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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FREEMASONRY. 
 
<#<: 
 
Sr *Pl< by Alex. Gard^r 
 Engraved by John Sartain. 
 
AN 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 OF 
 
 FREEMASONRY 
 
 AND 
 
 ITS KINDRED SCIENCES: 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 THE WHOLE RANGE OF ARTS, SCIENCES AND LITERATURE 
 AS CONNECTED WITH THE INSTITUTION. 
 
 BY 
 
 ALBERT G. MACKEY, M. D., 
 
 AUTHOR OF "LEXICON OF FREEMASONRY," "A TEXT-BOOK OF MASONIC 
 JURISPRUDENCE," "SYMBOLISM OF FREEMASONRY," ETC., ETC. 
 
 ijhtfj ftetratiotts* 
 
 ' The smallest truth is of more value, than the reputation of him who propounds it." 
 
 ZlNZENDORF. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 MOSS & COMPANY, 
 
 432 CHESTNUT STREET. 
 
 1874. 
 
.1$ 
 
 rt 5 ^ 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by 
 
 MOSS & CO. AND A. G. MACKEY, 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
 
 ■*JvS& J. FAGAN * BOS, feiVl 
 
 ^s^ ^ZZ JXT 
 
 PRIXTED BY HEKRY B. ASHMKAD. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 |" ONCE delivered an address before a Lodge on the subject of the external 
 -*■ changes which Freemasonry had undergone since the period of its revival in 
 the commencement of the eighteenth century. The proper treatment of the topic 
 required a reference to German, to French, and to English authorities, with some 
 of which I am afraid that many of my auditors were not familiar. At the close 
 of the address, a young and intelligent brother inquired of me how he could 
 obtaiu access to the works which I had cited, and of many of which he confessed, 
 as well as of the facts that they detailed, he now heard for the first time. It is 
 probable that my reply was not altogether satisfactory ; for I told him that I knew 
 of no course that he could adopt to attain that knowledge except the one that had 
 been pursued by myself, namely, to spend his means in the purchase of Masonic 
 books and his time in reading them. 
 
 But there are few men who have the means, the time, and the inclination for 
 the purchase of numerous books, some of them costly and difficult to be obtained, 
 and for the close and attentive reading of them which is necessary to master any 
 given subject. 
 
 It was this thought that, just ten years ago, suggested to me the task of collecting 
 materials for a work which, under one cover, would furnish every Mason who 
 might consult its pages the means of acquiring a knowledge of all matters connected 
 with the science, the philosophy, and the history of his Order. 
 
 But I was also led to the prosecution of this work by a higher consideration. 
 I had myself learned, from the experience of my early Masonic life, that the 
 character of the Institution was elevated in every one's opinion just in proportion 
 to the amount of knowledge that he had acquired of its symbolism, philosophy, 
 and history. 
 
 If Freemasonry was not at one time patronized by the learned, it was because 
 the depths of its symbolic science and philosophy had not been sounded. If it is 
 now becoming elevated and popular in the estimation of scholars, it owes that 
 elevation and that popularity to the labors of those who have studied its intel- 
 
 v 
 
 1 1B991 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 lectual system and given the result of their studies to the world. The scholar 
 will rise from the perusal of Webb's Monitor, or the Hieroglyphic Chart of Cross, 
 with no very exalted appreciation of the literary character of the Institution 
 of which such works profess to be an exponent. But should he have met with 
 even Hutchinson's Spirit of Masonry, or Town's Speculative Masonry, which are 
 among the earlier products of Masonic literature, he will be conscious that the 
 system which could afford material for such works must be worthy of investigation. 
 
 Oliver is not alone in the belief that the higher elevation of the Order is to be 
 attributed " almost solely to the judicious publications on the subject of Freema- 
 sonry which have appeared during the present and the end of the last century." 
 It is the press that is elevating the Order ; it is the labor of its scholars that is 
 placing it in the rank of sciences. The more that is published by scholarly pens 
 on its principles, the more will other scholars be attracted to its investigation. 
 
 At no time, indeed, has its intellectual character been more justly appreciated 
 than at the present day. At no time have its members generally cultivated its 
 science with more assiduity. At no time have they been more zealous in the 
 endeavor to obtain a due enlightenment on all the topics which its system 
 comprehends. 
 
 It was the dasire to give my contribution towards the elevation of the Order, by 
 aiding in the dissemination of some of that light and knowledge which are not 
 so easy of access, that impelled me ten years ago to commence the preparation 
 of this work — a task which I have steadily toiled to accomplish, and at which, 
 for the last three years, I have wrought with unintermitted labor that has per- 
 mitted but little time for other occupation, and none for recreation. 
 
 And now I present to my brethren the result not only of those years of toil, but 
 of more than thirty years of study and research — a work which will, I trust, or 
 at least I hope, supply them with the materials for acquiring a knowledge of much 
 that is required to make a Masonic scholar. Encyclopaedic learning is not usually 
 considered as more than elementary. But knowing that but few Masons can 
 afford time to become learned scholars in our art by an entire devotion to its 
 study, I have in important articles endeavored to treat the subject exhaustively, 
 and in all to give that amount of information that must make future ignorance 
 altogether the result of disinclination to learn. 
 
 I do not present this work as perfect, for I well know that the culminating point 
 of perfection can never be attained by human effort. But, under many adverse 
 circumstances, I have sought to make it as perfect as I could. Encyclopaedias 
 are, for the most part, the result of the conjoined labor of many writers. In this 
 work I have had no help. Every article was written by myself. I say this not to 
 excuse my errors — for I hold that no author should wilfully permit an error to 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 pollute his pages — but rather to account for those that may exist. I have 
 endeavored to commit none. Doubtless there are some. If I knew them, I 
 would correct them ; but let him who discovers them remember that they have 
 been unwittingly committed in the course of an exhaustive and unaided task. 
 
 One of the inevitable results of preparing a work containing so great a variety 
 and so large a number of articles arranged in alphabetical order is the omission 
 of a few from their proper places. These, however, have been added in a Sup- 
 plement; and where any article is not found in the body of the work, the 
 inspector is requested to refer to the Supplement, where it will probibly be 
 discovered. 
 
 For twelve months, too, of the time in which I have been occupied upon this 
 work, I suffered from an affection of the sight, which forbade all use of the eyes for 
 purposes of study. During that period, now happily passed, all authorities were 
 consulted under my direction by the willing eyes of my daughters — all writing 
 was done under my dictation by their hands. I realized for a time the picture so 
 often painted of the blind bard dictating his sublime verses to his daughters. It 
 was a time of sorrow for the student who could not labor with his own organs in 
 his vocation ; but it was a time of gladness to the father who felt that he had 
 those who, with willing hearts, could come to his assistance. To the world this is 
 of no import ; but I could not conscientiously close this prefatory address without 
 referring to this circumstance so gratifying to a parent's heart. Were I to dedicate 
 this work at all, my dedication should be — To Filial Affection. 
 
 Albeet G. Mackey, M. D. 
 
 1440 M Street, Washington, D. C, 
 
 January 1, 1874. 
 
t» * a « r 
 
 V OF TfU 
 
 vnivcmit* 
 
 AARON 
 
 Aaron. Hebrew [TUX, Aharon, a word 
 of doubtful etymology, but generally sup- 
 posed to signify a mountaineer. He was the 
 brother of Moses, and the first high priest 
 under the Mosaic dispensation, whence the 
 priesthood established by that lawgiver is 
 known as the "Aaronic." He is alluded 
 to in the English lectures of the second 
 degree, in reference to a certain sign which 
 is said to have taken its origin from the fact 
 that Aaron and Hur were present on the 
 hill from which Moses surveyed the battle 
 which Joshua was waging with the Amale- 
 kites, when these two supported the weary 
 arms of Moses in an upright posture, be- 
 cause upon his uplifted hands the fate of the 
 battle depended. (See Exodus xvii. 10- 
 12.) Aaron is also referred to in the latter 
 section of the Royal Arch degree in connec- 
 tion with the memorials that were deposited 
 in the ark of the covenant. In the degree 
 of " Chief of the Tabernacle," which is the 
 23d of the Ancient and Accepted Rite, the 
 presiding officer represents Aaron, and is 
 styled " Most Excellent High Priest." In 
 the 24th degree of the same Rite, or " Prince 
 of the Tabernacle," the second officer or 
 Senior Warden also personates Aaron. 
 
 Aaron's Rod. The method by which 
 Moses caused a miraculous judgment as to 
 which tribe should be invested with the 
 priesthood, is detailed in the Book of Num- 
 bers (ch. xvii.). He directed that twelve 
 rods should be laid up in the Holy of Holies 
 of the Tabernacle, one for each tribe ; that 
 of Aaron of course represented the tribe of 
 Levi. On the next day these rods were 
 brought out and exhibited to the people, 
 and while all the rest remained dry and 
 withered, that of Aaron alone budded and 
 blossomed and yielded fruit. There is no 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 mention in the Pentateuch of this rod hav- 
 ing been placed in the ark, but only that it 
 was put before it. But as St. Paul, or the 
 author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, asserts 
 that the rod and the pot of manna were 
 both within the ark, Royal Arch Masons 
 have followed this later authority. Hence 
 the rod of Aaron is found in the ark ; but 
 its import is only historical, as if to iden- 
 tify the substitute ark as a true copy of the 
 original, which had been lost. No symbol- 
 ical instruction accompanies its discovery. 
 
 Ab. 3X. 1. The 11th month of the 
 Hebrew civil year and corresponding to the 
 months July and August, beginning with 
 the new moon of the former. 2. It is also a 
 Hebrew word, signifying/etfAer, and will be 
 readily recognized by every Mason as a com- 
 ponent part of the name Hiram Abif, which 
 literally means Hiram his father. See Abif. 
 
 Abacus. A term which has been lately, 
 but erroneously, used in this country to 
 designate the official staff of the Grand Mas- 
 ter of the Templars. The word has no such 
 meaning ; for an abacus is either a table used 
 for facilitating arithmetical calculations, or 
 is in architecture the crowning plate of a 
 column and its capital. The Grand Mas- 
 ter's staff was a baeulus, which see. 
 
 Abaddon. A Hebrew word |H3X, 
 signifying destruction. By the Rabbins it is 
 interpreted as the place of destruction, and is 
 the second of the seven names given by 
 them to the region of the dead. In the 
 Apocalypse it is rendered by the Greek 
 word 'AnoXkvuv, Apollyon, ana means the 
 destroyer. In this sense it is used as a sig- 
 nificant word in the high degrees. 
 
 Abbreviations. Abbreviations of 
 technical terms or of official titles are of 
 very extensive use in Masonry. They were, 
 
 1 
 
ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 however, but rarely employed in the earlier 
 Masonic publications. For instance, not 
 one is to be found in the first edition of 
 Anderson's Constitutions. Within a com- 
 paratively recent period they have greatly 
 increased, especially among French writers, 
 and a familiarity with them is therefore 
 essentially necessary to the Masonic stu- 
 dent. Frequently, among English and al- 
 ways among French authors, a Masonic ab- 
 breviation is distinguished by three points, 
 .'., in a triangular form following the letter, 
 which peculiar mark was first used, accord- 
 ing to Ragon, on the 12th of August, 1774, 
 by the Grand Orient of France, in an ad- 
 dress to its subordinates.. No authoritative 
 explanation of the meaning of these points 
 has been given, but they may be supposed 
 to refer to the three lights around the altar, 
 or perhaps more generally to the number 
 three, and to the triangle, both important 
 symbols in the Masonic system. 
 
 Before proceeding to give a list of the 
 principal abbreviations, it may be observed 
 that the doubling of a letter is intended to 
 express the plural of that word of which the 
 single letter is the abbreviation. Thus, in 
 French, F.\ signifies " Frere," or " Broth- 
 er," and FF.\ "Freres," or "Brothers." 
 And in English, L.\ is sometimes used to 
 denote " Lodge," and LL.\ to denote 
 " Lodges." This remark is made once for 
 all, because I have not deemed it necessary 
 to augment the size of the list of abbrevia- 
 tions by inserting these plurals. If the in- 
 spector finds S.\ G.\ I.", to signify "Sover- 
 eign Grand Inspector," he will be at no loss 
 to know that SS.\ GG.\ II.'. must denote 
 "Sovereign Grand Inspectors." 
 
 A.'. Dep.\ Anno Depositionis. In the 
 Year of the Deposite. The date' used by 
 Royal and Select Masters. 
 
 A.', and A.*. Ancient and Accepted. 
 
 A.*. F.\ M.\ Ancient Freemasons. 
 
 A.'. F.\ and A.\ M.\ Ancient Free and 
 Accepted Mason. 
 
 A.'. Inv.'. Anno Inventionis. In the Year 
 of the Discovery. The date used by Royal 
 Arch Mason. 
 
 A.'. L.\ AnnoLucis. In the Year of Light. 
 The date used by Ancient Craft Masons. 
 
 A.\ L.\ G.\ D.\ G.\ A.\ D.\ L'U.\ A 
 la Oloire du Grand Architecte de V Univers. 
 To the Glory of the Grand Architect of the 
 Universe. (French.) The usual caption of 
 French Masonic documents. 
 
 A.'. L'0.\ A F Orient. At the East. 
 (French.) The seat of the Lodge. 
 
 A.:. M.\ Anno Mundi. In the Year of 
 the World. The date used in the Ancient 
 and Accepted Rite. 
 
 A. - . 0.\ Anno Ordinis. In the Year of 
 the Order. The date used by Knights 
 Tem,plars. 
 
 A.*. Y.\ M.\ Ancient York Mason. 
 B.\ A. - . Buisson Ardente. Burning Bush. 
 B.\ B.\ Burning Bush. 
 C.\ C.\ Celestial Canopy. 
 
 0.*, H.\ Captain of the Host. 
 
 D.\ Deputv. 
 
 D.\ G.\ G.\ H.\ P.-. Deputy General 
 Grand High Priest. 
 
 D.\ G.\ H.\ P.'. Deputy Grand High 
 Priest. 
 
 D.\ G.\ M.\ Deputy Grand Master. 
 
 D.\ D.\ G.\ M.\ District Deputy Grand 
 Master. 
 
 E.\ Eminent ; Excellent. 
 
 E.\ A. - . Entered Apprentice. 
 
 Ec.\ Ecossaise. (French.) Scottish; be- 
 longing to the Scottish Rite. 
 
 E.\ G.\ C.\ Eminent Grand Commander. 
 
 E.\ V.\ Ere Vulgaire. (French.) Vul- 
 gar Era ; Year of the Lord. 
 
 F.\ Frere. Brother. (French.) 
 
 F.\ C.\ Fellow Craft. 
 
 F.\ M.\ Free Mason. Old Style. 
 
 G.\ Grand. 
 
 G.\ A.'. O.'. T.\ U.\ Grand Architect of 
 the Universe. 
 
 G.\ C.\ Grand Chapter ; Grand Council. 
 
 G.\ Com. - . Grand Commandery ; Grand 
 Commander. 
 
 G.\ E.\ Grand Encampment; Grand 
 East. 
 
 G.\ G.\ C.\ General Grand Chapter. 
 
 G.\ G.\ H.\ P.'. General Grand High 
 Priest. 
 
 G.\ H.\ P.\ Grand High Priest. 
 
 G.\ L.\ Grand Lodge. 
 
 G.\ M.\ Grand Master. 
 
 G.\ 0.\ Grand Orient. 
 
 G.\ R.\ A.'. C.\ Grand Royal Arch 
 Chapter. 
 
 H.\ A.'. B.\ Hiram Abif. 
 
 H.\ E.\ Holy Empire. 
 
 111.'. Illustrious. 
 
 I.'. N.\ R.\ I.'. Iesus Nazarenus, Bex 
 Iudmorum. (Latin.) Jesus of Nazareth, 
 King of the Jews. 
 
 I.-. T.\ N.\ 0.\ T.\ G.\ A.'. O.'. T.'. U.\ 
 In the Name of the Grand Architect of the 
 Universe. Often forming the caption of 
 Masonic documents. 
 
 J.'. W.\ Junior Warden. 
 
 K.\ King. 
 
 K— H.\ Kadosh, Knight of Kadosh. 
 
 K.\ M.\ Knight of Malta. 
 
 K.\ T.'. Knight Templar. 
 
 L.\ Lodge. 
 
 LL.\ Lodges. 
 
 M.'. Mason. 
 
 M.\ C.\ Middle Chamber. 
 
 M.\ E.\ Most Eminent ; Most Excellent. 
 
 M.\ E.\ G.\ H.\ P.'. Most Excellent 
 Grand High Priest. 
 
 M.\ E.\ G.\ M.\ Most Eminent Grand 
 Master, (of Knights Templars.) 
 
ABDA 
 
 ABIF 
 
 M.\ L.\ Mire Loge. (French.) Mother 
 Lodge. 
 
 M.\ M.\ Master Mason. 
 
 M.\ M.\ Mois Magonnique. (French.) 
 Masonic Month. March is the first Masonic 
 month among French Masons. 
 
 M.\ W.\ Most Worshipful. 
 
 O.-. Orient. 
 
 OB.-. Obligation. 
 
 P.'. M.\ Past Master. 
 
 P. - . S.\ Principal Sojourner. 
 
 R.\ A.*. Royal Arch. 
 
 R.\ 0/, or R.\ f.\ Rose Croix. Appended 
 to the signature of one having that degree. 
 
 R.\ E.\ Right Eminent. 
 
 R.'. F.\ Respectable Frere. (French.) 
 Worshipful Brother. 
 
 R.\ L.\ or R.\ □ .*. Respectable Loge. 
 (French.) Worshipful Lodge. 
 
 R.\ W.\ Right Worshipful. 
 
 S.\ Scribe. 
 
 S.\ C*. Supreme Council. 
 
 S.\ G.\ I.\ G.\ Sovereign Grand In- 
 spector General. 
 
 S.\ P.'. R/. S.\ Sublime Prince of the 
 Royal Secret. 
 
 S.*. S.\ Sanctum Sanctorum or Holy of 
 Holies. 
 
 S.\ S.\ S.\ Trois fois Salut. (French.) 
 Thrice greeting. A common caption to 
 French Masonic circulars or letters. 
 
 S.\ W.\ Senior Warden. 
 
 TV. C.\ F.\ Tres Chere Frere. (French.) 
 Very Dear Brother. 
 
 T.\ G.\ A.\ 0.\ T.\ U.\ The Grand 
 Architect of the Universe. 
 
 V.\ or Ven.\ Venerable. (French.) Wor- 
 shipful. 
 
 V.". L.\ Vraie lumiere. (French.) True 
 light. 
 
 V.'. W.\ Very Worshipful. 
 
 W.\ M.\ Worshipful Master. 
 
 1 I .'. Lodge. 
 
 r-Pp .*. Lodges. 
 
 iJh Prefixed to the signature of a Knight 
 
 1 Templar or a member of the A. and 
 A. Scottish Rite below the 33d degree. 
 JL Prefixed to the signature of a Grand 
 
 .[J or Past Grand Commander of 
 
 ~ Knights Templars or a Mason of 
 the 33d degree in the Scottish Rite. 
 
 f J 1 Prefixed to the signature of a 
 
 J-f^ Grand or Past Grand Master of 
 
 "T Knights Templars and the Grand 
 Commander of the Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 Abda. A word used in some of the 
 high degrees. He was the father of Adoni- 
 ram. (See 1 Kings iv. 6.) Lenning is 
 wrong in saying that he is represented by 
 one of the officers in the degree of Master 
 in Israel. He has confounded Abda with 
 his son. (Encyc. der Freimaur.) 
 
 AMamon. The name of the orator 
 in the 14th degree of the Rite of Perfection, 
 or the Sacred Vault of James VI. It means 
 a servant, from abad, " to serve," although 
 somewhat corrupted in its transmission into 
 the rituals. Lenning says it is the Hebrew 
 Habdamon, "a servant;" but there is no 
 such word in Hebrew. 
 
 Abelites. A secret Order which ex- 
 isted about the middle of the 18th century 
 in Germany, called also " the Order of 
 Abel." The organization was in possession 
 of peculiar signs, words, and ceremonies of 
 initiation, but, according to G'adicke (Frei- 
 maurer Lexicon), it had no connection with 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 Abibalk. In the Elu of the French 
 Rite, the name of the chief of the three 
 assassins. Derived most probably from 
 the Hebrew abi and balah, '3X and j^a, 
 which mean father of destruction. Lenning, 
 following the Thuileur de VEcossisme of 
 Delaunay, makes it signify from the same 
 roots, but in defiance of the rules of He- 
 brew construction, "he who destroys the 
 father." 
 
 Abide by. See Stand to and abide by. 
 
 Abif. An epithet which has been ap- 
 plied in Scripture to that celebrated builder 
 who was sent to Jerusalem by King Hiram, 
 of Tyre, to superintend the construction of 
 the Temple. The word, which in the origi- 
 nal Hebrew is V3N> ar "d which may be 
 pronounced Abiv or Abif, is compounded 
 of the noun in the construct-state '3J^, 
 Abi, meaning "father," and the pronomi- 
 nal suffix \ which, with the preceding 
 vowel sound, is to be sounded as iv or 
 if, and which means " his ; " so that the 
 word thus compounded Abif literally and 
 grammatically signifies " his father." The 
 word is found in 2 Chronicles iv. 16, in 
 the following sentence : " The pots also, 
 and the shovels, and the flesh hooks, and 
 all their instruments did Huram his father 
 make to King Solomon." The latter part 
 of this verse is in the original as follows : 
 
 nch& •finh ion D-nn n#y 
 
 Shelomoh lamelech Abif Huram gnasah 
 
 Luther has been more literal in his ver- 
 sion of this passage than the English trans- 
 lators, and appearing to suppose that the 
 word Abif is to be considered simply as an 
 appellative or surname, he preserves the 
 Hebrew form, his translation being as fol- 
 lows : " Machte Huram Abif dem Konige 
 Salomo." The Swedish version is equally 
 exact, and, instead of " Hiram his father," 
 gives us "Hyram Abiv." In the Latin Vul- 
 gate, as in the English version, the words 
 are rendered " Hiram pater ejus." I have 
 little doubt that Luther and the Swedish 
 
ABIF 
 
 ABLE 
 
 translator were correct in treating the word 
 Abif as an appellative. In Hebrew, the word 
 ab, or " father," is often used, honoris causa, 
 as a title of respect, and may then signify 
 friend, counsellor, wise man, or something 
 else of equivalent character. Thus, Dr. 
 Clarke, commenting on the word abrech, in 
 Genesis xli. 43, says: "Father seems to 
 have been a name of office, and probably 
 father of the king ox father of Pharaoh might 
 signify the same as the king's minister 
 among us." And on the very passage in 
 which this word Abif is used, he says: 
 " 2N> father, is often used in Hebrew to 
 signify master, inventor, chief operator." 
 Gesenius, the distinguished Hebrew lexi- 
 cographer, gives to this word similar signi- 
 fications, such as benefactor, master, teacher, 
 and says that in the Arabic and the Ethi- 
 opic it is spoken of one who excels in any- 
 thing. This idiomatic custom was pursued 
 by the later Hebrews, for Buxtorf tells us, 
 iu his Talmudic Lexicon, that " among the 
 Talmudists abba, father, was always a title 
 of honor," and he quotes the following re- 
 marks from a treatise of the celebrated 
 Maimonides, who, when speaking of the 
 grades or ranks into which the Rabbinical 
 doctors were divided, says : " The first class 
 consists of those each of whom bears his 
 own name, without any title of honor ; the 
 second of those who are called Rabbanim ; 
 and the third of those who are called Rabbi, 
 and the men of this class also receive the 
 cognomen of Abba, Father." 
 
 Again, in 2 Chronicles ii. 13, Hiram, the 
 king of Tyre, referring to the same Hiram, 
 the widow's son, who is spoken of subse- 
 quently in reference to King Solomon as 
 " his father," or Abif in the passage already 
 cited, writes to Solomon : " And now I 
 have sent a cunning man, endued with 
 understanding, of Huram my father's." 
 The only difficulty in this sentence is to be 
 found in the prefixing of the letter lamed 
 S, before Huram, which has caused our 
 translators, by a strange blunder, to render 
 the words V Huram abi, as meaning " of 
 Huram my father's," * instead of " Huram 
 my father." Luther has again taken the 
 correct view of this subject, and translates 
 the word as an appellative : " So sende ich 
 nun einen weisen Mann, der Berstand hat, 
 Huram Abif; " that is, " So now I send you 
 a wise man who has understanding, Huram 
 Abif." The truth I suspect is, although it 
 has escaped all the commentators, that the 
 lamed in this passage is a Chaldaism which 
 is sometimes used by the later Hebrew 
 writers, who incorrectly employ \ the sign 
 
 * It may be remarked that this could not be 
 the true meaning, for the father of King Hiram 
 was not another Hiram, but Abibaal. 
 
 of the dative for the accusative after transi- 
 tive verbs. Thus, in Jeremiah (xl. 2), we 
 have such a construction : vayakach rab 
 tabachim VIremyahu; that is, literally, "and 
 the captain of the guards took for Jere- 
 miah," where the *?, I, or for, is a Chaldaism 
 and redundant, the true rendering being, 
 " and the captain of the guards took Jere- 
 miah." Other similar passages are to be 
 found in Lamentations iv. 5, Job v. 2, etc. 
 In like manner I suppose the S before 
 Huram, which the English translators have 
 rendered by the preposition " of," to be 
 redundant and a Chaldaic form, and then 
 the sentence should be read thus : " I have 
 sent a cunning man, endued with under- 
 standing, Huram my father ; " or if con- 
 sidered as an appellative, as it should be, 
 " Huram Abi." 
 
 From all this I conclude that the word 
 Ab, with its different suffixes, is always used 
 in the Books of Kings and Chronicles, in 
 reference to Hiram the builder, as a title 
 of respect. When King Hiram speaks of 
 him he calls him " my father Hiram," 
 Hiram Abi; and when the writer of the 
 Book of Chronicles is speaking of him and 
 King Solomon in the same passage, he calls 
 him "Solomon's father" — "his father," 
 Hiram Abif. The only difference is made by 
 the different appellation of the pronouns my 
 and his in Hebrew. To both the kings of 
 Tyre and of Judah he bore the honorable 
 relation of Ab, or " father," equivalent to 
 friend, counsellor, or minister. He was 
 " Father Hiram." The Masons are there- 
 fore perfectly correct in refusing to adopt 
 the translation of the English version, and 
 in preserving, after the example of Luther, 
 the word Abif as an appellative, surname, 
 or title of honor and distinction bestowed 
 upon the chief builder of the Temple. 
 
 Abiram. One of the traitorous crafts- 
 men, whose act of perfidy forms so impor- 
 tant a part of the third degree, receives in 
 some of the high degrees the name of Abi- 
 ram Akirop. These words certainly have a 
 Hebrew look ; but the significant words of 
 Masonry have, in the lapse of time and in 
 their transmission through ignorant teach- 
 ers, become so corrupted in form that it is 
 almost impossible to trace them to any in- 
 telligent root. They may be Hebrew or 
 they may be anagrammatized (see Ana- 
 gram) ; but it is only chance that can give 
 us the true meaning which they undoubt- 
 edly have. 
 
 Able. There is an archaic use of the 
 word able to signify suitable. Thus, Chaucer 
 says of a monk that " he was able to ben an 
 abbot," that is, suitable to be an abbot. 
 In this sense the old manuscript Constitu- 
 tions constantly employ the word, as when 
 they say that the apprentice should be 
 
ABLUTION 
 
 ABRAHAM 
 
 "able of birth and limbs as he ought to 
 be," that is, that he should be of birth 
 suitable for a member of the Craft, and of 
 limbs suitable to perform the labors of a 
 craftsman. 
 
 Ablution. A ceremonial purification 
 by washing, much used in the Ancient 
 Mysteries and under the Mosaic dispensa- 
 tion. It is also employed in some of the 
 high degrees of Masonry. The better 
 technical term for this ceremony is lustra- 
 tion, which see. 
 
 Abnet. The band or apron, made of 
 fine linen, variously wrought, and worn by 
 the Jewish priesthood. It seems to have 
 been borrowed directly from the Egyptians, 
 upon the representations of all of whose 
 gods is to be found a similar girdle. Like 
 the zennaar, or sacred cord of the Brah- 
 mins, and the white shield of the Scandi- 
 navians, it is the analogue of the Masonic 
 apron. 
 
 Aborigines. A secret society which 
 existed in England about the year 1783, 
 and of whose ceremony of initiation the 
 following account is contained in the Brit- 
 ish Magazine of that date. The presiding 
 officer, who was styled the Original, thus 
 addressed the candidate : 
 
 Original. Have you faith enough to be 
 made an Original ? 
 
 Candidate. I have. 
 
 Original. Will you be conformable to all 
 honest rules which may support steadily 
 the honor, reputation, welfare, and dignity 
 of our ancient undertaking? 
 
 Candidate. I will. 
 
 Original. Then, friend, promise me that 
 you will never stray from the paths of 
 Honor, Freedom, Honesty, Sincerity, Pru- 
 dence, Modesty, Reputation, Sobriety, and 
 True Friendship. 
 
 Candidate. I do. 
 
 Which done, the crier of the court com- 
 manded silence, and the new member, being 
 uncovered, and dropping on his right knee, 
 had the following oath administered to him 
 by the servant, the new member laying his 
 right hand on the Cap of Honor, and Nim- 
 rod holding a staff over his head : 
 
 " You swear by the Cap of Honor, by 
 the Collar of Freedom, by the Coat of 
 Honesty, by the Jacket of Sincerity, by 
 the shirt of Prudence, by the Breeches of 
 Modesty, by the Garters of Reputation, by 
 the Stockings of Sobriety, and by the Steps 
 of True Friendship, never to depart from 
 these laws." 
 
 Then rising, with the staff resting on his 
 head, he received a copy of the laws from 
 the hands of the Grand Original, with these 
 words, " Enjoy the benefits hereof." 
 
 He then delivered the copy of the laws 
 to the care of the servant, after which the 
 
 word was given by the secretary to the new 
 member, viz. : Eden, signifying the garden 
 where Adam, the great aboriginal, was 
 formed. 
 
 Then the secretary invested him with 
 the sign, viz. : resting his right hand on 
 his left side, signifying the first conjunction 
 of harmony. 
 
 It had no connection with Freemasonry, 
 but was simply one of those numerous imi- 
 tative societies to which that Institution has 
 given rise. 
 
 Abrac. In the Leland MS. it is said 
 that the Masons conceal " the wey of wyn- 
 ninge the facultye of Abrac." Mr. Locke 
 (if it was he who wrote a commentary on 
 the manuscript) says, " Here I am utterly 
 in the dark." It means simply " the way 
 of acquiring the science of Abrac." The 
 science of Abrac is the knowledge of the 
 power and use of the mystical abraxas, 
 which see. 
 
 Abracadabra. A term of incanta- 
 tion which was formerly worn about the 
 neck as an amulet against several diseases, 
 especially the tertian ague. It was to be 
 written on a triangular piece of parchment 
 in the following form : 
 
 ABRACADABRA 
 
 ABRACADABR 
 
 ABRACADAB 
 
 ABRACADA 
 
 ABRACAD 
 
 ABRACA 
 
 ABRAC 
 
 ABRA 
 
 ABR 
 
 AB 
 
 A 
 
 It is said that it first occurs in the Car- 
 men de Morbis et Remediis of Q. Serenus 
 Sammonicus, a favorite of the Emperor 
 Severus in the 2d and 3d centuries, and is 
 generally supposed to be derived from the 
 word abraxas. Higgins, [Celt. Druids, p. 
 246,) who is never in want of an etymology, 
 derives it from the Irish abra, " god," and 
 cad, "holy," and makes abra-cad-abra, 
 therefore, signify abra — the holy — abra. 
 
 Abraham. The founder of the He- 
 brew nation. The patriarch Abraham is 
 personated in the degree or Order of High 
 Priesthood, which refers in some of its cer- 
 emonies to an interesting incident in his 
 life. After the amicable separation of Lot 
 and Abraham, when the former was dwell- 
 ing in the plain in which Sodom and its 
 neighboring towns were situated, and the 
 latter in the valley of Mamre near Hebron, 
 a king from beyond the Euphrates, whose 
 name was Chedorlaomer, invaded lower 
 Palestine, and brought several of the 
 
ABRAHAM 
 
 ABRAXAS 
 
 smaller states into a tributary condition. 
 Among these were the five cities of the 
 plain, to which Lot had retired. As the 
 yoke was borne with impatience by these 
 cities, Chedorlaomer, accompanied by four 
 other kings, who were probably his tribu- 
 taries, attacked and defeated the kings of 
 the plain, plundered their towns, and car- 
 ried their people away as slaves. Among 
 those who suffered on this occasion was 
 Lot. As soon as Abraham heard of these 
 events, he armed three hundred and eigh- 
 teen of his slaves, and, with the assistance 
 of Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre, three Amo- 
 ritish chiefs, be pursued the retiring in- 
 vaders, and having attacked them near the 
 Jordan, put them to flight, and then re- 
 turned with all the men and goods that 
 had been recovered from the enemy. On 
 his way back he was met by Melchizedek, 
 the king of that place, and who was, like 
 Abraham, a worshipper of the true God. 
 Melchizedek refreshed Abraham and his 
 people with bread and wine; and while 
 consenting to receive back the persons who 
 had been liberated from captivity, he re- 
 quested Abraham to retain the goods. But 
 Abraham positively refused to retain any 
 of the spoils, although, by the customs of 
 the age, he was entitled to them, and de- 
 clared that he had sworn that he would not 
 take " from a thread even to a shoelatchet." 
 Although the conduct of Abraham in this 
 whole transaction was of the most honor- 
 able and conscientious character, the inci- 
 dents do not appear to have been introduced 
 into the ritual of the High Priesthood for 
 any other reason except that of their con- 
 nection with Melchizedek, who was the 
 founder of an Order of Priesthood. 
 
 Abraham, Antoine Firmin. A 
 Mason who made himself notorious at Paris, 
 in the beginning of the present century, by 
 the manufacture and sale of false Masonic 
 diplomas and by trading in the higher de- 
 grees, from which traffic he reaped lor some 
 time a plentiful harvest. The Supreme 
 Council of France declared, in 1811, all his 
 diplomas and charters void and deceptive. 
 He is the author of "L'Art du Tuileur, 
 dedie' a tous les Maqons des deux hemi- 
 spheres," a small volume of 20 pages 8vo, 
 printed at Paris in 1803, and published 
 from 1800 to 1808 a periodical work en- 
 titled " Le Miroir de la v6rite, dedi6 a tous 
 les Mac,ons," 3 vols., 8vo. This contains 
 many interesting details concerning the 
 history of Masonry in France. In 1811 
 there was published at Paris a " Circulaire 
 du Supreme Conseil du 33e degr6, etc., rela- 
 tive a la vente, par le Sieur Abraham de 
 grades et cahiers Macjonniques," (8vo, 15 
 pp.,) from which it is evident that Abraham 
 was nothing else but a Masonic charlatan. 
 
 Abraxas. Basilides, the head of the 
 Egyptian sect of Gnostics, taught that 
 there were seven emanations, or aeons, from 
 the Supreme God ; that these emanations 
 engendered the angels of the highest order ; 
 that these angels formed a heaven for their 
 habitation, and brought forth other angels 
 of a nature inferior to their own ; that in 
 time other heavens were formed and other 
 angels created, until the whole number 
 of angels and their respective heavens 
 amounted to 365, which were thus equal to 
 the number of days in a year ; and, finally, 
 that over all these an omnipotent lord — in- 
 ferior, however, to the Supreme God — pre- 
 sided, whose name was Abraxas. Now this 
 word Abraxas, in the numerical force of 
 its letters when written in Greek, ABPAEA2, 
 amounts to 365, the number of words in the 
 Basilidean system, as well as the number 
 of days in the year, thus : A, 1.., B, 2.., P, 
 100.., A, 1.., 2, 60.., A, 1.., 2 200 = 365. The 
 god Abraxas was therefore a type or sym- 
 bol of the year, or of the revolution of the 
 earth around the sun. This mystical refer- 
 ence of the name of a god to the annual 
 period was familiar to the ancients, and is 
 to be found in at least two other instances. 
 Thus among the Persians the letters of the 
 name of the god Mithras, and of Belenus 
 among the Gauls, amounted each to 365. 
 
 M = 40 B = 2 
 
 E = 5 H= 8 
 
 1 = 10 A= 30 
 
 9 = 9 E = 5 
 
 P = 100 N = 50 
 
 A = 1 = 70 
 
 2 = 200 = 365 2 = 200 = 365 
 
 The word Abraxas, therefore from this 
 mystical value of the letters of which it was 
 composed, became talismanic, and was fre- 
 quently inscribed, sometimes with and 
 sometimes without other superstitious in- 
 scriptions, on stones or gems as amulets, 
 many of which have been preserved or are 
 continually being discovered, and are to be 
 found in the cabinets of the curious. 
 
 There have been many conjectures among 
 the learned as to the derivation of the word 
 Abraxas. Beausobre (Hi&toire du Maniche- 
 isme, vol. ii.) derives it from the Greek, 
 Aj3<f>oc 2au, signifying "the magnificent 
 Saviour, he who heals and preserves." Bel- 
 lermann, (Essay on the Gems of the An- 
 cients) supposeu it to be compounded of 
 three Coptic words signifying "the holy 
 word of bliss." Pignorius and Vandelin 
 think it is composed of four Hebrew and 
 three Greek letters, whose numerical value 
 is 365, and which are the initials of the 
 sentence : " saving men by wood, i. e. the 
 cross." 
 
 Abraxas Stones. Stones on which 
 
ABSENCE 
 
 ACACIA 
 
 the word Abraxas and other devices are 
 engraved, and which were used by the 
 Egyptian Gnostics as amulets. 
 
 Absence. Attendance on the com- 
 munications of his Lodge, on all convenient 
 occasions, is considered as one of the duties 
 of every Mason, and hence the old charges 
 of 1722 (ch. iii.) say that " in ancient times 
 no Master or Fellow could be absent from it 
 [the Lodge] , without incurring a severe cen- 
 sure, until it appeared to the Master and 
 Wardens that pure necessity hindered 
 him." Fines have by some Lodges been 
 inflicted for non-attendance, but a pecuni- 
 ary penalty is clearly an unmasonic punish- 
 ment, (see Fines;) and even that usage is 
 now discontinued, so that attendance on 
 ordinary communications is no longer en- 
 forced by any sanction of law. It is a duty 
 the discharge of which must be left to the 
 conscientious convictions of each Mason. 
 In the case, however, of a positive sum- 
 mons for any express purpose, such as to 
 stand trial, to show cause, etc., the neglect 
 or refusal to attend might be construed 
 into a contempt, to be dealt with according 
 to its magnitude or character in each par- 
 ticular case. 
 
 Acacia. An interesting and important 
 symbol in Freemasonry. Botanically, it is 
 the acacia vera of Tournefort, and the mi- 
 mosa nilotica of Linnaeus. It grew abun- 
 dantly in the vicinity of Jerusalem, where 
 it is still to be found, and is familiar in its 
 modern use as the tree from which the gum 
 arabic of commerce is derived. 
 
 Oliver, it is true, says that " there is not 
 the smallest trace of any tree of the kind 
 growingso far north as Jerusalem," (Landm. 
 ii. 149 ;) but this statement is refuted 
 by the authority of Lieutenant Lynch, who 
 saw it growing in great abundance in Jeri- 
 cho, and still farther north. {Exped. to Dead 
 Sea, p. 262.) The Rabbi Joseph Schwarz, 
 who is excellent authority, says : " The 
 Acacia (Shittim) tree, Al Sunt, is found in 
 Palestine of different varieties ; it looks like 
 the Mulberry tree, attains a great height, 
 and has a hard wood. The gum which is 
 obtained from it is the gum arabic." [De- 
 scriptive Geography and Historical Sketch of 
 Palestine, p. 308, Leeser's translation. Phila., 
 1850.) Schwarz was for sixteen years a 
 resident of Palestine, and wrote from per- 
 sonal observation. The testimony of Lynch 
 and Schwarz should, therefore, forever settle 
 the question of the existence of the acacia 
 in Palestine. 
 
 The acacia, which, in Scripture, is always 
 called ShiJah, and in the plural Shittim, 
 was esteemed a sacred wood among the He- 
 brews. Of it Moses was ordered to make 
 the tabernacle, the ark of the covenant, the 
 table for the shewbread, and the rest of the 
 
 sacred furniture. Isaiah, in recounting the 
 promises of God's mercy to the Israelites 
 on their return from the captivity, tells 
 them that, among other things, he will 
 plant in the wilderness, for their relief and 
 refreshment, the cedar, the acacia, (or, as it 
 is rendered in our common version, the 
 shittah,) the fir, and other trees. 
 
 The first thing, then, that we notice in 
 this symbol of the acacia, is that it had 
 been always consecrated from among the 
 other trees of the forest by the sacred pur- 
 poses to which it was devoted. By the 
 Jew, the tree from whose wood the sanc- 
 tuary of the tabernacle and the holy ark 
 had been constructed would ever be viewed 
 as more sacred than ordinary trees. The 
 early Masons, therefore, very naturally ap- 
 propriated this hallowed plant to the 
 equally sacred purpose of a symbol, which 
 was to teach an important divine truth in 
 all ages to come. 
 
 Having thus briefly disposed of the natu- 
 ral history of this plant, we may now pro- 
 ceed to examine it in its symbolic relations. 
 
 First. The acacia, in the mythic system 
 of Freemasonry, is preeminently the sym- 
 bol Of the IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL — 
 
 that important doctrine which it is the 
 great design of the Institution to teach. 
 As the evanescent nature of the flower, 
 which " cometh forth and is cut down," 
 reminds us of the transitory nature of 
 human life, so the perpetual renovation of 
 the evergreen plant, which uninterruptedly 
 presents the appearance of youth and vigor, 
 is aptly compared to that spiritual life in 
 which the soul, freed from the corruptible 
 companionship of the body, shall enjoy an 
 eternal spring and an immortal youth. 
 Hence, in the impressive funeral service 
 of our Order, it is said that " this evergreen 
 is an emblem of our faith in the immortal- 
 ity of the soul. By this we are reminded 
 that we have an immortal part within us, 
 which shall survive the grave, and which 
 shall never, never, never die." And again, 
 in the closing sentences of the monitorial 
 lecture of the third degree, the same senti- 
 ment is repeated, and we are told that by 
 " the ever-green and ever-living sprig " the 
 Mason is strengthened " with confidence 
 and composure to look forward to a blessed 
 immortality." Such an interpretation of 
 the symbol is an easy and a natural one ; 
 it suggests itself at once to the least reflec- 
 tive mind ; and consequently, in some one 
 form or another, is to be found existing in 
 all ages and nations. It was an ancient 
 custom, — which is not, even now, alto- 
 gether disused, — for mourners to carry in 
 their hands at funerals a sprig of some ever- 
 green, generally the cedar or the cypress, and 
 to deposit it in the grave of the deceased. 
 
8 
 
 ACACIA 
 
 ACACIA 
 
 According to Dalcho,* the Hebrews always 
 planted a sprig of the acacia at the head 
 of the grave of a departed friend. Potter 
 tells us that the ancient Greeks " had a 
 custom of bedecking tombs with herbs and 
 flowers." f All sorts of purple and white 
 flowers were acceptable to the dead, but 
 principally the amaranth and the myrtle. 
 The very name of the former of these 
 plants, which signifies " never fading," 
 would seem to indicate the true symbolic 
 meaning of the usage, although archaeolo- 
 gists have generally supposed it to be sim- 
 ply an exhibition of love on the part of 
 the survivors. Ragon says, that the an- 
 cients substituted the acacia for all other 
 plants because they believed it to be incor- 
 ruptible, and not liable to injury from the 
 attacks of any kind of insect or other ani- 
 mal — thus symbolizing the incorruptible 
 nature of the soul. 
 
 Hence we see the propriety of placing 
 the sprig of acacia, as an emblem of im- 
 mortality, among the symbols of that de- 
 gree, all of whose ceremonies are intended 
 to teach us the great truth that " the life 
 of man, regulated by morality, faith, and 
 justice, will be rewarded at its closing 
 hour by the prospect of Eternal Bliss." % 
 So, therefore, says Dr. Oliver, when the 
 Master Mason exclaims " my name is Aca- 
 cia," it is equivalent to saying, " I have 
 been in the grave — I have triumphed over 
 it by rising from the dead — and being re- 
 generated in the process, I have a claim to 
 life everlasting." 
 
 The sprig of acacia, then, in its most 
 ordinary signification, presents itself to the 
 Master Mason as a symbol of the immor- 
 tality of the soul, being intended to remind 
 him, by its evergreen and unchanging na- 
 
 * " This custom among the Hebrews arose 
 from this circumstance. Agreeably to their 
 laws, no dead bodies were allowed to be interred 
 within the walls of the city ; and as the Cohens, 
 or Priests, were prohibited from crossing a grave, 
 it was necessary to place marks thereon, that 
 they might avoid them. For this purpose the 
 acacia was used." (DalchOj Oration, p. 27, note.) 
 I object to the reason assigned by Dalcho, but 
 of the existence of the custom there can be no 
 question, notwithstanding the denial or doubt 
 of Dr. Oliver. Blount ( Travels in the Levant, 
 p. 197,) says, speaking of the Jewish burial cus- 
 toms, " those who bestow a marble stone over 
 any [grave] have a hole a yard long and a foot 
 broaa, in which they plant an evergreen, which 
 seems to grow from the body and is carefully 
 watched." Hasselquist (Travels, p. 28,) confirms 
 his testimony. I borrow the citations from 
 Brown, (Antiquities of the Jews, vol. ii., p. 356,) 
 but have verified the reference to Hasselquist. 
 The work of Blount I have not been enabled to 
 consult. 
 
 t Antiquities of Greece, p. 569. 
 
 X Dr. Crucefix, MS. quoted by Oliver. Land- 
 marks, ii. 2. 
 
 ture, of that better and spiritual part with- 
 in us, which, as an emanation from the 
 Grand Architect of the Universe, can never 
 die. And as this is the most ordinary, the 
 most generally accepted signification, so 
 also is it the most important; for thus, as 
 the peculiar symbol of immortality, it be- 
 comes the most appropriate to an Order 
 all of whose teachings are intended to in- 
 culcate the great lesson that "life rises out 
 of the grave." But incidental to this the 
 acacia has two other interpretations which 
 are well worthy of investigation. 
 
 Secondly, then, the acacia is a symbol of 
 innocence. The symbolism here is of a 
 peculiar and unusual character, depending 
 not on any real analogy in the form or use 
 of the symbol to the idea symbolized, but 
 simply on a double or compound meaning 
 of the word. For anaicia, in the Greek lan- 
 guage, signifies both the plant in question 
 and the moral quality of innocence or 
 purity of "life. In this sense the symbol 
 refers, primarily, to him over whose soli- 
 tary grave the acacia was planted, and 
 whose virtuous conduct, whose integrity of 
 life and fidelity to his trusts have ever been 
 presented as patterns to the craft, and con- 
 sequently to all Master Masons, who, by 
 this interpretation of the symbol, are in- 
 vited to emulate his example. 
 
 Hutchinson, indulging in his favorite 
 theory of Christianizing Masonry, when he 
 comes to this signification of the symbol, 
 thus enlarges on the interpretation : " We 
 Masons, describing the deplorable estate of 
 religion under the Jewish law, speak in 
 figures: — 'Her tomb was in the rubbish 
 and filth cast forth of the temple, and Aca- 
 cia wove its branches over her monument ; ' 
 akakia being the Greek word for innocence, 
 or being free from sin ; implying that the 
 sins and corruptions of the old law and 
 devotees of the Jewish altar had hid reli- 
 gion from those who sought her, and she 
 was only to be found where innocence sur- 
 vived, and under the banner of the divine 
 Lamb ; and as to ourselves, professing that 
 we were to be distinguished by our Acacy, 
 or as true Acacians in our religious faith 
 and tenets." * 
 
 But, lastly, the acacia is to be considered 
 as the symbol of initiation. This is by- 
 far the most interesting of its interpreta- 
 tions, and was, we have every reason to 
 believe, the primary and original; the 
 others being but incidental. It leads us at 
 once to the investigation of the significant 
 fact that in all the ancient initiations and 
 religious mysteries there was some plant 
 peculiar to each, which was consecrated by 
 its own esoteric meaning, and which occu- 
 
 * Hutchinson's Spirit of Masonry, Lect. IX., 
 
ACACIAN 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 pied an important position in the celebra- 
 tion of the rites, so that the plant, what- 
 ever it might be, from its constant and 
 prominent use in the ceremonies of initia- 
 tion, came at length to be adopted as the 
 symbol of that initiation. 
 
 Thus, the lettuce was the sacred plant 
 which assumed the place of the acacia in 
 the mysteries of Adonis. (See Lettuce.) 
 The lotus was that of the Brahminical rites 
 of India, and from them adopted by the 
 Egyptians. (See Lotus.) The Egyptians 
 also revered the erica or heath ; and the 
 mistletoe was a mystical plant among the 
 Druids. (See Erica and Mistletoe.) And, 
 lastly, the myrtle performed the same office 
 of symbolism in the mysteries of Greece 
 that the lotus did in Egypt or the mistle- 
 toe among the Druids. See Myrtle. 
 
 In all of these ancient mysteries, while 
 the sacred plant was a symbol of initiation, 
 the initiation itself was symbolic of the 
 resurrection to a future life, and of the im- 
 mortality of the soul. In this view, Free- 
 masonry is to us now in the place of the 
 ancient initiations, and the acacia is sub- 
 stituted for the lotus, the erica, the ivy, the 
 mistletoe, and the myrtle. The lesson of 
 wisdom is the same — the medium of im- 
 parting it is all that has been changed. 
 
 Returning, then, to the acacia, we find 
 that it is capable of three explanations. 
 It is a symbol of immortality, of innocence, 
 and of initiation. But these three signifi- 
 cations are closely connected, and that 
 connection must be observed, if we desire 
 to obtain a just interpretation of the sym- 
 bol. Thus, in this one symbol, we are 
 taught that in the initiation of life, of 
 which the initiation in the third degree is 
 simply emblematic, innocence must for a 
 time lie in the grave, at length, however, 
 to be called, by the word of the Grand 
 Master of the Universe, to a blissful im- 
 mortality. Combine with this the recol- 
 lection of the place where the sprig of aca- 
 cia was planted, — Mount Calvary, — the 
 place of sepulture of him who " brought 
 life and immortality to light," and who, in 
 Christian Masonry, is designated, as he is 
 in Scripture, as "the lion of the tribe of 
 Judah;" and remember, too, that in the 
 mystery of his death, the wood of the cross 
 takes the place of the acacia, and in this 
 little and apparently insignificant symbol, 
 but which is really and truly the most im- 
 portant and significant one in Masonic 
 science, we have a beautiful suggestion of 
 all the mysteries of life and death, of time 
 and eternity, of the present and of the 
 future. 
 
 Acacian. A word introduced by 
 Hutchinson, in his " Spirit of Masonry," 
 to designate a Freemason in reference to 
 B 
 
 the akakia, or innocence with which he was 
 to be distinguished, from the Greek word 
 anemia. (See the preceding article.) The 
 Acacians constituted an heretical sect in 
 the primitive Christian Church, who de- 
 rived their name from Acacius, Bishop of 
 Csesarea; and there was subsequently an- 
 other sect of the same name Acacius, 
 Patriarch of Constantinople. But it is 
 needless to say that the Hutchinsonian 
 application of the word Acacian to signify 
 a Freemason has nothing to do with the 
 theological reference of the term. 
 
 Academy. The 4th degree of the 
 Rectified Rose Croix of Schroeder. 
 
 Academy of Ancients or of Se- 
 crets. (Academie des Secrets.) A society 
 instituted at Warsaw, in 1767, by M. Thoux 
 de Salverte, and founded on the principles 
 of another which bore the same name, and 
 which had been established at Rome, about 
 the end of the 16th century, by John Bap- 
 tiste Porta. The object of the institution 
 was the advancement of the natural sci- 
 ences and their application to the occult 
 philosophy. 
 
 Academy of Sages. An order which 
 existed in Sweden in 1770, deriving its 
 origin from that founded in London by 
 Elias Ashmole, on the doctrines of the 
 New Atlantis of Bacon. A few similar 
 societies were subsequently founded in 
 Russia and France, one especially noted 
 by Thory [Act. Lat.) as having been estab- 
 lished in 1776 by the mother Lodge of 
 Avignon. 
 
 Academy of Secrets. See Acad- 
 emy of Ancients. 
 
 Academy of Sublime Masters 
 of the Luminous King. Founded 
 in France, in 1780, by Baron Blaerfindy, 
 one of the Grand Officers of the Philo- 
 sophic Scotch Rite. The Academy of the 
 Luminous Ring was dedicated to the phil- 
 osophy of Pythagoras, and was divided 
 into three degrees. The first and second 
 were principally occupied with the history 
 of Freemasonry, and the last with the 
 dogmas of the Pythagorean school, and 
 their application to the highest grades of 
 science. The historical hypothesis which 
 was sought to be developed in this Acad- 
 emy was that Pythagoras was the founder 
 of Freemasonry. 
 
 Academy of True Masons. 
 Founded at Montpelier, in France, by Dom 
 Pernetty, in 1778, and occupied with in- 
 structions in hermetic science, which were 
 developed in six degrees, viz. : 1. The True 
 Mason ; 2. The True Mason in the Right 
 Way ; 3. Knight of the Golden Key ; 4. 
 Knight of Iris; 5. Knight of the Argo- 
 nauts; 6. Knight of the Golden Fleece. 
 The degrees thus conferred constituted the 
 
10 
 
 ACADEMY 
 
 ACCEPTED 
 
 Philosophic Scotch Rite, which was the 
 system adopted by the Academy. It after- 
 wards changed its name to that of Russo- 
 Swedish Academy, which circumstance 
 leads Thory to believe that it was con- 
 nected with the Alchemical Chapters which 
 at that time existed in Russia and Sweden. 
 The entirely hermetic character of the 
 Academy of True Masons may readily be 
 perceived in a few paragraphs cited by 
 Clavel from a discourse by Goyer de Ju- 
 milly at the installation of an Academy in 
 Martinico. "To seize," says the orator, 
 " the Y enc il of Hermes ; to engrave the 
 doctrines of natural philosophy on your 
 columns ; to call Flamel, the Philaletes, 
 the Cosmopolite, and our other masters to 
 my aid for the purpose of unveiling the 
 mysterious principles of the occult sci- 
 ences, — these, illustrious knights, appear 
 to be the duties imposed on me by the cere- 
 mony of your installation. The fountain 
 of Count Trevisan, the pontifical water, 
 the peacock's tail, are phenomena with 
 which you are familiar," etc., etc. 
 
 Academy, Platonic. Founded in 
 1480 by Marsilius Ficinus, at Florence, 
 under the patronage of Lorenzo de Medi- 
 cis. It is said by the Masons of Tuscany 
 to have been a secret society, and is sup- 
 posed to have had a Masonic character, 
 because in the hall where its members held 
 their meetings, and which still remains, 
 many Masonic symbols are to be found. 
 Clavel supposes it to have been a society 
 founded by some of the honorary members 
 and patrons of the fraternity of Freema- 
 sons who existed in the Middle Ages, and 
 who, having abandoned the material design 
 of the institution, confined themselves to 
 its mystic character. If his suggestion be 
 correct, this is one of the earliest instances 
 of the separation of speculative from oper- 
 ative Masonry. 
 
 Acanthus. A plant, described by 
 Dioscorides, with broad, flexible, prickly 
 leaves, which perish in the winter and 
 sprout again at the return of spring. It 
 is found in the Grecian islands on the bor- 
 ders of cultivated fields or gardens, and is 
 common in moist, rocky situations. It is 
 memorable for the tradition which assigns 
 to it the origin of the foliage carved on the 
 capitals of Corinthian and composite col- 
 umns. Hence, in architecture, that part 
 of the Corinthian capital is called the 
 Acanthus which is situated below the aba- 
 cus, and which, having the form of a vase 
 or bell, is surrounded by two rows of 
 leaves of the acanthus plant. Callima- 
 chus, who invented this ornament, is said 
 to have had the idea suggested to him by 
 the following incident. A Corinthian 
 maiden, who was betrothed, fell ill, and 
 
 died just before the appointed time of her 
 marriage. Her faithful and grieving nurse 
 placed on her tomb a basket containing 
 many of her toys and jewels, and covered 
 it with a flat tile. It so happened that the 
 basket was placed immediately over an 
 acanthus root, which afterwards grew up 
 around the basket and curled over under 
 the superincumbent resistance of the tile, 
 thus exhibiting a form of foliage which 
 was, on its being seen by the architect, 
 adopted as a model for the capital of 
 a new order ; so that the story of affection 
 was perpetuated in marble. Dudley (Na- 
 ology, p. 1G4,) thinks the tale puerile, and 
 supposes that the acanthus is really the lotus 
 of the Indians and Egyptians, and is sym- 
 bolic of laborious but effectual effort ap- 
 Klied to the support of the world. With 
 im, the symbolism of the acanthus and 
 the lotus are identical. See Lotus. 
 
 Accepted. A term in Freemasonry 
 which is synonymous with "initiated" or 
 " received into the society." Thus, we find 
 in the Regulations of 1663, such expres- 
 sions as these; "No person who shall 
 hereafter be accepted a Freemason, shall 
 be admitted into a Lodge or assembly until 
 he has brought a certificate of the time and 
 place of his acceptation from the Lodge that 
 accepted him, unto the Master of that limit 
 or division where such Lodge is kept." The 
 word seems to have been first used in 1663, 
 and in the Regulations of that year is con- 
 stantly employed in the place of the olden 
 term " made," as equivalent to " initiated." 
 This is especially evident in the 6th Regu- 
 lation, which says, " that no person shall 
 be accepted unless he be twenty-one years 
 old or more ; " where accepted clearly means 
 initiated. As the word was introduced in 
 1663, its use seems also to have soon ceased, 
 for it is not found in any subsequent docu- 
 ments until 1738; neither in the Regula- 
 tions of 1721, nor in the Charges approved 
 in 1722 ; except once in the latter, where 
 " laborers ana unaccepted Masons " are 
 spoken of as distinguished from and in- 
 ferior to "Freemasons." In the Regula- 
 tions of 1721, the words "made," "en- 
 tered," or "admitted," are constantly 
 employed in its stead. But in 1738, An- 
 derson, who, in publishing the 2d edition of 
 the Book of Constitutions, made many 
 verbal alterations which seem subsequently 
 to have been disapproved of by the Grand 
 Lodge, (see Book of Constitutions,) again in- 
 troduced the word accepted. Thus, in the 
 5th of the Regulations of 1721, which in the 
 edition of 1723 read as follows : " But no 
 man can be made or admitted a member of 
 a particular Lodge," etc., he changed the 
 phraseology so as to make the article read : 
 No man can be accepted a member of a 
 
ACCLAMATION 
 
 ACHAD 
 
 11 
 
 particular Lodge," etc. And so attached 
 does he appear to have become to this word, 
 that he changed the very name of the Order, 
 by altering the title of the work, which, in 
 the edition of 1723, was "The Constitutions 
 of the Freemasons," to that of " The Con- 
 stitutions of the Ancient and Honorable 
 Society of Free and Accepted Masons." 
 Although many of the innovations of the 
 edition of 1738 of the Book of Constitutions 
 were subsequently repudiated by the Grand 
 Lodge, and omitted in succeeding editions, 
 the title of " Free and Accepted Masons " 
 was retained, and is now more generally 
 used than the older and simpler one of 
 "Freemasons," to distinguish the society. 
 (See Free and Accepted Masons.) The word 
 accepted, however, as a synonym of initiated, 
 has now become obsolete. The modern 
 idea of an accepted Mason is that he is one 
 distinguished from a purely operative or 
 stone-mason, who has not been admitted to 
 the freedom of the company ; an idea evi- 
 dently intended to be conveyed by the use 
 of the word in the Charges of 1722, already 
 quoted. 
 
 Acclamation. A certain form of 
 words used in connection with the battery. 
 In the Scottish rite it is hoschea; in the 
 French, vivat; and in the rite of Misraim, 
 hallelujah. In the York, it is so mote it be. 
 Accolade. From the Latin ad and 
 collum, around the neck. It is generally 
 but incorrectly supposed that the accolade 
 means the blow given on the neck of a 
 newly created knight with the flat of the 
 sword. The best authorities define it to be 
 the embrace, accompanied with the kiss 
 of peace, by which the new knight was at 
 his creation welcomed into the Order of 
 Knighthood by the sovereign or lord who 
 created him. See the word Knighthood. 
 
 Accord. We get this word from the 
 two Latin ones ad cor, to the heart, and 
 hence it means hearty consent. Thus in 
 Wiclif 's translation we find the phrase in 
 Philippians, which in the Authorized Ver- 
 sion is " with one accord," rendered " with 
 one will, with one heart." Such is its sig- 
 nification in the Masonic formula, " free 
 will and accord," that is " free will and 
 hearty consent." See Free Will and Accord. 
 Accusation. See Charge. 
 Accuser. In every trial in a Lodge for 
 an offence against the laws and regulations 
 or the principles of Masonry any Master 
 Mason may be the accuser of another, but a 
 profane cannot be permitted to prefer 
 charges against a Mason. Yet, if circum- 
 stances are known to a profane upon which 
 charges ought to be predicated, a Master 
 Mason may avail himself of that informa- 
 tion, and out of it frame an accusation to 
 be presented to the Lodge. And such 
 
 accusation will be received and investigated, 
 although remotely derived from one who is 
 not a member of the Order. 
 
 It is not necessary that the accuser 
 should be a member of the same Lodge. It 
 
 sufficient if he is an affiliated Mason; 
 
 but it is generally held that an unaffiliated 
 Mason is no more competent to prefer 
 charges than a profane. 
 
 In consequence of the Junior Warden 
 being placed over the Craft during the hours 
 of refreshment, and of his being charged 
 at the time of his installation to see " that 
 none of the Craft be suffered to convert the 
 purposes of refreshment into those of in- 
 temperance and excess," it has been very 
 generally supposed that it is his duty, as 
 the prosecuting officer of the Lodge, to 
 prefer charges against any member who, 
 by his conduct, has made himself amenable 
 to the penal jurisdiction of the Lodge. I 
 know of no ancient regulation which im- 
 poses this unpleasant duty upon the Junior 
 Warden; but it does seem to be a very 
 natural deduction, from his peculiar pre- 
 rogative as the custos morum or guardian 
 of the conduct of the Craft, that in all 
 cases of violation of the law he should, 
 after due efforts towards producing a re- 
 form, be the proper officer to bring the 
 conduct of the offending brother to the 
 notice of the Lodge. 
 
 Aceldama, from the Syro-Chaldaic, 
 meaning field of blood, so called because it 
 was purchased by Judas Iscariot with the 
 blooa-money which he received for betray- 
 ing his Lord. It is situated on the slope 
 of the hills beyond the valley of Hinnom 
 and to the south of Mount Zion. The 
 earth there was believed, by early writers, 
 to have possessed a corrosive quality, by 
 means of which bodies deposited in it were 
 quickly consumed ; and hence it was used 
 by the Crusaders, then by the Knights 
 Hospitallers, and afterwards by the Arme- 
 nians, as a place of sepulture, and the 
 Empress Helen is said to have built a 
 charnel-house in its midst. Dr. Kobinson 
 [Biblical Researches, i., p. 524,) says that the 
 field is not now marked by any boundary 
 to distinguish it from the rest of the field, 
 and the former charnel-house is now a 
 ruin. The field of Aceldama is referred to 
 in the ritual of the Knights Templars. 
 
 Acerellos, R. S. A nom de plume 
 assumed by Carl Koessler, a German Ma- 
 sonic writer. See Roessler. 
 
 Achad. One of the names of God. 
 The word "IflX* Achad, in Hebrew signi- 
 fies one or unity. It has been adopted by 
 the Masons as one of the appellations of 
 the Deity from that passage in Deuter- 
 onomy (vi. 4) : " Hear, O Israel, the Lord 
 thy God is ( Achad) one ; " and which the 
 
12 
 
 ACHARON 
 
 ACQUITTAL 
 
 Jewa wear on their phylacteries, and pro- 
 nounce with great fervor as a confession of 
 their faith in the unity of God. Speaking 
 of God as Achad, the Rabbins say, " God 
 is one (Achad) and man is one (Achad). 
 Man, however, is not purely one, because 
 he is made up of elements and has another 
 like himself; but the oneness of God is a 
 oneness that has no boundary." 
 
 Acharon Scliilton. In Hebrew 
 JC375P JtTJX, signifying the new kingdom. 
 Significant words in some of the high 
 degrees. 
 
 Achias. A corruption of the Hebrew 
 Achijah, the brother of Jah ; a significant 
 word in some of the high degrees. 
 
 Acliishar. Mentioned in 1 Kings (iv. 
 6) under the name of Ahishar, and there 
 described as being " over the household " 
 of King Solomon. This was a situation 
 of great importance in the East, and equiv- 
 alent to the modern office of Chamberlain. 
 The Steward in a Council of Select Masters 
 is said to represent Achishar. 
 
 Achtariel. A kabbalistic name of God 
 belonging to the Crown or first of the ten 
 sephiroth ; and hence signifying the Crown 
 or God. 
 
 Acknowledged. When one is ini- 
 tiated into the degree of Most Excellent 
 Master, he is technically said to be "re- 
 ceived and acknowledged "as a Most Ex- 
 cellent Master. This expression refers to 
 the tradition of the degree which states 
 that when the Temple had been completed 
 and dedicated, King Solomon received and 
 acknowledged the most expert of the crafts- 
 men as most excellent Masters. That is, 
 he received them into the exalted rank of 
 perfect and acknowledged workmen, and 
 acknowledged their right to that title. The 
 verb to acknowledge here means to own or 
 admit to belong to, as to acknowledge a 
 son. 
 
 Aconsmatici. The primary class of 
 the disciples of Pythagoras, who served a 
 five years' probation of silence, and were 
 hence called acousmatici or hearers. Ac- 
 cording to Porphyry, they received only 
 the elements of intellectual and moral in- 
 struction, and, after the expiration of their 
 term of probation, they were advanced 
 to the rank of Mathematici. See Pythag- 
 oras. 
 
 Acquittal. Under this head it may 
 be proper to discuss two questions of Ma- 
 sonic law. 1. Can a Mason, having been 
 acquitted by the courts of the country of 
 an offence with which he has been charged, 
 be tried by his Lodge for the same offence? 
 And, 2. Can a Mason, having been acquitted 
 by his Lodge on insufficient evidence, be 
 subjected, on the discovery and production 
 of new and more complete evidence, to a 
 
 second trial for the same offence? To both 
 of these questions the correct answer would 
 seem to be in the affirmative. 
 
 1. An acquittal of a crime by a temporal 
 court does not relieve a Mason from an 
 inquisition into the same offence by his 
 Lodge; for acquittals may be the result of 
 some technicality of law, or other cause, 
 where, although the party is relieved from 
 legal punishment, his guilt is still manifest 
 in the eyes of the community ; and if the 
 Order were to be controlled by the action 
 of the courts, the character of the Institu- 
 tion might be injuriously affected by its 
 permitting a man, who had escaped without 
 honor from the punishment of the law, to 
 remain a member of the Fraternity. In 
 the language of the Grand Lodge of Texas, 
 " an acquittal by a jury, while it may, and 
 should, in some circumstances, have its in- 
 fluence in deciding on the course to be 
 pursued, yet has no binding force in Ma- 
 sonry. We decide on our own rules, and 
 our own view of the facts." (Proc. G. L. 
 Tex., vol. ii., p. 273.) 
 
 2. To come to a correct apprehension of 
 the second question, we must remember 
 that it is a long-settled principle of Ma- 
 sonic law, that every offence which a Mason 
 commits is an injury to the whole Frater- 
 nity, inasmuch as that the bad conduct of 
 a single member reflects discredit on the 
 whole Institution. This is a very old and 
 well-established principle of the Institu- 
 tion; and hence we find the old Gothic 
 Constitutions declaring that "a Mason shall 
 harbor no thief or thief's retainer," and 
 assigning as a reason, " lest the Craft should 
 come to shame." The safety of the Insti- 
 tution requires that no evil-disposed mem- 
 ber should be tolerated with impunity in 
 bringing disgrace on the Craft. And, there- 
 fore, although it is a well-known maxim 
 of the common law — nemo debet bis puniri 
 pro uno delicto — that is, "that no one 
 should be twice placed in peril of punish- 
 ment for the same crime ; " yet we must 
 also remember that other and fundamental 
 maxim — sains populi suprema lex — which 
 may, in its application to Masonry, be well 
 translated: "the well-being of the Order 
 is the first great law." To this everything 
 else must yield ; and, therefore, if a mem- 
 ber, having been accused of a heinous of- 
 fence and tried, shall, on his trial, for want 
 of sufficient evidence, be acquitted, or, being 
 convicted, shall, for the same reason, be 
 punished by an inadequate penalty — and 
 if he shall thus be permitted to remain in 
 the Institution with the stigma of the 
 crime upon him, " whereby the Craft comes 
 to shame ; " then, if new and more suffi- 
 cient evidence shall be subsequently dis- 
 covered, it is just and right that a new 
 
ACTA 
 
 ADAM 
 
 13 
 
 trial shall be had, so that he may, on this 
 newer evidence, receive that punishment 
 which will vindicate the reputation of the 
 Order. No technicalities of law, no plea 
 of autrefois acquit, nor mere verbal excep- 
 tion, should be allowed for the escape of a 
 guilty member ; for so long as he lives in 
 the Order, every man is subject to its disci- 
 pline. A hundred wrongful acquittals of 
 a bad member, who still bears with him the 
 reproach of his evil life, can never dis- 
 charge the Order from its paramount duty 
 of protecting its own good fame and re- 
 moving the delinquent member from its 
 fold. To this great duty all private and 
 individual rights and privileges must suc- 
 cumb, for the well-being of the Order is the 
 first great, law in Masonry. 
 
 Acta. Latoinorum, ou Chronologie 
 de l'histoire de la Franche-Maconnerie 
 franchise et etrangere, etc. Tnat is: 
 "The Acts of the Freemasons, or a chrono- 
 logical history of French and Foreign 
 Freemasonry, etc." This work, written or 
 compiled by Claude Antoine Thory, was 
 
 fublished at Paris, in 2 vols., 8vo, in 1815. 
 t contains the most remarkable facts in 
 the history of the Institution from obscure 
 times to the year 1814; the succession of 
 Grand Masters, a nomenclature of rites, 
 degrees, and secret associations in all the 
 countries of the world, and a bibliography 
 of the principal works on Freemasonry 
 published since 1723, with a supplement in 
 which the author has collected a variety of 
 rare and important Masonic documents. 
 Of this work, which has never been trans- 
 lated into English, Lenning says, (Encycl. 
 der Freimauverei) that it is, without dis- 
 pute, the most scientific work on Freema- 
 sonry that French literature has ever pro- 
 duced. It must, however, be confessed 
 that in the historical portion Thory has 
 committed many errors in respect to Eng- 
 lish and American Freemasonry, and there- 
 fore, if ever translated, the work will re- 
 quire much emendation. See Thory. 
 
 Acting Grand Master. The Duke 
 of Cumberland having in April, 1752, been 
 elected Grand Master of England, it was 
 resolved by the Grand Lodge, in compli- 
 ment to him, that he should have the privi- 
 lege of nominating a peer of the realm as 
 Acting Grand Master, who should be em- 
 powered to superintend the Society in his 
 absence; and that at any future period, 
 when the fraternity should have a prince 
 of the blood at their head, the same privi- 
 lege should be granted. The officer thus 
 provided to be appointed is now called, 
 in the Constitutions of England, the Pro 
 Grand Master. 
 
 In the American system, the officer who 
 performs the duties of Grand Master in 
 
 case of the removal, death, or inability of 
 that officer, is known as the Acting Grand 
 Master. For the regulations which pre- 
 scribe the proper person to perform these 
 duties see the words Succession to Office. 
 
 Active Lodge. A Lodge is said to 
 be active when it is neither dormant nor 
 suspended, but regularly meets and is occu- 
 pied in the labors of Masonry. 
 
 Active Member. An active mem- 
 ber of a Lodge is one who, in contradis- 
 tinction to an honorary member, assumes 
 all the burdens of membership, such as 
 contributions, arrears, and participation in 
 its labors, and is invested with all the 
 rights of membership, such as speaking, 
 voting, and holding office. 
 
 Actual Past Masters. Those who 
 receive the degree of Past Master in sym- 
 bolic Lodges, as a part of the installation 
 service, when elected to preside, are called 
 " Actual Past Masters," to distinguish them 
 from those who pass through the ceremony 
 in a Chapter, as simply preparatory to 
 taking the Royal Arch, and who are dis- 
 tinguished as " Virtual Past Masters." See 
 Past Master. 
 
 Adad. The name of the principal god 
 among the Syrians, and who, as represent- 
 ing the sun, had, according to Macrobius, 
 (Saturnal., i. 23,) an image surrounded by 
 rays. Macrobius, however, is wrong, as 
 Selden has shown (De Diis Syris, i. 6), in 
 confounding Adad with the Hebrew Achad, 
 or one — a name, from its signification of 
 unity, applied to the Grand Architect of 
 the Universe. The error of Macrobius, 
 however, has been perpetuated by the in- 
 ventors of the high degrees of Masonry, 
 who have incorporated Adad, as a name of 
 God, among their significant words. 
 
 Adam. The name of the first man. 
 The Hebrew word Qltf, ADaM, signifies 
 man in a generic sense, the human species 
 collectively, and is said to be derived from 
 HOIN, ADaMaH, the ground, because 
 the first man was made out of the dust of 
 the earth, or from ADaM, to be red, in 
 reference to his ruddy complexion. It is 
 most probably in this collective sense, as 
 the representative of the whole human 
 race, and, therefore, the type of humanity, 
 that the presiding officer in a Council of 
 Knights of the Sun, the 28th degree of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 
 is called Father Adam, and is occupied 
 in the investigation of the great truths 
 which so much concern the interests of 
 the race. Adam, in that degree, is man 
 seeking after divine truth. The Kabbalists 
 and Talmudists have invented many things 
 concerning the first Adam, none of which 
 are, however, worthy of preservation. See 
 Knight of the Sun. 
 
14 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 ADDRESSES 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, the sixth 
 President of the United States, who served 
 from 1825 to 1829. Mr. Adams, who has 
 been very properly described as " a man of 
 strong points and weak ones, of vast read- 
 ing and wonderful memory, of great cre- 
 dulity and strong prejudices," became noto- 
 rious in the latter years of his life for his 
 virulent opposition to Freemasonry. The 
 writer already quoted, and who had an ex- 
 cellent opportunity of seeing intimately 
 the workings of the spirit of anti-Masonry, 
 says of Mr. Adams: "He hated Freema- 
 sonry, as he did many other things, not 
 from any harm that he had received from 
 it or personally knew respecting it, but 
 because his credulity had been wrought 
 upon and his prejudices excited against it 
 by dishonest and selfish politicians, who 
 were anxious, at any sacrifice to him, to 
 avail themselves of the influence of his 
 commanding talents and position in public 
 life to sustain them in the disreputable 
 work in which they were enlisted. In his 
 weakness, he lent himself to them. He 
 united his energies to theirs in an imprac- 
 ticable and unworthy cause." (C. W. Moore, 
 Freemason's Mag., vol. vii., p. 314.) The re- 
 sult was a series of letters abusive of Free- 
 masonry, directed to leading politicians, 
 and published in the public journals from 
 1831 to 1833. A year before his death they 
 were collected and published under the 
 title of "Letters on the Masonic Institu- 
 tion, by John Quincy Adams." Boston, 
 1847, 8vo, pp. 284. Some explanation 
 of the cause of the virulence with which 
 Mr. Adams attacked the Masonic Insti- 
 tution in these letters may be found in 
 the following paragraph contained in an 
 anti-Masonic work written by one Henry 
 Gassett, and affixed to his " Catalogue of 
 Books on the Masonic Institution." (Bos- 
 ton, 1852.) "It had been asserted in a 
 newspaper in Boston, edited by a Masonic 
 dignitary, that John Q. Adams was a Ma- 
 son. In answer to an inquiry from a per- 
 son in New York State, whether he was 
 so, Mr. Adams replied that 'he was not, 
 and never should be.' These few words, 
 undoubtedly, prevented his election a second 
 term as President of the United States. His 
 competitor, Andrew Jackson, a Freemason, 
 was elected." Whether the statement con- 
 tained in the italicized words be true or 
 not, is not the question. It is sufficient 
 that Mr. Adams was led to believe it, and 
 hence his ill-will to an association which 
 had, as he supposed, inflicted this political 
 evil on him, and baffled his ambitious views. 
 
 Adar. Hebrew, TIN ; the sixth month 
 of the civil and the twelfth of the ecclesi- 
 astical year of the Jews. It corresponds 
 to a part of February and of March. 
 
 Adarel. Angel of Fire. Referred to in 
 the Hermetic degree of Knight of the Sun. 
 Probably from T?X, Adr, splendor, and 
 Sx, El, God, i. e. the splendor of God or 
 Divine splendor. 
 
 Addresses, Masonic. Dr. Oliver, 
 speaking of the Masonic discourses which 
 began to be published soon after the re- 
 organization of Masonry, in the commence- 
 ment of the eighteenth century, and which 
 he thinks were instigated by the attacks 
 made on the Order, to which they were in- 
 tended to be replies, says : " Charges and 
 addresses were therefore delivered by breth- 
 ren in authority on the fundamental prin- 
 ciples of the Order, and they were printed 
 to show that its morality was sound, and 
 not in the slightest degree repugnant to the 
 precepts of our most holy religion. These 
 were of sufficient merit to insure a wide 
 circulation among the Fraternity, from 
 whence they spread into the world at large, 
 and proved decisive in fixing the credit of 
 the Institution for solemnities of character 
 and a taste for serious and profitable inves- 
 tigations." 
 
 There can be no doubt that these ad- 
 dresses, periodically delivered and widely 
 published, have continued to exert an ex- 
 cellent effect in behalf of the Institution, 
 by explaining and defending the principles 
 on which it is founded. 
 
 The first Masonic address of which we 
 have any notice was delivered on the 24th 
 of June, 1719, before the Grand Lodge of 
 England, by the celebrated John Theophi- 
 lus Desaguliers, LL. D. and F. R. S. The 
 Book of OonstUutwns, under that date, 
 says " Bro. Desaguliers made an eloquent 
 oration about Masons and Masonry." Dr. 
 Oliver states that this address was issued 
 in a printed form, but no copy of it now 
 remains — at least it has escaped the re- 
 searches of the most diligent Masonic 
 bibliographers. 
 
 On the 20th of May, 1725, Martin 
 Folkes, then Deputy Grand Master, de- 
 livered an address before the Grand Lodge 
 of England, which is cited in the Free- 
 mason's Pocket Companion for 1759, but 
 no entire copy of the address is now 
 extant. 
 
 The third Masonic address of which we 
 have any knowledge is one entitled, "A 
 Speech delivered to the Worshipful and 
 Ancient Society of Free and Accepted Ma- 
 sons, at a Grand Lodge held at Merchants' 
 Hall, in the city of York, on St. John's 
 Day, Dec. 27, 1726, the Right Worshipful 
 Charles Bathurst, Esq., Grand Master. By 
 the Junior Grand Warden. Olim meminisse 
 juvabit. York : Printed by Thomas Gent, 
 for the benefit of the Lodge." It was 
 again published at London in 1729, in 
 
ADDRESSES 
 
 ADEPT 
 
 15 
 
 Benj. Cole's edition of the Ancient Consti- 
 tutions, and has been subsequently re- 
 printed in 1858 in the London Freemason's 
 Magazine, from which it was copied in C. 
 W. Moore's Freemason's Magazine, pub- 
 lished at Boston, Mass. This is, therefore, 
 the earliest Masonic address to which we 
 have access. It contains a brief sketch of 
 the history of Masonry, written as Masonic 
 history was then written. It is, however, 
 remarkable for advancing the claim of the 
 Grand Lodge of York to a superiority over 
 that of London. 
 
 The fourth Masonic address of whose 
 existence we have any knowledge is "A 
 Speech delivered at a Lodge held at the 
 Carpenters' Arms the 31st of December, 
 1728, by Edw. Oakley, late Provincial 
 Senior Grand Warden in Carmarthen." 
 This speech was reprinted by Cole at Lon- 
 don in 1751. 
 
 America has the honor of presenting the 
 next attempt at Masonic oratory. The 
 fifth address, and the first American, which 
 is extant, is one delivered in Boston, Mass., 
 on June 24th, 1734. It is entitled "A Dis- 
 sertation upon Masonry, delivered to a 
 Lodge in America, June 24th, 1734. Christ's 
 Regm." It was discovered by Bro. C. W. 
 Moore in the archives of the Grand Lodge 
 of Massachusetts, and published by him in 
 his magazine in 1849. This address is well 
 written, and of a symbolic character, as 
 the author allegorizes the Lodge as a type 
 of heaven. 
 
 And, sixthly, we have "An Address made 
 to the body of Free and Accepted Masons 
 assembled at a Quarterly Communication, 
 held near Temple Bar, December 11, 1735, 
 by Martin Clare, Junior Grand Warden." 
 Martin Clare was distinguished in his 
 times as a Mason. He had been authorized 
 by the Grand Lodge to revise the lectures, 
 which task he performed with great satis- 
 faction to the Craft. This address, which 
 Dr. Oliver has inserted in his Golden Re- 
 mains, has been considered of value enough 
 to be translated into the French and Ger- 
 man languages. 
 
 After this period, Masonic addresses 
 rapidly multiplied, so that it would be im- 
 possible to record their titles or even the 
 names of their authors. 
 
 What Martial says of his own epigrams, 
 that some were good, some bad, and a great 
 many middling, may, with equal propriety 
 and justice, be said of Masonic addresses. 
 Of the thousands that have been delivered, 
 many have been worth neither printing 
 nor preservation. 
 
 One thing, however, is to be remarked : 
 that within a few years the literary char- 
 acter of these productions has greatly im- 
 proved. Formerly, a Masonic address on 
 
 some festival occasion of the Order was 
 little more than a homily on brotherly love 
 or some other Masonic virtue. Often the 
 orator was a clergyman, selected by the 
 Lodge on account of his moral character 
 or his professional ability. These clergy- 
 men were frequently among the youngest 
 members of the Lodge, and men who had 
 no opportunity to study the esoteric con- 
 struction of Masonry. In such cases we 
 will find that the addresses were generally 
 neither more nor less than sermons under 
 another name. They contain excellent 
 general axioms of conduct, and sometimes 
 encomiums on the laudable design of our 
 Institution. But we look in vain in them 
 for any ideas which refer to the history or 
 to the occult philosophy of Masonry. They 
 accept the definition that " Freemasonry is 
 a science of morality, veiled in allegory 
 and illustrated by symbols," only in part. 
 They expatiate on the science of morality, 
 but they say nothing of the symbols or the 
 allegories. But, as I have already said, 
 there has been an evident improvement 
 within a few years, in this country especi- 
 ally, for the reform has not equally ex- 
 tended to England. Many of the addresses 
 now delivered are of a higher order of Ma- 
 sonic literature. The subjects of Masonic 
 history, of the origin of the Institution, of 
 its gradual development from an operative 
 art to a speculative science, of its symbols, 
 and of its peculiar features which distin- 
 guish it from all other associations, have 
 been ably discussed in many recent Ma- 
 sonic addresses, and thus have the efforts to 
 entertain an audience for an hour become 
 notonly the means of interesting instruction 
 to the hearers, but also valuable contribu- 
 tions to the literature of Freemasonry. 
 
 It is in this way that Masonic addresses 
 should be written. All platitudes and old 
 truisms should be avoided; sermonizing, 
 which is good in its place, is out of place 
 here. No one should undertake to deliver 
 a Masonic address unless he knows some- 
 thing of the subject on which he is about 
 to speak, and unless he is capable of say- 
 ing what will make every Mason who hears 
 him a wiser as well as a better man, or at 
 least what will afford him the opportunity 
 of becoming so. 
 
 Adclpll. Greek for a Brother. The 
 fourth degree of the order of the Palladium. 
 Reghellini says that there exists in the 
 Masonic archives of Douai the ritual of a 
 Masonic Society, called Adelphs, which has 
 been communicated to the Grand Orient, 
 but which he thinks is the same as the 
 Primitive Rite of Narbonne. 
 
 Adept. One fully skilled or well 
 versed in any art; from the Latin word 
 " Adeptus," having obtained, because the 
 
16 
 
 ADEPT 
 
 ADJOURNMENT 
 
 Adept claimed to be in the possession of 
 all the secrets of his peculiar mystery. The 
 Alchemists or Hermetic philosophers as- 
 sumed the title of Adepts. (See Alchemy.) 
 Of the Hermetic Adepts, who were also 
 sometimes called Rosicrucians, Spencethus 
 writes, in 1740, to his mother: "Have you 
 ever heard of the people called Adepts? 
 They are a set of philosophers superior to 
 whatever appeared among the Greeks and 
 Romans. The three great points they 
 drive at, is to be free from poverty, distem- 
 pers, and death ; and, if you believe them, 
 they have found out one secret that is ca- 
 pable of freeing them from all three. There 
 are never more than twelve of these men 
 in the whole world at a time ; and we have 
 the happiness of having one of the twelve 
 at this time in Turin. I am very well ac- 
 quainted with him, and have often talked 
 with him of their secrets, as far as he is 
 allowed to talk to a common mortal of 
 them." (Spence's Letter to his Mother, in 
 Singer' 8 Anecdotes, p. 403.) In a similar 
 allusion to the possession of abstruse knowl- 
 edge, the word is applied to some of the 
 high degrees of Masonry. 
 
 Adept, Prince. One of the names 
 of the 28th degree of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Rite. (See Knight of the Sun.) 
 It was the 23d degree of the System of 
 the Chapter of Emperors of the East and 
 West of Clermont. 
 
 Adept, the. A hermetic degree of 
 the collection of A. Viany. It is also the 
 4th degree of the Rite of Relaxed Observ- 
 ance, and the 1st of the high degrees of 
 the Rite of Elects of Truth. " It has much 
 analogy," says Thory, "with the degree of 
 Knight of the Sun in the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Rite." It is also called " Chaos dis- 
 entangled." 
 
 Adeptus Adoptatus. The 7th de- 
 gree of the Rite of Zinnendorf, consisting of 
 a kind of chemical and pharmaceutical in- 
 struction. 
 
 Adeptus Coronatus. Called also 
 Templar Master of the Key. The 7th degree 
 of the Swedish Rite, (which see.) 
 
 Adept iw Exemptus. The 7th de- 
 gree of the system adopted by those Ger- 
 man Rosicrucians who were known as the 
 "Gold-und Rosenkreutzer," or the Gold 
 and Rosy Cross, and whom Lenning sup- 
 poses to have been the first who engrafted 
 Rosicrucianism on Masonry. 
 
 Adhering Mason. Those Masons 
 who, during the anti-Masonic excitement 
 in this country, on account of the supposed 
 abduction of Morgan, refused to leave their 
 Lodges and renounce Masonry, were so 
 called. They embraced among their num- 
 ber some of the wisest, best, and most in- 
 fluential men of the country. 
 
 Adjournment. C. W. Moore {Free- 
 masons' Mag., xii., p. 290,) says : " We sup- 
 pose it to be generally conceded that Lodges 
 cannot properly be adjourned. It has been 
 so decided by a large proportion of the 
 Grand Lodges in this country, and tacitly, 
 at least, concurred in by all. We are not 
 aware that there is a dissenting voice among 
 them. It is, therefore, safe to assume that 
 the settled policy is against adjournment." 
 The reason which he assigns for this rule, 
 is that adjournment is a method used only 
 in deliberative bodies, such as legislatures 
 and courts, and as Lodges do not partake 
 of the character of either of these, adjourn- 
 ments are not applicable to them. The 
 rule which Bro. Moore lays down is un- 
 doubtedly correct, but the reason which he 
 assigns for it is not sufficient. If a Lodge 
 were permitted to adjourn by the vote of a 
 majority of its members, the control of the 
 labor would be placed in their hands. But 
 according to the whole spirit of the Masonic 
 system, the Master alone controls and 
 directs the hours of labor. In the 5th of 
 the Old Charges, approved in 1722, it is 
 declared that " All Masons employed shall 
 meekly receive their wages without mur- 
 muring or mutiny, and not desert the Master 
 till the work is finished." Now as the Master 
 alone can know when " the work is fin- 
 ished," the selection of the time of closing 
 must be vested in him. He is the sole 
 judge of the proper period at which the 
 labors of the Lodge should be terminated, 
 and he may suspend business even in the 
 middle of a debate, if he supposes that it 
 is expedient to close the Lodge. Hence no 
 motion for adjournment can ever be ad- 
 mitted in a Masonic Lodge. Such a motion 
 would be an interference with the preroga- 
 tive of the Master, and could not therefore 
 be entertained. 
 
