach. O. 
 
 WA1/PUR6IS NIGHT. The day sacred to St. Wal- 
 purga, sister of St. Wilibald or Willibald (700?-78G), who 
 became Bishop of Eichstadt, was the first of May. The 
 eve of this, the night between 30th April and 1st May, 
 was called " Walpurgis Night." Walpurga or Walburga 
 (d. 779?) was born in England. When her brother Wili- 
 bald went to Germany, she went with him and became 
 abbess of Heidenheim, near Eichstadt. The 1st of May 
 was the date of one of the most important of pagan 
 festivals, that on which was celebrated the beginning of 
 summer. In consequence of this, a number of super- 
 stitions became associated with Walpurgis Night. 
 Witches were supjKvsed to indulge in revels at the 
 ancient places of sacrifice, especially on the Broeken, 
 the highest of the Harz Mountains, riding thither on 
 broom-sticks and he-goats. See the D.N.B.; and Brock- 
 haus. 
 
 WaMAN. The dwarf, one of the incarnations of the 
 Hindu god Vishnu. 
 
 WAND, MAGIC. Among the Hebrews a certain 
 eacredness or magic power seems to have been ascribed 
 to sceptres, rods, or wands. Moses carried in his hand 
 a divine rod (maljeh hu-'elohim, Exod. iv. 20, xvii. 9). 
 With this rod he 'smote the waters (Exod. vii. 20, xiv. 
 16), and the rock (Num. xx. 11). In II. Kings iv. 29 the 
 srtaflf of a prophet seems intended to serve instead of 
 the presence of the prophet himself. In Hosea iv. 12 a 
 staff is even referred to as speaking. In early Egyptian 
 religion the gods are represented as carrj'ing a staff 
 such as every Bedouin cuts for himself at the present 
 day, and the goddesses are provided with a simple reed 
 (Adolf Erman). The wand of the king or priest, which 
 was known as " the great magician," had power to cause 
 the dead to be born again; and Elliot Smith notes (Dr.) 
 that such beliefs and stories of a magic wand are found 
 to-day in scattered localities from the Scottish High- 
 lands to Indonesia and America. He points out also 
 (p 155) that the papyrus sceptre of Astarte is regarded 
 at times as an animate form of the mother-goddess. 
 With this may be compared J. G. Frazer's statement 
 <The Mayic Art, 1911, I. p. 305) that " the sceptre of 
 king Agamemnon, or what passed for such, was wor- 
 shipped as a god at Chaerouea ; a man acted as priest 
 of the sceptre for a year at a time, and sacrifices were 
 offered to it daily." In ancient Mexico (as noted by 
 Marian Edwardes and Lewis Spence, p. 189) the 
 traveller's staff was worshipjjed as a symbol of Yacate- 
 cutli. It was sprinkled with sacrificial blood; incense 
 was burned before it; offerings were presented to it; 
 and prayers and genuflections were made to it. The 
 Mexican Quetzaleoatl was represented as a traveller with 
 a staff in his hand; and Jizo, the god of travellers among 
 the Buddhists of .Tapan, carries a pilgrim's staff. In all 
 such cases we m ly assume that the staff had a religious 
 significance. "ihe Iranian priests used in their magic 
 practices bund! s of magic wands called iaresmdn. These 
 were gathered with certain rites. The so-called " staffs 
 of office " depicted by the cave-dwellers of the Reindeer 
 Age probably played some part in magic ceremonial (so 
 S. Reinach, Cults). The staffs are often marked with 
 regular notches. This suggested to Bemadin, who com- 
 pares the genea'ogical staffs of the Maoris, that the 
 notches were intended to recall the chief's genealogy. 
 
 WANING.A A ritual instrument found among the 
 southern Aninta, the Urabunna and the Loritja in 
 Central Aistralia. It has no one unique model. " Re- 
 
 duced to its most essential elements," it " consists in a 
 vertical support, formed by a long stick or by a lance 
 several yards high, with sometimes one and sometimes 
 two cross-pieces. In the former case, it has the appear- 
 ance of a cross. Cords made either of human hair or 
 opossum or bandicoot fur diagonally cross the &-paoe 
 included between the arms of the cross .and the 
 extremities of the central axis; as they are quite close 
 to each other, they form a network in the form of a 
 lozenge. When there are two crossbars, these cords go 
 from one to the other and from these to the top and 
 bottom of the support. They are sometimes covered 
 with a layer of down, thick enough to conceal the founda- 
 tion. Thus the waninga has the appearance of a verit- 
 able flag " (fimile Durkheim). The waninga is fixed 
 in the earth or earrie<l by an officiant, and marks the 
 central point of a religious ceremony. 
 
 WARBURTON LECTURESHIP. A Lectureship 
 founded in 1709 by William Warburton (1698-1779), 
 Bishop of Gloucester, author of " The Divine Legation 
 of Moses " (part i., 1737, part ii., 1741). The object of 
 the lectures is "to prove the truth of revealed Religion 
 in general and of the Christian in particular from the 
 completion of those prophecies in the Old and New Testa- 
 ments which relate to the Christian Church, especially 
 to the Aixvstacy of Papal Rome." The Lectures are 
 delivered in the Chapel of the Society of Lincoln's Inn, 
 London; and the lectureship may be held for four years. 
 
 WARRENITES. The followers of Samuel Warren 
 (1781-1862). Warren was a Wesleyan preacher in 
 I.;ancashire. In consequence of a dispute, however, 
 with the Wesleyan body, he was expelled from his 
 chapel in 1835. He found many sympathisers. These 
 banded themselves together first as " Associated 
 Methodists " and afterwards as the " United Methodist 
 Free Churches." Warren himself in 1838 took holy 
 orders in the Church of England, and in 1840 became 
 Rector of All Souls, Ancoats, Manchester. 
 
 WAS SEASON. A sacred season among the Singha- 
 lese and Burmese Buddhists. The season lasts three 
 months. The name Was is supposed to have meant 
 originally the rainy season. During these three months 
 the monks must give up the practice which they follow 
 during the rest of the year, that of wandering as mendi- 
 cants from place to place, and must remain in a temple 
 where it is a duty of the laity to supply their needs. 
 The Burmese monks must deny themselve.s their panto- 
 mimic dances. The month after Was is called the 
 " clothing," because during this month the laity make 
 special gifts of clothing to the monks. Hackmann men- 
 tions a curious custom in connection with the " clothing 
 month." Sometimes a number of outfits, by a united 
 effort on the part of the laity, are completed in a single 
 day. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 WATER-DEMONS. Water-demons, having a form 
 that resembles somewhat that of the Egyptian hippo- 
 potamus-goddess Taneret, figure frequently in Late 
 Minoan and Mycenaean art. 
 
 WATER-WALKING. It is noted by Rendel Harris 
 (Boanerges, 1913) that among the Argonauts, as described 
 by Apollonius Rhodius, Euphemus, the swiftest of men, 
 could run on the sea without merging his feet. Traces 
 of the same idea are found in Indian literature. 
 
 WATERLANDERS. A name given before 1664 to the 
 less strict division of the Mennonite Baptists. They 
 were so called because most of them lived in a district 
 in the North of Holland called Waterland. They are 
 also known as Johannites. 
 
 WATTS'S NAZARENES. A name given to bells cast 
 by Hugh Watts (15S2?-1643), of Leicester. The name was 
 due to a favourite inscription.
 
 Waukheon 
 
 383 
 
 Wesleyan Methodists 
 
 WAUKHEON. A deity in tie mythology of the 
 Dakota Indians, a personifieation of the thunder-cloud. 
 He was opposed bv Unl<tahe, the water-god. 
 
 WAY OF THE CROSS. See STATIONS OF THE 
 CROSS. 
 
 WEIGELIANS. The followers or school of the mystic 
 and theosophist, Valentine Weigel (1-533-1588). See 
 MYSTICISM. CHRISTIAN. 
 
 WEIGHING OF SOULS. The weighing of the heart 
 or soul in the Hall of the Truths, where Osiris presided 
 as judge and was assisted by Thoth, Anubis and Horus, 
 is a familiar feature in the Old Egyptian religion. We 
 meet with the same idea in Christian art. St. Michael 
 is represented as weighing the souls of tie departed. 
 Sometimes we find represented also a little imp who is 
 trying to pull down the scales. It .seems clear, as 
 Francis Bond says (Dedications), that St. Michael " has 
 succeeded to the functions of the pagan Hermes or 
 Mercury, who is himself derivative from Egyptian Art." 
 WELSH CALVINISTIC METHODIST' CHURCH. 
 THE. A Metiodist body in Wales which arose Tinder 
 the influence of John Wesley and George Whitefield. but 
 adopted the Calvinistic theology of the latter. Wliite- 
 field's friend. Howell Harris (1714-1773), had already 
 formed various societies similar to those of Wesley. In 
 1743. at a meeting at which Whitefield was present, a 
 union of these societies was regularly constituted, and 
 rules were laid down for the government of the com- 
 munity. The community, however. " though organised 
 in 1743, did not separate from the E.stablished Church 
 for nearly seventy years afterwards " (J. A. Houlder). 
 WEN TI. A Chinese deity, also called Wen Ch'ang 
 Ti Chiin. the god of literature. It is thought that 
 originally he was a man named Chang, and that he 
 experienced many reincarnations. He is identified with 
 part of the con.stellation T'rsa Major. See S. Couling. 
 
 WEPWAWET. An Egyptian deity. The deity has 
 the head of a jackal. In the old religion the word 
 denotes two gods (the word meaning the " guides ") who 
 direct the dead in the paths of the underworld. In the 
 religion of the late period, when it had become the 
 fashion to represent the gods as birds, Wepwawet has 
 become a sparrow with the head of a jackal. Ip Hero- 
 dotus (II.. 122) the Wepwawet gods .seem to appear as 
 two wolves. See Adolf Erman. Handbook. 
 
 WERTHEIM BIBLE. A translation of the Bible, 
 made by Johann Lorenz Schmidt (d. 1751). It seems 
 to have been intended to popularize the results of Eng- 
 lish Deism, French Encyclopedism. and German 
 Aufklaerung (q.v.). The Bible was to be explained on 
 the principle that nothing can be true which contradicts 
 reason. ■• Instead of transporting himself into the 
 thoughts and the poetical spirit of the Bible, he treats 
 it as a text-book of the Leibniz-Wolffian philosophv, 
 renders it in the dullest prose of a cold intellectuality, 
 and puts general intellectual conceptions into the place 
 of its images and similes " (Puenjer). 
 
 WESLEYAN METHODISTS. We-sleyan Methodists 
 or Wesleyans represent the parent body among a number 
 of .sects that arose as a re.sult of the work of John 
 Wesley. The term Stdthodistes was used in France early 
 in the seventeenth century to describe certain theologians 
 who sought to reunite the Huguenots with the Church by 
 stating precisely and fairly the ca.se on both sides. The 
 name was not cho.sen or favoured by John Wesley. 
 When, after having taken his Master's degree. Wesley 
 returned to Oxford (1729). he attached himself to a 
 number of students who with his brother Charles Wesley 
 were in the habit of taking the Sacrament weekly. In 
 this way and in other ways the.se students became noted 
 for a certain seriousness and regularity, and by other 
 
 students they were nick-named Methodists. They culti- 
 vated holiness. studie<l diligently the Bible, and devoted 
 them.selves to Christian and philanthropic work. "They 
 were tenacious of all the doctrines and discipline of the 
 Church of England, aud were scrupulously strict in 
 observing the rubrics and canons " (Prot. Diet.). At 
 this time John Wesley, among other practices, " seems 
 to have been in favour of the strict observance of saints' 
 days and holy days, confession, constant communion, the 
 mixture of water with the sacramental wine." In 1735 
 Wesley went to Georgia in America as a missionary to 
 the Indians. On the voyage he was brought into contact 
 with some Moravians (q.v.). and seems to have been much 
 impressed by them. In America he met the Moravian 
 pastor A. G. Spangenberg. Wesley returned to England 
 in 173S. In London he met the Moravian pastor Peter 
 Boehler. who had been ordained by Zinzendorf in 1737 
 for work in South Carolina. He became interested in a 
 " Religious Society " fouuded in Ijondon by his friend 
 James Hutton. For this society he and Peter Boehler 
 drew up rules, and on May the 12th. 1738. it was 
 organised more fully on the lines of the Herrnliut 
 " Band " system. At a meeting of this society on May 
 the 24th, 173.S. Wesley had that profound religious 
 exx)erience which marked the great turning-point in his 
 life. In July, 1740, Wesley withdrew from the Society, 
 whose iiastor at the time was Philip Henry Molther, and 
 formed a separate society. The new society met in a 
 preaching-house in Windmill Hill (now Windmill Street) 
 called tie Foundery. The service was very simple. But 
 Wesley was accu.stomed to preach in the open-air in 
 various parts of the country. Before the opening of the 
 Foundery, the foundation-stone had been laid in Bristol 
 of another " preaching-house." This involved Wesley 
 in debt, and a meeting was held in 1742 to consider how 
 the money could be raised. The plan adopted led to the 
 institution of " classes." The classes were originally 
 companies into which the Society was divided to facili- 
 tate the collection of money by " leaders of the classes." 
 The members of the classes were visited by their respec- 
 tive leaders. In course of time, instead of l)eing visited, 
 each class met together, and the Class Meeting became 
 an instrument for regulating Chri.st.ian life and conduct 
 and deepening religious experience. In this sense Class 
 Meetings have not suffered much change. " They are 
 usually small gatherings of some dozen to twenty people 
 for strictly devotional purposes, and for giving and 
 getting sympathy and mutual advice in leading a godly 
 life. . . They vary as infinitely as the characteristic 
 of the leader, or person who is accountable to Methodism 
 for those put under his or her spiritual charge; as in- 
 finitely as the characteristics of the members. In some 
 cases it is a .stift'er, in some a more homely meeting. 
 But in every case the word of God is accepted as the 
 rule of life, and the little groups try to help each other 
 to conform to it ; and membership in one of these classes 
 constitutes membership in the Jlethodis-t Society " (Mrs. 
 Sheldon Amos). In 1743 .John Wesley issued a document 
 entitled " The Nature. Design, and General Rules of the 
 United Societies in London. Bristol. Kingswood. and 
 Newcastle-uixm-Tyne." Full members of the Society 
 of "the People called Methodists " were required to con- 
 form to these rules, though in course of time they were 
 altered somewhat. Persistent failure to obsen-e them 
 meant exclusion from the Society. The institution of 
 Classes led in time to the institution of smaller groups 
 called " Bands." These submitted to even stricter rules. 
 There aro.se further " Select Bands " with whom Wesley 
 took counsel. The " Bands " met together quart,erly to 
 observe " love-feasts," the food being only a little plain 
 cake and water. The occasion was and has remained
 
