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With Portraits and Illustrations. Post Svo, 10s. Gd. cloth. V. DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY BIOGRAPHY : a Reliable Handlwok of the Peerage of Rank, Worth, and Intellect, con- taining nearly One Thousand Memoirs of Eminent Living Individuals. Post Svo, 8s. 6d. cloth. VI. COMPREHENSIVE DICTIONARY OF BIOGRAPHY ; comprising a Series of Memoirs of Eminent Individuals, Lining and Dead, Mnth a Systematic and Classified Index of Names, Illustrated by Steel Portraits and Wood Engravings. Royal Svo, £1 Is. half-morocco. DICTIONARY CONTEMPORARY BIOGRAPHY: ^ p?antilioo]fe of t|)c peerage EANK, WORTH, AND INTELLECT. CONTAINING MEMOIRS OF NEARLY ONE THOUSAND EMINENT LIVING INDIVIDUALS. LONDON AND GLASGOW : RICHARD GRIFFIN AND COMPANY, rUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. MDCCCLXI. LONDON : EE^ED AND PAKDON, PRINTERS, PATERNOSTER ROW. CT I / ^ Dscp PREFACE. The utUity of a Handboot of Contemporary Biography, if reliable, is so apparent, that the only use of a preface to this work is to give information as to tlie manner in wliich it has been prepared. In the first place, the memoirs were compiled from every available general and special source, — and here we may express our obligations to Hachette's valuable French work— the "Dictionnaire Universel des Con- temporains." It was found, however, that great discrepancies existed among statements derived from many authorities, and that, unless means were taken to verify the facts by communicating with the parties them- selves, the hope of producing a reliahJe book must be abandoned. Accordingly, we took the liberty of addressing a commvmication to every individual whose name is introduced in the volume, with the exception of a few royal personages, whose actions and fortunes are matters of history. We stated that we wished to produce a trust- worthy work, endeavouring to avoid, as far as possible, matters of opinion, seeing that imtd the whole career of a man is finished it is impossible fairly to estimate his character, and that we therefore respectfully requested replies regarding points of fact. Our commu- nications have been generally responded to ; and whatever may be the literary shortcomings of this work, we believe that it may be pro- nounced to be the most trustworthy Manual of Contemporary Biogi-aphy yet published. Yet, as the volume contains nearly one thousand memoirs, it is impossible but that there are many errors both of omission and commission, and these we shall only be too happy to correct in future editions, if our readers will have the kindness to point them out, and to supply the information. 10, Stationers' H.4ll Court, November, 1860. G77C-i5 INDEX OF NAME&. PAGE I Aali Pasha 1 Abbott, Rev. Jacob . . -1 Abbott, Rev. John . . -2 Abd-el-Kader . . . -2 AbdiU-Medjicl, Khan ... 3 Aberdeen, Earl of . . . .4 About, Edmond .... 5 Adam, Jean Victor ... 5 Adams, John Couch ... 5 Agassiz, Louis Jean ... 6 Ainsworth, William F. . . .7 Ainsworth, William H. . . .7 Aird, Thomas .... 8 Airy, George Biddell, M. A. . .8 Albert, Prince .... 9 Albert Edward, Prince of Wales . 10 Albert, Martin . . . .10 Alboni, Marietta . . . .11 Alexander II. , Em{)eror of Russia . 1 1 AKord, The Very Rev. Henry, D.D. 12 Alison, Sir Archibahl, Bart. . . 12 Allen, William, D.D. . , .13 Almodovar, Count of . . .13 Alvarez, Juan . . . .13 Ampfere, Jean Jacques . . • 14 j Andersen, Hans Christian . . 14 1 Anderson, William, LL.D. . .15' Andral, Gal)riel . . . .15 Anster, John, D.C.L. . . .15 Anstey, Thomas C^hisholm . .16 Anthon, Charles, LL.D. . . IG ' Antonelli, Cardinal . . . 16 j Arago, Etieune . . . . 17 ! Argelandor, Eriedrich . . .17 Argyll, Uiike of . . . • 18 ' Argyrojjoulo, Pericles . . .18 Aristarchi, Nicolas . . .18 Armstrong, Sir William . • 1^ , Arnold, Matthew . . . . 19 1 Arnott, Neil, M.D. . . .191 Arthur, T. S 19 [ Ashburton, Lord . . . . 19 , Ashley, Lord. (See Shaftesbury) 353 Astronomer Royal. {See Airy) . 8 Auber, Daniel F. E. , . . 20 [ Auerbach, Berthold . . .20 Angier, Guillaume Victor AiLstria, Emperor of Auzoux, Th. Louis Aytoim, William Edmondstoune Azeglio, Marquis d' Babbage, Charles . Back, Sir George, D.C.L. Baehr, John Christian . Bailey, Philip James Baily, Edward Hodges, R.A. Baines, Edward, M.P. . Balfe, Michael William . Bancroft, George . Baraguey, Marshal Barante, Baron de Barb^s, Armand . Baring, Sir Francis, Bart. Baring, Thomas Baring, William. (See Ashburton) Barlow, Peter Barnes, Albert Barniun, Phineas Taylor Baroche, Pierre Jides Barrett, Miss. (jS'ee Browning, Mrs, Barrot, OdUon Barry Cornwall. (See Pi'octor) Barth, Sir Henry . Barthelcmy, Auguste-MarseiUe Bartlett, John RusseU . Bastide, Jules Bauer, Bruno Bavaria, King of. (5ee Maximilian II.)! Baxter, WUliam Edward, M.P. Becquerel, Antoine Cesar Bedeau, Marie Alphonse Beecher, Miss Catherine Beecher, Rev. Charles . Beecher, Rev. Edward, D.D Beecher, Henry AVard . Beecher, Lyman, D.D. . Bekker, Emmanuel Belcher, Sir Edward Belgians, King of the. (See Leopold George Christian Frederick) Bell, Henry Glassford . INDEX OF NAMES. PAGE Lell, John . 38 BcU, Robert . . .38 Bell, Thomas . 39 Bcndemann, Edward . 39 Benedict, Jidius . 39 Bennett, William Sterndale . 40 Berghaus, Henry . . 40 Berkeley, Hon. Francis, il.P . 41 Berlioz, Hector . 42 Bernard, Claude . . 42 Benyer, Pierre Autoine . 42 Bethell, Sir Richard . . 43 Bibesco, George Demetrius . 44 BiUault, Auguste . . 44 Binney, Rev. Thomas . . 45 Biot, Jean Baptiste . 45 Bishoj), Madame Anna . . 46 Black, Adam, M.R . 46 Black sveU, Ehzabeth, M.D. . 47 Blanc, Louis . 47 Blauqui, Louis Auguste . 49 Boeckh, Augustus . 49 Bohn, Henry G. . 49 Bonaparte, Jerome . 50 Bonaparte, Louis Lucien . 50 Bonaparte, Napoleon . 50 Bonheur, Mademoiselle Rosa . 51 Bopp, Franz . . 51 Bordeaux, Due de . . 93 Borrow, George . 52 Bosquet, PieiTe Fran9ois Jose ph . 52 Boswoi-th, Joseph, D.D., LL. D. . 53 Botfield, Beriah . . 53 Botta, Paid Emilie . 53 Bourqueney, Comte de . 54 Boussingault, Jean Bai)tiste . 54 Bowring, Sir John . 55 Boz. [Sec. Dickens) * . 127 Brande, William Thomas . 56 Bravo-Miuillo, Juan . 56 Bray, Mr.s. Anna Eliza . . 57 Bremer, Miss Fredrika . . 57 Brewster, Sir David . 58 Bright, John, M. P. . 59 Brodie, Sir Benjamin, Bart. . 62 Broglie, Due de . 63 Brooke, Sir James . 63 Brooks, Charles Shirley . 64 Brougham, Lord . . Q5 Broughton de Giflbrd, Lord . 67 Brown, Miss Frances . Brown, William . Browning, Mrs. Elizabeth Ban-ett Browning, Robert Brunei, Isambard. Brunnow, Baron von . Bryant, William CuUen Buccleuch & Queensberry, Didce of Buchanan, James Buckle, Henry Thomas Buckstone, John Baldwin Bulwer, Rt. Hon. Sir Henry Lytton Bidwer, Sir Edward. (Set Lytton) Bunsen, Chevalier von Bunsen, Robert William Buol, Count Buren, Van, Martin Burgoyne, Sir John Fox Burmeister, Hermann . Bm'uet, John Bm-ritt, Elihu Bm-ton, John Hill Bustamente, Don Carlos iLaria de Butt, George Medd Caballero, Firmin Agosto Cabet, Etienne Cabrera, Don Ramon . Cailliaud, Frederic Caird, James, M.P. Carrd, Rev. John, D.D. Caii-ns, sSir Hugh M 'Calmont Cambridge, H.R.H. Duke of Campbell, Lord . Campl^ell, Rev. John, D.D. . Campl )ell, Sir Colin. ((S'ee Clyde, Lord) Candlish, Rev. Robert, D.D. Canning, Charles John, Viscount Canrobert, Frangois Certain . Canterbury, Archbishop of . Canterbmy, Dean of. ((S'ee Alford) Cantu, Cesar Capefigue, Jean Baptiste Cardigan, Earl of Cardwell, Right Hon. Edward Carey, Henry C. . Carleu, Madame EmUie Carletou, William Carlisle, Earl of . Carlisle, Dean of. {See Close) INDEX OF NAMES. PAOK PAGE Carlylc, Thomas . . 86 Cooper, Thomas Sidney, A.R.A. 108 Cariiot, Lazare Hipjjolite . 87 Cope, Charles West, R.A. . 108 Carpenter, \Vm. Benjamin, M.D. . 87 Copley, John S. (See Lyndhurst) 253 < 'ary, Miss Alice . 88 Corbaux, Miss Fanny . 109 < 'asabianca, Count of . . 89 Corbould, Edward Henry , 109 Cass, General Lewis, LL.D. . 89 Comienin, Vicomte de . 110 Cattermole, George . 89 Cornelius, Peter Von HI Caussidifere, Marc . 90 Costcllo, Miss Louisa Stuart . 111 Cavoiir, Count . 90 Cousin, Victor 111 Cayley, Arthur . . 91 Coutts, Miss Burdett 112 Celeste, Madame . . 91 Cowley, Lord 112 Chad%vick, Edwin, C. B. . 92 Craik, George LiUie, LL.D. . 113 Chambers, Montagu . 93 Cranworth, Baron 113 Chambers, William and Eobert . 93 Creasy, Sir Edward S. , M. A. 113 Chambord, Count de . . 93 Cremieux, Isaac Adoli)he 114 Chancellor, Lord. {See Campbell ) 79 Creswick, Thomas, R.A. 114 Changarnier, General . . 94 Croatia, Ban of. (See Jellachich) 220 Charles XV., Louis Eugene . . 94 Croly, Rev. George, LL.D. . 114 Cheever, George Burritt, D. D. 94 Crosland, Mrs. Camilla . 115 Chelmsford, Lord . 95 Crowe, Mrs. Catherine Stevens 115 Chesney, Major-Geueral . 95 Cruikshank, George 115 Chevalier, Michel 96 Cullen, Paul, D.D. 116 Chevalier, Paul. (See Gavarui) 171 Cumniing, Rev. John, D.D. . 116 Chevreid, Michel Eugfene 97 Cunningham, Peter 117 Child, Mrs. Lydia Maria 97 Cunningham, William, D.D. . 117 China, Emp. of. [See Hien Fung 208 Curtis, Benjamin R. . . . 117 Chisholm, Mrs. Caroline 97 Curtis, George William . 118 Christison, Kobert 98 Cushman, Miss Charlotte 118 Clare, John .... 98 Clarendon, Earl of 99 Dahlmann, Frederick Chnstopher . 118 Clark, Sir James, Bart. 99 Dale, Rev. Thomas, M.A. . 119 Clarke, Mrs. Mary Cowden 100 Dalhousie, Marquis of . 119 Clausen, Henri Nicolas 100 Dallas, George Mifliin . 120 Close, The Veiy Rev. Dean 101 Dana, James D wight, LL.D. 120 Clyde, Lord . . . . 101 Dana, Richard Henry . 121 Cobden, Richard . . . . 102 Danby, Francis, A.R.A. 121 Cochrane, Lord. (See Duudonald 140 Danilo, Prince . . . . 121 CockereU, Chas. Rob. , R. A. , D. C. L 102 Dargan, William . . . . 122 Codrington, Sir William, K. C. B. . 103 Darwin, Charles, M.A. . 122 Cole, Henry, C.B. 103 D'Aubigne, J. H. Merle, D.D. . 123 Coleridge, The Rev. Derwent 104 Da\'id, Felicieu . . . . 123 Collier, Jolin Paj'ne 104 Davis, Sir John, Bart., K.C.B. 123 Collin de Plancy, Jacques . 105 Dawson, George, M.A. . 124 Collins, Wilkie . . . . 105 Decazes, Elie Due .... 124 Combermere, Viscount, G.C.B. 106 De Grey, Earl. {.S'ee Ripen, Earl of) 331 Coningham, William, M.P. . 106 Delacroix, Eugiine .... 124 Conscience, Henri 106 Delane, John T. . . . . 125 Constantine, Nicholajwiteh . 107 Delaroche, Paid . . . . 125 Cook, Miss Eliza . . . . 107 Demidov, or Demidoff, Anatol 125 Cooke, Edward WiUiam, A.R.A. . 108 De Morgan, Augustus . 126 INDEX OF NAMES. PAGE Denmark, King of . . . .165 Derby, Earl of . . . .120 Deschenes, Admiral Perceval . 127 Deville, Henry. (See Sainte- Claire) Mr, Dewey, Or^^lle, D.D. , . .127 Dickens, Charles . , . .127 Dickson, Samuel Henry, M.D. . 128 Dilke, Charles Weiitworth . .129 Dilke, Charles Wentworth, junior . 129 Dindorf, AVilhclm . . . .129 Disraeli, Eight Hon. Benjamin . 12Q Dixon, William Hepworth . . 1.31 Dobell, Sydney . . , .132 Doo, George Thomas, R.A. . . 132 Doran, John, Ph.D. . . . 133 Douglas, General Sir Howard, Bart. 133 Doyle, Richard . . . .133 Drouyn De Lhuys, Edouard . .134 Duchatel, Charles M. T., Coimt . 1.34 Dudevant, Madame . . .135 Dufaiu-e, Jides Armand Stanislas . 136 Duff, Alexander, D.D., LL.D. . 136 Dufferin and Clandeboye, Lord . 137 DuflPy, Charles Gavin . . .138 Dumas, Alexandre . . .138 Dumas, Alexandre, junior . .139 Dumas, Jean Baptiste . . .139 Duncombe, Thomas Sliugsby, M.P. 139 Dundas, Vice- Admiral . . .139 Dundonald, Earl of . . . 140 DungUson, Robley, M.D., LL.D. . 141 Du Petit Thouars, Acbniral . . 142 Dupin, Andre Marie Jean Jacques. 142 Dupin, Baron . . . .142 Dupont de L'Eure, Jacques Charles 143 Dupont, Pierre .... 143 Dyce, Rev. Alexander . . .144 Dyce, William, R.A. . . ,144 Eadie, John, D.D., LL.D. . .145 Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock . .146 Edwardes, Sir Herbert B., K.C.B. 146 Egg, Augustus, R.A. . . .147 Eglinton and Winton, Earl of . 148 Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfreid . 148 Eichwald, Edward . . .149 Elgin and Kincardine, Earl of . 150 EUenborough, Earl of . . ,150 Elliotson, John, M.D. , , .151 Ellis, Mrs. Sarah , , , ,151 TAGB Ellis, Rev. William . , , 151 Ellis, Sir Henry, K.H. . . . 152 Emerson, Ralph Waldo , . . 152 Encke, Johann F 152 Enfautin, Barthclemy Prosper . 153 Eotvos, Josef .... 153 Espartero, Don Baldomero . .154 Espinasse, Esprit Charles Marie . 154 Eugenie, Empress of the French . 155 Evans, Lieut. -Gen. Sir De Lacy . 155 Everett, Edward, D.C.L. . .155 Exeter, Bishojj of . . , . 156 Faed, Thomas , , . .156 Fair bairn, William . . .156 Fanny Fern. (*S'ee Parton, Mrs. ) . 307 Faraday, Michael, D.C.L. . .157 Fazy, Jean 157 FercUnand IV 158 Fergusson, James , , . . 158 Fields, James T 158 Fillmore, Millard . . . .159 Foley, John Henry, R.A. . .159 Fonblanque, Albany . . .159 Forbes, Sir John, M.D. . .160 Forrest, Edwin . . . .160 Forster, John , . , .160 Fortune, Robert . . . .161 Foidd, Achnie . . . .162 Fox, W. J., M.P 163 Francis Joseph I., Emp. of Austria 163 Francis II., King of Naples . . 164 Francis V 164 Franklin, Lady Jane . , .164 Fraser, Alexander . . . .16.5 Frederick VIII. , King of Denmark 165 Frederick William IV. , K. of Prussia 1 65 Freiligrath, Ferdinand . . .167 Fremont, Colonel . . . .167 French, Emperor of. (/See Napoleon) 285 French, Empress of. (See Eugenie) 155 Frerichs, Frederic Theodore . . 168 Frith, WiUiam Powell, R.A. . 169 Frost, William Edward, R.A. . 169 Garibaldi, Joseph .... 169 Garnier Pagt^s, Louis Antoine . 171 Gaskell, Mrs. L. E. . . .171 Gavarni, or Paul Chevalier . .171 Gavazzi, Padre Alessandro . .172 INDEX OF NAMES. XI Geefs, Guillaume . Geefs, Joseph George V., Kiug of Hanover Georges Saud. (See Duilevaat) Gerhard, Edward . Gerstaecker, Frederic (!er\amis, Georges Godefroid Ghika, Alexander . Gibsou, John Gibson, Right Hon. Thomas MiLier (iighucci, Countess. (See Novello) Gilliert, John Graham . GihLllau, llev. George . CJirardin, Emile de Gladstone, Right Hon. Wm., M.P. (ileig, Rev. George Robert Glencorse, Lord Goderich, LorcL (See Ripon Godwin, George Goldschmidt, Madame . Gonmi, General Sir William, G.C.B. Goodall, Edward, R.A. . Goodall, Frederick, R.A. Gordon, Lady Lucy DufF Gordon, Sir John W. , P. R. S. A. , R. A. Gore, Mrs. Catherine Frances Gijrgei, Arthur .... GortchakofF, Prince Alexander GortchakotF, Prince ^Michael Gosse, Pliilip Henry Gough, Lord . Gough, John B. Goidd, Augustus Addison Goidd, Beiijamin Apthorp Gould, John, F.R.S. Graham, Rt. Hon. Sir James Graham, Thomas, F.R.S. Grant, Francis, R.A. Grant, James Granville, Earl Grattan, Thomas CoUey . Gray, Asa, M.D. . Greece, King of. (See Otho) Greeley, Horace Grey, Earl Grey, Right Hon. Sir George, Bart. Grey, Sir- George, K.C.B. Griffin, John Joseph Giimm, Jacob Lud^vig . Grisi, Giidia . PAGE 172 172 172 135 173 173 17-t 174 175 176 295 176 177 177 178 179 180 331 180 181 181 182 182 183 183 183 183 184 184 185 185 186 186 186 186 187 188 188 188 189 189 190 300 190 190 191 191 192 192 192 1 PA 01 Grote, George, M.P. . . .193 Gudin, Theodore . , . .193 (riiizot, Fran(,'oi3 . . . .193 Gutluie, Thomas, D.D, . . . 195 Hagenbach, Charles Rodolphe . 196 Haghe, Louis. . . . .196 Hahn-Hahn, Coimtess von . . 196 Halevy, Jacques-Elie Fromental . 196 Halibnrton, Hon. Mr. Justice, M.P. 197 Hall, Mrs. Anna IMaria . . . 197 HaU, Samuel Carter . . .198 Hall, Sir Benjamin. (,S'ee Llanover) 250 Halleck, Fitz-Greene . . .198 HaUiwell, James Orchard . .199 Hamilton, P^ev. James, D.D. . .199 Hampden, Renn Dickson, D. D. . 199 Hannay, James .... 200 Hanover, King of. (A^ee George V. ) 172 Hardwicke, Earl of . . .200 Hai-ris, James. (See Malmesbury). 264 Harris, Sir William Snow . .200 Hart, Solomon Alexander, R.A. . 201 Harvey, George, R.S.A. . . 202 Hawthorne, Nathaniel . . . 202 Hayes, Mrs. Catherine . . .202 Hayter, Sir George . . . 203 Head, Sir Francis, Bart., K.C.H. . 203 HeacUey, Joel Tyler . . . 204 Helps, Arthur . . . .204 Hengstenberg, Ernest William . 204 Henley, Right Hon. Joseph W. . 205 Herapath, William, F.C.S. . . 205 Herbert, John Rogers, R.A. . . 205 Herbert, Rt. Hon. Sidney, ]\I.P. . 205 Hereford, Bishop of. (See Hampden) 199 Herring, John Frederick . . 206 Herschel, Sh- John F. W., Bart. . 206 Herzen, or Hertzen, Alexander . 208 Hien Fung, Emperor of Cliina . 208 Hildi-eth, Richard .... 209 Hill, Sir- Rowland, K.C.B. . .209 Hind, John RusseU . . .210 Hinds, Right Rev. Samuel . . 210 Hobhouse,Jno.Cam. (.S'eeBroughton) 67 Holland, Sir Henry, Bart., M.D. . 210 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, M.D. . 210 Hook, The Very Rev. Dean . .211 Hooker, Sir William Jackson, K.H. 211 Hooker, Joseph Dalton, M.D. . 212 IXDEX OF NAMES. Hope, George William, M.P. Home, Eichard Henry . Horsley, John Callcott, K. A. Houdin, Robert Jean-Eugbne Houssaj^e, Arsbne . Houston, General . Howick, Lord. (See Grey) Howitt, I\Iary Howitt, William . Hugo, Victor Marie, Vicqmte HuUali, John Hunt, Robert, F.R.S. . Hunt, Thornton Hunt, William Holman . lugemann, Bernard Severin Ingersoll, Charles Jared . Inglis, John. (See Glencorse) Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste Ireland, Lord Lieutenant of Isabel II. , Maria Isabel Luisa Isabey, Eugene Louis Gabriel Ismail Piislia. (See Kmety) Isturitz, Don Xavier de . Janiu, -Jules Gabriel Jasmin, Jacques Jellachich, Baron von Jerdan, William Jerrold, William Blanchard Jewsbvu-y, Miss Geraldine Johnston, Alexander Keith Jomini, Henri, Baron Jordan, Sylvester , Josika, Nicolas, Bai-on . Junghuhn, Frank Wilhelm Kane, Sir Robert, M.D. Karr, Jean Baptiste Alphonse Kaulbach, William Kavanagh, Miss Julia . Kean, Gharles Kean, Mrs. Charles Keble, The Rev. John, M.A. Kelly, Sir Fitzroy . Kemble, Mrs. Fanny Kern, J. Conrad . Kinglake, Alexander William, M. P. Kingsley, The Rev. Charles, M. A Kinkel, Gottfried . PAOK 212 212 21.S 21:5 214 214 190 214 215 2ir> 216 216 217 217 217 218 180 218 85 218 219 228 219 219 220 220 220 221 221 221 222 222 222 222 223 223 223 224 224 224 224 224 225 225 226 226 226 PAGE Kinnaird, Lord .... 227 Kiss, Augustus .... 227 Kisseleff,"Paia Dmitrcv-itch . . 227 Klapka, General George . . 228 Kmety, General George , . . 228 Knight, Charles . . . .229 Knowles, James Sheridan . . 230 K obeli, Franz von . . . 2.30 Kock, Charles Henri Emmanuel . 230 Kock, Charles Paid de . . . 231 Kossuth, Lajos de Kossuth Falva . 231 Kiigler, Franz Theodore . . 234 Laborde, Lgon, Count de , . 234 Lacordaire, Abbe .... 234 La Marmora, Marquis de . . 235 Lamartine, Ali)honse de . . 235 Lamoriciere, General . . . 236 Lance, George, R.A. . . . 236 Landor, Walter Savage . . . 237 Landseer, Sir Edwin, R.A. . . 237 Langenbeck, Maximilian . . 237 Laukester, EdM-in, M.D. . . 238 Lansdowne, Marquis of . . . 238 Latham, Robert Gordon, M.D. . 238 Lauder, Robert Scott, R.S. A. . 239 Lawi'ence, Sir John . . . 239 Layard, Austen Henry . . . 240 Ledru RolHn 240 Lee, Frederick Richard, R.A. . 240 Lee, Rev. Robert, D.D. . . 241 Lee, Mrs. A. Bowdich . . .241 Leech, .John ..... 241 Lemon, Mark .... 242 Lenne}), Jacob Van . . . 242 I-eopold, King of the Belgians . 242 Lepsius, Carl Richard . . . 243 Lesseps, Ferdinand de . . . 244 Lever, Charles .... 244 LeveiTier, Urban Jean Joseph . 244 Lewes, George .... 245 Lewis, John Frederick . . . 245 Lewis, Sir George CornewaU . . 245 Liddell, Very Rev. Henry G., D.D. 246 Lieber, Francis, LL.D. . . . 246 Licbig, Justus, Baron . . . 246 Lind, Jenny. (See Goldschmidt) . 181 Lincoln, Lord. (See N'castle, Duke of) 291 Lindley, John, M.D. . . .247 Lindsay, Lord .... 24/ INDEX OF NAMES. rui PAGE Lindsay, WiUiani Schaw, M.P. . 248 LinneU, John . . . .248 Liszt, Franz 249 Livingston, The Rev. David, LL.D. 249 Llanover, Lord .... 2r)0 London, Bislioji of ... 250 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth . 251 Lough, John Clrahani . . .251 Lover, Samuel . . . .251 Lowell, James Russell . . . 252 Lucas, Hippolyte Julieu Joseph . 252 Liiders, General .... 252 Lyell, Sir Charles, F.R.S. . .253 Lyudhurst, Lord .... 253 Lytton, Sir Edward Lyttou Bulwer. 254 M'Culloch, Horatio, R.S. A. . .256 M'Cidloch, J. R 256 IMacdowell, Patrick, R.A. . . 256 M'Hale, Right Rev. John, D.D. . 250 Mackay, Charles, LL.D. . . 257 Maclaren, Charles .... 258 Macleod, Rev. Nonnau, D.D. . 258 M'Clintock, Sir Francis. . . 258 Maclise, Daniel, R.A. . . . 259 Alaclure, Sir Robert Le Mesurier . 260 Macmahon, Marshal . . .261 M'Neile, The Rev. Hugh, D.D. . 261 M'Neill, Sir John, G.C.B. . .261 M'NeiU, Sir John, C.E. . . 262 Macready, William Charles . . 262 Madden, Sir Frederick, K.H. . 262 Madoz, Pascal .... 263 Magnan, Marshal . . . .263 Mahou, Lord. {See Stanhope) . 359 Malakof, Duke of. {See Pelissier) . 310 Mabnesljury, Earl of . . . 264 Manteiifel, Baron . . . .264 Manzoni, Count .... 264 Mario, Joseph .... 265 Marochetti, Baron .... 265 Marsh, Mrs. Anne. . . . 265 Marshall, William Calder, R.A. . 266 Marston, John Westland . . 266 Martineau, Miss Harriet . . 266 Martinez de la Rosa, Fraucisco . 267 Martins, Carl F. P. von . . .267 Massey, Gerald . . . .268 Massou, David .... 268 Maulc, Fox. {See Paumurc, Lord) 306 Maurice, Rev. Frederick D. , M.A. . Mamy, Matthew F. . . . Maximilian II. , King of Bavaria . Mayhew, Henry . . . . Mazzini, Joseph . . . . Mehemet Emin. {See Aali Pasha) . Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest Melvill, The Rev. Henry, B.D. . Mehalle, Herman . . . , Menchikoff, Prince Menzel, Wolfgang . . . . Merimce, Prosper . . . . Mcry, Joseph . . . . Metz, Frederick Auguste de . Meyerbeer, Giacomo Miall, Edward . . . . Midland, Louis Gabriel . Michelet, Jides . . . . Mignet, Fran§ois Auguste Mill, John Stuart . . . . MiUais, John Everett, A. R.A. Miller, Thomas . . . . Milman, The Very Rev. Dean Milues, Richard Monckton, M.P. . Minie, Claude . . . . Mitscherlich, EiUiard . Moccpiard, Constant Moffat, Robert . . . , Moutalembert, Comte de Monteagle, Lord Monti, Raffaelle ... Morella, Count of. {See Cabrera) Morny, Comte de . Morse, Samuel Finley Breese. Mulgrave, Lord. {See Normanby) MiiUer, Johannes . IMuloch, Miss Dinah M. Mulready, William, R.A. Munch, Peter Andreas . Murchison, Sir Roderick, D.C.L. . Mushaver Pacha. {See Slade) Musset, Paid Edme de . PADE 268 270 270 270 271 1 271 272 273 273 274 274 275 275 275" 275 275 276 276 270 277 277 277 278 278 279 280 280 78 280 280 295 281 282 282 282 283 355 284 Napier, Robert .... 284 Naj>ier, Admiral Sir Charles . . 284 Naples, King of. (See Francis 11.) 164 Napi)leon III., Emp. of the French 285 Narvaez, Don R;unon . . . 290 Nash, Joseph .... 290 Nasmyth, James .... 291 IXDEX OF NAMES. PAOE Nees Yon Esenbeck, Christian G. . 291 Nesselrode, Comte de . . .291 Newcastle, Duke of . . .291 Newman, Rev. John Henry, D.D. . 292 Newman, Francis William . . 292 Nichols, John Gough, F.S.A. . 298 Niepcc, De Saint Victor . . 298 Nightingale, Miss Florence . . 294 Noel, Hon. and Rev. Baptist, M.A. 294 Norman})y, Marqnis of . . . 29,') Norton, The Hon. Mrs. . . 295 Norwich, ex-Bishop of. {See Hinds) 210 Novello, Madame Clara . . . 295 O'Brien, William Smith . . . 296 O'Donnell, Marshal . . .297 Oliphant, Lawrence . . . 297 Ohnsted, Denison . . . .299 Omer Pacha 299 Orbigny, Charles d' . . . 299 Orloff, Alexis, Prince . . . 300 O'Shauglmessy, Sii- William B. . 300 Otho I., King of Greece . .300 Oudinot, Marshal . . . .301 Outram, General Sir James . . 302 Overbeck, Frieclrich . . . 302 Overstone, Lord .... 303 Owen, Richard, F.R.S. . . . 303 Oxenford, John .... 304 Oxford, Bishop of . . . . 304 Pakington, Sir John, G.C.B. . . 304 Palgi-ave, Sir Francis, K.H., F.R.S. 305 Pahnerston, Viscount . . • 305 Panizzi, Antonio . . • .300 Panmure, Lord .... 300 Pardoe, Miss Julia . . . 307 Paris, Coimt of . . . . 307 Pai-ton, Mrs. Sara P. . . . 307 Patmore, Coventry . • • 308 Patou, Joseph Noel, R.S. A. . .308 Paxton, Sir Joseph, M. P. . .309 Payen, Ansehne .... 309 Pedro v.. King of Portugal . .309 Peel, Frederick, M.P. . . .310 Peel, The Right Hon. Jonathan . 310 Peel, Sir Robert, Bart. . . . 310 Pclissier, Marshal, Due de Malakof 310 Pelouze, Theophile Jides . .311 Peiuiefather, Lieutenant-General . 311 PACE Pcnnethome, James . . .311 Pepe, General . . . .311 Pepe, Gal)riel .... 312 Pepoli, Charles . . . .312 Pepoli, Marchesa di. [See Alboni) . 1 1 Per signy, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin 312 Petennann, August Heinrich . . 313 Peto, Sir Samuel Morton, Bart. , M. P. 313 Petty, Lord Henry. [See Lansdowne) 238 Phelps, Samuel . . . .314 PhiUips, John, M.A., LL.D. . . 315 Piccolomini, Maria . . . 315 Pickersgill, Fred. Richard, R.A. . 315 Pius IX 315 Planche, James Robinson . . 316 Playfair, Lyon, C.B. . . ,316 Poerio, Carlo . . . . .317 Poggeudorf, ,Tohn Christian . . 318 Pollock, Right Hon. Sir Frederick . 318 Poole, Paul Falconer, A.R.A. . 318 PoiieofRome. (5'ee Pius IX. ) . 315 Portugal, King of. [See Pedro V.) 309 Potter, Cipriani . . . .319 Potter, Louis Joseph . . .319 Pouillet, Claude S. M. . . . 320 Powers, Hiram .... 320 Prince Consort. {/S'ee Albert, Prince) 9 Proctor, Bryan W. . . . 320 Proudhon, Pierre Joseph . . 320 Prussia, King of. (>%« Fredk. Wm.) 165 Pidszky, Ferencz . . . .321 Pulszky, Madame Ferencz . . 322 Pusey, Edward Bouverie, D. D. . 322 Pyat, Felix 322 Pyue, James B 323 Quinet, Edgar . . . .323 Raffles, Rev. Thomas, D.D. . . 323 Ramsay, WiUiam, M.A. . . 324 Ranke, Leopold . . . .324 Raukiue, W. J. Macquorn . . 324 Raspail, Francois Vincent . . 325 Ranch, Clu'istian .... 325 Raimaer, Frederick von . . . 325 Rawlinson, Sir Henry . . . 326 Reade, Charles . . . .327 Reboul, Jean . . . .327 Redding, C^tus . . . .327 Redgrave, Richard, R.A. . . 328 IXDEX OF XAilES. PAOE Rccd, Rev. Andrew, D.D. . . 328 lleggio, Duke of. (See Oudinot) . 301 llegnaiilt, Henri Victor . . . 329 Reiclienl)ach, Baron de . . . 32!) Reid, Captain Mayue . . . 330 Remilly, Ovide .... 330 Rescind, Paslia . . . .330 Ribera, Count of. (5'^c Almodovar) 13 Ricliardson, Charles, LL.D. . . 331 Richardson, Sir John, K.C.B. . 331 Ripon and De Grey, Earl of . . 331 Ripon, Bishop of . . . . 332 Ristori, Adelaide . . . .332 Ritchie, Leitch .... 332 Roberts, David, R.A. . . . 333 Robson, Frederick . . .333 Roebuck, John, M.P. . . . 333 Roger, Gustave H. . . . 334 Rogei"s, Henry .... 334 Rogers, Henry Darwin, LL. D. . 334 Roget, Peter Mark, M.D. . . 335 Rokitansky, Charles . . . 335 Rolfe, Baron. ((S'ee Cranwoi-th) . 113 Rollin, Ledru. (.S'ee Ledru) . . 240 Ronge, Johannes .... 336 Rosas, Don Juan Manuel de . , 330 Rose, Gustave .... 330 Rose, Heinrich .... 337 Rosetti, Constantine . . . 337 Ross, Rear- Admiral Sir James Clark 338 Rosse, Earl of ... . 338 Rossini, Joacchino .... .339 Rothschild, Baron Lionel de, M.P. 339 Rudersdorff, ^ladame . . . 339 Ridmdvorff, X 340 Ruskin, John .... 340 Russel, Alexander . . . 341 Russell, John Scott, F.R.S. . .341 Russell, Right Hon. Lord John, M.P 341 Russell, Wdliam Howard, LL. D. . 343 Russia, Emp. of. (See Alexander II. ) 11 Sabine, Major-General Edward . 344 Sainte-Claire Deville . . . 344 Siiint Leonards, Baron . . . 345 St. Paul's, Dean of. (S'eelVIilman) 270 Sala, George Augustus . . . 345 Saldauha, Duke of ... 340 Salomons, David, M.P. . . 34G Sara Slick. {See Haliburton) Santa Anna, Don Antonio Lopez de Santini, Giovanni Sardinia, K. of. (See Victor Emanuel) Sartorius, Ernest William Christian Saulcy, Louis Caignart de Say, Horace Emile Scarlett, The Hon. Sir James Yorke Schamyl . . . . . Schnorr, Jides . . . . Schoelcher, Victor . . . . Sehombui-gk, Sir Robert Hermann Schonlein, Johann Luk . Scott, George Gilbert, A. R.A. Scribe, Eug&ne . . . . SedgAvick, Amy . . . . Sedgwick, iliss Catherine Maria . Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A. Senior, Xassau WiUiam Seymour, Right Hon. Sir George . Shaftesbiuy, Earl of . . . Shuttleworth, Sir James Kay Simpson, General Sir James, G.C.B. Simpson, James Young, M. D. Sinclair, j\Iiss Catherine Skoda, Joseph . . . . Slade, Sir Adolphus Smirke, Sir Robert Smith, Alexander . . . . Smith, Sir Henry, Bart. Smith, Thomas Southwood, M.D. . Smith, WiUiam, LL.D. Somer^-iUe, Mrs. Alary . Soulouque, Faustin South, Sii- James, F. R. S. Spain, Queen of. {See Isabella II.) Sparks, Jared .... S2)ring Rice. {See Monteagle, Lord) Spurgeon, Rev. Charles Haddon . Stanfield, Clarkson, R.A. Stanhope, Earl of . Stanley, Rev. Arthur . Stanley, Right Hon. Lord, M SteelL John, R.S.A. Stirling, William, M.P. Stowe, Harriet Beecher Stratford de Redcliffe, Viscount Strauss, DaWd Friedrich , Strickland, Miss Agnes Swain, Charles . ; PAGE 197 347 347 383 .347 .348 348 349 349 349 349 350 350 350 351 351 352 352 352 .352 353 353 353 354 354 354 355 355 356 356 356 .357 357 357 3.58 218 358 280 358 358 359 359 359 .360 360 361 361 362 362 363 INDEX OF NAMES. Sweden, King of. (.S'ee Charles XV.) 1)4 Syme, James, M.D. . . . 363 Taglioni, Marie .... 303 Tait, Kight Rev. Archibald . . 2.50 Taunton, Eight Hon. Lord . . 3G4 Taylor, Alfred Swaine, M.D. . 3()4 Taylor, Bayard .... 3G5 Taylor, Isaac .... 3G5 Taylor, Isidore, Baron . . , 365 Taylor, Tom . . . .366 Tenerani, Pietro . . . .367 Tennent, Sir James E. , M. P. . 367 Tennyson, Alfred, D.C.L. . . 368: Thackeray, William Makepeace . 368 ; Thalberg, Sigismund , . . 369 1 Thesiger, Sir Fred. (/S>e Chelmsford) 95 I Thierry, Alexandre . . . 369 j Thierry, Amedee .... 370 | Thiers, Louis Adolphe . . . 370 Thirlwall, Ptt. Ptcv. Connop, D.D. 371 Tholuck, Friedi-ich Gottreu . .371 Thompson, Rev. E. Anchor, M.A. 371 Thompson, Major-General Perrouet 372 Thorns, William .... 373 Thorneycroft, Mrs. Mary . . 373 Ticknor, George .... 373 Timbs, John, F.S.A. . . . 373 Tite, William, M. P., F.E.S. . . 374 Titiens, Teresa .... 374 Titmarsh,M. Angelo. {See Thackeray) 368 Todleben, Francis Edward . . 375 Trench, Very Rev. Eich. Cheuevix 376 Trollope, Mrs. Frances . . . 376 Troubridge, Col. Sh T., Bart., C.B. 376 Tuam, Archbishop of. {See M'Hale) 256 Tidloch, Rev. John, D.D. . . 377 Tux)per, Martin Farquliar, D.C.L. 377 Turkey, Suit. of. (*S'ee Abdul-Medj id) 3 PAflE Vcuillot, Louis .... 3S2 Viardot, Paidine Garcia . . 382 Victor Emmanuel II., K. of Sardinia 383 Victoria, Her Majesty the Queen . 383 Vittoria, Duke of. {See Espartero) . 154 Vigny, Alfred, Count de . . 384 Villemain, Abel .... 385 Uhland, Johann Ludwig Ullnian, Karl . . . . Urqidiart, David . . . . Valencia, Duke of. (See Narvaez) Vaudenlioff, John . . . . Vaughan, Rev. Roljcrt, D.D. Velpeau, Alfred Marie . Verdi, (iinseppe . . . . Vernet, Horace .... Veron, Louis Desire 377 378 378 290 378 379 380 380 380 381 Waagen, Gustave Friedrich . . 385 Wagner, Richard .... 386 Wagner, Rudoli)h .... 386 Wales, Prince of. (-S'ee Albert Ed wd.) 10 Walewski, Florian Alexandre . 386 Waljiole, Eight Hon. Spencer, M. P. 387 I Walter, John, M. P. . . . 387 j Ward, Edward Matthew, E. A. . 387 I Warren, Samuel .... 388 j Watt, James Henry . . . 389 I Watts, Alaric Alexander . . 389 Webster, Thomas, R.A. . . 389 Wensleydale, Baron . . , .390 Westmacott, Richard, R.A. . . 390 Whately, Archbishop . . . 390 Wheatstone, Charles, F.R.S. . . 391 WheweU, Rev. William, D.D. . 392 Whiteside, Right Hon. James, M. P. 392 Whitty, Edward Michael . . 393 Whitworth, Josei)h . . . 393 Wilberforce, Right Rev. Samuel . 304 Wilkes, Charles .... 393 Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner, Kt. . 393 William III., King of Holland . 394 Williams, Major-General Sir W. F. 395 Willis, Nathaniel Parker . . 395 Willis, Rev. Robert, M.A., F.R.S. 396 Wills, William Henry . , . 396 Wilmore, James Tibbits . . 397 Windham, Major-General C, C.B. 397 Wiudischgriitz, Alfred, Prince de . 397 Winslow, Forbes, M.D. . . 398 Winterhalter, Franz Xavier . . 398 Wiseman, Nicholas, Cardinal . 399 Woeliler, Frederick . . .399 Wood, Right Hon. SirC, M.P. . 399 Wrangel, Fertlinand . . . 400 Wright, Thomas .... 400 Wurtemburg, King of, William I. . 401 Wyatt, Matthew Digby . . 401 Yendys, Sydney. (See Dobell) . 132 Young, Brigham .... 402 COTElirORAEY BIOGRAPHY. A AL ABB AALI PASHA, Mehemtt Emin, a [ the Conferences of Vienna, he returned ^ Turkish statesman and legislative re- former, was born at Constantinople in 1815. At the age of fifteen he was admitted to the Translation Office of the Porte, ou the recommendation of Reschid Pasha, the enlightened Turkish Eeformer, who had the year before acted as Secretary to the Turkish Plenipoten- tiaries at Adrianople. In 1834 Aali Pasha was appointed Second-class Secretary to the Embassy of Ahmed Fethi Pasha to Vienna, where he spent two years. He visited Russia before retiu-ning to Con- stantinople, making no stay, however, in the empire of the Czar. In November 1837, he became Chief Interpreter to the Divan, and in 1838 Charge iV Affaires to Loudon, in which post he reuxained till the following year. In 1841 he was ajipointed Ambassador to England, re- taining that office imtil 1844. With the elevation of Reschid Pasha to be Grand Vizier, AaU rose to be Foreign Minister, and participated in all the political for- tunes, good and bad, of his patron from 1846 to 1852. In 1852 he became (irrand Vizier, and held the office for a few months, when he retired for some time from public life. In 1854, however, he obtained the post of Governor-General of Broussa, and in October of the same year was recalled to Constantinople, where he again became Minister of Fo- reign Affiiirs, and filled vai'ious other pffices. After representing the Porte at to Turkey to become Grand Vizier : an office which he held when a commission was appointed, over which he presided, to tlraw up, in concert with the represen- tatives of the Western Powers, those measures favom-able to the Christian I)opulatiou of the Turkish Empu-e which were confirmed in 185G. As Plenipoten- tiary of the Porte to the Paris Confer- ences, he took an active part in the deliberations, and signed the treaty of peace of 1856. In November, 1856, he resigned the office of Grand Vizier, and was succeeded Ijy his old patron Reschid Pasha. Three weeks after, he entered the council as Minister of Foreign Affairs, which post, however, he resigned im- mediately on the death of Reschid in January, 1858. He was then re-invested ynih. the fiuictions of (ilrand Vizier, in which he has manifested a sincere desire to reform Turkish abuses. From "A Biography of Aali Pasha," pubhshed in Tm-kisli by Fatin Effendi, it appears that the fonner enjoys a high reputa- tion among his coimtrymen for poetical ability. A small, modest-looking man, no one would conclude from his appear- ance that he possessed such energy and firmness of puqiose as he has manifested in dii)lomatic negooiations. ABBOTT, Rev. Jacob, an American author, and Congregational minister, was born at Hallowell, in the State of Maine, in 1803. He graduated at Bowdoia B ABB ABD College in 1820, and became a Congrega- tional minister. In 1825 be commenced the publication of a series of moral and religious woi-ks, with which his name luis now become identified, of which " The Yoimg Christian," " The Comer Stone," "The Way to do Good," and his illustrated "Histories," are the best known. He has written besides a great number of juvenile works, wliich have had a wide circulation, especially in America. Among these are the ' ' Rollo Books," the "Lucy Books," and the "Jonas Books ;" the " Franconian Sto- ries," "Marco Polo's Adventures," "Sto- ries of the Rainbow," "The Florence Series," and " Hari)er's Story Books," each of these forming a series in an incre- dible number of volumes. These works are all intended for the use of the young, and have attained to great popularity, owing to the clearness and simi)hcity of the author's style, and the talent he possesses of infusing interest into his narratives ; many of his works have been reprinted in this country and translated into various languages. ABBOTT, Rev. John, S.C, an Ame- rican author. Congregational minister, and brother of the Ilev. Jacob Abbott, was born in 1805 at Brunswick, in the State of Maiue. He graduated at Bow- doin College in 1825, and at the Theolo- gical Seminary in Andover, Massachu- setts, in 1829, where he was trained as a Congregational minister. His principal works are ' ' Kings and Queens ; or. Life in a Palace," " The Mother at Home," "The Child at Home," "The History of Napoleon Bonaparte," "The History of the French lievolution, as viewed in the light of lieimbhcan Institutions," and Memoirs of "Marie Antoinette," " Jose- phine," "MadameRo laud," "Henry IV.," " Cortes," "Hind Phdiji, Chief of Nar- ragansett Indians." He is at j)resent writing the Histories of the Monarchies of Continental Eui-ope, those relating to "The Empires of Austria and Russia " ha\ing already appearetl, and "The History of Italy " being on the eve of publication. ABD-EL-KADER was born in the neighlaourhood of Mascara, in 1807. He was educated with his three 1)rotliers in the Guetna, a sort of seminary kept in the house of his father ; the latter being a Saint, who claimed descent from the Prophet. He early distinguished him- self by his learning and eloquence. An attempt of the Dey of Algiers to assassi- nate him induced him to seek an asylum in Egyjit, whence he did not return till after the French conquest. His father, who had taken the lead in an insiuTec- tion of the Arab tribes near Oran, handed over his power to his son, who in 1832 attacked the city at the head of 10,000 moiuited Arabs. They thought that the 'J'urkish jxAver being overthrown by the French at Algiers, they might achieve their independence. He was o])posetl, however, by General Boyer, who defended Oran with French troops, repulsing the Arab leader after a terrible engagement. Nevertheless his influence continued to increase with the wild tribes of Barbary. In 1834 General Des Michels entered into a treaty with him, whereby the CheUf became the boun- dary between the French and native possessions. The result of this arrange- ment was, that a sort of small monarchy was formed for him with Mascara for his capital, where he had am}ile leisure to jirepare for a wide- spread resistance. The time came when he thought he might venture on a new attack. He crossed the Chelif, took jjossession of Medeah, and at the head of 20,000 moimted Arabs drove back the French from the course of the Macta. General Bugeaud was the first French commander who was successfid in checking the re- sistance of the native population, and in breaking the prestige of Abd-el-Kader, who was of course looked upon by his countrymen as a prophet as well as a A BD soldier. The French commander offered terms of peace to his vanquished enemy, and entered into the treaty of Tafna with him on May 3rd, 1837. Two years after Abd-el-Kadcr found a pretext in ill-defined clauses of the treaty for a fresh war. The campaign of 18-10 fol- lowed. General Bugeaud was then ap- pointed Governor of Algeria, and intro- duced a new system of attack. He organized razzias whereby French mili- tary operations Ixiing carried across the whole width of Barbary to the shores of the desert, he endeavoured to starve the Arabs into submission. The cap- ture of Smala in Feljruary, 1842, forced Abd-el-Kadcr to retreat into Morocco ; the emperor of that state having, it is alleged, subsidized him. In 1844 the combined troops of Abd-el-Kader and the Emperor of Morocco attacked Gene- ral Bugeaud, who at Isly, on the 14th August, 1844, gained a decisive victory. The bombardment of the Moorish sea- ports by the French put an end to all overt interference on the part of the " Marocains," but it did not prevent the Arabs to- the west of the Algerian fron- tier from joining the standard of insur- rection. So late as 1845, he again menaced the great plain of the Metidja, the head-quarters of French colonization, which lies immediately behind Algiers. It was two years before the French troops, now acting with such part of the Emperor of Morocco's army as coidd be induced to fight against their coun- trymen, succeeded in crushiug the Arab leader. Abd-el-Kader at last gave in his submission to (Jeneral Lamoricibre, on condition of being taken to Alexan- dria or St. Jean d'Acre. He was re- moved to France with his family, and afterwards confined at Toulon, the castle of Pau, and the castle of Amboise, with questionable respect to the pledge made him in Africa. The present Emperor set him at liberty in 1852, on the occa- sion of the proclamation of the Empire. ABD He afterwards settled at Brusa, where he lived in retirement until the town was destroyed by an earth([uakc. In 185.*> and again in 1854 he visited Paris, and was quite a lion among the Parisians. He was anxious to take part in the Crimean war, but the state of his health forced him to remain at Constantinople ; when last heard of he was in Damascus. He has lately (18G0) taken the part of the Christians diu'ing the massacre i)er- petrated by the Dmses, and his conduct in this respect woidd have done credit to one professing a higher degree of civilization. He protected to the utmost of his ability all the fugitives who ar- rived in Damascus, and he has received a decoration from the French Emperor in acknowledgment of his noble inter- ference. ABDUL-MEDJID, Khan, Sultan of Turkey, was born Aprd 23rd, 1823, and is the eldest son of Mahmoud II., whom he succeeded on the 1st Jidy, 1839. His early education was conducted b\' moUahs and astrologers, and he has thus not had the advantage of a personal acquaintance with the customs and social life of Western nations. Abdul- Medjid ascended the throne of his an- cestors at a most critical epoch in the history of Turkey. The battle of Nezib had just been gained by Ibrahim Pasha, who seemed to have beaten down the might of the Ottoman empire, and thus the Sidtan commenced his reign in an unfortunate state of affairs in every respect, and at a very eai-ly age. In this critical juncture the leading Euro- pean powers interfered, to prevent the dismemberment of the dominions of the Sultan.. The Pasha of Egy|it refusing to accede to the terms of the treaty of London, bis obstinacy was idtimately brought to reason by British cannon. It \ had l)eeu anticipated that the reforms initiated under the stern rule of Mah- ! nioud woidd be prevented imder his i somewhat facile successor. But in. the ABD ^ November of the year followdng his ac- cession, tlie famous statute of Gulhani, or the Tanzimat or refomiing ordiuance, was proclaimed, which was to serve as the new basis of Turkish legislation. It had for its object the corajilete refonna- tion of all the abuses which had converted TiU'kish rule into a jjerpetual state of anai'chj'. The Sultan thus vigorously prepared to follow out the dying requests of his parent. A conspiracy ensued, which was, however, speedily quelled. It is unfortunate that the reforms which the statute sought to introduce into Turkey have, practically speaking, been carried out nowhere, except in Constan- tinople and its immediate vicinity. As connecting itself intimately with late important events in the career of the Sultan, it is worthy of note that religious liberty has been very fidly enjoyed under his sway ; indeed neither of the powers that quarrelled over the guar- dianship of the holy places exhibits any- thing approximating to the same tolera- tion of opinion. And his protection of the Pohsh and Hungarian refugees of 1848, even in presence of the menaces of Russia and Austria, evinced a resolution which idtimately America and England Ijecame emulous of seconding. The Sultan has been for some time past en- deavouring, by reformi:ig the executive, to introduce an economy to which the Tmkish government has long been a stranger. He is, however, surrounded by ministers who have only their own ends in ^-iew. His personal expenditure is also of the most lavish kind, and un- fortimately he lacks the energy recjuired to give his reforms effect. The expenses of the Russian war have also tended to impoverish the nation. He has obtained loans through the guarantee of England and France, which, however, have only served to meet extraordinary exi)entli- ture, and which still leave him in an embarrassed state. Educated in the manner above referred to, the good in- A BE tentions of the Sultan are to a gi-eat ox- tent neutralized by the pernicious influ- ence of early associations. ABERDEEN, George Hamilton Gordon, Earl of, was born in Edin- burgh on 28th January, 1784. He re- ceived his early education at Harrow School, and afterwards entered the Uni- versity of Cambridge, becoming M.A. in 1804. After returning from a lengthened tour in Europe, he pubhshed the results of some of his observations in a work entitled "An Inquiry into the Princi- ples of Beauty in Grecian Architecture," which indicated the possession of an ac- curate and discriminating taste on the part of its author. Turning his attention to pohtics. Lord Aberdeen became Spe- cial Envoy to Vienna. This occurred at a time of great importance, and his mission was attended with success. Having en- tered the House of Lords, he was with- out office for many years, until he be- came Foreign Secretary imder the Duke of Wellington in 1 828, a post which he resigned towards the end of 18.30. On Sir Robert Peel becoming Premier in 1834, Lord Aberdeen was chosen as Colonial Secretary. On the dissolution of this ministry, he remained without office for some years, and resumed the Foreign Department on Sir Robert Peel again beconaing Premier. During his re- peated official employments. Lord Abei'- deen has been distinguished by an earn- est attention to the duties of his position, and in political matters was generally opposed to hberal principles, imtil within the last few years, when Sir Robert Peel's conversion to Free-trade opinions made a breach in the ranks of the old Tory party. On Lord Derliy resigning in 1852, Lord Aberdeen had assigned to him the difficult task of forming a new ministry, and his materials were of a most heterogeneous kind, inasmuch as he had to make his appointments from three different jtarties. Under such cir- cumstances, it is a matter of sui-prise ABO t tliat the government thiis formed lasted so long as nearly three years. This country, however, having declared war against Russia on account of the en- croachments of that power on Turkey, in reference to the protectorate of the Greek Church, Lord Aberdeen was com- pelled to resign, owing to an adverse vote in the House of Commons, in 1855. This was occasioned by a general im- pression that he and his colleagues did not pursue hostile matters with the \ngour and energy which were required in so serious a matter. It was alleged that both the army and navy were in a condition totally unfit to cope with the emergency. With respect to home mat- ters, Lord Aberdeen was more successful, and during his tenure of office he intro- duced several bills which developed the resources of the country, and freed our pubHc educational estabhshmeuts from those trammels to which they had been tied for many centuries past. As a re- cognition of his great talent and acquire- ments. Lord Aberdeen has been elected Chancellor of King's College, Aberdeen, and also fills similar offices in other edu- cational institutions. He has l)een twice married, and has one son living. Lord Haddo, who succeeds to the title on his father's decease. For the last few years Lord Aberdeen has taken no prominent part in ])ublic matters, and, comparatively speaking, has retired into private life. ABOUT, Edmoni) FRAN901S Valen- tin, a French writer and pubhcist, was born at Dreuze,^ in the department of Meurthe, in 1828. He entered the Col- lege of CharlenKigne, at Paris, where he gained, in 1848, the highest honours in the class of philosophy. From the Normal School of Paris, he went as a teacher or professor to Athens. While in Greece he collected materiids ior a work of erudition, entitled " L'Isle d'Egine," published at Paris in 1854. He returned to France in I85.S, and two years afterwards he published in the ADA " Bibliothiique des Chemins de Fer," the book by which he was till recently best known, " La Grfece Contemporaine," which met with a brilliant success. The result was that the author found admis- sion as a contributor to the " Rlniic des Deux Mondes," and pul)lished in that excellent periodical a romance entitled " ToUa." In 1856 he made his debut as a dramatic \viiter, but was unsuccessful. He has since written "A Journey through the Paris Exhibition of 1856," in wliich he criticises the works of French artists then exhibited ; a number of feuilleton^ contributed to the ' ' Moni- teur," under the titles of "Les Mariages de Paris," and three novels entitled "Le Eoi des Montagues," " Germain e," and "Les Echasses de Maiti'e Pierre." In 1857 he published his "Artistes au Salon," another criticism of the paintings of the yearly exhibition of Paris. His "Question Romaine" is the author's last important production, ADAM, Jean Victor, a French painter, was born in Paris on the 29th day of February, 1801. He was the son of Jean Adam, an eminent engraver. From 1814 to 1818 he was engaged in going through a course of professional study at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. His first picture, sent in 1819 to the exhibi- tion, was " Herminie secom-ant Tan- crMe." He continued to exhibit regu- larly as a painter till 1838, when he undertook a series of paintings for the Gallery of Versailles,- among which may be enumerated "The Entrance of the French into Mayence," "The Battle of Montebello," and " The Capitulation of Meiniugen." Since 1846 he has confined his attention to the lithographic depart- ment of art, in which he has attained to great success, and sho-wn great fertihty as an artist. Between 1821 and 1829 he gained several medals at Lille and Douay, and in 1826 and 1836 he obtained golil medals at Paris. ADAMS, JoHjf Coveii, an Englisli ADA AO A astronomer, was boru in Cornwall, in 1817. Like Ferguson, he sprang from agricultural connexions, to attain a high jjosition in the scientific world by the exercise of innate talent. He ex- hibited a decided taste for mathematics when very young, and fortiuiately was fostered in his choice, by being sent to Cambridge to complete his education. In this imiversity he was enabled to jjursue his favourite study, in its ai)pli- cation to physical science, and paying gi'cat attention to astronomy, he soon dis- tinguished himself by the profundity of his researches. He is chiefly known by his remarkable discovery, d priori, of the existence of a planet at the extremity of the solar system. For many years, astronomers were at a loss to account for certain irregularities in the passage of Uranus round its orbit. Various theories had been proposed to ex})lain these, but Mr. Adams, having suggested the idea of another and undiscovered planet existing, put liis opinions to the test of mathematical investigation, and was thus enabled to assign a possible position for the supposed planet's place ; which eventually, on its actual discovery, was fomid to be nearly true. This re- sidt is, perhaps, one of the most noble triumphs of modern science. By one of those inexjjlicable occurrences, in which two minds at a distance from each other ai'e simultaneously engaged on the same subject, M. Leverrier, of Paris, had ar- rived about the same time at the same conclusion. A dispute of priority of discovery arose, similar to that which occurred between Leibnitz and Newton, but -v^dthout any decisive result. The Royal Astronomical Society regarded each of these gentlemen as equally enti- tled to honourable distinction, and Mi'. Adams has since become the President of that distinguished Society, and of which he forms a brilliant ornament. He also holds the Loundean Professorship of As- tronomy in the University of Cambridge. ACASSIZ, Louis Jean Rodolphe, a distinguished Swiss naturalist, now settled in America, was born in 1807, at Moitiers, Canton of Freyburg, in Swits^- ei'land. His ancestors were of French origin, and were among the number of those Protestants who, on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, were forced to fly from France. His father was a Pro- testant ministei-, and intended him for the church ; but from an intuitive love for natural history, he preferred the study of medicine as affording a fuller scope for the bent of his genius. To carry out this design he entered the Medical School at Zurich, and subse- quently the University of Heidelberg, where he devoted special attention to the study of comparative anatomy, gain- ing a high reinitatioit among his com- peers. From Heidelberg he went to Munich, where he remained four years. His great attainments brought him into connexion with the ichthyological de- partment of the Natural History of Brazil, which made him known as a man of science. His parents remonsti-ated against this devotion to scientiflc study, and endeavoured by various means to cool his ardour. Fortunately, however, his indomitable perseverance and assi- duity attracted the notice of the great German publisher, Cotta, who advanced him such money as he required for the successfiU prosecution of his researches. Having taken the degree of Doctor of Medicine and Philosophy, he repaired to Vienna, where he entered upon the study of fossil fishes. Visiting Paris in the prosecution of his studies, he gained the friendshii) of Cuvier and Humboldt. On returning to Switzerland he was ap- pointed Professor of Natural History in the University of NeufchA,tel, where he remained until 184G, when he embarked for America. Soon after his arrival in the United States he was appointed Professor of Zoology in the Lawi'ence Scientific School, and since then Pro- A IN fessor of Comparative Anatomy in the University of Charleston. At the early age of thirty Agassiz was a member of nearly every scientific society in P^nrope. The Glacial theory, -vvith which his name is now so honoiirahly identified, was first published by him in 18.37. To collect the facts relating to the subject, he spent eight summers upon the glaciers of the Aar, 8,0(K) feet above the level of the sea. Tlu" published contributions of Agassiz to the vaiious departments of science are numerous and valual jle. The best known of those are his researches on Fossil Fishes, his Natm-al History of the Fresh-water Fishes of Europe, and the "Principles of Zoology," by himself and Dr. A. A. Gould, and an ' ' Essay on Classification, " republished last year in this country. He is now engaged upon what promises to be his great work — "The Natural History of the United States." Two voliunes of this work, which is to extend to ten, have been already published. The book is executed upon a grand and comprehen- sive scale, and when completed wiU form one of the noblest tributes to science of any age or nation. AINSWOETH, WiLLi.iM Francis, an English physician and traveller, was born at Exetei-, in November, 1807. He studied the natural sciences and medi- cine, in the usual course, with the view of becoming a Doctor of Medicine, and obtained his diploma in 1827 ; starting in the same year on a geological ex- cursion to Auvergne and the Pyrenees. On his return in 1828, he accepted the editorship of the "Journal of Natural and Geographical Science," published in Edinburgh, delivering at intervals a popular course of lectures on geology. The outbreak of the cholera in 1832 called him to London, where his skill in treating the hospital cases attracted so much notice, that on the abatement of the epidemic in the capital, he was sent to Ireland to pursue his system there. A IN In Dul>Iin and Limerick he was equally successful. In IS.'i.') ho was appf)inted j)hysician to Captain Cheaney's Expedi- tion to the Euphrates. After remaining for son)e time at Bombay, he went alone, in 18.37, to Kurdistan and Asia Minor, these countries forming afterwards the chief object of a second expedition, which continued from 18.38 till 1841. His investigations were not, however, limited to exploration from mere love of travel and adventure ; he was charged with missions by the Royal Geographical Society to explore the course of the Halys ; and by the Society for the Pro- pagation of the Gospel to oi)en up nego- ciations with the Nestorian (Christians. In the spring of 1840, he visited the country of the Nestorians, and returned to England the following year. Among the principal works Dr. Ainsworth has pubHshed are "Researches in Assyria," "Travels and Researches in Asia Minor," " The Claims of the Christian Aborigines in the East," and " Travels in the Track of the 10,000 Greeks," besides numerous papers contributed to scientific societies. In 1854 he became one of the Editors of "Bohn's Classical Library," to which he has rendered valuable service by his edition of Xenophon. Dr. Ainsworth is a cousin of William Harrison Ainsworth, the celebrated novelist and magazine conductor. AINSWORTH, WiLLi.\M Harrison, an English novelist, was born at Man- chester, in 1803. He was destined for the legal profession, but Mr. Ainsworth preferred to devote himself almost ex- clusively to literary pursuits. His first attempt was a volume of poems, and after that Mr. Ainsworth published a romance called " Rook wood," which at once obtained great popularity. " Crich- ton" followed. In "Jack Sheppard," which next appeareil, Mr. Ainsworth strove to exalt the \artucs of a class of heroes who had till his time figured Iti Ithe halter rather than in the pages of AIR 8 romance — the English highwaymen, whose adventurous hves and miserable fate had always invested tliem with a certain amount of popular sympathy. This work, which fostered a seutiment- ahty by no means calculated to benefit l)iiblic morals, had an immense success ; the author, at the time of writing it, in all probability never si)ecidated on its tendencies. He has not since wTitten any work of the same Idnd. Mr. Ains- woi-th's munerous historical romances possess, in a high degree, all the best qualities of fictitious narratives ; the plots are well constructed, the charac- ters well drawn, great care bemg be- stowed on the historical accuracy of the facts, and, what is also of great imjior- tance, the interest of the reader is sus- tained from beginning to end. The most remarkable of his romances are " Rookwood, " "The Tower of London," "Windsor Castle," "The Admii-able Crichton," "Old St. PaiU's," "The Miser's Daughter," and "The Flitch of Bacon." His latest tale is "Ovingdean Grange." These works have been fre- quently reprinted in America, and translated into most of the continental languages, having met wdth a remark- able success abroad, more especially in France. AIRD, Thomas, a Scottish poet, was born at Bowden, Roxburghshire, on the 2Sth of August, 1802. After being edu- cated in his native place, and the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, in 1835 he was appointed Editor of the " Dmnfries Herald," which he has since continued to conduct with much ability, taste, and success. In addition to his i)oetry Mr. Aird has published several prose works of superior merit. The cliief of these is his "Religious Characteristics," and ' ' The Old Bachelor in the Old Scottish Village." Though not attaining the poindarity that might have been anti- cipated, they both abound in passages of great power and beauty. The delicate A 1 R discrimination Avith which he edited Moir's poems, and the admirable Life of the author prefixed to the poems, were the theme of general praise. Mr. Aird's l>oems have passed through two editions. With no trace of the spasmodic, and owing nothing to adventitious circum- stances for popularity, they have won their way to a high place among the masterpieces of song. AIRY, George Biddell, M.A. (Cambridge), D.C.L. (Oxford), LL.D. (Edinburgh), the English Astronomer Royal, was born at Alnwick, in North- umberland, on July 27th, 1801, and educated at the Grammar School of Colchester, in Essex. He entered Tri- nity College, Cambridge, in 1819, gra- duated, and was Senior Wrangler in 1823 ; was elected Fellow of Trinity College in 1824; and in 1826 obtained the Lucasian Professorship of Mathema- tics (formerly held by Newton and by Barrow), which he exchanged in 1828 for the Plimiian Professorship of Astro- nomy and Experimental Philosophy, which included the charge of the Cam- bridge Observatory. Besides giving great attention to the selection and accuracy of his obsei'vations, he has published their results in such a form as to render them immetliately usefid to science, a practice which by degi-ees has been followed in every important obser- vatory. In discharge of the other duties of the chair, he instituted a course of experimental lectures on several subjects connected with applied mathematics, which (especially those on optics) at- tracted much attention. In October 1835 he was appointed Astronomer Royal, and took charge of the Royal Oljservatory of Greenwich. Since that time, the Ci'eenwich Observatory has been maintained in a state of great effi- ciency, and has been com})letely remo- delled. Every new discovery has been at once adopted which was calcidated to facUitate observation. One of Mr. AIR ALB Airy's most laborious works was "An Abri(lj;;mcnt of the Planetary and Lunar OI)servations from ITaO to IS.SO," i)ul)- lished in 184G, and perhai)S the most extensive individual work ever under- taken in astronomy. Among his scien- tilic labours, we may mention his exa- mination of the cause of the disturbance of the compass in iron ships, as the result of which he has given niles which are now universally followed for its correction. He has published treatises on the " Undulatory Theory of Light ;" "The Tides on the Coast of Ireland, and in other places ;" " Observations to establish the Longitude of Valentia ;" and " Experiments to ascertain the Force of (Jra^•ity in the CoUiery of Harton, near South Shields ;" which, by the accuracy and care taken in the experiments, have been exceedingly valuable in the study of physical as- tronomy. Mr. Airy has been called on to assist the Government in the commis- sion on the railway gauge ; in the restoration of standards of length and weight (destroyed at the fire of the Houses of Parliament) ; and in the astronomical operations for defining the boundaries of our North American provinces. His principal treatises on scientific subjects are the article in the Penny Cyclopi^dia, on " Gra\'itation, " his " Mathematical Tracts, " and "Ips- wich Lectures, " with the articles ' ' Tri- gonometry," " Fi.giu-e of the Earth," and "Tides and Waves," in the " En- cyclopiedia Metropolitana. " He is also the author of numerous i)apers (fre- quently under the signature A. B. G.) in the "Atheuajum," and the "Philo- sophical Magazine." Mr. Airy is a Fellow of the Royal Society, member of the Prussian Order of Merit, and a CoiTespondeut of the French Academy, of those of St. Petersburg and Bei-lin, and is well known througlK)ut Em-ope and America as one of the most eminent cultivators of physical science. ALBERT, Franz August Karl Emanuel, Duke of Saxe Coburg Gotha, heir presumptive to the Duke of Saxe Coburg, and consort of Queen Victoria, was born August 26th, 1819. He is descended from a long line of eminent ancestry in Germany. Prince Albert was educated with his elder brother, the present Didce regnant of Saxe Coburg Gotha, under the Consistorial Coimcillor, Florchutz, and at the University of Bonn. His stiulies there included an- cient and modern languages, history, the physical and natural sciences, music, and painting. In 1838 he visited Eng- land with his father, and in two years afterwards was married to Queen Vic- toria at St. James's Palace. Prince Albert has ever taken a warm interest in all social questions, and has devoted himself to various pm-suits which have given him a high character amongst all parties. He has paid great attention to agriculture, and has often carried off the highest prize offered for live stock. He has a model farm near Windsor, in the management of which he avails him- self of every scientific appliance and improvement. As head of the Fine Arts Commission, and as chaii-man of the Council of the Great Exhibition of 1851, his services were invaliiable, and to his exertions the nation is indebted for the promised exhibition of 18G2, Prince Albert having offered to giiaran- tee its success to a large pecuniary extent. The Prince holds a large num- ber of official positions. But of all his titles the one which he seems most to value is that of President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, to which he was elected in 1859. He opened the proceeilings of the Association, at Aberdeen, with an address which was applauded by all parties in the emph-e for its earnest and graceful eloquence, as well as for its tact and knowledge. The public ajipear- auces of his Royal Highness are always ALB 10 judicious, and he has plaj'cd with rare discretion the difficidt and elevated part assigned to him in this country. He has avoided all connexion with politics, without any sacrifice of his dignity, or any concealment of his opinions on the social duties of life ; and of such great questions as the education and advance- ment of the people, and the encoxu'age- ment of art, science, and Uterature, he is an eminent patron. The peculiar perils that beset him, as the Consort of the Queen, were to attempt either too much or too little in public life. Any error in this respect might have sub- jected him to the charge of ambition or meddlesomeness on the one hand, or of insensibility or indifference on the other ; but from these and other dangers, his heart and his intellect have aided in preserving him, and he has gained the respect of all parties in the state, and the general approbation of the people. Scandal has never once breathed ui)on his name, and he has fidfiUed all the duties of a gentleman and a citizen, in such a manner as to set an exami)le to all around and beneath him, and to make the most illustrious home in the country among the most exemplary and the most hajipy in every relation of life. ALBERT EDWARD, Prince of Wales, heir apparent to the British throne, was born November 9, 1841. After receiving his preliminary education from tutors, his Royal Highness studied at Edinburgh and Oxford, and i)ursued the usual course of study at those univer- sities. His progress and excellent (juali- ties were thus spoken of by Lord Brougham on a late occasion at a public meeting in Glasgow : — -"Of the Prince of Wales I have only to say tliat — as my learned friend Sir David Brewster, the l)rinoipal of that university, can attest — he gained universal respect and esteem among all his teachers and all his fellow- pupils. I will only add that, soon after leaving Edinburgh, upon a late occasion ALB in last May, I found that at Oxford he held precisely the same place in the esteem of his teachers and in the esteem of his fellow-pupils." The Prince left England in the summer of 1860, accom- panied by the Duke of Newcastle, for the ])uri)ose of visiting Canada and the United States. In both countries his reception has been most enthusiastic. Carrying with him the prestige of his august mother, her Majesty Queen Victoria, the loyalty of the Canadians and the generosity of the Americans have at once been evidenced in every stage of his progress. On his return it is intended that he should enter the University of Cambridge. ALBERT, properly called Alexandre Martin, a French mechanic, Member of the Provisional Government of 1848, was born at Bury (Oise) in 1815. The son of a small farmer, he served an apprenticeship as a mechanical modeller at the house of one of his uncles ; he went to Paris, and was present, when fifteen years old, at the revolutionary outbreak of July, 1830. He founded in Lyons the rei)ublican joiu-nal, " La Glaneuse," which indulged in severe attacks on the Government. He took an active part in the insiu-rection of Lyons, and was one of the chiefs of the " Society of the Rights of Man," in that city. In 1840 he founded a popular journal, "L' Atelier." When the revo- lution of February, 1848, broke out, Albert, who was working as a button- maker, took an active part in the con- test. In his double capacity of revolu- tionary writer and mechanic, he formed a friendship -with Louis Blanc, second- ing the propositions of the latter by his speeches, writings, and influence. By Louis Blanc's means he was i)laced on the Provisional (Government, and all the proclamatiims which b(')re his name had attached to it " Oiivrier," to identify him with the class whom he was sup- posed to represent. Albert was named ALB 11 representative for the department of the Seine to the Constituent Assembly. Arrested as an accomplice or instigator of the attempt of the 15th May, he was arraigned for the crime, but declared the tribunal incompetent, and refused to plead ; condemned in consequence, he was sentenced to banishment, but has, instead, been sent to the Penitentiary of Toui-s. ALBONI, Marietta, a well-known vocalist, was born at Forli, in the Ro- magna. She received a superior musical education, and made very considerable progi-ess in music in her native town ; afterwards studying under BertoUotti and Rossini, at Bologna. She made her debut at the (Jommunal Theatre of Bologna, whence she went to the La Scala of Milan ; she afterwards visited Germany, Russia, and Hiuigary. She made her first appearance before an English audience in the spring of 1847, and astonished those who had scarcely heard of her powers, by her superb voice, her careful training, and her ac- complishments. Since then she has pro- fessionally visited Paris, and nearly all the continental cities of note, gaining lite- rally "golden" opinions. Her appear- ances in this country have been frequent. The success of Alboni is of course chiefly to be attributed to the character of her voice and her talent as a singer. Her voice is a contralto of the greatest possi- ble extent, Hexibility, and purity, and the richness and facility of her vocaliza- tion are wonderful. There is no trace in her performances of laboiu- or study ; she seems to sing by inspiration ; but as an actress she is not so remarkable. By maiTiage, Mdlle. Alboni, although she retains her maiden name, has become Marchesa di Pepoli. ALEXANDER IL Alf.xander Ni- COLAEWITCH, Emperor of all the Russias, was born on the 29th of April, ISIS, and succeeded his father Nicholas Pav- lowitch on the 2nd of March, 1855. A L E Having received the military cflucation always given to the heirs a])parent of the great military monarchs and auto- crats of the Continent ; and having, moreover, been adequately instructed in all the branches of jwlite learning, form- ing the usual education of European gentlemen, he visited all the provinces of his future empire. He also matle several tours in Italy. As hereditary prince, he enjoyed the entire confidence of his ambitious father, the late Em- peror Nicholas I., and was familiarized by that monarch with all the details of his policy and system of government. At one period this hereditary prince was upon unfriendly terms with his next brother, the Grand Duke Constantino. Nicholas had not failed to perceive the difference of disjmsition in his two sons, and so forcibly did the possible results impress themselves on his mind, that he took every means to etiect reconciliation between them. On the sudden death of the Emperor Nicholas — a death has- tened by the vexation and gi-ief conse- quent upon his foiled ambition in the attemi)t to seize upon the Ottoman emi)ire — Alexander was peacefidly pro- claimed in his stead. One of his first acts was to end the hopeless war in the Crimea, before it assumed still more formidable dimensions, and to ratify the peace of Paris. His next act of domestic policy proved him to be a humane and enhghtened man, as well as a prudent sovereign, who coidd see and measure the dangers of the future — an act no less beneficent than the emancipation of the serfs of his empire. In this he has had to contend -with the prejudices of the higher classes ; his firm but conciliatory demeanour has, however, effected the change gi-adually, and it is hoped that the opposition hitherto shown w"ill be eventually overcome, and that his kind intentiinis may be shared l>y their pre- sent opponents. Alexander has taken no active pai-t in the recent struggle of ALF Western Europe, consequent upon the IX)licy and i)retension of the Emperor Napoleon, but has contented himself ^v^th watching the ciurent of events. He married, in 1841, the Pi-incess Marie Alexandrowna, daughter of Louis IV., Grand Duke of Hesse, by whom he has had five sons and one daughter. Nicho- las Alexandrowitch was born on Sep- tember 8th, 1843. The other sons are Alexander Alexandrowitch, Wladimir Alexantlro witch, Alexis Alexandrowitch, and Sergius Alexandrowitch. The only daughter is Marie Alexandrowna, Grand Duchess of Russia, born in 1853. ALFOED, The Very Rev. Henry, D.D., Dean of Canterbury, a poet and Biblical critic, was bom in London in 1810, and educated at ILminster Gram- mar School, and Trinitj^ College, Cam- bridge. He has published several poetic productions, which have been well re- ceived, has held several University ap- pointments, and various preferments in the Church. His Greek Old and New Testaments have been carefully pre- pared. He is also the author of several papers contributed to serials and other periotlical publications, and his work entitled " The Poets of Greece" exhibits an intimate and correct knowledge of the language. He has published many volumes of sermons, and critical me- moirs on mattei-s pertaining to ancient history. Owing to his eminent talents as a preacher, he was ai)pointed by Lord Palmerston, Dean of Canterbury in 1857. ALISON, Sir Archibald, Bart., an historian, of Scotch i>areixtage and education, was bom at the Parsonage House of Kenley, in Shropshire, and ^igtly distinguished himself during his connexion as a student with the Edin- burgh University. In 1814 he was caUed to the Scotch bar, and in 1823 ajjpointed an advocate-depute, an office which he held imtil 1830, when the "Whigs came into j)ower. On the return 12 ALT of the Tories to power he was appointed Sheriff of Lanarkshire, an office corres- ponding as nearly as may be to that of County Judge in England, if the juris- diction of the latter had extended to all classes of judicial proceedings without regard to the amount in dispute, or to the distinction of law and equity, and to criminal as well as civil business. It was originally intended, doubtless, that the judicial business of Scotland should be divided fairly among the local judges, but Scotch institutions, particu- larly those connected with the law, rejoice in an immunity from legislative interference, which perpetuates many abuses. Thus the jurisdiction of some Scotch sheriifs is confined to a population of little more than 20,000, while that of the Sheriff of Lanarkshire includes a city of nearly 400,000 inhabitants. He has, however, the assistance of Deputy Sheriffs ; his court being often one of api)eal from their decisions. The con- sequence of this is that Sir Archibald Alison, since the date of his appoint- ment as sheriff, has gone through an immense amount of work in his capacity of judge. Sir Archibald is popularly known as an historian, and his work on the "History of Eiu'oi)e " has been extensively read, and has brought its author into a world-wide reinitation. It has been reprinted in America, and translated into many foreign languages. Sir Archibald Ahson has published other liistorical and jrolitical works, and is the author of numerous contributions to "Blackwood's Magazine," collected and repubUshed imder the general title of "Essays." He is firmly attached to the principles of the Conservative party. Sir Archibald belongs to the most vigorous and masculine type of Scottish intellect. Going through an amount of business far beyond the powers of an ordi- nary man, his literary works are throAvn oif, currente calamo, without revision, without condensation, and without a due A L L 13 AL V amount of attention to consistency, sym- metry, anil elegance of diction. Before recent changes in the civil procedure of the Scotch courts, Sherifl' Alison's merits aa a lawyer were not knowai, from the circmnstance that errors in his decisions regarding matters of fact, arising from haste in disinising of the inordinate amount of business th^ow^l upon him, were at that time attributed to defective knowledge of legal principles. His powers as a writer have been imder- estimated from the same cause. He nmst not be judged of by the slipshod pages of the "History of Europe," Imt by some of his minor productions, which entitle him to a place among the best and purest cotemporary writers of English prose. Sir A. Alison has re- ceived many puV)lic recognitions of his eminent literary services. He was created a Baronet in 1852, is aD.C.L. of Oxford, and he has held the office of Rector in the Glasgow and Aberdeen Universities. Amongst his miscellaneous works not mentioned above are his "Principles of the Criminal Law" (1S.S2), "The Practice of the Criminal Law" (183,3), "Free Trade and Fet- tered Currency" (1847), "The Life of the Duke of Marlborough" (1847), and subsequent editions in 1852 and 1855. In 1852 he pubHshed a continuation of his "History," being the "History of Europe from the Fall of Napoleon to the Accession of Louis Napoleon in 1852," and in the early part of this year (1860) Sir Archibald published another edition of the entue work. ALLEN, WiLLLVM, D.D., an Ameri- can author, was born at Pittsfield, Mas- sachusetts, January 2, 1784. He en- tered Harvard College, and graduated there in 1802. He was President of Bowdoin College in 1820, but resigned in 1839. He succeeded the celebrated Dr. Channing as Regent in Harvard College. Whilst filling that office he pre- pared his ' • American Biographical and Historical Dictionary," which contained notices of about seven hundred Ameri- cans, and was published in 1809, being the first book of general biography issued in the United States. It passed through a third eiUtion in 1857, and was enlarged so as to include no less than seven thousand names. He prepared the lives of American ministers for the Rev. Da\ad Bogue's "History of Dis- senters." He also made a collection of many thousand words not found in the English Dictionaries, most of them being added to the edition of Webster, pub- lished in 1854. He is the author of various other works of a miscellaneous chai-acter, but his reputation in America rests chiefly on his biographical and philological researches and labours. ALMODOVAR, Don Ildefon-so DiAS DE RiBERA, CouNT OF, a Spanish general and politician, was born at Va- lence about the end of the last century. He entered as a pupil of the School of Artillery, at Segova, but had scarcely joined the anny when he was thrown into the dungeons of the Inquisition by the retrograde party. For his deliver- ance he was indebted to the revolution of 1820, the cause of which he embraced with ardour. In 1823, when al)S()lutisni was again ram])ant, he sought safety in exile, and did not return to Spain until after the death of Fertlinand VII. When he did retiu'n he rapitUy rose to the first ranks of the liberal party, and was elected President of the Cortes, at the same time he re-entered the anny (1834) with the rank of Field Marehal. lu 1836 he became Minister for Foreign Affairs, under his fiiend Espartero, the Regent, and lost this office on the fall of that st the Minister of the Interior ; in 1845 Grand Treasurer of the two ApostoUc Chambers — that is to say, Minister of Finance. As a hberal politician he at this time found favour with the Pope. In the Consistory of June, 1847, he received the Cardinal's hat from Pius IX. As Minister of Finance he was member of the councils established by the Pope, and was besides named President of the extraordinary commission api)ointed to inquii'e into necessary reforms. Alarmed at the serious nature of the revolution, and the consequences of the liberal poUcy. he had hitherto followed, he resigned his office, and was succeeded by Mami- ani, who in tm'u gave way to Rossi. When Pius IX. fled to Gaeta, Cardinal AntoneUi was appointed Pro-Secretary of State, and after the arrival of the French at Civita Vecchia, was placed at the head of a special commission charged with the reform of the administration of the States of the Church. Pius IX. having returned to Rome, April, 1850, the faithfid cardinal was appointed Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, an office which he still continues to hold. He is also President of the Council of Ministers. An active and energetic man, he exercises complete control over the Pope, the real character of his in- ARA 17 A Rfi fluence being disguised uiider a careless aiulafTalile manner, which seems incom- patible with firmness and energy of pur- pose. ARAGO, Etienne, a French jour- nalist, and brother of the late eminent astronomer, was born at Estagel, on the 7th February, 1803. He studied at the colleges of Perjugnan and Rortize, and afterwards proceeded to Paris, where, tlirough the celebrity of his brother, he became a teacher of chemistry in the Polytechnic School. His tastes, how- ever, pointed more to literature than to science. In his first undertakings he was associated with Balzac, and pub- lished conjointly with him "The Heiress of Birague, " a history extracted from the papers of Dom Rago, ex- Prior of the Benedictines, and brought to light by his two nephews (Paris, 1822). Tliis work did not answer, and the part- ners separated. M. Arago devoted himself to dramatic literature, and soon, without adventitious aid, took his place among the principal vaudevillistes of the day. He wrote incessantly for years, his pieces being, with very few excep- tions, received well by the public. They consisted chiefly of vaude\nlles and comedies, interspersed with couplets, among which may be mentioned, " A Day of Troubles" (1824), "To-morrow is the 13th, or Sentiment and the Alma- nac" (182G), "The Misfortunes of a Fine Young Man" (1834), "Just in Time" (1836), and "An Invasion of Grisettes" (1844). He has besides com- jiosed sevci'al melodramas of great merit. His masterpiece, however, is a comedy in five acts, entitled " Les Aristocrates," ])erf ormed in 1 847 at the Th<5atre Fran(;ais. As director of the Vaude\-ille Theatre, he did not succeed, and in 1840 was obUged to abandon the speculation. He then became a contriljutor to the "Siecle," under the assumed name of Jules Ferney. Entertaining very decided liberal opinions, he was afterwards a leader-writer for the ' ' Reforme, " a revo- lutionary newspaper. M. Arago joined the revolutionary movements of his times, and more particularly those of 1830 and 1848. After the revolution of 1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and took his seat on the left. He vehemently opposed the interference of France with Rome, and having stood out against the acts of the President, now the Emperor Napoleon, he was con- demned for contumacy, and sought refuge in Belgium. He has since travelled much, and written several poems, among which may be mentioned his " Eaux de Spa," published at Brussels in 1852. ARGELAXDER, Friedrich Wil- iiELM August, an eminent German astronomer, was bom at Memel on the 22nd of March, 1799. He at first turned his mind to the study of economical questions, whilst he was studying at the University of Kiinigsberg, but subse- quently departed from that path to enter the more congenial field of astronomical science. His progress was such that in 1822 he was appointed assistant in the Konigsberg Observatory. He afterwards was attached to the observatory at Abo, in Finland, where he succeeded Waldeck, the principal astronomer ; and on its removal to Helsingfors in 1832, Arge- lander followed it. In 1837 he was appointed principal astronomer at Bonn, which post he still retains ; and here he superintended the erection of an oliser- vatory, which was completed in 1845. He has published several valuable works on astronomy. Continuing the labours of Bessel, he determined the positions of the stars lying between 45" and 80° of declination. He published his observa- tions in 1846, in a work which contains the position of 22,000 stars. For many years Itack ArgeUuuler has been engaged in observing the variations in the ap- parent brilliancy of the stars, a phe- nomenon never before his time carefully c AEG 18 ART investigated, althougli imlicatecl so early as the time of Tycho Brahe. ARGYLL, George John Douglas ('ampbkll, Duke of, a British states- man, was born in 1823. He entered the arena of ecclesiastical controversy in 1842, by jmblishing a "Letter to the Peers, from a Peer's Son," discussing the question of non-intrusion, in which he advocated the independence of the Church. In the same year he published liis " Letter to Dr. Chalmers," in which he approves of some, but not all of the measures which were adopted by the secessionists from the Establishmeut. In 1847 the Marquis of Lome succeeded to his father's titles and offices. In 1848 he published "An Essay on the Eccle- siastical History of Scotland since the Reformation," a production originally meant as a contribution to one of the "quarterlies," but which, having grown too bulky for its original purjjose, was pubhshed as a separate treatise. The work is a good defence of the Presbytery. In 1851 he was appointed a Member of the Privy Council, in 1853 Lord Privy Seal, and in 1 855 was Postmaster-General; and again in 1859 Lord Privy Seal under Lord Palmerston. In 1844 he married the eldest daughter of the Duke of Sutherland, Lady Elizabeth (;ieorgiana Gower. As a popular lecturer, the duke is much esteemed. His varied attain- ments and knowledge of the great prin- ciples of natural science were evinced at the meeting of the British Association at (Glasgow, over which he presided. He speaks frequently in the House of Lords, has shown considerable talent as a de- batei', and exhibited qualifications which may yet secure for him a leading i)lace among the statesmen of the day. ARGYROPOULO, Pericles, a Greek lawyer and statesman, was born about 1810, at Constantinople. He is the son of the late Jakovaki Argyropoulo, (Jrand Interpreter to the Porte, who published a translation of Montesquieu's "Spirit of the Laws" into modern Greek, and a "Life of Catherine" into Turkish, which are much esteemed. He studied law for some time in Paris, and then settled at Athens, where he was appointed Pro- fessor of Constitutional Law in the University. In 1853, having been ap- pointed Rector of the University, he chose as the subject of his opening ad- dress, the praise of the great Alexander Mavrocordato, one of the most remark- able men of modern Greece. A member of nearly all the legislatui-es since 1843, he has been constantly in the ranks of the Constitutional opposition, of which his brother-in-law, another Mavrocor- dato, was the chief. In 1854 he held the portfolio of Foreign Affairs, but after a year's fighting against all manner of intrigue and animosity, he ceded his office to Boidgaris, without losing the respect of his bitterest enemies. His great work on municipal institutions, entitled tto Arj^uoriKa, published at Athens in 1843, i)laced him at the head of the philosophical lawyers of the modern Hellenic race. ARI STAR CHI, Nicoi^s, a Greek statesman in Turkey, and Chief Inter- preter to the Patriarch of Constantinople, was born in that city in 1800. He obtained, at the age of eighteen years, the situation of Keeper of the Seals to Prince Alexander Soutzo of Wallachia. Included in the disgi-ace of his family in 1821, he accompanied them in their exUe to Asia Minor. His father, the last Phanariot Greek who held the office of Head Inter^jreter to the Porte, was mmdered by order of the favourite Khalet Effendi. The latter having lost favour, Aristarchi, under the protection of the pashas who had replaced Khalet, returned to Constantinople, and has filled several pidilic offices, and obtained the titles of a functionary of the first class. In his various capacities as a functionary and diplomatist his name has been mixed up with all the great ARM 19 ASH events in Turkish politics, domestic and foreign, for the last quarter of a century. A li M S T R O N G, Sir William George, C.B., an engineer, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the 26th of November, 1810, and was destined for the legal jirofession ; but, preferring mechanical studies, became partner in the Elswick works, near his native town. He was one of the earliest discoverers of the electricity of steam, which Avas first obsi!rved during the escape of steam from a locomotive safety-valve. He has lately been brought promineiitly be- fore the pultUc in consequence of his im- provements in the mamifacture of riHed ordnance, but has long been known in his profession through his general scien- titic attainments. Sir William has, after weaiisome and costly experiments, succeeded in producing cannon of extra- ortlinary range. In some instances a shot has reached the astonishing dis- tance of nearly six miles, and was wou- derfidly true in its direction to the target. He has been engaged by the Government to superintend the manu- facture of cannon at Woolwich, and also manufactures a large niunber of gims at his own factory. Many of these have been desi)atched to China, where their value has been tested in the contest which, unfortunately, has had again to be commenced with the " Celestials." Mr. Armstrong was knighted in lSo4, is a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a member of the Council of the Civil Engineers' Institute of London. ARNOLD, Matthew, a poet, eldest son of the late Dr. Arnold of Rugby, was born on the 24th December, 1822. After being educated at Winchester and Rugby, he went to Oxford as a scholar of BaUiol College, becoming Fellow of Oriel C'oUege in 1845. In 1857 he was chosen Professor of Poetry in the Uni- versity of Oxford, and two years after- wards Foreign Assistant Commissioner to the Royal Commission on Education, in which capacity he visited France, Holland, ami Switzerland. His prin- cipal works are the " Stray erincipal works are, " Sketches of Life and Cha- racter," "Lights and Shadows of Real Life," "Leaves from the Book of Himian Life," "Tales for Rich and Poor," "Ten Nights in a Bar-room," "Anna Lee," " Orange Blossoms," &c. ASHBURTON, Wiluam Bingham Barl\g, second Baron, was born in 1799. After having stutlied at Oxford he entered the House of Commons in 1826, and remained a member until 1848, when, on the death of his father, he was called to the Upper House. Dming Sir Robert Peel's Ministry, from AUB 20 AUE 1S41 to 1846, he was by turns Secretary to the India Board and Pajonaster- General of the Forces. Louis Napoleon conferred on him, in 1855, the Cross of Commander of the Legion of Honour, for his services to the two great Exhi- bitions of National Industry in London and Paris. AUBER, Daniet. F. E., a French composer and Member of tlie Institute. His father was a printsellor in Paris, who was with his family in Normandy, engaged in his business, when the sub- ject of this notice was born. At an early period in life Aiiber had been taught music. The death of his father leaving him at liberty to choose his own profession, he in 1813 produced his first opera, a piece in one act, entitled " Le Scjour Militaire." It proved so unsuccessful that he was quite disheart- ened. In 1820 he produced an opera in three acts, entitled " La Berg&re ChS,- telaine," which was well received. Then followed a long series of successes. In 1823 he became associated with M. Scribe, with whom his name is now indissolubly coimected. " Le Timide " and "FioreDa" placed Auber among the most successful composers for the Opera Comique. On the 29th Feljruary, 1828, his " Muette de Portici," or " Ma- saniello," was performed at the Grand Opera, the words by M. Scribe and iL G. Delavigne. It took its place at once beside the greatest works of Rossini and Meyerbeer. M. Auber, however, soon found that the opera comique was his proper fiekl, and brought out a succession of pieces which are household words with the lovers of music, such as "Era Diavolo," " Le Cheval de Bronze," "Les Chaperons Blancs" — which has long been the most pojmlar of French comic operas, — "Le Domiiio Noir," and ' ' Manon Lescault, " which, the last of his works, although less widely ajjpreciated, has met with most praise from the critics. Some of his incidental airs have had a wonderfid influence, beyond the world of musical amateurs. The " Amour Sacre de La Patrie," sung by Nourrit, gave the -signal, at Brussels, for the Bel- gian insurrection of 1830. M. Auber is now the most popidar French musical composer of the day. His music is light and easy; it is graceful, and often marked Ijy originality. He possesses all the movement and clearness of Rossini, without, perhaps, all his subtilty and depth in the representation of passion. AUERBACH, Berthold, a German ■wi'iter, was born at Nordstetten, on 2nd February, 1812, of Jewish parents. Aban- doning theological pursuits, which he had followed at different universities, he gave his attention to literature on the termi- nation of his studies. He lived at first on the Rhine, but in 1845 he removed to Northern Germany, and has since resided, alternately, at Leipsic, Dresden, and Breslau. His earhest work was "The Je^vish Nation, and its Modern Literature " (1836), which was followed in 1837 by "Spinoza," a romance con- taining very interesting pictures of the social and religious life of the Jews. In 1839 he published " The Poet and the Merchant;" in 1842, "Educated Citi- zens, a Book for the Thinking Middle Classes." His reputation had become fully established in 1843, when he gave to the world his ' ' Village Tales from the Black Forest," which has been trans- lated into several foreign languages. In 1848 he published the "Professor's Wife," and soon after a new series of the "Village Tales." For some years previously he had published an almanac, addressed to the people, and intendex"is Joseph I. ) AUZOUX, Th. Louis, a French phy- sician and anatomist, was born at St. Aubin d'Ecroville, in the de])artment of the Eiu-e, about 1797. He took his degree of Doctor in Paris in 1822. From the very commencement of his studies he devoted himself to the improvement of anatomical models. At great expense he prosecuted exjjeriments to discover a paste which had the reqmsite softness to receive the most delicate impressions, and the quality of afterwards haixlening into a substance resisting moistivre and insects. He succeeded ; and published in 1839 the residts of his inquiry in a work entitled "Elementary Lessons in Anatomy and Physiology, or Brief Des- criptions of the Physical Phenomena of Life, by Means of Anatomie Clastique," (the word clastique from KA.aco, to break, referring to the fact that his models can be broken, or taken down into pieces.) He explains the application of his invention to the fabrication of models, which serve to render dissection, to a great extent, unnecessary. He established at St. Aubin an extensive nmnufactory of models, illustrative of anatomy and physiology, which is not only remarkable for its products, but for the admirable way in which the moral condition of the workmen has been attended to. For his successful labours in facilitating anatomical stutlies, M. Auzoux has had many honoms conferred on him, in- cluding various gold medals at the Paris Exhibition, and the Cross of the Legion of Hcnom-. AYTUUN, William Edmondstoune, a poet and essayist, was born in 1813, and educated in EtlinbiU'gh. He comes AZE 22 BAB of an ancient Scottish famUy, the Ay tons of Ayton, from -vdiom sprang the old poet Sir Robei-t Ayton. In 1840 he was admitted to the Scottish bar, and in 1845 was appointed Professor of Rhetoric and Belles Lettres in the University of Edin- burgh. He is a principal contributor to "Blackwood's Magazine," in the pages of which first appeared his ' ' Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers," the twelfth edition of which was published in 1859. Be- sides the "Lays," his other principal works are, "Bothwell, a Poem," a vindication of the character of Queen Mary; "Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tra- gedy ;" and "The Ballads of Scotland." He is also part aiithor of "The Book of Ballads, etlited by Bon Gualtier," and of a volume of admu'able translations of the poems and ballads of Goethe, jxiblished in 1859. In 1852 he received the legal appointment of Sheriff and Vice-admiral of Orkney, which he still holds, its duties only implying an occasional visit to the islands. In 1853 he delivered a coiu'se of lectures in London on " Poetry and Dramatic Literatm-e," which were well received. Professor Aji;oun is a conservative of the old school. AZEGLIO, Massimo Taparelli, Marquis d', an Italian novelist and .statesman, and late Sardinian Minister to England, was born at Turin in 1801. At the age of foiu'teen he was excom- municated for an assaidt upon his teacher, who was an ecclesiastic. In 1816 he accompanied his father to Rome, occupying his time principally with painting and music. He returned to Turin in 1829, and marrying the daughter of the great novelist Manzoni, he WTote several romances. The earliest of these was "Ettore Fieramosca," pub- lished in 1833, which, conceived in the Style of Manzoni, and full of patriotic sentiments, was received with great enthusiasm. His next romance, "Niccolo di Lappi," published eight years after- "wards, became equally popular. Deeply imbued with the .spu'it of Italian nationality, in 1842 he abandoned his favoiuite piu'suits, and with his friends Balljo and Gioberti he made a tour through the provinces of Italy, exciting the revolutionary movement which troubled the last years of Gregory XVI. After the revolution of 1848 he sup- ported the cause of the King of Piedmont, and, at the head of the Papal troops, fought against the Austrians at Vicenza, where he served as a colonel in the Venetian army, and was badly woimded by a l)all in the thigh. Elected deputy to the Sardinian National Assembly, and nominated President of the Council of Ministers, he resigned the latter office in 1852 to his political adversary Count Cavom". Massimo d'Azeglio is brother of the Marquis Roberto d'Azeglio, and uncle to the Sardinian Minister at the Court of St. James's. Another brother is Padre Luigi Taparelli, lately Pro- ■vdncial of the Jesuits for the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. BABB AGE, Charles, a mathematician and mechanical inventor, was born on the 26th of December, 1792. He entered at Trinity CoUege, Cambridge, and de- voted himself chiefly to mathematics and mechanics. The laborious calcula- tions necessary in constructing tables of logarithms early called his attention to the value of any invention which should substitute for mental calcidation the more precise principle of mechanism. Having obtained Government assistance he commenced observations and experi- ments on the subject, and made a tour to the Continent, with the view of studying the various pieces of mechanism employed in the arts. On his return he published his " Economy of Manufac- tures," as the result of the inquiries he had made. This work Blanqui, the French Economist, has described as a hymn to machinery. It shows how the division of labour is carried out in manufacturing industry, and how the BAB 23 B AC greatest results are to be obtained ))y the smallest expenditure of means. In 1828 Babbage obtained at Cambridfje the mathematical chair of Trinity College, to which he had earned his title by numerous contiibutions to scientific periodicals and transactions. In 1 825 he wrote a paper on the use of calculating machines, and in 183.3 the apparatus which was made in accordance with the views he had published was found to be so far perfect in its construction as to produce every residt which its ingenious inventor coidd have desired. It was at once a calculating and printing machine, and its value may be better estimated from the fact, that a table of logarithms of all natural luimbers, ranging from 1 to 100,000, was produced, free from eiTor, by its agency. Being manufactured ou unerring mechanical principles, those mistakes incident to mental exertion were entirely done away with. Its value and bearing on even the practical work of navigation and engineering was gi'eater than those engaged in practical details have any conception of. At the outset. Government, on the recommenda- tion of the Council of the Royal Society, sanctioned gi-ants for the construction of the machine ; but from an injudicious economy in respect to expenditure of public money, its operations were ended when apparently reaching a triumphant issue. Mr. Babbage is a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, of the Royal Society of Edinlnu'gh, of the Royal Irish Academy, and of the Cambridge Philo- sophical Societj^ besides being associated with the chief scientific societies of Europe and America. He has been a voluminous author. His " Reflections on the Decline of Science in England" appeared in 1830, in which the author seemed to apprehend that scientific re- search had seen its best days in Great Biitain, an idea which he has without doubt withdrawn since the publication of that work. He had previously puli- lished several treatises on various sub- jects, but his great work is "The Economy of Manufactiu-es and Ma- chinery," already refeiTcd to, which has reached five editions in this country, been translated into most European languages, and reprinted in America. His writings embrace an extensive range of learning and research, but the prin- cipal works and papers from his hand relate to mathematics and mechanics. He was one of the founders of the Royal Astronomical Society, and of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. BACK, Sir George, D.C.L., F.R.S., an English navigator, was born at Stock- port, Cheshire, on the 6th of November, 1796. He commenced his naval career as midshipman in the Arethusa, aud was present in several naval engagements, in which he never failed to acquit him- self with distinction, but did not display his peculiar aptitudes until he was em- ployed in various expeditions to the Arctic regions. Early in 1818 he was selected to accompany Captain Beechy, Captain Buchan, and Lieutenant (after- wards Sir John) Franklin, on the first modern voyage of discovery beyond Spitzbergen. In 1819 he again joined Franklin in the expedition from Hudson's Bay, and coastwise, east of the Copper Mine River. The journey beingperfomied in winter, gave Sir George Back an ojipor- tunitj^ of displaying a courage and endu- rance under fatigue of inestimable service to his party. On his return in 1825 he was made commander. He accompanied Fi-anklin beyond the ^I'Kenzie river in 1825, on a special mission of discovery, during which hisgreat abilities were again exhil)ited by his having undertaken an explorati(m on his own account. In 1833 he commanded an expedition in search of Sir John Ross. He published an account of the expedition, under the title of ' ' Nar- rative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the mouth of the Great Fisii River, and BAE 24 B A I along the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in 1833-5." After being made post-captain, he proceeded in H.M.S. Terror, on an expedition to Frozen Strait and Repulse Bay, with a view of prosecuting dis- covery in the Arctic seas from Regent's Cape to Cape Turn- again, from wliich he came back in October, 1837. The expedition did not prove successfiU. After being for a long time shut up in the ice, he and his crews returned in a most miserable plight, from the effects of cold and hunger. He wrote a narrative of the voyage, which is clear, elegant, and interesting. It is entitled "Narra- tive of the Expedition of H. M. S. Terror, undertaken with a ^•iew to Discovery on the Arctic Shores in 1836-7." It was published in 1838, and he was knighted in the same year. He attained the rank of Rear- Admiral in 1857. He is a member of several foreign societies, and has received for his geographical dis- coveries the gold medals of the Geogra- l)hical Societies of Paris and London. BAEHR, John Chkistian Felix, a distinguished scholar and philologist, was born at Darmstadt, on the 13th of June, 1798. He studied in the University of Heidelberg, where he was Assistant Professor, and afterwards Titidar Pro- fessor, of Classic Literature. Subse- oth on home and foreign service, and was elected a Member of the Academy in 1828. He is the author of a number of papers in the " RcNiie Frangaise," and the "Bio- gi-aphie Universelle." In 1822 he pub lished cracy, work, "The History of the Dukes of Burgundy, of the House of Valois, from 1364 to 1477." In 1851 he produced a "History of the National Convention ; " in 1858 the " History of the Directoire Executive ; " in 1857 and 1858 two volumes of " Historical and Literary Studies," "The Parliament and the Fronde;" and in 1859 "The Life of Mathieu Mole." BARBE8, Aemaxb, a French poU- ticiau and i-evolutionist, was bom at the P()nite-;\-Pitre, in the island of | vantage of it, and after a most energetic Guadaloiq)C, in 1809. At an early age he was brought to the south of F"'rance. He went to school at Sorbze, in the depai'tment of Tarn, where the instruc- protest, left France a voluntary exile. He is now a resident at the Hague. BARING, Sir Francis Thorniiill, Bart., son of the late Sir- Thomas Baring, tion given inculcated absolute submis- j and nei)hew to the founder of the cele- sion to the powers that be, whether in \ brated banking-house which beiu-s his BAR 28 B A E name, was born in 1700. Jle was educated and graduated at Christ Church, Oxford. He entered the House of Commons in 1826, as member for Portsmouth. In 1830 he was appointed a Lord of the Treasury, which office he held till 1834. In June of that year he was promoted to be Joint- Secretary of the Treasury, but resigned with the ministry on King William IV. suddenly calling Sir Robert Peel to his councils in November, 1834. In April, 1835, he was again Joint-Se- cretary of the Treasmy, performing the duties of this office till 1839. From that year to 1841 he was Chancellor of the Exchequer ; and from 1849 to 1852, First Loi-d of the Admiralty. BAPJNCj, Thoma.s, a capitalist, statesman, and member of Parliament, was born in 1800. He is brother to Sir Francis Baring. He became mem- ber for Yarmouth in 1835, retaining his seat till 1837. He contested the repre- sentation of London in 1843, but was defeated by a small majority. In 1844 he was returned for Huntingdon. His political creed is conservative, but he never figm-ed prominently as a poli- tician, and he derives his chief reputa- tion from his connexion with those financial transactions and mercantile specidations in which his family has long taken such an important part. BARLOW, Petee, a physicist and mathematician, was born at Norwich in 1776. Educated exclusively in the schools of his native town, he applied himself zealously to the study of mathe- matics and physics, and soon obtained reputation as a man of science. He was Mathematical Master in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich for a period of forty years. In 1821 Mr. Barlow wrote an article which was pub- lished in the "Philosophical Transac- tions," to which he afterwards became a regular contributor during upwards of fifteen years. In 1823 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, from which, in 1825, he received the Coi)ley medal for his researches in magnetism. In 1829 he was admitted a member of the Astronomical Society of London, and a corresponding member of the French Academy. Among the most remarkable of liis books is his "Mathematical and Philosoi)hical Dictionary," wliich at the present time is very scarce and of great value. His "Treatise on Materials used in Construction" records a great variety of experiments he had made with various materials employed at the dock- yard at Woolwich. He is also the author of several important articles in the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitana," and of an elaborate and important work on the "Machinery and Manufactures of Great Britain," published in 1837 ; of a ' ' Treatise on the Force and Rapidity of Locomotives," published in 1838, and of various Government reports on sub- jects of the same kind, of the highest value as contributions to the Hterature of a])plied science. His "Essay on Magnetic Attraction" was one of the first works in which the phenomena of magnetism were distinctly enunciated. BARNES, Albert, an American divine, was bom at Rome, in the State of New York, on the 1st of December, 1798. He graduated in Hamilton Col- lege, in 1820, and afterwards pursuing his theological studies at Princeton, he was ordained to the ministry, and in- stalled pastor of the Presbyterian church in Morristown, New Jersey, on the 25th of February, 1825. From this place he removed to Philadelphia in 1830, where he still remains, as minister of the first Presbyterian chiu-ch in that city. Mr. Barnes has a high reputation in America as an eloquent preacher. He is the author of a volume of "Prac- tical Sermons;" a volume of sermons entitled " The Way of Salvation," first pubhshed in London, and edited by the late Dr. Henderson ; and of a volume on " Slavery." Besides other similar works, BAR 29 BAR he has published "Notes" onJob, Isaiah, and Daniel, and on the entire New Testa- ment, in eleven volumes. These "Notes" have all been re])rinted in England and Sootland. Of the "Notes" on the New Testament, more than four hundred and fifty thousand copies have been sold in the United States, and it is supposed an equal or larger number hag been dis- posed of in this country and in France. BARNLJM, PiiiNEAs Tayloh, a well- known American " Showman," was Ijorn in the Aallage of Bethel, in Con- necticut, in 1810. From an early period he exhibited an aversion to work of the ordinary kind. After an unsuccessful attempt in the newspaper line, he had a share in the management of a stroll- ing theatre. Subsequently he obtained possession of an old negress, whose pro- prietors represented her as having been the nurse of George Washington ; she was said to be 160 years of age. Bar- num adopted the story, and by means of his tact as a showman, and by the dint of advertising devices, induced thousands in every city and chief town in America to flock to see the early guardian of the Liberator. On this side of the Atlantic, pathetic pictures wlbre drawn by the anti-slavery orators rtf the degradation thus cast upon the memory of the great general of the Republic. After the death of his old negress, Barnum bought the American Museimi, in New York, and soon brought it into high repute and prosperity. His next great "card" was General Tom Thumb ; but his most successful enter- prise was the engagement of Jenny Lind, for a series of concerts in the United States, Canada, and (Juha,, by which he claims to have netted £70,000 sterling. On his return to the United States, he was elected president of a bank, became largely interested in real estate in Bridgeport and vicinity, and promoted agriculture and enterprising thrift generally, with all the zeal of a public-spirited and benevolent citizen. In 1855 he published his "Autobio- gra])hy," a candid and amusing relation of the innmneral)le arts by which he at- tained his notoriety or celebrity as the " Prince of Hundjugs." In 1856 his fortune was frittered away, or greatly imperilled, by disastrous business com- plications, and in 1857-58 he gave lec- tures in London and some of the pro- vincial cities of England, on his methods of obtaining notoriety as a stepping- stone to making money, &c., drawing crowded audiences and replenishing his treasury. The last advices re})resent him as again in prosperous circum- stances, with firm health and unflagging energy. BAROCHE, Pierre Jules, a French advocate, was born at I'aris, Sth Novem- ber, 1802. His father, who had realized a small competency in trade, died when he was seven years of age, and he was sent by his guardian to the Lycee Char- lemagne, where he distinguished him. self. He was called to the bar on the 1st of Apiil, 1823, and soon acquired profes- sional distinction. On the 27th Novem- ber, 1847, he was elected member of the Chamber of Deputies for the Charente- Inferieure. He took, however, no pro- minent part in the debates of the period immediately prececUng the fall of Louis- Philippe, but he steaddy o]>posed the ministry of Guizot. He signed the Acte d' Accusation drawn up by Oddon Barrot on the 23rd February, 1848, in which they were accused of violating the rights of citizens, and of systematic corruption. The purpose of this manifesto was to effect a change of ministry, not to pre- cipitate a revolution, and M. Baroche may have regi-etted the step he took. He owed nothing to the revolution of February, and in opposing the radical party he was guided solely by his con- victions. His active interference in political affau's dates from the Sth May, 1848, when the Provisional Govenmient BAR 30 B A E handed over its power to the National Assembly. At this jieriod tlie struggle between the rejiuljlican party and those who sought to oV)tain a strong govern- ment, had reached the greatest inten- sity. Appointed Procureur-Gencral of the Court of Paris, he used repressive measures against the democratic press, and conducted various state prosecutions with an energy and ability which have made him an object of intense disUke to the radical party. On the 2nd Decem- ber, 1851, M. Baroche was nominated President of the Council of State, a position in which he has exhibited an ability, tact, and capacity for work, and a firmness of character not anticijjated from his professional career, in which he certainly did not rise to the very highest distinction. In 1855 he was invested with the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. BARROT, Camille Hvac^intiik Odilon, a French statesman, was born at Villepot, in the department of Lozhre, on the 19th July, 1791. His father, a conspicuous French statesman, was a member of the legislative body in 1804, and the only deputy who protested against the establishment of the Empire. At the early age of nineteen, M. Odilon Barrot was called to the bar. At this stage in his career, he manifested an attachment to the Boui'bons, which he has since justified on the ground that Louis XVIII. was at the time the re- presentative of constitutional govern- ment as oi)posed to the absolutism of the Empire. Dissatisfied with the j)olicy of the government, he gradually passed over to the opposition, and soon found himself in the ranks of the liberals, headed by Dupont (de I'Eure) and La Fayette. The courts of justice were the arena in which he first displayed his political prcjiossessions. His marriage with the grand-datighter of Labbey de Pompibrcs bound him still more closely to the Liberal cause. He was appointed President of the Society "Aide-toi, le Ciel t'aidera." He took an active part in the revolution of July, IS.'JO. He was secreliary to the municipal commission, which for some days performed the func- tions of a provisional government, and is said to have had a powerful infiuence in preventing any com])romise being come to with the elder branch, and in placing the Orleans family on the throne. Under the patronage of Dupont (de I'Eure) and La Fayette, M. Barrot stood, in 1831, as representative for the department of the Eure, and at the age of forty entered the Chamberof Deputies, in which he was destined to distinguish himself as a speaker until the fall of the parliamentary system in France. His first speech was a reply to M. Guizot, who had just been succeeded in the ministry by M. Lalitte. He refused on this occasion to admit that property should be considered the only electoral qualification, and maintained that the objects of the government called into existence by the revolution of July, ought not to be to j)erpetuate the restoration, but to create liberal institutions, and, so far as i)ossible, to absorb the republican party by widening the foundations of monarchical institutions. It would be impossible within our limits to present even a summary of the events in the active political life of Odilon Barrot. When the number and class of public functionaries returned to the Chambers in 1846 caUed general attention to the prevalent con-uption, and to the neces- sity of electoral reform, he took an active jjart in getting up the demonstra- tions in which all shades of the liberal and democratic opposition joined. He was the hero of the "bancpiets refor- mistes " of 1847. He failed, however, to imderstand the nature of the tempesi; he had raised. He ex])ected nothing more than a change of ministry, and was in perfect good faith when he spoke of his fidehty to constitutional monarchy. He B A R 31 B A n thought he held the reins and coidd direct the movement as he chose. The revohitiou of February was a bitter dis- ap])oiutment to him. Under the new order of things he was returned repre- sentative of the Departement de I'Aisne. On the 27th September, 1848, he made a speech on the question of two chambers, which was very warmly applauded, but which failed to convince the assembly. After the election of Louis Napoleon as Pi-esident of the Kepublic, M. Odilon Barrot took office as Minister of Justice and President of the Council, in the ab- sence of the President of the Republic. The resignation of the nunistry on the 31st October, 1849, was the signal of the rupture bet^^"een the Legislative Assem- bly and the adherents of Louis Napoleon. On hearing of the dissolution of the As- sembly, he was one of the first to pro- test and proceed to the Mairie of the arrondissement to proclaim the fall of the President. Seeing, however, that his eiforts were quite imavaihng in avert- ing the destruction of liberal institutions in France, he from that time ceased to hold any office under government, and, indeed, altogether abandoned public life. BARTH, Sir Henky, a scholar, tra- veller, and author, was born at Hambui'g, 18th April, 1821. After recei^^ng in- struction in Hamburg he studied at BerUn, whore the natural sciences, general geogi-aphy and history, classics, and the history of antiquity in its bear- ings on the development of modem nations, engaged his attention. He tra- velled in Italy and Sicily before taking his degrees at Berlin in 1844, on which occasion he wrote a remarkable thesis, on the Commerce of Ancient Corinth. He went to London in the following year to study Arabic. The same season he visited the Mediterranean coasts of Europe, and commenced those ex])lora- tory expeditions which have since so much increased our knowledge of African geography. The government of Morocco would not allow him to pass through its territory, and he therefore proceeded to Timis, whence he penetrated into Sahara, and crossed the vast deserts of Northern Africa to the Nile. In 184<> he crossed into Arabia, Syria, and Asia Minor ; in 1847, travelled through Greece; and in 1848, retm-ned to Berlin. He then became a private teacher at the University, and delivered lectures on African geography and the history of the Greek colonies. In the same year he published his ' ' Exploratory Expedition to the Coasts of the Mediterranean in 1845, 1846, and 1847." He had just completed his work, when news reached him that the English government were fitting out an expedition to Central Africa. Bunsen and Petermann recommended that he should join it. He did so, and with his countryman Overweg and Mr. •James Richardson, he set out from Lon- don in December, 1849. The expedition lasted fouj years, diu-ing which Barth travelled 12,000 miles. On his return, in 1855, he drew up a narrative of his journey, under the title of "Travels and Discoveries in North an d Central Africa, " pidilished in Germanj^ in 1855, and in England in 1857. This work is one of the most important contributions to modern geographical science, and the researches it records have i)laced Sir H. Barth among the most illustrious of the geographical explorere of our times. BARTHELEMY, Augu.ste-Mar- SEILLE, a French poet, was born at MarseLUes in 179G. He first acquired a reputation in his native city by a satirical poem against the Capuchins. The satirical powers of Barth elemy fre- quently brought him into contact with the government of the Restoration, and the revolution of Jidy, 1830, foimd him in prison. Restored to libertj% he sang the victory of the people, along ^vith M. Mery, in a poem dedicated to the [ Parisians — "L' Insurrection," which be- 1 came very popidar. From Louis Phi- B A R 32 BA S lippe lie received a pension of 1,200 francs ; which, however, he subseqiiently lost, from not in all things yielding to the inspiration of the government. The latest effusions of the poet's genius are war songs celebrating the trium{)hs of the Crimea. As a writer he is held by his admirers in France to exhibit the vehemence of Juvenal, the bitterness of Gilbert, and the causticity of Boileau ; but the praise would seem rather exag- gerated, for niunbers of his pioductions bear evident marks of haste, though rarely deficient in pimgent sarcasm and rhythmical exactness. BART LETT, John Russell, an American ethnologist, traveller, and author, was born on the 23rd of October, 1805, at Providence, in Rhode Island. He received his education at Laoville Academy, New York, and at various schools in Canada. On leaving school at eighteen, and after filling several mercantile situations and taking a pro- minent place in promoting literature and science in Rhode Island, he removed, in 1837, to New" York. On taking uj) his residence in this city, he entered a large mercantile firm as a partner, but the great commei-cial crisis which soon after crushed so many houses, and led to a suspension of specie paymcTits by the banks, involved him in the general nun. Three years after he determined to embark in the book trade, to which he was attracted by his taste for literature, and, in partnershij) with Mr. Wei ford, he carried on for ten years this business with success and eclat. Mr. Bartlett meantime devoted himscK to histoi-ical and ethnological studies. Ho was for many years the Secretary of the New York Historical Society, and in con- nexion vdtli Albert Gallatin founded the American Ethnological Society, of which he was also the secretary. In 1849 he finally relinquished business, and returning to Providence the follow- ing year, was appointed by President Taylor, the Commissioner on the part of the United States to survey the boundary line between the United States and Mexico, in conformity with the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo. He organized a large corps of engineers, and with them sailed from New York in August, 1850. Landing on the shores of Texas, he fitted out his expedition, which, including the officers, as.sistants, and an escort under Colonel Crony, numbered more than 300 men. With this party he traversed the vast regions of prairie and desert between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific. In connexion with the survey, Mr. Bartlett explored a large portion of Texas, New Mexico, &c. His various journeys ex- tendeel over a distance of 5, 000 miles, and occupied nearly three years. The residts, eml^racing observations in astronomy, physics, and natural history, were pub- lished first in 1854, and afterwards in a more extended form in 1857-8, at the expense of the American Government. On his return from this expedition in 1854, Mr. Bartlett took up his residence in Providence, and was elected Secretary of State of Rhode Island, which office he has since filled. His published works are "A Dictionary of Americanisms," 8vo, which has been translated into Dutch; "The Progress of Ethnology," 8vo ; "Reminiscences of Albert Gal- latin;" "Personal Narrative of Explora- tions and Incidents in Texas,New Mexico, California," &c., 2 vols. 8vo ; "Official Despatches and CoiTespondence con- nected with the United States and Mexico Boundary Commission," 8vo, &c. BASTIDP], Jules, a French author and journalist, was born at Paris in 1800. After studying at the College of Henry IV. , he entered the school of law, but idtimately became a wood merchant. He took an active part in the opposition to the Restoration. In 1830, after making a conspicuous figure on the barricades, he protested against Louis Philippe being raised to the throne. B A U 33 Taking pai-t iu tlic distiirlanccs of tlie fith and 6tli of .luiie, I8'.i'2, on the occa- sion of tlie funeral of Geuoral Lamarque, he was obliged to seek an asylum in England. In his absence he was con- demned to death, 2>">' contumace ; but on his return to France, two years after- wanls, he underwent his trial and was acquitted. He then became editor of tlie "National," au appointment which he held for several years. On the Gth of May, 184S, lie was appointed ^Minister of Foreign A flairs by the Executive Com- mission; a post in which he was con- tinued till the 10th of December, by his intimate friend General Cavaignac. While in office he advocated a tem- perate republicanism, opposed socialism, and did all in his power to promote the English alliance. After retiring from the "National" iu 1844, Bastide, with several of his friends, started the "Na- tional Review, " and about the same time he wrote an elaborate essay on the "Fortifications of Paris," published in English in the " British and Foreign Eeview," and a number of political, philosophical, and scientific ai-ticles for Didot's "Encyclopedic Moderne." He is the author of a treatise on " Puldic Education in France," a " History of the French Religious Wars," and a work published in Brussels in 1858, entitled "The French Republic and Italy." BAUER, Britno, a German scholar, historian, and critic, was born at Eisenberg, in the Duchy of Saxe-Alten- berg, on the (jth of September, 1809. He is the son of a painter on porcelain, who settled in Prussia in 1814. Having studied in the Colleges and University of Berlin, he was received as Doctor of Theology in 1834. In 1839 he was named Professor at Bonn ; but having advocated opinions inconsistent with the p\irposes of the chair, and been prohi- bited from proceeding with his lectures, he returned to Berlin, and there entered upon a series of critical and historical B A V labours which hn.ve placed him in the highest rank of (Jerman scholarshii). At first he devoted himself chieiiy to Bibli- cal criticism. Like Fauerbach, and all the new jihilosophical schoi^l of Ger- many, he made an attempt to reconcile theoh\gy and philosophy. His most re- markable works written at this period were "Doctor Hengstcuberg," published at Berhn in 1839 ; " The Prussian Evan- gelical Church and Science," iniblished at Leipsic in 1840 ; "A Re\'iew of the Gospel Narrative," and a "Review of the History of St. John." The consequence of the views expressed in these works was an open ruptuTe wdth the Church. A work which he meant to publish at Zurich in 1843 was seized by the Swiss Government on account of the pecidiarity of views expressed in it. It was entitled "Christianity Unveiled," and contained a comi)lete digest of his theological opinions. After this period Dr. Bauer, forsaking theology for a tune, devoted himself to literary and historical studies, and produced several valuable woi'ks. The most remarkable of these were, "A History of Modern Times sub- sequent to the French Revolution " (1843 and 1844), "A History of 'the Ci\Tlization and Enlightenment of the Eighteenth Century " (1848, 1845), "A History of Germany during the French Revolution and the Reign of Napo- leon" (1846), and several other works connected with recent politics. Within the last ten years he has returned to Biblical criticism, and published a long series of works, the most remarkable of which is his "Criticism of the Epistles of St. Paid, " of which the second edition appeared in 1852, in which he vainly attcmjits to show that these writings are not the jtroductions of the usually re- ceived canonical authoi-s. He now holds a high rank among the thinkers of the new philosophical school in Germany. BAVARIA, King of. [See M.vxi- MILIAN II.) B A X 34 BED BAXTER, William Edward, a member of the House t)f Commons, was burn in Dundee in 1825. After being educated there, and at tlie University of Edinburgh, he became a partner of the firm of Edward Baxter and Son, foreign merchants in Dundee. At an early age he travelled over a great i)art of Europe and the United States. In 1855 he was retm-ned to Pai'liament for the Montrose district of burghs, as successor to Joseph Hume. His pohtical sentiments are of the advanced liberal class, embracing extension of the suffrage and vote by ballot ; he also advocates nnsectarian national education. He is chiefly remark- able as one of the few home-bred Scotch members who, understanding Scotch subjects, venture to take a part in the discussions of the House of Commons. He has written and piiblished "The Tagus and the Tiber" (1848), and "America and the Americans" (1850), together with some minor works, all belonging to that light and amusing dei)artment of literature to which our French neighbours give the name of " Impressions de Voyage." BECQUEREL, Antoine Cesar, a French chemist, was born at Ch^tillon- sur-Loing, in the department of Loiret. Having studied at the Polytechnic School, he became, in 1808, an olHcer of Engineers, and served in the Spanish campaign of 1810. In 1815 he left the army, and having a decided taste for experimental science, turned his atten- tion to electro-chemistry, and other branches of electrical science. To him we are indebted for a vast insight into the action of electric forces in natui-e, and the science of chemistry has by means of his researches been greatly extended, and the cause of the produc- tion of mineral bodies to a large extent satisfactorily explained in his researches on the chemical action of electricity. The ideas first suggested by M. Bec- querel have been since amphtied by Mr. Crosse of Taunton, who was enabled to reproduce in the lal)oratory some of those gems and other products w-hich are found in nature, liy means of weak but long-continued electric ciu-reuts acting on mineral solutions. As a philosopher M. Beccpierel has greatly contributed to an exact knowledge of the cause of elec- tric phenomena being developed in the voltaic battery, and of the thermo-electric aiTangemeuts which have since been ex- tensively employed for the pui^jose of as- certaining and measuring slight changes in the temiierature of bodies. In 1837 he received the Copley medal, and was elected a correspontling member of the Ptoyal Society of London. His scientific researches contributed to the Academy of Sciences at Paris have had an im- portant influence both in an industrial and social point of ^-iew. Becquerel is the author of the following works : — "A Treatise on Electricity and Mag- netism," in 7 vols., 1834, 1840, 1847; " A Treatise of Physics in its Connexion with Chemistry and the Natural Sci- ences," 2 vols., 1844; "A Treatise on Climate," 1vol., 1845; "A Treatise on Mineral Mamu-es," 1 vol., 1845; "A Treatise on Terrestrial Physics and Meteorology," 1vol., 1847; "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism," 3 vols., 1856 ; " A Brief History of Electricity," 1 vol., 1858. BEDEAU, Marie Alphoxse, a French general, was born in 1804. Having stu- died at St. Cyr, he entered the army, and distinguished himself greatly dm-ing the Belgic campaign in 1831-32. In 1836 he went to Algeria, and within little more than four years r8 he produced his first English opera, "The Gipsy's Warning," which rapidly obtained a success for which it was indebted to its i>ower, beauty, and dramatic excellence. "The Brides of Venice," and "The Crusaders," fol- lowed. In 1850 he accomiiauied Jenny Lind to America, as pianist and con- ductor, and shared in that gifted lady's triimiphs. For many years Benedict has been the director of various musical assembhes and concerts, not only in London, but throughout the pro^ances. His musical abilities ai'e of the first rank, and his qualifications as a leader unsurpassed. His most wonderful triumph is in the fact that, although a (ierman and educated exclusively in the musical schools of Germany, he has succeeded in wi-iting operas for the Italian and English stage, which have met with the highest success. BENNETT, William 8terndale, a jiianist and composer, was born at Shef- field in 1816. He studied in the Eoyal Academy of Music, where he had the good fortune to i-eceive instruction from two admirable masters. Dr. Crotch and Ci])riani Potter. His progress was re- markable, and his talent for music was soon distinctly developed. In 1836 he went to Lcipsic, to take part in the concerts the great composer Mendelssohn was conducting, and his comi)ositions performed there were so higlily ap- plauded that the name of young Stern- dale Bennett became familiar through- out Germany as that of a learned, imaginative, and fertile musician. He afterwards returned to England, and has for nearly twenty-five years la- boured incessantly in his art. He com- poses rapidly : overtures, sonatas, con- certos, piano studies, songs, all fiow with equal ease from his prolific mind, and as a performer and instractor he ranks among the foremost. His style of scoring is in one sense pecidiar. He is simjjle in his constniction of musical plu-ases, scholastic without pedantry, and produces effects where no effect could have been anticipated. His or- chestral arrangement is remarkable for these qualities. Mr. Bennett is one of the professors of tlie Royal Academy of Music, and conductur of the orchestra of the Philharmonic Society, a body which owes much of its renown to his zeal, acti\'ity, and genius. BERGHAUS, Henry, a German geographer, was born at Cleves on the 3rd May, 1797. The son of John Isaac Berghaus, a weU-known historical and scientific writer, he was educated partly viuder his father's immediate care, and partly at the Gymnasium Pauliuum, at Munster, where he directed his attention chiefly to mathematics and engineering. At the early age of fourteen he was employed under the French adminis- tration in Germany as an engineer, in connexion with the great system of inland na^^gati()n projected by Napo- leon, and meant to extend from Liibeck and Hamburg to Paris. This official api)ointment, of coiu-se, ceased with the Ijattle of Leipsic, and the retreat of the French ))eyoud tlie Rhine. After the treaty of Paris, he went to the Univer- BEPt 41 BER sity of Marbiirg, where he prepared, while engaged in other studies, various works for the Geographical Society of Weimar. After Napoleon's escape from Ell)a, Berghaus entering the Commis- sariat department of the army, was quartered at Eennes, and took advan- tage of his residence in that part of France to study carefidly the geography of the surroundiug country. On his re- turn to Germany he published his excel- lent Map of France, in which he laid cIoato his personal observations. In 18 Hi he entered the Faculty of Philosophy at Berlin, as a student under the rectorship of Schleiermacher. In 1818 he was ap- pointed Geographical Engineer to the second section of the War Dei>artment, and in this capacity he took i)art in the Government siu'vey which begim in 1810, had been interrupted by the war of 1813-15, and was recommenced after the peace of 1816. In 1821 he obtained a chair in the Academy of Architecture, and withdi-ew from his mihtary employ- ment. He now devoted himseK with renewed zeal to geographical pursuits, bestowing immense laboiu- on the maps constructed by him, and the geogra- pliical papers and works of which he is the author. His chief productions are his Map of the Spanish peninsula, which is considered the best yet pro- duced ; his large Atlas of Asia, consisting of fifteen maps, with notes, published at Gotha between 18.33 and 1843 ; and his Physical Atlas, consisting of ninety-three maps \%ath explanations, the fii-st etlition of which \\as published at Gotha, be- tween 1837 and 1843, and the second edition between 18.50 and 1852. Physical geography was raised to the high position it now holds as a science by this work, which has been largely pirated from, and almost copied in publications which fail to acknowledge the soiu'ce of their information. An English edition of this work, incorporated with new mat- tci', was published by A. K. Johnston of Etlinburgh, in which the materials derived from Berghaus were duly pointed out. The geogra])hical works written by Berghaus arc very numerous ; several others are at this moment in the press, or in course of prejjaration. In 1852, at the request of a society under the auspices of the East India Company and the Governor-General of India, he WTote a Manual of Geography, which on being translated into the Hindustani, Tamil, and other dialects, was to be introduced into the Indian native schools. Among the students who attended the geographical school founded by Berghaus at Potsdam in 1839, were the well- known A. Petermann of Gotha, who is his foster-son, Henry Lange of Leipsic, and Hennann Berghaus of Gotha. BERKELEY, the Hon. Francis Hexry FiTZHARDiXGE, an English poli- tician and member of Parliament, was born on the 5th of December, 1794. He is the fourth son of the Earl of Berkeley, the representative of one of the oldest and most distinguished families in England. Elected in 1837 for the city and coimty of Bristol, he has sat in Parliament for that constituency ever since. Among Mr. Berkeley's speeches, one on the Commons' Enclosure Bill, and a speech in seconding Sir John Bown-ing's motion for the abolition of corponU punishment in the army, and a defence of the con- diict of his brother Sir Maiu-ice Berkeley, who resigned a seat at the Admiralty because the Board, with Lord ilinto, declined to increase the crews of Her Majesty's navy, were among his earlier efforts. A speech in moving for a com- mittee on the Beer Bill, which he car- ried, and a motion to abolish the Yeo- manry force, were a hajjpy mixture of satire and argument ; and one moA-ing for inquiry into the conduct of Lord Lucan, was acknowledged to be ex- tremely able. !Mr. Berkeley, however, has chiefly acquired his reputation as the chief speaker on the Ballot question, BER 42 BER liis speeches in favour of wliicli have always seciircd the ear of the House, from their happy combination of wit and argument. BERLIOZ, Hector, a French musical composer, was born on the 11th of De- cember, 1803, at La Cute St. Andre, in France. He was intended for the pro- fession of medicine, but soon abandoned it for that of music. Proceeding to Paris, he was enabled to acquire from Reicha and Lesueur, at the Conservatoire, all the instniction within reach likely to fit him for the profession he had adopted. He went to Italy in 1830, and, on his return to France in 1832, produced various operas and symphonies, which were, hoAvever, more scholastic than popular in their character. His produc- tions thoroughly combine the gentle and plaintive with the massive and sonorous elements in music, and his style is founded on that of Beethoven. BERNARD, Claude, a French ana- tomist and physiologist, was born at St. Jidien, near Villefranche, Jidy 12th, 1813. He studied medicine at Paris, was received into the Hospitals in 1839, and became assistant to M. Mageudie in 1841. In 1843 he received his diploma as Doctor of Medicine ; and his know- ledge increasing with study and practice in his profession, he l)ecame Doctor of Sciences in 1853. As principal assistant, in the fullest sense, to M. Mageudie, he was called, in 1854, to the Chair of General Physiology, founded by the Paris Faculty of Sciences, and in the same year elected Member of the Aca- demy of Sciences. In 1855 he was appointed Professor of Ex})erimental Physiology to the College of France, suc- ceeding M. Magendie in that chair. M. Bernard struck out a new path in the science of which he was a briUiant teacher ; his discoveries were important ; and he recalled attention to physiolo- gical problems that had been regarded as definitely solved, but of which he proved the solutions unsatisfactory. His papers published in the " Gazette Medi- cale" and the " Comptes Rendus de la Socigt§ de Biologic," are considered admirable expositions of the effects of the secretions on animal organization ; but his rciHitation as a phj^siologist was fii-mly founded by his ' ' Recherches sur les Usages du Pancreas," inserted ori- ginally in "Comptes Rendus" to the Academy of Sciences. He has published various papers on physiological subjects, all strUving for their minute investi- gation and close logic, estabhshing principles prcAdously unknown or un- heeded. BERRYER, Pierre Axtoine, a French Lawyer, Legitimist politician, man of letters, and member of the In- stitute, was born in Paris in January 1790. The son of an eminent pleader, he was educated at the College of Juilly, and embraced the profession of the law. His first appearance at the bar was in 1811. In politics he was a Legitimist, but believing that clemency woidd best serve the throne, he joined his father and M. Dupin in defending Marshal Ney and others who had been devoted to the cause of Napoleon. " It is a dis- gi-ace in conquerors," said he, "to gather the wouuded on the field of battle to lead them to the scaffold." In vain he recommended Ney to the clemency of the Royahsts. NotAvithstanding the Legitimist traditions of his family, he pursued a course quite independent of party tactics or feeling. In 1816 he attacked the Minister of Police — De- cazes, and warmly advocated the rights of the press. In a professional point of view his upright and independent con- duct proved of gi-eat advantage. His denunciations of all measm-es that ap- peared oppressive, brought him immense ])ractice. Retm-ned to the Chamljer of Deputies by the department of Haute Lou-e, he became the most brilliant orator of the Legitimist party. On the BER 43 BET Revolution of Jul)-, ISoO, taking jilace, M. Beriyer of all the Royalist party alone, remained in the Chamber to advo- cate a fallen canse. His policy, when he could no longer resist a change, was to tiu'n the altered circumstances to the best account. He disputed the right of the Chamber to give a new constitution to Fi-auce, in every instance advocated liberal measm-es, and demanded a broad enlargement of political pri\"ileges. AVheu the Duchess de Bcrri landed in France in IS'S'2, M. Berryer endeavoured to in- duce her to pursue a course the reverse of that which she had })roposed to follow, l)ut his eii'orts were fiiutless, and dread- ing being more deeply compromised he tied to Switzerland, Init was arrested, and imprisoned at Nantes. Tried, how- ever, by the Court of Assize at Blois, he was acquitted triumphantly of all the charges against him. In 1833 he spoke from the tribune, on behalf of the Duchess de Berri, defended Chateau- briand, and otherwise engaged himself in the interest of the Bourbons; in all liis speeches exhiljiting the same candour and liberahty. In 183-t he opposed the goverimient in the attempt to proceed against two members of the Chamber for libel, and was equally hostile to fm'ther restrictions on the press. When Louis Napoleon, in 1840, was captured at Boulogne, M. Berryer boldly undertook liis cause. In the same year he made one of his finest speeches on the Eastern question. He \'isited London some time afterwards, to lay his allegiance at the feet of the Due de Bordeairx. After the Revolution of 1848, he was assiduous in endeavouring to promote the Legitimist cause, but he afterwards perceived that France was not ripe for a second resto- ration of the Bourbons. He was, in 1848, returned by the department of Bouches-du- Rhone, but he confined himself in the republican assembly to questions of finance and administration. In conjunction ^\-ith ^I. Thiers and other Orleanists, he opposed the pretensions of the Prince President, and in 1851 ex- pressed himself as hostile to the extreme course which was adopted by Louis Napoleon in Deceml>er of that year. Since then he has retired from pubHc political life, and devoted liis gi-eat talents to his profession. The pohtical importance which M. Benyer had at- taine()tli law and medicine, and entered into all the political agitations occurring at the period of his student life, having for their object the entire reversal of existing political and social institutions. He was wounded in 1827, in the affair of the Rue St. Denis. He was a combatant on the barricades of 1830, and decorated for his services on that occasion. Taking an active part in the consi)iraeies and emeufes of the early part of Louis Philippe's reign, he was condemned to various terms of imprison- ment, which it would be tedious to enumerate. The Provisional Govern- ment of the 24th February, 1848, had uo sooner been installed, than M. Blanqui formed the Club of the Central Republican Society, which created great popidar excitement at that period. The last revolutionary manifestation in which he was concerned was the at- temi)t of the loth of May, the failure of which led to his flight. Appre- hended and tried by the Court at Bourges, he was condemned to ten years' imprisonment. BOECKH, Augustus, a German phi- lologist and classical scholar, was born in 1785, at Carlsrulie, iu the Grand Duchy of Baden. He was educated at the Uni- versity of Halle, and in the Teachers' Seminary at Berlin. Subsecpiently he became Professor of the Greek language iu the University of Heidelberg, and, since 1811, in the University of Berlin. The works of this great scholar form an epoch in historical criticism, and in phi- lology and archieology. The object of Philology sliDuld be, he maintains, to reproduce the whole political and social life of a pi'ii[)le within a certain period. Although the views adopted by Professor Boeckh have lieen opposed by scholars of the old school, who fear that they will lead to a neglect of grammatical sturlies, they have had a most im])ortant influ- ence on classical education in Germany. Professor Boeckh's principal philological and critical works are his edition of I'indar, consisting of the Greek texts, with various readings, a Latin transla- tion, and notes ; "Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener," translated into ICnglish by Sir George Cornewall Lewis, under the title of " The Public Economy of Athens;" and the " Corjnis Inscrip- tionum Gr«camm, auctoritate et im- pensis Academiaj Regiai Boi-ussise. " Professor Boeckh is a member of most of the learneds ocieties of Europe, and holds a high position amongst living phi- lologists. BOHN, Henry G. , an eminent Lond- on publisher and bibliopole, was born in London, of German parents, in the year 179(). He is favourably known as the editor of the ' ' BibUotheca Parr- iana," and as a translator from the German. He has translated various works of Schiller, including "The Rob- bers;" compiled a "Handbook of Pro- verbs," and a "Polyglot of Foreign Proverbs," from the French, Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, and Danish ; also a " Handbook of Games," and numerous other works of merit, published in his popidar libra- ries. He has edited Addison's works, and also a new and enlarged edition of Lowndes's "Bibliographer's Manu;il ;" but his great work is his "Catalogue," published in 1841, which consists of 1,948 pages, and contains the titles of about .'iO(»,000 vohmies. It is a literary lexicon on the most extensive scale, and admirable as a work of reference. Mr. Bohn has done great service to the read- ing public of this country by republish- ing cheap editions of books which, previous to his time, were contined to the BON 50 BON great libraries. He has shown great discrimination in selecting the works which form his Scientific, Illustrated, Classical, Antiquarian, Philologico-phi- losophical, Historical, and Ecclesiastical Lil)raries ; his Library of the British Classics ; and his Cheap Series, which foi-m, altogether, nearly 1000 volumes. To Mr. Bohu is due the first cheap edi- tion of the "Cosmos" of Humboldt ; a work which has had a remarkable influ- ence in widely spreading a taste for the natural sciences in this country. In 1850, he added a translation of the "Views of Nature," by the same author, the English edition being the joint work of Miss Otte and himself. BONAPARTE, Jerome, the youngest brother of Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio, on the loth of December, 1784. On Napoleon becoming First Consid, he removed Jerome, then fifteen years of age, from college, and placed him in the naval service. When hostihties broke Dut between France and England, in 1803, Jerome cruised off the West India Islands. Forced to quit that station without doing anything either brilliant or effective, he took refuge in New York. In the United States he married Miss Elizabeth Paterson. The marriage was a misalliance in the estimation of his ])rother, and Jerome's wife was for- bidden to enter France. Under this interdict the daughter of the Baltimore merchant i)roceeded to England, where she gave birth to a son, Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon, on becoming Emperor, caused the marriage to be annidled by a decree of the Coimcil of State. The Pope, however, refused to ratify the divorce. As Jerome made no iigiu'e at sea, Napoleon transferred him from the naval to the military service, and in 1807 he entered the army with the rank of general. In the same year he maiTied Frederique Catherine, daughter of the King of Wurtemberg. Some time after, Napoleon I. erected Westphalia into a kingdom, and created Jlrome king. Compelled to abandon his terri- tories on the abdication of Napoleon, he lived in exile vmtil the return from Elba, when he repaired to Paris, and distin- guished himself at Waterloo. After the final abdication of his brother, he hved chiefly at Trieste, where he pivrchased a palace, until Louis Napoleon became nder of France. Jerome was then re- called to Paris, and the old man who had witnessed so many changes of for- tune was created a Marshal of France, President of the Senate, and, in failure of the direct succession, heir to the Imperial tlirone. All parties concur in pronouncing him a most estimable gen- tleman, and if not the most fortunate yet the most amiable of his race. BONAPARTE, Louis Luciex, second son of Lucien Bonaparte, was born in Worcestershire, January 1813, during his father's residence in England. He ])assed his childhood in Rome, and his youth in Florence. He \dsited Italy in 1854. Though travelling under every disguise that could seciu-e privacy, he was recognised by his hkeuess to the Bonapartes, and met with an enthusiastic [ reception. The science of chemistry has much engaged his attention, and he has written several works on the subject. On the establishment of the Empire he was made a member of the Senate of France. Of late years he has been busily employed in translating the Pa- rable of the Sower from St. Matthew into seventy-two European languages and dialects. He has also translated portions of the Old and New Testaments into the various dialects of the north of England. It is understood that he con- templates giving a version of the Holy Scriptures in every dialect spoken in England ; a work certainly of immense labour, and requiring no ordinary philo- logical discernment. BONAPARTE, Napoleox Joseph Charles Paul, second and only sur- BON 61 BOP viving son of Jerome Bonaparte by his second wife, was born at Trieste, 9th of September, 18-2'2. He passed his eailier days alternately at Vienna, Florence, and Rome, and oecasioTially in Switzer- land and America. Elected a member of the Legislative Assembly in 1S50, Prince Napoleon, supporting the lied Republic and Ultra-democratic opinions, was known as tlie " Prince Montagne.'' The elevation of Napoleon III., however, to the throne made Prince Napoletin a devoted a. He was bom at Earl's Ditton, Salop, in 1807, and received his educa- tion, first at Harrow and then at Christ Chm-ch, Oxford, where he graduated Bachelor of Arts in 1828, in 1847 taking the degree of Master of Arts. He entered Parliament as representative for LutUow, in. ]\Iay 1840, and continued to sit for that borough until 1847, being again elected in 1857. Mr. Botfield has wi-itten a " Tour in Scotland," privately printed, and "Notes on the Cathedral Libraries of England," published in 1849, besides contributing various papers to the learned societies of which he is a member. The poUtics of Mr. Botfield are moderate Conservative. BOTTA, Paul Emilie, a French tra- veller and archreologist, was born in 1805. He is son of an eminent histo- rian of the same name. After studying medicine, he made a voyage round the workl in the capacitj^ of surgeon. Be- tween 1830 and 1833, as jjhysician to Mehemet Ah, he visited Sennaar, and other parts of Egyjit. On his return to France he was api)oiuted French Consul at Alexandria, and afterwards, on settling on the banks of the Tigi-is at Mosul, having learned that a mound in I the vicinity was supposed to cover part of the seat of ancient Nineveh, he com- menced excavating, but obtaining no great success he next examined a similar I inoimd at Khorsabad, and there he com- I menced operations anew. In this in- stance his hopes were realized, for idti- I mately he had the gratification of lay- ' ing open the apartments of an Assj'rian palace, thus opening up the way to tliscoveries which have since been fol- lowed ap with so much success by Mri BOU 54 BOU Layard antl others. Sculptures and other ol^jects of interest removed from the edifice were tvausrerred to the Assy- rian Museum in Pax'is, thanks to the cordiaUty with which the French autho- rities seconded M. Botta's hiboiu's. In lSo7 he was appointed Consul-General at Tiipoli. He has jmhlished a " Nar- rative of a Joiu-ney to Yemen, under- taken in 1837, for the Museum of Natm-al History at Paris ; " a work en- titled, " The Monuments of Nineveh, discoA-ered and described by M. P. E. Botta, and measured and sketched by M. E. Flaudin" (1810, 1850) ; and an abstract from the same work, named " Inscriptions Discovered at Khors- abad" (1848). BOUIiQUENEY, FRAX901S Adolphe, CoMTE DE, a French diplomatist, was born at Paris, in 1800. He entered on his diplomatic career under the Restora- tion. He was attached to the French embassy at London in 1822, with M. de ChJlteaubriand, and was afterwards Secretary of Legation at Berne. Em- ployed on the editorial department of the "Debats" (under the direction of M. de Chilteaubriand), he Ijecame a Councillor of State. After the Revolution of 1830, he was successively Secretary and Charge d' Affaires to the French Embassy in London, imder M. Guizot. He was afterwards appointed Ambassador at Constantinople. At the Conferences of Vienna, in 1854, he insisted on the "four guarantees" as necessary condi- tions of peace. He was next accredited as Ambassador to Yiemia, in 1856, after having taken part as French Plenipo- tentiary, in the Congress of Paris. After the signature of the Treaty of Zurich, where he rei^resented France, he retired from the public service of the state, and took his seat in the Senate. BOUSSINGAULT, Jean Baptiste, a French chemist and agriculturist, and a member of the Institute, was boi-u at Paris on the 2nd of February, 1802. He became a pupil at the ISL'ning SchAol of St. Etienne, and gave indicatiois there of his intelligence and laljoi'ious disposition. Having received an oti'er from an English company to go to South Ameinca, for the purpose of retracing old mines which had been left unworked for many years, he at once decided on accepting it, and proceeded to his desti- nation. His extensive powers of obser- vation were thus called into exercise ; and in 1821 he was ap])ointed Professor of Metallurgy at Bogota, in South America. The revolution in the iS]>anish colonies compelled him, for a time at least, to enter the military pro- fession as an engineer, with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel, on the staff of General Bolivar. In 1826 he was ap- pointed Superintendent of Mines in New Grenada, and while holding this situation he ])rosecuted several import- ant scientific investigations. His geolo- gical and geographical observations, his excursions to the volcanoes of Ecuador, and his exploration of Chimborazo, which be ascended to the height of 19,700 English feet, with the view of studying the law of the decrease of tem- perature in the higher regions of the atmosphere, attracted the notice of EiU'opean men of science, and more par- ticidarly of Humboldt and Arago. On his return to France in 1833, he was named Dean of the Faculty of Sciences, at Lyons, and siibsequently ai)pointed to the Chair of Agriculture at the Conser- vatoire des Arts et Metiers, at Paris. He has devoted him self, with great energy and success, to the study of science in its application to agi-icdtm-e, more especially in reference to the economical l)r()duction of food for cattle, and his observations on this subject have been published in the " Annales de Physique et de Chimie," and in the " Comptes Reudus " of the Academy of Sciences. He has also published various works, the chief of which is a "Treatise on B W 55 B AV Rural Economy." He has been a mem- bei" of the National Assembly and the Council of State. He is a Commander of the Legion of Honour. He has, how- ever, entirely withdrawn himself of late from political affairs, and has given him- self to tlie pursuit of scientilic research. BOWKING, Sir Johx, an English writer and colonial governor, was born on October 17th, 1792, at Exeter, where his father was engaged in the woollen trade. Belonging to a family of Dissen- ters, he early contended, both through the press and on the platform, against the laws which excluded from i)olitical authority persons holding similar reli- gious principles. This did not jn'event him from turning his attention to matters of more endiuiug interest. Trade, eco- nomics, literatiu-e, and languages engaged liis intellect, imtil his qualifications as a linguist were recognised throughout Europe, not less, if not more, than his knowledge of conmierce, extensive though that was. He became conversant with many modern living tongues, and, so to speak, "excavated" the literary treasmes hidden in many of the nearly- forgotten dialects of Eiu-ope. The Uni- versity of Groningen showed its appre- ciation of his acquu'ements, by conferring on him the degree of LL. D. One of his earliest hterary pi-oductions was pub the highest merit, published as Govern- ment Blue-Book.s, among which the chief are : " On the Commercial IJelations be- tween France and England" (18.S4 and IS.'io) ; "On the Commerce and Manu- factures of Switzerland" (18.3(5); "On Egypt, Candia, and Syria" (1840) ; and "On the Prussian Commercial Union" (1840). He was appointed Secretary to the Commissioners of Pu1>lic Accounts by Earl Grey, and from 1835 to 1837, and from 1841 to 1849, he sat in Parliament. When the treaty of Sir Henry Pottinger had opened to oiu- trade the five i)rin- cipal ports of China, and gave us a footing on the seaboard. Dr. Bowling was nominated British Consid at Canton in 1841, and afterwards Chief Superin- tendent of Trade in China, and Plenipo- tentiary to the Court of Pekin. Having performed his duties satisfactorily, he retm-ned to England in 1853, was knighted, and appointed Governor of Hong-Kong and its dependencies, -with the chief control of the naval and mili- tary power. In 1855 he visited Siam, concluded a treaty with the two kings of that country, and retm-ned to his go- vermental post. About two years after- wards a serious matter occm-red, which led to the nomination of Lord Elgin as Ambassador Extraordinarj'-, without, however, displacing Sir John Bo\\Ting. lished between 1821 and 1823, entitled ' By an ordinance of the Legislative " Specimens of the Paissian Poets ; " in 1824 "Bavarian Anthology ; " "Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain;" in 1827 " Specimens of the Polish Poets," and " Servian Popidar Songs ; " in 1830 " Poetry of the Alagyai'S ; " and in 1832 "Cheskian Anthology." His compre- Council of Hong-Kong, which had been confirmed by the Queen's authority, certain colonial vessels were recognised by licence as of British ownership, and, cousequently, were entitled to the privi- leges of the treaties with China. In defiance of this onlinance, a lorcha desig- hensive views of commerce led, under nated the "Arrow," which had been various governments, beginning with ! sailing imder the Hong-Kong licence, that of Eaxi Grey, to his em[)loyment as was boarded by the Chinese authorities, a Conmiercial Conmiissioner to other who seized the whole of the crew. Pro- coimtries. In that capacity he visited testing, but not olitaining any redi-ess, France, Italy, the states of the Zollve- Sir John referred the question to the rein, and the Levant. At this peri(3d of British Admiral, who resorted to strong his career he ibew up several reports of measm-es to enforce obedience to the BRA 5G BRA treaties ; but owiug to the small force at his disposal, failed to obtain satisfaction. It was said that the licence of the "Arrow" had expu-ed ; but such au avei-ment was not put forward by the Chinese authorities, who stated she did not at the time carry British colours, and was amenable, as a Chinese vessel, to the law of Cliina. Sir John Bo wring was accused of wanton and barbarous conduct in bombarding Canton. Be these matters as they may, Sir Jolm re- tm-ned from his post in 1859. The most important of his recent works are : "The Kingdom of Siam and its People," which was published in 1857; and "A Visit to the rhilii)pines," in 1857-8. At the meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen last year, Sir John Bom-ing read a paper on the oi)iam trade, which attracted much attention. BRANDE, William Thomas, au English chemist, was born in London, in 1788. Having received his early education at a school in Kensington, he afterwards proceeded to Westminster School, where his abilities soon gained him the respect of his tutors. After travelhng on the Continent, he entered St. George's Hospital as a medical pupil. He here evidenced that devotion to chemistry which has since made him so eminent as a man of science. In 1809 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, and became, in 1816, the secre- tary of that learned body. About this time Mr. Brande had become higldy p(il)ular as a lecturer on chemistry, and through his scientific attainments ob- tained a post in the Mint in 1825. Con- nected with various scientilic societies, both in England and abroad, he had the honour of D.C.L. of Oxford conferred on him at the time that Lord Derby was chosen Chancellor of that Univer- sity. His fame as an author rests on two elaborate and masterly produc- tions : his "Manual of Chemistry," and his " Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art," — woi'ks which rank, at the present time, among the best authori- ties on the subjects of which they treat. ?