 This prerogative of opening and closing 
 his Lodge is necessarily vested in the Mas- 
 ter, because, by the nature of our Institu- 
 tion, he is responsible to the Grand Lodge 
 for the good conduct of the body over 
 which he presides. He is charged, in those 
 questions to which he is required to give his 
 assent at his installation, to hold the Land- 
 marks in veneration, and to conform to 
 every edict of the Grand Lodge ; and for 
 any violation of the one or disobedience of 
 the other by the Lodge, in his presence, he 
 would be answerable to the supreme Ma- 
 sonic authority. Hence the necessity that 
 an arbitrary power should be conferred 
 upon him, by the exercise of which he may 
 at any time be enabled to prevent the adop- 
 tion of resolutions, or the commission of any 
 act which would be subversive of, or contrary 
 to, those ancient laws and usages which he 
 has sworn to maintain and preserve. 
 
ADMIRATION 
 
 ADONAI 
 
 17 
 
 Admiration, Sign of. A mode of 
 recognition alluded to in the Most Excel- 
 lent Master's degree, or the Gth of the Amer- 
 ican Rite. Its introduction in that place is 
 referred to a Masonic legend in connection 
 with the visit of the Queen of Sheba to 
 King Solomon, and which states that, 
 moved by the wide-spread reputation of 
 the Israelitish monarch, she had repaired 
 to Jerusalem to inspect the magnificent 
 works of which she had heard so many 
 encomiums. Upon arriving there, and be- 
 holding for the first time the Temple, which 
 glittered with gold, and which was so ac- 
 curately adjusted in all its parts as to seem 
 to be composed of but a single piece of 
 marble, she raised her hands and eyes to 
 heaven in an attitude of admiration, and 
 at the same time exclaimed, " Rabboni I " 
 equivalent to saying, " A most excellent 
 master hath done this ! " This action has 
 since been perpetuated in the ceremonies 
 of the degree of Most Excellent Master. 
 The legend is, however, no doubt apocry- 
 phal, and is really to be considered only as 
 allegorical, like so many other of the le- 
 gends of Masonry. See Sheba, Queen of. 
 
 Admission. Although the Old 
 Charges, approved in 1722, use the word 
 admitted as applicable to those who are 
 initiated into the mysteries of Freema- 
 sonry, yet the General Regulations of 1721 
 employ the term admission in a sense dif- 
 ferent from that of initiation. By the word 
 making they imply the reception of a pro- 
 fane into the Order, but by admission they 
 designate the election of a Mason into a 
 Lodge. Thus we find such expressions as 
 these clearly indicating a difference in the 
 meaning of the two words. In Reg. v. — 
 " No man can be made or admitted a Ma- 
 son of a particular Lodge." In Reg. vi. — 
 " But no man can be entered a brother in 
 any particular Lodge, or admitted to be a 
 member thereof." And more distinctly in 
 Reg. viii. — " No set or number of brethren 
 shall withdraw or separate themselves from 
 the Lodge in which they were made breth- 
 ren or were afterwards admitted members." 
 This distinction has not always been rig- 
 idly preserved by recent writers ; but it is 
 evident that, correctly speaking, we should 
 always say of a profane who has been ini- 
 tiated that he has been made a Mason, and 
 of a Mason who has been affiliated with a 
 Lodge, that he has been admitted a mem- 
 ber. The true definition of admission is, 
 then, the reception of an unaffiliated bro- 
 ther into membership. See Affiliation. 
 
 Admonition. According to the ethics 
 of Freemasonry, it is made a duty obliga- 
 tory upon every member of the Order to 
 conceal the faults of a brother, — that is, 
 not to blazon forlfe his errors and infirmi- 
 
 ties, — to let them be learned by the world 
 from some other tongue than his, and to 
 admonish him of them in private. So 
 there is another but a like duty of obliga- 
 tion, which instructs him to whisper good 
 counsel in his brother's ear and to warn 
 him of approaching danger. And this 
 refers not more to the danger that is with- 
 out and around him than to that which is 
 within him ; ' not more to the peril that 
 springs from the concealed foe who would 
 waylay him and covertly injure him, than 
 to that deeper peril of those faults and in- 
 firmities which lie within his own heart, 
 and which, if not timely crushed by good 
 and earnest resolution of amendment, will, 
 like the ungrateful serpent in the fable, 
 become warm with life only to sting the 
 bosom that has nourished them. 
 
 Admonition of a brother's fault is, then, 
 the duty of every mason, and no true one 
 will, for either fear or favor, neglect its 
 performance. But as the duty is Masonic, 
 so is there a Masonic way in which that 
 duty should be discharged. We must ad- 
 monish not with self-sufficient pride in our 
 own reputed goodness — not in imperious 
 tones, as though we looked down in scorn 
 upon the degraded offender — not in lan- 
 guage that, by its harshness, will wound 
 rather than win, will irritate more than it 
 will reform ; but with that persuasive gen- 
 tleness that gains the heart — with the 
 all-subduing influences of " mercy unre- 
 strained " — with the magic might of love 
 — with the language and the accents of 
 affection, which mingle grave displeasure 
 for the offence with grief and pity for the 
 offender. 
 
 This, and this alone, is Masonic admo- 
 nition. I am not to rebuke my brother in 
 anger, for I too have my faults, and I dare 
 not draw around me the folds of my gar- 
 ment lest they should be polluted by my 
 neighbor's touch ; but I am to admonish 
 in private, not before the world, for that 
 would degrade him ; and I am to warn him, 
 perhaps from my own example, how vice 
 ever should be followed by sorrow, for that 
 goodly sorrow leads to repentance, and re- 
 pentance to amendment, and amendment 
 to joy. 
 
 Adonai. In Hebrew * J1X, being the 
 plural of excellence for Adon, and signify- 
 ing the Lord. The Jews, who reverently 
 avoided the pronunciation of the sacred 
 name Jehovah, were accustomed, when- 
 ever that name occurred, to substitute for 
 it the word Adonai in reading. As to the 
 use of the plural form instead of the sin- 
 gular, the Rabbins say, " Every word indic- 
 ative of dominion, though singular in 
 meaning, is made plural in form." This is 
 called the "pluralis excellentiae." The 
 
18 
 
 ADONHIRAM 
 
 ADONHIRAMITE 
 
 Talmudists also say, (Buxtroff, Lex. Talm.,) 
 that the telragrammaton is called Shem 
 hamphorash, the name that is explained, 
 because it is explained, uttered, and set 
 forth by the word Adonai. (See Jehovah 
 and Shem Hamphorash.) Adonai is used 
 as a significant word in several of the high 
 degrees of Masonry, and may almost always 
 be considered as allusive to or symbolic 
 of the True Word. 
 
 Adonhiram. This has been adopted 
 by the disciples of Adonhiramite Masonry 
 as the spelling of the name of the person 
 known in Scripture and in other Masonic 
 systems as Adoniram, (which see.) They 
 correctly derive the word from the Hebrew 
 Adon and hiram, signifying the master who 
 is exalted, which is the true meaning of 
 Adoniram, the |"T or h being omitted in the 
 Hebrew by the coalescence of the two 
 words. Hiram Abif has also sometimes 
 been called Adonhiram, the Adon having 
 been bestowed on him by Solomon, it is 
 said, as a title of honor. 
 
 Adonhiramite Masonry. Of the 
 numerous controversies which arose from 
 the middle to near the end of the 18th cen- 
 tury on the continent of Europe, and espe- 
 cially in France, among the students of 
 Masonic philosophy, and which so fre- 
 quently resulted in the invention of new 
 degrees and the establishment of new rites, 
 not the least prominent was that which re- 
 lated to the person and character of the 
 Temple builder. The question, Who was 
 the architect of King Solomon's Temple ? 
 was answered differently by different the- 
 orists, and each answer gave rise to a new 
 system, a fact by no means surprising in 
 those times, so fertile in the production of 
 new Masonic systems. The general theory 
 was then, as it is now, that this architect 
 was Hiram Abif, the widow's son, who had 
 been sent to King Solomon by Hiram, King 
 of Tyre, as a precious gift, and " a curious 
 and cunning workman." This theory was 
 sustained by the statements of the Jewish 
 Scriptures, so far as they threw any light 
 on the Masonic legend. It was the theory 
 of the English Masons from the earliest 
 times ; was enunciated as historically cor- 
 rect in the first edition of the Book of Con- 
 stitutions, published in 1723 ; has continued 
 ever since to be the opinion of all English 
 and American Masons ; and is, at this day, 
 the only theory entertained by any Mason 
 in the two countries who has a theory at all 
 on the subject. This, therefore, is the ortho- 
 dox faith of Masonry. 
 
 But such was not the case, in the last 
 century, on the continent of Europe. At 
 first, the controversy arose not as to the 
 man himself, but as to his proper appella- 
 tion. All parties agreed that the architect 
 
 of the Temple was that Hiram, the widow's 
 son, who is described in the first Book of 
 Kings, chapter vii., verses 13 and 14, and in 
 the second Book of Chronicles, chapter ii., 
 verses 13 and 14, as having come out of 
 Tyre with the other workmen of the Temple 
 who had been sent by King Hiram to Solo- 
 mon. But one party called him Hiram 
 Abif, and the other, admitting that his orig- 
 inal name was Hiram, supposed that, in 
 consequence of the skill he had displayed in 
 the construction of the Temple, he had re- 
 ceived the honorable affix of Adon, signify- 
 ing Lord or Master, whence his name 
 became Adonhiram. 
 
 There was, however, at the Temple an- 
 other Adoniram, of whom it will be neces- 
 sary in passing to say a few words, for the 
 better understanding of the present sub- 
 ject. 
 
 The first notice that we have of this 
 Adoniram in Scripture is in the 2d Book 
 of Samuel, chapter xx., verse 24, where, in 
 the abbreviated form of his name, Adoram, 
 he is said to have been " over the tribute " 
 in the house of David; or, as Gesenius 
 translates it, " prefect over the tribute ser- 
 vice," or, as we might say in modern phrase, 
 principal collector of the taxes. 
 
 Seven years afterwards, we find him ex- 
 ercising the same office in the household 
 of Solomon ; for it is said in 1 Kings iv. 
 6, that Adoniram, "the son of Abda, was 
 over the tribute." And lastly, we hear of 
 him still occupying the same station in the 
 household of King Behoboam, the succes- 
 sor of Solomon. Forty-seven years after 
 he is first mentioned in the Book of Samuel, 
 he is stated (1 Kings xii. 18) to have been 
 stoned to death, while in the discharge of 
 his duty, by the people, who were justly in- 
 dignant at the oppressions of his master. 
 Although commentators have been at a loss 
 to decide whether the tax-receiver under 
 David, under Solomon, and under Beho- 
 boam was the same person, there seems to 
 be no reason to doubt it ; for, as Kitto says, 
 (Encyc. Bib.,) "it appears very unlikely 
 that even two persons of the same name 
 should successively bear the same office, in 
 an age when no example occurs of the 
 father's name being given to his son. We 
 find also that not more than forty-seven 
 years elapse between the first and last- 
 mentioned of the Adoniram who was ' over 
 the tribute ; ' and as this, although a long 
 term of service, is not too long for one life, 
 and as the person who held the office in the 
 beginning of Kehoboam's reign had served 
 in it long enough to make himself odious 
 to the people, it appears on the whole most 
 probable that one and the same person is 
 intended throughout." 
 
 The legends and traditions of Masonry 
 
ADONHIRAMITE 
 
 ADONHIRAMITE 
 
 19 
 
 which connect this Adoniram with the 
 Temple at Jerusalem derive their support 
 from a single passage in the first Book of 
 Kings (chapter v. 14), where it is said that 
 Solomon made a levy of thirty thousand 
 workmen from among the Israelites ; that 
 he sent these in courses of ten thousand a 
 month to labor on Mount Lebanon, and 
 that he placed Adoniram over these as 
 their superintendent. 
 
 The ritual-makers of France, who were 
 not all Hebrew scholars, nor well versed in 
 Biblical history, seem, at times, to have 
 confounded two important personages, and 
 to have lost all distinction between Hiram 
 the builder, who had been sent from the 
 court of the king of Tyre, and Adoniram, 
 who had always been an officer in the court 
 of King Solomon. And this error was ex- 
 tended and facilitated when they had pre- 
 fixed the title Adon, that is to say, lord or 
 master, to the name of the former, making 
 him Adon Hiram, or the Lord Hiram. 
 
 Thus, in the year 1744, one Louis Tra- 
 venol published at Paris, under the pseu- 
 donym of Leonard Gabanon, a work 
 entitled, Catechisme des Franc- Macons, 
 'precede dlune abrege de Vhistoire d? Adoram, 
 etc., et d'une explication des ceremonies qui 
 8 'observant a lareception des Maltres, etc. In 
 this work the author says : " Besides the 
 cedars of Lebanon, Hiram made a much 
 more valuable gift to Solomon, in the per- 
 son of Adonhiram, of his own race, the son 
 of a widow of the tribe of Naphtali. Hia 
 father, who was named Hur, was an excel- 
 lent architect and worker in metals. Solo- 
 mon, knowing his virtues, his merit, and 
 his talents, distinguished him by the most 
 eminent position, intrusting to him the 
 construction of the Temple and the super- 
 intendence of all the workmen." 
 
 From the language of this extract, and 
 from the reference in the title of the book 
 to Adoram, which we know was one of the 
 names of Solomon's tax-collector, it is evi- 
 dent that the author of the catechism has 
 confounded Hiram Abif, who came out of 
 Tyre, with Adoniram, the son of Abda, who 
 had always lived at Jerusalem ; that is to 
 say, with unpardonable ignorance of Scrip- 
 ture history and Masonic tradition, he has 
 supposed the two to be one and the same 
 person. Notwithstanding this literary blun- 
 der, the catechism became popular with 
 many Masons of that day, and thus arose 
 the first schism or error in relation to the 
 legend of the third degree. 
 
 At length, other ritualists, seeing the in- 
 consistency of referring the character of 
 Hiram, the widow's son, to Adoniram, the 
 receiver of taxes, and the impossibility of 
 reconciling the discordant facts in the life 
 of both, resolved to cut the Gordian knot 
 
 by refusing any Masonic position to the 
 former, and making the latter, alone, the 
 architect of the Temple. It cannot be denied 
 that Josephus states that Adoniram, or, as 
 he calls him, Adoram, was, at the very be- 
 ginning of the labor, placed over the work- 
 men who prepared the materials on Mount 
 Lebanon, and that he speaks of Hiram, the 
 widow's son, simply as a skilful artisan, 
 especially in metals, who had only made all 
 the mechanical works about the Temple 
 according to the will of Solomon. This 
 apparent color of authority for their opin- 
 ions was readily claimed by the Adoniram- 
 ites, and hence one of their most prominent 
 ritualists, Guillemain de St. Victor, (Bee. 
 Prec.,) propounds their theory thus: " Weall 
 agree that the Master's degree is founded on 
 the architect of the temple. Now, Scripture 
 says very positively, in the 4th verse of the 
 5th chapter of the Book of Kings, that the 
 person was Adonhiram. Josephus and all 
 the sacred writers say the same thing, and 
 undoubtedly distinguish him from Hiram 
 the Tyrian, the worker in metals. So that 
 it is Adonhiram, then, whom we are bound 
 to honor." 
 
 There were, therefore, in the eighteenth 
 century, from about the middle to near the 
 end of it, three schools among the Masonic 
 ritualists, the members of which were di- 
 vided in opinion as to the proper identity 
 of this Temple builder : 
 
 1 . Those who supposed him to be Hiram, 
 the son of a widow of the tribe of Naph- 
 tali, whom the king of Tyre had sent to 
 King Solomon, and whom they designated 
 as Hiram Abif. This was the original and 
 most popular school, and which we now 
 suppose to have been the orthodox one. 
 
 2. Those who believed this Hiram that 
 came out of Tyre to have been the archi- 
 tect, but who supposed that, in consequence 
 of his excellence of character, Solomon 
 had bestowed upon him the appellation of 
 Adon, "Lord" or "Master," calling him 
 Adonhiram. As this theory was wholly 
 unsustained by Scripture history or pre- 
 vious Masonic tradition, the school which 
 supported it never became prominent or 
 popular, and soon ceased to exist, although 
 the error on which it is based is repeated 
 at intervals in the blunder of some modern 
 French ritualists. 
 
 3. Those who, treating this Hiram, the 
 widow's son, as a subordinate and unimpor- 
 tant character, entirely ignored him in their 
 ritual, and asserted that Adoram, or Adoni- 
 ram, or Adonhiram, as the name was spelled 
 by these ritualists, the son of Abda, the 
 collector of tribute and the superintendent 
 of the levy on Mount Lebanon, was the 
 true architect of the Temple, and the one 
 to whom all the legendary incidents of the 
 
20 
 
 ADONHIRAMITE 
 
 ADONHIRAMITE 
 
 third degree of Masonry were to be re- 
 ferred. This school, iu consequence of the 
 boldness with which, unlike the second 
 school, it refused all compromise with the 
 orthodox party and assumed a wholly inde- 
 pendent theory, became, for a time, a prom- 
 inent schism in Masonry. Its disciples 
 bestowed upon the believers in Hiram 
 Abif the name of Hiramite Masons, adopted 
 as their own distinctive appellation that 
 of Adonhiramites, and, having developed 
 the system which they practised into a pe- 
 culiar rite, called it Adonhiramite Masonry. 
 
 Who was the original founder of the rite 
 of Adonhiramite Masonry, and at what 
 precise time it was first established, are 
 questions that cannot now be answered 
 with any certainty. Thory does not at- 
 tempt to reply to either in his Nomencla- 
 ture of Rites, where, if anything was known 
 on the subject, we would be most likely to 
 find it. Ragon, it is true, in his Ortho- 
 doxie Maeonnique, attributes the rite to the 
 Baron de Tschoudy. But as he also as- 
 signs the authorship of the Receuil Pre- 
 cieux (a work of which I shall directly 
 speak more fully) to the same person, in 
 which statement he is known to be mis- 
 taken, there can be but little doubt that he 
 is wrong in the former as well as in the 
 latter opinion. The Chevalier de Lussy, 
 better known as the Baron de Tschoudy, 
 was, it is true, a distinguished ritualist. 
 He founded the Order of the Blazing Star, 
 and took an active part in the operations 
 of the Council of Emperors of the East 
 and West; but I have met with no evi- 
 dence, outside of Ragon's assertion, that 
 he established or had anything to do with 
 the Adonhiramite rite. 
 
 I am disposed to attribute the develop- 
 ment into a settled system, if not the actual 
 creation, of the rite of Adonhiramite Ma- 
 sonry to Louis Guillemain de St. Victor, 
 who published at Paris, in the year 1781, 
 a work entitled Receuil Precieux de la Ma- 
 connerie Adonhiramite, etc. 
 
 As this volume contained only the ritual 
 of the first four degrees, it was followed, 
 in 1785, by another, which embraced the 
 higher degrees of the rite. No one who 
 peruses these volumes can fail to perceive 
 that the author writes like one who has 
 invented, or, at least, materially modified 
 the rite which is the subject of his labors. 
 At all events, this work furnishes the only 
 authentic account that we possess of the 
 organization of the Adonhiramite system of 
 Masonry. 
 
 The rite of Adonhiramite Masonry con- 
 sisted of twelve degrees, which were as 
 follows, the names being given in French 
 as well as in English : 
 
 1. Apprentice — Apprente. 
 
 2. Fellow-Craft — Compagnon. 
 
 3. Master Mason — Maltre. 
 
 4. Perfect Master — Maltre Parfait. 
 
 5. Elect of Nine — Elu des Neuf. 
 
 6. Elect of Perignan — Elu de Perignan. 
 
 7. Elect of Fifteen — Elu des Quinze. 
 
 8. Minor Architect — Petit Architecte. 
 
 9. Grand Architect, or Scottish Fellow- 
 Craft — Grand Architecte, ou Compagnon 
 Ecossais. 
 
 10. Scottish Master — Maltre Ecossais. 
 
 11. Knight of the Sword, Knight of the 
 East, or of the Eagle — Chevalier de VE'pte, 
 Chevalier de V Orient, ou de VAigle. 
 
 12. Knight of Rose Croix — Chevalier 
 Rose Croix. 
 
 This is the entire list of Adonhiramite 
 degrees. Thory and Ragon have both 
 erred in giving a thirteenth degree, namely, 
 the Noachite, or Prussian Knight. They 
 have fallen into this mistake because Guil- 
 lemain has inserted this degree at the end 
 of his second volume, but simply as a Ma- 
 sonic curiosity, having been translated, as 
 he says, from the German by M. de Beraye. 
 It has no connection with the preceding 
 series of degrees, and Guillemain posi- 
 tively declares that the Rose Croix is the 
 ne plus ultra, the summit and termination, 
 of his rite. 
 
 Of these twelve degrees, the first ten are 
 occupied with the transactions of the first 
 Temple ; the eleventh with matters relating 
 to the construction of the second Temple ; 
 and the twelfth with that Christian sym- 
 bolism of Freemasonry which is peculiar 
 to the Rose Croix of every rite. All of 
 the degrees have been borrowed from the 
 Ancient and Accepted Rite, with slight 
 modifications, which have seldom improved 
 their character. On the whole, the extinc- 
 tion of the Adonhiramite Rite can scarcely 
 be considered as a loss to Masonry. 
 
 Before concluding, a few words may be 
 said on the orthography of the title. As 
 the rite derives its peculiar characteristic 
 from the fact that it founds the third de- 
 gree on the assumed legend that Adoniram, 
 the son of Abda and the receiver of tribute, 
 was the true architect of the Temple, and 
 not Hiram the widow's son, it should prop- 
 erly have been styled the Adoniramite Rite, 
 and not the Adonhiramite; and so it would 
 probably have been called if Guillemain, 
 who gave it form, had been acquainted 
 with the Hebrew language, for he would 
 then have known that the name of his hero 
 was Adoniram and not Adonhiram. The 
 term Adonhiramite Masons should really 
 have been applied to the second school de- 
 scribed in this article, whose disciples ad- 
 mitted that Hiram Abif was the architect 
 of the Temple, but who supposed that Sol- 
 omon had bestowed the prefix Adon upon 
 
ADONIRAM 
 
 ADONIS 
 
 21 
 
 him as a mark of honor, calling him Adon- 
 hiram. But Guillemain having committed 
 the blunder in the name of his Rite, it con- 
 tinued to be repeated by bis successors, and 
 it would perhaps now be inconvenient to 
 correct the error. Ragon, however, and a 
 few other recent writers, have ventured to 
 take this step, and in their works the sys- 
 tem is called Adoniramite Masonry. 
 
 Adoniram. The first notice that we 
 have of Adoniram in Scripture is in the 
 2d Book of Samuel (xx. 24), where, in the 
 abbreviated form of his name Adoram, he 
 is said to have been " over the tribute," in 
 the house of David, or, as Gesenius trans- 
 lates it, " prefect over the tribute service, 
 tribute master," that is to say, in modern 
 phrase, he was the chief receiver of the 
 taxes. Clarke calls him "Chancellor of 
 the Exchequer." Seven years afterwards 
 we find him exercising the same office in 
 the household of Solomon, for it is said (1 
 Kings iv. 6) that "Adoniram the son of 
 Abda was over the tribute." And lastly, 
 we hear of him still occupying the same 
 station in the household of King Reho- 
 boam, the successor of Solomon. Forty- 
 seven years after he is first mentioned in 
 the Book of Samuel, he is stated (1 Kings 
 xii. 18) to have been stoned to death, while 
 in the discharge of his duty, by the people, 
 who were justly indignant at the oppres- 
 sions of his master. Although commenta- 
 tors have been at a loss to determine 
 whether the tax -receiver under David, 
 under Solomon, and under Rehoboam was 
 the same person, there seems to be no 
 reason to doubt it; for, as Kitto says, "It 
 appears very unlikely that even two per- 
 sons of the same name should successively 
 bear the same office, in an age when no 
 example occurs of the father's name being 
 given to his son. We find, also, that not 
 more than forty-seven years elapse between 
 the first and last mention of the Adoniram 
 who was ' over the tribute ; ' and as this, 
 although a long term of service, is not too 
 long for one life, and as the person who 
 held the office in the beginning of Reho- 
 boam's reign had served in it long enough 
 to make himself odious to the people, it 
 appears, on the whole, most probable that 
 one and the same person is intended 
 throughout." {Encyc. Bib. Lit.) 
 
 Adoniram plays an important role in the 
 Masonic system, especially in the high 
 degrees, but the time of action in which 
 he appears is confined to the period occu- 
 pied in the construction of the Temple. 
 The legends and traditions which connect 
 him with that edifice derive their support 
 from a single passage in the 1st Book of 
 Kings (v. 14), where it is said that Solo- 
 mon made a levy of thirty thousand work- 
 
 men from among the Israelites; that he 
 sent these in courses of ten thousand a 
 month to labor on Mount Lebanon, and 
 that he placed Adoniram over these as 
 their superintendent. From this brief 
 statement the Adoniramite Masons have 
 deduced the theory, as may be seen in the 
 preceding article, that Adoniram was the 
 architect of the Temple; while the Hiram- 
 ites, assigning this important office to Hi- 
 ram Abif, still believe that Adoniram oc- 
 cupied an important part in the construction 
 of that edifice. He has been called " the 
 first of the Fellow Crafts ; " is said in one 
 tradition to have been the brother-in-law 
 of Hiram Abif, the latter having demanded 
 of Solomon the hand of Adoniram's sister 
 in marriage; and that the nuptials were 
 honored by the kings of Israel and Tyre 
 with a public celebration ; and another tra- 
 dition, preserved in the Royal Master's 
 degree, informs us that he was the one to 
 whom the three Grand Masters had in- 
 tended first to communicate that knowledge 
 which they had reserved as a fitting reward 
 to be bestowed upon all meritorious crafts- 
 men at the completion of the Temple. It 
 is scarcely necessary to say that these and 
 many other Adoniramic legends, often fan- 
 ciful, and without any historical authority, 
 are but the outward clothing of abstruse 
 symbols, some of which have been pre- 
 served, and others lost in the lapse of time 
 and the ignorance and corruptions of mod- 
 ern ritualists. 
 
 Adoniram, in Hebrew, DTHX, com- 
 pounded of in)], ADON, Lord, and DTH, 
 HiRaM, altitude, signifies the Lord of alti- 
 tude. It is a word of great importance, 
 and frequently used among the sacred words 
 of the high degrees in all the Rites. 
 
 Adoniramite Masonry. See 
 Adonhiramite Masonry. 
 
 Adonis, Mysteries of. An investi- 
 gation of the mysteries of Adonis peculi- 
 arly claims the attention of the Masonic 
 student : first, because, in their symbolism 
 and in their esoteric doctrine, the religious 
 object for which they were instituted, and 
 the mode in which that object is attained, 
 they bear a nearer analogical resemblance 
 to the Institution of Freemasonry than do 
 any of the other mysteries or systems of 
 initiation of the ancient world; and, 
 secondly, because their chief locality brings 
 them into a very close connection with the 
 early history and reputed origin of Free- 
 masonry. For they were principally cele- 
 brated at Byblos, a city of Phoenicia, 
 whose scriptural name was Gebal, and 
 whose inhabitants were the Giblites or 
 Giblemites, who are referred to in the 1st 
 Book of Kings (chap. v. 18) as being the 
 " stone-squarers " employed by King Solo- 
 
22 
 
 ADONIS 
 
 ADONIS 
 
 mon in building the Temple. Hence there 
 must have evidently been a very intimate 
 connection, or at least certainly a very fre- 
 quent intercommunication, between the 
 workmen of the first Temple and the in- 
 habitants of Byblos, the seat of the Adoni- 
 sian mysteries, and the place whence the 
 worshippers of that rite were disseminated 
 over other regions of country. 
 
 These historical circumstances invite us 
 to an examination of the system of initia- 
 tion which was practised at Byblos, because 
 we may find in it something that was 
 probably suggestive of the symbolic system 
 of instruction which was subsequently so 
 prominent a feature in the system of Free- 
 masonry. 
 
 Let us first examine the myth on which 
 the Adonisiac initiation was founded. The 
 mythological legend of Adonis is, that he 
 was the son of Myrrha and Cinyras, King 
 of Cyprus. Adonis was possessed of such 
 surpassing beauty, that Venus became 
 enamored with him, and adopted him as 
 her favorite. Subsequently Adonis, who 
 was a great hunter, died from a wound in- 
 flicted by a wild boar on Mount Lebanon. 
 Venus new to the succor of her favorite, 
 but she came too late. Adonis was dead. 
 On his descent to the infernal regions, Pro- 
 serpine became, like Venus, so attracted by 
 his beauty, that, notwithstanding the en- 
 treaties of the goddess of love, she refused 
 to restore him to earth. At length the 
 
 f>rayers of the desponding Venus were 
 istened to with favor by Jupiter, who 
 reconciled the dispute between the two 
 goddesses, and by whose decree Proserpine 
 was compelled to consent that Adonis 
 should spend six months of each year 
 alternately with herself and Venus. 
 
 This is the story on which the Greek 
 poet Bion founded his exquisite idyll en- 
 titled the Epitaph of Adonis, the beginning 
 of which has been thus rather inefficiently 
 "done into English." 
 
 " I and the Loves Adonis dead deplore : 
 The beautiful Adonis is indeed 
 Departed, parted from us. Sleep no more 
 In purple, Cypris ! but in watchet weed, 
 All wretched ! beat thv breast and all aread — 
 'Adonis is no more.' The Loves and I 
 Lament him. ' Oh ! her grief to see him bleed, 
 Smitten by white tooth on whiter thigh, 
 Out-breathing life's faint sigh upon the moun- 
 tain high.' " 
 
 It is evident that Bion referred the 
 contest of Venus and Proserpine for Adonis 
 to a period subsequent to his death, from 
 the concluding lines, in which he says: 
 " The Muses, too, lament the son of Ciny- 
 ras, and invoke him in their song; but he 
 does not heed them, not because he does 
 
 not wish, but because Proserpine will not 
 release him." This was, indeed, the favor- 
 ite form of the myth, and on it was framed 
 the symbolism of the ancient mystery. 
 
 But there are other Grecian mythologues 
 that relate the tale of Adonis differently. 
 According to these, he was the product of 
 the incestuous connection of Cinyras and 
 Myrrha. Cinyras subsequently, on discov- 
 ering the crime of his daughter, pursued 
 her with a drawn sword, intending to kill 
 her. Myrrha entreated the gods to make 
 her invisible, and they changed her into a 
 myrrh tree. Ten months after the myrrh 
 tree opened, and the young Adonis was 
 born. This is the form of the myth that 
 has been adopted by Ovid, who gives it 
 with all its moral horrors in the tenth book 
 (298-524) of his Metamorphoses. 
 
 Venus, who was delighted with the ex- 
 traordinary beauty of the boy, put him in 
 a coffer, unknown to all the gods, and gave 
 him to Proserpine to keep and to nurture 
 in the under world. But Proserpine had 
 no sooner beheld him than she became 
 enamored with him and refused, when 
 Venus applied for him, to surrender him 
 to her rival. The subject was then referred 
 to Jupiter, who decreed that Adonis should 
 have one-third of the year to himself, 
 should be another third with Venus, and 
 the remainder of the time with Proserpine. 
 Adonis gave his own portion to Venus, and 
 lived happily with her till, having offended 
 Diana, he was killed by a wild boar. 
 
 The mythographer Pharuutus gives a 
 still different story, and says that Adonis 
 was the grandson of Cinyras, and fled with 
 his father, Ammon, into Egypt, whose 
 people he civilized, taught them agricul- 
 ture, and enacted many wise laws for their 
 government. He subsequently passed over 
 into Syria, and was wounded in the thigh 
 by a wild boar while hunting on Mount 
 Lebanon. His wife, Isis, or Astarte, and 
 the people of Phoenicia and Egypt, sup- 
 posing that the wound was mortal, pro- 
 foundly deplored his death. But he after- 
 wards recovered, and their grief was re- 
 placed by transports of joy. All the myths, 
 it will be seen, agree in his actual or sup- 
 posed death by violence, in the grief for his 
 loss, in his recovery or restoration to life, 
 and in the consequent joy thereon. And 
 on these facts are founded the Adonisian 
 mysteries which were established in his 
 honor. 
 
 Of these mysteries we are now to speak. 
 The mysteries of Adonis are said to have 
 been first established at Babylon, and thence 
 to have passed over into Syria, their princi- 
 pal seat being at the city of Byblos, in that 
 country. The legend on which the mys- 
 teries was founded contained a recital of his 
 
ADONIS 
 
 ADONIS 
 
 23 
 
 tragic death and his subsequent restoration 
 to life, as has just been related. The mys- 
 teries were celebrated in a vast temple at 
 Byblos. The ceremonies commenced about 
 the season of the year when the river 
 Adonis began to be swollen by the floods at 
 its source. 
 
 The Adonis, now called Nahr el Ibrahim, 
 or Abraham's river, is a small river of 
 Syria, which, rising in Mount Lebanon, 
 enters the Mediterranean a few miles south 
 of Byblos. Maundrell, the great traveller, 
 records the fact which he himself witnessed, 
 that after a sudden fall of rain the river, 
 descending in floods, is tinged with a deep 
 red by the soil of the hills in which it takes 
 its rise, and imparts this color to the sea, 
 into which it is discharged, for a consider- 
 able distance. The worshippers of Adonis 
 were readily led to believe that this reddish 
 discoloration of the water of the river was a 
 symbol of his blood. To this Milton alludes 
 when speaking of Thammuz, which was the 
 name given by the idolatrous Israelites to 
 the Syrian god : 
 
 " Thammuz came next behind. 
 Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured 
 The Syrian damsels to lament his fate, 
 In am'rous ditties, all a summer's day; 
 While smooth Adonis, from his native rock, 
 Ran purple to the sea, suffused with blood 
 Of Thammuz yearly wounded." — Paradise Lost. 
 
 Whether the worship of Thammuz 
 among the idolatrous and apostate Jews 
 was or was not identical with that of 
 Adonis among the Syrians has been a topic 
 of much discussion among the learned. 
 The only reference to Thammuz in the 
 Scriptures is in the Book of Ezekiel, (viii. 
 14.) The prophet there represents that he 
 was transported in spirit, or in a vision, to 
 the Temple at Jerusalem, and that, being 
 led " to the door of the gate of the house 
 of Jehovah, which was towards the north, 
 he beheld there women sitting weeping for 
 Thammuz." The Vulgate has translated 
 Thammuz by Adonis : " El ecce ibi mulieres 
 sedebant, plangentes Adonidem ; " i. e., "And 
 behold women were sitting there, mourning 
 for Adonis." St. Jerome, in his commen- 
 tary on this passage, says that since, accord- 
 ing to the heathen fable, Adonis had been 
 slain in the month of June, the Syrians 
 gave the name of Thammuz to this month, 
 when they annually celebrated a solemnity, 
 in which he is lamented by the women as 
 dead, and his subsequent restoration to life 
 is celebrated with songs and praises. And 
 in a passage of another work he laments 
 that Bethlehem was overshadowed by a 
 grave of Thammuz, and that " in the cave 
 where the infant Christ once cried the lover 
 of Venus was bewailed," thus evidently 
 
 making Thammuz and Adonis identical. 
 The story of Thammuz, as related in the 
 ancient work of Ibn Wahshik on The Agri- 
 culture of the Nabatheans, and quoted at 
 length by Maimonides in his Moreh Nevoch- 
 im, describes Thammuz as a false prophet, 
 who was put to death for his idolatrous 
 
 Eractices, but nothing in that fable connects 
 im in any way with Adonis. But in the 
 Apology of St. Melito, of which the Syriac 
 translation remains, we have the oldest 
 Christian version of the myth. Mr. W. A. 
 Wright, of Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 gives, in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, the 
 following liberal rendering of the Syriac : 
 " The sons of Phoenicia worshipped Balthi, 
 the queen of Cyprus. For she loved 
 Tamuzo, the son of Cuthar, the king of the 
 Phoenicians, and forsook her kingdom, and 
 came and dwelt in Gebal, a fortress of the 
 Phoenicians, and at that time she made all 
 the villages subject to Cuthar, the king. 
 For before Tamuzo she had loved Ares, and 
 committed adultery with him, and Hephaes- 
 tus, her husband, caught her and was jeal- 
 ous of her; and he (i. e., Ares,) came and 
 slew Tamuzo on Lebanon, while he made 
 a hunting among the wild boars. And 
 from that time Balthi remained in Gebal, 
 and died in the city of Apatha, where 
 Tamuzo was buried." This is nothing more 
 than the Syrian myth of Adonis; and, as 
 St. Melito lived in the second century, it 
 was doubtless on his authority that Jerome 
 adopted the opinion that the Thammuz of 
 "alienated Judah" was the same as the 
 Adonis of Syria; an opinion which, al- 
 though controverted by some, has been gen- 
 erally adopted by subsequent commenta- 
 tors. 
 
 The sacred rites of the Adonisian mys- 
 teries began with mourning, and the days 
 which were consecrated to the celebration 
 of the death of Adonis were passed in lugu- 
 brious cries and wailings, the celebrants 
 often scourging themselves. On the last 
 of the days of mourning, funereal rites were 
 performed in honor of the god. On the 
 following day the restoration of Adonis to 
 life was announced, and was received with 
 the most enthusiastic demonstrations of 
 
 j°y- 
 
 Duncan, in a very well written work on 
 The Religions of Profane Antiquity, (p. 
 350,) gives a similar description of these 
 rites: "The objects represented were the 
 grief of Venus and the death and resurrec- 
 tion of Adonis. An entire week was con- 
 sumed in these ceremonies ; all the houses 
 were covered with crape or black linen ; 
 funeral processions traversed the streets ; 
 while the devotees scourged themselves, 
 uttering frantic cries. The orgies were then 
 commenced, in which the mystery of the 
 
24 
 
 ADONIS 
 
 ADONIS 
 
 death of Adonis was depicted. During the 
 next twenty -four hours all the people fasted ; 
 at the expiration of which time the priests 
 announced the resurrection of the god. Joy 
 now prevailed, and music and dancing con- 
 cluded the festival." 
 
 Movers, who is of high authority among 
 scholars, says, in his Phonizier, (vol. i., p. 
 200,) that " the celebration of the Adon- 
 isian mysteries began with the disappear- 
 ance of Adonis, after which follows the 
 search for him by the women. The myth 
 represents this by the search of the goddess 
 after her beloved, which is analogous to the 
 search of Persephone in the Eleusinia ; of 
 Harmonia at Samothrace; of Io in Antioch. 
 In autumn, when the rains washed the red 
 earth on its banks, the river Adonis was 
 of a blood-red color, which was the signal 
 for the inhabitants of Byblos to begin the 
 lament. Then they said that Adonis was 
 killed by Mars or the boar, and that his 
 blood, running in the river, colored the 
 water." 
 
 Julius Fermicius Maternus, an ecclesi- 
 astical writer of the fourth century, thus 
 describes the funereal ceremonies and the 
 resurrection of Adonis in his treatise Be 
 Errore Profanarum Religionum, dedicated 
 to the Emperors Constantius and Constans : 
 " On a certain night an image is laid out 
 upon a bed and bewailed in mournful 
 strains. At length, when all have suffi- 
 ciently expressed their feigned lamentation, 
 light is introduced, and the priest, having 
 first anointed the lips of those who had 
 been weeping, whispers with a gentle mur- 
 mur the following formula, which in the 
 original is in the form of a Greek distich : 
 Have courage, ye initiates ! The god having 
 been preserved out of grief, salvation will arise 
 to us." 
 
 This annunciation of the recovery or 
 resurrection of Adonis was made, says 
 Sainte-Croix, in his Mysteres du Paganisme, 
 (t. ii., p. 106,) by the inhabitants of Alexan- 
 dria to those of Byblos. The letter which 
 was to carry the news was placed in an 
 earthen vessel and intrusted to the sea, 
 which floated it to Byblos, where Phoeni- 
 cian women were waiting on the shore to 
 receive it. Lucian says, in his treatise 
 on The Syrian Goddess, that a head was 
 every year transported from Egypt to By- 
 blos by some supernatural means. Both 
 stories are probably apocryphal, or at least 
 the act was, if performed at all, the result 
 of the cunning invention of the priests. 
 
 Sainte-Croix describes, from Lucian's 
 treatise on The Syrian Goddess, the magnifi- 
 cence of the temple at Hierapolis; but he 
 certainly found no authority in that writer 
 for stating that the mysteries of Adonis were 
 there celebrated. The Bites practised at 
 
 Hierapolis seem rather to have had some 
 connection with the arkite worship, which 
 prevailed so extensively in the pagan world 
 of antiquity. The magnificent temple, 
 which in after times the Roman Crassus 
 plundered, and the treasures of which it 
 took several days to weigh and examine, 
 was dedicated to Astarte, the goddess who 
 presided over the elements of nature and 
 the productive seeds of things, and who was 
 in fact the mythological personification of 
 the passive powers of Nature. 
 
 The mythological legend, which has been 
 detailed in the beginning of this article, 
 was but the exoteric story, intended for the 
 uninitiated. There was also — as there was 
 in all these mystical initiations of the an- 
 cients, an esoteric meaning — a sacred and 
 secret symbolism, which constituted the 
 arcana of the mysteries, and which was 
 communicated only to the initiated. 
 
 Adonis, which is derived from the He- 
 brew 21 N» Adon — lord or master — was 
 one of the titles given to the sun ; and 
 hence the worship of Adonis formed one 
 of the modifications of that once most ex- 
 tensive system of religion — sun worship. 
 Godwyn, in his Moses and Aaron, (1. iv., 
 c. 2,) says : " Concerning Adonis, whom 
 sometimes ancient authors call Osiris, 
 there are two things remarkable : aphanis- 
 mos, the death or loss of Adonis ; and 
 heuresis, the finding of him again. By the 
 death or loss of Adonis we are to under- 
 stand the departure of the sun ; by his 
 finding again we are to understand his 
 return." 
 
 Macrobius, in his Saturnalia, more fully 
 explains the allegory thus : " Philoso- 
 phers have given the name of Venus to 
 the superior or northern hemisphere, of 
 which we occupy a part, and that of Pro- 
 serpine to the inferior or southern. Hence, 
 among the Assyrians and Phoenicians, Ve- 
 nus is said to be in tears when the sun, in 
 his annual course through the twelve signs 
 of the zodiac, passes over to our antipodes ; 
 for of these twelve signs six are said to be 
 superior and six inferior. When the sun 
 is in the inferior signs, and the days are 
 consequently short, the goddess is supposed 
 to weep for the temporary death or priva- 
 tion of the sun, detained by Proserpine, 
 whom we regard as the divinity of the 
 southern or antipodal regions. And Adonis 
 is said to be restored to Venus when the 
 sun, having traversed the six inferior signs, 
 enters those of our hemisphere, bringing 
 with it an increase of light and lengthened 
 days. The boar, which is supposed to 
 have killed Adonis, is an emblem of win- 
 ter; for this animal, covered with rough 
 bristles, delights in cold, wet, and miry sit- 
 uations, and his favorite food is the acorn, 
 
ADONIS 
 
 ADONIS 
 
 25 
 
 a fruit which is peculiar to winter. The 
 sun is said, too, to be wounded by winter, 
 since at that season we lose its light ana 
 heat, which are the effects produced by 
 death upon animated beings. Venus is 
 represented on Mount Lebanon in an atti- 
 tude of grief; her head, bent and covered 
 with a veil, is supported by her left hand 
 near her breast, and her countenance is 
 bathed in tears. This figure represents the 
 earth in winter, when, being veiled in clouds 
 and deprived of the sun, its energies have 
 become torpid. The fountains, like the 
 eyes of Venus, are overflowing, and the 
 fields, divested of their flowers, present a 
 joyless appearance. But when the sun has 
 emerged from the southern hemisphere and 
 passed the vernal equinox, Venus is once 
 more rejoiced, the fields are again embel- 
 lished with flowers, the grass springs up in 
 the meadows, and the trees recover their 
 foliage." 
 
 Such is supposed by mythologists in gen- 
 eral to have been the esoteric doctrine of 
 the Adonisian initiation, hence said to be 
 a branch of that worship of the sun that 
 at one time so universally prevailed over 
 the world. And as this allegory, when thus 
 interpreted, must have been founded on the 
 fact that the solar orb disappeared for sev- 
 eral months of winter, it followed that the 
 allegory must have been invented by some 
 hyperborean people, to whom only such 
 an astronomical phenomenon could be 
 familiar. This is the view taken by the 
 learned M. Baillie in his Histoire de 
 V Astronomie Ancienne, who founds on it 
 his favorite theory that all learning and 
 civilization originally came from the cir- 
 cumpolar regions. 
 
 This tendency to symbolize the changing 
 seasons and the decaying and renewed 
 strength of the sun was common first to 
 the mythology of the old Aryan race, and 
 then to that of every nation which de- 
 scended from it. In Greece, especially, we 
 have the myths of Linus, whose melan- 
 choly fate was bewailed at the season of 
 the grape picking, and whose history, al- 
 though confused by various statements, 
 still makes him the analogue of Adonis ; 
 so that what is said of one might very 
 properly be applied to the other. On this 
 subject the following remarks of O. K. 
 Muller, in his History of Greek Litera- 
 ture, (p. 23,) will be found interesting: 
 " This Linus," he says, " evidently belongs 
 to a class of deities or demigods of which 
 many instances occur in the religions of 
 Greece and Asia Minor — boys of extraor- 
 dinary beauty and in the flower of youth, 
 who are supposed to have been drowned, 
 or devoured by raging dogs, or destroyed 
 by wild beasts, and whose death is lamented 
 D 
 
 in the harvest or other periods of the hot 
 season. The real object of lamentation 
 was the tender beauty of spring destroyed 
 by the summer heat, and other phenomena 
 of the same kind, which the imagination 
 of these early times invested with a per- 
 sonal form, and represented as gods or 
 beings of a divine nature." It would not 
 be difficult to apply all this to the myth of 
 Adonis, who, like Linus, was supposed to 
 be a symbol of the dying and of the resus- 
 citating sun. 
 
 But, on the other hand, as Payne Knight 
 observes, this notion of the mourning for 
 Adonis being a testimony of grief for the 
 absence of the sun during the winter, is 
 not to be too readily acquiesced in. Thus 
 Lobeck, in his Aylaophamus, very perti- 
 nently inquires why those nations whose 
 winter was the mildest and shortest should 
 so bitterly bewail the regular changes of 
 the seasons as to suppose that even a god 
 was slain ; and he observes, with a great 
 appearance of reason, that even were this 
 the case, the mournful and the joyful parts 
 of the festival should have been celebrated 
 at different periods of the year: the former 
 at the coming on of winter, and the latter 
 at the approach of summer. It is not, 
 perhaps, easy to answer these objections. 
 
 Of all the mythologers, the Abbe Banier 
 is the only one who has approximated to 
 what appears to be the true interpretation 
 of the myth. In his erudite work entitled 
 La Mythologie et lea Fables expliquees par 
 V Histoire, he discusses the myth of Adonis 
 at great length. He denies the plausibility 
 of the solar theory, which makes Adonis, 
 in his death and resurrection, the symbol 
 of the sun's setting and rising, or of his 
 disappearance in winter and his return in 
 summer; he thinks the alternate mourning 
 and joy which characterized the celebration 
 of the mysteries may be explained as re- 
 ferring to the severe but not fatal wound 
 of Adonis, and his subsequent recovery 
 through the skill of the physician Cocy- 
 tus ; or, if this explanation be rejected, he 
 then offers another interpretation, which 
 is, I think, much nearer to the truth : 
 
 " But if any be tenacious of the opinion 
 that Adonis died of his wound, I shall ac- 
 count for that joy which succeeded the 
 mourning on the last day of the festival 
 by saying it imported that he was pro- 
 moted to divine honors, and that room 
 was no longer left for sorrow ; but that, 
 having mourned for his death, they were 
 now to rejoice at his deification. The 
 priests, who would not have been in favor 
 of a tradition which taught that the god 
 whom they had served was subject to death, 
 sought to conceal it from the people, and 
 invented the allegorical explication which 
 
26 
 
 ADOPTION 
 
 ADOPTION 
 
 I have been refuting." (Tom. iii., liv. rtf., 
 ch. x.) 
 
 While, therefore, we may grant the pos- 
 sibility that there was originally some con- 
 nection between the Sabean worship of the 
 sun and the celebration of the Adonisian 
 festival, we cannot forget that these myste- 
 ries, in common with all the other sacred 
 initiations of the ancient world, had been 
 originally established to promulgate among 
 the initiates the once hidden doctrine of 
 a future life. The myth of Adonis in 
 Syria, like that of Osiris in Egypt, of Atys 
 in Samothrace, or of Dionysus in Greece, 
 presented, symbolically, the two great ideas 
 of decay and restoration : sometimes figured 
 as darkness and light, sometimes as winter 
 and summer, sometimes as death and life, 
 but always maintaining, no matter what 
 was the framework of the allegory, the in- 
 separable ideas of something that was lost 
 and afterwards recovered, as its interpreta- 
 tion, and so teaching, as does Freemasonry 
 at this day, by a similar system of allegor- 
 izing, that after the death of the body 
 comes the eternal life of the soul. The 
 inquiring Freemason will thus readily see 
 the analogy in the symbolism that exists 
 between Adonis in the mysteries of the 
 Giblemites at Byblos and Hiram the 
 Builder in his own institution. 
 
 Adoption, Masonic. The adoption 
 by the Lodge of the child of a Mason is 
 practised, with peculiar ceremonies, in 
 some of the French and German Lodges, 
 and has been recently introduced, but not 
 with the general approbation of the Craft, 
 into one or two Lodges of this country. 
 Clavel, in his Jfistoire Pittoresqm de la 
 Franc- Maqonnerie, (p. 39,) gives the fol- 
 lowing account of the ceremonies of adop- 
 tion. 
 
 " It is a custom, in many Lodges, when 
 the wife of a Mason is near the period of 
 her confinement, for the Hospitaller, if he 
 is a physician, and if not, for some other 
 brother who is, to visit her, inquire after 
 her health, in the name of the Lodge, and 
 to offer her his professional services, and 
 even pecuniary aid if he thinks she needs 
 it. Nine days after the birth of her child, 
 the Master and Wardens call upon her 
 to congratulate her on the happy event. 
 If the infant is a boy, a special communi- 
 cation of the Lodge is convened for the 
 Eurpose of proceeding to its adoption. The 
 all is decorated with flowers and foliage, 
 and censers are prepared for burning in- 
 cense. Before the commencement of labor, 
 the child and its nurse are introduced into 
 an ante-room. The Lodge is then opened, 
 and the Wardens, who are to act as god- 
 fathers, repair to the infant at the head of 
 a deputation of five brethren. The chief 
 
 of the deputation, then addressing the 
 nurse, exhorts her not only to watch over 
 the health of the child that has been in- 
 trusted to her care, but also to cultivate his 
 youthful intellect, and to instruct him with 
 truthful and sensible conversation. The 
 child is then taken from the nurse, placed 
 by its father upon a cushion, and carried by 
 the deputation into the Lodge room. The 
 procession advances beneath an arch of 
 foliage to the pedestal of the east, where it 
 stops. 
 
 " ' Whom bring you here, my brethren ? ' 
 says the Master to the godfathers. 
 
 " ' The son of one of our brethren whom 
 the Lodge is desirous of adopting,' is the 
 reply of the Senior Warden. 
 
 " ' What are his names, and what Masonic 
 name will you give him ? ' 
 
 " The Warden replies, adding to the bap- 
 tismal and surname of the child a charac- 
 teristic name, such as Truth, Devotion, Be- 
 nevolence, or some other of a similar nature. 
 
 " The Master then descends from his seat, 
 approaches the louveteau or lewis, (for such 
 is the appellation given to the son of a 
 Mason,) and extending his hands over its 
 head, offers up a prayer that the child may 
 render itself worthy of the love and care 
 which the Lodge intends to bestow upon it. 
 He then casts incense into the censers, and 
 pronounces the Apprentice's obligation, 
 which the godfathers repeat after him in 
 the name ot the louveteau. Afterwards he 
 puts a white apron on the infant, pro- 
 claiming it to be the adopted child of the 
 Lodge, and causes this proclamation to be 
 received with the honors. 
 
 " As soon as this ceremony has been per- 
 formed, the Master returns to his seat, and 
 having caused the Wardens with the child 
 to be placed in the north-west corner of the 
 Lodge, he recounts to the former the duties 
 which they have assumed as godfathers. 
 After the Wardens have made a suitable 
 response, the deputation which had brought 
 the child into the Lodge room is again 
 formed, and having carried it out, it is 
 restored to its nurse in the anteroom. 
 
 " The adoption of a louveteau binds all 
 the members of the Lodge to watch over 
 his education, and subsequently to aid him, 
 if it be necessary, in establishing himself 
 in life. A circumstantial account of the 
 ceremony is drawn up, which having been 
 signed by all the members is delivered to 
 the father of the child. This document 
 serves as a dispensation, which relieves him 
 from the necessity of passing through the 
 ordinary preliminary examinations when, 
 at the proper age, he is desirous of partici- 
 pating in the labors of Masonry. He is 
 then only required to renew his obligations." 
 In the United States, the ceremony has 
 
ADOPTIVE 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 27 
 
 been recently practised by a few Lodges, 
 the earliest instance being that of Foyer 
 Maqonnique Lodge of New Orleans, in 
 1859. The Supreme Council for the South- 
 ern Jurisdiction, Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite, has published the ritual of Masonic 
 Adoption for the use of the members of 
 that rite. The ritual for which, under the 
 title of "Offices of Masonic Baptism, 
 Reception of a Louveteau and Adoption," 
 is a very beautiful one, and is the com- 
 position of Brother Albert Pike. It is 
 scarcely necessary to say that the word 
 Baptism there used has not the slightest 
 reference to the Christian sacrament of the 
 same name. 
 
 Adoptive Masonry. An organiza- 
 tion which bears a very imperfect resem- 
 blance to Freemasonry in its forms and 
 ceremonies, and which was established in 
 France for the initiation of females, has 
 been called by the French " Magonnerie 
 cC Adoption," or Adoptive Masonry, and the 
 societies in which the initiations take place 
 have received the name of " Loges d' Adop- 
 tion," or Adoptive Lodges. This appellation 
 is derived from the fact that every female 
 or Adoptive Lodge is obliged, by the regu- 
 lations of the association, to be, as it were, 
 adopted by, and thus placed under the 
 
 fuardianship of, some regular Lodge of 
 'reemasons. 
 
 As to the exact date which we are to as- 
 sign for the first introduction of this system 
 of female Masonry, there have been several 
 theories, some of which, undoubtedly, are 
 wholly untenable, since they have been 
 founded, as Masonic historical theories too 
 often are, on an unwarrantable mixture of 
 facts and fictions — of positive statements 
 and problematic conjectures. Mons. J. S. 
 Boubge, a distinguished French Mason, in 
 his Etudes Maconniques, places the origin 
 of Adoptive Masonry in the 17th century, 
 and ascribes its authorship to Queen Hen- 
 rietta Maria, the widow of Charles I. of 
 England ; and he states that on her return 
 to France, after the execution of her hus- 
 band, she took pleasure in recounting the 
 secret efforts made by the Freemasons of 
 England to restore her family to their posi- 
 tion and to establish her son on the throne 
 of his ancestors. This, it will be recollected, 
 was once a prevalent theory, now exploded, 
 of the origin of Freemasonry — that it was 
 established by the Cavaliers, as a secret 
 political organization, in the times of the 
 English civil war between the king and the 
 Parliament, and as an engine for the support 
 of the former. M. Boubee adds, that the 
 queen made known to the ladies of her 
 court, in her exile, the words and signs em- 
 ployed by her Masonic friends in England 
 as their modes of recognition, and by this 
 
 means instructed them in some of the mys- 
 teries of the Institution, of which, he says, 
 she had been made the protectress after the 
 death of the king. This theory is so full 
 of absurdity, and its statements so flatly 
 contradicted by well-known historical facts, 
 that we may at once reject it as wholly 
 apocryphal. 
 
 Others have claimed Russia as the birth- 
 place of Adoptive Masonry ; but in assign- 
 ing that country and the year 1712 as the 
 place and time of its origin, they have un- 
 doubtedly confounded it with the chivalric 
 Order of Saint Catharine, which was in- 
 stituted by the Czar Peter the Great in 
 honor of the Czarina Catharine, and which, 
 although at first it consisted of persons of 
 both sexes, was subsequently confined exclu- 
 sively to females. But the Order of Saint 
 Catharine was in no manner connected with 
 that of Freemasonry. It was simply a 
 Russian order of female knighthood. 
 
 The truth seems to be that the regular 
 Lodges of Adoption owed their existence 
 to those secret associations of men and wo- 
 men which sprang up in France before the 
 middle of trie eighteenth century, and 
 which attempted in all of their organiza- 
 tion, except the admission of female mem- 
 bers, to imitate the Institution of Freema- 
 sonry. Clavel, who, in his Histoire Pit- 
 toresque de la Franc- Magonnerie, an interest- 
 ing but not always a trustworthy work, 
 adopts this theory, says that female Ma- 
 sonry was instituted about the year 1730 ; 
 that it made its first appearance in France, 
 and that it was evidently a product of the 
 French mind. No one will oe disposed to 
 doubt the truth of this last sentiment. The 
 proverbial gallantry of the French Masons 
 was most ready and willing to extend to 
 women some of the blessings of that Insti- 
 tution, from which the churlishness, as they 
 would call it, of their Anglo-Saxon brethren 
 had excluded her. 
 
 But the Masonry of Adoption did not at 
 once and in its very beginning assume that 
 peculiarly imitative form of Freemasomy 
 which it subsequently presented, nor was it 
 recognized as having any connection with 
 our own Order until more than thirty years 
 after its first establishment. Its progress 
 was slow and gradual. In the course of 
 this progress it affected various names and 
 rituals, many of which have not been 
 handed down to us. It was evidently con- 
 vivial and gallant in its nature, and at first 
 seems to have been only an imitation of 
 Freemasonry, inasmuch as that it was a 
 secret society, having a form of initiation 
 and modes of recognition. A specimen of 
 one or two of these secret female associa- 
 tions may not be uninteresting. 
 
 One of the earliest of these societies was 
 
28 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 that which was established in the year 1748, 
 at Paris, under the name of the " Ordre des 
 Felicitaires," which we might very appro- 
 priately translate as the " Order of Happy 
 Folks." The vocabulary and all the em- 
 blems of the order were nautical. The 
 sisters made symbolically a voyage to the 
 island of Felicity, in ships navigated by 
 the brethren. There were four degrees, 
 namely, those of Cabin-boy, Captain, Com- 
 modore, and Vice-Admiral, and the Grand 
 Master, or presiding officer, was called the 
 Admiral. Out of this society there sprang 
 in 1745 another, which was callea the 
 "Knights and Ladies of the Anchor," 
 which is said to have been somewhat more 
 refined in its character, although for the 
 most part it preserved the same formulary 
 of reception. 
 
 Two years afterwards, in 1747, the Cheva- 
 lier Beauchaine, a very zealous Masonic 
 adventurer, and the Master for life of a 
 Parisian Lodge, instituted an androgynous 
 system under the name of the " Ordre des 
 Fendeurs," or " the Order of Wood-Cutters," 
 whose ceremonies were borrowed from 
 those of the well-known political society 
 of the Carbonari. All parts of the ritual 
 had a reference to the sylvan vocation of 
 wood-cutting, just as that of the Carbonari 
 referred to coal-burning. The place of 
 meeting was called a wood-yard, and was 
 supposed to be situated in a forest ; the pre- 
 siding officer was styled Pere Maitre, which 
 might be idiomatically interpreted as Good- 
 man Master ; and the members were desig- 
 nated as cousins, a practice evidently bor- 
 rowed from the Carbonari. The reunions 
 of the " Wood-Cutters " enjoyed the pres- 
 tige of the highest fashion in Paris ; and 
 the society became so popular that ladies 
 and gentlemen of the highest distinction in 
 France united with it, and membership was 
 considered an honor which no rank, how- 
 ever exalted, need disdain. It was conse- 
 quently succeeded by the institution of 
 many other and similar androgynous so- 
 cieties, the very names of which it would 
 be tedious to enumerate. 
 
 Out of all these societies — which resem- 
 bled Freemasonry only in their secrecy, 
 their benevolence, and a sort of rude imita- 
 tion of a symbolic ceremonial — at last arose 
 the true Lodges of Adoption, which so far 
 claimed a connection with and a dependence 
 on Masonry as that Freemasons alone were 
 admitted among their male members — a 
 regulation which did not prevail in the ear- 
 lier organizations. 
 
 It was about the middle of the eighteenth 
 century that the Lodges of Adoption began 
 to attract attention in France, whence they 
 speedily spread into other countries of 
 Europe — into Germany, Poland, and even 
 
 Russia ; England alone, always conserva- 
 tive to a fault, steadily refusing to take any 
 cognizance of them. The Masons, says 
 Clavel, embraced them with enthusiasm as 
 a practicable means of giving to their wives 
 and daughters some share of the pleasures 
 which they themselves enjoyed in their 
 mystical assemblies. And this, at least, 
 may be said of them, that they practised 
 with commendable fidelity and diligence 
 the greatest of the Masonic virtues, and 
 that the banquet and balls which always 
 formed an important part of their cere- 
 monial were distinguished by numerous 
 acts of charity. 
 
 The first of these Lodges of which we 
 have any notice was that established in 
 Paris, in the year 1760, by the Count de 
 Bernouville. Another was instituted at 
 Nimuegen, in Holland, in 1774, over which 
 the Prince of Waldeck and the Princess of 
 Orange presided. In 1775, the Lodge of 
 Saint Antoine, at Paris, organized a de- 
 pendent Lodge of Adoption, of which the 
 Duchess of Bourbon was Grand Mistress 
 and the Duke of Chartres Grand Master. 
 In 1777, there was an Adoptive Lodge of 
 La Candeur, over which the Duchess of 
 Bourbon presided, assisted by such noble 
 ladies as the Duchess of Chartres, the 
 Princess Lamballe, and the Marchioness 
 de Genlis ; and we hear of another gov- 
 erned by Madame Helvetius, the wife of 
 the illustrious philosopher ; so that it will 
 be perceived that fashion, wealth, and lit- 
 erature combined to give splendor and in- 
 fluence to this new order of female Masonry. 
 
 At first the Grand Orient of France 
 appears to have been unfavorably disposed 
 to these pseudo-Masonic and androgynous 
 associations, but at length they became so 
 numerous and so popular that a persistence 
 in opposition would have evidently been 
 impolitic, if it did not actually threaten to 
 be fatal to the interests and permanence 
 of the Masonic Institution. The Grand 
 Orient, therefore, yielded its objections, 
 and resolved to avail itself of that which 
 it could not suppress. Accordingly, on 
 the 10th of June, 1774, it issued an edict 
 by which it assumed the protection and 
 control of the Lodges of Adoption. Rules 
 and regulations were provided for their 
 government, among which were two : first, 
 that no males except regular Freemasons 
 should be permitted to attend them ; and, 
 secondly, that each Lodge should be placed 
 under the charge and held under the sanc- 
 tion of some regularly constituted Lodge 
 of Masons, whose Master, or, in his ab- 
 sence, his deputy, should be the presiding 
 officer, assisted by a female President or 
 Mistress ; and such has since been the or- 
 ganization of all Lodges of Adoption. 
 
ADOPTIVE 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 29 
 
 A Lodge of Adoption, under the regula- 
 tions established in 1774, consists of the 
 following officers : a Grand Master, a Grand 
 Mistress, an Orator, an Inspector, an In- 
 spectress, a Depositor and a Depositress ; 
 or, as these might more appropriately be 
 translated, a Male and Female Guardian, 
 a Master and a Mistress of Ceremonies, 
 and a Secretary. All of these officers wear 
 a blue watered ribbon in the form of a col- 
 lar, to which is suspended a golden trowel, 
 and all the brethren and sisters have white 
 aprons and gloves. 
 
 The Kite of Adoption consists of four 
 degrees, whose names in French and Eng- 
 lish are as follows : 
 
 1. Apprentie, or Female Apprentice. 
 
 2. Compagnonne, or Craftswoman. 
 
 3. Maitresse, or Mistress. 
 
 4. Parfaite Maitresse, or Perfect Mistress. 
 
 It will be seen that the degrees of Adop- 
 tion, in their names and their apparent 
 reference to the gradations of employment 
 in an operative art, are assimilated to those 
 of legitimate Freemasonry ; but it is in those 
 respects only that the resemblance holds 
 good. In the details of the ritual there is a 
 vast difference between the two Institutions. 
 
 There was a fifth degree added in 1817 
 — by some modern writers called "Female 
 elect," — Sublime Dame Ecossaise, or Sover- 
 eign Illustrious Dame Ecossaise; but it 
 seems to be a recent and not generally 
 adopted innovation. At all events, it con- 
 stituted no part of the original Rite of 
 Adoption. 
 
 The first, or Female Apprentice's degree, 
 is simply preliminary in its character, and 
 is intended to prepare the candidate for 
 the more important lessons which she is to 
 receive in the succeeding degrees. She is 
 presented with a white apron and a pair 
 of white kid gloves. The apron is given 
 with the following charge, in which, as in 
 all the other ceremonies of the Order, the 
 Masonic system of teaching by symbolism 
 is followed : 
 
 " Permit me, my sister, to decorate you 
 with this apron, which, as the symbol of 
 virtue, kings, princes, and princesses have 
 esteemed, and will ever esteem it an honor 
 to wear." 
 
 On receiving the gloves, the candidate is 
 thus addressed : 
 
 " The color of these gloves will admon- 
 ish you that candor and truth are virtues 
 inseparable from the character of a female 
 Mason. Take your place among us, and be 
 pleased to listen to the instructions which 
 we are about to communicate to you." 
 
 The following charge is then addressed 
 to the candidate by the Orator : 
 
 " My dear Sister : — Nothing is better cal- 
 culated to assure you of the high esteem our 
 
 society entertains for you, than your admission 
 as a member, thus giving you a proof of our 
 sincere attachment. The vulgar, who are 
 always ignorant, have very naturally enter- 
 tained the most ridiculous prejudices against 
 our Order. Without any just reason they 
 have conceived an enmity which has induced 
 them to circulate the most scandalous rumors 
 concerning us. But how is it possible that 
 they, without the light of truth, should be en- 
 abled to form a correct judgment ? They are 
 incapable of appreciating the good that we do 
 by affording relief to our fellow-creatures in 
 distress. 
 
 "Your sex, my dear sister, having for a 
 long time been denied admission to our soci- 
 ety, alone has had the right to think us unjust. 
 What satisfaction must you, therefore, now 
 enjoy, in perceiving that Freemasonry is a 
 school of decorum and virtue, and that our 
 laws are intended to restrain the violence of 
 our passions, and to make us more deserving 
 of your confidence and esteem. We have 
 hitherto frequently found ourselves at a loss 
 in our meetings for the agreeable conversation 
 of your amiable sex, and hence we have at 
 length determined to invite you into our soci- 
 ety by the endearing name of sisters, with the 
 hope that we shall hereafter pass our time 
 more delightfully in your pleasant company, 
 as well as give additional respect to our Insti- 
 tution. 
 
 " We call our Lodge the temple of virtue, 
 because we endeavor, by the exercise of char- 
 ity, to do all the good we can to our fellow- 
 creatures, and seek to subdue our own pas- 
 sions. The obligation that we take, not to 
 reveal our mysteries, prevents pride and self- 
 love from lurking in our hearts, so that we 
 are enabled without ostentation to perform 
 all the good deeds which we are bound to 
 practise. 
 
 " The name of sister, that we bestow upon 
 you, evinces the esteem that we have enter- 
 tained for your person in selecting you to par- 
 ticipate in our happiness and to cultivate, with 
 us, the principles of virtue and benevolence. 
 
 "Having now made you acquainted with 
 the nature of our Institution, we are well as- 
 sured that the light of wisdom and virtue will 
 henceforth direct your conduct, and that you 
 will never reveal to the profane those myste- 
 ries which should ever carefully be preserved 
 by the maintenance of the strictest silence. 
 May the Omnipotent Deity give you that 
 strength which will always enable you to sup- 
 port the character of a sincere female Mason." 
 
 It will be seen that throughout this 
 charge there runs a vein of gallantry, 
 which gives the true secret of the motives 
 which led to the organization of the soci- 
 ety, and which, however appropriate to a 
 Lodge of Adoption, would scarcely be in 
 place in a Lodge of the legitimate Order. 
 
 In the second degree, or that of Com- 
 pagnonne, or "Craftswoman," corresponding 
 to our Fellow Craft, the Lodge is made the 
 
30 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 symbol of the Garden of Eden, and the 
 candidate passes through a mimic repre- 
 sentation of the temptation of Eve, the 
 fatal effects of which, culminating in the 
 deluge and the destruction of the human 
 race, are impressed upon her in the lecture 
 or catechism. 
 
 Here we have a scenic representation of 
 the circumstances connected with that 
 event, as recorded in Genesis. The can- 
 didate plays the role of our common mother. 
 In the centre of the Lodge, which repre- 
 sents the garden, is placed the tree of life, 
 from which ruddy apples are suspended. 
 The serpent, made with theatrical skill to 
 represent a living reptile, embraces in its 
 coils the trunk. An apple plucked from 
 the tree is presented to the recipient, who 
 is persuaded to eat it by the promise that 
 thus alone can she prepare herself for re- 
 ceiving a knowledge of the sublime mys- 
 teries of Freemasonry. She receives the 
 fruit from the tempter, but no sooner has 
 she attempted to bite it, than she is startled 
 by the sound of thunder ; a curtain which 
 has separated her from the members of the 
 Lodge is suddenly withdrawn, and she is 
 detected in the commission of the act of 
 disobedience. She is sharply reprimanded 
 by the Orator, who conducts her before the 
 Grand Master. This dignitary reproaches 
 her with her fault, but finally, with the 
 consent of the brethren and sisters present, 
 he pardons her in the merciful spirit of the 
 Institution, on the condition that she will 
 take a vow to extend hereafter the same 
 clemency to the faults of others. 
 
 All of this is allegorical and very pretty, 
 and it cannot be denied that on the sensi- 
 tive imaginations of females such cere- 
 monies must produce a manifest impres- 
 sion. . But it is needless to say that it is 
 nothing like Masonry. 
 
 There is less ceremony, but more sym- 
 bolism, in the third degree, or that of 
 " Mistress." Here are introduced, as parts 
 of the ceremony, the tower of Babel and 
 the theological ladder of Jacob. Its rounds, 
 however, differ from those peculiar to true 
 Masonry, and are said to equal the virtues 
 in number. The lecture or catechism is 
 very long, and contains some very good 
 points in its explanations of the symbols 
 of the degree. Thus, the tower of Babel 
 is said to signify the pride of man — its 
 base, his folly — the stones of which it was 
 composed, his passions — the cement which 
 united them, the poison of discord — and 
 its spiral form, the devious and crooked 
 ways of the human heart. In this manner 
 there is an imitation, not of the letter and 
 substance of legitimate Freemasonry, for 
 nothing can in these respects be more dis- 
 similar, but of that mode of teaching by 
 
 symbols and allegories which is its peculiar 
 characteristic. 
 
 The fourth degree, or that of "Perfect 
 Mistress," corresponds to no degree in legit- 
 imate Masonry. It is simply the summit 
 of the Rite of Adoption, and hence is also 
 called the "Degree of Perfection." Al- 
 though the Lodge, in this degree, is sup- 
 posed to represent the Mosaic tabernacle 
 in the wilderness, yet the ceremonies do 
 not have the same reference. In one of 
 them, however, the liberation, by the can- 
 didate, of a bird from the vase in which it 
 had been confined is said to symbolize the 
 liberation of man from the dominion of his 
 passions ; and thus a far-fetched reference is 
 made to the liberation of the Jews from 
 Egyptian bondage. On the whole, the 
 ceremonies are very disconnected, but the 
 lecture or catechism contains some excel- 
 lent lessons. Especially does it furnish us 
 with the official definition of Adoptive Ma- 
 sonry, which is in these words : 
 
 " It is a virtuous amusement by which 
 we recall a part of the mysteries of our 
 religion ; and the better to make man know 
 his Creator, after we have inculcated the du- 
 ties of virtue, we deliver ourselves up to the 
 sentiments of a pure and delightful friend- 
 ship by enjoying in our Lodges the pleasures 
 of society — pleasures which among us are 
 always founded on reason, honor, and inno- 
 cence." 
 
 Apt and appropriate description of an 
 association, secret or otherwise, of agreeable 
 and virtuous, well-bred men and women, 
 but having not the slightest application to 
 the design or form of true Freemasonry. 
 
 The author of La Vraie Magonnerie 
 oV Adoption, who has given the best ritual 
 of the Rite, thus briefly sums up the objects 
 of the Institution : 
 
 "The first degree contains only, as it 
 ought, moral ideas of Masonry ; the second 
 is the initiation into the first mysteries, 
 commencing with the sin of Adam, and 
 concluding with the Ark of Noah as the 
 first favor which God granted to men ; the 
 third and fourth are merely a series of types 
 and figures drawn from the Holy Scriptures, 
 by which we explain to the candidate the 
 virtues which she ought to practise." 
 
 The fourth degree, being the summit of 
 the Rite of Adoption, is furnished with a 
 " table-lodge," or the ceremony of a ban- 
 quet, which immediately succeeds the clos- 
 ing of the Lodge, and which, of course, adds 
 much to the social pleasure and nothing to 
 the instructive character of the Rite. Here, 
 also, there is a continued imitation of the 
 ceremonies of the Masonic Institution as 
 they are practised in France, where the 
 ceremoniously conducted banquet, at which 
 Masons only are present, is always an ac- 
 
ADOPTIVE 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 31 
 
 companiment of the Master's Lodge. Thus, 
 as in the banquets of the regular Lodges of 
 the French Rite, the members always use a 
 symbolical language by which they desig- 
 nate the various implements of the table 
 and the different articles of food and drink, 
 calling, for instance, the knives " swords," 
 the forks " pikes," the meats " materials," 
 and bread a " rough ashlar; " so, in imita- 
 tion of this custom, the Rite of Adoption 
 has established in its banquets a technical 
 vocabulary, to be used only at the table. 
 Thus the Lodge room is called " Eden," 
 the doors " barriers," the minutes a " lad- 
 der," a wineglass is styled a " lamp," and its 
 contents " oil," — water being " white oil " 
 and wine " red oil." To fill your glass is 
 " to trim your lamp," to drink is "to extin- 
 guish your lamp," with many other eccen- 
 tric expressions. 
 
 Much taste, and in some instances, mag- 
 nificence, are displayed in the decorations 
 of the Lodge rooms of the Adoptive Rite. 
 The apartment is separated by curtains into 
 different divisions, and contains ornaments 
 and decorations which of course vary in the 
 different degrees. The orthodox Masonic 
 idea that the Lodge is a symbol of the 
 world is here retained, and the four sides 
 of the hall are said to represent the four 
 continents — the entrance being called " Eu- 
 rope," the right side " Africa," the left 
 " America," and the extremity in which the 
 Grand Master and Grand Mistress are 
 seated " Asia." There are statues repre- 
 senting Wisdom, Prudence, Strength, Tem- 
 perance, Honor, Charity, Justice, and 
 Truth. The members are seated along the 
 sides in two rows, the ladies occupying the 
 front one, and the whole is rendered as 
 beautiful and attractive as the taste can 
 make it. 
 
 The Lodges of Adoption flourished greatly 
 in France after their recognition by the 
 Grand Orient. The Duchess of Bourbon, 
 who was the first that received the title of 
 Grand Mistress, was installed with great 
 pomp and splendor, in May, 1775, in the 
 Lodge of St. Antoine, in Paris. She presided 
 over the Adoptive Lodge Le Candeur until 
 1780, when it was dissolved. Attached to 
 the celebrated Lodge of the Nine Sisters, 
 which had so many distinguished men of 
 letters among its members, was a Lodge of 
 Adoption bearing the same name, which in 
 1778 held a meeting at the residence of 
 Madame Helvetius in honor of Benjamin 
 Franklin, then our ambassador at the 
 French court. During the reign of terror 
 of the French revolution, Lodges of Adop- 
 tion, like everything that was gentle or 
 humane, almost entirely disappeared. But 
 with the accession of a regular government 
 they were resuscitated, and the Empress 
 
 Josephine presided at the meeting of one 
 at Strasburg in the year 1805. They con- 
 tinued to flourish under the imperial dy- 
 nasty, and although less popular, or I 
 should rather say, less fashionable, under 
 the restoration, they subsequently recovered 
 their popularity, and are still in existence 
 in France. 
 
 As interesting appendages to this article, 
 it may not be improper to insert two ac- 
 counts, one of the installation of Madame 
 Cesar Moreau, as Grand Mistress of Adop- 
 tive Masonry, in the Lodge connected with 
 the regular Lodge La Jerusalem des Val- 
 ines Egyptiennes, on the 8th July, 1854, and 
 the other of the reception of the celebrated 
 Lady Morgan, in 1819, in the Lodge La 
 Belle et Bonne, as described by her in her 
 Diary. 
 
 The account of the installation of Ma- 
 dame Moreau, which is abridged from the 
 Franc-Macon, a Parisian periodical, is as 
 follows: 
 
 The fete was most interesting and admi- 
 ably arranged. After the introduction in 
 due form of a number of brethren and 
 sisters, the Grand Mistress elect was an- 
 nounced, and she entered, preceded by the 
 five lights of the Lodge and escorted by the 
 Inspectress, Depositress, Oratrix, and Mis- 
 tress of Ceremonies. Mons. J. S. Boubee, 
 the Master of the Lodge La Jerusalem des 
 Vallees Egyptiennes, conducted her to the 
 altar, where, having installed her into office 
 and handed her a mallet as the symbol of 
 authority, he addressed her in a copy of 
 verses, whose merit will hardly claim for 
 them a repetition. To this she made a suit- 
 able reply, and the Lodge then proceeded to 
 the reception of a young lady, a part of the 
 ceremony of which is thus described : 
 
 " Of the various trials of virtue and forti- 
 tude to which she was subjected, there was 
 one which made a deep impression, not 
 only on the fair recipient, but on the whole 
 assembled company. Four boxes were 
 placed, one before each of the male officers ; 
 the candidate was told to open them, which 
 she did, and from the first and second drew 
 faded flowers, and soiled ribbons and laces, 
 which being placed in an open vessel were 
 instantly consumed by fire, as an emblem 
 of the brief duration of such objects; from 
 the third she drew an apron, a blue silk 
 scarf, and a pair of gloves ; and from the 
 fourth a basket containing the working 
 tools in silver gilt. She was then con- 
 ducted to the altar, where, on opening a 
 fifth box, several birds which had been con- 
 fined in it escaped, which was intended to 
 teach her that liberty is a condition to 
 which all men are entitled, and of which no 
 one can be deprived without injustice. 
 After having taken the vow, she was in- 
 
32 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 structed in the modes of recognition, and 
 having been clothed with the apron, scarf, 
 and gloves, and presented with the imple- 
 ments of the Order, she received from the 
 Grand Mistress an esoteric explanation of 
 all these emblems and ceremonies. Ad- 
 dresses were subsequently delivered by the 
 Orator and Oratrix, an ode was sung, the 
 poor. or alms box was handed round, and 
 the labors of the Lodge were then closed." 
 
 Madame Moreau lived only six months 
 to enjoy the honors of presiding officer of 
 the Adoptive Rite, for she died of a pulmo- 
 nary affection at an early age, on the 11th 
 of the succeeding January. 
 
 The Lodge of Adoption in which Lady 
 Morgan received the degrees at Paris, in 
 the year 1819, was called La Belle et Bonne. 
 This was the pet name which long before 
 had been bestowed by Voltaire on his 
 favorite, the Marchioness de Villette, under 
 whose presidency and at whose residence in 
 the Faubourg St. Germaine the Lodge was 
 held, and hence the name with which all 
 France, or at least all Paris, was familiarly 
 acquainted as the popular designation of 
 Madame de Villette. 
 
 Lady Morgan, in her description of the 
 Masonic fete, says that when she arrived at 
 the Hotel la Villette, where the Lodge was 
 held, she found a large concourse of dis- 
 tinguished persons ready to take part in the 
 ceremonies. Among these were Prince 
 Paul of Wurtemberg, the Count de Cazes, 
 elsewhere distinguished in Masonry, the 
 celebrated Denon, the Bishop of Jerusalem, 
 and the illustrious actor Talma. The busi- 
 ness of the evening commenced with an in- 
 stallation of the officers of a sister Lodge, 
 after which the candidates were admitted. 
 Lady Morgan describes the arrangements 
 as presenting, when the doors were opened, 
 a spectacle of great magnificence. A pro- 
 fusion of crimson and gold, marble busts, a 
 decorated throne and altar, an abundance 
 of flowers, and incense of the finest odor 
 which filled the air, gave to the whole a 
 most dramatic and scenic effect. Music of 
 the grandest character mingled its harmony 
 with the mysteries of initiation, which 
 lasted for two hours, and when the Lodge 
 was closed there was an adjournment to the 
 hall of refreshment, where the ball was 
 opened by the Grand Mistress with Prince 
 Paul of Wurtemberg. Lady Morgan, upon 
 whose mind the ceremony appears to have 
 made an impression, makes one remark 
 worthy of consideration : " That so many 
 women," she says, " young and beautiful 
 and worldly, should never have revealed 
 the secret, is among the miracles which the 
 much distrusted sex are capable of work- 
 ing." In fidelity to the vow of secrecy, the 
 female Masons of the Adoptive Rite have 
 
 proved themselves fully equal to their 
 brethren of the legitimate Order. 
 
 Notwithstanding that Adoptive Masonry 
 has found an advocate in no less distin- 
 guished a writer than Chemin Dupontes, 
 who, in the Encyclopedie Maconnique, calls 
 it " a luxury in Masonry, and a pleasant re- 
 laxation which cannot do any harm to the 
 true mysteries which are practised by men 
 alone," it has been very generally con- 
 demned by the most celebrated French, 
 German, English, and American Masons. 
 
 Gaedicke, in the Freimaurer Lexicon, 
 speaks slightingly of it as established on 
 insufficient grounds, and expresses his 
 gratification that the system no longer ex- 
 ists in Germany. 
 
 Thory, in his History of the Foundation 
 of the Grand Orient (p. 361), says that the 
 introduction of Adoptive Lodges was a con- 
 sequence of the relaxation of Masonic dis- 
 cipline ; and he asserts that the permitting 
 of women to share in mysteries which 
 should exclusively belong to men is not in 
 accordance with the essential principles of 
 the Masonic Order. The Abbe Robin, the 
 author of an able work entitled Becherches 
 sur les Initiations Anciennes et Modernes, 
 maintains that the custom of admitting 
 women into Masonic assemblies will per- 
 haps be, at some further period, the cause 
 of the decline of Masonry in France. The 
 prediction is not, however, likely to come 
 to pass ; for while legitimate Masonry has 
 never been more popular or prosperous in 
 France than it is at this day, it is the 
 Lodges of Adoption that appear to have 
 declined. 
 
 Other writers in other countries have 
 spoken in similar terms, so that it is beyond 
 a doubt that the general sentiment of the 
 Fraternity is against this system of female 
 Masonry. 
 
 Lenning is, however, more qualified in 
 his condemnation, and says, in his Encyclo- 
 padie der Freimaurerei, that while leaving 
 it undecided whether it is prudent to hold 
 assemblies of women with ceremonies 
 which are called Masonic, yet it is not to 
 be denied that in these female Lodges a 
 large amount of charity has been done. 
 
 Adoptive Masonry has its literature, al- 
 though neither extensive nor important, as 
 it comprises only books of songs, addresses, 
 and rituals. Of the latter the most valu- 
 able are — 1. La Maconnerie des Femmes, 
 published in 1775, and containing only the 
 first three degrees; for such was the system 
 when recognized by the Grand Orient of 
 France in that year. 2. La Vraie Macon- 
 nerie d' Adoption, printed in 1787. This 
 work, which is by Guillemain de St. Victor, 
 is perhaps the best that has been published 
 on the subject of the Adoptive Rite, and is 
 
ADOPTIVE 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 the first that introduces the fourth degree, 
 of which Guilleinain is supposed to have 
 been the inventor, since all previous rituals 
 include only the three degrees. 3. Magon- 
 nerie d' Adoption pour les Femmes, contained 
 in the second part of E. J. Chappron's 
 Necessaire Magonnique, and printed at Paris 
 in 1817. This is valuable because it is the 
 first ritual that contains the fifth degree. 
 4. La Franc- Magonnerie des Femmes. This 
 work, which is by Charles Monselet, is of 
 no value as a ritual, being simply a tale 
 founded on circumstances connected with 
 Adoptive Masonry. 
 
 In Italy, the Carbonari, or "Charcoal- 
 Burners," a secret political society, imitated 
 the Freemasons of France in instituting an 
 Adoptive Rite, attached to their own asso- 
 ciation. Hence an Adoptive Lodge was 
 founded at Naples in the oeginning of this 
 century, over which presided that friend of 
 Masonry, Queen Caroline, the wife of Fer- 
 dinand II. The members were styled 
 Oiardiniere, or Female Gardeners; and 
 they called each other Cugine, or Female 
 Cousins, in imitation of the Carbonari, who 
 were recognized as Buoni Cugini, or Good 
 Cousins. The Lodges of Giardiniere flour- 
 ished as long as the Grand Lodge of Car- 
 bonari existed at Naples. 
 
 Adopt i\e Masonry, American. 
 The Rite of Adoption as practised on the 
 continent of Europe, and especially in 
 France, has never been introduced into 
 America. The system does not accord with 
 the manners or habits of our people, and 
 undoubtedly never would become popular. 
 But Rob. Morris attempted, in 1855, to in- 
 troduce an imitation of it, which he had in- 
 vented, under the name of the " American 
 Adoptive Rite." It consisted of a ceremony 
 of initiation, which was intended as a pre- 
 liminary trial of the candidate, and of five 
 degrees, named as follows: 1. Jephthah's 
 Daughter, or the daughter's degree. 2. 
 Ruth, or the widow's degree. 3. Esther, or 
 the wife's degree. 4. Martha, or the sister's 
 degree. 5. Electa, or the Christian Mar- 
 tyr's degree. The whole assemblage of the 
 five degrees was called the Eastern Star. 
 
 The objects of this Rite, as expressed by 
 the framer, were " to associate in one com- 
 mon bond the worthy wives, widows, 
 daughters, and sisters of Freemasons, so as to 
 make their adoptive privileges available for 
 all the purposes contemplated in Masonry ; 
 to secure to them the advantages of their 
 claim in a moral, social, and charitable 
 point of view, and from them the perform- 
 ance of corresponding duties." Hence no 
 females but those holding the above recited 
 relations to Freemasons were eligible for 
 admission. The male members were called 
 " Protectors ; " the female, " Stellae; " the re- 
 E 3 
 
 unions of these members were styled " Con- 
 stellations ; " and the Rite was presided over 
 and governed by a "Supreme Constella- 
 tion." There is some ingenuity and even 
 beauty in many of the ceremonies, although 
 it is by no means equal in this respect to 
 the French Adoptive system. Much dis- 
 satisfaction was, however, expressed by the 
 leading Masons of the country at the time of 
 its attempted organization ; and therefore, 
 notwithstanding very strenuous efforts were 
 made by its founder and his friends to estab- 
 lish it in some of the Western States, it was 
 slow in winning popularity. It has, how- 
 ever, within a few years past, gained much 
 growth under the name of " The Eastern 
 Star." Bro. Albert Pike has also recently 
 printed, for the use of Scottish Rite Masons, 
 The Masonry of Adoption. It is in seven 
 degrees, and is a translation from the French 
 system, but greatly enlarged, and is far su- 
 perior to the original. 
 