 Wesleyan Methodists 
 
 384 
 
 Westminster Confession, The 
 
 one for recounting spiritual experiences. Speaking of 
 such " love-feasts," Mrs. Sheldon Amos says : As 1 
 remember them, they were occasions on which pieces or 
 currant-bread and water were passed from i>ew to iiew 
 in the chapel, and then, interspersed with smgmg ami 
 praver one short speech after another was made by 
 whoever chose, about the life of Christ in the heart. One 
 would be full of jov and praise for help in trouble, or 
 added and sharpened delight in happy circumstances. 
 Another would tell of heavy-heartedness and clinging 
 faith and hope in God. There was always a feeling of 
 special approach to the presence of God. and I think these 
 meetings were good." An interesting feature of Wes- 
 leyan Methotlism is the extent to which laymen were 
 invited to help Wesley. They were at first lay-helpers. 
 Then the lav-helper became also a lay-preacher. " The 
 pastoral office is shared with the men and women leader.s 
 of classes, the ecclesiastical rule of the Church is share<l 
 with lavmen (and in the lower branches theoretically 
 with women), and even the office of preaching is shared 
 very largelv with lay preachers who live by their own 
 labour and "give their Sundays to preaching in their own 
 neighbourhoods, and sometimes in distant parts of the 
 country. The office of a local preacher is one that has 
 alwavs" been held by men of the most various attainments 
 and 'ix)sitions in the world, and much of the vigorous 
 life of the Methodist Society i« owing to the fact that the 
 ministry is thus felt to be not a far-off office, but one of 
 the functions of the Christian life exercisable by any- 
 one whose capacity for teaching is recognised by a 
 number of his fellows. Many a useful local preacher 
 has wished to be a minister set apart and ordained, but 
 his suitability for Orders has not been clear to the 
 authorities" (Mrs. Sheldon Amos). In 1744 Wesley 
 held a Conference of lay-preachers and sympathetic 
 clergymen. This became a " Yearly Conference of the 
 People called Methodists." In 1784 Wesley drew up a 
 " Deed of Declaration," which nominated one hundre<l 
 preachers as the Conference, and provided for the filling 
 up of vacancies as they occurred. This made Wesleyan 
 Methodism a distinct denomination. This was not John 
 Wesley's original desire. The beginning of the cleavage 
 was made when in 1741, in consequence of exclusion from 
 the Communion Table of the Church, Charles Wesley 
 began to administer the Lord's Supi)er in " uncon- 
 seerated " preaching-houses. The Wesleys had intended 
 their Society to work in connection with the Church. 
 " In .John Wesley's idea Methodism was not to found a 
 Church. He permitted no Methodist service to be held 
 in church hours, and even to the present day in quiet 
 villages the same filial respect is .shown to the National 
 Church The change came when the numbers of persons 
 excluded from the Communion, and treated as pariahs 
 by the clergy, grew so great that it was a practical incon- 
 venience for them to be unable to use the best hours of 
 the Sunday for the services to which they were {ittached " 
 <Mrs. Sheldon Amos). Mrs. Sheldon Amos thinks that 
 " the spirit of dissent which now exists in Methotli-sm 
 is an unnatural excrescence, and will die down again as 
 .soon as fresh life in the Church of England causes the 
 hand of brotherly love to be stretched oiit." John Wesley 
 was himself an ordained clergyman of the Church of 
 England. In 1703 Wesley ordained that the preachers 
 should preach nothing contrary to the teaching of his 
 four volumes of Sermons and his Notes on the New 
 Testament. This is still the rule. We.sley believed that 
 in the Primitive Church bishops and presbyters were the 
 same order. Consequently he held that presbyters have 
 the same right to ordain. To meet the needs of the 
 Methodist mis.sions in North America, in 1784 he ordained 
 Dr. Coke, who was already a priest of the Church of 
 
 England, " Superintendent " (virtually equivalent to 
 Bishop), and Richard Whatcoat and Thomas Vasey 
 " Elders." In 1789 he ordained Henry Moore and 
 Thomas Rankin " Presbyters " that the sacraments might 
 be administered to the Methodists of England, and that; 
 the power to administer them might be transmitted to 
 others. The members of Wesley's Society were called 
 also Precisians. Wesley himself explains that a true 
 Methodist is none other than a true Churchman : in his 
 observance of the rules of the Church for the practice 
 of personal piety he is precise and methodical. See J. 
 H. P.lunt; Prot. Diet.; K.S.W.; J. A. Houlder. 
 
 WESSOBRrNN PRAYER. THE. The manuscript now 
 known as the Wessobrunn Prayer was discovered in the 
 cloister of Wessobrunn in Bavaria. The prayer is in 
 prose, but prefi.xed to it are nine lines of alliterative 
 verse. It is written in Old High German, and dates 
 from the eighth or ninth century. It is concerned with 
 " the almighty God, who, ere earth and sky. tree and 
 mountain were, ere sun and moon shone, ere the sea was, 
 when all about was void, was already then surrounded 
 by many good spirits, he the most bounteous of men, the 
 holy God " (de la Saussaye). Chantepie de la Saussaye 
 considers the prayer to be wholly Christian. J. Grimm, 
 K. Miillenhoff, and others believe it to be a fragment of 
 genuine Teutonic paganism. See P. D. Chantepie de la 
 Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 1902; Brockhaus. 
 
 WESTMINSTER ASSEMBLY. The Assejnbly of 
 Divines was constituted in 1C43. Both Hou.ses of Par- 
 liament had resolved to set up a government " most agree- 
 able to God's word, most apt to procure and preserve 
 the peace of the Church at home, and in nearer agree- 
 ment with the Church of Scotland and other Reformed 
 Churches abroad." The Assembly of Divines therefore 
 was appointed by the Long Parliament, " to be consulted 
 with by the Parliament for the settling of the govern- 
 ment and liturgy of the Church of England, and for 
 vindicating and clearing of the doctrine of the said 
 Church from false aspersions and interpretations." It 
 consisted of one hundred and fifty-one members, who met 
 first in the Chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster, and 
 afterwards in the Jerusalem Chaml)er in the Deanery. 
 " Ten weeks were devoted to the revision of the Thirty- 
 nine Articles to bring them into unequivocally Calvinistic 
 form on the lines of the Lambeth Articles and of Ussher's 
 Irish Articles, and the first fifteen were finished, and sup- 
 plied with Scripture proofs " (W. A. Curtis). The 
 Assembly next prepared a Confession of Faith (see 
 WESTMINSTER CONFESSION). Catechisms (see 
 LARGER CATECHISM, and SHORTER CATECHISM), 
 and a Book of Discipline. See William A. Curtis. 
 
 WESTMINSTER CONFESSION, THE. The West- 
 minster Confession was the result, or rather the chief 
 of the results, of the con.sultations of the Westminster 
 A.ssembly of Divines. It was submitted to Parliament 
 in December VAC, and again in April iri47 with the addi- 
 tion of Scripture proofs. In Scotland it was approved 
 by the Assembly of 1('>47 as " most agreeable to the Word 
 of God, and in nothing contrary to the received doctrine, 
 worship, discipline, and government of this Kirk." In 
 1048, by order of Parliament, it was is.sued in English 
 and Latin, " and enjo.v€Hl, until the Restoration, the 
 unique distinction of being the Confessional standard of 
 the whole United Kingdom " (W. A. Curtis). In 1049, 
 the Scottish Parliament having approved it, the Assembly 
 ordained that " in every house where there is any who 
 can read, there be at least one copy of the Shorter and 
 Larger Catechism, Confession of Faith, and Directory 
 for family worship." W. A. Curtis points out that 
 " though not intended by its English authors to be 
 imposed on the individual conscience as a document for
 
 Whale, Tbe 
 
 385 
 
 White Horse, The Monastery of the 
 
 subscription, it was promptly so used in Scotland." In 
 1690. under William and Marj-, it obtained the royal 
 sanction. According to Curtis, the Westminster Con- 
 fession does for the whole system of Calvinistic doctrine 
 what the Canons of Dort (1019) did for one doctrine. 
 ■' It was the last great Creed-utterauce of Calvinism, 
 and intellectually and theologically it is a worthy child 
 of the Ingtitiitrm', a stately and noble standard for Bible- 
 loving men. While influenced necessarily by Continental 
 learning and controversy, it is essentially British, as well 
 by heredity as by environment ; for not only is it based 
 upon tlie Thirty-nine Articles, modified and supple- 
 mented in a definitely Calvinistic sense at Lambeth and 
 at Dublin, but it literally incorporates Tssher's Irish 
 Articles, accepting their order and titles, and using, often 
 without a word of change, whole sentences and para- 
 graphs. ... It still remains, in spite of changing 
 times and altered formulae of adherence, the honoured 
 symbol of a great group of powerful Churches throtigh- 
 out the British Empire and the great American 
 Republic, embracing within their membership a large 
 proportion of the foremost representatives of the world's 
 highest material, social, educational, moral, and religious 
 interests. The English-speaking Presbyterian Churches 
 throughout the world without exception adhere either to 
 it or to .some comjiaratively slight modification of it: 
 while its hold, direct or indirect, upon Congregationa lists 
 and Baptists and others is a further tribute to its power 
 both of education and of revival."' See William A. 
 Curtis. 
 
 WHAiE. THE. It is noted by Donald A. Mackenzie 
 (Crete) that in Palseolithle times the spines of fish were 
 laid as channs on the bodies of the dead: and also that 
 the Ligurian and Cretan Neolithic i>eople seem to have 
 used the backbones of whales as charms. Among the 
 Peruvians of the coast in Incan times the whale was wor- 
 shipped, and was called Mamacocha or " Mother Sea." 
 
 WHEEL. THE. One of the seven royal treasures of 
 the ideal king, or king of kings, of the Buddhists (or 
 rather of the pre-Buddhist.s) is the treasure of the wheel. 
 This wheel became one of the symbols of Gautama. It 
 has six, eight, or even a thou.sand .spokes. Hackmann 
 thinks that by the rolling whe<i'l. as applied to Gautama, 
 the spiritual ruler of the world, is typified the spread of 
 his teaching. The wheel is supposed to appear to the 
 ideal king when, after purifying him.self. he ascends to 
 the upper story of his palace to keep the sacred day. 
 Rhys Davids explains that the wheel was suggested by 
 the Vedic poetry, which describes the sun as rolling across 
 the space of heaven in his victorious course. " And like 
 the sun, when the wondrous wheel appears to the great 
 king, it rolls onwards to the very extremities of the 
 world conquering and to conquer. But the wheel of the 
 ancient sun-worship is now subordinated to the king who 
 has purified himself." See T. W. Rhys Davids: H. 
 Hackmann. 
 
 WHEEL OF LIFE. What is called a " wheel of life " 
 figures prominently in lyamaism. The wheel is painted 
 ou the walls of the verandas of temples. It has six 
 spokes, and the divisions between the spokes represent 
 six regions in which a new existence may be found. 
 These are : the region of the heavens: the region of the 
 semi-celestial Titans: the region of the man world: the 
 region of the animal world: the region of ghosts; and 
 the region of th-.' hells. Entwined about the wheel is 
 the figure of a demon. See H. Hackmann. 
 
 WHITE BRETHREN. A body of religious enthusiasts 
 who were prominent in Italy early in the fourteenth 
 century. They were so called because they wore white 
 robes and hoods. Their leader profcs-sed to be Elijah, 
 the herald of the Second Advent, and he wished to lead 
 
 his followers to a crusade against the Turks in the Holy 
 I-and. The ^Tiite Brethren came into conflict with some 
 of the papal troops of Boniface IX. They were dispersed, 
 and their leader was captured, and burned as a heretic. 
 See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 WHITE CANONS. A name given in England to the 
 Premonstratensians. They are also known as Nor- 
 bertines. because the order was founded by St. Norbert 
 (ri. 1134). They were called White Canons because their 
 habit was white. 
 
 WHITE CAPS. A name given to members of one of 
 the American Vigilance Societies (q.v.) from their prac- 
 tice of wearing white hoods in order to conceal their 
 faces, 
 
 WHITE DOVES. A religious sect in South Russia 
 which came into prominence in 187G by coming into con- 
 flict with the authorities. 
 
 WHITE FATHERS. A Roman Catholic congregation 
 founded in Algiers in 1S(>8 by Cardinal Lavigerie (1825- 
 1892). 
 
 WHITEFIELDITES. The followers of George White- 
 field (1714-1770). who became domestic chaplain to I^ady 
 Huntingdon (1748). See HUNTINGDON'S CONNEXION. 
 
 WHITE FRIARS. A name by which the Carmelites 
 (q.r.) were known in England. 
 