>RA VO-MURILLO, Juan, a Spanish statesman, was born at Frejonal de la Sien-a, iu the province of Batlajoz, on the 8th of Jime, 1803. Destined for the church, he studied theology at Seville and Salamanca. Abandoning theology, however, he became a student of law, and, in 1825, entered the College of Advocates of Sevdle, filling at the same time the chair of philosophy in the univei-sity of that city. His great ora- torical powers soon gave him celebrity, and he was appointed Attorney-General at Caceres, in the province of Estrama- dura. This official position was held by him until the beginning of 18.36, when, for various reasons, he proceeded to Madrid, and became the chief editor, in concert with Pacheco aud Perez Her- nandez, of the "Bulletin of Jurispru- dence." In 1837 he was elected to the Cortes, and in 1838 he was twice offered the i)ost of Minister of Justice, once by the Count of Ofalia, and again by the Duke of Frias, which, however, he did not accept. When the Coi'tes was dis- solved, he established the "Porvenir" news])aper, in which he renewed his attacks on the Goverimient, as he did afterwards in the "Pilot," and had done before in several other newspapers. He became involved in political affairs in 1840, was arrested, but escaped by some means, and at last fled to Paris. He afterwards returned to Madrid ; and in 1843 he was appointed, by the Lopez Cabinet, member of a couamission which was formed for the compilation of a code, and of which he became afterwards the president, fidlilling this charge gra- tuitously for a long time. In 1847 he became Minister of Justice. In the same year General Narvaez, Duke of Valencia, being at tlie head of affairs, he was appointed Minister of Commerce, aud fulfilled this charge until August, Br. A 57 BRE 1840, wIk'11 he passed to the ministry of Finauce, tlie Duke of Valencia being still President, until November, ISfjO, when he resi<;ned. Two months after, in January, 18.11, on the fall of Narvaez, he was char-^ed with the formation of a new cabinet, and was appointed Presi- dent and Minister of Finance ; he dis- charged the duties of both of these offices, worked a great deal in Finance, antl made the arrangement of the Spanish debt by the law of August 1851. On the 14th of December, 1852, he resigned liis office, and the counter- revolutionary measures of his successors resulting in the insurrection of 1854, o))liged him to quit Spain, Espartero and O'Donnell being then at the head of affairs. He was recalled in 1856, and elected member of the Cortes and President of the Chamber of Deputies in the legislature of 1858. This Cortes was dissolved by tlie cabinet, O'Donnell calling another, in which he decided to take no part. He has since retired from piibhc life. BRAY, Mrs. Anna Eliza, an English authoress, daughter of the late John Kempe, Esq., was born in the county of Siu-rey, towards the end of last century. She was married in 1818 to Charles Stothard, author of "The Monumental Effigies of (ireat Britain," son of the eminent painter. Her first work, illus- trated by her husband, was "Letters from Normandy and Brittanj'," pub- lished in 18*20. In the following year, Mr. C. Stothard was accidentlj' killed, and she published a memoir of his life. She suljsecpiently married the late Rev. Edward A. Bray, \'icar of Tavistock. From that period she has produced, in quick succession, "De Foix," a romance of the 14th century; "The White Hoods ; " "The Protestant ; " " Fitz of Fitzford ; " " The Talba ; " " Warlcigh ; or, the Fatal Oak ; " " Trelawny ; " "Trials of the Heart ;" "Henry de Pomeroy ; " " Coiuteuay of Wah'eddoii ; " " Trials of Domestic Life ;" "Borders of the Tamar and the Ta\^," in letters to the late Robert Southey, poet laureate ; "The Mountains and Lakes of Switzer- land ; " "A Peep at the Pixies ; " " Life of Thomas Stothard, R.A. ;" "Sketch of the Life of Handel," &c. &c. Her style is graceful, and her works are alike remarkable for sound morality and interesting narration. BREMKR, Miss Fredrika, a Swed- ish novelist and poet, was born in 1802, at Abo, in Finland. At the time that Finland was ceded to Russia, she was three years old. Her father then sold his estate and removed to Sweden ; where she resided with her family, some- times at Stockholm and sometimes at Asta, a property which her father had purchased, three miles from the capital. When eighteen years of age, IVIiss Bremer began to compose verses in Swedish, but it was not tiU a much later period in life that she committed any important production to the press. In 1828, she published at Stockholm the first volume of her " Pictures of Every- day Life." They were succeeded by a new collection of the same kind, }mb- lished between 1844 and 1848. The striking descriptions of modern Scandi- na\aan life contained in these works obtained for them a wide cii-culation in Germany, and subsequently in France and England, and even in Italy and Holland, they ha\'ing been translated into the languages of all these countries. In 1831 she obtained the gold medal of the Academy of Stockholm. Miss Bremer, shortly after ]>ublishing two books, giving an account of toure in Sweden and Norway, undertook, in 1849, a journey to America. The letters wliich she wrote to her sister during her stay in the United States and in the island of Cuba, from October 1849 to September 1851, were pubhshed at Stockholm, London, and New York, in 1853-4, in 3 volumes Svo, under the BIIE 58 BRE title of "Homes of the New World." In this work she gives a very interest- ing accoimt of the manners and institu- tions of oiir Transatlantic cousins, who seem to have accorded to her a very- warm and flattering receiitiou. On her way home to Sweden, she stayed for some time in England. She is at present engaged in carrying out philanthropic schemes connected with the education and elevation of children of the jworer classes. In 1842 Mrs. Hovtdtt first introduced her to the literary world of Great Britain by a translation of "The Neighljours," which, on account of its \Ti\dd delineations of domestic life in Sweden, at once found favour. "The Home " followed, and afterwai'ds ap- peared in English "The Diary," "The H. Family," "The Midnight Sun," "The President's Daughter," "Nina," and "Brothers and Sisters." BREWSTER, Sir David, M.A., LL. D., K.H., a physicist and author, Principal of the University of Ediubiu-gh, was born at Jedburgli, in Scotland, on the 11th December, 1781. He was edu- cated for the Church of Scotland, and admitted a licentiate, but a decided bias led him to the study of natural science. In 1800 he obtained the degree of M.A. at the University of Edinljm-gh. Taking up his abode in the Scottish capital, he commenced his researches and experi- ments in physical science, meantime studying under Rol)ison, Playfair, and Dugald Stewai-t, then Professors in the University. Having made imjjoi-tant discoveries regarding some properties of light, he received, in 1807, the honorary degree of LL. D. from the University of Aberdeen, and in 1808 was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edin- burgh. He became editor of the "Edinburgh Eucyclopaidia," a great work, which employed many years of his life, and of which he remained editor till its completion in 1830. The attention of Dr. Brewster was more especially directed to optics, a science in which many of his discoveries have been of the highest scientific and prac- tical value. In 1813 appeared his ' ' Treatise on New Philosophical Instru- ments," in which, and in vai'ious papers and essays, he gave pul^licity to disco- veries on the refraction, dispersion, and polarization of light, which placed him in the first rank of contemporary in- quirers in physical science. In 1815 Dr. Brewster was awarded the Copley medal, liy the Royal Society of London, m recognition of the value of his optical researches, and in the same year that learned body elected him a Fellow. In 181G the French Institute decreed him 1,500 francs, being one-half of their prize for the most important discoveries in physics made in any part of the wcn-ld during the two preceding years. About the same time he uivented the kaleidosco]ie, on which he published a treatise in 1819, and in 1818 the Royal Society awarded him the lUmiford gold and silver medals for his " Discoveries on the Polarization of Light." In 1819 he commenced, \\'ith Professor Jameson, " The Edinburgh Philosophical Jour- nal," and in 1824, as sole editor, "The Edinburgh Journal of Science," of which twenty volumes were puljlished, — tliese periodicals being the first esta- blished in Scotland devoted to scientific sulijects. In 1821 he founded the Scot- tish Society of Arts, wliich was incorpo- rated by Royal Charter in 1841. In 1825 the French Institute elected him a corresponding member, and he received the same honour from other continental scientific societies. He originally sug- gested the formation of, aud, indeed, may be said to have founded, the " Bri- tish Association for the Advancement of Science," wlxich has since proved so successful in forwarding the objects for which it was intended. So early as 1811, Sir David Brewster had thrown out the suggestion that a powerful lens BRE 69 BR I might be constnicted of zones of glass built up out of several circular segments, and had ruconimeuded the ado])tion of the instrtuueut, as a means of brilliant illiuuination, to the Scottish Lighthouse Board. It was shown that by the use of this invention, the navigation of our coast would be freed from many of its dangers. The plan was not, however, adopted, until Sir David Brewster had published, in 1826, his "Account of a New System for the Illumination of Lighthouses," and urged its adoption in " The Edinburgh Review," and had ob- tained a pailiamentary committee for inquiry into the management of our British lighthouses. At last, however, the dioptric system, his iuveution, was introduced in 1825 into the Scottish lighthouses, and afterwai'ds into those of England and Ireland. It is now in general use in our colonies, and in every part of the world. Sir David Brewster is also the inventor of the lenticidar stereoscoiie, now to be found in every household throughout the whole civi- lized world. He was elevated to the dignity of knighthood in 1832 by King William IV., an honour well won and justly conferred. In 1831 he received the decoration of the Hanoverian Guelpliic order. He is now Vice-President of the Royal Society of Edinbm-gh, having twice obtained its medals and long been its secretary. In 1833 he received the degree of D. C. L. from Ox- ford, and afterwards fi-om the L^niver- sity of Durham. He is also an officei- of the Legion of Honour, and in 1841), on the death of Berzelius, was chosen one of the eight Foreign Associates of the Paris Academy of Sciences. He is a Chevalier of the Prussian Order of Merit, a Fellow of the Astronomical iind Geological Societies, and a Member of the Royal Irish Academy. In 1838 Sir David Brewster was appointed Principal of the United Colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard's, in the University of St. Andicws, a position which he retained until 1859, when he was in- vited to assume the duties of Principal of the Edinburgh University. He holds that office at present, enjoying at the same time a pension of i.'3()() i)er annimi from the Crown. Sir David has written extensively on scientific subjects. His principal works are a "Treatise on New Philosophical Instrimaents," published in 1813; "Memou-s of the Life, Writ- ings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton ; " sejiarate Treatises on the ' ' Kaleidoscope " and ' ' Stereoscope ; " "The Martyrs of Science;" "More Worlds than One;" and "Letters on Natural Magic." He is also the author of numerous articles in the "Ediubm-gli Re\dew," the "Quarterly Re\^ew," and the "North British Review;" his contributions embracing a wide range of subjects, scientific and literary, and attesting the versatility of his talents and the variety of his accomplishments. To the "North British Review," in particular, he has contributed a series of articles, one of which will be found in almost every number of that periodi- cal. The subjects are generally con- nected with astronomy, physics, optics, geology, and physical geogi-aphy ; but they treat of many piu-ely literary and historical topics, in no way con- nected with science, and all arc remark- able for elegance of diction. At the disruption of the Scottish Chiu-ch, Sir Da^ad Brewster joined the Free Chiu-ch ; he has been imifoi-mly a liberal in politics. BRIGHT, John, an Engbsh orator and statesman, was born at Greenbank, Rochdale, in Lancashire, on the Kith of November, 1811. He is the second son of the late Jacob Bright, a cotton-spinner and mauufactiu-er at Rochdale. H a\-ing received an "ordinary school education, he was transferred, at the age of fifteen, to his father's office, to be initiated into the detail and management of the busi- B 11 I GO BE I ness, wliich in default of bis elder brother, who died young, he was des- tined to inlierit. In 1835 he spent some mouths on the Continent, and extended his travels as farasEgyjit and Palestine; thus helping to complete an education which circumstances had somewliat re- stricted. In 1838, when the famous Anti-Corn Law Association of Manches- ter was formed, Mr. Bright became one of its council ; and when in the following year the agitation assumed larger pro- portions, and grew into the Anti-Corn- Law League, the jjublic career of Mr. Bright received its final determination. He became intimately associated with Mr. Cobden and the other leading spirits of the most powerful political organiza- tion of our time, and by the force of his genius, perseverance, and eloquence, shook the ancient citadel of monopoly till it tottered to its fall. While Mr. Cobden lent his calm and unanswerable logic to the cause, Mr. Bright gave it the impetus of zeal and passion. The one sapped the foundations of economic eiTor, the other battered at its walls. The one convinced his opponents, the other can'ied them away captive ; and both rendered such efficient service as to make it difficult to say Vt'hich was the most useful or the most iK^werfid. The organization of the Anti-Corn Law League was remarkably adapted to ac- comiJish the object in view. Public meetings were held in every part of the country ; newsjiapers were estabhshed in the interest of the agitation ; wherever there was a chance of siiccess, the coim- try was deluged with pamphlets ; emi- nent men entered the ranks, but tower- ing high above them aU were the names of Cobden and Bright. The speeches of Mr. Briglit were of the most effective description, and thoroughly English in tone as well as phraseology. Powerful, impassioned, and convincing, he so car- ried his auditors with him, that even those who opposed his politics were com- pelled to admire his genius. But the oratory of the platform, liowcver useful, is of comjiaratively little influence imless its echo be heard in Parliament. The League was always aware of tliis fact, and lost no opportunity to find and make an opening for the admission of its most ])r<)minent members into the House of Commons. In 1841 Mr. Cobden was retm-ned for Stockport, and in April, 1843, a vacancy having occurred, Mr. Bright contested the city of Durham ; but the influence brought against him was too strong, and he was defeated. Not deterred by the failure, his opponent, Lord Uungannon, having been unseated for bril)ery, he contested the city a second time, in the month of July, in the same year, and was successf lU. His general political profession was that of a Kadical and Free-Trade Reformer^ — attached to no jiarty, but M'illiug to support either Whigs or Tories, if their measures were such as he could approve, and founded upon the wants of the coimtry and the rights of the people. Mr. Briglit, although the repeal of the Corn Laws was the one leading object of his political life, found time to ori- ginate and sujiport the apjiointment of two select committees of the House of Coimnons. The first of these was a com- mittee on the Game Laws, appointed in 1845. The evidence which it procured was printed in the usual Blue-Book form in 184G. The same year, through the instrumentality of Mr. Bright, an a1)ridgement of this e^^dence was pub- lished in a volume more suited for general circulation, and containing, from his pen, an "Address to the Tenant Farmers of Great Britain," strongly condemning the existing Game Laws. The other committee was on the subject of cotton cultivation in India ; and the bulky voliune containing the evidence taken by it has been often since referred to in discussions on this question. On this point Mr. Bright has always been BRI 61 BRI well iiifiii-iiK'd ; .•inr four years, when, in the recess of 1815, he was returned for Wincluilsea, a close borough. He en- tered with spirit, energy, and consum- mate ability on the discussion of all the questions that then agitated the public mind. Slavery and the slave trade, agricultural distress, parliamentary re- form, Catholic emancipation, the Holy Alliance, reduction of the army, the Corn-law monopoly, and other topics, occupied his attention, and t^licited his most fervid oratory. It was during one of his imj)assioned speeches about this j)eriod, that he accused Canning of "baseness," and designated Peel an "ignominious parasite. " Popular though Mr. Brougham had become, as a member of Parliament, cx])osing and denouncing abuses in the State, he was destined to command a still higher degree of estima- tion. Queen Caroline came to England to claim her rights as Queen Consort and wife of George IV. Supported by Lords Eldon and Liverpool, and all the Tories of the day, the King not only re])udiated the claim, but put her on her trial before the House of Lords for adultery. Mr. Brougham having been the Queen's legal adviscT on ])revious occasions, was now aj)pointed her Attor- ney-C^eneral, and it fell to him to vindi- cate her honour and chastity before the first Court of Judicature known to the constitution. His laboxirswere incessant, his eloquence without parallel ; and, eventually, the King felt constrained to withdraw his Bill of Pains and Penalties against his wife. Mr. Brougham's cause was the cause of the people, and thence- forth he became a popular idol, and continued to mix himself up with every prominent question of the day. When Parliament was dissolved, on the death of George IV., Mr. Brougham contested the icpreseutation of the most important seat in England, that of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and won it. In the new Parliament he gave immediate notice of various measures of parliamentary re- form. Before, however, his motion could come on. Sir Henry Parnell applied to the House for an incjuiry into the Civil List, which was resisted by the Welling- ton government, but carried. The Duke resigned, and Earl Giey was coimnanded to form a ministry, in which he appointed Mr. Brougham Lord Chancellor, with a j)eerage, the title being ' ' Brougham and Vaux." In the House of Lords, Lord Brougham was mainly instrumental in carrying the Pieform Bill, and for four years, from 1830 to 1834, he toiled with- out intermission on behalf of various measures of reform ; but in the latter year, William IV. caused the Melbourne administration to retire, and called the Conservatives to office, the Duke of Wellington being interim dictator, while Sir Kobert Peel was on his way from Italy. The Peel government having been defeated on the first moticm of importance submitted to the Hcnise of ('ommons, the Irish Chm'cli Revenues Bill, Lord Mell lourne returned to power, and nominated his ministers, among whom, however. Lord Brougham had no place, and he has never since been a servant of the Crown. When Louis Philijipe was deprived of the throne and a republic established, Lord Brougham, who had ])nrchased projjcrty and built a house at (Jannes, where he went every winter, applied, along with other English residents having ])roperty there, for naturalization as a security for it, but the claim was unsuccessful, in conse- quence of the opinion of the French lawyers, that the aj)j)licants must, as a preliminary to naturalization in France, cease to be English citizens. As an orator, Lord Brougham has had few ecjuals in or out of the Senate ; no living statesman possesses the same versatility. As au author he is occasionally care- BEO 67 BRO less, but always cloar ; as Chancellor, he j)crforinod the greatest judicial feat ou record : he retired from the Court of Chancery without leaving a single case "which had been heard in aiTcar for judgment. It is impossible to enume- rate in this place Lord Brougham's j)ractical eflbrts in the cause of educa- tion ; suffice it to say, that among his other undertakings he established the " Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge," and was the founder of University College, London. The ad- dresses delivered by Lord Brougham to the meetings of the Social Science Asso- ciation at Bradford, on the occasion of the foundation of the monumeixt to Newton, and of his installation at Edin- burgh as Chaucell(;r of the University on which he has conferred so much honour, show that his activity and in- tellectual vigour are unimpaired. He has again evinced his interest in social affairs in his presidential addi'ess to the Social Science Congress lately held at Glasgow (September 1860), where, in a ' speech of great length, he reviewed some of the most interesting occurrences which had taken j)lace since the previous meeting, and which had a bearing on the objects of the Association. These recent efforts woidd alone, could they be detached from his earlier career, give him a title to be ranked as a phi- lanthropist, statesman, orator, [)hiloso- ])her, and savant, among the most illus- trious men whom this country has ever produced. The title of Brougham and Vaux descends by a recent grant to his brother, who also inherits the old claim to the title of Vaux. A collected edition of Lord Brougham's works has been published by Messrs. Richard Griffin and Co. They consist of Critical, Historical, and Miscellaneous works, forming ten octavo volumes, including "The Lives of Philosophers of tlicTime of George III. ; " " The Lives of Men of Letters of the Time of George III. ; " "Sketches of Eminent Statesmen of the Reign of George IIL ;" "Natural Theology," comprising a Discourse on Natural Theology; "Dialogues on In- stinct, and Dissertations on the Struc- ture of the Cells of Bees, and on Fossil Osteology;" "Rhetorical and Literary Dissertations and Addresses, with Dis- courses of Ancient Eloquence," &c. ; ' ' Historical and Political Dissertations, " contributed to various periodicals ; and ' ' Speeches on Social and Political Sub- jects, with Historical Introductions;" "Contributions to the Edinburgh Re- view, Political, Historical, and Miscel- laneous," in three octavo volumes, ar- ranged under the heads of Rhetoric, History, Constitutional Questions, Po- litical Economy, Finance, Commercial Law, Physical Science, and Miscella- j neons Subjects ; " Paley's Natural The- I ology, with Notes and Dissertations by LordBrougham, and Sii" Charles Bell," in three volumes; "Political Philosophy;" and what may be temied his Lordship's magnum opii.s, "A Treatise on the Bri- tish Constitution," which has just issued from the press. BROUGHTON DE GIFFORD, .Johx Cam Hobhouse, Baron, an English statesman, was born in 1786. The son of a wealthy brewer in London, he was educated at (^ambridge, and in ISOl) travelled in the East, publishing his obsorvations under the title of "A Journey into Albania, and other Pro- vinces of the Tm-kish Empu-e." Lord Byron dedicated the foiuth canto of " Childe Harold" to him. Being in France during the "Hundred Days," he wi'ote, after Waterloo, his "Letters to an Englishman," the opinions ex- pressed in which subsequently led to his incarceration in Newgate. This con- demnation rendered him popular, and ou his release he was returned to the House of Commons in 1820. He adopted at first radical opinions, but in a few years his liberalism became Ics* Bn 68 BRO extreme. In 1831 Lord Grey appointed him Secretary- at -War, and in 1833 he became Chief S ecretary for Ireland ; subsequently, Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, and Secretary to the Board of Control. He was elevated to the peerage in 18r)l. BROWX, Miss Fraxcks, a blind poetess, was born June, 1818, at Stran- orlar, in Ireland, where her father was postmaster. She lost her sight by small- pox, when only eighteen months old, so that education in the ordinary form she coidd not receive. But her memory was most retentive, and she learned, from listening to others, to read and re- j peat their lessons. She attempted verse at seven years of age, and continued to compose, her sister being her amanu- ensis, until 1841, when the "Athe- nreimi" introduced her to the public. She is the author of a large number of poems and tales of considerable merit, and enjoys a small pension from tlie Crown. BROWN, W1LLI.VM, a capitalist, donor of the Liverpool Free Library and Mu- seum, was born at Ballymena, county Antrim, in 1784. His father, Alexander Brown, was a native of BaUymena. Wil- liam Brown was early sent to England for his education, which he received at a private academy, kept by tlie Rev. J. Bradley, of Catterick, near Richmond, Yorkshire. His educational opportu- nities were slender. At the earlj^ age of sixteen he was summoned from his books to acquire a knowledge of men and things. An active business career awaited him, and he was thencefonvard compelled to pursue his studies and self- improvement under disadvantages, and in the absence of aids and auxiliaries which he has generously sup])lied to his younger and more fortunate fellow- townsmen. In the year 1800 his father deteraiined to emigrate to America, and to seek his fortune in that land of pro- mise. Hia family accompanied himj and when the father had established himself in Baltimore as a linen mer- I chant, William assisted in the counting- house. He soon became so useful and manifested such a])titude for business, that his father took him into partner- ship. Mr. Brown, pire, was a man of remarkable shrewdness and enterprise. He established one scm at Philadelphia, another at New York, while a third remained in Baltimore to assist him in carrj^ing on the parent or central busi- ness. William, the eldest, Avas sent to England in 1809. The young merchant lost no time in revisiting the scenes of his birth, and in 1810 he married Sarah, daughter of Mr. Andrew GOion, of Bally- mena. The young couple came to Liver- pool, and here William established a branch of his father's Baltimore firm, in correspondence with his brothers in New York and Philadelphia. The name of William Brown soon became known xipon the Liverpool Exchange, and henceforward he became identified with the unparalleled progress and prosperity of the port. And to so great an extent did his business increase, that in 1836 his transactions for the year amounted to above ten millions. In 1844 Mr. Brown offered himself for South Lanca- shire, but was defeated ; although even- tually he took his seat in the House, in 184(5, having been elected by that consti- tuencj' without opposition. His political princi2)les are liberal, and throughout his career Mr. Brown has been the earnest advocate in every way of the principles of Free-trade. He retired from active political life in 1859. Mr. Brown has always shown the deepest interest in the affairs of the town of Liveri)ool, and the last instance of his munificence has been the i)resentation of a Free Library and Museum to his fellow-townsmen, at a cost to himself of forty thousand pounds, an instance of princely gene- rosity scarcely paralleled in any age. BROWNING, Mrs. Elizabeth Bar- BRO 69 BRU RETT, an English poetess, was born in Loudon, in 1809, of a family in affluent circumstances. She was educated with great care, and at the age of fifteen her powers as a writer were known to her friends. Owing to the bursting of a blood-vessel in the lungs, she was for a long time in very deUcate health, residing, for the sake of the climate, at Torquay. There she experienced a shock which per- manently tinged her character with me- lancholy. Her brother, and two young men, friends, took out a small sailing- vessel, for a few hours' trip. They had been but a few minutes on their voyage of pleasui'c, when the boat went down, and all on board perished, within sight of the house where Miss Barrett resided. She was married to Mr. Robert BrowTi- ing in 1846, and immediately after accompanied him to Pisa, subsequently remo\dng to Florence, which they made their pei'manent home, varied by an occasional \'isit to England. In 1850, the publication of her collected works increased her reputation in England and on the Continent. Mrs. Browning can boast of a rich mine of poetical ideas, but the diction in which she fre- quently indidges detracts from what would otherwise be appreciated as the result of unlaboured poetic impulse. BROWNING, Robert, an English poet, was born at Camberwell, in 1812. He was educated at the London Uni- versity, where he was looked upon as a thoughtful and imaginative student. His first literary production, "Para- celsus, " was published in 1 835. In 1837, he brought out " Strafford, an Historical Tragedy;" and in 1840, a long poem, entitled " Sordello." Each of these works attracted much notice, from their originality, choice of subject, and style of treatment ; but being more addressed to the minds of cultivated readers than to the miUion, none of them became extensively popular. From 1842 to 1846 he published a series of poems, which he entitled " Bells and Pome- granates." Many of these are very beautiful ; though they all, more or less, partake of that intellectual subtlety which precludes all but highly intel- lectual readers from clearly and fully comprehending them. Still they tended generally to extend and confirm the reputation he had previously acquired. In 1846 there appeared a collected edi- tion of his poems ; and in the same j'ear he married Miss Elizabeth B. Barrett, the celebrated poetess. In 1850 he published one of his finest compositions, "Chi-istmas Eve, and Easter Day," and in 1855 bis "Men and Women," a col- lection of miscellaneous poems which go further than all his other works to prove him a genuine poet, not of the merely intellectual and metaphysical order, but one who feels as deeply as he thinlcs. Mr. Browning has frequently been compared with Tennyson, but their ideas and their styles are widely diver- gent. Since his marriage he has resided princijially at Florence. BRUNEL, IsAMBARD Kingdom, an English engineer, was born at Ports- mouth in 1806. His youth was spent in France, receiving his education at the College of Caen. One of his earliest engineering attempts was that of f(.)rm- ing a tunnel imder the Thames, which has been completed at great cost, but has not afforded the residts which its promoters at first anticipated. After various engagements in connexion with eugineering affairs, Mr. Brimel was ap- pointed, in 1833, the engineer of the Great Western Railway, and in this capacity introduced the broad gauge. His views in reference thereto were strcnigly opposed by many eminent en- gineers, but eventually he carried his point. Many of the bridges on that line are fine specimens of engineering talent. He has been connected with several foreign railways, and was one of the chief engineers engaged in erecting B R U 70 the Britannia and Conway tiil)iilar bridges. He was the first to 2iroi)ose l)uilding large vessels for long voyages, and tlie Great Western steam- vessel was constructed on plans furnished by him. The boldest effort of Mr. Brunei's genius, however, has been the construction of the Great Eastern, which is the largest vessel ever built. Mr. Brunei is a Fel- low of the Royal Society, and a member of many foreign learned Associations. BRUNNOW, Ernest Philip, B.vr.ox VON, a Russian diplomatist, wixs born at Dresden, August 31st, 179G, his father belonging to an ancient familj^ of Cour- land. After having studied at Leii)sic, he was admitted in 1S18, by order of the Emperor, to the ministry of Foreign Affairs. From 1820 to 1823 he was Secretary to the Russian Embassy in London. After serving in various sub- ordinate diplomatic offices, in 1839, having fallen into bad health from too close application to business, he was appointed ambassador to Wurtemberg, and conducted, at Dannstadt, the ar- rangements relative to the marriage of the Grand Duke Alexander. In 1839 he was sent to London on special busi- ness, and the following year he retiu-ned as ambassador, and then it was that he displayed rare ability as a diplomatist in negociating the treaty of 18th of July, 1840. When the Russian war broke out in 1854 he was recalled, and sent, in 1855, as Plenipotentiary to the German Confederation, wdth instructions spe- cially to secure the neutrality of the lesser states. Along with Count Orloff he was chosen by Alexander II. to as- sist at the Conferences of Paris, and in 1857 he was sent to Berlin as Minister Plenipotentiary. He has since been re- appointed to his old i)ost in London. BRYANT, William Ccjllen, a poet and journalist, was born at Cummington, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of November, 1797. After receixang an excellent pre- liminary education, he entered WiLliam BUG College, at the age of sixteen, where he soon reached a conspicuous position by his superior classical attainments. He afterwards entered the office of a coun- sellor-at-law, and pursued for some years the practice of the law. He early became known as a poet, by the j>ublication in verse of some political satires. Givnng up the profession of the law, he, in conjunction with a fi'ieud, founded the "New York Review," and with two others an annual named "The Talisman," in which many of his poems appeared. Eventually, how- ever, Mr. Biyant became editor of the " New Y^'ork Evening Post," and to this journal he has devoted his chief atten- tion for many years. The genuine feeling and quiet gracefidness of style displayed in almost all his poetic effu- sions have rendered them peculiarly jioi^ular, no less in England than in America. After Longfellow, WiUiam Cullen Bryant is perhaps the American poet best known in Britain. In addition to his poetical works, Mr. Bryant luis published several tales and sketches, which have attained considerable popu- larity in America, but which have not been rejiroduced in England. BUCCLEUCH and QUEENSBERRY, Waltek Francis Montacuje Dougla.s Scott, lifth Duke of Buccleuch, was born in 1806. After studying at St. John's College, Cambridge, he, on ai-riving at majority, in 1828 took his seat in the House of Lords. In 1842 he was Lord Pri\'y Seal under Sir Robert Peel, and in 184G President of the Council. In 1842 he was nominated a Colonel of the Edinbui'gh militia, and in 1857 appointed one of Her Majesty's aides-de-camj). The Duke is a moderate conservative in politics, and takes considerable interest in agricultural and social improvements, and the amelioration of the condition of the Scottish peasantry. BUCHANAN, James, ex-President of the United States, was born 23rd April, BUG 71 BUG 1791, in the county of Franklin, Penn- sylvania. His father was a native of Donegal, in Ireland. Mr. Buchanan studied law, but liad a strong bias for politics. In 1814, and again in 181 f), he was elected a member of the Legislature of Pennsylvania, but he found the labours harassing, and retired after two years' servitude. In 1821 he first took his seat in Congress, and again retired into private life ; but in 1831 he pro- ceeded on political affairs to Russia, remaining at St. Petersbiu-g for about two years. On his return to America he was elected to the Senate, and in 1845 was appointed Secretary of State to President Polk. In 1853 he was sent by General Pierce as Ambassador to the Court of St. James's, resigning that post in 1856, when his friends had sccuhmI his election as President. Mr. Buchanan has been a successful politician, belong- ing to what is called the Democratic — in opposition to the Republican — party ; he of necessity supports the Southern or pro-slavery cause, but the pith of his policy lies in his principles of annexation, and his desire to wrest from Great Britain every inch of territory capable of ab- sorption into the Union. His term of office expired in 1800. BUCKLE, Henry Thomas, an Eng- lish thinker and historian, was born at Lee, in Kent, on the 24th November, 1822. His father was a well-known merchant in Mark-lane ; his mother a Miss MidcUeton, of the Yorkshire family of that name. For a short time he at- tended Dr. Holloway's school at Kentish Town, but his health, when a boy, being delicate, he was not subjected to what is called a regular education. Dr. Birk- beck, whose ad\'ice had been taken, having recommended that he should not be tormented wnth task-work, or con- fined t«J the close atmosphere of a school- room, he was allowed to pursue his own course undisturbed ; and that he did not mis-spend his time is abundantly appa- rent in every page he has written. Mr. Buckle is the author of two papers published in " Frazer's Magazine ;" one A Lecture on the Influence of Women," the other "An Essay on Liberty," being a review of Mr. J. S. Mills' work on the same subject. But his most remarkable production is the first volume of his "History of Civilization in England," published in 1857. It is merely the first part of a gi-eat work, which is to emljrace the whole history of English civilization, and which, if carried out with the range of learning, the ability and the capacity to arrange and systematize materials drawn from the most varied sources, displayed in every chapter of this intro- ductory volume, will place Mr. Buckle's name among the foremost of those writers who have treated of the philo- sophy of history. It is not, however, as an original thinker on the transcen- dental questions of sociology that Mr. Buckle's claims to distinction rest. His histories of the English intellect from the midtlle of the sixteenth to the eigh- teenth century, and that of the French intellect dm-ing the same period, forming part of this volume, are warmly admired by some of those who denounce most strongly his philosox)hical ideas, and even by them placed among the most important recent contributions to om- historical literature. The remainder of the introduction is yet unpublished, and wiU be devoted to the investigation of the civilization of Germany, America, Scotland, and Spain — and the study of their differences. Its appearance is looked forward to with great intei-est. BUCKSTONE, John B.\ldwtn, a comedian and prolific dramatic author, was born at Hoxton, Middlesex, Septem- ber 18th, 1802. His connexions were highly respectable, being descended from the Derbyshire Buckstones, members of which are now amongst the principal landed gentry of that county. When l;ut a boy he was a great favourite BUL 72 BUN Lecaiise of his quickness of rei)artee and aptitude for study. Educated at Wal- worth Grammar School, when but eleven years of age he was placed on l)oard a man-of-war ; but, after a cruise, his grandfather objected to the little fellow's going to sea, and had him brought home and sent back to school. His family then intended him for the law, but he did not follow that j)rofession. He was a very discursive reader, though a quick learner ; the stage hail its attractions for him. He contracted his first engagement in the provinces. He then came to Lon- don and ai)peared at the Svu-rey Theatre, then at the Ci >burg, then at the Adeli)hi, then at the Haymarket, then at Driiry Lane. In 1853 he became manager of the HajTJiarket, on the retirement of Mr. Benjamin We])ster. Tn this theatre he, for several years, has accomplished the remarkable feat of keejnng the house open every lawful night tlu'oughout the year, and always commanding full au- diences. As an authoi", Mr. Buckstone has produced more comedies, di-amas, and farces than any man of the age, and all have Ijeen without exception success- ful. His style as a performer is removed from that of all others in the same line. It is quaint, easy, and highly comic. Being a great favourite with her Majesty, he has on many occasions received the honour of appearing at Court dramatic representations at Windsor Castle. Mr. Buckstone is treasurer and master of the Boyal General Theatrical Fund ; joint- treasurer of the Boyal Dramatic College, and a member of the Dramatic Authors' Society and of the Garriek Club. BULWER, .'the Eight Hox. Sik Henry Lytton, a diplomatist and au- thor, was born in 1804. He is the elder brother of the novelist, Bulwer Lytton. In 1830, he was sent on a special service to Brussels ; and, on his return, became member for Wilton. He represented Coventry in 1831 and 1832, and Mary- lebone from 1834 to 1837. In 1835 he was Charge d' Affaires at Brussels, and in 1837 Secretary of the Embassy at Constantinople, filling a similar post at Paris in 1839. At the Court of Madrid he was the British representative for several years, and, subsequently, pro- ceeded in the same capacity to Wash- ington. In 1848 he married the yovingest daughter of Lord Cowley, From 1852 to 1855 he was 'Envoy Extraordinary to Tuscany. In 1856 he was appointed a Commissioner for the Danubian principalities, and thereafter successor to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, as ambassador to Tiu-key, where he still remains. He is an author as weU as a diplomatist, having published "An Au- tiunn in Greece, " " The Lords, the Government, and the Country, " " France, Social and Literary," and the "Mo- narchy of the Middle Classes." B U N S E N, Christian Charles JosAiAS, Chevalier von, a German scholar, philosopher, and statesman, was born at Korback, witliin the prin- cipality of Waldeck, but not far from the frontiers of Ilhenish Piussia, on the 25th of August, 1791. In 1808 he became a student at Marburg ; whence, in 1809, he proceeded to Gottingen. In 1811 he obtained a professorship, and not long afterwards published a work, entitled "De Jure Atheniensium Hfe- reditario," which at once established his position as a scholar.' He devoted his attention chiefly to philological and phi- losophical studies, although his works ' everywhere display an intimate ac- quaintance with the great residts of the physical sciences, and more especially of those which have a bearing on philo- logical researches. To complete his studies he \asited various jiarts of the Continent. His first journey was to Holland ; thence he rei)aired to Copen- hagen, where he studied the Norse language and literature under Mag- nussen. In 181(5 he proceeded to Paris, and there he devoted his attention to BUN 73 B CX Arabic, Persian, and Sanscrit, under the gi-eat French Orientalists. From Paris he went to Pome. There he had the good fortune to secure the friendship and confidence of Nie1)uhr, whom he had some years before known at Berlin. This distinguished historian and critic ■n-hich, altliough arranged to the satis- faction of the Court of Pome, could not be settled to the contentment of the zealous Roman Catholics of Rhenish Prussia. After the disturbances on the Rhine, and the aj)prehension of the Bishop of Cologne, Chevalier Bunsen at once ai)preciated the high abilities of j found his position at the Papal Court Bimsen ; and, in 1818, secured for him ' disagreeable, and was recalled at his the appointment of Secretary to the | own request. In 1839 he was ap- Prussian Legation, he himself being at pointed Minister at Berne to the Swiss tliat time Ambassador to the Papal See. Repubhc, and in 1841 Ambassador to In 1822 King Frederick AViUiam \'isited j this country. In 1844, on the occasion Italy, and made the acquaintance of j of one of those frequent visits he made Bunsen, whose i-eligious views were much to Berhn to give the Prussian Govem- akintothose entertained Ijy the monarch, i ment the benefit of his adWce, he is then intent upon the innovations after- wards introduced into the Prussian Church. After the departure of Nie- biihr, Bunsen was appointed Pnissian Ambassador in his stead. Dm-ing the whole period of his stay in Italy, Bunsen continued his laborious researches in philology, not confining hmiself to mere grammatical studies, but carr^-iug his investigations into the history of the ])liilosophical literatiu'e and political institutions of antiquity, ecclesiastical and liturgical history, archteology, and every department of hiunan knowledge which throws light upon the history of ci\-ilization. The visit of the younger ChampoUion to Rome, in 1826, directed his attention to the new field of re- search o])ened by the clue discovered to the interpretation of the hierogly- phics. It was he who induced Lepsius to turn his attention to this subject understood to have recommended to King Frederick William IV. a liberal j)()licy, and an assimilation of the legis- lative system to that of England. He supported the German policy in Schles- ■n-ig-Holstein. On this question he published, in April, 1848, a work, ad- dressed to Lord Paknerston, entitled " A Memoir on the Constitutional Rights of the Duchies of Schleswig and Hol- stein. " Ha\nng a strong bias in favoiir of constitutional government, he resigned his embassy in 1854, when he found that the Prussian Court had detei-mined to lean towards Russia. His absence from this coimtry, where he had been looked upon as an adopted citizen, was generally felt as a public loss. He now resides in the neighboiu'hood of Heidel- berg. In the midst of his laboiu's as a statesman and dijjlomatist, Chevalier Bimsen has never discontinued his Bunsen took the deepest interest in the ' philological and philosophical researches, foundation, in 1829, of the Archreological Ijy which he is so well known in this Institute of Rome, for which he erected ' country. In 1845 he published his a hall near his own house upon the "'Church of the Futiu-e ;" in 1847, Capitol. His duties, as Minister and " Ignatius of Antioch, and his Times ;" Charge d'Afiiaires at Rome, threw upon in 1848, "Egj-pt's Place in Universal him some very delicate negociations j History ;" and in 1851, "Hippolj-tus between the Pope and the Prussian [ and his Age;" followed, in 1854, by Government, more especially those relat- j the "Outlines of the Philosophy of ing to mixed marriages, or marriages Uuivei-sal History, applied to Language between CathoUcs and Protestants ;, and Religion." The last is perhapg BUN 74 BUR one of the most important books which our generation has produced, and may be said to stand towards I)hilology and the cognate sciences in the relation which Humboldt's "Cosmos" bears to those departments of knowledge which have for their object the study of the material uni- verse. The work is written in an Eng- lish style, remarkal)le for elegance and brilliancy. BUN SEN, Robert William, a German chemist, was born at Gottingen, where his father was Professor of Litera- ture. He studied at the University of that city, evidencing a decided taste for experimental science, and completed his education at Paris. He afterwards suc- ceeded Wohler, as Professor of Chemis- try at the Polytechnic; Institute at'Cassel. In 1811 he was titular professor at the University of Marburg, and subsequently director of the Chemical Institute. In 1851 he held an appointment at the Uni- versity of Breslau. Mr. Bunsen is chiefly known to scientific circles through his extensive researches in chemistry, but more especially ))y his invention of the carbon voltaic battery, wliich is now so extensively used by electricians. He has been a large contributor to the " Annales deChimie," and has also pub- lished works which chiefly relate to his discoveries in inorganic chemistry. BUOL, Shauenstein Charles Fer- dinand, Count, a German statesman and diplomatist, and Austrian minister, was born at Hamburg on the 17th May, 1797. He is a son of the celebrated Count Buol, who as Plenipotentiary of Austria presided for many years over the Frankfort Diet. In 1816 he was at- tached to the Legation at Florence, and was sent as Secretary to the Embassy at Paris in 1822, and to London in the same capacity in 1824. He afterwards held various diplomatic appointments, and was Plenipotentiary at Turin when the Revolution of 1848 broke out. In 1848 he went as Ambassador to St. Peters- burg, returning in 1850 to Dresden, to act as second imperial Plenipotentiary in the settlement of the Holstein ques- tion. After acting for some time as Ambassador to England, he returned to Vienna to become Minister of Foreign Affairs in place of Prince Schwartzenberg, who had just died. He appeared with Baron Hlibner, at the Congress of Paris, as imperial Plenipotentiary, and signed the Treaty of 30tli March, 1856. Count Buol has not confined his attention to mere matters of diplomacy, but has en- deavoured on all occasions to further the progress of internal improvements in Austria. The position of neutrality which Austria held during the war was in a great measure to be ascribed to his exertions ; he having sought throughout his whole career to emancipate Austria from Russian control. In 1859 he re- tired from office. BUREN, Van, Martin, ex-President of the United States of America, was born at Kinderhook, in the State of New York, Decemlier 5th, 1782. Although receiving a limited education when young, he tm-ned his attention success- fully to politics and law, and was api)ointed Attorney-General of the State, and sent as a senator to the Legislative Assembly of New York in 1812. He was one of the most ardent supporters of the war against Britain. In 1817 he led the opposition against Clinton, elected Governor of New York, and was deprived of offices which he held ; but after a long stniggle, he was ap- pointed Senator of the United States' Congress, in which he served eight years. He was an active partisan of General Jackson's presidency, and on that gentle- man's election he was appointed Secre- tary of State of the United States, and nominated Ambassador to London, Init the Senate afterwards refused to ratify the appointment. He gained jJopuLirity by that o2)position, and was elected Vice- BUR B U R President. When Gen. Jackson's term of office expii-ed, Van Buren was nominated .IS his natiu-al successor; and though he liad to contend with Chiy, Calhoun, Webster, and Hari-isun, lie was elected, holding office till 1840, when his claims for re-election were rejected. BURGOYNE, Sir John Fox, an English general, was born in Ireland in 1782. As one of the corj)s of Royal Engineers, he commenced his military career August 1798, and served in Malta, Egypt, Sicily, and Sweden, in the early part of the jiresent century. In 1809 he joined the army under Sir Arthur Wel- lesley, and remained in Sjiain till the end of the Peninsulai- war in 1814. He con- ducted the sieges of Burgos and Saint Sebastian, and received the Gold Cross and one clasp for Badajos, Salamanca, Vittoria, San Sebastian, and Nive ; and the silver medal and three clasps for Busaco, Ciudad Rodrigo, and NiveUe. After passing tlirough the various inter- mediate military grades he attained the rank of Lieutenant-General in 1852, and was then created a Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath. In 1854 he was sent to Turkey, and as chief of the Engineer- ing Department of the British army, took part in the events of the Crimea till liis recall in 1855. He was present at the battles of the Alma, Balaklava, and Inkermaun. For his sei-\'ices he was raised to the rank of General, and created a Baronet. Sir J ohn was thirteen years Chairman of Public Works in Ireland, and since 1845 has held the appointment of Inspector-General of Fortitications. BURMEISTER, Hermann, was born in 1807, in Stralsund, in Prussia, where his father was a Custom-house officer. He studied medicine for four years in the Universities of Greifswald and Halle. Professor Nitzch, with whom he was on terms of friendship, cultivated his taste for zoology and entomology. On the death of Nitzch, at Halle, in 1842, Bnnneister filled the zoological chair in his .stead, and between then and 1848 produced several scientilic worka of high merit, which added to the fame he had previously acquired l)oth as an author and an entomologist. In 1840, having been already well known for his liberalism, and his facility of expressing his political opinions, Burmeister was chosen representative for Halle to the National Assembly ; but his health, broken down by incessant work, com- pelled him to seek a warmer climate, and he went to Brazil. On his return to Eui-ope, after two years' absence, he resumed his functions in the University of Halle. He has published numerous scientific works, among which may be enumerated, "A Manual of Entomo- logy," and a work on the animals of Brazil. He also wrote two popular treatises, "The History of Creation," and " Sketches of Natural History," which have been very successful with the general jjublic. BURNET, John, a painter, engraver, and art-critic, was bom at Fisher-row, near Edinburgh, in 1784. Ajjprenticed to Robert Scott, the engraver, he studied assiduously, devoting his little leisure to the cultivation of drawing under John Graham, at the classes of the Scottish Academy. Here he was the fellow- pupd of Sir William Allan and Sir David Wilkie, liis engravings from the works of the latter artist first directing attention to his abilities. Wilkie re- moved to London in 1804, and produced such a sensation by his jiicture of the "Village Politicians " that Mr. Biu-net resolved also to attempt success in the English capital. He arrived in Loudon in 180G, and called on AVilkie, who re- ceived him cordially, and assisted to obtain him employment in book engi-av- ing ; but aspiring tt) a higher w;ilk in art, he requested liberty to engrave " The Jew's Harp." Wilkie granted permission, and in 1809 he published BUR 7(3 BUR the work, which was very meritorious. He afterwards, by his plate from ' ' The Blind Fiddler," became established in public opinion as an artist of unsurpassed power. "Reading the Will," "Chelsea Pensioners Reading the Gazette," "The Rabbit on the Wall," and other works, were successively engraved by him with equal firmness and delicacy. All these are now familiar to the world, and it has been asserted that Wilkie's present fame rests nearly as much on the hand of Burnet as on his own productions. He has engraved his own 2)ictures, as, for example, ' ' The Greenwich Pension- ers." He has also engraved several of Rembrandt's and Raphael's pictures, and has published some works, the value of which to the art-student can scarcely be over-rated ; among these are, " Practical Hints on Painting," published in 1812; " Laudscajie Painting in Oil ; " and "Hints on Portrait Paint- ing." These and other writings of a similar class are illustrated by himself. BURRITT, Eliiiu, known as the "learned blacksmith," was born in Con- necticut in 1811. His early education was by no means extensive, but by per- severance and industry he acquired a knowledge of many languages and dia- lects, and he is a proficient in mathema- tics. Mr. Burritt has made himself well known in this country and in France by his untiring exertions to form and con- solidate the league of Universal Brother- hood. He is also a strenuous advocate for the ocean jienny postage. In the prosecution of these philanthropic ob- jects, Mr. Burritt has had a jirincipal share in convening congresses of repre- sentatives of peace societies in London, Brussels, Paris, and Frankfort. He was the first to ])ut forth the idea of an elec- tric telegraph around the globe vid Beh- ring's Straits, connecting St. Petersburg and San Francisco. He is now engaged in urging upon the people of the United States the peaceful extinction of slavery by compensating the Southern States out of the national treasury for the emancipation of their slaves. ' ' The Bond of Brotherhood," a monthly organ for the promidgatiou of peace princii>lcs, is understood to l)e chiefly the production of the "learned blacksmith." "Sparks from the Anvil," "A Voice from the Forge," and " Peace Papers for the People," are his chief independent con- tributions to literature. BUPtTON, John Hill, an author and historian, was born 22ud of August, 1809, at Aberdeen. His father was an ofificer in the 94th Regiment, who dying, left his family but slenderly pro\4ded for. Mr. Burton, after studying at Marischal College, Aberdeen, in 1831 was called to the Edinburgh bar. At first he had to contend with the vicissi- tudes attached to the career of a yoimg advocate without indeiiendent means, but he struggled through with a manly spirit, writing for the Westminster and Edinbm-gh Reviews, when briefs were scanty. As an author he is sound and practical, and every work he has written bears evidence of the care and research bestowed on its preparation. His "Life and Corresjiondence of Davdd Hume," " Lives of Simon Lord Lovat, and Duncan Forbes, of Culloden," and the ' ' Narratives from Criminal Trials in Scotland," are all excellent. " The Scot Abroad," a very interesting series of j)apers, which appeared in "Black- wood's Magazine " some short time ago, is the production of ^Mr. Burton. His "Manual of the Law of Scotland," and "Treatise on the Law of Bankruptcy," are clear and well digested. He wrote the articles "Parliament" and "Prison Discipline " for the " Encyclopaedia Britaunica," and a great part of the articles on law subjects for the "Penny Cyclop;edia. " His chief work, however, is " The History of Scotland, from the Revolution of 1688 to the Extinction of the Jacobite Insurrection of 17-15." He B US CAB has held since 1854 the office of Secre- tary to the General Prison Board of Scotland. BUSTAMEXTE, Dox Carlos Maria DE, a Mexican archajologist, was born in Mexico, about the close of the last cen- tury. He has devoted himself cliicfly to the study of the antiquities of Mexico. His first production was a "Topogi-a- phical Memoir of the Country of Ouxuca" (1821), which was followed by a disser- tation "On the Republic of Tluxucola." His writings, though not voiy numerous, have appeared at intervals from this period to 1842 ; they are distinguished for original information and accuracy. BUTT, George Medd, Q.C, an Eng- lish statesman and lawyer, was born in 1797. He is the son of the late ]SIr. John Butt, of Sherborne. In early life he practised for some years as a special pleader, and in 18.39, being then in his thirty-third j'ear, he was called to the bar bj'^ the Hon. Society of the Inner Temjjle, and went on the Western Cir- cuit, where he soon rose into reputation, and acquired an extensive practice. In 1845, during the Chancellorship of Lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Butt was made a Queen's Counsel, and shortly afterwards was elected a Bencher of the Inner Temple. At the general election in July, 1847, Mr. Butt offered his services to the electors of Weymouth, but was defeated, losing his election, however, by only three votes. In Jidy, 1852, he again stood for Weymouth, and this time with more success, as he was returned at the head of the poll, the other canilidates being Colonel W. L. Freestun and Mr. Oswald. Mr. Butt was a professed adherent of the Conservative part\', but differed from that body in nuxny impor- tant political ]>oints. CABALLEItO, Firmin Acosto, a Spanish journalist and statesman, was born in 1800, at Barajas de Melo. Hav- ing received a good education, he turned hi^ attention to the study of geography. and in a series of essays exposed the shortcomings of Minano's " Dictionary," wliich brouglit him at once into notice. In 1833 Caballero established the "Boletin de Comercio," and on its suppression he published the " Eco del Comercio, " a paper which, mainly from the vigour of its original writing, speedily rose in popular favour. In 1843, Caballero became a member of the Cabinet, but did not long continue in office. His published works are mostly on geography, and one of the best of these is his "Manual Geographico ad- ministrativo de la monarquia Espanola." CABET, Etienne, leader of the French Commmiists or Icariens, was born at Dijon on the 2nd of January, 1788. After comjileting his education he entered the bar as an advocate, and brought himself into public notice by his sj)irited defence of some conspirators in 1816. He then proceeded to Paris, but, owing to the ■saolence of his political opinions, was prosecuted, and at length took refuge in England, where he re- mained for some years. On his return to France in 1839 he pubfished a history of the Revolution of 1789, and became the advocate of Socialist oi>iuions. In 1842 he brought out his " Voyage en Icarie," in which he sets forth the bless- ings of an imaginary State where all things were held in common for the public good, and whose government should sim^jly exercise a paternal control over the masses. To put these ideas into practice he procured a grant of a tract of country in Tex;is, and a pi>rtion of his followers set out from France to found a social republic in the New World. Subseijuently Cabet followed his disciples. In his journey through the United States he heard of the expul- sion of the Mormons from Xauvoo, and in May 1850, Cal»et with his followers took jjossession of that city. He even- tually retiuned to P;u-is, and pleaded his own cause against a sentence of imi)rison- CAB 78 C A I ment wliich had been passcfl against hira. Besides the numerous statements he [tublished for his defence, M. ('abet ]>roduced a declai'ation in his favour which had been given him at Nauvoo, entirely absolving him from many of the charges which had been brought against him. He fearlessly 2)leaded his own cause, and eventually gained an acquit- tal. After the cou/i iVetat he found that all hopes of 2>olitical advancement were lost, and he accorilingly determined to return to Nauvoo. He eventually had to take severe stejjs with his followers, and becoming unpopular thereby, he fled to Saint Louis in Missouri. CABRERA, Don Ramon, Count of Morella, a Carlist general, was born at Tortosa, in Catalonia, in August 1810. His early life was spent in a very irregular manner, but taking advantage of an insurrection, in 1833, he joined Don Carlos, under whom he soon dis- tinguished himself by the boldness and ferocity of his disposition. The Carlists believed themselves, for a short time, masters of S[)ain, and Cabrera prepared to remove Isabella from the throne by a decisive stroke ; but the defection of Maroto changed the face of affairs ; and the Carlists, from being victors, were compelled to act on the defensive. On the fall of Don Carlos, being more attached to the cause than to the ])erson of the Pretender, Cabrera made war on his own account, and established himself in a strong position amid the mountains of Catalonia and Arragon ; but in 1840, his forces having been totally routed by Esi)artero, he was compelled to flee to France, where, not being looked upon in the light of a political refugee, he was confined in the fortress of Ham, whence he went to London in 1846. In 1848 he endeavoured to rekindle the civil war, and proceeded to Spain, where, however, he was defeated. On retiu-ning to'England afterwards went to Italy ; but, having interfered in Italian affairs, he was ex[)elled from Naples, and has since retired from ])ublic life. CAILLIAUI), Fri-dekic, a French traveller, was })orn at Nantes, on the 1 7th of March, 1787. Having completed his education at Paris, he travelled through the southern parts of Euro])e, and in 1815 proceeded from Constanti- nople to Egypt, remaining a number of years in the East, and rendering by his investigations, considerable service to its history. On his return to France in Feb- ruary, 1819, he brought with him a valu- able collection of minerals and antiqui- ties, and plans and copies of inscriptions, which were purchased of him by the French Minister of the Interior. He is the author of various works, the chief of which are, " Travels to Meroe, to the White Nile, beyond Fazoyl, to the south of Sennaar, to Syonah, and to five other Oases, between 1819 and 1822;" and " Researches in the Arts and Trades, the Usages of Civil and Domestic Life among the Ancient Races of Nubia and Ethiojjia," followed by "Details on the Manners and Customs of the Modern Inhabitants of the same Countries. " CAIRD, James, M.P., an eminent agricidtural writer, was born at Stran- raer, in Wigtonshire, in 1816, and re- ceived his education at Edinburgh. Mr. Caird, who is a 2)roj)rietor in Wigton- shire, originally devoted himself to the practical pursuits of agriculture ; and was first brought into public notice by contributing letters on the agriculture of England to the "Times," and by the publication of various works on farming. In 1853 he stood for the Wigton Burghs, and lost his seat by a majority of one vote against him ; but at the general election of 1857 he stood for Dartmouth, was returned, and immediately became an authority in the House of Commons. he gave up his warlike projiensities, and He has lately travelled over a consider- marricd an EugUsh lady, with whom he able portion of the United States and C Al 79 CAM Canada ; noting carefully, aa he went, the modes of cultivation followed in the New World ; and, on his return, pub- lishing a little volume on " Prairie Farming." On agricidtural questions, his observations are always shrewd, in- telligent, and practical. In 1859, Mr. Caird stood for the Stirling and Dum- fermhne Burghs in the liberal interest, and was retiu-ned imojjjjosed. His best known works are his " English Agricul- ture," a fifth edition of which was pub- lished in 1852; his "Plantation Scheme" (1850), of which several editions have been published ; his ' ' High Farming under Liberal Covenants the best Sub- stitute for Protection ; " and his "High Farming Vindicated." CAIRD, Rev. John, D.D., a popular preacher of the Church of Scotland, was born at (jreenock in 1823. After com- pleting his studies at the University of Glasgow, he was appointed minister of Newton-on-Ayr, and subsequently offi- ciated in Lady Tester's church in Edin- burgh, In 1850 he removed to Errol, and in 1858 from this country parish to Glasgow, where a magnificent church has been erected for him. Mr. Caird's pulpit appearances are marked by sim- plicity, earnestness, and fervour. A discourse preached before the Queen, in the parish church of Crathie, published by request of her Majesty, has attained an unprecedented jiojiularity, and a collected volume of his sermons has recently won almost equal admiration. CAIRNS, Sir Hugh M'Calmont, ex-Sohcitor-General for England, second son of the late William Cairns, Esq. , of Calton, was born in 1819, near Belfast, in the county Down. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was first class in classics, and obtained e- gan the study of the law, and to complete his ]etaring, in the mean- time, his "Operations of the French Army in Spain." He obtained a post in the Foreign Office, which, however, he resigned in 1848, and subsequently devoted himself to historical studies, avaihng himself of the varied informa- tion which his official position placed at his disposal. The revolution, how- ever, closed against him the archives of foreign affairs. He was one of the first who opposed the Republic in the Na- tional Assembly, and for two years his letters, dated from London, Vienna, and Berlin, guided the pohcy of the coun- ter revolution. Among his principal works are the "Essai surles Invasions," "Histoire de Phili})pe Auguste," the " Histoire de la Reforme, de la Ligue, et du R^gnede Henri Quatre," " Riche- lieu, Mazariu, et la Fronde," "Louis XIV.," " L' Europe pendant le Considat et I'Empire de Napoleon," " L'Europe dcpuis I'avenement de Louis Philippe," his latest work of note being " Avant 1789, Royaute, Droit, Liberte." CARDIGAN, James Thoma.s Bru- KENELL, Earl of, was born in 1797. His father was sixth Earl of Cardigan. He entered the army on 8th May, 1824, and in December, 1830, attained the rank of Lieutenant-ColoneL Under the title of Lord Brudenell he sat in Parlia- ment for Marlborough and Northamp- ton. In 1837 he was called to the House of Lords, on the death of his father. The great fortune to which he became heir he employed in improving the con- dition of his regiment. He acquired a good deal of notoriety in connexion witli the "black bottle" and other mess squabbles, terminating in a duel with Captain Tuckett, and his celebrated trial before the House of Lords, which broke dovvii chiefly on technical grounds. After this iteriod Lord Cardigan devoted himself to his military duties, and ac- quired great commendation for his ser- vices in this respect from the highest authorities in the army. In 1854 he was appointed Major-General, and took the command of the Light Cavalry in the Crimean War. His heroic charge at the battle of Balaklava will long be re- membered as one of the most memorable incidents in the campaign. It invested his lordship for a time with well-merited popularity, which, however, was some- what diminished, owing to the charges, well or ill-founded, brought against him by the Crimean Commissioners, although these in no respect affect his character as a gallant officer. In 1855 he was ap- pointed Commander of the Bath, and in 1856 Commander of the Legion of Honour. CARD WELL, Right HoxN. Edward, a politician and member of Parliament, was born at Liverpool in 1813, and is the son of a merchant of that town. He studied at Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1838. Afterwards he entered on a pohtical career, and was returned as member of Parliament for (Jlitheroe in 1842. He sat for Liverpool from 1847 till 1852, when he was defeated at the ' general election ; and for Oxford from 1853 to 1857, when he was again de- feated but afterwards returned, on adopt- ing the views of the Peelite party. He was Secretary of the Treasury from Fe- bruary 1845 to J\dy 184G, and President of the Board of Trade, under Lord J ohu Russell, from 1852 to 1855, and is now Chief Secretary for Ireland. Since 1852 he has been a member of the Privy CounciL C A R 84 C A R CAREY, Hexky C, an American ])olitical economist, was born in Phila- delphia, the 15th December, 179.'^, where both capitalist and labourer. In the "Principles of Political Economy" he advanced to the position now universally liis father, Matthew Carey, a distin- \ known as his theory of lahcnir-value, giiished writer, had established a large 1 and generally accepted by economists as pid)lishing business. In 1821 Mr. Carey j an exposition of rent and value, which succeeded his father, and three years ' places in the clearest light the errors of afterwards established the sj'stem of Ricardo and his school. In "The Past, periodical trade-sales which are now the ordinary channels of exchange be- tween American booksellers. He pub- lished an "Essay on the Rate of Wages, with an Examination of the Causes of the Difference in the Condition of the Present, and Future," Mr. Carey over- turned the assumptions of preceding economists in respect to the law wliich rules the occupation of the earth, and its capacity to support its ever-growing pojndatiou. In his latest work, "The Labouring Population throughout the | Principles of Social Science," all the World," in 1835; and a work on the doctrines of his completed system are " Credit System of France, England, arrayed in the form of a " Vindication and the United States," in 1838. These of the provisions of Providence for man, treatises were reproduced and expanded Ln all his terrestial surroundings." into his " Principles of Political Econo- | The author denies the alleged antago- my" (1837-40). He has since published "Past, Present, and Future" (1848); "The Harmony of Interest, Agricul- tural, Manufactiu-ing, and Commercial" (1850); and "The Slave Trade, Do- mestic and Foreign : why it exists, and how it may be extinguished" (1853). In 1858-9 he gave to the world the digested and methodized results of his studies and discoveries, under the title of "Principles of Social Science," in 3 vols. 8vo. His separate publications extend in the aggregate to something like four thousand pages, and his con- tributions to newspajjcrs and periodicals to as many more. He has written various jjamphlets, among which are " Answers to the Questions, What con- uism between Nature and human labour and capital, population, and subsistence. His principal works have been translated into Italian and Swedish ; and within the cuiTcut year, his last and largest work wiU be pubhshed in French and German. CARLEN, Madame Emilie, or Smith, a Swedish novelist, was born at Stock- holm in 1810. She is the wife of Mr. J. G. Carlen, a lawyer in Stockholm, who has acquired a reputation in Sweden by the publicatiou of a hand-book of Swedish Jurisprudence, and various poems and tales. Mrs. (Carlen has written a gi-eat number of works, among which maybe enumerated :—"Walde- mar Klein" (1838); "The Representa- stitutes Currency? What are the Causes tive" (1839); " Gustavua Lindorm" of its Unsteatliness ? and what is the Remedy?" (1840); "Letters on Inter- national Copyright" (1853); "Letters to the President of the United States " (1858). In his essay upcm the "Rate of Wages," Mr. Carey took his first step in opposition to the Ricardo-Malthusian system, affirming that j)rofits and wages do not vary inversely, but that high wages are the index of prosperity to (1839) ; "The Foster Brothers" (1840) ; "The Church of Hammarby" (1840-41) ; "The Postboy" (1841) ; "The Rose of Tisteloin," and "Paul Vcerniug" (1844); "The Hermit of John's Rock," and "One Year of Married Life" (184(i) ; "A Night on Lake Bullar" (1847) ; "The Maiden's Tower" (1848); and "The Heroine of the Novel" (1849); "A Name," "The Tutor," "In Six Months," CAR 85 and numerous other romances. Madame Carlen is, after Miss Bremer, the most popular novelist of Sweden. She pos- sesses remarkable fertility of invention, and great powers of description. She is a keen observer, and in her best works the interest is well sustained. Many of her works have been translated into English. CARLETON, William, a writer of fiction, was born at Clogher, Tyrone, in 1796. The son of a respectable and wealthy farmer, he was anxious to obtain a classical education ; and as there was no proper school within twenty nules, he urged his friends to send him to Munster. This they did with a purse of twenty pounds in his pocket ; but he never went fm-ther than the town of Granard, from whence, overcome by his affection for his mother, he returned home the next day. Mr. Carleton's pas- sion for adventure was produced by his perusal of Gil Bias, whereby he was tempted to seek the Irish metropolis, which he entered with only two and nine-pence in his pocket, to begin a hard life, such as Savage and Chatterton had known in London. In Dublin he pro- duced his first two volumes of the ' ' Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry." Al- though published anonymously, they at once met with public favoiu', because of their pathos, himiour, and tiiith. Thenceforward — 1830 — he lived by his writings, and could afford to publish them in small portions, aud to bestow great pains on their prejiaration. Some of his works have been objected to, in consequence of their jjolitical bias ; but his characters are always sharply defined, and his incidents have an amount of local colouring which never fails to give them a great charm. His Traits aud Stories were translated into German so far back as 1825, aud several of his subsequent productiims into French and Italian. Mr. Carleton has been a voluminous writer, ha\"iug published about forty- CAR five voliunes. Although in his sixty- fifth year, he is stiU fresh and vigorous, and will, doubtless, for years to come be able to give to the pulilic many other such works as those which have gained him such a high and universal i>02)ularity, and caused his fellow-countrymen to bestow upon him the honourable title of the "Father of Irish literature." His latest production is ' ' The Evil Eye ; or, the Black Spectre." CARLISLE, George William Fre- derick Howard, Eaul of, K.G., long well known as Lord Morpeth, was born in April, 1802. As Viscount Morjteth he pursued his studies with great success at Oxford, and entered public life as Member for the Borough of Morpeth. In 1841, after being elected for York- shire, he became Chief Secretary for Ireland. Party feeling at that period ran immoderately high in the sister island, and Lord ^Morpeth was as much esteemed by one section of the people as he was condemned by another. He was, on the whole, a favourite of Mr. O'Connell, a fact indicative of his poli- tical bias. On the dissolution of Parlia- ment which preceded the retirement of Lord Melbourne's administration in 1841, he stood again for the West Riding of Yorkshu-e, and was defeated. After- wards he visited the United States, where imusual honours awaited him. On his return he was ajipointed Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, and subsequently Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. As Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland imder Lord Palmerston's administrati on, he was extremely popular. He was appointed to that high i>ost in 1855, but when the ministry gave way he was removed, the Earl of Eglinton being his successor. In 1859 Lord Eglinton was recalled, and Lord (-^arlisle was once more placed at the head of the Irish Government, where he stLU con- tinues. It may not be uninteresting to state that Lord Carlisle is as amiable CAR 86 CAR ml benevolent in private life as in public affairs he is just and impartial. The Earl has acquired a reputation altogether tlistinet from his political career as a l)ul)lic lectiu'er ; his discourses delivered at Mechanics' Institutes on America, and the "Life and Writings of Pope," ha\dng merits of a high order as literary pro- ductions, and claims to notice altogether independent of the fact of their having been read l)y a lord to mechanics. Lord Carlisle is the author of "A Diary iii Greek and Turkish Waters." CARLYLE, Thomas, an essayist and historiau, was born on 5th December, 1795, at Ecclefechan, in Dunifriesshire. Educated at Annan, at the age of four- teen he removed to the University of Edinbiu-gh, where he devoted himself chiefly to the study of mathematics and natiu-al philosophy under Leslie and I'layfair. His private studies were, however, at this period of more impor- tance in his future career than the tasks of the classes. In the College library he read works in eveiy dejiartment of literature, while he assiduously studied the modern languages of Europe, and especially German, which was then little cultivated in Scotland. He remained at the University for about seven years, with the \'iew of entering the Church ; but he changed his intention, and in 1820 became a teacher of mathematics at Kirkcaldy, in Fifeshire, where Edward Irving, who had been for some years his intimate friend, had settled in a similar capacity. After remaining two years in this situation, he resolved to enter on a new field oi activity. He held the doc- ti-ine that the Press was the only true priesthood and governing power of the world, that literatiu-e was the best church, and that writers are the best preachers of modern times for all kinds of people and in all places. He steadily adhered to this principle on removing to Edinburgh in 1S22, where he enthusias- tically devoted himself to authorship ; his first work being a translation of "Legendre's Geometry," to which he prefixed an ' ' Essay on Proportion. " In 1825 he published a translation of Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister," a work which directed his mind into a new cm-rent of thought. Once among the Germans, he went boldly to work on a " Life of Schiller," which was published from month to month in the "London Magazine." In 1825 Mr. Carlyle married Miss Veitcli, a lady of cultivated tastes and much literary ability, and he shortly afterwards proceeded to Craigenputtock, a small farm in the moors of Dumfries- shire, where he kept up a correspondence ■with Goethe, and prosecuted the study of German literatiu'e. Here he wrote various articles for the " Edinburgh Ency- clo])a3dia" andthe "Edinl)urgh Review," to the former contributing the Lives of Montesquieu, Montaigne, Nelson, andthe two Pitts, and to the latter his remark- able Essays on "Jean Paul," "German Literature," and "Burns." WTiilehving at this ])lace he also wrote " Sartor Re- sartus," a history of the life and opi- nions of Herr Teufelsdrockh, an imagi- nary German professor, in which he set forth a whole philosophy of life and society. The mixture of subtle specida- tiim, true poetry, and grotesque humour which characterised this work had their effect heiglitened by the use of a novel and peculiar phraseology, to some extent the imitation of a German literary slang, but to a greater extent still the product of Mr. Carlyle's invention. It enabled him to compress within a small compass a great variety of ideas, Avhich coidd not have been exj>ressed within the same space under the ordinary forms of pure, precise, and measured English prose ; and it seems to have been found so service- able and effective in tliis respect that it has been aiUiered to by the author in all his subsequent writings. In 1834 Mr. Carlyle removed to London, and has since resided in a house at Chelsea, ex- CAR 87 CAR ercising a strong personal influence on the most eminent literary men of the metroi)olis. During the first year of his residence in London "Sartor Resartus" was published in a separate form. It was not till 1837 that he published the " French Revolution," which placed him in the first rank of living writers. This work produced a profound impression on the pubUc mind, aboimding as it did in vividly graphic and picturesque de- scription, and intensity of feeling. " Chartism " appeared in 1839. In 1840 Mr. Carlyle delivered a series of lectures on "Heroes and Hero Worship," which were published in 1841. "Past and Present" appeared in 1843, and in 1850 the " Latter Day Pamjthlets, " in which the author declahns vigorously against the revolutionary events of 1848 ; his " Life of John Sterhng" (1851) ; and the "Letters and Speeches of Oliver Crom- well" (1847). The latter holds a high place as shedding new light on a character of the highest mark in British history. His latest work, " The Life of Frederick the Great," partakes at once of his failings and his genius, but is still as intei-esting as, and more instructive than, a romance. Few authors have been better abused, and more admiringly upheld, than Carlyle, but his influence over contem- porary literature continues powei'fid. A uniform and handsome edition of his works, comprising sixteen volumes, has lately been published. CARNOT, Lazare Hippolite, a French j:)olitical writer and JNIinister of Public Instruction imder the RepubHc of 1848, was born at St. Omer in 1801. He is a son of the celebrated republican general ; and was originally intended for the Polytechnic School, but the events of 1815 compelled his family to seek an asylum in Germany, where he continued his studies, devoting his atten- tion specially to philosophy and political economy. On his retiu'n to France he became a zeidous adherent of the St. Simonians, in the spirit of whose doc- trines he conducted the "Revue Eucy- clopedique." On this becoming a reli- gious sect, however, he withdrew from the body. As President of the Central Committee for the Paris Elections of 1839 he was chosen a Deputy for the metropohs, and again in 1842 and 184G. He sat for nine years on the benches of the Opposition, taking an active part in the debates on foreign aflairs, the refor- mation of prisons, colonial slavery, and juvenile labour in factories. Appointed Minister of Public Instruction after the Revolution of February, he exerted him- seK successfidly in improving the condi- tion of schoolmasters ; proposed a law making elementary instruction gratui- tous and obligatory on all ; opened classes for the working people, evening lectures for those engaged during the day, houses of refuge, and a great school for admi- nistrative instruction, wliieh was subse- quently suppressed by M. de FaUoux, one of Louis Napoleon's Ministers. He defended the Republic to the last, and when it was overthrown he left France of his own accord. However, the elec- tors of the capital remained faithfid to him, and re-elected him as a member of the legislative body. He returned, but refused to accept of the distinction con- ferred upon him, and, instead, explained in a published letter his reasons for decHning to take an oath of allegiance to the Napoleonic Empire. In 1856 M. Carnot was elected for the seventh time, but he still persisted in his refusal, and has lived since in retirement at Paris, engaged in stuilious pursuits. He has written several books on politics, modern history, and German literature, and he is now on the eve of publishing "Memoirs of his Father's Life," which is certain to prove an important and attractive book. CARPENTER, William Benjamin, M.D., a physiologist, is the son of the late eminent Unitarian minister, Dr. C A R 88 CAR Lant Carpenter, of Bristol, and was born in 1813. Circumstances haviaig induced him to devote his attention to medical science, lie pursued the study of his profession for some years at home, afterwards in London, and finally in Edinburgh, where lie graduated as M.D. in 1839. Wliilst residing in Bristol, he was api)ointed Lecturer on Medical Junsi>rudence in the medical school of that city. Here it was that Dr. Car- penter wrote his ' ' Principles of General and Comparative Physiology," and his "Principles of Human Physiology," which by c(>nii)etent critics is said to be the best work on the subject yet pub- lished. During the same period he com- menced an elementary series of treatises on various departments of science, inider the title of the " Popular Cyclopasdia. " Having determined to devote himself rather to the literary and scientific than to the practical department of his pro- fession, and ha\'ing been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, Dr. Carpenter removed to London in 1844, on being appointed Fidlerian Professor of Physi- ology ill the Royal Institution. He soon afterwards undertook the editorshij) of the "British and Foreign Medico-CJhi- rurgical Review," which he held for some years. Subsequently he became Professor of Medical Jurisprudt;nce in University College, and Examiner in Physiology in the University of London. The latter of these appointments, how- ever, he resigned on being appointed to the office of Registrar of the University ; and in consequence of the recent increase of his duties in that capacity he has now withdrawn from every other pul)lic occu- pation. His larger treatises on "Physi- ology," as well as a smaller manual on that science, and a manual on the " Microscope," have gone through seve- ral editions. The latter is a most valu- able work on microscopic science, being replete with instruction as to the con- atructiou and uses of microscopes of eveiy kind. In 1849 Dr. Carjienter gained a ])rize of 100 guineas offered for the liest essay upon the use and abuse of alcoholic liquors, of which a people's edition, jmblished by Bohn, has obtained great popularity. He has also been an occasional contributor to the leading reviews, as well as to the "Philosophical Transactions," and the " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology." CARY, Miss Alice, an American poetess, was born in Hamilton County, in the North American State of Ohio, in April, 1820. On her father's side she is of Huguenot descent. Up to 1850 Miss Cary resided at Clovernook, in her native county, where, although the ordi- nary means of a somid education were not within her reach, she seems to have acquired varied accomplishments by means of self-culture. When eighteen, she published her first volume of poems at Cincinnati, which met with a favour- able reception from the public. She was warmly encouraged by many of the most eminent literary men in America. In 1850 she removed to New York, and since then she and her sister Phoibe have become regular contributors to the leading magazines and jom'nals of Ame- rica. In 1851 Miss Alice Cary wrote the first of her Clovernook Papers, a work which at once gave her a position as a prose writer. In 1852 she produced " Hagar, a Story of To-day;" and in 1853, a second series of Clovernook Papers, which, having been republished in this country, has met with great success. Her ' ' Lyi-a, and other Poems, " is a work placing her in the first rank among the American female writers of verse. In the following year she pub- lished the "Clovernook Children Pa- jiGrs, " a little voliune jirejiarcd especially for the young. A comi)lcte edition of Miss Cary's poems was issued in 1855, containing also a jioem of a more elabo- rate, if not more ambitious, character than any that had preceded it, called CAS 89 CAT ' ' The Maiden of Tlasoala. " It lias been characterised as one of the best narrative poenis yet produced iu America. It is remarkable for piirity of language, beauty of imagery, and energy and power iu dej)icting passion. The last of the best known publications of Miss Gary was "Married not Mated," which was, in America, contrasted with some of Mr. Dickens's happiest efforts; and "Pic- tures of Coiuitry Life," published in 1859, and repubhshed in the same year in Loudon. CASABIANCA, FKAN501S Xaviek, Count of, a French senator, son of a Corsican general, and grandson of the Count of Casablanca, a Senator of the Fii'st Empire, was born at Nice, on 27th June, 1790, and studied at the Lycee Najjoleon, where he took the prize iu philosophy, and afterwards passed through the usual coiu-se of a legal edu- cation. He was called to the bar in 1818, but a considerable time elapsed before he obtained the success to which his talents entitled him. He was a liberal in jjtditics, and at the same time an earnest supporter of the cause of the exiled Bonaparte family. After the Ke\ olutioiii of 1848 he was retirrned to the Constituent Assembly as represen- tative of Corsica, and when, by the elec- tions of December, Louis Napoleon be- came President of the Republic, M. Casablanca suppoi-ted the policy of the Pi-iuce with energy and zeal. Towards the close of 1851 the President called him to his coimcils, first as Minister of Commerce and Agricultiu-e, and next as Minister of Finance. When the coup d^Hat changed the asjiect of public affairs in France, M. Casablanca was appointed to organize a new Ministry, which he did in January, 1852; but soon afterwards he gave up his various important offices to enter the Senate, where he still continues an able and sagacious adviser of the Emperor. CASS, GENER.iL Lewis, LL.D., au American statesman of the democratic party, and of notorious pro-slavery pre- dilections, was born at Exeter, New Hampshire, October 9, 1782. He was called to the bar in 1802, and elected to the Ohio Legislature in 1806. Not being very successful in the legal pro- fession, he entered the army of the United States, and was opposed to the English in 1812-14. He held the post of Governor of Michigan until 1831, when he became War Secretary under General Jackson's Presidency. He was appointed Minister to France in 1836, retaining that position till 1842. Two years afterwards he was a candidate for the chief magistracy oi the Union, but was defeated; and iu 1857 was appointed Secretary of State under Mr. Buchanan. He possesses considerable influence in the American Senate, of which he is a mem- ber. As a politician he seems to enter- tain an inveterate animosity towards Great Britain. Had affairs been at his disposal, he would have plunged America into a war with this country even while the Oregon dispute was in course of ar- rangement. He is the author of a work entitled ' ' France : its King, Court, and Government. " His life has been written by Mr. T. Yoimg and W. L. G. Smith. CATTERMOLE, George, a painter, was born at Dickleburgh, near Diss, in Norfolk, in 1800. When yoimg he was an admu-able architectiu-al diaughtsman. He contributed to the Annuals, but afterwards devoted himself to water- colour painting, and for more than twenty years his works adorned the Water-colour E>diibition. For the last five or six years, however, he has ceased to send his pictiu-es there, and has de- voted himself to oil-painting. He was one of the five EngUsh painters who re- ceived the first-class medal at the Paris Exhibition in 1855. In 1856 he was, by special diploma, elected a Member of the Royal Academy of Amsterdam, and iilso Honorary ^Member of the Belgian C AU 90 C A V Society of R-vint^TS in Water Colours. His pictures emljrace a coini)relicnsive range of subjects, historical and poetical. Tlie Bible, Scott, and Shakspere have furnished hira with ample materials on which to exercise his pecidiar powers. His pictures invarialdy dis])lay great imaginative power, deep poetic feeling, delicate conception, and exquisite mas- tery of execution. CAUSSIDIERE, Marc, a French politician, was born at Lyons in 1809, of a family of artisans. Uj) to 1834 he was little more than an obscure workman, employed in the manufactories of Lyons and St. Etienne. In the sanguinary revo- lutionary affrays of these cities, in 1834, he was at once a resolute leader and hardy combatant in the ranks of the in- surrectionists. Condemned to imprison- ment for his connexion with these jn'o- ceedings, he was restored to liberty by the amnesty of 1837. His imin-isonment appears only to have strengthened the ardour of his convictions, and soon after his release from incarceration he became recognised as one of the leaders of the advanced lleform party. At the Revolu- tion of February 1848, Caussidiiire, who was constantly found at the 1)arricades up to the moment of the victory of his party, was installed Prefect of Police. Possessing a refined mind under a rough and unpolished exterior, he was a man of action in contact with the people, and siuTounded by a militia ready for any- thing. During the brief reign of the Provisional Government, his energy con- tributed to restrain the imprudence of those Polish and Italian refugees with whom Paris swarmed, and who sought early to compromise the Repidjlic by involving it in wars of aggression in the interest of foreign factions. His efforts to maintain order during several disturb- ances in Paris were of such a nature as to achieve this end, and at the same time render him popular with the people. He ■was elected to the Constituent Assembly for the departiuent of the Seine ; but being accused of supineness, he defended himself in the tribune, and resigned liis office. In August the Assem))ly re- turned to the charge, and ultimately Caussidiiire felt flight essential to his safety, and he took refuge in London, where, giving up political life, he entered into busmess as a wine-merchant. Caus- sidicire in his exile has published a me- moir of the revolution, which has per- haps not received the attention its im- portance deserves. CAVOUR, Count CAivnixE de, an Italian orator and statesman, President of the Coimcil of Ministers, and chief adviser of the King of Sardinia, was born at Tiu-in in 1809. He is the second son of the late Marquis de Cavoiu", who belonged to one of the most ancient and distinguished families of Piedmont. When the reform movement began in 1847, he, with Count Balbo, founded the constitutional journal, " II Risorgi- mento. " After the fall of the democratic l)arty, he entered, in 1849, the Chamber of Deputies, and subsequently succeeded Santa Rosa as Minister of Commerce and Agi'iculture. In 1851 he was also entrusted with the Ministry of Finance, when he endeavoured to repair the in- jury caused by an unha]>i)y war, and to restore the equilibrium of revenue and expenditure. In 1852, disagreeing with his colleagues, he retired for a brief space from the ministry, but was re- called in Noveml)er of the same year, and succeeded M. d'Azeglio as President of the Council. Dm-ing this })eriod of his administration he introduced the prin- ciples of Free-trade into the conuuei'cial code of the kingdom of Sai'dinia, greatly reduced the tariffs, and by commercial treaties with several powers, among others with England, extejided the com- merce of Sardinia with foreign countries. In the beginning of 1855, through his exertions and advice. Piedmont joined the Anglo-French alliance, and dea- CAY 91 patched Sardinian troops to share in the Crimean expedition. At the peace he took an active part in the Congress of Paris, and there, for the tirst time, called the attentiijn of the representatives of the gi-eat powers of Europe to the cause of Italy. He concluded the alliance, in 1859, between France and Sardinia for the deliverance of the Peninsula from the domination of Austria, resigning his olHce at the end of July, 1859, in conse- quence of the sudden termination of the campaign against Austria by the French Emperor. In January of the present year (1800) Count Cavour again assumed the Presidency of the Council, and was placed at the head of the de[)artment of Foreign Affairs, as well as of the Interior. He has since shown gi'eat political sagacity in the present crisis of Italian affairs, resulting from the successes of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples, and at last has had the satisfaction of Avituessing the annexation of both countries to the kingdom of Sardinia. Victor Emmanuel entered Naples on November 7, 18G0. Combining the highest qualities of a statesman and orator, Cavour is the firm friend of representative government. Under his administration Sardinia has taken a more conspicuous place in the European political system than she has ever formerly occupied ; and the almost certain formation of a united Italy is destined to bring hun more prominently under the notice of the English public, as a judicious and wise, yet liberal, statesman, well able to guide his coimtrymen when they have attained that independence and influence to which they aspire. CA YLEY, Arthur, a mathematician, was born on the 16th August, 1821, at Richmond, in Surrey. He entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree, and was in 1842 senior wrangler, and first Smith's prize- man, and a Fellow of the College, j Afterwards he studied for the law : CEL was called to the bar in 1849 ; and has since been in practice as a convey- ancer. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1852, and of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1857. Mr. Cayley is the author of various memoirs relating chiefly to pure mathematics, which have been published in the " Philosophical Transactions," the "Cambridge Philosophical Transac- tions," the "Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society," the " Cam- bridge, and Cambridge and Dublin, and the Quarterly Mathematical Jour- nals," and the " Joiu-nals of Crelle and Liouville." CELESTE, Celeste Elliot, better known as Madame, an actress, and in the early part of her career, a favourite dau.'ieu.se, was born at Paris, in August 1815, of French parents, whose particular j)osition in the world is not clearly known. She eai-ly received instruction in dancing at the Royal Academy of Music, and when flfteen accepted an engagement for the United States, where, at the early age of sixteen, she mamed a Mr. I^ot, who died some time afterwards. She then returned to this country, and de- voted her attention to such pantomimic parts as that of "FeneUa" in "Masa- niello." After having appeared in all the princijial cities and towns of the United Kingdom, she performed as a danseiise in London, and her unique style met Avith imbounded aj)plause. In 1834 she returned to the United States. Wherever she went she met with an enthusiastic reception ; and spent three years in a sort of daily ovation. In 18.37 she reappeared on the boards of Dnuy-lane Theatre, no longer, however, in the capacity of a dancer, but as an actress ; thence she proceeded to the Haym;u-ket, after- M'ards accompanying Mr. Webster to the Adelphi, as directress of that theatre. Having remained in con- nexion with that establiahmeut for CHA 92 CHA several years, Madame Celeste dis- solved the partnership, and at present manages the Lyceum on her own ac- count. CHAD WICK, Edwin, C.B., a legis- lative and administrative reformer and social economist, was born near Man- chester, in 1800. Educated for the legal profession, he was called to the bar in 1830, and entered the public service in 1832. In 1828 he wrote an article in the "London lie view," on the administration of public charity, wliich, with other ])apers on pubUc questions, subse(pieutly published, led to his being ap])hed to and appointed first an Assis- tant-Conmiissioner, and afterwards one of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the means of improving the administra- tion of the Poor Laws. Mr. Chadwick's cardinal principle of administrative con- solidation was in gi-eat part adopted, and the residts were the Poor-law I'nious in England and Ireland, and local Boards of Health, with their staff of paid officers. Lord John Ilussell stated that so far as Mr. Chadwick's measures had been ap- phed they had saved the country from great social evils, if not absolutely from social revolution. In 1828 he contri- buted an article to the "Westminster Review," on " Life Assurance," which set forth some of the first principles of sanitary science. In 1829 he wrote a paper in the "London lie view," on "Preventive Police," which induced a friendship with Jeremy Bentham, that only ceased with the death of that great thinker in 1832, when he bequeathed to Mr. Chad wick his library of Jurispru- dence. In 1834, when the permanent Poor-law Commission was estabhshed, he was appointed Secretary to the Board. As one of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the labour of young persons in factories, he was charged with the preparation of the bill by which the short time system of labour, and the half-school time system of in- struction, now in the course of exten- sion, were introduced imder Govern- ment insj)ection. While Secretary to the Po(jr-law Board, he was associated with Dr. Arnott, Dr. Southwood Smith, and Dr. Kay, in an inquiry as to how far the physical causes of fever in London might be removed by sanitary agencies. He was also selected to investigate the constitution of the Constabulary in England and Wales, his labours leading to the ajipointment of county police forces. His report on sanitary questions, completed in 1842, is a model of conden- sation and suggestive analj'sis. The water sui)j)ly and drainage of towns did not escape his attention ; he prepared separate reports on these questions, in which the measures he proposed are, for the most part, in course of adoption, under the superintendence of numerous local Boards of Health. Upon the re- port of a C(mimittee of Inqiur}^ the con- stitution of the new Poor-law Board having been changed, he was appointed to the Sanitary Commission in 1847, and in that and the following years pre- pared rejtorts wliich led to large altera- tions. The establislimeut of the General Board of Health led to the origination by Mr. Cliailwick of many of those sani- tary measiu-es which have so materially altered the health of towns for the better ; but the administration of the Pubhc Health Act being placed in charge of a member of the House of Commons in 1854, he retired with a pension. He was one of the earliest advocates of the repeal of taxes on knowledge, on which he wrote an article in the " West- minster lie view, "in 1831. WTienthewar with Russia ensued, he pointed out the disastrous eflxicts certain to occur from want of projier sanitary arrangements in the army, and cliiefiy on his representa- tion a commission was appointed to in- vestigate the measures requisite for the protection of the ai-my in Inilia. His published papers and reports occupy CH A 93 CH A many volumes. His measures have been alluded to in several royal speeches. Lord John Russell, Lord Brougham, and Lord Shaftcsl)ury, have spoken highly of his labours, and continental states- men have consulted him frequently on the subjects to which he has devoted his life. CHAMBERS, Montagu, an English lawyer and politician, was bom in 1800. He was at first intended for the army, and for some time studied at Sandliurst, ditions of Eutation as a writer on all snlijects connected witli industry and finance in his native country. He is at present engaged in working out the details of the Com- mercial Treaty between France and England. CHEVllEUL, Michel EugJ:ne, a French chemist, was born at Angers, on the 31st August, 178(5. The son of a dis- tinguished physician, he studied in the Central School of his native place. He went to Par^jS and became chemical assistant to Vauquelin, who soon recog- nised in his young pupil siich aptitude and sagacity that he gave him the direction of his laboratory. He pro- gi-essed rapidly. In 1826 he took, in the Chemical Section of the Academy of Sciences, the place which the death of Prevost had left vacant ; and in IS'29, succeeded his old master, Vauquelin, in the chemical chair appropriated to the Museum of Natural History. He has been Commander of the Legion of Honoiu- since September 1844, and was a member of the Juries in the Great Expositions of London and Paris. He has piiblished a munber of works, chiefly relating to Animal Chemistry, and to colours and their contrasts, which record many original researches. He has also con- tributed extensively to scientific periodi- cals. CHILD, Mks. Lydia Maria, an eminent American educational writer, before marriage Miss Francis, was born in Medford, Massachusetts, on the nth February, 1802. Her father was a l)aker, much respected for his integiity and native good sense, who made improvements in the manufacture of bread. She enjoyed merely the edu- cational advantages common to aU chil- dren in New England; but her early fonduess for literature was much stimu- lated l)y the active mind and studious habits of a brother, somewhat older than herself, now Dr. Convcrs Francis, Pro- fessor in Harvard University. In 1828 she married David Lee Child, a la^vyer and editor in B(jston. She and her hus- band united with W. L. Garrison, at the very outset of his labours for the Anti- Slavery cause, in which their zeal re- mains miabated. This circimistance has rendered her books uni)opular with the Pro-Slavery classes in America. While Miss Francis, she wrote " Hobomok," an Indian story, and " The Rebels, a Tale of the Revolution." After her marriage she edited " The Juvenile iliscellany " for eight years, and wrote "The Girl's Own Book" (18.31), re- published in England; "The Mother's I Book " (1831), which was republished in England and Germany ; "An Appeal in behalf of that Class of Americans called Africans " (1833), " The Oasis, an Anti- Slavery Annual" (1833), "His- tory of Women " (1835), " Philothea, a Grecian Romance" (1836), "Letters from New York" (1843-4), "Fiictand Fiction," a collection of stories (1845), "Flowers for Children" (from 1845 to 18.jG), " Pi-ogress of Religious Ideas" (1855), and " Autiunnal Leaves," a col- lection of stories (1857) ; she edited "The Anti-Slavery Standard" during 1841 and 1842. CHINA, EiiPEROR OF. (See " Hiex Fung.") CHISHOLM, Mrs. Caroline, emi- nent for her efforts to improve the con- dition of emigrants, was born at North- ampton about the year 1810. She received from her mother an excellent education, which developed all her gene- rous and charitable instincts. In her twentieth year she mai-ried Captain Archibald Chisholm, of the Madi'as army. She proceeded with her husband to Math'as, and there commenced a work of benevolence by estabhshing an In- dustrial Home for the benefit of soldiers' daughters, who were thus removed from tomi)tation, and instnicted in diii'erent H CHI 98 CLA branches of useful knowledge. In 1838, owing to the failure of Captaiu Chis- holra's health, they went to Sydnej'. Eemaiuiug there with her three chiklren diu'iug her husband's retiu-n to Indiji, she established " The Female Immi- grants' Home," and its branches in neighboiuing districts, whose ol)jects were to proAnde for, and to protect, friendless young women who were con- tinually arriving from Europe. In 1846, Major Chisholm having rejoined his family, Mi-s. Chisholm proceeded to England, taking with her a mass of ad- dresses and facts concerning emigrants and their relations, collected laboriously in the interior of the colony, by going from farm to farm, in order to effect the reunion of families. Her first business on her anuA^al in this country was to send out shiploads of poor children who had been left behind by their parents when they themselves emigrated, for want of means to pay the charges de- manded for children beyond a certain number. By her exertions the Emigi-a- tion Commissioners were induced to ship them, as well as the wives and children of prisoners who were emancipated and well to do. In 1850 she instituted the Family Colonization Loan Society, in order to encourage a more general sj'.stem of emigi'ation, with the view of carrying out which Major Chisholm volunteered to ])roceed alone to Victoria, in 1851, while his wife remained in England. He i)roceeded to South Australia and Victoria, and forming there committees of the most influential gentlemen in the colony to co-operate with the committee of the society in London, remitted in less than two years upwards of 4; 10, 000, paid into his office at Melbom-ne 1)y re- liitives for the emigration of their kin- dred at home. Mrs. Chishohn joined her husband in Victoria Avith her six chililren in 1854, and immediately after her arrival proceeded to the " Diggings," where she discovered that much evil arose from the w^ant of proper accommo- dation for travellers. At her sohcita- tion the Colonial Government was in- duced to erect sheds, placed under the care of resi)ectable couples, fifteen miles from each other, between Melboiu'ne and the "Diggings," and by this means wives and children Avere enabled to re- join their families by short stages, and at small expense. On account of serious and dangerous illness, Mrs. Chisholm went to Sydney in June 1858, where she has since remained, unfortunately in rather indifferent health. Her untiring exertions in behalf of those who are compelled to leave their native homes for other lands, are vmiversally held in high esteem. CHPJSTISON, Robert, a phy.sician, and Professor of Materia !Medica in the University of Edinburgh, son of the late Alexander Chi-istison, Professor of Humanity in the same University, was Ijorn in the Scottish capital, July 18, 1797. He became a student of Arts in the University in 1811, graduated in 1819, and afterwards studied in London and Paris. While in Paris, in 1820-21, he was a pui)il of Poliiipiet, and bent the powers of his intellect to the study of the department of science in which his name has become so eminent. After his return to Edinburgh in 1823, he was appointed Professor of Medical Juris- prudence, and nine years afterwards, in 18.S2, was elected to the chair of Materia Medica, his reputation both as a pro- fessor and j)hysician raidiing deservedly among the highest in the kingdom. His "Treatise on Poisons," 1820, has run through several editions, and is a stand- ard work with the facidty. CLARE, John, the peasant poet of Northamptonshire, was born at Help- stone, 1.3th July, 1793. His father was an agricultural labourer, yet he managed to obtain some little knowledge of read- ing and -vvTiting from his scanty means. Obtaining a copy of Thomson's " Sea- CL A 99 C'LA sons," he was incited to attempt com- jxjsiug, and eventually produced a volume of poems, which met with suc- cess, and by the kind patronage of the Marquis of Exeter and Lord Milton, he was i)laced in comparatively easy circmnstances. He was residing in Eutland, and married in 1820. His occupation being that of a farm-servant, doubtless affected the burden of his song, which was always descriptive of riu'al life and scenery. But when the wonder of a fai-m-servant being a poet liad fallen away, his aristocratic friends took less interest in him. The anxieties of a family and the maintenance of his infirm father and mother preyed on his mind, and the result was that he dropped into a state of harmless lunacj'. He entertains the hallucination that he is the author of the vhefs-cVoiuvreoi Byron, Wordsworth, and Campbell, and affords a melancholy sjiectacle of a man of genius, whose mind is xmcqual to struggle with the realities of life. CLARENDON, George William Frederick Villiers, Earl of, ex- Secretary of State for Foreign Afiairs under Lord Palmerston's administration, was born 12th January, 1800. After studying at Cambridge, he entered the diplomatic service in 1820, as Attache to the Embassy in Russia, and continued in that office for about three years, after which he was a Commissioner of Customs. In 1831 he negotiated a treaty of com- merce with France, but his first promi- nent public a})poiutment was that of Plenipotentiary to Madrid in 1833. On his accession to the earldom in 1838, he returned to England. In 1840 Lord Clarendon was ap^winted Lord Privy Seal. In 184G he became President of the Board of Trade, imder Lord John Russell, and in the subsequent year was nominated Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. The circimastances under which Lord Clarendon commenced his duties were of the most perplexing nature. Disease and famine were prevalent throughout Ireland, and political affairs were sources of disturbance in every part of the country. It was about this j)eriod that the Repeal Association was using its most active endeavours to produce universal discontent. The energy and pmdence with which Lord Clarendon conducted himself diuring the crisis of 1848 added much to his reputation for sagacity by all classes of moderate liberals ; and there is little doubt that he is destined to take a more conspicuous position than he has yet filled, in the political events of the future. Lord Clarendon held his office until the resig- nation of the Russell ministry in 1852. Under Lord Aberdeen he was appointed to the Foreign Office, a position which he likewise filled under the Goverimaent of Lord Palmerston. He had, during 1855, to take a leading position in the affairs relating to the Russian war. Lord Aberdeen having resigned, on account of the censure which had been cast on him by a vote of the House of Commons. Lord Clarendon also took part in the Congress at Paris, at which peace was concluded in 1856. When the ministry of his party was overthi-own in 1858, Lord Clarendon, of course, changed to the opposition side of the House of Lords; but when a hberal Government was again formed in 1859, under Lord Palmerston, he was, at hia own request, left out of the Cabinet. There is no statesman of the present day who is looked up to A\-ith higher respect than Lord Clarendon. He married in 1839 a sister of the present Earl of Venilam, by whom he has a family. He was created a (t.CJB. in 1838, and in 1849 received the knight- hood of the Garter. CLARK, Sir James, Bart., M.D., Physician to the Queen, was born in 1788, at Cullen, in Banffshii-e. He went to school at Fordj-ce, took his degree of M.A. at Aberdeen, studied CLA 100 CLA medicine in the University of Edin- 1 biu'gli, passed as ph3'sician there, and as surgeon in London, and afterwards traA'elled through several continental countries. He settled as a physician at Rome, remaining there for some years, also Aisiting the priucii>al medical schools of Ital}', France, and Germany. In 1820 Dr. C'larJc published a work entitled ' ' Medical Notes on the Climate, Diseases, Hospitals, and Medical Schools in France, Italy, and Switzerland." He returned to England in 182G, settling in London, where he was appointed Physician to St. George's lufirmaiy. In 1829 he published his work "On the Sanative Infliience of Climate ;" the first accu- rate and philosophical book on the sub- ject of which it treats. He was elected in 1832 a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1835 Physician to the Duchess of Kent and the Princess Victoria, be- coming, on the accession of the latter to the throne, Physician in Ordinary. He piiblished, in 1835, "A Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption and Scrofulous Diseases," which propoiuiding new views of these complaints^, has had a remai-kable efifect in the mode of treating them, and has served to estabhsh the reputation of the author as a medical adviser in affections of the chest. In 1838 Sir James Clark was created a Baronet, and since then he has received various other distinctions, been several times on the Council of the Royal Society, exerted himself in the cause of sanitary reform, and risen to the very highest distinction as a medical practi- tioner in the English metropolis. CLARKE, Mrs. Mary Cowden, au- thoress of the " Complete Concordance to Shakspeare," was born in June, 1809 ; she is the daughter of the eminent musician Mr. Vincent Novello, and sister to the celebrated singer Madame Clara Novello. She was maiTied in 1828 to Mr. Charles Cowden Clarke. In 1829 «Jie commenced to analyse the works of Shakspeare, possibly impelled to the task by the incomplete indices of Ayscough and Twiss. It apparently occurred to her that a " Concordance to Shakspeare " woidd be invaluable to the literary world ; and towards accom- plishing her grand i)urj)ose Mrs. Clarke devoted sixteen years of laborious toil. The work was brought out in 1846 ; it contains 2,578 cohmins, and about 309,000 hues, and so faithfully has it been prepared that the table of errata contains only thirteen lines, consisting exclusively of simple omissions, there not having been an " error," as yet, de- tected by the keenest critic. Mrs. Clarke has written other works, among which are " The Iron Cousin, a Novel," «' Kit Bam, the Modern Sinbad," "The Girlhood of Shakspeare's Heroines," "World-noted Women;" and "Many Happy Returns of the Day, a Birthday Book, " lately published. She has also contributed to magazines, but her name is embalmed in the pages of the Con- cordance, which has conferred on her the distinguished honour of being the first female editor of Shakspeare. CLAUSEN, Henri Nicolas, a Danish politician and theologian, was born at Maribo, in the island of Laland, in April 1793, and is the son of an emi- nent clergyman. He studied at Cojien- hagen, and from 1818 to 1820 visited Ger- many, Italy, and France. On his retm-n he was named Professor of Theology at Copeidiagen, though his tendencies were rationalistic. He puljlished some works embodjaug his oi)inions ; and though he met with numerous adversaries he gained the ailections of the people and the esteem of the King. In 1836, when he had published "Popular Discourses on the Refoiination," lie became Rector of the University. PoHtically, he is an avowed partisan of Danish nationality, of civil liberty, of the hberty of the press, and a defender of all Hberal and patriotic ideas. He has ceased to take C LO 101 CL Y an active part in pulilic affairs, confin- ing himself to his rectorial duties. His ■works, though not numerous, are highly esteemed in Denmark. CLOSE, THE Vkry Rev. Francis, D. D. , late scholar of St. John's College, Cambridge, Dean of Carlisle, is an eminent preacher of the "Evangelical" school. He held for thirty years the- Perpetual Curacy of Cheltenham, where he was extremely popular -with the re- ligious or evangelical section of the com- jniinity. When Dr. Tait was elevated to the See of London, Mr. Close became Dean of Carlisle, and in the border city has displayed the same eloquence which characterised him at Cheltenham : re- taining his popularity as a preacher, and affording in his sermons a faithfid expo- sition of the doctrines of the Evangelical school in the Church of England. In 1826 he pvrblished "Discourses on Ge- nesis;" in 1840 " Miscellaneoiis Ser- mons;" "Fifty-two Sketches of Ser- mons. " He has since published a volume ] " On Church Architecture," which has become popxdar. His first work has gone through a great number of editions. Dr. Close has lately taken a very active pait in advocating social reform, more esjiecially in respect to the abolition of some customs, such as the use of to- bacco, &c., and the evil tendency of various kinds of amusements. Both in the pulpit and by the pen, he has proved himself a formidable opponent to all who hold contrary opinions to those he maintains, and who have ventured into the lists against him. CLYDE, CoLiy Campbell, Lord, Licutcnant-Gcneral, K.C.B., late Com- mander-in-Chief of the Imlian Army, was born at Glasgow in 1792. In 1808 he joined the army as Ensign in the 9th Foot. In 1809 he was Lieutenant ; in 1813 Captain; in 1825 Major; in 1832 Lieutenant-Colonel. He served in Por- tugal and Walchcren, and also imder Sir John Moore in the PeuinsuLu He was wounded at San Sebastian, where he led the stonning- party. He subse- quently proceeded to the United States. In 18-42 he was appointed Colonel of the 98th regiment, and served in the expe- dition to China. In the Punjaub he was a General of Brigade, and as commander, he defeated the Sikhs at Raranuggur, 22nd November, 1848; rendering also eminent service at the passage of the Cheuab early in the following December. In 1851 and 1852 he commanded the Peshawur District, and in all his en- gagements was successful over the enemy. In 1854 Sir Colin was appointed to the command of the Highland Bri- gade. At the Alma his coolness and intrepidity contributed in a singularly marked manner to the distinguished success of the British arms. At Bala- klava he held the post of honour. The "thin red line" has become a thing of history. In 1854 he was promoted to the rank of Major-General, and subse- quently he became Lieutenant-General, receiving at the same time the Grand Cross of the Bath, the Cross of the Legion of Honour, and the Sardinian Order of Maurice and St. Lazare, the freedpm of the cities of London and Glasgow, and the honorary degree of D.C.L. at Oxford. He was, for some time after the Peace of Paris, Inspector- General of Infantry, and without being a martinet effected various improve- ments in the Line. So conspicuous had been Sir- Colin's sen-ices in the Crimea, that when the revolt of the sepoys broke out, he was at once appointed to the command of the army in the East. "When will you be ready to start?" said Lord Palmerston. "To-morrow," ' said the veteran ; " all I want can be got in Calcutta as well as here." What Havelock and Outram so gloriously j began, Campbell has no less gloriously I terminated. These three share the ! honour of ha^•ing cnished the Indian mutiny, and avenged oux slaughtered COB 102 coc coimtrymcu. His relief of Lucknow is, perhaps, one of the most brilliant examples of strategy any age or coiintrj' has on record ; and his after-military career in India has been one of con- tinued victory, without a reverse — no check whatever, indeed, having caused a pause from the hour he en- tered the iiekL As a reward for these last services he has Ijeen raised to the peerage as Lord Clyde, and has taken his seat in the House of Loi'ds. He has been heartily welcomed on his re- turn home, and it is to l)e hoped that he may long live to enjoy his well-merited honours. COBDEX, PacHARD, was born at Mid- hurst, Sussex, in 1804. His father, who was a small farmer, sent him from home at an early age, to fill a situation in London, where he soon gained a thorough knowledge of business. He afterwards made a tour of the United States and a portion of Europe. He was energetic and anxious to rise, and seeing a good prospect before him, he entered into business on his own accoimt, in Lan- cashire, and soon became a prosperous man. A pamphlet from his hand, en- titled "England, Ireland, and America," and another on "Russia," di'cw atten- tion to his literary qualifications. He entered boldly on the question of Free Trade, and was one of the originators of the Anti-Corn-Law League — one of the most formidable political organiza- tions ever known. Mr. Cobden was returned to the House of Commons in 1841, as member for Stockport. He "took" with the House, and Sii' Robert Peel acknowledged that his measure of 1846, which practically admitted the justice of Mr. Cobdeu's princii)les, was ehcited by the "unadorned eloquence" of the cotton printer. The Corn Laws repealed, Mr. Cobden was i)rcseuted with a testimonial of £70,000 for his services to Free Trade. He was re- turned for the West Eidincc of York- sliire in 1847, which he represented for some yeai's, and then retired, under the impression that his re-election woidd not be secure. In 1837, after opposing Lord Palnierston's Chinese policy, and di'iv- ing that ministry to a dissolution, he was started for Huddersfield and de- feated — a surprise to himself and his friends, but he was immediately after elected for Rochdale. In 1859 he tra- velled over a large portion of the United States ; and, diu'ing his absence. Lord Derby's ministry having been over- thrown, Lord Palmerston proposed that he shoidd accept office, but he refused. Mr. Cobd.en, we need scarcely add, is a Radical Refonner, and a member of the Peace Society. He is now in Paris, busily occupied as British Commissioner in arranging the details of the Commer- cipoint- ment of General Airey to the Adjutant- Generalsliij) of the Army of the East. Sir William led this brigade with great steadiness and gallantry at the battle of the Alma. His bravery at Inkermann was highly spoken of by the Commander- in-Chief ; and when Sir George Brown retired wounded to Malta, General Codrington was ajipointed to the com- mand of the Light Di\asiou. On the death of Lord Raglan, and the resigna- tion of General Simpson, he was ap- pointed Commander-in-Chief of the British army in the Crimea. He has since been made a Knight Commander of the Bath, and on his retm-n to Eng- land, after the peace, he was elected Member of Parliament for Greenwich. In 1859 he was apjiointed Governor of Gibraltar. COLE, Henry, C.B., ci^'il acbuinis- ti-ator, art critic, and ecbtor of the "Journal of Design," was born at Bath, in 1808. He entered the puljlic service in 1822, and became an Assistant- Keeper of the PubUc Records. During tliis period he published "Henry the Eighth's Scheme of Bishopricks ; " a volume of "Miscellaneous Records of the Exchequer;" and many pamphlets on record reform, which led to the