 The last phase of this female Masonry 
 to which our attention is directed is the 
 system of androgynous degrees which are 
 practised to some extent in the United 
 States. This term "androgynous" is de- 
 rived from two Greek words, aner-andros, a 
 man, and gune, a woman, and it is equiva- 
 lent to the English compound masculo-fem- 
 inine. It is applied to those " side degrees " 
 which are conferred on both males and 
 females. The essential regulation prevail- 
 ing in these degrees, is that they can be 
 conferred only on Master Masons (and in 
 some instances only Royal Arch Masons) 
 and on their female relatives, the peculiar 
 relationship differing in the different de- 
 grees. 
 
 Thus there is a degree generally called 
 the " Mason's Wife," which can be con- 
 ferred only on Master Masons, their wives, 
 unmarried daughters and sisters, and their 
 widowed mothers. Another degree, called 
 the " Heroine of Jericho," is conferred only 
 on the wives and daughters of Royal Arch 
 Masons ; and the third, the only one that 
 has much pretension of ceremony or ritual, 
 is the " Good Samaritan," whose privileges 
 are confined to Royal Arch Masons and 
 their wives. 
 
 In some parts of the United States these 
 degrees are very popular, while in other 
 places they are never practised, and are 
 strongly condemned as modern innovations. 
 The fact is, that by their friends as well as 
 their enemies these so-called degrees have 
 been greatly misrepresented. When fe- 
 males are told that in receiving these de- 
 grees they are admitted into the Masonic 
 Order, and are obtaining Masonic informa- 
 tion, under the name of " Ladies' Ma- 
 sonry," they are simply deceived. When 
 a woman is informed that, by passing 
 
34 
 
 ADOPTIVE 
 
 ADVANCEMENT 
 
 through the brief and unimpressive cere- 
 mony of any one of these degrees, she has 
 become a Mason, the deception is still more 
 gross and inexcusable. But it is true that 
 every woman who is related by ties of con- 
 sanguinity to a Master Mason is at all 
 times and under all circumstances pecu- 
 liarly entitled to Masonic protection and 
 assistance. Now, if the recipient of an 
 androgynous degree is candidly instructed 
 that, by the use of these degrees, the female 
 relatives of Masons are put in possession 
 of the means of making their claims known 
 by what may be called a sort of oral testi- 
 mony, which, unlike a written certificate, 
 can be neither lost nor destroyed ; but that, 
 by her initiation as a " Mason's Wife " or as 
 a " Heroine of Jericho," she is brought no 
 nearer to the inner portal of Masonry than 
 she was before — if she is honestly told all 
 this, then there can hardly be any harm, 
 and there may be some good in these forms 
 if prudently bestowed. But all attempts to 
 make Masonry of them, and especially that 
 anomalous thing called "Female Masonry," 
 are reprehensible, and are well calculated 
 to produce opposition among the well-in- 
 formed and cautious members of the Fra- 
 ternity. 
 
 Adoptive Masonry, Egyptian. 
 A system invented by Cagliostro. See 
 Egyptian Masonry. 
 
 Adoration. The act of paying di- 
 vine worship. The Latin word adorare is 
 derived from ad, " to," and os, oris, " the 
 mouth," and we thus etymologically learn 
 that the primitive and most general method 
 of adoration was by the application of the 
 fingers to the mouth. Hence we read in 
 Job, (xxxi. 26,) "If I beheld the sun when 
 it shined, or the moon walking in bright- 
 ness, and my heart hath been secretly en- 
 ticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand, this 
 also were an iniquity to be punished by the 
 judges ; for I should have denied the God 
 that is above." Here the mouth kissing 
 the hand is an equipollent expression to 
 adoration, as if he had said, "If I have 
 adored the sun or the moon." This mode 
 of adoration is said to have originated 
 among the Persians, who, as worshippers 
 of the sun, always turned their faces to the 
 east and kissed their hands to that lumi- 
 nary. The gesture was first used as a to- 
 ken of respect to their monarchs, and was 
 easily transferred to objects of worship. 
 Other additional forms of adoration were 
 used in various countries, but in almost 
 all of them this reference to kissing was in 
 some degree preserved. Among the ancient 
 Romans the act of adoration was thus per- 
 formed : The worshipper, having his head 
 covered, applied his right hand to his lips, 
 thumb erect, and the forefinger resting on 
 
 it, and then, bowing his head, he turned 
 round from right to left. And hence Apu- 
 leius (Apolog.) uses the expression "to ap- 
 ply the hand to the lips," manum lahris 
 admovere, to express the act of adoration. 
 The Grecian mode of adoration differed 
 from the Roman in having the head uncov- 
 ered, which practice was adopted by the 
 Christians. The Oriental nations cover the 
 head, but uncover the feet. They also ex- 
 press the act of adoration by prostrating 
 themselves on their faces and applying 
 their foreheads to the ground. The an- 
 cient Jews adored by kneeling, sometimes 
 by prostration of the whole body, and by 
 kissing the hand. This act, therefore, of 
 kissing the hand, was an early and a very 
 general symbol of adoration. But we must 
 not be led into the error of supposing that 
 a somewhat similar gesture used in some 
 of the high degrees of Freemasonry has 
 any allusion to an act of worship. It refers 
 to that symbol of silence and secrecy which 
 is figured in the statues of Harpocrates, 
 the god of silence. The Masonic idea of 
 adoration has been well depicted by the 
 mediaeval Christian painters, who repre- 
 sented the act by angels prostrated before a 
 luminous triangle. 
 
 Advanced. This word has two tech- 
 nical meanings in Masonry. 
 
 1. We speak of a candidate as being 
 advanced when he has passed from a lower 
 to a higher degree ; as we say that a candi- 
 date is qualified for advancement from the 
 Entered Apprentice's degree to that of a 
 Fellow Craft when he has made that "suit- 
 able proficiency in the former which, by 
 the regulations of the Order, entitle him 
 to receive the initiation into and the in- 
 structions of the latter. And when the 
 Apprentice has thus been promoted to the 
 second degree he is said to have advanced 
 in Masonry. 
 
 2. The word is peculiarly applied to the 
 initiation of a candidate into the Mark 
 degree, which is the fourth in the Ameri- 
 can modification of the York Rite. The 
 Master Mason is thus said to be " advanced 
 to the honorary degree of a Mark Master," 
 to indicate either that he has now been 
 promoted one step beyond the degrees of 
 Ancient Craft Masonry on his way to the 
 Royal Arch, or to express the fact that he 
 has been elevated from the common class 
 of Fellow Crafts to that higher and more 
 select one which, according to the tradi- 
 tions of Masonry, constituted, at the first 
 Temple, the class of Mark Masters. See 
 Mark Master. 
 
 Advancement Hurried. Noth- 
 ing can be more certain than that the proper 
 qualifications of a candidate for admission 
 into the mysteries of Freemasonry, and the 
 
ADVANCEMENT 
 
 ADVANCEMENT 
 
 35 
 
 necessary proficiency of a Mason who seeks 
 advancement to a higher degree, are the 
 two great bulwarks which are to protect 
 the purity and integrity of our Institution. 
 Indeed, I know not which is the most hurt- 
 ful — to admit an applicant who is un- 
 worthy, or to promote a candidate who is 
 ignorant of his first lessons. The one 
 affects the external, the other the internal 
 character of the Institution. The one 
 brings discredit upon the Order among the 
 profane, who already regard us, too often, 
 with suspicion and dislike; the other in- 
 troduces ignorance and incapacity into our 
 ranks, and dishonors the science of Masonry 
 in our own eyes. The one covers our walls 
 with imperfect and worthless stones, which 
 mar the outward beauty and impair the 
 strength of our temple ; the other fills our 
 interior apartments with confusion and dis- 
 order, and leaves the edifice, though exter- 
 nally strong, both inefficient and inappro- 
 priate for its destined uses. 
 
 But, to the candidate himself, a too 
 hurried advancement is often attended with 
 the most disastrous effects. As in geometry, 
 so in Masonry, there is no " royal road" to 
 perfection. A knowledge of its principles 
 and its science, and consequently an ac- 
 quaintance with its beauties, can only be 
 acquired by long and diligent study. To 
 the careless observer it seldom offers, at a 
 hasty glance, much to attract his attention 
 or secure his interest. The gold must be 
 deprived, by careful manipulation, of the 
 dark and worthless ore which surrounds 
 and envelops it, before its metallic lustre 
 and value can be seen and appreciated. 
 
 Hence, the candidate, who hurriedly 
 passes through his degrees without a due 
 examination of the moral and intellectual 
 purposes of each, arrives at the summit of 
 our edifice without a due and necessary 
 appreciation of the general symmetry and 
 connection that pervade the whole system. 
 The candidate, thus hurried through the 
 elements of our science, and unprepared, by 
 a knowledge of its fundamental principles, 
 for the reception and comprehension of the 
 corollaries which are to be deduced from 
 them, is apt to view the whole system as " a 
 rude and indigested mass" of frivolous 
 ceremonies and puerile conceits, whose in- 
 trinsic value will not adequately pay him 
 for the time, the trouble, and expense that 
 he has incurred in his forced initiation. 
 To him, Masonry is as incomprehensible as 
 was the veiled statue of Isis to its blind 
 worshippers, and he becomes, in conse- 
 quence, either a useless drone in our hive, 
 or speedily retires in disgust from all parti- 
 cipation in our labors. 
 
 But the candidate who by slow and pain- 
 ful steps has proceeded through each apart- 
 
 ment of our mystic temple, from its porch 
 to its sanctuary, pausing in his progress to 
 admire the beauties and to study the uses 
 of each, learning, as he advances, "line 
 upon line, and precept upon precept," is 
 gradually and almost imperceptibly imbued 
 with so much admiration of the Institution, 
 so much love for its principles, so much 
 just appreciation of its design as a conserva- 
 tor of divine truth, and an agent of human 
 civilization, that he is inclined, on behold- 
 ing, at last, the whole beauty of the finished 
 building, to exclaim, as did the wondering 
 Queen of Sheba : " A Most Excellent Master 
 must have done all this ! " 
 
 The usage in many jurisdictions of this 
 country, when the question is asked in the 
 ritual whether the candidate has made suit- 
 able proficiency in his preceding degree, is 
 to reply, "Such as time and circumstances 
 would permit." I have no doubt that this 
 was an innovation originally invented to 
 evade the law, which has always required a 
 due proficieney. To such a question no 
 other answer ought to be given than the 
 
 Sositive and unequivocal one that "he has." 
 [either " time nor circumstances " should 
 be permitted to interfere with his attain- 
 ment of the necessary knowledge, nor ex- 
 cuse its absence. This, with the whole- 
 some rule, very generally existing, which 
 requires an interval between the conferring 
 of the degrees, would go far to remedy the 
 evil of too hurried and unqualified ad- 
 vancement, of which all intelligent Masons 
 are now complaining. 
 
 After these views of the necessity of a 
 careful examination of the claims of a can- 
 didate for advancement in Masonry, and the 
 necessity, for his own good as well as that 
 of the Order, that each one should fully 
 prepare himself for this promotion, it is 
 proper that we should next inquire into 
 the laws of Masonry, by which the wisdom 
 and experience of our predecessors have 
 thought proper to guard as well the rights 
 of those who claim advancement as the 
 interests of the Lodge which is called upon 
 to grant it. This subject has been so fully 
 treated in Mackey's Text Book of Masonic 
 Jurisprudence, (b. iii., ch. i., p. 165, and 
 seq.,) that I shall not hesitate to incorpo- 
 rate the views in that work into the present 
 article. 
 
 The subject of the petition of a candidate 
 for advancement involves three questions 
 of great importance: First, how soon, after 
 receiving the first degree, can he apply for 
 the second? Secondly, what number of 
 black balls is necessary to constitute a re- 
 jection? And thirdly, what time must 
 elapse, after a first rejection, before the 
 Apprentice can renew his application for 
 advancement?. 
 
36 
 
 ADVANCEMENT 
 
 ADVANCEMENT 
 
 1. How soon, after receiving a former de- 
 gree, can a candidate apply for advancement 
 to the next t The necessity of a full com- 
 
 Erehension of the mysteries of one degree, 
 efore any attempt is made to acquire those 
 of a second, seems to have been thoroughly 
 appreciated from the earliest times; and 
 hence all the Ancient Constitutions have 
 
 Erescribed that " the Master shall instruct 
 is Apprentice faithfully, and make him a 
 f>erfect workman." But if there be an ob- 
 igation on the part of the Master to in- 
 struct his Apprentice, there must be, of 
 course, a correlative obligation on the part of 
 the latter to receive and profit by those in- 
 structions. Accordingly, unless this obli- 
 gation is discharged, and the Apprentice 
 makes himself acquainted with the mys- 
 teries of the degree that he has already 
 received, it is, by general consent, admitted 
 that he has no right to be intrusted with 
 further and more important information. 
 The modern ritual sustains this doctrine, 
 by requiring that the candidate, as a quali- 
 fication in passing onward, shall have made 
 " suitable proficiency in the preceding de- 
 gree." This is all that the general law pre- 
 scribes. Suitable proficiency must have 
 been attained, and the period in which that 
 condition will be acquired must necessarily 
 depend on the mental capacity of the can- 
 didate. Some men will become proficient 
 in a shorter time than others, and of this 
 fact the Master and the Lodge are to be the 
 judges. An examination should therefore 
 take place in open Lodge, and a ballot im- 
 mediately following will express the opi- 
 nion of the Lodge on the result of that 
 examination, and the qualification of the 
 candidate. 
 
 From the difficulty with which the second 
 and third degrees were formerly obtained 
 — a difficulty dependent on the fact that 
 they were only conferred in the Grand 
 Lodge — it is evident that Apprentices 
 must have undergone a long probation be- 
 fore they had an opportunity of advance- 
 ment, though the precise term of the pro- 
 bation was decided by no legal enactment. 
 Several modern Grand Lodges, however, 
 looking with disapprobation on the rapidity 
 with which the degrees are sometimes con- 
 ferred upon candidates wholly incompe- 
 tent, have adopted special regulations, pre- 
 scribing a determinate period of probation 
 for each degree. This, however, is a local 
 law, to be obeyed only in those jurisdictions 
 in which it is of force. The general law 
 of Masonry makes no such determinate 
 provision of time, and demands only that 
 the candidate shall give evidence of " suit- 
 able proficiency." 
 
 2. What number of black balls is necessary 
 to constitute a rejection t Here we are en- 
 
 tirely without the guidance of any express 
 law, as all the Ancient Constitutions are 
 completely silent upon the subject. It 
 would seem, however, that in the advance- 
 ment of an Apprentice or Fellow Craft, as 
 well as in the election of a profane, the 
 ballot should be unanimous. This is strictly 
 in accordance with the principles of Ma- 
 sonry, which require unanimity in admis- 
 sion, lest improper persons be intruded, and 
 harmony impaired. Greater qualifications 
 are certainly not required of a profane ap- 
 plying for initiation than of an initiate 
 seeking advancement ; nor can there be any 
 reason why the test of those qualifications 
 should not be as rigid in the one case as in 
 the other. It may be laid down as a rule, 
 therefore, that in all cases of balloting for 
 advancement in any of the degrees of Ma- 
 sonry, a single black ball will reject. 
 
 3. What time must elapse, after a first re- 
 jection, before the Apprentice or Fellow Craft 
 can renew his application for advancement to 
 a higher degree? Here, too, the Ancient 
 Constitutions are silent, and we are left to 
 deduce our opinions from the general prin- 
 ciples and analogies of Masonic law. As 
 the application for advancement to a higher 
 degree is founded on a right enuring to the 
 Apprentice or Fellow Craft by virtue of 
 his reception into the previous degree — 
 that is to say, as the Apprentice, so soon as 
 he has been initiated, becomes invested 
 with the right of, applying for advancement 
 to the second — it seems evident that, as 
 long as he remains an Apprentice " in good 
 standing," he continues to be invested with 
 that right. Now, the rejection of his peti- 
 tion for advancement by the Lodge does 
 not impair his right to apply again, be- 
 cause it does not affect his rights and stand- 
 ing as an Apprentice; it is simply the 
 expression of the opinion that the Lodge 
 does not at present deem him qualified for 
 further progress in Masonry. We must 
 never forget the difference between the right 
 of applying for advancement and the right 
 of advancement. Every Apprentice pos- 
 sesses the former, but no one can claim the 
 latter until it is given to him by the unani- 
 mous vote of the Lodge. And as, there- 
 fore, this right of application or petition is 
 not impaired by its rejection at a particular 
 time, and as the Apprentice remains pre- 
 cisely in the same position in his own de- 
 gree, after the rejection, as he did before, 
 it seems to follow, as an irresistible deduc- 
 tion, that he may again apply at the next 
 regular communication, and, if a second 
 time rejected, repeat his applications at all 
 future meetings. The Entered Apprentices 
 of a Lodge are competent, at all regular 
 communications of their Lodge, to petition 
 for advancement. Whether that petition 
 
ADYTUM 
 
 AFFILIATED 
 
 37 
 
 shall be granted or rejected is quite another 
 thing, and depends altogether on the favor 
 of the Lodge. And what is here said of an 
 Apprentice, in relation to advancement to 
 the second degree, may be equally said of a 
 Fellow Craft in reference to advancement 
 to the third. 
 
 This opinion has not, it is true, been uni- 
 versally adopted, though no force of au- 
 thority, short of an opposing landmark, 
 could make one doubt its correctness. For 
 instance, the Grand Lodge of California 
 decided, in 1857, that " the application of 
 Apprentices or Fellow Crafts for advance- 
 ment should, after they have been once 
 rejected by ballot, be governed by the same 
 principles which regulate the ballot on peti- 
 tions for initiation, and which require a pro- 
 bation of one year." 
 
 This appears to be a singular decision of 
 Masonic law. If the reasons which prevent 
 the advancement of an Apprentice or Fel- 
 low Craft to a higher degree are of such a 
 nature as to warrant the delay of one year, 
 it is far better to prefer charges against the 
 petitioner, and to give him the opportunity 
 of a fair and impartial trial. In many 
 cases, a candidate for advancement is re- 
 tarded in his progress from an opinion, on 
 the part of the Lodge, that he is not yet 
 sufficiently prepared for promotion by a 
 knowledge of the preceding degree — an 
 objection which may sometimes be removed 
 before the recurrence of the next monthly 
 meeting. In such a case, a decision like 
 that of the Grand Lodge of California 
 would be productive of manifest injustice. 
 It is, therefore, a more consistent rule, that 
 the candidate for advancement has a right 
 to apply at every regular meeting, and that 
 whenever any moral objections exist to his 
 taking a higher degree, these objections 
 should be made in the form of charges, and 
 their truth tested by an impartial trial. To 
 this, too, the candidate is undoubtedly en- 
 titled, on all the principles of justice and 
 equity. 
 
 Adytum. The most retired and secret 
 part of the ancient temples, into which the 
 people were not permitted to enter, but which 
 was accessible to the priests only, was called 
 the adytum. And hence the derivation of 
 the word from the Greek privative preterite 
 a, and dveiv, to enter = that which is not to 
 be entered. In the adytum was generally 
 to be found a taphos, or tomb, or some 
 relics or sacred images of the god to whom 
 the temple was consecrated. It being sup- 
 posed that temples owed their origin to the 
 superstitious reverence paid by the ancients 
 to their deceased friends, and as most of 
 the gods were men who had been deified on 
 account of their virtues, temples were, 
 perhaps, at first only stately monuments 
 
 erected in honor of the dead. Hence the 
 interior of the temple was originally no- 
 thing more than a cavity regarded as a 
 place for the reception of a person interred, 
 and in it was to be found the soros, or coffin, 
 the taphos, or tomb, or, among the Scandi- 
 navians, the barrow or mound grave. In 
 time, the statue or image of a god took the 
 place of the coffin ; but the reverence for 
 the spot as one of peculiar sanctity re- 
 mained, and this interior part of the tem- 
 ple became, among the Greeks, the crjKbg, or 
 chapel, among the Romans the adytum, or 
 forbidden place, and among the Jews the 
 kodesh hahodashim, the holy of holies. (See 
 Sanctum Sanctorum.) "The sanctity thus 
 acquired," says Dudley, [Naology, p. 393,) 
 "by the cell of interment might readily 
 and with propriety be assigned to any 
 fabric capable of containing the body of 
 the departed friend, or the relic, or even 
 the symbol, of the presence or existence 
 of a divine personage." And thus it has 
 happened that there was in every ancient 
 temple an adytum or most holy place. The 
 adytum of the small temple of Pompeii is 
 still in excellent preservation. It is carried 
 some steps above the level of the main 
 building, and, like the Jewish sanctuary, 
 is without light. 
 
 iEneid. Bishop Warburton (Div. Leg.) 
 has contended, and his opinion has been 
 sustained by the great majority of subse- 
 quent commentators, that Virgil, in the 
 sixth book of his immortal Epic, has, under 
 the figure of the descent of iEneas into the 
 infernal regions, described the ceremony of 
 initiation into the Ancient Mysteries. 
 
 JEon. This word, in its original Greek, 
 aiuv, signifies the age or duration of any- 
 thing. The Gnostics, however, used it in 
 a peculiar mode to designate the intelli- 
 gent, intellectual, and material powers or 
 natures which flowed as emanations from 
 the Bt^of, or Infinite Abyss of Deity, and 
 which were connected with their divine 
 fountain as rays of light are with the sun. 
 See Gnosticism. 
 
 ^Era Architeetonica. Lat. Archi- 
 tectonic Era. Used in some modern Ma- 
 sonic lapidary inscriptions to designate the 
 date more commonly known as annus lucis, 
 the year of light. 
 
 Affiliated Mason. A Mason who 
 holds membership in some Lodge. The 
 word affiliation is derived from the French 
 affilier, which Richelet {Diet, de la langue 
 Prancaise) defines, " to communicate to any 
 one a participation in the spiritual benefits 
 of a religious order," and he says that such 
 a communication is called an " affiliation." 
 The word, as a technical term, is not found 
 in any of the old Masonic writers, who 
 always use admission instead of affiliation. 
 
38 
 
 AFFIKMATION 
 
 AFRICAN 
 
 There is no precept more explicitly ex- 
 pressed in the Ancient Constitutions than 
 that every Mason should belong to a Lodge. 
 The foundation of the law which imposes 
 this duty is to be traced as far back as the 
 Gothic Constitutions of 926, which tell us 
 that "the workman shall labor diligently 
 on work-days, that he may deserve his 
 holydays." The obligation that every Ma- 
 son should thus labor is implied in all the 
 subsequent Constitutions, which always 
 speak of Masons as working members of the 
 Fraternity, until we come to the Charges 
 approved in 1722, which explicitly state 
 that "every Brother ought to belong to 
 a Lodge, and to be subject to its By : Laws 
 and the General Regulations." 
 
 Affirmation. The question has been 
 mooted whether a Quaker, or other person 
 having peculiar religious scruples in refer- 
 ence to taking oaths, can receive the de- 
 grees of Masonry by taking an affirmation. 
 Now, as the obligations of Masonry are 
 symbolic in their character, and the forms 
 in which they are administered constitute 
 the essence of the symbolism, there cannot 
 be a doubt that the prescribed mode is the 
 only one that ought to be used, and that 
 affirmations are entirely inadmissible. The 
 London Freemason's Quarterly (1828, p. 286,) 
 says that " a Quaker's affirmation is bind- 
 ing." This is not denied : the only ques- 
 tion is whether it is admissible. Can the 
 obligations be assumed in any but one way, 
 unless the ritual be entirely changed? and 
 can any "man or body of men" at this 
 time make such a change without affecting 
 the universality of Masonry? Bro. Chase 
 (Masonic Digest, p. 448,) says that "confer- 
 ring the degrees on affirmation is no viola- 
 tion of the spirit of Freemasonry, and 
 neither overthrows nor affects a land- 
 mark." And in this he is sustained by the 
 Grand Lodge of Maine (1823) ; but the 
 only other Grand Lodges which have ex- 
 pressed an opinion on this subject — namely, 
 those of Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, 
 Delaware, Virginia, and Pennsylvania — 
 have made an opposite decision. The en- 
 tire practice of Lodges in this country 
 is also against the use of an affirmation. 
 There is no landmark more clear and cer- 
 tain than that which prescribes the mode 
 of entering upon the covenant, and it, by 
 implication, excludes the affirmation, or 
 any other kind but the one prescribed. 
 
 Africa. Freemasonry was first at- 
 tempted to be introduced into Africa in 
 1735,' through the appointment, in that 
 year, of Richard Hull, Esq., by Lord Wey- 
 mouth, Grand Master of England, as Pro- 
 vincial Grand Master at Gambay, in West 
 Africa. In the following year the Earl of 
 Loudoun appointed Dr. David Creighton 
 
 Provincial Grand Master of Cape Coast 
 Castle. At present there is a District Grand 
 Master for South Africa, and the English 
 Lodges on that continent are under the con- 
 trol, through him, of the Grand Lodge of 
 England. I doubt, however, whether any 
 Lodges were established at an early period 
 on the African continent by these provin- 
 cial deputations. At all events, the first 
 African Lodge that I find marked in Hutch- 
 inson's Register of the English Lodges is at 
 Bulam, on the coast of Africa, under the 
 date of 1792, and numbered as 495. At 
 present there are eighteen Lodges in Af- 
 rica under the English jurisdiction, fourteen 
 of which are at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 one at Bathurst on the river Gambia, three 
 at Cape Coast Castle, and one at Sierra 
 Leone. The Grand Lodge of Scotland has 
 a Lodge under its jurisdiction at the Cape 
 of Good Hope, and several have been estab- 
 lished by the Grand Orient of France in 
 Mauritius, Egypt, and Algeria. 
 
 African Architects, Order of. 
 Sometimes called African Builders; French, 
 Architectes de VAfrigue; German, African- 
 ische Bauherren. 
 
 Of all the new sects and modern degrees 
 of Freemasonry which sprang up on the 
 continent of Europe during the eighteenth 
 century, there was none which, for the 
 time, maintained so high an intellectual 
 position as the Order of African Archi- 
 tects, called by the French Architectes de 
 PAfrique, and by the Germans Africanische 
 Bauherren. A Masonic sect of this name 
 had originally been established in Ger- 
 many in the year 1756, but it does not 
 appear to have attracted much attention, 
 or, indeed, deserved it; and hence, amid 
 the multitude of Masonic innovations to 
 which almost every day was giving birth 
 and ephemeral existence, it soon disap- 
 peared. But the society which is the sub- 
 ject of the present article, although it as- 
 sumed the name of the original African 
 Architects, was of a very different charac- 
 ter. It may, however, be considered, as it 
 was established only eleven years after- 
 wards, as a remodification of it. 
 
 The new Order of African Architects owed 
 its existence to the Masonic zeal and lib- 
 eral views of that great monarch, Frederick 
 II. of Prussia, to whom, also, the now flour- 
 ishing Ancient and Accepted Rite traces its 
 origin. No monarch in the royal catalogue 
 of Europe ever was so intimately connected 
 with, or took so much interest in, Masonic 
 affairs as the illustrious King of Prussia. 
 He was to the modern Institution what 
 tradition says Solomon of Israel was to the 
 ancient ; and if his life had been prolonged 
 for a few more years, until the Masonic 
 orders which he had established and pat- 
 
AFRICAN 
 
 AFRICAN 
 
 39 
 
 ronized had acquired sufficient vigor for 
 self-support, and until the vast Masonic 
 designs which his wisdom and zeal had 
 initiated had gained permanent strength 
 through his influence, there can be little 
 doubt that the Order of African Architects 
 would now have been the ruling power of 
 the Masonic world. It would not, it is 
 true, have opposed the propagation of other 
 sects, nor interfered with the active and 
 dogmatic jurisdiction of supreme councils 
 or of Grand Lodges, for its favorite motto 
 was tolerance of all ; but by its intellectual 
 
 Eower, and by the direction which it would 
 ave given to Masonic studies, it would 
 have vastly elevated the character of the 
 Institution, and would have hastened that 
 millennium for which all Masonic students 
 are even now so fondly looking, when every 
 Lodge shall be an academy of science. 
 
 The memory of a society whose inten- 
 tions, although unfortunately frustrated by 
 adverse circumstances, wereso praiseworthy, 
 should never be allowed to pass into obli- 
 vion, but rather should be preserved for 
 imitation, and in some fortunate future for 
 resuscitation. Hence I flatter myself that 
 the present article, in which I shall endeavor 
 to give some details of its object and history, 
 will not be altogether without gratification 
 to the reader who takes any interest in the 
 subject of Masonic progress. In the eigh- 
 teenth century adventurous Masons sought 
 to build many temples after their own de- 
 vices, most of which have fallen into decay ; 
 but the Order of African Architects is a 
 block from the ruins which is well worthy 
 of preservation. 
 
 Frederick II., King of Prussia, who had 
 been initiated while a prince and in the 
 lifetime of his father, soon after he ascended 
 the throne, directed the attention of his 
 great and inquiring mind to the condition 
 of Freemasonry, for which, from his first 
 acquaintance with it, he had conceived a 
 strong attachment. He soon perceived 
 that it was no longer what it once had been, 
 what it was capable of being, and what it 
 was, in his opinion, intended to be. The 
 great minds in its bosom, who in the olden 
 time had devoted their attention to science 
 and philosophy, had passed away, and the 
 Masonic leaders, such as Hund and Knigge 
 and Rosa and Zinnendorf, were occupying 
 themselves in the manufacture of unmean- 
 ing degrees and the organization of rival 
 rites, in which a pompous ceremonial was 
 substituted for philosophical research. 
 
 Frederick, appreciating the capacity of 
 Freemasonry for a higher destiny, conceived 
 the plan of an interior order which might 
 assume the place and perform the functions 
 of a Masonic academy. The king com- 
 municated these ideas to several distin- 
 
 guished Masons, the most prominent of 
 whom were Dr. John Ernest Stahl and the 
 Counsellor Charles Frederick Koppen. To 
 them he intrusted the duty of carrying his 
 design of a Masonic reformation into effect. 
 
 Accordingly, in the year 1767, at Berlin, 
 Koppen, as the first Grand Master, assisted 
 by Stahl and several other men of letters, 
 established a new Masonic sect, order, or 
 rite — call it which you please — upon the 
 old and almost extinct society of African 
 Builders, whose name they preserved and 
 whose system they extended and perfected, 
 but whose character they entirely changed, 
 by such important modifications as gave to 
 the new Institution an original condition. 
 They formed a code of statutes in conformity 
 with the views of the king, and which were 
 therefore very different from those which 
 regulated the other Masonic bodies of the 
 same period. They commenced with the 
 declaration that the principles which 
 should govern them were to fear God, to 
 honor the king, to be prudent and discreet, 
 and to exercise universal tolerance towards 
 all other Masonic sects, but to affiliate with 
 none. Hence, when the Baron Hund, the 
 author and chief director of the widely 
 spread Rite of Strict Observance, whose in- 
 fluence had extended over so many con- 
 tending sects of German and French Ma- 
 sonry, sought to establish a union with the 
 growing Order of African Architects, they 
 peremptorily declined all his solicitations. 
 As long as the Order existed, it remained 
 independent of and unconnected with every 
 other. In fact, it carried its opposition to 
 any mingling with rival rites to such an ex- 
 tent that the Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, 
 when an applicant for admission into its 
 fold, was rejected simply because he had 
 formerly taken an active part in the con- 
 tentions of several of the Masonic sects. 
 
 The Order of African Architects made 
 the history of Freemasonry its peculiar 
 study. Its members were occupied with 
 profound researches into the nature and de- 
 sign of the Ancient Mysteries, in which they 
 found, as they supposed, the origin of our 
 Institution, and investigated the character 
 of all the secret societies which were in any 
 way assimilated to Freemasonry. They 
 also diligently cultivated the sciences, and 
 especially mathematics. At their meetings 
 they read essays on these various subjects, 
 and the members communicated to each 
 other the results of their investigations. 
 They published many important documents 
 on the subjects which they had discussed, 
 some of which are still extant, and have 
 afforded literary aid of great value to sub- 
 sequent Masonic writers. 
 
 Every year, during the life of King Fred- 
 erick, the Order bestowed a medal of the 
 
40 
 
 AFRICAN 
 
 AFRICAN 
 
 value of fifty ducats on the writer of the 
 best essay on the history of Masonry. 
 
 The receptions were always gratuitous, 
 notwithstanding which the Chapters always 
 relieved such members as became indigent 
 and in need of assistance. 
 
 The meetings were always of a scientific 
 or literary character, and in some of the 
 Chapters the proceedings were conducted in 
 the Latin language — a sufficient evidence 
 of the educated attainments of the members. 
 
 In their receptions of candidates they were 
 exceedingly rigorous, respecting neither 
 wealth nor rank nor political influence if 
 moral and intellectual qualifications were 
 wanting, an example of which has already 
 been given in the rejection of the Duke of 
 Brunswick alluded to above. 
 
 In their ceremonies they were very simple, 
 making no use of aprons, collars, or other 
 decorations. They looked more to the 
 spirit and intent of Masonry than to its 
 outward form. 
 
 Their epithet of "Africans" they de- 
 rived from the fact that in their studies of 
 Masonic history they commenced with 
 Egypt, in the mysteries of whose priest- 
 hood they believed that they had found 
 the origin of the modern Institution. 
 Hence one of their most popular works 
 was the " Crata Repoa ; or Initiations in 
 the Ancient Mysteries of the Egyptian 
 Priests," written by their founder and 
 Grand Master, the Counsellor Charles Fred- 
 erick Koppen ; a work which, published 
 first at Berlin in the year 1770, passed 
 through many editions and was subse- 
 
 auently translated into French, and was 
 eemed of so much importance as to be ed- 
 ited by Ragon as late as the year 1821. It 
 was a standard authority among the African 
 Architects. 
 
 Frederick the Great was very liberal to 
 this society, which, indeed, may well be 
 considered as the offspring of his genius. 
 A year after its organization he caused a 
 splendid building to be erected for its sole 
 use in Silesia, under the special superin- 
 tendence of his architect, the Herr Meil. 
 He endowed it with sufficient funds for the 
 establishment of a library, a museum of 
 natural history, and a chemical laboratory, 
 and supplied it with furniture in a style of 
 elegance that was worthy of the king and 
 the Order. In this library was amassed, 
 by the efforts of the members and the con- 
 tributions of friends, among whom the 
 most conspicuous was the Prince de Lich- 
 tenstein, of Vienna, a large collection of 
 manuscripts and rare works on Masonry 
 and the kindred sciences, which no other 
 Masonic society could equal in value. 
 
 While its royal protector lived the Order 
 was prosperous and of course popular, for 
 
 prosperity and popularity go together in 
 Masonry, as in all other mundane affairs. 
 But Frederick died in the year 1786, nine- 
 teen years after the first establishment of 
 the society, and in the following year the 
 Order of African Architects ceased to exist, 
 having not quite completed its second de- 
 cade. A Lodge, or, rather, Chapter, it is 
 true, is said to have continued to meet in 
 Berlin until the year 1806, but it exercised 
 no Masonic influence, and must, in all pro- 
 bability, have greatly deteriorated from the 
 character of the original foundation. 
 
 Such is the history of an institution 
 which, in its incipiency, gave every promise 
 of exerting a most wholesome influence on 
 the Masonic Order, and which, if it had 
 lasted to the present day, and had been 
 always controlled by intellectual leaders 
 like those who directed its early days, must 
 have contributed most powerfully and suc- 
 cessfully to the elevation of Freemasonry 
 throughout the world. 
 
 Of the esoteric or internal organization 
 of such a society, some account, however 
 meagre, cannot fail to be interesting to the 
 Masonic student. 
 
 G'adicke, in the fireimaurer - Lexicon, 
 quotes from a ritual of the Order — that, 
 namely, which was founded in 1756, and to 
 which the more recent Order of Frederick 
 succeeded — the following legendary account 
 of its origin, a legend certainly more curious 
 than authentic : 
 
 " When the number of builders in the 
 East was greatly reduced by the continued 
 prevalence of wars, they resolved to travel 
 into Europe, and there to form new estab- 
 lishments for themselves. Many of them 
 came into England with Prince Edward, 
 the sou of Henry III., and were soon after- 
 wards summoned from that kingdom into 
 Scotland by the Lord Stuart. Their estab- 
 lishment in Prussia occurred about the 
 Masonic year 2307. They were endowed 
 with lands, and received, besides, the privi- 
 lege of retaining the ancient usages of the 
 brotherhood which they had brought with 
 them, subject to the very proper restriction 
 that in all other respects they should con- 
 form to the ordinary laws and customs of 
 the country in which they happened to re- 
 side. Gradually they obtained the protec- 
 tion of several monarchs : in Sweden, that 
 of King Ing, about the year 1125 ; in Eng- 
 land, of Richard the lion-hearted, about 
 1190 ; in Ireland, of Henry II., the father 
 of Richard, in 1180; and finally, in Scot- 
 land, of Alexander III., who was contem- 
 porary with St. Louis, about the year 
 1284." 
 
 This legend could not, however, have 
 been admitted as veracious by the founders 
 of the second Order of African Architects, 
 
AFRICAN 
 
 AGAPJ3 
 
 41 
 
 whose history has been the subject of the 
 present article. They could have looked 
 upon it only as a symbolical adumbration 
 of the historic truth that Masonry came 
 originally from Egypt and the East, and 
 was gradually, and often by fortuitous cir- 
 cumstances, — among which the Crusades 
 played an important part, — extended and 
 ramified into the various countries of 
 Europe. 
 
 As the Order of African Architects pro- 
 fessed itself to be a Masonic organization, 
 all its instructions were of course based 
 upon the three fundamental degrees of 
 Ancient Craft Masonry. The degrees of 
 the Rite, for such it is clearly entitled to be 
 called, were eleven in number, divided into 
 two classes, designated as " Temples." The 
 first temple consisted simply of the three 
 degrees of Ancient Craft Masonry, but the 
 instructions in these three degrees were far 
 more extensive and historical than in any 
 other Rite, and were intended to prepare 
 the initiate for the profounder investiga- 
 tions into Masonic history which occupied 
 the higher degrees. It was not, indeed, 
 until the candidate had arrived at the 
 seventh degree that the veil of mystery as 
 to the real design of the institution was re- 
 moved. Until ne became the possessor of 
 that degree, he did not reap the full ad- 
 vantage of the researches of the Order. 
 The degrees were named and classified as 
 follows : 
 
 FIRST TEMPLE. 
 
 1. Apprentice. 
 
 2. Fellow Craft. 
 
 3. Master Mason. 
 
 SECOND TEMPLE. 
 
 4. Architect, or Apprentice of Egyptian 
 secrets. 
 
 5. Initiate into Egyptian secrets. 
 
 6. Cosmopolitan Brother. 
 
 7. Christian Philosopher. 
 
 8. Master of Egyptian secrets. 
 
 9. Squire of the Order. 
 
 10. Soldier of the Order. 
 
 11. Knight of the Order. 
 
 The last three were called superior de- 
 grees, and were conferred only as a second 
 or higher class, with great discrimination, 
 upon those who had proved their worthi- 
 ness of promotion. 
 
 The assemblies of the brethren were 
 called Chapters. The central or superin- 
 tending power was styled a Grand Chapter, 
 and it was governed by the following twelve 
 officers : 
 
 1. Grand Master. 
 
 2. Deputy Grand Master. 
 
 3. Senior Grand Warden. 
 
 F 
 
 4. Junior Grand Warden. 
 
 5. Drapier. 
 
 6. Almoner. 
 
 7. Tricoplerius, or Treasurer. 
 
 8. Graphiarius, or Secretary. 
 
 9. Seneschal. 
 
 10. Standard Bearer. 
 
 11. Marshal. 
 
 12. Conductor. 
 
 The African Architects were not the only 
 society which in the eighteenth century 
 sought to rescue Masonry from the impure 
 hands of the charlatans into which it had 
 well-nigh fallen. 
 
 African Brother. One of the de- 
 grees of the Rite of the Clerks of Strict 
 Observance. 
 
 African Brothers. One of the 
 titles given to the African Architects, which 
 see. 
 
 African Builders. See African 
 Architects. 
 
 African Lodges. See Negro Lodges. 
 
 Agapse. The agapse, or love-feasts, 
 were banquets held during the first three 
 centuries in the Christian Church. They 
 were called " love-feasts," because, after par- 
 taking of the Sacrament, they met, both rich 
 and poor, at a common feast — the former 
 furnishing the provisions, and the latter, 
 who had nothing, being relieved and re- 
 freshed by their more opulent brethren. 
 Tertullian {Apologia, cap. xxxix.,) thus 
 describes these banquets : " We do not sit 
 down before we have first offered up prayers 
 to God; we eat and drink only to satisfy 
 hunger and thirst, remembering still that 
 we are to worship God by night : we dis- 
 course as in the presence of God, knowing 
 that He hears us : then, after water to wash 
 our hands, and lights brought in, every one 
 is moved to sing some hymn to God, either 
 out of the Scripture, or, as he is able, of his 
 own composing. Prayer again concludes 
 our feast, and we depart, not to fight and 
 quarrel, or to abuse those we meet, but to 
 pursue the same care of modesty and chas- 
 tity, as men that have fed at a supper of 
 philosophy and discipline, rather than a 
 corporeal feast." 
 
 Dr. August Kestner, Professor of The- 
 ology, published in Vienna, in 1819, a 
 work in which he maintains that the agapae, 
 established at Rome by St. Clement, in the 
 reign of Domitian, were mysteries which 
 partook of a Masonic, symbolic, and reli- 
 gious character. 
 
 In the Rosicrucian degrees of Masonry 
 we find an imitation of these love-feasts of 
 the primitive Christians ; and the cere- 
 monies of the banquet in the degree of 
 Rose Croix of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite, especially as practised by French 
 
42 
 
 AGATE 
 
 AGE 
 
 Chapters, are arranged with reference to 
 the ancient agapae. Reghellini, indeed, 
 finds an analogy between the table-lodges 
 of modern Masonry and these love-feasts of 
 the primitive Christians. 
 
 Agate. A stone varying in color, but 
 of great hardness, being a variety of the 
 flint. The agate, in Hebrew "Q^, SHeBO, 
 was the centre stone of the third row in 
 the breastplate of the high-priest, and on it 
 was engraved the name of the tribe of 
 Naphtali. Agates often contain representa- 
 tions of leaves, mosses, etc., depicted by 
 the hand of nature. Some of the represen- 
 tations on these are exceedingly singular. 
 Thus, on one side of one in the possession 
 of Velchius was a half moon, and on the 
 other a star. Kirch er mentions one which 
 had a representation of an armed heroine ; 
 another, in the church of St. Mark in 
 Venice, which had a representation of a 
 king's head, crowned; and a third which 
 contained the letters I. N. R. I. In the 
 collections of antiquaries are also to be 
 found many gems of agate on which mys- 
 tical inscriptions have been engraved, the 
 significations of which are, for the most 
 part, no longer understood. 
 
 Agate, Stone of. Among the Ma- 
 sonic traditions is one which asserts that 
 the stone of foundation was formed of agate. 
 This, like everything connected with the 
 legend of the stone, is to be mystically in- 
 terpreted. In this view, agate is a symbol 
 of strength and beauty, a symbolism derived 
 from the peculiar character of the agate, 
 which is distinguished for its compact for- 
 mation and the ornamental character of its 
 surface. See Stone of Foundation. 
 
 Age, Iiawftll. One of the qualifica- 
 tions for candidates is that they shall be of 
 " lawful age." What that age must be is 
 not settled by any universal law or land- 
 mark of the Order. The Ancient Regula- 
 tions do not express any determinate num- 
 ber of years at the expiration of which a 
 candidate becomes legally entitled to apply 
 for admission. The language used is, that 
 he must be of " mature and discreet age." 
 But the usage of the Craft has differed in 
 various countries as to the construction of 
 the time when this period of maturity and 
 discretion is supposed to have arrived. The 
 sixth of the Regulations, adopted in 1G63, 
 prescribes that " no person shall be accepted 
 unless he be twenty-one years old or more ; " 
 but the subsequent Regulations are less ex- 
 plicit. At Frankfort-on-the-Main, the 
 age required is twenty ; in the Lodges of 
 Switzerland, it has been fixed at twenty- 
 one. The Grand Lodge of Hanover pre- 
 scribes the age of twenty-five, but permits 
 the son of a Mason to be admitted at eigh- 
 teen. The Grand Lodge of Hamburg de- 
 
 crees that the lawful age for initiation shall 
 be that which in any country has been 
 determined by the laws of the land to be 
 the age of majority. The Grand Orient of 
 France requires, the candidate to be twenty- 
 one, unless he be the son of a Mason who 
 has performed some important service to 
 the Order, or unless he be a young man 
 who has served six months in the army, 
 when the initiation may take place at 
 the age of eighteen. In Prussia the re- 
 quired age is twenty- five. In England 
 it is twenty-one, except in cases where 
 a dispensation has been granted for an ear- 
 lier age by the Grand or Provincial Grand 
 Master. In Ireland the age must be twenty- 
 one, except in cases of dispensation granted 
 by the Grand Master or Grand Lodge. In 
 the United States, the usage is general 
 that the candidate shall not be less than 
 twenty-one years of age at the time of his 
 initiation, and no dispensation can issue 
 for conferring the degrees at an earlier 
 period. 
 
 Age, Masonic. In all of the Masonic 
 Rites except the York, a mystical age is 
 appropriated to each degree, and the ini- 
 tiate who has received the degree is said to 
 be of such or such an age. Thus, the age 
 of an Entered Apprentice is said to be three 
 years ; that of a Fellow Craft, five ; and that 
 of a Master Mason, seven. These ages are 
 not arbitrarily selected, but have a refer- 
 ence to the mystical value of numbers and 
 their relation to the different degrees. 
 Thus, three is the symbol of peace and con- 
 cord, and has been called in the Pythago- 
 rean system the number of perfect har- 
 mony, and is appropriated to that degree, 
 which is the initiation into an Order whose 
 fundamental principles are harmony and 
 brotherly love. Five is the symbol of active 
 life, the union of the female principle two 
 and the male principle three, and refers in 
 this way to the active duties of man as a 
 denizen of the world, which constitutes the 
 symbolism of the Fellow Craft's degree ; 
 and seven, as a venerable and perfect num- 
 ber, is symbolic of that perfection which is 
 supposed to be attained in the Master's de- 
 gree. In a way similar to this, all the ages 
 of the other degrees are symbolically and 
 mystically explained. It has already been 
 said that this system does not prevail in 
 the York Rite. It is uncertain whether it 
 ever did and has been lost, or whether it is 
 a modern innovation on the symbolism of 
 Masonry invented for the later Rites. Some- 
 thing like it, however, is to be found in 
 the battery, which still exists in the York 
 Rite, and which, like the Masonic age, is 
 varied in the different degrees. See Bat- 
 tery. 
 
 The Masonic ages are — and it will thus 
 
AGLA 
 
 AGRIPPA 
 
 43 
 
 be seen that they are all mystic numbers — 
 3, 5, 7, 9, 15, 27, 63, 81. 
 
 Agla. One of the cabalistic names of 
 God, which is composed of the initials 
 of the words of the following sentence: 
 , JlX dS^S "Q J nnx, -A tah Gibor Lolam Adonai, 
 " thou art mighty forever, O Lord." This 
 name the Kabbalists arranged seven times 
 in the centre and the six points of two 
 interlacing triangles, which figure they 
 called the Shield of David, and they used it 
 as a talisman, believing that it would cure 
 wounds, extinguish fires, and perform other 
 wonders. See Shield of David. 
 
 Agnosias, Irenseus. This is sup- 
 posed by Kloss, (Bibliog., No. 2497,) to have 
 been a nom de plume of Gotthardus Arthu- 
 sius, a co-rector in the Gymnasium of 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main, and a writer of 
 some local celebrity in the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century. (See Ar thus ius.) Under 
 this assumed name of Irenseus Agnostus, 
 he published, between the years 1617 and 
 1620, many works on the subject of the 
 Rosicrucian Fraternity, which John Val- 
 entine Andrea had about that time estab- 
 lished in Germany. Among those works 
 were the Fortalicium Sciential, 1617 ; Cly- 
 peum Verilatis, 1618 ; Speculum Constantiw, 
 1618 ; Fans Oratioe, 1616 ; Prater non 
 Frater, 1619; Thesaurus Fidei, 1619; 
 Portus Tranquillitatis, 1620, and several 
 others of a similar character and equally 
 quaint title. 
 
 Agnus Dei. The Agnus Dei, Lamb 
 of God, also called the Paschal Lamb, or 
 the Lamb offered in the paschal sacrifice, is 
 one of the jewels of a Commandery of 
 Knights Templars in America, and is worn 
 by the Generalissimo. 
 
 The lamb is one of the earliest symbols 
 of Christ in the iconography of the Church, 
 and as such was a representation of the 
 Saviour, derived from that expression of 
 St. John the Baptist (John i. 28,) who, on 
 beholding Christ, exclaimed, " Behold the 
 Lamb of God." " Christ," says Didron, 
 (Christ. Iconog.,i. 318,) "shedding his blood 
 for our redemption, is the Lamb slain by 
 the children ol Israel, and with the blood 
 of which the houses to be preserved from 
 the wrath of God were marked with the 
 celestial tau. The Paschal Lamb eaten by 
 the Israelites on the night preceding their 
 departure from Egypt is the type of that 
 other divine Lamb of whom Christians are 
 to partake at Easter, in order thereby to 
 free themselves from the bondage in which 
 they are held by vice." 
 
 The earliest representation that is found 
 in Didron of the Agnus Dei is of the sixth 
 century, and consists of a lamb supporting 
 in his right foot a cross. In the eleventh 
 century we find a banneret attached to this 
 
 cross, and the lamb is then said to support 
 " the banner of the resurrection." This is 
 the modern form in which the Agnus Dei 
 is represented. 
 
 Agrippa, Henry Cornelius. 
 Henry Cornelius Agrippa, who was distin- 
 guished as one of the greatest of occult 
 philosophers, was born in the city of 
 Cologne, on the 14th of September, 1486. 
 He was descended from a noble family, and 
 was personally remarkable for his varied 
 talents and extensive genius. In early 
 youth, he acted as the secretary of the Empe- 
 ror Maximilian, and subsequently served in 
 the army of the same monarch in Italy, 
 where he received the honor of knighthood 
 for his gallant conduct in the field. He also 
 devoted himself to the study of law and 
 physic, and received from the university 
 the degree of doctorate in each of those 
 faculties. Of his literary attainments, he 
 gives an ample description in one of his 
 epistles, in which he says : 
 
 "I am tolerably well skilled in eight 
 languages, and so completely a master of 
 six, that I not only understand and speak 
 them, but can even make an elegant oration, 
 or dictate and translate in them. I have 
 also a pretty extensive knowledge in some 
 abstruse studies, and a general acquaintance 
 with the whole circle of sciences." 
 
 There is some vanity in this, but it must 
 be confessed that there was much learn- 
 ing to excuse the weakness. The temper 
 of Agrippa was variable and irascible, 
 and his disposition bold and independent. 
 Hence his pen was continually giving 
 offence, and he was repeatedly engaged in 
 difficulties with his contemporaries, and 
 more especially with the priests, who per- 
 secuted him with unrelenting rigor. He 
 travelled much, and visited France, Spain, 
 Italy, and England — sometimes engaged 
 in the delivery of philosophical lectures, 
 sometimes in public employments, and 
 sometimes in the profession of arms. 
 
 In 1509 he delivered lectures on Reuch- 
 lin's treatise, De Verbo Mirifico, which in- 
 volved him in a controversy with the Fran- 
 ciscans ; and he wrote a work on the Excel- 
 lence of Women, which also gave offence to 
 the ecclesiastics, in consequence of which 
 he was obliged to pass over into England, 
 where he wrote a commentary on St. Paul's 
 Epistles. He afterwards returned to Co- 
 logne, where he delivered lectures on di- 
 vinity. In 1515, we find him reading lec- 
 tures on Mercurius Trismegistus ; but his ill 
 fortune followed him, and he soon left that 
 city, his departure being, according to his 
 biographer, rather like a flight than a re- 
 treat. 
 
 In 1518 he was at Metz, where he was for 
 some time employed as a syndic and coun- 
 
u 
 
 AGRIPPA 
 
 AGRIPPA 
 
 sellor ; but, having refuted a popular notion, 
 that St. Anne had three husbands, and hav- 
 ing dared to defend an old woman who had 
 been accused of witchcraft, his old enemies, 
 the monks, once more renewed their ill 
 offices, and he was compelled to leave the 
 city of Metz, bequeathing to it, as his re- 
 venge, the character of being the step- 
 mother of all useful learning and virtue. 
 Thence he retired to Cologne in 1520, and 
 to Geneva in 1521, where poverty seems to 
 have pressed hardly upon him. 
 
 In 1524 he was at Lyons, in France, 
 where Francis I. bestowed a pension upon 
 him, and appointed him physician to the 
 king's mother ; an office, however, which he 
 lost in 1525, in consequence of twice giving 
 offence to his royal mistress. First, be- 
 cause he expressed his dislike at being em- 
 ployed by her in astrological calculations 
 concerning the affairs of France, an em- 
 ployment which he deemed derogatory to a 
 queen's physician ; and next, because, when 
 he did make those calculations, he inter- 
 preted the stars unfavorably for the king's 
 enterprises. Agrippa was not of a temper 
 to brook this dismissal with equanimity, 
 and accordingly we find him, in one of his 
 letters written at this time, denouncing the 
 queen mother for a most atrocious and per- 
 fidious sort of Jezebel — pro atrocissima et 
 perfida quadam Jezabela. 
 
 In 1528 he repaired to Antwerp, and the 
 year after received from Margaret of Aus- 
 tria, Governess of the low countries, the 
 appointment of historiographer to the em- 
 peror. The History of the Government of 
 Charles V. was his only contribution to the 
 duties of this office. Soon after Margaret 
 died, and Agrippa again came into collision 
 with his old ecclesiastical persecutors, 
 whose resentment was greatly excited by his 
 treatise On the Vanity of the Sciences, which , 
 he published in 1530, and another work 
 soon after, written On the Occult Philosophy. 
 His pension was discontinued, and in 1531 
 he was incarcerated in the prison at Brus- 
 sels. From this he was, however, soon 
 liberated, and after a few more adventures, 
 he finally retired to Grenoble, in France, 
 where he died in 1535; some writers say 
 in abject poverty, and in the public hospi- 
 tal, but this has been denied by Gabriel 
 Naude. 
 
 The treatise on occult philosophy is the 
 most important of the works of Agrippa, 
 and which has given to him the false repu- 
 tation of being a hermetic adept and a ma- 
 gician. Thus, Paulus Jovius says, that he 
 was always accompanied by a devil, in the 
 shape of a black dog, wearing a collar con- 
 taining some necromantic inscription, and 
 that when he was about to die he released 
 the dog with an imprecation, after which 
 
 the animal fled to the river Soane, into 
 which he leaped, and was never heard of 
 more. Martin del Rio says that when 
 Agrippa travelled, he used to pay his score 
 at the inns in money which at the time 
 appeared to be good, but in a few days 
 turned out to be pieces of horn or shell ; a 
 tale which reminds us of one of the stories 
 in the Arabian Nights. The same author 
 retails another apocryphal anecdote about 
 a student who, during Agrippa's temporary 
 absence, was strangled in the magician's 
 library by an irate demon, and into whose 
 dead body Agrippa, on his return, caused 
 the devil to enter, and walk several times 
 across the public square at Louvain, and 
 finally to drop dead, whereby the death 
 appeared to be a natural one, and suspicion 
 was thus averted from Agrippa. The truth 
 is, however, that the treatise on occult 
 philosophy was of so abstruse and mystical 
 a character, that the author found it neces- 
 sary to write a key to it, which he reserved 
 for his most intimate friends, and in which 
 he explained its esoteric meaning. 
 
 Masonic historians have very generally 
 attempted to connect Agrippa with that 
 Institution, or at least with cognate mystical 
 societies. Thus, G'adicke (Freimaurer- Lexi- 
 con) says : " A society for the cultivation of 
 the secret sciences, which he founded at 
 Paris, and which extended through Ger- 
 many, England, France, and Italy, was the 
 first ever established by a learned man, and 
 was the pattern and parent of all subse- 
 quent similar societies." 
 
 Lenning (Encyc. der Freimaurerei) also 
 states that "It is reported that Agrippa 
 established in Paris a secret society for the 
 practice of the abstruse sciences, which be- 
 came the basis of the many mystical asso- 
 ciations which have been since originated." 
 
 But a writer in the Monthly Review (Lon- 
 don, vol. xxv., anno 1798, p. 304,) is still 
 more explicit on this subject. His language 
 is as follows: "In the year 1510 Henry 
 Cornelius Agrippa came to London, and, 
 as appears by his correspondence, (Opus- 
 cula, t. ii., p. 1073, etc.,) he founded a secret 
 society for alchemical purposes, similar to 
 one which he had previously instituted at 
 Paris, in concert with Landolfo, Brixianus, 
 Xanthus, and other students at that uni- 
 versity. The members of these societies 
 did agree on private signs of recognition ; 
 and they founded, in various parts of Eu- 
 rope, corresponding associations for the 
 prosecution of the occult sciences. This 
 practice of initiation, or secret incorpora- 
 tion, thus and then first introduced, has 
 been handed down to our own times ; and 
 hence apparently the mysterious Eleusinian 
 confederacies now known as the Lodges of 
 Freemasonry." 
 
AGRIPPA 
 
 AHABATH 
 
 45 
 
 In 1856 there was published in London a 
 IAfe of Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim, 
 Doctor and Knight, commonly known as a 
 Magician. By Henry Morley. This is a 
 curious and trustworthy work, and con- 
 tains a good summary of Agrippa, and in- 
 teresting accounts of the times in which 
 he lived. 
 
 As Agrippa has, whether justly or not, 
 been thrown into a connection with Freema- 
 sonry, a brief view of his occult philosophy 
 may not be uninteresting. But it must be 
 always borne in mind, that this philosophy 
 was what he called it, " occulta philosophia, 
 
 — occult, hidden ; containing, like all the 
 science of the alchemists, more in its inmost 
 recesses than appears on its surface, and 
 that he himself, aware of its esoteric char- 
 acter, had written a key, by which his in- 
 timate friends might be able to interpret its 
 concealed meaning and enjoy its fruits. 
 Ragon ( Orthod. Mac, ch. xxviii.,) gives a 
 resume of the doctrines, from which the fol- 
 lowing is condensed : 
 
 Agrippa said that there were three worlds 
 
 — the elementary, the celestial, and the intel- 
 lectual, — each subordinate to the one above 
 it. It is possible to pass from the knowl- 
 edge of one world to that of another, and 
 even to the archetype itself. It is this scale 
 of ascent that constitutes what is called 
 Magism, a profound contemplation, em- 
 bracing nature, quality, substance, virtues, 
 similitudes, differences, the art of uniting, 
 separating, and compounding — in short, 
 the entire operations of the universe. It is 
 a sacred art, which must not be divulged, 
 and to whose reality and certainty the uni- 
 versal connection of all things testifies. 
 
 There are abstruse doctrines on the ele- 
 ments, of which each performed a particu- 
 lar function. Fire, isolated from all matter, 
 manifests upon it, however, its presence 
 and action ; earth is the support of the ele- 
 ments and the reservoir of the celestial in- 
 fluences ; water is the germ of all animals ; 
 and air is a vital spirit, which penetrates 
 all beings, and gives them consistency and 
 life. 
 
 There is a sublime, secret, and necessary 
 cause which leads to truth. 
 
 The world, the heavens, and the stars 
 have souls, which are in affinity with our 
 own. 
 
 The world lives, and has its organs and 
 its senses. This is the microcosm. 
 
 Imprecations are of efficacy in attaching 
 themselves to beings, and in modifying 
 them. 
 
 Names have a potential quality. Magic 
 has its language, which language is an 
 image of signatures, and hence the effect 
 of invocations, evocations, adjurations, con- 
 jurations, and other formulae. 
 
 Numbers are the first cause of the con- 
 nection of things. To each number is 
 attached a peculiar property — thus : Unity 
 is the beginning and end of all things, but 
 has no beginning nor end itself. God is 
 the monad. The binary is a bad number. 
 The ternary is the soul of the world. The 
 quaternary is the basis of all numbers. The 
 quinary is a powerful number ; it is effica- 
 cious against poisons and evil spirits. The 
 decade, or denary, is the completion of all 
 things. The intelligence of God is incor- 
 ruptible, eternal, present everywhere, influ- 
 encing everything. 
 
 The human spirit is corporeal, but its 
 substance is very subtile, and readily unites 
 with the universal spirit, the soul of the 
 world, which is in us. 
 
 This is some part of the occult philosophy 
 of Agrippa, who, however, has said, in ref- 
 erence to abstruse theories, almost, if not 
 altogether, unintelligible, like these, that 
 all that the books undertake to teach on 
 the subjects of magic, astrology, and alchemy 
 are false and deceptive, if they are under- 
 stood in the letter ; but that to appreciate 
 them, to draw any good out of them, we 
 must seek the mystic sense in which they 
 are enveloped ; a doctrine which applies to 
 Freemasonry, a3 well as to the hermetic 
 philosophy, and the truth of which is now 
 universally admitted by the learned. The 
 Freemason who expects to find in the ab- 
 struse writings of Agrippa anything directly 
 referring to his own Institution will be 
 greatly disappointed; but if he looks in 
 the pages of that profound thinker for 
 lessons of philosophy and ethics, which 
 have a common origin with those that are 
 taught in the Masonic system, his labor 
 will not have been in vain, and he will be 
 disposed to place the wise Cornelius in the 
 same category with Pythagoras, and many 
 other philosophers of the olden time, whom 
 the Craft have delighted to call their ancient 
 brethren, because, without being Free- 
 masons in outward form and ceremony, 
 they have always taught true Masonic doc- 
 trine. It is not, perhaps, inappropriate to 
 give to such unaffiliated teachers of the 
 true Masonic doctrine the title of " Un- 
 initiated Freemasons." 
 
 A lial»at ii Olam. Two Hebrew words 
 signifying eternal love. The name of a 
 prayer which was used by the Jews dispersed 
 over the whole Roman Empire during the 
 times of Christ. It was inserted by Der- 
 mott in his Ahiman Rezon, and copied into 
 several others, with the title of " A Prayer 
 repeated in the Royal Arch Lodge at Jeru- 
 salem." The prayer was most probably 
 adopted by Dermott, and the fictitious title 
 given to it of a " Royal Arch Prayer " in 
 consequence of the allusion in it to the 
 
46 
 
 AHIAH 
 
 AHIMAN 
 
 " holy, great, mighty, and terrible name of 
 God." 
 
 Ahiah. So spelled in the common ver- 
 sion of the Bible, (1 Kings iv. 3,) but, ac- 
 cording to the Hebrew orthography,the word 
 should be spelled and pronounced Achiah. 
 He and Elihoreph (or Elichoreph) were the 
 sopkerim, scribes or secretaries of King 
 Solomon. In the ritual of the 7th degree 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Rite, accord- 
 ing to the modern American ritual, these 
 personages are represented by the two 
 Wardens. 
 
 Aliiman Rezon. The title given to 
 their Book of Constitutions by that schism 
 from the Grand Lodge of England which 
 took place about the middle of the last cen- 
 tury, and which was known as the "Ancient 
 Masons," in contradistinction to the legiti- 
 mate Grand Lodge and its adherents, who 
 were called the "Moderns," and whose 
 code of laws was contained in Anderson's 
 work known as the Book of Constitutions. 
 The title is derived from three Hebrew 
 words, D'IIKj ahim, "brothers;" Jl^D* 
 manah, "to appoint," or "to select," (in 
 the sense of being placed in a peculiar 
 class, see Isaiah liii. 12 ;) and |2T% ratzon, 
 " the will, pleasure, or meaning ; " and 
 hence the combination of the three words 
 in the title, Ahiman Rezon, signifies " the 
 will of selected brethren " = the law of a 
 class or society of men who are chosen or 
 selected from the rest of the world as 
 brethren. This is the etymology that I 
 proposed many years ago, and I have seen 
 no good reason since for abandoning it. 
 Two other derivations, however, one ante- 
 cedent and the other subsequent to this, 
 have been suggested. Dr. Dalcho (Ahim. 
 Rez. of South Carolina, p. 159, 2d ed.,) derives 
 it from ahi, " a brother," manah, " to pre- 
 pare," and rezon," secret;" so that, as he says, 
 " Ahiman Rezon literally means the secrets 
 of a prepared brother." But the best mean- 
 ing of manah is that which conveys the 
 idea of being placed in or appointed to a 
 certain, exclusive class, as we find in Isaiah, 
 (liii. 12,) " he was numbered (nimenah) with 
 the transgressors," placed in that class, 
 being taken out of every other order of 
 men. And although rezon may come from 
 ratzon, "a will or law," it can hardly be 
 elicited by any rules of etymology out of 
 the Chaldee word raz, " a secret," the termi- 
 nation in on very deficient ; and besides the 
 book called the Ahiman Rezon does not 
 contain the secrets, but only the public 
 laws of Masonry. The derivation of Dalcho 
 seems therefore inadmissible. Not less so 
 is that of Bro. W. S. Rockwell, who (Ahim. 
 Rez. of Georgia, 1859, p. 3,) thinks the de- 
 rivation may be found in the Hebrew, 
 pDN, amun, "a builder" or "architect," 
 
 and |H, rezon, as a noun, "prince," and 
 as an adjective, " royal," and hence, Ahiman 
 Rezon, according to this etymology, will 
 signify the "royal builder," or, symboli- 
 cally, the "Freemason." But to derive 
 ahiman from amun, or rather amon, which 
 is the masoretic pronunciation, is to place 
 all known laws of etymology at defiance. 
 Rockwell himself, however, furnishes the 
 best argument against his strained deriva- 
 tion, when he admits that its correctness 
 will depend on the antiquity of the phrase, 
 which he acknowledges that he doubts. 
 In this, he is right. The phrase is alto- 
 gether a modern one, and has Dermott, the 
 author of the first work, bearing the title 
 for its invention. Rockwell's conjectural 
 derivation is, therefore, for this reason, still 
 more inadmissible than Dalcho's. 
 
 But the history of the origin of the book 
 is more important and more interesting 
 than the history of the derivation of its 
 title. 
 
 The close of the first quarter of the 
 eighteenth century found the Masons of the 
 south of England congregated under the 
 authority of a governing body at London, 
 whose title was the Grand Lodge of Free 
 and Accepted Masons of England. But 
 from causes, upon which it is here unneces- 
 sary to dwell, a schism soon afterwards took 
 place, and a portion of the brethren, having 
 seceded from the main body organized an 
 independent Grand Lodge. This they 
 called the Grand Lodge of Ancient York 
 Masons, and stigmatized the members of 
 the original body as " Moderns," by way of 
 insinuating that they themselves were of 
 the primitive or original stock, and that 
 their opponents were innovators of a later 
 birth. The former of these contending 
 bodies, the Grand Lodge of England, had, 
 in the year 1722, caused Dr. James An- 
 derson to collect and compile all the 
 statutes and regulations by which the Fra- 
 ternity had in former times been governed ; 
 and these, after having been submitted 
 to due revision, were published in 1723, 
 by Anderson, with the title of The Con- 
 stitutions of the Freemasons. This work, 
 of which several other editions subsequently 
 appeared, has always been called the Book 
 of Constitutions," and contains the foun- 
 dations of the written law by which the 
 Grand Lodge of England and the Lodges 
 deriving from it, both in that country and 
 in America, are governed. But when the 
 Ancient York Masons established their 
 schismatic Grand Lodge, they found it 
 necessary, also, to have a Book of Constitu- 
 tions ; and accordingly, Laurence Dermott, 
 who was at one time their Grand Secretary, 
 and afterwards their Deputy Grand Master, 
 compiled such a work, the first edition of 
 
AHIMAN 
 
 AHIMAN 
 
 47 
 
 which was published by James Bedford, at 
 London, in 1756, with the following title : 
 " Ahiman Rezon : or a Help to a Brother ; 
 showing the Excellency of Secrecy, and the 
 first cause or motive of the Institution of 
 Masonry; the Principles of the Craft; and 
 the Benefits from a strict Observance there- 
 of, etc., etc. ; also the Old and New Regula- 
 tions, etc. To which is added the greatest 
 collection of Masons' Songs, etc. By Bro. 
 Laurerice Dermott, Secretary." 8vo, 209 pp. 
 
 A second edition was published in 1764, 
 with this title : "Ahiman Rezon : or a Help 
 to all that are or would be Free and Ac- 
 cepted Masons; containing the Quintes- 
 sence of all that has been published on the 
 Subject of Freemasonry, with many Addi- 
 tions, which renders this Work more use- 
 ful than any other Book of Constitutions 
 now extant. By Lau. Dermott, Secretary." 
 London, 1764. 8vo, 224 pp. 
 
 A third edition was published in 1778, 
 with the following title: "Ahiman Rezon : 
 or a Help to all that are or would be Free 
 and Accepted Masons, (with many Addi- 
 tions. ) By Lau. Dermott, D.G.M. Printed 
 for James Jones, Grand Secretary; and 
 Sold by Peter Shatwell, in the Strand. 
 London, 1778." 8vo, 232 pp. 
 
 Five other editions were published : the 
 4th, whose date is unknown to me, but it 
 must have been in 1779 ; the 5th in 1780 ; 
 the 6th in 1800 ; the 7th in 1807 ; and the 
 8th in 1813. In this year, the Ancient 
 Grand Lodge was dissolved by the union 
 of the two Grand Lodges of England, and 
 a new Book of Constitutions having been 
 adopted for the united body, the Ahiman 
 Rezon became useless, and no subsequent 
 edition was ever published. 
 
 The earlier editions of this work are 
 among the rarest of Masonic publications. 
 Hence they are highly prized by collectors, 
 and I esteem myself fortunate in being the 
 possessor of exemplars of the second, third, 
 and seventh editions. 
 
 In the year 1855, Mr. Leon Hyneman, 
 of Philadelphia, who was engaged in a re- 
 print of old standard Masonic works, (an 
 enterprise which should have received bet- 
 ter patronage than it did,) republished the 
 second edition, with a few explanatory 
 notes. 
 
 As this book contains those principles of 
 Masonic law by which, for three-fourths of 
 a century, a large and intelligent portion 
 of the Craft were governed; and as it is 
 now becoming rare and, to the generality 
 of readers, inaccessible, some brief review 
 of its contents may not be uninteresting. 
 
 The Preface or Address to the Reader, 
 which is a long one, contains what pur- 
 ports to be a history of Masonry, whose 
 origin, under that name, Dermott places at 
 
 the building of Solomon's Temple. This 
 history, which after all is not worth much, 
 includes some very caustic remarks on the 
 revivers of Freemasonry in 1717, whose 
 Grand Lodge he calls " a self-created as- 
 sembly." 
 
 There is next a "Phylacteria for such 
 Gentlemen as may be inclined to become 
 Freemasons." This article, which was not 
 in the first edition, but appeared for the 
 first time in the second, consists of direc- 
 tions as to the method to be pursued by one 
 who desires to be made a Freemason. This 
 is followed by an account of what Dermott 
 calls " Modern Masonry," that is, the sys- 
 tem pursued by the original Grand Lodge 
 of England, and of the differences existing 
 between it and " Ancient Masonry," or the 
 system of the seceders. He contends that 
 there are material differences between the 
 two systems ; that of the Ancients being 
 universal, and that of the Moderns not; a 
 Modern being able with safety to communi- 
 cate all his secrets to an Ancient, while an 
 Ancient cannot communicate his to a 
 Modern ; a Modern being unable to enter an 
 Ancient Lodge, while an Ancient can 
 easily enter a Modern one ; all of which, in 
 his opinion, show that the Ancients have 
 secrets which are not in the possession of the 
 Moderns. This, he considers, a convincing 
 proof that the Modern Masons were innova- 
 tors upon the established system, and had in- 
 stituted their Lodges and framed their ritual 
 without a sufficient knowledge of the arcana 
 of the Craft. But the Modern Masons, with 
 more semblance of truth, thought that the 
 additional secrets of the Ancients were only 
 innovations that they had made upon the 
 true body of Masonry; and hence, they 
 considered their ignorance of these newly 
 invented secrets was the best evidence of 
 their own superior antiquity. 
 
 Dermott has next published the famous 
 Leland MS., together with the commen- 
 taries of Locke. A copy of the resolutions 
 adopted in 1772, by the Grand Lodges of 
 Ireland and Scotland, in which they recog- 
 nized the Grand Lodge of Ancients, con- 
 cludes the preface or introduction, which 
 in the third edition consists of 62 pages. 
 
 The Ahiman Rezon proper, then, begins 
 with 23 pages of an encomium on Masonry, 
 and an explanation of its principles. Many 
 a modern Masonic address is better written, 
 and contains more important and instruc- 
 tive matter than this prefatory discourse. 
 
 On the 27th page we find "The Old 
 Charges of the Free and Accepted Masons." 
 These Charges were first printed in Ander- 
 son's Constitutions, in 1723, and have always 
 been considered of the highest value as 
 Masonic law. Dermott's Charges are in- 
 terpolated and much altered, being a copy 
 
48 
 
 AHIMAN 
 
 AHIMAN 
 
 of those in Anderson's 1738 edition, and 
 are therefore deemed of no authority. 
 
 Fifty pages are next occupied with the 
 "General Regulations of the Free and 
 Accepted Masons." These are borrowed 
 from the second edition of Anderson, which 
 edition has never been in great repute. But 
 even here, Dermott's alterations and inno- 
 vations are so considerable as to render this 
 part of his work entirely untrustworthy as 
 an exponent of Masonic law. 
 
 The rest of the book, comprising more 
 than a hundred pages, consists of " A Col- 
 lection of Masonic Songs," of the poetical 
 merits of which the less said the better for 
 the literary reputation of the writers. 
 
 Imperfect, however, as was this work, it 
 for a long time constituted the statute book 
 of the " Ancient Masons ;" and hence those 
 Lodges in America which derived their 
 authority from the Dermott or Ancient 
 Grand Lodge of England, accepted its con- 
 tents as a true exposition of Masonic law ; 
 and several of their Grand Lodges caused 
 similar works to be compiled for their own 
 government, adopting the title of Ahiman 
 Rezon, which thus became the peculiar 
 designation of the volume which contained 
 the fundamental law of the "Ancients," 
 while the original title of Book of Con- 
 stitutions continued to be retained by the 
 "Moderns," to designate the volume used 
 by them for the same purpose. 
 
 Of the Ahiman Rezons compiled and 
 published in America, the following are the 
 principal. 
 
 1. " Ahiman Rezon abridged and digested : 
 as a help to all that are or would be Free and 
 Accepted Masons, etc. Published by order 
 of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania ; by 
 William Smith, D.D." Philadelphia, 1783. 
 A new Ahiman Rezon was published by 
 the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania in 1825. 
 
 2. " Charges and Regulations of the An- 
 cient and Honorable Society of Free and 
 Accepted Masons, extracted from the Ahi- 
 man Rezon, etc. Published by the consent 
 and direction of the Grand Lodge of Nova 
 Scotia." Halifax, 1786. 
 
 3. " The New Ahiman Rezon, containing 
 the Laws and Constitution of Virginia, etc. 
 By John K. Reade, present Deputy Grand 
 Master of Virginia, etc." Richmond, 1791. 
 Another edition was published in 1818, by 
 James Henderson. 
 
 4. "The Maryland Ahiman Rezon of 
 Free and Accepted Masons, containing the 
 History of Masonry from the establishment 
 of the Grand Lodge to the present time ; 
 with their Ancient Charges, Addresses, 
 Prayers, Lectures, Prologues, Epilogues, 
 Songs, etc., collected from the Old Records, 
 Faithful Traditions and Lodge Books ; by 
 G. Keating. Compiled by order of the 
 
 Grand Lodge of Maryland." Baltimore, 
 1797. 
 
 5. "The Ahiman Rezon and Masonic 
 Ritual, published by the order of the 
 Grand Lodge of North Carolina and Ten- 
 nessee." Newbern, N. C, 1805. 
 
 6. " An Ahiman Rezon, for the use of 
 the Grand Lodge of South Carolina, An- 
 cient York Masons, and the Lodges under 
 the Register and Masonic Jurisdiction 
 thereof. Compiled and arranged with con- 
 siderable additions, at the request of the 
 Grand Lodge, and published by their au- 
 thority. By Brother Frederick Dalcho, 
 M. D., etc." Charleston, S. C, 1807. A 
 second edition was published by the same 
 author, in 1822, and a third, in 1852, by 
 Dr. Albert G. Mackey. In this third edi- 
 tion, the title was changed to that of " The 
 Ahiman Rezon, or Book of Constitutions, 
 etc." And the work was in a great measure 
 expurgated of the peculiarities of Dermott, 
 and made to conform more closely to the 
 Andersonian Constitutions. A fourth edi- 
 tion was published by the same editor, in 
 1871, in which everything antagonistic to 
 the original Book of Constitutions has been 
 omitted. 
 
 7. " The Freemason's Library and Gen- 
 eral Ahiman Rezon : containing a delinea- 
 tion of the true principles of Freemasonry, 
 etc.; by Samuel Cole." Baltimore, 1817. 
 8vo, 332 + 92 pp. There was a second edi- 
 tion in 1826. 
 
 8. " Ahiman Rezon : prepared under the 
 direction of the Grand Lodge of Georgia ; 
 by Wm. S. Rockwell, Grand Master of 
 Masons of Georgia." Savannah, 1859. 
 4to and 8vo, 404 pp. But neither this 
 work nor the third and fourth editions of 
 the Ahiman Rezon of South Carolina have 
 any connection in principle or theory with 
 the Ahiman Rezon of Dermott. They have 
 borrowed the name from the "Ancient Ma- 
 sons," but they derive all their law and 
 their authorities from the "Moderns," or 
 the legal Masons of the last century. 
 
 9. "The General Ahiman Rezon and 
 Freemason's Guide, by Daniel Sickles." 
 New York, 1866. 8vo, pp. 408. This 
 book, like Rockwell's, has no other connec- 
 tion with the archetypal work of Dermott 
 but the name. 
 
 Many of the Grand Lodges of the United 
 States having derived their existence and 
 authority from the Dermott Grand Lodge, 
 the influence of his Ahiman Rezon was for 
 a long time exercised over the Lodges of 
 this country ; and, indeed, it is only within 
 a comparatively recent period, that the 
 true principles of Masonic law, as ex- 
 pounded in the first editions of Anderson's 
 Constitutions, have been universally adopted 
 among American Masons. 
 
AHIMAN 
 
 AHOLIAB 
 
 49 
 
 It must, however, be observed, in justice 
 to Dermott, who has been rather too grossly 
 abused by Mitchell and a few other writers, 
 that the innovations upon the old laws of 
 Masonry, which are to be found in the 
 Ahiman Rezon, are for the most part not to 
 be charged upon him, but upon Dr. Ander- 
 son himself, who, for the first time, intro- 
 duced them into the second edition of the 
 Book of Constitutions, published in 1738. 
 It is surprising, and accountable only on 
 the ground of sheer carelessness on the part 
 of the supervising committee, that the 
 Grand Lodge should, in 1738, have ap- 
 proved of these alterations made by Ander- 
 son, and still more surprising that it was 
 not until 1755 that a new or third edition 
 of the Constitutions should have been pub- 
 lished, in which these alterations of 1738 
 were expunged, and the old regulations 
 and the old language restored. But what- 
 ever may have been the causes of this over- 
 sight, it is not to be doubted that, at the 
 time of the schism, the edition of the Book 
 of Constitutions of 1738 was considered as 
 the authorized exponent of Masonic law 
 by the original or regular Grand Lodge of 
 England, and was adopted, with but little 
 change, by Dermott as the basis of his 
 Ahiman Rezon. How much this edition of 
 1738 differed from that of 1723, which is 
 now considered the only true authority for 
 ancient law, and how much it agreed with 
 Dermott's Ahiman Rezon, will be evident 
 from the following specimens of the first 
 of the Old Charges, correctly taken from 
 each of the three works: 
 
 First of the Old Charges in the Book of 
 Constitutions, edit., 1723. 
 
 "A Mason is obliged by his tenure to obey 
 the moral law ; and if he rightly understands 
 the Art, he will never be a stupid Atheist, 
 nor an irreligious libertine. But though in 
 ancient times Masons were charged, in 
 every country, to be of the religion of that 
 country or nation, whatever it was, yet it 
 is now thought more expedient only to 
 oblige them to that religion in which all men 
 agreed, leaving their particular opinions to 
 themselves ; that is to be good men and true, 
 or men of honor and honesty, by whatever 
 denominations or persuasions they may be 
 distinguished; whereby Masonry becomes 
 the centre of union, and the means of con- 
 ciliating true friendship among persons that 
 must have remained at a perpetual dis- 
 tance." 
 
 First of the Old Charges in the Book of 
 Constitutions, edit., 1738. 
 
 "A Mason is obliged by his tenure to ob- 
 serve the moral law, as a true Noachida; 
 and if he rightly understands the Graft, he 
 will never be a stupid Atheist, nor an irre- 
 ligious libertine, nor act against conscience. 
 G 4 
 
 " In ancient times, the Christian Masons 
 were charged to comply with the Christian 
 usages of each country where they travelled or 
 worked. But Masonry being found in all na- 
 lions,even of divers religions, they are now only 
 charged to adhere to that religion in which 
 all men agree, (leaving each brother to his 
 own particular opinions ;) that is, to be good 
 men and true, men of honor and honesty, 
 by whatever names, religions, or persuasions 
 they may be distinguished ; for they all 
 agree in the three great articles of Noah 
 enough to preserve the cement of the Lodge. 
 Thus, Masonry is the centre of their union, 
 and the happy means of conciliating per- 
 sons that otherwise must have remained at 
 a perpetual distance." 
 
 First of the Old Charges in Dermott's 
 Ahiman Rezon. 
 
 "A Mason is obliged by his tenure to ob- 
 serve the moral law, as a true Noachida ; 
 and if he rightly understands the Craft, he 
 will never be a stupid Atheist, nor an irre- 
 ligious libertine, nor act against conscience. 
 
 " In ancient times, the Christian Masons 
 were charged to comply with the Christian 
 usages of each country where they travelled 
 or worked; being found in all nations, even 
 of divers religions. 
 
 " They are generally charged to adhere to 
 that religion in which all men agree, (leav- 
 ing each brother to his own particular opi- 
 nions;) that is, to be good men and true, 
 men of honor and honesty, by whatever 
 names, religions, or persuasions they may be 
 distinguished ; for they all agree in the three 
 great articles of Noah enough to preserve the 
 cement of the Lodge. 
 
 " Thus, Masonry is the centre of their 
 union, and the happy means of conciliating 
 persons that otherwise must have remained 
 at a perpetual distance." 
 
 The italics in the second and third ex- 
 tracts will show what innovations Anderson 
 made, in 1738, on the Charges as origin- 
 ally published in 1723, and how closely 
 Dermott followed him in adopting these in- 
 novations. There is, in fact, much less dif- 
 ference between the Ahiman Rezon of Der- 
 mott, and Anderson's edition of the Book of 
 Constitutions, printed in 1738, than there 
 is between the latter and the first edition 
 of the Constitutions, printed in 1723. But 
 the great points of difference between the 
 " Ancients " and the " Moderns," points 
 which kept them apart for so many years, 
 are to be found in their work and ritual, 
 for an account of which the reader is re- 
 ferred to the article Ancients. 
 
 Aliisar. See Achishar. 
 
 Aholiab. A skilful artificer of the 
 tribe of Dan, who was appointed, together 
 with Bezaleel, to construct the tabernacle 
 in the wilderness and the ark of the cove- 
 
50 
 
 AHRIMAN 
 
 AID 
 
 nant. He is referred to in the Royal Arch de- 
 gree of the English and American systems. 
 
 Aliriman. The principle of evil in 
 the system of Zoroaster, and as such op- 
 posed to Ormuzd, the principle of good. 
 He emanated, pure, from the primitive 
 light, and was the second born — Ormuzd 
 being the first; but Ahriman, yielding to 
 pride, ambition, and hatred of the firstborn, 
 or principle of good, was condemned by the 
 Eternal to dwell for 12,000 years in that part 
 of space where no ray of light reaches, at 
 the end of which time the contest between 
 Light and Darkness, or Good and Evil, will 
 terminate. See Zoroaster. 
 
 Aiclimalotarch. The title given by 
 the Jews to the Prince of the Captivity, or 
 representative of the kings of Israel at 
 Babylon. See Prince of the Captivity. 
 
 Aid and Assistance. The duty of 
 aiding and assisting, not only all worthy 
 distressed Master Masons, but their widows 
 and orphans also, "wheresoever dispersed 
 over the face of the globe," is one of the 
 most important obligations that is imposed 
 upon every brother of the " mystic tie " by 
 the whole scope and tenor of the Masonic 
 Institution. The regulations for the exer- 
 cise of this duty are tew, but rational. In 
 the first place, a Master Mason who is in 
 distress has a greater claim, under equal 
 circumstances, to the aid and assistance of 
 his brother, than one who, being in the 
 Order, has not attained that degree, or who 
 is altogether a profane. This is strictly in 
 accordance with the natural instincts of the 
 human heart, which will always prefer a 
 friend to a stranger, or, as it is rather ener- 
 getically expressed in the language of Long 
 Tom Coflin, " a messmate before a shipmate, 
 a shipmate before a stranger, and a stranger 
 before a dog ; " and it is also strictly in ac- 
 cordance with the teaching of the Apostle 
 of the Gentiles, who has said: "As we have 
 opportunity, therefore, let us do good to all 
 men, especially unto them who are of the 
 household." 
 
 But this exclusiveness is only to be prac- 
 tised under circumstances which make a 
 selection imperatively necessary. Where 
 the grant of relief to the profane would in- 
 capacitate us from granting similar relief 
 to our brother, then must the preference be 
 given to him who is " of the household." 
 But the earliest symbolic lessons of the 
 ritual teach the Mason not to restrict his 
 benevolence within the narrow limits of the 
 Fraternity, but to acknowledge the claims 
 of all men, who need it, to assistance. In- 
 wood has beautifully said: "The humble 
 condition both of property and dress, of 
 penury and »want, in which you were re- 
 ceived into the Lodge, should make you at 
 all times sensible oftthe distresses of poverty, 
 
 and all you can spare from the call of na- 
 ture and the due care of your families, 
 should only remain in your possession as a 
 ready sacrifice to the necessities of an un- 
 fortunate, distressed brother. Let the dis- 
 tressed cottage feel the warmth of your 
 Masonic zeal, and, if possible, exceed even 
 the unabating ardor of Christian charity. 
 At your approach let the orphan cease to 
 weep, and in the sound of your voice let the 
 widow forget her sorrow." 
 
 Another restriction laid upon this duty 
 of aid and assistance by the obligations of 
 Masonry is, that the giver shall not be 
 lavish beyond his means in the disposition 
 of his benevolence. What he bestows 
 must be such as he can give " without ma- 
 terial injury to himself or family." No 
 man should wrong his wife or children that 
 he may do a benefit to a stranger, or even 
 to a brother. The obligations laid on a 
 Mason to grant aid and assistance to the 
 needy and distressed seem to be in the fol- 
 lowing gradations: first, to his family; 
 next, to his brethren; and, lastly, to the 
 world at large. 
 