 WHITE HORSE, THE MONASTERY OF THE. The 
 oldest monastery in China is called " the Monastery of 
 the White Horse." A. Lloyd says that in Japan also the 
 White Hor.se is held in reverence. In several temples a 
 white horse is kept constantly. In certain Japanese 
 provinces in which As'vaghosha is regarded as the patron 
 .saint of silk culture, " he is said to have appeared as a 
 thou.sand white hor.ses, to have made a thousand white 
 birds sing, to have assumed the forms of countless silk- 
 worms, to have spun thousands of eoc-oons, to have saved 
 many thou.sands of living creatures " (Lloyd). In any 
 case, the White Horse played an important role in the 
 development of religion in China. In (U A.D. the Chinese 
 Emperor Ming-ti is said to have dreamed night after 
 night that he saw standing before him a man clothed in 
 golden raiment. He held in his hand a bow and arrows 
 and jwinted to the West. Ming-ti was .so much impressed 
 that he decided to send men to the West to search for 
 " the true man " who had appeared to him. His mes- 
 sengers .started for India. On their way they met two 
 monks who were leading over the mountain passes a 
 white horse laden with Scriptures and Buddhist images, 
 Ming-ti's messengers felt that they had found what they 
 wanted, and that it was unnecessary to continue their 
 journey. The monks accompanied them to the Chinese 
 capital and were lodged in a monastery which has since 
 been known as " the Monastery of the White Horse." 
 One of the books which the two monks are supposed to 
 have brought with them is known as the " Sutra of the 
 Forty-Two Sections," a collection of logw or short pithy 
 .sayings. The origin of the collection is not certain. It 
 has even been suggested that the two monks were not 
 Buddhi.st missionaries, but Christian disciples of St. 
 Thomas. The suggestion is supported by A. Lloyd, who 
 urges several considerations in .support of it. Although 
 we know of such logia among early Christians, there are 
 no similar logia, Llo.vd believes, " in the whole range of 
 Buddhist Sutra literature, except those which were com- 
 piled about this period for like puriJOses." On the whole 
 the main contents of the collection will be found " to be 
 not in disagreement with Christian doctrines, and far 
 more suitable for Chri.stian purposes than the Epistle of 
 St. James (which has been claimed as a Buddhist 
 writing) would be for the use of disciples of S'akyamuni." 
 The component parts of the character which was intro- 
 duced to represent Buddha are said to represent a man
 
 White Lotus Society, The 
 
 386 
 
 Winebrennerians 
 
 with a bow and arrows. Lloyd suggests that the char- 
 acter is capable of another signification besides the one 
 usually given—" the three first letters of the name of the 
 Perfect Man. our cherished monogram IHC. the man 
 with the bows and arrows! " Curiously enough, in the 
 Book of Revelation (vi. 2) we read : " And I saw. and 
 behold, a white horse, and he that sat thereon had a 
 bow: and there was given unto him a crown: and he 
 came forth conquering and to conquer." The mission 
 of the White Horse was not followed up by the Buddhists 
 of India, a fact which seems to A. Lloyd to point to 
 " its not having been a Buddhist mission at all. for the 
 Buddhists would surely not have neglected to follow up 
 so gracious an invitation from so powerful a monarch as 
 Ming-ti." See Arthur Lloyd. 
 
 WHITE LOTUS SOCIETY, THE. The White Lotus 
 Societv was an association of Buddhist monks and lay- 
 men founded by Eon (died A.D. 4iri) of China, for the 
 joint adoration of Amida Butsu (the Buddha Amida). It 
 was the first body of the kind. The place of its origin 
 was Rozan, south of the Yangtze, where Eon laboured 
 and had the support of friends who were knovm as the 
 " eighteen sages of Rozan." According to A. Lloyd, Eon 
 devoted himself to a monastic life and the worship of 
 Amida, without troubling very much about the Amida 
 Scriptures. " It has been said that he was a Manich.-pan : 
 the White Lotus Society still exists in China. I am told, 
 and its members sing hymns which it is hard to dis- 
 tingui.sh from Christian ones." See Arthur Lloyd. 
 
 WHITE QUAKERS. The religious body which 
 received the name of " White Quakers " was founded in 
 Ireland bv Joshua Jacob (18057-1S77), after he had been 
 disowned by the Society of Friends (1S38). The members 
 of the sect were so called because they wore undyed gar- 
 ments. Their leader objected to the use of newspapers, 
 bells, clocks, and watches. He was imprisoned for two 
 years on a charge of misappropriating money belonging 
 to some orphans. Afterwards (about 1S49) he established 
 a community at Newslands, Clondalkin. " The members 
 of this establishment lived in common, abstaining from 
 flesh-food, and making bruised corn the staple of their 
 diet, flour being rejected " (D.N.B.). See the Dictionary 
 of National Biography. 
 
 WHITE SUNDAY. A name given to the first Sunday 
 after Easter, because in the Roman Catiolic Church the 
 newly-baptised wore their white robes for the last time. 
 It is called in the Missal and Breviary " Dominica in 
 Albis." Other names are Quasimodogeniti (g.v.) and 
 Low Sunday. 
 
 WHITE WEEK. A name given to the week after 
 Easter, becau.se during this week the newly-baptised 
 catechumens appeare<l in their white garments. 
 
 WHITSUN-FARTHINGS. Whitsun-farthings or 
 
 smoke-farthings were offerings formerly made at Whit- 
 suntide to the cathedral by persons in tlie diocese who 
 lived in a house with a chimnev. 
 
 WHITSUNTIDE. The Prayer Book of the Church of 
 England speaks of the week following Whit f^unday as 
 Whitsun Week and of the Monday as Whitsun Monday. 
 Whit Sunday is, like Pentecost, the fiftieth day after 
 Ea.ster Day. It has been suggested that Whitsun is a 
 corruption of Pfingsten, the German name for Pentecost. 
 Another conjecture is that Whit Sunday was called 
 originally White Sunday on account of the white gar- 
 ments worn by catechumens. The Feast commemorates 
 the bestowal of the gift of the Spirit upon the apo.stles 
 and the foundation of the Christian Church. A writer 
 of about the fourteenth century seems to assume that 
 Whit is equivalent to Wit or Wisdom (see W. Benham). 
 
 WILBURITES. One of the divisions of the Societv of 
 Friends (see QUAKERS), being the followers of John 
 
 Wilbur. When Elias Hicks caused a schism in the 
 Society in America by his rationalism, some of the 
 orthodox party, led by Joseph John Gumey (1788-1847), 
 of Norwich, England, thought that further secession 
 would be avoided if the stringency of their doctrines were 
 relaxed a little. John Wilbur opposed this tendency, 
 and the Wilburites became the strictly orthodox party. 
 
 WILD HUNT. What is known as the " Wild Hunt " 
 or the " Furious Host " is an old Teutonic legend. Some- 
 times at night a great noise was heard, or seemed to be 
 heard, in the air. This was supposed to be a wild hiint 
 in which huntsmen shouted, and dogs bayed, while a host 
 of spirits rushed along with them. Originally, it would 
 seem, the Wild Huntsman was Wodan (q.v.). The 
 shouting and l)aying represent the howling and raging 
 of the tempest sent by the Wind-god. Since Wodan was 
 also god of the dead, the .souls of the departed were 
 thought of as accompanying him. There are various 
 versions of the legend. " The Wild Hunt 's at times 
 in pursuit of an animal, a boar, cow, deer, or again of a 
 woman, the Windshraut. When a storm is raging, the 
 host draws near. The beginning of the winter, the ill- 
 famed Twelve Nights, is more especially its chosen time " 
 (Chantepie de la Saussaye). See P. D. Chantepie de la 
 Saussaye. The Rel. of the Teutons, 1902: Chambers' 
 Encycl.; Brockhaus. 
 
 WILEMITAE. Another name for the Bohemian 
 Brethren (q.v.). 
 
 WILHELMIANS. The followers of one Wilhelmina of 
 Milan {d. 1281). She asserted that the angel Raphael 
 announced her birth to her mother. Influenced by the 
 teaching of the Abbot Joachim (1130-1200). she further 
 declared herself to be an incarnation of the Holy Spirit. 
 Sent to save Saracens, Jews, and false Christians, she 
 would, she said, suffer as Christ did, and afterwards rise 
 from the dead. See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 WILKINSONIANS. 1. A branch of the Brownists 
 {q.v.). They took their name from their leader Wilkin- 
 son. The Wilkinsonians declared that they were 
 Apostles like Peter and Paul. 2. The followers of Jemima 
 Wilkinson (175.S-1819) in America. She said that she 
 had risen from the dead and was perfect. She claimed 
 also to work miracles and to prophesy. The designation 
 which she herself gave to her followeirs was that of 
 " Universal Friends." See J. H. Blunt. 
 
 WILLIAMS'S LIBRARY. DR. A Library founded in 
 171(5 by Daniel Williams (ir>43?-1716). From lfi87 to 1716 
 Dr. Williams was Presb.vterian minister at Hand Alley, 
 Bishopsgate, I^ondon. He also became lecturer at 
 Painters' Hall, but in 1094 he was dismis.sed from his 
 lectureship in consequence of a book which he had 
 published. " Gospel Truth " (1(;92). He left large sums 
 of money for religious and scholastic work. Dr. 
 Williams's Library is primarily a Theological Library 
 intended for tiie use of ministers, students, and other 
 persons engaged in the .study of Theology. Ecclesiastical 
 History. (Comparative Religion, and kindred subjects. 
 But it is also serviceable to students of History, 
 Philosophy, Economics, the History of I.rfin.guage, and 
 Literature, including Classical Literature both ancient 
 and modem. There is no subscription, and the readers 
 are not confined to anv particular denomination. 
 
 WINEBRENNERIANS. The followers of John Wine- 
 brenner (1797-1860), who was originally a minister of the 
 German Reformed Church in Harrisburg. Penn. He was 
 in charge of four churches in which there was a 
 '■ revival." The revival led in course of time to separa- 
 tion from the German Reformed Church. The new con- 
 gregations became " spiritual, free, and independent 
 churches." In 1830 a conference was held to decide upon 
 the constitution of " The Church of God," as the new
 
 Winged Disc, The 
 
 387 
 
 Witchcraft 
 
 body was called. It was decided that churches should 
 consist of •• believers only ": that they should be " with- 
 out sectarian or human name"; that they should have 
 ••no creed and discipline but the Bible": that they 
 should be under no foreign jurisdiction: and that " they 
 should be governed by their own officers, chosen by a 
 majority of the members of each individual church." 
 Winebrenner presided over the Conference, which 
 inaugurated an Annual Conference or Eldership. The 
 ministers were called elders. Baptism, Feet-washing, 
 and the Lord's Supper constitute '■ positive ordinances 
 of perpetual standing in the church." The third of these 
 should be " administered to Christians only, in a sitting 
 posture, and always in the evening." See J. Wine- 
 brenner in Rupp's Religious Denominations, 1S44; Schaff- 
 Herzog. 
 
 WINGED DISC, THE. The winged disc or solar disc 
 is a figure composed of a disc, representing the sun, and 
 two wings, one on each side of it. There is i)erhaps 
 reference to it in the Old Te.?tament (Malaehi iv. 2 : " the 
 sun of righteousness shall arise with healing in his 
 wings": see however, the Journal of the Manchester 
 Egyptian and Oriental Society, 1917, p. 67.). In any 
 case, it has been a common religious symbol in ancient 
 Egypt, Babylonia, and elsewhere. According to Pro- 
 fessor Elliot Smith, indeed, it originated in Egypt, and 
 was carried thence all over the world. " The winged 
 disc with a pair of serpents is the commonest and most 
 distinctive symbol of the ancient Egyptian religion, and 
 is constantly found car\-ed upon the lintels of the great 
 doors of the temples. It appeared in a great variety of 
 forms in Egypt and was widely adopted and distributed 
 abroad, especially by the Phoenicians (see Count 
 d'Alviella, •• The Migration of Symbols," 1894, p. 204 et 
 seq.)." It is found in Asia Minor, Assyria, Babylonia, 
 and Persia, as well as in Carthage, Cyprus. Sardinia, 
 and elsewhere in the Mediterranean. " In modified forms 
 it occurs in India and the Far East, and ultimately it 
 re-appears in America in a practically complete form and 
 in precisely homologous situations, upon the lintels of 
 doors in sun-temples. But the curious feature of these 
 American winged di.'«s is that they are invariably re- 
 versed : and the body of the serpent, which even in the 
 Egyptian models is often conventionalized into a lattice- 
 like pattern, is now replaced by a geometrical design. 
 This only becomes intelligible wh<'n it is compared 
 with the (reversed) Egyptian original " (G. Elliot 
 Smith, Anc. Egypt. Civ.. 1916, p. 31). In most 
 cases the design is still further modified in a 
 characteristically American manner. Often the place 
 of the sun's disc is taken by the face of the god. 
 The American development of the winged disc is 
 essentially geometrical, and Dr. Rivers has pointed out 
 that the transformation of a naturalistic into a geometri- 
 cal design is usually due not to simplification, but to a 
 blending of different cultural influences. 
 
 WISDOM-LITERATrRE. A name given to those 
 Hebrew writings which deal with problems of practical 
 religion. Prof. Comill points out that the Hebrew 
 Wisdom-literature " is not philosophic, but theological, 
 or — if the term be preferred — theosophical speculation." 
 Prof. Toy (Encycl. Bihl.) classes it as a kind of 
 philosophy. " Inasmuch as it seeks to discover what is 
 permanent and universal in life (which is the aim of 
 philosophy), it may be described as the pre-Philonie 
 Hebrew philosophy." The writings which belong to this 
 class are : Job, .some of the Psalms. Proverbs. Eccles- 
 iasticus. Ecclesiastes, Wisdom of Solomon. The most 
 remarkable of these is the Book of Job. See Encyl. 
 Bihl.; C. Comill, Intr. 
 
 WISDOM OF JESUS THE SON OF SIRACH, THE. 
 