establish- ment of a general record office, and the present system. He contributed to the Westminster and British and Foreign Reviews, and obtained one of the foiu- prizes of £100 offered by the Treasury for suggestions for carrying out the penny-postage plan of Rowland Hill ; — a measure which, as secretary of the mercantile committee on postage, he had helped to bring into public notice. COL 104 COL Under the nom de plume of Felix Sum- merley, he published several g\iide-books to the National Gallery, Hampton Court, &c., and several editions of children's books, illustrated by royal academicians and other eminent artists. He originated the series of "Art Manufactures," de- signed to associate the line arts with the fa])rication of objects of iitdity, and organized the exhibitions of the Society of Arts, which he proposed shoidd cul- minate every fifth year in a national exhibition of arts and manufactures. The first of the series was intended to be held in 1S51. The scheme adopted by Prince Albert was exjianded by him into the great international exhibition of that year, which was carried out so successfully. Mr. Cole was one of the executive committee of management, and at the termination of his labours was made a Companion of the Bath. Subsequently he was invited to under- take the superintendence and refomi of the Schools of Design, and his efforts led to the esta1)lishment of the Govern- ment Department of Science and Art, i of which he was Senior Secretary and afterwards Inspector-General. He filled the office of British Commissioner for the Universal Exhibition at Paris in 1855, and accomplished tlie work etfec- tively, whilst economizing £10,000 on the original parliamentary estimate. Since that time he has organized with imexpected success the South Kensing- ton Museum, which is the first national institution lighted at night for exhibi- tion. He is now Superintendent of this institution, as well as Secretary of the Science and Art Dejiartment under the Committee of Council on Education. COLERIDGE, the Rev. Derwent, youngest son of Samuel Taylor Cole- ridge, was born at Keswick, on Sep- tember 14th, 1800. Ho was educated at Ambleside, and subsequently at St. John's College, Cambridge. His eailiest contril)utions to literature were made to "Knight's Quarterly Magazine," mider the signature of Davenant CeciL His admirable memoir of his Vjrother Hartley, whose "Poems" and "Biographies of Northern Worthies" he edited, is well known. Since the death of his sister Sarah, the Rev. Denvent Coleridge has edited his father's works. He is now Princijjal of St. Mark's College, Chelsea, and Prebendary of St. Raid's Cathedral. COLLIER, John Payne, a philolo- gist and critic, was born in London, January 11th, 1789. His father was originally a Spanish merchant, but turned his mind to books early in Hfe, and became editor of the " Monthly Register," and of the "Critical Re- view." About 1814 the subject of this notice entered the Inner Temple, as a law student, and was called to the bar, having previously been engaged in the arduous duties of parliamentary reporter for the "Morning Chronicle," a joiu-nal which at that period held the highest position in London. He had not been long on the "Morning Chronicle," when he became a law reporter to the "Times," occasionally lending his assistance in Parliament. In 18 IG he married a lady who l)rought him a considerable fortune, and he subsequently devoted his leisure to the study of the earlier English poets, on whose works he has since wiitten so many able criticisms and commentaries. His taste for the dramatic poets of the Elizabethan era was not a matter of a day's creation. It was manifested when he was a boy, and it strengthened with his years. Among his first works calcu- lated to attract the noticeof the judicious, w.as " The Poetical Decameron," con- sisting of dialogues on our early poets, and containing a fund of information unknown to general readers. As a sup- plement to a new edition of " Dodsley's Old Plays," he reprinted a number of dramas, all of them being of Shakspeare's day, and works, too, of great merit, COL though, of course, inferior to'those of their won ib'ous prot< 't jq)e. Still studying in the same cUrcctiou, he produced, in 1831, his " History of English Dramatic Poetry," which increased his reputation as an original writer, and as an acciu'ate collector of forgotten but interesting facts. In every respect he was careful and conscientious. Many new sources of information were placed at his dis- posal ; and it was in his varied researches in public and private libraries that he picked up the manuscripts or docimieuts from which he A\Tote, in 1835, that delightfid book, " New Facts regarding Shakspeare," a work which lie supple- mented by " New Particulars" and " Fm-ther Particidars, " — the latter in 1839. For many years he was engaged in preparing a Life of Shakspeare, which ho published with the great poet's works in 1844, a task in which difficulties met him at every step of his progi-ess, all, ultimately, being surmoimted. A second edition of the whole undertaking has since been demanded. In 1850 he was appointed Vice-President of the Society of Antiquaries, in place of the late IMr^ Hallam. He enjoys a jiension of £100 a year from the Crown, in acknowledg- ment of his services to literatm-e. His " Book of Roxburgh BaUads, " and " Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plays of Shakspeare," are or ought to be in every good English library ; the latter was one of his contributions to the Shakspeare Society, of which for ten years he was a director. Mr. Collier, some years since, purchased an edition of Shakspeare in folio, published in 1G32, with marginal notes, which has proved very useful in cori-ecting spurious readings, and in supplying many new ones of indisputable value, all of which made theii* appeai-ance in a volume jiub- Hshed in 1852, entitled " Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakspeare's Plays." With respect to the emenda- tions, there can be no doubt that Mr. 105 C O L Collier has acted with wisdom in claim- ing for many of them a [dace in every future reprint of Shakspeare's dramatic works, and that in point of fact they do, in the majority of cases, very much improve the old text. COLLIN DE PLANCY, Jacques, otherwise Jacques Collix Danton, a French writer, was born at Plancy, near D'Arcis-sur-Aube, on the 2Sth of Janu- ary, 1793. He is nephew of the famous Danton, and at the commencement of the Restoration changed the dangerous name of his relative to that he now bears. In 1812 he went to Paris, wrote for the booksellers, and became a book- seller and publisher. His commercial position being compromised in 1830, he took refuge in Belgium, Avhere he cul- tivated the good will of the Belgians by advocating their nationality. He retiirned to France, after some years' absence, about 1837, and founded a sort of universal society, or Societe Phalans- terienne, which has since, by a complete ti-ansfomiation, become the Society of Saint Victor. His writings are closely associated with the events of his life. From 1812 to 1815 the very titles of his publications were vehement against the pontificate ; but since 1837 he has made the amende honorable to Rome. To the first period belong his " Infernal Dictionary," his " Memoirs of a Villain of the Fourteenth Centmy," "The Pic- turesque Biography of the Jesuits," and "The Devil Painted by Himself." To the second period Ijelong his "Legends of the Holy Virgin," " Legends of the Seven Capital Crimes," and " The Christian Book of Songs" (Le Chan- sonnier du Chretien), which contains much abuse of the philosophers put in rhjine. COLLINS, WiLKiE, an EngUsh biographer and novelist, was born in London in 1824 A son of the cele- brated painter, the late William CoUins, R.A., he was educated at a private COM lOG CON school, and passed a considerable time in Italy. His biography of his father is remarkably interesting ; not more as a life of the man than as a history of English art. "Antoniua, or the Fall of Eome," his first novel, became jiopiilar at once. His other works are ' ' llambles bej'oud Railways, " " Basil," " Mr. Wray's Cash-box," "Hide and Seek," " After Dark," and " The Dead Secret. " Although roughly handled by many cri- tics, those who have studied the works of Mr. Collins will bear testimony to their merits, as regards i)lot and variety of incident, and their clearness and simplicity of style. His earlier works were, no doubt, tinged with exaggera- tion ; but with time came mello%\niess, and when he does write now, he writes well and vigorously. One of his dra- matic productions is that of " The Frozen Deep, " which was played before the Queen. His latest work of fiction is " The Woman in White," which ap- peared in weekly parts, in the colimins of " All the Year Round," and has since been reprinted. He is also the author of a drama called " The Light- house," which has been played under the care of Mr. Dickens. COMBERMERE, Stapleton Cotton, Viscount, G. C. B., an English field- marshal, was born in 1773. He is the eldest surviving son of the late Sir R. S. Cotton, M.P. for Cheshire. At eighteen years of age he entered the army, serving in the Flemish campaign of 1793-94. In 1796 he olitained the command of the 2oth Light Dragoons. With them he proceeded to India, and took part in the war of 1798 and 1799 against Tippoo Sultan. After his return to Europe he accompanied Wellington to Spain, where he distinguished himself as a cavalry officer — and gained promo- tion after Talavera to the rank of Lieute- nant-Gcneral. At the battle of Salamanca he was second in command. When the war was over, he was apiwiuted, in 1817, Governor of Barbadoes and Commander of the forces in the British West Indies ; in 1822 Commander of the forces in Ire- land ; and in 1825 Commander of the army in India, where he distinguished himself very much, more especially at the siege of Bhui-tpore in 1825-6. For his Indian ser\aces he received the title of Viscount. After the Duke of Welling- ton's death he was appointed Constable of the Tower of London, and subse- quently a Field-Marshal. CONINGHAM, William, member of Parliament for Brighton, was born at Penzance, Cornwall, in 1815. He is son of the Rev. Robert Coningham of Loudondeny. After the usual com"se of study he entered the military service in 1834, as an officer in the 1st Royal Dragoons. He afterwards sold out, mar- ried in 1840, and in 1847 contested the representation of Bi'ighton, but was defeated. At the general election of 1852 he stood for Westminster, but again without success. In 1857, how- ever, he stood again for Brighton and was returned, and took his place among the liberals. He advocates the Ballot, a gradual extension of the suffrage, re- trenchment, and Free-trade ; and opposes the Maynooth endowment and church- rates. In a general sense, however, he supports the policy of Lord Palmerston. He is not a politician of extreme opinions, but liis views, taken as a whole, are enlarged and liberal. He does not often address the House, but when he rises he is listened to with respect and attention. CONSCIENCE, Henri, a Flemish novelist, was born at Antwerp, in Bel- gium, on the 3rd of Deceml)er, 1812. His father was a Frenchman, settled in Flanders as a shij)- broker. In his boy- hootl. Conscience was passionately fond of books, and, as a means of gi'atifying his literary taste, became a teacher. In 1830, the Belgian Revolution broke off his studies, and he entered the mihtary CON 107 COO service as a volunteer. He soon became the poet of the anuy, and wi-ote songs full of ardour and point, which became very popular. Discharged in 1S3G, after having obtained the rank of Sergeant- Major, he was obHged, on account of bickerings with his stepmother, to break with his family, and, poor and lonely, to pick up as he best could the means of a precarious existence. By turns an assistant-gardener, an employe in a government office at Antwerp, and clerk to an academy of arts, he at last, in 1S45, received the title of Af/rege from the University of Ghent. After obtain- ing this distinction he turned his atten- tion to the re^"ival of the Flemish national literatiu-e. His enthusiasm f(n' the resto- ration of the Flemish idiom has led him to protest incessantly against the intro- duction of the French langviage. He is now a Conmiissaire d'AiTondissemcnt, at Cojirtrai, but his official duties do not interfere wdth his literary pursuits, and every year he pul>lishes two or three vohunes illustrative of Flemish life. His first production was "The Year of Mira- cles," which is less a romance than a series of l:)rilliant dramatic pictures of an inter- esting period in Flemish history. It was followed, in 1837, by "Phantasia," a collection of legends and Flemish poetry. In 1838 he published the "Lion of Flanders ;" since that period, quitting the Middle Ages, he has produced very pleasant sketches of the manners of modem Flanders, " Hom-s of the Night," " The Executioner's Child," "The New Niobe," "The Conscript," and "The Poor Gentleman," — one of his most touching works. In 184;') he pub- lished "The History of Belgimn." He has since ■m-itten "Quintin Matsys," " Pages from the Book of Natm-e," and "Jacques D'Artevelde." His most re- cent works are "The Curse of the Vil- lage," "The War of the Peasants," "The Demon of Gold," and "Simon Tiu'chi at Bata^^a." His works have been translated into most modem tongues. CONSTANTINE, NicnouEwrrcH, se- cond son of the late Emperor Nichola.s, Grand Dxike of Russia, brother of the present Czar, and Grand Admiral of the Imperial Fleet, was born in 1827. He was declared Admiral of the Fleet by his father in 1831, when he was four years old. His chief naval instructor was Admiral Lutke, celebrated by his voj'age from Cronstadt to Karatschatka and back in 1826-27. Constautine, in his boyish studies, displayed a marked predilection for eveiything Pvussian. His general reputation for talent earned him a wide popularity in llussia, more especially wdth the old Russian party. In 1847 he visited England, and went to all the public establishments, lea%nng a favoiirable impression upon all with whom he came in contact. In the late war he was entrusted with the control of the defensive operations in the Baltic. The high expectations entertained re- specting his spirit and abdity were scarcely realized during the contest. He again \4sited England (1859), in- specting the dockyards and forts of the country, and learning a due regard for that nation in peace, which his country- men in the Crimea had learned to re- spect in war. The Grand Duke is a good English scholar, and is well ac- quainted with English literatiu-e, ancient as well as modern. He was married in 1848 to the Princess Alexanibia Jo- sefowna, daughter of Joseph Duke of Saxe Altenburg, by whom he has a family of four children. COOK, Eliza, a song waiter, was born in 1817, at South wark, where her father was a tradesman. When in her twentieth year, she gained considerable reputation as a poetical contributor to several of the London periodicals, and especially to the ' ' New Monthly Maga- zine," and " Metropolitan and Literary Gazette." In 1840 a vohune of her coo 108 COP poems was published, numbers of them haWng been, and continuing to be, very popular. In 1849 "Eliza Cook's Jour- nal" appeared ; but it has since ceased to exist. Miss Cook's most popidar poems are the " Old Arm Chair," "The Old Farm Gate," " Home in the Heart," "The Last Good- Bye," and "I Miss Thee, my Mother;" but she is the writer of many more of equal merit, and all characterised by great freedom, ease, and heartiness of sentiment and expres- sion. " .She makes you feel," says a dis- tinguished writer, "that her whole heart is in aU she writes; that she gives full utterance to the depths of her soul — a soul that is in sympathy wath all that is pure and true." A complete collection of her poems has just been published. COOKE, Edward William, A.E.A., an English jjaiuter, was born in London in 1811. He seems to have acquired a taste for art from his father, who was an emi- nent engraver. His first productions were sketches of plants intended as illustra- tions for the "Botanic Cabinet,',' and " Loudon's Encyclopaedia." He subse- quently engaged in marine sketching, and in 1832 commenced jiainting in oil. His artistic education was completed in Italy and France. In 1851 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy. The following of his productions are at pre- sent in the South Kensington Museum, — namely, "Lobster Pots," "Mending the Bait Nets," "Brighton Sands," "The Antiquary's Cell," "Mont St. Michel, Normandy," "A Mackerel," ' ' Portsmouth Harbour, " ' ' The Hidks, " "Hastings, from AU Saints' Church," " Windmills, Blackheath," " Caq)," ' ' Portsmouth Harljour, " "The Victory, " ' ' Dutch Boats in a Calm, " and ' ' The Boat House." COOPER, Thomas Sidney, A.R.A., a painter, was born at Canterbury, on the 2Gtli September, 180.3. His i)arents were in trade, b\it not in ojiident cir- cumstances, and his father having, while the subject of this notice was a child, deserted his family, the boy was early thrown on his own resources. Having learned to draw, he succeeded in occa- sionally earning a few shillings by the sale of sketches of old buildings. He afterwards received instruction from Mr. Doyle, a scene painter, after whose death (which took place in the following year) he was employed in this capacity. In 1827 he went to Belgium, obtaining his living l)y the way through the exercise of his artistic skilL He at last reached Brussels, where he studied the works of the old Flemish and Dutch masters, without however copying their pictures, gained patrons, and vdtimately settled and maiTied. While resident in the Belgian capital, Mr. Cooper also mas- tered the methods of the living painters of Flanders and Holland, especially the style of the eminent animal painter, M. Verboeckhoven. In 1831 he re- turned to England — resolved to adopt animal painting as liis particular de- partment of art, and by the novelty of his manner at once caught attention, and attracted purchasers. His first pic- ture was exhibited at the Gallery of the Society of British Artists, and since that time his career has been one of con- tinued prosperity. For some years he has painted cattle for the landscapes of Lee, and the harmony of the ])roductions is unexceptionable, and the effect highly admired by the best judges of art. His " Farm Yard — Milking Time," a study from a farm near Canterbmy, and ' ' Cattle — Early Morn on the Ciunber- land Hills," are in the Vernon Collec- tion at the South Kensington Museum. COPE, Charles West, R.A., an his- torical and domestic painter, was born at Leeds, in 1811 ; his father being an artist, highly esteemed in his own neighbourhood. Having studied under IVIr. Sass, and at the Royal Academy, he painted a "Holy Family," which was purchased by the late Mr. Beckford. COR 109 COR His first picture for the Academy was exhibited iu 1831, from which time he painted with great dihgence and care, grachially adding laurels to his wreath, until 1843, when his cartoon, the " First Trial by Jury," obtained the £300 prize in the Westminster Hall competition. Thenceforward he met with great suc- cess, taking a high place among modern artists. In 1843 he was elected Asso- ciate of the Academy, and in 1848 ele- vated to the rank of Roj'al Academician. He has progi-essed surely, though not rapiiUj^ still deservedly, for he has Ijeen a close student, and is a conscientious painter. Among his chief works are a " Pastorella, " from Spenser; " L' Alle- gro" and " II Penseroso," from Milton ; the "Last Days of Cardinal Wolsey" (1848); "Lear and Cordelia" (1850); ' ' Laurence Saunders, the Second Marian Martyr, in Prison" (1851); "Othello relating his Adventures" (1853) ; " The Children of Charles I. in Carisbrook Castle" (1855); and three frescoes for the New Houses of Parliament ; namely, " Edward III. conferring the Order of the Garter on Edward the Black Prince," "Prince Hemy's Sub- mission to the Law," and " Griselda's First Trial," which are imiversally ad- mitted to be among the most successful of recent attempts in this department of art. The following of Mr. Cope's pro- ductions are in the South Kensington Museum: "Palpitation," " The Young Mother," "The Hawthorn Bush," " Maideu Meditation," "Beneficence," " Almsgi\'ing," "L' Allegro," "II Pen- seroso," and " Mother and Child." CORBAUX, Miss Fanny, a female artist, is daughter of a gentleman who was a well-known FeUow of the Royal Society. Miss Corbaux was born iu 1812, and when quite a child exhibited decided talent in drawing. She prac- tised at fii-st for mere amusement, for she had no idea of ever turning her skill to other accomit. But misfortune over- took her father, who, reduced to poor circumstances, and old and feeble, was unable to help himself. Then came Miss Corl^aux's trial. She was only fifteen, and her knowledge of art was but iuci- l)ieut. She scarcely knew the use of colours, and still less the art of mixing them ; but the cares of the family urged her on, and she resolved on becoming the support of her father. The heroism of this young lady is not outdone in the history of the struggles of artists. She bore up vmder every trial, and at length had her reward. Even while she was drooping and toiling she received three high-art honom-s. Miss Corbaux was then sixteen. She gained first, the large silver medal of the Society of Arts, for a por- trait in miniatiu'e ; secondly, the silver Isis medal, for a copy of figures, in water colours ; and, thirdly, the silver palette, for a copy of an engraving. Next year, 1828, she again received the Isis medal, for a figure-composition, in water colours ; and in 1830 she ob- tained the gold medal, for a miniature portrait. She had studied with a dili- gence imknown to aU but herself, in the National Gallery and the British In- stitution. In the same year that she received the gold medal, she was ad- mitted an honorary member of the So- ciety of British Ai-tists. Miss Corbaux has been chiefly occupied in portrait- painting, and in this department she has been highly and deservedly successfid, her portraits being striking likenesses, her colour pure, and her manipulation firm. Miss Corbaux has not limited her thoughts to art — she permitted them to travel through the realms of sacred lite- rature, and the result has been a series of investigations so acute and satisfactory that their conclusions have been adopted liy nimibers of the most learned of our time iu Biblical history. CORBOULD, Edward Henry, an English water-colour painter, was born in London on 5th December, 1815. COR 110 COR His father and grandfather were well- known historic paiutei-s. He was edu- cated at Dr. May's school, at Enfield, in a building which had been a palace of Queen Elizabeth. He left this place in 1832, and about a year afterwards he sent an original design, in water-coloiu-s, to the Society of Arts, ' ' Phaeton draw- ing the Chariot of the Sun ;" obtained the gold Isis medal, which he had again the following year for a model of " St. George contending with the Dragon," from Spenser's "Faerie Queene ;" and afterwards he obtained the large gold medallion, for a model of a " Chariot Race," from Homer. In 1839 he pro- duced "The EgUnton Tournament," "The Meeting of the Pilgi-ims at the Tabard Inn," from Chaucer ; and " The Woman taken in Adultery." In 1843 he painted a cartoon, "The Plague of Loudon," for which he received a prize of £100. His success in this in- stance induced him to devote his ener- gies to fresco -painting, and work after work proceeded from his hand imtil 1847, when he seemed to have relin- quished frescoes for water-colours ex- clusively. His subjects are chiefly historical, and treated in a dramatic manner. He has drawn his inspiration from the days of chivalry, with their pageantry and picturescpie shows. In art he revived the form and semblance of mediajval times, as in literature Sir Walter Scott had given new life to the characters and sentiments of those who figm-ed in the Middle Ages. His prin- cipal works, besides those already mentioned, are : " Fair Rosamond," "William of Eynesham reciting Valor- ous Deeds before a C^hivalrous Court," "Destruction of the Idols at Bide," and a " Scene from the Opera of the Pi-ophete," painted by command of Her Majesty, and which is said to be one of his best productions. He is a brilliant colourist, and possesses extraordinary knowledge of ancient architecture and costume. His whole manner and mode of thought, it is said, have been intiueuced by the picturesque old palace in which he was educated, and the pageantry of the Eglinton tournament, at which he was present, before the production of his first great picture, in Avhich he has em- balmed his impressions of that event. CORMENIN, Louis Marie de la Have, Vicomte de, a French political writer, was born at Paris, Januaiy 6, 1 788 . He is a member of a distinguished family, his gi-andfatlier being the Due de Pen- thi&vre. His early education was re- ceived at the school of M. Lepitre at Paris. He subsequently studied with great success in the legal schools, and was chosen an advocate in 1808. Mean- while he had continued his literary stu- dies under ^IM. Laya and Villemain in Paris. He at the same time exhibited a taste for poetry, and some of his early verses appeared in the " Mer- cm-e de France," and the "Alma- uach des Muses." At the early age of twenty-two he Avas apjioiuted by Napoleon First Secretary of the Coimcil of State, and while in that office was charged with tlrawing up some of its most elal)orate reports. In 1828 Cormenin was elected Deputy, and continued to be re-elected diuing eighteen years. His intimate and comprehensive know- ledge of jurisi)rudence, his logical me- thod, whether of speaking or wiiting, gave him gi'cat power. In 1830 M. Cormenin protested strongly against the elevation of the Orleans dynasty to the throne of France. He resigned his posi- tion in the Council of State, and refused the highest offices. He also gave uj) his Deputyship. Repentmg the latter step, he offered lumself to the electors of Loiret but was not electeiL He was, however, sent to the Chamber ]iy the Dei)artment of Ain in October, 1830, and sat on the extreme left. In 1831 he commenced his famous "Lettres sur la Liste Civile," during the discussion ou the budget. COR 111 cou After the Revohitiou of 1848 he dili- gently set to work to remodel the Constitution, being President of the Commission named for that purpose. On the coup d'etai taking place, he was appointed a member of the Council of State, reconstnicted by Napoleon III. An advocate by jirofession, he has been the opponent of everj-thing that dis- played the semblance of abuses, never relaxing in his exertions to promote the cause of progress. M.- de Cormenin is the author of a work on "The Par- liamentary Orators of France," which was pubhshed under the name of " Ti- mon." This book, containing a series of articles on Berryer, Giiizot, Thiers, Dupin, Lamartine, Odilon BaiTot, &c., &c., had an extraordinary success, and has been so highly appreciated by its numerous readers in France as to have passed through upwards of twenty editions. It has long been considered in France a model in the style to which it belongs, although the English trans- lation has attracted no great attention in this coimtry. CORNELIUS, Peter Von, a German painter, was born at Dusseldorf, on the 16th September, 1787. In his youth he had severe straggles. At the age of sixteen he lost his father, and was about to give up art for some other means of supporting the family, but his mother perceived his genius, and made many sacrifices for his advancement. At the age of nineteen he painted the cupola of the Old Church at Neuss, and in 1810 he executed designs for Goethe's " Faust," in which he did fuU justice to the ideas of the great German author. He x'roceeded to Rome in 1811, and in 1819 went to Munich. In lSl2o he was appointed Director of the Academj^ in that city. "\Vhilst«at Munich he exe- cuted his most famous works, and the frescoes which decorate the Glyiitothek. He also painted the walls of the Church of Saint Louis with frescoes entitled "God the Father," "The Birth of Christ," "The Crucifixion," and "The Day of Judgment. " He returned to Rome in 1833, and in 1841 visited Berlin. His designs, frescoes, and other works are very numerous, and exhibit the steiling qualities which denote genius. COSTELLO, Miss Louisa Stuart, a popidar writer of the day, was born in Ireland in 1815. In 1835 she imblished her "Specimens of the early Poetry of France," dedicated to Thomas Moore. In 1840 her ' ' Summer amongst the Bocages and the Vines," a pleasant book de- scrii)tive of Normandy and Brittany, ap- peared. She continued to write with taste and discrimination of her continental wanderings, until in 1844 she produced " Memoirs of Celebrated English- women." Thenceforward Miss Costello has been an indefatigable authoress and student of history ; while her contribu- tions to periodicals have been almost without a break. She is a poetess be- sides, although she rarely indulges in verse wi-iting. Her brother, Dudley Costello, is a well-known contriljutor to periodical and light literature. COUSIN, Victor, a French meta- physician, was born in November, 1792, at Paris, where his father was a watch and clockmaker. He gained various prizes at the Lycee Charlemagne ; and showed a bias for metaphysical j)ursuits. A translation of " Plato" into French, published in 1812, first gave Cousin cele- brity in the literary and philosophical world. In 1815 he delivered lectures on the history of pliilosophy in the Univer- sity. He attached himself to the Royal cause, but after the fall of the Emperor, the freedom with which he uttered opi- nions against the restored monarchy, caused the Government to insist on his ceasing to lecture. In 1828 he resumed his lectiu'es, and was appointed Inspec- tor-General of Education. In this capa- city he \nsited Germany in 1831, and in 1832 published a report on the Prussian cou 112 COW system of education, which has given popular instruction such an impulse over Europe. As a metaphysician, Cousin showed, in tliis early part of his career, a gi'eater bias towards the Scottish j)hilo- sophy than to any other. Sir William Hamilton's celebrated paper on the " Philosophy of the Unconditioned," was mainly directed against the principles of Cousin, and is accepted by many of the profoundest and most cautious thinkers, as an effectual demolition of the theories of the brilliant Frenchman. He gave General Cavaignac, while in power, all the benefit of his experience and ad- vice ; but in 1849 he disappeared from public life. His works are very nume- rous, and are characterised by a style which places him among the first of living philosophical wiiters, and entitles him undoul)teilly to the very first place among modern French philosophical authors. Mr. Cousin's chief works are, a " Translation of the Works of Plato," in 13 volumes (1825-40) ; an edition of "Descartes' Works," in 11 volumes; a ' ' Com'se of Lectures on IMoral Philosophy, delivered to the Faculte des Lettres, in 1818, on the Foundation Ideas of the Absolute, the True, the Beautiful, and the Good " (1836) ; " Lectiu-es on the History of Modern Philosophy, deli- vered in 1816-17 " (1841) ; " Lectures on the History of Moral Philosoiiliy in the Eighteenth Century, delivered for the Faculte des Lettres, from 1816 to 1820," published in five volumes, Oct. 1840-41 ; "Lessons on the Philosophy of Kant" (1842) ; "A Dissertation on thePensc-es de Pascal " (1842) ; and a series of studies on the distinguished women of the seventeenth century, including Ma- dame de Longueville (1853), Madame de Salle (1854), Madame de Chevreuse and Madame de Hautefort (1856). M. Cousin, who has been a leatling contri- butor to the " Revue des Deux Mondes," the " Memoirs of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, " and the " Joiu-nal des Savans," published in 1846-47 a col- lected edition of his works up to that period, in 22 volimies 18mo. COUTTS, Mlss Angela Geoeoiaxa BuRDETT, w^as born in 1814, and is the youngest daughter of the celelebratod Sir Francis Bm'dett, who was imprisoned in the Tower for his advocacy of reform in 1810. She is gi-aud-daughter of the emi- nent banker whose name she bears, and to whose great wealth she has succeeded. Miss Burdett's enonnous fortune came to her quite imexpectedly. Old Mr. Coutts had married the actress Harriet Mellon, and when he died bequeathed to her all his vast fort ime. Mrs. Coutts afterwards married the Duke of St. Albans, and before her death conveyed to Miss Angela Burdett everything she possessed, limited only by the condition that the heiress sh(juld adopt the name of Coutts. There are few of the wealthy classes whose names are more identified with public and private benevolence than is that of Miss Coutts. Her liberality is on the largest scale, and her means are expended in assisting every scheme which has for its object the moral or physical im})rovement of the masses. Amongst her numerous mstances of be- nevolence, we may state that she has endowed a bishopric in Australia, and has built a handsome chm'ch in the west end of London. COWLEY, Henry Richard Wel- LESLEY, Lord, British IMinister at Paris, was born in London, 1804. He entered the diplomatic service when only twenty, having become an attache to the Em- bassy at Vienna in 1824, afterwards Secretary of Legation at Stuttgart in 1832, and Secretary of the Embassy at Constantinople in 1831. In 1848 he was Minister Plenij^otentiary to Switzer- land, when delicate negociations called him to Fraiilifort. In 1851, during an anxious period for the Gemian States, he was accredited to the Confederation, and in 1852 succeeded the ^Marquis of Nor- A 113 C R E maiiby as Ambassador at the Court of tho Tuilcries. In conjunction with Lord Clarendon, he represented Great Britain at the Congress of ParLs, when peace was proclaimed ; and so late as last year he proceeded on a brief mission to Vienna, the object of which was to lay before the Emperor of Austria England's views re- specting the state of allaii's iu Italy. CRAIK, Georoe Lillie, LL.D., a literary writer, was born in Fifeshire in 1798. He is the son of the Rev. William Craik. At the University of St. Andrew's he went through the usual course of a divinity student for the Church of Scotland, but never entered th(! ministry. Soon after the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge was formed, Mr. Craik wrote for it the " Pursuit of Knowledge under Dif- ficulties," which was one of the works forming part of the " Library of Enter- taining Knowledge." Though appear- ing anonymously, this work established its author's reputation as a writer of extensive and varied acquii'ements. To the ' ' Penny Cyclopaedia" Mr. Craik con- tributed some of the most valualjle articles in history and biography. In 1839 he became editor of the "Pictorial History of England," writing himself all those parts of the work which relate to rehgion, laws, hterature, and industry. His principal works, besides those re- ferred to, are — "Sketches of the History of Literature and Learning in England from the Norman Conquest," "History of British Commerce from the Earliest Times," " Spenser and his Poetry," ' ' Bacon : his Writings and his Philo- sophy," "Outlines of the History of the English Language, " ' ' The English of Shakspere," and the "Romance of the Peerage," the last being one of the most instructive and interesting books which have appeared during the present century. In all his writings Dr. Craik exhibits the same laborious research, accuracy, and ca2>acity to explain iu clear and graceful language subjects of a recondite character, and a most anxi(jU3 desire to aid as far as he can in im- proving the education and habits of his countr3rmen. Dr. Craik is at j)resenfc Professor of History and English Litera- ture in the Queen's College, Belfast, and is engaged on an enlarged and corrected edition of his " History of English Literature." CRAN WORTH, Robert Monsey RoLFE, Baron, late Lord Chancellor of England, was born in 1790. Educated at Winchester and Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 1816, and soon got into extensive practice. In 1834 he was appointed Solicitor-General, an oflice which he held, with a short interval, until 1839, when he was elevated to the Bench as a Baron of the Exchequer. He was appointed Vice-ChanceUor in 1850, and in the same year raised to the peer- age. He was one of the Lords Justices of Appeal in Chancery in 1851, and Lord Chancellor in 1852 ; continiung to hold this office during the Ministry of Lord Palmerston. He has since retu-ed, taking no prominent part in the proceed- ings of the House of Lords, although he is firmly attached to the opinions of the Whig party. CREASY, Sir Edward Shepherd, M.A., a lawyer and historian, and Chief Justice of Ceylon, was born in 1812, at Bexley, in Kent. He is the son of Edward Hill Creasy, of Brighton, who was at one time part propiietor of the " Brighton Gazette." The subject of this notice was educated at Eton, and at King's College, Cambridge, of which he became a Fellow in 1834. In 1837 he passed as barrister, and has since prac- tised at the Common Law Bar, as a member of tlie Home Circuit. In 1850 he was appointed Professor of History in Uuivei'sity College, London, and in the following year published "The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the Worhl," a work now in its ninth edition. Professor CRE 114 CR Creasy has also written the "Rise and Progress of the English Constitu- tion," published in 183-4, which is now in its fourth edition, having been re- ])rinted in America, and translatt'd into several foreign languages. "The His- tory of the Ottoman Turks," jiulilished in 1856, the last work of the author, is about to be followed by a work on " Internatioual Law," which is now in the press. Mr. Creasy was knighted in 1860, on the occasion of his being ap- pointed Chief Justice of Ceylon. CREMIEUX, Isaac Adolphe, a French legislator, and ex-Miuister of Justice under the provisional govern- ment of France in 1848, was born at Nismes, of Jewish parents, in 1796. After attending classes at the college of Louis-le-Grand, he studied law at Aix, and settled as an advocate .at first at Nismes, and afterwards at l^aris. His career was highly successful, until he received his first check by defending Guernon Ranville, one of Charles X.'s Ministers. In political ])leadings in the courts, he was almost unifonnly em- ployed in defending the Radical ]>arty when attacked by the prosecution of their organs of the press. Cremieux was long a member of the Chamber of Depu- ties, entering the Assembly first in 1842, and being re-elected in 1846. He ad- vocated Free Trade, and a law that no j)aid official should have a seat in the Chamber, with the exception of Ministers, always voting with the reform party against Guizot. When it was announced that the Government would i)ut down the reform banquets, Cremieux ex- claimed, "There is blood in this!" Meeting Louis- Philippe and his queen in the Place de la Concorde, on the Thursday of their departure, he urged the king to Hee immediately, no ho]>e for them l)eing left. He subsecjuently urged in the Chamber of Deputies the for- mation of a Provisional (Government. After the events of 1848, he, though a democrat, showed but little favour to Cavaignac, iipholding the candida- ture of Louis Napoleon for the Pre- sidency. However, after the election of December he became one of the most earnest orators of the Opposition. When the coiqi d'etat took place, he was ar- rested and taken to Mazas. Since then he has confined himself to the bar, where his talents and the indejtendence of his character have acquired for him universal esteem. He is an able lawyer, and is one of the authors of the "Code des Codes" (1835). CRESWICK, Thomas, R.A., a land- scape painter, was born at .Sheffield, Yorkshire, in 181 1. He was educated at Hazelwood, near Birmingham, thence I>roceeding to London to study art. Mr. CresMack became first known by])ictures of Welsh streams, which, by their ex- quisite combinations of rock, foliage, and river, excited universal admiration. He was among the first oil painters to introduce the now common i)ractice of I)ainting in the open air direct from nature, and his pictures are often, even although this is not stated, faithfully transcribed from particidar spots. In 1842 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 a Royal Academician. After this period he produced his greatest works, among which maybe ranked his "England," "The London Road a Himdred Years Ago, "and the "Weald of Kent." In 1848 he produced his "Home by the Sands," and "A Squally Day ;" and in 1850 his "Wind on Shore," and "Over the Sands. " He has been extensively em- ployed in furnishing designs for various pul)lications, which have been highly apj)reciated. CROLY, Rev. George, LL.D., a literary writer and di\nne, was born in Dul>lin, in 1780, and educated at Trinity College in that city, where he obtained a scholarship, took the degrees of B.A. and M.A., and was, some years after, cuo Ui CRU presented voluntarily with his "Doctor's degree. He was instituted in the, year 1834 to the benefice of Broadleigh, iu Devon, by Lord Brougham, then Chan- cellor; and in 1835 to the united benefices of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, and St. Be- net's, by Lord Chancellor Lyndhurst. Dr. Croly has acquired great distinction as a puljiit orator, and has written various works in theology ; among others, "The Three Cycles," (a Treatise on Divine Providence,) a new "Interpre- tation of the Apocalyj)se, " a volume on Baptism, Sermons preached at St. Ste- })hen's, and Sermons on Pubhc Events. He is also the author of "A Political Life of the Right Hon. Edmund Bm-ke, " "A Political Life of George IV.," a volume of Historical Essays, a work on Luther, and various poetical works and works of fiction. CROSLAND, Mrs. Camilla, an authoress known in the literary A^'orld by the name of JNIiss Toul- min, was born in London on the 9th June, 1812. She was early distin- guished for intellectual ability. When her father, and afterwards her brother, both solicitors, died. Miss Toulmin, having to depend on her own efforts, resolved to pursue literature, for which she was well qualified by her tastes and previous education. Her fii'st effort was a poem, which appeared in the "Book of Beauty" of 1S3S ; from that time forward she has written assiduously for "Chambers's Joiu-n;U," " The People's Journal," and other peri- odicals ; she edited for a time ' ' The Ladies' Companion and Magazine." In 1848 she married Mr. Newton Crosland, a London merchant. Mrs.. Crosland has published separately "Lays and Le- gends illustrative of English Life," "Partners for Life," "A Christmas Story," " Sto-atagems, a Tale for Young People," "Toil and Trial, a Tale of London Life," "Lydia, a Woman's Book," "Stray Leaves from Shady Places," "Memorable Women," "Hil- dred the Daughter," and a volume of poems. The i)rincipal aim in some of Mrs. Crosland's writings is, Ijy showing the trials and temptations of the poorer and middle classes, to inculcate the ad- vaiitages of political and social instruc- tion. In executing what ajjpears to be her main design Mrs. Crosland has been successfid, so far as she has been instru- mental in arousing all ranks from a state of apathy, and in giving an impulse to the consideration of questions which but for her might have continued un- heeded by a large section of the com- munity. Her talent for treating more abstract and imaginative themes has also been conspicuously evidenced. Mrs. Crosland is a granddaughter of the emi- nent physician. Dr. William Toulmin. CROWE, Mrs. Catherink Ste- vens, an English authoress, was born at Borough-green, Kent, about 1803. ^Married iu 1822 to Lieutenant-Colonel Crowe, she commenced her literary career in 1838 with " Aristodemus, " a tragedy of merit, though not ai)pre- ciated. A novel, "Manorial Rights," followed; but "Susan Hopley," shortly after, fixed her position among the female authors of the age. In 1847 ' ' Lillie Dawson " appeared, followed by some translations from the Ger- man. In 1848 that curious work, "The Night Side of Natiu-e," proceeded fi'oni her pen, and sultsequently ' ' Light and Darkness, or Mysteries of Life," with other books, among which is an agreeable little work for children, " Pip- I)ie's Warning." Mrs. Crowe's German reading seems to have drawTi her fancy into mystic regions, but her works are yet forcibly written, and fidl of good, sense and sagacity. CRUIKSHANK, G'eorge, aa emi- nent artist and caricaturist, was born in London on the 27th September, 1792, of Scottish parents, his father being from the Lowlanda his. mother, whose name CRU 116 CUM «ras MacNaughton, from the Highlands- Isaac Cniikshank, his father, was an artist of considerable ability as a water- colour draughtsman and etcher of cari- catures, cotemporary with fiilray and Rowlandson^ (George had the advan- tage of seeing his father work, but be- yond this had little, or, indeed, no preparation for that profession which it was his fate, rather than his inclination, to follow. His aim was to he a sailor, but tliis desire, opjiosed strongly by liis mother, was tiually abandoned about the age of seventeen, upon the decease of his father. He then devoted his attention to drawing upon wood. His first etchings were frontis])ieces to cheaj) publications, such as song-books, dream- books, and jest-books, then political cari- catures, and, later in Hfe, drawings on wood and etchings on copper and steel, as illustrations to works of mucli higher pretensions than tliose on which he had been at first engaged. To enumerate all his works woidd be almost impossible ; but he is justly considered as the origi- nator of the now prevalent style of book illustration. Many works, where his name appears only as the artist, are, nevertheless, his original ideas and sug- gestions. He illustrated most of Hone's publications, "Life in London," "Oliver Twist," "Tower of London," "Comic Almanac." "The Bottle" and "The Drunkard's Chddren " arc pictorial his- tories of the evils of intemperance, where almost every figure tells its tale of misery and degradation. Upon this subject he seems from early life to have felt strongly, and his attacks upon gin- shops, and his depictions of the evils of di-unkenness, may be traced backwards in some of liis earli(;st productions. All his life he has (we l)clieve) had a strong desire to attain to the higher branches of his profeesion, but never had time or opportunity to study. The proverb, however, of "Never too late to learn," may be applied in this instance, for in spite of all difficulties and drawbacks he has for the last few years employed him- self principally in oil ])ainting. His pictures at first betrayed the difficulty he felt in acquiring the use of the hni-fh, after working for so many years with the etckinr/ pmnt ; but his later pictures show that he bids fan- to take his place as an oil painter as well as an etcher among the most distinguished of our artists. A great critic, the late Samuel Phillips, has styled him the prince of living caricaturists ; but his works have proved him something more than a cari- caturist, and we may add that a long life of integrity and honour has won for him the respect and regard of all classes who knf)W liim. CULLEN, Paul, D.D., the Roman Catholic Archl)ishop of Dublin, was born in Ireland, in 1805. He left his native country at an early age, to study in the seminaries of Italy, took holy orders, and eventually settled at Rome, where he obtained employment in the offices of the Vatican, and where for fifteen years he administered the ec- clesiastical affairs of Ireland. On the death of the Roman Catholic primate of that country in 1849, Dr. Cullen was chosen to fill his ])lacc, and was conse- crated in ISoO. He subsequently be- came Archbishop of Dublin. He is a decided foe to any mixed system of education, denouncing alike the national schools and the Queen's Colleges, which aie essentially secidar, and he demands at the same time, a sej)arate grant for such schools and colleges as may be established under Roman Catholic au- spices exclusively. In science he is be- hind the age, as he has attem^ited to demonstrate that the eartli is immovable, that the sun and all the i)lanets move round us as round a common orbit, and that none of the heavenly bodies are larger than they seem to the naked eye. CUMMING, Rev. John, D.D., minister of the Scotch Church, Covent CUN 117 CUR Garden, London, and author of nu- merous devotional and controversial works, was horn in Al)erdeensliire, in November, 1810. Since 1833 Dr. Gum- ming has been a jiopular preacher in the metropolis, and may now be said to have taken the place of Edward Irving, as the great pulpit orator of London. He is distinguished as an indomitable adversary of the Papacy, having con- ducted on the Protestant side several discussions with followers of the Roman Catholic Church. The Apocaljqitic mys- teries foim his other great topic. His principal works are — ' ' Apocalyptic Sketches," scarcely noticed on its tirst appearance; "Daily Life," "Voices of the Night," "Voices of the Day," "Sabbath Readings" on the Old and New Testaments, and "God in History." Dr. Gumming preached before the Queen at Balmoral, and his sermon,, entitled "Salvation," has been pubhshed. His latest work, "The Great Tribulation, or Things Coming on the Earth" (of which it is said 10,000 copies have been sold in less than tkree months), has been severely criticised. CUNNINGHAM, Peter, an author and critic, wa.s born at Pimlico, iu London, on the 7th Aprd, 1816. He is son of Allan Cunningham, the poet, and inherits no small portion of his father's intellectual vigour. The late Sir Robert Peel, as a token of respect for "Honest Allan's " memory, ai)poiuted the son in 1834 to a situation iu the Audit Office, in which department of the public service he rose to be Chief Clerk. Mr. Cun- ningham is the author of the "Hand- book of London," the "Life of Inigo Jones," the "Story of Nell Gwynne," the "Life of Drimimond of Haw- thornden," &c. Besides editing numer- ous standard works for Mr. Murray, Mr. Cimningham was for many years a regular contributor to " The Athen- aeum," and now writes weekly in "The Illustrated Loudon News." The last work edited l)y him was the collected eelition of ' ' Horace Walpole's Letters " (1857). In 1842 Mr. Cunningham mar- ried the second daughter of John Martin, the distinguished painter of "Belshaz- zar's Feast," by whom he has three children. He retii-ed from the Audit Office last year. CUNNINGHAM, William, D.D., a Scottish divine and Principal of the New College, Edinburgh, was born at Hamilton, in Lanarkshire, in October, 1805, and educated at the University of Ediubm-gh, where he greatly distin- guished himself. Almost immediately after receiving licence to preach, he was oi'dained assistant and successor to the Rev. Dr. Scott, of Greenock. His ac- quirements as a theologian, and his powers as a preacher, induced the Town Council of Glasgow to invite him to become minister of one of the churches in that city, of which they were patrons. He declined the offer, but he was after- wards translated to Trinity College Church, Edinburgh. His principles were evangehcaJ, and he contended strenuously against the intrusion of ministers on a congregation without theii- consent. When the stiiiggle be- tween the General Assembly and the ci\'il powers took place, Dr. Cunningham was always found in the breach, main- taining his position and defending his cause with all the eloquence of con- viction. But to sketch his life would be merely epitomizing a history of the ten years' conflict, with every passage in which he was closely associated. On the death of Dr. Chalmers, in 1847, Dr. Cunningham was appointed his successor, as Principal of the New Col- lege, which had been opened at Edin- burgh in connexion with the Free Church. CURTIS, Benjamin R., an eminent American lawyer, was born in 1809, in Watertown, Massachusetts. He gra- duated at Harvard University, in 1829, CUR lis D A H and studied law under Mr. Justice Story in the same iiistitutiuu. After practising in Boston he was appointed in ISol Associate Judge of the Supreme Court of the United States, which oiHce he resigned in 1857, when he returned to the bar. He is editor of "llcports of Cases in the Circuit Courts of the United States;" and of "Rei)orts of Decisions in the Su]rreme Court of the United States, with notes and a di- gest." CURTIS, George William, an American author, was born at Provi- dence, Rhode Island, in 1824. In his youth he was on intimate terms with Longfellow and Hawthorne. In 184G he came to Europe, and after a journey to the East returned to the United States, where he published various works, among the most prominent of which are — " Nile Notes of a Howadji," "Lotus Eating," "The Howadji in Syria," and "The Potiphar Papers," "Pnie and I," and a novel of American life, called "Tiiimps." For keen and elegant sa- tire Mr. Curtis is viewed as a sort of modern Persius and Juvenal combined. CUSHMAN, Miss CiIxVrlotte, an American tragic actress, was born at Boston, about 1820. Of live children left fatherless she was the oldest. By her mother she was encouraged to culti- vate her natural taste for music. After having sung in a concert with Miss Paton (Mrs. Wood), that lady induced her to make the lyi'ical stage her pro- fession. Miss Cushman's family were strenuously ojiposed to her adoption of that mode of life ; but she was deter- mined to pursue it, and uj)on her debid in New York, met with astonishing success, as the Countess in the "Mar- riage of Figaro." Her voice was an acbnirable contralto ; but going to New (Jrleans after her triumph, the change of climate, and her efforts to strain her voice into a soprano, deprived her com- pletely of her vocal powers. Resolute j in wiU, she decided on becoming an actress, " pure and simple ; " and, having studied zealously, she appeared in the diiheult character of "Lady Macbeth." She succeeded, and rciturned to New York ^\^th laurels. In 1845, conscious of ability, she came to England, was engaged in London, and performed Ro- meo to her sister Susan's Jidiet. Romeo was so unlike anything to be expected from a female performer, that it took the critics by storm ; she was called "Macready womaned;" still she per- sisted, and in the end made her greatest impression in "Meg Merrilies," about as picturescpie a representation as has ever been witnessed. She has played many and diverse parts, in none offend- ing, and in many excellent. Miss Cushman seems to have left the stage, as of late years her name seldom or never a])pears l)efore the public. DAHLMANN, Frederick Chris- topher, a German historian and i)ub- licist, was born at Wismar, in May, 1785, and studied with distinction at HaUe. In 1813 he was nominated professor at Kiel, where he delivered lectures, in Latin, on the Plays of Aristo})hanes. A quarrel with the Danish Government obliged him to accept of the Chair of Political Economy at Giittingen, where ln! ])ul)lished an historical work, entitled "Original Documents relating to Ger- man History." In jiolitics a moderate liberal, he offered his services to the Hanoverian (Government in drawing up a charter then conceded to popular cla- mour. Two years afterwards he pul>- lished a work, in which he 02)j)osed alike Democracy and A])solutism, entitled ' ' The Science of Politics, based on facts," which has since gone through several editions. In 1837, when the con- stitution was ])ut (h)wn, and M. Dahl- mann was oI)Iiged with six of his fellow professors to leave Hanover, he re- tired to Leipsic, where he devoted him- self to historical research. The result of DAL 119 DAL his l;il)ours was "The History of Dou- iiiark, " piil)lishe(l in lS-i()-4.'{, one of the most important historical works of the century. In 1842 ho accepted the Pro- fessorship of History ami Political Eco- nomy at Bonn, and published in the same year his " History of the English Revolution," and the "History of the French Revolution." He was elected a member of the National Assembly at Fraidifoii;, and laid before it the project of Provisional (Jovernment, which was adopted by the majority. M. Dahlmann wished to confer the hereditary mon- archy on the King of Prussia, but being zealously in favour of German unity he opposed the armistice of Malmoe, which had been entered into by Prussia with- out the authority of Parliament. After this reactionary policy set in, and the liberal cause being completely defeated, he returned to his professorship at Bonn, which had been kept open for him. DALE, The Rev. Thomas, M.A., Canon of Saint Paul's Cathedral, and Vicar of Saint Pancras, poet and popidar author, was born at Pentonville, Lon- don, August, 1797. His mother died when he was but three years old, and his father having married again, went to the West Indies, to edit a public journal, where he also diec^, leaving his only son. A presentation to Christ's Hospital was eventually obtained for him, where, under the late Dr. Trollope, by whom he was most kindly treated, he received a superior classical education. In 1817 he entered the University of Cand)ridge, having prcN-iously published his " Widow of Nain," which was speedily followed by the "Outlaw of Taurus," and " Irad and Adah, a Tale of the Flood," his first work passing through six editions within a very short period. He was ordained in 1823 first curate of St. Michael's, Cornhill, London, and afterwards, in 1835, by the special favour of Sir Robert Peel, appointed to be Vicar of St. Bride's. In 1843, through the same influence, he became a Canon of St. Paid's; and, in 1846, Vicar of St. Pancras. He had previously held the Lectureship of St. Margaret, LothV^ury, but resigned it in 1849. With the ex- cej)tion of his poems, of which a col- lected edition was published in 1836, his edition of Cowper, and his transla- tion of Sophocles, his later writings are exclusively religious, consisting chiefly of Sermons — "The Domestic Liturgy and Family Chaplain," "The Sabbath Companion," &c. They display a fine tone of thought, solid erudition, and the purest taste. DALHOUSIE, James Andrew Brown Ramsay, Marquis of, is the tenth Earl of Dalhousie, born at Dal- housie Castle, near Edinburgh, in 1812. As Lord Ramsay, his title by com-tesy, he was first educated at Harrow, and then took his degrees at Oxford in 1833. He contested without success the repre- sentation of Edinburgh, on Conservative principles, with Mr. Abercromby, sub- sequently Speaker of the House of Com- mons, and wdth Sir John Campbell, the present Lord Chancellor. By his frank- ness and manly straightforwardness, however, he won golden opinions, not less from his adversaries than from his partizans. In 1837 he was returned to the House of Commons for the county of Haddington, and on the death of his father, in 1838, he succeeded to the Earldom of Dalhousie. In 1843 he was appointed Vice-President of the Board of Trade, and in lS4o President, with a seat in the Cabinet, resigning with the Ministry in 1846. In 1847, on the return of Ijord Hardinge from India, he was oftered aiul acco])ted the Gover- nor-Generalship, being the youngest man ever apjiointed to that important and responsible office. The Sikhs, shortly after his landing, broke out a second time into war. Under his management they were defeated everywhere. He DAL IL'O D A N then annexed tlie Punjaub, 8eemin;,'ly iutlitferent to public ojjiniou as to that decisive step, but keenly alive to the interests of the coimtry. Pegu, Bezar and Nagpore, and lastly Oude, came under the same system of political ac- quisition ; but, while conquering and annexing, he did not forget to develop the internal resources of the coimtry. Railways, canals, and telegraphs were established ; he sought to reform the administration of the ci\'il and legal de- partments, and extended education and pubhc works. In 1849 he was elevated to the dignity of a Marquis, receiving at the same time the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. He is a K.T., and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. The marqius returned from his duties in the Ea.st in shattered health in bS.W. Hav- ing no sons by his late wife, his cousin Lord Panmm'e is the heir of his Scottish titles. DALLAS, George Mifflin, an American statesman, and at present representative of the United States at the court of St. James's, was born at Philadelphia, in Jidy, 1792. HLs father, who was a lawyer, filled several im- portant offices in the State. The son was destined for a similar career. Having taken first-class honours at Princeton College in 1810, he was after- wards called to the bar, but desirous of knowing the world, he obtained the post of private secretary to the I lussian Sj)ecial Embassy, of which Mr. Gallatin M'as the chief. After visiting various con- tinental countries he returned to Ame- rica, and in 1817 was named Deputy Attorney-General for tlie eastern dis- trict of Pennsylvania. Elected mayor of Philadcli)hia, he was in 1829 ap- pointed district Attorney- General, and in 18.S1 was returned to the senate of the United States for Pennsylvania. In 18.S3 he retired from Congress, and resumed his ]irofession with decided success imtil 1837, when President Van Burcn confided to his charge the Amer- ican embassy at St. Petersburg, from which he was recalled in 1839 at his own request. A profound lawyer and dexterous pleader, he once more took his position at the bar, but was again induced to abandon the courts by his election to the Vice-Presidency of the Union, in 1844. This office he held until the elevation of General Taylor to the Presidency, in 1849, when he re- signed and retxirned once more to the practice of the law. In 1856 he was named AmVjassador to London, succeed- ing Mr. Buchanan. Mr. Dallas, whilst understood to be one of the democratic jiarty, has invariably sought to main- tain the most amicable relations be- tween Great Britain and the United States, and his course as a diplomatist has been such as to prociu-e him the con- fidence of his own countrymen, and to ehcit the esteem of the British people. DANA, James Dwigut, LL.D., Pro- fessor of Geology and Natural History in Yale College, Connecticut, was born in Utica, in the State of New York, on 12th February, 181.3. He studied at Yale College, graduating B.A. in 1833, and shortly afterwards was ajtpointed a TeachiT of Mathematics to the youth of the American navy. In that ca2>acity he sailed to the Mediterranean, return- ing in 1835, and acting afterwards for two years as Assistant Professor in the chair which he now fiUs. In 1836 he was a2)pointed mineralogist and geologist to an exploring cxjjeditiou to the South- ern and Pacific Oceans, which sailed in 1838, and returned in 1842, after a voy- age round the world. He w'as chosen Professor in Yale College in 1855, and he is now engaged in the discharge of the duties of that chair, to which he adds the editorship of the " American Jour- nal of Science." He was elected in 1854 President of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science. His principal publications are — "A DAN 121 DAN System of Mineralogy," "Manual of Mineralogy," " Kepoi-t on Zoophytes," and " Kei>()rt on C 'rustacea. " He has eoutributeil a number of papers to vari- ous learned societies in America. Pro- fessor Dana is a member of the (Jeologi- cal Society of London, and various other scientific bodies. DANA, liifiiARD Henry, an Amer- ican poet and essayist, was born in November, 1787. He is the son of Francis Dana, minister to llussia, mem- ber of Congress, and Chief Justice of IMassachusetts. He originally adojited the j)rofession of the law, but was obliged to abandon it in consequence of ill health. His leanings were literary ; and he joined his relative, Edward T. Channing, in the editorship of the "North American Review," to which he contributed largely. In 1821 he commenced the pid)lication of "The Idle Man, " the ' ' Review " having j)roved a failure. Dana's first poem, ' ' The Dj'ing Raven, " published in the "New York Rexaew" in 1825, was fol- lowed, in 1827, by "The Buccaneer." He published his wi'itings in a collected fomi in 1833, adding some new com2)osi- tious. Since then he has rarely ai)peared as an author. His works are character- ised by a fertile imagination, and strength and delicacy of expression. His eldest son, Richard Henry Dana, is the author of " Two Years before the Mast," and "To Cuba and Back." The lirst-named of these works is marked by peculiar ability, its author ha\nng entered the merchant sendee from a love of maritime adventure. DANBY, Francis, A.R.A., a land- scape painter, born near Wexford, Ire- land, 1703. The third sou of James Danby, Esq., of Common, he received his earliest lessons in design in the School of the R()yal Dublin Society of Arts, and exhibited his first pictm-es in 1811, at the exhibition in that city, leaving Ire- land for England in the same year. He meant to have made a mere tour, but on reaching Bristol he found that his funds had run short, and there accordingly he stopped to re])lenish. Under the cir- cumstances he settled in Bristol, teach- ing drawing, and painting small pictures with such success as to become finnly established in that city. In 1S17 he painted a large })icture of "Criminals going to the Ui)as Tree," which was exhibited at the British Institution, London. "Disappointed Love," and " Sunset at Sea, after a Storm," were exhibited at the Royal Academy — the last picture being purchased by Sir Thomas Lawrence, at a price far above that put upon it by the artist. Sir Thomas Lawrence advised him to remove to London, which he did, and soon after produced the pictiu-e of " The Passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea." In 1825, after the exhibition of "The Em- barkation of Cleopatra on the Cydnus, " he was elected an Associate of the Aca- demy. In 1829, owing to some domestic misfortunes, he left England, and re- mained till 1840 on the Continent. In that year he retiu^ned to England with his large picture, "The Deluge." Mr. Danby's landscapes blend great imagi- native power with poetic retinement. In his own peculiar path, the historical landscape, Mr. Danby has long stood vrithout a rival. Since 1845 he has re- sided at Exmouth. His sons having adopted the same profession, are rising to distinction in their career. DANILO, Petrovitch Niegosch, reigning Prince of Montenegro, imder the suzerainete of the Porte, was bom on the 25th May, 1826, the succession being collateral. In 1852 he was pro- claimed Prince, after a struggle with his uncle, Thomas PetroNntch, iu a\ hich the young prince was assisted by the Czixr of Russia. He received the investiture at St. Petersbm-g, and retm-ned to his na- tive country with the idea of revolution- izing the institutions of Montenegro. ]:> A 11 122 DA R He scparatcfl the civil and ecclesiastical fiinctioiis of the Prince, as V'hulika, handing over the latter to one of his re- latives, with the title of Archimandrite. He then undertook the construction of a great jjublic road from his capital to Cattaro, and the preparation of a penal code, the chief object of which was to put an end to the vendetta in Monte- negro. The war with the Sultan which followed put an end to these attempts at reform. It continued down to 1855, when it was terminated by the interven- tion of the Allied Powers. In 1855 Prince Danilo married the daughter of a banker of Trieste. With his wife he visited Vienna and Paris in 1857, in order to induce these powers to support his claims of exemption from the suze- rainete of the Porte, but witliout success. A conspiracy, supported liy the old Russian party, compelled him to return. He has since, it is understood, made great preparations to join in any at- tempt to oppose the pretensions of the Turkish (Jovernment shoidd they ma- terially affect his independence. DAIUIAN, William, a capitalist and contractor, the projector of the Dublin Exhibition, was born in 1799, in the county of Carlow. The son of an extensive farmer, he received a good education. He was afterwards sent to a surveyor's office, whence he went as an engineer into the employment of Telford. Subsequently he became an engineer, or rather contractor, on his own account. His first work of import- ance he obtained in 1832, when he pulled down a market-house, cut open a street, and built a bridge, at Ban- bridge, in Ireland. He then became contractor for tlie first railway laid in Ireland, the Dublin and Kingstown, and since that time he has been con- nected with almost every public work in the sister country. He was the main stay of the Dublin Exhibition in 1853, his advances being over X'GO,000. The Queen visited him at his country seat, near Dublin, at the opening of the Exhiliition ; and he refused the honour of a baronetcy which it was proposed to confer u])()n him. DARWIN, Charles, M.A. Cantab., F.R.S., an eminent naturalist and au- thor. When a very young man he accompanied Captain Fitzroy in his voy- age round the world, in H. M.S. "Beagle," diu-ing the years 1831' — 1836. His jour- nal first appeared in 1839, as part of the general narrative of the voyage, and was subsequently re-published in a modi- fied form under the title of "Journal of Researches into the (Jeology and Natural History of the various Countries \'isitod by H. iM. S. ' Beagle. '" In 1 842, his work "On the Structure and Distril)ution of Coral Reefs " appeared, which was fol- lowed by his " Geological Observations on South America." Since this jjeriod he has contributed many pa])ers to the Geological Transactions, and to other scientific periodicals. His chief contri- bution to Zoology is the "Monograph on the Family Cirripeda," in two large volimaes, in which he points out many curious and interesting partieidars in relation to the liistory and economy of tlu! l)arnacles and sea-acorns, and fur- uislics a minute descri{)tion of every known sjiecies of the family. He has recently (November, 1859) i)ublished a work entitled, "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection ; or. The Preservation of Favoured liaces in the Struggle for Life." This volume, as stated in the introduction, gives only in a condensed form the residt of more than twenty years' study, and will hereafter be followed by a more detailed treatise on the same subject. Mr. Darwin's writings exhibit close observation and untiring industry in collecting and ar- ranging facts. Mr. Darwin, although he has ado])ted conclusions contested by other natiu'alists, has always l)een very cautious in arriving at results without D AU 123 D A V sufficient data. He is a clear and ele- gant writer ; and his works, indepen- dently of their scientific value, are writ- ton in a style well calculated to render them highly attractive. D'AUBKJNE, J. H. Meklk, D.D., a Swiss Church liistorian and theologian, was horn at (leneva, 1794, and is the second sou of Aime Roliert Merle d'Au- bigne, a merchant in that city. He received his education in (leneva, and then proceeiled to Berlin, to complete his theological studies. Here he foiTued a friendshij> with Neander. A visit to Warthurg Castle, where Luther was con- fined, and where D'Aubigue was present at the tercenary jubilee of the Re- formation, stimulated him to write his " History of the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century." For some years pastor of the French Church at Ham- burg, in 182.3 he was appointed by the King of the Netherlands, minister of the Protestant Church at Brassels. In 1831 he retiu-ned to Geneva, where he was appointed Professor of Chiu-ch History to the new Theological School founded by the " Evangelical Society." This chair he still retains, together with the Presidency. As a preacher, professor, and author, Du Merle D'Aubigne has achieved a wide-spread reputation throughout the Protestant world, but cliiefly in England and Scot- land. He has frecpiently visited this country, meeting with a warm welcome from the zealous members of the evan- gelical party in the various churches. In 18.56 he received the freedom of the city of Edinburgh. Basides his great work, he is the author of " The Protector a Vindication" (1847), and "Germany, England, and Scotland : Recollections of a Swiss Minister" (1848). DAVID, Felic'IEN, a French musical comi)oser, was born at Cadenet, in the department of Vaucluse, on the 8th of March, 1810. Left an orjjhan when a child, he early devoted himself to music, which he studied under the Chapel Master at Aix. Before he was twenty years of age, he was prevailed upon to proceed to Paris, to complete his mu- sical education ; but his relations for- sook him, and his resources were limitecL The St. Simonians, about the same time, sprang uj) ; he joined them, and j)assed through various phases of fortune. In 1844, he produced his first great work, "The Desert," consisting of about 2000 pages of music, and written in a year ! He has composed much, but his works are not generally kno\\ni, or if known, not understood and appreciated at their full value. The following list contains his chief productions : — " Four Symphonies for a Grand Orchestra ;" "The Desert," a symphony ; " Moses on Sinai," an oratorio ; ' ' Christopher Colunibus, " a sjTnjihony; " Eden," an oratorio ; "The Gate of th« Desert," an opera in three acts ; ' ' Herculaneimi, " an opera in four acts; "The Captive," an opera in two acts ; ' ' Two Sonetti ; " " Symphonies for Nine Musical Instruments ; " "The Foiu- Seasoias," for twenty- four stringed instnunents ; " Two Trios, for the Piano, the Violin and Violoncello ; " "Twelve Melodies for the Piano and Violoncello;" "The Brises d'Orient," for the piano ; ' ' Eight Symjihouies, " stu- dies for the piano ; " The Ruche" con- sists of thirty songs for the himaan voice, sixty romances and melodies, &c. A i>eculiarity of the compositions of David is the attempt to suggest by music, operations of natm'e, wliich are obvious only to the eye. DAVIS, Sir John Francis, Bart., K.C. B., was born in London, in 1795. He is the eldest son of S. Davis, Esq., formerly member of the Board of Re- venue in Indiix, and a Director of the E.ast India Company. Mr. Davis was attached to Lord Amherst's embassy to Pekin in 181(5, and was joint Commis- sioner with the late Lord Napier in China in 1834. On his return to England, two DAW 124 DEL years afterwards, after a residence of more than twenty years in China, he published "The Chinese : a General De- scription of China and its Inhabitants," in two volumes, which was at once ad- mitted to be the best work on China in the Eiij;lish language. In 1841 he pub- lished "Sketches in China," with ob- servations on the war which was then going on. In 1841 Mr. Davis was ap- pointed Governor and Commander-in- Chief of Hong-Kong, in which post he remained for the following six years. He was created a Baronet in 1845, and a Knight Grand Cross of the Bath in 1854. On his return to England, in 1847, he took up his abode in Glouces- tershire, of which county he is a Deputy- Lieutenant. In addititm to the works above mentioned. Sir John Davis is the author of a translation of "Chinese Moral Maxims," "Chinese Novels," "China during the War and since the Peace" (1852), and of various jjhilologi- cal treatises, and literary j)apers on cog- nate subjects, some of wliich have been published in French and German trans- lations. DAWSON, George, M.A., a popular lecturer and preacher, was born in Lon- don in 1821. Educated at home, he thence proceeded to (ilasgow, where he took the degree of Master of Arts. He came to the ministry of the Baptist non- conformists, and after remaining for some time unemployed, was chosen, in 1844, minister of Mount Zion Cha])el, Birming- ham ; but not conforming in all particulars to the recpiirements of the trust-deed and views of a ])ortion of liis congregation, a separation took place, the majority, how- ever, remaining with him. A new church, that of "Tlie Saviour," was opened in 1847, in which he continues to preach, deviating more and more from the conventional style of preaching. He has attained his popularity more as a lecturer than as a preacher ; and, indeed, pre-eminent success, in all parts of Eng- land and Scotland. DECAZES, Elie Due, was born on the 28th September, 1780, at St. Martin de Laye, near Libourne, Gironde. He is descended from a Gascon family, enno- bled by Henri Quatre in 1596. Com- mencing his studies in the military school of Veudome in 1790, he was afterwards called to the provincial l)ar. He removed to Paris under the considate, and mar- ried the daughter of the President of the Court of Cassation in 1805. In 1810 he was called to Holland by King Louis, as a confidential adviser, and after that sovereign abdicated the throne, he be- came attaclicd to the sen'ice of the mother of Naj)<)leon, as secretary and councillor. After Waterloo he acted as chief of police, and in the absence of the troops, maintained the peace of the city of Paris. He ])asscd, in 1818, to the Ministry of the Interior, vacated by the Duke de llichelieu. In this office he did good service as a reformer in com- merce, manufactures, science, agriciU- ture, social progress, and prison amelio- ration. In 1830, M. Decazes was absent from Paris, but he jjublicly deplored the overthrow of the Eoyal Family. He has retired into private life for many years, but is still held in high esteem in France as a man and a patriotic citizen. DE GllEY,. Eajil. See Kipon, Earl OF. DELACROIX, Ferdinand- Victor- Eugene, French painter, was born at Charenton Saint Maurice, near Paris, on the 27th of April, 1798. Tliere are but few incidents in his life to notice. He received a liberal education, his father having been a member of the Old Con- vention, a Minister under the Directory, and Prefect of Bordeaux at the time of his death. He had thi'ce miracidous escapes from death, and after the last went to college, where, notwithstanding his passion for art, he studied diligently. in the former capacity he has met with At the age of eighteen he entered the DEL 125 I) E M atelier of the classic painter Pierre Guerin, who had already for pupils, Gi'Ticault and Ary Schefter. These pu- pils abandoned the traditions of their instructor, and became declared parti- zans of the romantic school. His prin- cipal ])ictures are " The Massacre of Scio," "Dante and Virgil in the In- ferno," " Algerian Women," " The Jewish Wedding." Delacroix, though not likely to take rank in the high po- sition his admirei-s claim for him, un- doubtedly possesses superior power as an artist, and his influence upon con- temporary French art has unquestionaldy been great. He is now admitted chief of the romantic school. DELANE, John T., chief editor of the Times newspaper, was born in 1802. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he took his degree. He was after\yards called to the bar. His tact and talent as a writer were early appreciatetl, and he has been for many years acting editor of the Timc.% which has been conducted with an amount of skill and hterary ability, with a dis- crimination and in a tone of right feehng and high morality which cannot be too strongly praised. To write a biographical notice of 'Sir. Delaue woidd be nothing more or less than to trace the history of the Tunes since the death of Messrs. Walker, Barnes, and Bacon. Under Mr. Delane's admirable management the paper has continued to hold the first place among English newspapers, and exercises supreme influence on ])id)lic opinion, both in England and abroad. DELAKOCHE, Paul, a French his- torical painter, was born at Paris, on the 17th July, 1797. At an eai-ly age he turned his attention to the study of landscape painting ; not wishing to ap- pear as a lival to his brother, then an historical painter of some note. Two unsuccessful com])etitions for the prize awarded to landscapes by the School of Arts overcame his fraternal scruples ; and in 1816 he became a pupil of Baron Gros, under whose direction ho nia{)oint- ed Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine to the New York Uni- versity, in 1847. After three years, ujjon sj)ecial invit.ation from his former colleagues, he returned again to (Charles- ton, where he remained until ISilS, when he was appointed to the chair which he now holds, in the most flourishing and largest medical school in America. Dr. Dickson has produced a number of well- digested medical works, and is looked uj) to as being one of the most eminent American writers on medical science. He is, besides, a jioet and an accom- plished man of letters. DILKE, CiTAULES Wentworth, a jom-nalist and critic, was born on the 8th of December, 1789. He began life in the Na^'y Pay Office. On a consolida- tion of offices in this department being effected, he retired, and purchased the " Athen.-eum," a journal which had previously been unsuccessful. Mr. Dilke took an active part in editing this paper until 18-16; when he undertook the man- agement of the "Daily News." In 1849 Mr. Dilke linally retired from active emplo^Tiient as a journalist, and now enjoys a life of learned leisure, contri- buting occasionally an article to the " Athena^iun, " but taking no share in the management of the paper. DILKE, Charles Wentworth, Junior, son of the above, was b(n-n in London, on the 18th of Felmxary, 1810. He was educated for the legal profes- sion. He was one of the foremost ])ro- moters of the Great Exliibition of 1851, and was one of the active members of the managing committee. For' his un- wearied and successful services on this occasion, he was offered the lumour of knighthood, but declined not only that, but all pecuniary reward. DINDOEF, AViLUELM, an eminent (Jerman critic and scholar, was bom at Leipsic, in 1802. He studied in the university of his native city ; and, after an examination jjassed with cclcd, be- came, in 1828, the Professor of Literary History. He resigned the chair in 18.33, and for some years devoted himself ex- clusively to philological works, espe- cially the new edition of Henry Ste- phens' "Thesaurus Grecite Linguje," published by Firmin Didot, of Paris. He has since edited for the University of Oxford, a series of the Greek classics, as well as several for Didot's "Library of Greek Classics," published at Paris. These works, in wluch the editor has given proof not only of emdition, but of a sagacity not always associated wth it, have placed him in the first rank of living Greek scholars. DISRAELI, Benjamin, a novelist, orator, and ex-Chancellor of the Ex- chequer, was born in London in 1805. He is the son of the amiable and learned author of "The Curiosities of Litera- ture," who resided chiefly on his pro- perty, near Wycombe, in Buckingham- shire. Mr. Disraeli's education was carefully superintended by his father. When completed, he was articled tlished nothing with his name ; reserving his strength for the " Athe- njEum," and an historical work on which he is engaged, the publication of which has often been announced in the jour- nals as about to take place, and is anxiously exjjected. DOBELL, Sydnev, a poet, first known as "Sydney Yendys," was l)orn in Kent, in 1S24, and brought uj) in the neighbf)nrhood of London. His father was a wine-merchant, who, when the ])oet was eleven years of age, removed his establishment to Cheltenliam. In lS3fi he entered the countiug-house of his father. as a clerk, and was actively engaged in business when he wrote his first work. In 1844 he married Emily, daughter of George P\)rdham, Esq. , of Odsey House, in Caml)ridgeshire. He had received at home a liberal education, and did not find a close application to counting- house routine incompatible with jjoctry, for which he had early shown unusual powers. In IS-W he published "The Roman," and, in 1854, "Balder," both of which created a sensation, by their originality of conception and style. By one party of critics these works were pronounced to belong to the very highest order of poetry ; l)y another, they were severely condemned as unintelligible and spasmodic. In 1855 Mr. Dobell, in conjunction with Alexander Smith, the author of "A Life Drama," pub- lished a volume entitled " Sonnets on the War," and in 185(5 appeared a book of lyrics, called "England in Time of War." DOO, Ceorce Thomas, R.A., line en- graver, was born in January, 1800, in the parisli of Christ Church, Surrey. Devoting his attention to line engraving when this art stood high in public favour, he was, in 1825, appointed engraver to his Royal Highness the Duke of York ; Historical Engraver in Ordinary to King William IV., in 183G; and in 1842 Historial Engraver in Ordinary to Queen Victoria. In 1852 he was elected Mem- ber of the Society of Arts, Amsterdam, and in the following year Member of the Academy of Fine Arts, Pennsylva- nia, U.S. In 1854 he became a Corre- sponding Member of the Imperial Aca- demy of Parma, and in 1857 a Member of the Imperial Academy of St. Peters- burg. In 1856 he was elected an Asso- ciate of the Royal Academy .of Arts in London, and in 1857 Hoyal Academician. The works by which this distinguished artist is best known are his " Knox Preaching before the Lords of the Cove- nant," after Wilkie ; his admirable ren- DOR 133 DO Y dering of Etty's " Combat," nnd his elaborate version of Eastlake's picture of the "Itahau Pilifrims coining in sight of Kome." llatf'aelle's "Infant Christ bearing the Cross," and the " Ecce Homo " of Correggio, are also works possessing a rare order of merit. The very limited pati'onage wliich hne en- graving h;is of late years received, almost led Mr. Doo to abandon the profession, and for some time he painted in oil a nimiber of highly characteristic portraits. He has now, however, re- turned to his own department of the profession, and several large engravings by him are now in progress. DORAN, John, Ph. D., F.S.A., an English wi'iter, a member of an old Leinster family, was born in London in 1807. He was chiefly educated by his father, spending many years while a boy in France and Germany, afterwartls be- coming tutor in several noble English families. The first manifestation of his literary bent was the production of a melocb-ama, the " Wandering Jew," written when he was fifteen, and brought out at the Sm-rey Theatre,. He has been an extensive contributor to periodi- cal literature ; but is best known by a series of racy works, the character of which may be inferred from theu- very titles, such as " Table Traits, and Some- thing on them," " HiiJbits and Men," " Knights and their Days, " and "Mo- narchs retired from Business." The "History of Court Fools" is probably the best specimen of his quaint style aud original method of thinking. "Any- thing," says the " Atheuteimi," "more quaint and surprising than Dr. Doran's tale of the origin of court fools is scarcely to be found in the pages of the greatest and most genial himiorists." His last work, published in 1860, is a series of biographies of the heii-s-api)arent of Englanil, under the title of " The Book of the Princes of Wales." Almost all his works have been reprinted in America. DOUGLAS, General Sir Howard, Bart., son of Admiral Sir Charles Douglas, who served imder Rodney, was born at Gosport, in 1776. He entered the army when young ; was at Wal- cheren and Corunna, and served in Spain and Portugal Ln 1808 and 1809, and again in Spain in 1811 and 1812. He published several treatises on matters connected with military science between 181G and 1819, and was appointed Go- vernor of New Brmiswick in 1823, re- taining that office till 1829. He was Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands from 1835 to 1840, aud in 1842 was elected member for Livei-pool, hold- ing the seat till 1847. In 1851 he ob- tained the rank of General, aud became Colonel of the 15th Regiment of Foot. His principal pubUcations are an " Essay on the Princi})les and Construction of Military Bridges, and the Passage of Rivers in Military Operations," "A Treatise on Naval Gimuery," " Observ ations on Carnot's Fortification, " ' ' Con siderations on the Value and Importanc of the British and North American Pro vinces," aud "Naval Evolutions," a book which ^antbcated his father's claim to the origination of a brilliant manani- vre in 1782. He censm-ed the conduct of the war in the Crimea in 1855, and showed, what afterwards turned out true, that Sevastopol could not be reduced without the plan of operations being changed. Several of his works have run through various editions, espe- cially his " Treatise on Naval Gunnery," the recommendations of which were not acted upon by the Admiriilty until 1830 thirteen years after its first publica- tion. DOYLE, Richard, an artist, was born iu London in 1826. He is sou of the author of the lithographic sketches which, with the signature of "HB" at the corner, created so much sensation some years ago, not more on account of theii' verisimiUtude than D no 134 DUG because of tlie peculiarlj' quaint mctbod in whicli au idea was conveyed in a sketch. He gave early indications of his particular talent as an art satirist, and the pages of "Punch" afforded him ample scope for the disjilay of his power. He contributed for a number of years to this periodical, and his sketches have never been excelled for dry humour and sharp wit. He caught up the current follies of the day, and exposed them with a few touches of his pencil so cleverly that the very classes ridiculed — the ridictde always being good-natvired — scarcely knew whether they should in- dulge in anger or mirth. ISIr. Doyle eventually withcb'ew from "Punch," in consofjuence of the attacks on Roman Catholicism admitted into its columns, he ha\ang been brought up in the Iloman Catholic faith. Since his sepa- ration from "Punch," he has been principally engaged in illustrating books, such as Leigh Hunt's "Jar of Honey," Pwuskiu's " King of the Golden River," and Montalba!s "Fairy Tales from all Nations," and is the illustrator of "The Continental Tour of Brown, Jones, and Robinson." DROUYN DE LHUYS, EnouAKD, a French statesman and di])lomatist, was l)orn at Paris, on the H)th of No- veml)er, 1805. Having received an ex- cellent education, at an early age he entered upon political life ; but not before having spent some time in the study of the law. In 1830 he Ijecame AUache to the French ambassador at Madrid, M. d'Harcourt, and subse- quently to Count Rayneval, whose con- fidence he soon completely won. In 1833 he went to the Hague, as Charge WAJfairej^, and had there the chief share in conducting the diplomatic transac- tions arising out of the dissolution of the imion between Belgium and Hol- land. The mode in which the diplo- matist conducted himself in this critical juuctiire was highly gratifying to all concerned. Prince Talleyrand, who had watclied the progress of the conference, ])ointed him out to the French govern- ment as of the greatest promise. He was in Spain, as first Secretary and Chcmje (V Affaires during the civd war, and was called to Paris l)y M. Thiers, in 1840, to fdl the function of Diredeur in the Foreign Office. In 1842 M. Drouyn De lihuys, elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies, saw symptoms of the coming disaster which was to prostrate constitutional government in France, and remonstrated with Guizot upon the policy of the government, contending warmly for the reform movement. He represented the de- partment of Seine-et-Mame in the Con- stituent and Legislative Assembly, and was made Presieen an extensive contributor to periodical literature. DUFFERIN AND CLANDEBOYE, Frederick Temple Blackwood, Ba- ron, was born at Florence in 1826. He studied with distinction at Oxford, and in 1849 was one of the Lords in Waiting to the Queen, but resigned in 1852 when the Conservatives came into power, re- suming office in 1854. He sits as an hereditary peer by the title of Lord Clandeboye. There are few more accom- plished noblemen than Lord Dufferin. He is an excellent scholar, a gracefid lecturer, and a very lively and agreeable writer. He has taken as yet only a small part in public affaii-s ; liut there win be always interest attached to him as the irdieritor of much of the genius of his great-grantlfather, the celebrated Richard Brinsley Sheridan, his mother being a sister of the Duchess of Somer- set and the Hon. Mrs. Norton. His claim to distinction as an author rests on his " Letters from High Latitudes, being some Accoimt of a Yacht Voyage to Iceland, San ISIaycii, and S2)iti;bergen, testant churches of America, Dr. Duff' in 1856," one of the liveliest, most read - visited the United States and Canada in able, and pleasant books of the day. DUE 138 D u yi Lord Dufferin has just been sent as British Commissioner to Syria. DUFFY, Charles Gavan, some years an Irish journalist of the anti- English school, at present a member of the Colonial Legislature of Australia, was born in the county of Monaghan in 1816. He was educated at Belfast, and went to Dublin about 18,3-t, where he obtained employment on the Press. His first decided start in journalism was an aiii)ointment as editor of the " Vindi- cator," a newspaper established in Bel- fast to inculcate the princij^les of the l>arty who clamoured for repeal of the Union and the dominancy of the lloman Catiiolic religion. He conducted that pa])er energetically, but in 1841 ho left Belfast for Dublin, where he originated the " Nation, " a journal once well known for its ultramontane and republican views. War to the knife was the doc- trine of Mr. Duffy, whilst that of his leader, Mr. O'Connell, was moral force to accomplish a political change. Their parties sej)arated, but not imtil Mr. Duffy had been imprisoned for sedition, in comj)any with the most violent agi- tators of the day. Mr. Duffy's advanced opinions led him to assist in founding what was temied the " Young Ireland " party, which was only scattered by tlie arrest and transportation of Mr. Smith O'Brien. Mr. Duffy was tried for high treason, but the jury disagreeing, there was no verdict. In 1852 he was returned to Parliament for the borough of New Iloss, and kept that seat until 1855, when he emigrated to Australia, and became so actively engaged in the poli- tics of the new country that he was elected a member of the Colonial Legis- latm-e, and subseqiu'ntly held office in the Colonial Government, from which, however, ho has been removed. DUMAS, Alexandre, a French no- velist, was l)orn at Villers Cotterets, on the 24th of July, 1803. Young Dumas received an education which was very limited, in his native town, from the Abb6 Gregaine. At the age of fifteen, ha\Tng no resources independent of his own labour, he went to Paris and obtained a situation ; but aspiring to literary pur- suits, he resolved to try his fortune as a dramatist. "Henri III. et sa Cour" was the result, and was fairly successfid. In 1820 Adolphode Leuven, a young gentleman from Paris, who had begun to write for the theatre, proposed to him that they should unite their efforts. To write for the theatre, said Leuven, was a trade like any other, and only required practice. Thus commenced that career of romance and play-writing which has given Dumas so great a notoriety. He broke thi'ough the conventional laws of dramatic compo- sition, and produced startling incidents, rapid changes, intricate plots, and villan- ous and virtuous characters in contrast. The fashion was new, and took with the giddy and volatile. His novels, first struck out in feuilletons, were penised and talked of, and what seemed a mira- cvdous facility of composition induced people to wonder, and all the more to read. His famous lawsuit with the directors of the "Prosse" and the "Con- stittitionnel, " brought to light the fact that ho was bound to furnish these jour- nals annually with a larger number of volumes than the swiftest penman could copy, and that he had been assisted by a large staff of collahoraicurti. The works of Dumas which have met with the greatest success are ' ' Les Trois Monsquetaires, " which at lirst appeared in the ' ' Si&cle " newspaper, in wliich it was continued under the title of " Vingt Ans Apr?>s, " and " Le Vicomte de Bragclone ; " " Le Comte de Monte Christo," which appeared in the "Consti- tutionnel;" and "La Peine Margot," published in the "Presse." These three works have done more to popularize the name of the author than any of his other productions. He has recently published DUM UO DUN a. "Life of Garibaldi," which is a strange compound of fact and fiction. DUMAS, Alexandrk, the younger, was born at Paris in July, 1S24. He is the son of Alexandre Dumas, the novelist, and was educated at the Institution Goubaux and the Collfcge Bourl)on. Among authors and artists his talents were early recognised, and he was ad- mired by the society into which he was thrown, when very young, for his gaiety and brilliancy. He has produced a num- ber of novels and dramas. In the for- mer class of works the " Trois Hommes Forts" occupies the first place in point of talent; in the latter, "LaDameaux CamSlias" (1852), and the "Demi Monde" (1855), take precedence. These comedies have been successful in the highest degree ; but great fault has been found with their immorality, being considered even more pernicious in tendency than the worst productions of the elder Dumas. DUISLA-S, Jean Baptiste, a French chemist, was bom at Alais, in the de- partment of Gard, 1800. In 1814 he commenced his medical studies at his native place, and afterwards followed them up at Geneva, where his devo- tion to science attracted the attention of the professors. Having fomied an acquaintance with Dr. Prevost of Ge- neva, Dimias and Prevost performed many experiments together, and pub- lished numerous papers on physiological subjects, and more particularly on blood and generation. The fame of these pa- pers procured him an appointment in Paris, as Teacher of Chemistry at the Ecole Polytechnique, and Professor of Chemistry at the Athenee. He was returned to the National Legislative Assembly as representative for the de- partement du Nord, 1849, and supported the President. He was appointed Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, then mem- ber of the "Commission Consultative." Afterwards he entered the Senate as Vice- President of the Council of Public In- struction, and became President of the Mimicii)al Council of Paris. At the Great Exhibition held in London in I85I Dimias occujjied a prominent position as chairman of one of the juries. Dumas' researches upon ether, the laws of iso- merism, the law of substitution, and the atomic weights of elementary substances, stand out among the investigations that make the nineteenth century remarkable in the annals of science. As a professor he was noted for his fluency, eloquence of style, and the great ability of his demonstrations. His principal works, and those of the pupils of his school, have for their object organic chemistry. He has published "A Treatise on Chemis- try applied to the Arts," in eight volumes ; "A Course of Chemical Philosophy," in one volume ; and ' ' A Discovirse on the Chemical Statics of Organized Beings." DUNCOMBE, Thomas Slingsby, M.P., an English politician, was born in 1796. He was returned to Parliament for Hereford in 1826, and ranged himself with the extreme Liberal party, and zealously supported the Reform Bill. In 1832 he was defeated by Lords Mahon and Ingestre, but early in 1834 was returned for Finsluiry. He opposed the Irish Coercion Bill, and in 1842 pre- sented the National petition, signed by above three millions of the industrious classes in favour of imiversal suffrage, vote by ballot, and a shorter duration of Parliament. Among other matters, he was virtually the means of establishing Jewish emancipation, by successfully carrying, in 1858, his motion for placing Baron Rothschild on a committee which was to hold a conference with the House of Lords ; since which, the doors of the House of Commons, which had been so long closed against the Jews, have been thrown open for their admission. DUNDAS, Vice- Admiral the Hon. Richard Saunders, was born at Mel- ville Castle, in the county of Edinburgh, DUN 140 DUN on the 11th of Ai)ril, 1802. He is a 1 son of Lord Mflville, who for many years was Fii-st Lord of the Admii-alty ; and entered the Navy in 1817. He served under different commanders as a midshipman, until June 1821, when he was appointed Lieuten- ant, and shortly after Commander, commissioned to the Si)arrowhawk. Ordered from Halifax to the Mediter- ranean Station, he cruised until 1824, when he was promoted to the rank of Post Cajjtaiu, subsequently taking com- mand of the Volage and the Warspite, the latter a seventy-six gim-ship, and the first man-of-war that circumnavigated tlie globe. On his retm^n to England in 1828 he was again ajjpointed to the Mediterranean Station, where he re- mained some years, and in 1837 he was phiced in charge of the Melville, seventy- two gims, and took a very tlistinguished part in the war with China. In 1845 Captain Dundas became private secre- tary to the Earl of Haddington, then First Lord of the Acbuiralty, but that post was relinquished in the following year on the resignation of Ministei-s. Meantime (1841) he had conferred on him the ISIilitary Companionship of the Bath. In 1851 he was appointed Su- perintendent of Deptford Dockyard, and in 1853 promoted to the rank of Rear- Admiral. In February, 1855, he was called on to command the British Fleet in the Baltic, superseding Sir Charles Napier. Some time after taking the chief command he bombarded Swea- borg, reducing the place to ashes, after a severe cannonade on the 9th of Au- gust. The war ended, Admii-al Dun- das was created a K. C. B., and re- ceived the honorary degree of D. C. L. from the University of Oxford, together with the French order of (irand Olhcer of the Legion of Honom\ In 1858 he was advanced to the rank of Vice-Admiral of the Blue. DUNDONALD, Thomas Cocurai^e, Earl of, was born on the 14th December, 1775. At an early age he joined the navy, but in consequence of the objections of his father he did not enter regularly into the service imtil 1793, when he joined the Hind corvette, of twenty-eight guns, under the command of Ids uncle, Sir Alexander Cochrane. He was not long in giving proofs of his daring character, distinguishing hunself in May, 1795, as acting Lieutenant of the Thetis. After serving, in obedience to orders, from vessel to vessel, he joined Lord Keith's flag-ship, the Bartleur, in the MediteiTa- nean. When, after cruising for some time in pursiut of the French fleet. Lord Keith shifted his flag to the Queen Charlotte, Lord Cochrane accompanied him. On the 21st of September, 1799, he executed a task which displayed at once his reso- lution and his judgment. The Lady Nelson cutter was hemmed in ofl'Cabritta Point, Gibraltar Bay, by the French and Spanish vessels. He took with him the Queen Charlotte's boats, attacked the opposing force, and ultimately boarding some, rescued the beleaguered vesseL In March, 1800, m command of the war-sloop Speedy, he captured no fewer than 50 vessels, with 122 gims and 534 prisoners, his own ship mount- ing only 14 guns and carrying 54 men. He encoimtered the Gamo, 32 gims, 319 men, ofl" Barcelona, on May 6th, 1801, and after a desperate struggle made her a prize. This action gained him his rank as Cajitain. But there is no sunshine without shadow. The Sjjcedy was obliged, after a thirteen months' cruise, to siu-render to a French squadron consisting of three ships of the line. Lord Cochrane became a pri- soner of war, but was soon after ex- changed. From that time, although very badly used by the Admiralty, he was scarcely ever out of service or out of danger, cruising in the Pallas and the Imperieuse, taking the enemy's ships here, and blowing up batteries DUN 141 D UN there ; when, in 1809, he was ordered, as the most intrepid commander at the time within reach, to destroy by means of fire-ships the French fleet, then in the Basque Eoads. He iindei-took this mission of victory or death, went on board one of the ships, which contained a large quantity of gimpowder, and was successfid. After being knighted, he became member for Honiton and then for Westminster. Lord Cochrane, while in Parliament, exposed the shortcomings and venality of the Admiralty, and was an inveterate opponent of ministers ; the result of which was, that when, in the early part of 1814, a report was spread that Napoleon had fallen, and Lord Cochrane and his friends had taken advantage of this for their own interests, the ministry considering this a good opportunity to stifle his opposition, accused him of stock jobbing and fraud. He was found guilty of spreading a report that damaged thousands for his own gain, was fined, and deprived of all his rewards and decorations. In addi- tion, he was to be imprisoned for a year. But before the term was con- cluded, his Westminster constituents considering that he was the victim of party feeling, re-elected him to the House of Commons, and escaping from jail, to the astonishment of the mem- bers made his bow to the Speaker. From a prison to foreign ser\'ice was no unpleasant change. Lord Cochrane went to South America, and fought heroically for the independence of the Spanish colonies. He next gave the weight of his character and genius to Greece, after being a short time em- ployed by the Brazilian government, and eventually, forty-four years after the war, was restored to his rank in the navy of Great Britain. He became Earl of Dundonald in 1831, Vice-Admiral of the Blue in 1841, and mounted once more the order of the Bath in 1847. In 1851 he was Vice-Admiral of the WTiite, and in 1852 Bear- Admiral of the United King- dom. It is much to be regi-etted that the Earl of Dundonald has not met witli that cordial response throughout his life which his talents, energies, and patriotism have deserved. In former days he has had to contend with the jealousies of his inferiors in ability, although by the accidents of life they may have been his superiors in sta- tion. His various inventions, offered to difl'erent governments, prove him to be a man of genius; and although some of the improvements he has suggested in the mode of carrying on war may have ap- peared at first sight somewhat too highly coloured in their promised results, still the motives which induced him to i)resent them to the j udgment of the naval and ord- nance boards, should at least have secured for them a careful examination. But he has outlived his enemies, and can now well aff'ord to forget past circumstances. Ca- liminies have been disproved ; the evil spirit tiiat had haunted him is banished ; and the maligned Lord Cochrane is more honoured than ever. Since his retii-ement from active service, he has turned his at- tention to the science of naval warfare, and has invented new projectiles and new methods of blowing up shijis ; buthisjilans have been always rejected by the powers that be. In his eighty- sixth year Lord Dimdonald's activity is still on the ascen- dant, and he is occupied on the " Story of his Life," a memoir which will, in all time to come, stimulate the pluck and energy of English seamen. DUNGLISON,EoBLEY, M.D., LL.D., a medical wi'iter, was born at Kes\^^ck, in 1798. He commenced the practice of medicine in 1819 in London, but in 1824 went to America, having been chosen Professor of Medicine in the newly-established University of Virgi- nia. In 1833, he was appointed Pro- fessor of ^Tateria Medica in the Univer- sity of ISIaryland ; and, since 1836, of the Institutes of jNIcdicine and Medical Jurisprudence in the Jefferson Medical DUP 142 DUP College of Philadelphia. Dr. Dunglln- son's works are so many text-books, on which students and practitionei-s may place implicit reliance. He is one of the most popular medical autliors of the day. So great has been the demand for his works, that of the ' ' Medical Lexi- con," "General Therajjeutics and Ma- teria Medica," "Human Physiology," "Human Health," "New Kemedies," and the "Practice of Medicine," re- prints of 100,000 volumes had been sold up to 1858. DU PETIT THOUAPtS, Abel Au- BERT, a French navigator, was born in 1793. He entered the French Marine Service in 1804. He was promoted in 1819 to the rank of lieutenant; and in 1824 to that of captain of a frigate. In 1841, he was rear-admiral, when he ])ro- posed to Louis- Philippe to occupy the Society Islands. His proceedings there are well known ; when he returned from the Pacific to France, they were dis- avowed. Under the llejjublic he sat in the National Assembly for the depai-t- meut of Marne-et-Loire, always voting with the majority. Latterly there has been nothing heard of him. D UPIN, Andke-Maeie Jean Jacques, known as Dupiu aine, ex-President of the National Assembly, was born at Varzy, on the 1st February, 1783. He was called to the bar in February 1800 ; and in 1802, when the schools were re-ojjened, he was the first to jiass as Doctor before the new faculty. He endeavoured to obtain a vacant pro- fessorship in the School of Law in Paris, but being refused, he commenced prac- tice at the bar, where the picpiant origi- n;ility of his speech, the brilliaucy of his wit, and the extent and accuracy of his knowledge, gained for him a great repu- tation. In 1811 he was reconmiended for the place of Advocate-General to the Court of Cassation, which he did not obtain, but he was almost immediately appointed to the Commission for Classi- fying the Laws of the Empire, which immense undertaking was afterwards entrusted to his sole charge. His poli- tical life began in 1815, when he was retm-ned to the Chamber of Kepresenta- tives, and took part with the liberal opposition. He was, with M. Berryer, the defender of Maj-shal Ney, in 1815; he also defended the Englishmen, Wil- son, Hutchinson, and Bruce, who had been so instrumental in the memorable escape of Lavalette ; and as the steadfast enemy of the Jesuits, enjoyed an ex- tended poj)ularity under the llestoration. Dupiu has du-ected great attention to the i)ro(luctive powers of France, and has written two works upon that sub- ject. From 1815 to 1830 he was a member of the Representative Chamber. In ISoO he was a zealous supporter of Louis-Philippe, and in 1831 was named Procureur-General. Towards the end of 1832 he became President and Speaker of the new jjarliament. His political career for a number of years presents few striking features. In 1842 he was named reporter of the project of law in favour of the Duke de Nemours being regent ; and in 1848, he introduced the Count of Paris to the Chamber, recom- mending the members to recognise him as king and the Duchess of Orleans as regent. He made a show of moral oppo- sition to the coup (Pekit when the As- sembly was dispersed, but he has since seen it his interest to reconcile himself to the rule of Napoleon. In point of fact, Dupin is the solitary example of the seduction of any eminent statesman of the old rc(jhne, by the Emperor. DUPIN, Baron FRAN901S Pierre Charles, a French statistician and se- nator, brother of the preceding, was born at Varzy, in Nivernais, on 6th October, 1784. He stutlied in the Poly- technic School, and in 1808 was named engineer to the Marine Service, when he was emi)loyed in the preparation of the channel fleet and in formiug the arsenal DUP 143 DUP of Antwerp. He was four years at Corfu, whither he weul after the Ionian Ishxnds had been ceded to France. On his return to Paris, in 1812, he devoted his attention to the study of the con- struction of ships; in 1813 he founded the Maritime Museiun, which has served as a model for the naval museum of the Louvre. A favoiuite pui)il of Mouge, and a friend of the republican Caruot, he witnessed the fall of the empire with- out regret. He asked permission of Fouche to defend Carnot. Entrusted with the suj)erintendence of the dock- yard at Duuldrk, he visited in ISIG the maritime establishments of England. Four years afterwards he begau the pubUcatiou of his " Voyages dans la Grand Bretagne eutre 1816 et 1821," in which he pointed out the advantages of constitutional government. In 1815 he was admitted to the Institute. In 1824 Louis XVIII. conferred on him the title of Baron ; but he continued true to liberal principles, and being retm-ned Deputy for Tarn he made numerous speeches on pubHc instruction, the navy and its organization, &c. He opposed Pohgnac, and was elected for Paris, July 1820. He filled various offices up to 1837, when he was created a peer of France ; and since then he has main- tained his principles without sacrificing his independence. Among his works may be enumerated a work entitled ' ' Geometry and Mechanics, in their Application to Industry and the Fine Arts" (Paris, 1825 and 1826); "The British System of Administration" (1823) ; "Lectui'es on Industry, Commerce, Na- vigation, and the Sciences applied to the Ai'ts ; " " Opening Addresses to the Conservatory;" "The Eloge of Gas- pard Monge," read on the 2nd of Sep- tember, 1849, in the name of the Aca- demy of Sciences ; " Discoui'se pro- noiuiced at the Distribution of Prizes to the French Exhibitors on the 25th of November, 1851;" a pamphlet on the " Comparative Industry of Paris and London" (1852); and various otiier re- ports and eloije.s. DUPONT DE L'EUilE, Jacques CH.A.RLES, President of the Provisional Government of France in 1848, was born at Neubourg, Eiire, on the 27th of February, 1767. In 1789 he was admitted as an advocate before the parliament of Normandy, and embraced the principles of the Revolution with ardour. He led a very active public life, filling many offices, his political creed being, liberty of the people and the press, equal civil and political rights, and a representative system. Thi-ough all the changes of dynasty that have occurred during his long hfe, M, Dupont De L'Em-e has sustained the reputation of being a piu'e-minded citi- zen and an honest man. DUPONT, Pierre, a French poet and song writer, was born at Lyons in 1821. His parents were wevy poor, but, by one means and another, he received a fair education, and got to be employed in the office of a notary, and afterwards obtained a clerkship in a bank. In 1839 he went to Paris, and in time attracted notice. He pubhshed a volume of poetry, entitled ' ' The Two Angels," in 1844; and its success, though moderate at first, evoked the spirit of poetry. He awoke one morning and found he had risen to fame by his song of "Les Boeufs." Thenceforward he devoted himself to the composition of songs, to most of which he composed music, without knowing anything of the science. After 1848 he was car- ried away by the Socialist notions of the day, and Avi'ote a few songs which compromised him with the government. In December, 1851, he remained under concealment for six months ; at the end of which he was dis- covered, and condemned to six months' banishment toLandessa, in Algeria. He, however, obtained a paidon, and since D YC 144 D YC then he has not interfered in politics. The best known of his songs are, "LesBceufs," "Le Braconnicr," "Le Louis d'Or," " Le Chant des Nations," "Le Chant des Soldats," " Le Dahlia Bleu," "LaVigne," " La Chanson du Big," "La Yache Blanche," " La Fin de la Pologne," &c. Various editions of his songs have been pul>lished, both with and without music. ]M. Dupont may be looked upon as the Burns of France. DYCE, THE Rkv. Alex^vnder, an English author and critic, was born in Edinburgh, in June, 1798, and received his education at tlie High School of that city, and Exeter CoUi^ge, Oxford. Having comi)leted his curricidima, he received episcopal ordination, and offi- ciated for .several years as a curate in Cornwall and Suffolk. On going to London he entered there iipon a literary career, in which his general learning and critical sagacity have gained him merited distinction. After publishing ' ' Select Translations from Qiiintus Sm>TTiaeus," an edition of the poet Collins, and " Specimens of British Poetesses," he edited the works of Shakspeare, Beaumont and Fletcher, Peele, Greene, Webster, Shirlej% Mid- dJeton, Marlowe, Bentley, and Skelton. Amongst his other publications are, " Specimens of British Sonnets ;" "Re- marks on Collier's and Knight's Edi- tions of Shakspeare;" "A Few Notes on Shakspeare;" and "Strictures on Collier's new Edition of Shakspeare." The lives of Shakspeare, Pojjc, Akenside and Beattie, in the "Aldine Poets," were written by him ; and he has edited various volumes for the Camden and Percy Societies. His " PvCCoUections of the Table Talk of Samuel Rogers," has been several times reprinted. As a Shakspearian critic Mr. Dyce is perhaps most favourably known, and his text of the great ilramatist has been pronounced by the " Quartei-ly," to be by far the best yet given to the world. DYCE, William, R.A., a painter of history, and ^^^^ter on subjects connected chiefly with the Fine Arts and ecclesi- astical antiquities, was born at Aber- deen, in ISOG. He was educated at the University of Aberdeen, and took the degree of M. A. at the age of sixteen. He was intended for one of the learned pro- fessions, l)ut subsequently devoted him- self to art, and went to London in 1825 to be entered as a pupil of the Royal Academy. He was admitted ; but his father having been advised to send him to study in Italy, Mr. Dyce set out for Rome in the same year. On his return, he i)roduced a picture on a classical sub- ject, which was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1827. After a second ^^sit to Italy, he finally returned to this country, and sjient some years partly in London and partly in Aberdeen and Edinburgh. A pamphlet, which he \vrote in 18.36, "On the Application of Design to Manufactures," having been brought under the notice of the Board of Trade, he was summoned to London, and sent by the President — then Mr. Poulett Thomson — on a mission to the Continent, to repoi-t on the organiza- tion of Foreign Schools of Design, with a view to the foiTnation of an establish- ment of that kind in London, which was then in contemplation. The report made by him was printed by the House of Commons, and he was a])poiuted Di- rector of the new establishment, with Mr. Herbert, R.A., as Head Master. He held this office for five years ; and on his resignation in 18-4.3, was appointed Inspector of the Provincial Schools, which had been established under his management, and a member of the Councd. His occupations at the School of Design having become less engross- ing, he again aj)plied himself to art, and in 1844 exhibited his jucture of "King Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliver- ance," the merits of which were so fully recognised that he was elected EAD 145 EAD Associate of the Royal Academy. The same year he exhibited a specimen of fresco paiuting at the Westminster Hall Exhibition. He soon afterwards received a commission for a fresco for Buckingham Palace, and subsequently for Osborne. He was the first of the artists employed on the New Houses of Parliament, and sohiglily was his "Bap- tism of Ethelbert" — his gi-and fresco in the House of Lords — appreciated, that he has beenVor years engaged in adorn- ing the New Palace. He was elected an Academician in 1848 ; but of late years, in cousecpieuce of liis other com- missions, he has exhibited few oil pic- tures. He pxd)lished in 1843-44, in 2 vols. 4to, an edition of the Book of Common Prayer, mth the ancient musi- cal notation ; accomi)anied by a Disser- tation on Gregorian Music, and its adap- tation to English words. He is also the author of a reply to a pamphlet of Mr. Buskin on a theological subject ; of a work on "The Management of the National Gallery;" and of numerous articles in periodicals to which his name is not attached. He is Professor of the Theory of the Fine Ai-ts, in King's Col- lege, London. EAD IE, JoHX, D.D., LL.D., an eminent biblical critic, was born about the year 1814, in Alva, a small town in the county of Stirling. At a very early period Dr. Eadie began to manifest superior powers, and made rapid pro- gi-ess in all those branches of a liberal education, forming a necessary prepara- tion for the ministry. Ha%dng completed his preparatoiy studies, Mr. Eadie en- tered the University of Glasgow ; thence he passed with honour to the tliv-iiiity haU of the United Preslijiierian Church, then under the superintendence of Drs. Dick and Mitchell. Ha\ang completed his theological curriciUum, Mr. Eadie be- came a preacher of the Gospel. His supe- rior powers were soon appreciated, and at the early age of twenty-one he was, in 1835, ordained minister of the congrega- tion of which he is still the pastor. On the death of the late accomi)lished Dr. Mitchell, Professor of Biblical Literature to the United Presbyterian Synod, such was the estimation of Dr. Eadie's scholar- ship and capacity, that he was imani- mously appointed in 1843, by the Synod, to till the chair of his quondam teacher. Dr. Eadie was in 1846-47 twice called to a pastoral charge in Edinburgh, but re- fused to go. While discharging with high acceptability the duties of this professorship, and continuing to minister to his large congregation, every seat in his chapel being let. Dr. Eadie has also devoted himself to the production of not a few works of great usefulness and ability. " Cruden's Concordance," which has since passed thi-ough twenty editions, was the first work mth which his name was associated, and was vmdertaken in conjimction with the Rev. Dr. King. The "Biblical Cyclopfedia," "Lectures on the Bible to the Young," "Early Oriental History," "Divine Love," "A Complete Analytical Concordance," "Paul the Preacher," and a "Life of Dr. Kitto," are aU peculiarly popidar and able works ; while his Commen- taries on Ei>hesians, Colossians, and Philippians are highly valuable contri- butions to the science of biblical inter- pretation. The second edition of the first of these is now in the press. Some of the most erudite and gi-acefid papers in " The Journal of Sacred Literatiu-e," and also in "Kitto's Cyclopanlia of Biblical Literature," w^ere contributed by Dr. Eadie. The pages of the "North Bri- tish Re-\aew" have likewise been en- riched by liis pen. His latest production is a touching and admirable estimate of that fudle princeps of English Congre- gational theologians, the late Dr. Pye Smith. This essay has been appro- priately prefixed to a new edition of the "Scriptm-e Testimony to the Messiah." of that learned diN-ine. Dr. Eadie is i. E AS 146 ED W now engaged in editing an Ecclesiastical (..'j'^cloptedia, as a comi)aniou to the "Biblical Cyclopajdia." Dr. Eadie re- ceived the degree of LL.D. in 1844, from the University of Glasgow, and that of D.D. in 1850, from the University of St. Andrews. EASTLAKE, Sir Cii.\rles Lock, a painter, and President of the Royal Academy, was born at Pljonouth, in 1793. Having ])assed through the usual course of education at the grammar schools of his native place, he adopted pamtiug as a profession, and entered the I'oyal Academy, London, as a pupil of Fuseli, and afterwards visited Pai'is. He re- turned to England, and established him- self as a portrait painter at Plymouth. When, after Waterloo, the ship of war which was to carry Naijoleon to Saint Helena lay oil" Plymouth, Eastlake seized this oi)portuuity for securing the last portrait of the ex-Emperor obtained in Em-ope. As the great man walked the deck of the " Bellerophon, " the artist, while in a small boat, took sketches of him, and from them j)roduced a full-length portrait, which gave quite a new idea of the personal appearance of Napoleon, tlae French portraits being in general higldy ideahzed. After a tour to Italy, Sicily, and Greece, he, in 1823, forwarded to the Exhibition of the Royal Academy, views and sketches he had made. In 1828 he contributed his famous "Peasants on a Pilgrimage to Rome, first coming in sight of the Holy City." In 1830 Mr. Eastlake was elected R. A. His next gi-eat work, one of the most important of recent contri- butions to the English liistorical school of painting, was "Clu-ist Weeping over Jerusalem. " The deep sentiment of this great i)ictm-e won its way to all hearts. It was followed by "Hagar and Ish- mael." In 1841 Mr. Eastlake was ap- pointed Secretary to the Royal Commis- sion, formed for incjuiring Avhethcr advantage might not be taken of the rebuilding the Houses of Parliament, to promote the Fine Arts. In 1850 Mr. Eastlake was elected President of the Royal Academy, and in the same year he received the honour of knighthood. In 1855 he was apjKunted Director of the National Gallery, %vith a salary of £1,000 a year. Opinion is divided respecting the precise position of Su- Charles as an artist, although by many able judges he is esteemed not only the ablest, but also the most learned of English painters. He is the translator of "Goethe on Colours," "Notes to Kiigler's Hand- book of Paintuig," and "Coutrilmtions towards a History of Oil Painting." EDWARDES, Sir Hkrbert Ben- jamin, K.C.B., an Indian ofhcer, was born at Frodesley, in Shrojjshire (where his father was rector), on 12th November, 1819. Educated at liichmond, Smxey, and at King's College, London, he received a cadetship in 1840. Having attracted notice by a series of letters on public afftiirs in the "Delhi Gazette," ad- dressed by "Brahmiuee Bidl to his cousm John Bidl in England," he was appointed, in 1845, aide-de-camp on the staff of the Commander-in-Chief, Sir Hugh (now Lord) Gough. After taking part in the battles of Moodkee and Sobraon, and being wounded in the former engagement, he was entrusted, in 1846, with an important mission to the court of the king of Iimunoo and Cashmere, in which he was completely successfid. In the following year he was deputed by Su- Henry Lawrence to accoini)any, and control, a Sikh force, despatched to realize the arrears of tribute withheld from the Sikh govei-n- ment by the tribes of Burmoo, a hiU- bound country on the Afghan border of the Pimjaub. The exjiedition was only partially successfid ; and, at Lieutenant Edwardes' advice, a second was desi)atch- ed at the close of the year, i)ennanently to reduce and occupy the valley. The complete success of the Lieutenant's ED W 147 EGG plans is narrated in liis "Year on the Punjaub Frontier in 1848-9." Scarcely had Burnioo been reduced than war broke out at Mooltan. Hearing of the miu-der of two English officers, Lieut. Edwardes, on his own authority, commenced military operations against Dewan Mooh-aj, the Sikh governor of that province ; ajid his plans being ap- proved of by Sir Frederick Cui-rie (then officiating as President at Lahore during Sir Henry Lawrence's absence in Eng- land), he levied an irregular force from the border tribes, in aid of a force of Sikh Regidars, and obUged Moolraj to withdraw his army fi'om the left bank of the Indus, and won a complete vic- tory, taking eight gims from the enemy. This battle was fought on the ISth Jime, and is called "Kineyree," from the neighbouring ferry of the Chenab. The defeated rebels fled to Mooltan, were followed, and again defeated there, with Moolraj at their head, on Jidy 1st, with a loss of two more gims. Moolraj then shut himseK up in his fort, and was blockaded by the united forces of Lieut. Edwardes, General Cortlandt, and the Nawab of Bhawidpoor (commanded by another English subaltern, Lieut. Ed- ward Lake, of the Bengal Engineers), till a regular British force imder General Whish arrived to besiege the fortress. For these services Lieut. Edwardes was promoted to a Brevet-majority, was made an extra Companion of the Bath, and had a gold medal voted to him by the East India Comjiauj^ During the operations he lost the use of his right hand by the accidental explosion of a pistol in his belt; in consideration of which the East India Company gave him a good service pension of £100 a year. On the assassination of the Com- missioner of Peshilwur, in Sei^tember 1853, he was selected to succeed huu. His services in that jiost, though attracting less notice, are perhaps the most usefid and solid which he has rendered ; for by a firm but kind administration, he gi-adually attached the frontier tribes, and mducod govenmient to retrace its former pohcy towards Afghanistan, and form a friendly alliance with Dost M&- hommed, the Ameer of Cabid. The fruits of these labours were reaped in the memorable year 1857, when the native army of Bengal mutinied. In- stead of fraternizing with the Sepoys, the triljes of the Peshiiwur frontier sided with government, and furnished impoi-t- ant levies for sei^dce in Hindostan, while Dost JNIahommed maintained a friemlly attitude thi-oughout the war, iu stead of marching down to Peshawur, and tiu'n- ing the scale against the English. In Indian politics Lieut. -Col. Edwardes is a decided advocate of an openly-avowed Chi-istian poHcy, in opposition to the traditional policy of neutralitj'' in reh- gious matters, and advocates, in all government schools in India, the forma- tion of a Bible class at which attendance may be voluntary. In 1850 he received the honorary degree of DX\L. from Oxford, and on the 18th Jime, 1860, the honorary degree of LL.D. from Cam- bridge. EGG, Augustus, a painter, was born in London, in 1816. Of his early hfe we have no record, but we find him ex- hibiting at the Academy in 1838, and elected an Associate in 1848. He is an admirable illustrator of Shakspeare and Le Sage, to some of whose lighter fancies he has given a chaiin beyond the reach of wiitten description. Among his chief works are " Le Diable Boi- teux," "The Victim," "Gil Bias ex- changing Rings with Camilla," "Queen Elizabeth discovering that she is no longer Yoimg, " ' ' Henrietta of England relieved by Cardinal De Retz," " Kath- arine and Petruchio," and "Bucking- ham relmfled." A more important work is " Peter the Great seeing Cathe- rine, his future Empress, for the first time ; " a pictiu'e which, for conception EGL US EHR and masterly iKuuUiiif;, may stand com- when in the course of a few montlis he l)arison with any production of its class. It is excelloil, however, by two other works of more xecent date ; one ])eing "The Life and Death of Buckingham," exhibited in 18r»o, and the other a "tri- logy" exhibited in 1858, which had no title, but was described in an extract from a Diary (termed by most of the papers a domestic tragedy). Mr. Egg was one of the artists selected to arrange the paintings at the Manchester Exhi- bition. EGLINTON AND WINTOX, Archi- bald William Montgomerie, fifteenth Earl of, and K. T., late Lord Lieutenant of Ii-eland, was born at Palermo, in Sicily, in 1812. He succeeded to the peerage in 1819, and when he attained his majority took his seat in the House of Lords on the Conservative benches. Attached to field-sports, he encouraged racing and himting; but though display- ing what many were pleased to term eccentricities, he never neglected the culture of his intellect At an early period in life, under the influence of ideas quite allowable in a young nobleman who represented the Sir Hugh Mont- gomery of Chevy Chace, he got up the famous tournament which was to evoke the spirit of the chivalrous age, and which indeed produced a lasting effect on the minds of many i)ersons who wit- nessed it. The pageant was gorgeous. Lady Seymour, now Duchess of Somer- set, was the Queen of Beauty, and the present Emjieror of the French one of the spectators. In 1841 his lordship married the widow of the late Captain CockereD, E.N., but who died in 1853, greatly regretted. Lord Eglinton took no very prominent part in political life ; and when, in 1852, on Lord Derby's accession to power, he was appointed to the Lord Lieutenancy of Ireland, the Opposition sneered and the ^linisteriaUsts doubted ; but both were (discovered to have made a great mistake, attained to a popularity never accorded to any of his predecessors. He displayed ability for which he had never got credit ; he was accessible and genial ; above aU, for the fii-st time in Ireland during a hundred years, he exhibited the novel spectacle of a nobleman re- solved to govern the country without refei-ence to party ; and thus was turned the first leaf in the history of Ireland's social advancement. On the overthrow of Lord Derby's administration, in 1853, he was necessarily recalled ; but on the reinstatement of the Conservatives, in 1858, he returned to Ireland as Lord Lieutenant ; of course retiring when Lord Derby resigned in 1859. As a landlord. Lord Eglinton takes great interest in agricultural improvements. He is fond of out-door games, and there are few better curlers or bowlers in Scotland. He preserves his attachment to field-sports, but at the same time no one more highly ai)preciates intellectual cultivation, and he has endeavoured to the utmost to promote the diffusion of education through every class of the conununity. The Scottish rights ques- tion was warmly espoused by Lord Eglinton, on grounds which have been much misrei)resented by the press. He was elected Lord Rector of Glasgow University in 1853 ; and he is Lord Lieutenant of the county of Ayr. He man-ied, in November 1859, Lady Adela Capel, daughter of the Earl of Essex. EHRENBERG, Christian Gott- FKEID, a (Jerman naturalist and micro- scopist, was born on the 19th of April, 1795, at Delitzch, in Prussian Saxony. He received his early education at Schulpforta, and there commenced the study of theology, which he afterwards abandoned for that of medicine, at Leipsic, in 1815. In 1817 the law of mihtary service called him to Berlin, where he took the degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1818 ; and published in the EHR 149 EIC "Academia Leopoldina, " his observa- tions iipon the germiiiatiou of seeds. At this time he became acquainted with the celebrated Hemprich, with whom he was sent on a scientific expedition into Egypt. The two travellers visited the coasts of Lydia, Middle Egyjit, Nubia, Dongola, and Syria, exploring the rnius of Baalbec and Mount Lebanon. After retiu-ning again to Cairo, they proceeded to Momit Sinai, the height of which was ascertained by Ehrenberg, and thence to the Red Sea, Arabia, and AV>yssinia. On his return from his eastern joiu-uey, Ehi'enberg was appointed one of the professors of the Faculty of Medicine, at Berlin. In 1829 he accompanied Humboldt to the Ural Moimtains, di- recting his attention especially to micro- scopic investigations. Cuvier in the French Academy, and Humboldt in " Cosmos, " have pointed out the immense scientific value of these inquuies. Eh- renberg's great work on "Infusoria," forming one part of his investigations, was published in 1838, and drew upon him the attention of scientific men all over Europe. In 1842 he was elected Perpetual Secretary of the Royal Aca- demy of Berlin, having been a Fellow from the year 1827, and ha\'ing con- tributed many memoirs to the Trans- actions, during the whole of the inter- vening period, among which may be enumerated one on "The Cynocepha- lus ;" a second on "The Soil of the Desert ;" a third on " The Corals of the Red Sea;" a fourth on "The Lumino- sity of the Sea." Since the publication of his " Infusoria," he has pursued his investigations of the fossil forms of mi- croscopic organisms, the result of his inquiries being embodied in a work entitled " Micro-geologie," published in 1854. This work illustrates the micro- scopic hfe of the whole globe ; more especially in its connexion with and influence upon rocks, the soil, the bed of the sea, and the atmosphere in which floats microscopic dust. From objects examined, and drawings made, during his travels in Africa, Syria, and Arabia, a great nirmber of plates have been prepared and published at intervals, since 1828, the work not having yet been finished. Ehrenberg is a member of most of the learned societies of Europe, and enjoys a higher reputation wath sci- entific men than with the general public, in consequence of the character of his researches, which have opened up new fields of scientific observation, in the cultivation of which he has throughout his whole career held the highest rank. EICHWALD, Edw^ard, a naturalist, was born in July, 1795, at Mittau, in Lithuania. He studied medicine, and the natiu-al sciences, at Berlin. After travelling over a great part of Europe^ he retm-ned to Russia in 1821, w^here he dehvered some popular lectures, and was ajipointed Professor of Zoology and Midwifery, at Casan. From 1825 to 1827 he explored the Caspian Sea, and the country of the Caucasus ; and on reaching Europe once again, was ap- pointed Assistant Professor in the Uni- versity of WiLna. That institution hav- ing been suppressed, he was appointed, in 1838, Perpetual Secretary and Pro- fessor of Zoology and Mineralogy to the Medical and Sm'gical Academy of that place. Called then to St. Petersbm-g, he filled several scientific situations, and roamed thi-ough various countries, adding to his own knowledge, and the power of conveying it to others. In 1851 the learned Professor retired from the really active pursuits of his pro- fession, and received the title of Coim- cUlor of State. He is a member of all the Academies of Russia, as well as of many foreign societies. Belonging to a German province of Russia, Eich- wald has wa-itteu his works in Latin, French, Russian, and Geiman, but chiefly in German. Among the most important of his works, are his ' ' J our- ELG 150 ELL ney to the Caspian Sea and the Cau- casus ;" " The Ancient Geography of the Caspian, the Caucasus, and Southern Russia ;" " A Treatise on the Siliuian Deposit of Esthonia;" "Sketches, by a I^aturahst, of Lithuania, Volhynia, and Podoha ;" "Plantarum Novanim quas in itinere Caspio, Caucasico, observaAat Eascicuh;" "Fauna Casjiico-Cauca- sica ;" " Researches on Russian Infuso- ria;" "The Palieontology of Russia," &o. &c. ELGIX AND KINCARDINE, The Earl of, K.T., late Governor-General of Canada, and now British Ambassador Extraordinary to China, was born in ISll. Lord Elgin, the representative in the male line of the great Scottish house of Bruce, is the son of the dis- tingiiished nobleman who enriched the art treasures of this kingdom by his collection of sciUpture, general!