 So far this subject has been viewed in a 
 general reference to that spirit of kindness 
 which should actuate all men, and which it 
 is the object of Masonic teaching to im- 
 press on the mind of every Mason as a 
 common duty of humanity, and whose dis- 
 position Masonry only seeks to direct and 
 guide. But there is another aspect in which 
 this subject may be considered, namely, 
 in that peculiar and technical one of Ma- 
 sonic aid and assistance due from one Ma- 
 son to another. Here there is a duty de- 
 clared, and a correlative right inferred ; for 
 if it is the duty of one Mason to assist 
 another, it follows that every Mason has 
 the right to claim that assistance from his 
 brother. It is this duty that the obliga- 
 tions of Masonry are especially intended to 
 enforce ; it is this right that they are in- 
 tended to sustain. The symbolic ritual of 
 Masonry which refers, as, for instance, in 
 the first degree, to the virtue of benevo- 
 lence, refers to it in the general sense of a 
 virtue which all men should practise. But 
 when the Mason reaches the third degree, 
 he discovers new obligations which restrict 
 and define the exercise of this duty of aid 
 and assistance. So far as his obligations 
 control him, the Mason, as a Mason, is not 
 legally bound to extend his aid beyond the 
 just claimants in his own Fraternity. To 
 do good to all men is of course inculcated 
 and recommended ; to do good to the house- 
 hold is enforced and made compulsory by 
 legal enactment and sanction. 
 
 Now, as there is here, on one side, a duty, 
 and on the other side a right, it is proper 
 to inquire what are the regulations or laws 
 
AID 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 
 
 51 
 
 by which this duty is controlled and this 
 right maintained. 
 
 The duty to grant and the right to claim' 
 relief Masonically is recognized in the fol- 
 lowing passage of the Old Charges of 
 1722: 
 
 " But if you discover him to be a true 
 and genuine brother, you are to respect 
 him accordingly ; and if he is in want, you 
 must relieve him if you can, or else direct 
 him how he may be relieved. You must 
 employ him some days, or else recommend 
 him to be employed. But you are not 
 charged to do beyond your ability; only to 
 prefer a poor brother, who is a good man 
 and true, before any other people in the 
 same circumstances." 
 
 This written law agrees in its conditions 
 and directions, so far as it goes, with the 
 unwritten law of the Order, and from the 
 two we may deduce the following principles : 
 
 1. The applicant must be a Master Ma- 
 son. In 1722, the charitable benefits of 
 Masonry were extended, it is true, to En- 
 tered Apprentices, and an Apprentice was 
 recognized, in the language of the law, as 
 "a true and genuine brother." But this 
 was because at that time only the first de- 
 gree was conferred in subordinate Lodges, 
 Fellow Crafts and Master Masons being 
 made in the Grand Lodge. Hence the 
 great mass of the Fraternity consisted of 
 Apprentices, and many Masons never pro- 
 ceeded any further. But the second and 
 third degrees are now always conferred in 
 subordinate Lodges, and very few initiates 
 voluntarily stop short of the Master's de- 
 gree. Hence the mass of the Fraternity 
 now consists of Master Masons, and the law 
 which formerly applied to Apprentices is, 
 under our present organization, made ap- 
 plicable only to those who have become 
 Master Masons. 
 
 2. The applicant must be worthy. We 
 are to presume that every Mason is " a good 
 man and true " until the Lodge which has 
 jurisdiction over him has pronounced to 
 the contrary. Every Mason who is "in 
 good standing," that is, who is a regularly 
 contributing member of a Lodge, is to be 
 considered as " worthy," in the technical 
 sense of the term. An expelled, a sus- 
 pended, or a non-affiliated Mason, does not 
 meet the required condition of "a regu- 
 larly contributing member." Such a Ma- 
 son is therefore not " worthy," and is not 
 entitled to Masonic assistance. 
 
 3. The giver is not expected to exceed 
 his ability in the amount of relief. The 
 written law says, " you are not charged to 
 do beyond your ability ; " the ritual says, 
 that your relief must be " without material 
 injury to yourself or family." The princi- 
 ple is the same in both. 
 
 4. The widow and orphans of a Master 
 Mason have the claim of the husband and 
 father extended to them. The written law 
 says nothing explicitly on this point, but 
 the unwritten or ritualistic law expressly 
 declares that it is our duty " to contribute 
 to the relief of a worthy, distressed brother, 
 his widow and orphans." 
 
 5. And lastly, in granting relief or assist- 
 ance, the Mason is to be preferred to the 
 profane. He must be placed " before any 
 other people in the same circumstances." 
 
 These are the laws which regulate the 
 doctrine of Masonic aid and assistance. 
 They are often charged by the enemies of 
 Masonry with a spirit of exclusiveness. 
 But it has been shown that they are in 
 accordance with the exhortation of the 
 Apostle, who would do good " especially to 
 those who are of the household," and they 
 have the warrant of the law of nature ; for 
 every one will be ready to say, with that 
 kindest-hearted of men, Charles Lamb, " I 
 can feel for all indifferently, but I cannot 
 feel for all alike. I can be a friend to a 
 worthy man, who, upon another account, 
 cannot be my mate or fellow. I cannot 
 like all people alike." And so as Masons, 
 while we should be charitable to all persons 
 in need or in distress, there are only certain 
 ones who can claim the aid and assistance 
 of the Order, or of its disciples, under the 
 positive sanction of Masonic law. 
 
 Aitcuesoit-IIaven Manuscript. 
 A manuscript record formerly preserved 
 in the archives of the Aitcheson-Haven 
 Lodge, which met at Musselburgh in Scot- 
 land, but which is now the property of the 
 Grand Lodge of Scotland. The MS. is en- 
 grossed in the minute-book of the Aitche- 
 son Lodge, and is dated 29th of May, A. D. 
 1666. It has never been published. In 
 Laurie's History of Freemasonry, (ed. 1859,) 
 there has been inserted " one narration of 
 the founding of the craft of Masonry, and 
 by whom it hath been cherished," which 
 Bro. D. Murray Lyon says is a modern and 
 somewhat imperfect rendering of the Ait- 
 cheson-Haven MS., and not, therefore, a 
 safe text to be followed. 
 
 Aix - la - Chapelle. (In German, 
 Aachen.) A city of Germany, remarkable 
 in Masonic history for a persecution which 
 took place in the eighteenth century, and of 
 which Gadicke (Freimaur. Lex.) gives the 
 following account. In the year 1779, Lud- 
 wig Grienemann, a Dominican monk, de- 
 livered a course of lenten sermons, in which 
 he attempted to prove that the Jews who 
 crucified Christ were Freemasons, that Pi- 
 late and Herod were Wardens in a Mason's 
 Lodge, that Judas, previous to his betrayal 
 of his Master, was initiated into the Order, 
 and that the thirty pieces of silver, which 
 
52 
 
 AKIROP 
 
 ALARM 
 
 he is said to have returned, was only the 
 fee which he paid for his initiation. Aix- 
 la-Chapelle being a Roman Catholic city, 
 the magistrates were induced, by the influ- 
 ence of Grienemann, to issue a decree, in 
 which they declared that any one who 
 should permit a meeting of the Freemasons 
 in his house should, for the first offence, be 
 fined 100 florins, for the second 200, and 
 for the third be banished from the city. 
 The mob became highly incensed against 
 the Masons, and insulted all whom they 
 suspected to be members of the Order. At 
 length Peter Schuff, a Capuchin, jealous of 
 the influence which the Dominican Grie- 
 nemann was exerting, began also, with 
 augmented fervor, to preach against Free- 
 masonry, and still more to excite the pop- 
 ular commotion. In this state of affairs, 
 the Lodge at Aix-la-Chapelle applied to 
 the princes and Masonic Lodges in the 
 neighboring territories for assistance and 
 protection, which were immediately ren- 
 dered. A letter in French was received 
 by both priests, in which the writer, who 
 stated that he was one of the former digni- 
 taries of the Order, strongly reminded 
 them of their duties, and, among other 
 things, said that " many priests, a pope, 
 several cardinals, bishops, and even Do- 
 minican and Capuchin monks, had been, 
 and still were, members of the Order." Al- 
 though this remonstrance had some effect, 
 peace was not altogether restored until the 
 neighboring free imperial states threatened 
 that they would prohibit the monks from 
 collecting alms in their territories unless 
 they ceased to excite the popular commo- 
 tion against the Freemasons. 
 
 Akirop. The name given, in the ritual 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Rite, to one 
 of the ruffians celebrated in the legend 
 of the third degree. The word is said in 
 the ritual to signify an assassin. It might 
 probably be derived from 3"lp, KaRaB, to 
 assault or join battle ; but is just as proba- 
 bly a word so corrupted by long oral trans- 
 mission that its etymology can no longer 
 be traced. See Abiram. 
 
 Alabama. One of the Southern 
 United States of America. Masonry was 
 established in this State in the beginning 
 of the nineteenth century. Mitchell, {Hist. 
 o/Freemas., i. 630,) whose accuracy is, how- 
 ever, not to be depended on, says that it 
 was planted, as he thinks, in this jurisdic- 
 tion by the Grand Lodge of Tennessee and 
 North Carolina. If he be so far right, we 
 must also add the Grand Lodge of South 
 Carolina, which, in 1819, granted a war- 
 rant to Claiborne Lodge No. 51, afterwards 
 called Alabama Lodge. In 1821, there 
 were at least nine Lodges in Alabama, 
 holding warrants under different jurisdic- 
 
 tions, viz. : Halo, 21 ; Rising Virtue, 30 ; 
 Madison, 21 ; Alabama, 21 ; Alabama, 51 ; 
 Farrar, 41 ; St. Stephens, — ; Moulton, 34 ; 
 and Russellville, 36. On the 11th of June, 
 1821, these nine Lodges met in convention 
 in the town of Cahawba, and organized the 
 Grand Lodge of Alabama on the 14th of 
 the same month ; Thomas W. Farrar having 
 been elected Grand Master, and Thomas A. 
 Rogers Grand Secretary. 
 
 The Grand Chapter of Alabama was 
 organized on the 2d of June, 1827, at the 
 town of Tuscaloosa, and at the same time 
 and place a Grand Council of Royal and 
 Select Masters was established. 
 
 On the 27th of October, 1860, Sir Knt. 
 B. B. French, Grand Master of the Grand 
 Encampment of the United States, issued 
 his mandate for the formation of a Grand 
 Commandery of Alabama. 
 
 Alapa. In classical Latinity given by 
 the master to his manumitted slave as a 
 symbol of manumission, and as a reminder 
 that it was the last unrequited indignity 
 which he was to receive. Hence, in medi- 
 aeval times, the same word was applied to 
 the blow inflicted on the cheek of the 
 newly-created knight by the sovereign 
 who created him with the same symbolic 
 signification. This was sometimes repre- 
 sented by the blow on the shoulder with 
 the flat of a sword, which has erroneously 
 been called the accolade. See Knighthood. 
 
 Alarm. The verb, " to alarm," signi- 
 fies, in Freemasonry, "to give notice of the 
 approach of some one desiring admission." 
 Thus, "to alarm the Lodge," is to inform 
 the Lodge that there is some one without 
 who is seeking entrance." As a noun, the 
 word "alarm" has two significations. 1. 
 An alarm is a warning given by the Tiler, or 
 other appropriate officer, by which he seeks 
 to communicate with the interior of the 
 Lodge or Chapter. In this sense the ex- 
 pression so often used, " an alarm at the 
 door," simply signifies that the officer out- 
 side has given notice of his desire to com- 
 municate with the Lodge. 2. An alarm is 
 also the peculiar mode in which this notice 
 is to be given. In modern Masonic works, 
 the number of knocks given in an alarm 
 is generally expressed by musical notes. 
 Thus, three distin ct knocks would be desig- 
 nated thus, J J J ; two rapid and two slow 
 ones thus, J # # # ; a nd th ree knoc ks three 
 
 times repeated thus, J J J J J J J J J. 
 etc. As to the derivation of the word,^a 
 writer in Notes and Queries (1 Ser. ii., 
 151,) ingeniously conjectures that it come3 
 from the old French d Varme, which in 
 modern times is aux amies, " to arms 1 " 
 The legal meaning of to alarm is not to 
 
ALBAN 
 
 ALCHEMY 
 
 53 
 
 frighten, but to make one aware of the 
 necessity of defence or protection. And 
 this is precisely the Masonic signification 
 of the word. 
 
 Alba 11, St. See Saint Alban. 
 
 Albert us Magnus. A scholastic 
 philosopher of the Middle Ages, of great 
 erudition, but who had among the vulgar 
 the reputation of being a magician. He 
 was born at Lauingen, in Swabia, in 1205, 
 of an illustrious family, his sub-title being 
 that of Count of Bollstadt. He studied 
 at Padua, and in 1223 entered the Order 
 of the Dominicans. In 1249, he became 
 head-master of the school at Cologne. In 
 1260, Pope Alexander VI. conferred upon 
 him the bishopric of Ratisbon. In 1262, 
 he resigned the episcopate and returned to 
 Cologne, and, devoting himself to philo- 
 sophic pursuits for the remainder of his life, 
 died there in 1280. His writings were very 
 voluminous, the edition published at Lyons, 
 in 1651, amounting to twenty-one large 
 folio volumes. Albertus has been con- 
 nected with the Operative Masonry of the 
 Middle Ages because he has been supposed 
 by many to have been the real inventor of 
 the German Gothic style of architecture. 
 HeidelofF, in his Bauhutle des Mittelalters, 
 says, that " he recalled into life the sym- 
 bolic language of the ancients, which had 
 so long lain dormant, and adapted it to suit 
 architectural forms." The Masons accepted 
 his instructions, and adopted in consequence 
 that system of symbols which were secretly 
 communicated only to the members of their 
 own body, and served even as a medium of 
 intercommunication. He is asserted to 
 have designed the plan for the construction 
 of the Cathedral of Cologne, and to have 
 altered the Constitution of the Masons, and 
 to have given to them a new set of laws. 
 
 Albrecht, Henry Christoph. A 
 German author, who published at Hamburg, 
 in 1792, the first and only part of a work en- 
 titled Materialen zu einer critischen Geschicte 
 der Freimaurerei, i. e., Collections towards a 
 Critical History of Freemasonry. Kloss 
 says that this was one of the first attempts 
 at a clear and rational history of the Order. 
 Unfortunately, the author never completed 
 his task, and only the first part of the work 
 ever appeared. Albrecht was the author 
 also of another work entitled, Geheime 
 Geschicte einers Rosenkreuzers, or Secret His- 
 tory of a Rosicrucian, and of a series of 
 papers which appeared in the Berlin Archiv. 
 derZeit, containing " Notices of Freemasonry 
 in the first half of the Sixteenth Century." 
 Albrecht adopted the theory first advanced 
 by the Abbe' Grandidier, that Freemasonry 
 owes its origin to the stone-masons of 
 Strasburg. 
 
 Alchemy. The Neo-Platonicians in- 
 
 troduced at an early period of the Chris- 
 tian era an apparently new science, which 
 they called micTtjiia lepd, or the Sacred 
 Science, which materially influenced the 
 subsequent condition of the arts and sci- 
 ences. The books from which the sacred 
 science was taught were called Chemia, 
 supposed to be derived from Cham, the son 
 of Noah, to whom was attributed its in- 
 vention. In the fifth century arose, as the 
 name of the science, alchemic, derived from 
 the Arabic definite article al being added 
 to chemia; and Julius Firmicius, in a work 
 On the Influence of the Stars upon the Fate 
 of Man, uses the phrase "scientia alche- 
 mise." From this time the study of al- 
 chemy was openly followed. In the Middle 
 Ages, and up to the end of the seventeenth 
 century, it was an important science, studied 
 by some of the most distinguished philoso- 
 
 ghers, such as Avicenna, Albertus Magnus, 
 Raymond Lulli, Roger Bacon, Elias Ash- 
 mole, and many others. 
 
 Alchemy — called also the Hermetic 
 Philosophy, because it is said to have been 
 first taught in Egypt by Hermes Trisme- 
 gestus — was engaged in three distinct pur- 
 suits: 
 
 1. The discovery of the philosopher's 
 stone, by which all the inferior metals 
 could be transmuted into gold. 
 
 2. The discovery of an alkahest, or uni- 
 versal solvent of all things. 
 
 3. The discovery of a panacea, or univer- 
 sal remedy, under the name of elixir vitse, 
 by which all diseases were to be cured and 
 life indefinitely prolonged. 
 
 It is not surprising that alchemy, putting 
 forth such pretensions as these, should, by 
 those who did not understand its true nature, 
 have been flippantly defined as " ars sine 
 arte, cujus principium est mentiri, medium 
 laborare et finis mendicari," an art without 
 an art, whose beginning is falsehood, its 
 middle labor, and its end beggary. But 
 while there were undoubtedly many fools 
 who understood the language of alchemy 
 only in its literal sense, and many charla- 
 tans who used it for selfish purposes, it 
 cannot be denied that there must have been 
 something in it better than mere pretension, 
 to invite the attention and engage the labors 
 of so many learned men. 
 
 Hitchcock, a learned American writer, 
 who published, in 1857, Remar/cs upon Al- 
 chemy and the Alchemists, says (p. x.) that 
 "the genuine alchemists were religious 
 men, who passed their time in legitimate 
 pursuits, earning an honest subsistence, 
 and, in religious contemplations, studying 
 how to realize in themselves the union of 
 the divine and human nature expressed in 
 man by an enlightened submission to God's 
 will ; and they thought out and published, 
 
54 
 
 ALDWORTH 
 
 ALDWORTH 
 
 after a manner of their own, a method of 
 attaining or entering upon this state, as 
 the only rest of the soul." And in another 
 place (p. 22) he says : " The subject of al- 
 chemy was Man; while the object was the 
 perfection of Man, which was supposed to 
 centre in a certain unity with the Divine 
 nature." 
 
 The alchemists were, in their philosophy, 
 undoubtedly in advance of their age, and, 
 being unwilling to make their opinions 
 openly known to a world not yet prepared 
 to receive and to appreciate them, they 
 communicated their thoughts to each other 
 in a language and in symbols understood 
 only by themselves. Thus they spoke of 
 Man as a Stone, and the fire which puri- 
 fied the Stone was the series of trials and 
 temptations by which man's moral nature 
 is to be purified. So, too, sulphur, mer- 
 cury, salt, and many other things, were 
 symbols by which they taught lessons of 
 profound religious import to the true adepts, 
 which, being misunderstood by others, led 
 thousands into the vain and useless search 
 for some tangible method of transmuting 
 the baser metals into gold. " Who," says 
 one of these philosophers, " is to blame ? 
 the Art, or those who seek it upon false 
 principles ? " 
 
 Freemasonry and alchemy have sought 
 thesame results, (the lesson of Divine Truth 
 and the doctrine of immortal life,) and they 
 have both sought it by the same method 
 of symbolism. It is not, therefore, strange 
 that in the eighteenth century, and per- 
 haps before, we find an incorporation of 
 much of the science of alchemy into that 
 of Freemasonry. Hermetic rites and Her- 
 metic degrees were common, and their 
 relics are still to be found existing in de- 
 grees which do not absolutely trace their 
 origin to -alchemy, but which show some 
 of its traces in their rituals. The 28th de- 
 gree of the Scottish Rite, or the Knight 
 of the Sun, is entirely a hermetic degree, 
 and claims its parentage in the title of 
 " Adept of Masonry," by which it is some- 
 times known. 
 
 Aldworth, the Hon. Mrs. This 
 lady received, about the year 1735, the first 
 and second degrees of Freemasonry in 
 Lodge No. 44, at Doneraile, in Ireland. 
 The circumstances connected with this sin- 
 gular initiation were first published in 1807, 
 at Cork, and subsequently republished by 
 Spencer, the celebrated Masonic bibliopole, 
 in London. It may be observed, before 
 proceeding to glean from this work the 
 narrative of her initiation, that the authen- 
 ticity of all the circumstances was con- 
 firmed on their first publication by an 
 eye-witness to the transaction. 
 The Hon. Elizabeth St. Leger was born 
 
 about the year 1713, and was the youngest 
 child and only daughter of the Eight Hon. 
 Arthur St. Leger, first Viscount Doneraile, 
 of Ireland, who died in 1727, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his eldest son, the brother of our 
 heroine. Subsequently to her initiation 
 into the mysteries of Freemasonry she 
 married Richard Aldworth, Esq., of New- 
 market, in the county of Cork. 
 
 Lodge No. 44, in which she was initiated, 
 was, in some sort, an aristocratic Lodge, 
 consisting principally of the gentry and 
 most respectable and wealthy inhabitants 
 of the country around Doneraile. The 
 communications were usually held in the 
 town, but during the Mastership of Lord 
 Doneraile, under whom his sister was ini- 
 tiated, the meetings were often held at his 
 Lordship's residence. 
 
 It was during one of these meetings at 
 Doneraile House* that this female initia- 
 tion took place, the story of which Spen- 
 cer, in the memoir to which we have 
 referred, relates in the following words : 
 
 "It happened on this particular occasion 
 that the Lodge was held in a room sepa- 
 rated from another, as is often the case, by 
 stud and brickwork. The young lady, being 
 giddy and thoughtless, and determined 
 to gratify her curiosity, made her arrange- 
 ments accordingly, and, with a pair of 
 scissors, (as she herself related to the mo- 
 ther of our informant,) removed a portion 
 of a brick from the wall, and placed her- 
 self so as to command a full view of every- 
 thing which occurred in the next room ; so 
 placed, she witnessed the two first degrees 
 in Masonry, which was the extent of the 
 proceedings of the Lodge on that night. 
 Becoming aware, from what she heard, 
 that the brethren were about to separate, 
 for the first time she felt tremblingly alive 
 to the awkwardness and danger of her sit- 
 uation, and began to consider how she 
 could retire without observation. She be- 
 came nervous and agitated, and nearly 
 fainted, but so far recovered herself as to 
 be fully aware of the necessity of with- 
 drawing as quickly as possible ; in the act 
 of doing so, being in the dark, she stum- 
 bled against and overthrew something, said 
 to be a chair or some ornamental piece of 
 furniture. The crash was loud ; and the 
 Tiler, who was on the lobby or landing on 
 which the doors both of the Lodge room 
 and that where the honorable Miss St. 
 Leger was, opened, gave the alarm, burst 
 open the door and, with a light in one 
 hand and a drawn sword in the other, ap- 
 
 * A writer in the London Freemason's Quar- 
 terly Review (1839, p. 322, ) says that she was con- 
 cealed in a clock-casein the regular Lodge room, 
 in Maberly's house of entertainment at York. 
 But the locus in quo is uot material 
 
ALETHOPHILE 
 
 ALFADER 
 
 55 
 
 f>eared to the now terrified and fainting 
 ady. He was soon joined by the members 
 of the Lodge present, and luckily ; for it is 
 asserted that but for the prompt appearance 
 of her brother, Lord Doneraile, and other 
 steady members, her life would have fallen 
 a sacrifice to what was then esteemed her 
 crime. The first care of his Lordship was 
 to resuscitate the unfortunate lady without 
 alarming the house, and endeavor to learn 
 from her an explanation of what had oc- 
 curred ; having done so, many of the mem- 
 bers being furious at the transaction, she 
 was placed under guard of the Tiler and a 
 member, in the room where she was found. 
 The members re-assembled and deliberated 
 as to what, under the circumstances, was 
 to be done, and over two long hours she 
 could hear the angry discussion and her 
 death deliberately proposed and seconded. 
 At length the good sense of the majority 
 succeeded in calming, in some measure, the 
 angry and irritated feelings of the rest of 
 the members, when, after much had been 
 said and many things proposed, it was re- 
 solved to give her the option of submitting 
 to the Masonic ordeal to the extent she had 
 witnessed, (Fellow Craft,) and if she re- 
 fused, the brethren were again to consult. 
 Being waited on to decide, Miss St. Leger, 
 exhausted and terrified by the storrainess 
 of the debate, which she could not avoid 
 partially hearing, and yet, notwithstanding 
 all, with a secret pleasure, gladly and un- 
 hesitatingly accepted the offer. She was 
 accordingly initiated." 
 
 Mrs., or, as she was appropriately called, 
 Sister Aldworth, lived many years after, 
 but does not seem ever to have forgotten 
 the lessons of charity and fraternal love 
 which she received on her unexpected ini- 
 tiation into the esoteric doctrines of the 
 Order. " Placed as she was," says the 
 memoir we have quoted, " by her marriage 
 with Mr. Aldworth, at the head of a very 
 large fortune, the poor in general, and the 
 Masonic poor in particular, had good rea- 
 son to record her numerous and bountiful 
 acts of kindness; nor were these accompa- 
 nied with ostentation — far from it. It has 
 been remarked of her, that her custom was 
 to seek out bashful misery and retiring 
 poverty, and with a well-directed liberality, 
 soothe many a bleeding heart." 
 
 Alethophile, Lover of Truth. The 5th 
 degree of the Order of African Architects. 
 
 Alexander I., Emperor of Russia. 
 Alexander I. succeeded Paul I. in the year 
 1801, and immedietely after his accession 
 renewed the severe prohibitions of his pre- 
 decessor against all secret societies, and 
 especially Freemasonry. In 1803, M. Boe- 
 ber, counsellor of state and director of the 
 military school at St. Petersburg, resolved 
 
 to remove, if possible, from the mind of 
 the emperor the prejudices which he had 
 conceived against the Order. Accordingly, 
 in an audience which he had solicited and 
 obtained, he described the objects of the 
 Institution and the doctrine of its mysteries 
 in such a way as to lead the emperor to 
 rescind the obnoxious decrees, and to add 
 these words : " What you have told me of 
 the Institution not only induces me to 
 grant it my protection and patronage, but 
 even to ask for initiation into its mysteries. 
 Is this possible to be obtained?" M. Boe- 
 ber replied, " Sire, I cannot myself reply 
 to the question. But I will call together 
 the Masons of your capital, and make your 
 Majesty's desire known; and I have no 
 doubt that they will be eager to comply 
 with your wishes." Accordingly Alexan- 
 der was soon after initiated, and the Grand 
 Lodge Astrea of Russia was in consequence 
 established, of which M. Boeber was elected 
 Grand Master. 
 
 Alexandria, School of. When 
 Alexander built the city of Alexandria in 
 Egypt, with the intention of making it the 
 seat of his empire, he invited thither learned 
 men from all nations, who brought with 
 them their peculiar notions. The Alex- 
 andria school of philosophy which was 
 thus established, by the commingling of 
 Orientalists, Jews, Egyptians, and Greeks, 
 became eclectic in character, and exhibited 
 a heterogeneous mixture of the opinions of 
 the Egyptian priests, of the Jewish Rabbis, 
 of Arabic teachers, and of the disciples of 
 Plato and Pythagoras. From this school 
 we derive Gnosticism and the Kabbala, 
 and, above all, the system of symbolism and 
 allegory which lay at the foundation of the 
 Masonic philosophy. To no ancient sect, 
 indeed, except perhaps the Pythagoreans, 
 have the Masonic teachers been so much 
 indebted for the substance of their doc- 
 trines, as well as the esoteric method of 
 communicating them, as to that of the 
 School of Alexandria. Both Aristobulus 
 and Philo, the two most celebrated chiefs 
 of this school, taught, although a century 
 intervened between their births, the same 
 theory, that the sacred writings of the He- 
 brews were, by their system of allegories, 
 the true source of all religious and philo- 
 sophic doctrine, the literal meaning of which 
 alone was for the common people, the eso- 
 teric or hidden meaning being kept for the 
 initiated. Freemasonry still carries into 
 practice the same theory. 
 
 Alfader. The chief god of the Scan- 
 dinavians. The Edda says that in Asgard, 
 or the abode of the gods, the supreme god 
 had twelve names, the first of which was 
 Alfader, equivalent to the Greek Pantopater, 
 or the Universal Father. 
 
56 
 
 ALGABIL 
 
 ALLOWED 
 
 Algabil. SaxJ^N. A name of the Su- 
 preme God, signifying THE BUILDER, 
 having an etymological relation to the 
 Giblim, or Builders of Gebal, who acted an 
 important part in the construction of the 
 Temple of Solomon. It is equivalent to 
 the Masonic epithet of God, " the Grand 
 Architect of the Universe." I insert this 
 word on the authority of Urquhart, who 
 gives it in his Pillars of Hercules, ii. 67. 
 
 Alincourt, Francois d'. A French 
 gentleman, who, in the year 1776, was sent 
 with Don Oyres de Ornellas Prarjao, a Por- 
 tuguese nobleman, to prison, by the gov- 
 ernor of the island of Madeira, for being 
 Freemasons. They were afterwards sent to 
 Lisbon, and confined in a common jail for 
 fourteen months, where they would have 
 perished had not the Masons of Lisbon 
 supported them, through whose interces- 
 sion with Don Martinio de Mello they were 
 at last released. Smith, Use and Abuse of 
 Freemasonry, p. 206. 
 
 Allegiance. Every Mason owes alle- 
 giance to the Lodge, Chapter, or other 
 body of which he is a member, and also to 
 the Grand Lodge, Grand Chapter or other 
 supreme authority from which that body 
 has received its charter. But this is 
 not a divided allegiance. If, for instance, 
 the edicts of a Grand and a Subordinate 
 Lodge conflict, there is no question which 
 is to be obeyed. Supreme or governing 
 bodies in Masonry claim and must receive 
 a paramount allegiance. 
 
 Allegory. A discourse or narrative 
 in which there is a literal and a figurative 
 sense, a patent and a connected meaning; 
 the literal or patent sense being intended, 
 by analogy or comparison, to indicate the 
 figurative or concealed one. Its derivation 
 from the Greek, aXXog and ayopsiv, to say 
 something different, that is, to say something 
 where the language is one thing and the 
 true meaning another, exactly expresses 
 the character of an allegory. It has been 
 said that there is no essential difference 
 between an allegory and a symbol. There 
 is not in design, but there is in their 
 character. An allegory may be interpreted 
 without any previous conventional agree- 
 ment, but a symbol cannot. Thus the 
 legend of the third degree is an allegory, 
 evidently to be interpreted as teaching a 
 restoration to life ; and this we learn from 
 the legend itself, without any previous un- 
 derstanding. The sprig of acacia is a sym- 
 bol of the immortality of the soul. But 
 this we know only because such meaning 
 had been conventionally determined when 
 the symbol was first established. It is evi- 
 dent, then, that an allegory whose meaning 
 is obscure is imperfect. The enigmatical 
 meaning should be easy of interpretation ; 
 
 and hence Lemiere, a French poet, has 
 said : " L'allegorie habite un palais dia- 
 phane," — Allegory lives in a transparent 
 palace. All the legends of Freemasonry 
 are more or less allegorical, and whatever 
 truth there may be in some of them in a 
 historical point of view, it is only as allegories 
 or legendary symbols that they are of import- 
 ance. The English lectures have therefore 
 very properly defined Freemasonry to be 
 "a system of morality veiled in allegory 
 and illustrated by symbols." 
 
 The allegory was a favorite figure among 
 the ancients, and to the allegorizing spirit 
 are we to trace the construction of the 
 entire Greek and Roman mythology. Not 
 less did it prevail among the older Aryan 
 nations, and its abundant use is exhibited 
 in the religions of Brahma and Zoroaster. 
 The Jewish Rabbins were greatly addicted 
 to it, and carried its employment, as Mai- 
 monides intimates, (More Nevochim, III., 
 xliii.,) sometimes to an excess. Their Mi- 
 drash, or system of commentaries on the 
 sacred book, is almost altogether allegorical. 
 Aben Ezra, a learned Rabbi of the twelfth 
 century, says, "The Scriptures are like 
 bodies, and allegories are like the garments 
 with which they are clothed. Some are 
 thin like fine silk, and others are coarse and 
 thick like sackcloth." Our Lord, to whom 
 this spirit of the Jewish teachers in his day 
 was familiar, inculcated many truths in 
 parables, all of which were allegories. The 
 primitive Fathers of the Christian Church 
 were thus infected; and Origen, (Epist. ad 
 Dam.,) who was especially addicted to the 
 habit, tells us that all the Pagan philoso- 
 phers should be read in this spirit: "hoc 
 facere solemus quando philosophos legi- 
 mus." Of modern allegorizing writers, the 
 most interesting to Masons are Lee, the 
 author of The Temple of Solomon por- 
 trayed by Scripture Light, and John Bun- 
 yan, who wrote Solomon's Temple Spirit- 
 ualized. 
 
 Allocution. The address of the pre- 
 siding officer of a Supreme Council of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Rite is some- 
 times so called. It was first used by the 
 Council for the Southern Jurisdiction of the 
 United States, and is derived from the 
 usage of the Roman Church, where certain 
 addresses of the Pope to the Cardinals are 
 called allocutions, and this is to be traced 
 to the customs of Pagan Rome, where the 
 harangues of the Generals to their soldiers 
 were called allocutions. 
 
 Allowed. In the old manuscript Con- 
 stitutions, this word is found in the now 
 unusual sense of" accepted." Thus, " Every 
 Mason of the Craft that is Mason allowed, 
 ye shall do to him as ye would be done unto 
 yourself." Mason allowed means Mason 
 
ALL-SEEING 
 
 ALMOND 
 
 57 
 
 accepted, that is, approved. Phillips, in his 
 New World of Words, (1690,) defines the 
 verb allow, "to give or grant; to ap- 
 prove of; to permit or suffer." Latimer, 
 in one of his sermons, uses it in this sense 
 of approving or accepting, thus: "St. 
 Peter, in forsaking his old boat and nets, 
 was allowed as much before God as if he 
 had forsaken all the riches in the world." 
 In a similar sense is the word used in the 
 Office of Public Baptism of Infants, in the 
 Common Prayer-Book of the Church of 
 England. 
 
 All-Seeing Eye. An important sym- 
 bol of the Supreme Being, borrowed by the 
 Freemasons from the nations of antiquity. 
 Both the Hebrews and the Egyptians ap- 
 pear to have derived its use from that 
 natural inclination of figurative minds to 
 select an organ as the symbol of the func- 
 tion which it is intended peculiarly to dis- 
 charge. Thus, the foot was often adopted 
 as the symbol of swiftness, the arm of 
 strength, and the hand of fidelity. On the 
 same principle, the open eye was selected as 
 the symbol of watchfulness, and the eye of 
 God as the symbol of divine watchfulness 
 and care of the universe. The use of the 
 symbol in this sense is repeatedly to be found 
 in the Hebrew writers. Thus, the Psalmist 
 says (Ps. xxxiv. 15) : " The eyes of the 
 Lord are upon the righteous, and his ears 
 are open to their cry," which explains a 
 subsequent passage, (Ps. cxxi. 4,) in which 
 it is said : " Behold, he that keepeth Israel 
 shall neither slumber nor sleep." 
 
 In the Apocryphal " Book of the Conver- 
 sation of God with Moses on Mount Sinai," 
 translated by the Rev. W. Cureton from an 
 Arabic MS. of the fifteenth century, and 
 published by the Philobiblon Society of 
 London, the idea of the eternal watchful- 
 ness of God is thus beautifully allegorized : 
 
 " Then Moses said to the Lord, O Lord, 
 dost thou sleep or not? The Lord said 
 unto Moses, I never sleep : but take a cup 
 and fill it with water. Then Moses took a 
 cup and filled it with water, as the Lord 
 commanded him. Then the Lord cast into 
 the heart of Moses the breath of slumber ; 
 so he slept, and the cup fell from his hand, 
 and the water which was therein was spilled. 
 Then Moses awoke from his sleep. Then 
 said God to Moses, I declare by my power, 
 and by my glory, that if I were to with- 
 draw my providence from the heavens and 
 the earth, for no longer a space of time 
 than thou hast slept, they would at once 
 fall to ruin and confusion, like as the cup 
 fell from thy hand." 
 
 On the same principle, the Egyptians 
 
 represented Osiris, their chief deity," by the 
 
 symbol of an open eye, and placed this 
 
 hieroglyphic of him in all their temples. 
 
 H 
 
 His symbolic name, on the monuments, was 
 represented by the eye accompanying a 
 throne, to which was sometimes added an 
 abbreviated figure of the god, and some- 
 times what has been called a hatchet, but 
 which, I consider, may as correctly be sup- 
 posed to be a representation of a square. 
 
 The All-Seeing Eye may then be con- 
 sidered as a symbol of God manifested in 
 his omnipresence — his guardian and pre- 
 serving character — to which Solomon al- 
 ludes in the Book of Proverbs (xv. 3), when 
 he says : " The eyes of Jehovah are in every 
 place, beholding (or, as it might be more 
 iaithfully translated, watching) the evil and 
 the good." It is a symbol of the Omni- 
 present Deity. 
 
 All-Souls 9 Day. The 2d of Novem- 
 ber. A festival in the Romish Church for 
 prayers in behalf of all the faithful dead. It 
 is kept as a feast day by Chapters of Rose 
 Croix. 
 
 Almanac, Masonic. Almanacs for 
 the special use of the Fraternity are annu- 
 ally published in many countries of Europe, 
 but the custom has not extended to Amer- 
 ica. As early as 1752, we find an Almanack 
 des Francs- Macons au Ecosse published at 
 the Hague. This, or a similar work, was 
 continued to be published annually at the 
 same place until the year 1778. The first 
 English work of the kind appeared in 1775, 
 under the title of " The Freemason's Cal- 
 endar, or an Almanac for the year 1775. 
 Containing, besides an accurate and useful 
 calendar of all remarkable occurrences for 
 the year, many useful and curious particu- 
 lars relating to Masonry. Inscribed to 
 Lord Petre, G. M., by a Society of Breth- 
 ren. London, printed for the Society of 
 Stationers." This work was without any 
 official authority, but two years after the 
 Freemason's Calendar for 1777 was pub- 
 lished " under the sanction of the Grand 
 Lodge of England." Works of this useful 
 kind continue to be annually published in 
 Great Britain and Ireland under the name 
 of Pocket Books, in Germany under that of 
 Taschenbiicher, and in France under that of 
 Calendriers. 
 
 Almighty. In Hebrew HP Sx, El 
 Shaddai. The name by which God was 
 known to the patriarchs before he an- 
 nounced himself to Moses by his tetra- 
 grammatonic name of Jehovah. (See 
 Exodus vi. 3.) It refers to his power and 
 might as the Creator and Ruler of the uni- 
 verse, and hence is translated in the Sep- 
 tuagint by navroKpaTup, and in the Vulgate 
 by omnipotens. 
 
 Almond-Tree. When it is said in 
 the passage of Scripture from the twelfth 
 chapter of Eccles., read during the ceremo- 
 nies of the third degree, " the almond-tree 
 
58 
 
 ALMONER 
 
 ALPHA 
 
 shall flourish," reference is made to the 
 white flowers of that tree, and the allegoric 
 signification is to old age, when the hairs 
 of the head shall become gray. 
 
 Almoner. An officer elected or ap- 
 pointed in the continental Lodges of Europe 
 to take charge of the contents of the alms- 
 box, to carry into effect the charitable reso- 
 lutions of the Lodge, and to visit sick and 
 needy brethren. A physician is usually 
 selected in preference to any other member 
 for this office. An almoner is to be also 
 found in some of the English Lodges, al- 
 though the office is not recognized by law. 
 In the United States the officer does not 
 exist, his duties being performed by a com- 
 mittee of charity. It is an important 
 office in all bodies of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 Alms-Box. A box which, towards 
 the close of the Lodge, is handed around 
 by an appropriate officer for the reception 
 of such donations for general objects of 
 charity as the brethren may feel disposed 
 to bestow. This laudable custom is very 
 generally practised in the Lodges of Eng- 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland, and univer- 
 sally in those of the Continent. The 
 newly-initiated candidate is expected to 
 contribute more liberally than the other 
 members. Bro. Hyde Clarke says (Lon. 
 Freem. Mag., 1859, p. 1166,) that "some 
 brethren are in the habit, on an occasion 
 of thanksgiving with them, to contribute 
 to the box of the Lodge more than on other 
 occasions." This custom has not been 
 adopted in the Lodges of America, except 
 in those of French origin and in those of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Rite. 
 
 Almsgiving. Although almsgiving, 
 or the pecuniary relief of the destitute, 
 was not one of the original objects for 
 which the Institution of Freemasonry was 
 established, yet, as in every society of men 
 bound together by a common tie, it becomes 
 incidentally, yet necessarily, a duty to be 
 practised by all its members in their indi- 
 vidual as well as in their corporate capacity. 
 In fact, this virtue is intimately interwoven 
 with the whole superstructure of the Insti- 
 tution, and its practice is a necessary corol- 
 lary from all its principles. At an early 
 period in his initiation the candidate is 
 instructed in the beauty of charity by the 
 most impressive ceremonies, which are not 
 easily to be forgotten, and which, with the 
 same benevolent design, are repeated from 
 time to time during his advancement to 
 higher degrees, in various forms and under 
 different circumstances. "The true Ma- 
 son," says Bro. Pike, " must be, and must 
 have a right to be, content with himself; 
 and he can be so only when he lives not 
 for himself alone, but for others who need 
 his assistance and have a claim upon his 
 
 sympathy." And the same eloquent writer 
 lays down this rule for a Mason's almsgiv- 
 ing: "Give, looking for nothing again, 
 without consideration of future advantages ; 
 give to children, to old men, to the un- 
 thankful, and the dying, and to those you 
 shall never see again ; for else your alms 
 or courtesy is not charity, but traffic and 
 merchandise. And omit not to relieve the 
 needs of your enemy and him who does 
 you injury." See Fxchisiveness, Masonic. 
 
 Alnwick Manuscript. This man- 
 uscript, which is now in the possession of 
 Bro. E. F. Turnbull of Alnwick, (Eng.,) is 
 written on twelve quarto pages as a preface 
 to the minute-book of the " Company and 
 Fellowship of Freemasons of a Lodge held 
 at Alnwick," where it appears under the 
 heading of "The Masons' Constitutions." 
 The date of the document is Sept. 20th, 
 1701, "being the general head-meeting 
 day." It was first published in 1871 in 
 Hughan's Masonic Sketches and Reprints, 
 (Amer. ed.,) and again in 1872 by the same 
 author in his Old Charges of the British 
 Freemasons. In the preface to this latter 
 work, Bro. Woodford says of the records of 
 this old Lodge that, " ranging from 1703 to 
 1757 they mostly refer to indentures, fines, 
 and initiations, the Lodge from first to last 
 remaining true to its operative origin. The 
 members were required annually to 'appear 
 at the Parish Church of Alnwick with 
 their approns on and common squares 
 aforesaid on St. John's Day in Christmas, 
 when a sermon was provided and preached 
 by some clergyman at their appointment.' 
 A. D. 1708." 
 
 Al-om-Jah. In the Egyptian mys- 
 teries, this is said to have been the name 
 given to the aspirant in the highest degree 
 as the secret name of the Supreme Being. 
 In its component parts we may recognize 
 the Sx, Al or El of the Hebrews, the Aum 
 or triliteral name of the Indian mysteries, 
 and the J"p Jah of the Syrians. 
 
 Aloyau, Societe de 1'. The word 
 Aloyau signifies, in French, a loin of beef 
 and hence the title of this society in Eng- 
 lish would be The Society of the Loin. It 
 was a Masonic association, which existed in 
 France for about fifteen years, until its 
 members were dispersed by the revolution. 
 They are said to have been in possession 
 of many valuable documents relating to the 
 Knights Templars and their successors. 
 See Temple, Order of the. 
 
 Alpha and Omega. The first and 
 last letters of the Greek language, referred 
 to in the Royal Master and some of the 
 higher degrees. They are explained by 
 this' passage in Revelations ch. xxii., v. 13. 
 " I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning 
 and the end, the first and the last." Alpha 
 
ALPHABET 
 
 and Omega is, therefore, one of the appella- 
 tions of God, equivalent to the beginning 
 and end of all things, and so referred to in 
 Isaiah xii. 4, " I am Jehovah, the first and 
 the last." 
 
 Alphabet. Angels'. In the old 
 rituals of the fourth or Secret Master's de- 
 gree of the Scottish and some other Rites, 
 we find this passage: "The seventy-two 
 names, like the name of the Divinity, are 
 to be taken to the Kabbalistic Tree and the 
 Angels' Alphabet." The Kabbalistic Tree 
 is a name given by the Kabbalists to the 
 arrangement of the ten Sephiroth, (which 
 see.) The Angels' Alphabet is called by the 
 Hebrews 0*3*7071 ZT\2, chetab hamalachim, 
 or the writing of the angels. Gaffarel says 
 {Curios. Inouis., ch. xiii. 2,) that the stars, 
 according to the opinion of the Hebrew 
 writers, are ranged in the heavens in the 
 form of letters, and that it is possible to 
 read there whatsoever of importance is to 
 happen throughout the universe. And the 
 great English Hermetic philosopher, Robert 
 Flud, says, in his Apology for the Brethren 
 of the Rosy Gross, that there are characters 
 in the heavens formed from the disposition 
 of the stars, just as geometric lines and 
 ordinary letters are formed from points ; and 
 he adds, that those to whom God has granted 
 the hidden knowledge of reading these 
 characters will also know not only what- 
 ever is to happen, but all the secrets of 
 philosophy. The letters thus arranged in 
 the form of stars are called the Angels' 
 Alphabet. They have the power and artic- 
 ulation but not the form of the Hebrew 
 letters, and the Kabbalists say that in them 
 Moses wrote the tables of the law. The 
 astrologers, and after them the alchemists, 
 made much use of this alphabet; and its in- 
 troduction into any of the high degree 
 rituals is an evidence of the influence ex- 
 erted on these degrees by the Hermetic 
 philosophy. Agrippa in his Occult Phil- 
 osophy, and Kircher in his (Edipus Egyp- 
 tiacus, and some other writers, have given 
 copies of this alphabet. It may also be 
 found in Johnson's Typographia. But it 
 is in the mystical books of the Kabbalists 
 that we must look for full instructions on 
 this subject. 
 
 Alphabet, Hebrew. Nearly all of 
 the significant words in the Masonic rituals 
 are of Hebrew origin, and in writing them 
 in the rituals the Hebrew letters are fre- 
 quently used. For convenience of reference, 
 that alphabet is here given. The Hebrews, 
 like other ancient nations, had no figures, 
 and therefore made use of the letters of 
 their alphabet instead of numbers, each 
 letter having a particular numerical value. 
 They are, therefore, affixed in the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 ALPINA 
 
 
 Aleph 
 Beth 
 
 N 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 B 
 
 2 
 
 Gimel 
 
 j 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 Daleth 
 
 n 
 
 D 
 
 4 
 
 He 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 Vau 
 
 i 
 
 VorO 
 
 6 
 
 Zain 
 
 r 
 
 Z 
 
 7 
 
 Cheth 
 
 n 
 
 CH 
 
 8 
 
 Teth 
 
 D 
 
 T 
 
 9 
 
 Yod 
 
 > 
 
 IorY 
 
 10 
 
 Caph 
 
 3 
 
 CorK 
 
 20 
 
 Lamed 
 
 •7 
 
 L 
 
 30 
 
 Mem 
 
 to 
 
 M 
 
 40 
 
 Nun 
 
 J 
 
 N 
 
 50 
 
 Samech 
 
 D 
 
 S 
 
 60 
 
 Ain 
 
 * 
 
 Guttural 
 
 70 
 
 Pe 
 
 P 
 
 80 
 
 Tsaddi 
 
 V 
 
 Tz 
 
 90 
 
 Koph 
 
 P 
 
 QorK 
 
 100 
 
 Resh 
 
 "1 
 
 R 
 
 200 
 
 Shin 
 
 w 
 
 SH 
 
 300 
 
 Tau 
 
 n 
 
 T 
 
 400 
 
 Final Caph 
 
 1 
 
 CorK 
 
 500 
 
 Final Mem 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 600 
 
 Final Nun 
 
 1 
 
 N 
 
 700 
 
 Final Pe 
 
 •1 
 
 P 
 
 800 
 
 Final Tsaddi 
 
 r 
 
 TZ 
 
 900 
 
 59 
 
 Alphabet, Masonic. See Cipher. 
 
 Alphabet, Samaritan. It is be- 
 lieved by scholars that, previous to the 
 captivity, the alphabet now called the Sa- 
 maritan was employed by the Jews in 
 transcribing the copies of the law, and that 
 it was not until their return from Babylon 
 that they adopted, instead of their ancient 
 characters, the Chaldee or square letters, 
 now called the Hebrew, in which the sacred 
 text, as restored by Ezra, was written. 
 Hence, in the more recent rituals of the 
 Scottish Rite, especially those used in the 
 United States, the Samaritan character is 
 beginning to be partially used. For conve- 
 nience of reference, it is therefore here in- 
 serted. The letters are the same in number 
 as the Hebrew, with the same power and the 
 same names, the only difference is in form. 
 
 Aleph .A^ Lamed £ 
 
 Beth 3 Mem ^J 
 
 Gimel *f Nun $ 
 
 Daleth *c^ Samech v$ 
 
 He 1? Ayin V 
 
 Vau K Pe p 
 
 Zam JV Tsade *fl 
 
 Cheth YV Koph p 
 
 Teth if Reach \ 
 
 Yod |\f Shin <\\ 
 
 Kaph £ Tau A 
 
 Alpina. In 1836, and some years after- 
 wards, General Assemblies of the MasonB 
 
60 
 
 ALTAR 
 
 ALTENBERG 
 
 of Switzerland were convened at Zurich, 
 Berne, and Basle, which resulted in the 
 union of the two Masonic authorities of 
 that confederation, under the name of the 
 Grand Lodge Alpina. The new Grand 
 Lodge was organized at Zurich, by fourteen 
 Lodges, on the 22d of June, 1844. 
 
 Altar. The most important article of 
 furniture in a Lodge room is undoubtedly 
 the altar. It is worth while, then, to in- 
 vestigate its character and its relation to 
 the altars of other religious institutions. 
 The definition of an altar is very simple. 
 It is a structure elevated above the ground, 
 and appropriated to some service connected 
 with worship, such as the offering of obla- 
 tions, sacrifices, or prayers. 
 
 Altars, among the ancients, were gener- 
 ally made of turf or stone. When perma- 
 nently erected and not on any sudden 
 emergency, they were generally built in 
 regular courses of masonry, and usually in 
 a cubical form. Altars were erected long 
 before temples. Thus, Noah is said to have 
 erected one as soon as he came forth from 
 the ark. Herodotus gives the Egyptians 
 the credit of being the first among the hea- 
 then nations who invented altars. 
 
 Among the ancients, both Jews and Gen- 
 tiles, altars were of two kinds — for incense 
 and for sacrifice. The latter were always 
 erected in the open air, outside and in front 
 of the Temple. Altars of incense only were 
 permitted within the Temple walls. Ani- 
 mals were slain, and offered on the altars 
 of burnt-offerings. On the altars of in- 
 cense, bloodless sacrifices were presented 
 and incense was burnt to the Deity. 
 
 The Masonic altar, which, like every- 
 thing else in Masonry, is symbolic, appears 
 to combine the character and uses of both 
 of these altars. It is an altar of sacrifice, 
 for on it the candidate is directed to lay his 
 passions and vices as an oblation to the 
 Deity, while he offers up the thoughts of a 
 pure heart as a fitting incense to the Grand 
 Architect of the Universe. The altar is, 
 therefore, the most holy place in a Lodge. 
 
 Among the ancients, the altar was always 
 invested with peculiar sanctity. Altars 
 were places of refuge, and the supplicants 
 who fled to them were considered as having 
 placed themselves under the protection of 
 the deity to whom the altar was conse- 
 crated, and to do violence even to slaves 
 and criminals at the altar, or to drag them 
 from it, was regarded as an act of violence 
 to the deity himself, and was hence a sacri- 
 legious crime. 
 
 The marriage covenant among the an- 
 cients was always solemnized at the altar, 
 and men were accustomed to make all their 
 solemn contracts and treaties by taking 
 oaths at altars. An oath taken or a vow 
 made at the altar was considered as more 
 
 solemn and binding than one assumed 
 under other circumstances. Hence, Han- 
 nibal's father brought him to the Cartha- 
 ginian altar when he was about to make 
 him swear eternal enmity to the Roman 
 power. 
 
 In all the religions of antiquity, it was 
 the usage of the priests and the people to 
 pass around the altar in the course of the 
 sun, that is to say, from the east, by the way 
 of the south, to the west, singing paeans or 
 hymns of praise as a part of their worship. 
 
 From all this we see that the altar in 
 Masonry is not merely a convenient article 
 of furniture, intended, like a table, to hold 
 a Bible. It is a sacred utensil of religion, 
 intended, like the altars of the ancient 
 temples, for religious uses, and thus iden- 
 tifying Masonry, by its necessary existence 
 in our Lodges, as a religious institution. 
 Its presence should also lead the contem- 
 plative Mason to view the ceremonies in 
 which it is employed with solemn reverence, 
 as being part of a really religious worship. 
 
 The situation of the altar in the French 
 and Scottish Rites is in front of the Wor- 
 shipful Master, and, therefore, in the East. 
 In the York Rite, the altar is placed in the 
 centre of the room, or more properly a 
 little to the East of the centre. 
 
 The form of a Masonic altar should be 
 a cube, about three feet high, and of cor- 
 responding proportions as to length and 
 width, having, in imitation of the Jewish 
 altar, four horns, one at each corner. The 
 Holy Bible with the Square and Compass 
 
 should be spread open upon it, while around 
 it are to be placed three lights. These 
 lights are to be in the East, West, and 
 South, and should be arranged as in the 
 annexed diagram. The stars show the 
 position of the light in the East, West, 
 and South. The black dot represents the 
 position North of the altar where there is 
 no light, because in Masonry the North is 
 the place of darkness. 
 
 Altenberg, Congress of. Alten- 
 berg is a small place in the Grand Dukedom 
 of Weimar, about two miles from the city of 
 Jena. In the month of June, 1764, the 
 notorious Johnson, or Leucht, who called 
 
ALTENBERG 
 
 AMENDMENT 
 
 61 
 
 himself the Grand Master of the Knights 
 Templars and the head of the Rite of 
 Strict Observance, assembled a Masonic 
 congress for the purpose of establishing 
 this Rite and its system of Templar Ma- 
 sonry. But he was denounced and expelled 
 by the Baron de Hund, who, having proved 
 Johnson to be an impostor and charlatan, 
 was himself proclaimed Grand Master of 
 the German Masons by the congress. See 
 Johnson and Hund; also Strict Observance, 
 Rite of. 
 
 Alitenberg, Lodge at. One of the 
 oldest Lodges in Germany is the Lodge of 
 " Archimedes at the Three Tracing Boards," 
 {Archimedes zu den drei Reissbrettern,) in 
 Altenberg. It was instituted January 31, 
 1742, by a deputation from Leipsic. In 
 1775 it joined the Grand Lodge of Berlin, 
 but in 1788 attached itself to the Eclectical 
 Union at Frankfort-on-the-Main, which 
 body it left in 1801, and established a direc- 
 tory of its own, and installed a Lodge at 
 Gera and another at Schnesberg. In the 
 year 1803 the Lodge published a Book of 
 Constitutions in a folio of 244 pages, a work 
 now rare, and which Lenning says is one 
 of the most valuable contributions to Ma- 
 sonic literature. In 1804 the Lodge struck 
 a medal upon the occasion of erecting a 
 new hall. In 1842 it celebrated its centen- 
 nial anniversary. 
 
 Amaranth. A plant well known to 
 the ancients, and whose Greek name signi- 
 fies "never withering." It is the Cehsia 
 criMata of the botanists. The dry nature 
 of the flowers causes them to retain their 
 freshness for a very long time, and Pliny 
 says, although incorrectly, that if thrown 
 into water they will bloom anew. Hence 
 it is a symbol of immortality, and was used 
 by the ancients in their funeral rites. It 
 is often placed on coffins at the present day 
 with a like symbolic meaning, and is hence 
 one of the decorations of a Sorrow Lodge. 
 
 Ainar-jali. Hebrew JT~"lON, God 
 spake; a significant word in the high de- 
 grees of the Ancient and Accepted Rite. 
 
 Amazons, Order of. Thory gives 
 this in his Nomenclature des Grades as an 
 androgynous degree practised in America. 
 I have no knowledge of it, and think that 
 Thory is in error. Ragon says ( Tuill. Gen., 
 89,) that it was created in the United States 
 in 1740, but met with no success. 
 
 Amen. The response to every Masonic 
 prayer is, "So mote it be: Amen." The 
 word Amen signifies in Hebrew verily, truly, 
 certainly. "Its proper place," says Gese- 
 nius, " is where one person confirms the 
 words of another, and adds his wish for 
 success to the other's vows." It is evident, 
 then, that it is the brethren of the Lodge, 
 and not the Master or Chaplain, who should 
 pronounce the word. It is a response to 
 
 the prayer. The Talmudists have many 
 superstitious notions in respect to this 
 word. Thus, in one treatise, ( Tiber Musar,) 
 it is said that whosoever pronounces it with 
 fixed attention and devotion, to him the 
 gates of Paradise will be opened ; and, 
 again, whosoever enunciates the word rap- 
 idly, his days shall pass rapidly away, and 
 whosoever dwells upon it, pronouncing it 
 distinctly and slowly, his life shall be pro- 
 longed. 
 
 Amendment. All amendments to 
 the by-laws of a Lodge must be submitted 
 to the Grand Lodge for its approval. 
 
 An amendment to a motion pending be- 
 fore a Lodge takes precedence of the orig- 
 inal motion, and the question must be put 
 upon the amendment first. If the amend- 
 ment be lost, then the question will be on 
 the motion ; if the amendment be adopted, 
 then the question will be on the original 
 motion as so amended; and if then this 
 question be lost, the whole motion falls to 
 the ground. 
 
 The principal Parliamentary rules in 
 relation to amendments which are appli- 
 cable to the business of a Masonic Lodge 
 are the following: 
 
 1. An amendment must be made in one 
 of three ways, — by adding or inserting cer- 
 tain words, by striking out certain words, 
 or by striking out certain words and insert- 
 ing others. 
 
 2. Every amendment is susceptible of an 
 amendment of itself, but there can be no 
 amendment of the amendment of an amend- 
 ment ; such a piling of questions one upon 
 another would tend to embarrass rather 
 than to facilitate business. "The object 
 which is proposed to be effected by such a 
 proceeding must be sought by rejecting the 
 amendment to the amendment, and then 
 submitting the proposition in the form of 
 an amendment of the first amendment in 
 the form desired." Cushing [Elem. Law 
 and Pract. Leg. Ass., §1306) illustrates this 
 as follows : " If a proposition consists of 
 AB, and it is proposed to amend by insert- 
 ing CD, it may be moved to amend the 
 amendment by inserting EF; but it cannot 
 be moved to amend this amendment, as, 
 for example, by inserting G. The only 
 mode by which this can be reached is to 
 reject the amendment in the form in which 
 it is presented, namely, to insert EF, and 
 to move it in the form in which it is desired 
 to be amended, namely, to insert EFG." 
 
 3. An amendment once rejected cannot 
 be again proposed. 
 
 4. An amendment to strike out certain 
 words having prevailed, a subsequent mo- 
 tion to restore them is out of order. 
 
 5. An amendmentmay be proposed which 
 will entirely change the character and sub- 
 stance of the original motion. The incon- 
 
62 
 
 AMERICAN 
 
 AMERICAN 
 
 sistency or incompatibility of a proposed 
 amendment with the proposition to be 
 amended, though an argument, perhaps, for 
 its rejection by the Lodge, is no reason for 
 its suppression by the presiding officer. 
 
 6. An amendment, before it has been pro- 
 posed to the body for discussion, may be 
 withdrawn by the mover ; but after it has 
 once been in possession of the Lodge, it can 
 only be withdrawn by leave of the Lodge. 
 In the Congress of the United States, leave 
 must be obtained by unanimous consent ; 
 but the usage in Masonic bodies is to re- 
 quire only a majority vote. 
 
 7. An amendment having been with- 
 drawn by the mover, may be again pro- 
 posed by another member. 
 
 8. Several amendments may be proposed 
 to a motion or several amendments to an 
 amendment, and the question will be put 
 on them in the order of their presentation. 
 But as an amendment takes precedence of 
 a motion, so an amendment to an amend- 
 ment takes precedence of the original 
 amendment. 
 
 9. An amendment does not require a 
 seconder, although an original motion al- 
 ways does. 
 
 There are many other rules relative to 
 amendments which prevail in Parliamen- 
 tary bodies, but these appear to be the only 
 ones which regulate this subject in Ma- 
 sonic assemblies. 
 
 American Mysteries. Among the 
 many evidences of a former state of civili- 
 zation among the aborigines of this country 
 which seem to prove their origin from the 
 races that inhabit the Eastern hemisphere, 
 not the least remarkable is the existence of 
 Fraternities bound by mystic ties, and claim- 
 ing, like the Freemasons, to possess an eso- 
 teric knowledge, which they carefully con- 
 ceal from all but the initiated. De Witt 
 Clinton relates, on the authority of a respec- 
 table native minister, who had received the 
 signs, the existence of such a society among 
 the Iroquois. The number of the members 
 was limited to fifteen, of whom six were to 
 be of the Seneca tribe, five of the Oneidas, 
 two of the Cayugas, and two of the St. Regis. 
 They claim that their institution has existed 
 from the era of the creation. The times of 
 their meeting they keep secret, and throw 
 much mystery over all their proceedings. 
 
 Brinton tells us in his interesting and 
 instructive work on The Myths of the New 
 
 World, (p. 285,) that among the red race 
 of America "the priests formed societies 
 of different grades of illumination, only to 
 be entered by those willing to undergo 
 trying ordeals, whose secrets were not 
 to be revealed under the severest penalties. 
 The Algonkins had three such grades — the 
 waubeno, the meda, and the jossakeed, the 
 
 last being the highest. To this no white 
 
 man was ever admitted. All tribes appear 
 to have been controlled by these secret so- 
 cieties. Alexander von Humboldt mentions 
 one, called that of the Botuto, orHoly Trum- 
 pet, among the Indians of the Orinoko, 
 whose members must vow celibacy, and 
 submit to severe scourgings and fasts. The 
 Collahuayas of Peru were a guild of itine- 
 rant quacks and magicians, who never re- 
 mained permanently in one spot." 
 
 American Rite. It has been pro- 
 posed, and I think with propriety, to give 
 this name to the series of degrees conferred 
 in the United States. The York Rite, which 
 is the name by which they are usually 
 designated, is certainly a misnomer, for the 
 York Rite properly consists of only the de- 
 grees of Entered Apprentice, Fellow Craft, 
 and Master Mason, including in the last 
 degree the Holy Royal Arch. This was the 
 Masonry that existed in England at the 
 time of the revival of the Grand Lodge in 
 1717. The abstraction of the Royal Arch 
 from the Master's degree, and its location as 
 a separate degree, produced that modifica- 
 tion of the York Rite which now exists in 
 England, and which should properly be 
 called the Modern York Rite, to distin- 
 guish it from the Ancient York Rite, which 
 consisted of only three degrees. But in the 
 United States still greater additions have 
 been made to the Rite, through the labors 
 of Webb and other lecturers, and the influ- 
 ence insensibly exerted on the Order by 
 the introduction of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Rite into this country. The Ameri- 
 can modification of the York Rite, or the 
 American Rite, consists of ninedegrees,viz. : 
 
 Given in Sym- 
 bolic Lodges, and 
 under the control 
 of Grand Lodges. 
 
 Given in Chap- 
 ters, and under the 
 control of Grand 
 Chapters. 
 
 (Given in Coun- 
 cils, and under the 
 control of Grand 
 Councils. 
 
 A tenth degree, called Super-Excellent 
 Master, is conferred in some Councils as an 
 honorary rather than as a regular degree ; 
 but even as such it is repudiated by many 
 Grand Councils. To these, perhaps, should 
 be added three more degrees, namely, 
 Knight of the Red Cross, Knight Temp- 
 lar, and Knight of Malta, which are given 
 in Commanderies, and are under the con- 
 trol of Grand Commanderies, or, as they are 
 sometimes called, Grand Encampments. 
 But the degrees of the Commandery, which 
 are also known as the degrees of Chivalry, 
 can hardly be called a part of the American 
 Rite. The" possession of the eighth and ninth 
 degrees is not considered a necessary quali- 
 
 1. Entered Apprentice. 
 
 2. Fellow Craft. 
 
 3. Master Mason. 
 
 Mark Master. 
 Past Master. 
 Most Excellent Master 
 Holy Royal Arch. 
 
 8. Royal Master. 
 
 9. Select Master. 
 
AMETH 
 
 ANACHRONISM 
 
 63 
 
 fication for receiving them. The true 
 American Rite consists only of the nine 
 degrees, above enumerated. 
 
 There is, or may be, a Grand Lodge, 
 Grand Chapter, Grand Council, and Grand 
 Commandery in each State, whose jurisdic- 
 tion is distinct and sovereign within its own 
 territory. There is no General Grand 
 Lodge, or Grand Lodge of the United States ; 
 but there is a General Grand Chapter and 
 a Grand Encampment, to which the Grand 
 Chapters and Grand Commanderies of 
 some, but not all, of the States are subject. 
 
 Amctll. Properly, Emeth, which see. 
 
 Amethyst* Hebrew noSnx, achkmah. 
 The ninth stone in the breastplate of the 
 high priest. On it was inscribed the tribe of 
 Gad. The amethyst is a stone in hardness 
 next to the diamond, and of a deep red and 
 blue color resembling the breast of a dove. 
 
 A in i c ists. Order of. A secret asso- 
 ciation of students, once very extensively 
 existing among the universities of Northern 
 Germany. Thory says that this association 
 was first established in the College of Cler- 
 mont, at Paris. An account of it was pub- 
 lished at Halle, in 1799, by F. C. Laukhard, 
 under the title of Der Mosellaner-oder Ami- 
 cistenorden nach seiner Enstehuny, inneren 
 Verfassung und Verbreitung. The Order 
 was finally suppressed by the imperial 
 government. 
 
 Amis Reunis, I,ojre des. The 
 Lodge of United Friends, founded at Paris 
 about 1 772, was distinguished for the talents 
 of many of its' members, among whom was 
 Savalette des Langes, and played for many 
 years an important part in the affairs of 
 French Masonry. In its bosom was origi- 
 nated, in 1773, the Rite of Philalethes. In 
 1785 it convoked the first Congress of Paris, 
 for the laudable purpose of endeavoring to 
 disentangle Freemasonry from the almost 
 inextricable confusion into which it had 
 fallen by the invention of so many rites 
 and new degrees. The Lodge was in pos- 
 session of a valuable library for the use of 
 its members, and had an excellent cabinet 
 of the physical and natural sciences. Upon 
 the death of Savalette, who was the soul of 
 the Lodge, it fell into decay, and its books, 
 manuscripts, and cabinet were scattered. 
 All of its library that was valuable was 
 transferred to the archives of the Mother 
 Lodge of the Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 Barruel gives a brilliant picture of the con- 
 certs, balls, and suppers given by this 
 Lodge in its halcyon days, to which the 
 Cresuses of Masonry congregated, while a 
 few superior members were engaged, as he 
 says, in hatching political and revolution- 
 ary schemes, but really in plans for the ele- 
 vation of Masonry as a philosophic institu- 
 tion. 
 
 Amnion. See Amun. 
 
 Aminonitish War. A war to which 
 allusion is made in the Fellow Craft's 
 degree. The Ammonites were the de- 
 scendants of the younger son of Lot, and 
 dwelt east of the river Jordan, but origi- 
 nally formed no part of the land of Canaan, 
 the Israelites having been directed not to 
 molest them for the sake of their great pro- 
 genitor, the nephew of Abraham. But in 
 the time of Jephthah, their king having 
 charged the Israelites with taking away a 
 part of his territory, the Ammonites crossed 
 the river Jordan and made war upon the 
 Israelites. Jephthah defeated them with 
 great slaughter, and took an immense 
 amount of spoil. It was on account of 
 this spoil — in which they had no share — 
 that the Ephraimites rebelled against Jeph- 
 thah, and gave him battle. See Ephraim- 
 ites. 
 
 Amphibalns. See Saint Amphibalus. 
 
 Ample Form. When the Grand 
 Master is present at the opening or closing 
 of the Grand Lodge, it is said to be opened 
 or closed " in ample form." Any ceremony 
 performed by the Grand Master is said to 
 be done " in ample form ; " when per- 
 formed by the Deputy, it is said to be in 
 due form ; " and by any other temporarily 
 presiding officer, it is " in form." See 
 Form. 
 
 Amulet. See Talisman. 
 
 Amun. The supreme god among the 
 Egyptians. He was a concealed god, and 
 is styled "the Celestial Lord who sheds 
 light on hidden things." From him all 
 things emanated, though he created noth- 
 ing. He corresponded with the Jove of 
 the Greeks, and, consequently, with the 
 Jehovah of the Jews. His symbol was a 
 ram, which animal was sacred to him. On 
 the monuments he is represented with a 
 human face and limbs free, having two tall 
 straight feathers on his head, issuing from 
 a red cap ; in front of the plumes a disc is 
 sometimes seen. His body is colored a deep 
 blue. He is sometimes, however, repre- 
 sented with the head of a ram, and the 
 Greek and Roman writers in general agree 
 in describing him as being ram-headed. 
 There is some confusion on this point. 
 Kenrick says that Nouf was, in the major- 
 ity of instances, the ram-headed god of the 
 Egyptians ; but he admits that Amun may 
 have been sometimes so represented. 
 
 Anachronism. Ritual makers, espe- 
 cially when they have been ignorant and 
 uneducated, have often committed ana- 
 chronisms by the introduction into Ma- 
 sonic ceremonies of matters entirely out 
 of time. Thus, the use of a bell to indi- 
 cate the hour of the night, practised in the 
 third degree ; the placing of a celestial and 
 
64 
 
 ANAGRAM 
 
 ANCHOR 
 
 a terrestrial globe on the summit of the 
 pillars of the porch, in the second degree ; 
 and quotations from the New Testament 
 and references to the teachings of Christ, 
 in the Mark degree, are all anachronisms. 
 But, although it were to be wished that 
 these disturbances of the order of time had 
 been avoided, the fault is not really of 
 much importance. The object of the rit- 
 ualist was simply to convey an idea, and 
 this he has done in the way which he sup- 
 posed would be most readily comprehended 
 by those for whom the ritual was made. 
 The idea itself is old, although the mode 
 of conveying it may be new. Thus, the 
 bell is used to indicate a specific point of 
 time, the globes to symbolize the univer- 
 sality of Masonry, and passages from the 
 New Testament to inculcate the practice 
 of duties whose obligations are older than 
 Christianity. 
 
 Anagram. The manufacture of ana- 
 grams out of proper names or other words 
 has always been a favorite exercise, some- 
 times to pay a compliment, — as when Dr. 
 Burney made Honor est a Nilo out of Hora- 
 tio Nelson, — and sometimes for purposes 
 of secrecy, as when Roger Bacon concealed 
 under an anagram one of the ingredients 
 in his recipe for gunpowder, that the world 
 might not too easily become acquainted 
 with the composition of so dangerous a 
 material. The same method was adopted 
 by the adherents of the house of Stuart 
 when they manufactured their system of 
 high degrees as a political engine, and thus, 
 under an anagrammatic form, they made 
 many words to designate their friends or, 
 principally, their enemies of the opposite 
 party. Most of these words it has now 
 become impossible to restore to their orig- 
 inal form, but several are readily decipher- 
 able. Thus, among the Assassins of the 
 third degree, who symbolized, with them, 
 the foes of the monarchy, we recognize 
 Romvel as Cromwell, and Hoben as Bohun, 
 Earl of Essex. It is only thus that we can 
 ever hope to trace the origin of such words 
 in the high degrees as Tercy, Stolkin, Mor- 
 phey, etc. To look for them in any Hebrew 
 root would be a fruitless task. The deri- 
 vation of many of them, on account of the 
 obscurity of the persons to whom they 
 refer, is, perhaps, forever lost ; but of others 
 the research for their meaning may be more 
 successful. 
 
 Ananiah. The name of a learned 
 Egyptian, who is said to have introduced 
 the Order of Mizraim from Egypt into 
 Italy. Dr. Oliver (Landm., ii. 75,) states 
 the tradition, but doubts its authenticity. It 
 is in all probability apocryphal. See Miz- 
 raim, Rite of. 
 
 Anchor and Ark. The anchor, as a 
 symbol of hope, does not appear to have 
 belonged to the ancient and classic system 
 of symbolism. The Goddess Spes, or Hope, 
 was among the ancients represented in the 
 form of an erect woman, holding the skirts 
 of her garments in her left hand, and in 
 her right a flower-shaped cup. As an em- 
 blem of hope, the anchor is peculiarly a 
 Christian, and thence a Masonic, symbol. 
 It is first found inscribed on the tombs in 
 the catacombs of Rome, and the idea of 
 using it is probably derived from the lan- 
 guage of St. Paul, (Heb. vi. 19,) " which 
 hope we have as an anchor 
 of the soul both sure and 
 steadfast." The primitive 
 Christians "looked upon 
 life as a stormy voyage, 
 and glad were the voy- 
 agers when it was done, 
 and they had arrived safe in port. Of this 
 the anchor was a symbol, and when their 
 brethren carved it over the tomb, it was to 
 them an expression of confidence that he 
 who slept beneath had reached the haven 
 of eternal rest." (Kip, Catacombs of Rome, 
 p. 112.) The strict identity between this 
 and the Masonic idea of the symbol will be 
 at once observed. 
 
 " The anchor," says Mrs. Jameson, (Sac. 
 and Legend, Art. I., 34,) "is the Christian 
 symbol of immovable firmness, hope, and 
 patience; and we find it very frequently 
 in the catacombs and on the ancient Chris- 
 tian gems." It is the peculiar attribute of 
 St. Clement, and is often inscribed on 
 churches dedicated to him. 
 
 But there is a necessary connection be- 
 tween an anchor and a ship, and hence, 
 the latter image has also been adopted as a 
 symbol of the voyage of life; but, unlike the 
 anchor, it was not confined to Christians, 
 but was with the heathens also a favorite 
 emblem of the close of life. Kip thinks 
 the idea may have been derived from them 
 by the Christian fathers, who gave it a more 
 elevated meaning. The ship is in Masonry 
 substituted by the ark. Mrs. Jameson says, 
 (ut supra,) that " the Ark of Noah floating 
 safe amid the deluge, in which all things 
 else were overwhelmed, was an obvious 
 symbol of the Church of Christ. . . . The 
 bark of St. Peter tossed in the storm, and 
 by the Redeemer guided safe to land, was 
 also considered as symbolical." 
 
 These symbolical views have been intro- 
 duced into Masonry, with, however, the 
 more extended application which the uni- 
 versal character of the Masonic religious 
 faith required. Hence, in the third degree, 
 whose teachings all relate to life and death, 
 " the ark and anchor are emblems of a 
 
ANCHOR 
 
 ANCIENT 
 
 65 
 
 well-grounded hope and a well-spent life. 
 They are emblematical of that divine ark 
 which safely wafts us over this tempestuous 
 sea of troubles, and that anchor which shall 
 safely moor us in a peaceful harbor where the 
 wicked cease from troubling and the weary 
 shall find rest." Such is the language of the 
 lecture of the third degree, and it gives 
 all the information that is required on the 
 esoteric meaning of these symbols. The 
 history I have added of their probable ori- 
 gin will no doubt be interesting to the Ma- 
 sonic student. 
 
 Anchor, Knight of the. See 
 Knight of the Anchor. 
 
 Anchor, Order of Knights and 
 Ladies of the. A system of androgy- 
 nous Masonry which arose in France in the 
 year 1745. It was a schism which sprang 
 out of the Order of Felicity, from which it 
 differed only in being somewhat more re- 
 fined, and in the adoption of other words 
 of recognition. Its existence was not more 
 durable than that of its predecessor. See 
 Felicity, Order of. 
 
 Ancient and Accepted Rite. 
 See Scottish Rite. 
 
 Ancient Craft Masonry. This is 
 the name given to the three symbolic de- 
 grees of Entered Apprentice, Fellow Craft, 
 and Master Mason. The degree of Eoyal 
 Arch is not generally included under this 
 appellation; although, when considered (as 
 it really is) a complement of the third de- 
 gree, it must of course constitute a part of 
 Ancient Craft Masonry. In the articles of 
 union between the two Grand Lodges of 
 England, adopted in 1813, it is declared 
 that " pure Ancient Masonry consists of 
 three degrees and no more ; viz. : those 
 of the Entered Apprentice, the Fellow 
 Craft, and the Master Mason, including 
 the Supreme Order of the Holy Eoyal 
 Arch." 
 
 Ancient Free and Accepted 
 Masons. The title most generally as- 
 sumed by the English and American Grand 
 Lodges. See Titles of Grand Lodges. 
 
 Ancient Masons. Ancients was the 
 name assumed by the schismatic body of 
 Masons who, in 1738, seceded from the 
 regular Grand Lodge of England, and who 
 at the same time insultingly bestowed upon 
 the adherents of that body the title of 
 Moderns. Thus Dermott, in his Ahiman 
 Eezon, (p. 63,) divides the Masons of Eng- 
 land into two classes, as follows : 
 
 " The Ancients, under the name of Free 
 and Accepted Masons. The Moderns, under 
 the name of Freemasons of England. And 
 though a similarity of names, yet they dif- 
 fer exceedingly in makings, ceremonies, 
 knowledge, Masonical language, and instal- 
 I 5 
 
 lations ; so much so, that they always have 
 been, and still continue to be, two dis- 
 tinct societies, directly independent of each 
 other." 
 
 To understand, therefore, anything of the 
 meaning of these two terms, we must be 
 acquainted with the history of the schism 
 of the self-styled Ancients from the legal 
 Grand Lodge of England. No Masonic 
 student should be ignorant of this history, 
 and I propose, therefore, to give a brief 
 sketch of it in the present article. 
 
 In the year 1738, a number of brethren 
 in London, having become dissatisfied with 
 certain transactions in the Grand Lodge of 
 England, separated themselves from the 
 regular Lodges, and began to hold meetings 
 and initiate candidates without the sanction 
 and authority of the Grand Lodge. Pres- 
 ton, who has given a good account of the 
 schism, does not, however, state the causes 
 which led to the dissatisfaction of the re- 
 cusant brethren. But Thory (Act. Lot., i. 
 36,) attributes it to the fact that the Grand 
 Lodge had introduced some innovations, 
 altering the rituals and suppressing many 
 of the ceremonies which had long been in 
 use. This is also the charge made by Dermott. 
 It is certain that changes were made, espe- 
 cially in some of the modes of recognition, 
 and these changes, it is believed, were in- 
 duced by the publication of a spurious 
 revelation by the notorious Samuel Prich- 
 ard. Preston himself acknowledges that 
 innovations took place, although he attri- 
 butes them to a time subsequent to the first 
 secession. 
 
 Just about this time some dissensions 
 had occurred between the Grand Lodge at 
 London and that at York, and the seceding 
 brethren, taking advantage of this condi- 
 tion of affairs, assumed, but without au- 
 thority from the Grand Lodge of York, the 
 name of Ancient York Masons. Matters 
 were, however, subsequently accommo- 
 dated ; but in the next year the difficulties 
 were renewed, and the Grand Lodge per- 
 sisting in its innovations and ritualistic 
 changes, the seceding brethren declared 
 themselves independent, and assumed the 
 appellation of Ancient Masons, to indicate 
 their adhesion to the ancient forms, while, 
 for a similar purpose, they denominated the 
 members of the regular Lodges, Modern 
 Masons, because, as was contended, they 
 had adopted new forms and usages. The 
 seceders established a new Grand Lodge in 
 London, and, under the claim that they 
 were governed by the Ancient York Con- 
 stitutions, which had been adopted at that 
 city in the year 926, they gained over many 
 influential persons in England, and were 
 even recognized by the Grand Lodges of 
 
66 
 
 ANCIENT 
 
 ANCIENT 
 
 Scotland and Ireland. The Ancient York 
 Lodges, as they were called, greatly in- 
 creased in England, and became so popular 
 in America that a majority of the Lodges 
 and provincial Grand Lodges established in 
 this country during the eighteenth century 
 derived their warrants from the Grand 
 Lodge of Ancient York Masons. In the 
 year 1756, Laurence Dermott, then Grand 
 Secretary, and subsequently the Deputy 
 Grand Master of the schismatic Grand 
 Lodge, published a Book of Constitutions 
 for the use of the Ancient Masons, under 
 the title of Ahiman Rezon, which work 
 went through several editions, and became 
 the code of Masonic law for all who ad- 
 hered, either in England or America, to the 
 Ancient York Grand Lodge, while the 
 Grand Lodge of Moderns, or the regular 
 Grand Lodge of England, and its ad- 
 herents, were governed by the regulations 
 contained in Anderson's Constitutions, the 
 first edition of which had been published 
 in 1723. 
 
 The dissensions between the two Grand 
 Lodges of England lasted until the year 
 1813, when, as will be hereafter seen, the 
 two bodies became consolidated under the 
 name and title of the United Grand Lodge 
 of Ancient Freemasons of England. Four 
 years afterwards a similar and final recon- 
 ciliation took place in America, by the 
 union of the two Grand Lodges in South 
 Carolina. At this day all distinction be- 
 tween the Ancients and Moderns has 
 ceased, and it lives only in the memory of 
 the Masonic student. 
 
 What were the precise differences in the 
 rituals of the Ancients and the Moderns, 
 it is now perhaps impossible to discover, as 
 from their esoteric nature they were only 
 orally communicated ; but some shrewd 
 and near approximations to their real na- 
 ture may be drawn by inference from the 
 casual expressions which have fallen from 
 the advocates of each in the course of their 
 long and generally bitter controversies. 
 
 I have already said that the regular 
 Grand Lodge is stated to have made certain 
 changes in the modes of recognition, in 
 consequence of the publication of Samuel 
 Prichard's spurious revelation. These 
 changes were, as we traditionally learn, a 
 simple transposition of certain words, by 
 which that which had originally been the 
 first became the second, and that which had 
 been the second became the first. Hence Dr. 
 Dalcho, the compiler of the original Ahi- 
 man Eezon of South Carolina, who was 
 himself made in an Ancient Lodge, but 
 was acquainted with both systems, says, 
 (Edit. 1822, p. 193,) " The real difference in 
 point of .importance was no greater than it 
 would be to dispute whether the glove should 
 
 be placed first upon the right or on the left." 
 A similar testimony as to the character of 
 these changes is furnished by an address to 
 the Duke of Athol, the Grand Master of 
 the Grand Lodge of Ancients, in which it 
 is said : " I would beg leave to ask, whether 
 two persons standing in the Guildhall of 
 London, the one facing the statues of Gog 
 and Magog, and the other with his back 
 turned on them, could, with any degree of 
 propriety, quarrel about their stations ; as 
 Gog must be on the right of one, and Ma- 
 gog on the right of the other. Such then, 
 and far more insignificant, is the disputa- 
 tious temper of the seceding brethren, that 
 on no better grounds than the above they 
 choose to usurp a power and to aid in open 
 and direct violation of the regulations they 
 had solemnly engaged to maintain, and by 
 every artifice possible to be devised endeav- 
 ored to increase their numbers." It was 
 undoubtedly to the relative situation of the 
 pillars of the porch, and the appropriation 
 of their names in the ritual, that these in- 
 nuendoes referred. As we have them now, 
 they were made by the change effected by 
 the Grand Lodge of Moderns, which trans- 
 posed the original order in which they 
 existed before the change, and in which 
 order they are still preserved by the conti- 
 nental Lodges of Europe. 
 
 It is then admitted that the Moderns did 
 make innovations in the ritual; and although 
 Preston asserts that the changes were made 
 by the regular Grand Lodge to distinguish 
 its members from those made by the An- 
 cient Lodges, it is evident, from the lan- 
 guage of the address just quoted, that the 
 innovations were the cause and not the 
 effect of the schism, and the inferential 
 evidence is that the changes were made in 
 consequence of, and as a safeguard against, 
 spurious publications, and were intended, 
 as I have already stated, to distinguish im- 
 postors from true Masons, and not schis- 
 matic or irregular brethren from those who 
 were orthodox and regular. 
 
 But outside of and beyond this transpo- 
 sition of words, there was another difference 
 existing between the Ancients and the 
 Moderns. Dalcho, who was acquainted 
 with both systems, says that the Ancient 
 Masons were in possession of marks of re- 
 cognition known only to themselves. His 
 language on this subject is positive. "The 
 Ancient York Masons," he says, "were 
 certainly in possession of the original, uni- 
 versal marks, as they were known and 
 given in the Lodges they had left, and 
 which had descended through the Lodge of 
 York, and that of England, down to their 
 day. Besides these, we find they had pecu- 
 liar marks of their own, which were un- 
 known to the body from which they had 
 
ANCIENT 
 
 ANCIENT 
 
 67 
 
 separated, and were unknown to the rest of 
 the Masonic world. We have, then, the 
 evidence that they had two sets of marks ; 
 viz. : those which they had brought with 
 them from the original body, and those 
 which they had, we must suppose, them- 
 selves devised." > (P. 192.) 
 
 Dermott, in his Ahiman Rezon, confirms 
 this statement of Dalcho, if, indeed, it needs 
 confirmation. He says that "a Modern 
 Mason may with safety communicate all 
 his secrets to an Ancient Mason, but that 
 an Ancient Mason cannot, with like safety, 
 communicate all his secrets to a Modern 
 Mason without further ceremony." And 
 he assigns as a reason for this, that " as a 
 science comprehends an art (though an art 
 cannot comprehend a science), even so An- 
 cient Masonry contains everything valua- 
 ble among the Moderns, as well as many 
 other things that cannot be revealed with- 
 out additional ceremonies." 
 
 Now, what were these " other things " 
 known by the Ancients, and not known by 
 the Moderns ? What were these distinctive 
 marks, which precluded the latter from 
 visiting the Lodges of the former? Written 
 history is of course silent as to these eso- 
 teric matters. But tradition, confirmed by, 
 and at the same time explaining, the hints 
 and casual intimations of contemporary 
 writers, leads us to the almost irresistible 
 inference that they were to be found in the 
 different constructions of the third, or 
 Master's degree, and the introduction into 
 it of the Royal Arch element ; for, as Dr. 
 Oliver {Hist. Eng. R. A., p. 21,) says, " the 
 division of the third degree and the fabri- 
 cation of the English Royal Arch appear, 
 on their own showing, to have been the 
 work of the Ancients." And hence the 
 Grand Secretary of the regular Grand 
 Lodge, or that of the Moderns, replying to 
 the application of an Ancient Mason from 
 Ireland for relief, says: "Our society (i. e. 
 the Moderns) is neither Arch, Royal Arch, 
 nor Ancient, so that you have no right to 
 partake of our charity." 
 
 This, then, is the solution of the diffi- 
 culty. The Ancients, besides preserving 
 the regular order of the words in the first 
 and second degrees, which the Moderns had 
 transposed, (a transposition which has been 
 retained in the Lodges of Britain and 
 America, but which has never been ob- 
 served by the continental Lodges of Europe, 
 who continue the usage of the Ancients,) 
 also finished the otherwise imperfect third 
 degree with its natural complement, the 
 Royal Arch, a complement with which the 
 Moderns were unacquainted, or which they, 
 if they knew it once, had lost. 
 
 For some years the Ancient Lodges ap- 
 pear to have worked on an independent 
 
 system, claiming the original right which 
 every body of Masons had to assemble and 
 work without a warrant. Here, however, 
 they were evidently in error, for it was well 
 known that on the revival of Masonry, in 
 the year 1717, this right had been relin- 
 quished by the four London Lodges that 
 were then in operation, and which consti- 
 tuted the Grand Lodge. This objection the 
 Ancients pretended to meet by declaring 
 that the Grand Lodge organized in 1717 
 was not legally constituted, only four Lodges 
 having been engaged in the organization, 
 while, as they said, five were required. 
 Here again they were in error, as there is 
 no evidence of any such regulation having 
 ever existed. And, therefore, to place 
 themselves in a less irregular position, they 
 organized, in 1757, a Grand Lodge of their 
 own, which was subsequently known by the 
 title of " The Grand Lodge of Free and Ac- 
 cepted Masons of England, according to 
 the old Constitutions," while the regular 
 body was known as " The Grand Lodge of 
 Free and Accepted Masons under the Con- 
 stitution of England." 
 
 The following is a list of the Grand 
 Masters of the Grand Lodge of Ancients 
 from its organization to its dissolution : 
 1753, Robert Turner; 1755, Edward 
 Vaughan ; 1757, Earl of Blessington ; 
 1761, Earl of Kelly; 1767, Thomas Mat- 
 thew; 1771, 3d Duke of Athol; 1775, 4th 
 Duke of Athol; 1782, Earl of Antrim; 
 1791, 4th Duke of Athol ; 1813, Duke of 
 Kent, under whom the reconciliation of 
 the two Grand Lodges was accomplished. 
 