 Another name for the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus. 
 It is also known as The Book of Ben Sira. Jesus the 
 son of (Ben) Sira or Siraeh is claimed as the author. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT. According to Grimm the word Witch 
 is derived from the Gothic word veihan (German 
 treihen), which meant originally " to perform (rites)." 
 The earlier meaning of the term was " a woman regarded 
 as having supernatural or magical power and know- 
 ledge " (Findlater). The word then came to denote (in 
 the Middle Ages, for instance) a woman who was sup- 
 po.«ed to have formed a compact with the devil, or with 
 evil spirits, in virtue of which she was able to work 
 supematurally and to do harm to men and beasts. The 
 Catholic Dictionarii defines Witchcraft as "a power, real 
 or supposed, of producing, in concert with an evil spirit, 
 effects beyond the reach of natural means and opera- 
 tions." A belief in magic and sorcery is found every- 
 where in ancient times, and even in modem times among 
 primitive folk. But a distinction has been made between 
 authorised and unauthorised exponents of the art. 
 While the medicine-man has inspired people with a kind 
 of religious awe, the witch has filled them with a sense 
 of terror. The evils of real witchcraft are manifest, 
 and real witches deserved to be ruthlessly exterminated. 
 The danger was, and proved to be a terrible reality, that 
 harmless persons might in spite be accused of practising 
 witchcraft. In Africa •' countless millions of human 
 beings have been slain as sorcerers and witches on the 
 accusation of professional witch-doctors " (J. M. Robert- 
 son, P.C.). In Europe, in the thirteenth century, began 
 a war of extermination against witches which develoi)ed 
 into a horrible mania. In this war the innocent suffered 
 with the guilty. It seems indeed to be a law of human 
 progress that innocent persons must suffer or be sacri- 
 ficed. If the innocent had not suffered, the superstition 
 involved in the burning and drowning of witches would 
 have persisted longer. It is customary to lay all the 
 blame for the hunting down of witches upon the Church. 
 " No .saint, no pope, no Christian scholar rebuked the 
 great crime of the Middle Ages. In the fifteenth and 
 sixteenth centuries pope after pope solemnly sanctioned 
 and encouraged it. Innocent III., in 14S4, gave a fearful 
 impetus to the slaughter throughout Euroite, urging the 
 Dominican monks on with awful effect. The Reformers 
 joined in the error, and Protestant lands were just as 
 much desecrated as Catholic. No estimate of the number 
 of victims is possible, but details such as a French judge 
 boasting that he has accounted for 900 witches in fifteen 
 years, or a Swiss judge dealing with 1,000 cases in one 
 year, give .some idea. The horror that was added to life 
 by the hunts of Inquisitors, and the mon.strous nature of 
 their courts, can hardly be realised." So writes Joseph 
 ilcCabe (The Bible in Europe, 1907). The Church and 
 the Bible were to blame. But if " not a saint or prelate, 
 from Francis of A.«sisi to Wesley, was moved to protest," 
 as he .says, one wonders what must have been the mental 
 condition of the mass of the people or what it would 
 have been without the (Jhureh. The natural inference 
 is that to a large extent the excesses were due on the 
 one hand to an impatient religious zeal and on the other 
 hand to the interference of a lawless lay element. The 
 history of witchcraft shows that the persecution of 
 witches is often due to popular superstition. J. C. Oman 
 (Cults, 190S) thinks that since 1S02 thousands of witches 
 in India " must have perished in out-of-the-way places at 
 the hands of their superstitious countrymen, with the 
 knowledge and connivance of the equally superstitious 
 village police." One of the methods of testing witches 
 has been that of the trial by water. " In Hadramaut, 
 according to MacrizT, when a man was injured by enchant- 
 ment, he brought all the witches suspect to the sea or to
 
 Wodan 
 
 388 
 
 Xaverian Brothers 
 
 a deep pool, tied stones to their backs and threw them 
 into the water. She who did not sink was the guilty 
 person, the meaning evidently being that the sacred 
 element rejects the criminal " (W. Robertson Smith, 
 U.S.). The idea of the Witches' Sabbath which once pre- 
 vailed throughout Europe had an ancient pagan founda- 
 tion. It was believed " that certain women, having 
 made a bargain with the devil, betook themselves to the 
 ' Sabbath ' on grotesque steeds, and there acquired re- 
 doubtable powers for evil " (Reinach). See Ghamhcrs's 
 Encycl.; Cath. Diet.; W. B. H. Lecky, History of 
 Rationalism in Europe; E. B. Tylor, P.O.; H. C. Lea, 
 Eist. of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, vol. iii., 1887; 
 G. Steinhausen. Quellen und Studien zur Oeschichte der 
 H exenprocesse, 1S9S; Reinach, O. 
 
 WODAN. Wodan or Odhin was one of the chief 
 deities of the Ancient Teutons. Tacitus regarded him 
 as the supreme deity, and speaks of him as Mercury. 
 He was one of the chief gods of the Frisians and 
 the Saxons. He figures prominently in one of the 
 Merseberg Charms (q.v.), which were discovered at 
 Merseburg in Saxony. The cult was wide.spread among 
 the Anglo-Saxons. Wodan was worshipped also by the 
 Norsemen. Norse literature suggests, however, that Thor 
 (9.1'.) was more generally worshipped in Norway as the 
 national deity, and that Wodan was introduced from 
 outside. Originally he would seem to have been a god of 
 the Istvseones mentioned by Tacitus. The name Wodan 
 is derived from a root meaning " to blow," and Wodan 
 is the wind god. Since wind may be harmful or bene- 
 ficial, it is natural that he should have been also a god 
 of war and a god of agriculture and fertility. He is the 
 commander of the " Furious Host " or the leader in the 
 " Wild Hunt " (q.v.). He is represented as riding on 
 a dapple-grey horse or on a steed known as Yggdrasil, 
 and as being a great wanderer or traveller. In Norse 
 literature and in German popular tradition he has become 
 god of the dead, especially of fallen heroes, whom he 
 welcomes to Walhalla ((/.t'.), the happy meeting-place. 
 He developed further into a god of wisdom, of secret 
 wisdom and the magic arts. A triad is sometimes formed 
 by Loki (q.v.), Hoenir (q.v.), and Wodan. When the 
 first men were formed, Loki is said to have given them 
 warmth and colour, Hcenir souls, and Wodan breath. 
 Wodan's name survives in the English Wednesday. See 
 P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 
 1902: R.8.W.; Reinach, O. 
 
 WOLFENBUBTTEL FRAGMENTS. In 1777 G. E. 
 I^essing (1729-1781), who since the year 1770 had been 
 Librarian at Wolfenbuettel, published a work, " Wolfen- 
 buettelsche Pragmente eines Ungenannten." The frag- 
 ments were very bold in their criticism of the origins of 
 Christianity, and when the authorship became known a 
 
 considerable stir was created. The author was Hermann 
 Samuel Reimarus (1694-17(18), who had been Professor 
 of Hebrew at the Gymnasium of Hamburg. See Gustav 
 Pfanmueller, Jesus im Urteil der Jahrhwiderte, 1908. 
 
 WORD, THE MAGIC. Morris Jastrow remarks (Viv., 
 p. 428) that '■ to have a name " according to ideas widely 
 prevalent in antiquity was to exist. Hence in an 
 Assyrian Creation-tablet, to express the idea of non- 
 existence of heaven and earth, it is said that they were 
 not named. In the O.T. book of Genesis (i.), Gotl has 
 only to pronounce the word "Light " for light to come 
 into existence. For this D. G. Brinton (R.P.P., p. 91) 
 compares a corresponding myth among the Quich6 
 Indians of Central America. The maker of the world 
 calls forth, rieii ! Earth, and at the word the solid land 
 grew forth (Popol Viih, ir Livre Sacrd des Quiches, p. 
 10). " It is to be noted that the magical influence of the 
 word is independent of its meaning. It is distinctly not 
 the idea, image, or truth which it conveys to which is 
 ascribed its efficacy. On the contrary, the most potent 
 of all words are those which have no meaning at all or 
 of which the sense has been lost. . . . The same fact 
 is abundantly shown in the cabalistic jargon of classical 
 and mediifval diviners, and in the charms drawn from 
 contemporary folklore. Indeed, the famous cabalist, 
 Pico de Mirandola, asserts that a word without meaning 
 has most influence over the demons " (Brinton, p. 92). 
 Even long communications may be made in articulate 
 sounds which convey no thought whatever. 
 
 WORTHIES, THE NINE. A select number of heroes 
 in the world's history. The heroes are : Joshua, David, 
 and Judas Maccabaeus (101 B.C.) among the Jews; 
 Hector of Troy, Alexander the Great (323 B.C.), and 
 Julius Caesar (44 B.C.) among the pagans; and King 
 Arthur of Britain (542 A.D.), Charlemagne of France 
 (814 A.D.), and Godfrey of Bouillon (1100 A.D.) among 
 Christians. 
 
 WROBITBS. The followers of John Wroe (1782- 
 18f)3). They called themselves Christian Israelites 
 (q.v.). Wroe was himself a follower of Joanna South- 
 cott, from whom the Southcottians (q.v.) received their 
 name. 
 
 WURRAWILBEROO. Two demons in the religion of 
 the Euahlayi tribe of Australia. They come to earth 
 .sometimes in whirlwinds; try to catch the spirits of the 
 dead; and bring disgrace on women. " Wurrawilberoo 
 is said to snatch up a baby spirit sometimes and whirl 
 along towards some woman he wi.shes to discredit, and 
 through the medium of this woman he incarnates perhaps 
 twins, or at least one baby " (K. Langloh Parker, The 
 Euahlayi Tribe. 1905). 
 
 WYCLIFFITES. The followers of John Wycliffe 
 (1325-1384). See LULLARDS. 
 
 X 
 
 XARATANGA. A Mexican deity, an earth and maize 
 goddess. 
 
 XAVERIAN BROTHERS. A Roman Catholic order 
 established in North Brabant. Holland, in 184fi, by 
 Theodore James Ryken. The Brothers undertook to 
 
 devote their lives to the Chri.stian education of youth. 
 Ryken called himself Brother Francis Xavier in honour 
 of Francis Xavier or Xaver (1500-1552), the Apostle of 
 the Indians. He opened a college at Bruges, and called 
 it St. Francis Xavier's College. The Brothers have
 
 Xcacau 
 
 389 
 
 Yama 
 
 worked also in England since 1848, and in tbe United 
 States since 1851. In the United States its sphere of 
 work is very extensive. See Cath. Diet. 
 
 XCACAU. A tribal god of fertility in the religion of 
 the Ma.van Indians. 
 
 XEROI'HAGY. The Greek word xerophagia means 
 '• dry food." The term Xerophagy occurs in Greek and 
 Latin writers as the equivalent of fasting. 
 
 XILONEN. A Mexican goddess, protectress of the 
 young maize-ear. 
 
 XIPE. A god worshipijed by the Aztecs. Human 
 sacrifice was a feature in the worship, victims being 
 crucified. 
 
 XISUSTHROS. The name given by writers who 
 depend upon Berosus as that of the hero of the Baby- 
 Ionian deluge. It is a distortion of the expression Adra- 
 Khasis w.hich is found in the Gilgamesh Epic (.q.v.) as 
 an epithet for Parnapishtim. Adra-Khasis was read 
 Khasis-adra and then Xisusthros. See Morris Jastrow, 
 Rel. 
 
 XIUHTECUTLI. Xiuhtecutli was one of the gods 
 worshipiied by the ancient Mexicans, the Fire-god. The 
 name means " lord of tire." As the other name of the 
 god, Huehueteotl, " the old god," suggests, he was one 
 of the oldest deities. There are points of resemblance 
 between him and both Tezcatlipoca (q.v.) and Huitzilo- 
 pochtli {q.v.}. As in the case of the former, his con- 
 nection with the sun was represented by a mirror. As 
 
 in the case of the latter, a dough image of the go<l pla.ved 
 an important part in one of his festivals. The image 
 was raisetl on a cross. Afterwards it was thrown down, 
 and the fragments were eaten by those who took part in 
 the festival. Xiuhtecutli, besides being the god of 
 thunder and lightning, was tie divinity of the domestic 
 hearth. Lewis Spence mentions that a piece of bread 
 and a libsition were consecrated to Xiuhtecutli by the 
 members of an Aztec family every morning on rising. 
 Among his emblems are the 'flre-snake and the butterfly. 
 At his chief feast living victims were cast into a large 
 brazier. See Spence, Myth.; J. M. Robertson, " The 
 Religions of Ancient America," in R.ff.W.; P.O. 
 
 XMUKANE. A tribal deity, a disease-god, in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 XOCHBITUM. A tribal deity, god of singing, in the 
 religion of the Ma.yan Indians. 
 
 XOCHIPILLI. A Mexican deity, god of flowers, dance, 
 song and games. 
 
 XOCHIQUETZAL. A Mexican deity, goddess of 
 flowers, love and pregnancy. She was also the patroness 
 of weaving and embroidery. 
 
 XOLOTL. A Mexican deity, go<l of twins and mon- 
 strosities. He is repre.sented as dog-headed. 
 
 XPIYAKOK. A tribal deity, a disease-god. in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. 
 
 XTOH. A tribal god of fertility in the religion of the 
 Mayan Indians. 
 
 YACATECUTLI. A Mexican deity, god of the guild 
 of travelling merchants. His symbol, the staff of the 
 traveller, was treated as a god. Incense was burned to 
 it; offerings of flowers, tobacco, etc., were presented to 
 it; prayers and genuflections were made to it. To the 
 god himself, slaves, fattened for the purijose, were often 
 sacrificed. 
 
 YADAYIM. The title of one of the Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. and 
 are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection or 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or 
 the Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates 
 of the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Yadsiyim is the eleventh tractate of the sixth 
 group, which is called Tohoroth (" Purifications "). 
 
 YAHWEH. The pronunciation of the Hebrew divine 
 name Y-h-w-h (or Y-h-v-h) adopted by modern Christian 
 scholars. The Jews refrained from prono meing the 
 sacred name Y-h-w-h. Wherever this name occurs in 
 the Old Testament they pronounce it Adonav (Mv Lord), 
 or sometimes Elohim (God). Christians have long been 
 accustomed to pronounce the word Y-h-w-h, Yehovah or 
 Jehovah (using the vowels of Adonay). Modern 
 Christian scholars, however, believe that the true pro- 
 nunciation, which the Jews had forgotten at an earlv 
 period, is Yahweh or Jahveh. There is a verb hayah 
 or havah in Hebrew which means " to be " or " to 
 become " and makes its Imperfect or Future tense 
 
 Yahweh. Yahweh might mean "he who exists (abso- 
 lutely) " or " he who is .self-exi.stent " or " he will be 
 (with us)." Or it might even mean •' he who causes to 
 be," or " he who c-alls into existence." The name is 
 used in the Old Testament as the peculiar name of the 
 God of Israel distinguishing him from the gods of other 
 nations. For another suggestion regarding the pro- 
 nunciation of the name, see the article TETRAGRAM- 
 MATON, THE. 
 
 YAJUR VEDA. The Y'ajur Veda is one of the sacred 
 books of the Hindus. It belongs not to the strictly Vedio 
 period, which is represented by the Rig Veda (q.v.) 
 and Atharva Veda, but to a following period. With 
 the Sama Veda (q.v.). the Yajur Veda introduces a new 
 period, the Brahmanic i)eriod. The Ya.iur Veda con- 
 tains the sacrificial formulae used by the priests. To 
 these formulae exjilanatory remarks have been added. 
 See Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 YAMA. Yama is one of the deities in Hinduism. At 
 first he was regarded as a man, the " first of mortals," 
 corresponding, it would seem, to the Hebrew Adam. In 
 course of time, however, he came to be regarded as the 
 king of the dead, the god of departed spirits. In one of 
 tile hymns of the Rig Veda addres.sed to the " god of 
 departed spirits " the following lines (as translated by 
 Monier-Williams) occur: 
 
 To Yama. mie:hty kins, be gifts and homage paid. 
 He was the first of men that died, the first to brave 
 Death's rapid rushin? stream, the first to point the road 
 To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode.
 