}' known as the "Elgin marbles." The present Lord Elgin was educated at his father's seat in Fifeshire, and aftei^w'ards at Oxford. He was returned to Parlia- ment as member for Southampton, in 1841 ; and in 1842, on the death of his father, was called to the House of Peers. lu the same year he was ap- pointed Governor of Jamaica, Avhere he continued to administer the affairs of the island with equal al)ihty and suc- cess until 184G, when he was sent to Canada as Governor- General. His ad- ministration of the Canadian govern- ment was beyond all precedent suc- cessfid. Recognising no party, he sought to develop the industrial and commer- cial resources of the colony, a difficidt tmdertaldng with a countiy which had long been distracted by intestine feuds. He encouraged agriculture and trade by every means at his command, and ad- mitted no distinction between the citi- zens of the Upper and Lower Provinces. By his patience, forbearance, and a desire to accommodate himself to the habits of those with whom he had to deal, he conciliated all parties ; and since that time, Canada has been one of the most, if not the most, prosperous of all the British colonies. In 1857, the serious disputes between the European and native popidation in China, which had broken into an open rupture, induced the British Government to look out for some able and resolute diplomatist to settle matters in that remote quarter of the world. His antecedents at once pointed out Lord Elgin as the fittest man to act in an intricate case with vigoiir and discretion. He accordingly proceeded to the East, arranged the difficiUties, and procured a treaty which gave Britain freer access to China than she ever enjoyed before. His task was not only delicate, but dangerous ; but he fulfilled it, so far as it lay in his power, Avith consummate address and skill. He regretted not having had the opportimity of overawing the Chinese Government in their capital before re- turning to Eiu'ope, which he seems to have considered absolutely necessary to bring them to a true sense of their posi- tion with regard to the European powers. After the return of the Earl of Elgin to England, and on the formation of the present ministry, he was appointed Post- master-General. Owing to a breach of the Chinese treaty, he has again left this country for the East, where there can be little doubt that decisive mea- sures will now be taken to curb the insolence of the ' ' Celestials, " and to pro- tect both the European merchants and the native producers from the rapacity and stupidity of the riding power. ELLENBOROUGH, The Right Hox. Edward Law, Earl of, was bom on 8th of September, 1790. He is the son of the celebrated Chief Justice of the King's Bench, and was educated at Eton and Cambridge. He succeeded to his fathei''s title and estates in 1818. In the Wellington ministry he held the office of Privy Seal, and in Sir ELL 151 ELL Robert Peel's government (1835) was President of the Board of Control. That administration existing but a few months, Lord Ellenborough had no post until 1841, when Sir Robert Peel placed him in his old situation. Lord Auck- land having been recalled from the government of India, Lord Ellenbo- rough succeeded him, arriving at Cal- cutta in 1842. He conquered Scinde, and reduced Gwalior ; but his opjjonents accused him of so many eccentricities, that the now defunct East India Com- pany recalled him, though contrary to the wish of the ministry. In 1846 he was First Lord of the Admiralty, but went out with Sir Robert Peel. In 1858 he once again took charge, vmder Lord Derby, of Indian affairs, but an untoward despatch to Lord Canning, the Governor-General, having become public property, such a storm was raised as compelled him to resign office. Lord EUenborough is an accomplished orator, though somewhat dogmatic in the ex- pression of his opinions. ELLIOTSON, John, M.D. Cantab., F. R. S. , was bom in London about the close of last century. He studied in the Universities of Edinburgh and Cam- Ijridge, his earlier education ha\T.ng been received from private tutors. He attend- ed the mecbcal practice of St. Thomas's and Guy's Hospitals for about three years, and was elected one of the phy- sicians to the former institution. In 1831 he was appointed Professor of the Practice of Medicine in the London Uuiversitj^ where he became one of its most pojnilar and effective of instructoi-s. In 1834 he succeeded in estabHshing an hospital in L^niversity CoUege, and then resigned his appointment at St. Tho- ' mas's. His lectiu'es, pulihshed in the "Lancet" and "Medical Gazette," were universally attractive ; as was his translation of Blmnenbach's "Physio- logy," with notes more voluminous than the text, a work which reached to five editions. He was the founder and Pre- sident of the Phrenological Society ; President of the Royal Medical and Chirurgacal Society of London, and is a Fellow of the Royal College of Physi- cians. In 1837 Dr. Elliotson became a convert to Mesmerism, as a curative and an anaesthetic agent. The council of University College not concurring with, but strongly opposing his views, he resigned his situation in 1838. He con- tinued to follow his favoiu'ite pursuit, at great expense to himself, and estabhshed the "Zoist," a joiu-nal devoted to mes- merism and phrenology, and extendin_g to fifty-two niunbers. He is the author of many medical, mesmeric, and meta- physical writings ; the first chiefiy pub- lished in the Transactions of the Royal Aledical and Chh-iu'gical Society, the two last in the ' ' Zoist. " ELLIS, Mrs. Sarah, formerly Miss Stickney, a writer on female education, was born about the beginning of the present century, and received her earlier schooHngina "friend's" seminary. Her first literary effort was a series of do- mestic stories, called "Pictures of Pri- vate Life." About the time of her marriage with the Rev. Wm. EUis (1837), her mind was strongly dii-ected to the position of women in modem society, and towards the best means for their moral and intellectual improve- ment. To aid in developing her ideas she wrote and published ' ' The Women of England," which was followed by " The Daughters, " "Wives," and "Mo- thers of England." The same tendency towards treating her favoiu-ite subject — the elevation of the female character — runs through all her works ; the ' ' Sons of the Soil, "" Family Secrets," "Preven- tion better than Cm-e," " The Education of Character," and " Social Distinc- tion," being perhaps the happiest of her voluminous productions. ELLIS, Rev. Willl^m, an English missionary. In 1814 Mr. EUis became ELL 152 ENC connected with the London Missionary Society. In November 1815 he married Miss Moor, a young lady devoted to missionary work, and in the following montli embarked with his newly-mar- ried wife at Portsmouth for the scene of theii- future laboiu-s. From the period tliey landed in the South Seas, imtil 1824, Mr. and Mrs. EUis were inces- santly engaged in missionary work ; and in his ''Potyuesian llesearches" he has embodied the residts of his acquaint- ance with the condition of the islands, and the character of the popidation. Having retiu-ned to England, Mr. Ellis acted as one of the secretaries of the London Alissionary Society ; and from information received from the mission- aries, together with official docmuents, he i)repared a "History of Madagascar." More recently he has published " Three Visits to Madagascar," a work which is highly esteemed, and very jjopular. He has also written a "History of the London Missionary Society," a "Vindi- cation of the South Sea Missions," and "Village Lectm-es on Popery." Mrs. Ellis died in January, 1835, and in 1837 Mr. Ellis married Miss Sarah Stickney, a lady well kuo\vu by her works on female education. ELLIS, Sir Henry, K.H., a writer, and principal librarian of the British Mu.seimi from 1827 to 1S5G, was born in 1777. Amongst his most valuable ])ub- lications is "Original Letters illustrative of English History, from Autograjihs in the British Museum, the State Paper Office, and one or two other sources, with Notes and Illustrations." This work has brought to liglit new and important facts ; and is a most interest- ing collection. Sir Henry Ellis has also been responsible editor of an en- larged edition of Dugdale's " Monasti- con AnglicanmTi, " a work of great re- search, and has edited, revised, and added to numerous ])ublications on Bri- tish antiquities, and histoiy. The "General Introduction to Domesday Book " was also one of his successful labours. EMERSON, Ralph Waldo, a dis- tinguished American crater and specula- tist, was born at Boston about the begin- ning of the j)resent century. He belongs to the transcendental school of philoso- phers. Having gi-aduatcd at the early age of eighteen, at Harvard Laiiversity, Mr. Emerson accepted an invitation to become the pastor of a Unitarian church, in his native city, and during the next seven or eight years continued to dis- charge the duties of that office. Being afterwards severed from his church, he delivered lectures at Boston, devoted himself to study, and eventually i)ub- lished a work called "Nature," wherein he expressed some i>eculiar sentiments. "Man Thinking" was the next embo- diment of his special opinions. CaUed in 1838 to dehver an address to the senior class in Di\-inity CoUege, Cam- bridge, the "ideahstic i)antheism" of his i)hilosopliy was stiU more fully de- veloped : sxibscquently he addressed the same \-iews to hterary societies of Dart- mouth CoUege, and produced a great eflect by his orations. Mr. Emerson pubhshed the "Dial;" and in 1846 a volume of poems. In 1849 Emerson visited England, receiving a cordial recep- tion from the literary society of London. His impressions of things as they ai-e in England, the result of that \-i3it, has since been published in a small voliune, en- titled " Enghsh Traits," not indeed wanting in mannerism, but siugidarly fair, and justly appreciative. A col- lected edition of Emerson's works has been published in England, but his in- fluence ujion the British mind has been comparatively limited. This circum- stance is perhajjs accounted for by the fact that he is more an interi)reter of Coleritlge and Carlyle, than an original thinker. ENCKE, JoHAJN'N F., an eminent ENF 153 EOT Gei-man astronomer, was born 23rd Sep- tember, 1791, at Hamburg. lu early life he was connected with military matters in the Prussian ser\'ice, butha\-ingataste for astronomy, he eventually devoted him- self to the study of that sul^lime science. He is most kuown in connexion with his researches respecting the comet of Pons, now called after him, whose period of revolution he has fixed at 1,200 days; and also by his calcidations of the dis- tance of the earth from the sun. He also speculated on the existence of an ether as the cause of comets not re-ap- pearing at their calcidated time. These labom'S have secured for Mr. Eucke a great reputation among Gei-man astronomers. He was appointed joint- director of the Observatory at Gotha, whence he was called to Berlin as Secretary of the Academy of Sciences and Director of the Observatory. He was also entrusted with the publication of the astronomical almanacs. He pub- lishes regularly an accoimt of the astro- nomical observations made at Berlin. ENFANTIN, Barthelemy Prosper, a French pohtician and social reformer, was born at Paris, on the 8th Febiiiary, 1796. He was atbnitted to the Poly- technic School in 1813, and was one of the pupils who, in ilarch 1814, oifered such a determined resistance, at the Barrifere du Troue, to the allied armies. The school having been broken up he lost all chance of promotion in the army, and in 1821 entered a linking estabhsh- ment. In 1825 he adopted the prin- ciples of the St. Simonians, and soon afterwards endeavom-ed to disseminate his opinions on social questions in the columns of the " Producteur, " a jom-nal which he and some of his friends set on foot. He and his fellow-labourers toiled zealously to place the doctrines of social reform, and the "religion of thought," on a firm basis. The conversion of the ladies was one of his especial objects. Neither he nor his friends desired any profit from these exertions. Enfantin, indeed, lost his whole patrimony, and was idtioiately prosecuted as an enemy to pubhc morals, and condemned, in 1832, to a year's imprisonment. This sentence had the effect of dispersing the St. Simonians. After a confinement of a few months Enfantin was liberated, and proceeded with some of his followers to Egypt. There they remained for three years, studying carefidly the Suez canal projects, and the embankments of the Nile. From 1839 to 1842 Enfantin was a Member of the Scientific Commission of Algeria. After his return to France, in 1845, abandoning his earlier social projects, he was appointed to carry thi'ough the amalgamation of the Paris and Lyons, Lyons and Avignon, andtlie Nord and Strasbiurg Railways. He is now acting manager of the Pans, Lyons and Mediterranean Eadway, and Manager of the General Water Company at Paris. EOTVOS, Josef, was born at Ofen, on the 3rd September, 1813. After en- joying the instructions of a private tutor, Eotvos was sent to a public school, and de- voted himself to the study of his native language, of which he is the first livifig wi-iter. Eotvos commenced his literary career by a translation of Goethe's "Goetz von Berlichingen," followed, in 1833, by two original comedies, and a tragedy, which were highly successfuL After travelling in 1838 in Gei-many, Switzerland, France, and England, he returned to Hungary, and edited a work, the proceeds of which were given to the relief of the sufferers from an inundation at Pesth. ' ' The Carthusian, " a novel, was contributed to by him. Entering the Hungarian diet, the novelist soon distin- guished liimseK in the arena of politics. In 1841, owing to family losses, Eotvos, from occupjdng one of the first positions in Hungarian society, was suddenly plunged into poverty. Eotvos, despite of temptation, remained faithful to the ESP 154 ESP national cause, and rather than sacrifice his principles, preferred to seek a subsist- ence in the laboure of his pen. In pur- suance of this resoUition, the ' ' Village Notary " was produced. This work was followed by a romance entitled "Hungary in 1514." In 1848 Eotvos accepted the post of Minister of Public Instruction in the Batth3%ani administration, but the stonny com'se of events that shortly fol- lowed was ill suited to his feelings and character, and he retired to Bavaria, de- voting himself to the preparation of a work on the ' ' Influence of the Leading Ideas of the Nineteenth Century on the State." ESPAETERO, Dox Baldomero, Duke of Vittoria, was ])orn February 27, 1792, at Granatula, in the old province of La Maucha. Having received a good education, in 1806 he was sent to the University of Abna.gi'o, and entered the armj'^ as a vohmteer to oppose the French invaders of Spain, in 1808. In a little more than a year from the time he had adopted the profession of arms, he entered a military school at Cadiz, acquiring a complete acquaintance with military science and tactics, and from 1811 to 1814 he continually advanced his posi- tion in the army. In the following year he proceeded to South America under General INloriUo, to defend the Sjjanish provinces against General Bolivar and his companions in rebeUion. After an adventurous ten years passed in South America, Espartero returned to Spain in November, 1825, enriched, and married the daughter of a wealthy Spanish proprietor. On the outbreak of the civil war, when the death of Ferdinand VII. left the Salic law to be a bone of contention (183.S), Es])artcro quickly rose to the chief command of the Queen's troojis. For his services against Don Carlos, he was created a Grandee of the First Class, with the title of Duke of Vittoria. On the usurpation of the regency by the Queen- mother, Espartero was appointed Regent of Spain. For two years after this appointment he continued to perform the duties of that office, and governed the country well and wisely ; but the Queen-mother, incessantly engaged in attempts to grasp at power which she coidd only use for evil, had made a party which sought to restore her in- fluence. Overthrown by this conspiracy against his authority, Espartero retu'ed to London. He, the oidy true patriot Spain has had for a century, was de- creed a traitor, and deprived of his dignities. For about six years he lived a quiet and retired life, but parties grew too numerous in Spain for the safety of the throne, and in the peqjlexity of the time the Queen and the Constitution- alists could fix upon but one man capa- ble of extricating the nation from its troubles, and the Duke of Vittoria was the man. Having returned to Si)ain, Espartero was again placed at the head of the government in 1854, and con- tinued to occui>y that position for two yeai-s, when, through intrigues, his re- signation was necessitated. The con- stitutional minister gave place to despotism and O'DonneU, one of those men whom the wicked fear, and the good dare not trust. From an humble position Espartero raised O'Donnell to a high position, made him a bosom friend and took him into his confidence. On the first opportunity O'Donnell intrigued to overthrow his patron. In most respects Espartero stands out as a noble exception to those who have lately been the ad- visers of the Spanish crown. ESPINASSP], Esprit Charles Ma- rie, a French general, was born on the 2nd of April, 1815, at Saissac, in the department of the Aude. He entered the Military School of St. Cyr in 183.3, and gained his first promotions in Al- geria. As Chief of Battahon in 1845, he commanded the Zouaves ; in July, 1851, was a Colonel; in 1852 General of EUG 155 EVE Brigade, .and x\ide-de-Camp to tlie Em- peror. When war was declared against Russia, lie commanded a brigade of the first di\dsion of the army of the East. He distinguished himseK at the Tcher- naj-a, and at the assault ou the Mala- koff, and in 1855 was advanced to the rank of General of Division. In 1858 he was called to be Minister of the In- terior, a position which, however, he did not long retain. EUGENIE, Empress OF the French, born at Granada, May 5, 1826, is the second daughter of the Count of Montijos, her mother being of Scottish descent. Having been educated partly in France and England, she visited Paris in 1851, and by her grace and beauty attracted great attention. Amongst her admirers was the Emperor, to whom she was eventually married on the 30th January, 1853, the ceremony being performed amidst the splendour which the rank of all parties demanded. Her Majesty has become the mother of a son, on whom the hopes of the imperial family are centred. She has accompanied the Emperor in most of his jom-neys, and with him visited Queen Victoria at London in 1855. She is highly esteemed for her kind and amiable disposition by all classes in France. EVANS, Lieutenant-General Sir De Lacy, G.C.B., M.P., a native of Ireland, was born in 1787. In 1807 he became ensign in the 22ud Regiment of Foot, with which he served three years in India. In 1812 he joined the 3rd Light Dragoons, serving with them during the campaign of the Peninsula, and taking part in the chief actions of the war. In 1814 he served in the 5th West India Regiment as brevet lieu- tenant-colonel, and was present at the capture of Washington, the attack on Bal- timore, and the operations before New Orleans. Returning to England early in 1815, he took part in the battles of Quatre Bras and Waterloo. In 1835 he became commander of the Spanish Le- gion, and again distinguished himself by his genius and bravery on the soil of the Peninsula. In 1831 General Evans was elected a member of the House of Com- mons. Having lost his seat for Rye, in 1833 he was chosen for Westminster. It was while in Parliament for this l)orough, that he was offered the com- mand of the Spanish Legion already alluded to, which he accepted, with the sanction of his constituents. In this position his difficulties can scarcely be over-estimated ; he and his legion were of gi-eat service to the Queen's cause, and, as usual in Spanish matters, were treated with ingratitude. He was jn-omoted to the rauk of Major-General in 1846. In 1854 he was appointed to the command of the second division of the ai-my in the East, with the rank of Lieutenant-General. At Alma and In- kermann he behaved with great gallan- try. On his retiu-n to England he received the thanks of the House of Commons, and was honoured mth the Grand Cross of the Bath. Sir De Lacy Evans' military career has been as vai'ied as it is extensive. India, the Peninsula, America, Waterloo, and the Crimea, are the watnesses of his genius and his valom*. As a politician he has been a consistent Liberal. EVERETT, Edward, D.C.L., was born in April, 1794, at Dorchester, near Boston, United States, and in 1811 graduated at Harvard University. After having studied law for some time, he abandoned it for theology. Succeeding the Rev. J. S. Buckminster, he fuUy sustained his already high reputation. His health failing, in 1815 he exchanged his pastoral office for that of Professor of Greek in Harvard University. Having received permission to visit Europe, Mr. Everett came to England, where he con- tinued for a short time, when he pro- ceeded to Gottingen, in order to study the German language and literature, and methods of instruction. Having Wsited EXE 156 FAI Paris, Rome, Greece, and Turkey, after an aljsence of five years he returned to America, and in 1S20 became the editor of " The North American Keview," which, by his exertions, obtained a high position in literature. The prominent part which Mr. Everett had taken in political affairs in the United States in- duced General Harrison, when he became President of the United States, to nomi- nate hun minister to the English Court, a post which he held for five years with the highest honour to him- self and government. It was dui'ing this official residence in England, that Oxford bestowed upon him the de- gree of D.O. L. On retm-ning home, Mr. Everett was elected President of Harvard Univereity. Ha\ang resigned this office in 1849, from ill health, he remained without any specific appoint- ment until 1853, when he was elected a member of the Senate of Massachusetts. Mr. Everett holds tlie highest position as a scholar and an oi-ator. He has retired into private life, owing to the delicate state of his health. EXETER, Henry Phillpotts, Bi- shop or, leader of the High Church party in the Church of England, was born in 1777. He studied at Oxford ; was M.A. in 1798, and D.D. in 1821. He was first rector of Stanhojie, and then chaplain to the Bishop of Dur- ham. It was well understood, at the time, that he was appointed to the See of Exeter (18.30), as a reward for the vigorous suppoi-t he gave the Dxxke of Wellington's government on the ques- tion of Roman Catholic Emancipation, the year before. He was, at one time, a keen controversialist, and an indefatiga- ble pamphleteer ; whilst in the House of Lords he appeared in the light of an eccle- siastical Lcjrd Brougliam, for energy, fire, and independence. It may be remarked as a singular circumstance, that he was born in the same house as wasWhitcfield, the eminent dissenting minister. FAED, Thomas, a painter, was born, in 1826, at Burley Mill, near Gatehouse of Fleet, Kirkcudbrightshire. Shortly before his father's death, in 1843, he com- menced his studies as an artist, under the careful eye of his eldest brother, then a miniature painter in Edinburgh, and now one of the leading artists in Scotland. He was for some time one of Sir William Allan's pupils, labouring with unremitting zeal, and gaining prizes at every competition in the School of Design. After being chosen an Asso- ciate of the Royal Scottish Academy (1849), and painting the often engraved and well-known pictm-e, "Sir Walter Scott and Ms friends, at Abbotsford," Mr. Faed settled in London, in 1852, and rose ra})itlly in public estimation. In 1855 he painted the " Mitherless Bairn," which elicited the admiration of critics and counoisseiu^. "Home and the Homeless," " Conquered but not Subdued," "Fkst Break in the Family," "List'ners Hear nae Gude o' Them- sels," and "Sunday in the Backwoods," are noble i)ictm-es, overflowing with genius, as well in composition as in treatment. FAIRBAIRN, William, a civil en- gineer and machinist, was born at Kelso, in 1789, and brought up as a mechanic in the vicinity of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1817 he commenced business in Man- chester in partnership with Mr. LiUie, and the firm soon rose into the very foremost position in the trade of that city; and when this partnership was dissolved, Mr. Fairbaiiii continued the business. About the year 1830 or 1831, he made various trials as to the shape of vessels, and emi>loyed a small iron vessel for that purpose. The suc- cess of the experiments emboldened the exi)erimeuter, and by 1836 he ventured on the coiistruction of iron vessels of considerable tonnage. He was one of the earliest members of the British Association for the Advancement of FAK 157 FAZ Science, to which he has contributed some vahiable papers on engineering subjects. His practical knowledge has been employed in assisting some of the largest constructions, one of these being the bridge over the Menai Straits for the Chester and Holyhead Railway, and his experiments on the strength of iron are highly valued. Mr. Fairbairn has occasionally made his appearance in the lectm-e-room, discoursing upon engineer- ing and other matters in a lucid manner. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a corresponding member of the National Institute of France. FAPvADAY, Michael, an eminent chemist and electrician, was born in Lon- don in 1791, and from a comparatively obscure origin, has by his own unaided genius obtained a position as one of the most noted philosophers of Europe. Whilst working at a bookbinder's he was by accident introduced to a gentle- man, who, perceiving his abilities, ena- bled him to attend some of Sir Hum- phrey Davy's lectures at the Royal Institiition. To these young Faraday paid the deepest attention ; and by for- warding Sir Hvimphrey the notes he had taken, he thus became acquainted with that well-known chemist. This circumstance laid the foundation of his future fame. Young Faraday, disgusted with trade, which he considered as "vicioiis and selfish," already aspired to devote himself to science. Having communicated his longings to the great chemist, throiigh his good offices he obtained, in March 1813, the post of assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institution. Sir Humphrey, however, advised him not to give up the i)rospects he had before him, as " Science was a hai'sh mistress, and in a pecuniary point of view, but poorly rewarding those who devoted themselves to her service." In the au- tim^in of the same year he went abroad with Sir Humphrey Davy ; and retui'U- ing in the spring of 1815, resumed his labours at the Institution, where he has ever since remained. Dr. Faraday's discoveries have raised him to a fore- most place among that crowd of illus- trious investigators of physical science that adorn om- age. His distinguished merits have been long since acknow- ledged by nearly every learned body in Euro])e. In 1832 the University of Ox- ford named him D. C. L. His best known works are — (1) "Chemical Manipula- tion," the third edition of which was published in 1842; (2) "Experimental Researches in Electricity;" (3) "Six Lectures on the Non-MetaUic Ele- ments," edited by Dr. Scoff'ern, 1853; and (4) " Six Lectures on the Various Forces of Matter," edited by WiUiam Crookes, F.C.S. FAZY, Jean James, born at Geneva, in May 1796, is descended from a French Pi'otestant family, exiled after the revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes. He studied in Paris, and early became a writer on political economy. His works, up to 1840, indicated that he preferred the material interests of society to specida- tive or theoretical jiolitics. In Jidy, 1830, he was appointed principal editor of "La Revolution ;" when he signed the protest of the journalists against the ordonnances of Charles X. He opposed, subsequently, the candidature of Louis- Philippe, and after that King's acces- sion M. Fazy embraced the side of the Radical opposition. His views were of a character so violent that he was even- tually obliged to relinquish the manage- ment of the " Revolution ;" and he then established the ' ' Revue Republi- caine." But the many miscarriages of the democratic party, the difficidties of the position he had taken, the dis- couragement of Lafitte and La Fayette, together with other causes, decided him to leave France, and change the field of his activity and his ambition. As a Genevan he was noted for his patriotism. FEE loS FIE In 1833 lie was marked as the lieail of tlie liLilosoi)bical radicals, haviug long before reudered liimseK cousi)icuoiis. He then founded the "lle\nie de Geneve," and in 1841, organizing a Radical committee, he initiated a revolutionary agitation. His labours were incessant ; and he took part in almost all the jJoUtical movements of the time. In the discus- sions of 184C, on the subject of the Jesuits, between the Protestant and the Koman Catholic Cantons, the State Coim- cU observed a neutrality that streugth- ened the hands of the Sonderbund — a pohcy which deeply irritated AI. Fazyand the Hadicals, and which led to such a demonstration of the popidar will as con- strained the Council to lay down its power. On the following day — October 9th — a Provisional Government was formed, M. Fazy being its chief. Ho exercised very considerable influence ; and the Canton of Geneva was among those which, in 1848, adopted the new Federal Constitution. ^M. Fazy con- tinued to maintain his republican oi)i- nions, advocating them tlu-ough his journal, proclaiming his symi)athy with all nations which then demanded hberty and indejiendance. The reaction of 1849 moditied his language, however, if not his ideas. He remained a meml)er of the State Council of Geneva, and was elected its President, being at the same time a member of the Federal Assembly. He took an important part relative to the affairs of Neuichatel, zealously supi)orting Swiss nationality. FERDINAND IV. (Salvator Marie Joseph Jean Baptiste Louis Gonzaga Raphael Renia Janvia), ex-Grand Duke of Tuscany, Imperial Prince and Ai-chduke of Austria, and Prince of Hungary and Bohemia, was born on the lUth of Jime, 1835, and succeeded to a nominal throne, on the abdication of his father, on the 21st July, 1859, con- sequent upon the French invasion of Lombardy, and the war waged by the Emperor Napoleon III. for the "idea" of the enfranchisement of Italy. It is untlerstood that the Grand Didce, whose subjects sternly refuse to recognise him, has taken refuge in the armies of his relative, friend, and patron, the Em- peror of Austria. FERGUSSON, James, an architect and archaeologist, was born at Ayr, in the year 1808, and received his educa- tion at the High School of Edinburgh. From school he went into the counting- house, and thence to be partner in a large mercantile establishment, where prices current more engaged his attention than the Arts. After having devoted himself, during four years, to commercial pm-suits in Holland and London, Mr, Fergusson pi'oceeded to India in 1829, hrst as an indigo planter, and subse- cpiently as partner of a fiim in Calcutta. He afterwards retm-ned to England, hav- ing realized a fortune, and has published the first volume of an " Historical Incpiiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art, more especially with reference to Ai'chitecture, " and subse- quently the "Illustrated Handbook of Architectm-e." Mr. Fergusson has since produced a woi'k on Fortification, in which he recommends the employment of earthworks instead of masonry, and a larger development of ai-tillery-fire for defence than had pre^^ously been thought of, and illustrated his proposals at the Exhibition of 1851 by a model. His theory, as a matter of com-se, was ridicvded by military martinets ; but tlie prolonged defence of Sebastopol by earthworks has taught gi-eater respect for his opinions. He is erudite, reflec- tive, and suggestive, and all his works indicate minute and judicious I'esearch. FIELDS, James T., an American poet, born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1820, is chiefly known in Europe from his being a partner in the cele- brated publishing and bookselling house of Tickuor and Fields, Boston. Mr. FIL 159 FON Fields is, however, regarded in liis own country as an excellent critic, and he has edited numerous poetical works, besides writing poems himself, which are characterised by natural sentiment and refined expression. A volume of his poems was published at Boston, in 1849. He also printed, in 1838, a vol- ume entitled "A Few Verses for a Few Friends." A collected edition of his compositions has been published. FILLMORE, Millard, ex-President of the United States, was born on the 7th January, 1800, at Simimer Hill, New York. His father was a small farmer, and the son's education was therefore limited. He was sent, at the age of fourteen, to Livingston Coimty, to learn the trade of a tailor, and was then apprenticed to a wool-carder and cloth-di-esser. His heart was fixed on sujjplying his educational defects, and with this view he for some time kept a school. Rising gradually, but slowly, he studied law, got into practice, in 1829 was elected member of the State Assembly, and in 1832 sent to Congress. He resumed his profession in 1835; but was again returned to Congress in 1837, where he continued tiU 1843. He soon took a distinguished position at the bar ; in 1847 was elected Comptroller of the State of New York, and in 1848 Vice-President of the United States by the Whigs, General Taylor being President. The death of the General put Mr. Fillmore in posses- sion of the presidental chair, July 9th, 1850. His constitutional term of oflice expired on the 3rd of March, 1853 ; and though he had many ardent friends, he took no steps towards a re-election. In 1854 he made the torn- of the L^nited States ; and in 1855 and 1856 travelled through the continent of Europe, and while at Rome was nominated by the American party for the Presidency, but was not elected. He has now with- drawn from politics. FOLEY, John Henry, R.A., a sculptor, was born in Dublin, in 1818. At an early age he studied modelling in the schools of the Royal Dublin So- ciety of Art; Avent to London in 1834, and became a student of the Royal Academy, where he was distinguished for his talent and industry. The mo- del of "Innocence," and the "Death of Abel," exliibitcd in 1839, were his first works of mark. His "Ino and Bacchus," a work of great beauty, brought his name prominently before the pubhc in 1840. His next works of note were the " Houseless Wan- derer," and "A Youth at a Stream." The latter, in coujmiction with the group of " Ino and Bacchus," exhi- bited in competition at Westminster Hall, in 1844, obtained for him an appointment to execute works for the New Houses of Parliament ; the residts of this commission being the weU- known statues of Hampden and Sel- den, erected in St. Stephen's Hall. In 1851 his gToup of " The Mother" was produced ; and since that time, the sta- tues of "Egeria" and " Caractacus," for the Egyptian Hall in the Mansion House. These works have helped to extend Mr. Foley's reputation in an eminent degree; but his greatest pro- duction is an equestrian statue of the late Viscoimt Hartliuge, erected at Cal- cutta. This statue has been considered, by the most eminent artists of the day, to be "one of the finest works of scidpture of modern times," and they have united in signing and presenting to Mr. Foley a testimonial to that effect, at the same time recommending a dupli- cate of the work to be seciu-ed for erec- tion on some public site in London. FONBLANQUE, Albany, formerly ed- itor of the ' ' London Examiner, " M'as born in 1797. This eminent joiu-nalist has of lateyeai's been Avitlidrawu from the news- paper world, by his appointment as Sta- tistical Secretary to the Board of Trade. FOR 160 FOR Mr. Fonblanqne was originally intended for the bar ; but directing his atten- tion to the political questions of the day, he sent some articles to the "Ex- aminer," which were so well received that he gave iip law and took to the press. His style was brilliant, polished, and yet caustic — a mingling of Addison and Sheridan with Swift and Cobbett. Ultimately he became the etlitor of that journal, and his services to the liberal cause were such, that he was appointed to liis present office at the Board of Trade. The only book that bears his name is "England under Seven Ad- ministrations," which is simply a re- print of leading articles published from time to time in the "Examiner." FORBES, Sir John, M.D., an Eng- lish physician, was born in 1787, at Cuttlebrae, Banffshire. He studied, in the first instance, at the Marischal College, Aberdeen, and gi-aduated at Edinbui-gh, as M.D., in the year 1817. He practised for some time in Penzance, Cornwall, then at Chichester, from which he removed to London. He was the first amongst English medical i)rac- titioners to recognise the importance and value of physical diagnosis as a means of detecting diseases of the heart and lungs. Dr. Forbes has drawn at- tention to the value of auscidtation, and was one of the founders of the British Medical Association. As editor of the " British and Foreign Medico-Clm-urgi- cal Review," Sir John did much to elevate the tone of the literature of the profession ; imfortunately, however, it was not successful in a pecuniary sense, although it greatly enhanced his re- Iiutatiou. He was appointed Phy- sician in Ordinary to Her Majesty's household, and Physician Extraordi- nary to His Royal Highness Prince Albert, with the honom* of knighthood, in 1853, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and created a D.C. L. by the University of Oxford. Sir John has taken a deep interest in the diffu- sion of knowledge, and in the improve- ment of education. FORREST, Edwin, a tragedian, was born in Philadelphia, on the 9th Alarch, 1806. He was early trained to the stage ; at twelve years of age he played one or two minor parts in his native city, and at thii-teen appeared there as "Young Norval," two years afterwards entering upon his first regular engagement with Jones and CoUins, managers of the Western Circuit. After several years of professional vicissitudes, he returned from the Backwoods to the Atlantic States, and in 1826, at Albany, he played second to Kean. In 1827 he first appeared in New York, in the cha- racter of " Othello," and was hailed as a powerful and true interpreter of Shak- speare. After perft)rming several years in the princii)al cities of the United States, gaining new laurels everywhere, he visited Europe, in 1834. Preceded by a high reputation, he received offers to play in London, which he declined ; his visit being one of study and obser- vation. In 1836 he returned to his native comitry, and resimied his profes- sion. The same year he received new proposals from London, which he ac- cepted, and in November appeared at Drrn-y Lane, as "Spartacus," and next as "Othello." His gigantic frame, deep sonorous voice, and a tridy original conception of the Shakspearian parts he embodied, made him the lion of the season. Revisiting England in 1845, the applause which greeted his first ap- pearance was revoked in some quarters, more from jealous feeling, it is said, than from any. other cause. In 1837 he mar- ried, in London, a daughter of Mr. John Sinclaii-, the vocalist, from whom he se^jarated in 1849. He has for some time, from ill health, been imable to re- sume his professional avocations. FORSTER, John, an English jour- nalist and essay writer, was born at FOR 161 FOR Newcastle, in 1812. Having received an excellent prelimiuary education, Mr. Forster completed his studies at London University. He and his fellow-students commenced a work called the "London University Magazine." In 1834 Mr. Forster wrote for the "Examiner," of which he afterwards became the sole editor. As a journalist, Mr. Forster has long worked in a wide field of use- fulness, and has never failed to exhibit a generous appreciation of merit. His "Lives of the Statesmen of the English Commonwealth" has been highly praised. Peculiarly exact in matters of fact, teeming with the best information respecting the men and the times of which it treats, remarkable for energy and grace of style, this work is at once one of the most usefid and attractive memorials of that memorable epoch, when "the crown of England himg on a bush, and Cromwell sat on an ungar- nished throne." Since this original publication Mr. Forster has given the literary world the most delightful and the most erudite " Life of Oliver Gold- smith" that has yet appeared. The pubHcation of this work involved Mr. Forster in a controversy wth another of Goldsmith's biographers, Mr. Prior, who sought to show that Forster had purloined his facts. In this controversy Prior forgot the old adage, "the tools are for those who can use them. " The biographic genius of Forster had given a life and beauty to the sterile collection of dry-as-dust detail which Prior had brought together. It was impossible, after what had been done with respect to Goldsmith's memoirs, that different biographers shoidd not traverse much ground in common. But though that was inevitable, Mr. Forster succeeded in showing that he needed not, in his intellectual opulence, to plunder the scanty treasury of Prior. The elaborate and valuable illustrative notes, with which the Life of Goldsmith abounds, render the work at once most delightful and instructive. In addition to these independent contributions to literature and history, Mr. Forster has written some able articles in the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews. These articles have recently been collected and republished, with a new and elaborate paper on the Grand Remonstrance of 1641, in two volumes of Historical and Biographical Essays. Mr. Forster has also very re- cently published a volume upon the "Arrest of the Five Members by Chailes the First." In 1856 he was appointed Secretary to the Lunacy Commission — • an office for which he possesses every mental fitness and legal qualification. Few men enjoy in so large a degree the esteem and confidence of those who know them best, as does the author of the "Statesmen of the English Com- monwealth." That chivah-ous honour which he has so well described as ani- mating the stern Republican of the seventeenth centmy, is his own guidin^ star ; its brightest influence is shed over his character, and on every occasion where the weight of his name has been evoked, it has been to achieve some noble or beneficent purpose. FORTUNE, Robert, a botanist and author, was born in the county of Ber- wick, in 1813. Being the son of a border farmer, his early education was confined to what he could glean in a parish school. His taste for horticul- ture was strongly manifested when he was a mere youth ; and eventually he was engaged as an assistant in the Botanical Gardens at Edinburgh. He de - voted his leisure to the study of Botany, attending the classes of the professor of that branch of science. His progi-ess in his prof ession^ was rapid; and soon at- tracting notice, his services were sought for Chiswick Gardens. There he in- creased his knowledge of botany and his ab-eady extensive acquaintance with the species of plants. In 1842 the Botanical FOU 162 FOU Society of London appointed him col- lector of plants in North China, then for the first time opened to European exjjlo- ratious. Mr. Fortune fulfilled his mis- sion with sagacity and zeal, wandering through many districts of the emi)ire liitherto unknown to Europeans, and making himself well acquainted with Chinese life, without in any instance neglecting the main purpose of his tra- vels and researches. After a three years' sojourn in the "flowery land," during which he collected and sent home a magnificent collection of botanical specimens, he returned to England, and in 1847 published a very interesting and valuable account of his travels, under the title of ' ' Three Years' Wanderings in China." He was then appointed Cu- rator of the Physic Garden at Chelsea, an office in which he gave the greatest satisfaction, and I'emaiued in the situa- tion until the East India Com})any re- quested him to proceed once more to the East, to pursue investigations regarding the tea j)lant. He left England in 1848, and only retiu"ned in 1851, when he ar- ranged the residts of his observations, j)ublishing in 1852 his "Two Visits to the Tea Countries of China." Soon after the issue of this work he left Eng- land for China for the third time, and he has since laid before the world the fruit of his investigations in a work en- titled "A Residence among the Chinese: Inland, on the Coast, and at Sea. " FOULD, AcniLLE, a French states- man, was born at Paris, in October 1800. He is the son of a wealthy Jewish banker, who died in 1855. After lea\'ing the Lycee Charlemagne, where he was educated, he travelled in Italy and the East. In 1842 he entered on political life, when he entered the Chamber as deputy for Turbes. Having early turned his attention to the study of economical questions, his opinions on taxation, finances, and general as well as special imposts, were always received with respect, frequently as authoritative, by the Chamber. He took an active part in the discussions of all questions relating to social and political economy, and to thfe improvement of the agriculture and commerce of the country. In 1844 he was nominated Reporter for the Com- missi(m a])])ointed to inquire into the operation of the Stamj) Duty on News- papers ; and in general he supported the foreign policy of M. Guizot. On the occurrence of the Revolution of 1848 M. Fould accepted the change as an accomplished fact, and his counsel and advice were placed at the ser\'ice of the Provisional Government. At the elec- tions of July he was returned to the Constituent Assembly, as representative for the Seine ; and about that period he published two brochures on the assig- nats, expressing the danger likely to be incurred by adoi)ting the monetary propositions of the ])arties then in power. His remarks in the Assembly on nu- merous points connected with the finances, gained him not only the esteem but the confidence of a large majority of that body ; and he was, as a matter of necessity, nominated on the various commissions ])lanned by government to regulate the internal affairs of the coimtry. Under the presidency of Louis Napoleon he laboured to obtain and con- firm the confidence of cai)itahsts, and proposed several measures calculated to effect that end, subsequently jirejjaring a considerable nimiberof })rojects of law chiefly tenchug to modify the pressure of existing imposts. Finally, he projected the Bank of Algiers, and promoted the laws on civil pensions, the estal)lishment of the penitentiary colony at ('ayenne, and some important reforms in the com- mercial code, though he still adhered to the system of protective import duties. Though there occasionally arose differ- ences between M. Fould and the Presi- dent, these were not of such a character as to jirevent him, m December 1851, FOX 1G3 FRA from acting as Minister of Finance, but he resigned in January, 1852. On the 25th of the latter month he was created Senator, and shortly afterwards was recalled to power as a Minister of State. In this capacity he advanced various measures of importance, and was consti- tuted a Commander of the Legion of Honour in December. He was one of the Directors of the Paris Exhibition in 1855, and from 1853 to 1857 much of his time, attention, and judgment were taken up with the completion of the new Louvre. M. Fould is warmly attached to the Fine Arts. FOX, W. J., a politician and M.P. for Oldham, was born near Wreutham, in Suifolk, in 1786. Although of obsciu-e origin, his talents procured him a good education at the College belonging to the Independents at Homerton, but he subsequently embraced Unitarian opinions, and officiated as pastor of the Unitarian Chapel, Finsbury. He be- came one of the most powerfid plat- form advocates for the repeal of the Corn-laws. Guizot, in his Life of Peel, has honoiired some of his speeches delivered during that struggle with selection as the most finished exam- ples of oratory which the great con- flict produced. In 1847 Mr. Fox was elected M.P. for Oldham. At the gene- ral election of 1852 he lost his seat, but in a few months afterwards was rein- stated. He is understood to have been a contributor to the Westminster and Prospective Reviews, and to be now one of the contributors to the "Weekly Dispatch " London newspaper. Mr. Fox is the author of ' ' Lectures to the Working Classes," and a philosophical dissertation on Religious Ideas. FRANCIS JOSEPH L, Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia, Hungary, Venetia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Escla- VONIA, Gallicia, &c. , eldest son of the Archduke Francis Charles Joseph, born August 18th, 1830, ascended the throne December 2nd, 1848, on the abdication — consequent upon the revolution of that year — of his uncle Ferdinand I. , and the renunciation on the part of his father of all right to the crown. The difficulties of the Austrian empire were great, but the new monarch was too young to have added to them by any unpopular acts, and his accession was hailed as the sal- vation of the country. He pi'omised his people a free constitution, equality t)f citizenship, and a representative consti- tution ; but his ability to carry his words into efiect was tested by imprecedented difficidty aud danger, and foimd insiiffi- cient. Surrounded by evil counsellors, he was induced to dissolve the repre- sentative assembly, and to withdraw the charter from Himgary. The Hungarians, imder the leadership of Kossuth, re- volted, and after a noble struggle all but succeeded in acquiring their inde- pendence and their liberty ; but with the aid of Russia he was enabled to crush them. The sujiport of Russia was dearly bought — at the price of national humiliation. In 1851 the Emperor pub- hcly declared himseK an absolute monarch, after having re-conquered, by the vigorous and successful generalship of Radetzky, the revolted provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. The most per- nicious act of his reign has been the Concordat with the Pope, — a hmnilia- tion even greater than his acceptance of Russian aid for the conquest of Hungary, and the evil effects of which have been visible aUke in his foreign and in his domestic policy. In the conduct of the Italian war, forced upon Austria by the ambition of the King of Sardinia, and the still wider and more astutely schemed ambition of the Emperor of the French, the Emperor Francis Joseph has acted with more dignity than in other events of his reign ; aud though success did not attend his efforts to preserve Lombardy, or to repel the unjustifiable interference of a foreign power in a matter that in no FR A 164 FR A •wise concerned it, the governments of Europe, and such of the nations as look upon French militaiy propagaudism uith alarm and distrust, have not been able to withhold their sympathy from the Austrian Emj)eror in the arduous and yet imended struggle for the preserva- tion of his hereditary dominions. His Imperial Majesty married, on the 24th of April, 1854, the Princess ElizaT>eth Amelie Eugenie of Bavaria, by whom he has two infant children, — the Arch- duchess Gisella Louisa Marie, born on the 12th of July, 1850; and the Arch- duke Ivudoljjh, heir apparent to the throne, born on the 21st of August, 1858. In private life, the Emperor and his amiable Empress are models of the domestic virtues, and highly beloved and respected. FRANCIS II., Marie Leopold, King of Naples, of the Two Sici- lies, AND OF Jerusalem, Duke of Parma, Piacenza, and Castko, was born on the 16th of January, 1836, and succeeded his father, the late Ferdi- nand II. (the Bomba of an imhappy notoriety, and the most unpo])ular of European monarchs), on the 22nd of May, 1859. He was married on the 3rd of February, 1859, to the Princess Marie Sophie Amglie, daughter of Maximilian Joseph, Duke of Bavaria. His Majesty occuj)ies a perilous throne, and is understood to have adopted in all essential points the retrograde and arbitrary ])olicy of his un- happy father. He has already ac- quired among his jieojile the too signi- ficant nickname of " Bombaliuo," or Little Bomba ! FRANCIS v., Ferdinand Geminien, ex-Duke of Modena, Archduke of Austria, Prince of Bohemia and Hungary, Duke of Reggio, Miran- DOLA, Ma.SSA-CaRRARA, AND GUAS- TALLA, was born on the 1st of June, 1819, and succeeded his father, Fran- cis IV., on the 21st of January, 181C. Like the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and every other Italian ])otentate connected by blood with the House of Hapsbiu-g, and supported on liis throne by Aus- trian bayonets, he was detested by his subjects ; and when the French marched into Italy, in 1859, the people rose in revolt and drove him from the throne, declaring their intention never again to submit to his ride, and voting the an- nexation of their state to the dominions of the Constitutional King of Sardinia. His Highness married, in 1842, the Duchess Adelgonde, daugliter of Louis, ex-King of Bavaria, and sister of King Maximilian. The Duke and Duchess are both in exile. FRANKLIN, Lady Jane, -widow of the celebrated Arctic navigator, was born about the year 1802. She is the daughter of Mr. Griffin, of Bedford- place, London, and became the wife of Sir Jolm Franklin in 1826. When her husband was appointed Governor of Van Diemen's Land, in 1836, she ac- companied him to that colony. On the 26th of May, 1845, the gallant and intrepid commander left England, on his third and, unliai>iiily, his last expe- dition to the N orthern Seas, in search of the impracticable North-west passage ; he, at the head of the expedition, hoisting his flag in the "Erebus," and Captain Francis Crosier, second in com- mand, on board the "Terror." Two years passed without any intelligence being received of the progress of the expedition, and alarm began to be expe- rienced throughout the comitry, regard- ing its ])robal)le fate. The anxiety grew into apprehension, and, for the first time. Lady Franklin came before the world prominently — offering, from her private means, rewards of two to three thousand ])()unds to those who should discover the missing ships, their ofHcers, and their hands. Towards the same end Lady Franklin apjiealed to Ame- rica : to her the cause was one of heart ; FT. A 165 FRE to the world it was one of science ; and the United States gave a noble response to her call, on both grounds. Government having sent out a searcliing expedition, in 1850, Lady Franklin gave additional as- sistance by fittingoiit the ' 'Prince Albert," at an expense to herself of £2,500. This vessel returned, without bringing any tidings, in 1851. Six years had rolled away since Sir John Franklin had sailed for the North, and all hojie was gone ; but the great-hearted woman was re- solved that though she could not save her husband, she woidd use every effort to ascertain his fate. Careless of per- sonal sacrifices, she fitted out and dis- patched the "Prince Albert," a second time ; but with no more satisfactory resrdt. Still Lady Franklin persevered. The lapse of time rendered the idea of Sir John Franklin sur\aving the rigour of the climate for so many years impos- sible. But this noble English lady left no stone untm-ned, corresponded with men of science in every quarter of the globe, incited the wavering, and strengthened the courage of the bold, rousing a genuine national spirit of sym- pathy with the living, and sorrow for the dead. Dr. Rae having foimd some relics of the lost expedition, she fitted out another, of which Captain M'Clin- tock was the commander. He sailed on his exploring enterprise with a full expectation of realizing one of two residts : he would either discover the Franldin party or their remains, or recommend that all fiu-ther Northern search should be abandoned. Captain M 'Clintock's expedition was successfid. He returned in his little vessel, the " Fox, " bringing with him sad memo- rials of seamen who had not hesitated to endanger their lives for the glory of their coimtry. But for Captain M 'Clin- tock's search and its termination, we refer to his name in another place. FRASER, Alexander, a painter, was born in Scotland about 1796. He may be considered as one of the best delinea- tors of the scenes and daily life of his native country. Amongst some of his best Scottish subjects are the "Laird's Dinner," the "Interior of a Highland Cottage," "Scene from the Prison of Edinbiu-gh," &c. His "Robinson Crusoe," and the " Last Moments of Mary, Queen of Scotland," have gained him great praise, and are, perhaps, two of his best pictures. Nearly all of his productions are illustrative of homely and rural incidents, and he is extremely facile in executing them inc life-like manner. FREDERICK VIIL, Charles Chris- tian, King of Denmark, was born 6th of October, 1808. He married, in 1828, the Princess Wilhelmina of Denmark, his cousin, which marriage was dis- solved in 1837. He married a second time, in June 1841, the Princess Caro- line, of Mecklenburg Strelitz, which marriage, proving as unhappy as the previous one, was dissolved in like manner, in 1846. The King, nothing damited by these marital reverses, was married a third time in 1850, to Louisa Clu-istine, Countess of Danner, a Lady of the Bedchamber to his previous Queem This marriage, a private and morganatic one, and not giving the lady the rank of Queen, has rendered his Majesty exceedingly unpopular ; and at one time in 1859, and again in 1860, threatened to lead to insurrection in the streets of the capital, and to the abdi- cation of the King. His Majesty made a torn- of the British isles soon after his accession to the throne, and inspected more particidarly the great cotton and woollen manufactories in Lancashire and Yorkshire, as well as the Potteries and the mining districts. FREDERICK WILLIAM IV., King OF Prussia, was born October 15th, 1795, and succeeded his father, Frede- rick William III., on the 7th of June, 1840. Having received his education under the most eminent professors in FEE 166 F R E Germany, he took part as a simple offi- cer, in the campaigns of 1813 and 1814. For some years prior to the death of his father, the Cro^vn Prince was looked iipon as the hope of the absolutist party ; but shortly before his accession to the throne, his feelings and principles are supposed to have imdergone a change. It was seen with pleasure by the most enlightened men of Prussia that he in- chned to the liberal side, and a policy was expected of him which wovdd have the effect of )>riugiughis administration into closer harmony witli the national feeling, at least in so far as its foreign pohcy was concerned, which leaned too much to the side of Russia to please the patriotic and intensely German party ; that desire to be German above all things, even more than it desired to be Prussian. When in the fulness of time he moimted the throne, these hopes seemed on the point of realization. He conceded several reforms which, though of a minor character, were hailed with delight as the precursors of a better system, and presented, in many re- spects, a marked and favourable con- trast to his father, who had almost uniformly held and acted upon the doc- trines of absolutism. The new reign was unmarked by any great event until the fatal year of 1848, when the revolutionary insanity of the period iu- fected the people of Berlin, and led to collisions between the military and the citizens. The king took measures to calm the tempest of insiurection, placed himself at the head of the national party, and proposed to fuse all the Ger- man states into a gi'cat federal union, imder a single monarch. His famous saying, ' ' Prussia disappears and Germany is born, " added fervour to the existmg excitement throughout GeiTuany. But the king's enthusiasm not only led him too far for the time, but very soon cooled. An mifoi-tunate though acci- dental quarrel between the people of Berlin and the soldiers induced exas- peration on both sides, and renewed bloodshed was the result. Prisoners were taken, but the king released them, following up his clemency by a general amnesty for political offences, and by forming a new administration from the ranks of men in the popular confidence. Restored tranquillity was the almost immediate consequence of liis measures. .Shortly afterwards, and still with Ger- man unity as his watchword, he under- took to protect Schleswig-Holstein in oi)position to the claims of Denmark ; but M'hen the National Assembly at Frankfort passed over his pretensions, and elected the Archduke John Lieu- tenant-General of the German empire, Frederick William became convinced to all appearances that "German unity," such as is deshed by the enthusiastic students of Germany, was a game too difficult for him to play ; and that as a king he woidd better consult the in- terests of his kingdom, by giving more of his .attention to Prussia, and less to Germany, than he had been in the habit of doing. At the same time, as if fear- fid of the fate of Louis XVI. and other weak though well-meaning monarchs, whose sad end is recorded in history, he thought it safer to act the part of a conservative than that of a revolu- tionary monarch, and entered upon a career of reaction, which exposed him to much ill-will, if not danger ; but which never again eventuated in popular insurrection. At the outbreak of the Crimean war, it was confidently ex- pected that the King of Prussia would have cast in his lot with Great Britain and France in support of the equili- brium of Europe, but with the vacilla- tion which has marked every period of his career, his intentions were always in advance of his acts ; and the reason for doing the right thing was balanced in his mind by some reason equally co- gent for not doing it, or at all events for FRE 167 FRE postponing it ; and time wore on, and found him equally distrusted by Russia and by the powers opposed to her. In the year 1857 symptoms of mental aber- ration were observed by the physicians of his Majesty, and these sjTiiptoms continuing to grow stronger, it was at length deemed necessary to estabhsh a regency ; and on the 9th of October, 1858, the king's brother, Prince Frede- rick Wilham Louis, the heir presumptive to the throne, was inducted into that office, and took the necessary oaths amid the general satisfaction of the people. The king was married on the 29th of November, 182.3, to Elizabeth Loiiisa, daughter of the late Maximilian Josej)h, King of Bavaria. There has been no issue by the marriage, so that after the actual regent, the heir presumptive to the throne of Prussia is the Prince Fre- derick William Nicholas Charles, mar- ried on the 25th of January, 1858, to the Princess Roj^al of England. FREILIGRATH, Ferdinand, a Uer- man poet, was born Jime 17th, 1810, at Detmold, capital of the German principality of Lippe. Receiving his early education from his father, he was employed at a mercantile, and then in a banking establishment, and published some poems in 1838. Their success induced him to pursue literatiu-e as a profession. In 1841 Freiligi'ath married, and removed first to Darmstadt, and then to St. Goar on the Rhine, receiving a small pension from the Prussian go- vernment. This he afterwards gave up on his publishing some political poems which opposed the measures of the government. Owing to their great suc- cess, the author underwent a prosecution, and his work was suppressed. Compelled by the hostility of the government to expatriate himself, FreUigrath in 1844 passed from Belgium into Switzerland, and ultimately to that general rendez- vous of the oppressed of Europe — Lon- don, where he became a banker's clerk. He subsequently pulilished translations into German of the poems of Victor Hugo, and of the more popular English poets, and in the spring of 1848 visited the United States, whence he soon re- tiu-ned to Germany. During the revo- lution he took an active part on the side of democracy, and composed a poem entitled " Die Todten an die Lielienden" ("The'' Dead to the Living"), for which he was prosecuted, but the jiu-y would not convict him. The ill-will of his an- tagonists, however, finding fresh means to plague him, he, for a second time, emigrated in May 1851, since which time he has lived in London. His poeti- cal works, originally published in 1838, have passed tlirough eighteen editions, besides a large reprint of his complete works, issued at New York in 1858. The poetry is original in the highest sense, bearing almost no resemblance to the works of any former German poet. His translations from the English are munerous and excellent; the sense, spirit, and rhythm of the originals being most successfidly rendered. He first intro- duced the songs of Robert Biu-ns to the German public. FREMONT, John Charles, was born on the 21st of January, 1813, in Savannah. While he was but a boy, his father, who was of French extrac- tion, died, leaving his mother in circum- stances far from affluent, although she managed to give her son a good educa- tion. After studying in Charleston College he became a teacher of mathe- matics, and subsequently practised sur- veying. As second lieutenant in the corps of topographical engineers, he entered upon that series of explorations which opened to America the gates of her Pacific empire, and won for him- self the title of " the Pathfinder of the Rocky Moimtains," and his success at once made the name of Fremont famous. The report of the enterprise was pub- lished by the American government ; the FRE 168 FRE intrepid patlifindor was raised to the rank of lirevet-captain, and the Victoria medal of tlie Royal Geographical Society of (Jrcat Britain was awarded to him. Captain Fremont now entered upon an exploring expedition, intended to give an uninterrupted view of the route from Missouri to the west coast of the Ameri- can continent. This expedition was crowned with a success fully equal to his former enterprise. The task occu- pied many months, during which he completed a circuit of 12 degrees in diameter north and south, and 10 de- grees east and west, having travelled some 3,. '500 miles. So soon as this second exploration was completed. Cap- tain Fremont started on a third siu'vey. The enterprise was one of peculiar difficulty, but at length every obstacle was surmounted, and he reached Cali- fornia, where he foimd the United States and Mexico were at war. Captain Fremont accordingly gave his country his energetic services. Wlien these ser- vices were no longer needed, he became mixed up in a miserable quarrel between Stockton and Kearney, the military commanders, was tried by a court- martial, and deprived of his commission. Feeling keenly the injustice done him, he retired into private life. Having arranged to proceed to California, Fre- mont collected a strong party, and started in 184S across the Rocky Mountains. So great were the difficidties of this last expedition, that even its stout- hearted commander began to quail. His mides were dead, his men began to droop : ten had perished amidst the deep snows of Sierra San Juan. Oidy after a series of unprecedented struggles, mani- festing the most unconquerable energy and the sternest resolution, did the shattered remnant of his followers roach New Mexico ; thence they proceeded to California. Fremont was afterwards sent as representative to Congress, and also received the Prussian gold medal as a reward for his eminent services to science. Mr. Fremont was a candi- date for the presidency of the United States in opposition to Mr. Buchanan at the presidential election of 1857. His principal work is entitled " ColonelJohn Charles Fremont's Explorations" (1859), which contains an account of all his expe- ditions, with annotations and additions by several of the most eminent men of science. An accoimt of his life and ex- plorations by C. W. Upham (Boston, 1856), had a remarkable success, 50,000 copies having been sold as soon as it was issued. FRERICHS, Fkeperic Theodore, a German phj'^sician, was born at Au- rich, in Hanover, on the 24th of March, 1819. He proceeded in due time to Giittingen, in order to study medicine, and the natural sciences. Being ad- mitted a phj'sician in the ordinary course, he successively visited Berlin, Prague, and Vienna, devoting his attention spe- cially to the study of pathology and anatomy. He afterwards resided for a time in Holland, Belgium, and France, but eventually settled down at Got- tingen. A Fellow of the School of Medicine, and attached to the Physio- logical Institute of Rodolph Wagner, he opened a course, which soon became one of the most popular of the ITniversity. In 1851 he was invited to Kiel, to direct the Polyeliuical and Academic Hos- pital ; but having taken a part, though it does not seem to have been an active one, in the dispute l)etween Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein (1852), he foimd it necessary to retm-n to Germany, and was almost immediately a])pointed Pro- fessor of Pathology and Therajieutics in the University of Breslau. In 1854 the King of Prussia conferred on him the order of the Red Eagle, and the King of Bavaria the order of St. Michael. He contributed actively and extensively to the "Physiological Dictionary" of Wagner; to Liebig's "Dictionary of FRI 169 GAR Chemistry," and to the "Supplement" of 1850-52, as well as to other ])ubli- cations of cognate character. In 1858-9 he went to Berlin, and succeeded to the chair of Clinical Medicine on the re- tirement of Schiinlein ; to whose large jiractice he has also in some measure succeeded. He is the author of a work on "Morbus Brightii," published at Brunswick, in 1851 ; and of another, on ' ' Diseases of the Liver, " published at Brims wick, in 1859, on which his re- putation as a physician and pathologist is mainly formed. It is now being trans- lated for the New Sydenham Society. FRITH, William Powell, R.A., a painter, was born at Studley, Yorkshire, in 1819; and, like Lawrence, was the son of an inn-keeper. His pictm-e of "Malvolio before the Countess Olivia," gave evidence of a future successful career being in store for him. This was succeeded by picture after picture, all of which rose in estimation and value. His composition is excellent, and his colour admirable. He throws into his works, occasionally, sly touches of humour, which produce a gi-eater effect than he probably intends. Cervantes, Shaks- peare. Goldsmith, Addison, and the British Classics, have been the well- springs of his inspiration. " Coming of Age," and "Life at the Sea-side," are among his best kno^vn works. In 1853 Mr. Frith w^as elected a Royal Acade- mician. In 1855 he sent to the Paris Exhibition his picture of " Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme," with several others, for which he received a gold medal. In 1858 was produced the "Derby Day," for which he received three thousand pounds. FROST, WiLLiAiM Edward, was born at Wandsworth in 1810. He early studied as an artist, and soon distin- guished himself by gaining prizes at the Royal Academy. His first remarkable picture was "Prometheus Bound," and in 1843 he gained a premium for his cartoon of " Una alarmed by Fawns and Satyi'S," which was exhibited at Westminster Hall, and its success seems to have induced him to devote his efforts to the higher branches of art. Amongst his most noted productions are " Sabri- na," " Nymphs Dancing, " "Diana sur- prised by Actieon," a Bacchanalian Dance, "Chastity," "The Graces," &c. He has painted a great variety of pic- tures, mostly illustrative of classical subjects, and has been highly successfid owing to the perfect execution and finish which he exhibits in all his pro- ductions. He was chosen Associate of the Royal Academy in 1846. GARIBALDI, Joseph. This dis- tinguished general, so well known by his efforts in the cause of Italian freedom, was born at Nice, on the 4th July, 1807. His father being a seafaring man, Joseph early followed the same calling, and soon became distinguished for his bravery and coolness in danger. Having read a history of Rome, and afterwards \asiting that city, he felt a deep interest in the ancient glory of Italy, and these incidents seem to have laid the fovrnda- tion of those attempts which he has lately made in rendering his country once more free. He first became mixed up with political matters about the year 1832, and lied his country from the fear that his name had been included in a list of parties suspected to have been engaged in a conspiracy against Charles Albert, then King of Sardinia. In 1834 he became connected with Mazzini, who made an vmsuccessful descent on Savoy during the month of February. Garibaldi fled to France after this, and became cax)tain of a French coasting vessel, biit soon tiring of a comparatively inactive life he entered the ser^nce of the Bey of Tunis. Owing to the iU condition of the Barbary fleet, of which he then became an officer, he got dis- gusted with his emplojTnent, and in 1836 proceeded to South America, and again engaged in the coasting trade as a G A n 170 GAR means of obtaining a bare subsistence. His restless spirit ill brooked this state of matters, and in 1837 we lind him fighting for a Republican movement before Monte Video, where he was seriously wounded and cast into prison. After various fortunes he found a solace in his troubles in marrying a young lady named Annita, to whom he was devotedly attached, and who afterwards shared all his dangers and privations. After remaining some time in South America, aud showing gi'eat energy in the popular cause, he embarked for Italy in tlie hope of engaging in the salvation of his country once more. He offered his services to Charles Albert, who, however, acted evasively, and eventually declined to employ Garibaldi, who thereupon went to Milan aud was speedily engaged in hostility to the Aus- triaus. He rei^ired to Rome after the Pope had fled to Gaeta, and thence he was ordered to defend a position en- dangered by the army of the King of Naples ; but soon had to return to op- pose the French army which was pro- ceeding to invest the Roman territory. A battle succeeding, Garibaldi at last drove the French from the field, aud gained a complete victory over them. He was equally successfid against the Neapolitan army, but the French being reinforced again attacked Rome, which eventually fell into their hands, and Garibaldi and his brave volunteers took their departm-e by night, unknown to the besieging forces, aud safely arrived at Tivoli on the ensuing day, July 3rd, 1849. After endiu-ing great hardships, many of his followers surrendered to the Austrians, and Garibaldi with his wife barely escaped with their lives. His greatest misfortune had yet to come : chased by the Austrians, he and his wife were completely exhausted ; and in a few days, from the fatigues she had undergone, she expired in a hut by the wayside. Worn out by adverse cir- cumstances. Garibaldi now proceeded to tlie United States aud South America, and after remaining there some years retm-ned to Europe in 1854, and took the command of a small merchant steamer, plying between Nice and Mar- seilles. The opportunity which Gari- baldi had long waited for was now approaching. Sardinia was menaced by the Austrians, aud France hastening to her assistance, a general war in Central Italy commenced in the early part of 1859. Victor Emanuel, the King of Sardinia, hastened to avail himself of Garibaldi's services; and at the head of a choice band of volunteers. Gari- baldi left Tm-in on the 20th of May, ready to meet his old and detested enemy. In the whole of the campaign, it is difficult to say which of the two characteristics showed by him are most to be admired, his courage or his strata- gem. Never found by the Austrians, he was incessantly falling on them, and by a guerilla warfare harassed them in every possible direction. His band was constantly increasing; his name became a proverb of strength and success ; he was, in fact, the terror of his enemies. On the hasty conclusion of the war, (Jaribaldi received high rank in the Sardinian army ; but being dissatisfied with the slight residts obtained towards the freedom of his comitry, determined to make war on his own account, and being assisted with money, muskets, aud men from Sardinia, France, Great Britain, and America, he started from (Jenoa in the early i)art of the summer of 18(30, and landing near Palermo, in Sicily, took that town with a mere hand- ful of men. His volunteers soon in- creasing in number, and assistance flow- ing in on all sides, he next succeeded in taking Messina, which the Neapoli- tan tro(){)s evacuated, and crossing the straits he landed in Calabria, and is now progressing rapidly towards Naples. The Neai)olitan army is continually GAR 171 GA V losing by desertions to his ranks. Tlie navy stands in a similar position, and tlic King of Naples is prejjaring to fight a kind of forlorn hope, or to take flight from the kingdom which he has so miserably and cruelly governed. In Garibaldi there are united all the quali- ties of a skilful general. He is bold yet cautious, rapid yet prudent, in all his plans ; his courage and energy are astonishing, and his successes almost without parallel in the history of any commander. Since the above was writ- ten, the following telegram has been received : — "Naples, Sept. 9th. Gari- baldi has entered Naples. Great enthu- siasm prevails." GAENIER PAGES, Louis Antoine, a French journalist and statesman, a member of the Pro-visional Government and Executive Commission of 1848, was born at Marseilles, in 1803. Having settled as an accountant in Paris, M. Garnier Pag^s took a part in the revo- lution of Jxdy, 1830, organizing the barricades in the quarter of St. Avoye. He was returned to the Chamber of Deputies by the arrondissement of Ver- neuil, and took up his seat at the ex- treme "left," where he devoted him- self to finance and other poHtical ques- tions. In 1844 he induced the govern- ment to adopt the system of public loans by direct subscription. One of the promoters of the Reformatory agitation of 1847, M. Garnier Pag^s made a conspicuous figure at the ban- quets. In 1848, appointed by acclama- tion mayor of Paris, he became, imder the Provisional Government, Minister of Finance, and introduced reforms which obtained the general assent of all i)ar- ties. He formed Comptoirs d'Escompte ; introduced into France the system of bonded warehouses and warrants ; saved the Bank of France, by declaring that its notes were not reimbursable ; amalgamated with it the banks of de- partments ; and resisted the creation of paper-money. He continued to hold various ])laces in the govermnent until he lost his seat in the Assembly, when he retired into private life, with an unsullied reputation. He is now ac- tively engaged in preparing a "History of the Revolution of 1848." GASKELL, Mks. L. E., a novelist, was born in 1822. At the age of twenty she married a Unitarian minister, in Manchester. She is the writer of seve- ral works which have attained to popu- larity ; among which the most remark- able is "Mary Barton," a novel which aims not oidy at the delineation of the joys and sorrows, the loves and hatreds of our common humanity, ))ut which also attempts to give a picture of the habits and feelings, opinions and cha- racter, and social condition of the work- ing classes of our great manufacturing towns. It is a work of very great literary merit. She has also written the "Moor- laud Cottage," "North and South," "Ruth," "Cranford," and a " Life of Charlotte Bronte." GAVARNI, otherwise Paul Chevalier, the most popidar living French caricatur- ist, was born of an impoverished family at Paris in 1801, and became a machine maker. After his day's work was done, he attended the Free School of Design. He made rapid progress as an artist, but did not adopt the profession, and indeed derived no profit from his work until he was thirty-fom- years of age, when he got employment in drawing sketches for "The Fashions;" that is to say, for new styles of male and female attire. Suc- ceeding in this occupation, he became manager of the journal entitled " Les Gens du Monde," to which he contri- buted an admirable series of lithographs. His best productions, however, were contributed to the "Charivari," which indeed owes its success, in a great mea- sure, to his contributions. In 1849 M. G a varni visited London, and contributed a number of characteristic diawings to A V GEO the " Elustrated London News." He also published a series of sketches, illus- trative of life in its lower phases in the English metropolis, under the title of " Gavarni in London." He has illus- trated a great number of works, among which may be enumerated "Don Quixote," " Molitire's Plays," "The Wandering Jew " of M. Eugene Sue, and the novels of Balzac. A collected edition of his productions was published at Paris, in four volumes, in 1845, with letter-press by Jidea Janin, Theophile Gautier, and Balzac. M. Gavarni has been pre-occupied for many years with an attempt to construct an aerostat, or flying-machine, on which it is said that he has expended many efforts of me- chanical ingenuity. GAVAZZI, Padre Alessanbro, an Italian priest, was born at Bologna, on 2Ist IVL-irch, 1809. At an early age he distinguished himself by the vigour and liberality of his discourses, and was at all times the champion of the i)opular cause. During the Lombard revolution, Gavazzi, by his appeals to the patriotism of his hearers, assisted in forming a volunteer army, which fought against the Au^trians. He fell, however, imder the Pope's displeasure, but eventually, on the flight of the latter, held a promi- nent position in Rome, under the provi- sional government, which had then been formed. The failure of the patriotic cause compelled him to flee to England. His lectm-es, delivered in difl"erent parts of this country and America, have made him highly popular. The fervour of his language, and the eloquent expression of his sentiments, captivated his autliences, and drew from them that sympathy which has residted so practically in the assistance lately given to Garibaldi, with whom Gavazzi has long been asso- ciated in attempting to obtain the free- dom of Italy. GEEFS, GuiLLAUME, a Belgian sculptor, was born in 1806. After studying at Paris, he returned in 1830 to Belgiiun, and settled in Brussels. His productions, like those of his brother, are more remarkable for purity than power. While exliibiting national cha- racteristics, they unite largeness of style with much grace and poetic feeling, and remind the critic, to some extent, of the school of Canova. He is fu'st scidptor to the King of the Belgians, and member of the Royal Academy of Science, Let- ters, and the Fine Arts. The most re- markable of his casts at the Crystal Palace are a monument of Co\int Frederic de Merode, at Brussels ; a bust of King Leopold, a Francesca (.li Rimini, and a statue of Rubens, at Antwerp. GEEFS, JcsEPii, brother of the pre- ceding, born at Antwerp, in 1808, pos- sesses no small reputation as a sculptor. Having gained the Academy's prize, he studied for some time at Rome. He is a member of the Royal Belgian Academy. Among his best productions may be enumerated his "Demon," "Adonis starting for the Chace," and "Science, Art, and Literature, paying Homage to Charles Van Hidthem." GEORGE V. , Frederick Alexander Charles Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover, was born 27th of May, 1819. As Prince of the B?ood Royal of Great Britain, Duke of Ciunberland, Duke of Brunswiek-Limebiu-g, he succeeded his father, Ernest Augustus (Duke of Cum- lierland in England), on the 18th of November, 1851. His majesty married on the 18th of February, 184.3, the Princess Mary, daughter of Joseph, Duke of Saxe Altenbm-g, by whom he has a family of three children, two sons and one daughter. The eldest, heir to the throne, Prince Ernest Augustus William Adolphus George Frederick, was born on the 21st of September, 1845. The accession of his father to the throne of his ancestors, dissolved the connexion subsisting since the time of George I. between Britain and Hano- GER 173 GER ver, and lessened to some extent the liability of this country to become in- volved in the com})lications and wars of the Continent. The king has suffered from his early boyhood the melancholy infliction of total blindness, which he has borne Avith such patient resignation as to have endeared himself to all who api)roach him, and which he has allevi- ated by the domestic affections, and by the cultivation of music and literature. (JERHAED, Edward, a German archseologist, was born at Posen, No- vember, 1795, and educated at Breslau and Berlin. In 1816, he obtained a pro- fessorship in the Gymnasiimi, or High School of Posen, but in consequence of ill -health he was obliged to abandon the office. Proceeding to Italy, he fixed upon Rome as his residence, and re- mained in that city for fifteen years, devoting his mind to antiquarian study and research. Convinced that to ad- vance the cause of ai-chaeological science, it was necessary to unite the scattered elements of knowledge which he knew to exist in Europe, he took great in- terest in the formation of an archa'olo- gical society, called the "Institute of Ai'cha^ological Correspondence, " which by letters and other means was in- tended to systematize the residts of an- tiquarian investigation. The project was conceived in 1828 by M. Gerhard, Baron Von Bunsen, the late M. Pa- nofka, and the Due de Luynes. The institution was placed imder the pro- tection of the King of Prussia, Frederic William IV., then hereditary Prince of Pi-ussia, and still exists in the capital, with the aid of funds suppHed by the Prussian Government. M. Gerhard directed the proceedings of the institu- tion imtil 1837, when he returned to Prussia, and was appointed Archieologist to the Royal Museum, Professor in the University of Berlin, and the Royal Academy of Sciences. Dirring his stay at Rome, he assisted in i^repaxing a description of the city, em1)racing all its particular points of interest, ancient and modern. He has been a most volumi- nous author, so much so, that it would be impracticable to detail the titles of his works. As appears from what fol- lows, nearly all of them are profusely illustrated, and they thus become of more than ordinary value to the anti- quarian and student of history. His descriptions are graphic, his stj'le clear, and his industry indefatigable. M. Ger- hard has published detailed descriptions of the ancient monuments of the Vati- can, of the Museimi of Naples, and of that of Berlin. The principal works in which he has published inedited volumes are the Antike Bildwerke (Mimich, 1827, sm. fcp. 140 pi. folio) ; A selection of Greek vases, foimd in Etriu-ia (330 pL, in 4 vols., Berlin, 1840-4 ) ; A col- lection of Etruscan mirrors (240 plates, Berlin, 1840-4), and several publications descriptive of cups and vases in the Museum in Berlin (Berlin, 1840, foUo). He has also published a Greek mytho- logy at Berlin, in 1854, in 2 volumes, and a great variety of papers to the learned societies. GERSTAECKER, Frederic, a Ger- man author, was bom on the 10th of Majr, 1816, at Hamburg. The son of an actor, he was intended for a commercial career, and a})prenticed accordingly ; but, habituated from youth to a roving life, he emigrated to the United States, reaching New York about 1837. After several months passed in that city, he travelled on foot, first to Canada, and thence down to Texas, and back to the United States, where he was forced to accept any occupation that chance offered ; being by tm-ns stoker to a steam-boat, seaman, farmer, jew- eller, wood-splitter, himter, and inn- keeper. In these varied emplojTnents he travelled over a great part of Ame- rica ; and retm'ning to Germany, after six years' absence, he published the GER 174 G HI results of his transatlantic observations. In 1849, after writing bis "Pirates of the Mississippi," he projected a new journey to the West ; visited Rio Ja- neiro, Buenos Aj^res, Valparaiso, Cali- fornia, the South Sea Islands, Australia, and Java, returning to Germany in 1852. He then producred the most suc- cessful of his books of travel. Several of his works have been translated into English, French, and Dutch, and are popular liecause of their vivid delinea- tions of life. ^Mr. Gerstaecker is on the eve of starting on another voyage to North and South America. GERVINUS, Georges Godefroid, a German historian and philosopher, was born at Darmstadt, on the 20th of May, 1805. Having been for some time cashier and book-keeper in a large Darmstadt house, he felt that his tastes were in- compatible with mercantile ]iursuits ; he therefore abandoned them for the study of philoso{)hy, and eventually he was aj)- poiuted Professor of German Literature in the University of Giittingen. When the King of Hanover, by enforcing some arbi- triuy regidations, provoked a protest from Gervinus, Avliich was signed by other professors, Dahlmanu among the num- ber, and which resulted in the sub- scribers being expelled from the Univer- sity owing to political affairs, Ger\'inus ■went to Italy, and, returning to Ger- many in 1844, was named Professor in the University of Heidelberg, where he was received with the warmest enthu- siasm. It was at that period he began to publish those great works which have contributed so largely to liis reputation. His poUtical ()[)inions being liberal, he united himself to the constitutional party — a party wliich received an im- mense accession of influence l)y tlie dis- covery that, in 1834, the German j)<)ten- tates had entered into a treaty among themselves to the effect that none of them should be l)ouiid by their consti- tutions, but that they should assist each other with their armies against both parliaments and people. Gagern was an active leader of the constitutionalists, and Gervinus was a trusted counsellor of the party. For the free expression of his political opuiions he was prosecuted before the tribunal of Baden ; but the Government ultimately abandoned the proceedings. With the pen in his jour- nal and his voice in the Chamber, he advocated constitutional doctrines, but at length retired definitely from the position he held as a Deputy. He has written no fewer than three works on the "Poetic Literature of Germany," which have reached several editions ; his latest and most important publica- tions being " Sliakspeare " (1849), and a "History of German Poetry" (1853), in five volumes. GHIKA, Alexander, the ex-Hospo- dar of Wallachia, was elevated to the Principality in March, 1834, and adoi)ted liberal Naews, foimding schools, and using the best means at his command to ])romote the progress of the people. Under the influence of Russia two par- ties came into existence to thwart him, one composed of the liberals, and the other of the Boyards, whose personal enmity he had i)rovoked. In 1837 he applied to Russia for assistance against the opposition in the Wallachian Assem- bly. It was only granted on concessions being made which virtually annulled the political and administrative independ- ence of the country. In 1841 he in- curred the resentment of Russia by taking measures against the persons connected with the insiUTcction in Ibraila, Avith which the Russian Consul at Galatz had been mixed uj). The residt was that he was exposed to per- secutions on the part of Russia, and that Georges Bibesco, one of his bitterest foes among the Boyards, supjilanted him as Hosj)odar, the Porte having been compelled to deprive him of his honours. He then went to Vienna, and remained GIB I) GIB there till 1853, when he returned to Wallachia, where there was a stroni; reaction in his favour. In July, 1856, after Prince Stirby had ceased to act as Hospodar, he was restored to his old functions. The Roumans expected that, under him, an effort would be made to reunite the two provinces, and that he would give strenuous su])port to the cause of llouman nationality. But he did not display that energy of character necessary to give force to his convic- tions. GIBSON, JonN, an English sculptor settled at Rome, was born in 1790, in or near the town of Conway, North Wales. Gibson's parents, who were Welsh, speaking English imperfectly, when he was nine years old settled at Liverpool, where he was put to school. At 13 years of age he was anxious to become an artist, but the portrait painters demanded a premium which his father could not afford, and accordingly he was boimd apprentice to Messrs. Southwell and WUson, cabinet-makers. By the end of the first year Gibson became disgusted with his occupation. He induced his good masters to consent to draw out a new indenture, and was apprenticed to them as an ornamental wood carver for the remaining six years. By the end of the second year he, tired of his new occupation, refused to work ; and when threatened with imprison- ment, declared that he was determined to be a sculptor, and that he woidd rather serve his time in prison than continue at wood-carving. By this time he had begim modelling in clay. He was introduced to Messrs. Frances, the marble-cutters, and he was enclianted with some sculpture which he saw at their works. He showed these gentlemen his drawings and some models in clay, and they were so highly satisfied with his talents that they purchased his inden- ture for the siun of £70, he rebinding himseK to them as an apprentice stone- cutter or sculptor. Gibson's new master presented him to Mr. Iloscoe, the author of the Life of Lorenzo di Medici, who, appreciating his abilities, threw open to liim his splendid library, his extensive collection of prints, and fine drawings by the old masters. He was invited to Allerton Hall once a week to pass the day, and dine with the distinguished {)ersons who met there. When his en- gagement with Frances was dra\ving towards a close, Mr. Iloscoe advised the young artist to go to Rome, which he said was the only place in Europe where sculpture could be studied vrith success. Notwithstanding the failure of Mr. Ros- coe's bank, this gentleman collected among his friends a sum of i'2o0 to enable Gibson to go to Italy. He left Liverpool for London with letters from Mr. Roscoe to Fuseh, R.A., to Flax- man, to a distinguished patroness of art, and to Mr. Christie, the auctioneer, a man of great taste and learning, who introduced him to George Watson Tay- lor, who became his generous patron. Mr. Flaxman urged Gibson to proceed to Rome. "Go, if po.ssible," he said, "to that great university of art, and stay there as long as possible. The Marquis Canova," he added, " is most generous to yomig students of promise." Gibson left England on the 1st of Octo- ber, 1817, with letters to the Marquis Canova from Lord Brougham, the late General d'Aguilar of Liverpool, and Fuseli. On his arrival at Rome, Canova looked over his drawings with great care. " If you have as much indus- try," said the great sculptor, "as you have talent, we may expect great re- sults." He received the young scidp- tor as his pupil, and pressed upon him a handsome offer to pay all the expenses necessary to enable him to study upon a large scale. Mr. W. Taylor having removed all pecimiary difficulties, Mi\ Gibson declined the generous offer of the Roman artist, whose invaluable GIB 176 G IL instructions and advice he enjoyed up to the period of his death, five years afterwards. Gibson then placed him- self under the tuition of Thorwaldsen. Canova introduced him to the English nobility who came to Home, and there- by secured for him the patronage of the Uuke of Devonshire, Sir George Beaumont, and other English patrons of art. From them he received nu- merous orders. For Sir George Beau- mont he executed his gi-oup of " Psyche borne by the Zeiihyrs," of which he has since made copies for Prince Torlonia and the Emperor of ilussia. The public works executed by Mr. Gibson at Home and erected in London are, a colossal sitting statue of Her Majesty Queen A^ictoria, accompanied by "Justice and Clemency," placed in the Prince's Cham- ber in the new Houses of Parliament ; a statue of Sir Robert Peel in West- minster Abbey ; and a statue of Hiis- kisson at Lloyd's, Iloyal Exchange. He executed two statues of Huskisson and one of George Stephenson at Liveqiool, and another of Kirkman Finlay at Glasgow. Mr. Gibson was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy of Lon- don in 1833, and R.A. in 1836, and decorated with the Cross of the Legion of Honoirr for his works exhibited at the Paris Exhibition. He has been ad- mitted a member of all the art academies of Europe. With the Chevalier Tenarani he now holds the highest place among the scidptors settled at Rome. Much of his technical skill he owes to Canova ; l)ut if he has not in excellency of this kind outstri})i)ed his master, he has far excelled him in the power of infusing sentiment and expression as well as beauty and grace into his figiu-es. GIBSON, The IliGnr Hon. Thoma.s MiLNER, was born in 1807, at Trinidad. Having studied at Cambridge, he en- tered Parliament in 1837 as a Con- ser\'ative for Ipswich ; but having adopted the opposite class of political opinions, he resigned his seat in 1839, and was twice unsuccessful in attempt- ing to re-enter Parliament. In 1841 he successfully contested Manchester on Free-trade principles, and in 1846 he took office as Vice-President of the Board of Trade under Lord John Rus- sell, but relinquished the ai)j)ointment in 1848, from a feeling that it fettered his independence. He was so strongly opposed to the "war Avith Russia, and disapproved so heartily of the war with China, that at the general election of 1857 he was rejected by Manchester at the same time with Mr. Bright, who shared his then imj)opular opinions. Subsequently he was returned for Ashton-under-Lyne. He fi'amed the now famous amendment on the Con- si>iracy Bill, which shattered the ad- ministration of Lord Palmerston. When, in 1859, Lord Palmerston was again called to form an administration, Mr. Gibson was appointed President of the Board of Trade, an office he still holds. GILBERT, John Graham, a painter, was born at Glasgow, in April, 1794. In independent circimistances, but lov- ing art for its own sake, he became a pupil of the Royal Academy in 1818. In 1819 he obtained the first silver medal for a drawing after the antique, and the gold medal of the Academy in 1821 for an historical pic- ture. After two years' study in Italy, during which he became distingiushed for his knowledge of the Old blasters, he retiu"ned to Scotland, and rapidly rose to a high position as a portrait- painter. All Mr. Graham Gilbert's works, whether of portraiture or ima- gination, are characteristic. His draw- ing is accurate, the expression of his works true and graceful, his colour warm, and his handling spirited and re- fined. Few ])ainters have done more to propagate a taste for the Fine Arts in Scotland than Mr. Graham Gilbert, and it is no small compliment to him to GIL 177 GIR mention tliat many of his works are gi'eatly appreciated on the Continent, where his style is much admired. He has painted fewer pictiu'es than lovers of art could wish, but his circumstances are such that the productions of his hand became doubly valuable, inasmuch as none of them are painted for the market. He is a member of the Royal Academy of Scotland, and had he chosen might long since have been a Royal Aca- demician. GILFILLAIST, the Rev. George, was born at Comrie, in 1813, and studied at the Univei'sity of Glasgow, and at the United Secession Hall. He was licensed in 1835, and next year ordained minister of the School Wyud Congregation, Dun- dee, where he still remains. He became early attached to literature, and wi-ote a series of sketches of the principal literary characters of the day, which were pub- lished in 1845, and well received. In 1849 he published his second "Portrait Gallery," which was succeeded in 1854 by a third volume of the same series. In 1850 he published his "Bards of the Bible," now in its fifth edition ; in 1851 the "Book of British Poetry ;" in 1852 the " jMartyrs, Heroes, and Bards of the Scottish Covenant," which has gone through six or seven editions ; in 1853 the "Grand Discovery;" in 1856 the "History of a Man," supposed to be a sort of autobiography ; and in 1857 ' ' Christianity and om- Era. ' ' He has also printed several of his pulpit discourses ; and has issued forty volumes, forming part of a library edition of the " British Poets," with biographical and ciitical notes. He has just published a large work, entitled ' ' Alpha and Omega ; or, a Series of Scripture Studies." GIRARDIN, EmLE de, a French journalist, was born at Paris, on the 22nd of June, 1806. A false entry of his name was made in the register of births, in which he was descril:)ed as Emile Delamothe, the sou of an un- known father, and "of Demoiselle La- mothe, semi)stress, daughter of one Sieur Delamothe, resitling in Mans," all of these names l)eiug fictitious. We need scarcely say that he is an illegitimate child. For the first eight years of his life he was kindly treated by liis father. Count Alexandre de Gii'ardin, and his mother, Adelaide-Marie Fagnan, the daughter of M. Fagnan, financial secre- tary imder Louis XVI. His father married ; his mother also married. She became the wife of M. Dupuy, a mem- ber of the council of the Cour Royale of Paris. Then an attempt was made to bring him np in such a way that he shuuld lose all trace of his origin, by boarding him vrith a horse-breaker at Pin, in Normandy. While living at this place, he attracted the notice of the Viscomitess of Senonnes, who ob- tained, in 1824, a situation for him in the office of her husband, who was at the time a Caliiuet minister. This gen- tleman, retiring soon afterwards, De Girardiu was again thrown out of em- ployment. He offered himself for enlist- ment in a regiment of hussars, but was rejected as too delicate. It was then that he took to authorship, and assimied the name of De Gii'ardin, in defiance of his father and mother. In his first work "Emile," he describes his own condition. This work was very suc- cessfid, and was criticised by Jidos Janin as a chef d^ceiivre. On April 5th, 1828, he started a weekly publi- cation, consisting of articles judiciously selected fi-om the journals, to which, with some audacity, he gave the name of "The Thief." In October, 1829, he set on foot a new publication called "La Mode," which was nearly as successfid, and to which Balzac, Eugbne Sue, and Georges Sand, con- tributed. In 1831, he commenced a third serial, under the name of the "Journal of Usefid Knowledge," which immediately attained a circulation of aiR ITS GLA 230,000 copies. It was not till tlio 1st i that all his principal articles are based Jiily, 1836, that he published the first number of the " Presse," a daily news- paper, with wliich his name is now asso- ciated. It was issued at half the price of newspapers of the same class then in circulation, but the success of this new specidation fiUly justified the calcida- tions on which he had proceeded. In 1831 M. de Girardin manied Made- moiselle Deljihiue (lay ; in 183G he fought a duel with M. Armand Carrel, the editor of the "National," in which the latter lost his life, and in 1837 he defended himseK successfully against upon the thought : Let all come by civdization, nothing by revolution ; all by immaterial force, nothing by material force. Let us have neither barriers nor barricades ; let us not obey the people, l»ut employ them. His principal articles have beeu collected and published under the title of "Questions of my Time," in 12 volumes 8vo, 183() to 1856. A pam^dilet which he published under the title of "La Guerre," in less than a fortnight ran through eight editions. His other chief works are " Le Droit," "La Liberte," "L' Empire non la the protest respecting his admission to I Liberte," " Conqucte et Nationalite," the Chamber of Deputies, on the ground that he was a Swiss and not a French- man ; satisfactory evidence having been obtained on the subject of his bii-th by a commission appointed to inquire into the facts. At eight o'clock on the morning of the memorable 24th Febru- ary, 1848, he went to the Tuileries to advise Louis Phihppe of what was going forward in Paris, and he then wrote the abdication of the king. After the ac- cession of Loius-Napoleon, he had many quarrels with the government. On the 23rd of March, 1854, he received a fourth aveHi^stment, in consequence of the appearance in the "Presse" of a letter from Manin, and on the 23rd of September he was officially warned not to continue a series of articles headed "The Track of Pievolutions." In con- sequence he retired from the active editorship of the jiaper two yeara after- wards, selling his interest in it for £32,000. Madame de Girardin ha\-ing died in Jime, 1855, he married towards the close of 1856, Mademoiselle Mina Brunold, Countess of TiefFenbach, the daughter of the A\ddow of Prince Fre- deric of Nassau, imcle of the reigning Duke of Nassau. The limits of this work do not admit of any detaded accoimt of the political opinions of M. Emile de Gu-ardin. Suffice it to say " La Civilisation et I'Algerie." GLADSTONE, the Right Hon. William Ewart, M.P., an English parliamentary orator and statesman, was born on the 29th December, 1809, and is son of the late Su' John Gladstone, Bart., an eminent Liverpool merchant. He received the usual education of the English youth of the wealthier classes, passing from Eton to Oxford, where he took what is technically tenned a double-first, — that is, gained the high- est excellence in classics and mathe- matics. On lea\nng the imiversity he made the tour of the Continent, and on his return was elected member of Par- liament for Newark. In 1834 he was appointed a Lord of the Treasury imder Sir Pvobert Peel ; and on the failure of the Hon. S. Wortley to olitain his seat when appointed Under-Secretary for the Colonies, Mr. Gladstone Avas transferred to the vacant office, which he held imtil the resignation of his chief in the spring of 18.35. In 1841 he was appointed Vice- President of the Board of Trade, and Master of the Mint. In this situation he became the right hand of the govern- ment. His acquaintance vdih mercan- tde affairs enabled him to enter into the discussion of the most complicated commercial questions, and his literary ability and oratorical talent fitted him GL A 179 GLE to unfold his -sdews with a clearness and jirecision which a mere business man very rarely attains to. He held oflBce as President of the Board of Trade for two years ; as Colonial Secretary he supported Sir Robert Peel in 1846 in his Free-trade measiu-cs, and in 1847 became Member of Parliament for Ox- ford University. Having held the ofHce of Chancellor of Exchequer imder Lords Aberdeen and Pahnerston, he resignetl, o^ving to the latter consenting to the vote for a committee of inquiry into the state of the army during the Russian war. Mr. Gladstone's acceptance under Lord Derby of a mission to the Ionian Is- lands has been the topic of much com- ment, and some little censure. But whatever may be thought either of its policy or its success, the entire disinter- estedness with which it was entered upon and executed is unquestionable. Lord Derby's Government, formed in 1858, giving way in the following year, Lord Palmerston was recalled to the helm of affairs, and in the constitution of his ministry appointed Mr. Gladstone once more Chancellor of the Exchequer. Mr. Gladstone married in 1839 the eldest daughter of the late Sir Stephen Richard Glynne, Bart. In the same year he published a work, "The State in its Relation to the Church," which Macavday subjected to a trenchant cri- ticism. This book was followed by another, " Church Principles Considered in their ResiUts." Whatever difference of opinion might exist respecting the principles of these works, their jniblica- tion stamped their author as one of the few original Avriters of the age. !Mr. Gladstone's "Letters on the State of the NeapoHtan Prisons," addressed to Lord Aberdeen, gave con\dncing evi- dence, that however much he might sympathise with what are called High Church principles, a wide gulf separated him from the creatxrres of sacerdotal tyranny. These letters produced a powerful sensation, and resulted in some little amelioration of the con- dition of the \'ictims of the oppressor. Mr. Gladstone is one of the first orators in the House of Commons. His late speeches on the Budget and the repeal of the Paper Duties (ISGO) have placed liim in the foremost position. Mr. Gladstone's latest work, "Homer and the Homeric Age," obviously the fruit of solid studies, is a noble contribution to the elucidation of the greatest monu- ment of Greek Hterature. GLEIG, THE Reverend George Robert, a soldier, divine, and distin- guished author, was born at Stirling, on the 20th April, 1796. He is the youngest son of the Right Reverend George Gleig, Scottish Episcopal Bishop of Brechin. At the age of thirteen he entered the University of Glasgow ; whence, before he was fifteen, he was removed to Balliol CoUege, Oxford. After keeping six terms, he evinced such a decided preference for the mili- tary profession, that a commission was procured for him ; and having barely completed his seventeenth year, he joined the Duke of Wellington's anny, then engaged in the sieges of St. Sebastian and Pampehma, in the summer of 181.3. At the close of the Peninsular war he proceeded to America, and was shot in the thigh while taking an American colour at the battle of Bladensburg. Returning to Europe too late for the battle of Waterloo, he soon began to gi-ow tilled of a soldier's life in peace ; and though promoted to a company, on his father's suggestion he again proceeded to Oxford. He took his degree in 1818, and in 1819 was admitted into deacon's orders on the curacy of WestwiU, in Kent. Mr. Gleig had early begim to write ; while at Oxford he translated "Aristotle's Poetics." In 1820 he completed his first acknowledged work, "A Narrative of the Campaigns of the British Army at GLE 180 GOD Washington, in Xcw Orleans." It ob- tained a fair, but not a large share of ]nil)lic fa-^om-. But when by and by, in 1820, the " Subaltern" — which ap- l)eared originally as a series of papers in "Blackwood" — came out, attention was drawn to the earlier volume, which passed within a few months through three editions. In 1822 ilr. Gleig was l)resented to the peq)etual curacy of Ash next Sandwich ; and in April, 1823, had the rectory of Ivy Church lilvewise given to liim ; both hy Manners Sutton, Archbishop of Canterbury. Be- tween 1822 and 1834 he pi'oduced, besides the two volimies already speci- fied, "The Life of Sir Thomas Mimro," in 3 vols. ; " The History of the Bible," in 2 vols. ; " The History of India " (in Mm-ray's "Family Library"), in 4 vols. ; "The Country Curate," begam like the ' ' Subaltern " in " Blackwood ; " " The Chelsea Pensioners," &c. The "Sub- altern" had early obtained for him the friendship of the Duke of Wellington, who made him his frequent guest at Walmer Castle ; and in 1834 Lend Jolin Russell, attracted Ijy the same work, made him the spontaneous offer of the chaplaincy of Chelsea Hospital, which had then become vacant. In 184G he was jiromoted to be Chaplain-General of the Forces, l^eiilg at the same time appointed Inspector-General of Military Schools ; and in 18.50 he was presented to a prebendal stall in St. Paid's. His latest work, published in 1858 and 1859, is "A Life of the Great Didce of Wel- lington," founded on the biogi-aphy of Captain Brialmonrfc, of the Belgaan army ; Ijut much enhanced in value from pri- vate and pubHc documents,- necessarily inaccessible to a foreigner. Besides the books enumerated above, he has pub- lished, at various times, "The Life of Lord Clive," "The Story of the Battle of Waterloo," "The Leipzig Campaign," "Chelsea Hospital and its" Traditions," two voliuues of "Sermons," and "A Guide to the Holy Sacrament." Two vohmies of " Essays, " collected chiefly from the "Edinburgh" and "Quarterly" Reviews, extending over a wide rauge of subjects, have been published sepa- rately, and have been well received. Mr. Gleig is an extempore preacher of acknowledged power and eloquence. GLENCORSE, John Inglis, Lord, Lord-Justice-Clerk of Scotland, born about 1810, is the sou of the late Rev. Dr. Inglis, long an eminent leader in the Scottish Church. After graduating at the Edinburgh University he entered the bar, to which he was called in 1835, and so unmistakeable were his general powers, that he could scarcely be said to have ever undergone the dnidgery of a junior counsel. For a long series of years he stood at the head of the Scottish bar, and was so much es- teemed by his brethren as to be elected Dean of Facidty. In 1852 he was appointed Lord Advocate of Scotland ; and, -n-ith the view of being in Par- liament, contested the borough of Lisbiu-n, Ireland ; where, though a per- fect stranger, and opposed by powerful local influence, he was only defeated by a majority of fourteen votes. He had heen previously defeated in a contest for Orkney, by a majority of but eleven votes. He held the ofiice of Chief Law Adviser of tiie Crown in the noi-thern part of the lungdom until the fall of the administration of Lord Derby, although unaljle to obtain a seat in Parliament. When the noble lord retm-ned to power in 1858, Mr. Inglis was again appointed Lord- Advocate, a seat in Parliament being found for him at Stamford. After a 1 )rief but liighly suc- cessful career in the House of Commons, on the death of the Hon. John Hope Mr. Inglis was raised to the bench as Lord-Justice-Clerk, and assumed the title of Lord Gleneorse. GODWIN, George, architect, editor of the "Builder," was bom on 2Sth GOL ISl GOM January, 1815, at Brompton, Middle- sex, and early embraced his father's profession. Possessing, however, a taste for literature and science, he contributed in 1835 to the " Literary Union, " and afterwards received a medal from the Royal Institute of British Architects for his "Essay on Concrete." He is one of the founders of the London Art Union, of which he became honorary secretary in 1839, in which capacity he has continued to act up to the present time. He published his exceUeut and interesting work, ' ' The Churches of London," in 1838, was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1839, a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1840, and obtained a medal from the Societe libre des Beaux Arts of Paris. His contributions to the "Art Jom-nal," the " Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal," and generally to current art and Uteratiire, are so numerous, as to render a catalogue of them beyond our power of pubheation. In 1844 he became editor of the "Builder," and in 1853 pubUshed his "History in Ruins;" in 1854, his "London Shadows," an inquiry into the condition of the homes of the poor ; and since, " Town Swamps and Social Bridges," "Memo- rials of "Workers," &c. He has designed and erected a nimiber of pubhc edifices, and has been appointed Siu'veyor under the Metropolitan Biulding Act. Mr. Godwin was one of the jurors at the Great Exhibition of 1851, is a Vice- President {I860) of the Institute of British Architects, and a member of many learned societies. His services to the advancement of architecture, science, and social and sanitary improve- ment, have been as untiring as merito- rious. GOLDSCHMIDT, Madame (Jenny Lind), was born at Stockholm on the 6th October, 1821, and by her musical talents was at an early age taken notice of by an actress at the theatre of her native city, who became her best ad- viser and most valued friend. After receiving instruction from eminent mas- ters, she eventually made her dehat achieved a complete success, and con- tinued for some time at Stockholm. She afterwards proceeded to Paris, for the pirqjose of receiving lessons from Garcia, but fi'om whom she received little en- couragement. Her talents were, how- ever, recognised by Meyerbeer, who offered her an engagement at Berlin. From this moment Mademoiselle Lind's fame became European. A constant series of engagements was offered to her, and her appearances at Berlin, Vienna, and at Her Majesty's Theatre, in London, were so many triimiphs, in which the audiences were completely carried away in their enthusiastic recep- tion of this gifted singer. To so great an extent did th.Q furore existin London, that the doors of the opera, house were nightly crowded for hom-s before the commencement of the performances, and tickets were often re-sold at fabidous prices. Proceeding to America, where her reception was as enthusiastic and as profitable as she coidd possibly have desired, she was married to M. Otto Goldschmidt, in 1851. In the following year they returned to Europe. Since then, Madame Goldschmidt has rarely appeared in public, spending her time and fortune in assisting and founding various charitable institutions, and win- ning from all the highest praise for the benevolence of her disposition, as she had pre\'iously done by the exercise of her talents. GOMM, General Sir William May- NARD, G.C.B., was born in 1784. He received his commission as Ensign in the 9th Infantry on the 24th May, 1794. When but fourteen he served in Hol- land, with the rank of Lieutenant ; wa.s present at the battles of 19th September and 2nd October, 1799, and ever since, with the exception of some time passed GOO 182 GOO in the Royal Military College, he has been actively employed. He has thus been sixty-six years iintler arms, and has seen as much actual service as l)erhaps any other British officer now living. In 1799 he served at the Helder under the Duke of York, and in 1801 served under Sir James Pidteney. In 1803 he was promoted to the rank of Captain, served in Hanover in 1805, and at Copenhagen and Stralsund in 1807. In 1809 he was distingui.shed in the Continental campaign of that year, in the Walcheren expedition, and at the siege of FliLshing, and in 1810 he was ordered to the Peninsida, and took part in nearly all the great Peninsidar engagements. He obtained his majority in October, 1811, and became Lieutenant-Colonel in July, 1812, being then thirty years of age. He was one of the \-ictors at Waterloo, where he looked after Picton's cele- brated division, the "Fighting Fifth," in the capacity of Quartermaster-Gene- raL In 1829 he became Colonel of the 13th Light Infantry, and has since re- ceived the Grand Cross of the Bath as an additional honour ; being one of those officers transfen-ed from the Line to the Guards. A Colonel in 1829, and Major- General in 1837, in 1840 he was ap- pointed to the command of the troops in Jamaica, and after returning to Eng- land was charged with the command of the army in the Northern District, from which he was removed in 1845, being nominated Civil Governor and CVmmiander of the Forces in Mauritius. In 184G he was elevated to the rank of Lieutenant-General, and on the resigna- tion by Sii" Charles Napier of the chief command in India in 1851, was aj)- poiuted head of the Indian army, which he retained till the close of the year 1855. GOODALL, Edward, an eminent engraver, was born at Leeds in 1795. At a very early age his mind was attracted to the study of the fine arts, but specially devoting his attention to engi-a\'ing. He has executed a vast num- ber of engravings for illustrated works, among which connoisseurs rank those for Rogers's " Italy," and "Pleasures of Memorj'," as the best. The greatest of his works, however, are his large line engravings from Turner's "Cologne" and "Tivoli," and the various other en- gravings which he has executed from Turner's landscapes. Few engravers, either past or present, have more closely united vigour with refinement. For the last ten years (owing to the want of en- couragement to landscape engraving) he has been almost exclusively engaged upon figure subjects, and princii)ally from the pictures of his son, Mr. Fre- derick Goodall, among which may be mentioned "The Angel's Whisper," "The Soldier's Dream," "An Episode of the Happier Days of Charles I.," and "Cranmer at the Traitor's Gate." The last-named, remarkable for its vigorous execution, may be considered his finest historical {ilate. GOODALL, Frederick, an historical painter, was born in London in 1822. He was instructed by his father in the elements of art, and at an early age ob- tained the Isis medal from the Society of Arts for a drawing of Lambeth Palace, and in the following year their large silver medal for his first work in oil, " Finding the Dead Body of a Miner by Torchlight." After travelling in Normandy in 1838, he sent to the Royal Academy's Exhibition (1839) his "French Soldiers drinking in a Caba- ret," a most remarkable work, and one which manifested a pecuUar talent for depicting popiUar subjects. Extend- ing his travels, he soon obtained fresh subjects for his brush. Patrons, among whom was William Wells of Red- leaf, freely assisted the young artist, by purchasing his productions ; the "Christening" obtained him a prize from the British Institution ; and Ox OR 183 G OR in 1842 Mr. Vernon purchased the "Tired Soldier." At twenty, Goodall was thus a really great artist. In 1847 he produced his "ViUage Festival," which was immensely admired. "Hunt the 'Slipper," "Raising the Maypole," and "The Swing," are admirable for their touches of nature anil character. ' ' Cran- mer at the Traitor's Gate," exhibited at Liverpool in ISuS, gained the £100 prize. In 1852 he became an A.R. A., a position which he had fairly earned by his "Village Festival," painted some years l)reviously. GORDON, Lady Lucy Duff, is well known by her able translations of the works of some continental authors. Of these the most valuable are, Ranke's ' ' History of Prussia, ' ' Niebuhr's ' ' Greek Legends," and Fuerbach's "Criminal Trials." In all her productions she is extremely studious to j^resent to the EngHsh reader a faithful reproduction of the text of the original. GORDON, Sir John Watson, P. R. S. A. , R. A. , was born in Edinburgh, towards the close of the last ceutiu-y. He is the eldest son of the late Captain James Watson, R.N., the name of Gordon having been subsequently as- sumed. His professional life has been spent in Edinburgh, where he is regarded as the not unworthy successor of Rae- bm'n. During his long career, vSir John Watson Gordon has painted almost all the leading men in Scotland, and latterly many distinguished persons in England, and his portraits of his countrymen are thoroughly characteristic. In 1841 Gor- don was elected an Associate of the London Roj-al Academy, in 1850 he be- came President of the Scottish Academy, was afterwards knighted, and ajipointed painter limner to the Queen in Scotland, and about the same time also elected a Royal Academician. GORE, Mks. Catherine Fr.vnces, a well-kno^m writer of fiction, was born in London in 1800. Her first produc- tion, "Theresa Marchmont," was highly successful, and opened out a long and brilliant career for her as a clear, vivid, and imaginative writer. It would be impossible to enumerate in this slight sketch all the productions of Mrs. Gore's pen. She has succeeded most admiraljly in depicting scenes from daily life in her "Women as they are," "Mothers and Daughters," " Memou-s of a Peer- ess, " and many similar works. In her "Hungarian Tales" she vividly por- trays the habits and customs of Hun- gary. As a gentle satirist we may name her "Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb," " The Woman of the World," "The Popular Member," and " The Sketch-book of Fashion." As a moralist any of her works may be ad- duced as an illustration. There are few HAnng wiiters who have been so successful in acquiring popularity, which perhaps may be owing to the life-like nature of all of Mrs. Gore's novels. In 1823 she was married to Captain Gore of the 1st Life Guards, and became a widow in 1846. She has been the mother of ten children, of whom two sm-vive : Lady Edward Thynne, married to a son of the second Marquis of Bath ; and Augustus Went- worth Gore, A.D.C. to the Lord Lieu- tenant of Ireland, who sensed with distinction on the staff at Lucknow and in the Rohilcund campaign, and was repeatedly commended in des- patches. Mrs. Gore has for some time past been dejirived of sight. GORGEI, Arthur, was born on the 5th Feb., 1818, at Toporcz, in Upper Hungary. In 1832 he was sent to the military school at Tuln, where he re- mained for five years, when he entered the royal Hunganan life guards at Vienna, and ultimately became lieutenant of Hussars. Subsequently he quitted the army, and devoted himself to the study of science, chiefly chemistry. At the call of the Hungarian committee of defence. GOR 184 GOR Gorgei exchanged the laboratory for the camp, and became a captain of Houveds. Fi-om this comparatively humble rank Kossuth had so high an opinion of his talents that he raised him to the posi- tion of commander-in-chief of the Hun- garian national army. General Moga being incapacitated for command, Win- disehgi'Utz was too able a general for Gorgei, who was compelled to abandon Presbiirg, and only saved his army by a timely retreat. After being twice super- seded, he resimied the chief command ; meeting some reverses, and achieving some \'ictories, he became Dictator vice Kossuth. Personal ambition and per- sonal animosities paralysed his military genius, and, in a moment of adverse fortune, he surrendered at discretion to the representative of Russia. Since the fall of Hungary he has resided at Kla- genfui-th. In 1852 he published at Leipzig a vindication of his "treason," which has since appeared in England, under the title of "My Life and Acts in Hungary." GORTCHAKOFF, Prince Alex- ander, Russian diplomatist, cousin to Prince Michael, the General, born 1798, was a student at Zarskoe-Selo and made the friendship of the poet Pouschkin. In 1824 he was Secretary of embassy to London, and in 1830 was Charge d'Afl'aires at Florence. In 1832 he was attached to the Russian embassy at Vienna, where the illness and subse- quent death of his chief gave him great influence. In 1841 he was envoy to Stuttgard, with the title of Ambassador Extraordinary, and hai)pily negotiated the marriage of the Prince Royal of Wm-temburg -with the Russian Grand- duchess Olga, daughter of the Czar. For this service he received civil promo- tion corresponding to the rank of Lieu- tenaut-Geueral. In 1850 he proceeded to the Germanic Diet at Frankfort ; and in 1854 succeeded CoiKit OrlofF at Vienna, to represent Russian interests at that court. He is one of the old Muscovite party, totally antagonistic tsley House. Sub- sequently this artist has especially de- voted himself to portrait i)ainting. Some years ago he might have been described as the painter of the beau monde in Lontlf)n, the most celebrated fashionable beauties of the day having sat to him. Of late years, however, he has been almost exclusively occupied in painting eminent statesmen, soldiers, lawyers, and ili^Tnes, among whom may be enu- merated several of the bishops. Lord Derby, Lord John Russell, Lord Har- dinge. Lord Gough, Sir George Grey, Lord Truro, and Lord Campbell. The Queen and Prince Albert sat to him for an equestrian portrait, which is now in Christ's Hospital. He subsequently painted another equestrian portrait of Her Majesty for the Army and Navy Club. The style of Mr. Grant has been comjjared most injudiciously with that of Lawrence, whose meretricious and affi'cted manners he has always avoided while aiming at truth and character combineil -with refinement. He always succeeds in touching his pictures with a certain aristocratic elegance, in arrang- ing the various parts of his figures ^vith grace, and in imparting a poetical cha- racter to them by the pose of the head. GRANT, James, a novelist, was born at Edinburgh, on the 1st of Au- GE A ISO GRA giist, 1S22. He is the son of Captain Johu Grant, and at aii early age went witli his father and a detachment of soldiers to Newfoundland, where he con- tinued several years. In 1S39 he re- tm-ned to the mother country, when Lord Hill made him an Ensign in the 62nd Regiment, the depot of which he commanded for some time. Preferring literary to military pursuits, he has since pubhshed many works, among which may be enumerated the " Ro- mance of War," "JaneSeton," "Philip Rollo," the "Adveutm'cs of an Aide- de-Camp," " Scottish Cavaher," "Both- well," " Frank Hilton," " The Yellow Frigate," " Phantom Regiment," "The Black Dragoon," " Highlanders of Gle- nora," "Arthur Blane," "Hollywood Hall," and the " Legends of the Black Watch," which all bear the impress of his pecuHar style. His " Philip Rollo" is well known in France as " Les Mous- quetaires Ecossais ;" and his " Romance of War" is a favourite in Germany as the " Hochlauder in Spanien." All his romances have been printed repeatedly at Leipzig. In addition to his novels, he has published several historical works — "Memoirs of Kirkaldy of Grange" (18-19), "Memorials of the Castle of Edinburgh" (1850), " Life of Montrose" (185G), "CavaUers of Fortune, or Bri- tish Heroes in Foreign Wars" (1858), &c. He describes scenes, persons, and incidents, so as to make them stand out like pictm-es. Almost all his mihtary works, so to call them, have been pub- lished in a cheap form, and have also been translated into the French, Ger- man, and Swedish languages. Mi-. Grant married, in Jidy 1854, the eldest -daugh- ter of James Browne, LL.D., Advocate, the well-lvuown author of the " History of the Highlantls and Highland Clans," &c. &c. GRANVILLE, George LE^^:soN GowER, Earl, was born May 11th, 1815. After studying at Eton and Oxford he proceeded to Paris as attache, but re- tm-ned to England in IS.'JO, when he was elected Member of Parliament for Mor- peth. He shortly afterwards made his maiden speech on the Spanish question, wliich was highly successful. In 1840 he married Maria, daughter of the Due de Dalberg, who has recently died. He moved the address at the beginning of the next session, and then resigned in order to become Under Secretary of State for Foreign Aifaii-s, and was re- elected in 1841. He succeeded to his father's title in 1846, became Master of her Majesty's Buckhounds, and after- wards Commissioner of Railways and Vice-President of the Board of Trade. As Chaiiman of the Royal Commission and Finance Committee of the Great Exhibition, Earl Granville contributed largely by his amiability and manage- ment to the general success of the enter- prise. At the Paris Exhibition he highly pleased the noblesse and municipality by a speech spoken in the pm-est French and of the happiest aUasion. At the close of the Exhibition he was called to the Cabinet, and succeeded the veteran dii)lomatist Lord Palmerston as Foreign Secretary. He has held ofEce as Presi- dent of the Coimcil, and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. In 1856 he was chosen to assist at the coronation of the Czar, Alexander II., with the title of Ambassador Extraordinary. Lord Derby's resignation in 1859, lead- ing to the fonnation of a new govern- ment by Lord Palmerston, Earl Gran- ville was appointed President of the Coimcil and leader of the House of Lords. In 1857 he was appointed Chan- cellor of the University of London and Knight of the Garter. GRATTAX, Thomas Collet, a po- pular novelist, was born in Dublin, 1796. Distantly connected with the celebrated Irish orator, Henry Grattan, he was set apart for the legal profession, but his love of books, not of the law, G R A 190 GEE and his ardent temperament, led him to aspii-e to military glory. He got his commission, and was on the way to join his regiment, when he heard of the battle of Waterloo, and the conclusion of the war. He then offered himself to the South American army of Inde- pendence ; but on board the vessel that was to convey him to Venezuela, he met with a lady jiassenger, to whom he became attached, was married to her, proceeded no fmiher in search of fame at the cannon's mouth, but settled in the south of France, as an author. After great success he was sent to America as British Consul for one of the States. His principal works are — "Phihbert," a ])oetical romance, pub- lished at Bordeaux, in 1819; "High- ways and Bye Ways ; or, Tales of the Roadside," 1823 ; " Traits of Travel," 1829; "The Heiress of BrugeSf" 1830; "The History of the Netherlands, to the Belgian Revolution," in 1830; "The History of Switzer- land," and the " Legends of the Rhine." While British Consid at Boston, where he remained from 1839 to 1853, he wrote a pamphlet on the " North-Eastern Botmdary Question, between Great Britain and the United States." GRAY, Asa, M.D., an American botanist, was born at Paris, Oneida Coimty, New York, in 1810. He took his degeee of M.D. from the University of the State of New York, in 1831, since which time he has entirely pursued botanical studies. Selected as Botanist to the U. S. South Pacific Exploring Ex- pedition, in 1837, he resigned tlie ap- pointment in 1838, when chosen almost simidtaneously Professor of Botany in the University of Michigan, and Pro- fessor of Natural History in Harvard University, Massachusetts, which last si- tuation he actually accepted. Both before and since his appointment to this chair, he has written many valuable books and papers on subjects connected with bo- tanical science, among which may be eniunerated his "Elements of Botany," his "Botanical Text-book," his "Flora of North America," and his " Manual of Botany for the Northern United States," and numerous contributions to the "New York Annals," "The Trans- actions of the American Philosophical Society," and the Smithsoni;in "Con- tributions to Knowledge." (iREELEY, Horace, American jour- nalist, was born at Amhurst, New Hamp- shire, Febmary 3, 1 8 11 . At the age of fif- teen he was indentiu-ed to a printer, in Vermont, Avho published a local journal. He continued there for a few years, but the paper being discontinued he returned to his father's farm, in 1830. He had experienced much in city and coimtry, but nothing to exceed his self-education. As a jom-neyman, he got employment here and there, for somewhere about three years, when, in 1834, he com- menced the "New Yorker," which con- tinued to exist till 1841, when it became the " New York Tribune," a daily paper, the success of which was insured by the character of its predecessor, and of the "Log Cabin," another publica- tion which Mr. Greeley had edited before changing the form of his journal. The ' ' Tribime " was the organ of an opinion ; it was bought largely and read ; and the founder gained a seat in Congress. Vi- siting this comitry in 1851, he was chosen Chairman of one of the Juries at the Great Exhibition, and he wrote to the "Tribune" an account of Europe, and of his obsers'ations. GREY, Henry, Earl, a British statesman, eldest son of Charles, second Earl, born December 28, 1802, was educated at Cambridge, elected for Winchelsea in 1826, and in 1831 as member forNorthimiberland,and became Under Secretary of State for the Colonies. A difi'erence of opinion on a plan advocated by Earl Grey, then Lord Howick, for complete Slave Emancipa- GEE 191 GRE tion, led to his resignatif)n. In January, 18;?4, he was appointed Under Secretary of State for the Home Department, which he resigned in July following, on his father's retirement from the govern- ment. In 1835 he liecame Secretary- at-War under Lord ilelbourne. At the general election in 1841, he was elected for Simderland. In 184,") he entered the House of Peers, and in the following year was Colonial Secretary under Lord John Russell, a position in which he attained a large measure of unpopida- rity, which led to his resignation. Like his father, he seems to be a strange combination of liberal ideas and aris- tocratic prepossessions. As a states- man, Earl Grey holds an isolated posi- tion, which would seem to arise from the simple fact that he makes it a rule to think for himself. He is consequently termed "crotchety," but with no more cause than might have been attriljuted to his father, who, except in one or two instances, was one of the most con- sistent statesmen of his era. Unlike the great Earl of the name, however, he has few if any followers, and his tempera- ment is described as by no means con- ciliatory. Lord Grey is the author of a work entitled "The Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell's Administration," published in 1853. GREY, Right Hox. Sir George, Baronet, cousin of Earl Grey, was born at Gibraltar, in 1799, and gi-aduated at Oriel College, Oxford, in 1821, where he highly distinguished himself. He joined the legal profession in 1826, and was elected for Devonport in 1832. His political views and talents have con- nected him with liberal measures, and he has held the offices of Colonial and Home Secrctarj'- imder various admin- istrations. He was Home Secretary under Lord Palmerston in 1855, but on that nobleman gi^'ing way to the Eai'l of Derby, Sir George necessarily resigned. When Lord Palmerston was again called upon to act in 1859, as Premier, he ap- pointed Sir George Grey to the office of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Sir George Grey is a G.C. B., and a Deputy Lieutenant for Northumberland. GREY, Sir George, K.C.B., Gover- nor of the Cape of Good Hope, son of Lieutenant-Colonel Grey, of the 30th Regiment, was born at Lisburn, Ireland, on the 14th April, 1812 ; his father having fallen at the siege of Badajoz, three days before his birth. He was educated for the army at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, where he studied with the highest distinction. On attaining the rank of Captain, in 1836, he offered his sei-vices to the Colonial Secretary, to explore Australia, in con- junction with Lieutenant Lushington, The interior of Australia was then com- paratively a terra incognita, and his offer being accepted by Lord Glenelg, he de- parted on his mission in 1837. He com- menced his labom's in November of the same year, and after experiencing maliy difficidties and dangers in the enter- prise, retm-ned to the Mauritius, in April, 1838. Resting a few months, he started in the September following to explore the Swan River district, return- ing in 1840 from that expedition. On his return to England, he commenced his "Joiu-nals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-Western and Wes- tern Austraha," but had to lay them aside on being appointed Governor of South Austraha, in which office he showed that administrative abUity wliich has since characterised his career. HaA-ing acquired the native language, he was enabled to hold friendly pei-sonal intercourse with them. In 1846 he became Governor of New Zealand, and in that office his tact and moderation, added to the knowledge he acquired of the na- tive language, served to calm Ao\va many asperities. His government, wise and con- ciliatory, became popular, and he main- tained his position with advantage uutU GRI 192 GRI 1S.")4, when he was appointed Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Cape of Good Hope, having jireviously, in 184S, been created a K.C.B. His govern- ment at the Cape displayed the same sagacity and cakn energy which had rendered his measures so popular else- where. Fi-om turbulence he produced order, from discontent, peace and grow- ing prosperity ; but in 1S58 the Home Government interfered -with such utter want of discrimination, and clung to their un-svise schemes with such pertinacity, that Sir George Grey perceived no other course ojien to him than resignation of his post. He retm-ued to England, but so sti-ong was the feeling at the Cape, that several leading colonists followed him to London, waited upon Ministers, urged the damage that would inevitably ensue from his removal, and in 1859 he was requested bj' the Colonial arlminis- tration to resume his post. Without any question, he is the most popidar Gover- nor that ever set foot in our South African possessions. Besides his "Jour- nals, " ah-eady noticed. Sir George Grey has pu1)Ushed "Polynesian ^Mythology : an Ancient Tracbtioual History of the New Zealand Race." GRIFFIN, John Joseph, an English chemist and writer on science, was born in Loudon, in 1802. He is the author of " Chemical Recreations," a work which has done more to popularize the study of chemistry in Britain than any other publication. Mr. Griffin is also author of a "Treatise on the BloAVjnpe," "The Radical Theory of Chemistry," and of a " System of Crystallogi-ai)hy." To him the chemical manipulator is indebted for the invention of numerous cheap and handy articles of apparatus. GRIMM, Jacob LuD^\^G, a German writer, was born at Hanau on the 4th January, 1785. After studjang for some time for the legal profession, he turned his attention to literaiy pursuits, and eventually became librarian at | Willielmshohe in Westphalia. After recei^'ing an appointment at Cassel, he went to Gottingeu, where he was elected one of the professors of the university. Being expelled for poHtical reasons from his professorship, he went to Berlin, in which city he still remains. He hivs contributed many valualjle works re- lating to the history and archceology of Germany, such as his "German My- thologj'," "German Antiquities," ■with others relating to the characteristics of his covmtrymen, and devotes himself most energetically in bringing to light incidents and traditions of "Father- land." GRISI, GirLiA, an Italian singer and operatic perfoi-mer, was born at Milan, in 1812. She is the daughter of an officer of engineers, who served in the army of the great Napoleon. Early re- marked as possessing musical talent of no common descriiition, her faculty was first develo])ed by INIarliani, the com- poser. Ha\'ing received a good educa- tion, lessons from her sister, then a pi'ima donna, and other teachers of abihty, and encoiu-agement from her friends, she made her first appearance in the theatre of Bologna, in Rossini's " Zelmii'a." She is said to have been then a beautiful girl, — only seventeen, — her voice a resonant contralto ; her man- ner graceful and winning. Rossini having predicted her fiitiu'c fame, she was engaged at La Scala, of Milan. There she met Bellini, who adapted, expressly with a view to her powers, the part of Adelgisa, in Norma, his greatest work. Pasta was the Norma on the first representation ; and Bellini's music fell flat upon the ears of the audience, until Grisi's "Deh ! conte," roused them into enthusiasm. The opera was per- formed forty nights. Pasta's woncb-ous acting inspired Grisi with the ambition of being a great tragedienne : how she overcame obstacles, and tutored her voice into a superb soprano, is well known. She GRO 193 GUI appeared first in England in 1834, in conjunction witli Paibini, a magnificent tenor ; the musical world was enrap- tured. Her ambition was gratified, for she ultimately succeeded Pasta, though not until after the death of Malibran. In 1839 " Lucrezia Borgia " was produced, and since then her career has been unparalleled; and the recent annoimcement of her retirement from the stage has excited great regret. In her younger days she married M. de Melcy, a French gentleman; but the marriage has been dissolved, and she is now the wife of Signor Mario, the great tenor. GROTE, Gkorge, M.P., a politician and historian, was born in 1794, at Clay- hUl, Beckenham, Kent. He is descended from a German family, established in London dming the early part of the last century. Eeceiving his education at the Charter-House school, he became con- nected with Messrs. Prescott, Grote, and Co.'s Bank in 1810. In 1832 he was returned as one of the mem- bers for the City of London, retain- ing his seat till 1841, when he retu-ed. His political princii)lcs are of the ad- vanced liberal school ; and for a number of years he was the zealous, though un- successful promoter of the Ballot Ques- tion in the House of Commons. It is, however, as a scholar and historical writer that Mr. Grote has earned dis- tinction. Besides his great work "The History of Greece," he is the author of several talented pamphlets, and con- tributions to ReNnews. GTJDIN, Theodore, a well-known French marine painter, was born at Paris, in 1 804. After serving as an officer in the Royal Na^^, he took part in the African campaign of 1830, when he received on the field of battle the Cross of an officer of the Legion of Honour. Having, in 1824, exhibited a picture at the Salon, he obtained the second-class medal. He was appointed first painter of the Royal Navy, by Charles X. In the execution of this commission, which bore date 1 838, Gudin worked assiduously for ten years, when the revolution of February, 1848, ter- minated his labours. During that decade his facile pencil had painted a large number of pictures for the royal gal- leries. Gudin having married the daughter of General Lord James Hay, has fre- quently resided in this country, and his pictures of Scottish scenery were pro- duced during these visits. The Revo- lution of 1848 prevented twenty-seven of the series, painted for Versailles, from being placed beside the others ; the Emperor has, however, expressed a wish that the gallery should be com- pleted by the addition of these pic- tures, which, indeed, are enumerated in the catalogues published in 1848. The last works of M. Gudin are des- tined to perpetuate two important events in the history of imperial policy, the one being "The Entrance of the Em- peror to the Roads of Brest, on the oc- casion of his voyage to Brittany;" and the other, the " Arrival of the Queen of England at Cherbourg." These huge pic- tiires, which are on the scale of pano- ramic views, like most of M. Gudin's productions, have met with high praise from the French art critics, and more particularly in " L' Europe Artistique " of 11th March last, where they are even said to be in advance of the previous works of the author. GUIZOT, FRANr-ois Pierre -GuiL- LAUAfE, an historian, ex-minister of France under Louis-Philippe, was born October, 1787. His father, an advocate of Nismes, fell a victim to the French Revolution only three days after the triimiph of Robespierre over Danton, Camille DesmoiUins, and the men of the Committee of Public Safety. After this fatal catastrophe, Madame Guizot left Nismes to seek at Geneva consolation for her great soitow in the bosom of her family, and in a solid education for her GUI 194 GUI children. Guizot, jJaced at the Gym- nasium of Geneva, devoted hijnself ardently to study. The child had no childhood, his playthings were hooks, and at the end of twelve years the young scholar was able to read, in their respec- tive languages, the great masterpieces of the ancient and the modern world. Hav- ing completed his collegiate studies with brilliant success, M. Giuzot ])roceeded to Paris in 1805, to prepare himself for the bar. The law schools had disappeared amidst the revolutionary whirlwind, and the young student, not caring for the imperfect knowledge private seminaries might supply, resolved to master it in solitude. The serious na- ture of the Genevese scholar found little that was genial in the dissolute society of the metropolis of France. The first year of his residence in Paris was one of sadness and isolation. In the following year he became attached, as tutor, to the household of M. Stapfer, minister for Switzerland at the French Court. This connexion introduced Guizot, not only to some of the most distinguished liter- ary j)ersons of the time, but to the society of the woman who was destined to exer- cise so noble and beneficial an influence over his whole Hfe. Born of a distin- guished family that had been ruined by the revolution. Mademoiselle Pauline de Meulan had found resources in au education as solid as it was varied, and, to support herself, had entered upon the career of a journahst. A serious malady, the result of excessive toil, obhged her to suspend her literary labours. Her situation threatened to become critical, hope had almost withered into desjjair, when she received an anonymous letter entreating her to be tranquil, and offer- ing to discharge her duties on the "Pub- hoiste" during the continuance of her illness. The letter was accompanied by an adniiral)ly written article modelled upon her own style. The article was accepted— published, and a similar con- tribution received every week until the editress was convalescent. Not until repeatedly solicited to disclose his incog- nito did the young student reveal him- self. Five years after this romantic episode, Mademoiselle de Meulan be- came Madame Guizot. During these five years Guizot was busily occupied in those historical studies from which he has since reaped so large a harvest of fame. In 1809 he published his first work, a "Dictionnairedes Sj'nonymes." In 1812 he became Assistant-Professor of History in the Facidty of Letters of the Sorbonne, and suljsequcntly obtained complete possession of that chair. Here it was Guizot formed that attachment with the then Professor of the Philo- sophy of History, which has so often associated his name with that of M. Royer CoUard. Guizot's career, hitherto purely literary, was now to become identified with the political for- tunes of Fi-ance. The post of Secretary- General to the Minister of the Interior, was his first ste]) in the path of pohtics. In this position he took i)art in prepar- ing those laws against the press which were, in 1814, presented to the Cham- bers by the Minister of the Interior, M. de Montesquieu. Placed amidst con- tending factions, more conservative than satisfied the instincts of the one, and more constitutional than suited the tastes of the other, Guizot in office was but iU at ease. Napoleon's return from Elba released him from the difficidties of his position, and he resumed his oc- cupation as Professor of History. When the fall of the Emjjeror became evident, Guizot repaired to Ghent to plead the cause of the Charter before Louis XVIII. , and was afterwards appointed Secretary- General to the Minister of Justice. In the violent storm which shook the Cham- ber of 1815, the constitutiouafist did his utmost to moderate the partisans of abso- lute royalty, who censured him severely for his constitutional i)ruiciplcs of action. GUI 195 GUT In 1818 lie was made (-oiinclllor of State with an office specially formed for bim. On the fall of the Ministiy of Decazes, trampled upon as rcvohitionary by the counter revohition, (iiiizot accompanied the constitutional i>ai-ty into opijosition, combating, with all the energy of his ])owerfid pen, the administration of VUl^le. ViUiile avenged the antagonism of Guizot, by intei'dicting his lectures as ])rofessor. Renouncing the questions of the hoiir, Guizot now imdertook that series of great historical works which have given him so distinguished a jilace in literature. At this time it was that the collection of "Memoirs Relative to the English Revolution." " The History of the English Revolution," "Memoirs Relative to the History of France," and "Essays on Sliaksjjeare, " were succes- sively published. In 1827 death de- prived him of the companion of his labours — that beloved wiie whose serene and lofty intelligence had sustained him amid the agitations of his career. On the fall of the Villfele Ministry, in 1828, Guizot, reinstated in his professorial chair, began his lectures on the "His- tory of Civilization in Europe." In 1828 he mjirried his second wife — a niece of his first wife, who ad\-ised the union. On the formation of the Poliguac Cabi- net, he was elected for Lisieux, and voted for the address of the 221, adding to his vote those words: " Truth has al- ready trouble enough in penetrating to the council of kings — let us not send it there pale and feeble." It was his wish that the tlirone shoidd have one other chance, but the warning voice was un- heeded. On the eve of the revolution, Guizot drew up the protest of the depu- ties against the ordinances of July ; and, on the fall of mtmarchy, he read in the Chamber the proclamation which consti- tuted the Didie of Orleans Lieutenant- General of France. Ujiun the accession of Louis-Phili])pe, in 1830, Guizot be- came Minister of the Interior, but only held ofHce for a short time. la the Soult Cabinet, formed in 1832, he was Minister of Public Instruction, and in that capacity ilid much for the cause of education in France. He was a great favom-ite of the citizen King, and h.'wl the King only followed his stern coimsel, the throne of the barricades had pro- bably still stood erect — unmoved — un- shaken. The two darkest spots on the fame of M. Guizot, as a statesman, are those which relate to the affairs of Tahiti, and the conduct of the Spanish marriages. [It has been averred that the Minister I acted only under the influence of the j Crown in promoting the union of the Due de Montpensier with the Infanta, but in the whole matter there was an amount of intrigue which Guizot should have resisted at any risk of the King's displeasure, and which ultimately as- sisted in the downfall of both. GUTHRIE, Thomas, D.D., atheolo- logian, orator, and philanthropist, born at Brechin, in 1803. After studying in the University of Edinbm-gh, and enter- ing the Scottish Church, he acquired a knowledge of medicine at Paris, -with the view of adding to his usefulness as a clergyman. In 1830 he obtained a living in the county of Forfar. Subse- quently he was appointed to the colle- giate church of Old Greyfriars, Edin- bm-gh ; and in 1840 to a new church built for him. When the non-intrusion controversy arose, he was foimd by the side of Dr. Chalmers, combating with all the energy and all the earnestness of his nature for those principles of sjiiritual independence for which his party after- wards relinquished the emoluments and position of ministers of the National Cluu"ch. No man exerted a wider inflii- ence upon the popular mind in connexion %\'ith that great struggle y but when the contest was over, scorning to sustain party antipathies, he betook himself to that career of active benevolence with which his name has long been so honour- H AG 19G H A L ably associated. It is owing to his elo- quence and energy that the Ragged Schools were first begun in Edinburgh, an institution which has effected much in the reformation of the young Aral)s of our great manufacturing towns. Dr. Guthrie is an active promoter of the tem- l)erance movement, to which he has de- voted a large amount of zealous effort. "The City : its Sins and Sorrows," is a memorial of his labours iu that important walk of philanthropy. "The Gospel in Ezckicl," and "Christ the Inheritance of the Saints," embody good illustrations of his general pulpit efforts. In illustra- tive and pictorial power, Dr. Guthrie is without a rival among the pulpit orators of Britain. HAGENBACH, Charles Eodolphe, a German Protestant theologian, was born at Basle, in 1801. The son of a distinguished naturalist and professor of anatomy and botany, he studied first at Bonn, then at Berlin, and afterwards at Basle, and was, in 1828, appointed Pro- fessor of Theology. "With ample leisure to study and write, he has applied his powers with effect. Almost all his works relate to ecclesiastical history and theo- logy; his book on the " Spirit and His- tory of the Reformation" being ])erha])S Ids most satisfactory, as it seems to be the most earnest, of his writings. His "Guide to Christian Instniction" is an excellent work. His " Compendium of the History of Doctrines " has been translated into English by Carl and Buck. Edinburgh : 1846. HAG HE, Louis, a water-colour painter, was born at Tournay, in Bel- gium in 1806, but has long resided in England. He started iu his artistic career as a lithographer, his stoue-draw- ings bringing him into great repute. He ntered into partnership with Mr. Day, and produced some of the most important hthographic works published in Britain. He has a special aptitude for depicting the quaint old Elemish streets, and the richly decorated inte- riors of his native country ; his pictures are characterized by consmnmatc skill in manipidation. He holds a prominent position in the New Society of Painters in Water Colours. Those who know his works may be sui-jjrised to learn that, full and detailed though his pic- tures are, they are executed with the left hand. For some years past he has devoted his time to painting in oil, which is now his chief study. HAHN-HAHN, Countess Von, a German poetess, was born at Tressow, in 1805, and is daughter of Count Charles Von Hahn. She married her relation Coimt Frederic Von Hahn-Hahn, but the union was unfortunate, and it was dissolved by the Courts in 1829. Her poetic taste induced her to travel over most of Europe, and to visit the East. In 1850 the Countess abjured the Lu- theran creed for the faith of the Roman Catholic Church. She now resides at the Convent of the Good Shepherd, near Mayence. She is the author of many works, both in prose and verse, the most remarkable of which are her novels: " The Countess Faustina, " "Ul- rich," " Sigismimd Forster," and "Cecil;" and her books of travel, en- titled " Beyond the Mountains," " Let- tei-s on Germany," "Reminiscences of France," "A Northern Tour," "Ori- ental Tales," and "From Babylon to Jerusalem." HALEVY, Jacques-ElieFromental, a French musical composer, was bom at Paris, in 1799. His original name was Levy, his fanuly being Jewish by race, as well as of the Jewish persuasion, to which he himself adheres. In 1809 he entered the Conservatoire and made such progress that when twelve years of age he carried off the prize for har- mony against aU competitors. Having studied composition under Cherubini, that great master, when he had occasion to visit Loudon, left Halevey to conduct HAL 197 his class at the Conservatoire. In 1819, after obtaining the first i)rize for musical composition at the Institute, he visited Italy, and remained there some years, and it was not till 1827 that his opera, "L' Artisan," was brought out at the Opera Comique, followed, in the same year, at the same theatre, by "II Dille- tante," and in 1829, at the Royal Italian Theatre, by "Clari," which he wrote for the celebrated MaUbran. Other works appeared in rapid succession, xmtil 1835, when he produced ' ' La Juive, " his cluf (Voeuvre. He afterwards brought out " L'Eclair," "Giiido et Genevra," "La Reine de Chypre," and "Charles VI." In 1846 he wi'ote for the Comic Opera "Les Mousquetaires de la Reine," which had a great run, and in 1848, "Le Val d'Andorre," which was performed for 165 consecutive nights. He has since produced "La Tempesta," " Le Juif Errant," "La Magicienne," &c. He is admitted to be one of the first of living composers. He is a Pro- fessor at the Conservatoire, a Com- mander of the Legion of Honour, a Member of the Institute, and perpetiial Secretary of the Academy of the Fine Arts, in which capacity he has wi-itten several interesting notices of artistic celebrities. HALIBURTON, The Honourable Mr. Justice^ M,P., was born in Nova Scotia, on 17th Dec, 1796, his father belonging to an ancient Scottish family. He graduated at King's College in that province, and became a Ban-istor-at-Law and member of the House of Asscmbl3^ In 1829 he was appointed Justice of Common Pleasj and in 1840 Judge of the Supreme Court. He resigned this appointment in 1850, and removed to England. Two years afterwards the honorary degree of D.C.L. was con- ferred upon him by the University of Oxford, and in 1859 he was returned to Parliament for the borough of Laimces- ton. He has written the following HAL works : "A General Description of Nova Scotia," " History of Novor Scotia," "Sam Slick, the Clockma- ker" (1st, 2nd, and 3rd Series), "The Letter Bag of the Great Western," "Bubbles of Canada," " Rule and Mis- rule of the English in America," "Wise Saws and Modern Instances," "Nature and Human Nature," &c. The work by which he is most extensively known is "Sam SHck, the Clockmaker, " which has been translated into several European languages, has passed through marty editions in England, and has been republished in most of the principal towns of the United States, where it has been more extensively read than most works of the present century. A late reviewer remarks, that "Sam SUck" should become an immoiial book from its wit, genuine humom-, and profound knowledge of human natm-e. HALL, Mrs. Anna Maria Field- ing, a novelist and dramatic writer; born in Dublin, in 1802. She is de- scended, on the mother's side, from an ancient Huguenot family, who emigrated to England after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes ; and on the father's side, from a younger branch of the family of Fielding, to which the great English novelist belonged. She quitted Ireland at the early age of fifteen ; but her impressions were so vivid, and her recollections so permanent, that in her first works she could paint with the utmost freshness the scenes of her youth. In 1824 she married Mr. S. C. HaU ; and natiu-aUy desiiing to co-ope- rate with him in his literary labours, devoted the energies of her mind to hteratiu-e. In 1826 she ^v^ote her "Sketches of Irish Character." Her first novel, " The Buccaneer," was pub- lished in 1832. "The Outlaw," "Uncle Horace," "Marian," " The Whiteboy," and "A Woman's Story," — novels — fol- lowed in succession. But, probably, the works on which her reputation mainly HAL 198 HAL rests, are the " Tales of. Woman's Trials," and "Pilgrimages to English Shrines." These were iirst printed, aa was also her story of " Midsummer Eve," in the "Art Journal," — a work conducted by her husband, and to which she has been a cctutinual and valuable contributor. She is also the author of throe successfiU dramas : — " The French llefugee," performed without intermis- sion, seventy nights, at the St. James's Theatre, under Braham's management ; " The Groves of Blarney," in which Power sustained the three principal parts during a whole season, at the Adelphi; and "Mabel's Curse," dra- matized from one of her own stories. Another of her plays was lost with the lamented actor, when he perished in the " President." Mrs. Hall has also writ- ten many books for children; among others, "Uncle Sam's Money Bo.