 The Grand Lodge of Ancient Masons 
 was, shortly after its organization, recog- 
 nized by the Grand Lodges of Scotland and 
 Ireland, and, through the ability and en- 
 ergy of its officers, but especially Laurence 
 Dermott, at one time its Grand Secretary, 
 and afterwards its Deputy Grand Master, 
 and the author of its Ahiman Rezon, or 
 Book of Constitutions, it extended its in- 
 fluence and authority into foreign coun- 
 tries and into the British Colonies of 
 America, where it became exceedingly 
 popular, and where it organized several 
 Provincial Grand Lodges, as, for instance, 
 in Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, 
 Virginia, and South Carolina, where the 
 Lodges working under this authority were 
 generally known as "Ancient York Lodges." 
 
 In consequence of this, dissensions existed, 
 not only in the mother country but also in 
 America, for many years, between the 
 Lodges which derived their warrants from 
 the Grand Lodge of Ancients and those 
 which derived theirs from the regular or 
 so-called Grand Lodge of Moderns. But 
 the Duke of Kent having been elected, in 
 1813, the Grand Master of the Ancients, 
 
68 
 
 ANCIENT 
 
 ANDERSON 
 
 while his brother, the Duke of Sussex, was 
 Grand Master of the Moderns, a perma- 
 nent reconciliation was effected between 
 the rival bodies, and by mutual compro- 
 mises the present " United Grand Lodge of 
 Ancient Freemasons of England " was es- 
 tablished. 
 
 Similar unions were consummated in 
 America, the lastbeingthatof the two Grand 
 Lodges of South Carolina, in 1817, and the 
 distinction between the Ancients and the 
 Moderns was forever abolished, or remains 
 only as a melancholy page in the history 
 of Masonic controversies. 
 
 Ancient Reformed Rite. A Rite 
 differing very slightly from the French 
 Rite, or Bite Moderne, of which, indeed, it 
 is said to be only a modification. It is 
 practised by the Grand Lodge of Holland 
 and the Grand Orient of Belgium. It was 
 established in 1783 as one of the results of 
 the Congress of Wilhelmsbad. 
 
 Aneient of Days. A title applied, 
 in the visions of Daniel, to Jehovah, to sig- 
 nify that his days are beyond reckoning. 
 Used by Webb in the Most Excellent Mas- 
 ter's song. 
 
 " Fulfilled is the promise 
 
 By the Ancient of Days, 
 
 To bring forth the cape-stone 
 
 With shouting and praise." 
 
 Ancients. See Ancient Masons. 
 Ancient, The. The third degree of 
 the German Union of Twenty-two. 
 Ancient York Masons. One of 
 
 the names assumed by the Lodges of An- 
 cient Masons, which see. 
 
 Anderson, James. The Rev. James 
 Anderson, D. D., is well known to all Ma- 
 sons as the compiler of the celebrated Book 
 of Constitutions. He was born at Edin- 
 burgh, Scotland, on the 5th of August, 
 1684. He removed to London, — at what 
 time is not known, — and became the min- 
 ister of the Scotch Presbyterian Church in 
 Swallow Street, Piccadilly. Chambers, in 
 his Scottish Biography, describes him as " a 
 learned but imprudent man, who lost a 
 considerable part of his property in deep 
 dabbling in the South Sea scheme." He 
 was the author of an elaborate but very 
 singular work, entitled Boyal Genealogies. 
 But he is principally indebted for his repu- 
 tation to his labors on the Ancient Consti- 
 tutions of Freemasonry. It is probable that 
 he was a member of one of the four old 
 Lodges of London which, in 1717, organ- 
 ized the Grand Lodge of England. At all 
 events, he is found, four years after, taking 
 an interest in the concerns of the Craft, 
 and having so much reputation among his 
 brethren as to have been selected to dis- 
 charge the difficult duties of a historiogra- 
 pher. On the 29th of September, 1721, he 
 
 was commissioned by the Grand Lodge to 
 collect and compile the history, charges, and 
 regulations of the Fraternity from the then 
 existing ancient Constitutions of the Lodges. 
 On the 27th of December following, his 
 work was finished, and the Grand Lodge 
 appointed a committee of fourteen learned 
 brethren to examine and report upon it. 
 Their report was made on the 25th of 
 March, 1722; and, after a few amend- 
 ments, Anderson's work was formally ap- 
 proved, and ordered to be printed for the 
 benefit of the Lodges, which was done in 
 1723. This is now the well-known Book 
 of Constitutions, which contains the his- 
 tory of Masonry, (or, more correctly, archi- 
 tecture,) the ancient charges, and the gen- 
 eral regulations, as the same were in use in 
 many old Lodges. In 1738 a second edi- 
 tion was published. The edition of 1723 
 has become exceedingly rare, and copies 
 of it bring fancy prices among the collect- 
 ors of old Masonic books. Its intrinsic 
 value is derived only from the fact that it 
 contains the first printed copy of the Old 
 Charges and also the General Regulations. 
 The history of Masonry which precedes 
 these, and constitutes the body of the 
 work, is fanciful, unreliable, and preten- 
 tious to a degree that often leads to ab- 
 surdity. The Craft is greatly indebted to 
 Anderson for his labors in reorganizing the 
 Institution, but doubtless it would have 
 been better if he had contented himself 
 with giving the records of the Grand Lodge 
 from 1717 to 1738, which are contained in 
 his second edition, and with preserving for 
 us the charges and regulations, which, 
 without his industry, might have been 
 lost. No Masonic writer would now ven- 
 ture to quote Anderson as authority for the 
 history of the Order anterior to the eigh- 
 teenth century. It must also be added that 
 in the republication of the Old Charges 
 in the edition of 1738, he made several 
 important alterations and interpolations, 
 which justly gave some offence to the 
 Grand Lodge, and which render the 
 second edition of no authority in this re- 
 spect. 
 
 In 1730, Dr. Anderson, in reply to some 
 libellous attacks on the Order, and espe- 
 cially the pretended exposition of Prich- 
 ard, published A Defence of Masonry, which 
 he subsequently appended to the second 
 edition of the Book of Constitutions. This 
 is the earliest scholarly discussion of the 
 character of the Masonic institution, and 
 proves that Anderson was a man of learn- 
 ing and extensive reading. He died in 
 1746, aged 62 years. 
 
 Anderson Manuscript. In the 
 first edition of the Constitutions of the Free- 
 masons, published by Dr. Anderson in 1723, 
 
ANDRfi 
 
 ANDROGYNOUS 
 
 69 
 
 there is on page 32, a copy of a manuscript, 
 which he calls " a certain record of Free- 
 masons, written in the reign of King Ed- 
 ward IV." Preston also cites it in his Illus- 
 trations, (p. 133,) but states that it is said to 
 have been in the possession of Elias Ash- 
 mole, but was unfortunately destroyed, with 
 other papers on the subject of Masonry, at 
 the Revolution. Anderson makes no refer- 
 ence to Ashmole as the owner of the MS., 
 nor to the fact of its destruction. If the 
 statement of Preston was confirmed by other 
 evidence, its title would properly be the 
 " Ashmole MS. ; " but as it was first pub- 
 lished by Anderson, Bro. Hughan has very 
 properly called it the " Anderson Manu- 
 script." It contains the Prince Edwin 
 legend. 
 
 Andre, Christopher Karl. An 
 active Mason, who resided at Brlinn, in 
 Moravia, where, in 1798, he was the Direc- 
 tor of the Evangelical Academy. He was 
 very zealously employed, about the end of 
 the last century, in connection with other 
 distinguished Masons, in the propagation 
 of the Order in Germany. He was the 
 editor and author of a valuable periodical 
 work, which was published in 5 numbers, 
 8vo, at Gotha and Halle under the title of 
 Der Freimaurer oder compendiose Bibliothek 
 alles Wissencourdigen ilber geheime Gesell- 
 schaften. The Freemason, or a Compen- 
 dious Library of everything worthy of 
 notice in relation to Secret Societies. Be- 
 sides valuable extracts from contemporary 
 Masonic writers, it contains several essays 
 and treatises by the editor. 
 
 Andrea, John Valentine. This 
 distinguished philosopher and amiable 
 moralist, who has been claimed by many 
 writers as the founder of the Rosicrucian 
 Order, was born on the 17th of August, 
 1586, at the small town of Herrenberg, in 
 Wilrtemberg, where his father exercised 
 clerical functions of a respectable rank. 
 After receiving an excellent education in 
 his native province, he travelled extensively 
 through the principal countries of Europe, 
 and on his return home received the ap- 
 pointment, in 1614, of deacon in the town 
 of Vaihingen. Four years after he was 
 promoted to the office of superintendent at 
 Kalw. In 1639 he was appointed court 
 chaplain and a spiritual privy councillor, 
 and subsequently Protestant prelate of 
 Adelberg, and almoner of the Duke of 
 Wiirtemberg. He died on the 27th of June, 
 1654, at the age of sixty-eight years. 
 
 Andrea, was a man of extensive acquire- 
 ments and of a most feeling heart. By his 
 great abilities he was enabled to elevate 
 himself beyond the narrow limits of the 
 prejudiced age in which he lived, and his 
 literary labors were exerted for the reforma- 
 
 tion of manners, and for the supply of the 
 moral wants of the times. His writings, 
 although numerous, were not voluminous, 
 but rather brief essays full of feeling, judg- 
 ment, and chaste imagination, in which 
 great moral, political, and religious senti- 
 ments were clothed in such a language of 
 sweetness, and yet told with such boldness 
 of spirit, that, as Herder says, he appears, 
 in his contentious and anathematizing cen- 
 tury, like a rose springing up among thorns. 
 Thus, in his Menippus, one of the earliest 
 of his works, he has, with great skill and 
 freedom, attacked the errors of the Church 
 and of his contemporaries. His Herculis 
 Christiani Luctus, xxiv., is supposed by 
 some persons to have given indirectly, if 
 not immediately, hints to John Bunyan 
 for his Pilgrim's Progress. 
 
 One of the most important of his works, 
 however, or at least one that has attracted 
 most attention, is his Fama Fraternitatis, 
 published in 1615. This and the Chemische 
 Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreuz, or Chemical 
 Nuptials, by Christian Rosencreuz, which is 
 also attributed to him, are the first works in 
 which the Order of the Rosicrucians is men- 
 tioned. Arnold, in his Ketzergeschiete, or His- 
 tory of Heresy, contends, from these works', 
 that Andrea was the founder of the Rosicru- 
 cian Order ; others claim a previous exist- 
 ence for it, and suppose that he was simply 
 an annalist of the Order ; while a third party 
 deny that any such Order was existing at the 
 time, or afterwards, but that the whole was 
 a mere mythical rhapsody, invented by 
 Andrea as a convenient vehicle in which, 
 to convey his ideas of reform. But the 
 whole of this subject is more fully discussed 
 under the head of Posicrucianism, which 
 see. 
 
 Andrew, Apprentice and Fel- 
 low Craft of St. (Fr., Apprenti et Com- 
 pagnon de St. Andre ; Ger., Andreas lehr- 
 ling und Oeselle.) The fourth degree of the 
 Swedish Rite, which is almost precisely the 
 same as the Flu Secret of the French Rite. 
 
 Andrew, Cross of St. See Cross, 
 St. Andrew's. 
 
 Andrew, FaYorite of St. (Fr., 
 Frerefavori de St. Andre.) Usually called 
 " Knight of the Purple Collar." The ninth 
 degree of the Swedish Rite. 
 
 Andrew, Grand Scotch Knight 
 of St. See Knight of St. Andrew. 
 
 Androgynous Degrees. (From 
 avrjp, a man, and yvvrj, a woman.) Those de- 
 grees of Masonry which are conferred on 
 both men and women. Besides the degrees 
 of the Adoptive Rite, which are practised 
 in France, there are several of these degrees 
 which are, as "sides degrees," conferred 
 in this country. Such are the "Mason's 
 Wife," conferred on the wives, daughters, 
 
70 
 
 ANDROGYNOUS 
 
 ANIMAL 
 
 sisters, and mothers of Master Masons, and 
 the " Knight and Heroine of Jericho," con- 
 ferred on the wives and daughters of Royal 
 Arch Masons. A few years ago, Rob. Morris 
 invented, and very generally promulgated 
 through the Western States of this country, 
 a series of androgynous degrees, which he 
 called "The Star of the East." There is 
 another androgynous degree, sometimes 
 conferred on the wives of Royal Arch Ma- 
 sons, known as the " Good Samaritan." 
 
 In some parts of the United States these 
 degrees are very popular, while in other 
 places they are never practised, and are 
 strongly condemned as improper innova- 
 tions. The fact is, that by their friends as 
 well as by their enemies, these so-called 
 degrees have been greatly misrepresented. 
 When females are told that in receiving 
 these degrees they are admitted into the 
 Masonic Order, and are obtaining Masonic 
 information under the name of "Ladies' 
 Masonry," they are simply deceived. Every 
 woman connected by ties of consanguinity 
 to a Master Mason is peculiarly entitled to 
 Masonic assistance and protection. If she 
 is told this, and also told that by these an- 
 drogynous degrees she is to be put in pos- 
 session of the means of making her claims 
 known by a sort of what may be called 
 oral testimony, but that she is by their pos- 
 session no nearer to the portals of Masonry 
 than she was before, if she is honestly told 
 this, then I can see no harm, but the pos- 
 sibility of some good, in these forms if care- 
 fully bestowed and prudently preserved. 
 But all attempts to make Masonry of them, 
 and especially that anomalous thing called 
 Ladies Masonry, are wrong, imprudent, and 
 calculated to produce opposition among the 
 well-informed and cautious members of the 
 Fraternity. 
 
 Androgynous Masonry. That so- 
 called Masonry which is dedicated to the 
 cultivation of the androgynous degrees. 
 The Adoptive Rite of France is Androgyn- 
 ous Masonry. 
 
 Angel. Angels were originally in the 
 Jewish theogony considered simply as mes- 
 sengers of God, as the name Malachim im- 
 ports, and the word is thus continually used 
 jn the early Scriptures of the Old Testa- 
 ment. It was only after the captivity that 
 the Jews brought from Babylon their mys-. 
 tical ideas of angels as instruments of crea- 
 tive ministration, such as the angel of fire, 
 of water, of earth, or of air. These doctrines 
 they learned from the Chaldean sages, who 
 had probably derived them from Zoroaster 
 and the Zendavesta. In time these doc- 
 trines were borrowed by the Gnostics, and 
 through them they have been introduced 
 into some of the high degrees; such, for in- 
 stance, as the Knight of the Sun, in whose 
 
 ritual the angels of the four elements play 
 an important part. 
 
 Angelic Brothers. (Ger., Engels- 
 br'uder.) Sometimes called, after their 
 founder, Gichtelites or Gichtelianer. A 
 mystical sect of religious fanatics founded 
 by one Gichtel, about the close of the seven- 
 teenth century, in the United Netherlands. 
 After the death of their founder in 1710, 
 they gradually became extinct, or were con- 
 tinued only in secret union with the Rosi- 
 crucians. 
 
 Angels 9 Alphabet. See Alphabet, 
 Angel?. 
 
 Angerona. The name of a pagan 
 deity worshipped among the Romans. 
 Pliny calls her the goddess of silence, and 
 calmness of mind. Hence her statue has 
 sometimes been introduced among the or- 
 naments of Masonic edifices. She is repre- 
 sented with her finger pressed upon her 
 lips. See Harpocrates, for what is further 
 to be said upon this symbol. 
 
 Angle. The inclination of two lines 
 meeting in a point. Angles are of three 
 kinds — acute, obtuse, and right angles. The 
 right angle, or the angle of 90 degrees, is 
 the only one recognized in Masonry, be- 
 cause it is the form of the trying square, one 
 of the most important working tools of the 
 profession, and the symbol of morality. 
 
 Angular Triad. A name given by 
 Oliver to the three presiding officers of a 
 Royal Arch Chapter. 
 
 Animal Worship. The worship of 
 animals is a species of idolatry that was 
 especially practised by the ancient Egyp- 
 tians. Temples were erected by this people 
 in their honor, in which they were fed and 
 cared for during life; to kill one of them 
 was a crime punishable with death ; and 
 after death, they were embalmed, and in- 
 terred in the catacombs. This worship was 
 derived first from the earlier adoration of 
 the stars, to certain constellations of which 
 the names of animals had been given ; next, 
 from an Egyptian tradition that the gods, 
 being pursued by Typhon, had concealed 
 themselves under the forms of animals; 
 and lastly, from the doctrine of the metem- 
 psychosis, according to which there was a 
 continual circulation of the souls of men 
 and animals. But behind the open and 
 popular exercise of this degrading worship 
 the priests concealed a symbolism full of 
 philosophical conceptions. 
 
 Mr. Gliddon says in his OtiaEgyptiaca, (p. 
 94,) that "animal worship among the Egyp- 
 tians was the natural and unavoidable con- 
 sequence of the misconception, by the vul- 
 gar, of those emblematical figures invented 
 by the priests to record their own philo- 
 sophical conception of absurd ideas. As 
 the pictures and effigies suspended in early 
 
ANNALES 
 
 ANOINTING 
 
 71 
 
 Christian churches, to commemorate a per- 
 son or an event, became in time objects of 
 worship to the vulgar, so, in Egypt, the 
 esoteric or spiritual meaning of the em- 
 blems was lost in the gross materialism of 
 the beholder. This esoteric and allegorical 
 meaning was, however, preserved by the 
 priests, and communicated in the mysteries 
 alone to the initiated, while the unin- 
 structed retained only the grosser concep- 
 tion." 
 
 Annates Chronologiques, Lite- 
 raires et Historiques de la Maconnerie de 
 la Pays-Bas, a dater de 1 Janvier, 1814, i.e. 
 Chronological, Literary, and Historical An- 
 nals of the Masonry of the Netherlands from 
 the year 1814. This work, edited by Bros. 
 Melton and De Margny, was published at 
 Brussels, in five volumes, during the years 
 1823-26. It consists of an immense col- 
 lection of French, Dutch, Italian, and Eng- 
 lish Masonic documents translated into 
 French. Kloss extols it highly as a work 
 which no Masonic library should be with- 
 out. Its publication was unfortunately dis- 
 continued in 1826 by the Belgian revolution. 
 
 Annates Originis Magni Galli- 
 aruin Orientis, etc. This history of 
 the Grand Orient of France is, in regard to 
 its subject, the most valuable of the works 
 of C. A. Thory. It comprises a full account 
 of the rise, progress, changes, and revolu- 
 tions of French Freemasonry, with nume- 
 rous curious and inedited documents, no- 
 tices of a great number of rites, a fragment 
 on Adoptive Masonry, and other articles of 
 an interesting nature. It was published at 
 Paris, in 1812, in 1 vol. of 471 pp., 8vo. See 
 Kloss, No. 4,088. 
 
 Anniversary. See Festivals. 
 
 Anno Dcpositionis. In the Year of 
 the Deposite ; abbreviated A.". Dep.\ The 
 date used by Royal and Select Masters, 
 which is found by adding 1000 to the vul- 
 gar era; thus, 1860 + 1000 = 2860. 
 
 Anno Hebraico. In the Hebrew 
 Year; abbreviated A.*. H.\ The same as 
 Anno Mundi ; which see. 
 
 Anno In ventionis. In the Year of the 
 Discovery ; abbreviated A.*. I.', or A.'. Inv.\ 
 The date used by Royal Arch Masons. 
 Found by adding 530 to the vulgar era ; 
 thus, 1860 + 530 = 2390. 
 
 Anno Lucis. In the Year of Light ; 
 abbreviated A.*. L.\ The date used in an- 
 cient Craft Masonry ; found by adding 4000 
 to the vulgar era ; thus, 1860+4000 = 5860. 
 
 Anno Mundi. In the Year of the 
 World. The date used in the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite; found by adding 3760 to 
 the vulgar era until September. After Sep- 
 tember, add one year more ; this is because 
 the year used is the Hebrew one, which be- 
 gins in September. Thus, July, 1860 + 
 
 3760 = 5620, and October, 1860 + 3760 4- 
 1 = 5621. 
 
 Anno Ordinis. In the Year of the 
 Order; abbreviated A. - . O. - . The date used 
 by Knights Templars ; found by subtract- 
 ing 1118 from the vulgar era ; thus, 1860 — 
 1118 = 742. 
 
 Annuaire. Some French Lodges pub- 
 lish annually a record of their most im- 
 portant proceedings for the past year, and 
 a list of their members. This publication 
 is called an Annuaire, or Annual. 
 
 Annual Communication. All the 
 Grand Lodges of the United States, except 
 those of Massachusetts, and Maryland, the 
 District of Columbia, and Pennsylvania, 
 hold only one annual meeting ; thus reviv- 
 ing the ancient custom of a yearly Grand 
 Assembly. The Grand Lodge of Massachu- 
 setts, like that of England, holds Quarterly 
 Communications. At these annual com- 
 munications it is usual to pay the represen- 
 tatives of the subordinate Lodges a per diem 
 allowance, which varies in different Grand 
 Lodges from one to three dollars, and also 
 their mileage or travelling expenses. 
 
 Annual Proceedings. Every 
 Grand Lodge in the United States pub- 
 lishes a full account of its proceedings at 
 its Annual Communication, to which is also 
 almost always added a list of the subordi- 
 nate Lodges and their members. Some of 
 these Annual Proceedings extend to a 
 considerable size, and they are all valuable 
 as giving an accurate and official account 
 of the condition of Masonry in each State 
 for the past year. They also frequently con- 
 tain valuable reports of committees on ques- 
 tions of Masonic law. The reports of the 
 Committees of Foreign Correspondence are 
 especially valuable in these pamphlets. See 
 Correspondence. Committee on Foreign. 
 
 Annuities. In England, one of the 
 modes of distributing the charities of a 
 Lodge is to grant annuities to aged mem- 
 bers or to the widows and orphans of those 
 who are deceased. In 1842 the "Royal 
 Masonic Benevolent Annuity Fund" was 
 established, which grants its charities in 
 this way. 
 
 Anointing. The act of consecrating 
 any person or thing by the pouring on 
 of oil. The ceremony of anointing was 
 emblematical of a particular sanctifica- 
 tion to a holy and sacred use. As such 
 it was practised by both the Egyptians 
 and the Jews, and many representations 
 are to be seen among the former of the per- 
 formance of this holy Rite. Wilkinson in- 
 forms us, (Anc. Egypt., iv. 280,) that with 
 the Egyptians the investiture to any sacred 
 office was confirmed by this external sign ; 
 and that priests and kings at the time of 
 their consecration were, after they had been 
 
72 
 
 ANONYMOUS 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC 
 
 attired in their full robes, anointed by the 
 pouring of oil upon the head. The Jewish 
 Scriptures mention several instances in 
 which unction was administered, as in the 
 consecration of Aaron as high priest, and 
 of Saul and David, of Solomon and Jo- 
 ash, as kings. The process of anointing 
 Aaron is fully described in Exodus (xxix. 
 7). After he had been clothed in all his 
 robes, with the mitre and crown upon his 
 head, it is said, " then shalt thou take the 
 anointing oil and pour it upon his head, and 
 anoint him." 
 
 The ceremony is still used in some of the 
 high degrees of Masonry, and is always 
 recognized as a symbol of sanctification, or 
 the designation of the person so anointed 
 to a sacred use, or to the performance of a 
 particular function. Hence, it forms an 
 important part of the ceremony of installa- 
 tion of a high priest in the order of High 
 Priesthood as practised in America. 
 
 As to the form in which the anointing 
 oil was poured, Buxtorf (Lex. Talm., p. 267,) 
 quotes the Rabbinical tradition that in the 
 anointment of kings the oil was poured on 
 the head in the form of a crown, that is, 
 in a circle around the head; while in the 
 anointment of the priests it was poured in 
 the form of the Greek letter X, that is, on 
 the top of the head, in the shape of a St. 
 Andrew's cross. 
 
 Anonymous Society. A society 
 formerly existing in Germany, which con- 
 sisted of 72 members, namely, 24 Appren- 
 tices, 24 Fellow Crafts, and 24 Masters. It 
 distributed much charity, but its real object 
 was the cultivation of the occult sciences. 
 Its members pretended that its Grand 
 Master was one Tajo, and that he resided in 
 Spain. 
 
 Ansyreeh. A sect found in the moun- 
 tains of Lebanon, of Northern Syria. Like 
 the Druses, towards whom, however, they 
 entertain a violent hostility, and the Assas- 
 sins, they have a secret mode of recognition 
 and a secret religion, which does not appear 
 to be well understood by them. " How- 
 ever," says Rev. Mr. Lyde, who visited 
 them in 1852, " there is one in which they 
 all seem agreed, and which acts as a kind 
 of Freemasonry in binding together the 
 scattered members of their body, namely, 
 secret prayers which are taught to every 
 male child of a certain age, and are re- 
 peated at stated times, in stated places, 
 and accompanied with religious rites. The 
 Ansyreeh arose about the same time with 
 the Assassins, and, like them, their religion 
 appears to be an ill-digested mixture of 
 Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedan- 
 ism. To the Masonic scholars these secret 
 sects of Syria present an interesting study, 
 because of their supposed connection with 
 the Templars during the Crusades, the en- 
 
 tire results of which are yet to be investi- 
 gated. 
 
 AntedilnTian Masonry. Among 
 the traditions of Masonry, which, taken 
 literally, become incredible, but which, con- 
 sidered allegorically, may contain a pro- 
 found meaning, not the least remarkable 
 are those which relate to the existence of a 
 Masonic system before the Flood. Thus, 
 Anderson (Const. 1st ed., p. 3,) says: 
 " Without regarding uncertain accounts, we 
 may safely conclude the old world, that 
 lasted 1656 years, could not be ignorant of 
 Masonry." Dr. Oliver has devoted the 
 twenty-eighth lecture in his Historical Land- 
 marks to an inquiry into "the nature and 
 design of Freemasonry before the Flood ; " 
 but he admits that any evidence of the 
 existence at that time of such an Institu- 
 tion must be based on the identity of Free- 
 masonry and morality. " We may safely 
 assume," he says, " that whatever had for 
 its object and end an inducement to the 
 practice of that morality which is founded 
 on the love of God, may be identified with 
 primitive Freemasonry." 
 
 The truth is, that antediluvian Masonry 
 is alluded to only in what is called the 
 "ineffable degrees ; " and that its only im- 
 portant tradition is that of Enoch, who is 
 traditionally supposed to be its founder, or, 
 at least, its great hierophant. See Enoch. 
 
 Anthem. The anthem was originally 
 a piece of church music sung by alternate 
 voices. The word afterwards, however, 
 came to be used as a designation of that 
 kind of sacred music which consisted of 
 certain passages taken out of the Scriptures, 
 and adapted to particular solemnities. In 
 the permanent poetry and music of Ma- 
 sonry the anthem is very rarely used. The 
 spirit of Masonic poetry is lyrical, and 
 therefore the ode is almost altogether used 
 (except on some special occasions) in the 
 solemnities and ceremonials of the Order. 
 There are really no Masonic anthems. 
 
 Anti-Masonic Books. There is no 
 country of the civilized world where Free- 
 masonry has existed, in which opposition 
 to it has not, from time to time, exhibited 
 itself; although it has always been over- 
 come by the purity and innocence of the 
 Institution. The earliest opposition by a 
 government of which we have any record, 
 is that of 1425, in the third year of the 
 reign of Henry VI., of England, when the 
 Masons were forbidden to confederate in 
 chapters and congregations. This law was, 
 however, never executed, and since that 
 period Freemasonry has met with no per- 
 manent or important opposition in England. 
 The Roman Catholic religion has always 
 been anti-Masonic, and hence edicts have 
 constantly been promulgated by popes and 
 sovereigns in Roman Catholic countries 
 
ANTI-MASONIC 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC 
 
 73 
 
 against the Order. The most important of 
 these edicts is the bull of Pope Clement 
 XII., which was issued on the 28th of 
 April, 1738, the authority of which bull is 
 still in existence, and forbids any pious 
 Catholic from uniting with a Masonic 
 Lodge under the severest penalties of eccle- 
 siastical excommunication. 
 
 In the United States, where there are 
 neither popes to issue bulls nor kings to 
 promulgate edicts, the opposition to Free- 
 masonry had to take the form of a political 
 party. Such a party was organized in this 
 country in the year 1826, soon after the 
 disappearance of one William Morgan. 
 The object of this party was professedly to 
 put down the Masonic Institution as sub- 
 versive of good government, but really for 
 the political aggrandizement of its leaders, 
 who used the opposition to Freemasonry 
 merely as a stepping-stone to their own 
 advancement to office. But the public vir- 
 tue of the masses of the American people 
 repudiated a party which was based on such 
 corrupt and mercenary views, and its 
 ephemeral existence was followed by a total 
 annihilation. 
 
 A society which has been deemed of so 
 much importance as to be the victim of so 
 many persecutions, must needs have had its 
 enemies in the press. It was too good an 
 Institution not to be abused. Accordingly, 
 Freemasonry had no sooner taken its com- 
 manding position as one of the teachers of 
 the world, than a host of adversaries sprang 
 up to malign its character and to misrepre- 
 sent its objects. Hence, in the catalogue of 
 a Masonic library, the anti-Masonic books 
 will form no small part of the collection. 
 
 Anti-Masonic works may very properly 
 be divided into two classes. 1. Those 
 written simply for the purposes of abuse, 
 in which the character and objects of the 
 Institution are misrepresented. 2. Those 
 written for the avowed purpose of reveal- 
 ing its ritual and esoteric doctrines. The 
 former of these classes is always instigated 
 by malignity, the latter by mean cupidity. 
 The former class alone comes strictly 
 within the category of " anti - Masonic 
 books," although the two classes are often 
 confounded; the attack on the principles 
 of Masonry being sometimes accompanied 
 with a pretended revelation of its myste- 
 ries, and, on the other hand, the pseudo 
 revelations are not unfrequently enriched by 
 the most liberal abuse of the Institution. 
 
 The earliest authentic work which con- 
 tains anything in opposition to Freema- 
 sonry is The Natural History of Stafford- 
 shire, by Robert Plot, which was printed 
 at Oxford in the year 1686. It is only in 
 one particular part of the work that Dr. 
 Plot makes any invidious remarks against 
 K 
 
 the Institution ; and we should freely for- 
 give him for what he has said against it, 
 when we know that his recognition of the 
 existence, in the seventeenth century, of a 
 society which was already of so much im- 
 portance that he was compelled to acknowl- 
 edge that he had " found persons of the 
 most eminent quality that did not disdain 
 to be of this fellowship," gives the most 
 ample refutation of those writers who as- 
 sert that no traces of the Masonic Institu- 
 tion are to be found before the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century. A triumphant reply 
 to the attack of Dr. Plot is to be found 
 in the third volume of Oliver's Golden 
 Remains of the Early Masonic Writers. 
 
 A still more virulent attack on the Order 
 was made in 1730, by Samuel Prichard, 
 which he entitled " Masonry dissected, being 
 an universal and genuine description of all 
 its branches from the original to the present 
 time." This work went through a great 
 many editions, and was at last, in 1738, re- 
 plied to by the celebrated Dr. James Ander- 
 son, in a pamphlet entitled " A Defence of 
 Masonry, occasioned by a pamplet called 
 Masonry Dissected." It was appended to 
 the second edition of Anderson's Constitu- 
 tions. It is a learned production, well 
 worth perusal for the information that it 
 gives in reference to the sacred rites of the 
 ancients, independent of its polemic char- 
 acter. About this time the English press 
 was inundated by pretended revelations of 
 the Masonic mysteries, published under 
 the queerest titles, such as " Jachin and 
 Boaz; or, An authentic key to the door of 
 Freemasonry," published in 1762; " Hiram, 
 or the Grand Master Key to both Ancient 
 and Modern Freemasonry," which ap- 
 peared in 1766 ; " The Three Distinct 
 Knocks," published in 1768, and a host of 
 others of a similar character, which were, 
 however, rather intended, by ministering 
 to a morbid and unlawful curiosity, to put 
 money into the purses of their compilers, 
 than to gratify any vindictive feelings 
 against the Institution. 
 
 Some, however, of these works were 
 amiable neither in their inception nor in 
 their execution, and appear to have been 
 dictated by a spirit that may be character- 
 ized as being anything else except Chris- 
 tian. Thus, in the year 1768, a sermon 
 was preached, we may suppose, but cer- 
 tainly published, at London, with the fol- 
 lowing ominous title: " Masonry the Way to 
 Hell; a Sermon wherein is clearly proved, 
 both from Reason and Scripture, that all 
 who profess the Mysteries are in a State of 
 Damnation." This sermon appears to have 
 been a favorite with the ascetics, for in less 
 than two years it was translated into French 
 and German. But, on the other hand, it 
 
74 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC 
 
 gave offence to the liberal-minded, and many 
 replies to it were written and published, 
 among which was one entitled Masonry the 
 Turnpike- Road to Happiness in this Life, and 
 Eternal Happiness Hereafter, which also 
 found its translation into German. 
 
 In 1797 appeared the notorious work of 
 John Robison, entitled " Proofs of a Con- 
 spiracy against all the Religions and Gov- 
 ernments of Europe, carried on in the secret 
 meetings of Freemasons, Illuminati, and 
 Reading Societies." Robison was a gen- 
 tleman and a scholar of some repute, a 
 professor of natural philosophy, and Secre- 
 tary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
 Hence, although his theory is based on 
 false premises and his reasoning fallacious 
 and illogical, his language is more decorous 
 and his sentiments less malignant than 
 generally characterize the writers of anti- 
 Masonic books. A contemporary critic in 
 the Monthly Review (vol. xxv., p. 315,) thus 
 correctly estimates the value of his work : 
 " On the present occasion," says the re- 
 viewer, " we acknowledge that we have felt 
 something like regret that a lecturer in 
 natural philosophy, of whom his country 
 is so justly proud, should produce any work 
 of literature by which his high character 
 for knowledge and for judgment is liable 
 to be at all depreciated." Robison's book 
 owes its preservation at this day from the 
 destruction of time only to the perma- 
 nency and importance of the Institution 
 which it sought to destroy, Masonry, 
 which it villified, has alone saved it from 
 the tomb of the Capulets. 
 
 This work closed the labors of the anti- 
 Masonic press in England. No work abu- 
 sive of the Institution of any importance 
 has appeared in that country since the 
 attack of Robison. The Manuals of Rich- 
 ard Carlile and the Theologico-astronomi- 
 cal sermons of the Rev. Robert Taylor are 
 the productions of men who do not profess 
 to be the enemies of the Order, but who 
 have sought, by their peculiar views, to 
 give to Freemasonry an origin, a design, 
 and an interpretation different from that 
 which is received as the general sense of 
 the Fraternity. The works of these writers, 
 although erroneous, are not inimical. 
 
 The French press was prolific in the pro- 
 duction of anti-Masonic publications. Com- 
 mencing with La Grande Lumiere, which 
 was published at Paris, in 1734, soon after 
 the modern introduction of Masonry into 
 France, but brief intervals elapsed without 
 the appearance of some work adverse to 
 the Masonic Institution. But the most 
 important of these was certainly the pon- 
 derous effort of the Abb6 Barruel, pub- 
 lished in four volumes, in 1797, under the 
 title of Memoires pour servir a I'histoire du 
 
 Jacobinisme. The French Revolution was 
 at the time an accomplished fact. The 
 Bourbons had passed away, and Barruel, 
 as a priest and a royalist, was indignant at 
 the change, and, in the bitterness of his 
 rage, he charged the whole inception and 
 success of the political movement to the 
 machinations of the Freemasons, whose 
 Lodges, he asserted, were only Jacobinical 
 clubs. The general scope of his argument 
 was the same as that which was pur- 
 sued by Professor Robison; but while 
 both were false in their facts and fallacious 
 in their reasoning, the Scotchman was calm 
 and dispassionate, while the Frenchman 
 was vehement and abusive. No work, per- 
 haps, was ever printed which contains so 
 many deliberate misstatements as disgrace 
 the pages of Barruel. Unfortunately, the 
 work was, soon after its appearance, trans- 
 lated into English. It is still to be found 
 on the shelves of Masonic students and 
 curious work collectors, as a singular speci- 
 men of the extent of folly and falsehood 
 to which one may be led by the influences 
 of bitter party prejudices. 
 
 The anti-Masonic writings of Italy and 
 Spain have, with the exception of a few 
 translations from French and English au- 
 thors, consisted only of bulls issued by 
 popes and edicts pronounced by the Inqui- 
 sition. The anti-Masons of those coun- 
 tries had it all their own way, and, scarcely 
 descending to argument or even to abuse, 
 contented themselves with practical perse- 
 cution. 
 
 In Germany, the attacks on Freemasonry 
 were less frequent than in England or 
 France. Still there were some, and among 
 them may be mentioned one whose very 
 title would leave no room to doubt of its 
 anti-Masonic character. It is entitled, Be- 
 weiss doss die Freimaurer-Gesellschaft in 
 alien Staaten, u. 8. w., that is, " Proofs that 
 the Society of Freemasons is in every coun- 
 try not only useless, but, if not restricted, 
 dangerous, and ought to be interdicted." 
 This work was published at Dantzic, in 
 1764, and was intended as a defence of the 
 decree of the Council of Dantzic against 
 the Order. The Germans, however, have 
 given no such ponderous works in behalf 
 of anti-Masonry as the capacious volumes 
 of Barruel and Robison. The attacks on 
 the Order in that country have principally 
 been by pamphleteers. 
 
 In the United States, anti-Masonic writ- 
 ings were scarcely known until they sprung 
 out of the Morgan excitement in 1826. 
 The disappearance and alleged abduction 
 of this individual gave birth to a rancorous 
 opposition to Masonry, and the country 
 was soon flooded with anti-Masonic works. 
 Most of these were, however, merely pam- 
 
ANTI-MASONIC 
 
 ANTI-MASONIC 
 
 75 
 
 phlets, which had only an ephemeral exist- 
 ence, and have long since been consigned 
 to the service of the trunk-makers or suf- 
 fered a literary metempsychosis in the 
 paper-mill. Two only are worthy, from 
 their size, (their only qualification,) for a 
 place in a Masonic catalogue. The first of 
 these is entitled, " Letters on Masonry and 
 Anti-Masonry, addressed to the Hon. John 
 Quincy Adams. By William L. Stone." 
 This work, which was published at New 
 York in 1832, is a large octavo of 556 
 pages. 
 
 The work of Mr. Stone, it must be ac- 
 knowledged, is not abusive. If his argu- 
 ments are illogical, they are at least con- 
 ducted without malignity. If his state- 
 ments are false, his language is decorous. 
 He was himself a Mason, and he has been 
 compelled, by the force of truth, to make 
 many admissions which are favorable to 
 the Order. The book was evidently written 
 for a political purpose, and to advance the 
 interests of the anti- Masonic party. It 
 presents, therefore, nothing but partisan 
 views, and those, too, almost entirely of a 
 local character, having reference only to 
 the conduct of the Institution as exhibited 
 in what is called "the Morgan affair." 
 Masonry, according to Mr. Stone, should 
 be suppressed because a few of its mem- 
 bers are supposed to have violated the laws 
 in a village of the State of New York. As 
 well might the vices of the Christiana of 
 Corinth nave suggested to a contemporary 
 of St. Paul the propriety of suppressing 
 Christianity. 
 
 The next anti -Masonic work of any 
 prominence published in this country is 
 also in the epistolary style, and is entitled, 
 " Letters on the Masonic institution. By 
 John Quincy Adams." It is an octavo of 
 281 pages, and was published at Boston in 
 1847. Mr. Adams, whose eminent public 
 services have made his life a part of the 
 history of his country, has very properly 
 been described as " a man of strong points 
 and weak ones, of vast reading and wonder- 
 ful memory, of great credulity and strong 
 prejudice." In the latter years of his life, 
 he became notorious for his virulent oppo- 
 sition to Freemasonry. Deceived and ex- 
 cited by the misrepresentations of the anti- 
 Masons, he united himself with that party, 
 and threw all his vast energies and abilities 
 into the political contests then waging. 
 The result was this series of letters, abusive 
 of the Masonic Institution, which he di- 
 rected to leading politicians of the country, 
 and which were published in the public 
 journals from 1831 to 1833. These letters, 
 which are utterly unworthy of the genius, 
 learning, and eloquence of the author, dis- 
 play a most egregious ignorance of the 
 
 whole design and character of the Masonic 
 Institution. The " oath " and " the murder 
 of Morgan " are the two bugbears which 
 seem continually to float before the excited 
 vision of the writer, and on these alone he 
 dwells from the first to the last page. 
 
 Except the letters of Stone and Adams, 
 I scarcely know another anti-Masonic book 
 published in America that can go beyond 
 the literary dignity of a respectably-sized 
 pamphlet. A compilation of anti-Masonic 
 documents was published at Boston, in 
 1830, by James C. Odiorne, who has thus 
 in part preserved for future reference the 
 best of a bad class of writings. In 1831, 
 Henry Gassett, of Boston, a most virulent 
 anti-Mason, distributed, at his own ex- 
 
 Eense, a great number of anti-Masonic 
 ooks, which had been published during 
 the Morgan excitement, to the principal 
 libraries of the United States, on whose 
 shelves they are probably now lying cov- 
 ered with dust; and, that the memory of his 
 good deed might not altogether be lost, he 
 published a catalogue of these donations in 
 1852, to which he has prefixed an attack on 
 Masonry. 
 
 Anti-Masonic Party. A party or- 
 ganized in this country soon after the com- 
 mencement of the Morgan excitement, pro- 
 fessedly, to put down the Masonic Institu- 
 tion as subversive of good government, but 
 really for the political aggrandizement of 
 its leaders, who used the opposition to 
 Freemasonry merely as a stepping-stone to 
 their own advancement to office. The 
 party held several conventions ; endeavored, 
 sometimes successfully, but oftener unsuc- 
 cessfully, to enlist prominent statesmen in 
 its ranks, and finally, in 1831, nominated 
 William Wirt and Amos Ellmaker as its 
 candidates for the Presidency and the Vice- 
 Presidency of the United States. Each of 
 these gentlemen received but seven votes, 
 being the whole electoral vote of Vermont, 
 which was the only State that voted for 
 them. So signal a defeat was the death- 
 blow of the party, and from the year 1833 
 it quietly withdrew from public notice, and 
 now is happily no longer in existence. 
 William L. Stone, the historian of anti- 
 Masonry, has with commendable imparti- 
 ality expressed his opinion of the character 
 of this party, when he says that '' the fact 
 is not to be disguised — contradicted it can- 
 not be — that anti-Masonry had become 
 thoroughly political, and its spirit was vin- 
 dictive towards the Freemasons without 
 distinction as to guilt or innocence." 
 (Letters, xxxviii., p. 418.) Notwithstand- 
 ing the opposition that from time to time 
 has been exhibited to Freemasonry in 
 every country, America is the only one 
 where it assumed the form of a political 
 
76 
 
 ANTI-MASONRY 
 
 ANTIQUITY 
 
 party. This, however, may very justly he 
 attributed to the peculiar nature of our 
 popular institutions. With us, the ballot- 
 box is considered the most potent engine 
 for the government of rulers as well as 
 people, and is, therefore, resorted to in 
 cases in which, in more despotic govern- 
 ments, the powers of the Church and State 
 would be exercised. Hence, the anti- 
 Masonic convention holden at Phila- 
 delphia, in 1830, did not hesitate to make 
 the following declaration as the cardinal 
 principle of the party. "The object of 
 anti-Masonry, in nominating and electing 
 candidates for the Presidency and Vice- 
 Presidency, is to deprive Masonry of the 
 support which it derives from the power 
 and patronage of the executive branch of 
 the United States Government. To effect 
 this object, will require that candidates, 
 besides possessing the talents and virtues 
 requisite for such exalted stations, be 
 known as men decidedly opposed to secret 
 societies." This issue having been thus 
 boldly made was accepted by the people ; 
 and as principles like these were funda- 
 mentally opposed to all the ideas of liberty, 
 personal and political, into which the 
 citizens of the country had been indoc- 
 trinated, the battle was made, and the anti- 
 Masonic party was not only defeated for 
 the time, but forever annihilated. 
 
 Anti-Masonry. Opposition to Free- 
 masonry. There is no country in which 
 Masonry has ever existed in which this 
 opposition has not from time to time ex- 
 hibited itself; although, in general, it has 
 been overcome by the purity and innocence 
 of the Institution. The earliest opposition 
 by a government, of which we have any 
 record, is that of 1425, in the third year 
 of the reign of Henry VI., of England, 
 when the Masons were forbidden to con- 
 federate in Chapters and Congregations. 
 This law was, however, never executed. 
 Since that period, Freemasonry has met 
 with no permanent opposition in England. 
 The Roman Catholic religion has always 
 been anti-Masonic, and hence edicts have 
 always existed in the Roman Catholic 
 countries against the Order. But the anti- 
 Masonry which has had a practical effect in 
 inducing the Church or the State to inter- 
 fere with the Institution, and endeavor to 
 suppress it, will come more properly under 
 the head of Persecutions, to which the 
 reader is referred. 
 
 Ant in. Duke d'. Elected perpetual 
 Grand Master of the Masons of France, on 
 the 24th of June, 1738. He held the office 
 until 1743, when he died, and was succeeded 
 by the Count of Clermond. Clavel {Hist. 
 Pittoresq., p. 141,) relates an instance of the 
 fidelity and intrepidity with which, on one 
 
 occasion, he guarded the avenues of the 
 Lodge from the official intrusion of a 
 commissary of police accompanied by a 
 band of soldiers. 
 
 Antipodean*. (Les Antipodiens.) The 
 name of the sixtieth degree of the collection 
 of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Antiquity, Lodge of. The oldest 
 Lodge in England, and one of the four 
 which concurred in February, 1717, in the 
 meeting at the Apple-Tree tavern, London, 
 in the formation of the Grand Lodge of 
 England. At that time, the Lodge of An- 
 tiquity met at the Goose and Gridiron, in 
 St. Paul's Church-yard. This, with the 
 other three Lodges, did not derive their 
 warrants from the Grand Lodge, but " acted 
 by immemorable Constitution." 
 
 Antiquity Manuscript. This cele- 
 brated MS. is now, and has long been, in 
 the possession of the Lodge of Antiquity, 
 at London. It is stated in the subscription 
 to have been written, in 1686, by " Robert 
 Padgett, Clearke to the Worshipful Society 
 of the Freemasons of the city of London." 
 The whole manuscript was first published 
 by W. J. Hughan in his Old Charges of 
 British Freemasons, (p. 64,) but a part 
 had been previously inserted by Preston 
 in his Illustrations, (b. ii., sect, vi.) And 
 here we have evidence of a criminal in- 
 accuracy of the Masonic writers of the last 
 century, who never hesitated to alter or in- 
 terpolate passages in old documents when- 
 ever it was required to confirm a pre-con- 
 ceived theory. Thus, Preston had intimated 
 that there was before 1717 an Installation 
 ceremony for newly-elected Masters of 
 Lodges, (which is not true,) and inserts 
 what he calls, "the ancient Charges that 
 were used on this occasion," taken from 
 the MS. of the Lodge of Antiquity. To 
 confirm the statement, that they were used 
 for this purpose, he cites the conclusion of 
 the MS. in the following words: "These 
 be all the charges and covenants that 
 ought to be read at the instalment of Master , 
 or making of a Freemason or Free- 
 masons." The words in italics are not to 
 be found in the original MS., but were in- 
 serted by Preston. Bro. E. Jackson Barron 
 had an exact transcript made of this MS., 
 which he carefully collated, from which 
 copy it was published by Bro. Hughan. 
 Bro. Barron gives the following description 
 of the document: 
 
 " The MS. copy of the Charges of Free- 
 masons is on a roll of parchment nine 
 feet long by eleven inches wide, the roll 
 being formed of four pieces of parchment 
 glued together ; and some few years ago it 
 was partially mounted (but not very skil- 
 fully) on a backing of parchment for its 
 better preservation. 
 
ANTIQUITY 
 
 ANTIQUITY 
 
 77 
 
 " The Rolls are headed by an engraving 
 of the Royal Arms, after the fashion usual 
 in deeds of the period ; the date of the 
 engraving in this case being fixed by the 
 initials at the top, I. 2, R. 
 
 " Under this engraving are emblazoned 
 in separate shields the Arms of the city of 
 London, which are too well known to re- 
 quire description, and the Arms of the 
 Masons of London, Sable on a chevron be- 
 tween three castles argent, a pair of compasses 
 of the first surrounded by appropriate mant- 
 ling. 
 
 " The writing is a good specimen of the 
 ordinary law writing of the times, inter- 
 spersed with words in text. There is a 
 margin of about an inch on the left side, 
 which is marked by a continuous double 
 red ink line throughout, and there are sim- 
 ilar double lines down both edges of the 
 parchment. The letter W is used through- 
 out the MS. for V, with but two or three 
 exceptions." 
 
 Antiquity of Freemasonry. 
 Years ago, in writing an article on this 
 subject under the impressions made upon 
 me by the fascinating theories of Dr. Oli- 
 ver, though I never completely accepted 
 his views, I was led to place the organiza- 
 tion of Freemasonry, as it now exists, at 
 the building of Solomon's Temple. Many 
 years of subsequent research have led me 
 greatly to modify the views I had previ- 
 ously held. Although I do not rank my- 
 gelf among those modern iconoclasts who 
 refuse credence to every document whose 
 authenticity, if admitted, would give to 
 the Order a birth anterior to the beginning 
 of the last century, I confess that 1 cannot 
 find any incontrovertible evidence that 
 would trace Masonry, as now organized, 
 beyond the Building Corporations of the 
 Middle Ages. In this point of view I speak 
 of it only as an architectural brotherhood, 
 distinguished by signs, by words, and by 
 brotherly ties which have not been essen- 
 tially changed, and by symbols and legends 
 which have only been developed and ex- 
 tended, while the association has undergone 
 a transformation from an operative art to 
 a speculative science. 
 
 But then these Building Corporations did 
 not spring up in all their peculiar organi- 
 zation — different, as it was, from that of 
 other guilds — like Autochthones, from the 
 soil. They, too, must have had an origin 
 and an archetype, from which they de- 
 rived their peculiar character. And I am 
 induced, for that purpose, to look to the 
 Roman Colleges of Artificers, which were 
 spread over Europe by the invading forces 
 of the empire. But these have been traced 
 to Numa, who gave to them that mixed 
 practical and religious character which 
 
 they are known to have possessed, and in 
 which they were imitated by the mediaeval 
 architects. 
 
 We must, therefore, look at Freemasonry 
 in two distinct points of view : First, as it 
 is — a society of Speculative Architects en- 
 gaged in the construction of spiritual tem- 
 ples, and in this respect a development 
 from the Operative Architects of the tenth 
 and succeeding centuries, who were them- 
 selves offshoots from the Travelling Free- 
 masons of Como, who traced their origin 
 to the Roman Colleges of Builders. In 
 this direction, I think, the line of descent 
 is plain, without any demand upon our 
 credulity for assent to its credibility. 
 
 But Freemasonry must be looked at also 
 from another stand-point. Not only does 
 it present the appearance of a speculative 
 science, based on an operative art, but it 
 also very significantly exhibits itself as the 
 symbolic expression of a religious idea. In 
 other and plainer words, we see in it the 
 important lesson of eternal life, taught by 
 a legend which, whether true or false, is 
 used in Masonry as a symbol and an alle- 
 gory. 
 
 But whence came this legend ? Was it 
 invented in 1717 at the revival of Free- 
 masonry in England ? We have evidence 
 of the strongest circumstantial character, 
 derived from the Sloane Manuscript No. 
 3,329, recently exhumed from the shelves of 
 the British Museum, that this very legend 
 was known to the Masons of the seven- 
 teenth century at least. 
 
 Then, did the Operative Masons of the 
 Middle Ages have a legend also? The evi- 
 dence is that they did. The Compagnons 
 de la Tour, who were the offshoots of the 
 old Masters' Guilds, had a legend. We 
 know what the legend was, and we know 
 that its character was similar to, although 
 not in all the details precisely the same as, 
 the Masonic legend. It was, however, con- 
 nected with the Temple of Solomon. 
 
 Again : Did the builders of the Middle 
 Ages invent their legend, or did they ob- 
 tain it from some old tradition? The 
 question is interesting, but its solution 
 either way would scarcely affect the an- 
 tiquity of Freemasonry. It is not the form 
 of the legend, but its spirit and symbolic 
 design, with which we have to do. 
 
 This legend of the third degree as we 
 now have it, and as we have had it for a 
 certain period of two hundred and fifty 
 years, is intended, by a symbolic represen- 
 tation, to teach the resurrection from death, 
 and the divine dogma of eternal life. All 
 Masons know its character, and it is neither 
 expedient nor necessary to dilate upon it. 
 
 But can we find such a legend elsewhere? 
 Certainly we can. Not indeed the same 
 
78 
 
 ANTIQUITY 
 
 ANTON 
 
 legend ; not the same personage as its hero ; 
 not the same details ; but a legend with the 
 same spirit and design ; a legend funereal 
 in character, celebrating death and resur- 
 rection, solemnized in lamentation and 
 terminating in joy. Thus, in the Egyptian 
 Mysteries of Osiris, the image of a dead 
 man was borne in an argha, ark or coffin, 
 by a procession of initiates; and this inclo- 
 sure in the coffin or interment of the body 
 was called the aphanism, or disappearance, 
 and the lamentation for him formed the 
 first part of the Mysteries. On the third 
 day after the interment, the priests and 
 initiates carried the coffin, in which was 
 also a golden vessel, down to the river 
 Nile. Into the vessel they poured water 
 from the river ; and then with the cry of 
 Hvpquauev aya?2ufieda, " We have found 
 him, let us rejoice," they declared that 
 the dead Osiris, who had descended into 
 Hades, had returned from thence, and was 
 restored again to life ; and the rejoicings 
 which ensued constituted the second part 
 of the Mysteries. The analogy between 
 this and the legend of Freemasonry must 
 be at once apparent. Now, just such a 
 legend, everywhere differing in particulars, 
 but everywhere coinciding in general char- 
 acter, is to be found in all the old religions 
 — in sun worship, in tree worship, in animal 
 worship. It was often perverted, it is true, 
 from the original design. Sometimes it was 
 applied to the death of winter and the birth 
 of spring, sometimes to the setting and the 
 subsequent rising of the sun, but always 
 indicating a loss and a recovery. 
 
 Especially do we find this legend, and in 
 a purer form, in the Ancient Mysteries. 
 At Samothrace, at Eleusis, at By bios — in 
 all places where these ancient religions and 
 mystical rites were celebrated — we find the 
 same teachings of eternal life inculcated by 
 the representation of an imaginary death 
 and apotheosis. And it is this legend, and 
 this legend alone, that connects Speculative 
 Freemasonry with the Ancient Mysteries 
 of Greece, of Syria, and of Egypt. 
 
 The theory, then, that I advance on the 
 subject of the antiquity of Freemasonry is 
 this: I maintain that, in its present pecu- 
 liar organization, it is the successor, with 
 certainty, of the Building Corporations of 
 the Middle Ages, and through them, with 
 less certainty but with great probability, of 
 the Roman Colleges of Artificers. Its con- 
 nection with the Temple of Solomon, as 
 its birthplace, may have been accidental, 
 — a mere arbitrary selection by its invent- 
 ors, — and bears, therefore, only an alle- 
 gorical meaning; or it may be historical, 
 and to be explained by the frequent com- 
 munications that at one time took place 
 between the Jews and the Greeks and the 
 
 Romans. This is a point stillopen for dis- 
 cussion. On it I express no fixed opinion. 
 The historical materials upon which to 
 base an opinion are as yet too scanty. But 
 I am inclined, I confess, to view the Temple 
 of Jerusalem and the Masonic traditions 
 connected with it as a part of the great 
 allegory of Masonry. 
 
 But in the other aspect in which Free- 
 masonry presents itself to our view, and to 
 which I have already adverted, the ques- 
 tion of its antiquity is more easily settled. 
 As a brotherhood, composed of symbolic 
 Masters and Fellows and Apprentices, de- 
 rived from an association of Operative 
 Masters, Fellows, and Apprentices, — those 
 building spiritual temples as these built 
 material ones, — its age may not exceed 
 five or six hundred years ; but as a secret 
 association, containing within itself the 
 symbolic expression of a religious idea, 
 it connects itself with all the Ancient 
 Mysteries, which, with similar secrecy, 
 gave the same symbolic expression to the 
 same religious idea. These Mysteries were 
 not the cradles of Freemasonry : they were 
 only its analogues. But I have no doubt 
 that all the Mysteries had one common 
 source, perhaps, as it has been suggested, 
 some ancient body of priests ; and I have 
 no more doubt that Freemasonry has de- 
 rived its legend, its symbolic mode of in- 
 struction, and the lesson for which that 
 instruction was intended, either directly or 
 indirectly from the same source. In this 
 view the Mysteries become interesting to 
 the Mason as a study, and in this view 
 only. And so, when I speak of the anti- 
 quity of Masonry, I must say, if I would 
 respect the axioms of historical science, 
 that its body came out of the Middle Ages, 
 but that its spirit is to be traced to a far 
 remoter period. 
 
 Anton, Dr. Carl Gottlob Ton. A 
 German Masonic writer of considerable rep- 
 utation, who died at Gorlitz on the 17th of 
 November, 1818. He is the author of two 
 historical works on Templarism, both of 
 which are much esteemed. 1. Versuchs einer 
 Geschichte des Tempelherren ordens, i.e. His- 
 torical Essays on the Order of Knights 
 Templars. Leipzig, 1779. And, 2. Unter- 
 wchung iiber das Geheimnis und die Ge- 
 brauche der Tempelherren, i.e. An Inquiry 
 into the Mystery and Usages of the Knights 
 Templers. Dessau, 1728. He also pub- 
 lished at Gorlitz, in 1805, and again in 
 1819, A brief essay on the Culdees, Uebcr 
 die Culdeer. 
 
 Anton Hieronynras. In the ex- 
 amination of a German " steinmetz," or 
 stonemason, this is said to have been the 
 name of the first Mason. It is unquestion- 
 ably a corruption of Adon Hiram. 
 
APE 
 
 APOCALYPSE 
 
 79 
 
 Ape and Lion. Knight of the. 
 
 See Knight of the Ape and Lion. 
 
 A phan isui. In the Ancient Mysteries, 
 there was always a legend of the death or 
 disappearance of some hero god, and the 
 subsequent discovery of the body and its 
 resurrection. The concealment of this body 
 by those who had slain it, was called the 
 aphanism, from the Greek, afaviZu, to con- 
 ceal. As these Mysteries may be considered 
 as a type of Masonry, as some suppose, and 
 as, according to others, both the Mysteries 
 and Masonry are derived from one common 
 and ancient type, the aphanism, or conceal- 
 ing of the body, is of course to be found in 
 the third degree. Indeed, the purest kind 
 of Masonic aphanism is the loss or conceal- 
 ment of the word. See Mysteries, and 
 Euresis. 
 
 Apocalypse, Masonry of the. 
 The adoption of St. John the Evangelist 
 as one of the patrons of our Lodges, has 
 given rise, among the writers on Free- 
 masonry, to a variety of theories as to the 
 original cause of his being thus connected 
 with the Institution. Several traditions 
 have been handed down from remote 
 periods, which claim him as a brother, 
 among which the Masonic student will be 
 familiar with that which represents him as 
 having assumed the government of the 
 Craft, as Grand Master, after the demise of 
 John the Baptist. I confess that I am not 
 willing to place implicit confidence in the 
 correctness of this legend, and I candidly 
 subscribe to the prudence of Dalcho's re- 
 mark, that " it is unwise to assert more 
 than we can prove, and to argue against 
 probability." There must have been, how- 
 ever, in some way, a connection more or 
 less direct between the Evangelist and the 
 institution of Freemasonry, or he would 
 not from the earliest times have been so 
 universally claimed as one of its patrons. 
 If it was simply a Christian feeling — a re- 
 ligious veneration — which gave rise to this 
 general homage, I see no reason why St. 
 Matthew, St. Mark, or St. Luke might not 
 as readily and appropriately have been 
 selected as one of the "lines parallel." 
 But the fact is that there is something, both 
 in the life and in the writings of St. John 
 the Evangelist, which closely connects him 
 with our mystic Institution. He may 
 not have been a Freemason in the sense 
 in which we now use the term ; but it 
 will be sufficient, if it can be shown that 
 he was familiar with other mystical in- 
 stitutions, which are themselves generally 
 admitted to have been more or less inti- 
 mately connected with Freemasonry by 
 deriving their existence from a common 
 origin. 
 
 Such a society was the Essenian Fra- 
 
 ternity — a mystical association of specula- 
 tive philosophers among the Jews, whose 
 organization very closely resembled that of . 
 the Freemasons, and who are even supposed 
 by some to have derived their tenets and 
 their discipline from the builders of the 
 Temple. As Oliver observes, their institu- 
 tion " may be termed Freemasonry, retain- 
 ing the same form but practised under 
 another name." Now there is little doubt 
 that St. John was an Essene. Calmet posi- 
 tively asserts it; and the writings and life 
 of St. John seem to furnish sufficient in- 
 ternal evidence that he was originally of 
 that brotherhood. 
 
 But it seems to me that St. John was 
 more particularly selected as a patron of 
 Freemasonry in consequence of the mys- 
 terious and emblematic nature of the Apoc- 
 alypse, which evidently assimilated the 
 mode of teaching adopted by the Evangel- 
 ist to that practised by the Fraternity. If 
 any one who has investigated the ceremonies 
 performed in the Ancient Mysteries, the 
 Spurious Freemasonry as it has been called 
 of the Pagans, will compare them with the 
 mystical machinery used in the Book of 
 Revelations, he will find himself irresisti- 
 bly led to the conclusion that St. John the 
 Evangelist was intimately acquainted with 
 the whole process of initiation into these 
 mystic associations, and that he has selected 
 its imagery for the ground-work of his pro- 
 phetic Book. Mr. Faber, in his Origin of 
 Pagan Idolatry, (vol. ii., b. vi., ch. 6,) has, 
 with great ability and clearness, shown 
 that St. John in the Apocalypse applies 
 the ritual of the ancient initiations to a 
 spiritual and prophetic purpose. 
 
 "The whole machinery of the Apoca- 
 lypse," says Mr. Faber, " from beginning to 
 end, seems to me very plainly to have been 
 borrowed from the machinery of the An- 
 cient Mysteries ; and this, if we consider 
 the nature of the subject, was done with 
 the very strictest attention to poetical de- 
 corum. 
 
 " St. John himself is made to personate 
 an aspirant about to be initiated ; and, ac- 
 cordingly, the images presented to his 
 mind's eye closely resemble the pageants 
 of the Mysteries both in nature and in order 
 of succession. 
 
 " The prophet first beholds a door opened 
 in the magnificent temple of heaven ; and 
 into this he is invited to enter by the voice 
 of one who plays the hierophant. Here he 
 witnesses the unsealing of a sacred book, 
 and forthwith he is appalled by a troop of 
 ghastly apparitions, which flit in horrid suc- 
 cession before his eyes. Among these are 
 preeminently conspicuous a vast serpent, 
 the well-known symbol of the great father ; 
 and two portentous wild beasts, which 
 
80 
 
 APOCALYPSE 
 
 APORRHETA 
 
 severally come up out of the sea and out 
 of the earth. Such hideous figures cor- 
 respond with the canine phantoms of the 
 Orgies, which seem to rise out of the 
 ground, and with the polymorphic images 
 of the hero god who was universally deemed 
 the offspring of the sea. 
 
 " Passing these terrific monsters in safety, 
 the prophet, constantly attended by his 
 angel hierophant, who acts the part of an 
 interpreter, is conducted into the presence 
 of a female, who is described as closely re- 
 sembling the great mother of pagan theol- 
 ogy. Like Isis emerging from the sea and 
 exhibiting herself to the aspirant Apuleius, 
 this female divinity, upborne upon the 
 marine wild beast, appears to float upon 
 the surface of many waters. She is said to 
 be an open and systematical harlot, just as 
 the great mother was the declared female 
 principle of fecundity; and as she was 
 always propitiated by literal fornication 
 reduced to a religious system, and as the 
 initiated were made to drink a prepared 
 liquor out of a sacred goblet, so this harlot 
 is represented as intoxicating the kings of 
 the earth with the golden cup of her pros- 
 titution. On her forehead the very name 
 of Mystery is inscribed; and the label 
 teaches us that, in point of character, she 
 is the great universal mother of idolatry. 
 
 " The nature of this mystery the officiating 
 hierophant undertakes to explain ; and an 
 important prophecy is most curiously and 
 artfully veiled under the very language and 
 imagery of the Orgies. To the sea-born 
 
 freat father was ascribed a threefold state — 
 e lived, he died, and he revived; and these 
 changes of condition were duly exhibited 
 in the Mysteries. To the sea-born wild 
 beast is similarly ascribed a threefold 
 state — he lives, he dies, he revives. While 
 dead, he lies floating on the mighty ocean, 
 just like Horus or Osiris, or Siva or Vish- 
 nou. When he revives again, like those 
 kindred deities, he emerges from the waves ; 
 and, whether dead or alive, he bears seven 
 heads and ten horns, corresponding in num- 
 ber with the seven ark-preserved Rishis and 
 the ten aboriginal patriarchs. Nor is this 
 all : as the worshippers of the great father 
 bore his special mark or stigma, and were 
 distinguished by his name, so the worship- 
 pers of the maritime beast equally bear his 
 mark and are equally decorated by his ap- 
 pellation. 
 
 " At length, however, the first or doleful 
 part of these sacred Mysteries draws to a 
 close, and the last or joyful part is rapidly 
 approaching. After the prophet has beheld 
 the enemies of God plungea into a dread- 
 ful lake or inundation of liquid fire, which 
 corresponds with the infernal lake or deluge 
 of the Orgies, he is introduced into a splen- 
 
 didly-illuminated region, expressly adorned 
 with the characteristics of that Paradise 
 which was the ultimate scope of the ancient 
 aspirants ; while without the holy gate of 
 admission are the whole multitude of the 
 profane, dogs, and sorcerors, and whoremon- 
 gers, and murderers, and idolators, and who- 
 soever loveth and maketh a lie." 
 
 Such was the imagery of the Apocalypse. 
 In close resemblance to the machinery of 
 the Mysteries, and the intimate connection 
 between their system and that of Freema- 
 sonry, very naturally induced our ancient 
 brethren to claim the patronage of an 
 apostle so preeminently mystical in his 
 writings, and whose last and crowning 
 work bore so much of the appearance, in 
 in an outward form, of a ritual of initia- 
 tion. 
 
 Apocalypse, Order of the. An 
 Order instituted about the end of the sev- 
 enteenth century, by one Gabrino, who 
 called himself the Prince of the Septenary 
 Number and Monarch of the Holy Trin- 
 ity. He enrolled a great number of arti- 
 zans in his ranks. According to Thory, 
 some of the provincial Lodges of France 
 made a degree out of Gabrino's system. 
 The jewel of the Order was a naked sword 
 and a blazing star. Reghellini (iii. 72) 
 thinks that this Order was the precursor 
 of the degrees afterwards introduced by the 
 Masons who practised the Templar system. 
 
 Apocalyptic Degrees. Those de- 
 grees which are founded on the Revelation of 
 St. John, or whose symbols and machinery 
 of initiation are derived from that work, 
 are called Apocalyptic degrees. Of this 
 nature are several of the high degrees ; 
 such, for instance, as the 17th, or Knight 
 of the East and West of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 Aporrlieta. Greek, airop'prf-a. The holy 
 things in the Ancient Mysteries which were 
 known only to the initiates, and were not to 
 be disclosed to the profane, were called the 
 aporrheta. What are the aporrheta of Free- 
 masonry? what are the arcana of which 
 there can be no disclosure? is a question 
 that for some years past has given rise to 
 much discussion among the disciples of the 
 Institution. If the sphere and number of 
 these aporrheta be very considerably ex- 
 tended, it is evident that much valuable in- 
 vestigation by public discussion of the sci- 
 ence of Masonry will be prohibited. On 
 the other hand, if the aporrheta are re- 
 stricted to only a few points, much of the 
 beauty, the permanency, and the efficacy of 
 Freemasonry which are dependent on its 
 organization as a secret and mystical asso- 
 ciation will be lost. We move between 
 Scylla and Charybdis, and it is difficult for 
 a Masonic writer to know how to steer so as, 
 in avoiding too frank an exposition of the 
 
APPEAL 
 
 APPRENTICE 
 
 81 
 
 principles of the Order, not to fall by too 
 much reticence into obscurity. The Eu- 
 ropean Masons are far more liberal in their 
 views of the obligation of secrecy than the 
 English or the American. There are few 
 things, indeed, which a French or German 
 Masonic writer will refuse to discuss with 
 the utmost frankness. It is now beginning 
 to be very generally admitted, and English 
 and American writers are acting on the ad- 
 mission, that the only real aporrheta of 
 Freemasonry are the modes of recognition, 
 and the peculiar and distinctive ceremonies 
 of the Order ; and to these last it is claimed 
 that reference may be publicly made for the 
 purpose ofscientific investigation, provided 
 that the reference be so made as to be ob- 
 scure to the profane, and intelligible only 
 to the initiated. 
 
 Appeal, Right of. The right of 
 appeal is an inherent right belonging to 
 every Mason, and the Grand Lodge is the 
 appellate body to whom the appeal is to be 
 made. 
 
 Appeals are of two kinds : 1st, from the 
 decision of the Master ; 2dly, from the de- 
 cision of the Lodge. Each of these will 
 require a distinct consideration. 
 
 1. Appeals from the Decision of the Mas- 
 ter. It is now a settled doctrine in Masonic 
 law that there can be no appeal from the 
 decision of a Master of a Lodge to the 
 Lodge itself. But an appeal always lies 
 from such decision to the Grand Lodge, 
 which is bound to entertain the appeal and 
 to inquire into the correctness of the deci- 
 sion. Some writers have endeavored to 
 restrain the despotic authority of the Mas- 
 ter to decisions in matters strictly relating 
 to the work of the Lodge, while they con- 
 tend that on all questions of business an 
 appeal may be taken from his decision to 
 the Lodge. But it would be unsafe, and 
 often impracticable, to draw this distinc- 
 tion, and accordingly the highest Masonic 
 authorities have rejected the theory, and 
 denied the power in a Lodge to entertain 
 an appeal from any decision of the pre- 
 siding officer. 
 
 The wisdom of this law must be appa- 
 rent to any one who examines the nature 
 of the organization of the Masonic institu- 
 tion. The Master is responsible to the 
 Grand Lodge for the good conduct of his 
 Lodge. To him and to him alone the su- 
 preme Masonic authority looks for the pre- 
 servation of order, and the observance of 
 the Constitutions and the Landmarks of 
 the Order in the body over which he pre- 
 sides. It is manifest, then, that it would be 
 highly unjust to throw around a presiding 
 officer so heavy a responsibility, if it were 
 in the power of the Lodge to overrule his 
 decisions or to control his authority. 
 
 2. Appeals from the Decisions of the 
 Lodge. Appeals may be made to the Grand 
 Lodge from the decisions of a Lodge, on 
 any subject except the admission of 
 members, or the election of candidates ; but 
 these appeals are more frequently made in 
 reference to conviction and punishment 
 after trial. 
 
 When a Mason, in consequence of charges 
 preferred against him, has been tried, con- 
 victed, and sentenced by his Lodge, he has 
 an inalienable right to appeal to the Grand 
 Lodge from such conviction and sentence. 
 
 His appeal may be either general or 
 specific. That is, he may appeal on the 
 ground, generally, that the whole of the 
 proceedings have been irregular or illegal, 
 or he may appeal specifically against some 
 particular portion of the trial; or lastly, 
 admitting the correctness of the verdict, 
 and acknowledging the truth of the charges, 
 he may appeal from the sentence, as being 
 too severe or disproportionate to the offence. 
 
 Appendant Orders. In the Tem- 
 plar system of the United States, the de- 
 grees of Knight of the Bed Cross, and 
 Knight of Malta, are called Appendant Or- 
 ders because they are conferred as append- 
 ages to that of Knight Templar, which ia 
 the principal degree of the Commandery. 
 
 Apple-Tree Tavern. The place 
 where the four Lodges of London met in 
 1717, and organized the Grand Lodge of 
 England. It was situated in Charles Street, 
 Covent Garden. 
 
 Apprenti. French for Apprentice. 
 
 Apprentice. See Apprentice, Entered. 
 
 Apprentice Architect. {Apprenti 
 Architecte.) A degree in the collection of 
 Fustier. 
 
 Apprentice Architect, Perfect. 
 {Apprenti Architecte Parfait.) A degree in 
 the collection of Le Page. 
 
 Apprentice Architect, Prus- 
 sian. {Apprenti Architecte Prussien.) A 
 degree in the collection of Le Page. 
 
 Apprentice Cohen. {Apprenti Com.) 
 A degree in the collection of the Archives 
 of the Mother Lodge of the Philosophic 
 Eite. 
 
 Apprentice, Egyptian. {Apprenti, 
 s Egyptien. ) The first degree of the Egyptian 
 Bite of Cagliostro. 
 
 Apprentice, Entered. The first 
 degree of Freemasonry, in all the Bites, is 
 that of Entered Apprentice. In French, it 
 is called apprenti; in Spanish, aprendiz ; 
 in Italian, apprendente ; and in German, 
 lehrling ; in all of which the radical mean- 
 ing of the word is a learner. Like the 
 lesser Mysteries of the ancient initiations, 
 it is in Masonry a preliminary degree, in- 
 tended to prepare the candidate for the 
 higher and fuller instructions of the sue- 
 
82 
 
 APPRENTICE 
 
 APPRENTICE 
 
 ceeding degrees. It is therefore, although 
 supplying no valuable historical informa- 
 tion, replete, in its lecture, with instruc- 
 tions on the internal structure of the Order. 
 Until late in the seventeenth century, Ap- 
 prentices do not seem to have been con- 
 sidered as forming any part of the confra- 
 ternity of Free and Accepted Masons ; for 
 although they are incidentally mentioned 
 in the Old Constitutions of the fifteenth, 
 sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, these 
 records refer only to Masters and Fellows 
 as constituting the Craft, and this distinc- 
 tion seems to have been one rather of posi- 
 tion than of degree. The Sloane Manu- 
 script, No. 3,329, which Findel supposes to 
 have been written at the end of the seven- 
 teenth century, describes a just and perfect 
 Lodge as consisting of " two Interprentices, 
 two Fellow Crafts, and two Masters," which 
 shows that by that time the Apprentices 
 had been elevated to a recognized rank in 
 the Fraternity. In the Manuscript signed 
 " Mark Kypling," which Hughan entitles 
 " Manuscript Constitutions, No. 4," the 
 date of which is 1693, there is a still further 
 recognition in what is there called " the 
 Apprentice Charge," one item of which is, 
 that " he shall keepe councell in all things 
 spoken in Lodge or chamber by any Masons, 
 Fellows, or Freemasons." This indicates 
 that they were admitted to a closer com- 
 munion with the members of the Craft. 
 But notwithstanding these recognitions, all 
 the manuscripts up to 1704 show that only 
 " Masters and Fellows " were summoned to 
 the assembly. During all this time, when 
 Masonry was in fact an operative art, there 
 was but one degree in the modern sense of 
 the word. Early in the eighteenth century, 
 if not earlier, Apprentices must have been 
 admitted to the possession of this degree ; 
 for after what is called the revival of 1717, 
 Entered Apprentices constituted the bulk 
 of the Craft, and they only were initiated 
 in the Lodges, the degrees of Fellow Craft 
 and Master Mason being conferred by the 
 Grand Lodge. This is not left to conjecture. 
 The thirteenth of the General Regulations, 
 approved in 1721, says that " Apprentices 
 must be admitted Masters and Fellow 
 Crafts only in the Grand Lodge, unless by 
 a dispensation." But this having been 
 found very inconvenient, on the 22d No- 
 vember, 1725, the Grand Lodge repealed 
 the article, and decreed that the Master of 
 a Lodge, with his Wardens and a compe- 
 tent number of the Lodge assembled in due 
 form, can make Masters and Fellows at 
 discretion. 
 
 The mass of the Fraternity being at that 
 time composed of Apprentices, they exer- 
 cised a great deal of influence in the legis- 
 lation of the Order j for although they could 
 
 not represent their Lodge in the Quarterly 
 Communications of the Grand Lodge, — a 
 duty which could only be discharged by a 
 Master or Fellow, — yet they were always 
 permitted to be present at the grand feast, 
 and no General Regulation could be altered 
 or repealed without their consent ; and, of 
 course, in all the business of their particular 
 Lodges, they took the most prominent part, 
 for there were but few Masters or Fellows 
 in a Lodge, in consequence of the difficulty 
 and inconvenience of obtaining the degree, 
 which could only be done at a Quarterly 
 Communication of the Grand Lodge. 
 
 But as soon as the subordinate Lodges 
 were invested with the power of conferring 
 all the degrees, the Masters began rapidly 
 to increase in numbers and in corresponding 
 influence. And now, the bulk of the Fra- 
 ternity consisting of Master Masons, the 
 legislation of the Order is done exclusively 
 by them, and the Entered Apprentices and 
 Fellow Crafts have sunk into comparative 
 obscurity, their degrees being considered 
 only as preparatory to the greater initiation 
 of the Master's degree. 
 
 Apprentice, Hermetic. {Apprenti 
 Hermetique.) The thirteenth degree of the 
 collection of the Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. 
 
 Apprentice, Kabbalistic. {Ap- 
 prenti Cabalistique.) A degree in the collec- 
 tion of the Archives of the Mother Lodge 
 of the Philosophic Rite. 
 
 Apprentice Mason. {Apprenti Ma- 
 qon.) The Entered Apprentice of French 
 Masonry. 
 
 Apprentice Masoness. {Apprentie 
 Maconne.) The first degree of the French 
 Rite of Adoption. The word Masoness is a 
 neologism ; but it is in accordance with the 
 genius of our language; and I know not 
 how else to translate into English the 
 French word Maqonne, which means a 
 woman who has received the degrees of the 
 Rite of Adoption, unless by the use of the 
 awkward phrase, Female Mason. To ex- 
 press this idea, we might introduce as a 
 technicality the word Masoness. 
 
 Apprentice Masoness, Egyp- 
 tian. {Apprentie Maconne Egyptienne.) 
 The first degree of Cagliosh's Egyptian 
 Rite of Adoption. 
 
 Apprentice, Mystic. {Apprenti 
 Mystique.) A degree in the collection of M. 
 Pyron. 
 
 Apprentice of Paracelsns. (Ap- 
 prenti de Paraceke.) A degree in the collec- 
 tion of M. Peuvret. There existed a series 
 of these Paracelsian degrees — Apprentice, 
 Fellow Craft, and Master. They were all 
 most probably forms of Hermetic Masonry. 
 
 Apprentice of the Egyptian Se- 
 crets. {Apprenti des secrets Egyptiens.) The 
 
APPRENTICE 
 
 APRON 
 
 83 
 
 first degree of the Order of African Archi- 
 tects. 
 
 Apprentice Philosopher, by 
 the Number 3. (Apprenti Philosophe 
 par le Nombre 3.) A degree in the collection 
 of M. Peuvret. 
 
 Apprentice Philosopher, Her- 
 metic. (Apprenti Philosophe Hermetique.) 
 A degree in the collection of M. Peuvret. 
 
 Apprentice Philosopher to the 
 Number 9. (Apprenti Philosophe au 
 Nombre 9.) A degree in the collection of 
 M. Peuvret. 
 
 Apprentice Pillar. See Prentice 
 Pillar. 
 
 Apprentice, Scottish. (Apprenti 
 Ecossais.) This degree, and that of Trini- 
 tarian Scottish Apprentice, (Apprenti Ecos- 
 sais Trinitaire,) are contained in the collec- 
 tion of Pyron. 
 
 Apprentice Theosophist. (Ap- 
 prenti Theosophe.) The first degree of the 
 Rite of Swedenborg. 
 
 Apron. There is no one of the sym- 
 bols of Speculative Masonry more impor- 
 tant in its teachings, or more interesting in 
 its history, than the lambskin, or white 
 leather apron. Commencing its lessons at 
 an early period in the Mason's progress, it 
 is impressed upon his memory as the first 
 gift which he receives, the first symbol 
 which is explained to him, and the first 
 tangible evidence which he possesses of his 
 admission into the Fraternity. Whatever 
 may be his future advancement in the 
 " royal art," into whatsoever deeper arcana 
 his devotion to the mystic Institution or 
 his thirst for knowledge may subsequently 
 lead him, with the lambskin apron — his 
 first investiture — he never parts. Chang- 
 ing, perhaps, its form and its decorations, 
 and conveying, at each step, some new but 
 still beautiful allusion, its substance is still 
 there, and it continues to claim the honored 
 title by which it was first made known to 
 him, on the night of his initiation, as " the 
 badge of a Mason." 
 
 If in less important portions of our ritual 
 there are abundant allusions to the manners 
 and customs of the ancient world, it is not 
 to be supposed that the Masonic rite of in- 
 vestiture — the ceremony of clothing the 
 newly-initiated candidate with this dis- 
 tinctive badge of his profession — is with- 
 out its archetype in the times and practices 
 long passed away. It would, indeed, be 
 strange, while all else in Masonry is cov- 
 ered with the veil of antiquity, that the 
 apron alone, its most significant symbol, 
 should be indebted for its existence to the 
 invention of a modern mind. 
 
 On the contrary, we shall find the most 
 satisfactory evidence that the use of the 
 apron, or some equivalent mode of investi- 
 
 ture, as a mystic symbol, was common to 
 all the nations of the earth from the earliest 
 periods. 
 
 Among the Israelites the girdle formed 
 a part of the investiture of the priesthood. 
 In the mysteries of Mithras, in Persia, the 
 candidate was invested with a white apron. 
 In the initiations practised in Hindostan, 
 the ceremony of investiture was preserved, 
 but a sash, called the sacred zennar, was 
 substituted for the apron. The Jewish sect 
 of the Essenes clothed their novices with 
 a white robe. The celebrated traveller 
 Ksempfer informs us that the Japanese, 
 who practise certain rites of initiation, in- 
 vest their candidates with a white apron, 
 bound round the loins with a zone or gir- 
 dle. In the Scandinavian rites, the mili- 
 tary genius of the people caused them to 
 substitute a white shield, but its presenta- 
 tion was accompanied by an emblematic 
 instruction not unlike that which is con- 
 nected with the Mason's apron. 
 
 "The apron," says Dr. Oliver, (S. and S., 
 Lect. X., p. 196,) "appears to have been in 
 ancient times an honorary badge of distinc- 
 tion. In the Jewish economy none but the 
 superior orders of the priesthood were per- 
 mitted to adorn themselves with orna- 
 mented girdles, which were made of blue, 
 purple, and crimson, decorated with gold, 
 upon a ground of fine white linen, while 
 the inferior priests wore only plain white. 
 The Indian, the Persian, the Jewish, the 
 Ethiopian, and the Egyptian aprons, though 
 equally superb, all bore a character dis- 
 tinct from each other. Some were plain 
 white ones, others striped with blue, pur- 
 ple, and crimson ; some were of wrought 
 gold, others adorned and decorated with 
 superb tassels and fringes. In a word, 
 though the principal honor of the apron 
 may consist in innocence of conduct and 
 purity of heart, yet it certainly appears 
 through all ages to have been a most ex- 
 alted badge of distinction. In primitive 
 times it was rather an ecclesiastical than a 
 civil decoration ; although in some cases 
 the apron was elevated to great superiority 
 as a national trophy. The royal standard 
 of Persia was originally an apron in form 
 and dimensions. At this day it is connected 
 with ecclesiastical honors; for the chief 
 dignitaries of the Christian church, wher- 
 ever a legitimate establishment, with the 
 necessary degrees of rank and subordina- 
 tion is formed, are invested with aprons as 
 a peculiar badge of distinction, which is a 
 collateral proof of the fact that Masonry 
 was originally incorporated with the various 
 systems of divine worship used by every 
 people in the ancient world. Masonry re- 
 tains the symbol or shadow ; it cannot have 
 renounced the reality or substance." 
 
84 
 
 APRON 
 
 APRON 
 
 In the Masonic apron two things are 
 essential to the due preservation of its sym- 
 bolic character — its color and its material. 
 
 1. As to its color. The color of a Mason's 
 apron should be pure unspotted white. 
 This color has, in all ages and countries, 
 been esteemed an emblem of innocence 
 and purity. It was with this reference that 
 a portion of the vestments of the Jewish 
 priesthood was directed to be white. In 
 the Ancient Mysteries the candidate was 
 always clothed in white. " The priests of 
 the Romans," says Festus, " were accus- 
 tomed to wear white garments when they 
 sacrificed." In the Scandinavian rites it 
 has been seen that the shield presented to 
 the candidate was white. The Druids 
 changed the color of the garment pre- 
 sented to their initiates with each degree ; 
 white, however, was the color appropriated 
 to the last, or degree of perfection. And 
 it was, according to their ritual, intended 
 to teach the aspirant that none were ad- 
 mitted to that honor but such as were 
 cleansed from all impurities both of body 
 and mind. In the early ages of the Chris- 
 tian church a white garment was always 
 placed upon the catechumen who had been 
 newly baptized, to denote that he had been 
 cleansed from his former sins, and was 
 thenceforth to lead a life of purity. Hence 
 it was presented to him with this solemn 
 charge : " Receive the white and undefiled 
 garment, and produce it unspotted before 
 the tribunal of our Lord Jesus Christ, that 
 you may obtain eternal life." From all 
 these instances we learn that white apparel 
 was anciently used as an emblem of purity, 
 and for this reason the color has been pre- 
 served in the apron of the Freemason. 
 
 2. As to its material. A Mason's apron 
 must be made of lambskin. No other sub- 
 stance, such as linen, silk, or satin, could be 
 substituted without entirely destroying the 
 emblematic character of the apron, for the 
 material of the Mason's apron constitutes 
 one of the most important symbols of his 
 profession. The lamb has always been con- 
 sidered as an appropriate emblem of inno- 
 cence. And hence we are taught, in the 
 ritual of the first degree, that, "by the 
 lambskin, the Mason is reminded of that 
 purity of life and rectitude of conduct 
 which is so essentially necessary to his gain- 
 ing admission into the Celestial Lodge 
 above, where the Supreme Architect of the 
 Universe forever presides." 
 
 The true apron of a Mason must then be 
 of unspotted lambskin, from 14 to 16 inches 
 wide, from 12 to 14 deep, with a fall about 
 3 or 4 inches deep, square at the bottom, and 
 without device or ornament of any kind. 
 The usage of the Craft in this country has, 
 for a few years past, allowed a narrow edg- 
 
 ing of blue ribbon in the symbolic de- 
 grees, to denote the universal friendship 
 which constitutes the bond of the society, 
 and of which virtue blue is the Masonic 
 emblem. But this undoubtedly is an inno- 
 vation, for the ancient apron was without 
 any edging or ornament. In the Royal 
 Arch degree the lambskin is, of course, con- 
 tinued to be used, but, according to the 
 same modern custom, there is an edging of 
 red, to denote the zeal and fervency which 
 should distinguish the possessors of that 
 degree. All extraneous ornaments and de- 
 vices are in bad taste, and detract from the 
 symbolic character of the investiture. But 
 the silk or satin aprons, bespangled and 
 painted and embroidered, which have been 
 gradually creeping into our Lodges, have no 
 sort of connection with Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry. They are an innovation of our 
 French brethren, who are never pleased 
 with simplicity, and have, by their love of 
 tinsel in their various newly-invented cere- 
 monies, effaced many of the most beautiful 
 and impressive symbols of our Institution. 
 A Mason who understands and appreciates 
 the true symbolic meaning of his apron, 
 would no more tolerate a painted or em- 
 broidered satin one than an artist would a 
 gilded statue. By him, the lambskin, and 
 the lambskin alone, would be considered 
 as the badge " more ancient than the Golden 
 Fleece, or Roman Eagle, and more honor- 
 able than the Star and Garter." 
 