 Yamaka 
 
 390 
 
 Yellow-Cap Buddhists 
 
 As the first man Tama had a twin sister Tami, and both 
 of them -were children of Vivasvat the Sun. The older 
 mythology made Yami the wife also of Yama and the 
 mother of mankind. When Yama became king of the 
 dead his abode was the upper sky, and two four-eyed 
 watch-dogs guarded the approach to it. Sometimes his 
 abode seems to be thought of as being actually m the 
 sun It is said, for instance : " my home is there where 
 are the sun's rays." Yama's friend and even messenger 
 is Agni (q.v.). Finally Yama developed {e.g., in the 
 Epic Poems) into the stern Judge who condemns and 
 punishes the dead. He is " the Punisher," or " the King 
 of Justice," or " the Rod-bearer," or the " Noose-bearer." 
 He is represented sometimes as holding in his hand a 
 noose, " with which he binds the spirit and its subtle 
 frame after drawing it from the sick man's body " 
 (Monier-Williams). But if a man dies with the wonder- 
 ful Tulasi plant near him, however many sins he may 
 have committed, Yama cannot look upon him. See 
 Monier-Williams; E. W. Hopkins. 
 
 YAMAKA. A Buddhist sacred book in the third divi- 
 sion of the Canon. See CANON, BUDDHIST. 
 
 YAMI. In Hinduism Yami is the sister of the first 
 man Yama (q.v.), who when he died became king of the 
 dead. In the older mythology she is represented as being 
 al!50 his wife and the mother of mankind. Both are 
 children of Vivasvat, the Sun. See Monier-Williams; E. 
 W. Hopkins. 
 
 YANADIS, RELIGION OP THE. The Yanadis are a 
 tribe which inhabits the Telugu country in India. Their 
 headquarters is the island of Sriharikotii in the Nellore 
 district. Their places of worship are called devara indlu, 
 "houses of the gods." "They worship a household 
 god, a village goddess of local importance, and a deity 
 of wider repute and influence. Chenchu Devudu is in- 
 variably the household god. Poleramma or Ankamma 
 is in charge of a local area for weal or woe. Subbarfi- 
 yudu, Venkateswaralu, Panchala, Narasimhulu, and 
 others, are the gods who control destinies over a wider 
 area. The Yanadis are their ovsoi priests. The objects 
 of worship take various forms : a wooden idol at Srihari- 
 kota: bricks; stones; pots of water with margosa (Melia 
 Azadiraohta) leaves; images of gods drawn on the walls 
 of their houses; or mere handfuls of clay squeezed into 
 shape, and placed on a small platform erected under an 
 aruka tree, which, like other Hindus, they hold sacred " 
 (B. Thurston and K. Rangachari). The Yanadis worship 
 their ancestors. " A belief lingers that the pious arc 
 en rappon with the deity, who converses with them and 
 even inspires them. The goddess receives animal sacri- 
 tiees, but Chenchu Devudu is a strict vegetarian, whose 
 votaries are bound, at times of worship, to subsist on a 
 single daily meal of roots and fruits. The Yanadis, like 
 Hindus, wear sect marks, and are even divided into 
 Vaishnavites and Saivites. They are supposed, during 
 worship, to endow inanimate objects, and the spirits of 
 geographical feature, with life and mind, and super- 
 natural powers " (ibid.). See E. Thurston 
 
 YANG. The Chinese believe that there are two 
 supreme powers in the Universe, one of which, Yang, is 
 the source of light, warmth and life, while the other, 
 Yin, is the source of darkness, cold and death. The 
 Yang is associated closel.v with the heavens, the I'in with 
 the earth. The soul of man is supposed to consi.st. partly 
 of Yang and partly of Yin matter, three parts of the 
 former and seven parts of the latter. Naturally the sun 
 contains the greatest quantity of the vital energy known 
 as Yang. Amongst other things which contain a certain 
 amount of it is the cock, which is regarded as an emblem 
 of the sun. According to De Groot, an ancient Chinese 
 book says that " the cock is the emblem of the accumu- 
 
 lated Yang (i.e., the sun) and of the South. Etherial 
 things which partake of the character of fire and of the 
 Yang element have the property of flaming up; hence, 
 when the Yang rises above the horizon the cock crows, 
 becau.se things of the same nature influence each other." 
 The blood from a cock's comb is supposed to have the 
 power of reviving a person who is dying. The Yang 
 vital energy counteract/S the influence of the" earthly 
 matter Yin. See J. J. M. de Groot, R.S.O., 1892-97. 
 
 YANTRA. A term found in Hinduism. The Yantras 
 are supposed to possess a power and efficacy equal to those 
 of the Mantras (g.r.). They are mystic diagrams drawn 
 on tablets of metal, "generally combinations of 
 triangular figures like the Inverted triangles of the Free- 
 masons " (Monier-Williams). A Yantra may be com- 
 bined with a Mantra. A diagram with six or eight sides, 
 and with a Mantra underneath, is supposed to have great 
 potency. See Monier-Williams. 
 
 YARIBOL. A deity worshipped by the Palmyrenes. 
 
 YASHTS. The Yashts are one of the divisions of the 
 Zendavesta (g.v.), the oldest collection of writings sacred 
 to the old Persians. They are hymns and invocations 
 addressed to various Iranian gods. 
 
 YASNA. The Yasna is one of the divisions of the 
 Zendave.sta (q.v.), the oldest collection of the writings 
 sacred to the old Persians. It is a liturgy of sacrifice, 
 and includes the Gftthas, .sacrificial hymns which are the 
 oldest part of the Zendavesta and constitute the original 
 or old A vesta. 
 
 YAZATAS. The Yazatas or Yazads are a class of 
 angels in Zoroastrianism, who seem to rank below the 
 Amesha Spentas (Ameshaspands). 
 
 YBBAMOTH. The name of one of the .Jewish treatises 
 or tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or un- 
 written law as developed by the second century A.D. and 
 are incorporated in the Mishnah (q.v.), a collection or 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty- three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). The work Yeb.imoth is the first tractate of 
 the third group, which is called Ndshim (" Women "). 
 
 YEK. A term used among the Tlinkit of N. America 
 to denote a mystic potentiality ascribed to beings whether 
 human or non-human, living or not living. Yek seems 
 to be a force, and not a i>ersonal being, and corresponds 
 to the Melanesian mana. 
 
 YELLOW-CiVP BUDDHISTS. WTien in course of 
 time the Buddhists in Tibet split up into two chief bodies 
 or parties, a strict party and a lax or less strict party, 
 they came to be distinguished by the colour of their 
 clothing, the strict party wearing yellow, the lax party 
 red. The Yellow-cap Buddhists were founded in the 
 fifteenth century by Tsong Khapa (6. 1355 or 1357), whose 
 followers were also known as the Gelugpa Sect. (g.v.). 
 His idea was to institute a religious reform, and he has 
 been compared with Martin Luther (1483-154(>). He felt 
 that the discipline of Buddhism had been corrupted by 
 the laxity of the Red-cap school, especially by the mar- 
 riage of monks. The monastery called Galdan, which 
 he built not far from Lhassa, became the first centre of 
 his teaching and influence, but his movement spread 
 rapidly. " Undeniably. Tsong Khapa's chief merit was 
 that he caused his followers to revert to the purer 
 monastic discipline, especially to the rule of celibacy. He 
 also purified the forms of worship, and greatly restricted 
 without altogether prohibiting the use of magical rites. 
 T.song Khapa, too, is .said to have re-established the 
 original practice of retirement for religious meditation at 
 certain seasons, although as there was no rainy season in 
 Tibet, another period had to be chosen " (Monier- 
 Williams). When Tsong Khapa died in 1419 A.D., he is
 
 Yen Lo 
 
 391 
 
 supposed to have ascended to heaven. His ascension is 
 celebrated in a Festival of Lami>s (see LAMPS) It 
 should be added that Tsong Khapa's reformation had a 
 precursor in the eleventh century. At that time Brom 
 Ton, a disciple of Atisha, founded a sect called Kadampa 
 He insisted on great strictness in the monastic life See 
 Monier-Williams; H. Hacljmann. 
 
 TEN LO. The Chiue.se name for Yama (a.v) the 
 Hindu god of the dead. 
 
 YESHWANT. The glorious, one of the names of the 
 Hindu god Krishna. 
 
 YETSIRAH, THE BOOK. The Book Tetsirah (Sefer 
 letsirah) or Boolj of Creation, is a Jewish my.stieal worlj 
 of uncertain authorship and date. It probably originated 
 about the sixth century A.D. See MYSTICISM, NON- 
 
 YEWE ORDER. A secret religious soeietv of men 
 and women in Togo, West Africa. The members are not 
 amenable to the laws, and the doctrine and practice of 
 the society are said to be lewd and licentious. " On 
 being initiated everyone receives a new name, and thence- 
 forth his or her old name may never be mentioned bv 
 anybody under penalty of a heavy fine. Should the old 
 name be uttered in a quarrel by an uninitiated person 
 the aggrieved party, who seems to be oftener a woman 
 than a man, pretends to fall into a frenzy, and in this 
 state rushes into the house of the offender, smashes his 
 pots, destroys the grass roof, and tears down the fence 
 Then she runs away into the forest, where the simple 
 people believe that she is changed into a leopard In 
 truth she slinks by night into the conventual buildings of 
 the order, and is there secret)Iy kept in c-omfort till the 
 business is settled. At last she is publicly brought hack 
 by the society with great pomp, her body smeared with 
 red earth and adorned with an artificial tail in order to 
 make the ignorant think that she has really been turned 
 
 Tb ""pT 'i^'^igu^' ^' ^'■^^*'''^- ^<^ J- G- Grazer, The 
 YEZIDIS. The Yezidis or Devil-worshippers are a 
 sect found chiefly in the Caucasus, Armenia, and 
 Kurdistan, and having their headquarters in the province 
 of Mosul, Mesopotamia. The origin of the name is 
 obscure. It may be derived from Yazld or Yazd a town 
 in Iran. Among Christians in the villages near Mosul 
 the name applied to the Yezidis is Dai.sanites or followers 
 of Bardesanes. " According to the belief of the Yezidis, 
 trod, the creator of heaven and earth, first made from his 
 own essence six other divinities, the sun, the moon and 
 the principal stars, and the.se joined with him in creating 
 the angels. The devil, who was God's own creation 
 rebelled against his lord and was ca.'s-t into hell He 
 afterward repented of his sin, did penance for seven 
 thousand years, and shed tears of contrition which fill 
 seven vessels that will be used at the Day of .Judgment 
 to quench the fires of the seven hells. God in his mercy 
 pardoned the recreant, restored him to heavenly rank 
 made him one with himself, and forbade the aigels to 
 look wrth scorn u!»n their reinstated brother. Inasmuch 
 as God s grace thus forgave and exalted even Satan him- 
 self, man should not look with hatred upon this so-called 
 representative of evil. On this account the Yezidis never 
 allow the name of Satan to pa.ss their lips, avoiding even 
 a .syllable that suggests the word, and shrinking with 
 horror from any mention of the devil by others " (\ V 
 Williams Jackson. Persia Pant and Present, 1900) * The 
 Y^idis are afraid to pour boiling water upon the earth 
 lest they should scald the face of the little devils Thev 
 worship the .sun, the moon, and the stars. They also nav 
 ^''■'°?.,^.«°«"rs to a metal cock called Taous. According 
 to Williams Jackson, this is really a peacock conven- 
 tionalized so as almo.st to resemble a cock But Lidz- 
 
 Yoga 
 
 barski has suggested that Tftous is a corruption of Tamuz, 
 tie Babylonian deity. This lends support to Williams 
 Jackson's statement that "the Yezidi religion shows 
 distant survivals of the old Assyro-Babylonian worship 
 of the sun, moon, and stars, for the faith appears to have 
 retained the sun-god Shamash under the form of Sheikh 
 Shems, and the moon-god Sin as Sheikh Sinn, an 
 emanation of God himself." Alphonse Mingana contends 
 that the Yezidi sacred books are spurious. See A. V. 
 Williams Jackson, as cited above; Alphonse Mingana, 
 •' Devil-worshippers," in the Journul of the Royal Asiatic 
 Hociety, July, 191(). 
 
 YGGDRASIL. The ash of Yggdrasil is the sacred 
 tutelary tree of the gods of the Edda. It is a great 
 cosmic tree, and its trunk forms the axis of the world 
 Another name for it is " the tree of Mimir," Mima- 
 meidhr. In the Icelandic prose Edda, Oylfayinning It 
 IS said: "Three roots stretch out in three directions 
 under Yggdrasil's ash. Hel dwells under one, the frost 
 giants under the other, the race of men under the third " 
 Chantepie de la Saiis.saye thinks that the idea of 
 Yggdrasil's ash does not belong to ix>pular belief but is 
 due to the imaginations of the scalds (minstrels). See 
 P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rel. of the Teutons, 
 1902; Reinach, O. 
 
 YIH-KIXG. One of the Chinese Classics. King means 
 ' Classic." Yih is the " Book of Changes " (q.v.). 
 
 YIMA. An Iranian deity. Yima is the son of the 
 sun. There is a close connection, it would seem, between 
 the Iranian Yima and the Hindu Yama. In the Avesta 
 (q.v.) the soma (haoma) is first prepared for man by the 
 sun. In the Rig Veda " it is Yama the son of Vivas- 
 vant (X. 5S.1; 60.10) who first 'extends the web' of 
 (soma) sacrifice (vii. 3,3. 9, 12)." See E. W. Hopkins 
 
 YIN. According to the Chinese, Yin, the source of 
 darkness, cold and death, is one of the two supreme 
 powers in the universe, the other being the source of 
 light, warmth and life, Yang (q.v.). 
 