\;," which has obtained a very large circida- 'tion both at home and abroad. Mrs. Hall has enjoyed that kind of reputa- tion of which a woman is ever most justly proud : a desire to extend the influence of religion, virtue, and loy- alty, without any admixture of secta- rian bias ; while in all her books on Ireland, she has laboured, and not un- successfully, to lessen or remove the pre- judices which have long existed against our fellow-subjects of the sister isle. HALL, Samuel Carter, was born at Topsham, in 1801. He entered the Temple in 1 824, and was afterwards called to the bar. Turning liis attention to lite- rature, he became editor of the "New Monthly Magazine" in 18,30. He was at the same time employed as a political ■writer for newspapers, both in Loudon and in the provinces. When the " An- nuals" were at the height of their suc- cess, he edited one of the best, under the name of "The Amulet." He was also the editor of "The Book of Gems of British Poets and Painters," "The Book of British Ballads," "The Baro- nial Halls of England," and other il- lustrated works, which obtained large popularity. The work to which he is mainly indebted for reputation, how- ever, "Ireland: its Scenery and Cha- racter," was the joint production of Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall. The statis- tics, political inquiries, and the descrii)- tive and heavy parts of the book were written l)y him, while the illustrative and characteristic sketches with which the work aboimds, were su))plied by the ahy and fertile pen of Mrs. Hall. In 1839 Mr. Hall conmieiiced the ])ublication of "The Art-Union Journal," suljsequently entitled "The Art .Jom-nal," and that work he has ever since conducted, hav- ing superintended the issue to twenty- one yearly volumes ; a rare circum- stance in i)eriodical literatiu-e. It is the only publication in Eurcjpe by which Art is adequately represented; and it has exercised a great and very beneficial influence on the fine arts in this coun- try, as well as on British industry. Mr. Hall is a Fellow of various learned bodies. Of late years he has delivered a number of public lectures, the most attractive of his series ])eing that which he terms "Written Portraits of the Authors of the Age, from Personal Ac- quaintance ;" the list comprising nearly every name of note during the last forty years. Circumstances having brought Mr. Hall into relationship, more or less, with Scott, Southey, Hannah Moore, Thomas Moore, Mrs. Opie, Words- worth, Coleridge, Montgomery, Miss Mitford, Miss Edgewortli, Mrs. Ilemans, Theodore Hook, Thomas Campbell, Miss Landon, Lady Morgan, Thomas Hood, and many other "celebrities" of hi.s time ; he is enabled to give personal sketches and reminiscences of a deeply interesting character. HALLECK, Frrz-GREENE, an Ame- rican poet, was Ijorn at Guilford, Con- necticut, in August, 1705. He became con- nected with a bank in New York in 1813, HAL l99 HAM and resided in that city for many years, as confidential agent for the American Rothschild, John Jacob Astor. Mr. Halleck commenced contributing to the journals of the day at an early age ; and, when settled in New York, was known as an associate of the wits about town. In 1821 Mr. Halleck published his largest poem, "Fanny," a satire upon the litei'ature and politics of the time, in the measure of "Don Juan." In 1822-23 he visited Europe ; and the reflections suggested by his travels are dlnbodied in his poems on Burns and on Alnwick castle, which, with some other pieces, were published in 1827. The "Burns" poem is one of the finest tri- butes to the memory of the bard the Muses have ever offered at his skrine. HALLIWELL, James Orchard, an author and editor, chiefly distinguished as a Shaksperian critic, was born in Sloane-street, Chelsea, in 1821. He commenced his literary career about 1838, and in the following year was elected a Fellow of the Roj'al Society, and afterwards of many other scientific and literary associations. His first work of much importance was a "Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words" (1847), a glossary of upwards of fifty thousand words of obsolete and provincial English, with nimierous references and examples from recondite books. He has edited many of the works issued by the Cam- den, Percy, and Shaksperian Societies, between 1839 and 1850 ; amongst which may be noticed ' ' Warkworth's Chro- nicle," " The Chronicle of William de Rishanger," " The First Sketch of Shakspeare's ' Merry Wives of Wind- sor,'" "Tarlton's Works," the "First Sketches of Hemy the Sixth," and the "Thornton Romances." In 1848 ap- peared his "Life of Shakspeare," in the preparation of which he had the ad- vantage of the unrestricted use of the records of Stratford-on-Avon. This biography, remodelled and partly re- written, has been introduced into his folio edition of Shakspeare, now in pro- gress, nine volimies of which have ap- peared. This large work, commenced in 1853, aims at a greater elaboration of Shaksperian criticism, than has hitherto been attempted ; a thick folio volume sufiicing to include no more than two plays, with the editor's copious introduc- tions and annotations. Amongst Mr. Halliwell's miscellaneous writings may be noticed, "An Introduction to the 'Midsummer Night's Dream,'" Svo, 1841 ; "An Essay on the Character of Sir John Falstaff," 12mo, 1841; "Po- pular Rhymes and Nursery Tales," 8vo, 1849; and "An Introduction to the E\ndences of Christianity," Svo, 1859. HAMILTON, The Rev. James, D.D., minister of the English Presbyterian Chm-ch, Regent Square, London, was born in 1814, his father being the Rev. WiUiam Hamilton, minister of Strathblane. From a small j)arish in Perthshire, where he acted as assistant- minister he was called to a chapel -of - ease in Edinburgh, and in 1841 to the National Scotch Chnrch, London, for- merly presided over by the Rev. Edwd. Irving. He has published several works, among which the best known are ' ' Life in Earnest," "The Moimt of Olives," "The Happy Home," and the "Me- moirs of liady Colquhoun." He also edited " Excelsior," a periodical in- tended to promote the religious and intellectual progress of young men, and has published under the title of " Our Christian Classics," four volumes of "Readings from English Divines, with Biographical and Critical Sketches of the prmcipal authors." HAMPDEN, Renn Dickson, D.D., bishop of Hereford, born in 1792, in Bar- badoes, of an old English family. He en- tered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1810. Hav- ing been successively fellow and tutor; public examiner in classics ; Bampton lecturer ; professor of moral philosophy ; HAN 200 II A R and regius professor of divinit)', in 1847 l)r. Hiuiipdeu was appointed bishop of Hereford. This appointment caused a fierce controversy in the English Church. Dr. Hampden's contributions to philosopliical literature are numerous and valuable. His articles on Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, in the "Encyclo- paedia Britannica," and the review of the scholastic philosophy in the " Ency- clojjffidia MetropoUtana," have elicited the commendation of all competent critics. With reference to his rcN-iew of the philosophy of the schoolmen, Hallam has thus spoken: — "Dr. Hampden has the merit of having been the only Eng- lishman, past or present, since the re- vival of letters, who has penetrated far into the wilderness of scholasticism." Sir William Hamilton, however, says of bim : — " Dr. Whately's errors Relative to Induction are, however, surpassed by those of another able writer, Mr. Hamp- den, in regaril both to that process itself, and to the Aristotelian exposition of its nature. Southey condeumed the ap- pointment of Dr. Hamjxlen as insulting to the University of Oxford, and not better than the conduct of J ames II. in obtruding a Romish president upon Magdalen, while the "Edinburgh Re- view " alleges that the Doctor was per- secuted by blind consciences, corrupted by the habitual indulgence of evU passions. Among his jiriucipal works are "The Scholastic Philosophy con- sidered in its relation to Cliristiau Theo- logy," preached in 1832 {Oxford, 1832) ; "Philosophical Evidences of Chris- tianity;" "Lectures on Moral Philo- sophy ;" "Parochial Sermons ;" and four other Sermons (183G) ; " Sermons before the University of Oxford" (1S4S). HANNAY, James, an author and journalist, was born at Dumfries in February, 1827. Descended from a good Scotch family, he was educated in Eng- land, entered the Royal Navy in March, 1840, and served imder various com- manders imtil July, 1845. Then relin- quishing the profession and devoting himself to literary pursuits, he became contributor to the leading journals and periodicals, his first sustained work being "Singleton Fontenoy," published in 1850, which immediately gave him a position among men of letters. He delivered, in 1853, a coirrse of lectures on " Satire and Satirists," issued in a volume the year after, and published in 1855 the remarkably clever novel of "Eustace Conyers," which has been translated into Cierman. In 1857 he was induced to stand for Dumfries, but though the mass of the people were in his favour, he was defeated — polling 185 votes. He is the author of a collection of fugitive naval pieces imder the title of "Sketches in Ultramarine." Mr. Hannay has recently removed to Edin- burgh to edit the "Couraut" newspaper. HANOVER, King of, .S'ee George V. HARDWICKE, Charles Philip YoKKE, Earl of, an English states- man, late Privy Seal in the ministry of Lord Derby, and eldest son of the late Admiral Sir J. S. Yorke, was born on the 2nd of April, 1799. Edu- cated at Han-ow and the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, he entered the navy early, and assisted at the bombard- ment of Algiers, when serving in the Queen Charlotte. He was returned member of Parliament for Reigate, in 1831, and in 1834, on the death of his uncle, was called to the House of Lords. He was a Lord in Waiting imder Sir Robert Peel in 1841, Postmaster-General under Lord Derby in 1852, and Lord Privy Seal imder the same premier in 1858. In 1854 he was promoted to be Rear- Admiral on the reserve list. HARRIS, Sir William Snow, a dis- tinguished English physicist, member of the Royal College of Surgeons, and Fellow of the Royal Society, was bom at Plymouth in 1792. He has devoted himself thi'ough life to researches in H AR 201 H A R physical science, especially in electricity, magnetism, and meteorology. In June, 1831, he was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society ; in 18;}5 he received the Copley Medal, one of the highest honours this body can award ; in 1841 he received an acknowledgment from the CivU List for his scieutitic discoveries ; and in 1845 he received two honorary presents from the Emperor of Russia as a recog- nition of the j)ractical value of his inven- tions. He was knighted by Her Majesty in 1847. The value of the researches of Sir Wdliam Snow Harris are, perhaps, not so widely known as they ought to be. He has the merit of having placed ui)on an intelligible and satisfactory basis the great question of the protection of ships and budcUngs by metallic con- ductors, a problem which for the best part of a century had divided the opinion of the eminent scientific men of Eui'ope. The disputes as to whether metallic conductors attracted lightning, whether painted conductors were preferable or not to conductors terminating in rounded or spherical siu-faces, whether a hghtning conductor was liable to di-aw down upon a building more electricity than it coidd transmit, and so bring upon it that destruction it was intended to obviate, have been by Sir Wdliam Snow Harris completely set at rest, and that too by a course of laborious inductive observa- tions and experiments. He has suc- ceeded, by a general and comprehensive system of metallic conductors carried out on the hvdls and masts of Her Majesty's ships, in placing the vessels of the royal navy beyond the reach of the destructive agency of lightning. Diuing the great war Great Britain lost upwards of £10,000 a-year by damage done to the navy by thunder storms. Within live years forty sail of the line and tlurty- five frigates and sloops were placed hors de combat from the same cause. Since the views of Sir W. Snow Harris have been acted upon not one vessel has been damaged during a jjcriod of fidly thirty years. His priuciples have been carried out in buildings on shore — such as the new Houses of Parliament, the Queen's palaces, the Government gunpowder magazines, the royal gunpowder works, &c. In this way Sir W. Snow Harris has given security to above ten millions of j)ublic property in storms of hghtning. He is the inventor of various electrical instruments, and of a valuable new binnacle and steering compass. From what we have said the reader will un- derstand the eulogium of Baron Charles Dupin when he said, in 1851, "Let governments, science, and humanity, proclaim the merits of Snow Han-is." The scientific papers of Sii" W. S. Harris, are very numerous, and will be found in " The Phdosophical Transactions," " The Transactions of the Royal Society of Ediubm-gh," the "Nautical Maga- zine," and the "British Association Re- ports. " He is, besides, the author of a work on "Thunderstorms," one volume, 8vo, Parker, London ; and an ' ' Ele- mentary Treatise on Electricity," pub- lished by Weale, and translated iuto French, by M. Garnault. HART, Solomon Alexander, R.A., a painter, was born at Plymouth, in April, 1806. After being some time at an engraver's in London, he studied in the Royal Academy, and tm-ned his at- tention to miuiature painting. He soon afterwards detei-mined to pursue the . higher branches of his profession, and accordingly undertook the illustration of historical subjects. His picture, "The Elevation of the Law," soon gained him considerable reputation, and in 1835 he became an Associate of the Royal Aca- demy. Mr. Hart has been a most inde- fatigable painter, and amongst his nume- rous productions the folloAviug have been much admired — "Interior of a Jewish Synagogue at the time of the Reailiug of the Law," now in the South Kensington Museum, "Wolsey and Buckingham,' H A R 202 HAY "Milton Visiting Galileo in the time of the Inquisition, " The Parting of Sir Thomas More and his Daughter, "Read- ing for Honours," and "Reading for Pluck," &c. In 184()Mr. Hart, in conse- quence of the exhibition of a large pic- ture of "Lady Jane Grey at the Place of her Execution," was promoted to the rank of a Royal Academician, and he is now Professor of Painting in that Institution. HARVEY, George, a Scottish painter, born at St. Ninian's, near Stir- ling, in 1806. He was apprenticed to a bookseller, but he devoted himself enthu- siastically to his favourite study. At the age of eighteen, he entered tlie draw- ing school of the Trustees' Academy, Edinburgh, and soon attracted sj)ecial attention by his superior powers. When, in 1826, the Scottish artists agi-eed to establish an academy, George Harvey joined the new institution, and since then he has zealously devoted himself to its interests. (Jeorge Harvey is pre-emi- nently a Scottish painter ; and among the small band of artists who have con- secrated their genius to Scottish sub- jects, is unquestionably the most highly gifted. His best known works are " (Jo venanters Preaching," "The Cove- nanters' Baptism," " The Battle of Drumclog," " The Covenanters' Com- mimion," " Curlers," " First Reading of the Bible in the Crypt of old St. Paul's," "A Higldand Funeral," "Quitting the Manse." An intense sympathy with whatever is noble m Scottish story ani- mates the painter, giving depth, power, and truthfidncss to all his productions. HAWTHORNE, Nathaniel, an American writer, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, about 1807, and gradu- ated at Bowdoin College, Maine, in 1825. Hi.s first literary production was a romance, published anonymously at Boston in 18:52, and followed in 1837 by bis "Twice-told Tales," of which he gave a second series in 1842. These had already appeared in " The Token," and in other periodicals. After publish- ing a collection entitled "Mosses from an Old Manse," he received a government appointment, and in his leisure hours conceived some of his mr.st charming productions. In 1850 he published "The Scarlet Letter," a romance of deep interest, and written with great power. In the following year " The House with the Seven Gables " appeared, and in 1852 "The Blithedale Romance," wherein he expresses his experiences as a member of the Brook Farm Community. In the next year he was made American Con- sul at Liverpool. Mr. Hawthorne has pubhshed several works besides those already named, amongst which are his " Life of Henry Pierce, President of the United States," "The Wonder Book for Girls and Boys," "True Stories from History and Biography," and other minor productions. He ranks as one of the most popular of American writers, and liis works have been extensively read and admired in this country. HAYES, Mrs. Catherine. Miss Hayes, one of the most celebrated vo- calists of the age, was born in Lime- rick, in 1820. Her taste for music and talent for its acciuirement were early disj)laycd, and, taken under the patron- age of the Bishop of the diocese, she was placed as a pupil with Signor Sapio, then an eminent teacher of music in Dublin. The progress of Miss Hayes was remarkable. She afterwards studied under Viardot Garcia at Paris, and Ronconi at Milan. Her first appearance was at Marseilles, in "IPuritani," in 1845, where her success was so great that no one' knew her to be a debutante. She was afterwards engaged for La Scala, at Milan, where the beauty of her voice and the purity and simplicity of her style, at once commanded a success ])eyon(l even the expectations of her friends. In the following spring Miss Hayes visited Vienna, where she was equally successful. She then visited HAY 203 HE A Venice, returned to Vienna, and visited Eome, Florence, and Genoa, adding to her fame by each performance. In 1849 she entered into an engagement at the Italian Opera, Co vent Garden. She came before the London public with a reputation scarcely inferior to that which heralded Jenny Lind. Her suc- cess in London was decided. At the close of the season she sang in the " Messiah," and with such success as to establish her reputation as one of the greatest living interjireters of sacred music. After visiting Ireland, where her reception was enthusiastic, she ac- cepted an- engagement in the United States in 1851. She travelled and per- formed in aU the great cities of the United States, and then proceeded to California and South America. After performing in Australia and India, and Singapore and Batavia, she returned to London in 1855, when she appeared at Covent Garden with still greater favour than l>efore. She returned to America in 1856, and subsequently was married to an American gentleman ; since then her appearances have not been so frequent. Mrs. Catherine Hayes has not, and perhaps never has had, a rival in rendering with deep sensibihty, mournful pathos, and heart- speaking expression, the ancient melodies of her native country. HAYTER, Sir George, known as the "Court painter in ordinary," was born in London, 1792, and after having studied in the Royal Academy, passed some years in Italy. On his retiu-n, his works were so much admired for their delicacy of finish and poetical expres- sion, that he was named fii-st painter to the Queen, and teacher of drawing to the Royal Princesses. He was knighted in 1842. His finest pictiu-e, as a work of art, and the one tliat best develops the characteristics of his style, is "The Queen Taking the Coronation Oath." The details are elaborate, the colour harmonious, and the drawing unexcep- tionable. This picture is widely known by the engraving, but the plate affords little idea of the artist's treatment of the subject. His next best work is "The Marriage of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert," also well known by the prints, which, however, in this case, also, fail to convey the many beauties of the original. HEAD, Sir Francis Bond, Bart., K.C.H., was born in 1793, near Ho- chester. He entered the army, and was a Captain of Engineers, in Edinbiirgli, in 1825, when he accepted a proposal from an association to work the gold and silver mines of Rio de la Plata. In the prosecution of his engagement he crossed the Pampas, from Buenos Ayres to Chili, in what may be termed flying journeys, during which he suffered many hardships. Returning to London, in 1826, he puljbshed his " Piough Notes of a Journey across the Pampas," which proved a successful work. In 1828 he was promoted to the rank of Major in the army, and in 1835 he was appointed Governor of Upper Canada, a post which, it is only fair to say, he accepted with much reluctance, and at the press- ing instance of Lord Glenelg, then Mi- nister for the Colonies. His measures while holding that responsible position, resulted in his being able to dismiss from Upper Canada the whole of the Queen's troops, and, supported only by the people, to suppress an insurrection. Sir Francis is one of the alannists about a French invasion of Britain, and has conse- quently written copiously upon the defenceless state of the country. Many of his statements are perfectly true, and his suggestions are now being paid fidl attention to. Besides the work already mentioned, his chief works are "A Fagot of French Sticks," "A Visit to Ireland," and "Bubbles from the Brunuens of Nassau." In 1838 he was created a baronet, and receives a pen- sion of A'lOO a year from Government. II E A 204 HEN HEADLEY, Jokl Tyler, an Ame- rican author, was born at AValton, in the state of New York, on the Svd of December, 1814. He graduated at Union College, iu 1839, and studied theology at the Auburn Seminary. For upwards of two years he odiciated as pastor of a church in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Failing health compelled him to travel, and in 1842-4.3 he visited Europe. Ee- turning to the United States, he gave to the world the result of his observations, in a work which was so favom-ably re- ceived as to lead him to embrace au- thorship as a profession. In 1854 he was elected a member of the New York legislature, and in the year following. Secretary of State for two years. He is the author of numerous biographies and works of travel. HELPS, Arthur, an historian, was born in 1817. After studying at Cam- bridge, he entered the puljlic service, in which he has risen to the high office of Secretary to the Privy Council. His leisure he has devoted to literature. The first pubhcation from the pen of Mr. Helps was "Essays Written iu the Intervals of Business" (1841), which has ])assed through numerous editions ; two dramas, "Henry II." and "Cathe- rine Douglas," followed ; they api)eared in 1843. The "Claims of Labour," a thoughtfid and earnest book, treating of the reciprocal relations of employers and employed, came out in 184ij ; but the work which first established the posi- tion of Mr. Helps, was ' ' Friends in Council," published in 1847. It is one of the most pleasant and readable books of the age, exhibiting great subtlety of tliought and the utmost abihty as an author. In 1851 appeared " Compa- nions of my Solitude," a thoughtful book, fidl of Avisdom, gentleness, and beauty. " The Conquerors of the New World, and their Bondsmen," &c., ap- peared in 1848-52; and "The Spanish Conquest of America," in 1855. He has written other volumes, but the above are the most interesting. As an author, the first modern critics have pronounced Mr. Helps equal to the task "of being of infinite use to his generation." A second series of "Friends in Council" appeared in 1859, which ably maintains the character of the first portion of the work. HENGSTENBERG, Ernest Wil- liam, a German theologian, was bom at Frojndenberg, in October, 1802. He is the son of a Protestant minister, and was educated at the University of Bonn, where he devoted himself chiefly to the study of the Oriental languages, and the study of philosophy. In 1824 he pub- lished the first volume of a translation of "Aristotle's Metajjhysics," having prcAaously received honours from the Academy of Bonn, for his translation of an Arab work of the sixth century. In the same year he qualified himself as a private teacher in the Facidty of Phi- losophy in Berlin ; and in the following year, as private teacher iu the Facultji of Theology. He was appointed Joint j Professor of Theology in 1826, and ] Ordinary Professor in 1829, obtaining I at the same time the distinction of Doctor in Theologj'. The publication of the " Evangelische Kii'chenzeitung," considered the ablest organ of the evan- gelical orthodox party in Prussia, was begun in 1827. His principal works are " Christologie des A. F. , Commentar ueber die Psalmen ;" and ' ' Beitraege zur Einleitung ins A. F. , Commentar ueber die A.pocalypse." Professor Hengsten- berg is employed at present in writing a "Commentary on the Gospel of St. John." The son of Professor Heng- stenberg has also risen to distinction as a theological writer. He is the pastor at luterbag, and is perhaps best known by a series of articles which he pub- lished on the "Evangelical AUiance," after a long residence in Great Bri- tain. HEN 205 HER HENLEY, The Eight Hon. Joseph Warner, M.P., late President of the Board of Trade, under Lord Derby, was bom in 1793. Educated at Oxford, he graduated as a B.A. in 1816 ; twenty years afterwards took his degree as M.A. ; and again, after an interval of another twenty years, received from his alma mater the honorary degree of D.C.L. At the general election of 1841, Mr. Henley was first returned to that seat in the House of Commons which he has ever since occupied — viz. as one of the three representatives of Oxford- shire. Chairman of the Sessions, since 1846, he has taken a great interest in local affairs. In 1852 he was selected by Lord Derby as President of the Board of Trade. The Refoi-m BiU of the noble Lord not being satisfactory, he re- tired, in conjunction with Mr. Walpole, from his position in the cabinet. HERAPATH, William, F.C.S., an English chemist, was born at Bristol, in May, 1796. His father was a maltster and Ijrewer, and dying suddenly, young Herapath was called to conduct the business. His leisure hours were given up to the study of Natural Philosophy and Chemistiy, and such became his proficiency and skiU in these sciences, that he began to be consulted profes- sionally. His reputation increasing, he abandoned malting and devoted himself exclusively to his favom"ite pursuits, taking up, among others, the subject of toxicology, in which he made discove- ries of the utmost importance. He is one of the fourteen who originated the Chemical Society of London, and also was one of the originators of the Bristol Medical School, which was founded in 1828. He became its first teacher of chemistry, a position which he stiU holds as Lecturer on General and Practical Chemistry and Toxicology. He has re- ceived various municipal hououi-s from his native city, of which he is now the senior magistrate. HERBERT, John Rogers, R.A., was born in 1810, at Maldon, in Essex. He studied in the Royal Academy, and was for some time a portrait painter. His first attractive work, out of the portrait line, was "The Appointed Hour," which told a story of itseK, and was very successful. He \4sited Italy, and paiuted numerous pictures, the sub- jects of which were chiefly drawn from Venetian history, not, however, con- fining himself to that class of works. Owing, it is said, to the influence of the late Mr. Pugin, the architect, Mr. Her- bert conformed to the Roman Catholic religion, a circiunstauce which has con- siderably influenced his choice of sub- jects, and has led him to adopt the chm-ch to which he adheres, a,s the stand-point from which he paints his illustrations of Scripture history. He was elected an Academician in 1846 ; and soon after he was called on to assist in decorating the New Palace at West- minster. His efforts were so successful, that he was appointed to execute nine frescoes for the robing-room of the House of Lords. Mr. Herbert, not- withstanding occasional eccentricities of manner, maintains a high place among the artists of the day. HERBERT, Right Hon. Sidney, M.P., an English statesman, is the son of the eleventh Earl of Pembroke, and was born in 1810. He was educated at HaiTow, and graduated at Oxford, in 1831, being elected member for South Wilts in the following year. Commenc- ing public life as a strong Conservative, he gi-aduaUy acquired more liberal views, and was among the earliest supporters of Sir- Robert Peel on the latter changing his commercial policy in 1841. He held oflice in the Peel ministry, and also under Lord Aberileen, as Secretary at War. He reliuquished a subsequent connexion with the Palmerston adroinis- tration, owing to a Committee being moved to inquire into the state of the HER 206 HER army tlien at SebastopoL Though he gave ujj from a sense of honour the position he held imder Lord Pahner- ston, because of the censure he sup- posed inipHed in that appointment towards the government of Lord Aber- deen, no member of the House of Conmions has given greater atten- tion to army reform. Some of the ablest papers upon the question that have appeared in the reviews of the day, have proceeded from his pen. Mr. Herbert is not only an able statesman ; he is also a singularly benevolent man. Much of his time and talent are devoted to the prosecution of schemes of social and general good. In 1846 Mr. Herbert married a daughter of General A'Coiu-t, a lady ever deserving honourable mention for her devoted exertions on behalf of the sick and woiuided Crimean heroes. On the fall of Lord Derby's administration (his second unsuccessful effort), in 1859, Lord I'almerston ap- jwinted Mr. Sidney Herbert to the office of Secretary of State for War, which office he now holds. Mr. Herbert is heir presumptive to his brother the Earl of Pembroke. HERRING, John Frederick, an eminent jjainter of animal life, was born in Surrey, in 1795. His family was originally Dutch; but his father was born in America, whence he came to settle in London. Mr. Herring is essen- tially a self-taught artist. On the look- out for employment, he made his way to Doucaster, where he remained for eighteen years, principally employed as a coach-di'ivcr, but devoting his leisure to painting horses. His talent became known, and he was induced to exchange the reins for the palette. Mr. Herring progressed with astonishing rapidity in art. He " hit" the porti'aits of favourite horses and hounds with wonderfid skill ; and what is more surprising, he came to imderstand colour as though he had attended lectiu'cs at' the Academy. Once on the road, his idea was "for- ward." From horses, Mr. Herring turned his hand to the depiction of every other animal that came within familiar notice. His i)aiutings appear to convey the idea of sjTnj)athy with the living beings he depicts, whether horses, cows, pigs, or dogs ; while his close handling and minute attention to details, render his works extremely valuable as tran- scripts of things as they are. His "Members of the Temperance Society," "The Country Bait," "Feeding," " Straw Yard," " Roadside," and other well-known pictures, are unsurpassed in their special line. He has i)ainted one or two ideal subjects, but in point of strength they have not matched his realities. HERSCHEL, Sir John Frederick William, Bart., K.H., was born at Slough, in 1792, and is the son of the great astronomer. Sir William Herschel. Pro- ceeding to Cambridge, after gradu- ating, he became senior wrangler, and Smith's prizeman, and subsequently de- voted himself to the study of mathema- tical and physical science. His first work was a paper communicated to the Royal Society in 1812, and printed in the Transactions of that body for 1813, on a remarkable application of Cotes's Theorem. It was followed by several others on mathematical subjects in the years 1815, 16, 17, and 18, which will be found in the same collection, in the " Edinbiu-gh Cyclopedia," and in the posthumous edition of " Spence's Ma- thematical Essays," edited by him in 1819. In 1820 was published at Cam- bridge his " Collection of Examples of the Application of the Calcidus of Finite Differences," forming a supplement to a translivtion of " Lacroix's Treatise, " exe- cuted by him in 1816, in conjunction with Messrs. Peacock and Babbage. His first contribution to j)hysical science was his discovery of the hyposulphurous acid, and its salts (since become so usefid in HER 207 HER photography, and whose application to photographical purposes he was the first t<) point out). He wrote a series of papers in "Brewster's and Jamieson's Edinburgh PhOosoj)hical Journal," in 1819, followed in that and subsequent years by various memoirs, chiefly on optical, chemical, and electrical science, published in the "Transactions of the Royal Society " and other scientific col- lections. On the death of his father he devoted himself to the continuance of tliat great work of astronomical investi- gation aroimd which his illustrious pa- rent had shed so much renown. In 1825 he began an independent series of investigations of the sidereal heavens. He afterwards received the Royal Medal of 1833 for his researches on the orbits of double stars. As regards nebidse and clusters of stars, a record of 2,306 obser- vations was laid before the Royal So- ciety, together with somewhere between three and four thousand observations upon double stars, and was again re- warded by that body with their Royal Medal for 183G. The Royal Astronomical Society voted him a gold medal for his eminent services to science. In 1830 he contributed a treatise on Sound to the " Encycloptedia MetropoUtana ;" and in the year following, a treatise on "Light" was furnished by him to the same work. Shortly subsequent to these contributions, his "Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Phi- losoi)hy" appeared. This last work ex- hibited its author as capable of sustain- ing a high reputation in scientific litera- ture. In 1836 "A Treatise on Astronomy" added greatly to Herschel's popvdarity. He now resolved upon what has proved the greatest of his tasks as a practical astronomer, the siu-vey of the southern hemisphere, hitherto all but utterly unknown to science. In the execution of this great design he sailed, with his family, for the Cape of Good Hope. The voyage proved quite propitious. On the loth January, 1834, he arrived at the Cape, with all his instruments in admirable condition. After some search he selected a site for his improved observatory, about six miles from Table Bay, in a beautiful and shaded district of country. Here he set up his instruments. From March, 1834, until May, 1838, he contiauetl his investigations ; having, during these four years, swept the whole southern heavens. The scientific world in Europe and America waited with intense inter- est the resiUts of the sublime labours of this solitary watcher. At distant inter- vals, this interest was gratified by glimpses of the progress that had been made. Complete results were published in regular form, in a work the cost of which was liberally defrayed by his Grace the Duke of Northimiberland, and which the Royal Society distinguished by the grant of their Coj^ley Medal for that year. Herschel suggested a plan of simultaneous meteorological observa- tions, which he subsequently explained in a formal publication. It was carried out under military authority in 1844. On Herschel's return to England every honour was paid him, being made a baronet at the coronation of the Queen, and created a D.C'.L. by the University of Oxford. In 1855 he was elected by the French Academy of Sciences one of the eight Foreign mem- bers of the Institute, of which, as well of most of the principal Scientific Academics of Europe, he had long been a corresponding Associate. Among his later publications may be mentioned a series of communications in the Trans- actions of the Royal Society on the Photographic and Calorific properties of the Prismatic rays of the Spectrum, which were rewarded ■ndth the Royal Medal of that body ; several memoirs on mathematical subjects ; a work enti- tled ' ' Outhncs of Astronomy," whichhas passed through five editions, and been II E R 208 HIE recently translated into the Chinese language, and jmblished in that empire ; a volume of Essays on a variety of sub- jects, published in 1857, and a scries of articles on Meteorology, Physical Geog- raphy, &c., in the Encyclopaedia Britan- nica now in coiu-se of publication. In 1850 Sir John received the appointment of Master of the Mint, but failing health induced him to retire, when Professor Graham, the eminent chemist, was nomi- nated. Sir John Hcrschel has ever taken the greatest interest in the diffusion of knowledge, occasionally lecturing to large mixed audiences. He married in 1829 Margaret Brodie, eldest daughter of the Rev. Blexandon Stewart, D.D., by whom he has a numerous family. HERZEN (sometimes, but errone- ously, spelled Hertzcn), Alexander, a Russian journalist and political writer, was born at Moscow on the 25th of March, 1812. Having terminated a bril- liant university career, he was suddenly arrested on the groimd of entertaining sentiments hostile to the government. After remaining in prison nearly a year, he was exiled to Penn and afterwards to Matra, for a jieriod of five years. He was then set at large, but in 1840 he was again apprehended at Petersburg, and sent to Novogorod, being there detained during the years 1841 and 1842. On the surveillance being removed he left Russia for Paris, and opened bold warfare with the Muscovite despotism. While the government of Louis-Philippe still existed, he left France for Italy, where he collected materials for a series of letters subsequently pubhshed. After the Revolution of February he returned to Paris, and published various books in French and German, but his connexion with Proudlion and the "Voices of the People" resulted in his expulsion from the country in 1850. From Paris he went to Nice, and thence, in 1852, to London. Here a new career was opened to his activity. In the English metropolis he founded a Russian printing establishment, which has been in constant operation ever since. Up to the death of the Emperor Nicholas, Russian books were printed at this' establishment without it being possible to sell a single copy in the empire of the Czar, but after his death a change took place. The following books were pub- lished in Russian by Herzen, at Lon- don : — 1. ' ' Letters on Italy and France ;" 2. " On Despotism ;" 3. "St(U'ies Half Told." In 1855 he commenced the Re- view called the "Polar Star," and in 1856 a newspaper named "The Bull" (Kolokol), appearing once a fortnight. This journal has acquii-ed great im- poi-tance in Russia by exhibiting the evils of functionaryism. HIEN FUNG, Emperor of China, of the Ta Tsing, or great Piui dynasty, was born about 18.30. The fourth son of the Emperor Taou Kwang, he as- cended the throne in 1851. He found the country at that time in a melancholy position, the result of the war with Great Britain on account of the opium traffic ; and the successes of the British arms in various parts of the empire had compelled the signature of the Treaty of Nanking. Within the empire all was disorganization, and the state of the population was such as to presage a general dissolution of the established authority. Two parties were engaged in a hard struggle. One of these, which was to a certain extent progressive, seeking the overthrow of the Manchoo conquerors, but hitherto finding no sup- port from the respectalile classes of the Chinese, obtained influence with a small party of the friends of the Imperial family, andexhibitcd sounder viewsof the strength of western nations than those generally maintained in China, and had for a short time the ascendancy, but ultimately the reactionary party became successfid, the standard of revolt was raised in many of the j)rovinces, and an HIL 209 HI L iasurrection broke out whicli spread from Kwang-si, having Hung Tseu Tseuon as its leader. The raiiid j)rogress of the civil war filled with consternation the court of Peking. It was said that an attempt was made to assassinate the Emperor in the palace gardens; disturbances multi2)lied ; the finances of the Emperor became deranged ; trouble succeeded trouble ; but the Emperor i>robably kept in ignorance of the real state of affairs, was at the mercy of his ministers. A period of comparative tranliged in 1833 to withilraw from that occupation. He subsequently received the appointment of Secretary to the South Australian Commission. For a considerable period his mind had been occupied with the consideration of the errors and abuses of the postal system, as it stood a quarter of a centmy since, and in 1837 he published a pamphlet on Post-office Reform, which aroused the feeling of the coimtry in favoiu" of his plans. In 1838 a committee of the House of Commons recommended the adoption of his proiwsals for reform ; and, aided by the zeal and ability of Mr. Charles Knight, and the late Mr. Wal- lace, Member fttr Greenock, he perse- vered, untd in 18-40 he had the gratifica- tion of witnessing a practical recognition of his \aews, by the establishmetit of a uniform rate of postage, the charge for a short time being fourjjence for a letter inland, to whatever distance conveyed. In 1842, much to the discredit of the Government of the daj% he felt him- self obliged to leave his post without haN-ing completed his changes ; and in 1845 he became Chaiiman of the HIN 210 HOL Brighton Railway Company. In 1840 the country so warmly ai){)reciated the merits of his system that he was pre- sented with a money testimonial of £13,000. On a change of ministei's in the same year, he received the ajjpointment of permanent Secretiiry, and that of sole Secretary to the Post-office when Colonel Maberly retired in 1854. For his ser- vices in the cause of postal reform he was made a Knight Commander of the Bath in March, 18G0. One of his brothers acts as assistant-secretary ; a second is surveyor of stamps ; and a thu'd, the Recorder of Birmingham. HIND, JouN Russell, an eminent astronomer, was born at Nottingham, on the 12th May, 1823. He is the son of the introducer of the Jacquard loom, now so much improved u^jon, and so extensively used. Mr. Hind was for some time assiistant in the Greenwich Observatory. He is Foreign Secretary to the Royal Astronomical Society, and suj^erintendent of the "Nautical Al- manack." He is the discoverer of a large number of planets. The gold medal of the Astronomical Society was awarded to him in 1852 for his eminent services to science, and a pension of u£200 a-year was granted him })y Government for impor- tant astronomical discoveries. He is the author of several works on astrono- mical subjects, among which are — "The Solar System (1840), " "The Expected Return of the Great Comet of 1204 and 1550(1848)," " An Astronomical Voca- bulary (1852)," and "Comets: a De- scriptive Treatise (1852)." Mr. Hind has been long engaged in Mr. Bishop's Observatory in Regent's Park. HINDS, Right Rev. Samuel, ex- Bishop of Norwich, was born in 1794, in Barbadoes. He came to England when a boy, was educated at Oxford, and ordained in 1822. He was pro- moted to the see of Norwich in 1849, and was one of the few who, on the Episco]>al benches of the House of Lords, attached themselves to the Liberal party. The revenue of the diocese is estimated at about £4,500 a year. This he resigned in toto in 1857. The learned prelate has pubhshed numerous writings on religious subjects, the principal of wliich is the " Rise and Progress of Christianity," which, since 1853, has passed through several edi- tions. HOLLAND, Sir Henky, B.\rt., a physician, was bom 1788. Educated at the London Medical School, and at the University of Ediulnu-gh, he graduated at the latter as M.D. in 1811, and after ti-aveUiug three or four years in various parts of Eiu'ope, settled in London, where he rapidly grew into repute as a physician. Rising gradually to the highest eminence as a jwactitioner, he was a])pointed physician in ordinary to H.R.H. Prince Albert in 1840, and to Her Majesty in 1852. Eai'ly in life he published his travels in Albania, Thes- saly, and Greece ; but the work by which he is best known is his "Medical Notes and Reflexions." He was created a Baronet in 1853, and is a Fellow of the Royal Society, D.C.L. of Oxford, and a Fellow of the Royal College of Physi- cians in London. He married a daughter of the celebrated Rev. Sydney Smith, canon of St. Paul's, the brUhant and accomplished ^\Titer of her father's biography. HOLMES, Oliver Wendell, M.D., an American physician and poet, was born at Cambridge, in Massachu- setts, on the 29th August, 1809. He graduated at Harvard University in 1829, and devoted the next year tt) the study of law. In 1833 he visited Euroi>e, and, ha\'ing already exchanged Coke and Blackstoue for (jlalen and Escu- lai)ius, attended the hospitals of Paris for some two or tlu'ee years. In 1835 he returned to Boston, took his medical degree at Cambridge, United States, in 1836, was elected Professor of Anatomy H 00 211 HOO and Physiology in Dartmouth College in 1838, and succeeded Dr. Warren, in Har- vard University, in 1847. Two years after this ai)pointment. Dr. Holmes relinquished general 2)ractice. The Doctor has been a frequent contributor to the medical literature of the United States, and is the author of a volume of excellent poetry, which has been repub- lished in Britain. To the jiages of the "Atlantic Monthly," Mr. Holmes has lately contributed a series of excellent papers, entitled " The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table." These have been re- printed in England as well as in Ame- rica, and proved highly successful. Dr. Holmes is, according to the estimate of his countrymen, the most effective poet of the school of Pope that America has produced. His poem on the 'Burns Centenary ' is incomparably the finest of the countless rhymes that celebration has called forth. HOOK, The very Kev. Walter Farquhar, D.D., Dean of Chichester and theological writer, is the son of the late Rev. Dr. James Hook, Dean of Worcester. He was born in London in 1798, and was educated at Winchester, and Chi-ist Chiu-ch, Oxford, where he graduated in 1821. He was appointed chaijlain to George IV. in 1827, Vicar of Coventry in 1829, Vicar of Leeds in 1837, and Dean of Chichester in 1859. Untiring energy in the cause of church extension, and a zealous devotion to ecclesiastical literature, are the leading characteristics of this eminent divine. | In 1856 Dr. Longley, Bishop of Durham, on taking leave of the clergy of the diocese of Pipon, mentioned that no fewer than twenty churches and thirty schools had been buUt in Leeds through the exertions of Dr. Hook. The dean belongs to the high -church j)ai-ty in the Euglisli Cluirch, and is the author of "An Ecclesiastical Biography, coutiiining the lives of the Ancient Church Dictionary;" " On the Means of rendering more efifectual the Education of the People;" and "The Three Reformations." He has also published numerous sermons. HOOKER, Sir Willam Jacksox, K.H., D.C.L., a botanist. Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew, and formerly Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow, was bom at Exeter. Having terminated his university studies,- and prompted by a strong j)redLlection for the study of natural science, he joined a memorable expedition to Icelantl, of which he, on his return, published an account under the title of "Journal of a Tour to Iceland" (Yarmouth, 1811). The flora of the island described in this volimie, and a "Monograph of the British Jungermannia;, " published in 181.3, having estabhshed his reputation as a botanist, he was oifered the profes- sorship of his favourite science at Glas- gow, and which he accepted. Although in independent circumstances, he la- boured most zealously in the discharge of his academical duties, publishing in ISIS the " Muscologia Britannica," the first complete treatise on British mosses, and also the "Musci Exotici," in 1S21 "Flora Scotica," and in 1823 the "Exotic Flora," a work at the time much praised for the description it con- tained of new plants, susceptible of cul- tivation in this country, and for the care and finish with which it was got up. From 1S30 to 1833, he pubhshed the "Botanical Miscellany," and from 1826 to 1837 the "Icoues Filicum," which consisted of plates and relative descriptions of ferns. In the mean time he extended his ' ' Flora Scotica " to the whole of the United Kingdom, and pub- lished in 1830 the extended work as the "British Flora." In 1830 he pub- lished a new edition of "Smith's Intro- • duction to Physiological and Systematic Botany ; " and in the same year re- Fathers and Modern Divines) " "Ajceived the honour of knighthood, as a H 212 HOR reward for his scientific labours. From Glasgow, Sir William Hooker removed to Kew, to become Director of the Royal Gardens, a situation for which he was well qualified, having previously managed the Botanic Gardens at Glas- gow. In 1S47 he puhli-shed a useful littl work, the " Guide to Kew Gardens," superintended the erection o the great conservatoiy and new museum, and obtained for the public facilities of admission which were not known before liis time. Sir William Hooker, as editor of the " Journal of Botany and Kew Garden Miscellany," has, since the period of his apjiointment at Kew, described a very great number of plants, and fully sustained his high reputation as a systematic botanist. HOOKER, JosErii Daltom, M.T)., a botanist, son of Sir William Jackson Hooker, was born at Halesworth, in Suffolk, in 1817. He completed his medical studies and took the degree of M. D. at the University of Glasgow. He accompanied Su- James Ross on his expedition to the Antarctic regions in 1839, in the capacity of assistant- surgeon and naturalist. On his retm-n, ill 1843, he was dii'ected by the Lords {Commissioners of the Admiralty to publish the fruits of his researches, a v.'ork which has been completed in six quarto vohmies, comprising the " Flora Antarctica," and those of New Zealand and Tasmania; to the two latter of which are essays appended, adding nuich to our knowledge of the laws wliich govern the distribution of plants over the earth. In 1847 Dr. Hooker proceeded on a botanical mission to the Eastern Himalaya, and other little known districts of India ; whence he returned in 18.51, haNang amassed a rich harvest of botanical observations, draw- ings, and li\'ing and dried plants, many from countries never before visited by a European, and where travelling was both difficidt and dangerous. His adventures were recorded and published under the title of "Himalayan Jour- nals," the botanical and scientific results being consigned to the ' ' Flora Indica," a treatise on the Rhododen- drons of the Sikkim Himalaya. In 1855 Dr. Hooker was a])pointed Assist- ant-Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew. HOPE, Geo ROB William, M. P., was born at Blackheath, Kent, in 1808. He is the son of General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hojjc, who was fourth son of the Earl of Hopetoun. He was educated at Christ Church College, Oxford, and called to the bar at Lin- coln's-inn, in June, 1831. Some time after, he entered Parliament, and held the office of Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, in Sir Robert Peel's government, from September 1841, to December 1845. He at present repre- sents the borough of Windsor, for which he was first elected in 1859. His poli- tical principles are Liberal-Conserva- tive. He does not oppose rational changes, but resists any sweeping de- mocratic measure which woidd render mere numbers predominant over pro- perty and intelligence. HORISTE, Richard Henry, an author and dramatist, was born in 1807. After leaving the Military College of Sand- hurst, he devoted liimself to hard study at home in philosophy, poetry, and metaphysics. During this period be endeavoured to get a commission in the Polish Cavaliy, but without success. He obtained about this time a medal from the Society of Arts for a pen-and- ink cojjy of an etching by Rembrandt. He then took a voyage to Vera Cruz, and on landing there was appointed interpreter and translator of the civil correspondence. On a second cruise he was mate of the gun deck, and assisted in taking a prize, was present at the bombardment of Vera Cruz and the taking of San Juan L^Uoa, but caught H R 213 HO U the yellow fever, and i)rocecdecl, on his recovery, to New York, thence through different jjarts of Canada to England. He there devf)ted himself to literature, and produced a tragedy, which he never published, with other works, which were rejected by the publishers on ac- count of the peculiarity of their subjects. His first pubUshed 2)roduction was a series of articles on the Mexican Expedi- tion, which appeared in the "London Journal." He afterwards brought out his "Exposition of tlie False Mediiun and the B;u-rierM excluding Men of Genius from the Public." This was followed by the " S})irit of Peers and People," the " Death of Marlowe," which was very successful, and appeared in 1837, "Cosmo de' Medici," "Gregory Vn.," and " Judas Iscariot." Mr. Home also revised numerous works for the press, and contributed to the "Westminster Review," the "Monthly Chronicle," the " New Quarterly," " Fraser's Magazine, " "Tait's," "House- hold "Words," &e. Mr. Home is chiefly known by his " Orion," of which it was his intention to give away the first three editions. An edition of this work has been published in Australia, and is to be sold, in the first instance, for a farthing per copy. Mr. Horne is at present in that country, and is occupied as a gold commissioner at Melbourne. He has lately taken great interest in the art oE swimming, on which st)me years ago he wrote articles in the Penny Cyclopaedia and Fraser's Magazine. He is also engaged in getting uj) a Wine-growing Company on the Goldburn River, in Victoria, which, he has hopes, v,nll be very successf id, and prove another source of wealth to that flourishing colony. HORSLEY, John Callcott, a painter, was born in London, on the 29th January, 1817. He studied at the Royal Academy, and at the early age of eighteen exhibited his " Rent Day at Haddon Hall in the SLxteenth Century," His next great picture wa-s ' ' The Pride of the Village." At the Westminste: Hall e.xliibition of 1843 he gained one of the three j)rizes of £200 for his cartooa of " St. Augustine Preaching." He followed ui> his success by painting the fine fresco of " Religion," which forms one of the decorations of the House of Lords. In 1847 he obtained a prize for his Avell-known work " Piiuce Henry, belie\dng the King his father deail, assumes the Crown." These and several other works in the histoiical style were, however skilfidly painted, out of Mr. Ht)rsley's exact department, and he now confines himself to the treatment of more congenial subjects. His pictures "I'Alle- gi'o and II Penseroso,'" painted for the Prince Consort, "The Madrigal," "Lady Jane Grey and Roger Ascham, " and "A Scene from Don Quixote," indicate his peculiar powers. Several of his pictures have been engraved, and these display great variety of thought and aptitude to tiu-n from grave to gay. HOC DIN, Robert Jean-EugJixe, a celebrated sleight-of-hand professor, was born at Blois, in 1805. The son of a watchmaker, he studied at the College of Orleans, and, at his father's instance, went into the office of a notary. He was not, however, destined to follow the profession of the law. Endowed with a talent for mechanical invention, in 1830 he produced a number of auto- mata and decei>tive instriunents, which caught pubhc attention at once. He became an itinerant lectiu-er or show- man, and exhibited his curious and often inexplicable contrivances through- out Europe, for some years, Avith suc- cess. In 18o6 he received a mission from government to go to Algeria, where he beat the Eastern magicians on their own ground, and so increased the pres- tige of the French. On his return he published (ISoO) a work containing his professional confessions, mingled with sketches of men and manners, which HOU 214 11 W if not veiy instructive, is at least amusing. HOUSSAYE, Arsene, a French poet, was born at Bruybres, near Laon, in 1S15, of an old family in that neigh- l)()urhoo(l. His ethication was li])cral, and he improved it by self-cultivatinn. He joined the French army in 1830, when a mere boy, but the martial spirit was kindled, and he coidd not resist its force. After the siege of Antwei-ji peace was proclaimed, and M. Hous- saye returned to reside with his father, until 1832, when he made up his mind to remove to Paris, as the great central ])oint from which fame and fortune radi- ated. His first literary appearance was in 1 836, when he published two romances, "La Coiu'onne de Bluets," and "La rechcresse," neither of which then at- tained to much celebrity, though they have since been highly praised. Aided by the friendship of Thcophile Gautier and Jules Sandeau, M. Honssaye pub- lished various works, besides contri- buting papers to the "Revuo de Pai'is." He was accused of plagiarism, but without foundation, for he only drew his incidents or descri]itions from sources common to all readers of books and students of the world and its ways. At the Revolution of 1848 he was an active politician of the demo- cratic order, and in 1849 was ap- pointed Director of the Theatre Fran- cais, which he brought into a condition of almost unprecedented prosperity, though when he accepted the con- trol of that establishment its for- tunes were at the lowest ebb. He resigned the appointment in 185G, on his nomination l)y the Emperor as Inspector-General of the Fine Arts. Among his works may be enumerated "Philosophers and Actresses," the ' ' History of Dutch and Flemish Paint- ing," and " Charlotte Cordaye," "LeRoi Voltaire," and "The Forty- tirst Chaii'l of the Academy. " As an art critic I M. Houssaj'c, now editor in chief of " L' Artiste," a new.spaper specially devoted to the fine arts, has no superior in Paris HOUSTON, Samuel, an American general, was born at llockbridge, Vir- ginia, in 179.3. His early education was scanty, and after passing through various \'icissitudes, he enlisted and served under General Jackson. His energy of character soon brought him into notice, and eventually turning his attention to political matters, he was elected a member of Congress. After being made Governor of Tennessee, he visited, in 1829, the Indians amongst whom he had spent his early days, and endeavoured to lelieve them of burden.s from which they had suffered, by pro- ceeding to Washington. Having also assi^ed in the affairs of Texas, he undertook the command of an army in 1836, which had been raised to oppose the Mexicans, and was completely successfid. He has been twice elected President of the Texican Republic, and since the annexation has represented Texas in the Senate of the United States. HO WITT, Marv, a poet and novelist, wife of William Howitt, and the daughter of Mr. Botham, a member of the Society of Friends, was born at Uttoxeter, in 1804. She received an excellent education, and was at an early age well accjuainted not only with the usual course of sciences taught in schools, but with ancient and modern literature. Her reflective character and love of nature are evidenced in "My Own Story." After her marriage, her lite- rary career became in some degree blended with that of her husband, but her individual works ai'C far the most nimie- rous. Among these may be numbered, "The Seven Temptations," a tlramatic poem, ' ' Ballads and other Poems, " "Wood Leighton," and "The Heir of Wast Wayland," two admirably told II V7 21.J HUG stories, not only dcvelojiing country life and character, l)iit pointing an excel- lent moral. Mrs. Howitt's works for the young, written originally for her own children, amount to upwards of twenty volumes, and are at once inRtnictive and entertaining, and full of maternal love and wisdom. Amongst these may be mentioned "Strive and Thrive," "Hope on, Hope ever," "Alice Fraakhu," "Little Coin, much Care," "Work and Wages," " Stedfast Galiriel," "The Children's Year," "Sketches of Natural History," &c. &c. Mrs. Howitt has translated the whole of the works of Frech-ika Bremer from the Swedish ; several of Hans Christian Andersen's and others, from the Danish ; hesides translations from the German, l>oth in prose and poetry. Apart from this great amount of literary labour, Mrs. Howitt has contributed largely to magazines and serials, and it is only justice to add, that her powers have ever been directed to the advocacy of the tnie, the useful, and the good — the alleviation of suffering, and the educa- tion of the youthfid mind. HOWITT, William, an historian and novelist, was born in 1705, at Heanor, in Derbyshire, of an old Quaker family. Receiving his education in various schools connected w^th the society, he studied hard, and became well ac- quainted with science, without neglecting the languages. When twenty-eight years of age he married IMiss Botham, of Ut- toxeter, a lady of kindred taste. In 1823 their joint work appeared, "The Forest Minstrel, "which, being highly approved of, maroduced one or two other operas, when his attention was tlirectcd to the fonnation of popular singing classes, similar to those estab- lished in Paris. He commenced the f(jundation of such schools in London, in 1840 ; and was perfectly successful. His sj'stem is so widely ramified as to require no descrijition ; but it may be safely said that no man has done more, few so much, to extend and cidtivate the musical genius of the countiy as Mr. Hidlah. His system is recognised every- where, and has always been foimd to succeed HUNT, Robert, F. E. S. , a physicist, and writer on physics, was born 6th Sep- tember, 1807, at Devonport. Mr. Himt originally was apprenticed to a surgeon, but after a few years left this profession, and was brought uj) to the business of a druggist. His general attainments at- tracted the attention of the Cornwall Polytechnic Society, of which he was secretary for live years. Through Sir Henry De la Beche, who proved a steady friend, Mr. Hunt was appointed Keeper of Mining Ilecords in the IMuseum of Practical Geology — which office he now fills^ — and in connexion with which he has organized and rcgiUarly puldished a system of " Mineral Statistics," the value of which is i)roved by the fact, that the mining interests have jiresented him with a handsome testimonial. In 1851 he assisted in the arrangement of HUN 217 ING the Great Exhibition, ha\'ing written the "Synopsis and Hand-book " of the great gathering. He is an adiniral>le lec- turer, and a vigorous and lucid scientific writer. His 1 n-st known works are ' ' Re- searches on Light," the Poetry of Sci- ence," "Panthca; or, the Spirit of Na- ture," " Elementary Physii;s," and a ' ' Manual of Photography. " His labours and researches on light, heat, and actin- ism are very valuable. These inquiries secured him admission to the Iloyal Society. HUNT, Thornton, an English joiu-nalist, eldest sou of Leigh Hunt, was born in September, ISIO. After being educated as an artist, he spent a part of his early life in Italy, but the stuilio, ill suited to his peculiar temperament, was soon abandoned for the more couge- inal field of literature and politics. For a short time he was connected with a London morning paper, called the " Constitutional," afterwards becoming editor of the "Glasgow Argus." In 1840 he returned to London, publishing five years afterwards the ' ' Foster Brothers," an historical romance, the scene of which is laid in Italy. Mr. Hunt, as a political writer, is liberal in the truest sense. Superior to i)arty, he has ever devoted himself to the discus- sion of political questions in that broad and comprehensive spirit which alone befits the thinker. Mr. Himt has been connected with some of the most import- ant political organs, and at present is understood to be the conductor of the " Spectator." HUNT, William Hol^lvn, an Eng- lish painter, was born in London, 1827. He was a pupil in the Iloyal Academy, and exhibited his first pictiu-e in 184G. Between then and 1850 he displayed nothing striking in style or manner, and even his subjects were not taken from sources above the ordinary level ; but in 18-19-50, a i)eeuharity in art sprung up in Germany, and it caught the tastes of some young artists in Crcat Britain, as it promised to lead to a school of sim- plicity, beauty, and truth, which had been lost from before the days of Ra- phael. It was a dogma of those enthu- siasts, that the refinement of Raphael, the power of Michael Angelo, the wai-mth of Titian, and the chiaroscuro of Correggio, were subversive of the depth and earnestness of Giotto, Peru- gino, and other i)re\aous masters. Thus some of the cleverest of this "Young England " school of painting banded themselves together as " Pre-Raphaelite Brethren. " Mr. Hunt, if not exactly their leader, yet stood the most tenaciously of aU by the principles on which the confederation was foimded. How many soever the defections from the ranks, he maintained his allegiance, and painted in i)erfect accordance with the school's assertion of the rules of truth and nature. Too minute in detad to be other than a cause of confusion in a pic- ture — too mediaeval in conception and cb'awing to be perfectly harmonious as a whole — yet too exquisite in colour not to display the powers of the artists in a special direction, the Pre-Raphaelites divided oinnion, and excited contro- versy. Mr. Hunt has clung by his own standard of artistic faith, and has pro- duced pictm-es, that for accmvate draw- ing and colour could not be surpassed ; but he has fallen into a class of sub- jects — those of sjTnbohsm, which detract from his power and attractiveness. His latest picture, " Finding of the Saviour in the Temple," has excited profound attention and admiration. INC JEM ANN, Bernard Severin, a Danish poet and writer, was born in May, 1789. He studied in the Univer- sity of Copenhagen, and in 1812 ob- tained the first prize for an " Essay on Poetry and Eloquence." The year be- fore he had appeared as a poet, and in 1813 he published a ct)Uection of IjtIc poems. These were followed by works ING 218 ISA in many departments of literature, in- cluding a number of good tragedies, which have been translated into various languages. After travelling over a great part of Europe, he returned to Copen- hagen, and published in 1843 and 1845 his "Collected Works," in thirty-eight volumes, wliich have been enthusi- astically received by the Danish pub- lic. They are divided into (1), Dra- matic Poems, in six volumes ; (2), Historical Poems and Romances, in twelve volumes, consisting chiefly of two Epic Poems, " Waldcmar the Great," and " Queen Margaret," and of four Historical Komances, descriptive of the Middle Ages in Denmark ; (3), Fairy Legends and Tales, in twelve volimies, the four last of which contain a novel entitled "The Children of the Village," the characters and descriptions in which belong to modern life ; (4), Romantic Ballads, Traditions, and Fairy Legends iu verse, in eight volumes, among which are the epic poem, ' ' The Black Knights," and a volume of Psalms, and other religious poems ; a "Gift for Cate- chumens" (1854), "Imaginary Letters from a Person Deceased " (1855), and the " Golden Apple," a fairytale, in twelve cantos (1856), have been published since. INGERSOLL, Charles Jared, an American author, was born at Philadel- phia on 3rd October, 1782. He was elected a member of the National House of Representatives in 1812, and until within the last seven or eight years, has been actively engaged in public life in various caj)acities. His earliest literary work was a poem called "Chiomara," which was published in 1800, in the "Portfolio." In 1801 he produced a tragedy, entitled "Edwy and Elgiva," which was i)erformed at the principal Philadelphia theatre. Afterwanls, he wrf)te in succession ' ' Rights and Wrongs, Power and Policy of the United States," the " Inchiquin, Letters of a Jesuit," which explain American literature and politics, "Julian," a tragic poem, and " History of the War of 1812-15, be- tween Great Britain and the United States," together with numerous con- tributions to the democratic press, "Speeches Relating to the War with England," "Discourses and Orations," and a translation of a French work, " On the Freedom of NaAagation, and the Commerce of Neutral Ships in Time of War." He has likewise published a large number of pamphlets ; but his chief work is the ' ' History of the War of 1812-15, between Great Britain and the United States. INGRES, Jean Dominique Auouste, a French painter, born at M()ntaul)an, in 1781. His father being a musician, endeavoured to cast his son's tastes in a similar mould, but seeing that he would be a painter, sent him to Paris, where he became a pupil of David. In 1800 he obtained the second prize from the Academic des Beaux Arts, and subse- quently he took the first prize. He then went to Italy, where he remained for many years. In 1808 he painted the picture of Napoleon, now in the Hotel des Invalides, and in 1824 appeared his chief work, "The Vow of Louis XIV.;" during that year he returned to France. Appointed Director of the French Aca- demy at Rome, he painted several por- traits, but which were not equal in merit to his historical compositions. In 1834 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in 1845 Com- mander. His works are invariably chaste in outline, and graceful in ex- pression, and he ranks as one of the first artists of France. ISABEL II., Maria Isabel Luisa, Queen of Spain, eldest daughter of Fer- dinand VII., by his fourth wife Maria Christina, now married to Munoz, duke of Rianzares, was born on 10th October, 1830, in the city of Madrid, and suc- ceeded to the Spanish throne on the death of her father in 1833. She was ISA 219 J AX proclaimed Queen on the 2ncl of October, 18.'i3 ; and was placed under the guar- dianship of her mother during her mi- nority. Althouj^h the Cortes met at Madrid, and took the oath of allegiance to the Infanta, the King's brother, Don Carlos refused to do so, asserting his claim to the throne, under the Salic law, by which a male heir had a right to the throne, and denying the power of the Cortes to anniU or abrogate it. A civil war was the result of the assertion of this claim, and after varied fortune, Don Carlos was at last defeated, his ]>ai-ty broken up, and himself compelled genias. His first picture was exhibited in 1824, when he gained a medal. In 18.55 he was awarded a medal of the first class for his picture " Le Depart de Chasse sous Louis XIIT.," sent to the Paris Exhil)ition. His other works have been much admired, and he is held in much esteem as a painter. ISTURITZ, Don Xavier de, a Spanish statesman, born at Cadiz, in 1790, and the son of a merchant resid- ing in that town. He was elected to the Cortes in 1812. Proceeding to Ma- drid, he took a very active part in poli- tical matters, but to such an extent did to flee the kingdom. In October, 1840, he compromise himself with the govern- Isabel II. was married to her cousin, Don Francisco de Assis, and on the same day her sister, the Infanta, though only fomieen, was married to the Duke de Montpensier, youngest son of Loius- Philippe— unions which were offensive to the feelings of the European courts, but which the King of the French in- tended should secure to his family the suc- cession to the Spanish throne. The ride of Isabel II. has shown marked signs of retrogression. Railways, the great instruments of civilization, have scarcely penetrated her dominions. The financial system is in a deranged state, and a ment, as to compel him to take refuge in England, where he became connected with mercantile affairs. In 1834 he re- turned to Spain, and was appointed " Procurador," to the Cortes. Disa- greeing with his colleagues, he was again forced to flee to England. Returning once more to Spain, he was elected by Cadiz to the Cortes in 1838, and became President in 1839. After many political changes he retired into private life, which was chiefly owing to an adverse vote of the Cortes. JANIN, Jules Gabriel, a French critic and feuilletonist, was born at St. nation, that seventy or eighty years ago Etienne, on the 1 1th December, 1804. ranked among the greatest in the world, His initiatory steps in learning were has rapidly descended to that of a taken at a school in Lyons, from which third-rate power. With a view to re- he went to Paris, and entered the gain some portion of her vanishing pres- College of Louis le Grand, where he tige, Spain in 1859 declared war against acquired a sound classical and gene- Morocco, amid the general enthusiasm ral education. He finished his stu- of the Spanish people, and which has dies, and adopted the jirofession of a terminated successfully. Isabel has teacher, his principal occupation being two chihlren, a princess, who was born in 1851, and the Prince of Asturias, born 1857, and heir to the throne. ISABEY, Eugene Louls Gabriel, an historical painter, was born at Paris, on the 22nd Julj, 1804. His life pre- sents few incidents. Son to the cele- brated Jean Baptiste Isabey, he inherits his father's taste, and a portion of his the preparation of young men for the literary and scientific examinations of the University of France. Soon, how- ever, he abandoned this professional mode of existence. He began to write for " Le Figaro," a theatrical paper, and his success in this line being almost immediate, he was soon installed as theatrical critic for the official news- J AS 220 J ER paper, the ".Tduriial des Debats." M. Jauiu has published fow separate works, bis jiriucipal writings beiug scattered throughout a long series of ue\'vsi)apers and periodicals. He is the author of a novel, "L'Ane rnort et la Femme guillo- tinee." Several collections of his tales, essays, and sketches have been published. JASMIN, Jacques, a Gascon poet, was born at Agen, in the de2>artmeut of Lot- et- Garonne, on the Gth March, 1798. His kincb'ed belonging to the poorestpeasautry of France, the education he received was in consecpience but scanty. WTiile a very young man he began business as a haircb'esser, which he yet follows. His poetry, written in the Romance lan- guage, is admired over the whole of Southern France. It would be tedious to enumerate the presentations he has received, and the popular demonstrations made in bis favour. Suffice it to say that he had handed over not less than £24,000 before the end of last year to various charitable and religious societies, from the proceeds of his secmc&s, and that more than thirty towns of Southern France, from Bordeaux to Marseilles, have conferred upon him the rights of citizen- ship. In 1852 the French Academy crowned his tliree volumes of jjoetry in the Romance dialect, and bestowed ujjon him their great special prize of £200, surnaming him at the same time, "Jas- min, the Moral and Popular Poet. " His countrymen, the representatives of au almost extinct nationality, who are proud of him, say that he is the last of the Troubadom-s, and that no poet of the day equals him in art, pathos, and deli- cacy. The })oet has now a jiension of £72 a year, from the French department of public instruction, as a national re- compense. He di-aws no revenues from his recitations, charging merely his coach hire and railway fares, and other ex- penses, against those who get them up. JELLACHICH, Joseph Bakon Von, Marshal in the Austrian service, and Ban of Croatia, was Ijoni October 16, 1801. He was educated in the Military Academy at Vienna ; entered the Aus- trian army as Sub-Lieutenant in 1819, and was j)romoted to be Lieutenant in 1825. In 1830 he held a temporary coimnand ; in 1837 was a Major of Infantry ; and 18-42 was Colonel of the Fii'st Banat Regiment. The Hunga- rians had, temporarily, accomplished their national independence in 1848 ; and Austria, having induced the Croats, &c., to make war on emancipated Him- gary, the Em2)eror, at their request, aj)pointed Jellachich "Ban" or Com- mander-in-chief of the Croat forces. It is now notorious, that the deputies who waited on the Emperor at Vienna were Jellachich's o^vn pm'chased instruments. Ban Jellachich collected his army, and had 40,000 men, independent of a considerable force from the Austrian "regvdars," besides arms and ammuni- tion sufficient for every purpose. He fought a battle near Siotok, and re- treated ; and during the night he with- tli'ew his troops to fight again, in a most treacherous manner. His courage, how- ever, did not fail, and he continued to take the field imtil Gbrgei's surrender and the subjugation of Hungary, Hay- uau being, part of the time, his com- mander-in-chief. The latest emjiloyment of the Ban was in 1853, when a dispute arising Itetween Austria and Montenegro, he was appointed commander of the corps of observation on the Danube. JERDAN, William, a journalist, was born at Kelso, on the IGth April, 1782, and became connected with the press in 1806. After contributing to and editing several newspapers, he estab- hshed the "Literary Gazette" in 1817. Continuing its editor for many years, he did much to render both literature and science acccessible to the masses. He retired from its management in 1850, and in 1853 published his "Autobio- graphy," which contains a great variety J E R 221 J O H of interesting reuiiuisccnces of his con- temporaries. JEKllOLD, William Bi.ANcnARD, i\n author ami journalist, was horn in Lonchm, in Deceinher, 1826. He is the son of the hvte Douglas Jerrohl, and godson of the late Laman Blanehard. He was educated at the Granmiar School at Brompton, and subsequently in France, where he spent several years. He contributed articles and illustrations to the "Illustrated News" in his seven- teenth year. When about nineteen he was employed as a reporter on the "Daily News," afterwards, joining the staff of "Douglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspajier," as a regular contril)utor. His first attractive work was ' ' The Dis- grace to the Family," published in monthly numbers, conunenciug in 1847. He married, in 1849, Lavinia Blanehard, daughter of his godfather. In 1852 he published "Swedish Sketches,'' written from notes taken during a journey as Commissioner for the Crystal Palace Company, and in 1855, his "Imperial Paris" appeared, a book much and properly appreciated for its graphic delineations of Parisian life, from the palaoe to the haunts of the un- washed. He was appointed Commissioner for the "Daily News" to the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and editor of the Official English Catalogue of this exhibi- tion. On his father's death in 1857, he was called to edit "Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper," where he continues. He wrote " Tutors of the Young Idea" (1857) in the "Dublin University Maga- zine." He has %vritten "Cool as a Cucumber," a farce; "Beau Bnunmel," and the "Chatterbox," both two-act comcilies ; and also an excellent little vaudeville. His contributions to the "Athenaeum" are characterized by genuine acumen ; his pohtical ^vriting is true and manly, and his books are always entertaining. He has contri- buted interestiufr sketches to "Household Words" and "All the Year Round." In 1859 he published his "Life and Remains of Douglas Jerrold ; " also a collection of Douglas Jerrold's "Wit- ticisms." He is a meml)er of the Reform Club, and one of the Council of the Ballot Society. JEWSBURY, Mis.s Geraldine End- SOR, an English authoress, was born at Manchester in 1824. Her first work was "Zoe, or the History of Two Lives," published in 1845. "The Half Sisters" appeared fin 1848, and obtained immediate and merited success. Chang- ing her choice of subjects, Miss Jewsbury drew the materials for her next story, "Marian Withers," from the middle classes. "Constance Herbert," pub- lished in 1854, adds to Miss Jewsbiuy's reputation as an earnest thinker. The "Sorrows of Gentility," published in 185G, though not equal in merit to some of her works, is still worthy of a place among those books which, in their pages, narrate a story and convey a moral The tendencies of Miss Jews- biu-y's works are of an elevating kind, and they are always ^vritten in a 2>leas- ing and easy style. JOHNSTON, Alexander Keith, was born at Kii-ldiLll, Scotland, Decem- ber 2Sth, 1804, and entered the High School, Edinburgh, with the intention of following the medical profession. He, however, was apprenticed to Kiikwood, the engraver, and eventually devoted himself to the study of geography, and also, to extend his information, leiuned the German, French, and other conti- nental languages. His first work, the " National Atlas," was pul)Hshed in 1S43, and shortly afterwanls he pro- duced "The Physical Atlas." He is a Fellow of most of the European Geogi-a- phical Societies, and was elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1850. He published the " Dictionary of Geography" in 1851, the last edition of which appeared in 1859. His present J OM 222 J UN labours are devoted to the preparation of a series of six library maps of the great divisions of the globe, and on four sheets imperial, two of which, Europe and Australasia, have recently appeared; and the ' ' Royal Atlas of General Geogi-a- phy," in folio, now (1860) in course of ])ubhcation. His minor works comprise an atlas to the History of Europe, and educational atlases of general, physical, and classical geography, and astronomy. JOMINI, Henri, Baron, a French historian, born at Payerue, Canton de Vaud, March 1779, served in one of the Swiss regiments as a soldier of France, but the corps being disbanded, he tui'ned his attention to mercantile pursuits. Some years after he became a colonel of mihtia, and Military Secretary in Switzerland. In 1804 he was a colonel in the French army, and served under Marshal Ney. In 1811 he was promoted to be General of Brigade. Napoleon, however, having taxed him with malver- sations, Jomini abandoned the French Hag, and attached himself to the Russian service, was Aide-de-Camp to the Em- peror Alexander I., and in 1822 was tutor to the late Emperor Nicholas. Since 1855 he has resided at Brussels. He has written various historical works, principally relating to the affairs of his own time, and concerning matters that came under his own observation. JORDAN, Sylvkstkr, a German po- litician, was born at Omer, near Ins- pruck, in December, 1792. Belonging to a hard-working family, with the as- sistance of his imcle, a popular poet and shoemaker, in the Tyrol, and the pastor of Axam, he, in 180G, proceeded to the College of Inspruck, then to Munich, and afterwards studied law at Landshut. Owing to the pecidiai-ity of his opinions, he was obhged to leave the Tyrol, to which he had retm-ned, and from 1815 to 1821 resided at Landshut, Heidel- berg, Frankfort-ou-the-Maine, and Mu- nich. The merits of his works on Jurisprudence procured him the appoint- ment, in 1821, of Assistant - Prof essor, and in 1822, Titidar Professor, of Law in the University of Marburg, and of being called subse(|uently to represent the same institution in the States Assembly of Hesse-Cassel. His principles being too liberal for the Government of the day, in 18^33 he was accused of aflSliat- ing with secret societies, and after being under sur\-eillance for a long period, was at length, in 1843, fomially arrested, tried, and condemned to five years' im- prisonment. He api)ealed, but two years elapsed before the case was entirely dis- posed of ; on which he was acquittecL He was sent, in 1848, by almost unanimous consent, to the Parliament of Frankfort, where he joined the moderate party, and in 1849 was re-appointed Professor in the Marburg University. His principal works are an " Essay on General Criminal Law," a "Manual of German Criminal Law," and a "Defence" of himself agamst the accusations of government. He has also contributed papers to various periodical publications. JOSIKA, Nicolas, Baron, an Hun- garian novelist and author, was bom at Torda, in Transylvania, on 2Sth Septem- ber, 1796. His famdy was of ancient lineage and rich, and he was well edu- cated. He entered the Austrian army, was a Lieutenant of Dragoons in 1813, and afterwards a Captain. Five years j)assed, and he threw up the profession of arms ; made an unhappy marriage ; learned several languages ; and became an author. He has been styled the Walter Scott of his country. By the Hunga- rians, whether as regards style, man- ners, character, or observation, he is accepted as their greatest genius. His works are certainly remarkable for well- drawn character, and great descriptive powers. He married, the second time, in 1847, more happily than before. His works extend to about ninety volumes. JUNGHUHN, Fbaxk Wiluelm, KAN 223 K A U a German physician, naturalist and tra- veller, was born at Mansfekl, in Prussia, October 2Gtli, 1812. He studied in the Universities of Halle and Berlin, and afterwards entered the Prussian anny in a i)rofessional capacity. Engaging un- happily in a duel, he was condemned to twenty years' imprisonment, but after about eighteen months' incarceration, escaped to Paris. From Paris he pro- ceeded to Algiers, where he joined the French army as an Officer of Health to tlie Foreign Legion. Obtaining the par- don of the Prussian King, he started from Holland for the Sunda Islands, in 1835, and after having remained a year in Batavia, he explored the Islands of Java and Sumatra. This expedition occupied him about sLx years, which he passed in ethn()gra})hical, statistical, and scientific study of the people and coun- tries wliich he visited. Hetarning to Batavia in 1842, he continued his scien- tilic excui-sions in Java, and in 1845, the Government of Holland named him a Member of the Scientific Commission. In 1849 he reached Holland in ill health, and published the observations he had collected duriug his travels. His most iutportant work is ' ' Java, from a Topo- gi-aphical. Geological, and Botanical Point of View : " a work pronounced by competent authorities to be the best existing in reference to the natural history of that island. KANE, Sir Robkrt, M.D., was born in Dublin in 1810, and after receiving a medical education, entered the Meath Hospital, eventually becoming Professor oi Chemistry at the Ajjothecaries' Hall, Dublin. He gained a prize for his work on " Typhus Fever," and in 1832 founded the "Dublin Journal of Medical Sci- ence." He is a member of the Eoyal Irish Academy, and was knighted in 1846. His measures for the formation of an Industrial Museinu in Ireland, were adoj)teil by Sir Robert Peel, and resulted in the establishment of that institution. He is the President of Queen's College, Cork, and has published many valuable works, amongst which may be specially named " The Elements of Chemistry," which was very favour- ably received by the scientific world, and generally adopted as a text book. He has taken an active part in the or- ganization of the system of United Edu- cation in Ireland, and esjjecially in its higher branches, and has sustained its defence against the partisans of ' ' secta- rarian" instruction. His time and atten- tion have consequently been of late years taken away from his earlier scien- tific jjursuits. KARll, Jean Baptiste Alpuoxse, a French writer, was born in 1808, at Paris. He was educated at the College Bourbon, and became a teacher there, occasionally writing poetry. He wrote rai)idly and incessantly, often turning his pen to romances, in more than one of which his own personal Hfe is suj)- posed to be portrayed. He contributed to all kinds of periodicals, and was once stabbed in the back by a lady who felt aggrieved by the freedom of his satire. Louis- Philippe created him a Chevaher of the Legion of Honour. His domestic tales are smartly told, and exhibit both originality and power. KAULBACH, WiiiiAM, a German painter and Director of the Academy of Arts, at Munich, was born at Arolsen, in the principality of Waldeck, October 15th, 1805. He went to Dusseldorf in his sixteenth year to study, and the ex- perience gained in the Academy of Aiis there was never forgotten. His progress, under his master Cornelius, was rapid ; and in 1829 he painted the "Madhouse," which forthwith placed him on a level with the first Genuan artists of the " positive ''scliool, indeed of every or any school. Since then he has been an earnest artist. Hogarth seems to be his master or guide, and Goethe and Schiller his ins|iii-ation. K A V 224 K !■: L KAVANAGH, Miss Julia, an Tiisli authoi-L'ss, is descended from an ancient Irish family, and was born at Thurles, county Tipperary, in 182-t. Proceeding to the Continent in early life, she was educated at Paris, where she acquired that exact knowledge of French society and manners which she afterwards turned to such excellent account in her literary compositions. lleturniug to London in 18-44, Miss Kavanagh con- tributed mmierous papers to the j)eriodi- cals for two or three years before trying her strength (jn any more decided effort. Her first Ijook, " The Three Paths, " was published in 1847, and in 1848 "Ma- deleine " appeared ; both works being well received by the reatling and think- ing portion of the public. In 1850 Miss Kavanagh published her "Women in France of the Eighteenth Century," a most agreeable work of its class, illus- trative of what may be termed the arti- licial life of that ])eriod of French history. Next year her ' ' Nathalie, " depicting the manners and mode of existence in the less known districts of France was given to the world, and no picture could be more faithfully or artisticidly di-awn. She afterwards wrote " AVomen of Christianity," published in 1852, and in 185.3, "Daisy Burn" issued from the jjress. After the latter publication Miss Kavanagh travelled through France, Switzerland, and Italy, and published "Grace Lee," and "Pachel Grey," two tales descriptive of the English life of the present day. Of Miss Kavanagh's writings it has been correctly said that they unite the accuracy of English ob- servation to the grace of French vivacity. KEAN, Charles, only sm-viving son of Edmund Kean, was bom at Water- ford, in January, 1811, and after being educated at Eton, where he greatly dis- tinguished himself, entered on the thea- trical profession, chiefly owing to do- mestic misfortunes. His earliest appear- ances on the stage were not successful, but by the exercise of patience and earnest atti'ntion he has obtained a high position, and in many instances, extraor- dinary success. He visited America in 18.'}(), and also in 183!), and after return- ing to England married Miss Ellen Tree, in 1842. After i)laying at various places in Great Britain he again visited Ame- rica, and altogether was comparatively successfiU. In 1850 he rented the Princess's Theatre, and for a long time had the utmost success as a reward of his spirited management. Since relinquish- ing the lesseeship of the Princess's, Mr. and Mrs. Kean have made tours through the provinces, and have been universally well received- He has for several years conducted the private theatricals at Windsor, and her Majesty has marked her sense of his exertions by many royal favours. KEAN, Mrs., wife of the above, pre- viously Miss Ellen Tree, has long been esteemed as one of the leading actresses ill England, and dui-ing Mr. Kean's con- nexion with the Princess's, assisted very materially in promoting the success of the undertaking. KEBLE, The Rev. John, M.A., vicar of Hiu-sley, was born in 1800. He obtained high honours at Oxford, and was appointed Professor of Poetry, H is various works, ' ' The Christian Year, " "The Cathedral," " The Baptistery, " &c. , have achieved a well-deserved popu- larity. KELLY, Sir Fitzroy, an English lawyer, was born in London, in 179G. After being called to the bar, in 1824, he attended the Norfolk Circuit, where he soon acquired distinction in his jirofession. In 1835 he became king's counsel. He was afterwards elected Member for Ipswich, which borough he sat for till 1841, with the exception of a short time during which a j)etition was presented against hiiiu Having lost Ipswich, he was elected as Member for Cambridge in 1843, and was made KEM 225 K E R Scilicitor-Oeneral, iindiir Sir Robert Peel, the honour of knightliood ht-ing conferred on him. He subscquontly hold office under Lord Derby in 1852, and was again )Solicitor-Ocneral, having been elected Member for East Suffolk. He joined Lord Derby in 1858, and was Attorney-General during that noble lord's short administration of affairs. As a lawyer Sir Fitzroy Kelly has long stood foremost at the bar, and has been a consistent supporter of Conservative principles as a ])olitician. KEMBLE, Mrs. Fanny, or more correctly Frances Anne, eldest daughter of the late Charles Kemble, tragedian and examiner of plays, was born in London, in 1811. Her first appearance was in the character of "Juliet," at Covent-garden Theatre, in October, 1829. Her father was the "Romeo," and her mother, the once celebrated and beautiful Miss de Camp played the "Nurse." For thi-ee or foiu- years ^liss Kemble took leading roles in tragedy and comedy, her natural ability and anxious study placing her eventu- ally among the first atitresses of the time. In 1832 Mr. Kemble visited America professionally with his daughter, who there married Mr. Butler, of Philadelphia, a man of pro- perty, but owing to domestic differences a separation took place in 1849. Since then Mrs. Fanny Kemble, the name of Butler being dropped by her after the divorce, has not returned to the stage, but exercised her undoubted talents in giving public readings of Shaks2)eare, throughout tlus country, and in America. Mrs. Kemble is the author of "Francis the First," a tragedy, in which she acted the part of " Louise, " at Covent-garden ; of a " Journal " of her American experiences (1835) ; the "Star of Seville," a drama ; " Poems" (1842) ; and " A Year of Cimi- solation," the latter being her reminis- cences of a visit paid to hor sister, Mrs. Sartoris, in Italy. Mrs. Kemble is at present residing in Boston, Massachu- setts. KERN, J. CoNH,\D, a Swiss statesman, was born at Berlingen, near Arcneu- berg, in 1808. Diessenhofen and Zurich contributed to his earher education, and after le:iving the latter city he com- menced a com-se of theology at Basle University, but turning to the legal profession he studied at Berlin, Heidel- berg, and Paris. On returning to Switz- erland, he chose his own path of public- duty, and became, in 1837, President of the Supreme Tribunal for the Canton of Thurgovia, and of the Council of PubHc Instruction. In the capacity of Educa- tional Minister, he displayed those qualities which render a statesman in- fluential at once with his colleagues and the people. Distinguished as an orator, he was chosen to represent his canton before and after the settlement of the new Federal Constitution. In 1838, when the French Government demanded peremptorily that Louis Napoleon should be expelled from Switzerland, M. Kern, with an honest heart and the boldest eloquence, resisted the claims of Louis-Philippe, and the Council of Thurgovia, without a ilissen- ticnt voice, adopted his views. In 1848 he went to Vienna, and afterwards, in con- cert with M. Druey, he was one of the most judicious of reformers, assisting to frame the new constitution, and after- wards identifying himself with the measures of the government. He has held other offices, and three years ago, when a contest arose between Prussia and Switzerland regarding the Canton of Neufchiltel, M. Kern w;is the senator sj)eciaUy chosen to uphold the liberties of his country, and the authority of the republic. M. Kern has since acted as Swiss Ambassador to the French court. His devotion to the interests of his coun- try, whether in a political or social point of view, causes him to rank jus one of the most eminent patriots in Switzerland. Q KIN 226 KIN KINGLAKE, Alexander William, M.P., was born at Taunton, in 1809. He was educated at Taunton, Ottery St. ^lary, and subsequently at Eton, and Trinity College, Cambridge. Having taken his degree he entered as a student in Lincoln's-inn, and was called to the bar in 1837. Soon after leaving the university, Mr. Kinglake went to tlie East. On his return, in 1844, he deter- mined that he would put his impressions in print, but not being able to find any })ublisher who woidd undertake the risk, he agreed with Mr. Olivier, of Pall Mall, to publish the book, and guaranteed liitn against loss. The work proved highly successful, was trans- lated into nearly all the languages of the Continent, and reprinted in America. This was " Eothen," a word meaning "From the East." Mr. King- lake has never published any other book. Many years ago ho wi-ote two articles in the "Quarterly Preview," but with that exce])tion he has never contributed to any periodicals. He accompanied the English army when it landed on the coast of the Ciimea in 18.54, and was present with Lord Raglan at the battle of the Alma, and diu-ing the flank march and the seizure of Balaklava. He remained at the British head-quarters during the first bombardment of Sebastojiol, and being then attacked with fever, was obliged to return home. In 1856 he quitted the bar, and in 1857 was returned to the House of Commons as Member for Bridgewater, which seat he continues to hold. He is at present engaged upon a " History of the Crimean War. " KINGSLEY, The Rev. Charles, Rector of Eversley, Hants, Canon of Middleham, and Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen, Professor of Modern History in the University of Cambridge, was born at Holne vicarage, near Dart- moor, Devonshire, in Jime, 1819. After a jireliminary home education, at the age of twelve he became a pupil of the Rev. J. Knight, then, of the Rev. Derwent Coleridge, and subsequently, a student at King's College, London ; he then entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, attaining distinguished honours, and holding a scholarship in that university. Mr. Kiugsley at first contemplated the law, but he changed his mind and entered the chm-ch. His first cure was Eversley, a parish in Hampshire, and subsequently he was presented to tlie rectorship. In the literary world he is known as one of the boldest and ablest of the writers of our time. In conjunction with the Rev. F. D. Maurice, and some kindred spirits, he has largely interested himself in what Carlyle has called the condition-of- England question, especially on Social Science and Sanitaiy Reform. Mr. Kingsley's principal works are "The Saints' Tragedy," "Alton Locke," "Westward Ho!" " Hypatia," "Two Years Ago," "Glaucus," "Alexandria and her Schools," " Phaethon," and several volumes of sermons. In all his works, i)hilosophicalthoughtis, asitwere, instinctively blended with imaginative and descriptive power ; they exliibit a broad liberality of sentiment, and are pervaded by the one great idea — the intellectual and social omnipotence of the Christian religion. He is an admi- rable poet, many of the verses introduced through his various works being perfect gems. As an earnest and persevering philanthropist, he stands second to no man who with voice, ])en, and means, assists in ameliorating the condition of suffering hiunanity. In 1860 ' Mr. Kingslcy was appointed Professor of Modoru History in the University of Cambridge. KINKEL, Gottfried, a German poet and art critic, was born in 1815, at Obercassel, on the Rhine. He was educated by his father, a Protestant K I N 227 KIS minister, and afterwards entered the Gymnasium, and then the University of Bonn, where ho greatly distinguished himself. lu 1837 he travelled tlirough Italy as a student, and on his return became a lecturer on di\'inity, especially on ecclesiastical historj% for nine years. He urged with more boldness than was agreeable to the Prussian Government, a separation of clmrch and state, and in consequence M. Eichhorn openly ex- pressed his hostility to Kinkel. The yoimg professor, seeing his career thus checked, surrendered theology and de- voted his talents to literature, modern civUiztation, and the fine arts. He was at length, in I84G, regularly appointed as Professor in the University, receiving at the same time the degree of Doctor in Philosojihy. He lived quietly, until the revolution of 1848 drew him from retirement into the bustle of public life, when, as a democrat, he gave great offence to the court party in Prussia, especially in 1849, by his opposition to the ManteufFel Ministry, in his capacity of Member of the Lower House of Le- gislature of Prussia. In June, 1849, he entered a volunteer corps for the defence of the Frankfort constitution, was wounded in the field, taken prisoner by the Prussian troops in the Grand Duchy of Baden, and condemned by court- martial to imiirisonment for Ufe; he was confined in a house of correction, and treated in the most cruel and inhuman manner. In 1850 he made his escape from the fortress of Spandau, proceeded to Eilinbnrgh, ultimateh' removing to London, where he now lives as a Pro- fessor of the German language and litera- ture, and a Lectm-er on the History of the Fine Arts. KINNAIRD, George William Fox, Lord, born in 1807, is the ninth baron of the title. He succeeded to his father's honours in 182G, and was elevated to the rank of a British peer, under the title of Baron Kossie, by Lord Grey in IS.Sl. He filled the office of Master of the Buckhoun.ls in 1840-41, and is a member of the Privy Council. His politics are of the liberal order ; but his name is most associated with an act of parliament re[)ressive of the sj)irit trade in Scotland, generally recognized as "Forbes Mackenzie's Act." Though Lord Kinnaird and Mr. Mackenzie differed on many party questions, they agreed on the wisdom of adopt- ing measures to arrest the spread of intemperance among the people of Scotland. They abandoned their dis- tinctions as whig and conserv'ative, and lent themselves to carry the re- strictive enactment as it now stands. Lord Kinnaird has lately been created a Baron of the LTnited Kingdom. KISS, Augustus, a Prussian sculptor, was bom at Pless in Upper Silesia, in 1802. He was educated in the School of Gleiwitz, and afterwards proceeded to Berlin, where he placed himself under Rauch and Tieck, and produced various works for a fountain at Char- lottenhof, near Potsdam. He after- wards finished ' ' The Mounted Amazon attacked by a Tiger," which was much admired and eventually cast in bronze. That production placed Kiss on his proper platform, and since then his re- putation has steadily increased. He ex- ecuted three colossal equestrian statues of Frederick the Great, and two of Frederick William III., which were cast in bronze ; and the statues of four heroes of the Seven Years' War — \'iz. the Prince of Anh alt- Dessau, the Generals Schwerin, Winterfeld, and Seydlitz, also cast in bronze, destined for the square called Wilhelms-Platz, at Berlin. KISSELEFF, Pail Dmitrevitch, a Russian general and diplomatist, was bom at Moscow, 1788. He entered the army at an early age, and having obtained various grades, became a trusted aide-de-camp to the Emperor Alexander I. , whom he accompanied to KL A 22S K M R the Congress of Vienna, and afterwards to the second entry of the Allies into Paris. His success in various missions secured him the favour of Alexander, and of his successor the Emperor Nicholas. In 1828 he distinguished himself in the war against the Turks, and was created Lieutenant-General. He turned his attention to diplomacy in the Principalities, and exercised art and influence to render Moldavia and Wallachia subservient to Russia. On Ti!s recall to St. Petersburg he was higldy feted, and at length was made lirst ofhcer under the crown. He was appointed Russian minister at Paris after the Crimean war. KLAPKA, General George, was born at Temesvar in Hungary, on the 7th April, 1820. After receiving a military education he was appointed to the 1st Royal Hungarian Life Guards. On the revolution breaking out he joined the patriotic party, and by his energy and skiU obtained rapid pro- motion. Ha-ving gained an advantage over the Austrians, he was preparing to push his results stiU further, but was ])revented by the disastrous events v/hich occurred to Georgei and Kossuth. After surrendering the fortress of Ko- morn he proceeded to England, and sub- sequently published a work entitled "Memoirs of the War of Independence in Hungary." He now resides in Geneva, where he has been naturalized. KMETY, General George, a Hun- garian soldier, was born at Pokoragy, Hungary, in 1813. He entered the IDth Regiment of Hungarian Infantry in 183.S, and in 1840 was promoted to the rank of sub-Iiieutenant and Regi- ment-Adjutant. In 1848 he was named to the command of a company in a battalion of his regiment which was serving against the Croats and Servians. Soon afterwards, on the breaking out of hostilities between Austria and Hun- gary, he received the command of a Honvcd battalion, and devoted himself to the service of his native country. During the battle of Isaszegh he found himself in the same position aa Gerard under Grouchy during the battle of Waterloo, unable to induce his com- mander Caspar to overlook the strict letter of his orders and fall upon the rear and flank of the army of Windisch- griitz, which woidd have decided that campaign. At the taking of Bude on the 21st Maj% he, at the head of his division, stormed the entrenchments near the bridge, and was wounded. Named General and appointed to the command of a detached division, he beat the Austrians signally at Csorna, 13th June, where their commander General Wiess was killed. On the 27th June he had a comliat at Thaazi, after which he was sent with his division to the Lower Danube, where, on the IGth Jidy, he forced the Austrians to raise the siege of Peterwardein. In the unfortunate battle of Temesvar, 9th August, he commanded the extreme left wing, and alone retired in good order, so that on the 15th August, that is to say two days after the surrender of Gorgei, he fought on the heights of Lvigos, the last battle of the Hungarian war, which secured the retreat of the refugees iiito Turkey. The remaining forces of the general being reduced to the utmost distress he disbanded them, and made his way into Turkey, and was "interne!" at AJe))i)o till the end of the year ISf)!. Having fled to Eng- land he pul)lished a refutation of the misstatements of Gorgei, which appeared in his memoirs. At the beginning of the Russian war, in 1853, he returned to Turkey, offered his services, and was sent to the army of Anatolia. During the blockade of Kars, he commanded a Turkish division under the name of " Madjar Ismail Pasha." In the great battle of the 29th Sej)tember, 1855, he saved Kars for the moment by KNI 2 •lefeatiug a Paissian ai-my of 30,000 men, which attacked the heights of Takmass. In front of this jiosition the enemy left G,000 dead bodies, which fact shows this to have been one of the most bloody battles of modern times. At the surrender of Kars, General Kmety, not wishing to faU into the hands of the Russians, received permis- sion to leave the ai-my, and accompanied by a small escort of Kurds, cut his way through the enemy's hues. Those who knew Kmety, at Kars invariably speak of him as ' 'Dear old Kmety, ' 'for he possessed an intuitive power of winning affection. In the ill - organized army which defended the fort, there was scarcely a man that woidd not have died to preserve the general. There is hardly an example on record of one man mak- ing so much good out of such bad materials. His men wex-e badly provi- sioned, worse clad, were in an-ear of pay, and even short of anmiimition ; yet he kept them together, and held out until the arrival of General Williams. KNIGHT, Charles, an English author and pubhsher, was born at Windsor, in 1791. His father was a bookseller, j)rinter, and publisher in the town, into whose business the sub- ject of this memoir was introduced at the age of sixteen. In 1812 he went to London to acquire skill in reporting, and exj)erionce in the general man- agement of a news])ai)er. On his return he started the " Windsor Express," a paper which still exists, although Mr. Knight's connexion with it ceased in 1826. From 1820 to 1822, j in conjunction Avith Mr. C. H. Locker, \ he edited "The Plain Englishman," an almost unprecedented sale, and must which was perhaps the fust of the cheaj) [ have produced most beneficial effects. His miscellanies destined to drive out of the • chief pubHcations since then have been, mai'ket the foolish and mischievous in 1831, "The Eights of Industry, tracts which then formed the cheap htera- Capital, and Laboiu-;" in 1839, "The tiire of the i)CO])le. In 1820 he also began j Pictorial Shakspeaae ; " in 1843, ' ' Wil- the publication of the "Etonian," the Ham Shakspeare, " a biography ; in 1841, success of which led to the cstablisli- ' and following years, "London;" in 9 K X I mcut, in 1823, of " Knight's Quarterly Magazine," and his removal to London. There, as a member of the S(jciety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, he projected and submitted to the society the plan of the "British Almanack," and the "Companion to the Almanack." The plan being approved, its execution and the responsibility were left to Mr. Knight. These works proved a gi-eat success, and had the effect of expurgatiu"- much of the astronomical trash whicli previously had disgraced this class of books. In the same way, and imder the same responsibility, he edited the "Penny Magazine." The same may be said of the "Library of Entertaining Knowledge," of which the volume on "The Elephant" was written by Mr. Knight. ' ' The Penny Cyclopaedia," says the " Companion to the Ahnanack" for 1858, p. 15, "was projected by the same publisher to form a moderate-sized book of eight volumes. The plan was perhaps unavoidably departed from. The committee had the houom* of the work in its extended form, but without inciUTing any of the risk, or contributing one shilling to the cost, the litei'ary expenditure alone having reached nearly £-10,000. Upon the completion of the Cyolopaidia the balance upon the outlay above the receipts was £30,788." In a second great undertaking of the societ}'^, " The Biographical Dictionary," it took upon itself the financial responsibility, and broke down after completing the letter A. In 1830, during a time of mis- chievous agitation against vhe use of ma- chinery, Mr. Knight wrote andpul)hshed " The Results of Machinery," which had KNO 230 K OC 1S43, and followiug yeai-s, "The Shil- ling Weekly Volumes, extending to 120 luunbers, for which he wrote the " Life of Caxton;" in 185G, "The Popular History of England," of which six volumes have been published. Mr. Knight is now editing the English Cyclopaedia based upon the Penny Cyclopsedia, but enlarged and separated into divisions, of which the Geogra- phical, Natural History, and Biographical Sections have already appeared. KNOWLES, James Sheridan, a dramatist and author, was bom at Cork, in 1784. About the year 1792 his father removed to London, taking with him his son James, then about eight years of age. Foui- years later his passion for the drama had displayed itself, and at that early age he wrote a play for a company of juvenile actors, of which he was himself the chief. At the age of fourteen he wrote the ballad of the " Welsh Harper ; " he was soon after introduced to Mr. Hazlitt, whom he always mentioned with pleasure for his continuous kindness to him, and through Charles Lamb he made the acquaintance of the leading literary celebrities of the metropolis. After residing in London for some years he exchanged the English for the Irish metropolis as his residence; and in Dublin it was that his debut as an actor was made. The success of the effort was not very promising, and for a time the stage was abandoned ; though after- wards resiuned at Waterford, where he was an actor and singer in the same company as Edmund Kean, for whom he wi'ote a tragedy entitled " Leo, or the Gipsy," but which has not been pi-e- served. Some years afterwai'ds, having repaired to Belfast, in the theatre of .vhich his lirst tragedy, Caius Gi-acchus, ^as jiroduced, he was induced to open an academy as a teacher of elocution and gi'ammai". Subsequently he settled for some years in Glasgow, where his Ikst standaril di-ama, " Vii'ginius," was produced and played with great success. In 1820 this fine play was brought out at Coveut-garden, with Macready as "Vu"ginius," and, in the great centre of criticism, established Knowles' reputa- tion as the first of living dramatists. He afterwards wi-ote the "Hunchback," the "Wife, "the "Love Chase," "Women's Wit," "Love,"&c. &c., all ranking among the highest efforts of dramatic genius. Mr. Knowles acted for yeai-s in his own plaj^s, both in London and the provinces, and some of his personations, such as " Master Walter," in the " Hunch- back," coiUd not be excelled for their development of character. About ten years ago a pension of £200 was con- ferred upon him. In 1858 his health giving way he proceeded to the Con- tinent, remaining there for six months, and returning m 1859 with renewed strength. Mi". Knowles has written one or two theological works, which display a far more extensive acquaint- ance with doctrine and the laws of con- troversy than coidd have been expected from his early training. KOBELL, Fr^ynz Von, a German poet and man of science, was born at Munich, in July 1803. He studied in his native city, and at the age of twenty - three became one of the professors of mine- ralogy. He has wiitten munerous works on this branch of natiu-al history. For his services to the cause of science he has been decorated with a niunber of orders, is member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences, and has the principal charge of the mineralogical collection at Mimich, besides holding other situa- tions of profit and honour. He is also the author of several poetical works, chiefly pojjidar in Bavaria, as they are wi'itten in the chalect or patois of that part of Germany. KOCK, Charles Henri Emmanuel, a German natm'alist and traveller, born in 1899, at Weimar, and educated KOC 231 KOS at Wiirtzboiirg. Iii IS?S he undertook a scientific expedition through a portion of Russia, publishing his observations in 1842, which were chiefly relating to the Caucasus. In 1843 he departed from Germany to the East, proceeding through most part of Tmkey, Armenia, and along the shores of the Caspian Sea. This journey supplied him with materials for his "Travels in the East," a work of considerable merit, i)ublished in 1846. His works are very voluminous, principally relating to the scientific and social aspects of the various countries which he has visited. KOCK, Charles Paul De, a French novehst, born at Passy, 1794, received an imperfect education, and was intended for a conamercial life, but liis attachment to literature was such that he dismissed every other thought and embraced the profession' of letters. At an early age he finished his first novel " L' Enfant de ma Fern me." The effort was not successful, and he turned his attention to writing for the theatres, labom-ing diligently in that department of literature until 1820, when he re- sumed novel writing. "Les Enfants de Mattre Pierre" (1825), and " Le Camp du Drap d'Or" (1828), placed him in the first rank, and he has since main- tained his reputation. In a moral sense eome of his productions are very excep- tionaWe, but his inventive genius and skill in the depiction of character are unquestionable. He is one of the most voluminous writers of the age. KOSSUTH, Lajos de Kossuth Falva, ex-Governor of Himgary, was born in September 1802, at Monok, in the county of ZempUn, in Hungary, of an ancient though not wealthy family. He was educated at the Protestant College of Saros Patak, and afterward studying law, took high honours on ob- taining his diploma as an Advocate in 1822. For the following eight years he practised at the bar, and became an in- fluential member of the liberal party in his native country. He particularly distinguished himself at the time of the cholera riots in 1831, by the cool deter- mination with which he faced the rioters. In December 1832 he went to Presburg to the Diet, and, for the fii-st time in Hungary, reported correctly the proceedings of both Houses in a M.S. Journal. The Government threw difficulties in his way, prevented him from using a Uthographic press, and restricted the circidation of his news- letters, which, however, soon acquired important political influence. In 1836 Kossuth, who had removed to Pesth, and edited these M.S. news-letters reporting the proceedings of the county meetings all over the country, took an active part in the defence of prisoners prosecuted at the time for political offences, and roused the majority of the counties to a protest against the illegaUties of the Royal Com"t of Justice. He was arrested in 18.37, and sentenced in 1838 to three years' imprisonment. Forbidden to commimicate with his friends, to write letters or even to read any papers or political books, the prisoner was allowed to have an English Grammar, Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, and Shaks- peare's works in his solitary cell, and it was during this confinement that he acquired that mastery of the English language, which, at a later period, enabled him in England to denounce the tyranny of the House of Hapsburg- Lorraine. In May 1840, several liberal measures passed, and Kossuth was liberated by a general amnesty. In 1841 he obtained permission to edit a political newspaper, the " Pesth Hirlap," under the control of a mitigated censor- ship. The influence of this jmblication was enormous, the Goverrmient became alarmed, when even the opposition of Court Szechenyi, who represented the Liberal Conservatives could not prevail against Kossuth's prestige. In the K S 2 autumn of 18-17 Kossuth was returned to the Diet by the county of Pesth, in spite of the bribery and intimidation resorted to by the administration. Kossuth's masterly eloquence, the com- prehensive grasp of his mind, and his immense popidarity in the country, gave him at once the complete command of the opposition, over the head of the former parliamentary leaders, whose jealousy led to several unsuccessful cabals against him. The French revo- lution of February 1848, and the elec- tric shock which pervaded all Europe, silenced those i)etty intrigues, and on the 3rd March Kossuth delivered his celebrated speech, in which he demanded Constitutional Government for the hereditary provinces of the Austrian Emjjire, as the only real guarantee for the Constitution of Him- gary against the despotic tendencies of the Court. The effect of this speech upon the German population of the empire surpassed every expectation. On the 13th Prince Metternich resigned, and the Emi)eror promised a Constitu- tion. The deputation of the Hungarian Diet, petitioning now for a responsible ministry, arrived on the 15th at Vienna, was graciously received, and at the request of the court, Kossuth (juieted the tlireatening agitation of the inhabi- tants. Count Louis Bathyauy then formed his Ministry, which carried the abolition of serfdom, the equality of taxation, and the extension of the fran- chise. Kossuth was appointed Minister of Finance, an invidious post, since he had to extend taxation to the lands of the nobles, which, up to that time, had enjoyed a complete immunity. As soon as the court functionaries had reco- vered from their first alarm, they made attempts to stir up a civil war among the diflerent races of Hungary. Bauds of ai-med marauders, enlisted and equipped by the Austrian consul at Belgrade, crossed the Danube from the !2 K S principality of Servia, and raised the standard of revolt, whilst Baron Jellachich, appointed in March 1848, Ban of Croatia, not only dissolved the union between the two countries, but made active preparations against Hun- gary, and refused to come to any arrangement with the Provisional Government. In September the inva- sion of the Croat army took place. Bathyany, resigning his office to Arch- duke Stephen, Palatine of Himgary, and Comniander-in-cliief of the army, took to flight, and but for the indomit- able energy of Kossuth, and the bold- ness with which he, imder desperate circimistances, seized the reins of government, even the enthusiasm of the nation woiUd scarcely have prevented JeUachich's success. All the efforts of the country being now concentrated by Kossuth in one direction, the Croat army was defeated, Jellachich expelled from Hungary, and the progress of the Austrian intrigue checked. The revolt of the Viennese on the 6th of October allowed Kossuth a few weeks more to organize the resources of Hungary, and to prepare for an unavoidaljle struggle with Austria. The attempt to relieve the besieged Viennese failed however, owing to the want of energy on the part of General Moya, and the pusiUanunity of the Viennese themselves. The battle of Schwehat at which Kossuth took part in person, was lost on the 29th October. Kossuth raised Colonel Gorgei on the battle field to the rank of General, and gave him the command in chief. In December 1848 Hungary was invaded on every side by Austrian armies, while a Russian army entered Transylva- nia. As Prince Wintlischgrlltz advanced upon Pesth, Kossuth and the Diet re- tri'atcd to Delireczin, and during the un- usually severe Avinter, at a time when all Europe gave up Hungary as lost, he raised, organized, clad, and anned those troops of Honveds (defenders of K S 2 the country), who, in a short but sanguinary campaign of three months, defeated the armies uf Prince Windisch- griitz, of Count Schlick, of Ban Jella- chich, and of General Puchner, the insurgents, and the Russian garrisons of Southern Transylvania. The country was free, the Austrians expelled, but the defeated and demoralized court pre- ferred Russian intervention to an ho- nourable arrangement with the Himga- rians, and the Hungarian Con-ititution was formally abolifihed in March by the Em- l)eror Francis Joseph, who refused to be crowned in Hungary. Accordingly, the Diet proclaimed on the 14th of April, the independence of the country, the de- ])osition of the house of Hapsburg- Lor- raine, and elected Kossuth Governor. GiJrgei, raised to the command of one of the victorious ai-mies, now jealous of the fame and influence of the civilian Kossuth, tried to organize a military party against him in the army and in the Diet, with the object of seizing the suj)reme power, and opening negocia- tions with the Austrians. Trusting, however, exclusively to Russian assist- ance, the Viennese Government did not resjjond to Giirgei's overtures. But the slow progress of the Austro- Russian ar- mies, and the defeat of Jellachich by General Vettel, induced at last the Rus- sian Genei-al Riidiger to enter into com- mimications with Gbrgei, who marched his army to Arad, insisted upon antl forced Kossuth's abdication, and on the 14th of August, 1849, surrendered un- conditionally the army and government at Vilagos, to the Ritssians, receiving as a rewixrd for his treachery, an Austrian pension, on which he has lived since, at Klagenfurt. Kossuth fled to Turkey, where he was advised to embrace Is- lamism as the only means of preventing liis extradition to Austria ; he refused to save his life at such a price. The ISultan, however, soon declared, that even at the risk of a war, he would not 53 K S comply with the Austro-Russian de- mands, and upon the advice of the EngHsh Government, he had Kossuth removed to Kutahia, in Asia Minor, where the illustrious exile was treated with the respect due to the distinguished position he had held, though he was kept under restraint as to his movements be- yond the town. At the intercession of the Government of Washington, he was released on the 1st of September, 1851, and embarked on the steam frigate "Mississipi," sent by the American President, expressly for this purpose, to Turkish waters. Before crossing the Atlantic, Kossuth first visited England, where he arrived in October, 1851, and was greeted with boundless enthusiasm at Southampton, the city of London, Manchester, and Bumingham. In No- vember he sailed to the United States, whither he had been in\'ited by the Pre- sident and Congress, and where he was treated as the guest of the nation. He returned to England in July, 1852, and since that time has often lectured on fo- reign aifairs in their connexion with Hungary, recei\'ing on all occasions par- ticularly in Scotland, an enthusiastic reception. In 1859, when Fiance and Sardinia resolved to make war against Austria, Kossuth was invited by the Emperor Napoleon first to France, and then to the head-quaiiers of the ai-my in Italy. After several interviews A\dth the French monarch, a legion was raised from the Hungarian deserters and prisoners of war, and active preparations made for an expedition to Himgary, but the peace of Villafranca put a sud- den stop to the an angements. Kossuth returned to England, after having suc- ceeded, through the Em2>eror Napoleon, in securing not only the free return, but likewise the final discharge from Aus- trian military service, of all those who had taken service in the Hungarian legion. Like Victor Emmanuel and Count Cavour, he was] disappointed by KUG 23-1 LAC the results of Villafranca, but he has publicly declared that neither he, nor the cause of Hungary, was betrayed by Napoleon. KUGLER, T'ranz Theodore, a Ger- man author, was born on the 19th January, 180S, at Stettin, in Pomerania. He studied in several universities, de- voting a large portion of his time to the early history of painting and architec- ture, entering besides on the study of poetry and music. He visited Italy, and wrote voluminously ; his greatest work being the ' ' Handbook of the History of Painting, from the Age of Constantine to the present Time" (1837). The immense research and profound thought requisite to produce such a work, though it had been a mere skeleton, were speedily appreciated, and the book was at once caught up l)y art students, and translated into most of the Eurojjean languages. In 1850 a second edition was issued, considera})ly enlarged, and containing a large amount of new mate- rial. Sir Charles Eastlake published an English edition of the "Handbook," which was enriched by numerous illus- trations of the old masters, and copious notes. He has lectured in the Univer- sity of Frederick William and the lloyal Academy of Berhn, for many years past. Dr. Kiigler's works are one and all of a high order ; most of them indispensable to the art student, and of interest to the artist. LABORDE, Leox Emmanuel Simon JosEPn, Count De, archaeologist and traveller, born at Paris, June, 1807, proceeded to Egypt when twenty years old, and exjjlored Arabia Petrea in com- ])any with M. Linant, filling his sketch- book by the way. Returning to Europe in 1830, he published an account of his travels, which experienced so favourable a reception as to induce him to ven- ture on a similar work, called " Voyage en Orient." The arts, for which he had always a taste, now occupied a more prominent place in his mind, and, in 1839, he~ began his " Histoire de la Gra- ^alrc," with other works of a kindred nature. His father dying in 1840, he succeeded him in the Academy of Belles Lettres, publishing, previously to his election, a " Commentaire Geographique sur L'Exode et les Nombres" (1842), in which he incorporated his investigations in the East. Being returned as a mem- ber of the Chamber of Deputies, he almost invariably sup2)orted the existing minister, without reference to his general politics. In 1847 he was appointed by Louis- Philippe " Conservateur " of the Museum of Antiquities in the Louvre, a post which he resigned at the revolution of 1848. Being restored to his office, he devoted himself to the study of art, and has written on the subject well and letirnedly. In 1851 he was a Commissioner of the Great Lon- don Exliibition, and in 1855 he filled a similar position in Paris. For various reasons he has retired from his appoint- ment of " Conservateur." LACORDAIRE, Jean Baptiste Henri, a French ecclesiastic, born May 18th, 1802, at Recey-sur-Ource (C6te- d'Or). He studied first at Dijon, and was chiefly remarked for the detei-mina- tion with which he defended Voltarian opinions, as well as for his otherwise enlarged intelligence. He left Dijon College in 1819, and assisted to found a hterary society of young men, among whom he became conspicuous for his sceptical views, and his attacks on Ro- man Catholicism. Turning his attention to the bar, he proceeded to Paris, and became acquainted with Berryer and other eminent persons. Suddenly, how- ever, in 1824, his views on religious matters were entirely changed ; he pro- ceeded to St. Sulpice, and emerged three years after in the capacity of an ordained priest. He was chaplain to the College of Henry IV., at the revolution of July, 1830, He became connected LAM 235 LAM with a jounia,! called "L'Aveuir," which took for its double motto "God and Liberty — the Pope and the People ; " but the vehemence and audacity of his lan- guage were such as, in 1831, to bring him before the law courts. He [jleaded his own cause, and was acquitted. Other troubles awaited him ; and he eventually clissolved his connexion with the paper. Resigning secular occupa- tion, he now preached with uncommon eloquence and fire ; his manner was new ; and he excited both curiosity and interest. For a short time he sat in the National Assembly but resigned his seat and has now the du'cction of the College of Sorrez. LA MARMORA, Alpiionse Marquis De, a Piedmontese general, and late Minister of Wai", was born in November, 1804. In 1816 he entered the Military Academy of Turin, and became a Lieu- tenant of Artillery in 1823, Captain in 1831, and Major ha 1845. In 1848 he was named Chef d'Etat Major of the division commanded by the Didce of Genoa, which took so active a part, par- ticularly at the battle of Custoza. At Milan, on the 5th of AugiLst, when the King, Charles Albert, was surrounded in the Palais Grippi, La Marmora found means to leave the jjalace, and returning with a battalion delivered the King who was in imminent danger. In October of the same year he was promoted as General of Brigade and Minister of War. In February, 1840, he had the command of a divisit)n which was sent from La Spezzia to Parma, and immediately after the disaster of Novara, was despatched to Genoa, which city was in complete revo- lution on the 4th of Api-il. At the head of the " Avaut Gai'de" he took some de- tached forts and scaled the walls of the foi'tresses, and the next day, after a combat which lasted many hours, he became master of the town. He was named at the same time Lieutenant- General and Royal Commissioner, and took the command of a cori)S d'annee concentrated at Genoa. In October of the same year he was called to the Ministry of War, where he remained till April 1855, when he sailed for the Crimea, as Conunander-in-Chief of a coi-j)s d'armee of 17,000 men, and al- though late in arriving, he rendered essential services to the allies, particu- larly at the Tchernaya. After the re- signation of the Ministry of Count Cavour, and the truce of Villafranca, he was again named Minister of War and Marine, and President of the Coun- cil of Ministers, where he remained until the 20th January, 1860. LAMARTINE, Alphonse De, was born in Macon, about the year 1790, and receiving his early education at Milly, where his family retired during the revolution, and afterwards entered the College of the Peres de la Foi, at Belly. After travellmg through Italy he pro- ceeded to Paris, and on the restoration of the Bourbon famdy, esjioused their cause. Experiencing various changes in his course of life, he suddenly appeared as a poet, by the publication of his " Meditations Poctiques," which in- stantly achieved a great success for him. His public life now commenced, and coming imder the notice of Louis XVIII. he obtained his first political position, as an Attache to the embassy at Florence, and afterwards that of Secretary to the French Minister in London. In England he was fortunate in meeting with a lady of property and education, to whom he was subseipiently inanied. On returning to France he was sent as Minister to Greece, but resigned this position on the accession of Louis- Phil- il^ye to the throne, and having failed to obtain a seat in the senate, determined on making an Oriental toiu-. Having been elected to the Chamber dming his absence, he returned to his native coun- try, and speedily gained great renown for the brilliaucy of his intellect, and LAM LAN the liberality of his political views. In lS4r8 he boldly espoused the cause of the revolution wliich drove Louis-Philippe from France, and became a member of the Provisional Govermnent which was then formed. It was to his pnidence and eloquence that France was indebted for the prevention of the scenes of Kobes- pierre's goverimient being re2)eated, and froductions, amongst which may be named his "IdyUia Heroica," "Imaginary Conversations," "Popery, British and Foreign," "Letters of an American," with several others of a similar class. He returned to England, and until lately resided at Bath, but owing to circumstauces induced by the naturally strong and impassioned tempe- rament which he unfortimately possesses, he has been compelled to retii'e from Eng- land, and to retm-n to Italy once more. LANDSEER, Sir Euvf in, an English painter, was born in London, in 1803, and from his earliest days showed a strong taste for painting and the fine arts. Owing to the judicious early training of his fathei", he soon became an accurate sketcher from nature, which, doubtless, laid the foundation of his future fame. His picture of "Dogs Fighting " first brought him into public notice, and since its exhibition his career has been one of unbroken and almost unequalled success. The whole of his [taintings are characterized by accuracy of detail, and he has succeeded in reproducing to perfection the minute traits of his subjects in such a manner 7 L A ?7 as to direct attention to all the pecu- liarities of breed, and other such inci- dents in the animals which he repre- sents on canvas. As a landscape painter, Sir Edwin equally demands our admira- tion, and his Highland scenery, formino- the background of many of his pictures, conveys to the mind a vivid idea of the solitude and grandeur of many of the wilds, lochs, and mountain passes of Scotland. It is, of course, beyond our power to catalogue the whole of his pro- ductions, most of which are familiar to the eye of all classes in Great Britain. As instances of animal pauiting, we may refer to his "Laying down the Law," "A Distinguished Member of the Hu- mane Society," "The Stag at Bay," " The Dog Watching his Master's Corpse," " There's Life in the Old Dog yet," &c. Amongst his descriptive pic- tures are " Bolton Abbey in tlie Olden Time," " A Scene from the Midsummer Night's Dream," " Peace," and "War," "A Highland Breakfast," "The Dro- ver's Departure," "A Jack in Office," &c. He has introduced some fine land- scape scenery in " Night," and " Morn- ing," "An Early Evening Scene in the Highlands," "The Tethered Rams," &c. Most of his works have been en- graved, and he has been fortunate in securing the patronage of royalty, and the delight of every critic of the fine arts. He is also one of the most popular artists living with those, who while ignorant of the ndes of art, yet dehght in gazing on the painter's representa- tions of nature. Sir Edwin has been a Member of the Royal Academy since 1831, was knighted by her Majesty in 1850, and many of his pictures now adorn the walls of the National Collec- tion in the South Kensington Museum. His last painting is "The Illumination." LANGENBECK, Maximilian, a Ger- man physician, is son of a surgeon, who was extensively knowm by his anatomi- cal works, and who died in 1851. Ho LAN 238 L AT ptwclied medicine chiefly under the direc- tion of his father, and became evcu- tiially Professor in the University of Giittingen. Among other works, he has written " Klinische Beitraege aiis dem Gebicte der Chirurgie imd der Oj)thal- mologie," and " Uber die Wirkamskeit der Medicinischen Pohzci." He has lately visited England (1S60), and was received at the Cliatham garrison by the Medical Officers with the distinction due to his abilities. LANKESTEll, Emvix, M.D., was born at Melton, Suffolk, in 1814 After receiving his early education at Wood- bridge and University College, London, he entered the medical profession. He is a well-known lecturer and writer on subjects connected with Natural His- tory, and has contributed papers to the "Penny Cyclopaedia" and the "Eng- lish Cyclo]);edia of Natural History." He is a Fellow of many of the learned societies, President of the Microscopical Societ}', and has lately been engaged in the Department of Manufactured Pro- ducts, &c., in the South Kensington Museum, where he has delivered some highly interesting and popidar lectures. LANSUOWNE, Henry Petty Fitz- Maurice, Marquis of, K.G., an emi- nent English statesman, was born 2nd July, 1780, and received his early educa- tion at Westminster, Edinburgh, and afterwards took his degree of M.A. at Cambridge. From his earliest years he has identified himself with liberal prin- ciples, and after spending some time in the study of continental politics, he en- tered the House of Commons as member for Calne, in the Whig interest. As might be expected, he often spoke in opi)osition to William Pitt's measures, and through his talents as a debater, and his political consistency, he was chosen to succeed Pitt, as Chancellor of the Exchequer, in the year 1806. Shortly after the resignation of Lord Granville, under whom he held ofBce, Lord Lans- downe was called to the House of Peers, having succeeded to the family title, and for many years was chiefly knowTi by his energetic support of liberal measures, under various administrations, without, however, holding any oflicial position until he became Secretary of State under Lord Canning in 1828. Since that i)eriod, the only ofhce he has held, has been that of President of the CouncU. In his place in the House of Lords he has acquired from all parties the highest character for prudence, fore- sight, and political ability. In social and literary circles. Lord Lansdowne is justly esteemed, not more on accoimt of his acquirements, than for the affa- bility arid condescension of his de- meanour. LATHAM, Robert Gordon, a physician, was born at Billingborough, Lincolnshire, in 1812. He studied at Eton, graduated at Cambridge, and after a tour in the north of- Europe de- voted himself to the study of medicine. Having become Licentiate, he was soon afterwards appointed Physician to the St. James's and St. George's Dispen- sary, from which he was promoted to be Assistant- Physician of the Middlesex Hospital, where he lectured on Forensic Medicine and Materia Medica. He is a FcUow of the Iloyal College of Physi- cians, of the Royal Society, ex- Vice- President of the Ethnological Society, and member of various other learned bodies. Dr. Latham is best known, however, l)y his ethnological researches, and as one of the earliest members of the Ethnological Society he has contributed a large; amount of information, character- ized by deep research, on every branch of that interesting study. Amongst his leading works may be named, the " Va- rieties of Mankind," "The Ethnology of Europe," and his "History of the English I^anguage," in all of whieli, and in others not here specified, he has added many interesting facts as to the LAU 239 LAW origin and connexion of the varions languages spoken in different parts of the world. LAUDER, "Robert Scott, R.S.A., a painter, was born at Silver Mills, near Edinburgh, in 1S03. At an early ago he displayed considerable aptitude for draw- ing, and advice and cncoiu'agement were given to the young asjiirant by Da\4d lloberts. When fifteen he resolved, after a visit to an exhibition of pictures, to become a painter. But it is to the late llev. John Thomson, of Duddingstone, that he is chiefly indebted for his first introduction to the gi-eat principles of art, as exem{>lified in the schools of Italy. Sir Walter Scott's influence obtained him entrance as a student in the Edinbiu'gh School of Design, where he remained for some years, and afterwards studied in the British Museum. In 1826 he re- turned to Edinburgh, where he dis- charged for two years the tutorial du- ties of Sir William Allan. In 1833 he visited Italy, and in the study of the old masters of the different schools, the great truths incidcated by Mr. Thomson were perceived and aj^preciated. In 1838, returning home, he resided chiefly in London for about fourteen years, when being invited to take the directorship of the Government School of Design, he again returned to Edinbiu-gh. He has exhibited many excellent pictures, his works being apjireciated both for their colour and finished execution. He has taken many subjects from Scott's ro- mances, but he has achieved a more worthy position by his scriptm^al sub- jects, such as "Chi-ist Teaching Hu- mihty," and "Christ Walking on the Water, " which are noble works of their class. LAWEENCE, Sir Jonx, late gover- nor of the Pun j aid), is a member of a f am ily which has been long identified with Indian affaii'S. Little notice was taken of his early ser\'ices in India though he distinguished himself from the first. It was only when troublous times com- menced that the energy of his character and his great talents became known. For nearly twenty-seven years Sir John has laboiured in India. The first ten years were spent at Delhi and the sur- rounding district. This was his training school, and well did he take advantage of it. Separated from all Europeans, and associating only with the natives, he learned "to know the races it was his lot to rule." After a short ^dsit home he again returned to India and re- simied his duties in the Delhi dis- trict. It was about this time that the war on the north-west frontier broke out, when the Sikhs crossed the Sutlej with a large force, and were not repelled without great loss to the British army. A judicious, firm-minded man had to be chosen to govern this restless frontier, and Sir John Lawrence was selected as Commissioner of the ceded territory. When the Punjaubwas annexed to India, in 1849, Lord Dalhousie formed a Board of Administration for the government of the new province, and two of its mem- bers M^ere Sir Henry and Sir John Law- rence. Subsequently Sir Henry -with- drew, and Sir John Lawrence was appointed sole Governor of the Punjaub. During that disastrous period, which is so fresh in the memory of all, when regiment after regiment mutinied — when treachery appeared on all sides, and the blood of hundreds of our countrjTnen was sacrificed to native ferocity — when we almost feared that our Indian pos- sessions were to be torn from us — then did Sir John Lawrence, under Pro\-i- dence, prove himself the " saviour of India. " So wise, so firm had been his nde, so well organized his policy, that not only did the Punjaub remain faithful, but its troops were spared to stem the tide of rebellion, and to re-capture the capital of Delhi. Tlu'ough his long and bright career as a rider in India, Sir John Lawrence has proved his eflSciency LAY 240 LEE for every emergency, distinguishing him- self by his untiring perseverance and zeal, and his enliglitened Christian views of Indian administration. It may not he known that the father of Sir John was an officer of distinction, and served in the Mysore campaign under the Mar- quis (Jornwallis. Tliree of his brothers arc high in the Indian service. On his departure from India in April, 1 859, on a('couut of his health, an address was ])rcsentod to him by the officers, civil and military, and others residing in the Punjaub, expressing their admiration of his j)idjhc career in the country. Again, on Sir John's return to England, a con- Sratidatory address was presented to him from the most distinguished noblemen of the country, clergy of all denominations, and every merchant who had any know- ledge or interest in Indian affairs, ac- knowledging gratefully his great ser- vices, both civil and military, more especially his firmness in endeavouring to ])romote the cause of Christianity in India. Nor has the Government over- looked his services, for it has con- ferred on him the honour of a Baronetcy, and a seat in the new Indian Council, where, doubtless, his past experience of Indian affairs will render him a most valuable member of that Council. The freedom of the city of Glasgow has lately been conferred on Sir John Lawrence (September, 1860). LA YARD, Austen Henry, a cele- brated English traveller, was born in Paris 1817. After coming to England, where at first he projwtsed to enter the legal profession, in 1839 he proceeded to the East, intending to take an overland journey to India, and having remained some time in Constantinople went on to Persia, where he visited Susa, the "Shu- shan" of the Book of Esther, and the tomb of Daniel. He was subsequently induced, by the interesting nature of the incidents he met with, to attempt the exploration of Nimroud, and by the assistance of the British minister in Turkey, Mr. Layard has succeeded in bringing to England some most inter- esting relics, which will ever associate his name with the study of Assyrian antiquities. Ho subsequently pvd)hshed a work entitled "Nineveh and its Re- mains," and in that and other produc- tions of his pen, he has oj)eued out a field of the deepest interest to all stu- dents of Archa-'ology and Ancient His- tory. Mr. Layard was elected member for Aylesbury in 18-52, and has since held office under Government. The honour of D.C.L. was conferred on him by the University of Oxford. He has not taken much interest in political afiiiirs since the conclusion of the Russian war, but went to India shortly after the breaking out of the late revolt in that country. He is Chairman of the Otto- man Bank, which was established shortly after the conclusion of the Russian war. LEDRU, RoLT.iN, a French politician, was born at Paris in ISPS. After pass- ing through a course of legal studies, he became an advocate, and speedily rose to distinction at the bar, where he was generally employed in defending persons charged with offences against the go- vernment. He became a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1841, and soon evinced the most decided opposition to the ministry under Guizot. In the re- volution of 1848, Ledru Rollin, together with Lamartiuc, occupied the foremost position in the formation of a i)rovisional government, and he afterwards became a candidate for the presideutshij), but was defeated by the present Emperor. Shortly afterwards Ledru RoUiji left France for England, where he has ever since remained. He has published several works, all of which are charac- terized by extreme views in reference to I)olitical matters, and attacking with great violence aU those who do not agree with him. LEE, Frederick Richard, R. A., a LEE 241 LEE landscape painter, well known for his reiiresentations of Eni,flish and Scottish scenery, was born at Barnstaple, in Devonshire, in 1799. He entered the army when young, and served in the campaigns in Holland and Belgium in the year 1814. In consequence of severe illness, contracted in the servace, he was placed on the half-pay list, and after- wards cultivated hi.s natural talent for art. It is not too much to say that the English school would have been without one of its most accomplished masters, had Mr. Lee remained in the army. His landscapes are remarkalile for their freshness and natural tone ; they seem as though painted in the open air, they are so true, and no painter that ever lived excels him in aerial perspective. His first success was at the British Institu- tion, where he received a £50 prize. In 1824 he exhibited at the Royal Academy; in 1834 was elected an Associate of that institution, and in 1838 received the distinction of a Royal Academician. The greater number of his more im- portant paintings have been piu'chased for the collections of the Marquis of Lansdowne, the Earl of EUesmere, Earl Spencer, the Marquis of Breadalbane, and other noblemen of kindred tastes, while some are to be foimd in the gal- leries of Sir John Warrender, Sir Thomas Baring, and Mr. Salomons. At a late period in hfe he associated himself, in the production of pictures, with Thomas Sidney Cooper, A. R. A. , and his ' ' Near Redleaf," "Gathering Sea Weed," and a " Distant View of Windsoi," are now in the collection at the South Kensing- ton Museum. LEE, Rev. Robert, D.D., was born at Tweedmouth, Durliam, in 1804. On leaving the Grammar School of Berwick - on-Tweed, he went to St. Andrew's University. His first charge was at Arbroath, and ha^ng been minister at Campsie, he eventually became pastor of the Grey Friars' Church in Edinburgh, with which he is still connected. Dr. Lee is also a chaplain to the Queen, and was chosen Professor of Biblical Criti- cism in the University of Edinburgh in 1846. He has taken a prominent part in the proceedings of the General Asseml)ly and other church courts, always on tlie liberal side, and often maintaining opinions and defending measures which greatly scandalize his brethren. In 1859 Dr. Lee was engaged in a keen controversy with the majority of his presbji;ery on account of his having in- troduced the practice of reading prayers. The General Assembly, however, pro- noimced a judgment which was favour- aljle to his \aews and proceedings. He has published nimaerous sermons and lectures, a controversial treatise on In- fallibility, two books of prayers ; and a reference Bible — an unostentatious but very laborious work. LEE, Mrs. A. Bowtdich, an English authoress, w^as born about 1800. She accompanied her first husband, Mr. Bowdich, to Africa, he being despatched on a pacific mission to the CafFres, then threatening to root out the settlements in the vicinity of their grounds. During the stay of the lady at the Cape of Good Hope, and her journey through the colony, she gathered the materials which were afterwards woven into her interesting book, ' ' Stories of Strange Lands," published in 182.5. This was followed by "The African Wanderer," a work which from its spirited recital of advontiu"e, and its evident fidelity of dejiiction, became immediately popular, and ran through various editions. The current of Mrs. Lee's mind runs towards natural science, and when she fixed her residence in Paris she wrote several works on natiiral history and its vaiieties, among the princijtal of which are "Familiar Natural History," and the "History of Fresh- water Fishes," which were illui^trated by herself. LEECH, John, the well-known cari- K LE M 242 LEO catiirist, was born in London, iu 1816,1 and received his early education at the Charter-House. There is, perhaps, no artist hving who is so popular as Mr. Leech. His weekly contributions to "Punch" are adniii'able and so effec- tive, that the incpiiiy, "What is in 'Punch' this week?" has become a household word throughout Great Bri- tain. He succeeds in comjiletely hitting the most sahcnt points of the incidents he illustrates, and his likenesses are so well sketched, as at once to suggest the luifortunate suliject of liis pencil in all ])ossible ])eculiarities. It is, of coiu-se, impossible to select where all are good, but Mr. Leech has saved that trouble, l)y publishing, in a collected form, some liuncb-eds of his sketches, entitled "Pictures of Life and Character;" an inspection of which is sure to produce mirth and hearty laughter from even the most serious of its readers. LEMON, Mark, a journalist and dramatist, was born in November, 1809. Although well known by his dramatic and other effusions, it is in connexion with "Punch" that Mr. Lemon has been most successful, and of which he has been the editor nearly ever since its commencement. Owing to its excellent iUustrations, and the admirable hits at the current events of the day, tliis work has become the most popular of jiroduc- tions of the C(jmic kind, and has outlived a number of competitors which have been brought out in vain to share public favour with it. Like all kinds of ' ' punch," the periodical owes much of its piquancy to the addition of a " Lemon." Mr. Lemon has published several farces, which have Ijeen frequently performed in public, and he is a leading contributor to the ' ' Illustrated London News, " and many serials. LENNEP, Jacob Van, a Dutch no- velist, was born at Amsterdan, on the 2r)thof March, 1802. He received, under his father's direction, an excellent edu- cation, embraced the profession of the law, rose into repute, and was ap- ])ointed King's Advocate in 1825. While devoting himself to the duties of his office, he made his debut as an author, by pul)lishing his "Academic Idyls." He then composed romances, on the plan of introducing historical events and characters, as their principal groundwork. His first work of this class was the "National Legends," based on the traditions and heroic annals of his country ; but the production which stamped him as an author of celebrity, was "Our Forefathers ; " a book in which Van Lennep passed in review the an- cient and medi;eval history of Holland. He has written a c(>mj)lete history of the Netherlands, and a number of novels ; many of which have been rendered into different languages. Well versed in English literatiu:e, he has translated into Dutch several poems of Byron, Moore, Tennyson, and others, as well as Shakspeare's "Othello," and "Romeo and Juliet." He is also the author of several original dramas, which are popular in Holland. Mr. Van Lennep has been from 1853-1856 a member of the States-General. He is President of the Dutch Royal Academy of the Fine Arts, member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, and of several scientific associations. LEOPOLD, George CHRisTi.