 The Grand Lodge of England is precise 
 in its regulations for the decorations of the 
 apron, which are thus laid down in its 
 Constitution. 
 
 "Entered Apprentices. — A plain white 
 lambskin, from fourteen to sixteen inches 
 wide, twelve to fourteen inches deep, square 
 at bottom, and without ornament; white 
 strings. 
 
 " Fellow Graft. — A plain white lambskin, 
 similar to that of the Entered Apprentices, 
 with the addition only of two sky-blue 
 rosettes at the bottom. 
 
 " Master Masons. — The same, with sky- 
 blue lining and edging, one and a half inch 
 deep, and an additional rosette on the fall 
 or nap, and silver tassels. No other color 
 or ornament shall be allowed, except to 
 officers and past officers of Lodges who 
 may have the emblems of their offices in 
 silver or white in the centre of the apron ; 
 and except as to the members of the Prince 
 of Wales' Lodge, No. 324, who are allowed 
 to wear a narrow internal border of garter- 
 blue in their aprons. 
 
 " Grand Stewards, present and past. — 
 Aprons of the same dimensions lined with 
 crimson, edging of the same color three 
 and a half inches, and silver tassels. Pro- 
 vincial Grand Stewards, while in office, the 
 
APRON 
 
 ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 85 
 
 same, except that the edging is only two 
 inches wide. The collars of the Grand 
 Steward's Lodge to be crimson ribbon, four 
 inches broad. 
 
 " Grand Officers of the United Grand 
 Lodge, present and past. — Aprons of the 
 same dimensions, lined with garter-blue, 
 edging three and a half inches, ornamented 
 with gold, and blue strings ; and they may 
 have the emblems of their offices, in gold 
 or blue, in the centre. 
 
 "Provincial Grand Officers, present and 
 past. — Aprons of the same dimensions, 
 lined with garter-blue, and ornamented 
 with gold and with blue strings : they must 
 have the emblems of their offices in gold or 
 blue in the centre within a double circle, in 
 the margin of which must be inserted the 
 name of the province. The garter-blue 
 edging to the aprons must not exceed two 
 inches in width. 
 
 " The apron of the Deputy Grand Master 
 to have the emblem of his office in gold 
 embroidery in the centre, and the pome- 
 granate and lotus alternately embroidered 
 in gold on the edging. 
 
 The apron of the Grand Master is orna- 
 mented with the blazing sun embroidered 
 in gold in the centre; on the edging the 
 pomegranate and lotus with the seven-eared 
 wheat at each corner, and also on the fall ; 
 all in gold embroidery ; the fringe of gold 
 bullion. 
 
 " The apron of the pro Grand Master the 
 same. 
 
 " The Masters and Past Masters of Lodges 
 to wear, in lieu and in the places of the 
 three rosettes on the Master Mason's apron, 
 perpendicular lines upon horizontal lines, 
 thereby forming three several sets of two 
 right angles ; the length of the horizontal 
 lines to be two inches and a half each, and 
 of the perpendicular lines one inch ; these 
 emblems to be of ribbon, half an inch 
 broad, and of the same color as the lining 
 and edging of the apron. If Grand Officers, 
 similar emblems of garter-blue or gold." 
 
 In this country, although there is evi- 
 dence in some old aprons, still existing, 
 that rosettes were formerly worn, there are 
 now no distinctive decorations for the 
 aprons of the different symbolic degrees. 
 The only mark of distinction is in the 
 mode of wearing ; and this differs in the 
 different jurisdictions, some wearing the 
 Master's apron turned up at the corner, and 
 others the Fellow Craft's. The authority 
 of Cross, in his plate of the Royal Master's 
 degree in the older editions of his Hiero- 
 glyphic Chart, conclusively shows that he 
 taught the former method ; although the 
 latter is now the more common usage. 
 
 As we advance to the higher degrees, we 
 find the apron varying in its decorations 
 
 and in the color of its border, which are, 
 however, always symbolical of some idea 
 taught in the degree. 
 
 Araunah. See Oman. 
 
 Arbitration. In the Old Charges, 
 Masons are advised, in all cases of dispute 
 or controversy, to submit to the arbitration 
 of the Masters and Fellows, rather than to 
 go to law. 
 
 Arcana. Latin. Secret things, or 
 mysteries which it is forbidden to reveal. 
 See Secrets. 
 
 Arcani IMsciplina. The mode of 
 initiation into the primitive Christian 
 church. See Discipline of the Secret. 
 
 Arch, Antiquity of the. Writers 
 on architecture have, until within a few 
 years, been accustomed to suppose that the 
 invention of the arch and keystone was 
 not anterior to the era of Augustus. But 
 the researches of modern antiquaries have 
 traced the existence of the arch as far 
 back as 460 years before the building of 
 King Solomon's Temple, and thus rescued 
 Masonic traditions from the charge of ana- 
 chronism. See Keystone. 
 
 Arch, Catenarian. See Catenarian 
 Arch. 
 
 Arch of Enoch. The 13th degree 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 is sometimes so called. See Knight of the 
 Ninth Arch. 
 
 Arch of Heaven. Job, xxvi. 11, 
 compares heaven to an arch supported by 
 pillars. "The pillars of heaven tremble 
 and are astonished at his reproof." Dr. 
 Cutbush, on this passage, remarks, " The 
 arch in this instance is allegorical, not only 
 of the arch of heaven, but of the higher 
 degree of Masonry, commonly called the 
 Holy Royal Arch. The pillars which sup- 
 port the arch are emblematical of Wisdom 
 and Strength ; the former denoting the 
 wisdom of the Supreme Architect, and the 
 latter the stability of the Universe." — Am. 
 Ed. Brewster's Encyc. 
 
 Arch of Solomon. Royal. The 
 13th degree of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite is sometimes so called, by which it is 
 distinguished from the Royal Arch degree 
 of the English and American systems. 
 
 Arch of Steel. The grand honors 
 are conferred, in the French Rite, by two 
 ranks of brethren elevating and crossing 
 their drawn swords. They call it voute 
 d'acier. 
 
 Arch of Zerubbabel, Royal. The 
 7th degree of the American Rite is some- 
 times so called to distinguish it from the 
 Royal Arch of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite, which is called the Royal 
 Arch of Solomon. 
 
 Arch, Royal. See Royal Arch. 
 
 Archaeology. The science which is en- 
 
86 
 
 ARCHETYPE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 gaged in the study of those minor branches 
 of antiquities which do not enter into the 
 course of general history, such as national 
 architecture, genealogies, manners, cus- 
 toms, heraldic subjects, and others of a simi- 
 lar nature. The archaeology of Freema- 
 sonry has been made, within a recent 
 period, a very interesting study, and is 
 much indebted for its successful pursuit to 
 the labors of KIoss and Findel in Ger- 
 many, and to Thory and Ragon in France, 
 and to Oliver, Lyon, Hughan, and many 
 living writers, in England. The scholars 
 of this science have especially directed their 
 attention to the collection of old records, 
 and the inquiry into the condition and or- 
 ganization of Masonic and other secret as- 
 sociations during the Middle Ages. In 
 America, the late William S. Rockwell was 
 a diligent student of Masonic archaeology, 
 and several others in this country have 
 labored assiduously in the same inviting 
 field. 
 
 Archetype. The principal type, figure, 
 pattern, or example whereby and whereon 
 a thing is formed. In the science of sym- 
 bolism, the archetype is the thing adopted 
 as a symbol, whence the symbolic idea is 
 derived. Thus we say the Temple is the 
 archetype of the Lodge, because the former 
 is the symbol whence all the Temple sym- 
 bolism of the latter is derived. 
 
 Architect. In laying the corner- 
 stones of Masonic edifices, and in dedicating 
 them after they are finished, the architect 
 of the building, although he may be a pro- 
 fane, is required to take a part in the cere- 
 monies. In the former case, the square, 
 level, and plumb are delivered to him with 
 a charge by the Grand Master ; and in the 
 latter case they are returned by him to that 
 officer. 
 
 Architect, African. See African 
 Architects. 
 
 Architect by 3, 5, and 7, Grand. 
 ( Grande Architecte par 3, 5, el 7. ) A degree 
 in the manuscript of Peuvret's collection. 
 
 Architect, Grand. {Architecte 
 Grande.) 1. The sixth degree of the Rite 
 of Martinism. 2. The fourth degree of the 
 Rite of Elect Cohens. 3. The twenty- 
 third degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 4. 
 The twenty-fourth degree in the collection 
 of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Architect, Grand Master. See 
 Grand Master Architect. 
 
 Architect, I A 1 1 le. {Architecte Petit. ) 
 
 1. The twenty -third degree of the collection 
 of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 2. The twenty-second degree of the Rite 
 of Mizraim. 
 
 Architect of Solomon. {Architecte 
 de Salomon.) A degree in the manuscript 
 collection of M. Peuvret. 
 
 Architect, Perfect. {Architecte 
 Par/ait.) The twenty-eighth degree of the 
 Rite of Mizraim. The twenty-fifth, twenty- 
 sixth, twenty-seventh degrees of the same 
 Rite are Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and 
 Master Perfect Architect. 
 
 Architect, Perfect and Sub- 
 lime Grand. {Architecte, Par/ait et 
 Sublime Grande.) A degree in the collec- 
 tion of the Loge des Amis Reunis at 
 Calais. 
 
 Architectonicns. Latin. Relating • 
 to architecture. Thus, Vitruvius says, 
 "rationes architectonicse," the rules of 
 architecture. But as Architecton signifies 
 a Master Builder, the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland, in some Latin inscriptions, has 
 used the word architectonicus, to denote Ma- 
 sonic or relating to Freemasonry. In the in- 
 scription on the corner-stone of the Royal 
 Exchange of Edinburgh, we find " fratres 
 architectonici " used for Freemasons; and in 
 the Grand Lodge diploma, a Lodge is called 
 " societas architectonica;" but the usage of 
 the word in this sense has not been gen- 
 erally adopted. 
 
 Architecture. The art of construct- 
 ing dwellings, as a shelter from the heat 
 of summer and the cold of winter, must 
 have been resorted to from the very first 
 moment in which man became subjected to 
 the power of the elements. Architecture 
 is, therefore, not only one of the most im- 
 portant, but one of the most ancient of 
 sciences. Rude and imperfect must, how- 
 ever, have been the first efforts of the 
 human race, resulting in the erection of 
 huts clumsy in their appearance, and ages 
 must have elapsed ere wisdom of design 
 combined strength of material with beauty 
 of execution. 
 
 As Geometry is the science on which 
 Masonry is founded, Architecture is the art 
 from which it borrows the language of its 
 symbolic instruction. In the earlier ages 
 of the Order every Mason was either an 
 operative mechanic or a superintending 
 architect. And something more than a 
 superficial knowledge of the principles of 
 architecture is absolutely essential to the 
 Mason who would either understand the 
 former history of the Institution or appre- 
 ciate its present objects. 
 
 There are five orders of architecture : the 
 Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, the Tus- 
 can, and the Composite. The first three 
 are the original orders, and were invented 
 in Greece ; the last two are of later forma- 
 tion, and owe their existence to Italy. 
 Each of these orders, as well as the other 
 terms of architecture, so far as they are 
 connected with Freemasonry, will be found 
 under its appropriate head throughout this 
 work. 
 
ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARK 
 
 87 
 
 The Books of Constitutions, commenced 
 by Anderson and continued by Entick and 
 Noorthouck, contain, under the title of a 
 History of Freemasonry, in reality a history 
 of the progress of architecture from the 
 earliest ages. In the older manuscript 
 Constitutions the science of geometry, as 
 well as architecture, is made identical with 
 Masonry ; so that he who would rightly 
 understand the true history of Freema- 
 sonry must ever bear in mind the distinc- 
 tion between Geometry, Architecture, and 
 Masonry, which is constantly lost sight of 
 in these old records. 
 
 Architecture, Piece of. {Morceau 
 <V architecture.) The name given in French 
 Lodges to the minutes. 
 
 Archives. This word means, properly, 
 a place of deposit for records ; but it means 
 also the records themselves. Hence the 
 archives of a Lodge are its records and 
 other documents. The legend in the second 
 degree, that the pillars of the Temple were 
 made hollow to contain the archives of 
 Masonry, is simply a myth, and a very 
 modern one. 
 
 Archives, Grand Guardian of 
 the. An officer in the Grand Council of 
 Rites of Ireland who performs the duties 
 of Secretary General. 
 
 Archives, Grand Keeper of the. 
 An officer in some of the bodies of the high 
 degrees whose duties are indicated by the 
 name. In the Grand Orient of France he 
 is called Grand Garde des timbres et Sceaux, 
 as he combines the duties of a keeper of 
 the archives and a keeper of the seats. 
 
 Archiviste. An officer in French 
 Lodges who has the charge of the archives. 
 The Germans call him Archivar. 
 
 Ardarel. A word in the high degrees, 
 used as the name of the angel of fire. It 
 is a distorted form of Adariel, the splendor 
 of God. 
 
 Arelim. A word used in some of the 
 rituals of the high degrees. It is found in 
 Isaiah, (xxxiii. 7,) where it is translated, 
 in the A. V., " valiant ones," and by Lowth, 
 " mighty men." It is a doubtful word, and 
 is probably formed from ariel, the lion of 
 God. D'Herbelot says that Mohammed 
 called his uncle Hamseh, on account of 
 his valor, the lion of God. In the Kabba- 
 la, Arelim is the angelic name of the third 
 sephirah. 
 
 Areopagus. The third apartment in 
 a Council of Kadosh is so called. It rep- 
 resents a tribunal, and the name is derived 
 from the celebrated court of Athens. 
 
 Arithmetic. That science which is 
 engaged in considering the properties and 
 powers of numbers, and which, from its 
 manifest necessity in all the operations of 
 weighing, numbering, and measuring, must 
 
 have had its origin in the remotest ages of 
 the world. 
 
 In the lecture of the degree of Grand 
 Master Architect, the application of this 
 science to Freemasonry is made to consist 
 in its reminding the Mason that he is con- 
 tinually to add to his knowledge, never to 
 subtract anything from the character of his 
 neighbor, to multiply his benevolence to his 
 fellow-creatures, and to divide his means 
 with a suffering brother. 
 
 Ark. In the ritual of the American 
 Royal Arch degree three arks are referred 
 to: 1. The Ark of Safety, or of Noah; 2. 
 The Ark of the Covenant, or of Moses ; 3. 
 The Substitute Ark, or the Ark of Zerub- 
 babel. In what is technically called " the 
 
 Eassing of the veils," each of these arks 
 as its commemorative illustration, and in 
 the order in which they have been named. 
 The first was constructed by Shem, Ham, 
 and Japheth, the sons of Noah ; the second 
 by Moses, Aholiab, and Bezaleel ; and the 
 third was discovered by Joshua, Haggai, 
 and Zerubbabel. 
 
 Ark and Anchor. See Anchor and 
 Ark. 
 
 Ark and Dove. An illustrative de- 
 gree, preparatory to the Royal Arch, and 
 usually conferred, when conferred at all, 
 immediately before the solemn ceremony 
 of exaltation. The name of Noachite, 
 sometimes given to it, is incorrect, as this 
 belongs to a degree in the Ancient Scottish 
 Rite. It is very probable that the degree, 
 which now, however, has lost much of 
 its significance, was derived from a much 
 older one called the Royal Ark Mariners, to 
 which the reader is referred. The legend 
 and symbolism of the ark and dove formed 
 an important part of the spurious Free- 
 masonry of the ancients. 
 
 Ark Mariners. See Royal Ark 
 Mariners. . 
 
 Ark, Noah's, or the Ark of Safety, 
 constructed by Shem, Ham, and Japheth, 
 under the superintendence of Noah, and in 
 it, as a chosen tabernacle of refuge, the 
 patriarch's family took refuge. It has been 
 called by many commentators a tabernacle 
 of Jehovah ; and Dr. Jarvis, speaking of the 
 word "1HV> ZoHaR, which has been trans- 
 lated window, says that, in all other pas- 
 sages of Scripture where this word occurs, 
 it signifies the meridian light, the brightest 
 effulgence of day, and therefore it could 
 not have been an aperture, but a source of 
 light itself. He supposes it therefore to 
 have been the divine Shekinah, or Glory 
 of Jehovah, which afterwards dwelt be- 
 tween the cherubim over the Ark of the 
 Covenant in the tabernacle and the temple. 
 Church of the Redeemed, I., 20. 
 
 Ark of the Covenant. The Ark 
 
88 
 
 ARK 
 
 ARK 
 
 of the Covenant or of the Testimony was a 
 chest originally constructed by Moses at 
 God's command, (Exod. xxv. 16,) in which 
 were kept the two tables of stone, on which 
 were engraved the ten commandments. It 
 contained, likewise, a golden pot filled with 
 manna, Aaron's rod, and the tables of the 
 covenant. It was at first deposited in the 
 most sacred place of the tabernacle, and 
 afterwards placed by Solomon in the Sanc- 
 tum Sanctorum of the Temple, and was 
 lost upon the destruction of that building 
 by the Chaldeans. The later history of 
 this ark is buried in obscurity. It is sup- 
 posed that, upon the destruction of the first 
 Temple by the Chaldeans, it was carried to 
 Babylon among the other sacred utensils 
 which became the spoil of the conquerors. 
 But of its subsequent fate all traces have 
 been lost. It is, however, certain that it 
 was not brought back to Jerusalem by Ze- 
 rubbabel. The Talmudists say that there 
 were five things which were the glory of 
 the first Temple that were wanting in the 
 second ; namely, the Ark of the Covenant, 
 the Shekinah or Divine Presence, the 
 Urim and Thummim, the holy fire upon 
 the altar, and the spirit of prophecy. The 
 Rev. Salem Towne, it is true, has en- 
 deavored to prove, by a very ingenious 
 argument, that the original Ark of the 
 Covenant was concealed by Josiah, or by 
 others, at some time previous to the destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem, and that it was after- 
 wards, at the building of the second Temple, 
 discovered and brought to light. But such 
 a theory is entirely at variance with all the 
 legends of the degree of Select Master and 
 of Royal Arch Masonry. To admit it 
 would lead to endless confusion and con- 
 tradictions in the traditions of the Order. 
 It is, besides, in conflict with the opinions 
 of the Rabbinical writers and every He- 
 brew scholar. Josephus and the Rabbins 
 allege that in the second Temple the Holy 
 of Holies was empty, or contained only the 
 Stone of Foundation which marked the 
 place which the ark should have occupied. 
 
 The ark was made of shittim wood, 
 overlaid, within and without, with pure 
 gold. It was about three feet nine inches 
 long, two feet three inches wide, and of the 
 same extent in depth. It had on the side 
 two rings of gold, through which were 
 placed staves of shittim wood, by which, 
 when necessary, it was borne by the Levites. 
 Its covering was of pure gold, over which 
 were placed two figures called cherubim, 
 with expanded wings. The covering of the 
 ark was called kaphiret, from kaphar, " to 
 forgive sin," and hence its English name of 
 " mercy-seat," as being the place where the 
 intercession for sin was made. 
 
 The researches of archaeologists in the 
 
 last few years have thrown much light on 
 the Egyptian mysteries. Among the cere- 
 monies of that ancient people was one 
 called the Procession of Shrines, which is 
 mentioned in the Rosetta stone, and de- 
 picted on the Temple walls. One of these 
 shrines was an ark, which was carried in 
 procession by the priests, who supported it 
 on their shoulders by staves passing through 
 metal rings. It was thus brought into the 
 Temple and deposited on a stand or altar, 
 that the ceremonies prescribed in the ritual 
 might be performed before it. The con- 
 tents of these arks were various, but always 
 of a mystical character. Sometimes the ark 
 would contain symbols of Life and Stabili- 
 ty ; sometimes the sacred beetle, the symbol 
 of the Sun ; and there was always a repre- 
 sentation of two figures of the goddess 
 Theme or Truth and Justice, which over- 
 shadowed the ark with their wings. These 
 coincidences of the Egyptian and Hebrew 
 arks must have been more than accidental. 
 
 Ark, Substitute. The chest or coffer 
 which constitutes a part of the furniture, 
 and is used in the ceremonies of a Chapter 
 of Royal Arch Masons, and in a Council 
 of Select Masters according to the Ameri- 
 can system, is called by Masons the Substi- 
 tute Ark, to distinguish it from the other 
 ark, that which was constructed in the 
 wilderness under the direction of Moses, 
 and which is known as the Ark of the 
 Covenant. This the Substitute Ark was 
 made to represent under circumstances that 
 are recorded in the Masonic traditions, and 
 especially in those of the Select Degree. 
 
 The ark used in Royal Arch and Cryptic 
 Masonry in this country is generally of 
 this form : 
 
 % 
 
 ills 
 
 fiAfrV\A\AAA/^A/sM 
 
 '/*Vv 
 
 *m 
 
 1 
 
 IU3DEU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yii^.'uuiH.'i'iHUiuummumiiH't.m^iiiii' ,n .t.iii 
 
 M 
 
 Prideaux, on the authority of Lightfoot, 
 contends that, as an ark was indispensable 
 to the Israelitish worship, there was in the 
 second Temple an ark which had been ex- 
 pressly made for the purpose of supplying 
 the place of the first or original ark, and 
 which, without possessing any of its pre- 
 rogatives or honors, was of precisely the 
 same shape and dimensions, and was de- 
 
 {>osited in the same place. The Masonic 
 egend, whether authentic or not, is simple 
 and connected. It teaches that there was 
 an ark in the second Temple, but that it 
 was neither the Ark of the Covenant, 
 which had been in the Holy of Holies of 
 the first Temple, nor one that had been con- 
 
ARK 
 
 AKMS 
 
 structed as a substitute for it after the 
 building of the second Temple. It was 
 that ark which was presented to us in the 
 Select Master's degree, and which being an 
 exact copy of the Mosaical ark, and in- 
 tended to replace it in case of its loss, is 
 best known to Freemasons as the Substitute 
 Ark. 
 
 Lightfoot gives these Talmudic legends, 
 in his Prospect of the Temple, in the follow- 
 ing language : " It is fancied by the Jews, 
 that Solomon, when he built the Temple, 
 foreseeing that the Temple should be de- 
 stroyed, caused very obscure and intricate 
 vaults under ground to be made, wherein 
 to hide the ark when any such danger 
 came ; that howsoever it went with the 
 Temple, yet the ark, which was the very 
 life of the Temple, might be saved. And 
 they understand that passage in 2 Chron. 
 xxxv. 3, ' Josiah said unto the Levites, Put 
 the holy ark into the house which Solomon, 
 the son of David, did build,' etc., as if 
 Josiah, having heard by the reading of 
 Moses' manuscript, and by Huldah's proph- 
 ecy of the danger that hung over Jerusa- 
 lem, commanded to convey the ark into 
 this vault, that it might be secured; and 
 with it, say they, they laid up Aaron's rod, 
 the pot of manna, and the anointing oil. 
 For while the ark stood in its place upon 
 the stone mentioned — they hold that 
 Aaron's rod and the pot of manna stood 
 before it; but, now, were all conveyed into 
 obscurity — and the stone upon which the 
 ark stood lay over the mouth of the vault. 
 But Rabbi Solomon, which useth not, 
 ordinarily, to forsake such traditions, hath 
 given a more serious gloss upon the place ; 
 namely, that whereas Manasseh and Amon 
 had removed the ark out of its habitation, 
 and set up images and abominations there 
 of their own — Joshua speaketh to the 
 priests to restore it to its place again. 
 What became of the ark, at the burning of 
 the temple by Nebuchadnezzar, we read 
 not; it is most likely it went to the fire 
 also. However it sped, it was not in the 
 second Temple; and is one of the five choice 
 things that the Jews reckon wanting there. 
 Yet they had an ark there also of their own 
 making, as they had a breastplate of judg- 
 ment; which, though they both wanted 
 the glory of the former, which was giving 
 of oracles, yet did they stand current as to 
 the other matters of their worship, as the 
 former breastplate and ark had done." 
 
 The idea of the concealment of an ark 
 and its accompanying treasures always pre- 
 vailed in the Jewish church. The account 
 given by the Talmudists is undoubtedly 
 mythical ; but there must, as certainly, have 
 been some foundation for the myth, for 
 every myth has a substratum of truth. 
 M 
 
 The Masonic tradition differs from the rab- 
 binical, but is in every way more reconcil- 
 able with truth, or at least with probability. 
 The ark constructed by Moses, Aholiab, 
 and Bezaleel was burnt at the destruction 
 of the first Temple ; but there was an exact 
 representation of it in the second. 
 
 Arkite Worship. The almost uni- 
 versal prevalence among the nations of 
 antiquity of some tradition of a long past 
 deluge, gave rise to certain mythological 
 doctrines and religious ceremonies, to which 
 has been given the name of arkite wor- 
 ship, which was very extensively diffused. 
 The evidence of this is to be found in the 
 sacred feeling which was entertained for 
 the sacredness of high mountains, derived, 
 it is supposed, from recollections of an 
 Ararat, and from the presence in all the 
 Mysteries of a basket, chest, or coffer, 
 whose mystical character bore apparently 
 a reference to the ark of Noah. On the 
 subject of this arkite worship, Bryant, 
 Faber, Higgins, Banier, and many other 
 writers, have made learned investigations, 
 which may be consulted with advantage by 
 the Masonic archaeologist. 
 
 Armenbusclie. The poor-box; the 
 name given by German Masons to the box 
 in which collections of money are made at 
 a Table-Lodge for the relief of poor breth- 
 ren and their families. 
 
 Amies. A corrupted form of Hermes, 
 found in the Landsdowne and some other 
 old manuscripts. 
 
 Armiger. 1. A bearer of arms. The 
 title given by heralds to the esquire who 
 waited on a knight. 2. The sixth degree 
 of the Order of African Architects. 
 
 Armory. An apartment attached to 
 the asylum of a Commandery of Knights 
 Templars, in which the swords and other 
 parts of the costume of the knights are de- 
 posited for safe keeping. 
 
 Arms of Masonry. Stow says 
 that the Masons were incorporated as a 
 company in the twelfth year of Henry IV., 
 1412. Their arms were granted to them, in 
 1477, by William Hawkesloe, Clarenceux 
 King- at- Arms, and are azure on a chevron 
 between three castles argent,- a pair of com- 
 passes somewhat extended, of the first. 
 Crest a castle of the second. They were 
 adopted, subsequently, by the Grand Lodge 
 of England. The Athol Grand Lodge 
 objected to this as an unlawful assumption 
 by the Modern Grand Lodge of Speculative 
 Freemasons of the arms of the Operative 
 Masons. They accordingly adopted another 
 coat, which Dermott blazons as follows: 
 Quarterly per squares, counterchanged vert. 
 In the first quarter, azure, a lion rampant, 
 or. In the second quarter, or, an ox passant 
 fable. In the third quarter, or, a man with 
 
90 
 
 ARRAS 
 
 ASHE 
 
 hands erect proper, robed crimson and 
 ermine. In the fourth quarter, azure, an 
 eagle displayed or. Crest, the holy ark of the 
 covenant proper, supported by cherubim. 
 Motto, Kodes la Adonai, that is, Holiness to 
 the Lord. 
 
 These arms are derived from the " tetrar- 
 chical" (as Sir Thos. Browne calls them), or 
 general banners of the four principal tribes : 
 for it is said that the twelve tribes, during 
 their passage through the wilderness, were 
 encamped in a hollow square, three on each 
 side, as follows : Judah, Zebulun, and Is- 
 sachar, in the east, under the general ban- 
 ner of Judah ; Dan, Asher, and Naphtali, 
 in the north, under the banner of Dan ; 
 Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benjamin, in the 
 west, under the banner of Ephraim ; and 
 Reuben, Simeon, and Gad, in the south, 
 under Reuben. See Banners. 
 
 Arras, Primordial Chapter of. 
 Arras is a town in the north-western part 
 of France, where, in the year 1747, Charles 
 Edward Stuart, the Pretender, established 
 a Sovereign Primordial and Metropolitan 
 Chapter ofRosicrucian Freemasons. A por- 
 tion of the charter of this body is given by 
 Ragon in his Orthodoxie Maconique. In 
 1853, the Count de Hamel, prefect of the 
 department, discovered an authentic copy, 
 in parchment, of this document bearing the 
 date of April 15, 1747, which he deposited 
 in the departmental archives. This docu- 
 ment is as follows : 
 
 " We, Charles Edward, king of England, 
 France, Scotland, and Ireland, and as such 
 Substitute Grand Master of the Chapter of 
 H., known by the title of Knight of the 
 Eagle and Pelican, and since our sorrows 
 and misfortunes by that of Rose Croix, 
 wishing to testify our gratitude to the Ma- 
 sons of Artois, and the officers of the city 
 of Arras, for the numerous marks of kind- 
 ness which they in conjunction with the 
 officers of the garrison of Arras have lav- 
 ished upon us, and their attachment to our 
 person, shown during a residence of six 
 months in that city, 
 
 " We have in favor of them created and 
 erected, and do create and erect by the 
 present bull, in the aforesaid city of Arras, 
 a Sovereign Primordial Chapter of Rose 
 Croix, under.the distinctive title of Scottish 
 Jacobite, {Ecosse Jacobite,) to be ruled and 
 
 foverned by the Knights Lagneau and 
 Lobespierre ; Avocats Hazard, and his two 
 sons, physicians ; J. B. Lucet, our uphol- 
 sterer, and JerSmeCellier, our clock-maker, 
 giving to them and to their successors the 
 power not only to make knights, but even 
 to create a Chapter in whatever town they 
 may think fit, provided that two Chapters 
 shall not be created in the same town how- 
 ever populous it may be. 
 
 " And that credit may be given to our 
 present bull, we have signed it with our 
 hand and caused to be affixed thereunto the 
 secret seal, and countersigned by the secre- 
 tary of our cabinet, Thursday, 15th of 
 the second month of the year of the incar- 
 nation, 1747. 
 
 "Charles Edward Stuart. 
 
 " Countersigned, Berkley." 
 
 This Chapter created a few others, and 
 in 1780 established one in Paris, under the 
 distinctive title of Chapter of Arras, in the 
 valley of Paris. It united itself to the 
 Grand Orient of France on the 27th De- 
 cember, 1801. It was declared First Suf- 
 fragan of the Scottish Jacobite Chapter, 
 with the right to constitute others. The 
 Chapter established at Arras, by the Pre- 
 tender, was named the "Eagle and Peli- 
 can," and Oliver ( Orig. ofR. A., p. 22,) from 
 this seeks to find, perhaps justifiably, a 
 connection between it and the R. S. Y. C. S. 
 of the Royal Order of Scotland. 
 
 Arrest of Charter. To arrest the 
 charter of a Lodge is a technical phrase by 
 which is meant to suspend the work of a 
 Lodge, to prevent it from holding its 
 usual communications, and to forbid it to 
 transact any business or to do any work. 
 A Grand Master cannot revoke the warrant 
 of a Lodge; but if, in his opinion, the 
 good of Masonry or any other sufficient 
 cause requires it, he may suspend the oper- 
 ation of the warrant until the next commu- 
 nication of the Grand Lodge, which body 
 is alone competent to revise or approve of 
 his action. 
 
 Arthusius, Gotthardns. A learned 
 Dane, Rector of the Gymnasium at Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main ; who wrote many works 
 on Rosicrucianism, under the assumed 
 name of Irenaeus Agnostus. See Agnostus. 
 
 Art Royal. See Royal Art. 
 
 Arts. In the Masonic phrase, "arts, 
 parts, and points of the Mysteries of Ma- 
 sonry ;" arts means the knowledge or things 
 made known, parts the degrees into which 
 Masonry is divided, and points the rules 
 and usages. See Parts, and also Points. 
 
 Arts, Liberal. See Liberal Arts and 
 Sciences. 
 
 Ascension Day. Also called Holy 
 Thursday. A festival of the Christian 
 church held in commemoration of the as- 
 cension of our Lord forty days after Easter. 
 It is celebrated as a feast day by Chapters 
 of Rose Croix. 
 
 Ashe, I>. 1>.. Rev. Jonathan. 
 A literary plagiarist who resided in Bristol, 
 England. In 1813 he published The Masonic 
 Manual ; or, Lectures on Freemasonry. Ashe 
 does not, it is true, pretend to originality, 
 but abstains from giving credit to Hutch- 
 inson, from whom he has taken at least 
 
ASHER 
 
 ASHMOLE 
 
 91 
 
 two-thirds of his book. In 1843 an edi- 
 tion was published by Spencer, with valua- 
 ble notes by Dr. Oliver. 
 Asher, Dr. Carl Wilhelm. The 
 
 first translator into German of the Halli- 
 well MS., which he published at Hamburg, 
 in 1842, under the title of Aelteste Urkunde 
 der Freimaurerei in England. This work 
 contains both the original English docu- 
 ment and the German translation. 
 
 Ashlar. "Freestone as it comes out 
 of the quarry." — Bailey. In Speculative 
 Masonry we adopt the ashlar in two differ- 
 ent states, as symbols in the Apprentice's 
 degree. The Rough Ashlar, or stone in its 
 rude and unpolished condition, is emblem- 
 atic of man in his natural state — ignorant, 
 uncultivated, and vicious. But when edu- 
 cation has exerted its wholesome influence 
 in expanding his intellect, restraining his 
 passions, and purifying his life, he then is 
 represented by the Perfect Ashlar, which, 
 under the skilful hands of the workmen, 
 has been smoothed, and squared, and fitted 
 for its place in the building. In the older 
 lectures of the eighteenth century the Per- 
 fect Ashlar is not mentioned, but its place 
 was supplied by the Broached Thurnel. 
 
 Ashmole, Ellas. A celebrated anti- 
 quary, and the author of, among other 
 works, the well-known History of the Order 
 of the Garter, and founder of the Ashmo- 
 lean Museum at Oxford. He was born at 
 Litchfield, in England, on the 23d May, 
 1617, and died at London on the 18th May, 
 1692. He was made a Freemason on the 
 16th October, 1646, and gives the follow- 
 ing account of his reception in his Diary, 
 p. 303. 
 
 " 1646. October 16. 4 Hor., 30 minutes 
 post merid., I was made a Freemason at 
 Warrington, in Lancashire, with Colonel 
 Henry Mainwaring, of Karticham, in 
 Cheshire ; the names of them who were 
 then at the Lodge, Mr. Richard Penket 
 Warden, Mr. James Collier, Mr. Richard 
 Sankey, Henry Littler, John Ellam, and 
 Hugh Brewer." 
 
 In another place he speaks of his being 
 admitted into the Fellowship, {Diary, p. 
 362,) for thirty-six years afterwards makes 
 the following entry : 
 
 " 1682. March 10. About 5 Hor., post 
 merid., I received a summons to appear at 
 a Lodge to be held the next day at Masons' 
 Hall, in London. 
 
 "11. Accordingly, I went, and about 
 noon was admitted into the Fellowship of 
 Freemasons, by Sir William Wilson, knight, 
 Capt. Richard Borthwick, Mr. William 
 Wodman, Mr. William Wife. 
 
 " I was the senior fellow among them, 
 (it being thirty-five years since I was ad- 
 mitted;) there was present besides myself 
 
 the fellows afternamed : Mr. Thomas Wife, 
 Master of the Masons' company this pres- 
 ent year; Mr. Thomas Shorthofe, Mr. 
 
 Thomas Shadbolt, Waidsford, Esq., 
 
 Mr. Nicholas Young, Mr. John Shorthofe, 
 Mr. William Hamon, Mr. John Thompson, 
 and Mr. William Stanton. We all dined at 
 the Half-Moon-Tavern in Cheapside, at a 
 noble dinner prepared at the charge of the 
 new Accepted Masons." 
 
 It is to be regretted that the intention 
 expressed by Ashmole to write a history of 
 Freemasonry was never carried into effect. 
 His laborious research as evinced in his 
 exhaustive work on the Order of the Garter, 
 would lead us to have expected from his 
 antiquarian pen a record of the origin and 
 early progress of our Institution more val- 
 uable than any that we now possess. The 
 following remarks on this subject, con- 
 tained in a letter from Dr. Knipe, of Christ 
 Church, Oxford, to the publisher of Ash- 
 mole's Life, while it enables us to form 
 some estimate of the loss that Masonic 
 literature has suffered, supplies interesting 
 particulars which are worthy of preserva- 
 tion. 
 
 " As to the ancient society of Freemasons, 
 concerning whom you are desirous of know- 
 ing what may be known with certainty, I 
 shall only tell you, that if our worthy 
 Brother, E. Ashmole, Esq., had executed 
 his intended design, our Fraternity had 
 been as much obliged to him as the Breth- 
 ren of the most noble Order of the Garter. 
 I would not have you surprised at this ex- 
 pression, or think it all too assuming. The 
 sovereigns of that Order have not disdained 
 our fellowship, and there have been times 
 when emperors were also Freemasons. 
 What from Mr. E. Ashmole's collection I 
 could gather was, that the report of our 
 society's taking rise from a bull granted by 
 the Pope, in the reign of Henry III., to 
 some Italian architects to travel over all 
 Europe, to erect chapels, was ill-founded. 
 Such a bull there was, and those architects 
 were Masons ; but this bull, in the opinion 
 of the learned Mr. Ashmole, was confirma- 
 tive only, and did not by any means create 
 our Fraternity, or even establish them in 
 this kingdom. But as to the time and 
 manner of that establishment, something I 
 shall relate from the same collections. St. 
 Alban the Proto-Martyr of England, estab- 
 lished Masonry here ; and from his time it 
 flourished more or less, according as the 
 world went, down to the days of King 
 Athelstan, who, for the sake of his brother 
 Edwin, granted the Masons a charter un- 
 der our Norman princes. They frequently 
 received extraordinary marks of royal fa- 
 vor. There is no doubt to be made, that 
 the skill of Masons, which was always 
 
92 
 
 ASIA 
 
 ASSASSINS 
 
 transcendent, even in the most barbarous 
 times, — their wonderful kindness and at- 
 tachment to each other, how different so- 
 ever in condition, and their inviolable 
 fidelity in keeping religiously their secret, — 
 must expose them in ignorant, troublesome, 
 and suspicious times to a vast variety of 
 adventures, according to the different fate 
 of parties and other alterations in govern- 
 ment. By the way, I shall note that the 
 Masons were always loyal, which exposed 
 them to great severities when power wore 
 the trappings of justice, and those who 
 committed treason punished true men as 
 traitors. Thus, in the third year of the 
 reign of Henry VI., an act of Parliament 
 was passed to abolish the society of Masons, 
 and to hinder, under grievous penalties, the 
 holding Chapters, Lodges, or other regular 
 assemblies. Yet this act was afterwards 
 repealed, and even before that, King Henry 
 VI., and several of the principal lords of his 
 court, became fellows of the Craft." 
 
 Asia, Initiated Knights and 
 Brothers of. This Order was intro- 
 duced in Berlin, or, as some say, in Vienna, 
 in the year 1780, by a schism of several 
 members of the German Rose Croix. They 
 adopted a mixture of Christian, Jewish, 
 and Mohammedan ceremonies, to indicate, 
 as Ragon supposes, their entire religious 
 tolerance. Their object was the study of 
 the natural sciences and the search for the 
 universal panacea to prolong life. Thory 
 charges them with this; but may it not 
 have been, as with the Alchemists, merely 
 a symbol of immortality? They forbade 
 all inquiries into the art of transmutation 
 of metals. The Grand Syn6drion, properly 
 the Grand Sanhedrim, which consisted of 
 seventy-two members and was the head of 
 the Order, had its seat at Vienua. The 
 Order was founded on the three symbolic 
 degrees, and attached to them nine others, 
 as follows : 4. Seekers ; 5. Sufferers ; 6. Ini- 
 tiated Knights and Brothers of Asia in 
 Europe; 7. Masters and Sages; 8. Royal 
 Priests, or True Brothers of Rose Croix ; 
 9. Melchizedek. The Order no longer 
 exists. Many details of it will be found 
 in Luchet's Essai sur les Illumines. 
 
 Asia, Perfect Initiates of. A 
 rite of very little importance, consisting 
 of seven degrees, and said to have been 
 invented at Lyons. A very voluminous 
 manuscript, translated from the German, 
 was sold at Paris, in 1821, to M. Bailleul, 
 and came into the possession of Ragon, 
 who reduced its size, and, with the assist- 
 ance of Des Etangs, modified it. I have 
 no knowledge that it was ever worked. 
 
 Ask, Seek, Knock. In referring 
 to the passage of Matthew vii. 7, " Ask, 
 and it shall be given you ; seek, and you 
 
 shall find ; knock, and it shall be opened 
 unto you," Dr. Clarke says : " These three 
 words — ask, seek, knock — include the ideas 
 of want, loss, and earnestness." The appli- 
 cation made to the passage theologically is 
 equally appropriate to it in a Masonic 
 Lodge. You ask for acceptance, you seek for 
 light, you knock for initiation, which in- 
 cludes the other two. 
 
 Aspirant. One who eagerly seeks to 
 know or to attain something. Thus, War- 
 burton speaks of " the aspirant to the Mys- 
 teries." It is applied also to one about to 
 be initiated into Masonry. There seems, 
 however, to be a shade of difference in 
 meaning between the words candidate and 
 aspirant. The candidate is one who asks 
 for admission ; and the term, from can- 
 didus, white, refers to the purity of charac- 
 ter required. The aspirant is one already 
 elected and in process of initiation, and 
 coming from aspiro, to seek eagerly, refers 
 to the earnestness with which he prosecutes 
 his search for light and truth. 
 
 Assassins. The Ishmaelians or Assas- 
 sins constituted a sect or confraternity, 
 which was founded by Hassan Sabah, about 
 the year 1090, in Persia. The name is de- 
 rived, it is supposed, from their immoderate 
 use of the plant haschish, or henbane, 
 which produced a delirious frenzy. The 
 title given to the chief of the Order was 
 Sheikh-el-Jebel, which has been translated 
 the " Old Man of the Mountains," but which 
 Higgins has shown (Anacal., i. 700,) to mean 
 literally, " The Sage of the Kabbala or Tra- 
 ditions." Von Hammer has written a His- 
 tory of the Assassins, but his opposition to 
 secret societies has led him to speak with so 
 much prejudice that, although his historical 
 statements are interesting, his philosophical 
 deductions have to be taken with many 
 grains of allowance. Godfrey Higgins has 
 probably erred on the other side, and by a 
 too ready adherence to a preconceived the- 
 ory has, in his Anacalypsis, confounded 
 them with the Templars, whom he consid- 
 ers as the precursors of the Freemasons. 
 In this, as in most things, the middle course 
 appears to be the most truthful. 
 
 The Assassins were a secret society, that 
 is to say, they had a secret esoteric doc- 
 trine, which was imparted only to the ini- 
 tiated. Hammer says that they had a 
 graduated series of initiations, the names 
 of which he gives as Apprentices, Fellows, 
 and Masters; they had, too, an oath of 
 passive obedience, and resembled, he as- 
 serts, in many respects, the secret societies 
 that subsequently existed in Europe. They 
 were governed by a Grand Master and 
 Priors, and had regulations and a special 
 religious code, in all of which Von Ham- 
 mer finds a close resemblance to the Tern- 
 
ASSASSINS 
 
 ASSEMBLY 
 
 93 
 
 plars, the Hospitallers, and the Teutonic 
 Knights. Between the Assassins and the 
 Templars history records that there were 
 several amicable transactions not at all 
 consistent with the religious vows of the 
 latter and the supposed religious faith of 
 the former, and striking coincidences of 
 feeling, of which Higgins has not been 
 slow to avail himself in his attempt to 
 prove the close connection, if not absolute 
 identity, of the two Orders. It is most 
 probable, as Sir John Malcolm contends, 
 that they were a race of Sofis, the teachers 
 of the secret doctrine of Mohammed. Von 
 Hammer admits that they produced a great 
 number of treatises on mathematics and 
 
 i'urisprudence ; and, forgetting for a time 
 is bigotry and his prejudice, he attributes 
 to Hassan, their founder, a profound knowl- 
 edge of philosophy and mathematical and 
 metaphysical sciences, and an enlightened 
 spirit, under whose influence the civiliza- 
 tion of Persia attained a high degree ; so 
 that during his reign of forty-six years the 
 Persian literature attained a point of excel- 
 lence beyond that of Alexandria under the 
 Ptolemies, and of France under Francis I. 
 The old belief that they were a confederacy 
 of murderers — whence we have taken our 
 English word assassins — must now be aban- 
 doned as a figment of the credulity of past 
 centuries, and we must be content to look 
 upon them as a secret society of philoso- 
 phers, whose political relations, however, 
 merged them into a dynasty. If we inter- 
 pret Freemasonry as a generic term, signi- 
 fying a philosophic sect which teaches 
 truth by a mystical initiation and secret 
 symbols, then Higgins was not very far in 
 error in calling them the Freemasons of 
 the East. 
 
 Assassins of the Third Degree. 
 There is in Freemasonry a legend of cer- 
 tain unworthy Craftsmen who entered into 
 a conspiracy to extort from a distinguished 
 brother a secret of which he was the pos- 
 sessor. The legend is altogether symbolic, 
 and when its symbolism is truly compre- 
 hended, becomes surpassingly beautiful. 
 By those who look at it as having the pre- 
 tension of an historical fact, it is sometimes 
 treated with indifference, and sometimes 
 considered an absurdity. But it is not thus 
 that the legends and symbols of Masonry 
 must be read, if we would learn their true 
 spirit. To behold the goddess in all her 
 glorious beauty, the veil that conceals her 
 statue must be withdrawn. Masonic writers 
 who have sought to interpret the symbolism 
 of the legend of the conspiracy of the three 
 assassins, have not agreed always in the in- 
 terpretation, although they have finally ar- 
 rived at the same result, namely, that it has 
 a spiritual signification. Those who trace 
 
 Speculative Masonry to the ancient solar 
 worship, of whom Ragon may be con- 
 sidered as the exponent, find in this legend 
 a symbol of the conspiracy of the three 
 winter months to destroy the life-giving 
 heat of the sun. Those who, like the dis- 
 ciples of the Rite of Strict Observance, trace 
 Masonry to a Templar origin, explain the 
 legend as referring to the conspiracy of the 
 three renegade knights who falsely accused 
 the Order, and thus aided King Philip and , 
 Pope Clement to abolish Templarism, and 
 to slay its Grand Master. Hutchinson and 
 Oliver, who labored to give a Christian in- 
 terpretation to all the symbols of Masonry, 
 referred the legend to the crucifixion of the 
 Messiah, the type of which is, of course, 
 the slaying of Abel by his brother Cain. 
 Others, of whom the Chevalier Ramsay was 
 the leader, sought to give it a political sig- 
 nificance ; and, making Charles the First 
 the type of the Builder, symbolized Crom- 
 well and his adherents as the conspirators. 
 The Masonic scholars whose aim has beeu 
 to identify the modern system of Free- 
 masonry with the Ancient Mysteries, 
 and especially with the Egyptian, which 
 they supposed to be the germ of all the 
 others, interpret the conspirators as the 
 symbol of the Evil Principle, or Typhon, 
 slaying the Good Principle, or Osiris; or, 
 when they refer to the Zoroastic Mysteries 
 of Persia, as Ahriman contending against 
 Ormuzd. And lastly, in the Philosophic 
 degrees, the myth is interpreted as signify- 
 ing the war of Falsehood, Ignorance, and 
 Superstition against Truth. Of the sup- 
 posed names of the three Assassins, there is 
 hardly any end of variations, for they ma- 
 terially differ in all the principal Rites. 
 Thus, we have the three J JJ. in the York 
 and American Rites. In the Adonhiramite 
 system we have Romvel, Gravelot, and 
 Abiram. In the Scottish Rite we find the 
 names given in the old rituals as Jubelum 
 Akirop, sometimes Abiram, Jubelo Romvel, 
 and Jubela Gravelot. Schterke and Oter- 
 ftit are in some of the German rituals, 
 while other Scottish rituals have Abiram, 
 Romvel, and Hobhen. In all these names 
 there is manifest corruption, and the patience 
 of many Masonic scholars has been well- 
 nigh exhausted in seeking for some plausi- 
 ble and satisfactory derivation. 
 
 Assembly. The meetings of the 
 Craft during the operative period in the 
 Middle Ages, were called "assemblies," 
 which appear to have been tantamount to 
 the modern Lodges, and they are constantly 
 spoken of in the Old Constitutions. The 
 word assembly was also often used in these 
 documents to indicate a larger meeting of 
 the whole Craft, and which was equivalent 
 to the modern Grand Lodge, which was 
 
94 
 
 ASSISTANCE 
 
 ATELIER 
 
 held annually. The York MS., about the 
 year 1600, says, "that King Athelstan gave 
 the Masons a charter and commission to 
 hold every year an assembly wheresoever 
 they would in the realm of England," and 
 this statement, whether true or false, is re- 
 peated in all the old records. Preston 
 says, speaking of that mediaeval period, 
 that " a sufficient number of Masons met 
 together within a certain district, with the 
 consent of the sheriff or chief magistrate 
 of the place, were empowered at this time 
 to make Masons," etc. To this assembly, 
 every Mason was bound, when summoned, 
 to appear. Thus, in the Harleian MS., 
 1650, it is ordained that "every Master 
 and Fellow come to the Assembly, if it be 
 within five miles about him, if he have any 
 warning." The term, " General Assembly," 
 to indicate the annual meeting, is first used 
 in the MS. of 1663, as quoted by Preston. 
 In the Old Constitutions, printed in 1722 
 by Roberts, and which claims to be taken 
 from a MS. of the eighteenth century, the 
 term used is "Yearly Assembly." An- 
 derson speaks of an Old Constitution 
 which used the word " General ; " but his 
 quotations are not always verbally accu- 
 rate. 
 
 Assistance. See Aid and Assistance. 
 
 Associates of the Temple. Dur- 
 ing the Middle Ages, many persons of rank, 
 who were desirous of participating in the 
 spiritual advantages supposed to be enjoyed 
 by the Templars in consequence of the good 
 works done by the Fraternity, but who 
 were unwilling to submit to the discipline 
 of the brethren, made valuable donations 
 to the Order, and were, in consequence, ad- 
 mitted into a sort of spiritual connection 
 with it. These persons were termed " As- 
 sociates of the Temple." The custom was 
 most probably confined to England, and 
 many " of these Associates " had monu- 
 ments and effigies erected to them in the 
 Temple Church at London. 
 
 Association. Although an associa- 
 tion is properly the union of men into a 
 society for a common purpose, the word is 
 scarcely ever applied to the Order of Free- 
 masonry. Yet its employment, although un- 
 usual, would not be incorrect, for Freemason- 
 ry is an association of men for a common pur- 
 pose. Washington uses the term when he 
 calls Freemasonry " an association whose 
 principles lead to purity of morals, and are 
 beneficial of action." Letter to O. L. of 
 So. Ca. 
 
 Astrsea. The Grand Lodge established 
 in Russia, on the 30th August, 1815, as- 
 sumed the title of the Grand Lodge of 
 Astraea. It held its Grand East at St. 
 Petersburg, and continued in existence 
 until 1822. 
 
 Astronomy. The science which in- 
 structs us in the laws that govern the 
 heavenly bodies. Its origin is lost in the 
 mists of antiquity ; for the earliest inhabi- 
 tants of the earth must have been attracted 
 by the splendor of the glorious firmament 
 above them, and would have sought in the 
 motions of its luminaries for the readiest 
 and most certain method of measuring time. 
 With astronomy the system of Free- 
 masonry is intimately connected. From 
 that science many of our most significant 
 emblems are borrowed. The Lodge itself 
 is a representation of the world; it is 
 adorned with the images of the sun and 
 moon, whose regularity and precision fur- 
 nish a lesson of wisdom and prudence ; its 
 pillars of strength and establishment have 
 been compared to the two columns which 
 the ancients placed at the equinoctial 
 points as supporters of the arch of heaven ; 
 the blazing star, which was among the 
 Egyptians a symbol of Anubis, or the dog- 
 star, whose rising foretold the overflowing 
 of the Nile, shines in the east; while 
 the clouded canopy is decorated with the 
 beautiful Pleiades. The connection be- 
 tween our Order and astronomy is still 
 more manifest in the spurious Freemasonry 
 of antiquity, where, the pure principles of 
 our system being lost, the symbolic instruc- 
 tion of the heavenly bodies gave place to 
 the corrupt Sabean worship of the sun, 
 and moon, and stars — a worship whose in- 
 fluences are seen in all the mysteries of 
 Paganism. 
 
 Asylum. During the session of a 
 Commandery of Knights Templars, a part 
 of the room is called the asylum; the word 
 has hence been adopted, by the figure sy- 
 necdoche, to signify the place of meeting of 
 a Commandery. 
 
 Asylum for Aged Freemasons. 
 The Asylum for Worthy, Aged and Decayed 
 Freemasons is a magnificent edifice at 
 Croydon in Surrey, England. The charity 
 was established by Dr. Crucefix, after six- 
 teen years of herculean toil, such as few 
 men but himself could have sustained. He 
 did not live to see it in full operation, but 
 breathed his last at the very time when the 
 cope-stone was placed on . the building. 
 Since the death of Dr. Crucefix, it has been 
 amalgamated with the Provident Annuity 
 and Benevolent Association of the Grand 
 Lodge. 
 
 Atelier. The French thus call the 
 place where the Lodge meets or the Lodge 
 room. The word signifies a workshop or 
 place where several workmen are assembled 
 under the same master. The word is ap- 
 plied in French Masonry not only to the 
 place of meeting of a Lodge, but also to 
 that of a Chapter, Council, or any other 
 
ATHEIST 
 
 AUDITOR 
 
 95 
 
 Masonic body. Bazot says (Man. Macon, 
 65,) that atelier is more particularly applied 
 to the table - Lodge, or Lodge when at 
 banquet, but that the word is also used to 
 designate any reunion of the Lodge. 
 
 Atheist. One who does not believe 
 in the existence of God. Such a creed can 
 only arise from the ignorance of stupidity 
 or a corruption of principle, since the 
 whole universe is filled with the moral and 
 physical proofs of a Creator. He who 
 does not look to a superior and superin- 
 tending power as his maker and his judge, 
 is without that coercive principle ot salu- 
 tary fear which should prompt him to do 
 good and to eschew evil, and his oath can, 
 of necessity, be no stronger than his word. 
 Masons, looking to the dangerous tendency 
 of such a tenet, have wisely discouraged it, 
 by declaring that no atheist can be admitted 
 to participate in their Fraternity ; and the 
 better to carry this law into effect, every 
 candidate, before passing through any of 
 the ceremonies of initiation, is required, 
 publicly and solemnly, to declare his trust 
 in God. 
 
 Athelstan. The grandson of the 
 
 f;reat Alfred ascended the throne of Eng- 
 and in 924, and died in 940. The Old Con- 
 stitutions describe him as a great patron of 
 Masonry. Thus, one of them, the Roberts 
 MS., printed in 1722, and claiming to be five 
 hundred years old, says: "He began to 
 build many Abbies, Monasteries, and other 
 religious houses, as also castles and divers 
 Fortresses for defence of his realm. He 
 loved Masons more than his father; he 
 greatly study 'd Geometry, and sent into 
 many lands for men expert in the science. 
 He gave them a very large charter to hold 
 a yearly assembly, and power to correct 
 offenders in the said science ; and the king 
 himself caused a General Assembly of all 
 Masons in his realm, at York, and there 
 were made many Masons, and gave them a 
 deep charge for observation of all such 
 articles as belonged unto Masonry, and de- 
 livered them the said Charter to keep." 
 
 Athol Masons. The Duke of Athol 
 having been elected Grand Master by the 
 schismatic Grand Lodge in London, which 
 was known as the *' Ancients," an office 
 held iu his family until 1813, the body has 
 been commonly styled the " Athol Grand 
 Lodge," and those who adhered to it 
 " Athol Masons." See Ancient Masons. 
 
 Attendance. See Absence. 
 
 Attouchement. The name given by 
 the French Masons to what the English 
 call the grip. 
 
 Attributes. The collar and jewel 
 appropriate to an officer are called his at- 
 tributes. The working tools and imple- 
 ments of Masonry are also called its attri- 
 
 butes. The word in these senses is much 
 more used by French than by English Ma- 
 sons. 
 
 At wood, Henry C At one time of 
 considerable notoriety in the Masonic his- 
 tory of New York. He was born in Con- 
 necticut about the beginning of the present 
 century, and removed to the city of New 
 York about 1825, in which year he organ- 
 ized a Lodge for the purpose of introduc- 
 ing the system taught by Jeremy L. Cross, 
 of whom Atwood was a pupil. This system 
 met with great opposition from some of the 
 most distinguished Masons of the State, 
 who favored the ancient ritual, which had 
 existed before the system of Webb, from 
 whom Cross received his lectures, had been 
 invented. Atwood, by great smartness and 
 untiring energy, succeeded in making the 
 system which he taught eventually popu- 
 lar. He took great interest in Masonry, 
 and being intellectually clever, although 
 not learned, he collected a great number of 
 admirers, while the tenacity with which 
 he maintained his opinions, however un- 
 popular they might be, secured for him as 
 many enemies. He was greatly instru- 
 mental in establishing, in 1837, the schis- 
 matic body known as the St. John's Grand 
 Lodge, and was its Grand Master at the 
 time of its union, in 1850, with the legiti- 
 mate Grand Lodge of New York. Atwood 
 edited a small Masonic periodical called 
 The Sentinel, which was remarkable for the 
 virulent and unmasonic tone of its articles. 
 He was also the author of a Masonic Moni- 
 tor of some pretensions. He died in 1860. 
 
 Atys. The Mysteries of Atys in Phry- 
 gia, and those of Cybele his mistress, like 
 their worship, much resembled those of 
 Adonis and Bacchus, Osiris and Isis. Their 
 Asiatic origin is universally admitted, and 
 was with great plausibility claimed by 
 Phrygia, which contested the palm of anti- 
 quity with Egypt. They, more than any 
 other people, mingled allegory with their 
 religious worship, and were great inventors 
 of fables ; and their sacred traditions as to 
 Cybele and Atys, whom all admit to be 
 Phrygian gods, were very various. In all, 
 as we learn from Julius Firmicus, they 
 represented by allegory the phenomena of 
 nature, and the succession of physical facts 
 under the veil of a marvellous history. 
 
 Their feasts occurred at the equinoxes, 
 commencing with lamentation, mourning, 
 groans, and pitiful cries for the death of 
 Atys, and ending with rejoicings at his 
 restoration to life. 
 
 Auditor. An officer in the Supreme 
 Council of the Ancient and Accepted Rite 
 for the Southern Jurisdiction of the United 
 States. His duty is, with the Committee 
 on Finance, to examine and report on the 
 
96 
 
 AUFSEHER 
 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 account of the Inspector and other officers. 
 This duty of auditing the accounts of the 
 Secretary and Treasurer is generally in- 
 trusted, in Masonic bodies, to a special com- 
 mittee appointed for the purpose. In the 
 Grand Lodge of England, the auditing 
 committee consists of the Grand Officers 
 for the year, and twenty-four Masters of 
 Lodges in the London district, taken by 
 rotation. 
 
 Aufseher. The German name for the 
 Warden of a Lodge. The Senior Warden 
 is called Erste Aufseher, and the Junior 
 Warden, Zweite Aufseher. The word liter- 
 ally means an overseer. Its Masonic appli- 
 cation is technical. 
 
 Augustine, St. See Saint Augus- 
 tine. 
 
 Aum. A mystic syllable among the 
 Hindus, signifying the Supreme God of 
 Gods, which the Brahmans, from its awful 
 and sacred meaning, hesitate to pronounce 
 aloud, and in doing so place one of their 
 hands before the mouth so as to deaden the 
 sound. This tri-literal name of God, which 
 is as sacred among the Hindus as the Te- 
 tragrammatam is among the Jews, is com- 
 posed of three Sanskrit letters, sounding 
 AUM. The first letter, A, stands for the 
 Creator ; the second, U, for the Preserver ; 
 and the third, M, for the Destroyer, or 
 Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. Benfey, in his 
 Sanskrit - English Dictionary, defines the 
 word as " a particle of reminiscence;" and 
 this may explain the Brahmanical say- 
 ing, that a Brahman beginning or ending 
 the reading of a part of the Veda or Sacred 
 Books, must always pronounce, to himself, 
 the syllable AUM ; for unless that syllable 
 precede, his learning will slip away from 
 him, and unless it follow, nothing will be 
 long retained. An old passage in the 
 Parana says, "All the rites ordained in 
 the Vedas, the sacrifices to fire, and all 
 sacred purifications, shall pass away, but 
 the word AUM shall never pass away, for 
 it is the symbol of the Lord of all things." 
 The word has been indifferently spelled, 
 O'M, AOM, and AUM ; but the last is evi- 
 dently the most proper, as the second letter 
 is GO = U in the Sanskrit alphabet. 
 
 Aumont. Said to have been the suc- 
 cessor of Molay as Grand Master, and 
 hence called the Restorer of the Order of 
 the Templars. There is a tradition, alto- 
 
 S ether fabulous, however, which states that 
 e, with seven other Templars, fled, after 
 the dissolution of the Order, into Scotland, 
 disguised as Operative Masons, and there 
 secretly and under another name founded 
 a new Order ; and to preserve as much as 
 possible the ancient name of Templars, as 
 well as to retain the remembrance of the 
 clothing of Masons, in which disguise they 
 
 had fled, they chose the name of Free- 
 masons, and thus founded Freemasonry. 
 The society thus formed, instead of con- 
 quering or rebuilding the Temple of Jeru- 
 salem, was to erect symbolical temples. 
 This is one of the forms of the Templar 
 theory of the origin of Freemason. 
 
 Auserwablter. German for Elu or 
 Elect. 
 
 Austin. See Saint Augustine. 
 
 Australasia. Masonry was intro- 
 duced into this remote region at a very 
 early period after its settlement, and Lodges 
 were first established at Sidney, by the 
 Grand Lodge of England, about the year 
 1828. There are now over one hundred 
 and fifty Lodges at work in different parts 
 of Australasia, under warrants from the 
 Provincial Grand Lodges of Victoria at 
 Melbourne, New South Wales at Sidney, 
 Queensland at Brisbane, South Australia 
 at Adelaide, and New Zealand at Auckland. 
 All of these bodies derive their original au- 
 thority from the Grand Lodges of England 
 and Ireland, and the Lodges work in the 
 York Rite. 
 
 Austria. Freemasonry was introduced 
 into Austria, in 1742, by the establishment 
 at Vienna of the Lodge of the Three 
 Cannons. But it was broken up by the 
 government in the following year, and 
 thirty of its members were imprisoned for 
 having met in contempt of the authorities. 
 Maria Theresa was an enemy of the Insti- 
 tution, and prohibited it in 1764. Lodges, 
 however, continued to meet secretly in 
 Vienna and Prague. In 1780, Joseph II. 
 ascended the throne, and under his liberal 
 administration Freemasonry, if not actu- 
 ally encouraged, was at least tolerated, and 
 many new Lodges were established in Aus- 
 tria, Hungary, Bohemia, and Transyl- 
 vania, under the authority of the Grand 
 Lodge of Germany, in Berlin. Delegates 
 from these Lodges met at Vienna in 1784, 
 and organized the Grand Lodge of Austria, 
 electing the Count of Dietrichstein, Grand 
 Master. The attempt of the Grand Lodge 
 at Berlin to make this a Provincial Grand 
 Lodge was successful for only a short time, 
 and in 1785 the Grand Lodge of Austria 
 again proclaimed its independence. 
 
 During the reign of Joseph II., Austrian 
 Masonry was prosperous. Notwithstanding 
 the efforts of its enemies, the monarch 
 could never be persuaded to prohibit it. But 
 in 1785 he was induced to issue instruc- 
 tions by which the number of the Lodges 
 was reduced, so that not more than three 
 were permitted to exist in each city ; and he 
 ordered that a list of the members and a 
 note of the times of meeting of each Lodge 
 should be annually delivered to the magis- 
 trates. 
 
AUTHENTIC 
 
 AZARIAH 
 
 97 
 
 On the death of Joseph, he was suc- 
 ceeded by Francis II., who yielded to the 
 machinations of the anti-Masons, and dis- 
 solved the Lodges. In 1801, he issued a 
 decree which forbade the employment of 
 any one in the public service who was at- 
 tached to any secret society. Austria has 
 since been closed to Freemasonry, and its 
 Institution ha3 now no recognized existence 
 there. 
 
 Authentic. Formerly, in the science 
 of Diplomatics, ancient manuscripts were 
 termed authentic when they were originals, 
 and in opposition to copies. But in mod- 
 ern times the acceptation of the word has 
 been enlarged, and it is now applied to in- 
 struments which, although they may be 
 copies, bear the evidence of having been 
 executed by proper authority. So of the 
 old records of Masonry, the originals of 
 many have been lost, or at least have not 
 yet been found. Yet the copies, if they 
 can be traced to unsuspected sources within 
 the body of the Craft and show the inter- 
 nal marks of historical accuracy, are to be 
 reckoned as authentic. But if their origin 
 is altogether unknown, and their statements 
 or style conflict with the known character 
 of the Order at their assumed date, their 
 authenticity is to be doubted or denied. 
 
 Authenticity of the Scriptures. 
 A belief iu the authenticity of the Scrip- 
 tures of the Old and New Testament as a 
 religious qualification of initiation does not 
 constitute one of the laws of Masonry, for 
 such a regulation would destroy the uni- 
 versality of the Institution, and under its 
 action none but Christians could become 
 eligible for admission. But in 1856 the 
 Grand Lodge of Ohio declared "that a 
 distinct avowal of a belief in the divine 
 authority of the Holy Scriptures should be 
 required of every one who is admitted to 
 the privileges of Masonry, and that a de- 
 nial of the same is an ofFence against the 
 Institution, calling for exemplary disci- 
 pline." It is hardly necessary to say that 
 the enunciation of this principle met with 
 the almost universal condemnation of the 
 Grand Lodges and Masonic jurists of this 
 country. The Grand Lodge of Ohio subse- 
 quently repealed the regulation. In 1857, 
 the Grand Lodge of Texas adopted a simi- 
 lar resolution ; but the general sense of the 
 Fraternity has rejected all religious tests 
 except a belief in God. 
 
 Autopsy. (Greek, avTotyia, a seeing with 
 one's own eyes.) The complete communica- 
 tion of the secrets in the Ancient Mysteries, 
 when the aspirant was admitted into the 
 sacellum, or most sacred place, and was in- 
 vested by the hierophant with all the apor- 
 rheta, or sacred things, which constituted 
 the perfect knowledge of the initiate. A 
 N 7 
 
 similar ceremony in Freemasonry is called 
 the Rite of Intrusting. See Mysteries. 
 
 Auxiliary Degrees. According to 
 Oliver, (Landm., ii. 345,) the SupremeCoun- 
 cil of France, in addition to the thirty- 
 three regular degrees of the Rite, confers six 
 others, which he calls " Auxiliary Degrees." 
 They are, 1. Elu de Perignan. 2. Petit 
 Architect. 3. Grand Architecte, or Com- 
 pagnon Ecossais. 4. Maitre Ecossais. 5. 
 Knight of the East. 6. Knight Rose Croix. 
 I cannot trace Oliver's authority for this 
 statement, and doubt it, at least as to the 
 names of the degrees. 
 
 Avenue. Forming avenue is a cere- 
 mony sometimes practised in the lower de- 
 grees, but more generally in the higher 
 ones, on certain occasions of paying honors 
 to superior officers. The brethren form in 
 two ranks facing each other. If the de- 
 gree is one in which swords are used, these 
 are drawn and elevated, being crossed each 
 with the opposite sword. The swords thus 
 crossed constitute what is called " the arch 
 of steel." The person to whom honor is 
 to be paid passes between the opposite 
 ranks and under the arch of steel. 
 
 Avignon, I II u in in at i of. {Illu- 
 mines d' Avignon.) A Rite instituted by 
 Pernetti at Avignon, in France, in 1770, 
 and transferred in the year 1778 to Mont- 
 pellier, under the name of the Academy 
 of True Masons. The Academy of Avignon 
 consisted of only four degrees, the three of 
 symbolic or St. John's Masonry, and a 
 fourth called the True Mason, which was 
 made up of instructions, Hermetical and 
 Swedenborgian. See Pernetti. 
 
 Avouchment. See Vouching. 
 
 Award. In law, the judgment pro- 
 nounced by one or more arbitrators, at the 
 request of two parties who are at variance. 
 "If any complaint be brought" say the 
 Charges published by Anderson, " the 
 brother found guilty shall stand to the 
 award and determination of the Lodge." 
 
 Ayes and Noes. It is not according 
 to Masonic usage to call for the ayes and 
 noes on any question pending before a 
 Lodge. 
 
 Ay non. Aynon, Agnon, Ajuon, and 
 Dyon are all used in the old manuscript Con- 
 stitutions for one whom they call the son of 
 the king of Tyre, but it is evidently meant 
 for Hiram Abif. Each of these words is 
 most probably a corruption of the Hebrew 
 Adon or Lord, so that the reference would 
 clearly be to Adon Hiram or Adoniram, with 
 whom Hiram was often confounded ; a con- 
 fusion to be found in later times in the 
 Adonhiramite Rite. 
 
 Azariah. The old French rituals have 
 Azarias. A name in the high degrees sig- 
 nifying, Helped of God. 
 
98 
 
 BAAL 
 
 BABYLON 
 
 B. 
 
 Baal. Hebrew, h?2. He was the chief 
 divinity among the Phoenicians, the Ca- 
 naanites, and the Babylonians. The word 
 signifies in Hebrew lord or master. It was 
 among the orientalists a comprehensive 
 term, denoting divinity of any kind with- 
 out reference to class or to sex. The Saba- 
 ists understood Baal as the sun, and Baalim, 
 in the plural, were the sun, moon, and stars, 
 " the host of heaven." Whenever the Is- 
 raelites made one of their almost periodi- 
 cal deflections to idolatry, Baal seems to 
 have been the favorite idol to whose wor- 
 ship they addicted themselves. Hence he 
 became the especial object of denunciation 
 with the prophets. Thus, in 1 Kings (xviii.,) 
 we see Elijah showing, by practical dem- 
 onstration, the difference between Baal and 
 Jehovah. The idolators, at his instigation, 
 called on Baal, as their sun-god, to light the 
 sacrificial fire, from morning until noon, 
 because at noon he had acquired his great- 
 est intensity. And after noon, no fire hav- 
 ing been kindled on the altar, they began 
 to cry aloud, and to cut themselves in token 
 of mortification, because as the sun de- 
 scended there was no hope of his help. But 
 Elijah, depending on Jehovah, made his 
 sacrifice towards sunset, to show the great- 
 est contrast between Baal and the true God. 
 And when the people saw the fire come 
 down and consume the offering, they ac- 
 knowledged the weakness of their idol, and 
 falling on their faces cried out, Jehovah hu 
 hahelohim — " Jehovah, he is the God." 
 And Hosea afterwards promises the people 
 that they shall abandon their idolatry, and 
 that he would take away from them the 
 Shemoth hahbaalim, the names of the Baal- 
 im, so that they should be no more remem- 
 bered by their names, and the people should 
 in that day " know Jehovah." 
 
 Hence we see that there was an evident 
 antagonism in the orthodox Hebrew mind 
 between Jehovah and Baal. The latter was, 
 however, worshipped by the Jews, when- 
 ever they became heterodox, and by all the 
 Oriental or Shemitic nations as a supreme 
 divinity, representing the sun in some of 
 his modifications as the ruler of the day. 
 In Tyre, Baal was the sun, and Ashtaroth, 
 the moon. Baalpeor, the lord of priapism, 
 -was the sun represented as the generative 
 principle of nature, and identical with the 
 .phallus of other religions. Baal-gad was 
 the lord of the multitude, (of stars,) that is, 
 ■the sun as the chief of the heavenly host. 
 In brief, Baal seems to have been wherever 
 his cultus was established, a development 
 or form of the old sun worship. 
 
 Babel. Iu Hebrew, Sm; which the 
 
 writer of Genesis connects with SS3, balal, 
 " to confound," in reference to the confu- 
 sion of tongues ; but the true derivation is 
 probably from BAB-EL, " the gate of El " 
 or the "gate of God," because perhaps a 
 temple was the first building raised by the 
 primitive nomads. It is the name of that 
 celebrated tower attempted to be built on 
 the plains of Shinar, A. M. 1775, about one 
 hundred and forty years after the deluge, 
 and which, Scripture informs us, was de- 
 stroyed by a special interposition of the 
 Almighty. The Noachite Masons date the 
 commencement of their order from this de- 
 struction, and much traditionary informa- 
 tion on this subject is preserved in the 
 degree of "Patriarch Noachite." At 
 Babel, Oliver says that what has been 
 called Spurious Freemasonry took its ori- 
 gin. That is to say, the people there aban- 
 doned the worship of the true God, and by 
 their dispersion lost all knowledge of his 
 existence, and of the principles of truth 
 upon which Masonry is founded. Hence 
 it is that the rituals speak of the lofty tower 
 of Babel as the place where language was 
 confounded and Masonry lost. See Oman. 
 
 This is the theory first advanced by An- 
 derson in his Constitutions, and subse- 
 quently developed more extensively by Dr. 
 Oliver in all his works, but especially in 
 his Landmarks. As history, the doctrine is 
 of no value, for it wants the element of 
 authenticity. But in a symbolic point of 
 view it is highly suggestive. If the tower 
 of Babel represents the profane world of 
 ignorance and darkness, and the threshing- 
 floor of Oman the Jebusite is the symbol 
 of Freemasonry, because the Solomonic 
 Temple, of which it was the site, is the pro- 
 totype of the spiritual temple which Ma- 
 sons are erecting, then we can readily 
 understand how Masonry and the true use 
 of language is lost in one and recovered in 
 the other, and how the progress of the can- 
 didate in his initiation may properly be 
 compared to the progress of truth from the 
 confusion and ignorance of the Babel 
 builders to the perfection and illumination 
 of the temple builders, which temple buil- 
 ders all Freemasons are. And so, when 
 in the ritual the neophyte, being asked 
 " whence he comes and whither is he 
 travelling," replies, " from the lofty tower 
 of Babel, where language was confounded 
 and Masonry lost, to the threshing-floor of 
 Oman the Jebusite, where language was 
 restored and Masonry found," the ques- 
 tions and answers become intelligible from 
 this symbolic point of view. 
 
 Babylon. The ancient capital of 
 
BABYLON 
 
 BACON 
 
 99 
 
 Chaldea, situated on both sides of the Eu- 
 phrates, and once the most magnificent 
 city of the ancient world. It was here 
 that, upon the destruction of Solomon's 
 Temple by Nebuchadnezzar in the year of 
 the world 3394, the Jews of the tribes of 
 Judah and Benjamin, who were the inhab- 
 itants of Jerusalem, were conveyed and 
 detained in captivity for seventy-two years, 
 until Cyrus, king of Persia, issued a decree 
 for restoring them, and permitting them to 
 rebuild their temple, under the superin- 
 tendence of Zerubbabel, the Prince of the 
 Captivity, and with the assistance of Joshua 
 the High Priest and Haggai the Scribe. 
 
 Babylon the Great, as the prophet Dan- 
 iel calls it, was situated four hundred and 
 seventy-five miles in a nearly due east di- 
 rection from Jerusalem. It stood in the 
 midst of a large and fertile plain on each 
 side of the river Euphrates, which ran 
 through it from north to south. It was 
 surrounded with walls which were eighty- 
 seven feet thick, three hundred and fifty in 
 height, and sixty miles in compass. These 
 were all built of large bricks cemented 
 together with bitumen. Exterior to the 
 walls was a wide and deep trench lined 
 with the same material. Twenty-five gates 
 on each side, made of solid brass, gave 
 admission to the city. From each of these 
 gates proceeded a wide street fifteen miles 
 in length, and the whole was separated by 
 means of other smaller divisions, and con- 
 tained six hundred and seventy-six squares, 
 each of which was two miles and a quarter 
 in circumference. Two hundred and fifty 
 towers placed upon the walls afforded the 
 means of additional strength and protec- 
 tion. Within this immense circuit were to 
 be found palaces and temples and other 
 edifices of the utmost magnificence, which 
 have caused the wealth, the luxury, and 
 splendor of Babylon to become the favorite 
 theme of the historians of antiquity, and 
 which compelled the prophet Isaiah, even 
 while denouncing its downfall, to speak of 
 it as " the glory of kingdoms, the beauty 
 of the Chaldees' excellency." 
 
 Babylon, which, at the time of the de- 
 struction of the Temple of Jerusalem, con- 
 stituted a part of the Chaldean empire, was 
 subsequently taken, B. C. 538, after a siege 
 of two years, by Cyrus, king of Persia. 
 
 Babylon, Red Cross of. Another 
 name for the degree of Babylonish Pass, 
 which see. 
 
 Babylonish Captivity. See Cap- 
 tivity. 
 
 Babylonish Pass. A degree given 
 in Scotland by the authority of the Grand 
 Royal Arch Chapter. It is also called the 
 Red Cross of Babylon, and is almost iden- 
 tical with the Knight of the Red Cross 
 
 conferred in Commanderies of Knights 
 Templars in America as a preparatory 
 degree. 
 
 Back. Freemasonry, borrowing its 
 symbols from every source, has not neg- 
 lected to make a selection of certain parts 
 of the human body. From the back an 
 important lesson is derived, which is fit- 
 tingly developed in the third degree. 
 Hence, in reference to this symbolism, 
 Oliver says : " It is a duty incumbent on 
 every Mason to support a brother's charac- 
 ter in his absence equally as though he 
 were present ; not to revile him behind his 
 back, nor suffer it to be done by others, 
 without using every necessary attempt to 
 prevent it." And Hutchinson, referring to 
 the same symbolic ceremony, says : " The 
 most material part of that brotherly love 
 which should subsist among Masons is that 
 of speaking well of each other to the 
 world; more especially it is expected of 
 every member of this Fraternity that he 
 should not traduce a brother. Calumny 
 and slander are detestable crimes against 
 society. Nothing can be viler than to tra- 
 duce a man behind his back; it is like the 
 villany of an assassin who has not virtue 
 enough to give his adversary the means of 
 self-defence, but, lurking in darkness, stabs 
 him whilst he is unarmed and unsuspicious 
 of an enemy." See Five Points of Fellow- 
 ship. 
 
 Bacon, Francis. Baron of Veru- 
 lara, commonly called Lord Bacon. Nico- 
 lai thinks that a great impulse was exercised 
 upon the early history of Freemasonry by 
 the New Atlantis of Lord Bacon. In this 
 learned romance Bacon supposes that a 
 vessel lands on an unknown island, called 
 Bensalem, over which a certain King Sol- 
 omon reigned in days of yore. This king 
 had a large establishment, which was 
 called the House of Solomon, or the college 
 of the workmen of six days, namely, the 
 days of the creation. He afterwards de- 
 scribes the immense apparatus which was 
 there employed in physical researches. 
 There were, says he, deep grottoes and 
 towers for the successful observation of 
 certain phenomena of nature; artificial 
 mineral waters ; large buildings, in which 
 meteors, the wind, thunder, and rain were 
 imitated; extensive botanic gardens ; entire 
 fields, in which all kinds of animals were 
 collected, for the study of their instincts and 
 habits ; houses filled with all the wonders 
 of nature and art ; a great number of learned 
 men, each of whom, in his own country, 
 had the direction of these things ; they 
 made journeys and observations ; they wrote, 
 they collected, they determined results, and 
 deliberated together as to what was proper 
 to be published and what concealed. 
 
100 
 
 BACON 
 
 BACULUS 
 
 This romance became at once very pop- 
 ular, and everybody's attention was at- 
 tracted by the allegory of the House of 
 Solomon. But it also contributed to spread 
 Bacon's views on experimental knowledge, 
 and led afterwards to the institution of the 
 Eoyal Society, to which Nicolai attributes 
 a common object with that of the Society 
 of Freemasons, established, he says, about 
 the same time, the difference being only 
 that one was esoteric and the other exoteric 
 in its instructions. But the more immedi- 
 ate effect of the romance of Bacon was the 
 institution of the Society of Astrologers, of 
 which Elias Ashmole was a leading mem- 
 ber. Of this society Nicolai, in his work 
 on the Origin and History of Rosicrucianism 
 and Freemasonry, says : 
 
 "Its object was to build the House of 
 Solomon, of the New Atlantis, in the 
 literal sense, but the establishment was 
 to remain as secret as the island of Ben- 
 salem — that is to say, they were to be en- 
 gaged in the study of nature — but the 
 instruction of its principles was to remain 
 in the society in an esoteric form. These 
 philosophers presented their idea in a 
 strictly allegorical method. First, there 
 were the ancient columns of Hermes, by 
 which Iamblichus pretended that he had 
 enlightened all the doubts of Porphyry. 
 You then mounted, by several steps, to a 
 chequered floor, divided into four regions, 
 to denote the four superior sciences ; after 
 which came the types of the six days' work, 
 which expressed the object of the society, 
 and which were the same as those found on 
 an engraved stone in my possession. The 
 sense of all which was this : God created 
 the world, and preserves it by fixed prin- 
 ciples, full of wisdom; he who seeks to 
 know these principles — that is to say, the 
 interior of nature — approximates to God, 
 and he who thus approximates to God 
 obtains from his grace the power of com- 
 manding nature." 
 
 This society, he adds, met at Masons' Hall 
 in Basinghall Street, because many of its 
 members were also members of the Masons' 
 Company, into which they all afterwards 
 entered and assumed the name of Free and 
 Accepted Masons, and thus he traces the 
 origin of the Order to the New Atlantis 
 and the House of Solomon of Lord Bacon. 
 It is only a theory, but it seems to throw 
 some light on that long process of incuba- 
 tion which terminated at last, in 1717, in 
 the production of the Grand Lodge of 
 England. The connection of Ashmole 
 with the Masons is a singular one, and has 
 led to some controversy. The views of 
 Nicolai, if not altogether correct, may 
 suggest the possibility of an explanation. 
 Certain it is that the eminent astrologers 
 
 of England, as we learn from Ash mole's 
 Diary, were on terms of intimacy with the 
 Masons in the seventeenth century. 
 
 Bacillus. The staff of office borne 
 by the Grand Master of the Templars. In 
 ecclesiology, baculus is the name given to 
 the pastoral staff carried by a bishop or an 
 abbot as the ensign of his dignity and 
 authority. In pure Latinity, baculus means 
 a long stick or staff, which was commonly 
 carried by travellers, by shepherds, or by 
 infirm and aged persons, and afterwards, 
 from affectation, by the Greek philosophers. 
 In early times, this staff, made a little 
 longer, was carried by kings and persons in 
 authority, as a mark of distinction, and 
 was thus the origin of the royal sceptre. 
 The Christian church, borrowing many of 
 its usages from antiquity, and alluding 
 also, it is said, to the sacerdotal power 
 which Christ conferred when he sent the 
 apostles to preach, commanding them to 
 take with them staves, adopted the pasto- 
 ral staff, to be borne by a bishop, as sym- 
 bolical of his power to inflict pastoral cor- 
 rection ; and Darandus says, " By the pas- 
 toral staff is likewise understood the au- 
 thority of doctrine. For by it the infirm 
 are supported, the wavering are confirmed, 
 those going astray are drawn to repentance." 
 Catalin also says, "That the baculus, or 
 episcopal staff, is an ensign not only of 
 honor, but also of dignity, power, and pas- 
 toral jurisdiction." 
 
 Honorius, a writer of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, in his treatise De Gemma Anim.03. 
 gives to this pastoral staff the names both 
 of baculus and virga. Thus he says, 
 " Bishops bear the staff (baculum), that by 
 their teaching they may strengthen the 
 weak in their faith; and they carry the 
 rod (virgam), that by their power they may 
 correct the unruly." And this is strikingly 
 similar to the language used by St. Bernard 
 in the Rule which he drew up for the 
 government of the Templars. In Art. lxviii., 
 he says, "the Master ought to hold the 
 staff and the rod (baculum et virgam) in his 
 hand, that is to say the staff (baculum), that 
 he may support the infirmities of the weak, 
 and the rod (virgam), that he may with the 
 zeal of rectitude strike down the vices of 
 delinquents." 
 
 The transmission of episcopal ensigns 
 from bishops to the heads of ecclesiastical 
 associations was not difficult in the Middle 
 Ages ; and hence it afterwards became one 
 of the insignia of abbots, and the heads of 
 confraternities connected with the Church, 
 as a token of the possession of powers of 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction. 
 
 Now, as the Papal bull, Omne datum Op- 
 timum, invested the Grand Master of the 
 Templars with almost episcopal jurisdiction 
 
BACULUS 
 
 BADGE 
 
 101 
 
 over the priests of his Order, he hore the 
 baculus, or pastoral staff, as a mark of that 
 jurisdiction, and thus it became a part of 
 the Grand Master's insignia of office. 
 
 The baculus of the bishop, the abbot, and 
 the confraternities, was not precisely the 
 same in form. The earliest episcopal staff 
 terminated in a globular knob, or a tau 
 cross. This was, however, soon replaced 
 by the simple-curved termination, which 
 resembles and is called a crook, in allusion 
 to that used by shepherds to draw back and 
 recall the sheep of their flock which have 
 gone astray, thus symbolizing the expres- 
 sion of Christ, " I am the good Shepherd, 
 and know my sheep, and am known of 
 mine." 
 
 The baculus of the abbot does not differ 
 in form from that of a bishop, but as the 
 bishop carries the curved part of his staff 
 pointing forward, to show the extent of his 
 episcopal jurisdiction, so the abbot carries 
 his pointing backward, to signify that his 
 authority is limited to his monastery. 
 
 The baculi, or staves of the confraterni- 
 ties, were surmounted by small tabernacles, 
 with images or emblems, on a sort of carved 
 cap, having reference to the particular guild 
 or confraternity by whom they were borne. 
 
 The baculus of the Knights Templars, 
 which was borne by the Grand Master as 
 the ensign of his office, in allusion to his 
 quasi episcopal jurisdiction, is described 
 and delineated in Mlinter, Burnes, Addi- 
 son, and all the other authorities, as a staff, 
 on the top of which is an octagonal figure, 
 surmounted with a cross patee. The cross, 
 of course, refers to the Christian character 
 of the Order, and the octagon alludes, it is 
 said, to the eight beatitudes of our Saviour 
 in his Sermon on the Mount. 
 
 The pastoral staff is variously designated, 
 by ecclesiastical writers, as virga, ferulu, 
 cambutta, crocia, and pedum. From crocia, 
 whose root is the Latin crux, and the Italian 
 croce, a cross, we get the English crozier. 
 
 Pedum, another name of the baculus, sig- 
 nifies, in pure Latinity, a shepherd's crook, 
 and thus strictly carries out the symbolic 
 idea of a pastoral charge. Hence, looking 
 to the pastoral jurisdiction of the Grand 
 Master of the Templars, his staff of office 
 is described under the title of "pedum ma- 
 gistrate seu patriarchate, " that is, a " ma- 
 gisterial or patriarchal staff," in the Statuta 
 CommilitonumOrdinis Templi," or the " Stat- 
 utes of the Fellow-soldiers of the Order 
 of the Temple," as a part of the investi- 
 ture of the Grand Master, in the following 
 words : 
 
 " Pedum magistrate seu patriarchate, au- 
 reum, in cacumine cujus crux Ordinis super 
 orbem exaltatur ; " that is, " a magisterial 
 or patriarchal staff of gold, on the top of 
 
 which is a cross of the Order, surmounting 
 an orb or globe." (Stat, xxviii., art. 358.) 
 But of all these names, baculus is the one 
 more commonly used by writers to desig- 
 nate the Templar pastoral staff. 
 
 In the year 1859 this staff of office was 
 first adopted at Chicago by the Templars 
 of the United States, during the Grand 
 Mastership of Sir William B. Hubbard. 
 But, unfortunately, at that time it received 
 the name of abacus, a misnomer, which has 
 continued to the present day, on the author- 
 ity of a literary blunder of Sir Walter Scott, 
 so that it has fallen to the lot of American 
 Masons to perpetuate,, in the use of this 
 word, an error of the great novelist, result- 
 ing from his too careless writing, at which 
 he would himself have been the first to 
 smile, had his attention been called to it. 
 