 YOGA. Yoga is the name of a doctrine or practice 
 which has prevailed in India for many centuries. Mr 
 J. C. Oman quotes the following explanation by " the 
 Apostle of the New Dispensation," Babu Keshub 
 Chunder Sen. " What does yoga literally mean? Union. 
 ine English word which makes the nearest approach to 
 It is Communion. The createtl soul, in its worldly and 
 sinful condition, lives separate and estranged from the 
 .Supreme Soul. A reconciliation is needed; nay more 
 than mere reconciliation. A harmonious union is 
 sought and realized. This union with Deitv is the real 
 secret of Hindu yoga. It is a spiritual unification, it is 
 consciousness of two in one; duality in unity To the 
 philosophical and thoughtful Hindu this is "the highes-t 
 heaven. He pants for no other salvation; he seeks no 
 other mukti or deliverance. Separation, disunion 
 estrangement, a sense of distinction, duality, the pride 
 of the eye, this is to him the root of all sin and suffering: 
 and the only heaven he aspires to is con.scious union and 
 oneness with Deity. He is ever struggling and striving 
 to attain this blessed condition of divine humanity. Once 
 in possession of it, he is above all sorrow and distraction 
 sin and impurity, and he feels all is serene and tranquil 
 within. AJl his devotions and prayers, his rites and 
 ceremonies, his meditations and his self-denials, are but 
 means and methods which help him on to this heaven " 
 This explanation may be supplemented bv one given by 
 William James from the work " Vivekananda " (Raja 
 Yoga, London, 1896). The Yogi (disciple) finds " that 
 the mind itself has a higher state of existence, beyond 
 reason, a supercon.scious state, and that when the mind 
 gets to that higher state, then this knowledge be.yond 
 rea.soning comes. . . . All the different .steps in Voga
 
 Yogis 
 
 392 
 
 Yuishikikyo, The 
 
 are intended to bring us scientifically to the snpercon- 
 scious state or samadhi. . . . Just as unconscious 
 work is beneath consciousness, so there is another work 
 which is above consciousness, and which, also, is not 
 accompanied with the feeling of egoism. . . . There 
 is no feeling of /. and yet the mind works, desireless, 
 free from restlessness, objectless, bodiless. Then the 
 Truth shines in its full effulgence, and we know ourselves 
 — for Samadhi lies potential in us all — for what we truly 
 are, free, immortal, omniix)tent, loosed from the finite, 
 and its contrasts of good and evil altogether, and identical 
 with the Atman or fniver.sal Soul." The Yogis are in 
 great repute in India as healers of diseases, and as 
 philosophers and saints of great knowledge and power. 
 See Toga: Olijective and Subjective, Calcutta, The 
 Brahmo Tract Society, 1SS4; Yopa VasUhta Maha Rama- 
 yana, 4 vols., Calcutta, 1891-99; Karl Kellner, Yo(ia: Sine 
 Skizze, 1S9G; William James, The Varieties of Religious 
 Experience, 1906; J. C. Oman, Cults. 
 
 YOGIS. The Yogis worship Siva. Their principal 
 festival is the Shivratri (Siva's night), " when they stay 
 awake all night and sing .songs in honour of Gorakhnath, 
 the founder of their order " (R. V. Rus.sell and K. B. 
 Hira Lul). They worship also the cobra on the Nag- 
 Panehmi day. Eussell and Hira Li'il say of their 
 philosophy : " The Yoga philosophy has indeed .so much 
 substratum of truth that a man who has complete control 
 of him.self has the strongest will, and hence the most 
 power to influence others, and an exaggerated idea of this 
 power is no doubt fostered by the display of mesmeric 
 control and similar phenomena. The fact that the 
 influence which can be exerted over other human beings 
 through their minds in no way extends to the physical 
 phenomena of inanimate nature is obvious tg us, but 
 was by no means so to the uneducated Hindus, who have 
 no clear conceptions of the terms mental and physical, 
 animate and inanimate, nor of the ideas connoted by 
 them. To them all nature was animate, and all its 
 phenomena the results of the actions of sentient beings, 
 and hence it was not diflicult for them to suppose that 
 men could influence the proceedings of such beings " 
 (Eussell). 
 
 YOMa. The title of one of the Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the sec-ond century A.D., and are 
 incorporated in the Mishnah iq.i\), a collection or com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). The work Ynmfi is the fifth Iractate of the 
 second group, which is called Mo'ed (" Fe.«!tival "). 
 
 YOUNG ET'ROPE. The name given to an association 
 founded in Switzerland bv Guiseppe (Joseph) Mazzini 
 (1S0.5-1S72). See PACT OF FRATERNITY. 
 
 YOUNG ITALY. An association founded at Mar- 
 seilles in 1831 by Guiseppe (Joseph) Mazzini (1805-1872). 
 See PACT OF FRATERNITY. 
 
 YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION. The 
 first of these Associations was founded in London in 1844. 
 On June the 6th of this year twelve young men met in a 
 room in St. Paul's Churchyard to establish " a society 
 for improving the spiritual condition of young men 
 engaged in the drapery and other trades." The idea 
 was to arrange for religious meetings, such as Bible 
 Classes and Prayer Meetings, in the business houses in 
 the centre of London. Branch and Corresponding Asso- 
 ciations soon sprang up in different parts of the Metro- 
 polis and throughout the country. They all adopted the 
 same name, but each of them adapted its agencies to the 
 
 varying circumstances and necessities of young men. 
 The objects and methods of the Associations have always 
 been dictated by the principles held in common by Evan- 
 gelical Churches. In 1855 a general conference of dele- 
 gates from the Associations of Europe and America was 
 held in Paris, and a basis of Alliance of the Young Men's 
 Christian Associations was agreed upon. This basis 
 reads as follows : " Young Men's Christian Assctciations 
 seek to unite those young men who, regarding the Lord 
 Jesus Christ as their God and Saviour, according to the 
 Holy Scriptures, desire to be His disciples in their 
 doctrine and in their life, and to associate their efforts 
 for the extension of His Kingdom among Young Men." 
 The Associations in no way enter into competition with 
 the existing Churches, and have no desire to enter upon 
 functions proper to the Churches. In 1882 a " National 
 Council of Young Men's Christian Associations " was 
 formed. In June, 1899, at a joint meeting of British 
 and Colonial representatives held at Dublin a constitu- 
 tion was adopted for the '• British and Colonial Union 
 of Young Men's Christian Associations." A good idea 
 of the character and scope of the work of Young 
 Men's Christian Associations may be gained from a 
 description of the building which has been erected as a 
 memorial to the founder of the original Association, 
 George Williams. '" In the basement there are a large 
 gymnasium with gallery, a swimming bath with shower- 
 baths, a rifle-range and bowling-alley, and a self-con- 
 tained, fully-equipped Boys' Deixirtment, consisting of 
 lounge, meeting-rooms, reading-room, games-room, and 
 locker-rooms, etc. The entrance hall with its circular 
 staircase, which is a feature of the ground floor, rises 
 through two .stories and has a saucer dome springing 
 from the entablature over the columns. On the ground 
 floor are also the large hall, the small hall, a club 
 restaurant, and a public restaurant. The large hall rises 
 through two stories, and has a flat curbed ceiling, with 
 an organ. On the first floor are the principal social and 
 club rooms. On the second floor is the Technical College, 
 consisting of a library, a laboratory, lecture-rooms, 
 examination-rooms, class-rooms, and a photographic 
 section, with work- and printing-room, dark-rooms, and 
 enlarging-rooms. The third floor contains the kitchen 
 and larders, and the manager's flat ; the remainder of 
 this floor, together with the whole of the fourth floor, 
 excepting the assistant manager's rooms, is occupied by 
 bedrooms, of which there are upwards of two hundred, 
 with baths and lavatorv accommodation." See the 
 English Year Book of Y.M.r.A.'s, 1910. 
 
 YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS. 
 These Associations are established on the same basis as 
 the Young Men's Christian Associations (Q.v.). The 
 first Association was founded in 1857 by the Dowager- 
 I.ady Kinnaird. 
 
 YUDZUNEMBUTSU SECT. A Japanese Buddhist 
 .sect founded by Ryonen Shonin (1072-1132 A.D.), a monk 
 of Hieizan. In a vision Amida, so he thought, appeared 
 to him and advised him to leave the Hieizan monastery, 
 for it was a " den of thieves." At the same time he was 
 told to change the Nembutsu (a term meaning " thinking 
 of Buddha ") to an interces.sory prayer, " One man for 
 all men, all men summarized in One, one devotion for all, 
 all devotions summed up in one " (A. Lloyd). The sect 
 is still in existence, but is not very popular. See Arthur 
 Llovd. 
 
 YUISHIKIKYO, THE. The Yuishikikyo or the One- 
 ness sect is another name for tie Japanese Hosso sect 
 iq.r.). The doctrine of Oneness is " one of the key- 
 notes of the Hosso teaching " (Arthur Lloyd).
 
 Zabians 
 
 393 
 
 Zechariah, Book of 
 
 ZABIAXS. The name Zabians has been used in various 
 ways. To Arabian, Persian, and .Jewish writers of 
 mediiieval times all who were not Magians or Muham- 
 niadans, Jews or Christians, were Sahieans or Zabians. 
 In the Koran the term is used of the ancestors of the 
 Mandfeans (q.v.), who were non-Christian Gnostics. In 
 Svria the descendants of the ancient Hellenized heathens 
 were called Zabians. The.v were so called because they 
 claimed as their patriarch one Zabl. son of Seth (or of 
 Adam, or Enoch, and so on). See Chajytbcrx's Encycl. 
 
 ZaBIM. The name of one of the Jewish treatises or 
 tractates which reproduce the oral tradition or unwritten 
 law as developed by the second century A.D. and are 
 inconK)rated in the ilishnah (q.v.). a collection and com- 
 pilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. The sixty-three tractates of 
 the Mishnah are divided into six groups or orders 
 (sedarim). Zabim is the ninth tractate of the sixth 
 group, which is called Tohoroth (" Purifications "). 
 
 ZABULUS. Zabulus occurs in Patri.stie writings as a 
 corrupted form of Diabolus or the Devil. 
 
 ZACCHJ;ANS. a name used by Epiphanius (Ha-rca. 
 xxvi. .?) in reference to Gnostics (q.v.). 
 
 ZADOKITES. A body of Jewi-sh reformers who arose 
 in the second century B.C. within the priesthood, and 
 were known in the first century as " the Sons of Zadob." 
 According to a document (Fragmentx of a Zadokile 
 Work) discovered by Dr. Sehechter, and supposed by C. 
 H. Charles (Religious Development) to have been written 
 between 18 and S B.C., they were called also " the peni- 
 tents of Israel," acknowledged as leaders " the Star " 
 and " Law-giver," and were members of a " New Cove- 
 nant " and " Covenant of Repentance." which involved a 
 great spiritual change. The author of this work " hated 
 the orthodox Pharisees, declaring that they made void 
 the written law by raising a body of oral tradition as a 
 • wall ' about it. But he was almost equally opposed to 
 his brethren the Sadduoees, declaring the Prophets as 
 well as the Iaw to be a religious authority, teaching a 
 blessed immortality, the existence of angels, the advent 
 of the ilessiah. a high moral code, and the wickedness 
 of divorce " (Cobem). 
 
 ZAG-MUK. The Babylonian name for New Year's 
 Day. It might be the first day of the month sacred to a 
 deity. This was the case with the goddess Ban (q.v.). 
 AVlien Marduk (q.v.) became the centra! figure of the 
 pantheon. New Year's Day came to be his special day. 
 and the Zag-muku became a Marduk festival. On this 
 occasion there was a solemn procession through a hand- 
 ,«omely paved route. " The union of Nabu and Marduk 
 was symbolized by a visit which the former paid to his 
 father, the chief of the Babylonian pantheon. In his 
 ship, magnificently fitted out, Nabu was carried along 
 the street known as Ai-ibur-.shabfl. leading from Bor- 
 sippa across the Euphrates to Babylon " (Jastrow). The 
 New Year's Festival of Marduk was a specially pro- 
 pitious time for seeking oracles in the temple of the god. 
 for during this festival he decided the fate of men for 
 a whole vear. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ZAHILA, ANNALS OF. A book of the annals of the 
 Kakchiquel Indians of Guatemala. 
 
 ZaHIR PIR. a Muhammadan saint worshipped in 
 Saugor, India, by the caste of sweepers and scavengers. 
 
 ZAKAR. One of the minor Babylonian gods in the 
 period of Hammurapi. He seems to have been wor- 
 .shipped in Nippur, and to have been closely related to 
 Bel and Belit (qq.v.). See Morris Jastrow. Rel. 
 
 ZALMOXIS. The god of the Getai, a Thracian tribe. 
 This seems to have been their only deity. During 
 thunderstorms they tried to intimidate him by shooting 
 arrows at the sky. 
 
 ZAMAMA. A Babylonian deity belonging to the 
 second Babylonian period. He is called a " god of 
 battle," and his temple the " house of the warrior's 
 glory." He was worshipped in the city of Kish in 
 northern Babylonia. His consort is called simply Ninni, 
 '• the lady." Zamama seems to have had the character 
 of a sun-god. See Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ZANZALIANS. Another name for the Jacobites, 
 who are supposed to have derived their name from 
 jacobus BaradiPus, a Syrian monk. Baradanis had also 
 the surname Zanzalus, whence the designation Zanzalians. 
 
 ZCERNOBOCH. Zcernoboch or Chernobog was one 
 of the gods worshipped by the ancient Slavs. He is 
 called " the black god," which would seem to mean the 
 evil god. Salomon Reinach thinks there must have been 
 also a god Bielbog, "the white god," that is to say, the 
 good god, for the name has survived in certain place- 
 names. See Reinach, 0. 
 
 ZEAIjOTS. In the New Testament one of the apostles 
 is described as "Simon called Zeliites " (Lnke vi. 15; 
 Act,s i. 1.^5). He is al.so called Kananaios (Matthew x. 
 4; Mark iii. 18). The latter word, Kananaios. is simply 
 a Greek form of the Hebrew term kanna " zealous." 
 Zeli'.tes is the real Greek equivalent. The Zealots were 
 an offshoot of the Pharisees. They believed in taking 
 violent measures to introduce the Kingdom of the 
 Messiah. Their principles were very much those of the 
 Assassins (q.v.). 
 
 ZEBaCHIM. The .Jewish Mishnah, a collection and 
 compilation completed by Rabbi Judah the Holy, or the 
 Patriarch, about 200 A.D. (.see MISHNAH), comprises a 
 number of treatises or tractate.;; which reproduce the oral 
 tradition or unwritten law as developed by the second 
 century A.D. There are sixty-three tractates, divided 
 into six groups or orders (.'icdarim). Zebfichim is 
 the first, tractate of the fifth group, which is called 
 Kodn.fhfm (" Holv Things"). 
 
 ■ zEBEDEE-STONES. a name (also Sebedei) for 
 thunderstones in use among peasants in Denmark. They 
 were carried bv persons who believed that they made 
 them immune from thimder. The name seems to have 
 been suggested by the reference to the Sons of Zebedee 
 in the New Testament. 
 