\jf Fre- derick, King of the Belgians, Duke OF Saxony, and Prince of Saxe CoBURG GoTHA, son of Diike Francis of Saxe-Cobm-g, Saalfeld, was born at Coburg, December 16, 1790. Having received an education which gained him the reputation of being one of the best instructed princes in Europe, he, on the marriage of his sister to the late Grand Duke Constautine of Russia, detei-mined to enter the Prussian service. As a General of Cavalry he displayed both courage and talent in several cam- paigns ; and for his valour in the field, LEO 243 LEP he received the orders of St. George and Marie Thercise. After the entry of the allies into Paris, he accompanied the Emperor Alexander to England, when he had the good fortune to make an impression on the heart of the Princess Charlotte, only child of the Prince Regent, and hciress-a})parent to the throne of Great Britain. He spent a short time at Vienna, and was then called to military duties, by the escape of Napoleon from Elba. After the battle of Waterloo, and the jiacilication of Europe, he revisited England ; was natiu-alized a British sul)ject, in March, 1816, and espoused the Princess Char- lotte, amid the general approbation and cordial good wishes of all classes of the })eople, in May of the same year. From this union the country entertained ar- dent hopes of a direct succession to the crown, but these were dissipated by the untimely death, in child-bed, of the Princess Charlotte, on November 5th, 1817. Prince Leojiold retired to the palace of Claremont, bearing with him, in his solitude, the sympathies of the whole nation. Until 1827 he passed his life in comparative seclusion, but when Great Britain, France, and Russia, had combined against Turkey, in sup- port of the independence of Greece, and the battle of Navarino, which destroyed the Turkish navy, had been fought and won, the throne of Greece was ofl'ered to him by the Greeks, with the acquies- cence of the powers that had established it. Prince Leopold rejected the offer, imless upon conditions which were not ultimately ratified. In the year 1830, the Belgians, excited to discontent and turbulence by the obstinate pei-versity and misgoverumcnt of the King of the Netherlands, and his attem})ts to force the Dutch language upon them, to the exclusion of French ; and animated at the critical moment by the example of the Parisians, in the expulsion of the elder Bombous, succeeded, after an ar- duous and noble struggle, in acliieving their independence as a separate nation. A temporary chief having been elected in the person of M. Siuiet de Chokier, the crown of constitutional Belgiima was offered to Prince Leopold by the Na- tional Congress, on the 4th June, 1831, and accepted conditioualty on the 2Gth of June, and definitively — the conditions having been acceded to — on the 12th of July. The King made his entry into Brussels on the 21st of July, and took the oath of the constitution. In 1832 he married the Princess Louise, daughter of Louis-Philippe, King of the French. Since that jjeriod, the Belgians have greatly jirospered under the wise and equitable rule of the monarch of their choice ; who, amid difficulties and dis- sensions, that always exist in constitu- tional countries, and aggi'avated in the case of Belgium, by the pretensions of the Ultramontane ])arty, has been able alike to preserve the popular rights and the royal prerogative, and to consolidate the nascent liberty of the country. By Queen Louise, who died in October, 1850, his Majesty has foiu" childi-en, — Leopold Louis -Philippe Marie Victor, Prince Royal, Duke of Brabant, and heir to the throne ; Prince Leopold Fer- dinand ; Prince Philippe Eugene ; and the Princess Charlotte. LEPSIUS, Carl PiJCHARD, an archjeo- logist and historian, was born at Naum- berg, on 23rd of December, 1810. After attending the Royal School of Pforta, near Naumberg, he studied successively at Leipzig, Gottingen, and Berlin, and from the latter university received the degi-ee of Doctor in 1833. His philolo- gical productions brought him into no- tice, and in 1842 he was appointed by Frederick William IV. as head of a commission, which proceeded to Egypt for the pur2)ose of commencing researches into the antiquities of that country. In these labours he was highly successful, anel at the end of four years had col- LES 244 LEV lecteil a large number of relics, &c., which were t.aken to Berlin, and ackleil a vast collection of interesting facts re- lating to the early history of Egypt. He has WTitten several works on Egyjt- tian Antiquities, and his opinions have been held in high esteem by those cap- able of forming an acciu'ate judgment on the subjects he takes u[). He is at pre- sent Professor in the University, Direc- tor of the Egyjitian ^luscum, and Mem- ber of the Koyal Academy of Sciences, Berlin. LES^.SEPS, Ferdixaxd De, a French (li])lomatist, was born at Vei-sailles, in ISO;"). He commenced his diplomatic life by attaching himself to the Con- sulate-General of Lisbon, and passed through a variety of consular offices, until at last he became, in 1842, Consul at Barcelona, where the honourable and independent spirit he exhibitetl, obtained for him several marks of distinction. He was in Rome during the revolution, and exerted all his influence to control the passions of the people on the one hand, and the pressiu-e of the govern- ment on the other. It is })i'ineij)ally as the originator of the Suez Canal scheme that its active promoter has become generally known. In surveying, in ob- taining powers, in develojjing the proba- bilities of success of this great under- taking, he has spared neither time nor f^inds. He believes the work capable of acconnilishnient, and towards it he has spent a life of profound study and ac- tivity. He is now in Egypt superin- tending its construction, being assisted by the Pasha, who has staked a large sum in shares in the undertaking, and also finds a large proportion of labourers. LEVEPi,, Charles, a distinguished writer of fiction, was born at Dublin in ISOS, educated at Dublin, and also at tiijttingen. For some time he practised as a physician, but relinquished the pro- fessir>n for that of literatm-e, in which lie has been eminently successfuL His first work, "Harry Lorrequer," brought him into great celebrity as a novel writer, and he has since published a large niunber of works of a similar style. As a •wTiter Mr. Lever excels in bril- liancy and life of expression, and he infuses a rich comicality in his descrij)- tions of the manners and peculiarities of his countrymen. He was for some time Editor of the " Dublin University Magazine." His "Tom Burke," "Charles O'Malley," "St. Patrick's Eve," and " The Commissioner," have been much admired, and it may not be an exagge- ration to say that few of the novelists of the present day have been more suc- cessful than has Mr. Lever, in acquiring extended pojudarity. Some years ago he left England, and is residing at the present time at Florence. LEVEllRIEPv, Ukban Jean Jo- seph, a French astronomer, was born at St. Lo, in the Department of La Manche, on 11th March, 1811. After leaving the school of his native i)lace, he entered the Polytechnic School of Paris, where he soon showed great partiality for mathe- matical science and chemistry, but even- tually devoted his leisure time to the study of astronomy. After making some interesting investigations into the higher branches of astronomical science, he di- rected his attention to the perturbations of the planet Uranus, and eventually came to the conclusion, that another, and as yet unseen agent, was the dis- tiu-bing cause of the motion of UraniLS. He was enabled to predict the place at which the supposed planet might be seen. The suggestion turned out cor- rect, and Dr. Calle, a German astrono- mer, was one of the first to verify the prediction by observing Neptune, on 23rd September, 1846. Mr. Adams, at Cambridge, was at the same time en- gaged in similar researches (sec Adams). The success of his calculations soon caused M. Leverrier to be overwhelmed with honours, and most of the learned LEW 245 LEW societies in Europe enrolled his name amongst their members. He has also some political rejmt.ition, being a Sena- tor of France, and in this capacity has done great service to the cause of edu- cation, in promoting the pursuit of science in that country. LEWES, Gkokge, was bom in Lon- don, on the 18th Ajml, 1817. He was educated at Dr. Biu-ney's school, at Greenwich ; entered a Russia merchant's office, and quitted it to become a stu- dent of medicine. He eventually turned to literary pursuits, and taking up his residence in Loudon, has been a most active contributor to all the leading serials. The more remarkable of his independent works are a "Biographical History of Philosojjby," written in a most attractive style, and exhibiting a pro- found and varied acquaintance with the history of human thought. The ' ' Life of Maximilian Robespierre," and his " Life of Goethe," exhibit an admirable mastery of the craft of the biogi'apher, with a deep insight into character. The equal ease with which the politician and the poet are dealt with, indicates the surpovssing versatility and power of the biographer. Mr. Lewes is the Macaulay of scientific writers, with a range of speculative power to which the popular historian did not as})ire. Mr. Lewes is also known as a th'amatic author, by the tragedy of "The Noble Heai-t," and other works ; and as a novelist, by "RAnthorpe,"and "Rose, Blanche, and Violet. " Of late years his labours have been almost exclusively scientific, em- bracing papers read at the Meetings of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, and two popidar works, "Sea-side Studies," and the " Physiology of Common Life," both of which have been translated into German. LEWIS, JouN Frederick, a water- colour painter, was born in London in Jidy, 1806, and his education was super- intended by his father. His pictm'es of Spanish scenes, exhibited from 18.3.3 to 1837, were of great excellence. A fancy for the picturesque induced him to visit the East, where he remained for ten years, losing no time, but making sketches which he turned to the best ac- count. When he returned tt, Edom, and the Holy Laud ;" in 1841 ' ' Letter to a Friend on the Evidence and Theory of Christianity," and "Sketches of the History of Christian Art " in 1847. Lord Lindsay's recent produc- tions have been confined to family bio- graphy, the chief being the "Lives of the Lindsays." LINDSAY, William Schaw, M.P., was born in Ayrshire, in 1816. Early left an orphan he went to sea in 1831, determined to work his way in the world. Obliged to submit to privations that would have driven to desperation a less courageous nature, he struggled on, and, at last, in 1834, had won the rank of second-mate in the ' ' Isabella " West-Indiaman — a ship in which he had served as cabin-boy. In 1835 he be- came chief-mate, and in 18.30 was Com- mander of the " Ohve Branch, " a situa- tion wliieh he held until 1840, when he left the service. Careful, cautious, and prudent, he had accumulated some litth; weidth, and attached to literature he had studied books as he had observed men. His early hardships left their im- pression on his mind, so that at twenty- four he looked about him with a pru- dence and wisdom far beyond his years, and as among the most industrious of business men he never neglected the cul- ture of his mind, he gradually advanced until he rose to be one of the largest shipowners and shipbrokers in the kingdom. Tynemouth returned him to Parliament in 1854, after a severe struggle, and again in 1857. la 1859 he was returned one of the members for Sunderland by a large majority. His attention to the shipping interest and the laws that affect navigation has been incessant, but his views are not univer- sally popular. In the earlier part of his political career he advocated the prin- ciple of reciprocity, and finally he sup- ported the abolition of all restrictions on free-trade in maritime afl'airs, contingent on the removal of those biudens which press heavily on the mercantLle marine of the kingdom. In 1858 he was a member of the Royal Commission ap- pointed to investigate the subject of Harbours of Refuge on the British and Irish coasts, and also a member in the same year of the Royal Commission ap- pointed to inquire into the manning of the navy. He has just gone to America (Sei)tember, 1860), partly for the pur- 2)0se of impro\'ing the state of the ship- ping interest between Great Britain and the United States, a mission which, although private, has several opponente amongst the British shipowners. LINNELL, John, an English painter, was born at London, iu June, 1792. He learned to draw by copying prints and pictures, and to i)aiut in oil by seeing Mr. Hunt, who was a pupil of George Morland, paint. He copied many of the pictures of this artist, but made more rapid })rogress after drawing from casts. He received in 1805 instructions weekly from Benjamin West, and about the LIS 249 LI V same time studied at the Eoyal A cademy. In ISOG he was under Mr. Johu Varly, the water-colour 2)aiuter, but he copied none of his works. In 1807 he obtained a silver medal for a drawing from the life, and in the same year exhibited it at the Royal Academy. In 1808 he ex- hibited at the Iloyal Academy, at the end of the same year obtaiiung a pre- mium of £'50 against John Chalon, who was afterwards 11. A. He continued to paint landscapes and figure subjects, as well as portraits, till 1847, when he re- linquished the latter. He has since left London for Redliill, where he now re- sides. Mr. Linnell not having kept his name upon the lists of the Royal Aca- demy, has not even been elected an Associate. " The Windmill," "The Heath Scene," "Crossing the Brook," " The Timber Waggon," and " The Vil- lage Sirring," all testify to his power of delineating English landscape in its homely and genial loveliness. The "Eve of the Deluge," on the other hand, is remarkable for the subhmity of its imaginative conception, and the facility and strength of its execution. His pic- tures, " The Wild Flower Gatherer," and "Milking Time," are in the Na- tional Collection at the South Kensing- ton Museum. LISZT, Franz, a i)ianist, was born at Ila?ding, October 22nd, 1809. At an early age he evinced a decided taste for nmsic, and soon became a proficient in the art. After receiving lessons at Vienna, where he made his debut, and was highly successful, he went to Paris, and in 1825 produced an opera. His fame had now largely extended, and although yet a youth, he was known as one of the first pianists of the day, both in London and at Paris. His execution is very rajtid, and although often taking liberties with the text of composers, his brilliancy enchants his hearers, and covers faidts which arise from his neglect of strict artistic rule. He has been singularly fortunate in recei\-ing decora- tions and rewards from many royal personages, and has performed in most of the leading cities in Eurojie with great success. LIVINGSTON, The Rev. David, LL. D. , D. C. L. , an eminent African mis- sicmary and traveller, was bom in 1817, in the Ullage of Blantyre, Scotland. His father a small tea-dealer, by liis kindness of manner and winning ways, made the heart-strings of his children twine around him as firmly as if he could have bestowed upon them eveiy worldly advantage. He died in 1856, while his son was on his homeward journey, anticipating no greater pleasure than telling beneath the paternal roof- tree the story of his adven- tures. Dr. Livingston's recollections of his mother recall a pictiu-e often seen among the Scottish poor — that of the anxious housewife stri\'ing to make both ends meet. At the age of ten, young Livingston entered Blantyre factory as a "piecer." With part of his first week's wages he pm-chased Ruddiman's " Rudiments of Latin." The labour of the factory extended from six in the morning until eight at night ; the Latin was learned at an evening school, and by dint of energy and perseverance the piecer lad had fully mastered the clas- sical authors before he reached his six- teenth year. In addition to the classics, books of travel and scientific works were his special delight. On an exploratory toiur in the vicinity of his native dis- trict, he entered a quarry to collect the shells found in the carboniferous lime- stone which crops out in High Blantyre and Canibuslang. Addressing this cjuery to a quarryman, "However did these shells come into these rocks ? " " When God made the rocks he made the shells in them," was the dam]>ing reply. At the age of nineteen Livingston became a cotton-spinner. He had now resolved to devote himself to the work of a medical missionary. Having passed through the L I V 250 LOX classical, medical, and theological curri- cula, Mr. Livingston was admitted a Li- centiate of the Facidty of Physicians and Surgeons, Glasgow, and was accepted by the London Missionary Society as one of its agents. China had been his conteini)lated sphere of labour, but the opium war closed that field of benevo- lent enterprise. Mr. Moflfat was then in England iirging the claims of Africa, and in 1840 Dr. Livingston embarked for that continent, reaching Cape Town after a voyage of three months. Dm-iiig sixteen j^ears he laboured there with surpassing zeal and devotion. The story of these years is told with unadorned eloquence in that now well-known work, his "Missionary Travels." For eight years he lived far in the interior with a Beehuana tribe, guiding them in the paths of industry, virtue, and Christi- anity. He discovered the magnificent lake Xgami, traced the course of the great river Zambesi, in Eastern Africa, and penetrated the interior of that conti- nent to the 8th degree of southern lati- tude, 26 degrees north of the Cape of Good Hope. Ha^^ng superintended the publication of his " Travels," and re- ceived the most satisfactory and sub- stantial testimonials of the esteem of his countrymen of all classes, from his old comrades in Blantyre mills, to the mility is that it will never be equalled. It is, however, by the recent voyage of the "Fox," its successful issue, and the unerring skill joined to the indomitable perseverance of its commander, that Captain M'Clintock's name will ever rank among the first and greatest of our Arctic heroes. All previous efforts at penetrating the mystery of the fate of the Franklin expedition had proved abortive, though aided by the resources of the two most powerful maritime na- tions of the world. It was reserved for Captain M'Clintock, with a steam-yacht of but one hundred and seventy-seven tons burden, and only twenty-fom- of a crew, to solve the problem. For eight months his little craft was heljilessly beset in the pack of ice in Baffin's Bay. Many commanders would have aban- doned the undertaking then, but he was not to be deterred from the prosecution of his object by any impediment short of destruction. He persisted ; the ice gave way; the "Fox" was liberated; and the tennination of his toils and dan- gers was success. Into tlie particulars of this eventfid voyage it is not neces- sary to enter ; but it may be observed that, while Captain M'Clintock never lost sight of his primary piu-pose, he left no oppoi'timity of advancing the cause of science imimprcved. He has seen more Arctic ser\ace than, perhaps, any other officer in the Royal Navy, having spent six winters within the Arctic circle, and travelled on foot, on his ex- ploring journeys, not less than 5,500 miles, without his health suffering. He has brought home many interesting relics of the l(jst expeilitiou, and amongst other things, the original despatch stating the date and eirciuustances of Sii' J. Frank- lin's death. MACLISE, Daniel, an EngHsh painter, was bom at Cork, in 1811. His father had served in the Elgin Fen- oibles, and his grandfather in the 42nd regiment of the line. He was early MAC 260 MAC intended for commercial pursuits, and spent some time in a banking establish- ment in his native town ; bnt preferring the pm-snit of the Fine Arts, he speedily gave vent to his earnest desire by pro- ducing sketches, &c., which brought hira into some little notoriety. He at last jiroceeded to London and entered the Royal Academy, and liere soon obtained leading prizcjs for his drawings from life, and for the best copy of a picture. He sketched for " Fraser's," and other periodicals, and then devoted his talents to oil painting, in which he has since met with extraortlinary success. He Avas elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1840. His produetions have been veiy numerous, and some of the following are specially admired : — " The Vow of the Ladies, and the Peacock," "Hemy the Eighth's Interview with Anne Boleyn," "Gil Bias and the Parasite," "The Sleeping Beauty," "Hunt the Slipper," "The Sacrifice of Noah," "Caxtonin his Printing Office," "Merry Christmas and the Baron's Hall," " Shakspeare's Seven Ages," &c. &c. He has also made many designs for Uhistrated works, is a first-rate draughtsman, and has painted several frescoes in the New Houses of Parlia- ment. Two of his best pictmres are in the national collection at the Kensington Museum, namely, his "Play Scene in Hamlet," and " Malvolio and the Coim- tess." MACLURE, Sir Robert Le Mesu- RIER, an Arctic discoverer and traveller, was born at Wexford, in January, 1807. Ha^ang been kindly provided for by an intimate friend of his father dm'ing his early j^ears, he was sent to Eton, and afterwards to Sandhurst. Being dis- gusted, however, with the prospect of a military life, he secretly left the College, and was, through the influence of his old fi'iend, placed as midshipman on board the "Victory." He passed some years in the navy, and having become lieutenant, entered into that line of service which has since rendered him so much known and esteemed. His first Arctic voyage was under Sir George Back, and in 1836 he went with him to the northern seas, but was nearly ship- wi-ecked on liis return. In 1848 he pro- ceeded in search of Franklin, who had been absent for three yeai-s, and of whom no account had been received since he re-victualled at Greenland, shortly after his departure from Eng- land. This voyage, however, was vm- successfid, and the whole party returned to England towards the end of 1849. Another expedition was fitted out in the ensuing year, in which Captain Maclure commanded one of the vessels, the "En- terprise;" and in this voyage he obtained a result which had been long sought, namely, the discovery of the North-West passage. The description of Arctic voyages always includes accounts of severe hardship and privation, but in this case the crews seem to have been in the greatest danger, not only from the ice, but also from their provisions falling short. Instead of proceeding northwards to Greenland, which is the usual course, Cajitain Maclure sailed round to Behring's Straits, and then pursued an eastern coiu-se. He travelled by sledge and on foot from the Pacific to the Atlantic ; and although perceiving no traces of the Franklin expedition, he succeeded in that which had hitherto baffled every other na\agator. On his retiu-n home, after overcoming all difiicidties by great per- severance, and receiving also assistance from Captain Kellet, who had been sent out to relieve him, Captain Maclui-e was heartily welcomed to his native shores, was knighted by her Majesty, and received a portion of the reward which had been many years previously ofl'ered for the discovery of a passage to India by proceeding in a north-westerly direction, instead of the usual route by the Cape of Good Hope. He at pre- MAC 2G1 M A C sent commands a vessel in the Cliinese seas, and will most probably be called on to exercise, in warlike matters, those talents which have already rendered him famous in his past career. MA CM A HON, Marie Edme Patkice Maurice de, Marshal of France, and Senator, is descended from an ancient Irish family who attached themselves to the cause of the Stuarts, and left their native country after the defeat of King James II. at the Boyne. Marie Edme was born in 1807, at Autim, Saone-et- Loire, and after being educated at the School of St. Cyr, joined the army. As captain in 1833, he signalized himself in Afriia at vari- ous serious engagements. After leaving Africa he joined the French army before Sebastopol, and there acquired great renown by his bravery and success. He led his division against the Malakoff, and although this was stoutly defended by the Russians, he efl'ected a lodgment. For four hours he was assailed by the Russian forces, who fought desperately, but with Macmahon the position was one of death or glory, and he held it against every effort of the enemy, who eventually retreated only to witness the French masters of the position. Digni- ties, chiefly titular but ennobhng, were showered on him, not the least of which were the British Order of the Bath, and the rank and emolument of a Senator of the Empire. On the war of 1859 breaking out with Austria, General Macmahon was again selected for the tield; and, having been triimiphant in the sanguinary contest of Magenta, jtromptly received the b^tou of a Mar- shal. A testimonial has just been pre- sented to him by his "countrymen," the Irish, in the shape of a sword. In the inscription reference is made to " the o])pressed Ireland," and many of the subscribers do not hesitate to express the ho})e that he may one day be called upon to rescue "their country" fi'omthe hand of the Saxon, and, as a descendant of its ancient kings, occupy the throne of his ancestors. M'NEILE, The Rev. Hugh, D.D., a clergyman, and Canon of Chester, was born in 1795, at Bally castle, near Bel- fast, in the coimty of Antrim, Ireland. He graduated at Trinity College, Dub- liu. He was for some years Rector of Albury in Surrey, and then frequently preached in London, where his eloquent and energetic style of pidpit oratory attracted great attention, and filled the churches where he officiated. He was in- vited to the incumbency of St. Jude's, Liver^jool, which he held for many years, Imt removed to that of St. Paul's, Prince's Park, near Liverpool. He has pub- lished several theological works, toge- ther with separate sermons and con- troversial pamphlets, and his writings have acquired great popularity, some having reached as many as seven edi- tions. M'NEILL, Sir John, G.C.B., Knight of the Lion and Sun of Persia, a diplo- matist, was born in 1795, at Colonsay, Argyleshii'e. He was educated in St. Aucirew's University, and subsequently joined the Bombay anny. In 1821 he was sent to Persia as assistant to the Charge d' Affaires ; in 1831 he became Assistant Secretary; in 18.34 was British Minister, and remained in that position tUl 1844. For his services in Persia he was created G.C.B. in 1839. Sir John availed himself of the opportimity thus afforded him of observing the peculiari- ties of Orieutalcustoms and government. He was chosen a President of the Scot- tish Poor-Law Board, on his return to his native comitry. He was also engaged in the in(piiry into the state of the army before Sebastopol, for whicli ser\ice he was specially fitted on accomit of his previous accjuaintance with the rcsom-ces of the neighbouring countries. He was nominated a mem- ber of the Privy Couucd in 1857, as a MAC 2Ci M A D recognition of the services he had ren- dered to the nation. M'^SiEILL, Sir John, LL.D., F.R.S., C. E. , was born at !Monnt Pleasant, near Dnndalk, county Louth, Ireland. He was educated as a military enirineer, but adopted instead the civil branch of the profession, and was in 1842 appointed Professor of Practical Engineering in Tri- nity College, Dublin. He was chief en- gineer for the Dul)lin and Drogheda Rail- way, and on the opening of the line in 1 844, received the honour of knighthood from the Lord Lieutenant. He has constructed most of the principal railways in Ireland, as well as the celebrated bridge over the Boyne, and the large viaducts on the Great Southern and Western Railway, and the Dublin and Belfast Railway. MACREADY, WiLLDm Charles, a tragedian, was born in London, in 1793. His early education was received at Rugby, but owing to his father's mis- fortunes he was compelled to abandon the hope of other prospects, and as- sumed the theatrical profession, of which his parent was a member. He made liis debut at Birmingham in 1810 ; and after performing in many of the leading pro- vincial theatres, appeared before a Lon- don audience, in Covent Garden, in 1816, as "Orestes," in the "Distressed Mo- ther." His reception on this occasion was most enthusiastic, and had the effect of encouraging him to persevere in the study of some of Shakspeare's principal characters, in which however he did not appear, owing to professional jealousies, tiU his success, and a furore to see him in "Richard III.," in November 1819, placed him indisputably at the head of Covent Garden Theatre. He subse- quently represented " Coriolanus," and other leading characters of Shakspeare, in the same season ; and at its termina- tion acted in Knowles's tragedy of " Virginius," which confirmed his posi- tion and reputation. He afterwards made a tour in the United States, and also appeared in the French capital. Ill 1837 he became lessee of Covent Gar- den Theatre ; but after two years' trial gave it up, on the grounds of injustice and rapacity — according to his own statement — on the part of the propri- etors. He afterwards performed at the Haymarket, and in the provinces. As- suming the management of Drury Lane, he endeavoured to elevate the taste of the habitues of the theatres ; but, Ulce all public benefactors, did not meet with an adequate pecuniary return for his exertions. He performed in Ame- rica in 1849 ; but through the malice of an actor was in danger of losing his life dmin§ a riot which took place in the theatre where he was performing. He returned home, and after appearing in many of his favourite representations in different parts of the kingdom, he retired from the stage in 1851. He now resides in Dorsetshire, where he applies his past experience and eminent talents to the improvement of the social and mental condition of his neighbours. MADDEN, Sir Frederick, K.H., F. R. S., M. R. I. A., an antiquarian writer, was born at Portsmouth, in 1801. His first literary occupation was that of assisting Mr. Roscoe in 1825, in mak- ing a catalogue of manuscripts belong- ing to the Earl of Leicester. In the course of a year afterwards he became an Assistant in the British Museimi, and in 1837 was appointed Keeper of the Manuscript dei)artment. Sir Frede- rick has been a most valuable contri- butor to EngUsh history, and has edited many works relating thereto. Amongst the most important of these may be named " The Holy Bible in the ear- hest English Version, by WycHffe ; " his " Privy I'urse Expenses of the Princess Mary, afterwards Queen Mary, with a Memoir of the Princess, and Notes;" "Havelock, the Dane;" "Layamon's Brut, or Chronicle of Britain;" "Sir Gawayne," &c. He is at present en- MAD 203 M A a gaged in preparing for the press, under the sanction of the Master of the Rolls, "The Minor Chronicle of Matthew Paris, the Historian of St. Alljan's Abbey, of the Thirteenth Century." He was nominated companion of the Guelphic order in 1832, knighted by King WUliam IV. in 1833, and m 1834 was appointed one of the Gentlemen of the King's Privy Chamber. MADOZ, Pascal, a Spanish states- man and author, was born at Pampe- luna, in May 180G. He pursued his legal studies at the University of Sara- gossa, but becoming mixed up with political matters, he was cast into prison, where he remained for many mouths. He graduated after his release, but was expelled from the university on account of his theological opinions. He commenced to practise in the legal profession in 1835, and was soon after made Judge of the First Instance, at Barcelona. He became deputy to the Cortes, and in 185 1 was elected Presi- dent of that assembly. As jSIinister of Finance, he proposed the sequestration of the Church and other property, in the following year, and as such incurred the oibimi of the Church party ; taking part with the popular cause, he was compelled through its want of success to quit Mach-id, in 185G. He has pub- lished some valuable works, the two most important being his "Collection of Celebrated Law Cases," and "A Geo- graphical and Statistical Dictionary of Spain," the latter of which he printed himself. He is of decided hberal opi- nions, and has at times had considerable influence in Spanish affaii'S. RL\GNAN, Pierre Bernard, a French Marshal, was born in Paris, on 7th December, 1791. He originally in- tended to follow the profession of the i law, but when eighteen years old vo- | luntarily entered the GGth Eegiment of the Line, and remained in it diu'ing the campaign in Spain and Portugal. His services procured liim the cUstinction of admission to the Imperial (iuard, and with the rank of Captain he served in the campaign of 1814, after which he was created an officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1827 he obtained the com- mand of the 4!)th llegiment of the Line, and took part in the Algerian expe- dition of 1830. Here again he distin- guished himself by his conduct at the battle of Staoueli, and for his services was rewarded by obtaining the rank of Commander. In 1831 he received an order to march upon Lyons, which was then in a state of insiuTection, and he succeeded in putting down the insur- gents; but his conduct not being ap- proved of by the Government, the com- mand of the regiment was taken from him. He was then sent on a mission to Belgium. Ajipointed a General of Brigade by the King of the Belgians, he set himself assiduously to effect the re- organization of the Belgian army, of which he commanded the vanguard at the time when war was imminent be- tween Belgiiun and Holland. Peace ha\'ing been concluded, he asked and obtained permission to return to France, where he had been named a General of Brigade in 1839. He was appointed to the command of the Department of the Nord, which he retained for seven years. When the revolution of 1848 broke out, having no command, he placed himself at the disposal of the Minister of War, and was the only general officer who accomiianied the Duchess of Orleans and her chikh-en to the Chamber of Deputies. Under the Pro\nsional Government he soon ob- tained the command of the 3rd di\'ision of the Ai'my of the Alps. Appointed in the month of July, 1851, to the chief com- mand of the Army of Paris, and devoted to the schemes of Prince Louis Napoleon, he was one of the small number of persons who prepared for the coup d'etat. He aided by his able and energetic adWce M AL 204 MAN the projects of the President durinff the eventful days of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th of Deccinl)er, and was rewarded by the dignity of Marshal of France. He re- mained in command of the Army of I'aris during the Crimean and Italian campaigns, the confidence of the Em- ])eror retaining him in that important position. MALMESBURY, The PanuT Hon. James Howard Harkis, third Earl of, Secretary of Foreign Affairs in the minis- try of Lord Derby, was Ijorn 25th March, 1807. He was educated at Eton, and Oriel College, Oxford. Shortly after quitting the university, he man-ied Lady Emma Bennet. In 1841, as Viscount Fitz-Hai'- ris, he was returned to the House of Com- mons as member for Wilton. Scarcely, however, had he taken his seat among the people's representatives, when the unexpected death of his father called liim to the LTpper House. His conduct there was singularly imobtrusive ; and not until 1852 -was pvd)lic attention drawn towards him. His selection by Lord Derljy as Minister for Foreign Af- fairs, during liis short-lived administra- tion, first cb-ew the noble lord from the obscurity he had hitherto courted. The friends of the noble earl claim for him the merit of having preserved inviolate the national honour at that critical juncture, when Lord Palmerston, ex- ])elled from office, was succeeded by Lord Derby; but an imi)artial observer might be apt to deny to the minister more merit in that crisis than simply be- longs to the registrar of the national will. On Lord Derby's restoration to power in 1858, Lord Malmesbury again became Foreign Secretary, and it spoke well for the administration of that department, that, on Lord Derby's retirement in 1859, the succeeding government stated their intention, so far as regarded foreign policy, of following in the track of their predecessors. MANTEUFEL, Baron Otiio Theo- dore, Prussian Minister of Foreign Af- fairs, was born at Lid )ben, Brandenburg, Felj. 1805, and after taking the ordinary collegiate course, studied law and poUtical science at the University of Halle. In 1827 he went to Berlin, where he was appointed to a small office, which he left, and was afterwards named successively to various posts of trust in Brandenburg, for which province he became Deputy to the Provincial Diet in 1837. From 1841 to 1843 he directed the internal affairs of the government of Konigsberg ; in 1843 he obtained the Vice-Presidency of the government of Stettin. The year fol- lowing found him Special Coimsellor to the Prince of Prussia, and member of the Council of State ; in 1845 he was Under- Secretary to the Minister of the Interior ; in 1847 he defended the Prussian Con- stitution with aU his power ; and in 1848 was appointed Minister of the Interior, under Count Brandenburg. The king- dom was somewhat unsettled at the time, and as Manteufel exhibited an amount of administrative ability and moderation in his course of proceeding not expected from him, he gained popularity and influence. In 1850, when a serious dis- agreement between Prussia and Austria was at its height, he was appointed Min- ister for Foreign Affairs. In 1852 he was constituted President of the Coimcil of Ministers, and in 1856 he was a party to the Peace Congress of Paris, when he represented the Prussian government. Different ideas of his i)olicy are enter- tained. A large section in France express themselves by designating him gloomy and austere ; but the general Prussian opinion is probably the correct one, that he is emphatically a Prussian politician, endeavoiu-ing, with the best of his abi- lity, to hold the balance equal between conflicting interests, whether at home or abroad. MANZONI, Count Alessandro, an Italian poet and novelist, was born at Milan, in 1784, Having studied in his MAR 265 MAR native city, lie completed his education at Pavia, and afterwards ])roceeded to Paris. His most popular novel is "I Promessi Sposi," wliicli has appeared in English as "The Betrothed Lovers." He has also produced tragedies and jioems, on which, however, his reputa- tion does not depend. Amongst his other works are "A Vindication of Catholic Morality ; " " Storia della Co- lonna Infame," an historical essay treat- ing on some supposed means of secretly propagating the i)lague which in Ki.SO ravaged Milan ; and several odes, com- posed as illustrative of different events connected with history. MARIO, Joseph, an Italian singer, Avas born at Timu, in 1810, and received a first-rate musical educa- tion. He entered the Sardinian army as an officer in 1830, but for some cause quitted the ser\dce and went to Pai'is, where his fine tenor voice soon obtained him an engagement at the Opera, with a handsome salary. It was here that he assumed the name of Mario, in place of his proper title — the Marquis of Candia. In December, 18.38, he made his dehut in " Robert le Diable," and in the following year ap- peared in the Italian Theatre, where he was the rival of Rubini. He subse- quently travelled in Russia, where he remained for some years. Since then he has rejjeatedly ajtpeared in London and Paris at the Italian Opera houses, has achieved successes in every engage- ment, and acquired a European re}>iita- tion for the taste and exceUeuce of his vocalism. MAROCHETTI, Baron Charles, a sculptor, was born at Turin, in 1805. After studying at the Lycee Napoleon, ho entered the ateliei-s of Bosio and Gros. He subsequently spent some time in Italy, and returning to France in 1827, exhibited in that year his " Yoimg i Girl Playing with a Dog," which was greatly acbuiix'd for its combination of vigour and grace. In 1831 he produced his "Fallen Angel," and some timeafter- wards executed the ecpiestrian statue of Emanuel Philibert, which is erected at Turin. The statue of the Dulte of Wel- lington, erected in front of the Pwoyal Exchange in Glasgow, was produced by him in 1844. Since his removal to Lon- don, in 1848, he has executed numerous well-known statues, which have been gi-eatly admired. His "Richard Canir de Lion" was exhibited at Hyde Pai-k in 1851. The statue of her Majesty, erected in Buchanan-street, Glasgow, was produced in 1854. He has also executed busts of the Queen and Prince Albert, and of many well-knowTi public individuals. He stands high in poj)ular favour, oAving to the force and felicity of all his nmnerous produc- tions. MARSH, Mrs. Anne Caldwell, an English authoress, was born in Stafford- shire, about the end of the last century. Having received an excellent education at home, she proceeded, after marrying Mr. Marsh, to London, and published her first literary effort, "Two Old Men's Tales," which at once secured her suc- cess as a writer. After producing in 1836 her " Tales of the Woods and the Fields," and the "Triumphs of Time," she again received the praise of her readers for her work entitled ' ' Moimt Sorel," which appeared in 1843. Since then Mrs. Marsh has been a most inde- fatigable writer ; and in all her works her depth of feeling and high descrip- tive powers are eminently api)arent. Her "Emilia Wyndham" has had ex- traordinary success as a ])opidar novel. Amongst many others, the folloAving may be named as the best of her publi- cations : — "Father Darcy," "Time the Avenger," "Aubrey," " The Protestant Reformation in France," "Angela," and "The Heiress of Haughton." Mrs. Marsh's style is exceedingly attractive ; and she infuses much of truth and high- I\I A R 266 M A R toned morality iu all her chamiing I works of fiction. MARSHALL, William Calper, R.A., a sculptor, was born at Edin- burgh, in 1813. He studied in the Royal Academy of London, and became the pupil of Chantrey and Bailey. After visiting Rome he settled in London, and commenced those labours in sculp- ture for which he has since become so well known, and wherein he has been a successful competitor against men of the highest rank in the profession. Perhaps one of the best of his works is the colossal statue of Sir Roliert Peel, which has been erected at Manchester. He received the prize for a model of the national monument to the Duke of Wel- lington, the bas-relievos of which he is at present executing, and which will be placed in St. Paul's Catheib-al. The public statues he has executed in Lon- don are those of Dr. Jenner, Thomas Campbell, and Captain Coram. He is an Associate of the Scottish Academy, and a Royal Academician. The follow- ing are some of Mr. Marshall's choice productions: — "Una and the Lion," "Cupid and Psyche," "Caractacus," " Paul and Virginia," " Hebe Rejected," "Godiva," " Lnogene Asleep," "Danc- ing Girl Reposing," "The Grecian Maid," " Sabrina," and his "Claren- don" and "Somers," in the New Houses of Parliament. MARSTON, John Westland, a dramatic author, was born at Boston, in Lincolnshire, on the 7th of January, 1820. He entered the office of his imcle with the view of adopting the legal pro- fession ; but on the completion of his ar- ticles he abandoned the profession, and now writes principally for the theatres. His "Patrician's Daughter," "Strath- more," and "Ann Blake," are well known as among the most sterling of modern dramatic works. All his plays have been successful, and he is one of our few writers for the stage who dis- dain to borrow the material of their works from foreign sources. Besides the above-named plays, and others in l)lank verse, Mr. Marston has written two or three prose dramas, of which the one entitled "A Hard Struggle," has excited the most attention. IVL^RTINEAU, Miss Harriet, an English authoress, was born at Nor- wich, on 12th June, 1802. She is de- scended from one of the old French families who sought a refuge in England on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. At the cost of much self- denial, the parents of Miss Martineau secured for their children a superior education, the best masters at home being provided for them without stint. Miss Martineau's specialty was music, singing, and the pianoforte. A sound classical education, combined with steady, regular, mental discipline, and an innate love of literature, rendered composition a pleasure and a profit. Some years after the death of her father, who was a manufacturer, his successor in business failed ; and as the family had left their money iu the concern. Miss Martineau and her mother and sisters lost their all. With a noble sph-it she resolved to maintain herself ; it was a great struggle, but she saw its end. In 1823 she published a volume of "De- votional Exercises for Yoimg Persons ; " in 1824, "Christmas Day;" in 1826, "Principle and Practice," and "The Rioters," succeeded by "The TvuTiOut," "Mary Campbell," and "My Servant Rachel,"- — a series of tracts on subjects relating to the working classes, of whose interests she has invariably been an ardent advocate. In 1831 her "Tra- ditions of Palestine" appeared, and was successful. The Committee of the Bri- tish and Foreign Unitarian Association having offered prizes for three tracts on the introduction and promotion of Unitarianism among the Roman Catlio- lics, the Jews, and the Mahomedans, M A R 267 M A R Miss Martineau sent in three esi5ays for competition, and she was awarded the first prize for each. Sliortly afterwards she projected the publication of a monthly series of tales, illusti'ative of political economy, and offered one of them to the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge ; but being rejected by that l)ody, they were brought out indc})endently, and became extremely popular. The " Illustrations of Political Economy" were followed by "Illustra- tions of Taxation," a series of six tales ; and these were succeeded by others on " Poor Law and Paupers. " In 18o4 Miss Martineau visited the United States ; and on her return published a work entitled "Society in America," and a "Retrospect of Western Travel." In 1838 she wrote "Deerbrook," the most widely circulated of any of her works, except the series on political economy. For some years her health was im- paired, but she did not abandon litera- ture altogether. In the com'se of this protracted period of suffering .she wrote "The Playfellow," " The Horn- and the Man," and "Life in the Sick Room." Recovering her health in 1844, she re- sumed authorship, and produced "Forest and Game Law Tales. " After publish- ing "The Billow and the Rock," a charming storj-, in 1846, she visited Egypt, Arabia, and the Holy Land, the result of her oliservations being given to the world in a work entitled " Eastern Life, Present and Past," published on her return. Miss Martineau, after- wards, at the instance of Mr. Charles Knight, brought to a conclusion the "Histoiy of the Thirty Years' Peace," which that gentleman had commenced, but for various reasons had not com- pleted. This is generally considered her greatest work. She has since given to the English public a translation of Comte's "Positive Philosophy." Miss Martineau for some years has been closely confined to her residence at Ambleside, labouring under heart-disease, from which she suffers greatly. MARTINEZ DE LA ROSA, Fran- cisco, a Spanish poet, historian, orator, and statesman, was born at Granada, in 1789. He studied for the legal profes- sion, and before completing his twentieth year was appointed a professor and lec- tui-er on Ethics at the College of San Miguel. In 1811 his first literary pro- ductions were given to the world. Up to 1813 he -wrote and published dramas and poems ; and in the latter year was elected Deputy to the Cortes by the city of Granada. After having been im- prisoned, for political reasons, for nearly six years, the insun-ection (of 1820) in- troduced the second constitutional rule in Spain, and Martinez was liberated. When the French overtlu-ew the con- stitutional government once more, Mar- tinez left Spain. In the meantime he was composing some of his best (b-amas ; but the French revolution of 1830 alarmed Ferdinand of Spain, and Mar- tinez obtained permission to retm-n to Granada. On the death of Ferdinand, Martinez was recalled to power, became head of the ministry, and established a new constitutional system, founded on that of Great Britain. From various causes his influence declined, until, in 1836, he resigned office. In 1840, when Espartero assumed the Regency, Mar- tinez left Spain, but returning to IVIa- drid, he was made Spanish Ambassador to Paris in 1847, and was first Secre- tary of State in October, 1857. He has been a voluminous writer, particidarly of cb'amas ; and as a politician, it is agreed that his integi'ity and patriotism ai'e miqui'stionable. MARTIUS, Carl Frederich Phil- lip Vox, a German botanist, was born at Erlangen, on 17th April, 1794. His earliest predilections were for the science of liotany. He studied for me- dicine at the Univei'sity, and after gra- duating, he proceeded to the Brazils MAS 268 M AU witli tlie zoologist Spix. He there had every opportimity of practically pur- suing his favoiu-ite study, and in tlie course of four years returued to Ger- many with a si)lendid herbarium, and subsequently published the results of his observations in a work called ' ' Travels in Brazil." His reputation Avas thus so far enhanced as to jirocure him the ap- pointment of Professor of Botany at ]\Iuuich, and Director of the Botanic Garden. He has also been elected a meml)er of most of the European scien- tific societies. Amongst his numerous bo- tanical works are the following: — "Nova Genera et .Species Plautarum," " Icones Plantarum Cryptogamicarum," "Flora Brasiliensis, " and his "Genera et Species I'almarum," which is at once attractive and higlily instructive. Besides these, he has published nimierous papers on medical botany, physiology, and the geographical distribution of })lants, which have gained for him a high reputation for accuracy as a man of science. MASSE Y, Gerald, an English poet, was born May 1828, near Tring, in Herts. His parents were so steeped in poverty that the children received scarcely any education. When only eight years old, Gerald was sent to work in a neighbour- ing silk miU ; but the mill being burned down, the boy took to straw-plaiting. He had learned to read at a penny school ; and when fifteen went up to London as an errand boy, and spent all his s])are time in reading and writing. When out of a situation, he has gone without a meal to purchase a book. His first appearance in print was in a pro- vincial paper ; he published a small col- lection of his verses in Ids native town, and diu'ing the political excitement of 1848, edited a cheap paper called the " Spirit of Freedom." His writing was so bold and vigorous, that his })olitical manifestations cost him five situations in eleven months. He was a warm ad- vocate of the co-operative system, and thus was introduced to the Rev. Charles Kingsley and others who were ])romot- ing that movement. Still continuing to write, his name began to be known ; and in 1853 " Christabel" took the public completely by surprise. Five editions of the work were pubUshed in two years ; his pecuniary circumstances improved in proportion to his fame as a poet ; and in 1855 he removed to Edin- burgh, where in 1856 he issued "Craig- crook Castle, " in his own estimation his best work. A collected edition of his poems has just been published. MASSON, David, Professor of the English Language and Literature at University College, London, was born 2nd December, 1822, at Aberdeen. After studying at Marischal College, Aberdeen, he entered the University of Edinburgh, and for some time subse- quently was editor of a Scottish news- pajier. After removing to London he returned to Ediubm-gh, and for some time was a contributor to various re- views and magazines. Taking up his residence in London again, he was chosen Professor of English Literatm-e at the London University. A volume of "Cri- tical and Biographical Essays" (1856), "Life and Times of Milton" (vol. i. 1859), and "British Novelists and then- Styles" (1859), are his chief indepen- dent contributions to literature. The remainder of Mr. Masson's productions have been read with delight by all who love vigorous, poetic, and original ex- pression. Mr. Masson ha;* become the editor of "Macmillan's Magazine," which he conducts with the greatest ability. MA UP ICE, Rev. Frederick De- NISON, M.A., Chaplain of Lincoln's Inn, Minister of Vere Street Chapel, Marylebone, and formerly Professor of Theology at King's College, London. Mr. Maurice was in early life educated as a Unitarian, his father being a minister of that denomination ; but being desu-- ous of a University education, he, at M AU 269 M AU the age of eighteen, proceeded to Cum- hiidge and was entered of Trinity Hall, his father, although not approving of the step, generously providing the means ; but not being a member of the Church, he left Cambridge without a degree. Having chauged his views respecting the Church, Mr. Mam-ice went to Exeter College, Oxford, and took the degi-ee of B.A. in 1831, was ordained Deacon in 1834, and Priest in 1835, in which year he also received his M.A. degree. The first work which made any sensation was anonymous — " Sub- scription no Bondage." In 1830 he edited the " Athenaeum," receiving some assistance from his friends the kite Archdeacon Hare and John Sterling. " Eustace Conway," a three volume novel, was disposed of in 1831 to Mi\ Bentley (then in partnership with Mr. (Jolbm-u), but was not published till 1 8.34, after the author had taken orders. "The Kingdom of Christ," a work which had much influence upon mem- bers of the Society of Friends, appeared in 1841. During the time Mr. Maurice held the appointment of Chaplain of (iuy's Hospital he piiblished a voltmie of sermons; and in 1846, the year in which he was appointed Professor of Theology at King's College, he pub- lished an expository work on " The Epistle to the Hebrews." Although not imfrequently classed amongst that section of the Church of England known as the "broad," Mr. Maurice is too honest and out-spoken to be tied down by the formularies of any party, and consequently he has been both mis- understood and misrepresented. While at King's College, some of his views respecting the eternity of future punish- ment raised such a storm of disappro- bation that he was obliged to resign the professorship in 1853. He "denounced the popular teaching respecting eteriuil punishment, believing it to be at variance with the scriptural revelation of God in Christ ; that eternity in Scripture and in our creeds has an altogether different meaning to that which is given it by popidar preachers, who, in their attemjita to make their notion tell upon the terrors of their congi'egations, set at nought the Gospel, as well as all the real terrors which shoidd deter them from sin." No question was raised by the authorities at King's College respect- ing the soundness of Mr. Maurice's \aew3 respecting the Atonement; they knew that he had always preached the doctrine ' ' that Go)ut as he had been enrolled as a Swiss citizen, the Cantons decided upon resisting the demand, as contrary to their rights as a free people. The French Government pressed their de- mand by threat, and Louis Napoleon acting with a wise discretion, which he did not always exliibit, at that time soiight shelter in more powerful Eng- land, where he arrived in 1838. In 1840, impelled by that self-reliance, if not fatalism, which marks his character, he undertook to make another desperate struggle for the Crown of France. He chartered a steamer in London, and with Count Montholon, and some fifty others, made a descent upon Boulogne- sm'-Mer, 6th August. He in vain tried to induce the soldiers of the garrison, one of whom he shot dead, to join his standard, and after a futile attempt to NAP 287 NAP retreat on board the ' ' City of Eclinburgli " he was ca}»tiired. Again the French government was lenient. The Prince was tried, with his followers, in the fol- lowing October, and condemned to im- prisonment for life in the citadel of Ham. Here, in solitude and in suffer- ing, for upwards of six years, he had leisure to meditate upon the failure of his last schemes, and to devise greater ones for the future, all the while school- ing his mind by the noble teachings of adversity. Suddenly, he astonished France, and all Europe, by making his escape in the dress of a common wurk- man. Again hosi)itable England was open to him, and he reappeared in London, no one suspecting the greatness of his destiny, or looking upon him as other than a desperate and rash adven- tui'er. But his long-formed design was seldom absent from his mind, and it is related that when Louis-Philippe was foolish enough to attempt to fan up the embers of his own fast fading popidarity by obtaining the consent of the British government for the removal of the re- mains of the great Napoleon from St. Helena to the Invalides at Paris, the Prince called upon an ambassador in London, with whom he was personally acquainted, and rubbing his hands joy- ously together exclaimed — ''■ Comme il est bete, ce Louis- Philippe, il fait mon jeu. " ( " What a fool Louis-Philippe is ; he is plaj-ing my game !") The result verified the prediction, and when the corruption of that monarch's system of government at home, and his intrigues abroad, more esj)ecially in Spain, had so exasperated the French people as to lead to tlie memorable outbreak of February 1848, and his expulsion from France, one of the first measures of the new Government, upon the motion of M. Louis Blanc, was the nullitication of the decree of exile j)assed uj)on all the mem- bers of the Bonaparte family. Prince Louis Napoleon ilid not uumediately re- turn to France, but ten weeks after the abdication of Loius-Phihj)])e served as a special constable in the streets of Lon- don, in defence of law and order, when both were imperilled by the great Chartist demonstration of the 10th of April. Elected a member of the Na- tional Assembly by several places, he made choice of Paris, and took his seat in that body, which it afterwards be- came his "destiny" to overthrow. A candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, in opposition to General Cavaignac, who had rendered himseK unpopidar with the ultra-democracy by the rigour, if not cruelty, with which he had crushed an insurrection of the people, he was elected by 5,534,520 votes, while his opponent had less than two millions. His oath, on assuminir the Presidency, may be quoted here : — "In the presence of God, and before the French people, I swear to remain faithful to the Democratic Republic, and to fulfil all the duties imposed on me by the Constitution." But the ultra- Democrats and Socialists, aided by the impracticable National Assembly, and its duly appointed general, Changarnier, brought affairs to a dead lock ; and there would have been an end of the Bonapartes, or at all events of the Pre- sident, had he not acted in seK-defence. Having jjreviovisly prepared all his mea- sures, the President and his chosen friends began to work. On the morn- ing of December 2nil, every influential man known in Paris to be opposed to the Bonapartist system, was seized, im- prisoned, or escorted to the frontiers. The Assembly was dissolved, and the President proclaimed Dictator. So dar- ing an act was not effected without bloodshed. The troops shot down in the streets all who appeared in favour of the Constitution ; and thus having completely subdued all opposition, and baptized the new rt(jime in blood and tire, he offered himself to the nation as :n^ A p 28S NAP President for ten years. Opposition was in vain, for the army was staunch in support of the nephew and representa- tive i^f th(j great Napoleon, and he was trium])hantly elected. This condition of affairs continued for about a year, when in 1 852 he resolved to make a tour of the departments, and test the popu- larity of his name, and the opinion of the country. Wherever he went he was received with shouts of acclamation and cries of Vive V Emjiereur. It can- not be denied that these manifestations were genuine and spontaneous, and he accepted them as the will of the nation that the "Empire " should be restored. All having been pre-arranged prior to his tour, and the country being really, though unwisely, alarmed at the projects of Socialists and Red Republicans, and knowing moreover that change of title could add nothing to the already su- preme authority of the President, he was elected Emperor. He was accordingly proclaimed in December 1852, exactly one year from the date of the coup (VHat. He assumed the title of Na])oleon III., and was at once recognised by Great Britain as a sovereign elected by the I)eople, and more tardily by the other great powers. The new Emperor de- clared that his empire was "peace," but the promise has not been realized. Having put forth pretensions con- nected with the custody of the Holy Places in Palestine, i)rojccts deeply laid, and with ulterior views on the great question of the Papacy, the Em- ])eror of Russia became alarmed for the stability of his influence in the East ; and sent a mission to Constantinoi)le, under Prince Menschikoff, the eonii)lica- tions arising out of which produced the alliance between Great Britain and France, intended to curb the ambition and the pretensions of the Czar. The v?ar in the Crimea was the speedy re- sult, a war humiliating to Russia, and in its progress not altogether satisfac- tory to the high spirited people of Eng- land. Its cost, however, was too great for the resources of France, and the war was not so popular among his people as the Emperor wished. Sebastopol, after a long siege, having been captured, with the lion's share of the glory to the arms of France, the Emperor suddenly de- clared himself satisfied, and would go no further. Great Britain reluctantly acquiesced : an unsatisfat:tory peace was made ; and the popidarity gained for the Emperor in this country grew less and less fervent, and threatened to be en- tirely extinguished, if not replaced by animosity or jealousy. This growing ill-feeling was strengthened in 1857-8, by the injudicious demand made upon the British (jovernment, by that of the French Emperor, to alter the laws af- fecting political and other exiles in Eng- land, to meet the case of the persons supposed to be implicated in the cow- ardly attempt at assassination, with which the name of Orsini is so infamously associated. This attemj)t to dictate to a friendly nation, so jealous and so sus- ceptible of its dignity as Great Britain, and the manner in which the British Government appeared disposed to yield to it, led to the downfall of the Pal- merston administration, and increased the ])re-existing coolness for the person and iwlicyof the Emperor. The large mi- litary, but more especially the naval ar- maments of France, and the fortifications of Cherboiu-g, within five hours' sail of our coast, and which seemed to have no possible object or necessity but an inva- si(m of England, created, if not a jtanic, a wide-spread alarm, that we were not sufficiently ])rei)ared to confront siich a peril ; and the press, the people, and the parliament, being of one mind upon the sul)ject, the Government was com- pelled to take the necessary measures for seeming our naval supremacy against the attacks of all comers — wliether France alone, or France in combination NAP 289 NAP with any power or powers on the earth. In the midst of these preparations, Eu- rope was startled on the 1st of January, 1859, by a declaration of the Em]ieror of the French to the Austrian ambas- sador, at Paris, expressive of his regret that the relations between the two coimtries were no longer satisfactoiy. The price of the public funds went down rapidly in every capital of the ci\-ilized world ; and it was calculated that within three weeks after the ominous words hail been spoken, pul>lic secm-ities in the various capitals of Europe had l)een depreciated by them to the ex- tent of, at least, sixty millions ster- ling. In due time, Austria having been placed in such a position that she must either fight or lose her Italian provinces and her rank in Europe, the Emperor, Francis Joseph, played the game of the Emperor of the French, by declaring war against the King of Sardinia, and his French ally. The Emperor Napoleon placed himself at the head of his army, appointed the Empress to act as Regent during his absence, and in the course of a few weeks proved to foes as well as to friends, that he was both a theoretical and a practical soldier, and that he had all the qualifications of a great general He marched from victory to victory ; gained lam-cls at the hard-fought field of Magenta, and finally defeated the whole Austrian aiTny at the great and decisive battle of Solferino. The famous quadri- lateral of fortresses, supposed to be im- pregnable, lay before him, where Aus- tria might have accepted the prolonga- tion of hostilities, wnth something like a well-founded anticipation that Solfe- rino woidd be the last A^ictory of the year, and that the tide of battle might be tirrned against the invader. But no one suspected ])cace. Yet peace was imminent and pre-arranged. The Em- peror of the French thus proved him- self as great in war as in domestic ad- ministration : he had N^TCsted Lumbardy, with its beautiful capital of !Milan, from the grasp of Austria, and done enough for his futm-e fame, as well as for his present purpose. An armistice was con- cluded between the two Emperors ; who, on the following day, had a private in- tervaew at a little road-side house in the small town of Villafranca, and, to the sur2)rise of the whole world, agi-eed to the terms of a peace ; by which Lom- bardy was ceded to France, and by France to »Sardinia ; and Venetia, with the quadrilateral, left in the possession of Austria. The Emperor of the French agreed, at the same time, to the restora- tion of the sovereigns of Parma, Mo- dena, and Tuscany, who had been expelled . by their subjects, when the French army entered Italy ; but the attitude assumed by the Tuscans and ]Modenese, and the support they re- ceived from the public opinion of all Italy, as weU as of England, whose govei-nment declared itself against the right of any power to force back theu- sovereigns upon the people against their clearly expressed wishes, placed him in a dilemma. To escape from it, so as not to incur any reproach from Austria, for breach of faith with regard to the treaty of Villafranca, he proposed a Congress of the European powers, to assemble in Paris, to discuss the whole subject of Italy. But the project feU through, and Italy remains armed and expectant, deter- mined to be mistress of her own des- tinies. The quarrel with Austria, and the general results of the Italian campaign, not having been of a natm-e to regain for the Emperor the lost sjTniiathies o£ the British people, whose alliance he seems earnestly to com-t as one of the surest bulwarks of his throne and dy- nasty — he made, early in ISCO, a new and more sagacious move than he had hitherto attempted. Though the French people, ■with the sole exception of the wine gi'owers of Bordeaux, Biu-gimdy, and the Rhone, are universally Protec- u N AR 290 N A S tionists, the Emperor — fond of surprises — declared liimsolf a convert to the prin- ciples of Free-trade, and notified an approaching relaxation of the suicidal stringencies of the French tariff. Aided Ijy the experience and advice of Mr. Cobden, who was charged with a con- fidential mission to that effect from the British Government, a treaty of com- merce between France and Great Bri- tain was cb'awn uj), of which the prin- ciple was triimij)hantly affirmed in the British House of Gommons ; and the Emperor regained that popularity in England which he enjoyed in the early stages of the Crimean war. This is, j)erhaps, the most important act, both to France and England, of his remark- able and eventful career ; and ])regnant •\vitli untold and unimagined blessings to both nations. Though it cannot be said that the Emperor has given the French the freedom which they covet, it cannot be denied that he is in other respects a great, an illustrious, and a magnificent sovereign. He has done what previous sovereigns longed, but did not dare, to attempt. He has com- pleted the Louvre and the Rue de Ri- voli, and made Paris — beautiful even before his time — the most eminently beautiful city in the world. Improve- ment has followed his footsteps wherever he has gone ; and if Na])oleon I. was the Julius Gaisar of France, Napoleon III. is justly entitled to be called her Augustus. The Emjieror having failed to ally himself with some of the royal houses of Europe, married, on the 29th January, 1853, Eugenie Marie de Guz- man, Gountess de Teba, born 5th May, I82G, by whom he has one son, Napo- leon Eug&ne Louis Jean Joseph, Prince Imperial, born March IGth, 185G. NARVAEZ, Don Ramon, Duke of Valencia, was born in Andalusia, in 1800. He entered the military service at an early age as a cadet, and soon be- came distinguished by his gallautry. In 1822 he ranged himself on the liberal side, and most courageously contributed in queuing an attack made by the royal party against the revolutionists in July of that year. Having, however, been woimded, during the next year he retired from active life to his native place for nearly ten years. In 1836 he took com- mand under Espartero ; but about four years afterwards, he entirely changed his political views, and leaving the cause of the Gonstitution, became a Royalist. In 1844 he became President of the Gouncil, and was created Duke of Va- lencia, but sustained a reverse of royal favour within three years afterv/ards. The revolutionary events of 1854 to 1856 again served to raise Narvaez to power in place of O'Donnell. He was again made President of the Gouncil, and used energetic efforts in restoring the regal authority. However, in a country like Spain, where intrigue is the ride, and consistency the exce^jtion, it is no matter of surprise that the year 1859 foimd O'Donnell at once Prime Minister, Gommander of the forces, destined to chastise Morocco in the war which has just been concluded, and thus at the same time the supplanter of Narvaez. NASH, Joseph, water-colour painter, was born in 1813, and is eminent for his illustrations of architectural interiors. His career has been one of unbroken success, as, from the moment his draw- ings from the architecture of the Middle Ages became known, his works have been in demand. His "Mansions of England in the Olden Time," published in lithography, over a space of ten years, forms a sjalendid gallery of architectural portraitiu-e as it was some century or two since. He has illustrated Shak- S])ere and Sir Walter Scutt with great felicity. All Mr. Nash's works are re- marka1)le for their exceeding care and conscientious handling : however trifling the object may be, it receives its ])roper treatment. He has throe water-colour N AS 291 NEW paintings in tlie South Kensington Mu- seum, viz., " The West End of Rouen Cathedral," "Rochester," and "The Hall at Speke." NASMYTH, James, a practical en- gineer, was horn at Edinburgh, on the 19th August, 1808. At an early age he showed a taste for mechani- cal pursuits, and was accustomed by his father to the use of tools and the employment of a pencil. After studying at the University, where he was much esteemed, he set out for London in 1829, and entered the engineering establish- ment of Messrs. Maudslay and Field. Returning thence to his native city in 1832, he remained two years arranging tools for his intended entry into com- mercial life on his own account. In the spring of 1834 he settled in Manchester, and commenced on a small scale those now extensive works with which his name is associated. He hatl thei'e many ditiicidties to overcome, the chief of which was, the repeated attempts of Trades Unionists among the men in his e mploy to subject his estabhshment to the dictation of their society's rules; but the successful resistance he offered re- sulted in the perfect emancipation of the manufactory from all such interference. He erected workshojis at Patricroft, and there brought out in a short period his pile-driving machine, steam hammer, and other contrivances for facilitating the production of machinery, which have made his name known wherever the value of modern mechanism is under- stood. He retired from the concern at the close of 1856, with an ample reward for the exertions of mind and body which he had made diuing his previous successful career. NEES VON ESENBECK, Chris- tian Godfrey, a German botanist, was born at Reichenberg, in the Odeuwald, February 1776, and stutUed metUcine at the University of Jena. He practised for several years, and was appointed suc- cessively Botanical Professor in the Uni- versities of Erlangen, Bonn, and Breslau. At Breslau he held the chair from 1831 to 1851, when he was removed on account of his assumed connexion with the re- volutionaiy movements of 1848. He is an able botanist, a skilfid classifier, and gives to the science a philosophic tone which is now becoming jirevalent in Germany. His botanical works are very niunerous, and he has written, besides, several volumes on philosophy and the politics of the day. His first treatise, ' ' Die Algen des Slissen Was- sers, &c.," was published in 1814; and his last, "A Series of Researches and Observations on Animal Magnetism,'' in 1853. NESSELRODE, Charles Robert, CoMTE DE, a Russian diplomatist and politician, was born at Lisbon, in 1780. His early career was in connexion with military affairs, but he soon showed the bent of his disposition by entering into the diplomatic service, in which he has acted successfully in Russian matters for more than half a century. His first occupation was that of "attache" to the Prussian court. In 1807 he was connected with the embassy to Paris, and subsequently took part in the various events which transpired till the fall of Napoleon in 1814, suiting his policy to the various changes, as expe- diency rather than principle induced him. From that period tiU very lately, the administration of foreign affairs has been mostly in his hands. He was some- what compromised in Russia with the patriotic party, owing to his supposed want of integiity during the late Cri- mean war, and has not lately taken an active part in jiublic matters, although he still retains high office in Russia. NEWCASTLE, Henry Pelham Clix- TON, Duke of, was born 22ud May, 1811. After being educated at Eton, he studied at Christ Church, Oxford, and first entered Parliament in 1832, as mem- NEW 20-2 NEW her for South Nottinghamshire. As Lord Lincoln he held several ofiBces under different administrations from 1834 till 1846, when he was for a short time the chief Secretary for Ireland. When Sir Robert Peel commenced his Free-trade measures, Lord Lincoln became a sup- porter of that statesman, and was mem- ber for the Falkirk Burghs till 1851, when he succeeded to the dukedom on the death of his father. He was also a member of Lord Aberdeen's Coalition Ministry, which, although including "all the talents," had the misfortune not to include that of success. The ge- neral feeling of the country being, that the war in the Crimea was not vigor- ously and judiciously managed, the Duke, who was Secretary at War, al- though feeling that he was not to blame, made himself the victim of popular clamour, and resigned in 1855. He shortly afterwards \asited the seat of war, for the purpose of investigating the condition of matters there. On the re- turn of Lord Palmerston to power in 1859, the Duke was made Secretary for the Colonies. He has lately (1860) ac- companied the Pi-ince of Wales to Ca- nada, and by his judicious and affable demeanour has acquired the esteem of all parties with whom he has had to deal. NEWMAN, Rev. John Henry, D.D., brother of F. W. Newnnan, was bom in London, in 1801. After being some time at a school at Ealing, he pro- ceeded to Trinity College, Oxford, where he made a rapid and successful progress. In 1818 he gained a scholarshij), in 1822 was made Fellow of Oriel, in 1824 was ordained deacon, in 1825 priest, and in the same year was chosen Vice-Principal of one of the Halls, and suV)sequently Vicar of St. Mary's. Dr. Newnnau is best known as the author of a cele- brated tract, "No. 90," published in 1841, which produced an astonishing sensation throughout theological circles, and which was in reality an attempt to fuse the doctrines of the EngUsh establish- ment with those of the Roman Catho- lic Church. Dr. Newman, like many of his followers, thought it his duty to secede from the Church of England, and in 1845 he joined the Catholics, becom- ing Principal of the Roman Catholic University of Dublin, in 1851. He has subsequently resigned this ofSce, and has lately appeared on the Continent as a preacher in some of the leading Catholic cathedrals, where he has most earnestly held forth in favour of the dogmas of the Romish Church. He has published several jiamplilets relating to the contro- versies of which he has been the pars magna; and is the author of the article on Miracles in the " Encyclopa-dia Metro- politaua," and of many volumes of ser- mons. Dr. Newman is understood to be engaged on the new translation of the Scriptures which the English Roman Catholics have at present in preparation. NEWMAN, Francis William, a theological and Hterary author, was born in London, in 1805. His early education was conducted at Ealing. In 1822 he went to Worcester College, and was Fellow of BaUiol College in 1826. Mr. Newman, like his brother, seceded from the Church of England, but on entirely diflerent principles, and has been distinguished for an energetic de- fence of opinions, which by some have been thought to be verging towards scepticism. He is the author of several works on religious sul)jects, the best known of which are — "The Soid, her Sorrows and Aspirations," " The Pha- ses of Faith," and a " History of the Hebrew Monarchy. " His other wiitings are a translation of the ' ' Odes of Ho- race," "Regal Rome," "Lectures on Logic," " Lectm-es on Political Eco- nomy," and a "Grammar of the Berber Language." He contri1)utcd articles for many years to the Eclectic and Prospec- tive Reviews, and he now ^-rites on NIC 293 NIE political subjects for the "Westminster Review. " To give some idea of the range of his acquirements, it may be added that he is the author of papers on Ellip- tic Integrals, &c. , which imply extensive reading in the higher mathematics. NICHOLS, John Gough, F.S.A., an antiquarian, was born in London, in 1807. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, and embarked in literary pursuits before he had attained to man- hood. After materially assisting his grandfather in the completion of the "Progress, &c. of King James I.," he completed that work, when left unfi- nished at his grandfather's death. For thirty-two years, from 1824 to 185G, he compiled the obituary for the ' ' Gentle- man's Magazine ; " and from January 1852 to June 1856, he was the sole editor of that time-honoured periodical. The " Collectauea Topographica et Gene- alogica," set on foot by Sir Thomas Phillipps, Sir Fi-ederick Madden, and the Eev. Dr. Baudinal, in 1834, was chiefly conducted by him, and completed in 8 vols. 8vo, 1843. He also edited its sequel, the "Topographer and Gene- alogist," in 3 vols. His tlistiuct works are ' ' Autographs of Royal, Noble, Learned, and Remarkable Persons con- spicuous in Enghsh History;" "London Pageants ;" "Description of Fresco Paint- ings discovered in the Guild Chapel of Stratford-upon-Avon, and of the Cor- poration Records of the same Town ;" " Description of the Moniunents of the Earls of War^vick, &c., in the Beau- champ Chapel;" "The Pilgrimage of Canterbury and Walsiugham," trans- lated from Erasmus; "The Armorial Windows of Woodhouse Chapel." After having acted as treasurer of the Sarlay Society from its formation in 1834, a position which he still retains, Mr. Nichols, in 1838, set on foot the Cam- den Society, which has, up to the present time, issued more than eighty works, besides suggesting the establishment of many book-printing societies on the like popidar 2)lan as the Shakspere, the Percy, the Parker, and the Sydenham Societies. NIEPCE, De Saint Victor, Claude Marie FRANgois, a French chemist and photographer, was born at St. Cyr, on 2Gth JiUy, 1805. Having studied at Saumer he entered the army, and after passing through various grades became a chef d'escadron in 1854. M. Niepce had meanwhile devoted himself to sci- entific pursuits, and it is chiefly from his discoveries in photograjjhy that he became so well kno\\Ti. To his uncle and M. Daguerre are due the merit of the first successful attempts to obtain like- nesses by the action of light on salts of silver. M. Daguerre used for this pur- pose silver plates, whose surfaces were rendered sensitive to the action of light by exposing them for a short time to the vapour of iodine, &c. M. Niepce im- proved on this troublesome and uncer- tain process, by sho^ving that the surface of glass proijerly prepared with albumen, &c., might be employed with advantage ; and the present mode of f)hotographing on glass where collodion is used, is simply an expansion of the ideas first suggested by him. M. Niepce next showed that, by certain agents, light might not only be employed to give the effect of an ordinary picture, but also be used to en- grave the residt on plates of metal. This process has since been extended, and at the present time excellent engraved cop- per plates are produced, entirely by the action of light and electricity, and with- out the least skill or work on the part of the operator beyond that of applying the chernical agents. M. Niepce has published several works on his favourite pursuit, among which ai'e his "Photo- graphy on Glass," "The Production of Coloiu-ed Images by the Action of Light," and ' ' Sun Engravings on Steel and Glass. " His jirincipal productions are collected in one work of eight voliunes, entitled Nia 294 NOE "Photographic Researches." M. Niepce is a member of many of the learned societies of Eiu'ope, and is a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. NIGHTINGALE, Miss Florence, an English philauthroi)ist, was born at Florence, in 1820. She was in-incipally educated at home, and there acqiiiied a knowledge of several modern languages. Very early, even in childhood, she mani- fested sympathy witli affliction in every form that presented itself. This gentle and true spirit was sustained in her by her friends, who gave her ample encou- i-agemeut. She visited schools and hos- pitals ^vithin reach of Lea Hurst, where she was brought vip, her appearance being always welcome to the poor, the sick, and the needy. But the field of Lea Hurst was too narrow for her expansive benevolence. She wished to understand suffering in all its phases, and to ad- minister to its alle\dation. She went to London and examined workhouses, reformatories, and hospitals ; observing, as she proceeded, the modes of nursing in- valids, and then visited many hospitals in the country towns with a similar feeUng and sentiment. Miss Nightingale came to the conclusion that a staff of edu- cated nurses is -essential, and that a school for training them to their duties was much recpiired. She learned that such an establishment existed in Germany, that it was successf\d, and she resolved to enter it as a voluntary nurse. She there spent upwards of six months, and saw many ladies attending the sick without dread of catching disease. It was thus that she acquired all absence of fear, and fuUy felt the grandeur of her eai-thly mission. Leaving Ger- many in 18.51, she visited the hospitals and asylimis for the poor in France and Italy. After returning to England, she was for some time in ill health ; but, notwithstanding, pursued her career of self-training. The war in the Crimea breaking out, the Secretary-at-War found the wounded of the French sol- diery carefully tended by French Sis- ters of Charity, and urged Miss Night- ingale to take the superintendence of a staff of nurses attached to the British camp. She acceded to this request, and leaving her family and friends, pro- ceeded to the Crimea, to enter on her mission of mercy. Sickness spread to an alarming extent through the British forces in the East ; at one time, ten thousand men were ill in the varibus hospitals. Miss Nightingale was every- where, and by her cheerful demeanour and thoughtfid considei"ation smoothed many a rough pillow. She returned to England in 18.56, weak in health, but honoiu-ed by her country — from the Queen down to the lowest subject. A subscrijjtion was raised for a testimonial to her, T)ut she requested that it might be ajiplied to founding an institution for training nurses. Since her return, although a complete invalid, she has been the prime mover in the wise and suc- cessful measures initiated by Mr. Sidney Herbert and his colleagues to reduce the high rate of mortality in the British army, and has taken a most lively in- terest in the establishment of the Army Medical CoUege at Chatham. Miss Nightingale has lately jnddished a work entitled " Notes on Niu^ing," which, from its eminently practical nature, is calculated to do much goocL NOEL, The Hon. and Eev. Baptist Wrtothsley, M.A., born in 1799, is the third son of Sir Gerard Noel Noel, Bart., and In-other to the Earl of Gains- borough. He was educated, and took his degree of M. A., at Trinity College, Cam- bridge. Mr. Noel was for many yeai-s an eminent member of the Church of England, and one of her most faithful ministers ; and as a popular preacher exerted himself strenuously in the cause of missions, but taking views of baptism different from those inculcated by the Church of England, he, though appa- KOR 295 NO V rently with reluctance, severed his con- nexion with that Chnrch, and became a Baptist minister. He produced a great effect by his pamphlet on the Corn-laws, which was published many years ago, and in which he nobly pleaded the cause of the poor. Previous to leaving the Church of England, he was one of her Majesty's Chaplains. He has published several popular devotional works, and has long been esteemed for his eminently philanthropic spirit. NOEMANBY, Constanttne Henry Phipps, Makquis of, an English dii)lo- matist, was born in May, 1797. He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, and returned to Parliament on the Whig interest for Scarborough, in 1818. He was in favour of Roman Cathohc Eman- cipation, and of Parliamentary Reform. His father finding fault with him for advocating these principles, he resigned his seat and went to Italy, but after being absent about two years he re- turned and sat for Higham Ferrers. He succeeded to the peerage as Lord Midgrave in 1831, and shortly after- wards was appointed Governor of Ja- maica, and during his term of office the emancipation of the slaves was effected. In 183.3 he returned to Eng- land, and in 1834 . was Lord Privy Seal. In 1835 he accepted the then difficult office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, which position he held for four years. He was made a marquis in 1838 ; and in 1839 became Secretary for the Colonies, but after holding that office a few months he was appointed Home Secretary. In 1846 he was Am- bassador to Paris, and in that capacity recognised the Provisional Government in 1848, api^roving the measure of Cavaignac to suppress further insur- rectionary manifestations. He remained in Paris until after the coup d'etat, and the election of Louis Napoleon as Emperor. In 1854 his diplomatic services were transferretl to the court of Tuscany, a change generally considered indicative of his ultimate removal fi-om diplomatic employment. He was re- lieved of the Tuscan embassy in 1858, and has since resided in England, taking frequent part in the debates of the Upper House on questions of continental policy. Lord Normanby has written some four or five novels, which were popular, but are now almost forgotten. His latest literary production is "A Year of Revolution," being his Parisian experience of 1848-9. This work has been severely criticised. NORTON, The Honoxtrable Caro- line Elizabeth Sarah, granddaughter of the celebrated Richard Brinsley Sheridan, was bom in 1808. Her father died when she was very young, and she and her two sisters, the present Duchess of Somerset and the Dowager Lady Dufferin, were educated by their mo- ther. Mrs. Norton wrote verses at an early age, but it was not until after her marriage with the Honourable G. C. Norton, one of the police ma- gistrates of London, that she became known to the literary world. Her first work was "The Sorrows of Rosalie,'' published anonymously in 1829, which was followed in 1830 by " The Undying One." This volume estabhshed Mrs. Norton's place among the most emi- nent of living poetesses. A number of other works, chiefly poetical, succeeded, but none so popular as ' ' The Undying One." She contributed to the Annuals for several years, and has written one novel, "Stuart of Dunleath." N V E L L O , Madame Clara, Countess Gigliucci, an English vocalist, is daughter of Mr. Vincent Novello, a musician of considerable repute, and was born in London, June 1818. In 1827, when quite a child, she commenced her musical studies at York, and was afterwards entered a pupil of the Con- servatoire de Musique Sacre at Paris. Young though she was. Miss Novello, OBR 29G OBR by devoting her wliole lieart to the sub- ject, became distinguished in the Aca- demy for her intelligent manner of ren- dering Chvu'ch music. In 1833 she returned to England, and made her first appearance at a concert given at Wind- sor, and was afterwards engaged to sing at the Ancient Concerts. Mendelssohn invited her to Lcipsic, and .she charmed the public of that city. Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Germany were visited by her, and on accoimt of the beauties of her style she was highly successful. Possibly her first great appearance was made at the Manchester Festival, in 1836, when she fairly divided the palm with Mahbran in oratorift music. She afterwards studied for the lyric stage, and took for her first part "Semira- mide," at Padua, Rossini recommend- ing that special line of art. It was one of the most difficult rSles that a young cantatrlce could imdertake, but Miss Novello carried the piece through bril- liantly, and thenceforward she was eagerly sought for to appear on the stage, in the concert-room, and at ora- torios. She married in 1848, but re- turned to the stage in 1850. At the Glasgow Musical Festival, in January 1860, she gained golden opinions. She then retiu-ned to Italy to fidfil an en- gagement at the Scala of Milan. But her career may now be regarded as closed. The two great performances of sacred music, at the Crystal Palace, October 1860, were her adieux to the })ublic of the metropolis. At lengtli, the l)righter days which have begun to shine on Italy, and other cu'cumstances, now allow her to cease from her self-imposed toils — no longer Madame (Jlai-a Novello, but the Countess Gigliucci, — to retire with her husband to the enjoyment of her proper social position in her adopted country. O'BRIEN, William Smith, an Irish politician of the independent school, is descended from the ancient kings of ]Munster, and was born at Dromoland, in 1803. He was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, and having inherited a considerable fortune from his mother, he Avas returned to Parliament for the borough of Ennis in 1830, afterwards in 1835 for Limerick. Though closely con- nected with various aristocratic families, he joined O'ConneU in demanding a re- peal of the Union, as the only remedy for Irish grievances. But the great agitator and Mr. O'Brien differed on one essential jjoint ; the former believed in the efficacy of moral force, while the latter contended tliat notliing coidd be extorted from the British Govern- ment, except by demonstrations of phy- sical power. The Young Ireland party, of w^hich Mr. O'Brien was the leader, w^as gaining ground but slowly, when the French Revolution of 1848 broke out, and seemed the Irish opportunity. Mr. O'Brien proceeded to Paris ; was received with sympathy by the Provi- sional Government, and returned fully impressed with the conviction that he woidd be supported by France in sepa- rating Ireland from England. The Earl of Clarendon, then Lord Lieutenant, saw the approaching danger, and pre- pared for it, by suspending the Habeas Corpus Act, and placing the disaffected districts under martial law. Mr. O'Brien held on his way, reviewed assemblages of peasantry, and pronounced insurrec- tion inevitable. As a commencement he attacked a police station at Ballin- garry, July 29, 1848, but his followers fled and he escapecL In the following September he was arrested on a charge of high treason — his disciples took care of themselves — he was tried for the im- puted State crime, found guilty and condemned to death, on the 9th October, but the ])uuislunent was commuted to trans})ortation for life, and even that pe- nalty was mitigated by the Crown in 1856. In the latter year Mr. O'Brien once more foimd himself free on his ODO 297 OLI iicative soil. Durinff the seven years of Lis involuntary exile, political excite- ment had died a natiual death in Ire- land ; the country was fast improving ; agitation was at a discount ; and withoiit abandoning his cherished opinions, Mr. O'Brien has since taken no active steps towards theu" pi'omulgatiou. O'DONNELL, Leopold, Duke of TetujVN, marshal and minister of Spain, was born in 1808, and is descended from an old Irish family. He entered the army when young, and in the civil war in Spain, incited by Don Carlos, on the faith of his claim to the Crown, O'Donnell took part with the Queen, and in 1838 was chief of the staff, and subsequently became Commander. Es- l)artero was his patron and friend ; but forgetful of all he owed to the patriot Eegent, O'DonueU eventually adopted the cause of the Queen-mother, and was obliged to throw up his command and fly to France for safety. In 1841 he retiu-ned to Spain, but no sooner had he set his foot within the Escurial than he commenced to plot for the overthi-ow of Espai-tero, who at last fell through his intrigues. He afterwards was Governor of Cuba, where he became very rich by the slave trade. He returned to Spain, and was appointed Director-General of Infantry. Narvaez soon after gave way to Sai-torius ; O'DonneU raised an insm-rection in Andalusia, but was de- feated at all points, and his property confiscated. He was, hoAvever, again restored to office, and made Secretatry- at-War, and again betrayed Espartero, who had twice saved him fi-om destruc- tion. O'Donnell was nominated Presi- dent of the Coimcil, in place of Espartero ; but the change Avas unpopular, and he signahzed his elevation by means similar to those adopted by Louis Napoleon on the 2nd December, 1851. The streets of Madrid were gorgeil with the blood of citizens, and the minister was trium- phant, but only for a season, for Narvaez plotted and O'Donnell was forced to retire. He returned to power again, however, in 18.58, and in 18;j9 held the double position of Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the forces de- spatched to wage war against Morocco. His campaign has been highly successfid. The Moors have been obliged to capitu- late, pay a heavy sum towards the ex- penses of the war, and submit to a loss of territory. O'Donnell, on his return to Spain, has been received with high honours, and created by the Queen Duke of Tetuan. OLIPHANT, Laweence, an Enghsh author and traveller, was born in 1 832. His father belonged to an old family in Perthshire, and was Sir Anthony OU}ihant, C.B., Chief Justice of Ceylon. Educated in England, Mr. OUphaut, be- fore comi)leting his professional studies as a lawyer, went out to India, and while in Ceylon received an invitation from Jung Bahadoor to accompany him to NepauL This iuAdtation he accepted. He visited the native court of that country, and after enjoying unrivalled opportunities of attaining information as regards the manners and feehngs of the inhabitants, he, on his return, wrote an account of his tour, which he pub- hshed under the title of " A Journey to Katmandu." That this work was the production of a mere youth does not appear to have been detected by the critics. It displayed some of the best qualities which characterise Mr. Oli- phaut's subsequent efforts. It received high praise for its graphic power, and the sagacity of its observations. The author having returned to this country from India, studied law at the Univer- sity of Ediubm-gh, and was called to the Scotch bar, and subsequently to the English bar, at Lincoln's Inn. In the autumn of 1852 he made a tour to Rus- sia, in the course of which he descended the Volga, and visited the Steppes of the Don Cossacks, and the Crimea. LI 298 LI This journey furnished the materials for another work, entitled " The Russian Shores of the Black Sea," which, making its appearance in 1853, at a period when the Crimean war was on the eve of breaking out, and furnishing the most recent information regarding the coim- tries to which oiu- armaments were pro- ceeding, became at once popular, and in the course of a few mouths passed through four editions. A weU-written and Uvely book, displaying everywhere good sense and careful observ'ation, it secured for its author the reputation of being one of the best waiters of modern books of travel. Shortly after his re- turn to England from this autumnal tour, Mr. Oliphant became private se- cretary to the Earl of Elgin, then Gover- nor-General of Canada. In this capacity he went to America, where he held a responsible situation in connexion with Canadian and Indian affairs. He tra- velled to most parts of the continent of North America at this period, visiting the latest settlements in the backwoods of Canada and the United States, as well as the countries of Central Ame- rica, where the English and Spanish race have come into collision. The materials collected in the course of his ramldes through the Northern States were embodied in "Minnesota," — a work in M'hich narration of adventure, l)leasant glimpses of American scenery, and with descriptions of the latest Eu- ropean settlements in the far West, were mingled with broad views of political events. This work entitled Mr. Oli- jthant to be considered something better than a mere writer of Impressions, or Voyages. Pursuing the same spirit of generalization, he wrote at this period an anonymous jiamphlet, entitled "The Coming Camijaign," in which he advo- cated \aews as to the mode of conduct- ing the struggle with Russia, at variance with those adojjted by Government. This work was republished in 1855, under the title of "The Trans-Caucasian Provinces, the Proper Field of Opera- tions for a Christian Army." In the meantime Mr. Oliphant returned to the countries referred to in tliis work, and accompanied Omer Pacha in his most dangerous expeditions, j)articipating in all the hardships and dangera of the campaign, as a correspondent of the press. "The Caucasian Campaign of Omer Pacha; a Personal Narrative," was the result of this expedition, in the course of which districts were visited which had hitherto been all but un- known to Europeans. Not long after the conclusion of the Russian war, Lord Elgin, who had in the interval returned from Canada, was appointed Special High Commissioner to China ; Mi'. Oli- phant again became his private secre- tary. He accompanied the expedition, of which he was the historiographer. His daring journey to Sou-Chou with M. de Cintades, thi-ough the midst of a hostile population, was one of the most memorable episodes in the expedition, thi-oughout which, however, he distin- giushed himself by his pluck and readi- ness to face danger where there M'as any chance of obtaining infonnation. The voyage made by Lord Elgin up the Yang-tse-Kiang, past the great city of Nankin, and far into the interior of vast regions never before explored by Euro- peans, gave the undertaking an import- ance altogether independent of its poU- tical object, and made it highly desirable that its details should be recorded by a competent pen. Mi'. Oliphant was well fitted for this task. His account of it, entitled a " Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's Mission to China and J apan, in the Years 1857-58-59," published at the end of last year, is unquestionably the best official history we have of any di- plomatic expedition of the kind. It is a well-arranged and weU-written book, giving all the information that could be desired on the subject to which it refers, LM 299 ORB ill a shape attractive to general readers. Mr. Oliphaiit is a contributor to "Black- wood's Magazine," the "Cornhill Ma- gazine," and various other periodicals. His latest work, published within the last few months, is entitled " I'atriots aud Fili))usters, or Incidents of Political and Explorating Travel." OLMSTED, Denison, was born at East Hartford, Connecticut, in 17!)1 ; educated at Yale College ; and has tilled in turn the chairs of chemistry, mathe- matics, and astronomy, in the university of North Carolina. He is the author of numerous scientific papers that have ap- peared in the American journals, but his speciality is more as a popularizer of science than a philosopher. OMER PACHA, whose real name is Michel Lattas, late Commander-in-Chief of the Turkish forces in Europe, was born at Vlaski, a village of Austrian Croatia. His relations adhered to the Greek Church. His education was pri- marily at the military school of his native village, and afterwards at the School of Mathematics in Thurm, Tran- sylvania, from which he passed as cadet into the Austrian army. He wrote a superior hand, was a good mathemati- cian, and had served but a short time when he was appointed Assistant Sur- veyor of roads and bridges. An im- fortunate circumstance obliged him, when about twenty-eight, to leave the Austrian sei-vice. He repaired to Bosnia, became tutor in the family of a Moham- medan merchant, and embraced the faith of the Moslem, assuming the name of Omer. Having proceeded with his pupds to Constantino])le, he married a wealthy heiress ; in 18.S3 he became chief of a battalion, was in- troduced to the late Sultan, gave lessons in writing to the present Sultan, and advanced in favour. His first actual military service was in 1839, when he took part in the contest with Ibrahim Pacha. In 1812 he received the title of Bey, and was afterwards sent to suppress an All)anian insurrec- tion, in which he was so successfid that he received the title by which he is at present known. In 1848 he was ap- pointed to command the army of occu- pation in Wallachia, when tlie Russian army entered that territory to check the Hungarians. His conduct on that oc- casion met with general approbation. Having put down one or two insurrec- tions, he was next despatched to quell the disturbances in Montenegro in 1852, but Austrian interposition at Con- stantinople caused him to withdi-aw his troops when on the verge of completing the sul)jection of Montenegro. His successes in war and politics raised him now to the highest position. The war with Russia was declared in September 1853, aud Omer Pacha took command of the army of the Danube. The events of that struggle are too recent to call for recapitidation. He gained factory after victory, until he was ordered to the relief of Kars. In this expedition he was unsuccessful, the general behef being that his delay was premeditated. Subsequent inqiury, however, has shown that his failm-e arose from obedience to higher authority, which marked out a route for his forces impossible of accomplishment within the necessary time. The conclusion of the war withdrew him from the public eye, biit he has received variovis honours from the Sidtan, and is decorated with the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. ORBIGNY, Charles t>\ a French naturalist, was born at Coueron, in the Department of the Loire- Inferiem-e, in December, 180G. He was educated at Rochelle, where his father was a medi- (■al practitioner, and in 1827 went to Paris for the j)ur])ose of studying medi- cine. His views changed, however, and in 1832 he directed his attention almost exclusively to the natural sciences. ORL 300 OTH In 1835 lie was appointed Assistant Naturalist to the Museiun of Natural History, where he still continues. M. d'Orbigny is held in much repute on the Continent as a man of extensive scientific actpiirements. He has published various works, the most important being the "Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Na- tiu'eUe," in thirteen octavo volumes. His latest publication, issued in 1855, is a treatise on Palaeontology. ORLOFF, Alexis, Prince, a Russian soldier, diplomatist, and statesman, was born in 1787. He entered the army, and took a distinguished part in all the Russian camj)aigns against Napoleon I., receiving several wounds at the battle of Borodino, in 1812. After having been attached to the person of the Grand Duke Constantine, he was appointed Aide-de-camp to the Emperor Alex- ander I., and afterwards promoted by the same sovereign to the dignity of principal Aide-de-camp in 1819. During the gi-eat insurrection of 1825, and on the famous day of the 14th of December, he commanded the regiment of horse-guards, by means of which he powerfully con- tributed to cini-sh the rebels and secure the victory to the Imperial government. After this period he became the most intimate and faithful friend of the Emperor Nicholas throughout the whole of his reign. In 1833 he was ap- pointed Ambassador and Commander- in-Chief of the forces sent by his sovereign to the assistance of the Sultan against the Viceroy of Egypt, and he negotiated the famous treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, the most advantageous an-ange- ment for Russia which has been entered into with the Porte. He was Ambassa- dor of Russia at the coronation of the Emperor Ferdinand of Austria, and re- paired to Vienna to ensure the neutrality of the Emperor Francis Joseph during the Eastern war in 1853-4. In 1856 he sat in the quality of first Russian Pleni- potentiai-y to the Congress of Paris, and negotiated the treaty of the 18th March, after the signature of which he was raised by the Emperor Alexander II. to the highest dignity in the state, as President of the Council of the Empire and Ministry, functions with which he is still invested. O'SHAUGHNESSY, Sir William Brooke, K.C.B., was bom at Limerick in 1809. After studying at the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, he entered the East India service, and became Professor of Chemistry at Calcutta College. He was the first to introduce the electric tele- graph into India, and through his ex- ertions that vast empire has now become covered by a network of telegrajthic wires, reaching over about five thousand miles in length. An attempt has been lately made to extend the telegraph from Suez to Kurrachee, and when com- pleted, India will be, telegi-aphicaUy speaking, \\ithin a few hours' reach of London. Al)out fom- years ago Sir Wil- ham visited England, when he was made K. C. B. , and on returning to India took with him several young gentlemen who had been carefidly trained in electric science, as assistants in future telegraphic extensions. The British and Indian Go- vernments derived the greatest advantage from Sir AVilliam's arrangements during the late war ; and to the completeness of the telegraphic apparatus then used many of the successes of the armies under Lord Clyde and others were due. OTHO I., King of Greece, second son of Louis I., ex-King of Bavaria, and brother of Maximilian II., was born on the 1st of June, 1815. When the Greeks, after a long, arduous, and ro- mantic struggle against the Turks, (in which they were su])poi-ted by the active sympathy^ no less than by the pecuniary aid of aU the ardent minds of Euroi)e, who were imbued with the classic recol- lections of that illustrious land,) had in- volved the gi-eat powers in their quaiTel, the question of the establishment of OTH 301 O UD their independence became the ques- tion of the day. After the battle of Navarino Turkey had no alter- native but to submit to a dismem- berment; and by the preliminary Con- vention held at London on the Gth of July, 1827, Greece was declared an independent state, and taken under the protection of the contracting powei'S, Great Britain, France, and Russia. Coimt Capo d'Istria was elected Pro- visional President or Governor of the new state, and destined to fill the office mi til 1832, when the Greeks, having in vain offered their crown to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, now King of the Belgians, made choice of the young Prince Otho of Bavaria, then in his seventeenth year. By a treaty concluded at London, on the 7th of May, 1832, and ratified by the King of Bavaria on the 27th of the same month, the powers of Europe supported the proposition of the Greeks. The Prince accepted the offer in October of the same year, and arrived in Greece in the January following (1833), when he was proclaimed King, but submitted to the control of a Regency uutd he should have attained liis twentieth year. He finally took the reins of government into his own hands in Jime, 1 835 ; and in the following year was married to the Princess Mary Frederica Amelia, daughter of the Grand Duke Augustus of Oldeubiu-g. The reign of King Otho over the Greeks has not been peaceful or successfid. He has laboured imder the gi-eat disadvantage of being a fo- reigner, and committed the great im- ])rudence of endeavouring to sujiport his authority against an often unwilling and discontented people by the aid of Ger- man and other foreign and mercenary trooi)s. The Queen has made hei-self the ruling spirit in Greece ; her influence is entirely pro-Russian, and under her actual agency, and the sleepy acquies- cence of the King, Greece has become independent oijy in name, and a virtual appanage of the Russian empire. Con- vtdsion has succeeded convulsion at Athens, till violent revolution has often appeared the only remedy for the deep- rooted evils of the state. Hitherto this unlucky specimen of a constitutional monarchy has been of little use to the world, or to itseK, except as an example to prove that free constitutions are not sufficient of themselves to make a free and happy people ; and that knowledge, patience, and self-control on the part of the citizens, are at least as necessary to procure and maintain good government as are charters of liberty, or constitu- tions on the British or any other naodel. There being no issue by the king's mar- riage, the crown of Greece wiU descend (revolution not intervening) to Prince Adalbert of Bavaria, his majesty's younger brother. OUDINOT, Nicholas Charles Vic- tor, Due DE Reggio, son of the famous marshal of that name, was born No- vember 3rd, 1791, at Bar-le-Duc, Meuse. In 1805 he was one of the Emperor Napoleon's pages ; in 1809 he became, by brevet, heutenaut of the 5th Hus- sars ; and notwithstanding his youth, he was appointed Aide-de-camp to Massena, and had his share in the vicis- situdes of the Portuguese campaign. He returned to France in 1811, and after- wards signalized himself by his un- daimted courage at Leipsic, Hanau, Montmirail, and Craonne — at the latter conflict being seriously wounded. In 1814 he was named chefd'e.scadron. Na- poleon after his abdication had promoted him to the rank of colonel ; but the Coimt d'Artois, though he might have cancelled the commission, confirmed Oudiuot in his grade, and charged him with the organization of a regiment of Hussai-s. During the "Hundred Days," Oudinot was faithful to the Bourbons, and he was appointed to the command of the Hussars du Nord, which he ex- UD 302 VE changed, in 1822, for the First Horse Grenadiers of the Royal Guard. In 1824 he acted as field-marshal, of which he had the rank, and was charged with the re-organization of the School of Cavalry at Saiunur, on a broader basis than before. He retained that position until the revohition of 18.30. True to his sentiments he resigned office, and Avas not again called to active life until after the death of his brother in 1835. He was despatched to Africa, and distinguished himseK; but being injured by an explosion, he returned to France. In the same year he was pro- moted as Lieutenant-General, and be- came one of the Inspectors-General of Cavalry. From that jieriod until the revolution of 1848, he took as a deputy but a moderate part in ])ublic afi'airs ; but the Republic proclaimed, he adhered to the change, and was elected repre- sentative for Maine-et-Loire. In March, 1848, he was placed at the head of the Army of Observation assembled at the foot of the Alps. Marshal Bugeaud succeeded him in command in Ja- nuary, 1849, and he was re-elected by the department of Maine-et-Loire to the Legislative Assembly shortly after- wards. Selected to command in chief the expedition sent against the revolu- tionists of Rome, he debarked at Civita Vecchia on the 25th April. The city of Rome was not taken till July 3rd. Handing over his command to M. de Ilostolan, he returned to France, and took his place in the Legislature. He was one of those who protested against the coup cCehd, on December 2, 1851 ; and by a unanimous vote of the As- sembly was chosen to command the troops of tbe lirst military division, and the National Guard ; he was arrested and detained some days at Mont Vale- rien. On obtaining his liberty he passed into private life, as a retired general - in-chief. General Oudinot is the author of a few military works, which profes- sional readers say possess considerable merit. OUTRAM, General Sir James, a British military commander, who has signalized himself in India, was born at Butterley Hall, Derbyshire, in 1805. His father, who was an eminent engi- neer, sent him to study at Aberdeen, and afterwards, in 1819, procured him a cadetship. He left for India, and after sometime was apiminted Adjutant to the 23rd Regiment of Native In- fantry, and discii)lined the corps. Sub- sequently he was Political Agent at Goojerat, Commissioner at Upper Scinde, and Resident at Hyderabad, Sattara, and Lucknow ; in all which offices he exhibited administrative alnlity com- bined with military skill. When he left Scinde, he wrote a severe animadversion on Sir Charles Napier's conquest of that country ; a publication which seemed to have had no small effect in retarding his promotion. He afterwards bore an active share in the extinction of the Thugs, and was one of the Marquis of Dalhousie's most judicious coadjutors in the project for the annexation of Oude. He was created Knight of the Bath in 1856, and sent to Persia in command of the British expedition, with fidl di})lo- matic powers and the rank of lieutenant- general. The short war that ensued was marked by the judicious conduct of Sir James Outram. Bushire fell, and he signed an armistice, aU ])oints de- manded by General Outram being con- t^eded by the Shah, and he returned with his army to Bombay. When the Indian insurrection broke out he was nominated to a difficult command, being sent against Dinapore and Cawupore, but he was equal to the emergency ; and recent events have demonstrated that his skill as a general is equal to his wisdom as a cabinet councillor. For his gallantry in India he has received the Grand Cross of the Bath. OVERBECK, FRiEDRicn, a German VE 303 W E painter, was born at Lubeck, July 1789. His love of art aud his natural talents were displayed at an early age. He went to Vienna in 180G, where he studied diligently for four years. Proceeding to Kome in 1810, he became there an enthusiastic student of the old Italian mastei-s. It fell to the lot of Overbeck, in conjunction with a few other artists who particii)ated in his views, to effect a complete revolution not only in the choice of subjects, but in the method of treating them ; and though the young painters were at lirst laughed at, they persevered until their efforts commanded the admi- ration of Gei-many and the api)lause of Europe. In 1811 Overbeck's "Madonna" gave occasion for both hostile and friendly criticism ; but the pictures that followed stamped his position as the leader and genius of the New School. His pictm-e of "Christ entering Jerusalem, " finished in 1810, is certainly one of the grandest works from iScri[)tm-e subjects produced for centuries. Amougst his leading pic- tures are "Christ bearing His Cross," "Hagar in the Desert," "St. John Preaching in the Wilderness," "Christ Raising the Daughter of Jairus," and numerous others, chiefly on religious subjects. He has for a longtime resided at Rome, a city whose associations har- monize with his temper and disposition. OVERSTONE, Lord, Samuel Jones LOYD, was bom in 1790, and educated at Eton and Cambridge. He was at one time a partner in the firm of Jones, Loyd, and Co., bankers, but retired on his ele- vation to the peerage in 1850. He has long been eminent as a financier, and it was stated at the time Sir Robert Peel brought forward his Bank Charter Act, that the minister was indebted to Lord Overstone for suggesting the most valu- able portions of the bill. He has pub- lished several pami)hlets on banking and commereiiU matters, aud in many circles is considered an authority on such sub- jects. He sat for Hythe, in the House of Commons, in 1819, and has been frequently proposed by the liberal party of London as a member for the City, but he refused to stand, although at all times he lent his influence to secure the election of liberal men. A collection of his papers has been recently printed, in two volumes, for private circulation. OWEN, Richard, F.R.S., a physio- logist and comjiarative anatomist, was born at Lancaster, in 1804. He received his first education at the grammar-school of that toAvn, and afterwards at the University of Edinburgh. Besides at- tending the lectures of the ordinary pro- fessors, he studied anatomy under the learned Dr. Barclay, who was a private and successful teacher in the city. Through this gentleman's influence and example Mr. Owen acquired a taste for the stiuly of comparative anatomy. In 1825 Mr. Owen went to London, and commenced studying at St. Bartholo- mew's Hospital, where from his decided talent he became an anatomical assistant to the celebrated Abernethy, who in 1830 obtained for him an appointment in con- nexion with the Hunterian Musemn. Here he prepared the "Catalogue of Col- lections of Physiology and Comparative Anatomy," which had been purchased by Parliament in the preceding cen- tury, of the executors of John Hunter. To this circumstance Mr. Owen is much indebted for his subsequent fame, and he made so good use of it as to have raised himself to the highest position amongst living naturalists. He suc- ceeded Sir Charles Bell at the College of Surgeons as Hunterian Professor in 1830, and after retaining this jiosition for many ye;u-s, became the Superintendent of the Natural History Department in theBritisli Museum in IS.'jO. On the re\-ival of the Lectureship on Plulosophy, on the foim- dation of Sir Robert Read, in the Uni- versity of Cambridge, he was ajipointed Professor, and received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws at the ter- O X E 304 P A K mination of the course. He is also Fiillerian Professor of Physiology iu the lloyal Institution of Great Britain. He filled the ofHce of President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at their meeting at Leeds iu 1858, iu which office he was succeeded at Aberdeen by H. K. H. the Prince Consort, in 1859. Professor Owen was an active member of the Sanitary Com- missions for the Health of Towns in 1844-5, and for the metropolis in 1846-7. He took part iu the organization of the Great Exhibition iu 1851, was President of one of the jiu-ies, and served in the same capacity on au international jury of the Exposition Uuiverselle at Paris, iu 1855. On this occasion he received the decoration of the order of the Legion of Honour from the Emperor of the French. He was elected in 1859, on the decease of the great botanist, llobert Brown, one of the eight Foreign Associates of the Aca- demy of Sciences in the Institute of France ; and his name is enrolled as mem- ber of most of the learned societies iu Europe and America. Professor Owen has, by his indefatigable industry and sagacity, eifected for natural history a larger amount of scientific research and induction than perhaps any other person. He has brought to its study astonishing powers of observation, coml)ined with accurate aud severe reasoning ; and the additions he has made to the general stock of information in every depart- ment of the science have been so varied and extensive, as to make it a matter of surprise that one man could ever have produced such residts. In reference to the principles inductively established iu Professor Owen's chief work on " The Archetype of the Animal Frame- work," it has been concisely remarked, that "he is the Newton of Natural History." OXENFORD, John, an author and dramatic writer, was born at Camber- well, London, in 1812. He was ori- ginally intended for, and pursued, the legal profession, but relinquished that for the more congenial pvu-suit of htera- ture. As a di'amatist he is well known to London audiences, many of his productions in this line being highly popular. As a German scholar he has translated " Eckermann's Conversa- tions," "The Autobiography of Goethe," TLsche's "Bacon," &c. ; and has also produced translations of French songs. Mr. Oxeuford is understood to be the theatrical critic for the ' ' Times " news- paper. His last dramatic production is a libretto for "Ivobin Hood," now being perfonncnl in Her Majesty's Theatre. OXFORD, The Right Rev. Samuel WiLEERFORCE, BisHOP OF, was born in 1805, and is the third son of the late WiUiam Wilberforce, M.P. He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, and after having obtained several ecclesiasti- cal preferments, was consecrated Bishop of Oxford, in 1 845. He has published a few works, all of a religious character. As a spiritual peer the Bishop of Oxford takes a prominent part iu the debates in the House of Lords, but is often complained of for his want of decision in dealing with a public question. Nevertheless, he is an eloquent and gi'aceful orator. The Bishop of Oxford is popularly re- cognised as one of the " High (Jhurch" party. PAKINGTON, The Right Hon. Sir John Somerset, an English statesman, was born in 1799. His surname was Russell, which he changed to that of his uncle on his mother's side in 18.31. Having been educated at Eton and Oxford, he entered Parliament in 18.37, re])resenting the borough of Droitwich. Throughout his })olitical career he has held Conservative principles, and of late years has been a conspicuous member of that partJ^ He held the office of Colo- nial Secretary under the Earl