 Abacus, in mathematics, denotes an in- 
 strument or table used for calculation, and 
 in architecture an ornamental part of a 
 column; but it nowhere, in English or 
 Latin, or any known language, signifies 
 any kind of a staff. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott, who, undoubtedly was 
 thinking of baculus, in the hurry of the mo- 
 ment and a not improbable confusion of 
 words and thoughts, wrote abacus, when, in 
 his novel oflvanhoe, he describes the Grand 
 Master, Lucas Beaumanoir.as bearing in his 
 hand " that singular abacus, or staff office," 
 committed a very gross, but not very 
 uncommon, literary blunder, of a kind that 
 is quite familiar to those who are conver- 
 sant with the results of rapid composition, 
 where the writer often thinks of one word 
 and writes another. 
 
 Baden. Freemasonry was introduced 
 at an early period into the Grand Duchy 
 of Baden, and was for a long time popular. 
 An electoral decree in 1785 abolished all 
 secret societies, and the Masons suspended 
 their labors. These were revived in 1805, 
 by the establishment of a new Lodge, and 
 eventually, in 1809, of the Grand Orient of 
 Baden at Manheim. In 1813, the meetings 
 were again prohibited by Grand Ducal au- 
 thority. In 1846 and 1847, by the liberality 
 of the sovereign, the Masons were per- 
 mitted to resume their labors, and three 
 Lodges were formed, namely, at Manheim, 
 Carlsruhe, and Breiburg, which united with 
 the Grand Lodge of Bayreuth. 
 
 Badge. A mark, sign, token, or thing, 
 says Webster, by which a person is dis- 
 tinguished in a particular place or employ- 
 ment, and designating his relation to a 
 person or to a particular occupation. It is 
 in heraldry the same thing as a cognizance: 
 thus, the followers and retainers of the house 
 of Percy wore a silver crescent as a badge 
 of their connection with that family ; the 
 white lion borne on the left arm was the 
 
102 
 
 BADGE 
 
 BALDWTN 
 
 badge of the house of Howard, Earl of 
 Surrey ; the red rose that of the house of 
 Lancaster; and the white rose, of York. 
 So the apron, formed of white lambskin, is 
 worn by the Freemason as a badge of his 
 profession and a token of his connection 
 with the Fraternity. See Apron. 
 
 Badge of a Mason. The lambskin 
 apron is so called. See Apron. 
 
 Badge, Royal Arch. The Koyal 
 Arch badge is the triple tau, which see. 
 
 Bafoniet. See Baphomet. 
 
 Bag. The insignia, in the Grand 
 Lodge of England, of the Grand Secretary. 
 Thus Preston, describing a form of Masonic 
 procession, says: "The Grand Secretary, 
 with his bag." The bag is supposed to con- 
 tain the seal of the Grand Lodge, of which 
 the Grand Secretary is the custodian ; and 
 the usage is derived from that of the Lord 
 Chancellors preserving the Great Seal of 
 the kingdom in a richly embroidered bag. 
 The custom also existed in America many 
 years ago, and Dalcho, in his Ahiman 
 Rezon of South Carolina, published in 
 1807, gives a form of procession, in which 
 he describes the Grand Secretary with his 
 bag. In 1729, Lord Kingston, being Grand 
 Master, provided at his own cost " a fine 
 velvet bag for the Secretary." 
 
 Bagitlkal. A significant word in the 
 high degrees. Lenning says it is a cor- 
 ruption of the Hebrew Begoal-kol, " all is 
 revealed." Pike says, Bagulkol, with a 
 similar reference to a revelation. Rock- 
 well gives in his MS., Bekalkel, without any 
 meaning. The old rituals interpret as sig- 
 nifying " the faithful guardian of the 
 sacred ark," a derivation clearly fanciful. 
 
 Bahrdt, Karl Friedericb. A 
 German doctor of theology, who was born, 
 in 1741, at Bischofswerda, and died in 
 1792. He is described by one of his biog- 
 raphers as being " notorious alike for his 
 bold infidelity and for his evil life." I 
 know not why Thory and Lenning have 
 given his name a place in their vocabu- 
 laries, as his literary labors bore no rela- 
 tion to Freemasonry, except inasmuch as 
 that he was a Mason, and that in 1787, with 
 several other Masons, he founded at Halle 
 a secret society called the " German Union," 
 or the " Two and Twenty," in reference to 
 the original number of its members. The 
 object of this society was said to be the en- 
 lightenment of mankind. It was dissolved 
 in 1790, by the imprisonment of its founder 
 for having written a libel against the Prus- 
 sian Minister Woellner. It i3 incorrect to 
 call this system of degree a Masonic Rite. 
 See German Union. 
 
 Baldachin. In architecture, a canopy 
 supported by pillars over an insulated altar. 
 In Masonry, it has been applied by some 
 
 writers to the canopy over the Master's 
 chair. The German Masons give this 
 name to the covering of the Lodge, and 
 reckon it thei'efore among the symbols. 
 
 Baldrick. A portion of military 
 dress, being a scarf passing from the 
 shoulder over the breast to the hip. In 
 the dress regulations of the Grand En- 
 campment of Knights Templars of the 
 United States, adopted in 1862, it is called 
 a "scarf," and is thus described: "Five 
 inches wide in the whole, of white bordered 
 with black, one inch on either side, a strip 
 of navy lace one-fourth of an inch wide at 
 the inner edge of the black. On the front 
 centre of the scarf, a metal star of nine 
 points, in allusion to the nine founders of 
 the Temple Order, inclosing the Passion 
 Cross, surrounded by the Latin motto, ' In 
 hoc signo vinces ; ' the star to be three 
 and three-quarter inches in diameter. The 
 scarf to be worn from the right shoulder 
 to the left hip, with the ends extending six 
 inches below the point of intersection." 
 
 Bald wyn II. The successor of God- 
 frey of Bouillon as king of Jerusalem. In 
 his reign the Order of Knights Templars 
 was instituted, to whom he granted a place 
 of habitation within the sacred inclosure 
 of the Temple on Mount Moriah. He be- 
 stowed on the Order other marks of favor, 
 and, as its patron, his name has been re- 
 tained in grateful remembrance, and often 
 adopted as a name of Commanderies of 
 Masonic Templars. 
 
 Baldwyn Encampment. An 
 original Encampment of Knights Templars 
 at Bristol, in England, said to have been 
 established from time immemorial, and re- 
 fusing to recognize the authority of the 
 Grand Conclave of England. Four other 
 Encampments of the same character are 
 said to have existed in London, Bath, York, 
 and Salisbury. From a letter written by 
 Davyd W. Nash, Esq., a prominent mem- 
 ber of the Bristol Encampment, in 1853, 
 and from a circular issued by the body in 
 1857, I derive the following information. 
 
 The Order of Knights Templars had ex- 
 isted in Bristol from time immemorial, 
 and the Templars had large possessions in 
 that ancient city. About the beginning of 
 this century, Bro. Henry Smith introduced 
 from France three degrees of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Rite, which, with the degree 
 of Rose Croix, long previously connected 
 with the Encampment, were united with 
 the Templar degrees into an Order called 
 the Royal Order of Knighthood, so that the 
 Encampment conferred the following seven 
 degrees: 1. Masonic Knight Templar; 2. 
 Knight of St. John of Jerusalem ; 3. Knight » 
 of Palestine; 4. Knight of Rhodes; 5. 
 Knight of Malta ; 6. Knight Rose Croix 
 
BALDWYN 
 
 BALLOT 
 
 103 
 
 of Heredom; 7. Grand Elected Knight 
 of Kadosh. A candidate for admission 
 must be a Royal Arch Mason ; but the de- 
 grees are not necessarily taken in the order 
 in which they have been named, the can- 
 didate being permitted to commence at any 
 point. 
 
 Nash gives the following account of the 
 nature of the difficulties with the Grand 
 Conclave of England : 
 
 "The Duke of Sussex having been in- 
 stalled a Knight Templar at Paris, I be- 
 lieve by Sir Sidney Smith, then Grand 
 Master, was created Grand Master of the 
 Knights Templars in England. From some 
 cause or other, he never would countenance 
 the Christian degrees connected with Ma- 
 sonry, and would not permit a badge of one 
 of these degrees to be worn in • a Craft 
 Lodge. In London, of course, he ruled 
 supreme, and the meetings of Knights 
 Templars there, if they continued at all, 
 were degraded to the mere level of public- 
 house meetings. On the death of the Duke 
 of Sussex, it was resolved to rescue the 
 Order from its degraded position, and the 
 Grand Conclave of England was formed, 
 some of the officers of the Duke of Sussex's 
 original Encampment, which he held once, 
 and I believe, once only, being then alive. 
 
 "In the meantime, of the three original 
 Encampments of England, — the genuine 
 representatives of the Knights of the Tem- 
 ple, — two had expired, those of Bath and 
 York, leaving Bristol the sole relic of the 
 Order, with the exception of the Encamp- 
 ments that had been created in various parts 
 of the country, not holding under any 
 legitimate authority, but raised by knights 
 who had, I believe, without exception, been 
 created in the Encampment of Baldwyn, 
 at Bristol. 
 
 " Under these circumstances the Knights 
 of Baldwyn felt that their place was at the 
 head of the Order; and though willing for 
 the common good to submit to the autho- 
 rity of Col. Tynte or any duly elected 
 Grand Master, they could not yield prece- 
 dence to the Encampment of Observance, 
 (the original Encampment of the Duke of 
 Sussex,) derived from a foreign and spuri- 
 ous source, the so-called Order of the Tem- 
 ple in Paris ; nor could they consent to 
 forego the privileges which they held from 
 an immemorial period, or permit their an- 
 cient and well-established ceremonies, cos- 
 tume, and laws to be revised by persons 
 for whose knowledge and judgment they 
 entertained a very reasonable and well- 
 grounded want of respect. The Encamp- 
 ment of Baldwyn, therefore, refused to send 
 representatives to the Grand Conclave of 
 England, or to acknowledge its authority 
 in Bristol, until such time as its claims 
 
 should be treated with the consideration it 
 is believed they deserve." * 
 
 In 1857 the Baldwyn Encampments at 
 Bristol and Bath sought a reconciliation 
 with the Grand Conclave of England, but 
 were repulsed ; and consequently in the same 
 year they established or, to use their own 
 word, "revived" the "Ancient Supreme 
 Grand and Royal Encampment of Masonic 
 Knights Templars," with a constituency of 
 seven bodies, and elected Nash, Grand 
 Master. But this body did not have a long 
 or a prosperous existence, and in 1860 the 
 "Camp of Baldwyn" surrendered its in- 
 dependence, and was recognized as a con- 
 stituent, but with immemorial existence, of 
 the Grand Conclave of England and Wales. 
 
 Itulkis. The name given by the ori- 
 entalists to the Queen of Sheba, who visited 
 King Solomon, and of whom they relate a 
 crowd of fables. See Sheba, Queen of. 
 
 Ballot. In the election of candidates, 
 Lodges have recourse to a ballot of white 
 and black balls. Unanimity of choice, in 
 this case, is always desired and demanded ; 
 one black ball only being required to reject 
 a candidate. This is an inherent privilege 
 not subject to dispensation or interference 
 of the Grand Lodge, because as the Old 
 Charges say, " The members of a particular 
 Lodge are the best judges of it ; and be- 
 cause, if a turbulent member should be im- 
 posed upon them, it might spoil their 
 harmony or hinder the freedom of their 
 communications, or even break and dis- 
 
 Eerse the Lodge, which ought to be avoided 
 y all true and faithful." 
 
 In balloting for a candidate for initiation, 
 every member is expected to vote. No one 
 can be excused from sharing the responsi- 
 bility of admission or rejection, except by 
 the unanimous consent of the Lodge. 
 Where a member has himself no personal 
 or acquired knowledge of the qualifications 
 of the candidate, he is bound to give faith 
 to the recommendation of his brethren of 
 the reporting committee, who, he is to pre- 
 sume, would not make a favorable report on 
 the petition of an unworthy applicant. 
 
 The most correct usage in balloting for 
 candidates is as follows : 
 
 The committee of investigation having 
 reported favorably, the Master of the 
 Lodge directs the Senior Deacon to prepare 
 the ballot-box. The mode in which this is 
 accomplished is as follows : The Senior 
 Deacon takes the ballot-box, and, opening 
 it, places all the white and black balls in- 
 discriminately in one compartment, leaving 
 the other entirely empty. He then pro- 
 
 • See letter of Davyd W. Nash to the author 
 of An Historical Sketch of the Order of Knights 
 Templars, by Theo. S. Gourdin. Charleston, S. 
 C, 1853, p. 27. 
 
104 
 
 BALLOT 
 
 BALLOT 
 
 ceeds with the box to the Junior and Senior 
 Wardens, who satisfy themselves by an in- 
 spection that no ball has been left in the 
 compartment in which the votes are to be 
 deposited. The box in this and the other 
 instance to be referred to hereafter, is pre- 
 sented to the inferior officer first, and then 
 to his superior, that the examination and 
 decision of the former may be substantiated 
 and confirmed by the higher authority of 
 the latter. Let it, indeed, be remembered, 
 that in all such cases the usage of Masonic 
 circumambulation is to be observed, and that, 
 therefore, we must first pass the Junior's 
 station before we can get to that of the 
 Senior Warden. 
 
 These officers having thus satisfied them- 
 selves that the box is in a proper condition 
 for the reception of the ballots, it is then 
 placed upon the altar by the Senior Deacon, 
 who retires to his seat. The Master then 
 directs the Secretary to call the roll, which 
 is done by commencing with the Worship- 
 ful Master, and proceeding through all the 
 officers down to the youngest member. As 
 a matter of convenience, the Secretary 
 generally votes the last of those in the 
 room, and then, if the Tiler is a member 
 of the Lodge, he is called in, while the 
 Junior Deacon tiles for him, and the name 
 of the applicant having been told him, he 
 is directed to deposit his ballot, which he 
 does and then retires. 
 
 As the name of each officer and member 
 is called, he approaches the altar, and hav- 
 ing made the proper Masonic salutation to 
 the Chair, he deposits his ballot and retires 
 to his seat. The roll should be called slow- 
 ly, so that at no time should there be more 
 than one person present at the box, for the 
 great object of the ballot being secrecy, no 
 brother should be permitted so near the 
 member voting as to distinguish the color 
 of the ball he deposits. 
 
 The box is placed on the altar, and the 
 ballot is deposited with the solemnity of a 
 Masonic salutation, that the voters may be 
 duly impressed with the sacred and respon- 
 sible nature of the duty they are called on 
 to discharge. The system of voting thus 
 described, is, therefore, far better on this 
 account than that sometimes adopted in 
 Lodges, of handing round the box for the 
 members to deposit their ballots from their 
 seats. 
 
 The Master having inquired of the 
 Wardens if all have voted, then orders the 
 Senior Deacon to " take charge of the 
 ballot-box." That officer accordingly re- 
 pairs to the altar, and taking possession of 
 the box, carries it, as before, to the Junior 
 Warden, who examines the ballot, and re- 
 
 Eorts, if all the balls are white, that "the 
 ox is clear in the South," or, if there is 
 
 one or more black balls, that " the box is 
 foul in the South." The Deacon then 
 carries it to the Senior Warden, and after- 
 wards to the Master, who, of course, make 
 the same report, according to the circum- 
 stance, with the necessary verbal variations 
 of "West" and "East." 
 
 If the box is clear — that is, if all the 
 ballots are white — the Master then an- 
 nounces that the applicant has been duly 
 elected, and the Secretary makes a record 
 of the fact. But if the box is foul, the 
 Master inspects the number of black balls ; 
 if he finds only one, he so states the fact 
 to the Lodge, and orders the Senior Deacon 
 again to prepare the ballot-box. Here the 
 same ceremonies are passed through that 
 have already been described. The balls 
 are removed into one compartment, the box 
 is submitted to the inspection of the 
 Wardens, it is placed upon the altar, the 
 roll is called, the members advance and 
 deposit their votes, the box is scrutinized, 
 and the result declared by the Wardens and 
 Master. If again one black ball be found, 
 or if two or more appeared on the first 
 ballot, the Master announces that the pe- 
 tition of the applicant has been rejected, 
 and directs the usual record to be made by 
 the Secretary and the notification to be 
 given to the Grand Lodge. 
 
 Balloting for membership or affiliation is 
 subject to the same rules. In both cases 
 " previous notice, one month before," must 
 be given to the Lodge, " due inquiry into 
 the reputation and capacity of the candi- 
 date " must be made, and the unanimous 
 consent of all the members then present" 
 must be obtained. Nor can this unanimity 
 be dispensed with in one case any more 
 than it can in the other. It is the inherent 
 privilege of every Lodge to judge of the 
 qualifications of its own members, " nor is 
 this inherent privilege subject to a dispen- 
 sation." 
 
 Ballot-Box. The box in which the 
 ballots or little balls used in voting for a 
 candidate are deposited. It should be di- 
 vided into two compartments, one of which 
 is to contain both black and white balls, from 
 which each member selects one, and the 
 other, which is closed with an aperture, to 
 receive the ball that is to be deposited. 
 Various methods have been devised by 
 which secrecy may be secured, so that a 
 voter may select and deposit the ball he 
 desires without the possibility of its being 
 seen whether it is black or white. That 
 now most in use in this country is to have 
 the aperture so covered by a part of the 
 box as to prevent the hand from being seen 
 when the ball is deposited. 
 
 Ballot, Bceonsideration of the. 
 See Reconsideration of the Ballot. 
 
BALLOT 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 
 105 
 
 Ballot, Secrecy of tlie. The 
 
 secrecy of the ballot is as essential to its 
 perfection as its unanimity or its indepen- 
 dence. If the vote were to be given viva 
 voce, it is impossible that the improper influ- 
 ences of fear or interest should not some- 
 times be exerted, and timid members be 
 thus induced to vote contrary to the dictates 
 of their reason and conscience. Hence, to 
 secure this secrecy and protect the purity 
 of choice, it has been wisely established as 
 a usage, not only that the vote shall in 
 these cases be taken by a ballot, but that 
 there shall be no subsequent discussion of 
 the subject. Not only has no member a 
 right to inquire how his fellows have voted, 
 but it is wholly out of order for him to ex- 
 plain his own vote. And the reason of 
 this is evident. If one member has a right 
 to rise in his place and announce that he 
 deposited a white ball, then every other 
 member has the same right; and in a 
 Lodge of twenty members, where an ap- 
 plication has been rejected by one black 
 ball, if nineteen members state that they 
 did not deposit it, the inference is clear 
 that the twentieth Brother has done so, and 
 thus the secrecy of the ballot is at once de- 
 stroyed. The rejection having been an- 
 nounced from the Chair, the Lodge should at 
 once proceed to other business, and it is the 
 sacred duty of the presiding officer peremp- 
 torily and at once to check any rising dis- 
 cussion on the subject. Nothing must be 
 done to impair the inviolable secrecy of the 
 ballot. 
 
 Ballot, Unanimity of the. Una- 
 nimity in the choice of candidates is con- 
 sidered so essential to the welfare of the 
 Fraternity, that the Old Regulations have 
 expressly provided for its preservation in 
 the following words: 
 
 " But no man can be entered a Brother 
 in any particular Lodge, or admitted to be 
 a member thereof, without the unanimous 
 consent of all the members of that Lodge 
 then present when the candidate is pro- 
 posed, and their consent is formally asked 
 by the Master; and they are to signify 
 their consent or dissent in their own pru- 
 dent way, either virtually or in form, but 
 with unanimity; nor is this inherent privi- 
 lege subject to a dispensation ; because the 
 members of a particular Lodge are the best 
 judges of it ; and if a fractious member 
 should be imposed on them, it might spoil 
 their harmony, or hinder their freedom; or 
 even break and disperse the Lodge, which 
 ought to be avoided by all good and true 
 brethren." 
 
 The rule of unanimity here referred to 
 
 is, however, applicable only to this country, 
 
 in all of whose Grand Lodges it is strictly 
 
 enforced. Anderson tells us, in the second 
 
 
 
 edition of the Constitutions, under the 
 head of New Regulations, (p. 155,) that "it 
 was found inconvenient to insist upon 
 unanimity in several cases; and, therefore, 
 the Grand Masters have allowed the Lodges 
 to admit a member if not above three bal- 
 lots are against him ; though some Lodges 
 desire no such allowance." And accord- 
 ingly, the present constitution of the Grand 
 Lodge of England, says : " No person can 
 be made a Mason in or admitted a member 
 of a Lodge, if, on the ballot, three black 
 balls appear against him. Some Lodges 
 wish for no such indulgence, but require 
 the unanimous consent of the members 
 present; some admit one black ball, some 
 two: the by-laws of each Lodge must, 
 therefore, guide them in this respect ; but 
 if there be three black balls, such person 
 cannot, on any pretence, be admitted." 
 The Grand Lodge of Ireland prescribes 
 unanimity, unless there is a by-law of the 
 subordinate Lodge to the contrary. The 
 constitution of Scotland is indefinite on 
 this subject, simply requiring that the 
 brethren shall " have expressed themselves 
 satisfied by ballot in open Lodge," but it 
 does not say whether the ballot shall be 
 or not be unanimous. In the continental 
 Lodges, the modern English regulation pre- 
 vails. It is only in the Lodges of the 
 United States that the ancient rule of 
 unanimity is strictly enforced. 
 
 Unanimity in the ballot is necessary to 
 secure the harmony of the Lodge, which 
 may be as seriously impaired by the ad- 
 mission of a candidate contrary to the 
 wishes of one member as of three or more ; 
 for every man has his friends and his influ- 
 ence. Besides, it is unjust to any member, 
 however humble he may be, to introduce 
 among his associates one whose presence 
 might be unpleasant to him, and whose 
 admission would probably compel him to 
 withdraw from the meetings, or even alto- 
 gether from the Lodge. Neither would 
 any advantage really accrue to a Lodge by 
 such a forced admission ; for while receiv- 
 ing a new and untried member into its 
 fold, it would be losing an old one. For 
 these reasons, in this country, in every 
 one of its jurisdictions, the unanimity of 
 the ballot is expressly insisted on ; and it is 
 evident, from what has been here said, that 
 any less stringent regulation is a violation 
 of the ancient law and usage. 
 
 Balsamo, Joseph. See Cagliostro. 
 
 Baltimore Convention. A Ma- 
 sonic Congress which met in the city of 
 Baltimore on the 8th of May, 1843, in 
 consequence of a recommendation made by 
 a preceding convention which had met in 
 Washington city in March, 1842. It con- 
 sisted of delegates from the States of New 
 
106 
 
 BALUSTER 
 
 BANNERS 
 
 Hampshire, Rhode Island, New York, 
 Maryland, District of Columbia, North 
 Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Ala- 
 bama, Florida, Tennessee, Ohio, Missouri, 
 and Louisiana. Its professed objects were 
 to produce uniformity of Masonic work and 
 to recommend such measures as should tend 
 to the elevation of the Order. It continued 
 in session for nine days, during which time 
 it was principally occupied in an attempt 
 to perfect the ritual, and in drawing up ar- 
 ticles for the permanent organization of a 
 Triennial Masonic Convention of the United 
 States, to consist of delegates from all the 
 Grand Lodges. In both of these efforts it 
 failed, although several distinguished Ma- 
 sons took part in its proceedings; the body 
 was too small, (consisting, as it did, of only 
 twenty-three members,) to exercise any de- 
 cided popular influence on the Fraternity. 
 Its plan of a Triennial Convention met with 
 very general opposition, and its proposed 
 ritual, familiarly known as the " Baltimore 
 work," has almost become a myth. Its only 
 practical result was the preparation and 
 
 Sublication of Moore's Trestle Board, a 
 lonitor which has, however, been adopted 
 only by a limited number of American 
 Lodges. The "Baltimore work" did not 
 materially differ from that originally estab- 
 lished by Webb. Moore's Trestle Board pro- 
 fesses to be an exposition of its monitorial 
 part ; a statement which, however, is denied 
 by Dr. Dove, who was the President of the 
 Convention, and the controversy on this 
 point at the time between these two emi- 
 nent Masons was conducted with too much 
 bitterness. 
 
 Baluster. A small column or pilaster, 
 corruptly called a bannister; in French, 
 balustre. Borrowing the architectural idea, 
 the Scottish Rite Masons apply the word 
 baluster to any official circular or other 
 document issuing from a Supreme Council. 
 Balzac, Lou is Charles. A French 
 architect of some celebrity, and member of 
 the Institute of Egypt. He founded the 
 Lodge of the Great Sphinx at Paris. He was 
 also a poet of no inconsiderable merit, and 
 was the author of many Masonic canticles 
 in the French language, among them the 
 well-known hymn entitled, "Taisons nous, 
 plus de bruit," the music of which was com- 
 posed by M. Riguel. He died March 31, 
 1820, at which time he was inspector of the 
 public works in the prefecture of the Seine. 
 Banners, Royal Arch. Much 
 difficulty has been experienced by ritualists 
 in reference to the true colors and proper 
 arrangements of the banners used in an 
 American Chapter of Royal Arch Masons. 
 It is admitted that they are four in number, 
 and that their colors are blue, purple, scar- 
 let and white ; and it is known, too, that 
 
 the devices on these banners are a lion, an 
 ox, a man, and an eagle; but the doubt is 
 constantly arising as to the relation between 
 these devices and these colors, and as to 
 which of the former is to be appropriated 
 to each of the latter. The question, it is 
 true, is one of mere ritualism, but it is impor- 
 tant that the ritual should be always uniform, 
 and hence the object of the present article is 
 to attempt the solution of this question. 
 
 The banners used in a Royal Arch Chap- 
 ter are derived from those which are sup- 
 posed to have been borne by the twelve 
 tribes of Israel during their encampment 
 in the wilderness, to which reference is 
 made in the second chapter of the Book of 
 Numbers, and the second verse : " Every 
 man of the children of Israel shall pitch 
 by his own standard." But as to what 
 were the devices on the banners, or what 
 were their various colors, the Bible is abso- 
 lutely silent. To the inventive genius of 
 the Talmudists are we indebted for all that 
 we know or profess to know on this subject. 
 These mystical philosophers have given to 
 us with wonderful precision the various de- 
 vices which they have borrowed from the 
 death-bed prophecy of Jacob, and have 
 sought, probably in their own fertile im- 
 aginations, for the appropriate colors. 
 
 The English Royal Arch Masons, whose 
 system differs very much from that of their 
 American Companions, display in their 
 Chapters the twelve banners of the tribes 
 in accordance with the Talmudic devices 
 and colors. These have been very elabo- 
 rately described by Dr. Oliver, in his His- 
 torical Landmarks, and beautifully exem- 
 plified by Companion Harris, in his Boyal 
 Arch Tracing Boards. 
 
 But our American Royal Arch Masons, 
 as we have seen, use only four banners, 
 being those attributed by the Talmudists to 
 the four principal tribes — Judah, Eph- 
 raim, Reuben, and Dan. The devices on 
 these banners are respectively a lion, an ox, 
 a man, and an eagle. As to this there is 
 no question ; all authorities, such as they 
 are, agreeing on this point. But, as has 
 been before said, there is some diversity of 
 opinion as to the colors of each, and neces- 
 sarily as to the officers by whom they should 
 be borne. 
 
 Some of the Targumists, or Jewish bibli- 
 cal commentators, say that the color of the 
 banner of each tribe was analogous to that 
 of the stone which represented that tribe in 
 the breastplate of the high priest. If this 
 were correct, then the colors of the banners 
 of the four leading tribes would be red and 
 green, namely, red for Judah, Ephraim, 
 and Reuben, and green for Dan; these 
 being the colors of the precious stones sar- 
 donyx, ligure, carbuncle, and chrysolite, 
 
BANQUET 
 
 BAPTISM 
 
 107 
 
 by which these tribes were represented in 
 the high priest's breastplate. Such an 
 arrangement would not, of course, at all 
 suit the symbolism of the American Royal 
 Arch banners. 
 
 Equally unsatisfactory is the disposition 
 of the colors derived from the arms of spec- 
 ulative Masonry, as first displayed by Der- 
 mott in his Ahiman Rezon, which is fa- 
 miliar to all American Masons, from the 
 copy published by Cross, in his Hieroglyphic 
 Chart. In this piece of blazonry, the two 
 fields occupied by Judah and Dan are azure, 
 or blue, and those of Ephraim and Reuben 
 are or, or golden yellow ; an appropriation 
 of colors altogether uncongenial with Royal 
 Arch symbolism. 
 
 We must, then, depend on the Talmudic 
 writers solely for the disposition and ar- 
 rangement of the colors and devices of these 
 banners. From their works we learn that 
 the color of the banner of Judah was white ; 
 that of Ephraim scarlet; that of Reuben 
 purple ; and that of Dan blue ; and that the 
 devices of the same tribes were respectively 
 the lion, the ox, the man, and the eagle. 
 
 Hence, under this arrangement — and it 
 is the only one upon which we can depend 
 — the four banners in a Chapter of Royal 
 Arch Masons, working in the American 
 Rite, must be distributed as follows among 
 the banner-bearing officers : 
 
 1st. An eagle, on a blue banner. This 
 represents the tribe of Dan, and is borne 
 by the Grand Master of the first veil. 
 
 2d. A man, on a purple banner. This 
 represents the tribe of Reuben, and is borne 
 by the Grand Master of the second veil. 
 
 3d. An ox, on a scarlet banner. This 
 represents the tribe of Ephraim, and is borne 
 by the Grand Master of the third veil. 
 
 4th. A lion, on a white banner. This 
 represents the tribe of Judah, and is borne 
 by the Royal Arch Captain. 
 
 Banquet. See Table-Lodge. 
 
 Baphomct. The imaginary idol, or, 
 rather, symbol, which the Knights Tem- 
 plars were accused of employing in their 
 mystic rights. The forty-second of the 
 charges preferred against them by Pope 
 Clement is in these words : " Item quod 
 ipsi per singulas provincias habeant idola : 
 videlicet capita quorum aliqua habebant 
 tres facies, et alia unura : et aliqua cranium 
 humanum habebant." Also, that in all of 
 the provinces they have idols, namely, 
 heads, of which some had three faces, some 
 one, and some had a human skull. Von 
 Hammer, a bitter enemy of the Templars, 
 in his book entitled, The Mystery of Baph- 
 omet Revealed, (see Hammer,) revived this 
 old accusation, and attached to the Baph- 
 omet an impious signification. He de- 
 rived the name from the Greek words /3a^, 
 
 baptism, and fi^ng, wisdom, and thence sup- 
 posed that it represented the admission of 
 the initiated into the secret mysteries of 
 the Order. From this gratuitous assump- 
 tion he deduces his theory, set forth even 
 in the very title of his work, that the Tem- 
 plars were convicted, by their own monu- 
 ments, of being guilty as Gnostics and 
 Ophites, of apostasy, idolatry, and impu- 
 rity. Of this statement he offers no other 
 historical testimony than the Articles of 
 Accusation, themselves devoid of proof, 
 but through which the Templars were 
 made the victims of the jealousy of the 
 pope and the avarice of the king of France. 
 
 Others again have thought that they 
 could find in Baphomet a corruption of 
 Mahomet, and hence they have asserted 
 that the Templars had been perverted from 
 their religious faith by the Saracens, with 
 whom they had so much intercourse, some- 
 times as foes and sometimes as friends. 
 Nicolai, who wrote an Essay on the Accusa- 
 tions brought against the Templars, published 
 at Berlin, in 1782, supposes, but doubtingly, 
 that the figure of the Baphomet, "figura 
 Baffometi," which was depicted on a bust 
 representing the Creator, was nothing else 
 but the Pythagorean pentagon, the symbol 
 of health and prosperity, borrowed by the 
 Templars from the Gnostics, who in turn 
 had obtained it from the School of Pythag- 
 oras. 
 
 King, in his learned work on the Gnos- 
 tics, thinks that the Baphomet may have 
 been a symbol of the Manicheans, with 
 whose wide-spreading heresy in the Middle 
 Ages he does not doubt that a large portion 
 of the inquiring spirits of the Temple had 
 been intoxicated. 
 
 Amid these conflicting views, all merely 
 speculative, it will not be uncharitable or 
 unreasonable to suggest that the Baphomet, 
 or skull of the ancient Templars, was, like 
 the relic of their modern Masonic represent- 
 atives, simply an impressive symbol teach- 
 ing the lesson of mortality, and that the lat- 
 ter has really been derived from the former. 
 
 Baptism, Masonic. The term " Ma- 
 sonic Baptism " has been recently applied 
 in this country by some authorities to that 
 ceremony which is used in certain of the 
 high degrees, and which, more properly, 
 should be called "Lustration." It has 
 been objected that the use of the term is 
 calculated to give needless offence to scru- 
 pulous persons who might suppose it to be 
 an imitation of a Christian sacrament. 
 But. in fact, the Masonic baptism has no 
 allusion whatsoever, either in form or de- 
 sign, to the sacrament of the Church. It 
 is simply a lustration or purification by 
 water, a ceremony which was common to 
 all the ancient initiations. See Lustration. 
 
108 
 
 BARD 
 
 BARRUEL 
 
 Bard. A title of great dignity and 
 importance among the ancient Britons, 
 "which was conferred only upon men of 
 distinguished rank in society, and who 
 filled a sacred office. It was the third or 
 lowest of the three degrees into which 
 Druidism was divided. See Druidism. 
 
 Bastard. The question of the ineli- 
 gibility of bastards to be made Freemasons 
 was first brought to the attention of the 
 Craft by Brother Chalmers T. Patton, 
 who, in several articles in The London Free- 
 mason, in 1869, contended that they were 
 excluded from initiation by the Ancient 
 Regulations. Subsequently, in his compi- 
 lation entitled Freemasonry and its Jurispru- 
 dence, published in 1872, he cites several of 
 the Old Constitutions as explicitly declaring 
 that the men made Masons shall be " no 
 bastards." This is a most unwarrantable 
 interpolation not to be justified in any 
 writer on jurisprudence ; for on a careful 
 examination of all the old manuscript 
 copies which have been published, no 
 such words are to be found in any one of 
 them. As an instance of this literary dis- 
 ingenuousness, (to use no harsher term,) I 
 quote the following from his work, (p. GO :) 
 . The charge in this second edition [of An- 
 derson's Constitutions] is in the following 
 unmistakable words : ' The men made Ma- 
 sons must be freeborn, no bastard, (or no 
 bondmen,) of mature age and of good re- 
 port, hale and sound, not deformed or dis- 
 membered at the time of their making.'" 
 
 Now, with a copy of this second edition 
 lying open before me, I find the passage thus 
 printed: "The men made Masons must be 
 freeborn, (or no bondmen,) of mature age 
 and of good report, hale and sound, not 
 deformed or dismembered at the time of 
 their making." The words "no bastard" 
 are Patton's interpolation. 
 
 Again, Patton quotes from Preston the 
 Ancient Charges at makings,in these words : 
 " That he that be made be able in all de- 
 grees ; that is, freeborn, of a good kindred, 
 true, and no bondsman or bastard, and that 
 he have his right limbs as a man ought to 
 have." 
 
 But on referring to Preston, (edition of 
 1775, and all subsequent editions,) we find 
 the passage to be correctly thus : " That he 
 that be made be able in all degrees ; that is, 
 freeborn, of a good kindred, true, and no 
 bondsman, and that he have his limbs as a 
 man ought to have." 
 
 Positive law authorities should not be 
 thus cited, not merely carelessly, but with 
 designed inaccuracy to support a theory. 
 
 But although there is no regulation in 
 the Old Constitutions which explicitly pro- 
 hibits the initiation of bastards, it may be 
 implied from their language that such pro- 
 
 hibition did exist. Thus, in all the old 
 manuscripts, we find such expressions as 
 these: he that shall be made a Mason 
 " must be freeborn and of good kindred^ 
 (Sloane MS.,) or "come of good kindred," 
 (Edinburgh Kilwinning MS.,) or, as the 
 Roberts MS. more definitely has it, " of 
 honest parentage." 
 
 It is not, I therefore think, to be doubted 
 that formerly bastards were considered as 
 ineligible for initiation, on the same prin- 
 ciple that they were, as a degraded class, 
 excluded from the priesthood in the Jew- 
 ish and the primitive Christian church. 
 But the more liberal spirit of modern times 
 has long since made the law obsolete, be- 
 cause it is contrary to the principles of jus- 
 tice to punish a misfortune as if it was a 
 crime. 
 
 Barefeet. See Discalceaiion. 
 
 Barruel, Abbe. Augustin Barruel, 
 generally known as the Abbe Barruel, who 
 was born, October 2, 1741, at Villeneuve de 
 Berg, in France, and who died October 5, 
 1820, was an implacable enemy of Free- 
 masonry. He was a prolific writer, but 
 owes his reputation principally to the 
 work entitled Memoires pour servir aU His- 
 toire du Jacobinisme, 4 vols., 8vo, published 
 in London in 1797. In this work he charges 
 the Freemasons with revolutionary prin- 
 ciples in politics and with infidelity in re- 
 ligion. He seeks to trace the origin of the 
 Institution first to those ancient heretics 
 the Manicheans, and through them to the 
 Templars, against whom he revives the old 
 accusations of Philip the Fair and Clement 
 the Fifth. His theory of the Templar ori- 
 gin of Masonry is thus expressed (ii. 377). 
 " Your whole school and all your Lodges are 
 derived from the Templars. After the ex- 
 tinction of their Order, a certain number 
 of guilty knights, having escaped the pro- 
 scription, united for the preservation of 
 their horrid mysteries. To their impious 
 code they added the vow of vengeance 
 against the kings and priests who destroyed 
 their Order, and against all religion which 
 anathematized their dogmas. They made 
 adepts, who should transmit from genera- 
 tion to generation the same mysteries of 
 iniquity, the same oaths, and the same 
 hatred of the God of the Christians, and 
 of kings, and of priests. These mysteries 
 have descended to you, and you continue 
 to perpetuate their impiety, their vows, and 
 their oaths. Such is your origin. The lapse 
 of time and the change of manners have 
 varied a part of your symbols and your 
 frightful systems ; but the essence of them 
 remains, the vows, the oaths, the hatred, 
 and the conspiracies are the same." It is 
 not astonishing that Lawrie (Hist., p. 50,) 
 should have said of the writer of such 
 
BASKET 
 
 BAY 
 
 109 
 
 statements, that " that charity and forbear- 
 ance which distinguish the Christian 
 character are never exemplified in the 
 work of Barruel ; and the hypocrisy of his 
 pretensions are often betrayed by the fury 
 of his zeal. The tattered veil behind which 
 he attempts to cloak his inclinations often 
 discloses to the reader the motives of the 
 man and the wishes of his party." Al- 
 though the attractions of his style and the 
 boldness of his declamation gave Barruel at 
 one time a prominent place among anti- Ma- 
 sonic writers, his work is now seldom read 
 and never cited in Masonic controversies, 
 for the progress of truth has assigned their 
 just value to its extravagant assertions. 
 
 Basket. The basket or fan was among 
 the Egyptians a symbol of the purification 
 of souls. The idea seems to have been 
 adopted by other nations, and hence, " in- 
 itiations in the Ancient Mysteries," says 
 Mr. Rolle {Culte de Bacch., i. 30), "being 
 the commencement of a better life and the 
 perfection of it, could not take place till 
 the soul was purified. The fan had been 
 accepted as the symbol of that purification 
 because the mysteries purged the soul of 
 sin, as the fan cleanses the grain." John 
 the Baptist conveys the same idea of puri- 
 fication when he says of the Messiah, " His 
 fan is in his hand, and he will thoroughly 
 purge his floor." The sacred basket in the 
 Ancient Mysteries was called the liknon, and 
 the one who carried it was termed the lik- 
 nophoros, or basket-bearer. Indeed, the 
 sacred basket, containing the first fruits and 
 offerings, was as essential in all solemn 
 processions of the mysteries of Bacchus and 
 other divinities as the Bible is in the 
 Masonic procession. As lustration was the 
 symbol of purification by water, so the 
 mystical fan or winnowing-basket was, ac- 
 cording to Sainte Croix, {Myst. du Pag., t. 
 ii., p. 81,) the symbol in the Bacchic rites 
 of a purification by air. 
 
 Basle, Congress of. A Masonic 
 Congress was held Sept. 24, 1848, at Basle, 
 in Switzerland, consisting of one hundred 
 and six members, representing eleven 
 Lodges, under the patronage of the Swiss 
 Grand Lodge Alpina. The Congress was 
 principally engaged upon the discussion 
 of the question, " What can and what ought 
 Freemasonry to contribute towards the wel- 
 fare of mankind locally, nationally, and 
 internationally?" The conclusion to which 
 the Congress appeared to arrive upon this 
 question was briefly this : " Locally, Free- 
 masonry ought to strive to make every bro- 
 ther a good citizen, a good father, and a 
 good neighbor, whilst it ought to teach him 
 to perform every duty of life faithfully ; 
 nationally, a Freemason ought to strive to 
 promote and to maintain the welfare and 
 
 the honor of his native land, to love and 
 to honor it himself, and, if necessary, to 
 place his life and fortune at its disposal ; 
 internationally, a Freemason is bound to 
 go still further : he must consider himself 
 as a member of that one great family, — the 
 whole human race, — who are all children 
 of one and the same Father, and that it is 
 in this sense, and with this spirit, that the 
 Freemason ought to work if he would ap- 
 pear worthily before the throne of Eternal 
 Truth and Justice." The Congress appears 
 to have accomplished no practical result. 
 
 Baton. The truncheon or staff of a 
 Grand Marshal, and always carried by him 
 in processions as the ensign of his office. 
 It is a wooden rod about eighteen inches 
 long. In the military usage of England, 
 the baton of the Earl Marshal was orig- 
 inally of wood, but in the reign of Richard 
 II. it was made of gold, and delivered to 
 him at his creation, a custom which is still 
 continued. In the patent or commission 
 granted by that monarch to the Duke of 
 Surrey the baton is minutely described as 
 " baculum aureum circa utramque finem 
 de nigro annulatum," a golden wand, having 
 black rings around each end, — a description 
 that will very well suit for a Masonic baton. 
 
 Bat Parliament. The Parliament 
 which assembled in England in the year 
 1425, during the minority of Henry VI., 
 to settle the disputes between the Duke of 
 Gloucester, the Regent, and the Bishop of 
 Winchester, the guardian of the young 
 king's person, and which was so called be- 
 cause of the bats or clubs with which the 
 servants of the contending factions, who 
 were stationed at the entrances of the Par- 
 liament House, were armed. This Parlia- 
 ment passed the celebrated Act restraining 
 the meeting of Masons in Chapters. See 
 Laborers, Statutes of. 
 
 Bavaria. Freemasonry was intro- 
 duced into Bavaria, from France, in 1737. 
 The meetings of the Lodges were sus- 
 pended in 1784 by the reigning duke, 
 Charles Theodore, and the Act of suspen- 
 sion was renewed in 1799 and 1804 by 
 Maximilian Joseph, the king of Bavaria. 
 The Order was subsequently revived in 
 1812 and in 1817. The Grand Lodge of 
 Bayreuth was constituted under the appel- 
 lation of the " Grand Lodge zu Sonne." 
 In 1868 a Masonic conference took place 
 of the Lodges under its jurisdiction, and a 
 constitution was adopted, which guarantees 
 to every confederated Lodge perfect free- 
 dom of ritual and government, provided 
 the Grand Lodge finds these to be Masonic. 
 
 Bay-Tree. An evergreen plant, and 
 a symbol in Freemasonry of the immortal 
 nature of Truth. By the bay-tree thus re- 
 ferred to in the ritual of the Knight of the 
 
110 
 
 BAZOT 
 
 BEAUSEANT 
 
 Red Cross, is meant the laurel, which, as an 
 evergreen, was among the ancients a symbol 
 of immortality. It is, therefore, properly 
 compared with truth, which Josephus 
 makes Zerubbabel say is "immortal and 
 eternal." 
 
 Bazot, Etieme Francois. A 
 French Masonic writer, born at .Nievre, 
 March 31, 1782. He published at Paris, in 
 1810, a Vocabulaire des Francs - Magons, 
 which was translated into Italian, and in 
 1811 a Manuel du Franc-Macon, which is 
 one of the most judicious works of the kind 
 published in France. He was also the 
 author of Morale de la Franc-Maconnerie, 
 and the Tuileur Expert des 33 degres, which 
 is a complement to his Manuel. Bazot was 
 distinguished for other literary writings on 
 subjects of general literature, such as two 
 volumes of Tales and Poems, A Eulogy on 
 the Abbe de I'Epee, and as the editor of the 
 Biographic Nouvelle des Contempor aires, in 
 20 volumes. 
 
 B. D. S. P. H. G. F. In the French 
 rituals of the Knights of the East and 
 West, these letters are the initials of Beaute, 
 Divinite, Sagesse, Puissame, Honneur, 
 Gloire, Force, which correspond to, the 
 letters of the English rituals, B. D. W. P. 
 H. G. S., which are the initials of equiva- 
 lent words. 
 
 Beadle. An officer in a Council of 
 Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, correspond- 
 ing to the Junior Deacon of a symbolic 
 Lodge. The beadle, bedellus, (DuCange,) 
 is one, says Junius, who proclaims and exe- 
 cutes the will of superior powers. 
 
 Beaton, Mrs. One of those fortu- 
 nate females who is said to have obtained 
 {)ossession of the Masons' secrets. The fol- 
 owing account of her is given in A General 
 History of the County of Norfolk, published 
 in 1829, (vol. 2, p. 1304.) Mrs. Beaton, who 
 was a resident of Norfolk, England, was 
 commonly called the Freemason, from the 
 circumstance of her having contrived to 
 conceal herself, one evening, in the wain- 
 scoting of a Lodge- room, where she learned 
 the secret — at the knowledge of which 
 thousands of her sex have in vain at- 
 tempted to arrive. She was, in many re- 
 spects, a very singular character, of which 
 one proof adduced is that the secret of the 
 Freemasons died with her. She died at 
 St. John Maddermarket, Norwich, July, 
 1802, aged eighty-five. 
 
 Beaucenifer. From Beauseant, and 
 fero, to carry. The officer among the old 
 Knights Templars whose duty it was to 
 carry the Beauseant in battle. The office 
 is still retained in some of the high degrees 
 which are founded on Templarism. 
 
 Beauehaine. The Chevalier Beau- 
 chaine was one of the most fanatical of the 
 
 irremovable Masters of the Ancient Grand 
 Lodge of France. He had established his 
 Lodge at the " Golden Sun," an inn in the 
 Rue St. Victor, Paris, where he slept, and 
 for six francs conferred all the degrees of 
 Freemasonry. On August 17, 1747, he or- 
 ganized the Order of Fendeurs, or Wood- 
 cutters, at Paris. 
 
 Beauseant. The vexillum belli, or 
 war banner of the ancient Templars, which 
 is also used by the 
 modern Masonic Or- 
 der. The upper half 
 of the banner was 
 black, and the lower 
 half white; black to 
 typify terror to foes, 
 and white fairness to 
 friends. It bore the 
 pious inscription, Non 
 nobis, Domine non no- 
 bis, sed nomini tuo da 
 gloriam. It is frequently, says Barrington, 
 {Intro, to Her., p. 121,) introduced among 
 the decorations in the Temple Church, 
 and on one of the paintings on the wall, 
 Henry I. is represented with this ban- 
 ner in his hand. As to the derivation of 
 the word, there is some doubt among 
 writers. Bauseant or Bausant was, in old 
 French, a pie-bald or party-colored horse ; 
 and the word Bawseant is used in the Scot- 
 tish dialect with a similar reference to two 
 colors. Thus, Burns says : 
 
 " His honest, sonsie, baws'nt face," 
 
 where Dr. Currie, in his Glossary of Burns, 
 explains bawsent as meaning, " having a 
 white stripe down the face." It is also 
 supposed by some that the word bauseant 
 may be only a form, in the older lan- 
 guage, of the modern French word bienseant, 
 which signifies something decorous or hand- 
 some ; but I much prefer the former deriva- 
 tion, where beauseant would signify simply 
 a parti - colored banner. With regard to 
 the double signification of the white and 
 black banner, the orientalists have a 
 legend of Alexander the Great, which may 
 be appropriately quoted on the present oc- 
 casion, as given by Weil in his Biblical 
 Legends, p. 70. 
 
 Alexander was the lord of light and 
 darkness : when he went out with his army 
 the light was before him, and behind him 
 was the darkness, so that he was secure 
 against all ambuscades ; and by means of a 
 miraculous white and black standard he 
 had also the power to transform the clearest 
 day into midnight and darkness, or black 
 night into noon-day, just as he unfurled 
 the one or the other. Thus he was uncon- 
 querable, since he rendered his troops in- 
 
BEAUTY 
 
 BEHAVIOR 
 
 111 
 
 visible at his pleasure, and came down sud- 
 denly upon nis foes. Might there not 
 have been some connection between the 
 mythical white and black standard of 
 Alexander and the Beauseant of the Tem- 
 plars? We know that the latter were 
 familiar with oriental symbolism. 
 
 Beauseant was also the war-cry of the 
 Ancient Templars. 
 
 Beauty. Said to be symbolically one 
 of the three supports of a Lodge. It is 
 represented by the Corinthian column, be- 
 cause the Corinthian is the most beautiful 
 of the ancient orders of Architecture; and 
 by the Junior Warden, because he symbol- 
 izes the meridian sun — the most beautiful 
 object in the heavens. Hiram Abif is also 
 said to be represented by the column of 
 Beauty, because the Temple was indebted 
 to his skill for its splendid decorations. 
 The idea of Beauty as one of the supports 
 of the Lodge is found in the earliest rituals 
 of the eighteenth century, as well as the 
 symbolism which refers it to the Corinthian 
 column and the Junior Warden. Preston 
 first introduced the reference to the Corin- 
 thian column and to Hiram Abif. Beauty, 
 jT~)fr$£)rV tiphiret, was the sixth of the 
 Kabbalistic Sephiroth, and, with Justice and 
 Mercy, formed the second Sephirotic triad ; 
 and from the Kabbalists the Masons most 
 probably derived the symbol. See Supports 
 of the Lodge. 
 
 Beauty and Bands. The names 
 of the two rods spoken of by the prophet 
 Zechariah as symbolic of his pastoral office. 
 This expression was in use in portions of 
 the old Masonic ritual in England ; but in 
 the system of Dr. Hemming, which was 
 adopted at the union of the two Grand 
 Lodges in 1813, this symbol, with all refer- 
 ence to it, was expunged, and, as Dr. Oliver 
 says, (Sym. Die.,) "it is nearly forgotten, 
 except by a few old Masons, who may per- 
 haps recollect the illustration as an inci- 
 dental subject of remark among the Fra- 
 ternity of that period." 
 
 Becker. See Johnson. 
 
 Becker, Rudolph Zacharias. 
 A very zealous Mason of Gotha, who pub- 
 lished, in 1786, an historical essay on the 
 Bavarian Illuminati, under the title of 
 Grundsatze Verfassung und Schicksale des 
 llluminatens Ordeu in Baiern. He was a 
 very popular writer on educational sub- 
 jects; his Instructive Tales of Joy and Sor- 
 row were so highly esteemed, that a 
 half million copies of it were printed in 
 German and other languages. He died in 
 1802. 
 
 Bedarride, The Brothers. The 
 Brothers Marc, Michel, and Joseph Bedar- 
 ride were Masonic charlatans, notorious 
 for their propagation of the Rite of Mizraim, 
 
 having established in 1813, at Paris, under 
 the partly real and partly pretended au- 
 thority of Lechangeur, the inventor of 
 the Rite, a Supreme Puissance for France, 
 and organized a large number of Lodges. 
 Of these three brothers, who were Israelites, 
 Michel, who assumed the most prominent 
 position in the numerous controversies 
 which arose in French Masonry on ac- 
 count of their Rite, died February 16, 1856. 
 Marc died ten years before, in April, 1846. 
 Of Joseph, who was never very prominent, 
 we have no record as to the time of his 
 death. See Mizraim, Rite of. 
 
 Beehive. The bee was among the 
 Egyptians the symbol of an obedient peo- 
 ple, because, says Horapollo,of all animals, 
 the bee alone had a king. Hence, looking 
 at the regulated labor of these insects when 
 congregated in their hive, it is not surpris- 
 ing that a beehive should have been deemed 
 an appropriate emblem of systemized in- 
 dustry. Freemasonry has therefore adopted 
 the beehive as a symbol of industry, a vir- 
 tue taught in the ritual, which says that a 
 Master Mason '' works that he may receive 
 wages, the better to support himself and 
 family, and contribute to the relief of a 
 worthy, distressed brother, his widow and or- 
 phans ; " and in the Old Charges, which tell 
 us that "all Masons shall work honestly on 
 working days, that they may live credit- 
 ably on holidays." There seems, however, 
 to be a more recondite meaning connected 
 with this symbol. The ark has already 
 been shown to have been an emblem com- 
 mon to Freemasonry and the Ancient Mys- 
 teries, as a symbol of regeneration — of the 
 second birth from death to life. Now, in the 
 Mysteries, a hive was the type of the ark. 
 "Hence," says Faber, ( Orig. of Pag. Idol., 
 vol. ii., 133,) " both thediluvian priestesses 
 and the regenerated souls were called bees; 
 hence, bees were feigned to be produced from 
 the carcase of a cow, which also symbol- 
 ized the ark ; and hence, as the great father 
 was esteemed an infernal god, honey was 
 much used both in funeral rites and in the 
 Mysteries." 
 
 Behavior. The subject of a Ma- 
 son's behavior is one that occupies much 
 attention in both the ritualistic and the 
 monitorial instructions of the Order. In 
 " the Charges of a Freemason," extracted 
 from the ancient records, and first pub- 
 lished in the Constitutions of 1723, the 
 sixth article is exclusively appropriated to 
 the subject of " Behavior." It is divided 
 into six sections, as follows: 1. Behavior 
 in the Lodge while constituted. 2. Be- 
 havior after the Lodge is over and the 
 Brethren not gone. 3. Behavior when 
 Brethren meet without strangers, but not 
 in a Lodge formed. 4. Behavior in pres- 
 
112 
 
 BEHOLD 
 
 BENDEKAR 
 
 ence of strangers not Masons. 5. Behavior 
 at home and in your neighborhood. 6. Be- 
 havior towards a strange brother. The 
 whole article constitutes a code of moral 
 ethics remarkable for the purity of the 
 principles it inculcates, and is well worthy 
 of the close attention of every Mason. It 
 is a complete refutation of the slanders of 
 anti-Masonic revilers. As these charges are 
 to be found in all the editions of the Book 
 of Constitutions, and in many recent Ma- 
 sonic works, they are readily accessible to 
 every one who desires to read them. 
 
 Behold Your Master. When, in 
 the installation services, the formula is 
 used, " Brethren, behold your master," the 
 expression is not simply exclamatory, but 
 is intended, as the original use of the word 
 behold implies, to invite the members of 
 the Lodge to fix their attention upon the 
 new relations which have sprung up be- 
 tween them and him who has just been 
 elevated to the Oriental Chair, and to im- 
 press upon their minds the duties which 
 they owe to him and which he owes to 
 them. In like manner, when the formula 
 is continued, " Master, behold your breth- 
 ren," the Master's attention is impressively 
 directed to the same change of relations 
 and duties. These are not mere idle words, 
 but convey an important lesson, and should 
 never be omitted in the ceremony of instal- 
 lation. 
 
 Bel. 72, Bel, is the contracted form of 
 SjJ3, Baal, and was worshipped by the Baby- 
 lonians as their chief deity. The Greeks 
 and Romans so considered and translated 
 the word by Zeus and Jupiter. It has, 
 with Jah and On, been introduced into the 
 Royal Arch system as a representative of 
 the Tetragrammeton, which it and the 
 accompanying words have sometimes igno- 
 rantly been made to displace. At the ses- 
 sion of the General Grand Chapter of the 
 United States, in 1871, this error was cor- 
 rected; and while the Tetragrammeton was 
 declared to, be the true omnific word, the 
 other three were permitted to be retained 
 as merely explanatory. 
 
 Belenus. Belenus, the Baal of the 
 Scripture, was identified with Mithras and 
 with Apollo, the god of the sun. A forest 
 in the neighborhood of Lausanne is still 
 known as Sauvebelin, or the forest of Be- 
 lenus, and traces of this name are to be 
 found in many parts of England. The 
 custom of kindling fires about midnight on 
 the eve of the festival of St. John the Bap- 
 tist, at the moment of the summer solstice, 
 which was considered by the ancients a 
 season of rejoicing and of divination, is a 
 vestige of Druidism in honor of this deity. 
 It is a significant coincidence that the nu- 
 merical value of the letters of the word 
 
 Belenus, like those of Abraxas and Mith- 
 ras, all representatives of the sun, amounts 
 to 365, the exact number of the days in a 
 solar year. See Abraxas. 
 
 Belgium. Soon after the separation 
 of Belgium from the Netherlands, an inde- 
 pendent Masonic jurisdiction was de- 
 manded by the former. Accordingly, in 
 May, 1833, the Grand Orient of Belgium 
 was established, which has under its juris- 
 diction about sixty Lodges. There is also 
 a Supreme Council of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite, which, Findel says, was 
 constituted in the year 1817. 
 
 Belief, Beligious. The fundamen- 
 tal law of Masonry contained in the first 
 of the Old Charges collected in 1723, and 
 inserted in the Book of Constitutions pub- 
 lished in that year, sets forth the true doc- 
 trine as to what the Institution demands 
 of a Mason in reference to his religious 
 belief in the following words : " A Mason 
 is obliged, by his tenure, to obey the moral 
 law ; and if he rightly understands the art, 
 he will never be a stupid atheist nor an 
 irreligious libertine. But though in an- 
 cient times Masons were charged in every 
 country to be of the religion of that coun- 
 try or nation, whatever it was, yet it is now 
 thought more expedient only to oblige 
 them to that religion in which all men 
 agree, leaving their particular opinions to 
 themselves." Anderson, in his second edi- 
 tion, altered this article, calling a Mason a 
 true Noachida, and saying that Masons 
 "all agree in the three great articles of 
 Noah," which is incorrect, since the Pre- 
 cepts of Noah were seven. See Religion 
 of Masonry. 
 
 Bells. The use of a bell in the cere- 
 monies of the third degree, to denote the 
 hour, is, manifestly, an anachronism, for 
 bells were not invented until the fifth cen- 
 tury. But Freemasons are not the only 
 people who have imagined the existence of 
 bells at the building of the Temple. Henry 
 Stephen tells us (Apologie pour Herodote, 
 ch. 39,) of a monk who boasted that when 
 he was at Jerusalem he obtained a vial 
 which contained some of the sounds of 
 King Solomon's bells. The blunders of a 
 ritualist and the pious fraud of a relic- 
 monger have equal claims to authenticity. 
 The Masonic anachronism is, however, not 
 worth consideration, because it is simply 
 intended for a notation of time — a method 
 of expressing intelligibly the hour at which 
 a supposed event occurred. 
 
 Benac. A significant word in Sym- 
 bolic Masonry, obsolete in many of the 
 modern systems, and whose derivation is 
 uncertain. See Maebenac. 
 
 Bendekar. A significant word in 
 the high degrees. One of the Princes or 
 
BENEDICT 
 
 BENGAL 
 
 113 
 
 Intendants of Solomon, in whose quarry 
 some of the traitors spoken of in the third 
 degree were found. He is mentioned in 
 the catalogue of Solomon's princes, given 
 in 1 Kings iv. 9. The Hebrew word is 
 *1pl-j3, the son of him who divides or pierces. 
 In some old rituals we find Bendaca a cor- 
 ruption. 
 
 Benedict XIV. A Roman pontiff 
 whose family name was Prosper Lamber- 
 tini. He was born at Bologna in 1675, 
 succeeded Clement XII. as Pope in 1740, 
 and died in 1758. He was distinguished for 
 his learning and was a great encourager of 
 the Arts and Sciences. He was, however, an 
 implacable enemy of secret societies, and 
 issued on the 18th of May, 1751, his cele- 
 brated bull, renewing and perpetuating 
 that of his predecessor which excommuni- 
 cated the Freemasons. For an account of 
 it, see Bull. 
 
 Benediction. The solemn invoca- 
 tion of a blessing in the ceremony of clos- 
 ing a Lodge is called the benediction. The 
 usual formula is as follows : 
 
 " May the blessing of Heaven rest upon 
 us, and all regular Masons ; may brotherly 
 love prevail, and every moral and social 
 virtue cement us." The response is, " So 
 mote it be. Amen ; " which should always 
 be audibly pronounced by all the brethren. 
 
 Beneficiary. One who receives the 
 support or charitable donations of a Lodge. 
 Those who are entitled to these benefits are 
 affiliated Masons, their wives or widows, 
 their widowed mothers, and their minor 
 sons and unmarried daughters. Unaffili- 
 ated Masons cannot become the benefici- 
 aries of a Lodge, but affiliated Masons 
 cannot be deprived of its benefits on 
 account of non-payment of dues. Indeed, 
 as this non-payment often arises from 
 poverty, it thus furnishes a stronger claim 
 for fraternal charity. 
 
 Benefit Fund. In 1798, a society 
 was established in London, under the 
 patronage of the Prince of Wales, the Earl 
 of Moira, and all the other acting officers 
 of the Grand Lodge, whose object was " the 
 relief of sick, aged, and imprisoned breth- 
 ren, and the protection of their widows, 
 children, and orphans." The payment of 
 one guinea per annum entitled every 
 member, when sick or destitute, or his 
 widow and orphans in case of his death, 
 to a fixed contribution. 
 
 Benefit funds of this kind have been gen- 
 erally unknown to the Masons of America, 
 although some Lodges have established 
 a fund for the purpose. The Lodge of 
 Strict Observance in the city of New York, 
 and others in Troy, Ballston, Schenectady, 
 etc., some years ago, adopted benefit funds. 
 In 1844, several members of the Lodges in 
 P 8 
 
 Louisville, Kentucky, organized a society 
 under the title of the " Friendly Sons of 
 St. John." It was constructed after the 
 model of the English society already men- 
 tioned. No member was received after 
 forty-five years of age, or who was not a 
 contributing member of a Lodge ; the per 
 diem allowance to sick members was 
 seventy-five cents ; fifty dollars were appro- 
 priated to pay the funeral expenses of a 
 deceased member, and twenty-five for those 
 of a member's wife ; on the death of a 
 member a gratuity was given to his family ; 
 ten per cent, of all fees and dues was ap- 
 propriated to an orphan fund ; and it was 
 contemplated, if the funds would justify, to 
 pension the widows of deceased members, 
 if their circumstances required it. 
 
 I am convinced that the establishment 
 in Lodges of such benefit funds is in op- 
 position to the pure system of Masonic 
 charity. They have, therefore, been very 
 
 Eroperly discouraged by several Grand 
 odges. 
 
 Benevolence. Cogan, in his work 
 On the Passions, thus defines Benevo- 
 lence : " When our love or desire of good 
 goes forth to others, it is termed good-will 
 or benevolence. Benevolence embraces all 
 beings capable of enjoying any portion of 
 good ; and thus it becomes universal benevo- 
 lence, which manifests itself by being 
 pleased with the share of good every crea- 
 ture enjoys, in a disposition to increase it, 
 in feeling an uneasiness at their sufferings, 
 and in the abhorrence of cruelty under 
 every disguise or pretext." This spirit 
 should pervade the hearts of all Masons, 
 who are taught to look upon mankind as 
 formed by the Grand Architect of the uni- 
 verse for the mutual assistance, instruction, 
 and support of each other. 
 
 Benevolence, Fund of. A fund 
 established by the Grand Lodge of England, 
 which is intrusted to a committee or Lodge 
 of Benevolence, consisting of all the present 
 and past Grand Officers, all actual Masters 
 of Lodges, and twelve Past Masters. The 
 object of this fund is to relieve such indi- 
 gent Masons as may be recommended by 
 their respective Lodges. The opportunity 
 for imposition, afforded by application to 
 separate Lodges, is thus avoided. Several 
 similar associations, under the name of 
 Boards of Belief, have been organized in 
 several of the cities of this country. See 
 Board of Relief. 
 
 Bengabee. Found in some old rituals 
 of the high degrees for Bendekar, as the 
 name of an Intendant of Solomon. It is 
 Bengaber in the catalogue of Solomon's 
 officers, 1 Kings iv. 13, the son of Geber, or 
 the son of the strong man. 
 
 Bengal. Masonry was introduced 
 
114 
 
 BENJAMIN 
 
 BIBLE 
 
 into Bengal in the year 1729, by the estab- 
 lishment of a Lodge under a dispensation 
 granted by Lord Kingston, the Grand 
 Master of England. In the succeeding 
 year, the Duke of Norfolk granted a dis- 
 pensation for a Provincial Grand Master 
 of East India, at Bengal. There are now 
 in the province of Bengal a District Grand 
 Lodge, situated at Calcutta, with twenty- 
 one subordinate Lodges ; a District Grand 
 Chapter, with nine subordinate Chapters; a 
 Provincial Grand Conclave of Knights 
 Templars, with three subordinate Encamp- 
 ments ; and a provincial Grand Lodge of 
 Mark Master Masons, with two subordinate 
 working Lodges. 
 
 Benjamin. A significant word in 
 several of the degrees which refer to the 
 second Temple, because it was only the 
 tribes of Judah and Benjamin that re- 
 turned from the captivity to rebuild it. 
 Hence, in the Masonry of the second Tem- 
 ple, Judah and Benjamin have superseded 
 the columns of Jachin and Boaz; a change 
 the more easily made because of the iden- 
 tity of the initials. 
 
 Benkhurim. Corruptly spelled ben- 
 chorim in most of the old rituals. A sig- 
 nificant word in the high degrees, probably 
 signifying one that isfreeborn, from W\ L3» 
 son of the freeborn. 
 
 Benyah, or Beniah. Lenning gives 
 this form, Benayah. The son of Jah, a sig- 
 nificant word in the high degrees. 
 
 Berith. Heb., JT"0> a covenant. A 
 significant word in several of the high 
 degrees. 
 
 Berlin. The capital of the kingdom of 
 Prussia, and the seat of three Grand Lodges, 
 namely : the Grand National Mother Lodge, 
 founded in 1744; the Grand Lodge of 
 Germany, founded in 1770 ; and the Grand 
 Lodge of Royal York of Friendship, 
 founded in 1798. See Germany. 
 
 Bernard, David. An expelled Ma- 
 «on, under whose name was published, in 
 the year 1829, a pretended exposition en- 
 titled, Light on Masonry. It was one of 
 the fruits of the anti-Masonic excitement 
 of the day. It is a worthless production, 
 intended as a libel on the Institution. 
 
 Bernard, Saint. St. Bernard, born 
 in France, in 1091, was the founder of the 
 Order of Cistercian Monks. He took great 
 interest in the success of the Knights Tem- 
 
 Elars, whose Order he cherished throughout 
 is whole life. His works contain numer- 
 ous letters recommending them to the 
 favor and protection of the great. In 
 1128, he himself drew up the Rule of the 
 Order, and among his writings is to be found 
 a Sermo exhortatorius ad Milites Templi, or 
 an Exhortation to the Soldiers of the Tem- 
 ple, a production full of sound advice. To 
 
 the influence of Bernard and his untiring 
 offices of kindness, the Templars were 
 greatly indebted for their rapid increase in 
 wealth and consequence. He died in the 
 year 1153. 
 
 Beryl. Heb., J^'t^fl- A. precious 
 stone, the first in the fourth row of the high- 
 priest's breastplate. Its color is bluish-green. 
 It- was ascribed to the tribe of Benjamin. 
 
 Beyerle, Francois Louis de. A 
 French Masonic writer of some promi- 
 nence towards the close of the eighteenth 
 century. He was a leading member of the 
 Rite of Strict Observance, in which his 
 adopted name was Egnes a Flore. He 
 wrote a criticism on the Masonic Congress 
 of Wilhelmsbad, which was published 
 under the title of Oratio de Conventu gen- 
 erali Latomorum apud aquas Wilhelminas, 
 prope Hanauviam. He also wrote an Essai 
 sur la Franc- Maconnerie, on du but essentielet 
 fondamentale de la Franc- Maconnerie ; trans- 
 lated the second volume of Frederic Nico- 
 lai's essay on the crimes imputed to the Tem- 
 plars, and was the author of several other 
 Masonic works of less importance. He was a 
 member of the French Constitutional Con- 
 vention of 1752. He wrote also some 
 political essays on finances, and was a con- 
 tributor on the same subject to the Ency- 
 clopedic Methodique. 
 
 Bezaleel. One of the builders of the 
 Ark of the Covenant. See Aholiab. 
 
 Bible. The Bible is properly called a 
 greater light of Masonry, for from the cen- 
 tre of the Lodge it pours forth upon the 
 East, the West, and the South its refulgent 
 rays of Divine truth. The Bible is used 
 among Masons as the symbol of the will 
 of God, however it may be expressed. And, 
 therefore, whatever to any people expresses 
 that will may be used as a substitute for 
 the Bible in a Masonic Lodge. Thus, in a 
 Lodge consisting entirely of Jews, the Old 
 Testament alone may be placed upon the 
 altar, and Turkish Masons make use of 
 the Koran. Whether it be the Gospels to 
 the Christian, the Pentateuch to the Israel- 
 ite, the Koran to the Mussulman, or the 
 Vedaa to the Brahman, it everywhere Ma- 
 sonically conveys the same idea — that of 
 the symbolism of the Divine Will revealed 
 to man. 
 
 The history of the Masonic symbolism 
 of the Bible is interesting. It is referred 
 to in the manuscripts before the revival as 
 the book upon which the covenant was 
 taken, but it was never referred to as a 
 great light. In the oldest ritual that we 
 have, which is that of 1724, — a copy of 
 which from the Royal Library of Berlin is 
 given by Krause, {Drei alt. Kunslurk, i. 32,) 
 — there is no mention of the Bible as one 
 of the lights. Preston made it a part of 
 
BIBLE 
 
 BLACK 
 
 115 
 
 the furniture of the Lodge ; but in rituals 
 of about 1760 it is described as one of the 
 three great lights. In the American sys- 
 tem, the Bible is both a piece of furniture 
 and a great light. 
 
 Bible-Bearer. In Masonic proces- 
 sions the oldest Master Mason present is 
 generally selected to carry the open Bible, 
 Square, and Compasses on a cushion before 
 the Chaplain. This brother is called the 
 Bible-Bearer. 
 
 Bibliography. Of the bibliography 
 of Freemasonry very little, in comparison 
 with the importance of the subject, has 
 been published. In this country we have 
 only William Gowan's Catalogue of Books 
 on Freemasonry and Kindred Subjects, New 
 York, 1858, which contains the titles of 
 very few rare works and no foreign ones. 
 The catalogue of books in the library of 
 Pythagoras Lodge, published some years 
 ago, is really valuable but not extensive. 
 Garrett's Catalogue of Books on the Masonic 
 Institution, Boston, 1852, is full of scurrility 
 and falsehood, by no means atoned for by 
 the account of anti - Masonic literature 
 which it contains. To the Masonic stu- 
 dent it is utterly worthless. In French, 
 we have a Bibliographie des Ouvrages, Opus- 
 cules Encycliques ou Merits les plus rernar- 
 quables, publies sur Vhistoire de la Franc- 
 Magonnerie depuis, 1723, jusques en 1814. 
 It is by Thory, and is contained in the first 
 volume of his Acta Latomorum. Though 
 not full, it is useful, especially in respect 
 to French works, and it is to be regretted 
 that it stops at a period anterior to the 
 Augustan age of Masonic literature. But 
 the most valuable contribution to Masonic 
 bibliography is the German work of Dr. 
 Georg Kloss, entitled Bibliographie der 
 Freimaurerei, published at Frankfort in 
 1844. Up to the date of its publication, it 
 is an almost exhaustive work, and contains 
 the titles of about six thousand volumes. 
 Nothing has since appeared of any value 
 on the subject. 
 
 Bielfeld, Jaeob Frederick. 
 Baron Bielfeld was born March 31, 1717, 
 and died April 5, 1770. He was envoy 
 from the court of Prussia to the Hague, 
 and a familiar associate of Frederick the 
 Great in the youthful days of that prince 
 before he ascended the throne. He was 
 one of the founders of the Lodge of the 
 Three Globes in Berlin, which afterwards 
 became a Grand Lodge. Through his in- 
 fluence Frederick was induced to become 
 a Mason. In Bielfeld's Freundschaftlicher 
 Briefe, or Familiar Letters, are to be found 
 an account of the initiation of the prince, 
 and other curious details concerning Free- 
 masonry. 
 
 Birkhead, Matthew. A Mason 
 
 who owes his reputation to the fact that 
 he was the author of the universally-known 
 Entered Apprentice's song, beginning : 
 
 " Come let us prepare, 
 
 We Brothers that are 
 Assembled on merry occasions ; 
 
 Let's drink, laugh, and sing; 
 
 Our wine has a spring. 
 Here's a health to an Accepted Mason." 
 
 This song was first published in the Book 
 of Constitutions, in 1723, but must have 
 been composed at an earlier date, as Birk- 
 head is there spoken of as being deceased. 
 He is supposed to have been a player, but 
 nothing more is known of his life. 
 
 Black. Black, in the Masonic ritual, 
 is constantly the symbol of grief. This is 
 perfectly consistent with its use in the 
 world, where black has from remote anti- 
 quity been adopted as the garment of 
 mourning. 
 
 In Masonry this color is confined to 
 but a few degrees, but everywhere has 
 the single meaning of sorrow. Thus in 
 the French Rite, during the ceremony 
 of raising a candidate to the Master's 
 degree, the Lodge is clothed in black 
 strewed with tears, as a token of grief for 
 the loss of a distinguished member of the 
 Fraternity, whose tragic history is com- 
 memorated in that degree. This usage is 
 not, however, observed in the York Rite. 
 The black of the Elected Knights of Nine, 
 the Illustrious Elect of Fifteen, and the 
 Sublime Knights Elected, in the Scottish 
 Rite, has a similar import. 
 
 In the degree of Noachite, black appears 
 to have been adopted as a symbol of grief, 
 tempered with humility, which is the virtue 
 principally dilated on in the degree. 
 
 The garments of the Knights Templars 
 were originally white, but after the death 
 of their martyred Grand Master, James de 
 Molay, the modern Knights assumed a 
 black dress as a token of grief for his loss. 
 The same reason led to the adoption of 
 black as the appropriate color in the Scottish 
 Rite of the Knights of Kadosh and the Sub- 
 lime Princes of the Royal Secret. The 
 modern American modification of the Tem- 
 plar costume destroys all reference to this 
 historical fact. 
 
 One exception to this symbolism of black 
 is to be found in the degree of Select Mas- 
 ter, where the vestments are of black bor- 
 dered with red ; the combination of the two 
 colors showing that the degree is properly 
 placed between the Royal Arch and Tem- 
 plar degrees, while the black is a symbol 
 of silence and secrecy, the distinguishing 
 virtues of a Select Master. 
 
 Black Ball. The ball used in a Ma- 
 sonic ballot by those who do not wish the 
 
116 
 
 BLACK-BOARD 
 
 BLAZING 
 
 candidate to be admitted. Hence, when an 
 applicant is rejected, he is said to be 
 " black balled." The use of black balls 
 may be traced as far back as to the ancient 
 Eomans. Thus, Ovid says (Met. xv. 41), 
 that in trials it was the custom of the 
 ancients to condemn the prisoner by black 
 pebbles or to acquit him by white ones. 
 
 " Mos erat antiquis niveis atrisque lapillis, 
 His damnare reos, illis absolvere culpa." 
 
 Black-board. In German Lodges the 
 Schwartze Tafel, or Black Board, is that on 
 which the names of applicants for admis- 
 sion are inscribed, so that every visitor may 
 make the necessary inquiries whether they 
 are or are not worthy of acceptance. 
 
 Black Brothers, Order of the. 
 Lenning says that the Schwartzen Briider was 
 one of the College Societies of the German 
 Universities. The members of the Order, 
 however, denied this, and claimed an origin 
 as early as 1675. Thory [Act. Lat., i. 313,) 
 says that it was largely spread through Ger- 
 many, having its seat for a long time at 
 Giessen and at Marburg, which in 1783 
 was removed to Frankfort on the Oder. The 
 same writer asserts that at first the mem- 
 bers observed the dogmas and ritual of the 
 Kadosh, but that afterwards the Order, be- 
 coming a political society, gave rise to the 
 Free Corps, which in 1813 was commanded 
 by Major Lutzow. 
 
 Blazing Star. The Blazing Star, 
 which is not, however, to be confounded 
 with the Five-Pointed Star, is one of the 
 most important symbols of Freemasonry, 
 and makes its appearance in several of the 
 degrees. " It is," says Hutchinson, " the 
 first and most exalted object that demands 
 our attention in the Lodge." It undoubt- 
 edly derives this importance, first, from the 
 repeated use that is made of it as a Ma- 
 sonic emblem ; and secondly, from its great 
 antiquity as a symbol derived from other 
 and older systems. 
 
 Extensive as has been the application of 
 this symbol in the Masonic ritual, it is not 
 surprising that there has been a great dif- 
 ference of opinion in relation to its true 
 signification. But this difference of opinion 
 has been almost entirely confined to its use 
 in the first degree. In the higher degrees, 
 where there has been less opportunity of 
 innovation, the uniformity of meaning at- 
 tached to the star has been carefully pre- 
 served. 
 
 In the twenty-eighth degree of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Rite, the explanation 
 fiven of the Blazing Star, is, that it is sym- 
 olic of a true Mason, who, by perfecting 
 himself in the way of truth, that is to say, 
 by advancing in knowledge, becomes like a 
 blazing star, shining with brilliancy in the 
 
 midst of darkness. The star is, therefore, 
 in this degree, a symbol of truth. 
 
 In the fourth degree of the same Rite, the 
 star is again said to be a symbol of the light 
 of Divine Providence pointing out the way 
 of truth. 
 
 In the ninth degree, this symbol is called 
 " the star of direction ; " and while it primi- 
 tively alludes to an especial guidance given 
 for a particular purpose expressed in the 
 degree, it still retains, in a remoter sense, 
 its usual signification as an emblem of Di- 
 vine Providence guiding and directing the 
 pilgrim in his journey through life. 
 
 When, however, we descend to Ancient 
 Craft Masonry, we shall find a considerable 
 diversity in Ihe application of this symbol. 
 
 In the earliest rituals, immediately after 
 the revival of 1717, the Blazing Star is not 
 mentioned, but it was not long before it 
 was introduced. In the ritual of 1735 it 
 is detailed as a part of the furniture of a 
 Lodge, with the explanation that the " Mo- 
 saic Pavement is the Ground Floor of the 
 Lodge, the Blazing Star the Centre, and the 
 Indented Tarsel the Border round about 
 it 1 " In a primitive Tracing Board of the 
 Entered Apprentice, copied by Oliver, in 
 his Historical Landmarks, (i. 133,) without 
 other date than that it was " published 
 early in the last century," the Blazing Star 
 occupies a prominent position in the cen- 
 tre of the Tracing Board. Oliver says that 
 it represented Beauty, and was called 
 " the glory in the centre." 
 
 In the lectures subsequently prepared by 
 Dunckerley, and adopted by the Grand 
 Lodge, the Blazing Star was said to repre- 
 sent " the star which led the wise men to 
 Bethlehem, proclaiming to mankind the 
 nativity of the Son of God, and here con- 
 ducting our spiritual progress to the Author 
 of our redemption." 
 
 In the Prestonian lecture, the Blazing 
 Star, with the Mosaic Pavement and the 
 Tasselated Border, are called the Orna- 
 ments of the Lodge, and the Blazing Star 
 is thus explained : 
 
 " The Blazing Star, or glory in the centre, 
 reminds us of that awful period when the 
 Almighty delivered the two tables of stone, 
 containing the ten commandments, to his 
 faithful servant Moses on Mount Sinai, 
 when the rays of his divine glory shone so 
 bright that none could behold it without 
 fear and trembling. It also reminds us of 
 the omnipresence of the Almighty, over- 
 shadowing us with his divine love, and dis- 
 pensing his blessings amongst us ; and by 
 its being placed in the centre, it further re- 
 minds us, that wherever we may be as- 
 sembled together, God is in the midst of us, 
 seeing our actions, and observing the secret 
 intents and movements of our hearts." 
 
BLAZING 
 
 BLAZING 
 
 117 
 
 In the lectures taught by Webb, and 
 very generally adopted in this country, the 
 Blazing Star is said to be " commemorative 
 of the star which appeared to guide the 
 wise men of the East to the place of our 
 Saviour's nativity," and it is subsequently 
 explained as hieroglyphically representing 
 divine Providence. But the commemora- 
 tive allusion to the Star of Bethlehem 
 seeming to some to be objectionable, from 
 its peculiar application to the Christian 
 religion, at the revision of the lectures 
 made in 1843 by the Baltimore Convention, 
 this explanation was omitted, and the allu- 
 sion to divine Providence alone retained. 
 
 In Hutchinson's system, the Blazing Star 
 is considered a symbol of Prudence. " It 
 is placed," says he, " in the centre, ever to 
 be present to the eye of the Mason, that 
 his heart may be attentive to the dictates 
 and steadfast in the laws of Prudence ; — 
 for Prudence is the rule of all virtues; 
 Prudence is the path which leads to every 
 degree of propriety ; Prudence is the chan- 
 nel whence self-approbation flows forever ; 
 she leads us forth to worthy actions, and, as 
 a Blazing Star, enlighteneth us through the 
 dreary and darksome paths of this life." 
 (Sp. of Mas., Lect. V., p. 68.) Hutchinson 
 also adopted Dunckerley's allusion to the 
 Star of Bethlehem, but only as a secondary 
 symbolism. 
 
 In another series of lectures formerly in 
 use in America,. but which I believe is now 
 abandoned, the Blazing Star is said to be 
 " emblematical of that Prudence which 
 ought to appear conspicuous in the conduct 
 of every Mason; and is more especially 
 commemorative of the star which appeared 
 in the east to guide the wise men to Beth- 
 lehem, and proclaim the birth and the 
 presence of the Son of God." 
 
 The Masons on the Continent of Europe, 
 speaking of the symbol, say : " It is no 
 matter whether the figure of which the 
 Blazing Star forms the centre be a square, 
 triangle, or circle, it still represents the 
 sacred name of God, as an universal spirit 
 who enlivens our hearts, who purifies our 
 reason, who increases our knowledge, and 
 who makes us wiser and better men." 
 
 And lastly, in the lectures revised by 
 Dr. Hemming and adopted by the Grand 
 Lodge of England at the union in 1813, 
 and now constituting the authorized lectures 
 of that jurisdiction, we find the following 
 definition : 
 
 " The Blazing Star, or glory in the centre, 
 refers us to the sun, which enlightens the 
 earth with its refulgent rays, dispensing its 
 blessings to mankind at large, and giving 
 light and life to all things here below." 
 
 Hence we find that at different times the 
 Blazing Star has been declared to be a sym- 
 
 bol of divine Providence, of the Star of 
 Bethlehem, of Prudence, of Beauty, and 
 of the Sun. Before we can attempt to de- 
 cide upon these various opinions, and adopt 
 the true signification, it is necessary to ex- 
 tend our investigations into the antiquity 
 of the emblem, and inquire what was the 
 meaning given to it by the nations who 
 first established it as a symbol. 
 
 Sabaism, or the worship of the stars, was 
 one of the earliest deviations from the true 
 system of religion. One of its causes was 
 the universally established doctrine among 
 the idolatrous nations of antiquity, that 
 each star was animated by the soul of a 
 hero god, who had once dwelt incarnate 
 upon earth. Hence, in the hieroglyphical 
 system, the star denoted a god. To this 
 signification, allusion is made by the pro- 
 phet Amos, when he says to the Israelites, 
 while reproaching them for their idolatrous 
 habits : " But ye nave borne the tabernacle 
 of your Moloch and Chiun your images, 
 the star of your god, which ye made to 
 yourselves." Amos v. 26. 
 
 This idolatry was early learned by the 
 Israelites from their Egyptian taskmasters ; 
 and so unwilling were they to abandon it, 
 that Moses found it necessary strictly to 
 forbid the worship of anything " that is in 
 heaven above ; " notwithstanding which we 
 find the Jews repeatedly committing the 
 sin which had been so expressly forbidden. 
 Saturn was the star to whose worship they 
 were more particularly addicted under the 
 names of Moloch and Chiun, already men- 
 tioned in the passage quoted from Amos. 
 The planet Saturn was worshipped under 
 the names of Moloch, Malcom or Milcom by 
 the Ammonites, the Canaanites, the Phoeni- 
 cians, and the Carthaginians, and under that 
 of Chiun by the Israelites in the desert. Sa- 
 turn was worshipped among the Egyptians 
 under the name of Raiphan, or, as it is 
 called in the Septuagint, Remphan. St. 
 Paul, quoting the passage of Amos, says, 
 " ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch ana 
 the star of your god Remphan." 
 
 Hale, in his Analysis of Chronology, says, 
 in alluding to this passage of St. Paul, 
 " There is no direct evidence that the Israel- 
 ites worshipped the dog-star in the wilder- 
 ness, except this passage ; but the indirect 
 is very strong, drawn from the general pro- 
 hibition of the worship of the sun, moon, 
 and stars, to which they must have been 
 prone. And this was peculiarly an Egyp- 
 tian idolatry, where the dog-star was wor- 
 shipped, as notifying by his heliacal rising, 
 or emersion from the sun's rays, the regu- 
 lar commencement of the periodical inun- 
 dation of the Nile. And the Israelite 
 sculptures at the cemetery of Kibroth-Hat- 
 taavah, or graves of lust, in the neighbor- 
 
118 
 
 BLAZING 
 
 BLOW 
 
 hood of Sinai, remarkably abound in hie- 
 roglyphics of the dog-star, represented as a 
 human figure with a dog's head. That 
 they afterwards sacrificed to the dog-star, 
 there is express evidence in Josiah's de- 
 scription of idolatry, where the Syriac 
 Mazaloth (improperly termed planets) de- 
 notes the dog-star ; in Arabic, Mazaroth." 
 
 Fellows, in his Exposition of the Mys- 
 teries, says that this dog-star, the Anubis 
 of the Egyptians, is the Blazing Star of 
 Masonry, and supposing that the latter is 
 a symbol of Prudence, which indeed it was 
 in some of the ancient lectures, he goes on 
 to remark: "What connection can possibly 
 exist between a star and prudence, except 
 allegorically in reference to the caution 
 that was indicated to the Egyptians by the 
 first appearance of this star, which warned 
 them of approaching danger." But it will 
 hereafter be seen that he has totally misap- 
 prehended the true signification of the Ma- 
 sonic symbol. The work of Fellows, it 
 may be remarked, is an unsystematic com- 
 pilation of undigested learning; but the 
 student who is searching for truth must 
 carefully eschew all his deductions as to 
 the genius and spirit of Freemasonry. 
 
 Notwithstanding a few discrepancies may 
 have occurred in the Masonic lectures, as 
 arranged at various periods and by different 
 authorities, the concurrent testimony of the 
 ancient religions, and the hieroglyphic lan- 
 guage, prove that the star was a symbol of 
 God. It was so used by the prophets of 
 old in their metaphorical style, and it has 
 so been generally adopted by Masonic in- 
 structors. The application of the Blazing 
 Star as an emblem of the Saviour, has 
 been made by those writers who give a 
 Christian explanation of our emblems, and 
 to the Christian Mason such an applica- 
 tion will not be objectionable. But those 
 who desire to refrain from anything that 
 may tend to impair the tolerance of our 
 system, will be disposed to embrace a more 
 universal explanation, which may be re- 
 ceived alike by all the disciples of the 
 Order, whatever may be their peculiar reli- 
 gious views. Such persons will rather ac- 
 cept the expression of Dr. Oliver, who, 
 though much disposed to give a Christian 
 character to our Institution, says, "the 
 great Architect of the Universe is there- 
 fore symbolized in Freemasonry by the 
 Blazing Star, as the herald of our salva- 
 tion." (Symb. Glory, p. 292.) 
 
 Before concluding, a few words may be 
 said as to the form of the Masonic symbol. 
 It is not an heraldic star or estoille, for that 
 always consists of six points, while the Ma- 
 sonic star is made with five points. This, 
 perhaps, was with some involuntary allu- 
 sion to the five Points of Fellowship. But 
 
 the error has been committed in all our 
 modern Tracing Boards of making the star 
 with straight points, which form, of course, 
 does not represent a blazing star. Guillim 
 {Disp. of Herald) says : " All stars should 
 be made with waved points, because our 
 eyes tremble at beholding them." 
 