 ZECHARIAH, BOOK OF. One of the longest of the 
 books of the Old Testament known as the Minor 
 Prophets. The book itself tells us (chap. i. 1) that 
 Zechariah was the son of Berechiah, son of Iddo. In the
 
 Zemi 
 
 394 
 
 Zeus 
 
 book of Ezra (chaps, v. 1; vi. 14) he is said to have been 
 the son of Iddo. It appears from the same book that 
 the prophet Zechariah was contemporary with Haggai 
 (see HAGGAI, BOOK OF). The book of Zechariah itself 
 assigns dates to some of the prophecies contained in it. 
 Chapter i. 1-6 is said to have been written in the eighth 
 month of the second year of Darius (Hystaspis), that is 
 to say, in November 520 B.C. Chapters i. 7-vi. 8 are 
 said to have been written in the eleventh month of the 
 same year, that is to say, In February 519. Chapters vii.- 
 viii. are .said to have been written in the ninth month 
 of the fourth year of Darius, that is to say, in December 
 518. These chapters are concerned with the rebuilding 
 of the Temple and the Messianic hopes associated with 
 it. They may well have been composed by Zechariah 
 and have constituted the original book of Zechariah. 
 The remaining chapters bear a different character, and 
 would seem to have been the work of two other authors. 
 Some scholars have been led by references in chapters 
 ix.-xi. to Ephraim (ix. 10-15; x. 7; xi. 14), diviners (x. 2), 
 and Assyria (x. 10), to assign them to a period previous 
 to the fall of Samaria. Chapter*, xii.-xiv., with their 
 reference to false prophets (xiii. 2-6) and the absence of 
 any reference to the Northern Kingdom, have been 
 assigned to the closing years of the Judaean Kingdom 
 (seventh century B.C.). A number of scholars, however, 
 now regard both these sections as i)ost-exilic. The 
 reference to the Greeks in chapter ix. vs. 13 has sug- 
 gested to some that the oracles in chapters ix.-xiv. were 
 composed during or after the period of Alexander the 
 Great (between 332 and 280 B.C. Whltehouse points out 
 that there are many reminiscences of older oracles (cp. 
 xiv. 8 with Ezekiel xlvii. 1-12). He thinks that " prob- 
 ably some old pre-exilian oracles belonging to the 
 eighth and seventh centuries have been worked into the 
 texture of these prophecies in chaps, ix. ff." Oomill 
 favours the view that chapters ix.-xi. were composed by 
 a contemporary of Hosea or Isaiah. He thinks that all 
 the arguments brought forward in favour of the time of 
 Hosea and Isaiah " receive an entirely .satisfactory 
 explanation if the authorship is attributed to a later 
 secondary writer, who was steeped in the ideas of Ezekiel 
 and dependent upon that prophet." In Comill's opinion, 
 the post-exilic composition of chapters xii.-xiv. also is 
 indisputable. The idea which dominates this section, of 
 a violent attack by all the heathen upon Jerusalem and 
 God's people, was first coined by Ezekiel under the 
 impression produced by the actual destruction of Jeru- 
 salem and the Temple. " Ch. xiv. 8 also is obviously 
 an exaggerated imitation of Ezek. xlvii. 1-10, while the 
 specially Deutero-Isaianic type of language is equally in 
 evidence in xii. 1 and xiv. 16, and xiii. 1 goes back to 
 Numb, xix." See C. Cornill, Intr.; G. H. Box; O. C. 
 Whitehouse; O. F. Kent, The Sermons, Epistles, and 
 Apocalypses of Israel's Prophets, 1910. 
 
 ZEMI. A religious term used In the West Indies. 
 The term is explained by J. W. Fewkes. " Tlie name 
 was apparently applied to gods, symbols of the deities, 
 idols, bones or skulls of the dead, or anything supposed 
 to have magic power. The dead or the spirits of the 
 dead were called by the same term. The designation 
 applied both to the magic power of the sky, the earth, 
 the sun and the moon, as well as to the tutelary ancestors 
 of clans. Zemis were represented symbolically by several 
 objects, among which may be mentioned (1) stone or 
 wooden images, (2) images of cotton and other fabrics 
 enclosing bones, (3) prepared skulls, (4) masks, (5) 
 frontal amulets, (6) pictures and decorations on the 
 body" (quoted by T. A. Joyce, C. A.W.I. A.). 
 
 ZEN SECT. A Japanese Buddhist sect, founded by 
 Elsai (A.D. 1191). The founder attached great import- 
 
 ance to contemplation and meditation as religious exer- 
 ci.ses. The Zen at first even opposed altogether the use 
 of books. But they changed their attitude in this respect 
 afterwards. We are told that " the Zen school always 
 laid special stress on the training of the will, for the 
 regulation of all passion and for the conquest of physical 
 desires " ; and " because .such exercises proved useful for 
 the development of knightly and warlike valour, many 
 of the nobles (samurai) in early times, as well as military 
 officers until quite recently, took part in these self- 
 denying and hardening practices." See H. Hackmann. 
 
 ZBNDA VESTA. The Zendavesta is the most ancient 
 collection of books held sacred by the Zoroastrians and 
 modern Parsees. The word A vesta denotes the original 
 documents. Zend denotes the glossac or commentaries 
 to these. The compound word has been explained as 
 " commentary lore." The writings were ascribed 
 to Zoroaster or Zarathustra, the founder of Zoroastrian- 
 i.sm, who lived before the sixth century B.C., but 
 tbey are really of various dates. The Zendavesta 
 includes the Yasna, the Visparad, the VendldSd, and the 
 Yashts. The Yasna is a liturgy of sacrifice and contains 
 the Gathas, or sacrificial hymns, which are the most 
 ancient part of the Zendavesta. with documents relating 
 to them. The Visparad consists of litanies and invoca- 
 tions, which, it would seem, were intended to supplement 
 the Y^asna. The Vendldiid (literally, " laws against the 
 demons "), which seems to be the latest section of the 
 Zendavesta, comprises laws, rules for exorcising demons, 
 myths, etc. The Yashts are hymns and invocations 
 addressed to various Iranian gods. There is a wide 
 divergence between the original or Old Avesta, the 
 Gathas, and the later or New Avesta. The later Ave.sta 
 is more polytheistic and introduces such things as the 
 worship of sun, moon, and stars, of Haoma, Mithra, 
 etc. See J. Darmesteter in Hacred Books of the East; 
 V. Henry, Le Parsisme, 1905; Reinach, O., 1909; 
 Chambers' En^cycl. ; Brockhaus. 
 
 ZBPHANIAH, BOOK OF. The superscription to the 
 book of the prophet Zephaniah states that he was the 
 great-grandson of Hezekiah, and that he prophesied " in 
 the days of Josiah the Son of Amon King of Judah." 
 The Hezekiah would seem to have been the well-known 
 king of that name. Since the prophecy itself denounces 
 idolatrous cu.stoms, Baal-worship, star-worship, apostasy 
 from Jehovah, and other such things, the prophet's 
 activity must be placed before Josiah's reform of the 
 cultus in 621 B.C. Another indication of date is sup- 
 plied by the description of the " Day of Jehovah " in 
 chapter i. Robbery and plunder, the blast of the 
 trumpet and the cries of war, bloodshed and devastation, 
 suggest to the prophet some terrible world-catastrophe. 
 Zephaniah's thoughts would seem in fact to have been 
 influenced by the invasion of " the foe from the North," 
 the Scythians, in 626 B.C. Though the Scythians did 
 not actually invade Judah, the people of Judah watched 
 their progr6.ss with alarm. C. F. Kent thinks that the 
 great reformation under Josiah was one of the fruits 
 of Zephaniah's preaching. "It is more than possible 
 that Zephaniah was the companion of the young Josiah, 
 and the one who influenced the king to abandon the 
 policy of his father and grandfather and to follow the 
 guidance of the disciples of Isaiah and Micah." Parts 
 of chapter iii. have been regarded as later additions to 
 the book (e.p., vss. 1-8 and 11-13). Cornill, however, 
 thinks that chapter iii. need only be regarded as to some 
 extent mutilated. See C. Cornill, hUr.; G. H. Box; O. 
 C. Whitehouse; C. F. Kent. The i?ermons, Epistles, and 
 .ipocalypses of Israel's Prophets, 1910. 
 
 ZEUS. Zens is represented as the greatest of the 
 Greek gods. According to a Cretan legend, his mother
 
 Zhikko 
 
 395 
 
 Zionism 
 
 Rhea gave birth to him in a cave of the island, and the 
 goat Amalthea suckled him. His sister and consort was 
 Hera, the queen of the gods. As the god of the sky 
 and its phenomena, thunder and lightning, wind and 
 rain, he was wor-shipped on high mountains, esi^ecially 
 on the Thes.salian Mount Olympus. On Mount Lycapus 
 in Arcadia he was worshipped with human sacrifice as 
 the Lyct^an Zeus. In the Troad the .summit of Mount 
 Ida was sacred to him. In the representation of Homer, 
 he is the beneficent father of men. as well as the wise 
 ruler of Nature, "the father of gods and men" 
 (Homer). " He gives to all things a good beginning and 
 a good end : he is (he .saviour in all distress : to Zeus the 
 saviour (Gr. sOtcr) it was cu.stomary to drink the third 
 cup at a meal, and in Athens to sacrifice on the last, da.y 
 of the year. From him (\>mes everything good, noble. 
 and strong, and aLso bodily vigour and valour, which were 
 exhibited in his honour, particularly at the Olympian and 
 Nemean games. . . . From him, as ruler of the world, 
 proceed those universal laws which regulate the course 
 of all things, and he knows and sees everything, the 
 future as well as the past. Hence all revelation comes in 
 the first instance from him " (Seyfferf). Zeus was re- 
 garded also as the protector of house, home, and hearth. 
 His favourite children were Athene and Apollo. In 
 Roman mythology the corresponding god to Zeus is 
 Jupiter. It should be noted that the transformation 
 of Zeus into the omnipotent and onmiscient ruler of 
 the world and father of men was a gradual process. See 
 O. Seyffert, Diet.; Brockhaus: and cp. J. M. Robertson, 
 P.O. 
 
 ZHIKKO. One of the principal Shinto sects in Japan. 
 According to G. A. Cobbold. the members of the sect, 
 which was founded A.D. 1.541. recognize one deity, who 
 is eternal, absolute, and of infinite benevolence. There 
 seem, however, to be " vague references to a Trinitv 
 engaged in the work of Creation." See G. A. Cobbold. 
 Religion in Japan. 1894. 
 
 ZIKKURAT. The Babylonian name for what has been 
 described as a staged tower. The Babylonians sup- 
 posed the gods to dwell on mountains. Consequently 
 when they proceeded to built a temple they first piled up 
 a mountain-like mound of earth to serve as the founda- 
 tion plane. The tower might consist of a number of 
 stages or stories, but the average number seems to have 
 been three. It was quadrangular in shape. The zik- 
 kurat at Nippur was called " house of oracle." See 
 Morris Jastrow, Rel. 
 
 ZIKR. The Muhammadan zikr fa "remembrance." 
 that is to .say, a remembrance of God) is a religious cere- 
 mony or an act of devotion practised by the various 
 orders of DervLshes. As T. P. Hughes says, the per- 
 formance is very common in all Muhammadan countries, 
 since nearly every devout Muhammadan belongs to some 
 order of Dervishes: but the zikr is not always quite the 
 same. It consists in repeating the divine name according 
 to set formulas. There is a private zikr for individual 
 use. " The private zikr is either ' secret ' (zikr-el-kha'fl). 
 that is, to be recited mentally or in a low voice, or 
 ' vocal ' (zikr-ej-ja'li), that is, to be said aloud " (F. J. 
 Bliss). In the secret zikr. according to E. Sell, the 
 dervish clo.ses his e.ves and with " the tongue of the 
 heart" repeats the words " Allah the Hearer," " Allah 
 the Seer," " Allah the Knower." Then, with alternate 
 inhaling and exhaling of breath, he repeats phrase by 
 phrase the creed of the unity. The repetition may be 
 made hundreds of times. In the vocal zikr, the wor- 
 .shipper, who is seated, varies his position from time to 
 time and .shouts the phrases of the creed with a voice 
 that grows louder and louder. The congregational zikr 
 is said by a number of dervishes in concert after a leader. 
 
 " It is usually conducted on Thurs<lay evening (the eve 
 of the .sacred day) at the dervish house. According to 
 the order to which they belong, the participants squat 
 on their heels, stand on their feet, or begin sitting and 
 later change to standing. The chanting is accompanied 
 by the bending of the body in dilTerent directions. Some- 
 times the zikr takes the form of a rude dance, to execute 
 which the worshippers form a circle or a row, holding 
 each other's hands, advancing ,<ind retreating in unison, 
 and stamping with tlie feet. Beginning slowly to repeat 
 the divine name with clear enunciation and solemn 
 dignity, they gradually work themselves up into such a 
 state of excitement that the rapidly uttered words become 
 mere .sounds without meaning. The swaying body keeps 
 pace with the tongue. Physical exhaustion naturally 
 follows this furious exercise of lungs and limbs " (F. .j. 
 Bliss). There is another kind of zikr. practised bv the 
 uninitiated. This is called the imitation zikr. It is 
 commonly held in mosques. "According to .strict 
 doctrine, through the imitation zikr laymen may obtain 
 protection against their enemies, but not that mystical 
 union with Grod produced by the zikr of initiation." See 
 T. P. Hughes: F. J. Bliss. 
 
 ZIMMIS. The name given by Muhammadans to .sub- 
 jects who. instead of embracing Islam, pay a poll-tax 
 (Jizza, from a root meaning " to satisfy " or " to com- 
 pensate "). and are allowed to continue to profess their 
 own religion, so long as it is not a gross form of idolatry. 
 The poll-tax is either paid voluntarily to prevent war. or 
 is imposed after conquest. " The Zimmi must distinguish 
 himself from the Muslim by wearing different clothes 
 ' le.st he receive the marks of honour and respect due to 
 the Muslim only.' He is to be kept in a state of sub- 
 .iection and .Tbject humiliation. He must not ride on 
 saddles like Muslims. When the Muslim stands, he may 
 not sit. No Muslim ought to show him respect and 
 honour. If he meets him in the street he must make 
 him go aside. They must not live in large numt>ers in 
 the midst of Muslims, and, 'f they possess houses of their 
 own, they must be forced to sell them to Muslims. Their 
 houses must be lower than those of Muslims. A Zimmi 
 loses his right of protection if his country becomes a land 
 of warfare or if he does not pay the poll-tax. If he 
 should insult the Prophet he is to be killed." See F. A 
 Klein. 
 