of Derl)y in 1852, and was First Lord of the Admiralty in 1858, when Lord Derby r AL 305 P A L .aL;ain took the reins of office. In ISoO he was made a G.C.B. Sir John has most fortunately disappointed the opi- nions of his opponents l>y the ahle manner in which lie has filled his official appointments. Till within the last few years he was comparatively unknown ; but on retiring in 1859 he had the gratification of receiving one of the highest possible political compliments, in finding that his successor in office considered it l)est to follow the plans he had laid out for the imprt)vcment and extension of the British navy. PALGPvAVE, Sir Fkanci.s, K.H., F. R.S. , an antiquarian, was born in Loudon in 1788, and entered the Inner Temple in 18'27. He has chiefly de- voted himself to researches into and the I)nblication of facts relating to British history. In 1831 he published his "His- tory of England during the Anglo- Saxon Period," which is replete A^th usefiU and interesting information. The next year he produced his "Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth," in which he dilates on the customs, laws, policy, and other questions relative to the history of our Saxon ancestors. In 183. J he was made one of a commission to inquire into the state of municipal corporations, but dissented from the repoi-t issued by his brother commis- sioners, and aftenvards published the reasons which induced hun to take that course. He was then appointed Deputy- Keeper of the PuWic Records, in which capacity he annually presents a report to Parliament. Sir Francis has pub- lished a great variety of contributions to the history of our country, the suc- cess of which must be ascribed to the exercise of his natural taste, anil the facilities which his position atl'ords him in their composition. Of these are his " Rotuli Curiie Regis," " Ancient Ciileu- dars and Inventories of the Treasury of the Exchequer," "History of Nor- mandy and England," &c. He still holds the office of Deputy-Kcejier of the Public Records umU-r tlie Master of the Rolls. PALMERSTOX, Hknry John Tem- ple, Viscount, an English statesman and diplomatist, was born at Broad- lands, Hampshire, on 20th October, 1784. His title belongs to the Iri.sh peerage, although he is of Saxon descent. After being some time at Harrow, he studied at Edinl)urgh, and subsequently graduated in 1800 at Cambridge. He contested Cambridge imsuccessfidly with the present Lord Lansdowne, and entered Parliament as member for Bletchingley. After sitting for Newport, Isle of Wight, he became member for the University of Cambridge. The talents of Lord Paknerston attracted general attention in the House at this time, and in 1807 he w-as called to fill an official position as a Junior Lord of the Admi- ralty, and subsequently as Secretary -at- War in 1809, an office he retained for nearly twenty years. Diu"ing this period his political views seem to have \mder- goue considerable modification, and eventually assumed so hlieral a form as to permit him to join a Whig Cabinet. Accordingly in 1830 he Ijecame Foreign Secretary, and in this position attained a diplomatic status in Europe which has acquired for him either the fear or esteem of continental states. Retiring in 18.34, he resimied his office in 1835, l)ecame member for the borough of Tiverton, which he has ever since repre- sented, and continued in office under Lord Melbourne tiU 1841, when Sir Robert Peel came into power. In 1840 Lord Pahnerston became Minister for Foreign Affaii-s imder Lord John Rus- sell ; but differences with that states- man in 1851, in reference to the jwlicy of this country in connexit)n with the then passing events in France, led to his resignation. In 1852 he took office under Lord Aberdeen, as Secretary for Home Aflaii's, which he filled till 1855. X PAL 306 PAN Owing to the strong feeling existing iu the country at that period, in reference to the conduct of the war against Russia, Lord Aberdeen was corapelled to resign. This circumstance made way for the elevation of Lord Palmer- ston, and he was next called to exercise his eminent talents as Prime Minister, in the earlj' part of 185.'). Ha^ang, how- ever, sho-rni a leaning to French i>olicy, by introducing into the House the cele- brated "Cous])iracy Bill," shortly after the attemi)t by Orsini on the life of the Emperor of the French, a storm of indignation compelled him to retire. He was succeeded by Lord Derby, who, iu turn, had to resign in 1859. Lord Palmerston then returned to power as Premier, an office he still holds (18G0). Having confined this sketch to the mere historical statement of the offices held by Lord Palmerston, it may be fm'ther remarked, that as a diplomatist he has been identiKed with the foreign jiolicy of this country in some of the most im- portant events of the last fifty years. The afiairs of Italy, Spain, Portugal, France, and their various revolutions, have called on him during that period for the exercise of the highest qualities which a politician can possess. His evident partiality for the policy pursued by the Emperor of France, has given umbrage iu some quarters. As an ad- ministrator of home matters he has shown himself liberal ; and in the dis- tribution of church patronage has gained the respect of the best friends of the Church of England. Dm-ing the past session, attemx'ts were made to pass a Reform Bill, which was introduced by Lord John RusseU, and strenuous efforts were made by the Opposition to remove Lord Palmerston fromiiower ; but in this, as in most other affivirs, his sagacity and discretion have proved a match for his oi)I)onents. Although between seventy and eighty years of age, his personal appearance, activity, and industry would do credit to a nnich junior man ; and in the present state of po- litical ])arties, it is a question if any man amongst our statesmen could be found who would more ably, or in so popular a manner, conduct ]m\ )lic affairs. PANIZZI, Antoxio, tlie Lilirarian of the British Museum, was born in the Duchy of Modena, in 1797. He studied classics at Reggio, and law at Parma, where he took his doctor's degree. In the Italian troubles of 1821 he was se- riously compromised, but eventually succeeded in reacliing England, where, through the influence of Mr. Roscoe and Lord Brougham, he Avas appointed to the Chair of Italian Literature in the University of London. Subsequently, in 1831, he became Assistant Librarian at the British jVIuseum. He was in 1856 nominated Principal Lilirarian of that institution, and lias rendered great service to the public by his improve- ments in its management. He has pub- lished a few excellent works on Italian Literature, among which the most attrac- tive is his edition of "Orlando Fm-ioso." PANMURE, The Riciit Honour- able Fox Maule, K.T., G.C.B., a British statesman and peer, Avas born at Brechin, in 1801. His early educa- tion was received at the Charterhouse, from which he entered the army as ensign, and for some time served in Canada. On rctm-ning to England, he entered Parliament as member for Perthshire in 1835, and subsequently was Under-Secretary for Home Afiairs. HaAang lost his seat, he afterwards re- presented the Elgin Burghs, but soon again became member for his old con- stituency. He held office in the Board of Trade, the Board of Control, and was Secretary at War for some time. On the death of his father in 1852, he removed to the House of Lords, and in 1855 became Secretary at War under Lord Palmertson. The management of Crimean affairs now devolved on him, PAR 307 PAR and his administration in this depart- ment of his duties was attended with the happiest residts to the army. He effected many reforms iu most of the military branches of the service, and continued to hold office tdl the fall of Lord Palmcrston in 1858. Since then he has not taken any prominent part in political affairs. As a jirivate noble- man, Lord Panmure is higldy esteemed, and he extends a liberal hand in at- temj)ts to imjirove the moral and mental condition of the tenants and othei'S on his estates in Scotland. PAEDOE, Mis.s Julia, an English authoress, was born at Beverley, in 1812. Her taste for hterature was early evinced, and after proceeding to Portugal for the benefit of her health, she produced a highly successful work, called " Traits and Traditions of Portugal," and which laid the basis of her future fame. After her return to England she went to Turkey, and there acqiured a mass of interesting facts relating to Turkish life and customs, which she gave to the world in a most fascinating work, the "City of the Sultan." The peculiarly facile style which Miss Pardee exhibits iu all her productions, has secured her great popularity. Her " Romance of the Harem," "The Confessions of a Pretty Woman," "Fhes in Amber," ' ' The City of the Magyar, " &c. , have been extensively read. The latter was written during a sojourn of nine months iu Hun- gary. Amongst her historical works the most conspicuous are her Lives of Louis XIV. , Francis L , and Marie de Medici. PARIS, Count of, Louis Philippe Albert, Duke of Orleans, head of the younger branch of the house of Boiu-bou, and heir of Loms Philippe I., King of the French, was born in August, 1838, and is the son of Ferdinand Pliili}ipe, Duke of Orleans. His father was acci- dentally killetl by a fall from his horse, while riding in the Chann)S Elysees on the loth of July, 1842, to the great grief of the king and of tlie French nation. The mother of the Count de Paris, the Duchess Hellene of Mecklenbm-g-Schwe- rin, after the melancholy catastrophe that deprived her of a husband, devoted herself with all the tenderness and energy possible to the education of her sons. On the abdication of Louis-Phi- lippe, after the fatal days of February 1848, in favour of the Count de Paris, the Duchess attended in the Chamber of Deputies, leading her son, then in his tenth year, by the hand, to hear the abdication read, and to claim the vacant crown for his young head. The Cliamber, touched by the scene, ap- peared on the point of yielding, when a loud voice, from some unknown and never discovered spectator in the gallery, suddenly called out the fatal words, "Too late." The ominous expression was but too truly expressive of the real state of the case,, and of the popular feehng out of doors. It immediately changed the aspect and intention of the Chamber, which accepted the abdication of the old king, but not the succession of the new one ; and proclaimed ' ' The Republic " one and indivisible. Since that time the young prince has lived in exile, mostly with his mother, until the death of that estimable lady in ilay, 1858, and sometunes in England with the other members of the Orleans family. A party in France, though at present neither large nor influential, regards this prince as the futm-e constitutional monarch of the comitry, in whom in the course of nature the claims of the two families of the house of Bom'bon will finally merge. The sur\4\-ing uncles of the Count de Paris are the Duke de Nemours, the Prince Joinville, the Duke d'Aiuuale, and the Duke de Montiiensier. PARTOX, .Mrs. Sara P., neeWiLUS, known to the reading i)ublic as "Fanny Fern," an American authoress, was born at Portland, in the State of Maine, on the 9th Jidy, 1811. She is a sister of PAT 308 TAT tlie well-known American author, N. P. Willis, and was eiUicatetl at a seminary in Hartford, conducted by Miss Cathe- rine Beecher, sister of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, the authoress of "Uncle Tom's Cal)in." She was married in 18:39 to Mr. ('liarles Eldredge, cashier of the Merchants' Bank in Boston ; but being left a widow in nari\»w circum- stances, she resorted to her pen as a means of earning a livelihood for herself and her children. Her success was im- mediate, as she threw off in rapid suc- cession a series of brief and racy sketches, which gave celebrity, first to the news- paper in which they ajipeared, and after- wards to herself. A volmne of her collected articles, under the title of "Fern Leaves," reached the extraor- dinary sale of 70,000 copies. She has since published seven or eight volumes of tales and sketches, whijc^h have all been reprinted in England. During the last five years she has been a leading contributor to the "New York Ledger," a weekly literary journal, which has a circulation of 450,000, a success never before attained in the United Stntes. The writings of this lady are pithy, bold, and original, and are pervaded at the same time by a humane and religious spirit; their tendency being to quicken the intellect and improve the heart. She has exhibited a singular aptitude for engaging the attention of children, and few of her works have been more ap- proved of than those designed for yoiuig folks, such as "Little Ferns," and the " Play-day Book." PATMOKE, CovENTiiY, an English I)oet, was born at Woodford, in Essex, on 2.3rd July, 182^3. His father was in his day a M'cll-knowu literary celebrity, and in 184G Mr. Coventry Patmore became an Assistant Librarian to the British Museimi, which office he continues to hold. He has published three vohmies, of which the second, the "Angel in the ^ouse," is a poem of undoubted merit j but the third, "Faithful for ever," has been severely criticised. He is under- stood to be a contributor to the "Edin- burgh Review." PATON, Joseph Noei^ E.S.A., an historical ])ainter, was born at Dimfemi- line, in Fifeshire, in 1823. The son of Mr. J. F. Paton senior — an able artist and pattern designer, stdl living — he never studied at any public school of art, ffchough in 184.'3 admitted a student of the Royal Academy of London. He first became known to the public as the author of "Outline Illustrations to Shakspere and Shelley;" productions whose fanciful grace scarcely compen- sates for their want of simplicity and nature. His first serious effort was a cartoon of "The Spirit of Religion," produced in 1845. To the competition of 1847 he sent two oil-pictures of strik- ing dissiinUarity in character: "Christ Bearing the Cross," and "The Recon- ciliation of Oberon and Titania," the latter of which received the second class prize of £300, having been previously purchasal for the Gallery of the Royal Scottish Academy. In 1849 he painted " The rodnced of later years have obviously a higher and more serious inu'pose, and, tiiough not less mmute in execution, are much more true to nature. The prices \\'hich this artist has received ivr his recent works, show the high estimation in which he is held. His "Pursmt of I'leasure," sold to Mr. A. Hill, a jirintsel- ler of Edinburgh, was again sold by him for two thousand gaiineas, while "In Me- moriam" fetched twelve huntb'ed pounds. PAXTON, Sir Joseph, an architect and horticulturist, was born at Milton Bryant, in 1802, and was educated in the Free School of Woburn, Bedford- shire. His abilities as a gardener were the means of introducing him to the Duke of Devonshire ; and after remain- ing some time at Chiswick, he went to Chatsworth, and by the taste and skill which he evinced in the gardens of that beautiful domain, soon became well known in his jjrofession. In the erection of extensive glass conservatories. Sir Joseph obtained the germ of the idea which was afterwards expanded in the Crystal Palace of 1851, and of which he was the designer and arcliitect. For his exertions and success in this novel and noljle undertaking he received the lionour of kuighthootL Since then, Sir Joseph has been connectetl with many ])ublic woi-ks. He superintended the construction of the Palace, and designed the plan of the grounds, at Sydenham. The beautiful i)ark at the west end of Glasgow was laid out on ]>lans furnished by him. Sir Joseph sits in the House c)f Commons as Member for Coventry, which city he has rei)resented since 1854. He is a member of many of the learned societies in Europe, and has pubhshed works on horticidture and botany, which are highly popular. PA YEN, Anselme, a French chemist, and member of the Institute, was l)orn at Paris, in Janiuiry, 1795. Son of a gentleman of property, who was thrown into industrial enterprises by the lievo- lution, M. Payen studied chemistry under Vauqnelin and others, and was admitted to the Polytechnic SchooL He embraced tKe new career of his father with ardour, and directed at Vaugirard an important manufactory of sugar from beet-root. He continued at the head of this establishment for a nimiber of years, extending his atten- tion to various other articles, and in- troducing new applications of science, which materially contributed to reduce the cost of a number of articles of food in ordinary use. M. Payen has filled various municipal situatioiLS at Vaugirard and Grenelle, and was one of the reporters on French Industry, from 1827 to 1844. In 1836 he became member of the council and a professor of the School of Arts and Manufactures. He has since undertaken a similar charge at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, and is a member of numerous scientific societies. In 1847 he was created an officer of the Legion of Ho- nour. M. Payen has written a con- siderable number of works, the principal of which are devoted to agricultural and industrial chemistry ; he has also con- tributed to periodicals many papers of value. PEDPO v., King of Portugal, Pedro d' Alcantara Maria Fer- nando Miguel Raphael Gabriel Gonzaga Xavier Joao Antonio Leopoldo Victor Francisco d'A.ssis Julio Aneolio, names enough for aU the sovereigns of Em-ope, ]>orn Septem- ber 1837, is son of Donna Maria II. di Gloria and Fernando of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha, King Consort. He succeeded his mother under his father's regency i visited England in 1853, and the Great Exhibition of Paris in 1855, also maki)ig PEE 310 I' E L a tour of Italy, Svritzcrland, ami IJcl- giiim. He attained his majority in ISoo. In 1857 he married the Princess Ste- plianie Frederioa Wilhelraina Antoiue, of Hoheuzollern-Signiaringen ; but in less than two years her Majesty died, leaving no family to aid in the consola- tion of the liereaved husband. The re- lations of Portugal with the British Court are intimate and cordial ; and do not threaten to be impaired imder the present poi)ular and enlightened mo- narch. PEEL, Frederick, son of the late Sir Piobert Peel, was born in London, in 1823, and educated at Harrow and Cambridge. Called to the bar in 1849, he was, in the same yeai', elected mem- ber for Leominster, and in 1852 returned for Bury, taking his place among the liberal-conservative party. He was ap- pointed Under-Secretary for the Colo- nies in 1851, resigning on Lord Derby's accession in March, 1852. In the Coali- tion and subsequent administrations, he held the same office from Decem- ber, 1852, till Febniary, 1855. From the last date till 1857, he was Under- Secretary at War ; in 1857 he failed to obtain a scat in Pai'liament ; l)ut at the general election of 1859, he was again elected for Biuy. PEEL, The Eight Honourable JoNATHAK, Secretary at War in tlie late Derby administration, and Lieu- tenant-Ceneral in the British amiy, is the fifth son of the first Sir llobci-t Peel, and was born on the r2th of October, 1799. He entered the army in 1815, just Ijefore the great European conflicts of forty years were about to close ; and has risen, in the ordinary course of pro- motion, to his present rank as a general. In 182G he was returned l)y Norwich as its representative in the House of Com- mons, and continued to sit for that to-wn during the five following years. In 1831 he was returned for Huntingdon, which lie has represented ever since the passing of the Reform Bill. From 1841 to 1846 he held office under his brother, the late Sir Robert Peel, as Surveyor-General of Ordnance. From 1846 until 1858 he remained out of office. Upon the for- mation, in the February of that year, of the government of Lord Derby, he ac- cepted the a])i)ointment of principal Secretary at War, resigning with the ministry in 1859. PEEL, Sir Robert, Bart., eldest son of the late statesman of the same name, born in London in 1822, was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, and entered on a diplomatic career in 1844 as an Attache to the embassy at Madrid, passing to Switzerland in 1846, as Secretary of Ijegation, and after some months in that capacity, remaining till 1850 as Charged d'Affah-es. At the latter date he succeeded his father, and was elected member for Tamworth ; and his views being of a liberal cast, Lord Pal- merston appointed him one of the Lords of the Admiralty in 1855. He after- wards accompanied Lord Granville on the special embassy to the coronation of the Czar ; but on his retiu-n to England resigned his connexion ^vith the ministry. Since then he has taken but Uttle part in public affairs, except on continental questions, s})eaking strongly against the aggi-essive designs of Louis Napoleon. PELISSIER, Amable Jean Jacques, Due DE Malakof, Marshal in the French army, was born at Maromme, on the 6th Novembei-, 1794. After completing his general and military education at St. Cyr, he entered the French mihtary service, and obtaining promotion, went to Sj)ain in 1823, where he highly distinguished himself. From Ills return home till 1829 he was occu- pied in various services, and in that year proceeded to Greece, where his talents and bravery again became conspicuous, and were duly rewarded. His next cam- paign was imdertaken in Africa, serving PEL 311 PEP iu Algiers, tiU from the failui'e of his health he was ol^ligecl to return to Frauce. In 1840 he was again sent to Africa, and had to contend with the wild tribes of the desert for some years. It is to he regretted that the name of so great a man shoidd ever have been tar- nished ; but from his having, as a dernier restiort, destroyed some six hundred hu- man beings, in a cavern into which they had retreated, by burning fagots at its mouth, Pelissier cb-ew on hunself the in- dignation of all civilized countries. How- ever, in a few years afterwards, his bold and gallant beha\aour in the Crimea ef- faced these evil reminiscences. He joined the French army before Sebastopol in 1855, and succeeding Canrobert in the chief commantl, was highly successfid, and for his gallantry was created Duke of Malakof, Marshal of France, and G. C. B. of Great Britain. He succeeded M. Persigny as Ambassador to London iu 1858, from which office, however, he retired a shoi-t time since. PELOUZE, Theophile Jules, a French chemist, was born at Valognes, iu February, 1807. After studying pharmacy, he proceeded to Paris in 1827, wliere he was engaged as an assistant in a laboratoiy, with Gay-Lussac and Las- saigne. He remained in that position for two years, and assisted in matiuriug various discoveries. The municipality of Lille having founded a Chair of Che- mistry, M. Pelouze was appointed Pro- fessor in 1830. In tliis position, one of liis earliest investigations was into the nature, the composition, and the quali- ties of beet- root sugar. He j^ursued this and other inquiries, until he was invited to Paris to supply the })lace of his old teacher, Gay-Lussac, at the Polytechnic School. In 183G he \nsited Germany, where he cultivated the friendship of M. Liebig, subsequently making va- rious useful scientific discoveries. He was admitted to the Academy of Sciences in 1837, and filled various chairs in the College of France and the Polytechnic School. Since 1849 he has been a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, without a])an(loning the prac- tice of instructing piq)ils. He resigned his last professorship in 1851, shortly afterwards being created Commander of the Legion of Honour. His scientific writings have been very numerous, chiefly in the form of papers and lec- tures, which have appeared in the " Annales de Chimie et de Physique;" and it is miiversally conceded that his essays elevate him to a level with the highest cotemporary chemists. He is at present President of the Imperial Mint at Paris. PENNEFATHER, Lieuten.vnt- General Sir John Lysaght, was born in the county of Tipperary, in 1800, and entered the army in 1818. He greatly distinguished himself in India in 1843, during the war in Scinde, and for his gallantry received the thanks of the British Parliament. He was present in the Crimea during the Russian war, and at the Ahna performed protligies of valour, and likewise in the battle of Inkermann. He is a Knight Com- mander of the Bath, and the Emi)eror of the French conferred on him the order of the Legion of Honour. PENNETHORNE, Ja^ies, an archi- tect and sm-veyor, was born in Wor- cester in 1801. He went to London in 1820, remained with Pugin two years, and then travelled through Italy and Sicily. In 1828 he became principal assistant to Nash, and planned a great niunber of works both public and private. He was appointed to a situation in con- nexion with the "Woods and Forests, which he stUl retains. Some of the leadbig improvements in the formation of new streets in London have been effected under his superintendence, and he is held in high esteem by his brethren in the profession. PEPE, Flokestan, an Italian general, PEP was horn in Calabria, in 1 780. He entered the army wlien young, and was a Lieu- tenant when the French entered Na})les in 1790. He served in Spain as Brigade Major in ISOG, and rose gi-adually nntil, in 1811, he held the rank of (leneral of Brigade. In 1812, diu-ing the Knssian cami)aign he led his Italian corps to Dantzic, and during the retreat he covered with his cavahy the French rear-guard. Ill and severely wounded, he feU into the hands of the enemy, after havang performed extraordinary feats of valour. Liberated, he returned to Italy, and in 1815, for the gallant stand he made against the Austrians in Upper Italy, Murat gave him the grade of Lieutenant-General. To quell the insurrectionary movements of 1820 he was sent to Sicily Avith 5,000 men, but the terms of the capitulation of Palermo not being satisfactory to those in power, he was dismissed and went abroad, after- wards residing in Naples as a private individual. In 1848 he resigned his honours, together with his position as a general on active service. Since then his name has rarely come before the })ublic. PEPE, Gabriel, brother of Florestan, wasbornatBojano, in 1781. He studied law, but forsook it for the anny in 1799. His first prominent appearance as a soldier was in 180G, when he took service under Joseph Bonaparte, and passed through the Spanish campaigns. He was a Colonel under Murat, yet after the restoration of King Ferdinand he commanded a regiment, and held the garrison of Syracuse. At the revolution of 1820 he was named a member of the National Parliament at Najiles, and voted for the removal of liis brother ; but when the Boiu-bon dynasty was again restored, he was arrested and cast into jjrison at Olmutz, where he was confined strictly for two years. After his release he re- tired to Florence, and instead of em- broiling himself with politics he turned r,V2 PEE his mind to the pursuits of science. Re- moving from P'lorence, he fixed his abode at Nice, where he has resided for a num- ber of years. PEPOLI, Charles, an Italian littera- teur, was born at Bologna, of a noble famil}^ in 1801. His education was re- ceived at various acailemies, but chiefly in that of his native city, where he devoted himself to the study of the Fine Arts. When but a young man he was introduced to pul)lic life ; and at the in- surrection of Central Italy in 1831, he was one of the members of the Provi- sional (lovcrnment of Bologna. The revolution stifled. Sign or Pepoli and a large nimiber of his compatriots em- barked for Corfu, but the ship was cap- tured by the Austrians, and all the j)as- sengers, ninety-six in nimiber, were brought to Venice as prisoners of war. M. Pepoli suffered much for some months of his captiAaty, and, eventually exiled, he landed in France. From Paris he repaired to Geneva, but returned to the former city at the request of Bellini the composer, for whom he wrote the li- bretto of "IPuritani," afterwards pro- ducing libretti for two ojieras, one by Costa, the other by Vaccai. In 1837 he settled in London, and after two years of literary difficidties he was appointed Professor of Italian Literatm-e in the London University. Taking a lively interest in Italian affairs, he was called to Home as a deputy in 1848, and elected Vice-President of the Assembly. When the Italian cause broke down he returned to London, but owing to infirm health he was compelled to susj)end his literary labours, though, after his country, they ft)rmed the dearest attachment of his life. He retained his professorshij} for nine years, and is a facile and eloquent writer. PERSIGNY, Jean -Gilbert -Victor FiALiN, a French jjolitician and diplo- matist, was born in January, 1808. His father having lost his iiatrimouy by bad PER 313 PET speculations, entered the army, and was killed at the battle of Salamanca, in 1812. Victor Persigny commenced his studies at Limoges, removing to Saiimur, and afterwards ser\'ing as Quartermaster to a regiment of Hussars (1828). At this period his opinions were Royalist ; but owing to cei-tain influences they became greatly modified, and in 1830 he took an active i)art in the military movements of Pontivy, which favoured the revolution of July. He went to Paris in 1833, in search of emplojonent, and became for a short period attached to the "Temps" journal. He some time afterwards un- dertook a journey to Baden, and through Bavaria and Wurtemberg, and on his return published an account of his ob- servations. Though an active supporter of the Bourbons, he ajijiears in 1834 to ha\ e been converted to the cause of the Bonapartes, and in a paper which he founded, he advocated the cause of the ' ' Napoleon ideas " with great vigour. He attached himseK to Louis Napo- leon, and was the principal instigator of the Strasbourg attempt. He chmg to the fortunes of the Prince, whether for good or evU, followed him in his dangers, and prompted his measures. He was tried, imprisoned, and re- leased when health failed him. In 1848, he fulfilled his part, in adopting with great zeal the Bouapartist cause, and aiding everywhere the election of Louis Napoleon, as President of the Republic. He was not unrewarded. The President elevated him in position, and it was he who afterwards carried out, if he did not plan, the coup iVetat. In 1852 he was appointed INlinister of the Interior, but in 1854 he resigned on account of his health ; was after- wards a})pointed Minister at the British Court (1855), and retained that jwst till 1858, when he was succeeded by ^larshal Pelissier. He married a Rus- sian lady in 1852, and received with her a large marriage portion, and a gift and the title of Count from the Emperor. He afterwards returned to London, as ambassador, where he still remains. PETERMANN, August Heinrich, a Gennan geographer, now Director of the celebrated establishment of Justus Perthes, in Gotha, was born at Bleiche- rode, in Prussia. He showed an early predilection for geographical studies, and was sent to Potsdam as special j)upil of the savant Berghaus, in 1839. He remained at Potsdam, and there ac- quired the friendship of Hmnboldt, who entrusted him in 1841 with the exe- cution of his ' ' Map of Central Asia. " In 1845 he assisted Mr. A. K. Johnston, of Etlinburgh, in jireparing the "Phy- sical Atlas," and, two years after, pro- ceeded to London, where he published his "Atlas of Physical Geography. " He was a zealous promoter of the expedi- tions of Barth to Africa. In 1855 the University of Giittingen conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Philosoiihy. He founded in the same year his ' ' Geo- graphical Joiu-nal," the best work of the kind in existence, which has attained a large circulation, five thousand copies being published every mouth, mth a running collection of excellent maps of the most important new discoveries and geographical investigations. Sir Rode- rick Murchison said of this work, in his ' ' President's Adtb-ess to the Royal Geo- graphical Society," in 1857 — that "it is exercising a powerful and salutary influ- ence on the progress of geographical science." " The American Jomnal for Science and Art " makes the i-emark, in the following j'ear, that "Mr. Peter- mann, by his wide correspondence and relations with various scientific men in England, Germany, and America, is better able than any other man of science to give early and reliable intelhgence in resi)ect to all important explorations." PETO, SiK S.\MrEL Morton, Bart., M.P., a contractor for large engineering TET ni4 PHE works, was l)oru at Woking, iu Surrey, ill 1809. He was plaeetl for seven yeai-s with his uncle, Henry Peto, a contractor and builder, under whom he obtained a thorough and i)ractical insight into the various branches of the Ijusiness to which, on his uncle's death in 1830, he succeeded, in conjunction with his cousin, Mr. Thomas Grissell, of Norbury Park. After the dissolution of i)art- uership with that gentleman in 1845, Mr. Peto devoted his attention chieHy to railway works, both alone, and jointly with Mr. Brassey and Mr. Betts, and constructed various important un- dertakings, amongst which may be men- tioned, the Western Eailway of France ; the Grand Tnmk Kailway of Canada, including the Tul)ular Bridge, two miles long, over the St. Lawrence, near Mon- treal, lately opened by H.E.H. the Prince of Wales (September, 1860), confessedly the largest work of its kind in the world; the Eoyal Danish Eail- way, and many others, both on the Continent and in England. During the Russian war in 18i')4, Mr. Peto con- structed for the Government a line of railway from Balaklava to the EngUsh camp before Seljastopol, and that in the most disinterested manner to himself, and at the cost of his seat in the House of Commons, for Norwich, which city he had represented for several years. In recognition of this patriotic service, the honour of a baronetcy was in the following year conferred u])ou him by her Majesty. In 185!) Sir Morton was invited to become a candidate for Fins- bury, and was returned by a larger number of votes than had ever previ- ously been polled in that important metropolitan borough. Sir Morton Peto was one of the Royal Commis- sioners for the Great Exliibition. He is a Du-ector of many railway and other companies, and a Deputy-lieutenant for Suffolk. Sir Morton Peto makes good use of his great wealth, in building and endowing chapels and schools, and his purse and intlueuce are ever open for the furtlierance of any scheme calciUated to i)romote the hajipiness and welfare of his fellow-creatiu'es. PHELPS, Samuel, an English trage- dian, was born at Devonport, in 180(5. He was not intended for any particular profession, and shoidd have gone to Cambridge, where his brother, the pre- sent Master of Sidney College (the Rev. Dr. Phelps), is still ; but his attachment to the dramatic art overcame all other aspirations, and in 1827 he made his first appearance at the York Theatre. His early career, like that of all per- formers, was chequered with reverses ; but he was an earnest and persevering student of his art ; and his versatihty was without hmit, his tragedy and his comedy being true to nature. His ta- lents were not long overlooked by Lon- don managers, and accordingly he was engaged at the Theatre Royal, Hay- market; appearing first as "Shylock," and afterwards as ' ' Hamlet. " When Mr. Macready undertook the management of Covent Garden, J\lr. Pheljis was at once secured as a leading man among a bril- liant band of actors ; and many critics pronounced him the only performer on whom the mantle of Macready was worthy to descend ; wliich opinion Mr. Macready also expressed in his S2>eech at the dinner given him on his retire- ment from the stage in 1851. The legi- timate drama was at the lowest point, ! when Mr. Phelps resolved to attempt its revival in what was deemed an un- congenial region. In 1844 he opened Sadlers' Wells Theatre, and in that un- classic locality his experiment was com- pletely successfid. His skill in manage- ment, his own unrivalled acting, and his judicious selection of perfoi-mers, carried all before them. He created a new era in the drama, and the ' ' Wells " became famous as a theatre where the plays of Shakspeare were enacted. He PHI 315 PIU lias continued to manage that theatre until the present time without a faihire, maintaining his place as an artist, who unites the force of the old histrionic mas- tors with tlie more subtle discrimination of the modern school. He has edited an excellent edition of Shaksjjeare, a work for which he was eminently qualified by learning and exi)erience. PHILLIPS, John, M.A., LL.D., F. R. S. , Professor of Geology in the Uni- versity of Oxford, and Assistant-general Secretary of the British Association, was born on December 25th, 1800. Few living geologists possess a more intimate or wider acquaintance with the geology of England. With his uncle, William Smith, the father of English geology, he early acquired that intimate and practical knowledge of his favomite science which has rendered him so ac- ceptable and valuable a teacher. In addition to his independent works, Mr. Phillips, in his capacity of Secretary to the British Association, has arranged and edited twenty-seven volumes of re- ports of proceecUngs and ti'ansactions. Mr. Phillips succeeded Dr. Buckland in the chair of geology at Oxford, having previously occupied similar positions in King's College, London, and Trinity College, DubUn. He was elected Presi- dent of the Ceological Society in 1858 and 1859. PICCOLOMINI, IVLvRiA, was born at Sienna in 1835. When only a child she gave the highest promise of the eminence she has since attained. Her parents, desirous of encouraging her favourite passion, confided her musical education to Romaui, one of the leading profes- sional teachers in Italy. Under his in- structions she made herdebut in Florence, in 1852, in " Lucrezia Borgia." For twenty successive nights, and always with immense success, did she appear in this jiai-t. On the last night of her en- gagement at the theatre, a band of young men, enthusiastic in their ailmira- tion of the artiste, sought to usurp the place of the horses in her carriage. Piccolomini sternly rebidied their levity, and ironically called upon them to keep their strength for their country. After this successfid debut in the capital of Tuscany, she spent four years in a tour through Italy, remaining a season at each place of importance. Wherever she appeared, she immediately became a favourite. This Italian triumph at once attracted the attention of the directors of the operas of London and Paris ; and, in 1856, Mademoiselle Pic- colomini appeared, for the first tune, before an English audience. Her suc- cess in England and America has been equal to that she attained in Italy, but she was severely censured by the critics for choosing to appear as the heroine in "Traviata," one of Verdi's most finished prodiictions. The lady's success has sprung more from her youth, her naivete, and her dramatic x>ower, which is imquestionably great, than from her vocalism. PICKERSGILL, Fred. Richard, R.A., a painter, was born in London- in 1820, and studied at the Royal Academy. His first oil picture, "The Combat between Hercides and Achelous," was produced in 1840. At the Exhibiton in Westminster Hall in 1843, Mr. Pickers- giU received a prize for his cartoon of the "Death of King Lear," and in 1847 one of the first-class prizes for the "Burial of Harold." This picture was of great advantage to him in his career. His powei-s had before been doubted, but the drawing and execution of this w(n-k were excellent, and the pictiu'c was at once purchased for the New Houses of Pailiament. In that year he was elected A.R. A., and in 1857 became a Royal Academican. Since then he has been ft regidar exhibitor. PIUS IX., Giovanni Maria MastaT Ferretti, was born in Sinigaglia, ou the 13th of jNIay, 1792. At the age o£ PI u ;»G PL A sixteen lie went to Pome with the in- tention of completing his ecclesiastical studies, his desires having always tended to the i)i'iesthood. But in consequence of the sad events which shortly after- wards ensued, he retired in 1810 to Sinigagha. Two years after this he was summoned to join the guard of honour in Milan, but an exemption was granted him on account of epileptic fits, to which he was then subject. He con- tinued to reside in his native city until the return of Pius VII. to the States of the Church, after which he hastened once more to Home. He was ordained priest in 1819, and sent in 1823 upon a special mission to South America. In 1827 he became Archbishop of Si)oleto, and after- wards of Imola. During lii-s episcopate he was remarkable for the assiduity with Avhich he discharged his duties. He was elected Pope on the 16th of June, 1846, and crowned on the 21st of the same month. Seated in the chair of St. Peter, he gave himself to the task of granting liberal reforms to his people, but his intentions were frustrated by the violence of the extreme revolution- ary j>arty, and he was idtimately forced in 1848 to leave his capital, and to take refuge at Gaeta. He was restored to Eome by the arms of France, in 1850. The war of 1859 in Italy occasioned fresh disturbances in the Legations, and Napoleon III., by an autograph letter of December of the same year, counselled the Pope to give up the disturbed pro- vinces ; but in an encyclical letter of the 19th of January, 1860, Pius IX. de- clared that he coidd never consent to any dismembennent of his states. In August of this year, when the progress of Gari- baldi in Italy threatened the entire de- sti-uction of the Papal power, the Pope placed his forces under the connnand of Lamoricifere, who endeavoured by enlisting Germans, Swiss, and Irish, to form an army which might enable hini to resist the progress of the enemy. But Sardinia haN-ing sent a large army, under the command of Cialdini, into the States, many of the provinces near Rome broke out into insurrection. The residt has been that Lamoricifere was routed, the Roman forces entii-ely dis- banded, and the Pope has now no sup- port of any kind but that of the French garrison in Rcnne. PL AN CHE, James Robinson, a dramatist and historian, was born in London, in February, 1796. Receiving his early instniction from his mother, a lady of literary habits, his inclination for the drama was early manifested ; and a burlesque of his having been pro- duced in 1818, at Drury-lane Theatre, with complete success, he determined to jjursue dramatic authorship as his pro- fession. He devoted his attention spe- cially to matters of costume, and furnished Mr. Charles Kemble with numerous designs for the costume proper to the representation of Shakspeare's plays. In 1826 and 1827 he travelled on the Continent, afterwards publishing his "Lays and Legends of the Rhine," and the " Descent of the Danube." In 1828 his dramatic work, and perhaps his best, "Charles. XII.," was brought out at Drury-lane. His " History of British. Costume" was published in 1834, the "Regal Records" in 1838, and the "Piu-suivant of Arms" in 1852. In 1855 he published the "Countess d'Aulnoy's Fa,iry Tales," which for excellence admits of no comparison. JNlr. Planche has, at one time and another, written a great niunber of dramatic pieces, not one of which has failed. He is a Rouge Croix Pursmvant at Arms. PLAYFAIR, Lyon, C.B., an English chemist, was born in Bengal, in 1819. He received his early education at St. Andrew's University, Fifeshire ; and from his decided taste for chemical pursuits was sent to Glasgow to study imder Mr. Graham. After retiuning PO E 317 POE from Inilia, whither he had gone on ac- count of ill liealth, he placed himself as au assistant to his old master, who had then become Professor of Chemistry in University College, London. In 1839 he was induced to proceed to Giessen, whose laboratory was under the manage- ment of Liebig ; and, like many other eminent British chemists, he studied organic chemistry under that celebrated professor, engaged in original investiga- tions, and became Doctor of Philosophy of Giessen Universit3^ After holduig the Professorship of ('hemistry at the Royal Institution, INlanchester, Dr. Phiyfair removed to Loudon, where he was much employed iu royal commis- sions and CTOvernment inquiries, and took an active part in the Exhilntion of 1851. He was also appointed Inspector- General of Schools and Museums of Science, to the Government. In 1858 he was elected to the Chemical Chaii- iu the L^uiversity of Edinbm-gh, vacant by the death of another of Liebig's pujjils, Dr. Gregory. POEllIO, Carlo, was born at Naples, in 1803. He is the second eon of the celebrated lawyer, Joseph Poerio, Baron of Balustro. At twelve years of age Carlo followed his father into exile, who had been counsellor of state and attorney- general iu the High Court of Justice at Naples. Carlo was educated at Florence, wth his only brother Alexander, and his cousin the Didvc of Diano, by some of the most distinguished professors in Tus- cany. He afterwards returned to Naples with his father, but followed him again into exile in 1821, when the constitu- tion fell, and with it the Chandler, of which he had been member. On this occasion, for State reasons, his father was banished to Austria, together with Generals CoUcta (the historian), Arco- vite, and Padriuelli, and the deputies Borelli (the philosopher) and Pepe. In 1824 the Poerio family went to Tuscany, and Carlo remained iu Florence with them until 1828, when he accompanied his mother to Naples, where he ai)plied himself to his studies, and to the pro- fession of an advocate, and became dis- tingiushed as the leatling gratuitous de- fender of prisoners at the High Court of Justice. Living in the closest intimacy with the leading men of the country, and professing openly the principles of representative government, his politics were distasteful to the ruling powers, and he was tliree times subjected to prosecution for political offences. In 1848, when a free and representative government was introduced into Naples, Carlo Poerio was chosen by the King as Director, and Under-Secretary for Home Affairs, and, as such, he had charge of the general police regidatious of the kingdom ; and after filling these jiosts for a month, he was advanced to a seat in the cabinet as Minister of Public Instruction. The Duke of Sorraca- priola, the Chevalier Beralli, Prince Cariata, Baron Savarese, Prince ToreUa, General Degli Uberti, Counsellor Sali- ceti. Baron Bouani, and Prince Dentice, were his colleagues. In his ministerial position he took part in the council which was held, at the instance of Lord !Minto, for the settlement of the Sicihan question. Carlo resigned office on the 3rd Apiil, 1848, and he was returned to parliament at the general election, as deputy for the city of Naples, and pro- vince of Terra-tli-lavora. On the sad loth May, when the lazzaroni were set on by the King's mynuidons to pillage the city of Naples, he was sent upon a deputation to the ministry, with his col- leagues Capitelli, Pica, and Imbriata, and struggled hard to avert that fratri- cidal conflict. Having been re-elected to the Chamber, after the coup lace as Councillor in the Caoinet of the Chancellor of State for Hardenberg. Pre\aous to this appointment he had pubhshed several works which elevated his reputation, and in 1811 he obtained a professor's chair in the University of Breslau. From 1815 to 1817 he travelled through Italy, Germany, Switzerland, and other countries, and gave the residt of his observations in two new works, Avhich were considered so important that he was called to occupy the chair of political economy and history in the University of Berlin. From that time forward he filled various public situa- tions, among th« most prominent of which was that of iSccretary to the Berlin Academy of Sciences ; but an eu- logium which he passed ou Frederick II. was so unfavoui'al)ly received by the members, that he resigned his office. The citizens of Berlin, not being of the same mind as the Academy, elected him first to the Municipal Coimcil, and se- condly to the Parliament of Frankfort, where he took his place among the mo- derate party ; afterwards being sent to Paris in the capacity of ambassador. On his return to Berlin, M. Raumer was elected member of the Fii-st Chamber of Prussia; and in 1859, seeking rejiose after a long and arduous life, he obtained the title and emohmients of Professor in the Berlin University. His works are very numerous, and are poi)ular with all classes of readers in Germany ; whilst in this country and France thej' are well known thi'ough translations. RAWLINSON, Sir Henry Cres- wiCKE, l>elongs to the old Lancashire family of Ilawlinson, settled in Fm-ness since the time of Henry V., and was born at Chaddington, Oxfordshire, in 1810. He was educated at Ealing, and entered the East India Company's ser- vice in 1827. Ser\-ing with the Bombay army tUl 1833, he was appointed to Persia to assist in organizing the Shah's army. In 1835 he commenced the study of the cuneifoiin inscriptions of Persia, being then stationed at Kermanshah. In 1836 he -sasited Baghdad, travelled in Luristan and Susiana, returned to Teheran, and accom])anied the Persian army to the Junernau frontier ; whence he was sent back on duty to Ispahan, and idtimately to Kermanshah. In 1837-38, ])eing again stationed at Te- heran, he announced to the Royal Asi- atic Society of London, his cuneiform discoveries ; and also })u1)lished, in the ' 'Geographical Society's Journal, " his Su- siana travels. In 1839, being stationed at Baghdad, in consequence of the inter- ruption of relations with Persia, he wrote his paper on "Ecbatana," for the "Geographical Society's Jom'nal,'' which obtained him the society's gold medal at the next anniversary meeting. He also, during the same year, for- wai'ded to the Royal Asiatic Society, an abstract translation of the greater por- tion of the " Bekistun Inscription," in order to secure priority of discovery. Recalled to India in 1840, he travelled through Scinde to Candahar, and thence proceeded to Cabool to be associated with Cai)tain Arthur Conolly, in the mission to Khiva, Bokhara, and To- kand. His services, however, being required in Afghanistan, he was sent back from Cabool to Candahar, where he remained as political agent xmtil our final evacuation of the ct)uutry at the end of 1842. He was present in all General Nott's actions with the enemy at this period, and finally accompanied the Candahar coluniu as poUtical agent, on the advance to Ghuzui and Cabool, and subsequent retirement to India. In 1843 he was ap])oiuted ]>ohtical agent in Turkish Aral)ia, and jiroceeded from Calcutta to Baghdad; where, with the exce})tion of occasional excm-sions to the Persian mountains, and a visit to England for two yeiirs in 1850 and 1851, E A W 327 RED he resided iiiiiuturniiitedly until 185"), when he retiu-ned liome. Daring this period he was thi-oughout diligently oc- cupied witli the study of the cuneiform inscriptions — Persian, Median, Assyi-ian, and Bahy Ionian; and published nu- merous ])apers on the subject in the "Royal Asiatic Society's Journal," the main results of which have been em- bodied in the translation of "Hero- dotus," recently puV)lished by liis brother, the Rev. G. Rawlinson, of Oxford. He received a commission as Alajor, in Persia, in 1836, and as Lieut. -Colonel, in Turkey, in 1850 ; was made a C.B., in 1854, for military services in Afghanistan, and received the first class of the Persian order of the Lion and Sun, and the third class of the order of the Dooranee Empire. He was further granted the commission of Consul at Baghdad in 18-14, and of Consid-General in 1851. His literary houoiu"s also have been numerous. He was admitted into the Institute of France, as Correspond- ing Alember, as early as 1837 ; was made a F.R.S. of London, and D.C.L. of Oxford, in 1850 ; and received the Order of ilerit from the King of Prus- sia, in 1852. He has also been honoured with diplomas from ahnost aU the his- torical, geographical, and antiquarian societies, both of England and of the Continent, and even from the American universities. In 1856 he retired as Lieut. -Colonel from the East India Compan}''s sen-ice, and was immedi- ately afterwards appointed a CroMm Director of the East India Company, ha\Tng been previously made a Civil K.C.B. In January, 1858, he was elected member for Reigate ; and on the extinction of the East India Compauj', in the same year, was appointed a member of the Council of India, being obliged thereby to vacate his seat in Parliament. In April, 1859, he was appointed her Majesty's Envoy Extra- ordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of the Shah, and was granted the rank of Major-General in I'ersia, He is now residing at Teheran. IIEADE, Charles, a novelist, was educated at Oxford. His first work, " Peg Wofiington, " at once brought him into notice. Mr. Reade still further in- creased his literary success V)y producing his "Never Too Late to Mend" in 1856. He has since published several works of fiction, which are highly popular and have been extensively read. His })apers contributed to different serials are at once amusing and captivating in their style, and possess a lively and continuous interest. His last work is " The Eighth Commandment." REBOUL, Je^vn, a French poet, was born at Nismes, on 23rd of January, 1796. His early education was received in a school of his native place, and al- though of a very moderate kind, he soon improved on it by his own assidiuty. For some time he followed the trade of a baker, but his natural genius for poetry soon became evident, in the pro- duction of songs and satires composed for a circle of private friends. In 1828 his "Angel and Child " appeared in the "Quotidienne." In 1836 he published a collection of poems, which speedily ran through five editions. Proceeding to Paris in 1839, he was received with great enthusiasm in literary circles. He has composed some tragedies, and his last production is a volimie of poems pul)lished in 1857, under the title of " Les Ti'aditionneUes. " REDDING, C^TJUS, a joiu-nalist and author, was born at Penrhyn, Cornwall, in 1785. He commenced his literary career in 1806, by coutributuig to the " Pilot," which was then edited by Sir Herbert Compton, late Chief Justice of Bombay. He then passed to the "Ply- mouth L'hronicle," which, after editing, he purchased, and i)arting with it, in 1814, returned to Loudon. In 1811 he RED 323 REE published " Letters to Lord Holland, on the Question of Lihel," and also "Mount Edgecumhe," a poem. He etlited, about the same time, the " Dra- matic Review ; " contributed to the " Morning Chronicle," and published "Specimens of Koerner and Goethe," afterwards proceeding to France. In 1820 he was connected with the "New Monthly;" but subsequently, with Campbell, the poet, started the "Me- tropolitan Magazine." After a variety of literary engagements he produced, in 1833, a work by which he is well known ; namely, his "History of British Wines." After editing the "Bath Guardian," he went to Lichfield, i).nd took the management of the ' ' Stafford- shire Examiner," in 1836. Since then Mr. Redding has been connected with the London " Examiner," and has also published various works connected with general and political literature, distm- guishing himself by the liberality and uncompromising nature of his opinions. REDGRAVE, Richard, R.A., an English painter, was born in London, on the 30th April, 1804. His father's business, in which he had been en- gaged, falling off, Mr. Redgrave followed the bent of his inclination, became a student of art, and in 182G entered the schools of the Royal Academy. His first really successfid picture, though he had previously exhibited a number of others, was "Gulliver on the Farmer's Table," exhibited at the British Insti- tution in 1837, which was at once pur- chased. Thenceforward his course was steady and unimpeded. He aimed at tlrawing attention by his works, to the struggles of those who had seen better days, and in most instances achieved his purpose. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1840 ; and, since then, has been a constant exhi- bitor. Six of his works having been secured for the Sheepshanks' collection, and one fur the Vernon Gallery, his position was estalilished as one of the greatest artists of the day. He was elected an Academician in 1851. For some years he was Head-Master of the School of Design ; and on that institu- tion being incoqiorated with the Depart- ment of Science and Art, he was ap- pointed Art-Superintendent, and sub- sequently Inspector-General of Art Schools, which office he still retains, together with that of Surveyor of Crown Pictures, conferred on him by her Ma- jesty on the death of Mr. Uavuis, R. A. in 1857. His pictures in the South Kensington Museum, at the present time, are " Cinderella about to try on the Glass Slipper," "The School Teacher," " Gidliver exhibited to the Brobdignag Farmer," "Throwing off her Weeds," "Ophelia weaving her Gar- land," "Bolton Abbey," and "Country Cousins." REED, The Rev. Andrew, D.D., philanthropist, divine, and author, was born ui London on the 27th November, 1 788. Early in life he was designed for business, but having evinced a great passion for study, and remarkable skill in the mastery of languages, he relin- quished business and went to college. In 1812 he was chosen the minister of one of the most important congregations among the Dissenters, where he remains to the present day, having for forty- nine years discharged all the duties there without assistance. In 1818 a work entitled "No Fiction," issued anonymously from the press, and the fact that it ran rapidly through many editions, the present being the twenty- fourth, shows that it is a popular fa- vourite. This work was subsequently acknowledged by Dr. Reed. It has been reprinted in America, Germany, and Holland. The great feature in Dr. Reed's life has been his devotion to the noble works of benevolence with which, as founder, his name has become fa- miharly associated. He has seized on REE 329 REI the work as soon as he has seen it, and besides giving his whole time gra- tuitously to the building up of these in- stitutions, he has been foremost as a munificent contributor to their support. In 1820 he felt the want of a provision for orjihan children, and commencing it in his own house, he founded the Lon- don Orphan Asylum at Clapton, where thousands of res])ectable men and women of the present day have received their education. The same need was per- ceived for infants, and he foimded the Infant Orphan Asyhmi at Wanstead. In addition to this, he established, in 1847, the Asylum of P\atherless Children at Eeedham, near Croydon, for children of any age, till old enough for ajipren- ticeship. Travelling abroad. Dr. Reed's attention was drawn to the state of the poor idiot, and when he retm'ned home he investigated the condition of this class of suffering humanity in this country. From this has risen the Asylum at Col- chester, and the noble Earlswood Asylum at Ci'oydon, exhibiting a treatment of a most remedial character. The Hospital for Incurables is the last of the institu- tions owning Dr. Reed as founder. It occurred to him that something should be done for the poor objects who were discharged from our great hospitals as incurable, and having no provision of support, were forced to seek a place to die in the workhouse. This hospital is now fidl, and a building is to be erected at Coulsden. In 1834 Dr. Reed was chosen by the United Body of Congre- gationalists to \'isit the chm'ches of America, and he travelled tlu'oui^h the States and Canada dming ten months, publishing, on his retuni, a narrative of his visit, two vols. 8vo. Some other works on revivals of religion, and many sermons, are .also from his pen. Descended from an ancestry personally attached to the cause of the Commonwealth, Dr. Reed early espousetl advancet affording materials for his future works. He subsequently visited the United States, in 1845 joined the American army in the war against Mexico, and in a battle fought during the campaign, was wounded. Having a special taste for military affairs, he next tm-ued his attention to Hungarian mat- ters ; but through the sudden fall of the popular cause, his hopes of service were disai)poiuted. He then resolved to pur- sue literature, and has been exceedingly happy in rendering the scenes of his early days interesting to the general reader, l)y publishing them emliodied in novels. His chief i)roductions of this class are "The Rifle Rangers," "The Seal]) Hunters," "The Quadroon," and ' ' Oceola. " He has iniblished many other works intended for juvenile readers. REMILLY, OviPK, a French politi- cian, was born at Versailles, Nov. 18, 1800, of an old and wealthy commercial family. He chose the law for his pro- fession, and was in due time admitted advocate, though he subsequently tiurned his attention to politics. His energy, public spirit, and generous dis- position, brought him into prominent notice, and he was elected Mayor of Versailles in 1837 ; a position which he retained for many years, with credit to himself and advantage to the community. From 1839 to IS-iS he had a seat in the Chamber of Deputies, lint though ordi- narily voting with the majority he never sacrificed his independence. After the revolution of February, he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and ex- erted every effort to preserve order, plac- ing himself in the ranks of the moderate repul^licans, and restraining as far as in his power the wild schemes of the ex- treme democrats. He opposed the re- pressive laws bearing on societies, clubs, and the press ; although, when he per- ceived that a special line of policy was essential to the puldic safety, he sup- ported Louis Napoleon. From 1849 to 1851 he was a member of the Legislative Assembly, occupying the best part of his time in reforming and extending the system of public instruction, but still adhering to the necessity of a parliament to secure good and free government for the people. After the coup iVetat he refused to enter the Corps Legislatif, and the people of his native city, to testify their high estimation of his worth and esteem for his pu1)lic rectitude, had a gold medal struck in his honour. His moderation, candour, and upright prin- ci])le have commanded the favour of all the governments imder which he has lived and held office for nearly sixty years. RESCHID, Pasha, a Turkish states- man, was born in C(nistantinople in 1802. He was educated by a relative, entered the army, and was also engaged r. ic 331 EIP in various political matters during the earlier years of liis life. In 1834 ho was sent on a mission to London and Paris, where he was first struck with new ideas of Western civilization ; and, settinp; himself to study the customs and laws of the countries to which he was accredited, he returned to Turkey, after an absence of two years, carrying with him an influence previously unknown. He had lieen in England during the passing of the Pieform BiU; saw to his astonislunent that a great constitutional change had been effected without blood- shed ; and being observant, he became dee]ily imi>ressed with the desire of re- forming the Turkish government. This o1)ject he steadily pursued, though s\u"- rouuded by discontent and hostiUty. It is highly probable, that had his views 1)een adopted, many of the difficulties in which the Sidtan now finds himseK involved, might have been avoided. Though holding the highest situation in the power of the Sultan to bestow, Reschid Pasha has been the victim of intrigue. He was accused of misman- agement of the public funds in 1859, and obhged to resign ; afterwards be- ing called again to power, and resigning once more. RICHARDSON, Charles, LL.D., an English lexicographer, was born in Jidy, 1775. He was intended for the pro- fession of the law, and educated with that object; but a predilection for lite- raiy rather than legal studies, induced him to abandon law and devote himself to literature. In 18()o his first work, " Illustratinus of English Phdology," ap- peared. Subsequently he became a con- tribntor to the " Euoyclop;edia Metro- jiolitana;" and in 18.35 his "Dictionary," as a separate work, began to be issued liy Mr. Pickering. In addition to this great work, Dr. Richardson has published an essay on the "Study of Language," besides contributing some interesting papers on his favourite study to the reviews of the day. The philological principles that lie at the basis of Dr. Richardson's investigations are substan- tially the same as those Home Tooke enunciated in his ' ' Diversions of Pur- ley." RICHARDSON, Sir John, K.C.B., a naturalist and Arctic explorer, was born in 1787, at Dumfries, in Scotland. After completing his early education at the grammar-school of his native town, he entered the University of Edinbm-gh, in 1801, prosecuted his studies in medi- cine, and then served in the Navy as medical officer for some years. He took his degree of M.D. in 1816. In 1819 he sailed with Franklin, as surgeon and naturalist, and in 1825 joined the same intrepid navigator on a second explora- tory voyage. Dr. Richardson, in 1829, began the publication of the zoology of these northern regions, a work which established his reputation as a uatiu'alist. In 1838 he was appointed Physician to the Fleet ; in 1840 an Inspector of Hos- pitals ; in 1846 a Knight Bachelor ; and in 1850 was made a Companion of the Bath. In 1848 he once more set out for the Arctic regions, this time in search of his former companion. Sir John Franklin. An account of this "Arctic Searchmg Expedition" was published by Sir John in 1851. His works are niune- rous and valuable. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, an Hono- rary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinbiu'gh, and a member and associate of many foreign and scientific bijdies. He has retii-ed from active ser\-ice for some years. RIPON AND DE GREY, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Earl of, was born on the 24th of Octol>er, 1827. The son and heir of the fiist Earl of Ril)on, who succeeded Mr. Canning for a short time as First Loixl of the Trea- smy, the subject of this notice was known for many years under the cour- tesy title of Lord Goderich. After RIP 332 RIT leaving the university he entered Parlia- ment, and represented successively Hull, HuddersHeld, and the West Riding of Yorkshire. Adopting advanced liberal opinions, he advocated the introduction of competitive examinations in the Civil services, and other measures of a similar kind, which have lately been partially adopted in our administrative system. For some time he held office as Under- Secretary of State for the War Depart- ment. Ou his father's death, in January IS/)9, he succeeded to the title of Earl of Ripon, and took his seat in the U})per House. In November of the same year he, on the death of his uncle, acquired the title of De Grey, and is now known as Earl De Grey and Rij)on. RIPON, Right Rev. Robert Bicker- STETii, D. I). , Bishop of, was born in Suf- folk, in 1816. He was at first intended for the medical profession, but eventually proceeded to Cambridge, where he gained a scholarship and graduated in honours. After holding the curacy of Sapcote, in Leicestershire, of which his father was rector. Dr. Bickersteth be- came Incumbent of St. John's, Clap- ham ; and by the eloquence and force of his discourses, was soon known as one of the most popular ministers in the metropolis. He was subsequently Rector of St. Giles's, London, and Canon of Salisbury. In 1856 Dr. Bickersteth became Bishop of Ripon, and since then has been distinguished by the judicious performance of those duties which his high position devolves on him. AChai'ge to the clergy of his diocess, lately de- livered, has attracted the attention and ai)proval of many of the best friends of the Church of Eugland. RISTORI, AiJELAiDE, an Italian ac- tress, was bom in 1821. Her father was an obscure comedian, and she appeared early on the stage. Her life, lilcc the lives of all who engage in the profession, was for years an viphill struggle with diiSculties, and presents few features of interest, imless the plays in which she aj)peared, and the various degrees of success she achieved, were to be minutely noted. Her first great triumph as an actress was in 1855, when the jve-stit/e oi Rachel was in the ascendant, and when she appeared in Paris before a somewhat prejudiced audience. The power of her genius sui'mouuted all antagonism ; she carried the bouse with her ; and her fame has not since been clouded by a reverse. She lately visited England, and created a wonderful impression by the truthfulness and brilUancy of her representations. RITCHIE, Leitch, a journalist and popular writer, was bom at Greenock, of a respectable family, in the l^eginning of the present century. After being in various mercantile sitiuitions, he settled in the metropolis as an author by pro- fession, and in a short jjcriod his name became familiar to the public. He fur- nished the letter-press of some of Charles Heath's splendid annual volumes, tra- velling in most of the coimtries of Eur()])e to pick up the light materials re(juisite for this work. He contriljuted to the miscellaneous annuals, editing one of them for several years ; and wrote inniunerable papers in reviews and magazines, on aU questions of passing interest, from the Irish Poor- law to the fiscal reforms of Indian trade. After editing the " Indian News " for some time, he became proprietor of that journal, which he afterwards sold on removing from London to Edinburgh. He then edited "Chambers's Journal," tin the close of 1858, when he returned to London, where a small selection from his Edinburgh ])apers was puljlished in two volumes, with the title of ' ' Winter Evening.s." Of the works of fiction by which this versatile writer is best known to tlie public, the ' ' Magician " and " Schinderhannes " have been several times reprinted ; but " Wearyfoot Com- mon," his last production of the kind, ROB 3.33 ROE pives, perhaps, the best idea of his manner and spirit. KOIJEIITS, David, R.A., an artist, ' was bom at Stockhridj^e, a suburb of Edinburgh, on the 24th October, 1796. ' After being with a house painter in that city, he studied at the Tnistees' Academy, and in 1821 went to London and became a scene painter. From tlis- temper he took to oil-jtainting, and soon exhil)ited some of his productions. His sketches and i)ictuix'S, painted after a visit to Si)ain, gained hun great and de- served credit. He was elected A.R.A. in 1839, and a Royal Academician in 1841. He has recently presented to the Roj'al Scottish Academy one of his finest wt)rks, for which he received not only the thanks of that body, but of the citizens of Edinburgh at large. The "interiors" of Mr. Roberts are held by cannoisseurs to be the finest works of their class ever ])ainted. His ' ' Sketches \ in the Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, ' Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia, " engraved by Haghe, with descriptions by Dr. Croly, ' are well known, and have contributed perhaps beyond all other productions to his popularity as an artist. The following pictures painted by Mr. Roberts are now in the collection at South Kensington Museum : — "Entrance to the Crjiit, Roslyn Castle," " Old Buildings on the Darro, Granada," "The Gate of Cairo," and "Interior of tiie Cathedral at Burgos." ROBSON, Frederick, a comedian, was born at Margate, in Kent, in 1821. Having received a general education, he was apprenticed to a cojiperplate en- gi-aver in London ; but the occupation not being suitable to his tastes, he even- tually abandoned it, and entered that professiim in which he has since become so eminent. His dilmt was made in an amateur performance, in Catherine- street, where he acted the part of Simon Mealbag, in "Grace Huntley." He was, however, by no means successful, and his friends endeavoured to dissuade him from again appearing on the stage, but his perseverance enal)led him to overcome all difficulties. Having ap- peared at Whitstable and Uxbridge, he returned to London, and accei)ted an engagement at the Grecian Saloon, which lasted from 1844 tiU 1849. He next appeared at the Queen's Theatre, Dublin, where he soon became an esta- blished favourite. His great success during this engagement, obtained him an ofl'er from the lessee of the Olympic, London, where he appeared in 185.3, and has ever since been a most po])ular actor. Mr. Robson's style is perfectly unique. ROEBUCK, John Arthur, of the Inner Tem}>le, Q.C., a politician and M. P. , was bom at Madras in December 1802. In 1815 Mr. Roebuck visited Canada, and returned to England in 1824. In 1832 he was called to the bar of the Inner Temple, and in the same year was elected one of the members for Bath against the brother of Sir J. Cam Hobhouse (now Lord Broughton), a circumstance alleged by his friends to have been the main cause of the oi)position he has invariably met with from the Whigs from that day to the present. As an orator Mr. Roe- buck stands high in the House. The startling way in which he brings for- ward facts which he has got hold of, often causes opposition to his opinions from I persons who afterwards, when better I infonned, entiiely agree with him. In 1837 !klr. Roebuck lost his seat for Bath, but in 1841 was re-elected. In 1843 he was appointed Queen's Counsel, and called to the bench of the Inner Temple. In 1847 the Whigs at Bath canvassed for "the two Lortls" Duncan and Shaftesbury, and Mr. Roebuck in consequence was unsuccessful ; but in May 1849 he was elected for Sheffield, for which borough he now sits. In 1855, after a period of severe illness, Mr. Roebuck resumed active life in ROG 334 ROG Pai'liameut, and moved for the famous inquiry into the state of the anny before Sebastoi)ol. The Government was averse to this step, but the motion being car- ried against them, the Aberdeen Ministry resigned. Mr. Roebuck, after every means had lieen tried to prevent his being Chairman of tlie Committee, was appointed to that post. Many im- provements in the army have resulted from the investigations then made. Mr. Roebuck some years ago contri- buted to the Westminster and the Edinburgh Reviews. He is the author of "A History of the Whig Party," and of a work entitled "The Colonies of England," which exposes and meets the difficulties of colonial legislation. These are distinguished by great ability and fairness to political oi)ponents. Mr. Roebuck has been in the directorate of various commercial undertakings during the last few years. As a pohtician he maintains a severe independence in the House of Commons, allying himself to no party, and occasionally attacking both friends and foes. ROGER, GusTAVE Hippolyte, a French vocalist, born at Paris, August 1815, is the son of a notary, who in- tended him to follow the same business, l)ut the taste for the stage was too de- cided, and he entered the Conservatoire in 1837. Having obtained the first jn-ize for singing and elocution, he made his (UJmt at the Opera Comiqiie in 1838, and w\as received with unusual favour. He remained in that establishment for several years, taking part in rendering effective the works of Auber and Ha- levy. He afterwards quitted the Opera Comique and came to England, and on his return to France reappeared with increased power. Subsequently, -vasit- ing Germany, he sang with Mademoi- selle Wagner and Jenny Lind ; at Frankfort he was fSted ; at Hamburg and Berlin he was applauded to the height of his ambition ; and at Paris he continues one of the chief favom-ites of the lyric stage. His voice is a piu'e tenor, and he manages it with consum- mate skill. Owing to an accident, he was some time since obliged to submit to the ami)utation of an arm, but recovered in health, and with a mechanical substi- tute, which can scarcely be distinguished from a living liml), he is performing and singing as perfectly as ever. ROGERS, Henry, a critic, was born at St. Alban's, Herts, in ISOG. He was originally destined for the medical pro- fession, and passed through the usual preliminary course; l)ut subsequently- studied in one of the colleges of the In- dependents, with a view to the ministry, though a very feeble voice gave him but moderate prospects of success as a pulpit orator. Convinced, for this and other reasons, after a brief trial, that the piil- pit was not his sphere, he devoted his attention to the duties of a college tutor, and to literature. In 1836 he was ap- pointed Professor of the English Lan- guage and Literature, University College, London, a chair which he vacated in 1839 for that of Philosophical Tutor in the newly founded Independent College, at Spring HlU, Birmingham. There he remained nearly twenty years, when he accepted the principalship of the Lan- cashire Independent College, Manches- ter. His first literary efforts of any considerable extent were critical es- says on the genius and writings of Jonathan Edwards, Edmund Burke, and Jeremy Taylor, prefixed respectively to editions of the works of those authors. His contributions to the "Edinburgh Re- view" have been published in a collected form, and, with his "EcHpse of Faith" and a "Life of John Howe," aa-e his principal literary productions. ROGERS, Henry Darwin, Professor of Natm-al History in the University of Glasgow, was born in Philadeljihia, United States. Both his parents were of Scotch- Irish extraction. Like the ROG 335 EOK C4regories and Thomsons, he belongs to a family in which the passion for science seems hereditary. His father long held the important appointment of Professor of Physics and Chemistry in nearly the most ancient seat of learning in America, the old College of WUliam and Mary ; and, trained in the laboratory of their father, three brothers of the professor have held scientilic appointments in the United States. At the age of twenty- one, Professor Eogers was apjioiuted to the Chair of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in Dickinson College, Penn- sylvania. After holding this appoint- ment for two or three years, he repaired to Europe, jiartly to increase his scien- tific knowledge, partly for the benefit of his health ; and devoted himself assi- duously to the cultivation of analytical chemistry and practical and theoretical geology. Eeturning, after two more years, with renovated strength, he was entrusted with the geological surveys of Kew Jersey and Pennsylvania. From the limited extent of territory, the New Jersey survey was but a minor task, and early completed. Pennsylvania, a state as large as half the area of Great Britain, and a region of comphcated geological structure, was a more gigantic work, occupying some twenty-two years. The residts of the survey have lately been published in tkree vohmaes, illus- trated by numerous engravings and elaborate geological majis of Penn- sylvania and its coal-iields. This work is the most complete survey that has j'^et been made of any of the coal-fields of the world. Professor Rogers is a Fellow of the Royal and Geological Societies of London, and of the Royal Society of Ediubiu"gh, as well as of the chief scien- tific societies of the United States; and recently the University of Dublin con- ferred upon him the degree of LL. D. In 1S57 he was ai>}i(iinted Regius Profes- sor of Natural History in the University of Glasgow. ROGET, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S., an English physician, the nephew of the late Sir Samuel Romilly, was l)orn in London in 1779. He was educated for the medical profession in Edinburgh, and graduated there in 1798. He held for some years the appointment of phy- sician to the Manchester Infirmary, Lunatic Asylum, and Fever Hospital, and afterwards settled in London, where his knowledge of science being appre- ciated, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and for a period of one- and-twenty years discharged the duties of Secretary to that learned body. He is a Fellow of the Royal College of Phy- sicians, and of the Astronomical, Geo- logical, Zoological, and Entomological Societies. He is also a member of the Senate of the University of London, where he was, for some years, one of the Examiners in Physiology. His pub- lications embrace a wide range of sub- jects. His "Animal and Vegetable Physiology " forms one of the Bridge- water Treatises, published in IS'S-i, and is perhai)s his greatest work, though his treatises on "Electricity," "Magnet- ism," " Physiology, " and "Phrenology," are held in high esteem. He has pub- lished a mass of other papers on subjects that came within the scope of his inves- tigations, and has contributed exten- sively to periodicals connected with his profession. His more recent publica- tion, entitled ' ' A Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, classified and ar- ranged so as to facilitate the Expression of Ideas, and assist in Literary Composi- tion," wlrich has reached its ninth edi- tion, is a work of extensive utility to all classes of English writers. ROKITANSKY, Charles, a phy- sician, was born in Bohemia on the 19th of February, 1804. He studied medi- cine at Prague and Vienna, and re- ceiving his degree as Doctor in 1828, M'as attached to the Institution of Patho- logical Anatomy in the latter city. EON >36 E O S afterwards acting as Clinical Surgeon to the School of Medicine. The post- mortem examinations and dissections which he has conducted or sui)erin- tended, amount to many thousands. He was named in 1848 Honorary Direc- tor of the University of Prac^ue, and member of the Academy of Sciences at Vienna. In 18-19 he became Dean of the professors of the School of Medicine, and in 1850 Hector of the University of Vienna. His jaiucipal work is a "Ma- nual of Pathological Anatomy." Ilich iu facts and observations, and precise as weU as new in its conclusions, this work has been warmly received by the pro- fession, and has been translated into various modern languages. RONGE, Johannes, an educational and religious reformer, was born at Bischofswalde, Silesia, in 1813. Owing to the humble circumstances of his parents, he received but a scanty educa- tion. However, after attending the Col- lege of Neisse, he proceeded to Breslau, where he studied theology. He was after- wards appointed Chaplain at Breslau ; but owing to the jealousies which his zeal excited, and the decided stand he made against the conduct of his ecclesiastical superiors, he was soon de- prived of his charge. This seems to have laid the foimdation of that vio- lent opposition to the Catholic autho- rities which he afterwards evinced ; and he took the opportunity which the fame of the " holy coat" of Treves aflorded him of writing a letter, which, exposing the worshij) of relics, aided in producing aschism in the llomish Church. Rono-e soon found himself at the head of numerous followers throughout Ger- many, and forming them into societies, their nmnber increased to an astonishing extent. His next difficulty arose witli the government, which, viewing these associations as a soiuce of political dan- ger, decided on their speedy sujiprcssion. Konge soon after lied to England, where he has since resided, and engaged him- self in originating schools for the educa- tion of young people on plans peculiar to his views. IIOSAS, Don Juan Manuel de, was born at Buenos Ayres in 1793, and is de- scended from an ancient family of the Asturias. Iu 1831 Rosas was chosen Captain-General of Buenos Ayres. After subduing the Indians, against whom he had been sent, he took measures to unite the whole States in the Argentine Con- federation (1835) ; but his sole object being to advance the condition of Buenos Ayres, he took such extreme steps as led to a war vnth Brazil. He was defeated, but resisted notwithstand- ing, for five years. He became too ab- solute in his mode of government. A revolt ensued ; and in February, 1851, Rosas and his forces were put to flight at Moron, he only escaping by disguis- ing himself. Urquiza then took charge of affairs in Buenos Ayres, and Rosas soi\ght the hospitable shelter of England, arriving in the early part of 1852. ROSE, Gu.stave, a German chemist and Professor of Mineralogy iu the Uni- versity of Berlin, was born on the 18th of March, 1798. His father, Valentine Rose, was a chemist of some distinction, who died, however, when the subject of this notice was only eight years of age. In 1815 he and three of his brothers took part in the war of liberation, but he withdrew at the end of the year from military service, with the viaw of study- ing mining. In 1816 he went to Konig- shlitte, near Tamourtz, in IJ[)per Silesia, to learn the practical department of the business, returning in autumn to Berlin to prosecute the scientific studies con- nected with it. His success as a student in mineralogy, geology, and chemistry, was such that he abandoned all inten- tion of entering upon a practical career. After defending publicly a thesis which was afterwards published in ' ' Leonhard's Mineralogical Manual" (in 1822), he ROS 337 ROS obtained the degree of Doctor of Philo- sophy. In 1821, having obtained per- mission to work in the laboratory of Berghaus, he joined his brother Heinrich Rose, and Mitscherlich at Stockholm, who had been there for nearly a year previously. In the autimm of the same year he visited the most important dis- tricts in Sweden and Norway, returning to Berlin in November, where he con- tinued his chemical studies in the labo- ratory of Mitscherlich. At the same time he compiled his "Treatise on the Feldspars," in which he promulgated \'iews which have become the basis of the new science of Petrography. In the autumn of 1822 he was appointed assist- ant to Professor Weiss, of the Mineralo- gical Museum of the University. He qualified himself as a private lecturer, and opened his fii-st course on miner- alogy in the early session of 1823. His lectures were interrupted for a year, while he made a tour in France and England, staying for six months in Paris, where he was much in the society of Alexander Humboldt. In 1826 he was appointed an adjimct Professor in the University of Berlin. Two years after- wards he accompanied his friend Ehren- berg and Alexander Von Himiboldt in their journey of exploration into Central Asia. He afterwards pubhshed, in a narrative form, an accoimt of the miner- alogical observations made during this memorable expedition. In 1834 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and in 1839 Pro- fessor in the University. After the publication of his travels he took part in the geological survey of Russia, his share in the work lying in Silesia. The first two maps have just appeared, the re- mainder being in preparation. Up till 1856 he was almost constantly employed in this work. In 1850, however, he spent his autumn holidays in visiting the Hybres group of islands, and in 1852 made an exciu'siou to the extinct vol- I canoes of central France. On the death of Weiss, in 1846, he was appointed Di- rector of the Mineralogical Museum at Berlin. He is a member of most of the scientific societies of Europe. Besides the travels to which we have referred, Gustave Rose is the author of "A Treatise on the Elements of Crystallo- graphy," of which an edition, which has been completely recast, is in prepara- tion ; and of a " Crystallo-Chemical System of Mineralogy." His niunerous mineralogical and chemical pajiers have been published in ' ' Poggeudorif' s An- nals," the Transactions of the Academy of Science of Berlin, the Geological Society of Geimauy, and extend over a period of from 1836 to 1859. ROSE, Heinrich, a German chemist, was born at Berlin in 1795. He studied and graduated at Berlin, and in 1835 became Professor of Chemistry in the University of that city. He is well known for his ability as an analyst ; and his work entitled "A Manual of Che- mical Analysis," has been extensively read, and is often iised as a text-book in this country. He has chiefly re- stricted his researches to inorganic bodies, and has thus rendered a service in that department of science similar to what Liebig has done in organic chemistry. ROSETTI, CoNSTANTiNE, a revolu- tionary writer, was born at Bucharest, about 1816; entered the militia in 1833, and left the service in 1836 to piu-sue hterature. His first efforts were trans- lations of Byron, Voltaire, and Lamar- tine ; and after obtaining some popu- larity, he was appointed to a command in the police, but resigned that i)ost in 1845. He then went to Paris, mai-ried, and returned to his native city, where, to the astonishment of the Boj^ards, he opened a bookseller's shop. In 1846 he was a member of the Revolutionary Com- mittee, and in June of that year was arrested, but liberated by the people, and afterwards filled several oflSces under z EOS 338 ROS the Provisional Government, besides founding the ' ' Pruncid Eumiln, " a de- mocratic journal. In September, having protested against the re-establishment of what were termed the Organic Regula- tions, he was again arrested, with seve- ral of his companions, and exiled to Orsowa, but escaped and took refuge in Paris. In the French capital he founded one or two jom'nals si)ecially devoted to the advocacy of his jwlitical principles, and published a work justifying the revolution. For some time past Rosetti has rai-ely ai)peared before the public, either as an author or a politician. ROSS, Rear-Admiral Sir J.\jmes Clark, Knight, an Arctic explorer, was Iwrn in London, on the 15th of ApiTl, 1800. He entered the navy in 1812, under his imcle Sir John Ross. In 1822 he was promoted to be Lieu- tenant, and in 1827, for his services under Sir E. Parry in an attempt to reach the North Pole, during which the lat. of 82|° N. was attained by travelling over the sea in sledge-boats, he was made Commander by the Duke of Clarence, then Lord High Admiral. He embarked with his uncle in 1829 on the remarkable voyage of the " Victory " steamer, eqiiipped by Sir Felix Booth to seek the North-west Passage. After an absence of four and a half years, and when all expectation of their return had been al)andoned, they arrived in Eng- land in October, 1833. For the deter- mination of the exact position of the North Magnetic Pole and eminent scien- tific and geographical discoveries, he received the rank of Post-Captain in October, 1834. He was next employed in 1836, in Sound Cove, having volun- teered in the depth of winter to cross the Atlantic to carry provisions to the whale ships in Baf&n's Bay, an ardiious and hazardous service. On his return to his country he spent the two follow- ing years in making a magnetic survey of Great Britain and Ireland by order of the Admiralty. In April 1839 he was appointed, with Captain Crozier under his orders, to command the "Erebus" and "Terror," and to proceed on a voyage of discovery to the Antarctic Ocean; and the expedition left in September of that year, and was absent aljout four years. In the Southern regions he dis- covered a tract of ice-bound land, and acquired valuable information respecting the natiural history of those inhosj)itable regions. On the 31st January, 1848, he was appointed to command the first expedition sent in search of Sir John Franklin. He returned to England in November of the following year, receiv- ing for his services the thanks of the Admiralty, and on the first vacancy that occurred, the good service pension, which he enjoyed until his promotion to the rank of Rear-Admiral in December, 1850. Sir J. C. Ross was elected a Fellow of the Linnrean Society in 1823 ; of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1825 ; and of the Royal Society in 1828. He is also a member of the Royal Society of Antiqiiaries of Copenhagen, and cor- responding member of the Institute and Geographical Society of Paris. He re- ceived in 1833, the thanks of the city of London, and a handsome piece of plate from the subscribers to the Land Arctic Expedition. He obtained in 1841, the Foimder's Gold Medal from the Geogra- phical Society of London ; in 1842 the Gold Medal of the Geographical Society of Paris ; was knighted in 1844, and re- ceived the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford in the same year. He married on the 18th of October, 1843, Anne, eldest daughter of Thomas Coutman, Esq., of Whitgift Hall, Goole, by whom he has four chil- dren. Lady Ross died on the 25th of January, 1857. ROSSE, Earl of, William Parsons, an astronomer, was born at York in 1800. He was educated at Oxford, whei-e he gained great distinction as a EOS 339 r. UD student of mathematics. He repre- sented, imder his title by coui'tesy of Lord Oxmantown, King's County for many years, and in 1845 entered the House of Lords as one of the Irish repre- sentative peers. Lord Rosse has ac- quired a European reputation on accoimt of his extraordinary devotion to prac- tical astronomy. His gigantic tele- scope, erected at his residence, Parsons- town in Ireland, is the largest ever constructed. The speciiUun is aboiit six feet in diameter, weighs over three tons, and its tube is about fifty-six feet in length. This instrument, which cost an immense expenditure of time and money, has been of the highest value in resolving nebulie, which inferior tele- scopes had failed to divide, and has shown the falsity of theories of the nebulous system which had previously received great countenance from men of science. Lord Rosse was President of the Royal Society for some time, and his name is enrolled amongst the mem- bers of the leading scientific associations of Europe. ROSSINI, JoACCHiNO, an Italian musician and composer, was born at Pesaro, in 1792. His parents followed the musical profession, and yomig Ros- sini speedily gave evidence that he possessed extraordinary talents in that line. He studied at Bologna, and having discovered the channel in which his musi- cal genius woiUd have free coiirse, he abandoned the j)ractice of music for that of its composition, and resolved to devote himself to the production of operas. After severe study of the best masters, he produced "Tancredi," at Venice in 1813, which soon brought him into high repute. Its success encour- aged him, and he afterwards produced others, which, however, did not meet with so good a reception. Ha\nng be- come Musical Director at Naples in 1816, he brought out two operas, one of these being the well-known "II Bar- biere di Siviglia." These were followed, in 1817, by "La Cenerentola" and "La Gazza Ladra," " Mose in Egitto, " "La Donna del Lago," "Zelmira, " and " Semii'amide. " He visited Paris and London in 1824, and in both cities his talents obtained for him an enthusiastic reception. His "Gviillaimie Tell" was produced in 1829, since which he com- posed his "Stabat Mater," one of the last effusions of his genius. He has for some years retired into private life, and takes but little interest in subjects to which he had devoted his earlier days. ROTHSCHILD, Lionel Nathan, M.P., Bakon de, a capitalist, and one of the firm of the Rothschilds, was born in London in 1808, and is the son of Baron Nathan, who, after leaving Man- chester in 1800, became resident in Lon- don. He succeeded to his father's con- nexions and title in 1836. Baron Roths- child was the first member of the Jemsh persuasion who ever attempted to enter the House of Commons. In 1847 he was proposed and elected together with Lord John Russell and others as one of the four members for the city of London. Declining, however, to take the neces- sary oaths, ' ' on the true faith of a Chris- tian," he was precluded from taking a seat in the House till the session of 1858, when Mr. T. S. Dvmcombe suc- ceeded in placing him on a committee which the rules of the House did not provide against. Eventually a resolu- tion was passed by means of which he was enabled to sit as a member. The city of London had retm-ned him at every election during the interval, and had thus asserted its rights as to the choice of its representatives. Barou Rothschild is liberal in his politics, but has never taken any prominent positic n in the House of CV)mmons. RUDEUSDORFF, Madame, a vocal- ist, is a native of Russia, having been born at Ivanofsky, in the Ukrane. Coming E UH 340 RUS to England with her father wliile a child, she snug in Hidl when only twelve years of age. Under the distinguished masters Bordogui, Eiibini, and La- blache, she afterwards studied at Paris, and, at the age of fourteen, sung Men- delssohn's Hjonn of Praise with great success in Leipsig, at the celebration in honour of the centenary of printing. Subsequently the youthful artiste went to Italy, to complete her musical train- ing under the CavaUer Micheroux, the celebrated master of Pasta. Ha\'ing accomplished that object, she returned to Gennany, and sung there at all the principal Coiu^ts. Persuaded by the Grand Duchess of Baden to go on the stage, Madame Rudei-sdorfif made her first appearance in that new sphere at Frankfort, with remarkable success. Subsequently she appeared at Berlin, Vienna, Dresden, Hamburg, and Lon- don, with equal acceptability, exciting liecidiar admiration from the remarkable diversity of her style. EUHMKORFF, N., a French instru- ment maker, was born in Germany in the early jiart of the present century. He is chiefly known in scientific cii'cles as the inventor of a coil machine, which produces astonishing efi"ects by electro- magnetic induction. By carefully con- sidering the construction of the old foi-m of coil machine, M. Euhmkoi-ff was led to the construction of an instriunent which has been of the highest value to electricians, inasmuch as it has com- jileted the link which was long wanting between the sciences of frictional and voltaic electricity. A modification of his coil was some time employed in working the Atlantic telegraph, for which it seemed suitable, on accoimt of the gi'eat intensity of the current it j)roduces. M. Ruhmkorff's coils have 1)een improved upon by Messrs. Bent- ley and Hearder, of this coimtry. In 1855 he received a medal and decoration .of the first class at the Exposition Uni- verselle of Paris, for liis various applica- tions of electricity. RUSKIN, John, an art critic, was born in London in February, 1819. His education was completed at Oxford, where, in 1831), he carried oH" the New- degate prize for an English poem, and graduated double fourth class in 1842. Art was his favourite study, and con- ceiving an extraordinary admiration for Turner, and deeming that artist entitled to a higher })lace in pubhc estima- tion than that conceded to him, he com- menced a letter, in reply to some of Turner's censors, which ultimately ex- panded into a treatise, with the title of "Modern Painters : then- Superiority in the Art of Landscape Painting to all the Ancient Masters, by a Graduate of Oxford." This work at once seciu-ed for its author a high position as a man of genius. He took very bold ground, not scrupling to condemn, with aU his force, the great old masters in landscape, such as Claude, Poussin, Salvator, Ruys- dael, and numerous others, as compared with such men as Turner. He did not even stop there, for he dealt his blows on aU sides at the modern painters of the Fi'ench and German echools. The work startled every one ; it was tho- roughly iconoclastic in its tone, knock- ing down, without remorse, the art idols of centuries. After an interval of ten years, the subsequent portions of this work were published. " Modern Pain- ters" was followed by "The Seven Lamps of Architectiu-e, " and "The Stones of Venice," a work of sound criticism. Lectures on "Architecture and Painting ; " Elementary Treatises on Drawing and Perspective ; Notes on the "Construction of Sheepfolds ;" a pamphlet on " Pre - Raphaelitism, " and notes on the " Exhibitions of the Royal Academy," are his chief recent productions. Mr. Ruskin is re- ported on good authority to have aban- doned all other studies, in order to RUS 341 II U S devote his future labours exclusively to the works of Turner and the Venetians. RUSSEL, Alexander, a joiu-nalist, was born at Edinburgh, in 1814. Hav- ing no desire to follow the legal pro- fession, of which his father was a mem- ber, he turned his attention to literature, and commenced writing papers for vari- ous magazines. He was successively editor of the "Berwick Advertiser," the "Fife Herald," and eventually of the "Scotsman," with the latter of wliich he has been connected for many years, and edits at the present time. His consistent and able defence of liberal principles, and the steady devotion to objects of social improvement which Mr. Russel always exhibits, have lately been acknowledged by a testimonial of nearly two thousand pounds, which has been presented to him by his readers and admirers throughout Scotland. RUSSELL, John Scott, F.R.S., an engineer, was born in the Vale of Clyde, in 1808. He received his education at the Universities of Edinburgh, St. An- drews, and Glasgow, and graduated at the latter place in 1824. He was from childhood fond of mechanical pursuits, and his bias being encouraged l>y his friends, he studied mathematical and physical science at Edinburgh, besides acquiring considerable practical expert- ness in mechanics. After being for some time at the head of a ship-build- ing establishment in Greenock, and afterwards of an engineering concern in Edinburgh, he removed to Loudon in 1844 ; though not until he had tried the experiment of running steam coaches on common roads. His mind was emi- nently inventive. The construction of iron ships and boats directed his atten- tion to the forms of vessels. He expe- rimented largely on the question of the oscdlations produced in canals by vessels, and embodied the result of his investi- gations in a paper read before the British Association in 1835. The subject ex- cited great interest ; and for some years, with every description of model, on the ocean, on lakes, canals, rivers, and es- tuaries, he continued his experiments, which amounted to the almost incre- dible number of 20,000. He at length conceived the idea of constructing a ship's hidl of such a form as to receive the least possible resistance from water in its progress through that liquid. The first vessel constructed on his "wave princijile" was the "Wave," in 1835, which was followed by the ' ' Scott RusseU" in 1836, and the "Flambeau" and "Fire King" in 1839. These ships were all successful. This principle was adopted by Mr. Brimel in designing the "Great Britain," and it has steadily made its way both in Britain and Ame- rica. The gi-eatest triimiph of Mr. Scott Russell's genius is the "Great Eastern," which is a wonder of skill and science. The dilficidties of its construc- tion were very great, owing to its enor- mous size. It has, however, satisfac- torily proved that Mr. Russell's theory is well groimded ; and the perfection of its coustniction, and its realization of the speed which had been predicted, stand out as high testimonies to the intelligence and ability of its builder. During its late trip to America, a speed of sixteen statute miles was frequently attained for hours together, and its pas- sengers enjoyed an almost entu-e immu- nity from the distressing eifects of sea- sickness. In 1837 he was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Society of Etlinburgh ; and, in 1849, was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. RUSSELL, The Right Honourable Lord John, M.P., was born in London, 18th of August, 1792. He was educated at Westminster School, and Edinburgh LTuiversity. His political Hfe commenced in 1813, when he entered the House of Commons as member for the Whig bo- rough of Tavistock, and joined the op- position against Lords Liverpool and RUS 342 RUS C'astlcreagh. His repeated motions on Parliamentary Reform, combined with the progress of popidar oi)inion, pre- pared the country for the bill of 1832. In 1826 so small was the majority exist- ing against the measure, that the ques- tion appeared virtually settled. In 1827 Canning was created Premier. The jimction of Lord Lansdowne and Mr. Tierney with Mr. Canning, who was pledged against reform, delayed the question for some time, and it was not until 1828 tliat Lord John was left free to pursue his reform policy. From the beginning of 1828 until 1830, no one of the reform leaders in the House of Commons exhibited greater activity, or greater tenacity of purpose in the ad- vocacy of all those liberal measures which it is now deemed the glory of our Parliament to have adopted. In 1830 Lord John Russell entered office under Earl Grey, as Pajanaster of the Forces. The Grey calnnet was pledged to carry Parliamentary Reform, and the most onerous part of the labour of the minis- tiy, in connexion with the question, was performed by Lord John Russell. In conjunction with Sii" James Graham, Lord Durham, and Lord Duncaunon, he was appointed to prepare the bill that was to be submitted to the House. On the 1st March, 1831, after ha\'ing sub- mitted the results of their joint labom-s to their colleagues in the ministry. Lord John Russell introduced the Reform Bill in the House of Commons, which, after strong discussion, passed by a ma- jority of one, and Parliament was dis- solved. In the new Parliament the l)ill was again introduced, and ]>assed through all its stages in the new House. The bill was, however, thrown out in the Lords. The ministry were ready to resign ; but a vote of confidence passed in the Commons prevented them, and Parliament was prorogued. On re-as- sembling, the bill, somewhat modified, was again introduced in the Lords, but was again rejected. The ministry re- signed ; the Duke of WeUington came into power. The responsibility of office disclosed to the duke the fact that Tory- ism, such as his, had then become an impossibility. He gave way to neces- sity, and on the 7th of Jmie the Re- form Bill became law. Earl Grey being Premier. Tlirough all this crisis the conduct of Loi-d John Russell was of that intrepid character which adds in- tensely to popularity. After Lord Grey's retirement in 18;M, and the accession of Lord Melbourne to the premiership, he gave the government his strenuous sup- port ; and when that ministry feU, to- Avards the close of the same year, he went into opj^osition with a stainless re- putation as a consistent and energetic Whig. On the resignation of Sir Robert Peel in April, 183.5, a ministry was formed mider Lord Melbourne, and Lord John became Home Secretary, and leader of the House of Commons. The post of Home was subsequently exchanged for that of Colonial Secretary. Lord John, now member for Stroud, having been defeated in liis family county of Devon, gave the world a series of letters ad- dressed to his constituents, on the prin- ciples of the Pteform Act. PubUc confi- dence, however, not returning to the Whig party, and the residts of the ge- neral election of 1841 being decidedly unfavom-able, — in Auguj?t, 1841, the ministry resigned. During the ministry of Sir Robert Peel the anti-Corn-law league became a "great fact," and Lord John Russell was elected for the first time member for the city of London in 1841, on Free-trade principles, for which city he has sat ever since. If he did not exactly think wath Lord Mel- bom-ne, that the repeal of the Corn- laws was the maddest thing he ever heard of, he was at least averse to so ex- tensive a proposal, his pet scheme being a fixed duty. In the autumn of 1845, however, he became a convert to unme- RUS 343 R US diate repocal. On tlie fall of the ministry of Sir Robert Peel, Lord John became Premier ; but in March, 1 852, the country with indifference beheld him making way for Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli. On the fall of the Derby administration Lord John Russell became Foreign Sec- retary in the Coalition cabinet of Lord Aberdeen until 1853, when he resigned in favour of Lord Clarendon. In June, 1S54, he became Lord President of the Council, and brought forward his new Reform Bill. The Russian war, how- ever, prevented it from receiving con- sideration. Disapproving of the conduct of the war by the Aberdeen cabinet. Lord John Russell resigned. When Lord Palmerstou became Premier, Lord John became Colonial Secretary. Sub- sequently he accepted the appointment of British plenipotentiary at the Vienna conferences, but the results of his nego- tiations were imsatisfactory ; and in June, 1855, he resigned. He is at the present time (October, 1860) Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. During the late session a new Reform Bill was introduced under his care in the House of Commons ; but owing to a general apathy on the question, it was even- tually shelved, with a promise of being introduced during 1861 in a modified form. Lord John has at all times taken deep interest in educational questions, and in societies intended to promote such objects. In addition to his labours as a statesman. Lord John Russell is not unknown to the world of letters. In 1819 he published a Life of his ancestor. Lord William Pvussell ; in 1821 an essay on the " Historj"^ of the English Govern- ment and Constitution, from the Reign of Henry VII. to the Present Time ; " in 1822, "Don Carlos," a tragedy, ap- peared. This effort in verse was followed by a memoir of the "Affairs of Europe, from the Peace of Utrecht." Memoirs of Moore, of Fox, of the Fourth Didie of Bed- ford, &c., have also issued from his pen. RUSSELL, William Howard, LL.D., a journalist and special corre- spondent of "The Times," was born at Lily Vale, in the county Dublin, in Sei^tember, 1821. Educated at a school in Dublin, he entered Trinity College in 1838. During the second and final Repeal agitation Mr. Russell con- tributed a series of articles and corre- si^ondence to "The Times," in refer- ence to the movements inaugurated and fostered by Mr. O'Connell, which led to a closer connexion with that journal, and ultimately to a relationship with it which has existed almost unin- terruptedly up to the present time. In 1843 he proceeded to London, and a few years afterwards entered the Middle Temple. He was called to the bar in 1850, but his literary engagements and his position as a jom-nalist attached to a London daily paper did not permit him to go circuit, and he was obliged to re- strict his efforts to obtain legal distinc- tion to the Com-ts in Westminster. On various occasions he was selected by " The Times," to proceed as corre- spondent to Denmark, France, and else- where on the Continent. In 1854 the active position taken by England in opposition to the demands of Russia on the Ottoman Porte led to the despatch of an English force to the East, which he accompanied, at the request of the proprietors of " The Times," as their Si)ecial Correspondent. In that capa- city he was present, and was under fire, at all the actions of the Crimean cam- paign ; and the details which he wrote of the war, and of the progress of the siege of Sebastopol, as well as the ac- counts of the sufferings of our troops, commanded public attention, and were looked for with intense interest through- out Europe. He returned to England in 185(), on the evacuation of the Crimea, and was but a few days at home when he started for Moscow, to attend the coronation of the Em])eror, after which RU S 344 S AI he travelled south and revisited the Crimea, and reached London in the beginning of 1857, after a tour over- land from Moscow to Paris, by Sebas- topol, Odessa, Belgi-ade, and Czer- novich. In the same year he received the degree of LL.D. from his "Alma Mater," and at the close of 1857 he departed for India, and aiTived in time to accompany Lord Clyde to the attack and capture of Lucknow, and to witness the oi)erations which led to the subju- gation of Oude and Ptohilcund, and the suppression of the rebellion. His com- munications respecting these oi)erations and the state of the country, civil and military, excited attention in England, and were approved of by statesmen in India. On his return to England from India in 1859, with health impaired by a severe sunstroke at the battle of Ba- reilly, and an mjury to a limb from a kick by a horse, he published a work called "My Diary in Intlia," which has met with great success. Dr. Paissell is now engaged in editing a weekly journal, which he established in the beginning of 18C0, devoted to the in- terests of the services, and called "The Army and Navy Gazette," but still re- tains his connexion with "The Times." His "Letters from the Crimea" have been published in a collected form, and have i)assed through many editions. RUSSIA, Emperor of. (^S'ee Alex- ander 11.) SABINE, Major-General Edward, an English philosopher, descended from an ancient Italian family, was born about 1790. He joined the British army as an officer of artillery, and first became known by having taken part in the Northern Exploring Expedition of 1819 and 1820, under Ross and Parry. His magnetic observations dm-ing the course of that voyage gave the first great impulse to the systematic study of the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism, while his papers inserted in the ' ' Philo- sophical Transactions " of the Royal Society demonstrated previously unas- certained facts relative to the variations of the magnetic needle. His mind was drawn into a particular channel of ob- servation in physics ; and to extend his knowledge, and confimi, by minute in- vestigation, the truth of his theories, he commenced in 1821 a series of voyages, which ranged from the Equator to the Arctic circle. The results were published in 1825, under the title of "Pendulum, and other Experiments." In 1827, having obtained leave of absence from his regiment, he was chosen Secretary of the Royal Society, which office he held until ordered in 1830 to military duty in Ireland. While employed on the general staff of the army in that country, he occupied his leisure time in pursuing his favourite researches, the fruits of his investigations being almost invariably laid before the British Association for the Advancement of Science. In 1836, and the two following years, he made reports to the Association, and to him it is we owe a vast system of magnetic observatories, which have altogether changed the aspect of that branch of science. The colonial observatories are under his superintendence, and he has directed them with the greatest care and the most profound skill. His papers contributed to various learned bodies are voluminous, and full of research. He has been twenty -three years a mem- ber of the British Association, twenty- one years one of its Secretaries, and eight years General Secretary filling the office of President in 1853. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, and since 1850 has been Treasiu-er of that body, and Vice-President. He is the author of thirty-four memoirs, published in the " Philosophical Transactions." SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, Henry, a French chemist, was born in 1818, at St. Thomas, in the Antilles. Receiving his early education in France, S AI 345 SAL he devoted himself ardently to the study of chemistry, and achieved great suc- cess, although entirely unaided by any of the usual instructions in science, being, in fact, entirely dependent on his own abilities. In 1845 he became Professor at the Faculty of Science in Besangon, and afterwards succeeded M. Balard in the chemical chair of the Normal School. He distinguished himself by various original researches in chemical science, but owes his reputation to the discovery of a means of producing in quantities the metal akuninum, one of the constituents of common clay. Al- though Sir Humphrey Davy had imagined and M. Woehler had proved that clay or alumina was the oxide of a metal, neither had been able to produce suffi- cient of the metal itself to be of any value in the arts or commerce. Thanks to the scientific tastes of the Emperor of the French, M. Sainte-Claire Deville was enabled to carry on his exjieriments till they ended in a successful residt. The new metal, which is not heavier than the same bulk of glass, has all the excellent qualities of silver, which it much resembles in appearance. On its first production in 1855, it was eagerly piu'chased at a higher price than gold, but at the present time it is sold in the foi-m of spectacles, brooches, and even helmets, medals, &c. have been made from it ; and its cost is less than that of the same weight of silver. The dis- covery has, sti'ange to say, had an eflf'ect on the Greenland shipping trade, as the Cryolite from which the metal is pro- duced is obtained from that country. SAINT LEONAllDS, Edward Bur- TENSHAW SuGDEN, Baron, (ex-Lord Chancellor), was born in 1781, and entered the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1807. His great abilities and munerous legal works brought him great employment as a conveyancer; but in 1817 he came to the conclusion to change his branch of practice. The fact becoming known, it at once obtained for him an extensive practice at the Chancery bar. He was elected for Weymouth in 1828, and in 1829 was made Solicitor-General. In 1835 he was made Lord Chancellor of Ireland, under Peel. Resigning this position on Peel going out of office, he resiuned it in 1841, when Sir Robert again became Premier. Retiring with his party in 1846, when Lord Derby succeeded to power in 1852 he became Lord Chancellor, being raised to the peerage with the title of Baron St. Leonards. His lordship is distinguished by his zeal as a law reformer, and several important legal works of a popular character, written by him, have attained a great and deserved fame. In Parlia- ment he was not distingiushed as a debater, but his knowledge of the law rendered him a most valuable adherent to the party whose cause he espoused. SALA, George Augustus, an Eng- lish essayist and tale-writer, was born in London in 1827. His father is imder- stood to have been an Italian, and his mother a native of the West Indies. Educated as an artist, he abandoned his first jirofession for literature. To the earliest numbers of "Household Words" Mr. Sala was a contributor, and he afterwards wrote some of the best of the many good articles which appeared in that popidar publication. Among these may be eniunerated— " The Key of the Street," " The Secrets of Gas," "Tattyboy's Rents," "The Musical World," "The Comj^assionate Broker," "Jack Alive in London," "Getting up a Pantomime," "Little Blue Mantle," "A Dead Secret," "Phases of Public Life," and "Aeon Verlaz and the Little Blind Girl." In 1 850 M r. Sala published in verse a Grand, National, Historical, and Chivah-ic Pan- tomime, " Ye BeUe Alhance ; or, Hai'le- quiu Good Humour and ye Fielde of ye Cloth of Gold." Two years afterwards he reprinted in a separate form a series SAL 346 S A L of his articles which had apjieared in "Household Words," under the title of "A Journey due Korth : being Notes of a Eesidence in Russia in the Summer of 1856." This work has gone through a second edition. He has since republished two other works from the pojjular serials in which the first made their appearance. One of these is "Twice Round the Clock ; or, the Hours of the Day and Night in London ;" originally contributed to the " Welcome Guest," and the other "The Baddington Peerage; Who bore it and Who wore it : a Story of the Best and Worst Society. " In all his writings, Mr. Sala exhibits great descriptive powers, and he enjoys a very high reputation as an author with a numerous class of readers, and as rivalling Dickens and Thackeray in their peculiar styles. He is one of the most prolific wi'iters of the day. SALDANHA, Oliviera E. Daun JoAO Carlos, Duke of, a Portuguese marshal and pohtician, was born at Lisbon, on the 17th of November, 1790. He held already the rank of Captain when General Beresford took the com- mand of the Portuguese army in 1808, and at the end of the Peninsular war he commanded a brigade. In 1814 he first visited England. In 1816 he com- manded two of the three divisions form- ing the Portuguese army in the war against Artigas. Refusing all the in- ducements offered him to remain in . Brazil l>y the Emperor Don Pedro, he retm-ned to England in 1823. On his re- turn the Portuguese government wished to ap))oint him Viceroy of Brazil, and place him at the head of an army and navy for the recovery of the coimtry; but he refused to accept the command. In 1826 he was ap])ointed Minister at War. In 1827, for the second time, Saldanha came to England, but was recalled to Portugal by Don Pedi-o, and took the command of the constitutional army. In March, 1833, lie kept his ground, in spite of the over- whelming numbers of the enemy, and gained numerous victories. In 1836 he returned to Lisbon, where he has taken a prominent place in all the movements and counter -movements which have since occurred. Besides being an able soldier, Saldanha is a leading speaker in the Portuguese Chambers. He is also an author, having published works on various subjects. Perhaps the most re- markable are those entitled ' ' The Con- cordance of the Natural Sciences," and "Geology with Genesis." The latter work made a great imiH-ession in Roman Catholic coimtries. On its publication the Pope sent Saldanha the Grand Cross of Saint Gregory. He is also the author of a work entitled "The State of Me- dicine in 1848." He is Vice-President of the Academy of Sciences at Lisbon, of which the sovereign is always the Presi- dent, and member of most of the scientific academies of the Continent, and has been decorated with medals and crosses by nearly all the sovereigns in Europe. SALOMONS, David, M.P., was born in London, in 1801. Being of the Jewish jiersuasion, he is well known as having succeeded in occupying leading i>ositions in the affairs of the city of London, and, like Rothschild, at last entering the House of Commons, despite the length- ened opposition which was shown to the admission of their co-religionists to offices of responsibility in the state. Thrice was he elected alderman, and each time repelled from the court on account of liis religious persuasion ; he, however, succeeded in his attempt in 1847. He was elected member for Greenwich in 1851, but did not take his seat until 1858, owing to his objecting to the form of oath, which had to be taken ' ' on the true faith of a Chris- tian.'" In 1855 he was elected Lord Mayor of London, being the fii'st He- brew who ever held that jjosition. Mr. Salomons is held in high esteem amongst SAN 347 S AR his brethren, on account of his charitable and generous disposition. SANTA ANNA, Don Antonio Lopez de, a Mexican statesman and soldier, was born in the city of Talapa, on the 21st of February, 1798. He entered the Spanish army in June, 1810, and was raised to the rank of Lieutenant- Colonel in 1821. While he was engaged in a survey near Vera Cruz, Itiirbide issued a proclamation, to Avhich Santa Anna gave his adhesion. Placing himself at the head of the Mexi- can troops, in seven months he defeated more than 10,000 of the Spaniards, and completel}' reduced under his power the province of Vera Cruz. On the 2nd De- cember, 1822, he proclaimed the Mexi- can Republic, the sovereignty assumed by ' ' Emperor Iturbide " ha\'ing by that time terminated its brief existence ; and in 1829, he defeated the Spanish di\asion which invaded Mexico by way of Tampico, with the intention of I'e- conquest. At different times, and with varied success, he fought in Texas 'against the Filibusteros of North Ame- rica, in defence of the integrity of the Mexican territory, and on the 6th of Oc- tober, 1838, repulsed a body of French troops which had made an attack upon Vera Cruz, di'i\'ing them into the sea at the point of the bayonet. In this action he had the misfortime to lose one of his legs by a gunshot woimd. In 1847 and 1848 he commanded the Mexican troops against the army of the United States, under General Taylor and General Scott. With the former he fought in Angos- tura, while with the latter he had en- counters, with various success, andch-ead- ing the poHcy of the Mexican people, who were intent on having peace at any jn'ice, and not accepting the democratic principles which some poUtical parties have sought to estabhsh in Mexico, he thought it wise to abdicate power and to take up his abode beyond the Mexican frontiers. He feels keenly the miserable situation in which the country has been placed since his departiu-e, and which he strenuously sought to avert dm'ing his tenure of office. He has re- ceived the Spanish decoration of the Grand Cross of Charles III., and the Prussian Grand Cross of the Red Eagle. Dining the civil war in Mexico he was always victorious, and he has been generally recognised as the ablest of the Mexican generals. He is still at the head of a powerful party of his country- men. S ANT INI, Giovanni, an Italian astronomer, was born in Tuscany in Jime, 1786. He was educated princi- pally in the University of Pisa, science occupjdng much of his studies, until 1814, when he replaced Cheminello as Professor at the Observatory of Padua. In 1825 he became Principal of the University. He holds at present the double ofhce of Professor of Astronomy and Director of the Mathematical Classes. Santini's works emVirace both ■mathematics and astronomy, and are considered very lucid expositions of the subjects he undertakes to illustrate and explain. SARDINIA, King of. {See Victor Emmanuel. ) SARTORIUS, Eenest William Christian, a German Protestant theo- logian, and one of the most earnest orthodox controversiahsts of his age and country, was born at Darmstadt, in May, 1797. He studied at Gottingen, and becoming devoted to divinity, was, at the early age of twenty-six, appointed Professor of Theology in the University of Marbourg. In 1824 he was nomi- nated to a similar office at Dorjjat, in Eussia. He retiu-ned to Germany in 1835, and accei)ted the Direction of the Consistory at Konigsberg. In politics as in religion he takes his place luider the standard of fixity. What is should not admit of change — such is his view. Being, however, one of the Evangelical S AU 348 SAY school of divines, his principles are I tolerant, and possibly there are few | theologians in Germany who elicit such i imiversal respect. His first work of consequence was the " Drei Abhand- lungen, &c., or Three Dissertations," which was published in 1820, treating of important matters in exegetical and systematic theology. In 1822 he pub- lished a treatise on the Protestant doc- trine, as regards temporal authority, and thenceforward he continued to issue works in defence of the evangelical faith, most of wliich have passed through several editions, and been translated into other languages. Though his ortho- doxy is severe, his style of writing is graceful, and quite divested of pedantry. SAULCY, Louis Felicten Joseph Caignart de, a French antiquarian, was born at Lille, in March, 1807. In 1826 he was admitted to the Polytechnic School, and entered tlae army as an artillery officer. He employed his lei- sui-e hours in the study of numismatics and archaeology. Promoted by degrees, to the rank of captain, and stationed as Professor to the Military School of Metz, he became the most noted antiqua- rian of the province. His publications were attractive ; and in March, 1839, he was elected a Cori-esponding Member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, having previously obtained the prize awarded by the Institute for an ' ' Essay on the Classification of Byzan- tine Coins." His tastes led him to Paris, and being installed as Conservator of the Musee d'Artillerie of the capital, he was elected in 1842 to succeed Mionnet,. as NimiLsmatist in the Academic des In- scriptions. Faithful to his predilections, M. dc Saidcy tiu-ned his attention to the deciphering of the cuneiform and other Eastern inscriptions, and with the view of studying the subject, left France for Palestine in 1850. On his return he aiinovmced a number of discoveries he had made in the East, and i)ublished his "Voyage autour de la Mer Morte et dans les Terres Bibliques," which was illustrated by maps and engravings. M. Saidcy is one of the most hai)pily and variously gifted anti(]uarians of France. He retired from the artUlery with the rank of Chef d'Escadron, and was raised to the dignity of a senator in 1859. He has made several joirrneys to the East, and has besides travelled in Iceland and Greeidand, and in all jmrts of Europe. SAY, Horace Emtt.e, a French po- litical economist and member of the Institute, was bom at Paris in March, 1794, and educated at Geneva. The son of the great economist, Jean Bap- tiste Say, he commenced his career in the commercial establishment of a relation, proceeding in 1813 to the United States, as a sujiercargo ; and two years after- wards he went to Brazil, where he re- mained for a lengthened period. Up to 1831 he devoted his energies to com- mercial enterprise ; but in that year he was chosen Judge 'of the Tribunal of Commerce of the Seine, and in 1834 became a member of the Chamber. He was elected member of the Municipal Council, and the Council-General for the Department of the Seine, in 1837 and 1846, retaining his position under the Republic and the Empire. The National Assembly in 1849 appointed him one of the Council of State, but he retired from that body on the memorable 2nd of December, 1851. The works of M. Say are not numerous, but they indicate high ability and express liberal views of commercial policy. His chief work is a " History of the Commercial Intercourse between France and Brazil. " He has edited with discriminating care the great w(n-k of his father, ' ' The Complete Practical Course of Political Economy. " He is also the author of a "Report on the Inquiry imdertaken by the Chamber of Commerce of the Seine, " which gained the prize of the Academy of Sciences SCA 349 SCH iu 1853. M. Say is the founder of the I "Journal of Political Economy," to which he contributed numerous articles, the chief of which have been collected and published separately. SCARLETT, General, The Hon. Sir James Yorke, an Enghsh general, was born in 1799, and is son of the late Lord Abinger. His early education was received at Eton, whence he pro- ceeded to the University of Cambridge. After entering the army, he spent some time in military study at Sandhiu-st, and subsequently rose in his profession, until he became Colonel in 1852. On the breaking out of the war with Russia in 1854, he entered into active service, and as commander of the heavy cavalry, highly distinguished himself in a splentlid charge on the Russians, who had attacked Balaclava on 25th October, 1854. As an acknowledgment of his services, he was made Major-General towards the close of the year, and shortly afterwards succeeded Lord Lucan as Commander of the Cavalry. He is a Knight Commander of the Bath. SCHAMYL, a Caucasian warrior, was born in 1797, in the north of the Cauca- sian district of Daghestan. He belongs to the "Sufi" party, the reformers of Islamism. He commenced his career in 1824, and entered with his whole heart on what was to him a holy war against the Russians. In 1831 the Circassians gained some decided advantages ; Schamyl was left for dead in one in- stance ; another was chosen for chief, and Schamyl acted under him, on his recovery, without a murmur. He has been the reputed leader of the Circas- sians since 1836, and has performed some wonderful military exploits whUe contending with superior bodies of Rus- sians. So few rehable accounts are to be obtained of a struggle which lasted upwards of thu-ty years, that much remains for conjecture ; but, at all events, it is certain that whUe Schamyl achieved many victories, he was anxious to obtaiu Western assistance during the war in the Crimea. He has been termed the Abd-el-Kader of the Caucasus ; and, like the Arab chief, has fallen into the hands of his enemy. Deserted by numbers on whom he had placed dependence, Schamyl and his son became in 1859 captives, and Russia at length took possession of the long- coveted territory. SCHNORR, Jules, a German painter, was born at Leipsic, on 26th March, 1794. His education was chiefly re- ceived in the Academy at Vienna, where, with the assistance of some friends, he founded a society for the encom-agement of rising artists. In 1817 he went to Rome, where he remained for some years, and returning to Germany, he ob- tained a chair at the Academy of Fine Arts at Mimich, in 1827. His works are chiefly on Scriptural subjects, amongst which may be mentioned his "Marriage at Cana," "Jacob and Rachel," "The Fhght into Egyjjt," and ' ' The Annimciation of the Vii-gin. " He undertook, in conjunction with M. Neu- renther, the preparation of a series of wood-cuts, illustrative of Bible scenes. SCHCELCHER, Victor, a French democratic politician and author, was born in JiUy, 1804. His education was received at the College of Louis-le-Grand, and almost immediately on leaving that seminary, he attached himself to the ultra party, which opposed the restora- tion, and became connected with the "Friends of Truth," then with the "Aide Toi" society, and thuxlly, with the Society of "The Rights of Man." Decided in his advocacy of republicanism, he opposed the mouarchy of Jidy, 1830, and contrilnited both money and able advice to the jom-uals in the republican interest. Ha\ang, however, visited the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, he imbibed so strong a detestation of sla- very, that its abolition became with him SC H 350 SCO the special question. In order to obtain a fuller and more accurate knowledge of the system, he travelled to almost all the countries where it exists, and from time to time published the fruits of his investigations, incessantly pleading the cause of the coloured races. In 1847 he made a journey to Africa, and on his return was engaged in ])reparing a work on the conflitiou of the black population, when the revolution of Feliruary, 1848, took place. He arrived in Paris on March. 3rd, 1848, and was on that day nominated to the Ministry of Marine, and the office of Under-Secretary of State. On the 4th, he appointed a com- mission to draw up a project of law on the subject of emancipation. In the same month he issued a decree abolish- ing the lash in the maritime service, and in April he decreed the abolition of slavery in the French colonies. Re- turned to the Legislative Assembly, he defended his measures and principles alike from the tribune and through the press, while as Vice-President of the Montague i)arty, he invariably voted vnth the extreme left. The coup d'etat of December, 1851, brought about his ex|)idsion from France, and he retired to England, where he still remains. SCHOMBUllGK, Sir Egbert Her- MAXN, a traveller and naturalist, was born in Thuringia, in 1804. Having devoted himself to Natural Science, he undertook an exploratory voyage to Guiana iu 1835, imder the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society of Lon- don, and his botanical researches were rewarded by the discovery of that re- markable plant, the Victoria Regia water-lily. His success in this explora- tory mission was acknowledged by the honour of knighthood being conferred on him, and the award of the gold medal of the Royal Geograi)hical Society. Sir R. H. Schomburgk has published a " Sur- vey of British Guiana," " Views in the Interior of Guiana," and a "History of Barbadoes." As British Consul at St. Domingo he pursues his favourite stu- dies, and sends papers to the Geographi- cal and other Societies. He is a Knight of the Russian Order of the Red Eagle ; of the Saxon Order of ^lerit ; a Cheva- lier of the Legion of Honour, and a Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Kouigsberg. SCHONLEIN, JoHANN Luk, a Ger- man physician of eminence, was born at Bumberg, in Bavaria, November 30th, 1793, and was educated at the Gymna- sium of that place, and the Universities of Landshut and Wlirzburg. Having completed a still fiu-ther coiu'se of study at Gijttingen and Jena, he was ajjpointed joint professor, and in 1824, Titidar Pro- fessor of Clinical IMediciue, Wiirzburg Charged with the direction of the Hos- pital of Wurzburg, he achieved in a brief period the double reputation of being an able practitioner and a learned lecturer. In 1833 he became Professor of Clinical Medicine at Zurich, and held that position until 1839, when he was invited to Berlin, where he has since re- mained, exercising the functions of Pro- fessor of Pathology in the University, Pro- fessor at the Medical and Surgical Mili- tary Academy, Coimsellor of the Minister for Medical Affairs, and Physician to the King of Prussia. Professor Schonlein is distinguished throughout Germany by his reported lectures, which are held in the highest estimation by the profession, and Ijy the cases published bj' Ms pupils, both of which have, in most instances, been translated into other languages. He has j)ublislied nothing whatever him- self, l)ut his opinions can be gleaned with tolerable accuracy from some of his pupils' publications, among which the more prominent are "Allgemeine und SpecieUe Pathologic imd Therajue," " Krankenfamilie der Typhen," and " Klinische Vortrage im Charite Kran- kenhause zu Berlin. " SCOTT, George Gilbert, A.R.A., SCO 351 SED an English architect, was born in the year 181 1, at Gawcott, near Bucking- ham. Ha\"ing evinced a taste for archi- tecture, he was articled to an architect in London in 1827, and commenced practice in 1835. He was, for some years, in partnership with a fellow pu- pil, Mr. Moffatt, during which time he undertook a great number of important works. Those more immetliately of the style in which he has since excelled are the Martyrs' Memorial at Oxford, St. Giles' Church, Camberwell, and the res- toration of St. Margaret's, Stafford. The partnership was dissolved in 1845 or 1846, about which time he had been selected as the architect to the new church of St. Nicholas, at Hamburg, said to be one of the finest works of its class in Germany, and which is equal in size to some of the largest cathedi-als. In competition with the most eminent architects of Europe he again bore away the first prize for erecting the Hotel de VUle of Hamburg, in 1855. Among Mr. Scott's principal works, besides those already mentioned, may be enu- merated the complete portion of the cathedral of St. John's, Newfoundland ; the restoration of the choir of Ely Cathe- dral ; the new church of St. George, Doucaster, of AU Souls', Halifax ; the new chapel, library, and other buildings at Exeter College, Oxford, Kelham Hall, Nottinghamshire, Walter House, War- wickshire, Pipbrook House, Surrey; the restorations of Newark Church, Here- ford Cathedral, and St. Michael's Church, Coruhill. Mr. Scott was elected archi- tect to Westmmster Al)l)ey in 1849. He has, for some years past, been an Asso- ciate of the Eoyal Academy, and, since the virtual retu'ement of Professor Cock- erel!, has undertaken the Architectiu-al Lectiires at the Academy, in conjimction wdth Mr. Sydney Smirke. He received the Royal Gold Medal from the Institute of British Architects in 1859, a few months previously having been ap- pointed architect to the new Foreign Office, and joint architect with Mr. Digby Wyatt to the new India Office. Mr. Scott has published several works on architecture, and is one of the foimders of the London Architectural Museimi. SCPvIBE, Eugene, a French dramatic writer, was born on the 25th December, 1791, at Paris. At an early age he began a career as an author which has been eminently successful. Having a taste for the di-ama, his friends recom- mended him to abandon the bar, which he had followed, for the stage. He is a most voluminous writer, and one of the most ingenious inventors of a plot. He ^\^•ites chiefly for the stage, and per- haps no comatry is more indebted to him in that respect than England, which is. incessantly recei\'ing free translations of his works. He has written the hbretto to more than one popular opera, andi always displays the facility of suiting his words to the composer's music. Among his best known pieces are " La, Muette de Portici," "Era Diavolo," "Les Diamants de la Couronne," &c. SEDGWICK, Amy, (Mrs. Parkes,) an English actress, was born at Bristol, in 1835. In early hfe she exhibited a decided taste for the jirofession in which she has since so highly distin- guished herself. In 1852 she occa- sionally performed in amateur theatri- cals, and made her debut at Richmond in 1853, as 'Julia' in the "Hmichback," achieving considerable success. She afterwards returned to Bristol, and subse- quently appeared at Cardiff, as 'Pauline,' in the " Lady of Lyons." After per- forming in many of the principal towns in the kingdom, she, in 1857, made her appearance before a London audience at the Haymarket, as ' Pauline,' in which, and as 'Constance' in the "Love Chase," she was most enthusiastically received. Miss Sedgwick, however, did not long continue in what was evidently promising to be, for her, a most successful career, SED 352 SE Y as since lier marriage slie only occa- sionally appears ou the stage. SEDGWICK, Miss Catherine Maria, a popular American writer, was born in 1790, at Stoekbridge, in the State of Massachusetts, and is the daugh- ter of an American judge and Speaker of the House of Representatives. Her first work was published in 1822, luider the name of the ' ' New England Tale. " It was followed by "Redwood," a novel, republished in England, and translated into French and Italian. In 1827 ap- peared her most popidar book, "Hoi3e Leslie ; or, Early Times in America," and in 1835 "The Liuwoods. " "Letters from Abroad to Kindred at Home" were published in 1840, various other woi'ks having since, at intervals, appeared from her pen. SEDGWICK, The Rev. Adam, M. A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Corresponding Member of the Imperial Institute of France, Woodwardian Professor of Geology in the University of Camljridge, was born in 1785, at the parsonage of Dent, in York- shire. After passing thi-ough the usual preliminary training, he entered Cam- bridge University, and pursued his studies there with distinguished success, graduating in 1808, and in 1810 obtain- ing a fellowship in Trinity College. In 1818 he succeeded Professor Hailstone in the chair he now occujHes, and in the same year was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He became a Fellow of the Geological Society of Loudon, and was its president in 1829. He has given great attention to the study of palaeozoic and crystalline rocks in England and Wales, and in making out the true rela- tions of the stratified rocks of Devon- shire and Cornwall, labours which em- ployed ten or twelve summers. A ' ' Dis- course on the Studies of the University of Cambridge," and a "Synopsis of the Classification of the British Palaeozoic Rocks," form the chief independent works of the learned professor. His chief geological essays are found in the early volumes of the Transactions of the (Jambridge Phil()S()])hical Society, in the Transactions, Proceedings, and Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, and in the Annals of Philosophy. He has also, dui'ing his long-continued residence in Cambridge, pul^lished several tracts and pamphlets in defence of the Uni- versity, when it was attacked unjustly, and in Aandication of his opinions on certain questions of academical reform. Most of the latter have been brought to a conclusion by the Royal Commission, of which he was a zealous member. SENIOR, Nassau William, an English political economist, was born at Uffington, Berkshire, in September, 1790. Educated at Eton, he was called to the bar in 1817. In 1826 he was named Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford, and, having vacated the chair for some time, he resumed it in 1847. Possessing both practical ability and theoretical know- ledge of aibninistrative questions, he was placed upon various Government Com- missions, and distinguished himself by his suggestions in relation to the laws which regulate poor relief and the con- dition of the pauper inmates of work- houses. His publications on Political Economy, particidarly his article ou that subject in the "Encyclopa^lia Metropoli- tana," and on the Poor Laws, are very valuable, and most of his suggestions have been adopted by the executive government. He was for many years Master in Chancery, but ceased to hold this office in 1853. His last work is a "Journal kept in Turkey and Greece in 1857 and 1858." SEYMOUR, Right Hon. Sir George Hamilton, G.C.B. and G.C.H, an English diplomatist, was Ijorn towards the close of the last century. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and commenced public life in 1817, and was afterwards in the Foreign Ofiice in 1819. From SUA 35.3 S IM 1822 till 1846 he occui)ie(l official posi- tions in Frankfort, Berlin, Constanti- nople, Tuscany, and Belginm, being British Minister at Lisbon in 184:6. Five years afterwards, Sir Hamilton was re- moved to St. Petersburg, where he remained to within a few weeks of the late war being declared. He was sub- sequently appointed Ambassador at Vienna, after which he retired in 1858 from the public service. In all his diplomatic engagements he has been dis- tiuguished by extreme penetration into the designs of the courts at which he resided ; and equally so for the patriotic manner in which he conducted the affairs of Great Britain, whose interests he represented. SHAFTESBURY, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Lord Ashley, Eakl of, was born on 28th April, 1801, and was edu- cated at Harrow and Oxford. As Lord Ashley he successively represented Wood- stock in 1826, Dorset in 1831, Bath in 1847, and in 1851 succeeded to the peerage, on the death of his father. During the whole of his parliamentary career, he was earnest in his sujjport of all measiu'es tending to reheve the work- ing classes, and to his energetic exertions they are indeljted for the passing of the Ten Hours Bill. It woidd be impossible to name the various philanthropic societies with which Lord Shaftesbiuy is connected officially ; to do so woiUd require us to mention almost every scheme on foot in Great Britain, having for its object the moral, religious, and physical improvement of society. As a member of the Church of England, Lord Shaftesbury is distinguished for his liberal principles ; in the House of Lords he is regarded with the highest respect, and in the country at large his moral influence has never been equalled since the days of Wilberforce. To Lord Shaftesbury's assistance we are indebted for that valuable institution, the Bagged School, and lately he has taken the deepest interest in the reformatory and sanitary questions, and is one of the leading members of the recently-founded Social Science Association. SHUTTLEWOBTH, Sir Jame.s Phillips Kay, was born July 20, 1804. Having completed his education, he became Secretary of the Privy Council Committee on Education. The value of his educational zeal has been the theme of conflicting opinions, — a certain sec- tion of the community \aewing it favour- ably, and another deeming its tendency likely to strengthen the bureaucratic element that has for some time been gradually creeping into the administra- tion of the state. The controversy upon the views of Sir James continued for several years, but at lexigth he had the satisfaction of seeing his opinions adopted in the highest quarters. In 1850 Dr. Kay relinquished his connexion with the educational committee of the Privy Coun- cil, and v.^as made a baronet. He still evinces great interest in the cause of education. SIMPSON, General Sir James, G. C.B., was born at Edinbm-gh in 1792, and studied in the Ifuiversity of his native city. In 1811, when nineteen years of age, he obtained his first com- mission, that of an ensign in the Guards, served in the Spanish campaign of 1812, and afterwards went in command of the 29th Eegiment to the Mauritius. Recog- nised as an able officer, he was in 1845 ordered to India, and thence to Scinde, as second in command to Sir Charles Napier, whom he would have succeeded had the latter been placed, by any cause, hors de combat. He returned to England in 1846, and took the command at Chatham. He went out to the Crimea originally as chief of the staff", and on the death of Lord Raglan was appointed his successor. Considering his advanced age, he displayed wonderfid vigour and activity. On the 12th of November, 1855, he resigned his command, having A A SIM 354 SKO been, for liis distinguished services, honouied with the Grand Cross of the Bath, and made General. He has since lived in comparative retirement, being in infirm health. SIMPSON, James Young, M.D., was born at Bathgate, in 1811. He was educated for the medical profession, and took his diploma of M.D. in Edinburgh University, becoming assistant to the late Dr. Thomson, and afterwards Pro- fessor of Midwifery in Edmburgh, in 1840. His lectures are remarkably l)opular ; and he has introduced measures of alleviation iu his more inmiediate pro- fessional department, the obstetric, that had been previously never thought of, though now they are generally recog- nised. When the anaesthetic properties of ether were lirst discovered, or at least made known in America, Dr. Simpson inamediately saw their value ; but he was not satisfied with the effects produced in every case, and he brought his habits of investigation to bear on the discovery of some more efficient agent. The result was chloroform, the nearest approach, though not a perfect agent, to the desired end. The medical skill of Dr. Simpson, his general and large scientific acquii'ements, are, strange to say, even more admired in France than at home. He has filled some of the highest positions attainable in his pro- fession in Scotland, and foreign Govern- ments have aijknowledged his great merits by conferring on him decorations and orders. SINCLAIR, Miss Catiieiune, an Enghsh authoress, was born at Edinburgh on the 17th April, 1800. She is the sixth daughter of the late Sir John Sin- clair, who sat in Parliament for thirty years, and was celebrated for the im- j)ulse he gave to agricultural improve- ment in the north of Scotland. At a very early age, Miss Sinclair became her father's secretary, being, from education and taste, well qualified for the labour. Two children's books, "Charlie Sey- mour" and the "Lives of the Cajsai-s," were written in the intervals snatched from Sir John's demands on her time. In 1835 she published "Modern Accom- plishments, or the March of Intellect," and iu the year following "Modern Society. " These volumes were followed by "Hill and Valley" and "Scotland and the Scotch," the one consisting of sketches in Wales, and the other of mental jihotographs of Scotland. Both were interesting, and executed with much grapliic power. In 1839 she pub- lished ' ' HoUday House, " a sort of auto- biography of her youth, which was fol- lowed by "The Journey of Life" and the "Business of Life," compositions which strongly incidcate the princijJes of religious cultivatitm. Several novels founded on fashionable Ufe, subsequently appeared, namely, the "Mysterious Marriage," a continuation of " Holiday House," "Modern riu-tations," "Lord and Lady Harcom't," &c. "Torchester Abbey" and "Anecdotes and Aphor- isms," published in 1855, are her latest works. Since then Miss Sinclair has been largely occupied in attending to charitable institutions, but she is novr preparing a new edition of all her works, which is to apjiear in twelve volumes, to be issued monthly. SKODA, Joseph, a German physician, was born at Pilson, in Bohemia, on the 10th December, 1805. He studied medi- cine at the University of Vienna, lle- ceiving his diploma as doctor in 1831, he practised in Bohemia while the cholera raged in that country, and in 1833 was appointed second physician to the Gene- ral Hospital of Vienna. Initiated by Heine and Gutbrod into the special scientific uses of the stethoscope, he resolved, influenced by his connexion with Kolletschka and Rokitansky, to devote his attention to the study of Pathological Anatomy. His coui-se of practice in this department of medical SLA 355 S M I science was attended ^\^th such advan- tages to the public that he became, in 1840, physician to that division of the Hospital of Vienna which is set apart for consumptive patients, in 1841 Prin- cipal Physician of the hospital, in 1846 Clinical Professor, and 1848 Member of the Academy of Sciences. By some, his system of treatment is said to be pecuhar, but even by his opponents he is ad- mitted to be an excellent pathological anatomist. SLADE, Sir Adolphus, a captain in the British navy and vice-admh-al in the Turkish service, where he is known as Mushaver Pacha, was born in 1803, and is the fifth son of the late Sir John Slade, Baronet, of Maunsel Grange, Somersetshire. Educated at the Eoyal Naval College, he entered the service at the usual age, and as midshipman and lieutenant was engaged for twelve years on the Pacific, Brazilian, West Indian, and Mediterranean stations. In 1829, during the war between Turkey and Russia, which led to the Peace of Adrianople, he served as a volunteer in the Turkish fleet in the Black Sea. From 1834 to 1837 he was placed under the command of the late Admiral Sir L. Rowley, and employed by that dis- tinguished officer on various missions in Turkey and the south of Russia. After returning to England, and sjiending some time in mathematical and professional studies, he took the command, in 1846 and 1847, of the experimental iron vessel the Recruit, and threw light, by a series of experiments, on the subject of induced magnetism. After sharing in the opera- tions for quelling the insui-rection in Portugual, Madeira, and the Azores, in 1849, he was appointed additional cap- tain to the flag-ship in the Mediterranean, for special service in connexion with the Turkish fleet. In September, 1850, on the invitation of the Subhme Porte, and with the consent of the Admiralty, he joined the Turkish sei-vice, with the rank of rear-admiral. During the late war between Turkey and Russia, serving in the Black Sea with the Turkish fleet, he co-operated in conveying the allied armies from Varna to the Crimea, and was present at the bombardment of SebastopoL For his services during the war, he received promotion from the Turkish Government to the rank of vice- admiral. He was appointed Admiral of the Port of Constantinople, with jurisdiction over other ports of the empire, and President of the Supreme Admiralty Court. From the English Government he received the honour of Knighthood of the Bath. He is the author of "Records of Travels in Tui-- key," "Turkey, Greece, and Malta," and a work on " Maritime States and MUitary Na\'ies." SMIRKE, Sir Robert, an architect and Royal Academician, son of the late Robert Smirke, R.A., was born in 1780. In the early part of his life he was for a short time in the office of the late Sir John Soane, who does not, however, appear to have exercised any perceptible influence over the ai-chitectm-al tastes of his pupil. Before the subject of this notice entered into the active practice of his profession he visited many of the principal cities of Europe, and remained some years abroad, especially in Italy, Sicily, and Greece, where he doubtless contracted that marked partiality for the simple forms and severe features of the early Greek and Roman architecture which he has constantly displayed in his works. Amongst his most successful efforts may be enumerated the late Theatre at Covent Garden, the General Post Office, London, and the British Museum. Sir Robert Smirke has been always admitted by competent judges thoroughly to understand the construc- tive principles of his art. The general use of concrete foundations in marshy or insecure sites, has also been justly ascribed to him. But perhaps the merit SMI 3J6 S M I of this eminent architect which has been most universally conceded to him, at least })y his employers, is the great fidelity with which he succeeded in bringing the ultimate costs of his various works within the hmits of those esti- mates on the faith of which they were undertaken. Sir Robert Smirke became an academician in the year 1811, was for many years one of the architects of the Board of Works, and when that Board was finally remodelled under the administration of Lord jMelbourue, he received the honour of Knighthood, in testimony of his services. He has recently deserved well of the profession by resigning his academical station and honovu-s, when he found that failing health and advancing years had (iu his own opinion, at least) disqualified him for the usefid performance of his pro- fessional duties. army as second lieutenant in the Rifle Brigade, served in the storm and capture of Monte Video, in the attack on Buenos Ayres, and in the Peninsula. In 1814 he man-ied Donna J. Maria de los Do- lores de Leon. In the same year he was adjutant-general of the forces which captured Washington and New Orleans. He was an assistant quartermaster- general of the sixth division at Water- loo. In 1835-6 he commanded on the frontier in the Kaffir war, and was warmly commended for his services. From the Cape General Smith went to India. He distinguished himself greatly in the battles of Moodkee and Feroze- shah. He conducted the manoeuvres which terminated in the decisive battle of Aliwal on the Sutlej, in 184G, when seventy-six guns of the enemy were cap- tured. He fought and was present at the battle of Sobraon. In 1847 he was ap- SMITH, Alexander, a poet, was pointed Governor of the Cape of Good born on 31st of December, 1830, at Kil- marnock, Ayi-shire. His early intention was to qualify himself for the ministry, but circumstances of various kinds pre- vented him from entering on the prepa- ratory studies. While following the business of a lace-pattern designer, in Glasgow, he began to write verses, and sent some extracts from his first sus- tained poem to the Rev. George Gilfillan, of Dundee, then understood to be one of the writers for the "Critic," who in- serted them in that journal. His " Life Drama " was afterwards published, and although severely criticised, was ad- mitted on all hands to contain lines of the highest poetical merit. In 1854 Mr. Smith was elected to the secretaryship of the Edinburgh University. His "Life Drama," and "City Poems," are his principal works. SMITH, Sir Henry George Wake- LYN, Baronet, an English general, was born at Whittlesea, in Cambridgeshire, where he was educated under the Rev. George Biu-gess. In 1805 he entered the Hope, whence he returned in 1852, after having conducted the Kaffir war of 1851-2. He was appointed lieutenant- general in 1854, and commanded the northern and midland districts of Eng- land from 1854 to 1859. He is one of the strongest and most influential advo- cates of the Rifle movement. Sir George has twice received the thanks of Parlia- ment, and had the honour of a baronetcy conferred on him in 1846. SMITH, Thomas Southwood, M.D., an English physician and sanitary re- former, was born about 1790. He gra- duated at the University of Edinlim-gh in 1816, and went to London in 1820. He was one of the founders of, and earliest writers in, the -"Westminster Review." Aliout 1825 he was appointed Physician to the London Fever Hospital, and somewhat earlier to the Eastern Dispen- sary. Here it was that he learnt the true sources of epidemics, which he ex- pounded in his " Treatise on Fever,'' published in 1830. The revelations he made as to the condition of the localities SMI 3o7 SOU and dwellings of the poor, in his "Re- poi-ts on the Physical Causes of Sickness and Mortality which are cajjable of Re- moval by Sanitary llegnlations, " aroused the attention of the public and the Legis- lature, and gave rise to Sanitary Re- form. To the knowledge obtained by extensive exj)erieuce, he thus gave a practical direction. He was an arm of strength to Lord Shaftesbury in obtaiu- iug the Factory Ten Hours Act ; and more persevering and self-denying efforts have not been made in the history of the country than those of Dr. Southwood Smith, to improve the sanitary condition of the people. The Public Health Act, and the various methods adopted for drainage, sewerage, and the prevention of malaria, are chiefly to be ascribed to his zeal and labours. SMITH, William, LL.D., a classical scholar, author, and Examiner in the London University, was born in London in 1814. 'He was educated at the Lon- don University, and was intended for the bar ; but his taste for the classics was so great that he devoted himself entirely to their study, and became Professor of Greek and Latin literatui-e at the Col- leges of Highbury and Homerton, after- wards amalgamated into the ' ' New College, London." In 1853 he was appointed Classical Examiner in the University of London. He has jmb- lished numerous classical works, among which may be mentioned the ' ' Diction- ary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology," the "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," a "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography," a ' ' Latin and English Dictionary, based on the works of Forcellini and Freund." Dr. Smith has also edited an edition of "Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Ro- man Empire," which is certainly the best extant. SOMMERVILLE, Mi«. Mary, was born at Burntisland, in Fifeshire, in 1790. Lentil after her fu-st marriage she displayed no special aptitude for the study of the exact sciences, though by her father, who was an officer in the Royal Marines, she was instructed in Greek and Latin, and led to cidtivate music and painting. The first positive pubhc appearance made by this lady was in the publication of her ' ' Mecha- nism of the Heavens," but she became known in scientific circles by her inte- resting experunents on the magnetical influence of the solar rays. She is the author of the "Connexion of the Phy- sical Scieaces," and "Physical Geo- giaphy," and honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society. Mrs. Som- merville enjoys a pension of £300 a year for her services to literature. SOULOUQUE, Faustin, the ex- Emperor of Hayti, was born in Saint Domingo, 1789. Brought into the world a slave, he received his freedom when but twelve months old, and therefore never personally experienced the degra- dation of being a bondsman. At four- teen he entei'ed the army, and took part in the expulsion of the Fi-ench from Hayti ; he was captain in 1820, and gradually rose until he obtained the rank of colonel, then general of bri- gade, and in 1846 general of division. Having obtained a high rejiutation for sagacity and jjrudence, the Republic of Hayti, ha^^ng been on the point of disso- lution by the contests of antagonistic factions, Soidouque, in imitation of the Em[)eror of the French, destroyed the republic, and declared himself Emperor, mider the title of Faustin I. Unlike his model, he was moderate in his de- mands on the pecuniary resources of his people, for he merely requu-ed for his civil list the annual stipend of £4,000, while his chief ministers of state were paid at the yeai'ly rate of £120 each. Early in 1859 his imperial career came to an end, which might have been ex- pectetl, from his \iolence and tyranny. The Haj1;iaDS rose against him as one sou 358 ST A man, and he was ex])ellod, with all his family, from the island, all his ])ersonal property being confiscated l)y the victors, l^st seeking an asylum in Jamaica, he proceeded to Europe, and it is under- stood that, retired from the world and all its vanities, he leads a quiet life in one of the southern provinces of France. SOUTH, SuiJamks, F.K.S., M.E.I. A., F.L.S, F.R.A.S., an astronomer, was born towards the close of the last cen- tury. He was educated for the medical profession, and practised for some time, but he became absorbed in astronomical science, and acquired distinction as an observer. In 1820 he helped to form the Hoyal Astronomical Society, and in 1821 became Fellow of the Royal Society. In pursuit of his cherished science he was most ardent, and made extensive additions to our knowledge of the stellar heavens. For his discoveries he was presented witli the Copley medal, by the Royal Society, in 1826. At this period he removed to the Kensington Observatory, where he has ever since pursued his astronomical observations. He was knighted in 1830, and a sum of £300 a year was granted him for the promotion of astronomy. SPAIN, Queen of. (See Isabel II. ) SPARKS, Jared, an American bio- grapher, was born of poor parents, at Wellington, in Connecticut, towards the close of last century. Placed under the care of a Unitarian clergyman, he was educated for the ministry, and ordained in 1819. His attention, however, was next given to historical studies, and he retu'ed from the ministry, and was in 1839 elected Professor of History in Harvard University. Three years later he was chosen Principal of that Uni- versity; but, in 1852, was obliged to retire, on account of the state of his health. Since then he has lived at Cambridge, United States. His best known work is the " Life and Writings George Washington," and he is now engaged on a great work on the History of the American Revolution. SPURGEON, The Rev. Charles Haddon, was born on 19th June, 1834, at Kelvedon, Essex. His father was minister of an Independent chui'ch ; but his son considering the baptism of be- lievers by immersion to be a scriptural ordinance, was immersed before he was sixteen. Shortly after, he commenced his career as a preacher ; and when nine- teen he made his first ajjpearance before a London audience. In a shoi-t time New Park Street Chapel was crowded, Exeter Hall was also filled, and subse- quently in the Surrey Music Hall he attracted a congregation which filled it, s[)acious as it is. He was preaching there, to an immense congregation, when the false alarm of fire, on a pre- concerted signal by disturbers, caused a rush, by wliich a nimiber of persons were killed, in October, 1856. A new tabernacle is nearly finished for the re- ception of his congregation, which, from the grandeur of its proportions, will con- tain from 5,000 to 6,000 persons. Like all class orators, whether in the pulpit or on the platform, his mode of preach- ing has been denounced by one party and lauded by another. Probably the middle method of characterising it would be nearest the truth ; but it has never been questioned that he is a, most original preacher. In doctrinal points Mr. Sj)urgeou is a High Calvinist, and in all his discourses gives prominence to those opinions. STANFIELD, Clarkson, R.A., an English marine painter, was born at Sunderland about 1798. He early showed a predilection for the sea, and whilst serving on board a vessel, gave the first indication of his love of art, by painting scenes for an amateur perform- ance by the officers. Leaving the sea, he became scene painter to one of the theatres in London. His style was bold and easy. He was afterwards employed ST A 359 ST A as scene painter at Drury Lane, and pro- duced pictures sucli as never had graced its stage l)eforo. He then turned his attention to oil-painting, and rose so rajiidly in public estimation, that in 18.>2 his merits were recognised by his being elected an A.R.A., and in 1835 he became R.A. It is impossible to convey any imj)ressi(jn of the beauty of his works, or of the facility with which he i)aiats. But many of them are well known, and the following character- istic specimens may be seen in the South Kensington Museum : — " En- trance to the Zuyder Zee, " ' ' The Battle of Trafalgar," " The Lake of Como," " The Canal of the Giudecca, Venice," "Near Cologne," " A Market Boat on the Scheldt," and " Sands near Bou- logne. " STANHOPE, Phillip Henry, Earl OF, better known as Lord Mahon, F. R. S. , an English historian, was born at Wal- mer, Kent, in 1805, and was educated at Oxford. He entered Parliament for Wootton-Bassett in 1832, and was re- turned for Hertford in 1835, retaining that seat for seventeen years. In the latter part of 1834, and the early months of 183.5, when King William IV. dis- missed the Melljourne ministry and called Sir Robert Peel to the Treasury, Lord Mahon held ofBce as Under Secre- tary of State for Foreign Affairs, going out with Ministers in the latter year. He was appointed Secretary to the Board of Control in 18-45, and held that office for a year, when he again retired with Government. His tone as a politician was taken in a great degree from Sir Robert Peel, to whom he was w^armly attached ; and his exertions secured the passing of the Copyright Act of 1843. In 1855 he succeeded to the peerage, on the death of his father. His princijial works are a ' ' History of the War of Succession in Spain," a " History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles," in seven volumes, a "History of Spain under Charles the Second," a " Life of Beli- sarius," a "Life of Joan of Arc," a series of "Historical Essays," a "Life of Lotus, Prince of Conde," and the "Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel." Lord Stanhope has edited several publications, and the manner in which he has per- formed the duty of selecting, arranging, and revising, may be pointed to as a model for all who aspire to follow this walk of literature. As an historian, his facts are always carefully weighed, he extenuates nothing, but is rigidly im- partial, his reflections being just, whilst his style is always polished, and often rijes to eloquence. Lord Stanhope was, some years ago, President of the Society of Antiquaries, and in 1834 had the honour of D.C.L. conferred on him at Oxford. STANLEY, Rev. Arthur Penrhyn, was born in December, 1815. After having been at Rugby school in 1833, he graduated at Oxford in 1838, became a scholar of Balliol College in 1839, and a Fellow and Tutor of University Col- lege, Oxford, in 1841. He was ap- pointed one of the Canons of Canter- bury in 1851, and Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Oxford in 1856. He is the author of the "Life and Correspondence of Dr. Arnold," the " Memoir of Bishop Stan- ley," " Sermons and Essays on the Apostolical Age," "A Commentary on St. Raid's Epistles to the Corinthians," " Sinai and Palestine in connexion with their History, " ' ' Historical Memorials of Canterbury," "Sermons preached in Canterbury Cathedral on the Unity of A})ostolical and Evangelical Teaching," "Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical History," and numerous other works. STANLEY, The Rkhit Hon. Ed- ward Henry Smith, M.P., an Enghsh statesman, was born at Kuowslcy, the seat of his father, the Earl of Derby, on ST A 360 STI the 21st of July, 1826. He received his early education at Rugby, where he was a pupil of the late Dr. ArnokL He afterwards entered Trinity College, Cam- bridge, where he closed a distinguished university career by graduating in the spring of 1848, as a first-class in the classical tripos, gaining also matliemati- cal honours. Very shortly after leaving the university he unsuccessfully con- tested the l)orough of Lancaster, and so not finding his way into the House of Commons, he went abroad to add a knowledge of mankind to his knowledge of books. On this tour he visited Canada, the United States of North America, and the West Inilies. Whilst travelling he was elected member of Parliament for King's Lynn, vacant by the death of Lord George Bentinck, and on receiving intimation of this, he re- turned to England, and took his seat in the House of Commons. Lord Stanley afterwards visited India, not troubling himself so much with scenes of Oriental magnificence as desirous to whet his intellect and extend his knowledge by intercovu'se with the rejjresentatives of British wisdom and British valoiu- ; and in his absence was appointed Under Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, in the first administration of his father, in March, 1852. The news of this un- expected appointment hastened his jour- ney homewards, and cut short his oppor- timity of acquiring that complete know- ledge of the position and prospects of our Oriental empire which a more leng-thened residence would undoubtedly have con- ferred. The policy recommended by the noble lord in 1853 on Indian reform, was a foreshadowing of that which, in 1858, was adopted to preserve our dis- organized empire in Hindostan. Shortly after this, in a pamphlet entitled " The Church - Rate Question Considered," he exhibited that antagonism to church rates which has made his lordship so great a favourite with the Noncon- foi-mists of England. In 1853 Ox- ford created him a D.C.L. On the death of Sir William Molesworth in 1855, Lord Palmerston offered Lord Stanley the Seals of the Colonial OfHce ; the appointment was, however, declined. On the formation of Lord Derby's second Cabinet in Februaiy, 1858, the same post was offered and accepted. The sudden resignation of Lord Elleuborough left Lord Derby's Cabinet without a Presi- dent of the Board of Control. In this crisis Sir Edward Bvdwer Lytton be- came Secretary for the Colonies, and Lord Stanley took Lord Ellenborough's position at the Board of Control. Under his Presidency the "Double Govern- ment" fell; and the President of the Board of Control became a creature of the past. Lord Stanley having held his office under the style and title of Secretary of State for India. On the overthrow of Lord Derby's ministry in 1859, Lord Stanley necessarily went out of office ; but his assiduous attention to the affairs of Intlia while presiding over the coimcil, was the theme of unquali- fied approbation with aU who had an interest in our Eastern Empire. During the session of 18G0 he has taken little share in poHtics. STEELL, John, R.S.A., a Scottish sculptor, was born in Edinburgh, in 1804, his father being a carver and gilder in that city. He studied at Edinburgh, and afterwards at Rome. His principal pro- ductions are — the statue of Sir Walter Scott, under the arch of the Scott monu- ment ; the Queen, above the Royal In- stitution ; the Duke of Wellington, an equestrian statue, jilaced before the Register House, Edinburgh ; Admiral Lord de Saumarez, in Greenwich Hos- pital, London; and the Marquis of Dalhousie, at Calcutta. STIRLING, William, M.P., a bio- graphical writer and art critic, was born at Kenmuir, near Glasgow, in 1818. He is the representative of an ancient STO 3GI STR and wealthy Scottish house, the Stirhngs of Keir. He graduated at Trinity Col- lege, Camhridge, iu 1843, aud afterwards repaired to the Continent, where he de- voted himself assiduously to the study of Spanish literature in the libraries of France aud Spain. In 1852 he stood for the representation of Perthshu-e, and since then has sat in Parliament for that county. He is the author of "The Annals of the Artists of Spain," " The Cloister Life of Charles the Fifth, " and " The Life of Velasquez." S T W E, Hakrikt Elizabeth Beechkk, an American authoress, was born in 1814, at Lichfield, Connecticut, where her father, the Rev. Dr. Lyman Beecher, was minister. For a time, Harriet assisted her sister, Catherine Esther Beecher, in teaching a school ; but in 1832, circumstances having called her father to Cincinnati to superintend a theological seminary, Harriet accom- panied the family, and there married the Kev. Professor Calvin E. Stowe. Mrs. Stowe was an occasional contribu- tor of tales and sketches to the news- papers and periodicals of the day, and a collection of these was published in New York in 1844, under the title of "The Mayflower," which obtained consider- able popularity. Mrs. Stowe's attention was called in 1850, by certain circum- stances, to the more atrocious features of ' ' the peculiar institution, " which re- sulted in the production of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," a work which has had a greater popularity than perhaps was ever before known, and it would be difficult to find any civilized part of the world where this thi'illing narrative has not been read. Some criticism to which the work was subjected in the United States, induced Mrs. Stowe to ])ublish, in 1853, as a " Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin," the documents and facts on which it was based. In that same year she visited England, Scotland, and the Continent. Ivetm-uing to America, she published. under the title of "Simny Memories," her impressions of her journey. This work was followed by ' ' Dred ; a Tale of the Dismal Swamp," published in 1856. In 1856 Mrs. Stowe visited Europe ; and again in 1859, when she completed a work on the social condition of the new world, entitled " The Minister's Wooing." STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE, Stratford Canning, first Viscount, a British diplomatist, was born in Lon- don, Januaiy 6th, 1788, and received his early education at Eton. In 1806 he entered Cambridge University, but left in the following year on receiving a junior appointment in the Foreign Office. Ha\aug in the interim fiUed satisfactorily various subordinate posi- tions in the diplomatic ser^'ice, in 1812 he retm-ned to Cambridge, and took the degi-ee of M.A. In 1814 he was sent as Envoy to Switzerland. In 1820 he acted as British Plenipotentiary to the United States. After a three years' sojouru at Waslungton, he was appointed on a spe- cial mission to St. Petei'sbiirg, and sub- sequently to Vienna. He was next sent to Constantinople as Ambassador Extraordi- nary in 1825. At that time Mr. Canning's good offices were energetically exerted with the Sidtan on behalf of the Greeks. In 1827 Mr. Canning retiurned to Eng- land, and entered the House of Com- mons as member for Old Saiiim. In 1829 he was decorated with the order of K. G. C. B. , and then represented the now extinguished borough of Stockbridge, In 1831 he went to Turkey with refer- ence to the fixing of the boundaries of the kingdom of (Greece. Ha\ing settled the treaty, on the basis of which Otho as- cended the Greek throne. Sir Stratford Canning was then appointed a special envoy to the courts of Lisbon and Ma- drid. In Decemljer, 1834, he was elected for King's Lynn, N(n-folk, which he continued to represent until — having twice pre\aously refused the Governor- STR 382 STR Generalship of Canada — he was sent out to Constantinople in 1841. In 1852 he became a peer, under the title of Vis- count Stratford de RedclifFe. After a loni^, and often anxious servitude, Lord Stratford retired in 1858 from the Turk- ish embassy, and has since his retui-n, spoken frequently and with effect, in the Upper House, on questions of East- ern as well as foreign policy generally. His influence in Tiukey has been inva- riably exerted in behalf of civilization and Christianity, and science and Pro- testantism have ever found in him a warm friend. STRAUSS, David Friedrich, a German theological writer, was born at Ludwigsbourg, in Wurtemberg, on the 27th January, 1808, and educated in his native town, and subsequently at Blaubeuren and Tubingen. In 1831 he was an Assistant Professor in Maidbronn; in 1832, a teacher in the Theological Institute of Tubingen. He was dis- missed from his situation on account of the startling doctrines he promidgated, and became a private tutor at Stuttgardt. In 1839 he was appointed to be Pro- fessor of Divinity and Church History in the University of Zurich. Public meetings were held, and the popular discontent was so warmly expressed that the Council of Education was obliged to relieve him of his duties. He retiu-ned to authorship, and published several works, when in 1848 he was sent to the Wurtemberg Diet, as repre- sentative for his native place. His mode of proceeding in the Diet was such as to higlily exasperate his constituents, and he felt comi)elled to resign his seat. He again returned to literary jim'suits. His most noted work is his "Life of Jesus," which is considered highly hete- rodox, and he has published others, also of a theological nature. STRICKLAND, Miss Agnes, an English authoress, was born in ISOG. She had the best opportunities of culti- vating her genius, on account of lier father's literary acquirements. Her first pubhshed work was a metrical romance in four cantos, entitled ' ' Worcester Field ; or, The Cavalier," followed by a poem in heroic vei'se, entitled "De- metrius : a Tale of Modern Greece." After the death of her father she made her first visit to the metropolis, and while staying with a relative obtained a ticket of admission to the British Mu- seum ; and becoming a daily student of its treasures, she commenced to collect materials for her ' ' Royal Female Biogra- phies," a task in which she was assisted by her eldest sister. !She published in 1840 the first volumes of "Lives of the Queens of England ; from the Norman Conquest to the Death of Queen Anne :" the series was concluded intheyear 1848, when it was reprinted as a whole, and subsequently stereotyped. " The Lives of the Queens of Scotland, and English Princesses, connected with the Regal Succession of Great Britain" followed, as a necessary companion and adjunct to the first series of Royal Female Bio- graphies. This second series contains the most complete and really authentic life of Mai-y, Queen of Scots, that has been published ; because, embodying a great amount of recent discoveries, gathered from the State Paper Offices of Great Britain, France, and various foreign libraries, and many som-ces of private information, in the correspon- dence of the times, preserved among the archives of noble families, both in England and Scotland, which have never been introduced into any other of the numerous, but necessarily imperfect, lives of Mary Stuart. In these royal biographies Miss Agnes Strickland has originated an entirely new school of history, which has since been very ex- tensively, but not always successfully, imitated by some of her contemporaries. Her last pubhshed work is of a lighter character, being a series of scenes and SWA 363 TAG sketches, illustrative of life in the East- ern Counties, where she has had peculiar opportunities of studying the manners and dialects of the people : it is entitled " Old Friends and New Acquaintances." She has recently published a volume of poems, entitled "Historic Scenes." SWAIN, Charles, an English poet, was born at Manchester, in 1803. His father died when he was but six years of age, and his mother's brother, a French gentl«man, named Tavare, settled as a dyer in Manchester, gene- rously provided for the widow and orphan, gave the right direction to the boy's education, and encouraged his taste for literature. In the year 1818 he received him into his works as a clerk, and in this establishment he remained for foiu-teen years ; but the pm'suit was uncongenial, and he aban- doned it to become an engraver. On com- mencing verse- writing his earher pieces werepubhshed in the "Literary Gazette" and some of the annuals, but the first marked impression Mr. Swain made on the public mind was in 1827, when he published his "Metrical Essays," a delightful volume of thought and fancy. In 1831 he gave to the world "The Mind, and other Poems," which ob- tained instant popidarity, passed through several editions, and established the author's position. In 1832 he wrote a })oem on the death of Sir Walter Scott, which he named "Dryburgh Abbey," and which, for the union of imagination, feeling, eloquence of diction, and de- scriptive power, is up to this moment without a rival in its class. In 184:7 he published " Dramatic Chapters, and other Poems;" in 1849, " English Melodies;" and in 1853, " The Letters of Laura D'Auverne, and other Poems," books which many years hence are likely to be perused with pleasure, as records of unaffected sentiment. SWEDEN AND NOKWAY, King of. (See Charles XV.) SYME, James, a physician, was born in Fifeshire, in 1799. His education was received at Edinburgh University, where he early manifested a taste for scientific pursuits. He studied anatomy under Listen. Having passed his exa- mination as a Surgeon, in London, he returned to Edinburgh, and soon became eminent as an anatomist and lecturer. He pubhshed in 1831 his "Treatise on the Excision of Diseased Joints," and in 1833 became Professor of Clinical Sur- gery in the Edinburgh University, and subsequently Surgeon to the Royal In- firmary. He was chosen Professor of Siu-gery at University College, London, but after being a short time there, he returned to Edinburgh, and resumed his professorship. He is considered by the profession as one of the most finished of Uving operators. Amongst various works and memoirs, the following have gained him great reputation, namely, — his "Treatise on Diseases of the Rec- tum," "Contributions to Pathology," " The Practice of Surgery," and other treatises referring to practical surgery. TAGLIONI, Marie, a Swedish dcm- seu-se, was born at Stockholm, in 1804, of a family the members of which had long followed the profession of ballet- dancers. Her father being baUet-master in several of the continental opera houses, she received lessons at Vienna, Stuttgardt, and Munich, from 1822 to 1826, making her first appearance at the French Opera in 1827, when her reception was of the most fiattering description, and her success midoubted. She subsequently appeared on the stage of every principal city in Eiu'ope ; mar- ried Count Gilbert de Voisons in 1832 ; and took leave of the profession in 1847, retiring to Italy, where she has two splendid residences, one at Venice, and the other on the Lake of Como. By her exertions. Mademoiselle Taglioni ac- quired a large fortune, being enabled, TAU 364 TA Y after her first season in Paris, to com- mand her own terms. It has been stated, that during the height of her career she has been paid by the manage- ment of Her Majesty's Theatre, in the Haymarket, the enormous sum of £120 l)er night ; and adding to lier peciuiiary engagement the presents she received from the court of St. Petersburg, her Russian remuneration exceeded £200 per night ! TAUNTON, THE Right Honourable Henry LABoucnERE, Lord, a British statesman, is sou of the late Mr. P. C. Laboucliere, of Rylands, Essex, and was born in London, in 1798. He was edu- cated at Christchiu'ch, Oxford, where he took a first class in classics in 1820, and graduated Master of Arts eight years afterwards. He was first returned to Parliament by the electors of St. Michael's, and held the seat until 1830, when he exchanged it for Taunton, representing the latter borough until he was elevated to the peerage in 1859. Lord Taunton's political experience thus embraces a period of upwards of thirty years, and during that time he has taken part in almost every public movement. A liberal from the hist, he has rendered valuable service to the jjarty with which he associated himself, and the recogni- tion of his services has not bi?en more marked than merited. From 1832 till 1834 he was a Lord of the Admiralty ; from 1835 till 1839 he filled the two offices of Vice-President of the Board of Trade, and Master of the Mint ; in the early ])art of the latter year exchanging his post for that of Under Secretary for the Colonies, a position which he held but a few months, when he was ap- pointed President of the Board of Trade. He continued in the last-named office imtil 1841, when Sir Robert Peel's ac- cession to power caused his retirement. On the resignation of the Peel govern- ment in 1846, he was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland. He administered Irish affairs for about a year, when he was recalled, and i)Iaced again at the head of the Board of Trade, holding that office till March, 1852, when he retired with ministers. In November, 1855, he became Secretary of State for the Colo- nies, and continued to direct that de- partment until Lord Derby was called to power in March, 1858. On the dis- solution of the Derby government, and the re-accession of Lord Palmerston, Mr. Labouchere was raised to the peerage. TAYLOR, Alfred Swaine, an English physician, was born at North- fleet, Kent, on 11th December, 1806. In October, 1823, he became a pui)il of the late Sir Astley Cooper and Mr. J. H. Green, at the then imited Hospitals of Guy and St. Thomas. On the sepa- ration of the hospitals he joined the classes of Guy's, and continued his me- dical education there until 1828. He afterwards studied in the medical schools of France, Germany, and Italy, attend- ing the lectures of Gay Lussac, Orfila, Dupuytren, and other distinguished French professors. In March, 1831, he was appointed Lectm'er on Medical Jurisprudence at Guy's Hospital, and in the autumn of 1832 he succeeded Mr. Alexander Barry as joint Lecturer on Chemistry with the late Mr. Arthur Aiken. These ajipointments he still re- tains. He passed the examination of the Society of Apothecaries in 1828, became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1830, and a Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians in 1848. He has since been elected a Fellow of the Col- lege, and has received from the Univer- sity of St. Andrews the honorary degree of M.D. At an early period of his career Dr. Taylor devoted himself to one of the most difficidt and yet most valuable departments of his profession, that of Medical Jurisprudence, in which he has long held the foremost rank in this country. For many years past he T A Y 365 TA Y lias been called on to undertake the responsibility of pod-mortem examina- tions, and chemical analyses in cases of supposed poisoning. Amongst the most remarkable of these, was the trial of William Palmer, in 185(), for poisoning by strychnine, and that of Smethurst, in 1859, who was indicted at the Old Bailey for administering arsenic. In both of these cases Dr. Taylor had to contend with an array of scientific evi- dence in opposition to his views, which was tiaily formidable ; and although his conclusions were objected to by some chemists, his eminent abilities as an analyst could not be called in question. TAYLOR, Bayard, an American author and traveller, was born in the State of Pennsylvania, April, 1825. In his youth he gave early promise of those Uterary abilities which have rendered him one of the most popular writers in the United States. His first effort of consequence was a long poem founded upon incidents connected with the chi- valrous era of the history of Spain. In 1844 he left the New for the Old World, and after visiting England, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, and France, he returned to America, and pubhshed an account of his travels, under the title of " Views Afoot ; or, Europe seen with the Knap- sack and Staff." The work was suc- cessful ; the young author attracted at- tention and elicited encomium; and in 1846 he was appointed one of the prin- cipal editors of the "New York Tri- bune," a democratic paper, to which he contributed a series of vigorous sketches of the people, the manners, and the po- litical state of California in the years 1848 and 1849, when he traversed that region on a journey of investigation. In 1851 he made a tour of the Mediter- ranean shores ; and that accomplished, he bent his steps towards the far east, exploring India, China, Japan, subse- quently visiting Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and Sicily, and penetrating into Central Africa. Concerning all these lands he has written in his naturally straightforward and honest style ; and those who have read his "El Dorado," "Life and Landscai)es in Egypt," "Japan, India, and China," "Pictures of Palestine," and "Travels in Central Africa," will admit his quick observa- tion and power of descrij)tion. He has also written a volume entitled "Eastern Poems," but it is not so widely knovvai as his prose works. TAYLOR, Isaac, an English wTiter and essayist, was born at Lavenham, in Suffolk, August, 1787. His education was received at home, and he eventually chose literature as a i)rofession. After his "Natural History of Enthusiasm," the most popidar of his productions have been- — "Fanaticism," "Spiritual Des- potism, " and ' ' The Physical Theory of Another Life ;" though for calm beauty, and a cheerful hoping tone, he has writ- ten nothing superior to " Home Educa- tion," " Saturday Evening," and "Spi- ritual Christianity." His " Ancient Christianity " completely demolished, by its erudition and argumentative power, the position taken by the Tractarians. Besides the works ah-eady named, he is the author of "Loyola and Jesuitism," and " Wesley and Methodism. " He is somewhat pecidiar in his style, but evinces in all his works a great origina- lity and depth of philosophical inquuy. TAYLOR, Isidore Justin Seve'rin, Baron, a French antiquary and tra- veller, descended from an Irish family naturalized in France, was born at Brus- sels, on 15th August, 1789. He studied at Paris, and was intended for the Ecole Polytechnique, but his tastes lay more in the dii-ection of art and literatiu-e ; and after taking lessons from the painter SavtS he wrote some stirring criticisms in the journals of the day. Escapiug the conscription in 1810, on account of ill health, he travelled through CTCrmam ,. Italy, and Belgiiun, on a tour of artistic T A Y 366 T A Y nvestigation. Towards the end of 1813 | he was enrolled in the army of the Em- pire, with the rank of sous-lieutenant, and on the Restoration he was chosen to form part of a brigade of artillery of the Gardes du Corps. He entered the Royal Guard as aide-de-camp to General Count d'Orsay, with whose London ce- lebrity most of our readers are familiar. M. Taylor was afterwards attached to the staff of Marshal Lam-iston. During the Spanish campaign he was on the staff of General Guilleminot. Though for years emploj^ed in arduous, and often difficult and delicate enterprises, he never neglected cultivating literature and the arts, even when promoted to the rank of Chef d'Escadi-on. On ob- taining the latter grade, he retired from the army. Previously, his name had been widely known, especially as a dra- matic author, and in 1824 he was ap- pointed Royal Commissioner of the Theatre Franyais, having in the interim materially aided in restoring the monu- ments of the midtUe ages all over France. As a theatrical superintendent he was a reformer, and therefore not jMjpular with those who knew no distinction between jealousy and rivalry. Under the aus- pices of Charles X. he proceeded to Egypt to bring the obelisk of Luxor to Paris ; a commission which he executed with perfect success. After the revolu- tion of 18.30, Louis-Phihppe entrusted M. Taylor with the execution of various missions which came more immediately into the class of his archaeological and artistic studies. He was named Inspec- tor-General of the Fine Arts. In con- nexion with these pursuits he visited Italy and Sicily, Spain, Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Africa, and succeeded in gathering together a noble collection of works of ai't. He has been remarkably active in founding Societies for the support of decayed authors, painters, musicians, &c., and seems to be in reality a genuine, though a modest and unassuming, philanthropist. His works are not very numerous, but they are valuable. Among the best are his "Voyages pittoresques et romantiques dans I'ancienne France, " 20 vols, folio ; the "Voyage pittoresque en Espagne," and the " Voyage aux Pyrenees," the "Voyage en Syrie, Palestine, et en Judte,"and the "Voyage en Egyjite." Baron Taylor has received various honours as a recognition of his learned labours : for some time he has been a Member of the Academy of the Fine Arts, and a Commander of the Legion of Honour. TAYLOR, Tom, an English dra- matist, was born at Sunderland, in Durham, in 1817. His early education was received at the Grange School, at the University of Glasgow, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where his talents and acquirements obtained for him various tlistinctions. He was subse- quently appointed to the chair of English Literature at University College, London. In 1845 he was called to the bar, in 1850 was appointed Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Health, and in 1854 he became Secretary. Since September, 1858, he has held the situation of Secre- tary to the Local Government Act Office, a branch of the Home Office. During his residence in London, after leaving Cambridge, he was a frequent contributor to "Punch," and became known as a writer of keen observation and pithy humour. His dramatic works are numerous, and always achieve the great end of interesting an audience. ' ' Still Waters run deep, " ' ' The Victims, " "The Unequal Match," "The Contested Election," and " The Overland Route," are all i)ictures of real life, and are re- plete with remarkable dramatic skilL He has also written a careful biography of Haydon, the painter, from the journals of that artist. He is captain of the Whitehall corps of the Civil Service Rifle Volunteers. Mr. Taylor was mar- TEN 367 TEN lied in 1855 to Miss Laura Wilson Barker, a lady whose musical composi- tions are widely known, as combining the qualities of rare originality, science, and sweetness. Her musical adaptation of the "Miller's Daughter," and many other of Tennyson's lyrics, are works of unquestionable merit. TENERANI, Pietro, an Italian sculptor, was born at Torano, near Carrara, about the year 1789. His ear- lier art education was received from Peter Marchetti, his maternal uncle, and in the Academy of Carrara. In 1814 he went to Rome, where he gained the pre- mium awarded by Canova for a statue of the "Risen Saviour." He afterwards studied under Thorwaldsen, and bene- fited by that sculptor's assistance. Te- nerani has risen to the highest place among sculptors ; for his ideas are novel, and he draws his subjects as well from the inspiration of Christianity as from the mythology of the ancients. In 1819 — when but a step or two removed from boyhood — he produced one of his most striking works, ' ' Psyche with the Box of Pandora, " which is at present in Florence, a gem in the Lenzoni palace. Other my- thological subjects followed with won- drous rapidity from his hand, and each production called forth fresh enthusiasm, from the combination of grace and power which was so definitely manifested. His first great religious work, ' ' Christ on the Cross," was executed in silver, in 1823, for the Church of St. Stephen at Pisa ; this was succeeded by the ' ' Descent from the Cross, " a relievo, for the Torlo- nia Chapel of St. John of Lateran, the "Martyrdom of Eudorus," and other works similarly characterised in style and subject. Many Italian churches possess statues of saints from his chisel, while his monumental statues are very numerous. Tenerani has had commis- sions from almost all the potentates and nobles of Eiu-ojie, Queen Victoria being I signs for Printed Fabrics" in possession of " Flora," one of his most '■ " Christianity in Ceylon " admirable efforts, and the Duke of De- vonshire having in his gallery "Cupid extracting a Thorn from the Foot of Venus." He is Professor of Sculpture at the Academy of St. Luke, in Rome, and member of various academies. TENNENT, Sir James Emerson, LL. D. , M. P. , an English statesman and writer, son of the late WiUiam Emer- son, Esq., was born at Belfast, in Aprd, 1804, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. Feeling a strong sympathy with the cause of Greek independence, he vi- sited Greece, and wrote there works enti- tled "Greece in 1825," "Letters from the ^■Egean," and subsequently his " History of Modern Greece," all remarkable for research and eloquence of style. In 1 83 1 , marrying the daughter and heiress of Mr. William Tennent, he, on that gentle- man's death, succeeded to his estates in the counties of Antrim, Sligo, and Fer- managh, assumed the name of Tennent in addition to his own, and took up his abode at the beautiful demesne of Tempe, which was the scene of Miss Edgeworth's tale of " Castle Racltrent." In 1832, and in 1835, he was elected one of the members in Parliament for his native town, and in 1841 was appointed Secre- tary to the India Board bj' Sir Robert Peel. In 1845 he became Secretary, and afterwards Lieutenant-Governor, of Cej'lon — receiving at the same time the honour of knighthood. In 1851 Sir Emerson was appointed Governor of St. Helena, which he shortly after resigned, without proceeding to the seat of his government. Shortly after he was re- turned member for Lisburn, and on Lord Derby's accession to power in 1852, he held the office of Secretary to the Poor Law Commission, which he resigned in 1853, to accept that of Joint Secretary to the Board of Trade. His " Belgium'' appeared in 1841, and in the same year "A Treatise on the Copyright of De- in 1850 in 1855 TEN 368 Til A ' ' Wine : its Uses and Taxation, " and in 1859 "Ceylon," a work which has al- ready obtained European ])opularity. His greatest parliamentary achievement was that of carrying the Cojjyright of De- signs Act, for which services the manu- facturers of the United Kingdom, in 1843, presented him at Manchester with a magnificent testimonial and service of silver Y>late, valued at £3,000. TENNY.SON, Alfred, D.C.L., the poet-laureate, was born in 1809, at So- mersby, in Lincolnshire, where his father was rector. The laureate's father, the Rev. George Clayton Tennyson, LL.D., was a man of no inconsiderable ability as a poet, painter, architect, musician, lin- guist, and mathematician. After some preparatory training at the gi'ammar school of Louth, he returned home, and was educated by liis father, being sent, in due time, to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he specially dis- tinguished himself, obtaining the Chan- cellor's IVIedal for an English Poem on Timbuctoo. The year following this, " University Success Poems, chiefly Lyrical, by Alfred Tennyson," were published. Three years after this maiden effort, Tennyson published a second volume, which contained "The Miller's Daughter," "A Dream of Fair Woman," "The Palace of Art," and "The May Queen ;" and compared with his first volume, was a surprising ad- vance, at once in richness of thought and beauty of imagery. In 1842 he published a collected edition of his works, in two volumes, and at once took the highest rank as a poet. Since then he has published " The Princess," a medley, "In Memoriam," "Maud," an "Ode on the Death of the Duke of AVellington," and the "Idylls of the King," which appeared in the summer of 1859. He is now engaged on a new poem, the subject of which is Boadicea. A few years ago Oxford conferred on him the honour of D.C.L., after he had I been appointed poet-laureate. We have not attempted anything more than a bare eiuimeration of the titles of Mr. Tennyson's poems. The list is, we trust, not yet closed, and it woidd be out of place to enter, within our narrow limits, on any estimate of the influence which they have already exercised, and are likely to exercise, in the present and the coming age. THACKERAY, William Make- peace, a novelist and essayist, was born at Calcutta, in 1811. His father and grandfather, Mr. W. M. Thackeray, of Hadley, both belonged to the East India Company's civil ser\dce. On his arrival in England he was sent to school, and afterwards completed his stiidies at the University of Cambridge. After having studied art at Rome, with the design of devoting himself to the profession, he retiu-ned to London, and gave himself mu'cservedly to literature. The "Times " is understood to have been one of the earliest of the mediums through which he adch'essed the public. It was, how- ever, not in the leading journal, but in "Eraser's Magazine," that Thackeray came prominently before the public. His "Paris Sketch Book," "The Second Funeral of Napoleon," and the "Chro- nicle of the Drum," were published in 1841. The success of these independent publications was not great, the public being slow to appreciate the merit of the new candidate for its favour. But while the higher order of mind was be- ginning to acknowledge his genius, it was his connexion with " Punch " that first constituted Thackeray a power in English literature, and there " Jeames's Diary," and the "Snob Papers," ap- peared. In 184G Thackeray's next sejjarate publication was brought out, entitled " Notes of a Journey from Corn- hill to Grand Cairo," by "Michael An- gelo Titmarsh," a pseudonym under which he then wrote, and almost simul- taneously he commenced the pubHcation T HA 369 Tin of " Vanity Fair," a work which at once placed him in the foremost position as a writer of fiction. "Vanity Fair" was followed, in 1848 and 1849, by two little Christmas volumes. In the latter year also the "History of Pendennis " began to appear; this, again, was followed in 1850, by "Rebecca and Rowena," and in 1851 he wrote the " Kicklebnrys on the Rhine." In 1852 the finest of his novels, "Esmond," appeared. Thack- eray's "Lectures on the English Hu- morists" is a work which, though slightly marred by mannerism, forms one of the most dehghtful pieces of biography in the language. The Lectures were first delivered in 1851, in London ; they were published in 1853, and re- cently a cheap re-issue has appeared. The success of the "Lectm-es on English Himnorists " induced Mr. Thackeray to prepare another series, the ' ' Four Georges," which were first delivered in America, dm-ing 1855 and 1856, and have since been re-delivered in all the chief cities of England and Scotland, with eminent success, and have ap- peared in the " Cornhill Magazine." " The Xewcomes," and " The Virgi- nians," are the most recent fictions of this eminent novelist. In JiUy, 1857, Mr. Thackeray contested Oxford with Mr. Cardwell, but was imsuccessful. During the last three years, the sketches,' bal- lads, and burlesques wi-itten by Mr. Thackeray, while yet unknown to fame, have been in process of republication. These miscellanies give us Thackeray in dishabille — Thackeray in masquerade — and carry us through the entire gamut of his exercises — light or sober — cynical or cheery. The forte of this social satirist has hiin among the professional, aristocratic, and would-be aristocratic world, and never has the pitiless day- light been so let in upon the rouge and tinsel of that world's ' ' Vanity Fair. " Mr. Thackeray now edits, and confines his literary labours to the "Cornhill Magazine," a new periodical, which already circulates to the large number of 100,000 (copies. THALBERG, Sigismund, pianist, was born at Geneva, in January 1812, and received a carefid education under the direction of his mother, his father being the Count Dietrichstieu. When very young he received lessons from the celebrated Himimel, and surpassed even his master by the firmness of his touch and the grace of his expression. His successes in the concert room began when he was only fifteen, and at sixteen he published his first compositions. In 1830 his name became extensively known, and in 1834 he was appointed Imperial Pianist to the Comi; of Austi-ia, which laid the foundation of liis fame and for- tune. He appeared in Paris in 1835, and his reputation being now Eurojiean, he entered in 1836 on a series of visitei to all the cities of the Continent and Great Britain, giving concerts, and ac- quiring wealth while adding to his cele- brity. For some years past he has been professionally engaged in the United States. In 1845 he married a daughter of Signer Lablache. As a composer and pianist M. Thalberg is the founder of a new school, which has had numerous followers, but none, with the exception of Liszt, coming up to the standard of the master. THIERRY, Alexandre, a French Doctor of Medicine and Surgeon, was born in February, 1803. His father and grandfather having been medical men, he embraced that profession, and studied with the utmost diligence. He received his degree as Doctor in 1 828, and after- wards published various learned disser- tations on intricate subjects of medicine and surgery. Being on the most friendly terms Avith Armand Carrel, he wrote for the "National," and became in 1832 Chef d'Escadron of the National Guard. In 1846 he was elected a member of the Municipal Coxmtil, and in 1848 he took B B THl 370 TI] I an active part, as well in stimulating the revolution of February, as in assisting General Cavaignae to maintain the peace of the city. Amid all the chances and changes of government in Paris, M. Thierry has been esteemed as an ear- nest and yet moderate conservator of pul)lic institutions, and has accpiircd the affections of the peo[)le because of his sacrilices on their behalf. Piofession- ally, he is recognised as one of the most skilful ojterators in France. THIERRY, Amedee Simon Domi- nique, a French historian, was born at Blois, on the 2nd of August, 1797. He received a good education in his na- tive town, and afterwards at Paris. Having entered in 1820 the central office of colonial administration, he began his historical studies about the same period. He published in 1824 a short " History of the Province of Guyenne," and four years afterwards, " A History of the Gaulois, or old Celtic Population of France," which has reached a fifth edi- tion. The success of this book induced him to look out for employment in connex- ion with education. He was api)ointed Professor of History to the Facidty of Letters of Besangon, where his course of lectures attracted large audiences. In sj)ite of the moderation of opinions and views expressed in his lectures, the government of the day took alarm, the course was suppressed, and M. Thierry was exposed to i)etty perse- cutions, which only terminated with the downfall of the Polignac ministry, followed by the revolution of 1830. This revolution completely changed the posi- tion of M. Thierry. The new Minister of the Interior, M. Guizot, whose pupil and friend he had been, appointed him Prefect of the Haute-Saone, a situation which he held for eight years. In 1838 he returned to Paris, where he entered the Council of State as Maitre des Re- quetes, an office which he filled till 1853, •when he was named a CoimciUor of State. In 18G0, the dignity of Senator of the Eni])ire was confei-red upon him. Having resumed his literary labours in 1838, and published a "History of Gaul under the Roman Domination," he was in 1842 unanimously elected a member of the Institute, of the section of the moral and political sciences. In 1855 he pub- lished his ' ' History of Attila and his Sons and Successors in Euro2)e," a work which was received with favour by the French public, and translated into all the continental languages. He has con- tributed a number of interesting articles to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." M. Thierry has the merit of having founded in France the study of the " Origines Gaidoises," and on thissulfject his ideas and doctrines are qiute in conformity with those of tlie most competent Bri- tish authorities. THIERS, Louis Adolphe, a French statesman and historian, was bom at Marseilles, on 16th April, 1797. Spnmg from a poor but respectable parentage, he was first educated at the Marseilles Lyceum, and subsequently studied for the bar, becoming an advocate in 1820. His professional career was, however, by no means encouraging, and at length he resolved to seek his fortune in literaiy l)ursuits, and for that purpose removed to Paris. He procured some employment in connexion with the "Constitutionnel," and soon attracted notice by the talents which he exhibited in his contributions to that newspaper. These were charac- terised by great versatility, and his sub- jects ranged through politics, theatricals, the fine arts, &c., indicating the posses- sion of a master mind on the part of their author. In the meantime he was engaged on his great work, the ' ' History of the French Revolution," which, on the appearance of the first part, imme- diately became popular, and has since given to M. Thiers considerable emi- nence as an liistorian. In 1830 M. Thiers began to take an active interest in poli- THI 371 THO tical matters, and held an office in Fi- nance, exchanging it for that of an Under Secretaryship, which he continued in till 1831. Having been returned a deputy, he took a prominent position as a parlia- mentary speaker, and was successively Minister of the Interior and of Public Works, maintaining the system of jiro - tection as essential to the commercial prosperity of France. He held various offices till 183G, when he became Presi- dent of the Council and Foreign Mi- nister. He occupied the same office in 1840, and in 1848 participated in the misfortunes of the Orleans dynasty, and has since entirely passed away from the platform of political affairs. M. Thiers subsequently occu|)ied himself in histo- rical pursuits, and his " History of the Consulate and the Empire," commenced in 184.5, was completed in 1860. Among his other literary productions are some of a minor character, siich as his ' ' Law " and his "Financial System," and numerous papers contributed to the " Ptevue des DeuxMondes," and the " Revue Fran - ^ais," &c. THIRLWALL, The Eight Rev- erend CoNNOP, D.D., Bishop of St. David's, and historian of Greece, was born at Mile End, Middlesex, in 1797. He was educated at Cambridge, and became a Fellow of Trinity College. He was called to the bar in 1825, but after- wards took orders, and was appointed to a rectory in Yorkshire. He commenced his " History of Greece" in 18.35 ; and in 1840 was elevated to the see of St. David's. THO LUCK, Feiedrich August GoTTREU, a German theologian, was born at Breslau, in 1799. He began as a schooll)oy to devote himself to the study of Eastern languages, which he prosecuted afterwards in the University of Berlin. He was brought up on prin- ciples hostile to Christianity, but having been introduced, in Berlin, into a circle of pious laymen and theologians, among whom was Neander, he changed his views. This took place dui-ing the jxj- riod of a religious enthusiasm which had been awakened by the war of liberation in Germany, and principally in Prussia. The yoimg student felt himself bound in conscience to prefer the theological career to that of Oriental scholarship, and began in 1820, a coiuse of theolo- gical study in the University of Berhn. In 1825 he was sent by the Prussian Government on a mission to the libraries of Holland and England, from which he returned with a literary store, part of which he afterwards communicated to the public in his works — "OntheSpe- ciUative Doctrine of the Trinity in the Philosophical Systems of the East," and his ' ' Poetical Collections from the Mys- tical Writings of Persian Authors." la 1825 he was transferred by his Govern- ment to the University of Halle, the most numerously attended theological faculty in Prussia, the number of divi- nity students amounting at that time to 950. The rationalistic system havinc been the prevailing one in this faculty, it was the intention of the Prussian King and the Government of the day, to supplant it by an orthodox theology. Tholuck succeeded in this object. He introduced Chi'istian sentiments, and awakened a Christian spirit in the university. His theological works are mostly exegetical, and consist chiefly of a ' ' Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount," "On the Epistles to the Ro- mans and Hebrews, and the Gospel of St. John," all of which have been translated into English. Of late, M. Tholuck has cditeecame attached to Sir George Brown's division, and assisted in forcing the ])as- sage of the Alma. At Inkermann he comnaauded the outposts,' sustaining the shock of the Russian attack wdth a heroism which adds to the lustre of the British arms. Even when seriously woimded, he remained on the field ; and while his limbs were but partially bandaged, he continued his command. In January, 1855, he returned to England, having, the year before, re- ceived the brevet rank of Lieut. -Colonel, and soon after arriving at home, he was promoted to be f idl Colonel, and honoured with the decoration of C.B. TULLOCH, The Rev. John, D.D., Principal and Professor of Divinity of St. Mary's College, St. Ancb-ews, was born in 1823, at Dron, Perthshire. He studied at St. Andrews, and was then licensed as a preacher in the Chuj-ch of Scotland. In 1845 he was appointed to a charge in Dundee, from which he re- moved in 1849 to the parish of Kettens, in Forfar. As a contributor to the " British Quarterly" and "North British Reviews," he fii'st acquired hterary dis- tinction, and in 1854 became Princijial of St. Mary's College, at St. Andrews. He obtained the second Burnett prize in 1855, for an essay since published by the Messrs. Blackwood, on the ' ' Being and Attributes of God." In 1859 he pub- lished his ' ' Leaders of the Reformation : embracing Sketches of Luther, Cahdn, Latimer, and Knox." T U P P E R , Martin Farquhar, D.C.L., F.R. S., a Literary writer, was born in London, 1810. He was educated at the Charter House, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1831, and was afterwards called to the bar. The first work which brought his name into celebrity, was "Proverbial Philosophy, " a book which has reached upwards of forty editions in England alone. It was followed by "The Crock of Gold," "A Modern Pyramid," "An Author's Mind," "A Thousand Lines," "Heart," "The Twins," "Ballads for the Times," "^sop Smith," "Stephen Langton," "Paterfamilias' Diary," and a multitude of lyrical and national poems, among which the most noticeable for their public influence were those which bore upon our relationships with America, and upon the Rifle movement in England. TURKEY, Sultan OF. (ported him, and during late years he has rarely aijjjcared in public on i)olitical questions. VANDENHOFF, John, a tlramatic performer, was born 31st March, 1790, at Salisbury. He is of Dutch origin, his grandfather having been an Amsterdam merchant. After the ordinary schooling of boys brought up in a city, he was sent to the College of Stonyhurst, Lanca- shire, at one period entertaining a strong fancy for an ecclesiastical life. He re- mained at Stonyhurst for about three years, but a change having come over VAN 379 VAU his views, he returned home and thought of other piu-suits. For a few months he tried the drudgery of a sohcitor's office, but at the age of sixteen he did not much relish that occupation, and he abandoned it for a sub-jireceptorship of a grammar school in the Isle of Wight. He remained in that situation for nearly two years. The reading and stiidy of Shakspeare, however, suggested the idea of the stage as a profession more con- sistent with his tastes than conmierce or teaching. His first appearance as an actor was made on the boards of his native city, where he undertook the arduous declamatory character of 'Os- mond' in Monk Lewis's "Castle Spectre," a drama of pecidiar romantic construction. Mr. Vaudenhoff coidd scarcely have chosen a more trying part ; but his success was such, that his friends ui'ged a re-appearance in the following week as ' Octavian' in Colman's "Mountaineers," another part which di'aws on all the powers of an actor. The theatre was crowded, and the ap- plause was such that the stage was resolved upon as bis profession. An old friend and correspondent of Garrick, Mr. James Wickeus, was lavish in his approbation of the young actor's efi"orts. Provincial engagements were at once secured ; Cheltenham, Taunton, Exeter, and Weymouth, giving him scope for the exercise of his talents. At Wey- mouth he acted with Edmund Kean, l:)efore that great performer appeared in London ; and as Mr. Vaudenhoff pos- sessed a versatility which falls to the lot of few performers, he did anything and everjrthiug until May, 1814, when he appeared in Lisrerpool as 'Rolla' in "Pizarro." This was his starting-point on the path of fame ; his reception was enthusiastic beyond precedent, and in Liverpool and Manchester he enjoyed, for six seasons, all the houoiu-s of a high reputation and as substantial proofs of regard as ever fell to a provincial actor. In December, 1820, he appeared first in Loudon as ' King Lear,' and played at Covent Garden amid raptiu-oiLS applause. This part was followed by ' Coriolanus, ' in which he has had no competitor since the days of Kemble. Ml-. Macready hax'ing preceded him in London, he relinquished his engage- ment and made a tour of the provinces, playing his favoiuite characters with marked success. In 1834 he re-visited London, and appeared for the second time as ' Coriolanus,' which, after an interval of fourteen years, he played with distinguished ability. Mr. Bunn secured his services for Covent Garden and Drury Lane. His subsequent per- formance of ' Adi-astvis,' in the tragedy of "Ion" at the Haymarket, was re- markably fine. In 1837 he visited America, where he met with great suc- cess. In September, 1838, he re-ap- peared at Covent Garden, then under the management of Mr. Macready, after- wards visiting America. In 1841 he accepted an engagement from Charles Kemble, and continued to perform in London and in the provinces, imtil October 29th, 1858, when he retired finally from the stage, after fulfilling a round of engagements in the principal theatres of the United Kingdom. At Liverpool, Edinbm-gh, and Glasgow, he was always a special favourite, and was received with the respect and esteem due to a gentleman, a scholar, and an accomplished artist. VAUGHAN, The Rev. Robert, D.D., a Nonconformist divine and critic, editor of the " British Quarterly Re- view," was born towards the close of the last century. Educated at Bristol, he became Professor of History in the London University, where he remained for several years. In 1842, he removed to Manchester, becoming President of the Lancashire Independent CoUege. He retained the presidency until 1857, when the fading health of his famUy obliged VEL VER him to resign. He projected the "British Quarterly Review" in 1844, and has l)een its editor ever since. He ■was sneered at originally when starting the "British Quarterly" by some of those who might have been expected to have hailed his disinterested effort to elevate Nonconformist hterature. The distinguished success of that review has shown that the powers of its projector are of no common order. He has pub- lished numerous works, chiefly on theo- logical and church history matters, and on popular education. VELPEAU, Alfred Armakd Louis Marie, a French surgeon, was born at the little village of Briche, near Toiu's, in May, 1795, where his father was a country blacksmith and veterinary sur- geon. In his early days, young Velpeau assisted at his father's craft, but owing to an accidental circumstance, he at- tracted the attention of a country gentle- man, M. Ducan, who procm-ed the means of sending him to Tours to study. His I)rogress was raj)id, though he had to endure many privations, for he was gifted with great decision of character. When admitted to the Hospital of Tours, he studied night and day, passing through the courses of Latin, French, geography, history, anatomy, physiology, and all the medical branches, with such success, that he was soon admitted a pupil in surgery, and then received as an officer of health. In 1818 he achieved the rank of first scholar, and soon after formed the hazardous resolution of re- pairing to Paris. He carried this reso- lution into effect ; attended the hospitals ; received the highest honours from the Ecole Pratique ; was named an ana- tomical assistant ; added daily to his reputation ; and eventually obtained his diploma as doctor in 1823. After several years of laborious practice, M. Velpeau was named, in 1830, Surgeon to the Hopital de la Pitie ; in 1835 he carried the chair of Clinical Sm-gcry of the Faculty of Medicine at the Hopital de la CharitS ; and in 1842, he was called to supply the Academic Chair, left vacant l»y the decease of the eminent M. Larrey. He has discharged all his public offices with distinguished ability ; he holds a first place among the surgeons of Paris, is an admirable operator, and possesses remarkable influence with the profes- sion. He is a very voluminous author in the vast domain of surgery, and his works are received by the facidty as standard authorities. VEP^DI, Giuseppe, an Itahan com- poser, author of a number of operas, some of which are among the most suc- cessful that have been produced diu'ing the last twenty years, was born at Roucole, Parma, 9th of October, 1814, and is son of an innkeeper of that town. He received his first lessons fi'om an ol)scure organist, but soon sirrpassed his master. From 1833 to 1836 he studied at Milan, under the direction of La\agna. In 1839 he produced his first work at Milan, a miLsical drama entitled "01>erto di San Bonifazio," which was toleral)ly well received ; but his next totally faUed, and he was so discouraged that for ten months he ceased to write. The year following his "Nabucco," re- presented at La Scala during the Car- nival of 1842, was so successful that he became recognised as a composer. He wrote rapidly afterwards, "Ernani" adchng to his reputation. His operas best known in this country are, "H Rigoletto," "II Trovatore," and "La Traviata," and he ranks at the present time as one of the most popular of living com|)osers. VERNET, Horace, a French histo- rical ])ainter, was born at Paris in 1789. His early days were passed in compara- tive poverty, and his taste for art was emi)loyed in various humble ways in gain- ing him a bare livelihood. His first exhi- bition was in 1809, and having chosen military incidents for iUustratiou, the VER 381 VER [)opiilar taste soon showed its apprecia- tion of his productions. In 1812 lie received a medal ; in 1814 became a Che- valier of the Legion of Honour ; and in 1825 an Officer of the same order. His reputation being now established, he changed his style of painting, and adopted historical subjects. Amongst his productions of this class are his "Judith and Holoferues," "The Ar- rest of the Princes, by order of Anne of Russia," " The School of Rafaelle," &c. In 1849 he painted his " Taking of Rome by Oudiuot ;" and in 1855 received a me- dal of honour at the Exposition Univer- selle at Paris. Besides the subjects above enumerated, M. Vernet has produced others in various departments of the art, and is one of the most prolific painters of the day. VEPtON, Louis Desire, a French writer and journalist, was born at Paris in April, 1798. He has been by turns a Doctor of Medicine, a writer on the laws of nations, a deputy to the Corps Lggislatif, and a director of the Opera. He commenced his studies under an ex- priest, and finished them at the Lycee Imperial, in 1816. He first chose the profession of medicine for the exercise of his talents, and having passed the usual course of study he was named, in 1821, a house surgeon to the hospitals. In 1823 he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine, and in 1824 he published at intervals, in a sort of pamphlet form, the results of his medical oljservations, at the same time that he filled the post of di- rector of the Opera. These publications led to his being noticed by the Duke of Orleans, and in 1824, to his appoint- ment to the office of Medecin des Musees Royaux. For the benefit of the children of a deceased apothecary and chemist, M. Regnauld, Dr. Veron entered into a speculation connected with the once famed ;)«ointed Professor of Experi- mental Philosophy in King's College. Professor Wheatstone has, however, ac- quired his high reputation by bringing out, in conjunction with Mr. Cooke, that most remarkable instance of the power of mind over matter — the Electric Tele- graph. It is no part of our province to say one word on the dispute which has arisen respecting the individual rights of these gentlemen. We will only express our regret that from the time of Sir Isaac Newton to this day, there has scarcely been an instance of a grand discovery which has not been intermingled with desagremens, which every true lover of science for its own sake has had to de- plore ; we trust, however, that the day win arrive when the consciousness of having rendered ser^ace to our fellow- creatures wall be a higher reward than the mere and transient acknowledoment to be obtained by their applause. The first practical application of electricity to telegraphic purposes was made under Messi-s. Cooke and Wheatstone's patents, on the Blackwall railway in 1838. The wires employed were made of copper, enclosed in an iron tube, each wire being separated from its neighbour by some non-conducting material. Even- tually the present needle-telegraph was perfected, and the wires, now of iron, suspended on poles raised on the banks of railways. To so great an ex- tent has this mode of instantaneous communication been adopted, that at the present time a message may be sent and received in every or any part of Eu- rope in the course of a few minutes, and the total length of wire employed in Eu- rope, India, and America amounts to many thousand miles. Professor Wheat- stone has invented some curious optical instruments besides the stereoscope. In 1856 he made an interesting application of his researches on sound, in a mode of conveying music by means of deal rods from one part of a building to any other, between a musical instriunent and any WHE 392 W HI (liffuser of sound placed in a distant apartment. His merits have been recog- nised by most of the learned societies of Europe. He was an active member of the London and Paris exhibitions, is a corresponding member of the Institute of France, and Knight of the Legion of Honour. WHE WELL, The Eev. William, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Trinity College, and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, was born, in 1795, at Lan- caster. His father, who was a joiner, originally intended to bring him up to his own occupation, but the head-master of the grammar school where he was educated, persuaded his parent to send him to Cambridge. After graduating in 1816, and obtaining a Fellowship, he was chosen in 1828 Professor of Minera- logy. In 1838 he obtained the Chair of Moral Philosophy. In 1841 he succeeded to the Mastership of Trinity CoUege, and in 1855 became Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Dr. Whewell is a man of an earnest and enthusiastic temperament, and is one of the most generally accomphshed men of the pre- sent day, his scholarship extending over every department of hitman knowledge. Dr. WheweU's fii-st publications were mathematical treatises intended chiefly for use among the students of the Uni- versity. They consist of a work on "Me- chanics," in two volumes; an edition of " Newton's Principia," a "Treatise on Conic Sections," and the "Mechanics of Engineering." Dr. Whewell wrote the Bridgewater Treatise on "Astro- nomy and Physics, considered with re- ference to Natiu-al Theology." In 1837 he pul)lished his " Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences," which has gone through thi-ee editions, being expanded in the last into the "History of Scien- tific Ideas." In the j>reseut year he has published the "Philosophy of Disco- very." He is the author of several works on Moral Philosophy, of which the principal are — "The Elements of Morality," " Lectures on Systematic Morality," and " Lectm-es on the History of Moral Philosophy in England." He has puljlished several volumes of ser- mons, various lectures and papers on university education, &c., and several translations, the most remarkable of which is a version into Enghsh hexa- meters of Goethe's " Hermann and Do- rothea. " WHITESIDE, The Right Hon. James, M.P., LL.D., a pohtician and lawyer, was born at Delgany, county of Wicklow, in the year 1806. He was educated at Trinity College, DubUn, where he took honours and graduated M.A. ^NTiile prosecuting his studies for the bar, he obtained premiums in the first law class formed in the London University. He was called to the Irish bar in 1830, where he rose rapidly into practice, his jiowers being so highly valued as a lawyer and forensic orator, that when Mr. O'Connell was tried for political cousphacy in 1843, Mr. White- side was chosen one of the leathng coim- sel for the defence. He dehvered an address to the jury on that occasion, which was pronounced to be the most brilliant effort of its kind since the days of Curran. During the memorable year of 1848, Mr. Whiteside acted as leading coimsel for Smith O'Brien and Meagher. A vivid account of these remarkable trials, Avith a criticism highly favourable to the eloquence of Mr. Whiteside, vnll be found in the work of W. C. Town- send, entitled "Modern State Trials." He was returned to Parliament for the borough of Enniskillen in 1851, and con- tinued to hold the seat uutU 1859, when he resigned it, and then represented the University of DubMn. He was appointed Solicitor-General for Ireland by Lord Derby's Government in 1852, resigning with Ministers in the same year. In 1858, on Lord Derl)y's return to power, he became Attorney-General, retaining W II I 393 WIL his office until tlie change of ministry in 1859. He is one of her Majesty's Piivy Council. He is the author of " Italy in the Nineteenth Century," and of a book on "Ancient Home." His i^arliamen- tary, not less than his legal career, has Leen very successful, his style of speak- ing being such as to jJease the ear of the House, and he never touches a subject Avithout mastering its details. WHITTY, Edward Michael, a journalist, is son of Mr. M. J. Whitty, ])roprietor of the ' ' Liverpool Daily Post " and "Liverpool Joiu-nal" newspapers, and was born in 1827. He was educated in his native town and in Germany. He has ]:)een connected with the press from his earliest days, and after receiving an appointment on the "Times," which he held for three yeara, he joined in 1849 the "Daily News." He afterwards edited the "Leader," and was for a year or so editor of the "Northern Whig" newspaper, published in Belfast, but left the commercial capital of Ireland, and returned to England in 1858. He has been a contributor to the "Nation," a journal which still supports its character as an advocate of the Repeal of the Union, and the overthrow of the English Church iu Ireland. WHIT WORTH, Joseph, an engineer, who has lately become so well known through his inventions of improved rifles and ordnance, has for some years been engaged in mechanical pursuits in Man- chester. In the Exliibition of 1851 Mr. Whitworth exhibited some splendid specimens of ingenuity in the way of l)lauing machines and other articles intended to facilitate the production of machinery. He subsequently turned his attention to the construction of gims of all calibres, and has been so highly suc- cessfvU, that at the present time (18G0) a ' ' Whitworth ' ' ritie is considered one of the best instrimients for military and sporting purposes. Mr. Whit- worth has also produced some extraordi- nary cannon of large bore and of great propulsive power. He is still engaged in perfecting those weapons of warfare which seem to promise, by theii- destruc- tive effects, to put a speedy cunclusion to any campaign in which they may be employed. WILKES, Charles, an American traveller, was born about 1805, and becoming early known for his familiarity with maritime afi'airs and his spirit of inquiry, he was chosen in 1838, by the United States Government, to explore the shores of the Pacific and Southern Seas, as commander of the Expedition, with the rank of captain. Nearly four years were occupied with this voyage, and the residt did not disappoint the expectations of the Goverimient, his ob- servations being extensive and valuable. He retiu-ued to New York in 1842, when he commenced writing his "Nai-rative of the United States Exploring Expedi- tion," which appeared in 1845, in five octavo volumes. In 1848 the Geo- graphical Society of London awarded him their gold medal ; and iu 1849 he brought out a valuable work on " West- ern America," in which he treats of the capabilities of California and the Oregon territory. Captaiu Wilkes never pre- tends to literary excellence, but his few volumes are nevertheless highly descrip- tive and interesting. WILKINSON, Sir John Gardner, Knt., an English archaeologist, was born 5th of October, 1797. His educa- tion was received at Harrow, and Exeter College, Oxford. On lea\4ng Oxford, his original jjm'pose was to enter the 14th Light Dragoons, but his attention ha\aug been dii-ected by Sir William Gell to the study of Egyjjtian monu- ments, he detennined to devote himself to the study of the antiquities, ruins, and topography of Egypt. In 1827-28, his first work, entitled " Hieroglyphical Extracts and Materia Hieroglyphica," was given to the world ; and in 1835 his WIL 394 W IL "Topography of Thebes, and General View of Efryi)t." For a topographical work on Thebes he was emiiieutly qualified ; he had for a considerable time dwelt in the neighbouring country, and made accurate surveys and drawings of every point of interest in the district. In 1836 he published "The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, including their Private Life, Govern- ment, Laws, Arts, Manufactures, &c., derived from a Comparison of Paintings, Monuments, and Sculptures still in existence, with Ancient Authors." This work exhiljits an extraordinary amount of research and analytical power. The second series appeai'ed in 1841. He published in 1843 his " Modern Eg3q3t and Theljes;" and in 1847 the third edition of his " Ancient Egyptians ;" the two sei'ies in one revised, with profuse illustrations. In 1848 he published his " Dalinatia and Montenegro," and in 1850 the "Architecture of Ancient Egypt, with Remarks on the Early Pro- gress of Architectm-e," accompanied by a voliune of illustrative plates. In 1851 appeared his " Fragments of the Hieratic Papjrrus at Turin;" and in 1854, "A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyjj- tians, " being a condensation of his larger works, but containing additional matter derived from a new visit to Egypt. In 1855-56 he again returned to the Nile, and on coming home published a small volume entitled "The Egyjjtians under the Pharaohs," in which much new matter was introduced, and which serves as a supplement to ' ' The Popidar Ac- count" of the same people. In 1858 he published a new edition of his ' ' Hand- book of Egypt ; " and his work on "Colour, and the General Diffusion of Taste among all Classes ; " at the same time completing the notes he contributed to the Rev. G. Rawlinson's "English Version of the History of Herodotus." He has also published papers in the various Proceedings of the Royal Geo- graphical Society, the Royal Society of Literatm-e, the Royal Institute of British Architects, the ArchiKological Associa- tion, &c. His " Plants of the Egyptian Desert," with nearly 200 illustrations coloured on the spot, and his large " Map of Egy[)t," comprising the valley of the Nile, and the deserts east of the Red Sea, and west of the Oases, un- fortunately still remain unpublished. On Oct. 16th, 1856, he married Caroline Catherine, daughter of Henry Lucas, Esq., of Uplands, in the county of Glamorgan. Sii' John Gardner Wilkin- son, in all his works, exhibits pro- found learning, accuracy, research, en- thusiasm, and genius. He is an honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, a F.R.S., a member of most of the leading Hterary and scientific societies of Europe, and he re- ceived the honour of knighthood in 1839. WILLIAM IIL, Alexander Paul Frederic Louis, King of Holland, Prince of Orange, Nassau, Grand Duke of Luxemburg, and Duke of Lui- BURG, was born on 19th February, 1817, and succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, William II. , on 17th March, 1849. He took the constitutional oath to uphold the liberties of the Nether- lands at Amsterdam on the 12th of May ensuing. His Majesty married in 1839 the Princess Sophia Frederica Matilda, daughter of William I., King of Wur- temburg, by whom he has a family of two chiltlren ; William Nicholas Alex- ander Frederic Charles, Prince of Orange, and heir-ai)parent to the throne, born in September, 1840, and Prince Alexander of Orange, born in August, 1851. The Prince of Orange has lately made the tour of Great Britain, when a matrimonial connexion between the royal families oi England and Holland is said to have been resolved ujion. The reign of this king has as yet been quiet, and presenting no events requiring men- tion. WILLIAMS, Major-General Sir WIL 305 WIL William Fenwick, Baronet, K.C.B., a Brigadicr-Genural in the English army, was born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1800. The son of the late Mr. Thomas Williams, Commissary -General at Anna- polis Royal, Nova Scotia, and grandson of Ed-w'ard Amherst, the brother of Jeflfrey, the first Lord Amherst, he came to England when young, and his family having extensive military connexions, he was enabled to enter Woolwich Academy. He received a commission in the Artillery in 1825, and was promoted to be Captain in 1840. He served in Ceylon for some years, and was thence sent to Turkey, and assisted to settle the Turkish and Persian frontiers ques- tion in 1848, concluding it in 1852. He received for these services the Com- panionship of the Bath, and was pro- moted to be Lieut. -Colonel. Shortly after the commencement of the war with Russia in 1854, he was advanced to the rank of Colonel, and then made Brigadier- General, being also her Ma- jesty's Commissioner with the Turkish forces in the East. The defence of Kars is of too recent date, to require detailed notice. General Williams was com- pelled to capitidate, and was sent as a prisoner of war to St. Petersburg. In 1856 he returned to England, was made a Baronet, and a pension of £1,000 a year conferred on him. He also re- ceived the freedom of the City of London, having previously obtained the order of K.C.B. He sat for two sessions as Member of Parliament for Calne. At present he is Commander-in-chief of the forces in British North America. WILLIS, Nathaniel Parker, an American author and journalist, who has acqiiired considerable reputation on both sides of the Atlantic, was born at Portland, State of Maine, January 20, 1807, w^as educated at Boston, Andovcr, and Yale College, and graduated in 1827. His first literary occupation was that of editing "The Legendary" and "The Token," and, in 1828, he com- menced the " Amcirican MontlJy Maga- zine," which was, in 1830, united with the " New York Mirror. " Subsequently he travelled through France, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, and European Turkey, as a member of the American Legation, afterwards reaching England, where he remained for about two years. In his travels Mr. Willis took a keen observation of men, manners, and i>laces, and transmitted his views and impres- sions to New York, the "Mii-ror" being his vehicle of publication. His "PencUlings by the Way," as he styled his sketches, were pleasant gossiping papers. Numbers of them were trans- planted to the field of British joiu-nalism, but his descriptions of the titled society of London, though it has since appeared that they offended nobody but the critics, were very severely handled in the "Quarterly Review," the reviewer being Mr. Lockhart. The description most objected to was Lady Blessington's circle of beaiix esprits, which has since been copied by Lord John Riis- sellinhis "Memoir." " The Penciilings" were collected and published in London in 1835, and shortly afterwards "Ink- lings of Adventiure," a series of tales, were pubhshed in an independent form. Returning to America in 1837, he wrote his "Letters from under a Bridge," and lived in retirement until 1839, when he became editor of the " Corsair," a New York periodical. In the following year he published his "Loiterings of Travel," and an illustrated edition of his Poems, and " Two Ways of Dying for a Husband." He revived the "New York Mirror" in 1843. In 1844 he visited England for the third time ; and, in 1845, published "Dashes at Life with a Free Pencil." In 1S4G Mr. Wilhs published all his writings in a complete form, and sub- sequently undertook the editorship of a literary paper entitled "The Home Journal." His "Health Trip to the WIL 396 WIL Tropics" is a gallery of pictures ar- ranged from outlines made during a journey to and through the West Indies. His later volumes have been chiefly re- prints from the "Journal." He was married in England to the daughter of an English officer, and this lady died in America, leaving one child. He has since married a niece of Mr. GrinneU, whose name is so honourably coimected with the expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. He now resides at Idlewild, a romantic and beautiful estate in the Highlands of the Hudson. His prose works are read as exteiasively as those of any living American author, while his reputation as a writer of sacred poetry is, perhaps, that for which he is most likely to be cherished in the memory of his countrymen. WILLIS, Rev. Robert, M. A. , F. R. S. , F. G. S. , Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in Cam- bridge University, was born in London, in 1800. He was educated at Caius Col- lege, Cambridge, where he took his de- gree of B.A. in 1826, and afterwards gained a Fellowship. In 1830 he was elected a FeUow of the Royal Society, and, in 1837, appointed Jacksonian Professor. The range of Professor Wil- lis's investigations is almost unequalled for a single mind's elucidation. Acous- tics, language, machinery, mechanism of all kinds, architectiu-e and its history, whether decorative or purely construc- tive, and numerous cognate subjects, have passed under his review, and are treated with a wonderful ap])lication of a rare faculty, that of mathematically demonstrating every position he ad- vances. When the Archaeological Insti- tute was founded in 1843, he became one of its most ardent supporters ; he was at once its chief and its ornament. At Cambridge he lectures on mechanics, statics, dynamics, and their practical application to manufactm-es, the steam- engine, and other similar suljjects ; not, however, confining himself to these, but giving oral expositions to the Pliiloso- ])liical Society, of which he is a member, to the Royal Institution, to the Royal Institute of British Architects, and to the Archaeological Institute. Mr. Willis is the author of a number of works, the titles of which serve to point out the range of his numerous studies. He has pidslished the "Principles of Mechan- ism," a number of papers on "The Vowel Sounds," the " Mechanism of the Larynx," the "Teeth of Wheels," "On the Pressm-e produced on a flat Plate when opposed to a Stream of Air," «&c., " On the Construction of the Vaults in the MidtUe Ages," "On the Character- istic Interpenetrations of the Flamboyant Style," "A Description of the Sextry Barn at Ely," "Architectural Nomen- clatiu-e of the MidcUe Ages," "The Architectm-al History of Canterbury Cathedral," "The Architectural His- tory of Winchester Cathedral," "York Cathedral," " On the Conventual Build- ings attached to the Cathedral at Canter- bury," "Description of the Ancient Plan of the Monastery of St. Gall," "An Architectural History of the Chm-ch of the Holy Sepulchre," " Remarks on the Architectm-e of the Middle Ages." As a lecturer on " Aiiplied Mechanics," a subject ■widely separated in one sense from archajology, he has no superior, and in aU his prelections his varied information is emi^loyed in the elucida- tion of the subject-matter in hand. WILLS, William Henry, a journal- ist, was born at Plymouth, January 13th, 1810. He contributed papers to the Penny and Saturday Magazines ; wrote many of the aiiicles in Maculloch's Geo- graphical Dictionary, and was for several years one of the editors of ' ' Chambers's Joiu"nal." Mr. Wills belonged to the staff of writers who commenced "Pimch," was sub-editor and leading contributor of the "Daily News," and was associated with Mr. Charles Dickens WIL 397 WIN in the management of " Household Words," from 1850 till the extinction of that periodical in 18i)9, when those gen- tlemen started "All the Year Round." He has recently collected and pubhshed his contributions to this periotlical (many of them AVTitten in conjimction wdth Mr. Charles Dickens) in a book entitled " Old Leaves Gathered from Household Words." Mr. Wills is Honorary Secre- tary of the Guild of Literatm-e and Art. WILMORE, James Tibbits, an engraver, was born in the parish of Handsworth, Staifordshire, in 8ei)tem- ber, 1800. In the matter of style he is entirely original, having stnick out his own method, which renders wth unrivalled force tlie pecidiarities of Eng- lish landscape. His principal ^ilates from Turner are "The Old Temeraire," "Mercury and Argus," "Ancient Italy," "The Golden Bough," "The Doganna," and "Bellini's Picture con- veyed to the Church of the Reventore," piints distinguished for their faithf id ren- dering of the chiarosciu'o and atmos- pheric effects. He has also engraved Eastlake's "Byron's Dream," " Cal- cott's " R-hine," and "Powis Castle;" StanSeld's "Wind against Tide," and "An Italian Town ; " Laudseer's "Har- vest in the Highlands," and " Ci-ossing the Bridge," and numerous other works. In 1843 he was elected Associate En- graver in the Royal Academy. WINDHAM, Major - General Ch^veles Ashe, C.B., is fourth son of the admiral of that name, and was born in the county of Norfolk, in 1810. He entered the army, as an officer of the Coldstream Guards, in 1826, and be- came, successively. Captain in 1833, Major in 1846, Lieutenant-Colonel in the same year, and Colonel in June 1854. When the Crimean war broke out he had an opportunity of distinguishing himseh', and of exhibiting those qualities which have rendered his name so well known. Both at Balaklava and Inker- mann his conduct was signalized by skill and courage worthy of a Picton. At Inkermann, the command of his division devolved on him, and he led his men into action under a tremendous fire, with a devotion imknown to those who are unacquainted with genuine British daring. His star rose at the advance on the Redan, where althou"h the slaughter around him was fearfid on eveiy hand, the men being cut down as by a sickle, until at length he had not an officer left, yet, undaunted, he held his gi'omid. His heroism coidd nob be overlooked, and he was immediately gazetted Major - General, appointed Governor of that portion of Sebastopol occupied by the English, and in 1855 he was nominated a Companion of the Bath. On returning to England, he was elected one of the representatives in Parliament for East Norfolk. He again entered the battle-field in India, and became attached to the staff of the Commander-in-chief during the conflicts which are now, happily, at an end. Gene- ral Windham is a Commander of the Legion of Honour, the cross of the order being presented to him in 1856, by the Emperor of the French. WINDISCHGRATZ, Alfred, Prince de, an Austrian general, was born at Brussels, May 22, 1787, entered the army as Lieutenant in Schwarzen- berg's Lancers in 1804, and took part in the Gei-mau campaigns against Napo- leon. His brilliant conduct at Leipsic gained him the grade of Colonel, and he was not only decorated with orders after the fall of the French Empire, l)ut i^romoted to the rank of Major- General in 1826, when he took command of a brigade at Prague. In 1833 he became General of Division ; and after the popidar movements in 1848, he was for some time Military Governor of Vienna, proceeding thence to govern Bohemia. In the war with Hungary, WIN 398 WIN the forces of that coimtry almost inva- riably gave way before him, but retriev- ing their sinking fortunes the Austrians were, in their turn, driven back, and the Hungarians became the victors. He certainly had many obstacles to sm-- mouut — many difficulties to contend against — but these were not taken into account, and he was removed from his command. Though an able and cou- rageous general, he exercised his autho- rity in such a manner as to draw down a heavy amount of opprobrium on his character. Yet notwithstanding the censure of Europe on his execution of Robert Bliim, he was invited to resume the Governorship of Bohemia, an office which he declined, for reasons best known to himself. He has resided since on his Bohemian estates, and sin- gular as is the paradox, though he was execrated as a public man, he appears to be respected as a private gentleman — though denounced as a governor, he seems to be esteemed as a citizen. WINSLOW, Forbes, M.D., an Eng- lish physician, was born in London, in August 1810, and is the yoimgest son of Captain Thomas Winslow, of her Majesty's 47th Regiment. He received his education for the medical profession, at the London University. Dr. Win- slow has devoted his attention to one of the most interesting but i)ainfid branches of his profession, namely, that of diseases of the mind. His first work published on the sul^ject was, "An Essay on the Application of the Principles of Phreno- logy to the Elucidation and Cure of Insanity." He established, some years ago, Sussex House, Hammersmith, an asyhma for the reception of the insane, and his intimate acquaintance with the almost infinite variety of the phases of lunacy, has secured him the })osition of medical referee in most of the leading cases which have come before oiu- law courts during the last few years. Besides the work above mentioned, Dr. Winslow is the author of "A Synopsis of the Lunacy Act," "The Plea of Insanity in Criminal Cases," ' ' The Preservation of the Health of Body and Mind," &c. He is a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, and had confeiTcd on him the degree of D. C. L. by the Universitj' of Oxford, at the installation of the Earl of Derby as Chancellor of the University. He has been President of the Medical Society of London, and was one of the Vice-Presidents of the Juri- dical Society. He has also been Presi- dent of the Association of Metlical Officers of Asyhuns for the Insane. The "Anatomy of Suicide" was the fii'st mechcal treatise published in this coimtry on the subject of suicidal in- sanity. In 1848 Dr. Winslow esta- blished the ' ' QuarterlyJomiial of Psycho- logical Medicine and Mental Pathology." It has an extensive circidation, and a high reputation in aU parts of the world. Dr. Wiuslow's last work is a vohuninous one, on "The Obscure Dis- eases of the Brain, and Disorders of the Mind." This consists of nearly 800 pages of an elaborate exposition of the incipient symjitoms of disease of the brain and disorders of the mind. The first edition of this work was exhausted in less than six months, and a very favoiu-able review of it appeared in the October number of the ' ' Edinburgh Re- view," 1860. WINTERHALTER, Franz Xavier, a painter, was born at St. Blasien, in Baden, in 1803. Educated at Carlsruhe, he entered as student at the Munich Aca- demy of Arts in 1823, and passed through the ordinary course of instruction. His earher works were historic and poetical, but 2)ortrait jiainting being more lucra- tive, he adopted that hue of the profes- sion, and found the most ample patron- age. He has painted kings, queens, princes, and nobles, and has been patronized by her Majesty Queen Vic- WIS 399 AVOO toria. His life, however, possesses no incidents of the slightest public interest. WISEMAN, Nicholas, Cardinal, waa born at Se\411e, August 2nd, 1802. His early education was received at Waterford, and St. Cuthbert's College, near Diuham. He was afterwards member of the English College at Rome, where he was created a D. D. in 1824. He became, not long after. Professor of Ori- ental Languages in the Roman Univer- sity ; and Rector of the English CoUege in 1829. In 1835 he dehvered a series of sermons on the ' ' Doctrines and Prac- tices of the Cathohc Church," which were afterwards published. His " Lec- tures on the Connexion between Science and Revealed Religion " were much ad- mired, and gave him great reputation. He was appointed in 1840 Coadjutor to the late Bishop Walsh, and President of St. Mary's College, Oscott. He was chosen in 1850 Vicar ApostoHc of the London district ; in the following year he was named by the Pope "Archbishop of Westminster," and raised to the dig- nity of Cardinal. This proceeding gave such oifence in England, that Lord John Russell introduced into the House his Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, which need scarcely have been debated, as it is now a dead letter. He has since then deh- vered numerous lectm-es on various sub- jects on behalf of public institutions. He was one of the founders, and for a long time one of the editors of, and a cojjious contributor to, the " Dublm Review." WOEHLER, Frederick, a German chemist. Professor of Chemistry at the University of Giittingen, was born at the village of Eschersheim, near Frank- fort, in July, 1800, and studied for the medical profession at Marburg and Heidelberg. After ha\ang obtained the diploma of Doctor of Mechcine, he left the profession to devote himself exclu- sively to chemistrj'. He was fortunate enough to obtain admission to the labo- ratory of Berzehus at Stockholm, where he worked for a year. Returning to Geraiany, he was appointed Pro- fessor in the School of Arts and Trades at Berlin, and six years later he obtained the Chair of Chemistry and Technology in the Polytechnic School of Cassel. In 1836 he was appointed Professor of Che- mistry and Pharmacy in the University of Gottingen, being entrusted at the same time with the direction of the Chemical Institute, and the general inspection of the apothecaries of the kingdom of Hanover. Of all the Ger- man laboratories that of Gottingen is at I>resent miich frequented. Among the mmaerous researches which M. Woehler has conducted, partly with the assistance of his friend Liebig, may be eniunerated those residting in the discovery of alum- inimn, the metal extracted from clay, and of what has been supposed to be an organic body, imder circumstances which seem to have afforded an instance of spon- taneous generation. In recognition of his eminence as a chemist he has been admitted a FeUow of various learned bodies, and among others of the Royal Society of London. His works have passed thi'ough many editions, besides being translated into several languages. WOOD, Right Hon. Sir Charles, G.C.B., M.P. for the borough of Halifax, is eldest son of the late Sir Francis Liudley Wood, and was born at Pontefract, in 1800. He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, piu'suing his studies with a success which enabled him to take a double lu-st-class degree in 1821. He entered Parliament in 1826, as member for Great Grimsby, a seat which he retained until 1831, when he was elected for Wareham. After having been for some time private secretary to Earl Grey, he was ap- pointed Secretary to the Treasury in 1832, an office which he held until the close of 1834. From 1835 to 1836 he dischiU'ged the duties of Secretary to the W R A 400 W 11 1 Admiralty ; but the Conservative party coming into power, Sir Charles was out of office until 184(5, when, on the resigna- tion of Sir Robert Peel, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer. Though his measures, while discharging the du- ties of this most onerous of state offices, were sharj)ly censured, and though he felt himself obliged to amend his budget more than once, yet the very jiriuciples he advanced then, only to be condemned, are now received with coriliality, and acted upon by the Legislature. Sir Charles Wood's financial schemes had the great merit of being cautious and safe. He retired with the ministiy from the Chancellorship of the Exche- quer in 1852, being, in the December of that year, appointed President of the Board of Control, an office which he ad- ministered for upwards of two years, when he was transferred to the Board of Admiralty, as First Lord of that de- partment. He retained that position until 1858, when ministers resigned on a defeat in the House of Commons, but on the recall of Lord Pahnerstou to power. Sir Charles Wood took the place of Lord Stanley, as Secretary of State for the Indian Department. WEANGEL, Ferdinand Petrovich, Baron von, a Russian navigator of the Northern Seas, was bom in Esthonia, in 1796. After being a pupil in the School for Cadets, at St. Petersburg, he made a number of voyages in the Baltic, and northwards, until 1817, when he went on board the " Kamschatka, " Captain Golowin commantling, to circumnavi- gate the glol^e. In this expedition he displayed such talent, that after his return he was appointed to explore the Russian Polar Seas, in the discharge of which duty he was occupied for four years. He was required to deter- mine, if possible, the exact position of tracts of land which were rumoured to exist north of the Siberian coast ; and he used every exertion towards accom- l>lishing that object ; but though makipg mimerous discoveries, the great purpose remained unachieved. In 1825 he again set out on a voyage roimd the world, this imdertaking occiq)ying him about two years. On his retiu-n he was ap- pointed Governor of the Russian terri- tory in America, where he remained for five years. On returning again to Rus- sia, he was elevated to the rank of Admiral. In 1836 he was appointed Director of one of the various depart- ments of the Imperial Naval Ministry. At the same time the Russian American Company proposed to him to take the chief direction of that establishment, which he accepted. He managed the affairs of the department of the Naval Ministry, as well as of the Russian American Company, during fourteen years. His health ha^'ing failed in 1850, he retired from the service, and left St. Petersburg with his family for Esthonia. In 1854 he again entered the Imperial service as Chief Director of the Hydro- graphical department of the Naval Mi- nistry, and in 1855 was appointed Chief Assistant to the High Admiral Con- stantine, as a mai'k of high distinction, being nominated (1856) General-Adju- tant to his Imperial Majesty. His health being again totally deranged through very hard duties, the physicians sent him to the German baths, and to the south of Europe ; whence he returned, after a year's absence, in 1858, to be appointed Member of the High Covmcil of the Empire. His nortliern sm-veys and adventures are held by the Russians to rank him with Parry, Ross, and Franklin ; and his i)ubnshed narratives certainly demonstrate that he is at once an able and well-informed writer, and an adventurous and skilful seaman. The naiTatives of his northern voyages have been translated into thr ..erman, French, and English languages. WRIGHT, THOM.VS, M.A., an Eng- lish antiquary, was born on the borders W UR 401 W Y A of "Wales, in ISIO, was educated at Ludlow, and afterwards graduated at Cambridge. He early commenced lite- rary pursuits by writing for various magazines, but eventually devoted him- self almost exclusively to historical and archaeological studies. He was one of the founders of the Camden Society (1838), and of the Percy Society, of which latter he was for some time hono- rary secretary and treasurer. He assisted to foimd the British Archaeolo- gical Association, and for some years edited its joiu-nal. He is a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, Correspond- ing Member of the Academy of Inscriji- tions in the Institute of France, Mem- ])er of the Societies of Antiquaries of France, Normandy, and Scotland, of the Ethnological Society of Paris, of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquarians of Copenhagen, and of many other learned bodies. Of his untiring labour, some idea may be formed from the cir- cumstance that his works extend to seventy- eight volumes, several of them quartos, all being admitted authorities on the siibjects of which they treat. Mr. Wright has lately (18G0) taken a deep interest in the excavations which have laid bare the remains of an old Roman town, near Wroxeter, in which numer- ous relics, illustrating the daily life and occupations of its ancient inhabitants, have been brought to light; and to his exertions, we are thus indebted for many discovieries which have materially added to the stores of the early history of Britain. WURTEMBURG, Williajvi I., Frederick Charles, King of Wur- TEMBURG, was born 27th of September, 1781, and succeeded his father Frede- rick I. on the 30th of October, 181G. In 1816 he married Catherine Paulowna, daughte 'f Paul late Emperor of Russia, and after ner death, Pauline Theresa Louisa, his cousin, daughter of Louis Frederick, Duke of Wiirtemburg. His Majesty had issue by both maiTiages. The heir-apparent to the throne, issue of the second marriage, is Prince Charles Frederick Alexander, born on the 6th of March, 1823. The long reigoi of his Majesty has been quiet and uneventful. WYATT, Matthew Digby, an archi- tect, and writer on decorative art, was born at Devizes, in Wiltshire, in 1820. He was educated in his native town, and after being with his brother, the archi- tect of Wilton Church, &c., he en- tered in 1837 the Royal Academy as a student. In 1844 he travelled on the Continent, and retm'ned home with a large number of architectural and decorative drawings. While en- gaged in the practice of his profession, he occupied liis leisure in writing for the press. Taking a lively interest in the application of art to manufactures, the Society of Arts despatched him to study at the Exhibition of Industry at Paris, in 1849, wliich mission led to the publica- tion of an able report. In 1851 he took a most active part in organizing the Ex- hibition, of which he was acting secre- tary, and superintended the arrangement and architectural details of the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, receiving His Royal Highness Prince Albert's private gold medal at the close of the exhibition. He has published several valuable works on art, manufactures, and decoration ; and has designed the Pompeiau and other courts of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. He was a juror and reporter for the British Government at the Paris Exhibition of 1855, and on that occasion was created a Knight of the Legion of Honom-. In the same year he gained with his brother, in whose office he had been brought up, the first pre- mium in the great government compe- tition for cavalry barracks, and was also selected to till the office of Architect to the Hon. the East India Company. After executing many large works for that body, including their new Museum, D D YOU 402 YOU on the change in the mode of govern- ment, his ser\nces were transferred to the Secretary of State for India in council, and he was associated with Mr. G. G. Scott in preparing designs for the proposed new India office. As an archi- tect, his principal works have been, in addition to those already refeiTed to — the Paddington Station of the Oreat Western Railway Company; the Neeld Memorial for Her Majesty ; and several bridges in India. In 185G Mr. Wyatt, in response to an apjjeal from the most distinguished men in his own profession, undertook the duties of Honorary Secre- tary to the Institute of British Architects. He held that office for three years, and gave it up only because his close pro- fessional engagements made it impos- sible for him to fulfil its duties as he 'lesired. YOUNG, Brighasi, the present leader of the Mormons, or Latter-day Saints, was born in Whitingham, Wind- ham county, in the state of Vennont (U.S.), on the 1st June, 1801. He lived with his father, who was a farmer at Whitingham, until he was sixteen. He then learned a mechanical trade, and on the 14th April, 1832, joined the Mormons, or to use a plirase of these sectaries, "was baptized into the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints." In 18o5, thanks to his siijjcrior ability '^and education, he became a member of the Governing Council, or " Quorum of the Twelve Apostles." He suffered all the tribula- tions of the Mormons during their stay at Nauvoo, when Josej)h Smith was ])ut to death by the riotous inhabitants of Illinois. In June, 1844,Brigham Young, "in accordance with a previous ap- pointment by the prophet, and ordina- tion under his hands," succeeded to the presidency of the Chiirch. Nauvoo had no sooner become a prosperous settle- ment, than the Mormons were forced to abandon it, in consequence of the strong popular feeling against their creed and morals in Illinois. In 1846 the President set out from this settlement with a large company of his followers, in search of a locality where they would not be inter- fered with, either by the mob or the legislature. A prompt compliance, how- ever, with a requisition by the Go- vernment of the Union to furnish 500 "Saints" to serve in the war with Mexico, connected with other circum- stances, enabled the emigrants to halt on the right bank of the Missouri at a point since called Florence, where they passed the winter of 1846-47, under tents, or on transport waggons, exposed to the ravages of disease and the depre- dations of the wild Indian tribes of the coimtry. In the spring of 1847, Presi- dent Young, vnth. a 2)ioneer company of 143 men, left the winter quarters at Florence in quest of the promised land ; and crossing the Rocky Mountains, ar- rived at the Great Salt Lake Valley, between California and Oregon, on the 24th July in the same year. After sur- veying the site for a city afterwards built and named the Great Salt Lake City, and erecting temporary forts for the reception of companies who were to emigrate that season, the President re- turned to winter quarters at Florence. With his family, and large additional numbers of the Saints, he returned to the new city in the autimin of 1848. The city rapidly grew in importance. In 1850 it contained 8,000 inhabitants. The colony was shortly afterAvards recog- nized as a territory by the Federal Gov- ernment, BrighamYoungbeingaj)pointed Governor, "with a salary fixed for him at Washington. In 1856, Avheu the pojui- lation of Utah had increased to 30,000, which, under ordinary circumstances, would have entitled it to be received as a state of the Union, President Pierce refused to acknowledge its claims to ad- mission, on account of the recognition of polygamy, and its prevalence among the Saints. Brigham Young jjrotested against YOU 403 YOU interference, and defied the Government authorities to j)rove to him by tlie Bible, that a man is not entitled to take as many wives as he thinks jjroper. By the laws of the community, six wives are allowed to each Saint, the President only being permitted an unlimited number, a privilege of which he has taken ample advantage, he having some years ago taken unto himself no less than seventy ladies from his flock. According to his disciples, Brigham Young is endowed with great firmness and energy of charac- ter, wit, sound practical sense, and good judgment, which, with his natural kind- liness and benevolence, admirably fit him to control and influence his followers, and to maintain peace among them. ANALYTICAL TABLE OE MEMOIES CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME J ACTOES. ANTIQUARIANS. AECHITECTS. ASTEONOMEES. AUTHOES. BOTANISTS. CAPITALISTS. CHEMISTS. CLERGYMEN. DIPLOMATISTS. ENGINEEES. ENGBAVEES. COMPRISING : — GEOGEAPHEES. GEOLOGISTS. HISTOEIANS. JOURNALISTS. LAWYERS. MILITARY OFFICEES. MUSICAL PEOFESSION. NATURALISTS. NAVAL OFFICERS. NOVELISTS. PAINTERS. PHILANTHROPISTS. PHILOLOGISTS. PHYSICIANS. PHYSICISTS. PHYSIOLOGISTS. POETS. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ECONOMISTS. SCHISMATICS. SCULPTORS. SOVEREIGNS. STATESMEN. TRAVELLERS. ACTORS. (See "Musical Profession.") Alboni, Marietta. Barniun, Phineas Taylor. Bishop, Madame Anna. Bnckstone, John Baldwin. Celeste, Madame. Cushman, Miss Charlotte. Forrest, Edwin. Grisi, Giulia. Houdin, Robert Jean Eugene. Kean, Charles. Kean, Mrs. Charles. Kemble, Mrs. Fanny. Macready, William Charles. Mario, Joseph. Phelps, SamueL Piccolomini, Maria. Ristori, Madame Adelaide. Robson, Frederick. Sedgwick, Amy. Taglioni, Marie. Vandenhoif, John. ANTIQUARIANS, Butta, Paul Emile. Bustameute, General. CoUier, John Payne. Dyce, Key. Alexander. Ellis, Sir Hemy. Gerhard, Edward. HaUiwell, James 0. Laborde, Leon, Count de. Layard, Austen Henry. Lepsius, Carl Richard. Madden, Sir Frederic, K.H. JSi^ichols, John Gough, F.S.A. Palgi-ave, Sir Francis, F. R. S. Planche, James R. Ptawlinson, Sii' Henry. Saidcy, Louis Caiguart de. Taylor, Isidore, Bai'on. Timbs, John, F.S.A. Thorns, William. Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner. Willis, Rev. Robert, F.R.S. Wright, Thomas, F.R.S. 406 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. AKCHITECTS. CockereU, Charles Robert, R. A. Fergusson, James. Godwin, George. Paxton, Sir Joseph, M. P. Pennethorne, James. Scott, George Gilbert, A.R.A. Smirke, Sir Robert. Tite, William, M.P., F.R.S. Wyatt, Matthew Digby. ASTRONOMERS. Adams, John Couch. Airy, George BiddeU, F.R.S. Argelander, Friedrieh. Encke, Johann F. Herschel, Sir John F.W., Bart. Hind, John Russell. Leverrier, Urban Jean Joseph, Rosse, Earl of. Santini, Giovanm. South, Sii- James, F.R.S. (See "Historians," "Journalists," "Novelists," and "Poets.") Abbott, Rev. Jacob. Abbott, Rev. John. About, Edmond. Ampere, Jean Jacques. Anthon, Charles, LL.D. Arthur, T. S. Auerbach, Berthold. Beecher, Henry Ward. Beecher, Miss Catherine. Bell, Robert. Bohn, Henry G. Borrow, George. Bowring, Sir John. Bray, Mrs. Anna Eliza. Brooks, Charles Shirley. Bulwer, Right Hon. Sir Henry. Bunsen, Chevalier Von. Carey, Henry C. Carlylc, Thomas. Chambers, Robert. Chambers, WiUiam. Child, Mrs. Lydia Maria. Clarke, Mrs. Mary Cowden. Clausen, Henri. AUTHORS — {Continued). Cole, Henry, C.B. Coleridge, Rev. Derwent. Collier, John Payne. Collin de Plancy. Costello, Miss Louisa Stuart. Craik, George Lillie, LL.D. Crol}'-, Rev. George, LL.D. Crosland, Mrs. Camilla. Crowe, Mrs. Catherine Stevens. Cunningham, Peter. Curtis, Benjamin R. Curtis, George WiUiam. Dale, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Dickens, Charles. Dixon, William Hepworth. Doran, John, IjL.D. Dyce, Rev. Alexander. Eadie, John, D.D., LL.D. Ellis, Mrs. Sarah. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Eotvos, Josef. Forster, John. Gerstaecker, Frederic. GUfiUan, Rev. George. Gleig, Rev. George Robert. Gordon, Lady Lucy Duff. Grimm, Jacob Ludwig. Hagenbach, Charles Rodolphe. Haliburton, Hon. Mr. Justice. Halliwell, John 0. Ha^vthorne, Nathaniel. Head, Sir Francis Bond. Headley, Joel Tyler. Hengstenberg, Ernest William. Herzen, or Hertzen, Alexander. Hildi-eth, Richard. Home, Richard Henry. IngersoU, Charles Jared. Jerrold, William Blanc hard. Jewsbiuy, Miss Geraldine. Karr, Jean Baptiste Alphonse, Kavanagh, Miss Julia. Kinglake, Alexander William, M.P. Kingsley, Rev. Charles, M.A. Kinkel, Gottfried. Knight, Charles. Knowles, Sheridan. Kugler, Franz Theodore. Lamai'tine, Alphonse de. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. 407 AUTHORS — [Continued). Landor, Walter Savage. Lee, Mrs. A. Bowdich. Lewes, George. Lewis, Sir George Cornewall. Lucas, Hippolyte Julien Joseph. M'CuIloch, J. R. Marston, John Westland. Martineau, Miss Harriet. Masson, Da^dd. Maurice, Rev. Frederick, M.A. Mayhew, Henry. MelviUe, Herman. Merimee, Prosper. Michaud, Louis Gabriel. Montalembert, Comte de. Muloch, Miss Dinah M. Newman, Francis William. Oliphaut, Lawrence. Oxenford, John. Pardoe, Miss Juha. Parton, Mrs. Sara P. Pepoli, Charles. Planche, James Robinson. Pulszky, ^ladame Ferencz. Pyat, Felix. Quinet, Edgar. Redding, Cj-rus. Ritchie, Leitch. Rogers, Henry. Ruskiii, John. Russell, Lord John. RusseU, William Howard, LL.D. Sala, George Augustus. Sartorius, Ernest WUliam Christian. Say, Horace EmUe. Schoelcher, Victor. Scribe, Eugene. Sinclair, Miss Catherine. Stanley, Rev. Arthur. Stirling, WiUam, M.P. Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Taylor, Bayard. Taylor, Isaac. Taylor, Tom. Tennent, Sir James E., M.P. Tholuck, Friedrich Gottren. Timbs, John, F.S.A. ■ Trollope, Mrs. Frances. Tulloch, John, D.D, AUTHORS — [Continued). Tupper, Martin Farquhar, D.C.L. UUman, Karl. Urquhart, David. Vaughan, Robert, D.D. Villemain, Abel. Waagen, Gustave Friedrich. Warren, Samuel. Whatley, the Right Rev. Richard. Whewell, Rev. William, D.D. Willis, Nathaniel Parker. BOTANISTS. (See "Naturalists.") CAPITALLSTS. Ashburton, Lord. Baring, Sii" Francis, Bart. Baring, Thomas. Brown, WiUiam. Demidov, or Demidoff, Prince. Overstone, Lord. Rothschild, Nathan, Baron de, M.P. Salomons, David, M.P. Becquerel, Antoine Cesar. Boussingault, Jean Baptiste. Brande, William Thomas. Buusen, Robert William. Chevreul, Michel Eugene. Christison, Robert, M.D. Dumas, .Jean Baptiste. Faraday, Michael, D.C.L. Graham, Thomas, F.R.S. Griffin, John Joseph, F.C.S. Herapath, William, F.C.S. Kane, Sir Robert. Liebig, Justus, Baron. Mitscherlich, Eilhard. Niepce, de Saint Victor. Payen, Anselme. Pelouze, Theojahile Jules. Playfaii", Lyon, C.B. Poggendorf, John Christian. Raspail, Fran§ois Vincent. Reguault, Henri Victor. Rose, Heinrich. Sainte-Claire DeviUe. Taylor, Alfred Swaine, M.D. Woehler, Frederick. 408 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. CLERGYMEN. Abbott, Eev. Jacob. Abl)ott, Ilev. John. AKord, Very Ilev. Deau. Aiulerson, William, LL.D. AntoneUi, Cardinal. Barnes, Albert, D.D. Beecher, E,ev. Charles. Beecher, Be v. Edward, D.D. Beecher, Ljonan, D.D. Binney, Itev. Thomas. Caird, John, D.D. Campbell, John, D.D. Candhsh, Robert, D.D. Canterbury, Archbishop of. Cheever, Greorge Bm-ritt, D.D. Close, Very Rev. Dean. Coleridge, Rev. Derweut. Croly, Rev. George, LL.D. Cidlen, Paul, D.D. dimming, Rev. John, D.D. Cimuiugham, WiUiam, D.D. Dale, Rev. Thomas, M.A. D'Aubigne, J. H. Merle, D.D. Dewey, Orville, D.D. Dublin, Archbishop of. Duff, Alexander, D.D., LL.D. Dyce, Ptev. Alexander. Eadie, John, D.D. EUis, Rev. William. Exeter, Bishop of. Gavazzi, Padre Alessandro. Gilfillan, Rev. George. Gleig, Ptev. George Robert. Guthrie, Thomas, D.D. Hamilton, James, D.D. Hereford, Bishop of. Hinds, Right Rev. Samuel. Hook, Very Rev. Dean. Keble, Rev. John, M.A. Kingsley, Rev. Charles, M.A. Lacordau'e, Abb(5. Lee, Robert, D.D. LiddeU, the Very Rev. Henry. London, Bishop of. M'Hale, Right Rev. John. Macleod, Norman, D.D. M'Neile, Rev. Hugh, D.D. [Maurice, Frederick D., M.A. Melvill, Henry, B.D. CLERGYMEN — {Continued). Milraan, Very Rev. Dean. Moffat, Rev. Robert. Newman, John Heniy, D.D. Noel, the Hon. and Rev. Baptist W. Oxford, Bishop of. Pius IX. , Giovanni Maria Mastai Feretti. Pusey, Edward Bouverie, D.D. Raffles, Rev. Thomas, D.D. Reed, Rev. Andrew, D.D. Ripon, Bishop of. St. David's, Bishop of. Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A. Spurgeon, Rev. Charles Haddon. Stanley, Rev. Arthur. Thompson, Rev. R. Anchor, M.A. Trench, Very Rev. Dean. TuUoch, Rev. John, D.D. Vaughan, Rev. Robert, D.D. Whewell, WilUam, D.D. Willis, Rev. Robert, F.R.S. Wiseman, Nicholas, Cardinal. DIPLOMATISTS. (See " Statesmen.") ENGINEERS. Albert, Martin. Ai'mstrong, Sir WiUiam. Brmiel, Isambard Kingdom. Burgoyne, Su- John F. Dargan, William. Fairbairn, William. M'NeiU, Sir John, C.E. Minie, Claude. Napier, Robert. Nasmyth, James. Peto, Sir Samuel Morton. Rankine, J. W. Macquorn, F.R.S. Russell, John Scott, F.R.S. TocUeben, Geneiid. Whitworth, Josejjh. Willis, Rev. Robert, F.R.S. ENGRAVERS. Burnet, John. Doo, George Thomas, R.A. Goodall, Edward, R.A. Watt, James Henry. WUmore, James Tibbits. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. 409 GEOGRAPHERS, Bergliaus, Henry. Johnston, Alexander Keith. Maury, Matthew F. Munch, Peter Andreas. Petei-mann, August HeinricL GEOLOGISTS. (See "Naturalists.") HISTORIANS. Alison, Sir Archd. , Bart. Bancroft, George. Bauer, Brimo. Brougham, Lord. Buckle, Henry Thomas. Biu-ton, John Hill. Campbell, Lord. Cantu, Cesar. Capetigue, Jean Baptiste. Carlyle, Thomas. Craik, George LUlie, LL.D. Creasy, Sir Edward. Dahlmanu, Frederick Christopher. D'Aubigue, J. H. Merle, D.D. Forster, John. Gervinus, Georges Godefroid. Gleig, Rev. John R. Grote, George, M.P. Guizot, Francis. Helps, Arthur. Joniini, Henri, Baron. Lamartine, Alphonse. Liddell, Very Rev. Henry. Lieber, Francis, LL.D. Martinez de la Pi,osa, Francisco. Menzel, Wolfgang. Merimee, Prosper. Michaud, Louis Gabriel. Michelet, Jules. Mignet, Frangois Auguste. Mihnan, Very Rev. Henry. Quinet, Edgar. Ranke, Leopold. Raumer, Fi'ederick Von. Sparks, Jared. Stanhope, Earl of. Strickland, Miss Agnes. Thierry, Amedee. Thiers, Louis Adolphe. Thirlwall, Right Rev. Connop, D.D. JOURNALISTS. Arago, Etienne. Bryant, William Cidlen. Delane, John T. DQke, Charles Wentworth. DUke, Charles Wentworth, junior. Dixon, William Hepworth. Dutfy, Charles Gavin. Fonblanque, Albany. Forster, John. Girardin (EmUe de). Greeley, Horace. Hall, Samuel Carter. Hannay, James. Hunt, Thornton. Janin, Jides Gabriel. Jerdan, William. Jerrold, William Blauchard. Lemon, Mark. Mackay, Charles, LL.D. Maclaren, Charles. Miall, Edward. Redding, Cyi'us. Ritchie, Leitch. Russel, Alexander. Russell, WiUiam Howard, LL.D. Veron, Louis Desire. Veuillot, Louis. Watts, Alaric Alexander. Whitty, Edward Michael. Wills, William Henry. Alison, Sir Archibald, Bt. Baroche, Pierre Jules. Bell, Henry Glassford. Berryer, Pierre Antoine. BetheU,,Sh- Richard. BUlault, Auguste. Brougham, Lord. Butt, George M. Cairns, Su- Hugh M'Cahnont. Campbell, Lord. Chambers, Montague. Chelmsford, Lord. Cranworth, Baron. Creasy, Su* Edward S. Curtis, Benjamin R. Glencorse, Lord. KeUy, Sir Fitzroy. 410 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. LAWYERS — [Continued). Lyndhurst, Lord. Pollock, Sir Frederick. St. Leonards, Baron. Senior, Nassau William, M.A. Warren, Samuel. Wensleydale, Baron. Whiteside, Hon. James, M.P. MILITARY OFFICERS. Abd-el-Kader. Alvarez, Juan. Baraguey, Marshal. Bedeau, Marie Alphonse. Bosquet, Pierre Frangois Joseph. Burgoyne, Sir John Fox. Bustamente, General. Cabrera, Don Ramon. Cambridge, Duke of. Canrobert, Frangois Certain. Cardigan, Earl of. Changarnier, General. Chesney, Francis Rawdon, D.C.L. Clyde, Lord. Codrington, Sir William, K.C.B. Combermere, Viscoimt, G.C.B. Douglas, General Sir Howard, Bait. Edwardes, Sir Herbert Ben j. K.C.B. Espinasse, Esprit Charles Marie. Evans, Sir De Lacy. Garibaldi, Joseph. Gomm, General Sir William, G. C. B. Gorgei, Arthur. Gortchakoff, Prince MichaeL Gough, Lord. Houston, General. JeUachich, Baron Von. Klapka, General George. Kmety, General George. La Marmora, Marquis de. Lamoricibre, General. Luders, General. Macmahon, Marshal. Magnan, Marshal. MenschikoQ', Prince. O'Donnell, Marshal. Omer Pacha. Oudiiiot, Marshal. Outram, General Sir James. Pelissier, Marshal. MILITARY OFFICERS — (Continued). Pennefather, Lieutenant- General. Pepe, Florestan. Pepe, Gabriel. Rosas, Don Juan ISIanuel de. Sabine, Major-General Edward. Santa Anna, Don A. Lopez de. Scarlett, Sir James Yorke. SchamyL Simpson, Gen. Sir James, G.C.B. Smith, Sir Henry, Bart. Thompson, Major-Geueral Perronet. Todleben, General. Troubridge, Col. Sir Thomas, Bart., C.B. Williams, Major-General, Sh W. F. Windham, Major-Geueral Charles, C.B. Windischgratz, Alfred Prince de, MUSICAL PROFESSION. Alboni, Marietta. Auber, Daniel F. E. Balfe, Michael William. Benedict, Julius. Bennett, William Sterndale. Berlioz, Hector. Bishop, Madame Anna. David, Felicien. (xoldschmidt, Madame. Grisi, GiuUa. Halevy, Jacques-Elie-FromentaL Hayes, Mrs. Catherine. HuUah, John. Liszt, Franz. Mario, Joseph. Meyerbeer, Giaeomo. Novello, Madame Clara. Piccolomini, Mai-ia. Potter, Cipriani. Roger, Gustave. Rossini, Joacchino. Rudersdorff, Madame. Thalbei-g, Sigismund. Titiens, Teresa. Verdi, Giuseppe. Viardot, Paidine Garcia. Wagner, Richard. NATURALISTS. (See "Physicians" and "Physiologists.") Agassiz, Louis Jean. Bell, Thomas. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF. MEMOIRS. 411 NATURALISTS — (Continued). Biirmeister, Hermann. Dana, James Dwight, LL. D. Dai-win, Charles, M.A. Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried. Eichwald, EdwarcL Fortune, Robert. Gosse, Philip Henry. Goidd, Augustus Addison. Goidd, John, F.R.S. Gray, Asa, M.U. Hooker, Sir WiUiam Jackson, K. H. Hooker, Joseph Dalton, M.D. Junghuhn, Frank Wilhehn. KobeU, Franz Von. Kock, Charles Henri Emmanuel. Lankester, Edwin, M.D. Latham, Robert Gordon, M.D. Lindley, John, M.D. Lyell, Sir Charles, F.R.S. Martins, Carl Von. Murchison, Sir Roderick, D. C. L. Nees, Von Esenbeek. Orbigny, Charles d'. Owen, Richard, F.R.S. Phillips, John, M.A., LL.D. Reichenbach, Baron de. Rogers, Heniy Darwin, LL.D. Rose, Gustave. Schomburgk, Sir Robert Hermann. Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A. NAVAL OFFICERS. Back, Sir George, D.C.L. Belcher, Sir Edward. Constantine, NicholiEwitch. Deschenes, Admiral Percival. Dundas, Vice-Admiral. Dundonald, Earl of. Du Petit Thouars, Admiral. Napier, Sir Charles. Slade, Sir Adolphus. NOVELISTS. (See "Authors" and "Poets." Ainsworth, "William Harrison. Andersen, Hans Christian. Bremer, Miss Frederika. Carlen, Madame Emilie. Cai'leton, WiUiam. NOVELISTS — {Continued) . CoDins, Wilkie. Conscience, Hem'i. Dickens, Charles. Disraeli, Benjamin, Right Hon., M. P. Dudevant, Madame. Dumas, Alexanch-e. Dumas, Alexanchre, jim. Gaskell, Mrs. L. E. Gore, Mrs. Catherine Frances. Grant, James. Grattan, Thomas CoUey. Hall, Mrs. Anna Maria. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Howitt, Mary. Howitt, William. Josika, Nicolas Baron. Kiugsley, Rev. Charles, M.A. Kock, Charles Paul de. Lennep, -Jacob Van. Lever, Charles. Lover, Samuel. Lytton, Sir Edward Bidwer. Manzoni, Count. Marsh, Mrs. Anne. Miller, Thomas. Muloch, Miss Dinah. Musset, Paul Edme de. Normanby, Marquis of. Norton, Hon. Mrs. Reade, Charles. Reid, Captain Mayne. Sedgwick, Miss Catherine Maria. Stowe, Mrs. Beecher. Thackeray, William Makepeace. TroUope, Mrs. Frances. Warren, Samuel. PAINTERS. Adam, Jean Victor. Bendemann, Edward. Bonheur, Mile. Rosa. Cattermole, George, R.A. Cooke, Edward W., A. R.A. Cooper, Thomas Sidney, A. R.A. Cope, Charles West, R.A. (/orl)aux. Miss Fauuy. (Jorbould, Edward Henry. Cornelius, Peter Von. Creswick, Thomas, R.A. 412 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIRS. PAINTERS — [Continued). Criiiksliank, George. Dauby, Fraucis, A.R.A. Delacroix, Eiigeue. Delaroche, Paul. Doyle, Eiclianl. Dyce, WiUiam, R.A. Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock, P. Pi. A. Egg, Augustus, 11. A. Faed, Thomas. Eraser, Alexander. Frith, William PoweU, R.A. Frost, William Edward, R.A. Gavarni, or Paid Chevalier. Gilbert, John (jraham. GoodaU, Frederick, R.A. Gordon, Sii- John Watson, P. R. S. A. , R. A. Grant, Francis, R.A. Gudin, Theodore. Haghe, Louis. Hart, Solomon Alexander, R.A. Harvey, George, R.S.A. Hayter, Sir George. Herbert, John Rogers, R.A. HeiTing, John Frederick. Horsley, John CaUcott, R.A. Hunt, Wilham Holman. Ingres, Jean Dominique Augusta. Isabey, Eug&ne Louis Gabriel. Kaidbach, William. Lance, George, R.A. Landseer, Sir Edwin, R.A. Lauder, Robert Scott, R.S.A. Lee, Frederick Richard, R.A. Leech, John. Lewis, John Frederick. Linnell, John. M'CuUoch, Horatio. Maclise, Daniel, R.A. Meissonier, Jean Loius Ernest. Millais, John Everett. Muh-eady, William, R.A. Nash, Joseph. Overbeck, Fiiedrich. Paton, Josejjh Noel, R.S.A. Pickersgill, Fred. Richard, R.A. Poole, Paid Falconer, A.R.A. Pyne, James B. Redgrave, Richard, R.A. Roberts, David, R.A. PATNTEKS — [Gonlin iced). Schnorr, Jules. Stautield, Clarksou, R.A. Veruet, Horace. Ward, Edward Matthew, R.A. Webster, Thomas, R.A. Wiuterhalter, Franz Xavier. PHILANTHROPISTS. (See "PoKtical and Social Economists.") PHILOLOGISTS. (See ' ' Antiquarians. ") Allen, Wdliam, D.D. Baehr, John Christian. Bekker, Emnianuel. Boeck, Augustus. Boi)p, Franz. Bosworth, Joseph, D.D., LL.D. Diudorf, Wilhekn. Latham, Robert Gordon, M.D. Pauizzi, Antonio. Itamsay, William, M.A. Richardson, Charles, LL.D. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D. Smith, WiUiam, LL.D. Trench, Very Rev. Dean. PHYSICIANS. Andral, Gabriel. Arnot, Neil, M.D. AuzoiLX, Th. Louis. Black weU, Elizabeth, M.D. Brodie, Sii- Benjamin, Bart. Christisou, Robert, M.D. Clai'k, Sir James, Bart. Dickson, Samuel Henry, M.D. Dunglison, Robley, D.D., LL.D. Elliotson, John, M.D. Forbes, Sir John, M.D. Frerichs, Frederic Theodore. Holland, Sii- Henry, M. D. Langenbeck, Maximihan. Rokitausky, Charles. Schonleiu, Johann Luk. Simjjson, James Yoimg, M.D. Skoda, Joseph. Smith, Thomas Southwood, M.D. Syme, James, M.D. Taylor, Alfred Swaiue, M.D. Thierry, Alexandre. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF MEMOIES. 4L3 PHYSICIANS — [Continued). Velpeau, Alfred Marie. Will slow, Forbes, M.D. PHYSICISTS. (See "Astronomers.") Amot, Neil, M.D. Babbage, Charles. Barlow, Peter. Becquerel, Antoiue Cesar. Biot, Jean Baptiste. Brewster, Sir David. Bunsen, Eobert William. Cayley, Arthur. De-Morgan, Augustus. Faraday, Michael, D.C.L. Gould, Benjamin Apthorp. Harris, Sir William Snow. Herschell, Sir John, Bart. Hunt, Eobert, F.B.S. Morse, Samuel Finley Breese. Olmsted, Denison. O'Shaughnessy, Sir William B. Pouillet, Claude. Roget, Peter Mark, M.D. Pvidimkorff, K Sabine, Major-General Edward. Somerville, Mrs. ]\Laiy. Wheatstoue, Charles, F.R.S. Whewell, Rev. William, D.D. PHYSIOLOGISTS. (See " Physicians " and "Naturalists. Bernard, Claude. Carpenter, William Benjamin, M.D. Muller, Johannes. Owen, Richard, F.R.S. Wagner, Rudolph. POETS. (See "Authors" and "Novelists.") Aii-d, Thomas. Andersen, Hans Christian. Anster, John, D.C.L. Arnold, Matthew. Augier, Guillaume Victor. Aytoun, William Edmondstoune. Bailey, Philip James. Barthelemy, Auguste Marseille. Bell, Henry Glassford. Brown, JMiss Frances. ") POETS— ((7o?iRTTV •r>P r ^^.TF^T?ArTA CT A dictionary ox Li-19 contemporary^ ' D56 biography. CT 119 D56 AA 000 730 209 4