 ZINZENDORFIANS. The followers of NikolaiTS 
 I.udwig von Zinzendorf (1700-1760). Zinzendorf was 
 originally a pieti.st of the school of P. J. Spener (Ifi.BS- 
 1705). He became the leader of the revival of the Unitas 
 Fratmm or the Church of the Bohemian (and Moravian) 
 Brethren (see BOHEMIAN BRETHREN). Believing in 
 the union of Christendom, he allowed members of various 
 denominations to make his estate in Saxony a place of 
 refuge. In 1721 the refugees were joined by the greater 
 part of the remnant of the Bohemian Brethren. Zinzen- 
 dorf's settlement received the name Hermhut. " The 
 Tx)rd's Watch": the settlers became known as Herrn- 
 huter. In course of time it occurrefl to the Count to 
 unite his tenants into " a church within the church " 
 recclesiola in ecelesia). In 1727 the Hermhuter received 
 the Holy Ghost, and felt themselves to be a close .siu'ritual 
 brotherhood. "They also grndually adopted the pccIcs- 
 iafitical forms, discipline, and oniers of the Ancient 
 Church of the Brethren's Unity of Bohemia and Moravia, 
 and then as the Rrvrired " Thtitaa Fratrum " took up 
 their position as a distinct Protestant Church, in the 
 midst of the other Reformed Churches " (The Mornvian.i: 
 Who and What are Theyf). See, further, MORAVIANS. 
 ZIONISM. The movement among the modern ,Tews 
 known as Zionism aims at the return of the .Tews as a 
 political unity to Zion. But it is a religious movement
 
 Zionites 
 
 396 
 
 Zu Myth 
 
 in the sense that this return is a going back to the centre 
 oi the ancient faith, and is regarded as a fulfilment of 
 the predictions of the ancient prophets. Associated with 
 this is the revival in Palestine of the ancient and classical 
 language as a spoken speech. The movement began by 
 the establi.shmetit in Palestine of Jewish colonies. In 
 1880, through the generous help of Baron Edmond de 
 Rothschild, of Paris, a great impetus was given to the 
 work. I>ater, P.aron de Hirsch left his fortune to the 
 Jewish Colonization Association, which has devoted part 
 of it to the colonization of Palestine by Jews. M. 
 Gaster speaks of the movement as follows : " We are 
 standing at the beginning of this movement, which alone 
 will assist in solving one of the most jierplexing problems 
 in modern sociology: will free Europe of an element 
 which, in spite of ail phrases to the contrary, is still con- 
 sidered as alien, and will be treated as .such according 
 to circumstances. There are some, among the richer 
 Jews, who have vested interests and narrow conceptions: 
 they are held fast in the meshes of self-delusion and can- 
 not" differentiate between the rights and duties of a 
 citizen and the historical obligations of a national and 
 religious life: they are .still holding aloof from this move- 
 ment. The vast masses, however, the sufferers and 
 toilers of the earth, have rallied enthusiastically round 
 it. In one way or another, realized sooner or later, with 
 the assistance of all. or carried oiit in spite of many, this 
 is the sign under which Judaism enters the new century." 
 See M. Gaster, "Jews and Judaism " in CU-rat Rdiqions 
 of the World. 1902: N. Sokolow, Hintorii of Zionimi, 
 1600-1918. vol. i.. 1919. 
 
 ZIONITES. A sect, of reli.gious enthusiasts in Germany 
 in the ISth century. It was founded by Elias Eller (6. 
 1090). and his followers were called Zionites because his 
 wife prophesied that the New Zion was about to be 
 established. The sect has also lx>en called the Ellerian 
 Sect; and the Ronsdorf Sect from the name of the place 
 with which Eller was closely associated. See Brock- 
 haus. 
 
 ZIPAKNA. A tribal deity in the religion of the Mayan 
 Indians. He is described as the creator of mountains. 
 
 ZIPALTONAIi. One of the deities worshipped by the 
 ancient Americans before the time of the Aztecs. Zipal- 
 lonal vi'as a goddess, the wife of Fomagazdad. See 
 FOMAGATA. 
 
 ZIUSUDU. The hero of the Deluge story in the 
 recently discovered Sumerian Version. " The name of 
 the hero. Zinsudu. is the fuller Sumerian equivalent of 
 nt-napi.shtira (or Uta-napishtim'), the abbreviated Semitic 
 form which we find in the Gilgamesh Epic. For not only 
 are the fir^st two elements of the Sumerian name identical 
 with those of the Semitic Ut-napi,shtim. but the names 
 them.selves are equated in a later Babylonian syllabary 
 or explanatory list of words. We there find ' Vf- 
 napishte' given as the equivalent of the Sumerian 
 ' Zi.suda.' evidently an abbreviated form of the name 
 Ziusudu : and it is significant that the names occur in 
 the syllabary between those of Gilgamesh and Enkidu. 
 evidently in oon.sequence of the association of the Deluge 
 story by the Babylonians with their national epic of Gil- 
 gamesh. The name Ziusudu may be rendered ' He who 
 lengthened the day of life' or 'lie who made life long 
 of days.' which in the Semitic form is abbreviated by the 
 omission of the verb. The reference is probably to the 
 immortality be.stowed upon Ziusudu at the close of the 
 story, and not to the prolongation of mankind's existence 
 in which he was instrumental " (L. W. King. Lrpends 
 of liahyloti avd Eqypt in relation to TTebreir Tradition, 
 1918). Dr. King notes that the character of Ziusudu 
 presents a close parallel to the piety of Noah. 
 
 ZOHAR. THE. A famous .Jewish work, the chief text,- 
 
 book of Jewish medieval mysticism. It purports to be 
 the record of a divine revelation to Rabbi Simeon ben 
 Yohai (b. second century A.D.), and is for the most part 
 in the form of utterances made by the Master to his 
 disciples. But the work made its first appearance in 
 Spain in the thirteenth century, and is clearly due to a 
 number of writers. See MYSTICISM, NON-CHHISTIAN. 
 
 ZOOLATRY. The worship of animals. See ANIMAL- 
 WORSHIP. 
 
 ZOROASTRIANS. The ancient Persian religion has 
 been called Zoroastrianism after Zoroaster (the Greek 
 form of the name Zarathustra), who is commonly sup- 
 jiosed to have been its originator. Zoroaster is thought 
 to have been a Mede or Bactrian: but very little is known 
 about his life, and his historical existenc-e is doubtful. 
 If he existed, he would seem to have flourished about 
 1100 B.C. It is claimed that, although in the later parts 
 of the Avesta he appears in a mythical garb, in the 
 GathSs, which are perhaps the earliest parts, he is repre- 
 sented in .such a simple way as to suggest a real iierson. 
 In any ca.se, as L. H. Mills says, he " was probably only 
 the last visible link in a far extended chain. His system, 
 like those of his i)redecessors and successors, was a 
 growth. His main conceptions had been surmised, 
 although not spoken before." J. M. Robertson thinks 
 that the name Zarathustra is simply an ancient title for 
 a kind of priest-king. According to legend, Zoroaster 
 was born by the side of a river, and was in danger of 
 being slain as an infant: later " he was brought by angels 
 before Ahura Mazda (the great Ivord of Wisdom), who 
 conversed with him at length and revealed his laws to 
 him " (Reinach). The teaching of the Zoroastrian 
 religion is found in the sacred book or collection called 
 the Avesta (q.r.), or rather in parts of it. The system 
 is duali.stic, being based upon the doctrine of a conflict 
 between the powers of light, represented by Ormuzd 
 {q.v.) and his angels the Amshashpends (q.v.), and the 
 powers of darkness, represent/cd by Ahriman or Ahura- 
 mazda (q.v.) and his demons or Devas. Fire, as being 
 a means of purification, is symbolical of Ormuzd. Vic- 
 tory over the ]>owers of darkness can only be achieved 
 b.v means of veracity, purit.v, ritual exactitude, and the 
 active pursuit of agriculture. See further the separate 
 articles. ALso J. Darmsteter, Ormaxd et Ahriman, 1876; 
 Le Zmdavenfa, 1892: Reinach, O., 1909: J. M. Roliertson, 
 P.O.; J. H. Moulton, The Treamtre of the Magi, 1917. 
 
 ZOTZIHA CHIMALCAN. A tribal deity in the 
 religion of the Mayan Indians. He was worshipped in 
 the form of a bat. 
 
 ZUCCHETTO. The name of a skull-cap worn over the 
 tonsure by Roman Catholic clerics. 
 
 ZfGOTH. Zflg6th, which means " pairs," is a 
 hebraized form of a Greek word. The word was used 
 as the designation of the chief teachers of the Law from 
 150 to 30 B.C. According to Hebrew tradition one of each 
 successive pairs of teachers was the President (JVo.si') 
 of the Sanhedrin, while the other was the Vice-President 
 (Ah tieth din). The most famous pair were Hillel and 
 Shammai. See W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box. 
 
 ZUHUYKAK. A tribal deity, protectress of children, 
 in the religion of tlie Mayan Indians. 
 
 ZUIMACO. An earth-goddess worshipped in the West 
 Indies (Antilles). 
 
 ZUMB. A deity in the mythology of the natives of 
 South America. The name is Paraguayan: but the Tamu 
 of the Caribs, the Kamu of the Arawaks, and the Kabol 
 of the Carayas represent the same god. It was Zume 
 who taught the people the arts and crafts. He is there- 
 fore a culture-hero. 
 
 ZU MYTH. Zu is a Babylonian deity, a storm-god in 
 the form of a bird. He seeks to take from Bn-lil or Bel
 
 Zwickau Prophets 
 
 397 
 
 Zwinglians 
 
 the tablets of fate which have eome iuto his possession. 
 He would secure these in order to be able to decree divine 
 decisions and give commands to the Igigi (.<l.r.). He 
 goes to the dwelling of En-lil to attack him. He snatches 
 the tablets of fate from his hands and flies away with 
 them to the mountains. By losing the tablets, Eu-lil loses 
 his power. Auu (q.v.) calls upon one of the gods to 
 attack Zu. Eamman (g.r.) is promised great honour 
 and glory if he will do so. but he thinks Zu invincible. 
 In the end it would seem that Marduk (q.i-.) undertakes 
 the task and recaptures the tablets. In this way he 
 gains the power that formerly l)elonged to Bel. See 
 .Slorris Jastrow. Rel. 
 
 ZWICKAU PROPHETS. The Zwickau prophets were 
 enthusiast followers of Martin Luther (1483-1540). who 
 believed themselves to be divinely inspired. They were 
 led by Nicholas Stork, Mark Thomas, Thomas Muenzer 
 (c. 1489-1525), all of Zwickau, and by Mark Stuebner. 
 The pix)phet.s rejected infant bapti.sm, and required people 
 to be rebaptized in the spirit. They believed that a new 
 government, the kingdom of heaven, was to be established 
 on earth. The condition.s of the apostolic age were to 
 be re-introduced. Cp. ANABAPTISTS. See Brockhaus ; 
 J. H. Blunt. 
 
 ZWINGLIANS. The followers of tJIrich (Huldreieh) 
 Zwingli (1484-1.5.31), the founder, with John Calvin (1509- 
 15(i4), of the Reformed Church. The Zwinglians were 
 the early Swiss Protestants. In 1.501) Zwingli became 
 parish priest at Glarus in Constance. From 1512 to 1515 
 he acted also as chaplain to the Swiss troops when they 
 were in Italy. In 151l> he became preacher in the monas- 
 tery at Einsiedeln, to which pilgrims resortetl to worship 
 the Black Virgin. It was here that his career as a 
 reformer began, for he preached that Christ alone can 
 forgive and save. In 1519 he was appointed chief pastor 
 of Ziirieh and preacher in the Catliedral. From this 
 time he began to show increasing zeal as a reformer, 
 and to make his influence widely felt. He at once 
 preached against the sale of Indulgences (q.v.). In 1522 
 he protested against the Catholic commands as to fas-ting. 
 In the same year he was instrumental in obtaining the 
 civil abolition of clerical celibacy. In January 1.523 he 
 debated at Zurich with the vicar-general of the Bishop 
 of Constance, and set forth sixty-seven theses of re- 
 
 formed doctrine. After this disputation the Reformation 
 was inaugurated otfieially by the adoption of Zwingli's 
 theses by the city. As the result of a second debate in 
 October 1523 the Mass was condemned and the worship 
 of images alwlished. In 1524 Zwingli married a widow, 
 Anna Meyer. In the following year he administered the 
 Sacrament of the Lord's Supper in both kinds ta the 
 people. In 152S another disputation wa.s held at Beru, 
 and Zwingli set forth ten proiX)sitions. In these he con- 
 tended that the Christian Church is born of the Word 
 of God; that Christ alone is its head. He alone is our 
 salvation; that Holy Scripture does not teach a real, 
 coriwreal presence in the Holy Communion; that the 
 doctrine of the Mass is contrary to Scripture; that Christ 
 is the only mediator and iuterc-essor: that the doctrine 
 of Purgatory ((/.c.) and the adoration of pictures and 
 images are contrary to Scripture; that marriage is lawful 
 to all; and that immorality in the clergy is more dis- 
 honourable than in the laity. The result was that Beru 
 also decided for the Reformation. In 1.529 war broke 
 out in Switzerland between the Protestant and Catholic 
 Cantons. In the .same year the Swiss and German 
 Reformers conferred together. They met at Marburg. 
 The Germans were represented by ilartin IjUther (1483- 
 1.54(i), Justus Jonas (1493-1555), Philipp Melanchthon 
 (H97-15C0), Andreas Osiander (149S-1D52), and others. 
 The Swiss were represented by Zwingli. John OEcolam- 
 padius (14S2-1531), Martin Bucer (1491-1.551), and others. 
 Luther submitted to the Conference fifteen articles. As 
 to fourteen of these both parties were quite agreed. As 
 to the fifteenth, however, there was a fundamental and 
 insuperable difference of opinion. Luther held fast to 
 a real oorix)real presence of the body and blood of Christ 
 in the Holy C!ommunion. Zwingli rejected the real 
 presence in every form, and maintained that there was 
 only a symbolical presence, the rite being only com- 
 memorative of Christ's death. In 1530 Zwingli published 
 his German version of the Bible. In 35.31 war broke 
 out again l)etween the Protestant and Catholic Cantons. 
 At Cappel the men of Ziirieh were defeated on October 
 11, 1531, and Zwingli was one of the slain. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Henry Bullinger (1504-1575). See B. Puenjer; 
 J. H. Blunt; Prot. Diet.; Chambers' Encycl.; Brockhaus' 
 Encyclopaedia ; cp. M. W. Patterson, Hist. 
 
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