 In the early Tracing Board already re- 
 ferred to, the star with five straight points 
 is superimposed upon another of five wav- 
 ing points. But the latter are now aban- 
 doned, and we have in the representations 
 of the present day the incongruous symbol 
 of a blazing star with five straight points. 
 In the centre of the star there was always 
 placed the letter O, which, like the He- 
 brew yod, was a recognized symbol of 
 God, and thus the symbolic reference of 
 the Blazing Star to divine Providence is 
 greatly strengthened. 
 
 Blazing Star, Order of the. The 
 Baron Tschoudy was the author of a work 
 entitled The Blazing Star. (See Tschoudy.) 
 On the principles inculcated in this work, 
 he established, says Thory, at Paris, in 1766, 
 an order called " The Order of the Blazing 
 Star," which consisted of degrees of chiv- 
 alry ascending to the Crusades, after the 
 Templar system of Ramsay. It never, 
 however, assumed the prominent position 
 of an active Rite. 
 
 Blessing. See Benediction. 
 
 Blind. A blind man cannot be initi- 
 ated into Masonry under the operation of 
 the old regulation, which requires physical 
 perfection in a candidate. 
 
 Blindness. Physical blindness in 
 Masonry, as in the language of the Scrip- 
 tures, is symbolic of the deprivation of 
 moral and intellectual light. It is equiva- 
 lent to the darkness of the Ancient Myste- 
 ries in which the neophytes were enshrouded 
 for periods varying from a few hours to many 
 days. The Masonic candidate, therefore, 
 represents one immersed in intellectual 
 darkness, groping in the search for that 
 Divine light and truth which are the ob- 
 jects of a Mason's labor. See Darkness. 
 
 Blow. The three blows given to the 
 Builder, according to the legend of the 
 third degree, have been differently inter- 
 preted as symbols in the different systems 
 of Masonry, but always with some reference 
 to adverse or malignant influences exercised 
 on humanity, of whom Hiram is considered 
 as the type.' Thus, in the symbolic degrees 
 of Ancient Craft Masonry, the three blows 
 are said to be typical of the trials and temp- 
 tations to which man is subjected in youth 
 and manhood, and to death, whose victim 
 he becomes in old age. Hence the three 
 Assassins are the three stages of human life. 
 In the high degrees, such as the Kadoshes, 
 which are founded on the Templar system 
 
BLUE 
 
 BLUE 
 
 119 
 
 of Ramsay, the reference is naturally made 
 to the destruction of the Order, which was 
 effected by the combined influences of 
 Tyranny, Superstition, and Ignorance, 
 which are therefore symbolized by the three 
 blows ; while the three Assassins are also 
 said sometimes to be represented by Squire 
 de Floreau, Naffodei, and the Prior of 
 Montfaucon, the three perjurers who swore 
 away the lives of De Molay and his 
 Knights. In the astronomical theory of 
 Freemasonry, which makes it a modern 
 modification of the ancient sun-worship, a 
 theory advanced by Ragon, the three blows 
 are symbolic of the destructive influences 
 of the three winter months, by which Hiram, 
 or the Sun, is shorn of his vivifying power. 
 Des Etangs has generalized the Templar 
 theory, and, supposing Hiram to be the sym- 
 bol of eternal reason, interprets the blows 
 as the attacks of those vices which deprave 
 and finally destroy humanity. However 
 interpreted for a special theory, Hiram the 
 Builder always represents, in the science of 
 Masonic symbolism, the principle of good; 
 and then the three blows are the contend- 
 ing principles of evil. 
 
 Blue. This is emphatically the color 
 of Masonry. It is the appropriate tincture 
 of the Ancient Craft degrees. It is to the 
 Mason a symbol of universal friendship and 
 benevolence, because, as it is the color of 
 the vault of heaven, which embraces and 
 covers the whole globe, we are thus re- 
 minded that in the breast of every brother 
 these virtues should be equally as extensive. 
 It is therefore the only color, except white, 
 which should be used in a Master's Lodge. 
 Decorations of any other color would be 
 highly inappropriate. 
 
 Among the religious institutions of the 
 Jews, blue was an important color. The 
 robe of the high priest's ephod, the ribbon 
 for his breastplate, and for the plate of the 
 mitre, were to be blue. The people were 
 directed to wear a ribbon of this color above 
 the fringe of their garments ; and it was the 
 color of one of the veils of the tabernacle, 
 where, Josephus says, it represented the 
 element of air. The Hebrew word used on 
 these occasions to designate the color blue 
 is nSjfi, tekelet; and this word seems to have 
 a singular reference to the symbolic char- 
 acter of the color, for it is derived from a 
 root signifying perfection ; now it is well- 
 known that, among the ancients, initiation 
 into the mysteries and perfection were sy- 
 nonymous terms ; and hence the appropriate 
 color of the greatest of all the systems of 
 initiation may well be designated by a word 
 which also signifies perfection. 
 
 This color also held a prominent position 
 in the symbolism of the Gentile nations of 
 antiquity. Among the Druids, blue was 
 
 the symbol of truth, and the candidate, in 
 the initiation into the sacred rites of Druid- 
 ism, was invested with a robe composed of 
 the three colors white, blue, and green. 
 
 The Egyptians esteemed blue as a sacred 
 color, and the body of Amun, the princi- 
 
 Eal god of their theogony, was painted light 
 lue, to imitate, as Wilkinson remarks, 
 "his peculiarly exalted and heavenly 
 nature." 
 
 The ancient Babylonians clothed their 
 idols in blue, as we learn from the prophet 
 Jeremiah. The Chinese, in their mystical 
 philosophy, represented blue as the symbol 
 of the deity, because, being, as they say, 
 compounded of black and red, this color is 
 a fit representation of the obscure and 
 brilliant, the male and female, or active 
 and passive principles. 
 
 The Hindoos assert that their god, Vishnu, 
 was represented of a celestial blue, thus in- 
 dicating that wisdom emanating from God 
 was to be symbolized by this color. 
 
 Among the mediaeval Christians blue 
 was sometimes considered as an emblem of 
 immortality, as red was of the divine love. 
 Portal says that blue was the symbol of 
 perfection, hope, and constancy. " The 
 color of the celebrated dome, azure," says 
 Weale, in his treatise on Symbolic Colors, 
 " was in divine language the symbol of 
 eternal truth ; in consecrated language, of 
 immortality ; and in profane language, of 
 fidelity." 
 
 Besides the three degrees of Ancient 
 Craft Masonry, of which blue is the appro- 
 priate color, this tincture is also to be found 
 in several other degrees, especially of the 
 Scottish Rite, where it bears various sym- 
 bolic significations ; all, however, more or 
 less related to its original character, as rep- 
 resenting universal friendship and benevo- 
 lence. 
 
 In the degree of Grand Pontiff, the nine- 
 teenth of the Scottish Rite, it is the pre- 
 dominating color, and is there said to be 
 symbolic of the mildness, fidelity, and gen- 
 tleness which ought to be the character- 
 istics of every true and faithful brother. 
 
 In the degree of Grand Master of all 
 Symbolic Lodges, the blue and yellow, 
 which are its appropriate colors, are said 
 to refer to the appearance of Jehovah to 
 Moses on Mount Sinai in clouds of azure 
 and gold, and hence in this degree the 
 color is rather an historical than a moral 
 symbol. 
 
 The blue color of the tunic and apron, 
 which constitutes a part of the investiture 
 of a Prince of the Tabernacle, or twenty- 
 fourth degree in the Scottish Rite, alludes to 
 the whole symbolic character of the degree, 
 whose teachings refer to our removal from 
 this tabernacle of clay to " that house not 
 
120 
 
 BLUE 
 
 BODE 
 
 made with hands, eternal in the heavens." 
 The blue in this degree is, therefore, a 
 symbol of heaven, the seat of our celestial 
 tabernacle. 
 
 Blue Blanket. The Lodge of Jour- 
 neymen, in the city of Edinburgh, is in 
 possession of a blue blanket, which is used 
 as a banner in Masonic processions. The 
 history of it is thus given in the London 
 Magazine : 
 
 A number of Scotch mechanics followed 
 Allan, Lord Steward of Scotland, to the 
 holy wars in Palestine, and took with them 
 a banner, on which were inscribed the fol- 
 lowing words from the 51st Psalm, viz. : 
 " In bona voluntate tua edificentur muri 
 Hierosolymae." Fighting under the ban- 
 ner, these valiant Scotchmen were present 
 at the capture of Jerusalem, and other 
 towns in the Holy Land ; and, on their re- 
 turn to their own country, they deposited 
 the banner, which they styled " The Ban- 
 ner of the Holy Ghost," at the altar of St. 
 Eloi, the patron saint of the Edinburgh 
 Tradesmen, in the church of St. Giles. It 
 was occasionally unfurled, or worn as a 
 mantle by the representatives of the trades 
 in the courtly and religious pageants that 
 in former times were of frequent occurrence 
 in the Scottish capital. In 1482, James 
 III., in consequence of the assistance which 
 he had received from the Craftsmen of 
 Edinburgh, in delivering him from the 
 castle in which he was kept a prisoner, and 
 
 Eaying a debt of 6,000 marks which he 
 ad contracted in making preparations for 
 the marriage of his son, the Duke of Roth- 
 say, to Cecil, daughter of Edward IV., of 
 England, conferred on the good town 
 several valuable privileges, and renewed 
 to the Craftsmen their favorite banner of 
 " The Blue Blanket." James's queen, Mar- 
 garet of Denmark, to show her gratitude 
 and respect to the Crafts, painted on the 
 banner, with her own hands, a St. Andrew's 
 cross, a crown, a thistle, and a hammer, 
 with the following inscription : " Fear God 
 and honor the king; grant him a long life 
 and a prosperous reign, and we shall ever 
 'pray to be faithful for the defence of his 
 sacred majesty's royal person till death." 
 The king decreed that in all time coming, 
 this flag should be the standard of the 
 Crafts within burgh, and that it should be 
 unfurled in defence of their own rights, 
 and in protection of their sovereign. The 
 privilege of displaying it at the Masonic 
 procession was granted to the journeymen, 
 in consequence of their original connec- 
 tion with the Masons of Mary's Chapel, 
 one of the fourteen incorporated trades of 
 the city. 
 
 "The Blue Blanket" was long in a very 
 tattered condition ; but some years ago it 
 
 was repaired by lining it with blue silk, so 
 that it can be exposed without subjecting it 
 to much injury. 
 
 Blue Degrees. The first three de- 
 grees of Freemasonry are so called from 
 the blue color which is peculiar to them. 
 
 Blue Lodge. A symbolic Lodge, in 
 which the first three degrees of Masonry 
 are conferred, is so called from the color of 
 its decorations. 
 
 Blue Masonry. The degrees of En- 
 tered Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and Master 
 Mason are called Blue Masonry. 
 
 Blue Master. In some of the high 
 degrees, these words are used to designate 
 a Master Mason. 
 
 Board of General Purposes. 
 An organization attached to the Grand 
 Lodge of England, consisting of a Presi- 
 dent and twenty-four other members, with 
 the Grand Master, Pro Grand Master, 
 Deputy Grand Master, and the Grand 
 Wardens. The President and ten of the 
 twenty-four members are annually nomi- 
 nated by the Grand Master, and the re- 
 maining fourteen are elected by the Grand 
 Lodge from the Masters and Past Masters 
 of the Lodges. This board has authority 
 to hear and determine all subjects of Ma- 
 sonic complaints, or irregularity respecting 
 Lodges or individual Masons, when regu- 
 larly brought before it, and generally to 
 take cognizance of all matters relating to 
 the Craft. 
 
 Board of Belief. See Relief, Board 
 of- 
 
 Boaz. The name of the left hand pil- 
 lar that stood at the porch of King Solo- 
 mon's Temple. It is derived from the He- 
 brew 3» b, in," and ty, oaz, " strength," 
 and signifies " in strength." See Pillars of 
 the Porch. 
 
 Bode, Johann Joachim Chris- 
 toph. Born in Brunswick, 16th of Janu- 
 ary, 1730. One of the most distinguished 
 Masons of his time. In his youth he was 
 a professional musician, but in 1757 he 
 established himself at Hamburg as a book- 
 seller, and was initiated into the Masonic 
 Order. He obtained much reputation by the 
 translation of Sterne's Sentimental Journey, 
 and Tristram Shandy ; of Goldsmith's Vicar 
 of Wakefield ; Smollett's Humphrey Clinker; 
 and of Fielding's Tom Jones, from the Eng- 
 lish ; and of Montaigne's works from the 
 French. To Masonic literature he made 
 many valuable contributions ; among oth- 
 ers, he translated from the French Bonne- 
 ville's celebrated work entitled Les Jesuites 
 chassis de la Maconnerie et leur poignard brise 
 par les Macons, which contains a compari- 
 son of Scottish Masonry with the Templar- 
 ism of the fourteenth century. Bode was 
 at one time a zealous promoter of the Bite 
 
BOEBER 
 
 BONAIM 
 
 121 
 
 of Strict Observance, but afterwards became 
 one of its most active opponents. In 1790 
 he joined the Order of the Illuminati, ob- 
 taining the highest degree in its second 
 class, and at the Congress of Wilhelmsbad 
 he advocated the opinions of Weishaupt. 
 No man of his day was better versed 
 than he in the history of Freemasonry, or 
 possessed a more valuable and extensive 
 library; no one was more diligent in in- 
 creasing his stock of Masonic knowledge, or 
 more anxious to avail himself of the rarest 
 sources of learning. Hence, he has always 
 held an exalted position among the Masonic 
 scholars of Germany. The theory which he 
 had conceived on the origin of Freemason- 
 ry, — a theory, however, which the investi- 
 gations of subsequent historians have proved 
 to be untenable, — was, that the Order 
 was invented by the Jesuits, in the seven- 
 teenth century, as an instrument for the re- 
 establishment of the Roman Church in Eng- 
 land, covering it for their own purposes un- 
 der the mantle of Templarism. Bode died 
 at Weimar on the 13th of December, 1793. 
 
 Boeber, Johami. A Royal Coun- 
 cillor of State and Director of the School of 
 Cadets at St. Petersburg during the reign 
 of Alexander I. In 1805 he induced the 
 emperor to revoke the edicts made by Paul 
 I. and himself against the Freemasons. 
 His representations of the true character 
 of the Institution induced the emperor to 
 seek and obtain initiation. Boeber may 
 be considered as the reviver of Masonry in 
 the Russian dominions, and was Grand 
 Master of the Grand Lodge from 1811 
 to 1814. 
 
 Boehmen, Jacob. The most cele- 
 brated of the Mystics of the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries, born near Gorlitz, 
 in 1575, and died in 1624. His system 
 attracted, and continued to attract long 
 after his death, many disciples in Germany. 
 Among these, in time, were several Free- 
 masons, who sought to incorporate the 
 mystical dogmas of their founder with the 
 teachings of Freemasonry, so as to make 
 the Lodges merely schools of theosophy. 
 Indeed, the Theosophic Rites of Freema- 
 sonry, which prevailed to a great extent 
 about the middle of the last century in 
 Germany and France, were indebted for. 
 most of their ideas to the mysticism of 
 Jacob Boehmen. 
 
 Bohemann. Karl Adolf. Bom in 
 1770, in Denmark, where he was the pos- 
 sessor of a large estate. The character of 
 having " performed many charitable deeds," 
 which is bestowed upon him by Findel, is 
 probably based on the statement of Len- 
 ning, that he gave 300,000 thalers to the 
 Orphan Asylum at Stockholm. Lenning, 
 however, says that it was given in 1767 ; 
 Q 
 
 and as that was three years before Bohe- 
 mann was born, the error is obvious. Thory 
 attributes the gift to a M. Bohman, and 
 the similarity of names may have given 
 rise to the mistake. Bohemann was a very 
 zealous member of the Order of Asiatic 
 Brethren, and was an active promulgator 
 of the high degrees. Invited into Sweden, 
 in 1802, by the Duke of Sudermania, who 
 was an ardent inquirer into Masonic sci- 
 ence, he was appointed Court Secretary. 
 He attempted to introduce his system of 
 high degrees into the kingdom, but having 
 been detected in the effort to intermingle 
 revolutionary schemes with his high de- 
 grees, he was first imprisoned and then 
 banished from the country, his society being 
 interdicted. He returned to Germany, but 
 is not heard of after 1815, when he pub- 
 lished at Pyrmont a justification of him- 
 self. Findel (Hist., p. 500,) calls him an 
 imposter, but I know not why. He was 
 rather a Masonic fanatic, who was ignorant 
 of or had forgotten the wide difference that 
 there is between Freemasonry and political 
 intrigue. 
 
 Bohemia. Freemasonry was insti- 
 tuted in Bohemia, in 1749, by the Grand 
 Lodge of Scotland. In 1776 it was highly 
 prosperous, and continued so until the 
 commencement of the French Revolution, 
 when it was suppressed by the Austrian 
 government. 
 
 Bombay. Under a deputation from 
 the Grand Lodge of England, the District 
 Grand Lodge of Bombay was established 
 in 1861. Masonry is in an excellent con- 
 dition in the District. 
 
 Bonaim. The Hebrew word for build- 
 ers, and used in 1 Kings v. 18, to desig- 
 nate a portion of the workmen on the 
 Temple : " And Solomon's builders and 
 Hiram's builders did hew them." Oliver, 
 in his Dictionary and in his Landmarks, 
 gives a mythical account of them as Fel- 
 low Crafts, divided into Lodges by King 
 Solomon, but, by a grammatical blunder, 
 he calls them Benai, substituting the He- 
 brew constructive for the nominative case, 
 and changing the participial o into e. The 
 Bonaim seem to be distinguished, by the 
 author of the Book of Kings, from the 
 Gibalim, and the translators of the author- 
 ized version have called the former builders 
 and the latter stone-squarers. It is probable 
 that the Bonaim were an order of work- 
 men inferior to the Gibalim. Anderson, in 
 both of his editions of the Book of Consti- 
 tutions, blunders grammatically, like Oli- 
 ver, and calls them Bonai, saying that they 
 were " setters, layers, or builders, or light 
 Fellow Crafts, in number 80,000." This 
 idea seems to have been perpetuated in the 
 modern rituals. 
 
122 
 
 BONDMAN 
 
 BOOK 
 
 Bondman. In the fourth article of 
 the Halliwell MS., which is supposed to con- 
 tain the old Gothic or York Constitutions, 
 it is said that the Master shall take good 
 care that he make no bondman an ap- 
 prentice, or, as it is in the original lan- 
 guage: 
 
 " The fourthe artycul thys moste be, 
 That the Mayster hymn wel-be-se, 
 That he no bondman prentys make." 
 
 The regulation is repeated in all the 
 subsequent regulations, and is still in force. 
 See Freeborn. 
 
 Bone. This word, which is now cor- 
 ruptly pronounced in one syllable, is the 
 Hebrew wordioneA, 1"01D> " builder," from 
 the verb banah, HjD> to build." It was 
 peculiarly applied, as an epithet, to Hiram 
 Abif, who superintended the construction 
 of the Temple as its chief builder. Master 
 Masons will recognize it as the terminal 
 portion of a significant word. Its true pro- 
 nunciation would be, in English letters, 
 bonay; but the corruption into one syllable 
 as bone has become too universal ever to be 
 corrected. 
 
 Bone Box. In the early lectures of 
 the last century, now obsolete, we find the 
 following catechism : 
 
 " Q. Have you any key to the secrets of a 
 Mason ? 
 
 "A. Yes. 
 
 " Q. Where do you keep it? 
 
 " A. In a bone box, that neither opens 
 nor shuts but with ivory keys." 
 
 The bone box is the mouth, the ivory 
 keys the teeth. And the key to the secrets 
 is afterwards said to be the tongue. These 
 questions were simply used as tests, and 
 were subsequently varied. In a later lec- 
 ture it is called the " bone-bone box." 
 
 Bonneville, Chevalier de. On 
 the 24th of November, 1754, he founded 
 the Chapter of the high degrees known 
 as the Chapter of Clermont. All the 
 authorities assert this except Rebold {Hist, 
 de trow G. L., p. 46), who says that he was 
 not its founder but only the propagator of 
 its degrees. Lenning (Encycl.) has con- 
 founded him with Nicolas de Bonneville, 
 who was born six years after the founda- 
 tion of the Chapter. 
 
 Bonneville, Nicolas de. An 
 historian and literateur, born at Evreux, 
 in France, March 13, 1760. He was 
 the author of a work, published in 1788, 
 entitled, Les Jesuites chasses de la Macon- 
 nerie et leur poignard brise par les Macons, 
 divided into two parts, of the first of which 
 the sub-title was, La Magonnerie icossoise 
 comparee avec les trois professions et le Secret 
 des Templiers de 14« Siecle ; and of the sec- 
 ond, Memete des quatre voeux de la Corn- 
 
 pagnie de S. Ignale, et des quatre grades de la 
 Magonnerie de S. Jean. He also translated 
 into French, Thomas Paine's Essay on the 
 Origin of Freemasonry; a work, by the way, 
 which was hardly worth the trouble of 
 translation. De Bonneville had an exalted 
 idea of the difficulties attendant upon writ- 
 ing a history of Freemasonry, for he says 
 that, to compose such a work, supported by 
 dates and authentic facts, it would require a 
 period equal to ten times the age of man ; 
 a statement which, although exaggerated, 
 undoubtedly contains an element of truth. 
 His Masonic theory was that the Jesuits 
 had introduced into the symbolic degrees 
 the history of the life and death of the 
 Templars, and the doctrine of vengeance for 
 the political and religious crime of their 
 destruction; and that they had imposed 
 upon four of the higher degrees the four 
 vows of their congregation. De Bonneville 
 was imprisoned as a Girondist in 1793. He 
 was the author of a History of Modern Eu- 
 rope, in 3 vols., published in 1792, and died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Book of Charges. There seems, if 
 we may judge from the references in the 
 old records of Masonry, to have formerly 
 existed a book under this title, containing 
 the Charges of the Craft ; equivalent, proba- 
 bly, to the Book of Constitutions. Thus, 
 the Matthew Cooke MS. of the latter part 
 of the fifteenth century (An. 533) speaks 
 of " other charges mo that ben wryten in 
 the Boke of Chargys." 
 
 Book of Constitutions. The Book 
 of Constitutions is that work in which is 
 contained the rules and regulations adopted 
 for the government of the fraternity of 
 Freemasons. Undoubtedly, a society so 
 orderly and systematic must always nave 
 been governed by a prescribed code of laws ; 
 but, in the lapse of ages, the precise regula- 
 tions which were adopted for the direction 
 of the Craft in ancient times have been lost. 
 The earliest record that we have of any 
 such Constitutions is in a manuscript, first 
 published, in 1723, by Anderson, and which 
 he said was written in the reign of Edward 
 IV. Preston quotes the same record, and 
 adds, that " it is said to have been in the 
 possession of the famous Elias Ashmole, 
 and unfortunately destroyed," a statement 
 which had not been previously made by 
 Anderson. To Anderson, therefore, we 
 must look in our estimation of the authen- 
 ticity of this document ; and that we cannot 
 too much rely upon his accuracy as a trans- 
 criber is apparent, not only from the internal 
 evidence of style, but also from the fact 
 that he made important alterations in his 
 copy of it in his edition of 1738. Such as 
 it is, however, it contains the following par- 
 ticulars. 
 
BOOK 
 
 BOOK 
 
 123 
 
 "Though the ancient records of the 
 brotherhood in England were, many of 
 them, destroyed or lost in the wars of the 
 Saxons and Danes, yet King Athelstane 
 (the grandson of King Alfred the Great, a 
 mighty architect), the first anointed king 
 of England, and who translated the Holy 
 Bible into the Saxon tongue (a. d. 930), 
 when he had brought the land into rest and 
 peace, built many great works, and encour- 
 aged many Masons from France, who were 
 appointed overseers thereof, and brought 
 with them the charges and regulations of 
 the Lodges, preserved since the Roman 
 times ; who also prevailed with the king to 
 improve the Constitution of the English 
 Lodges, according to the foreign model, and 
 to increase the wages of working Masons. 
 
 " The said king's brother, Prince Edwin, 
 being taught Masonry, and taking upon 
 him the charges of a Master Mason, for the 
 love he had to the said Craft and the hon- 
 orable principles whereon it is grounded, 
 purchased a free charter of King Athelstane 
 for the Masons having a correction among 
 themselves (as it was anciently expressed), 
 or a freedom and power to regulate them- 
 selves, to amend what might happen amiss, 
 and to hold a yearly communication and 
 general assembly. 
 
 " Accordingly, Prince Edwin summoned 
 all the Masons in the realm to meet him in 
 a congregation at York (a. d. 926), who 
 came and composed a general Lodge, of 
 which he was Grand Master ; and having 
 brought with them all the writings and 
 records extant, some in Greek, some in 
 Latin, some in French, and other lan- 
 guages, from the contents thereof, that as- 
 sembly did frame the Constitutions and 
 Charges of an English Lodge, and made a 
 law to preserve and observe the same in all 
 time coming." 
 
 Other records have from time to time 
 been discovered, most of them recently, 
 which prove beyond all doubt that the Fra- 
 ternity of Freemasons were, at least in the 
 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, in pos- 
 session of manuscript Constitutions con- 
 taining the rules and regulations of the 
 Craft. 
 
 In the year 1717, Freemasonry, which 
 had somewhat fallen into decay in the 
 south of England, was revived by the or- 
 ganization of the Grand Lodge at London ; 
 and, in the next year, the Grand Master 
 having desired, says Anderson, " any breth- 
 ren to bring to the Grand Lodge any old 
 writings and records concerning Masons 
 and Masonry, in order to show the usages 
 of ancient times, several old copies of the 
 Gothic Constitutions were produced and 
 collated." 
 
 But these Constitutions having been 
 
 found to be very erroneous and defective — 
 probably from carelessness or ignorance in 
 their frequent transcription — in Septem- 
 ber, 1721, the Duke of Montagu, who was 
 then Grand Master, ordered Brother James 
 Anderson to digest them "in a new and 
 better method." 
 
 Anderson having accordingly accom- 
 plished the important task that had been 
 assigned him, in December of the same 
 year a committee, consisting of fourteen 
 learned brethren, was appointed to examine 
 the book ; and they, in the March commu- 
 nication of the subsequent year, having re- 
 ported their approbation of it, it was, after 
 some amendments, adopted by the Grand 
 Lodge, and published, in 1723, under the 
 title of "The Constitutions of the Free- 
 masons, containing the History, Charges, 
 Regulations, etc., of that Most Ancient and 
 Right Worshipful Fraternity. For the use 
 of the Lodges." 
 
 A second edition was published in 1738, 
 under the superintendence of a committee 
 of Grand Oflicers. But this edition con- 
 tained so many alterations, interpolations, 
 and omissions of the Charges and Regula- 
 tions as they appeared in the first, as to 
 show the most reprehensible inaccuracy in 
 its composition, and to render it utterly 
 worthlesa except as a literary curiosity. It 
 does not seem to have been very popular, 
 for the printers, to complete their sales, were 
 compelled to commit a fraud, and to pre- 
 sent what they pretended to be a new edi- 
 tion in 1746, but which was really only the 
 edition of 1738, with a new title-page 
 neatly pasted in, the old one being can- 
 celled. Of this literary fraud, I have a 
 copy in my library, and have recently seen 
 another one in the possession of a Mason 
 of Washington city. 
 
 In 1754, Bro. Jonathan Scott presented 
 a memorial to the Grand Lodge, showing 
 the necessity of a new edition of the Book 
 of Constitutions." It was then ordered that 
 the book "should be revised, and neces- 
 sary alterations and additions made consist- 
 ent with the laws and rules of Masonry ; " 
 all of which would seem to show the dissatis- 
 faction of the Fraternity with the errors of 
 the second edition. Accordingly, a third 
 edition was published in 1756, under the 
 editorship of John Entick. He also pub- 
 lished the fourth edition in 1767. 
 
 In 1784, John Noorthouck published by 
 authority the fifth edition. This was well 
 printed in quarto, with numerous notes, and 
 is considered as the most valuable edition. 
 
 The sixth and seventh editions were 
 edited by William Williams, and published 
 in 1815 and in 1827. The eighth edition 
 was published, in 1841, by William Henry 
 White, who was the Grand Secretary. In 
 
124 
 
 BOOK 
 
 BOOK 
 
 each of these last three editions the his- 
 torical part was omitted, and nothing was 
 given but the Charges, Regulations, and 
 Laws. 
 
 The Book of Constitutions was repub- 
 lished in America and in Ireland ; but these 
 eight editions, enumerated above, are the 
 only original editions of the Book of Con- 
 stitutions which were officially authorized 
 by the Grand Lodge of England. 
 
 The Book is carried in all processions 
 before the Grand Master, on a velvet cush- 
 ion, and the right of so carrying it is vested 
 in the Master of the oldest Lodge — a priv- 
 ilege which arose from the following cir- 
 cumstances. During the reign of Queen 
 Anne, Freemasonry was in a languishing 
 condition, in consequence of the age and 
 infirmities of the Grand Master, Sir Chris- 
 topher Wren. On his death, and the ac- 
 cession of George the First to the throne, 
 the four old Lodges then existing in London 
 determined to revive the Grand Lodge, 
 which had for some years been dormant, 
 and to renew the quarterly communications 
 and the annual feast. This measure they 
 accomplished, and resolved, among other 
 things, that no Lodge thereafter should be 
 permitted to act, (the four old Lodges ex- 
 cepted^ unless by authority of a charter 
 granted by the Grand Master, with the ap- 
 probation and consent of the Grand Lodge. 
 In consequence of this, the old Masons in 
 the metropolis vested all their inherent 
 privileges as individuals in the four old 
 Lodges, in trust, that they would never 
 suffer the ancient landmarks to be infringed ; 
 while on their part these bodies consented 
 to extend their patronage to every Lodge 
 which should thereafter be regularly con- 
 stituted, and to admit their Masters and 
 Wardens to share with them all the privi- 
 leges of the Grand Lodge, that of prece- 
 dence only excepted. The extension of the 
 Order, however, beginning to give to the 
 new Lodges a numerical superiority in the 
 Grand Lodge, it was feared they would at 
 length be able, by a majority, to subvert 
 the privileges of the original Masons of 
 England, which had been centred in the 
 four old Lodges. On this account, a code 
 of articles was drawn up, with the consent 
 of all the brethren, for the future govern- 
 ment of the society. To this was annexed 
 a regulation binding the Grand Master and 
 his successors, and the Master of every 
 newly constituted Lodge, to preserve these 
 regulations inviolable ; and declaring that 
 no new regulation could be proposed, ex- 
 cept at the third quarterly communication, 
 and requiring it to be publicly read at the 
 annual feast to every brother, even to the 
 youngest Apprentice, when the approbation 
 of at least two-thirds of those present 
 
 should be requisite to render it obligatory. 
 To commemorate this circumstance, it has 
 been customary for the Master of the oldest 
 Lodge to attend every grand installation, 
 and, taking precedence of all present, the 
 Grand Master excepted, to deliver the 
 Book of Constitutions to the newly installed 
 Grand Master, on his promising obedience 
 to the ancient charges and general regula- 
 tions. 
 
 Book of ConstitntionsGnarded 
 by the Tiler's Sword. An emblem 
 painted on the Master's carpet, and in- 
 tended to admonish the Mason that he 
 should be guarded in all his words and 
 actions, preserving unsullied the Masonic 
 virtues of silence and circumspection. 
 Such is Webb's definition of the emblem, 
 which is a very modern one, and I am in- 
 clined to think was introduced by that 
 lecturer. The interpretation of Webb is a 
 very unsatisfactory one. The Book of Con- 
 stitutions is rather the symbol of constituted 
 law than of silence and circumspection, and 
 when guarded by the Tiler's sword it 
 would seem properly to symbolize regard 
 for and obedience to law, a prominent 
 Masonic duty. 
 
 Book of Gold. In the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite, the book in which 
 the transactions, statutes, decrees, balus- 
 ters, and protocols of the Supreme Coun- 
 cil or a Grand Consistory are contained. 
 
 Book of the Lav. The Holy Bible, 
 which is always open in a Lodge as a sym- 
 bol that its light should be diffused among 
 the brethren. The passages on which it is 
 opened differ in the different degrees. See 
 Scriptures, Reading of the. 
 
 Masonically, the Book of the Law is that 
 sacred book which is believed by the Mason 
 of any particular religion to contain the 
 revealed will of God; although, technically, 
 among the Jews the Torah, or Book of the 
 Law, means only the Pentateuch or five 
 books of Moses. Thus, to the Christian 
 Mason the Book of the Law is the Old and 
 New Testaments; to the Jew, the Old 
 Testament ; to the Mussulman, the Koran ; 
 to the Brahman, the Vedas; and to the 
 Parsee, the Zendavesta. 
 
 The Book of the Law is an important 
 symbol in the Royal Arch degree, concern- 
 ing which there was a tradition among the 
 Jews that the Book of the Law was lost 
 during the captivity, and that it was among 
 the treasures discovered during the build- 
 ing of the second Temple. The same opin- 
 ion was entertained by the early Christian 
 fathers, such, for instance, as Irenaeus, 
 Tertullian, and Clemens Alexandriuus ; 
 "for," says Prideaux, " they (the Christian 
 fathers) hold that all the Scriptures were 
 lost and destroyed in the Babylonish cap- 
 
BOOKS 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 125 
 
 tivity, and that Ezra restored them all 
 again by Divine revelation." The truth of 
 the tradition is very generally denied by 
 biblical scholars, who attribute its origin 
 to the fact that Ezra collected together the 
 copies of the law, expurgated them of the 
 errors which had crept into them during 
 the captivity, and arranged a new and cor- 
 rect edition. But the truth or falsity of 
 the legend does not affect the Masonic sym- 
 bolism. The Book of the Law is the will 
 of God, which, lost to us in our darkness, 
 must be recovered as precedent to our 
 learning what is TRUTH. As captives to 
 error, truth is lost to us ; when freedom is 
 restored, the first reward will be its dis- 
 covery. 
 
 Books, Anti-Masonic. See Anti- 
 Masonic Books. 
 
 Border, Tesselated. See Tessel- 
 ated Border. 
 
 Bourn. A limit or boundary ; a word 
 familiar to the Mason in the Monitorial 
 Instructions of the Fellow Craft's degree, 
 where he is directed to remember that we 
 are travelling upon the level of time to that 
 undiscovered country from whose bourn no 
 traveller returns; and to the reader of 
 Shakespeare, from whom the expression is 
 borrowed, in the beautiful soliloquy of 
 Hamlet : 
 
 " Who would fardels bear, 
 To grunt and sweat under a weary life ; 
 But that the dread of something after death — 
 The undiscovered country, from whose bourn 
 No traveller returns — puzzles the will." 
 
 Act III., Scene 1. 
 
 Box-Master. In the Lodges of Scot- 
 land the Treasurer was formerly sometimes 
 so called. Thus, in the minutes of the 
 Lodge of Journeymen of Edinburgh, it was 
 resolved, in 1726, that the Warden be in- 
 structed " to uplift and receive for the use 
 of the society all such sums of money 
 which are due and indebted to them or 
 their former Box-masters or predecessors 
 in office." 
 
 Boys' School. The Royal Masonic 
 Institution for Boys is a charity of the 
 Masons of England. It was founded in 
 the year 1798, for clothing and educating 
 the sons of indigent and deceased brethren, 
 according to the situation in life they are 
 most probably destined to occupy, and in- 
 culcating such religious instruction as may 
 be conformable to the tenets of their pa- 
 rents, and ultimately apprenticing them to 
 suitable trades. It is still existing in a 
 flourishing condition. Similar schools 
 have been established by the Masons of 
 France and Germany. 
 
 Brahmanism. The religious system 
 practised by the Hindus. It presents a pro- 
 found and spiritual philosophy, strangely 
 
 blended with the basest superstitions. The 
 Vedas are the Brahmanical Book of the 
 Law, although the older hymns springing 
 out of the primitive Aryan religion have 
 a date far anterior to that of comparatively 
 modern Brahmanism. The "Laws of 
 Menu" are really the text- book of Brah- 
 manism ; yet in the Vedic hymns we find 
 the expression of that religious thought 
 that has been adopted by the Brahmans 
 and the rest of the modern Hindus. The 
 learned Brahmans have an esoteric faith, 
 in which they recognize and adore one 
 God, without form or quality, eternal, un- 
 changeable, and occupying all space; but 
 confining this hidden doctrine to their in- 
 terior schools, they teach, for the multitude, 
 an open or esoteric worship, in which the 
 incomprehensible attributes of the supreme 
 and purely spiritual God are invested with 
 sensible and even human forms. In the 
 Vedic hymns all the powers of nature are 
 personified, and become the objects of wor- 
 ship, thus leading to an apparent polythe- 
 ism. But, as Mr. J. F. Clarke ( Ten Great 
 Religions, p. 90,) remarks, "behind this 
 incipient polytheism lurks the original 
 monotheism ; for each of these gods, in 
 turn, becomes the Supreme Being." And 
 Max Muller says, {Chips, i. 2,) that "it 
 would be easy to find in the numerous 
 hymns of the Veda passages in which 
 almost every important deity is repre- 
 sented as supreme and absolute." This 
 most ancient religion — believed in by one- 
 seventh of the world's population, that 
 fountain from which has flowed so much 
 of the stream of modern religious thought, 
 abounding in mystical ceremonies and 
 ritual prescriptions, worshipping, as the 
 Lord of all, " the source of golden light," 
 having its ineffable name, its solemn 
 methods of initiation, and its symbolic rites 
 — is well worth the serious study of the 
 Masonic scholar, because in it he will find 
 much that will be suggestive to him in the 
 investigations of the dogmas of his Order. 
 
 Brazen Serpent. See Serpent and 
 Cross. 
 
 Brazen Serpent, Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the Brazen Serpent. 
 
 Brazil. The first organized Masonic 
 authority at Brazil, the Grande Oriente do 
 Brazil, was established in Rio de Janeiro, 
 in the year 1821, by the division of one 
 Lodge into three. 
 
 The Emperor, Dom Pedro I., was soon 
 after initiated in one of these Lodges, and 
 immediately proclaimed Grand Master; but 
 finding that the Lodges of that period were 
 nothing else but political clubs, he ordered 
 them to be closed in the following year, 
 1822. After his abdication in 1831, Ma- 
 sonic meetings again took place, and a new 
 
126 
 
 BREAD 
 
 BREASTPLATE 
 
 authority, under the title of " Grande Ori- 
 ente Brazileiro," was established. 
 
 Some of the old members of the "Grande 
 Oriente do Brazil " met in November of the 
 same year and reorganized that body; so 
 that two supreme authorities of the French 
 Kite existed in Brazil. 
 
 In 1832, the Visconde de Jequitinhonha, 
 having received the necessary powers from 
 the Supreme Council of Belgium, estab- 
 lished a Supreme Council of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Rite; making thus a third 
 contending body, to which-was soon added 
 a fourth and fifth, by the illegal organiza- 
 tions of the Supreme Councils of their own, 
 by the contending Grand Orientes. In 
 1835, disturbances broke out in the legiti- 
 mate Supreme Council, some of its Lodges 
 having proclaimed the Grand Master of the 
 Grand Orient of Brazil their Grand Com- 
 mander, and thus formed another Supreme 
 Council. In 1842, new seeds of dissension 
 were planted by the combination of this 
 revolutionary faction with the Grande Ori- 
 ente Brazileiro, which body then abandoned 
 the French Rite, and the two formed a new 
 Council, which proclaimed itself the only 
 legitimate authority of the Scotch Rite in 
 Brazil. But it would be useless as well as 
 painful, to continue the record of these dis- 
 sensions, which like a black cloud darkened 
 for years the Masonic sky of Brazil. 
 
 Things are now in a better condition, and 
 Freemasonry in Brazil is united under the 
 one head of the Grand Orient and Su- 
 preme Council. 
 
 Bread, Consecrated. Consecrated 
 bread and wine, that is to say, bread and 
 wine used not simply for food, but made 
 sacred by the purpose of symbolizing a 
 bond of brotherhood, and the eating and 
 drinking of which are sometimes called 
 the " Communion of the Brethren," is 
 found in some of the higher degrees, such 
 as the Order of High Priesthood in the 
 American Rite, and the Rose Croix of the 
 French and Scottish Rites. 
 
 It was in ancient times a custom reli- 
 giously observed, that those who sacrificed 
 to the gods should unite in partaking of a 
 part of the food that had been offered. 
 And in the Jewish church it was strictly 
 commanded that the sacrificers should "eat 
 before the Lord," and unite in a feast of 
 joy on the occasion of their offerings. By 
 this common partaking of that which had 
 been consecrated to a sacred purpose, those 
 who partook of the feast seemed to give an 
 evidence and attestation of the sincerity with 
 which they made the offering; while the 
 feast itself was, as it were, the renewal of the 
 covenant of friendship between the parties. 
 
 Breadth of the Lodge. See Form 
 of the Lodge. 
 
 Breast. In one of the Old Lectures, 
 quoted by Dr. Oliver, it is said, " A Ma- 
 son's breast should be a safe and sacred re- 
 pository for all your just and lawful secrets. 
 A brother's secrets, delivered to me as such, 
 I would keep as my own ; as to betray that 
 trust might be doing him the greatest in- 
 jury he could sustain in this mortal life ; 
 nay, it would be like the villany of an as- 
 sassin who lurks in darkness to stab his ad- 
 versary when unarmed and least prepared 
 to meet an enemy." 
 
 It is true, that the secrets of a Mason, 
 confided as such, should be as inviolate in 
 the breast of him who has received them 
 as they were in his own before they were 
 confided. But it would be wrong to con- 
 clude that in this a Mason is placed in a 
 position different from that which is occu- 
 
 Eied by every honorable man. No man of 
 onor is permitted to reveal a secret which 
 he has received under the pledge of secrecy. 
 But it is as false as it is absurd, to charge 
 that either the man of honor or the Mason 
 is bound by any such obligation to protect 
 the criminal from the vindication of the 
 law. It must be left to every man to de- 
 termine by his own conscience whether he 
 is at liberty to betray a knowledge of facts 
 with which he could not have become ac- 
 quainted except under some such pledge. 
 N o court of law would attempt to extort a 
 communication of facts made known by a 
 penitent to his confessor or a client to his 
 lawyer; for such a communication would 
 make the person communicating it infa- 
 mous. In this case, Masonry supplies no 
 other rule than that which is found in the 
 acknowledged codes of Moral Ethics. 
 
 Breastplate. Called in Hebrew 
 jKTI, chosen, or HStPD JKTI, chosen mish- 
 pet, the breastplate of judgment, because 
 through it the high priest received divine 
 responses, and uttered his decisions on all 
 matters relating to the good of the com- 
 monwealth. It was a piece of embroidered 
 cloth of gold, purple, scarlet, and fine 
 white, twined linen. It was a span, or 
 about nine inches square, when doubled, 
 and made thus strong to hold the precious 
 stones that were set in it. It had a gold 
 ring at each corner, to the uppermost of 
 which were attached golden chains, by 
 which it was fastened to the shoulder-pieces 
 of the ephod ; while from the two lowermost 
 went two ribbons of blue, by which it was 
 attached to the girdle of the ephod, and 
 thus held secure in its place. In the breast- 
 plate were set twelve precious jewels, on each 
 of which was engraved the name of one of 
 the twelve tribes. The stones were arranged 
 in four rows, three stones in each row. As to 
 the order of arrangement and the names of 
 the stones, there has been some difference 
 
BREASTPLATE 
 
 BREASTPLATE 
 
 127 
 
 among the authorities. The authorized 
 version of the Bible gives them in this 
 order : Sardius, topaz, carbuncle, emerald, 
 sapphire, diamond, ligure, agate, ame- 
 thyst, beryl, onyx, jasper. This is the pat- 
 tern generally followed in the construction 
 of Masonic breastplates, but modern re- 
 searches into the true meaning ofthe Hebrew 
 names of the stones have shown its inac- 
 curacy. Especially must the diamond be 
 rejected, as no engraver could have cut a 
 name on this impenetrable gem, to say noth- 
 ing of the pecuniary value of a diamond 
 of a size to match the rest of the stones. 
 Josephus (Ant. III., vii.,) gives the stones 
 in the following order : Sardonyx, topaz, 
 emerald ; carbuncle, jasper, sapphire ; 
 ligure, amethyst, agate; chrysolite, onyx, 
 beryl. Kalisch, in his Commentary on Ex- 
 odus, gives a still different order: Corne- 
 lian, (or sardius,) topaz, smaragdus; car- 
 buncle, sapphire, emerald; ligure, agate, 
 amethyst; chrysolite, onyx, jasper. But 
 perhaps the Vulgate translation is to be 
 preferred as an authority, because it was 
 made in the fifth century, at a time when 
 the old Hebrew names of the precious 
 stones were better understood than now. 
 The order given in that version is shown 
 in the following diagram : 
 
 Emerald. 
 
 Topaz. 
 
 Sardius. 
 
 Jasper. 
 
 Sapphire. 
 
 Carbuncle. 
 
 Ametutst. 
 
 Agate. 
 
 Ligure. 
 
 Beryl. 
 
 Onyx. 
 
 Chrysolite. 
 
 A description of each of these stones, 
 ■with its symbolic signification, will be 
 found under the appropriate head. 
 
 On the stones were engraved the names 
 of the twelve tribes, one on each stone. 
 The order in which they were placed, ac- 
 cording to the Jewish Targums, was as 
 follows, having a reference to the respective 
 ages of the twelve sons of Jacob : 
 
 Levi. 
 
 Simeon. 
 
 Reuben. 
 
 Zebulun. 
 
 Issachae. 
 
 Judah. 
 
 Gad. 
 
 Naphtali. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Benjamin. 
 
 Joseph. 
 
 Asher. 
 
 The differences made by different writers 
 in the order of the names of the stones 
 arises only from their respective transla- 
 tions of the Hebrew words. These original 
 names are detailed in Exodus, (xxviii.,) 
 and admit of no doubt, whatever doubt 
 there may be as to the gems which they 
 were intended to represent. These Hebrew 
 names are as follows : 
 
 np-n 
 
 • 
 
 Bareket. 
 
 mas 
 
 PlTDAH. 
 
 DIN 
 
 * 
 Odem. 
 
 * 
 Yahalom. 
 
 T5D 
 * 
 
 Saphir. 
 
 "1« 
 
 NOPECH. 
 
 HDSnK 
 * 
 
 AcnLAMAH. 
 
 Shebo. 
 
 * 
 
 Leshem. 
 
 HUB* 
 
 * 
 
 Yashpah. 
 
 . # 
 
 Shoham. 
 
 * 
 Tarshish. 
 
 The breastplate which was used in the 
 first Temple does not appear to have been 
 returned after the Captivity, for it is not 
 mentioned in the list of articles sent back 
 by Cyrus. The stones, on account of their 
 great beauty and value, were most proba- 
 bly removed from their original arrange- 
 ment and reset in various ornaments by 
 their captors. A new one was made for 
 the services of the second Temple, which, 
 according to Josephus, when worn by the 
 high priest, shot forth brilliant rays of 
 fire that manifested the immediate presence 
 of Jehovah. But he adds that two hun- 
 dred years before his time this miraculous 
 power had become extinct in consequence 
 of the impiety of the nation. It was sub- 
 sequently carried to Rome together with 
 the, other spoils of the Temple. Of the 
 subsequent fate of these treasures, and 
 among them the breastplate, there are two 
 accounts : one, that they were conveyed to 
 Carthage by Genseric after his sack of 
 Rome, and that the ship containing them 
 was lost on the voyage ; the other, and, as 
 King thinks, (Ant. Gems, 137,) the more 
 probable one, that they had been trans- 
 ferred long before that time to Byzantium, 
 and deposited by Justinian in the treasury 
 of St. Sophia. 
 
 The breastplate is worn in American 
 Chapters of the Royal Arch by the High 
 Priest as an essential part of his official 
 
128 
 
 BREAST 
 
 BRIDGE 
 
 vestments. The symbolic reference of it, 
 as given by Webb, is that it is to teach him 
 always to bear in mind his responsibility 
 to the laws and ordinances of the Institu- 
 tion, and that the honor and interests of 
 his Chapter should be always near his 
 heart. This does not materially differ from 
 the ancient symbolism, for one of the names 
 given to the Jewish breastplate was the 
 " memorial," because it was designed to 
 remind the high priest how dear the tribes 
 whose names it bore should be to his heart. 
 
 The breastplate does not appear to have 
 been original with or peculiar to the Jew- 
 ish ritual. The idea was, most probably, 
 derived from the Egyptians. Diodorus 
 Siculus says, (1. i., c. 75,) that among them 
 the chief judge bore about his neck a chain 
 of gold, from which hung a figure or image, 
 (fadiov,) composed of precious stones, which 
 was called Truth, and the legal proceed- 
 ings only commenced when the chief judge 
 had assumed this image. JElian (lib. 34) 
 confirms this account by saying that the 
 image was engraved on sapphire, and hung 
 about the neck of the chief judge with a 
 golden chain. Peter du Val says that he 
 saw a mummy at Cairo, round the neck of 
 which was a chain, to which a golden plate 
 was suspended, on which the image of a bird 
 was engraved. See Urim and Thummim. 
 
 Breast, The Faithful. One of the 
 three precious jewels of a Fellow Craft. It 
 symbolically teaches the initiate that the 
 lessons which he has received from the in- 
 structive tongue of the Master are not to 
 be listened to and lost, but carefully treas- 
 ured in his heart, and that the precepts of 
 the Order constitute a covenant which he 
 is faithfully to observe. 
 
 Breast to Breast. See Five Points 
 of Fellowship. 
 
 Brethren. This word, being the 
 plural of Brother in the solemn style, is 
 more generally used in Masonic language, 
 instead of the common plural, Brothers. 
 Thus, Masons always speak of " The Breth- 
 ren of the Lodge," and not of " The Broth- 
 ers of the Lodge." 
 
 Brethren of the Bridge. See 
 Bridge Builders of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Brethren of the Mystic Tie. 
 The term by which Masons distinguish 
 themselves as the members of a confra- 
 ternity or brotherhood united by a mysti- 
 cal bond. See Mystic Tie. 
 
 Bridge Builders of the Middle 
 Ages. Before speaking of the Pontifices, 
 or the " Fraternity of Bridge Builders," 
 whose history is closely connected with 
 that of the Freemasons of the Middle 
 Ages, it will be as well to say something 
 of the word which they assumed as the 
 title of their brotherhood. 
 
 The Latin word pont if ex, with its equiva- 
 lent English pontiff, literally signifies, "the 
 builder of a bridge," frompons, "abridge," 
 and facere, "to make." But this sense, 
 which it must have originally possessed, it 
 seems very speedily to have lost, and we, 
 as well as the Romans, only recognize pon- 
 tifex or pontiff as significant of a sacerdotal 
 character. 
 
 Of all the colleges of priests in ancient 
 Rome, the most illustrious was that of the 
 Pontiffs. The College of Pontiffs was 
 established by Numa, and originally con- 
 sisted of five, but was afterwards increased 
 to sixteen. The whole religious system of the 
 Romans, the management of all the sacred 
 rites, and the government of the priest- 
 hood, was under the control and direction 
 of the College of Pontiffs, of which the Ponti- 
 fex Maximus, or High Priest, was the pre- 
 siding officer and the organ through which 
 its decrees were communicated to the peo- 
 ple. Hence, when the Papal Church estab- 
 lished its seat at the city of Rome, its 
 Bishop assumed the designation of Pontifex 
 Maximus as one of his titles, and Pontiff 
 and Pope are now considered equivalent 
 terms. 
 
 The question naturally arises as to what 
 connection there was between religious 
 rites and the building of bridges, and why 
 a Roman priest bore the name which liter- 
 ally denoted a bridge builder. Etymolo- 
 gists have in vain sought to solve the prob- 
 lem, and, after all their speculation, fail 
 to satisfy us. One of the most tenable 
 theories is that of Schmitz, who thinks the 
 Pontifices were so called because they super- 
 intended the sacrifices on a bridge, allud- 
 ing to the Argean sacrifices on the Sublician 
 bridge. But Varro gives a more probable 
 explanation when he tells us that the Sub- 
 lician bridge was built by the Pontifices ; 
 and that it was deemed, from its historic 
 association, of so sacred a character, that no 
 repairs could be made on it without a pre- 
 vious sacrifice, which was to be conducted 
 by the Chief Pontiff in person. The true 
 etymology is, however, undoubtedly lost; 
 yet it may be interesting, as well as sugges- 
 tive, to know that in old Rome there was, 
 even in a mere title, supposing that it was 
 nothing more, some sort of connection 
 between the art or practice of bridge 
 building and the mysterious sacerdotal rites 
 established by Numa, a connection which 
 was subsequently again developed in the 
 Masonic association which is the subject of 
 the present article. Whatever may have 
 been this connection in pagan Rome, we 
 find, after the establishment of Christianity 
 and in the Middle Ages, a secret Fraternity 
 organized, as a branch of the Travelling 
 Freemasons of that period, whose members 
 
BRIDGE 
 
 BRIDGE 
 
 129 
 
 were exclusively devoted to the building of 
 bridges, and who were known as Pontifices, 
 or " Bridge Builders," and styled by the 
 French les Freres Pontifes, or Pontifical 
 Brethren, and by the Germans Briicken- 
 brtider, or " Brethren of the Bridge." It is 
 of this Fraternity that, because of their as- 
 sociation in history with the early corpora- 
 tions of Freemasons, it is proposed to give a 
 brief sketch. 
 
 In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, 
 the methods of intercommunication be- 
 tween different countries were neither safe 
 nor convenient. Travellers could not avail 
 themselves of the comforts of either mac- 
 adamized roads or railways. Stage-coaches 
 were unknown. He who was compelled 
 by the calls of business to leave his home, 
 trudged as a pedestrian wearily on foot, or as 
 an equestrian, if his means permitted that 
 mode of journeying ; made his solitary ride 
 through badly-constructed roads, where he 
 frequently became the victim of robbers, 
 who took his life as well as his purse, or 
 submitted to the scarcely less heavy exac- 
 tions of some lawless Baron, who claimed 
 it as his high prerogative to levy a tax on 
 every wayfarer who passed through his do- 
 mains. Inns were infrequent, incommodi- 
 ous, and expensive, and the weary traveller 
 could hardly have appreciated Shenstone's 
 declaration, that 
 
 " Whoe'er has travelled life's dull round, 
 Where'er his stages may have been, 
 May sigh to think he still has found 
 His warmest welcome at an inn." 
 
 But one of the greatest embarrassments 
 to which the traveller in this olden time 
 was exposed occurred when there was a 
 necessity to cross a stream of water. The 
 noble bridges of the ancient Greeks and 
 Romans had been destroyed by time or 
 war, and the intellectual debasement of the 
 dark ages had prevented their renewal. 
 Hence, when refinement and learning began 
 to awaken from that long sleep which fol- 
 lowed the invasion of the Goths and Van- 
 dals and the decline and fall of the Roman 
 Empire, the bridgeless rivers could only be 
 crossed by swimming through the rapid 
 current, or by fording the shallow places. 
 
 The earliest improvement towards a re- 
 moval of these difficulties consisted in the 
 adoption of rafts or boats, and gilds or 
 corporations of raftsmen and boatmen, 
 under the names of Linuncularii, Lintrarii, 
 and Utricularii, were formed to transport 
 travellers and merchandise across rivers. 
 But the times were lawless, and these water- 
 men oftener plundered than assisted their 
 patrons. Benevolent persons, therefore, 
 saw the necessity of erecting hostelries on 
 the banks of the rivers at frequented places, 
 R 9 
 
 and of constructing bridges for the trans- 
 portation of travellers and their goods. 
 
 All the architectural labors of the period 
 were, as is well known, intrusted to the 
 gilds or corporations of builders who, un- 
 der the designation of" Travelling Freema- 
 sons," passed from country to country, and, 
 patronized by the Church, erected those mag- 
 nificent cathedrals, monasteries, and other 
 public edifices, many of which have long 
 since crumbled to dust, but a few of which 
 still remain to attest the wondrous ability 
 of these operative brethren. Alone skilled 
 in the science of architecture, from them 
 alone could be derived workmen capable 
 of constructing safe and enduring bridges. 
 
 Accordingly, a portion of these " Freema- 
 sons," withdrawing from the general body, 
 united, under the patronage of the Church, 
 into a distinct corporation of Freres Pontifes, 
 or Bridge Builders. The name which they 
 received in Germany was that of Brucken- 
 brUdcr, or Brethren of the Bridge. 
 
 A legend of the Church attributes their 
 foundation to Saint Benezet, who accord- 
 ingly became the patron of the Order, as 
 Saint John was of the Freemasons proper. 
 Saint Benezet was a shepherd of Avilar, in 
 France, who was born in the year 11G5. 
 "He kept his mother's sheep in the 
 country," says Butler, the historian of the 
 saints, "being devoted to the practices of 
 piety beyond his age ; when moved by 
 charity to save the lives of many poor per- 
 sons, who were frequently drowned in 
 crossing the Rhone, and, being inspired by 
 God, he undertook to build a bridge over 
 that rapid river at Avignon. He obtained 
 the approbation of the Bishop, proved his 
 mission by miracles, and began the work 
 in 1177, which he directed during seven 
 years. He died when the difficulty of the 
 undertaking was over, in 1184. His body 
 was buried upon the bridge itself, which 
 was not completely finished till four years 
 after his decease, the structure whereof was 
 attended with miracles from the first laying 
 of the foundations till it was completed, in 
 1188." 
 
 Divesting this account, which Butler has 
 drawn from the Acta Sanctorum of the Bol- 
 landists, of the miraculous, the improba- 
 ble, and the legendary, the naked fact re- 
 mains that Benezet was engaged, as the 
 principal conductor of the work, in the 
 construction of the magnificent bridge at 
 Avignon, with its eighteen arches. As 
 this is the most ancient of the bridges of 
 Europe built after the commencement of 
 the restoration of learning, it is most prob- 
 able that he was, as he is claimed to have 
 been, the founder of that Masonic corpora- 
 tion of builders who, under the name of 
 Brethren of the Bridge, assisted him in the 
 
130 
 
 BRIDGE 
 
 BROACHED 
 
 undertaking, and who, on the completion 
 of their task, were engaged in other parts 
 of France, of Italy, and of Germany, in 
 similar labors. 
 
 After the death of Saint Benezet, he 
 was succeeded by Johannes Benedictus, to 
 whom, as " Prior of the Bridge," and to his 
 brethren, a charter was granted in 1187, by 
 which they obtained a chapel and cemetery, 
 with a chaplain. 
 
 In 1185, one year after the death of Saint 
 Benezet, the Brethren of the Bridge com- 
 menced the construction of the Bridge of 
 Saint Esprit, over the Rhone at Lyons. 
 The completion of this work greatly ex- 
 tended the reputation of the Bridge Build- 
 ers, and in 1189 they received a charter 
 from Pope Clement III. The city of Avig- 
 non continued to be their headquarters, but 
 they gradually entered into Italy, Spain, 
 Germany, Sweden, and Denmark. The 
 Swedish chronicles mention one Benedict, 
 between the years 1178 and 1191, who was 
 a Bishop and bridge builder at Skara, in 
 that kingdom. Could he have been the 
 successor, already mentioned, of Benezet, 
 who had removed from Avignon to Sweden ? 
 As late as 1590 we find the Order existing 
 at Lucca, in Italy, where, in 1562, John de 
 Medicis exercised the functions of its chief 
 under the title of Magister, or Master. How 
 the Order became finally extinct is not 
 known ; but after its dissolution much of 
 the property which it had accumulated 
 passed into the hands of the Knights Hos- 
 pitallers or Knights of Malta. 
 
 The gild or corporation of Bridge Build- 
 ers, like the corporation of Travelling Free- 
 masons, from which it was an offshoot, was 
 a religious institution, but admitted laymen 
 into the society. In other words, the work- 
 men, or the great body of the gild, were 
 of course secular, but the patrons were dig- 
 nitaries of the Church. When % by the mul- 
 tiplication of bridges the necessity of their 
 employment became less urgent, and when 
 the numbers of the workmen were greatly 
 increased, the patronage of the Church was 
 withdrawn, and the association was dis- 
 solved, or soon after fell into decay; its 
 members, probably, for the most part, re- 
 uniting with the corporations of Masons 
 from whom they had originally been de- 
 rived. Nothing has remained in modern 
 Masonry to preserve the memory of the 
 former connection of the Order with the 
 bridge builders of the Middle Ages, except 
 the ceremony of opening a bridge, which 
 is to be found in the rituals of the last cen- 
 tury ; but even this has now almost become 
 obsolete. 
 
 Lenning, who has appropriated a brief 
 article in his Encyclopadie aer Freimaurerei 
 to the Bruckenbriider, or Brethren of the 
 
 Bridge, incorrectly calls them an Order of 
 Knights. They took, he says, vows of celi- 
 bacy and poverty, and also to protect trav- 
 ellers, to attend upon the sick, and to build 
 bridges, roads, and hospitals. Several of 
 the inventors of high degrees have, he 
 thinks, sought to revive the Order in some 
 of the degrees which they have established, 
 and especially in the Knights of the Sword, 
 which appears in the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite as the fifteenth degree, or Knights of 
 the East; but I can find no resemblance 
 except that in the Knights of the Sword 
 there is in the ritual a reference to a river 
 and a bridge. I am more inclined to be- 
 lieve that the nineteenth degree of the 
 same Rite, or Grand Pontiff, was once con- 
 nected with the Order we have been con- 
 sidering; and that, while the primitive 
 ritual has been lost or changed so as to 
 leave no vestige of a relationship between 
 the two, the name which is still retained 
 may have been derived from the Freres 
 Pontifes of the twelfth century. 
 
 This, however, is mere conjecture, with- 
 out any means of proof. All that we do 
 positively know is, that the bridge builders 
 of the Middle Ages were a Masonic associa- 
 tion, and as such are entitled to a place in 
 all Masonic histories. 
 
 Brief. The diploma or certificate in 
 some of the high degrees is so called. 
 
 Bright. A Mason is said to be " bright " 
 who is well acquainted with the ritual, the 
 forms of opening and closing, and the cer- 
 emonies of initiation. This expression 
 does not, however, in its technical sense, 
 appear to include the superior knowledge 
 of the history and science of the Institu- 
 tion, and many bright Masons are, there- 
 fore, not necessarily learned Masons ; and, 
 on the contrary, some learned Masons are 
 not well versed in the exact phraseology 
 of the ritual. The one knowledge depends 
 on a retentive memory, the other is de- 
 rived from deep research. It is scarcely 
 necessary to say which of the two kinds of 
 knowledge is the more valuable. The Ma- 
 son whose acquaintance with the Institu- 
 tion is confined to what he learns from its 
 esoteric ritual will have but a limited idea 
 of its science and philosophy. And yet 
 a knowledge of the ritual as the founda- 
 tion of higner knowledge is essential. 
 
 Broached Thurnel. In the An- 
 dersonian lectures of the early part of the 
 eighteenth century the Immovable Jewels 
 of the Lodge are said to be "the Tarsel 
 Board, Rough Ashlar, and Broached Thur- 
 nel;" and in describing their uses it is 
 taught that " the Rough Ashlar is for the 
 Fellow Crafts to try their jewels on, and the 
 Broached Thurnel for the Entered Appren- 
 tices to learn to work upon." Much difficulty 
 
BROKEN 
 
 BROTHERLY 
 
 131 
 
 has been met with in discovering what the 
 Broached Thurnel really was. Dr. Oliver, 
 most probably deceived by the use to which 
 it was assigned, says [Did. Symb. Mas.) 
 that it was subsequently called the Rough 
 Ashlar. This is evidently incorrect, be- 
 cause a distinction is made in the original 
 lecture between it and the Rough Ashlar, 
 the former being for the Apprentices and 
 the latter for the Fellow Crafts. Krause 
 (Kunsturkunden, i. 73,) has, by what au- 
 thority I know not, translated it by Dreh- 
 bank, which means a turning-lathe, an 
 implement not used by Operative Masons. 
 Now what is the real meaning of the word? 
 If we inspect an old trac- 
 ing board of the Appren- 
 tice's degree of the date 
 when the Broached Thur- 
 nel was in use, we shall 
 find depicted on it three 
 symbols, two of which 
 will at once be recognized 
 as the Tarsel, or Trestle 
 Board, and the Rough 
 Ashlar, just as we have 
 them at the present day ; while the third 
 symbol will be that depicted in the margin, 
 namely, a cubical stone with a pyramidal 
 apex. This is the Broached Thurnel. It 
 is the symbol which is still to be found, 
 with precisely the same form, in all French 
 tracing boards, under the name of the 
 pierre cubique, or cubical stone, and which 
 has been replaced in English and Ameri- 
 can tracing boards and rituals by the Per- 
 fect Ashlar. For the derivation of the 
 words, we must go to old and now almost 
 obsolete terms of architecture. On inspec- 
 tion, it will at once be seen that the Broached 
 Thurnel has the form of a little square 
 turret with a spire springing from it. Now, 
 broach, or broche, says Parker, (Gloss, of 
 Terms in Architect., p. 97,) is "an old Eng- 
 lish term for a spire, still in use in some 
 parts of the country, as in Leicestershire, 
 where it is said to denote a spire springing 
 from the tower without any intervening 
 parapet. Thurnel is from the old French 
 tournelle, a turret or little tower. The 
 Broached Thurnel, then, was the Spired 
 Turret. It was a model on which appren- 
 tices might learn the principles of their 
 art, because it presented to them, in its 
 various outlines, the forms of the square and 
 the triangle, the cube and the pyramid." 
 
 Broken Column. Among the He- 
 brews, columns, or pillars, were used meta- 
 phorically to signify princes or nobles, as 
 if they were the pillars of a state. Thus, 
 in Psalm xi. 3, the passage, reading in our 
 translation, "If the foundations be de- 
 stroyed, what can the righteous do ? " is, in 
 the original, " when the columns are over- 
 
 thrown," i. e. when the firm supporters of 
 what is right and good have perished. So 
 the passage in Isaiah xix. 10 should read: 
 " her (Egypt's) columns are broken down," 
 that is, the nobles of her state. In Free- 
 masonry, the broken column is, as Master 
 Masons well know, the emblem of the fall 
 of one of the chief supporters of the Craft. 
 The use of the column or pillar as a mon- 
 ument erected over a tomb was a very an- 
 cient custom, and was a very significant 
 symbol of the character and spirit of the 
 person interred. See Monument. 
 
 Brother. The term which Freema- 
 sons apply to each other. Freemasons are 
 brethren, not only by common participa- 
 tion of the human nature, but as professing 
 the same faith; as being jointly engaged in 
 the same labors, and as being united by a 
 mutual covenant or tie, whence they are 
 also emphatically called " Brethren of the 
 Mystic Tie." See Companion. 
 
 Brotherhood. When our Saviour 
 designated his disciples as his brethren, he 
 implied that there was a close bond of union 
 existing between them, which idea was 
 subsequently carried out by St. Peter in 
 his direction to " love the brotherhood." 
 Hence the early Christians designated 
 themselves as a brotherhood, a relation- 
 ship unknown to the Gentile religions; 
 and the ecclesiastical and other confrater- 
 nities of the Middle Ages assumed the 
 same title to designate any association of 
 men engaged in the same common object, 
 governed by the same rules, and united by 
 an identical interest. The association or 
 fraternity of Freemasons is, in this sense, 
 called a brotherhood. 
 
 Brotherly Kiss. See Kiss, Fraternal. 
 
 Brotherly JLove. At a very early 
 period in the course of his initiation, 
 a candidate for the mysteries of Free- 
 masonry is informed that the great tenets 
 of the Order are Brotherly Love, Re- 
 lief, and Truth. These virtues are illus- 
 trated, and their practice recommended to 
 the aspirant, at every step of his progress ; 
 and the instruction, though continually va- 
 ried in its mode, is so constantly repeated, 
 as infallibly to impress upon his mind 
 their absolute necessity in the constitution 
 of a good Mason. 
 
 Brotherly Love might very well be 
 supposed to be an ingredient in the organ- 
 ization of a society so peculiarly consti- 
 tuted as that of Freemasonry. But the 
 brotherly love which we inculcate is not a 
 mere abstraction, nor is its character left 
 to any general and careless understanding 
 of the candidate, who might be disposed to 
 give much or little of it to his brethren, 
 according to the peculiar constitution of 
 his own mind, or the extent of his own 
 
132 
 
 BROTHERS 
 
 BRUCE 
 
 generous or selfish feelings. It is, on the 
 contrary, closely defined ; its object plain- 
 ly denoted ; and the very mode and manner 
 of its practice detailed in words, and il- 
 lustrated by symbols, so as to give neither 
 cause for error nor apology for indiffer- 
 ence. 
 
 Every Mason is acquainted with the Five 
 Points of Fellowship — he knows their 
 symbolic meaning — he can never forget 
 the interesting incidents that accompanied 
 their explanation ; and while he has this 
 knowledge, and retains this remembrance, 
 he can be at no loss to understand what are 
 his duties, and what must be his conduct, 
 in relation to the principle of Brotherly 
 Love. See Five Points of Fellowship and 
 Tenets of Freemasons. 
 
 Brothers of the Rosy Cross. See 
 Rosicrucians. 
 
 Browne, John. In 1798 John 
 Browne published, in London, a work en- 
 titled "The Master Key through all the 
 Degrees of a Freemason's Lodge, to which 
 is added, Eulogiums and Illustrations upon 
 Freemasonry." In 1802, he published a 
 second edition under the title of " Browne's 
 Masonic Master Key through the three 
 degrees, by way of polyglot. Under the 
 sanction of the Craft in general, contain- 
 ing the exact mode of working, initiation, 
 passing and raising to the sublime degree 
 of a Master. Also, the several duties of 
 the Master, officers, and brethren while in 
 the Lodge, with every requisite to render 
 the accomplished Mason an explanation of 
 all the hieroglyphics. The whole inter- 
 spersed with illustrations on Theology, 
 Astronomy, Architecture, Arts, Sciences, 
 &c, many of which are by the editor." 
 Browne had been, he says, the Past Master 
 of six Lodges, and wrote his work not as 
 an offensive exposition, but as a means of 
 
 fiving Masons a knowledge of the ritual, 
 t is considered to be a very complete rep- 
 resentation of the Prestonian lectures, and 
 as such was incorporated by Krause in his 
 " drei altesten Kunsturkunden." The work 
 is printed in a very complicated cipher, the 
 key to which, and without which the book 
 is wholly unintelligible, was, by way of 
 caution, delivered only personally, and to 
 none but those who had reached the third 
 degree. The explanation of this " mystical 
 key," as Browne calls it, is as follows. The 
 word Browne supplies the vowels, thus, 
 
 b r o w n e . .. . , . 
 
 i — ■ -, and these six vowels in turn 
 
 a e l o u y ' 
 
 . , A , a e i o u y 
 
 represent six letters, thus,-; i . 
 
 r 'kcolnu 
 
 Ini- 
 
 tial capitals are of no value, and supernume- 
 rary letters are often inserted. The words are 
 kept separate, but the letters of one word 
 are often divided between two or three. 
 
 Much therefore is left to the shrewdness of 
 the decipherer. The initial sentence of 
 the work may be adduced as a specimen. 
 Ubs Rplrbsrt wbss ostm ronwprn Pongth 
 Mrlwdgr, which is thus deciphered : Please 
 to assist me in opening the Lodge. The work 
 is now exceedingly rare. 
 
 Brn. See Vielle Bru, Rite of 
 
 Bruce, Robert. The introduction 
 of Freemasonry into Scotland has been at- 
 tributed by some writers to Robert.King 
 of Scotland, commonly called Eobert Bruce, 
 who is said to have established in 1314 the 
 Order of Herodem, for the reception of 
 those Knights Templars who had taken 
 refuge in his dominions from the persecu- 
 tions of the pope and the king of France. 
 Thory [Act. Lat.,'\. 6,) copies the following 
 from a manuscript in the library of the 
 Mother Lodge of the Philosophical Rite : 
 
 " Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, under 
 the name of Robert Bruce, created, on the 
 24th June, 1314, after the battle of Ban- 
 nockburn, the Order of St. Andrew of the 
 Thistle, to which has been since united 
 that of Herodem, for the sake of the Scotch 
 Masons, who composed a part of the thirty 
 thousand men with whom he had conquered 
 an army of a hundred thousand English- 
 men. He reserved, in perpetuity, to him- 
 self and his successors, the title of Grand 
 Master. He founded the Royal Grand 
 Lodge of the Order of Herodem at Kil- 
 winning, and died, crowned with glory and 
 honor, the 9th of July, 1329." 
 
 Dr. Oliver, (Landm., ii. 13,) referring 
 to the abolition of the Templar Order in 
 England, when the Knights were compelled 
 to enter the Preceptories of the Knights 
 of St. John, as dependants, says : 
 
 " In Scotland, Edward, who had overrun 
 the country at the time, endeavored to pur- 
 sue the same course ; but, on summoning 
 the Knights to appear, only two, Walter 
 de Clifton, the Grand Preceptor, and an- 
 other, came forward. On their examina- 
 tion, they confessed that all the rest had 
 fled ; and. as Bruce was advancing with his 
 army to meet Edward, nothing further was 
 done. The Templars, being debarred from 
 taking refuge either in England or Ireland, 
 had no alternative but to join Bruce, and 
 give their active support to his cause. 
 Thus, after the battle of Bannockburn, 
 in 1314, Bruce granted a charter of lands 
 to Walter de Clifton, as Grand Master of 
 the Templars, for the assistance which they 
 rendered on that occasion. Hence the 
 Royal Order of H. R. D. M. was frequenly 
 practised under the name of Templary." 
 
 Lawrie, or the author of Lawrie's Book, 
 who is excellent authority for Scottish Ma- 
 sonry, does not appear, however, to give 
 any credit to . the narrative. Whatever 
 
BRUN 
 
 BULL 
 
 133 
 
 Bruce may have done for the higher de- 
 grees, there is no doubt that Ancient Craft 
 Masonry was introduced into Scotland at 
 an earlier period. But it cannot be denied 
 that Bruce was one of the patrons and en- 
 couragers of Scottish Freemasonry. 
 
 Briin, Abraham Tan. A wealthy 
 Mason of Hamburg, who died at an ad- 
 vanced age in 1768. For many years he 
 had been the soul of the Society of True 
 and Ancient Rosicrucians, which soon after 
 his death was dissolved. 
 
 Brunswick, Congress of. It was 
 convoked, in 1775, by Ferdinand, Duke of 
 Brunswick. Its object was to effect a fusion 
 of the various Rites ; but it terminated its 
 labors, after a session of six weeks, without 
 success. 
 
 Buenos Ayres. There is much un- 
 certainty of detail in the early history of 
 Freemasonry in the Argentine Republic. 
 To Brother A. G. Goodall, of New York, 
 who visited the South American States 
 some years ago, are we indebted for the 
 most authentic accounts of the introduc- 
 tion of Masonry into those countries. He 
 says that Lodges were in existence in 
 Buenos Ayres about the year 1846, but in 
 consequence of the unsettled state of society 
 their labors were suspended, and it was not 
 until 1853 that the Order commenced a 
 permanent career in the Rio de Plata. 
 January 19, 1854, Excelsior Lodge was 
 established at Buenos Ayres by a War- 
 rant of the Grand Lodge of England. It 
 worked in the York Rite and in the Eng- 
 lish language. Two other Lodges were 
 subsequently established by the same au- 
 thority, one working in English and one in 
 German. In 1856 there was an irregular 
 body working in the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite, which claimed the prerogatives of a 
 Grand Lodge, but it was never recognized, 
 and soon ceased to exist. In September 
 13, 1858, a Supreme Council ana Grand 
 Orient was established by the Supreme 
 Council of Paraguay. This body is still in 
 active operation under the title of The Su- 
 preme Council of the Argentine Republic, 
 Orient of Buenos Ayres. In 1801 the Grand 
 Lodge of England issued a Warrant for the 
 establishment of a Provincial Grand Lodge, 
 which is in fraternal alliance with the Su- 
 preme Council, and by the consent of the 
 latter is authorized to establish symbolic 
 Lodges. 
 
 Bull. A monstrous corruption, in the 
 American Royal Arch, of the word Bel. 
 Up to a recent period, it was combined 
 with another corruption, Lun, in the muti- 
 lated form of Buh-Lun, under which dis- 
 guise the words Bel and On were presented 
 to the neophyte. 
 
 Buhle, Johann Gottlieb. Pro- 
 
 fessor of Philosophy in the University of 
 Gbttingen, who, not being himself a Mason, 
 published, in 1804, a work entitled, Ueber 
 den Ursprung und die vornehmsten Schicksale 
 des Ordens der Rosenkreuzer und Freimau- 
 rer, that is, " On the Origin and the Princi- 
 pal Events of the Orders of Rosicrucianism 
 and Freemasonry." This work, illogical 
 in its arguments, false in many of its state- 
 ments, and confused in its arrangement, 
 was attacked by Frederick Nicolai in a 
 critical review of it in 1806, and is spoken 
 of very slightingly even by De Quincey, 
 himself no very warm admirer of the Masonic 
 Institution, who published, in 1824, in the 
 London Magazine, (vol. ix.,) a loose transla- 
 tion of it, "abstracted, re-arranged, and 
 improved," under the title of Historico- 
 critical Inquiry into the Origin of the Ro- 
 sicrucians and the Freemasons. Buhle's 
 theory was that Freemasonry was invented 
 in the year 1629, by John Valentine An- 
 drea. Buhle was born at Brunswick in 
 1753, became Professor of Philosophy at 
 Gottingen in 1787, and, having afterwards 
 taught in his native city, died there in 1821. 
 
 Builder. The chief architect of the 
 Temple of Solomon is often called "the 
 Builder." But the word is also applied 
 generally to the Craft ; for every specula- 
 tive Mason is as much a builder as was 
 his operative predecessor. An American 
 writer (F. S. Wood) thus alludes to this 
 symbolic idea. " Masons are called moral 
 builders. In their rituals, they declare 
 that a more noble and glorious purpose 
 than squaring stones and hewing timbers 
 is theirs, — fitting immortal nature for that 
 spiritual building not made with hands, 
 eternal in the heavens." And he adds, 
 "The builder builds for a century; Masons 
 for eternity." In this sense, " the builder" 
 is the noblest title that can be bestowed 
 upon a Mason. 
 
 Builder, Smitten. See Smitten 
 Builder. 
 
 Builders, Corporations of. See 
 Stone- Masons of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Bui. Oliver says that this is one of 
 the names of God among the ancients. I 
 can find no such word in any oriental lan- 
 guage. It is really a Masonic mutilation 
 of the word Bel. See Buh. 
 
 Bull, Papal. An edict or proclama- 
 tion issued from the Apostolic Chancery, 
 with the seal and signature of the pope, 
 written in Gothic letters and upon coarse 
 parchment. It derives its name from the 
 leaden seal which is attached to it by a 
 cord of hemp or silk, and which in mediae- 
 val Latin is called bulla. Several of these 
 bulls have from time to time been fulmi- 
 nated against Freemasonry aud other secret 
 societies, subjecting them to the heaviest 
 
134 
 
 BULLETIN 
 
 BURNING 
 
 ecclesiastical punishments, even to the 
 greater excommunication. According to 
 these bulls, a Freemason is ipso facto ex- 
 communicated by continuing his member- 
 ship in the society, and is thus deprived 
 of all spiritual privileges while living, 
 and the rites of burial when dead. 
 
 Of these bulls, the first was promulgated 
 by Clement XII., on the 27th of April, 
 1738; this was repeated and made perpetual 
 by Benedict XIV., on the 18th of May, 
 1775. On the 13th of August, 1814, an 
 edict continuing these bulls was issued by 
 the Cardinal Gonsalvi, Secretary of State of 
 Pius VII. ; and lastly, similar denunciatory 
 edicts have within recent years been uttered 
 by Pius IX. Notwithstanding these reiter- 
 ated denunciations and attempts at Papal 
 suppression, the Mason may say of his 
 Order as Galileo said of the earth, e pur si 
 muove. 
 
 Bulletin. The name given by the 
 Grand Orient of France to the monthly 
 publication which contains the official 
 record of its proceedings. A similar work 
 is issued by the Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Rite for the South- 
 ern Jurisdiction of the United States of 
 America, and by several other Supreme 
 Councils and Grand Orients. 
 
 Bunyan, Jobn. " The well-known 
 author of the Pilgrim's Progress." He lived 
 in the seventeenth century, and was the 
 most celebrated allegorical writer of Eng- 
 land. His work entitled Solomon's Temple 
 Spiritualized will supply the student of 
 Masonic symbolism with many valuable 
 suggestions. 
 
 Burdens, Bearers of. A class of 
 workmen at the Temple mentioned in 2 
 Chron. ii. 18, and referred to by Masonic 
 writers as the Ish Sabal, which see. 
 
 Burial. The right to be buried with 
 the ceremonies of the Order is one that, 
 under certain restrictions, belongs to every 
 Master Mason. 
 
 None of the ancient' Constitutions con- 
 tain any law upon this subject, nor can 
 the exact time be now determined when 
 funeral processions and a burial service 
 were first admitted as regulations of the 
 Order. 
 
 The celebrated caricature of a mock pro- 
 cession of the " Scald Miserable Masons," 
 as it was called, was published in 1742, and 
 represented a funeral procession. This 
 would seem to imply that Masonic funeral 
 processions must have been familiar at that 
 time to the people ; for a caricature, how- 
 ever distorted, must have an original for 
 its foundation. 
 
 The first official notice, however, that we 
 have of funeral processions is in Novem- 
 ber, 1754. A regulation was then adopted 
 
 which prohibited any Mason from attend- 
 ing a funeral or other procession clothed in 
 any of the jewels or badges of the Craft, 
 except by dispensation of the Grand Mas- 
 ter or his deputy. 
 
 There are no further regulations on this 
 subject in any of the editions of the Book 
 of Constitutions previous to the modern 
 code which is now in force in the Grand 
 Lodge of England. But Preston gives us 
 the rules on this subject, which have now 
 been adopted by general consent as the law 
 of the Order, in the following words: 
 
 "No Mason can be interred with the 
 formalities of the Order unless it be at his 
 own special request communicated to the 
 Master of the Lodge of which he died a 
 member — foreigners and sojourners ex- 
 cepted; nor unless he has been advanced 
 to the third degree of Masonry, from which 
 restriction there can be no exception. 
 Fellow Crafts or Apprentices are not en- 
 titled to the funeral obsequies." 
 
 The only restrictions prescribed by Pres- 
 ton are, it will be perceived, that the de- 
 ceased must have been a Master Mason, 
 that he had himself made the request, and 
 that he was affiliated, which is implied by 
 the expression that he must have made the 
 request for burial of the Master of the 
 Lodge of which he was a member. Fellow 
 Crafts and Entered Apprentices are not 
 permitted to join in a funeral procession ; 
 and, accordingly, we find that in the form 
 of procession laid down by Preston no 
 place is assigned to them, in which he has 
 been followed by all subsequent monitorial 
 writers. 
 
 The regulation of 1754, which requires a 
 dispensation from the Grand Master for a 
 funeral procession, is not considered of 
 force in this country, and accordingly, in 
 America, Masons have generally been per- 
 mitted to bury their dead without the 
 necessity of such dispensation. 
 
 Burning Bush. In the third chap- 
 ter of Exodus it is recorded that, while 
 Moses was keeping the flock of Jethro on 
 Mount Horeb, "the angel of the Lord 
 appeared unto him in a flame of fire out 
 of the midst of a bush," and there com- 
 municated to him for the first time his 
 Ineffable Name. This occurrence is com- 
 memorated in the " Burning Bush " of the 
 Royal Arch degree. In all the systems of 
 antiquity, fire is adopted as a symbol of 
 Deity; and the "Burning Bush," or the 
 bush filled with fire which did not consume, 
 whence came forth the Tetragrammaton, 
 the symbol of Divine Light and Truth, is 
 considered, in the higher degrees of Ma- 
 sonry, like the "Orient" in the lower, as 
 the great source of true Masonic light ; 
 wherefore Supreme Councils of the 33d 
 
BURNES 
 
 BY-LAWS 
 
 135 
 
 degree date their balustres, or official doc- 
 uments, "near the B.\ B.\," or "Burning 
 Bush," to intimate that they are, in their 
 own Rite, the exclusive Bource of all Ma- 
 sonic instruction. 
 
 Burnes, James. A distinguished 
 Mason, and formerly Provincial Grand 
 Master of Western India. He is the author 
 of an interesting work entitled a "Sketch of 
 the History of the Knights Templars. By 
 James Burnes, LL.D., F.R.S., Knight of the 
 Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order;" pub- 
 lished at London, in 1840, in 74 + GO pages 
 in small quarto. 
 
 Burns, Robert. The celebrated 
 Scottish poet, of whose poetry William 
 Pitt has said " that he could think of none 
 since Shakespeare's that had so much the 
 appearance of sweetly coming from na- 
 ture;" was born at Kirk Alloway, near the 
 town of Ayr, on the 25th of January, 1759, 
 and died on the 22d of July, 1796. He 
 was initiated into Freemasonry in the town 
 of Irvine, in 1781, and was at one time the 
 Master of a Lodge at Mauchline, where he 
 presided with great credit to himself, as 
 appears from the following remarks of the 
 philosophic Dugald Stewart. "In the 
 course of the same season, I was led by 
 curiosity to attend for an hour or two a 
 Masonic Lodge in Mauchline, where Burns 
 presided. He had occasion to make some 
 short, unpremeditated compliments to dif- 
 ferent individuals from whom he had no 
 reason to expect a visit, and everything he 
 said was happily conceived and forcibly as 
 well as fluently expressed." The slander- 
 ous charge that he acquired the habits of 
 dissipation, to which he was unfortunately 
 addicted, at the festive meetings of the Ma- 
 sonic Lodges, has been triumphantly re- 
 futed by a writer in the London Free- 
 mason's Magazine, (vol. v., p. 291,) and by 
 the positive declarations of his brother 
 Gilbert, who asserts that these habits were 
 the result of his introduction, several years 
 after his attendance on the Lodges, to the 
 hospitable literary society of the Scottish 
 metropolis. 
 
 Burns consecrated some portion of his 
 wonderful poetic talent to the service of 
 the Masonic Order, to which he appears 
 always to have been greatly attached. 
 Among his Masonic poetic effusions every 
 
 Mason is familiar with that noble farewell 
 to his brethren of Tarbolton Lodge com- 
 mencing, 
 
 Adieu ! a heart-warm, fond adieu ! 
 Dear brothers of the mystic tie ! 
 
 On the 25th of January, 1820, a monument 
 was erected to his memory, by public sub- 
 scription, at his birthplace; the corner- 
 stone of which was laid with appropriate 
 Masonic honors by the Deputy Grand 
 Master of the Ancient Mother Lodge Kil- 
 winning, assisted by all the Masonic Lodges 
 in Ayrshire. 
 
 Business. Everything that is done 
 in a Masonic Lodge, relating to the initia- 
 tion of candidates into the several degrees, 
 is called its work or labor ; all other trans- 
 actions such as are common to other asso- 
 ciations come under the head of business, 
 and they are governed with some peculiar 
 differences by rules of order, as in other 
 societies. See Order, Rules of. 
 
 Byblos. An ancient city of Phoenicia, 
 celebrated for the mystical worship of 
 Adonis, who was slain by a wild boar. It 
 was situated on a river of the same name, 
 whose waters, becoming red at a certain 
 season of the year by the admixture of the 
 clay which is at its source, were said by the 
 celebrants of the mysteries of Adonis to 
 be tinged with the blood of that god. This 
 city, so distinguished for the celebration of 
 these mysteries, was the Gebal of the He- 
 brews, the birthplace of the Giblemites, or 
 stone-squarers, who wrought at the building 
 of King Solomon's Temple ; and thus those 
 who have advanced the theory that Free- 
 masonry is the successor of the Ancient 
 Mysteries, think that they find in this 
 identity of Byblos and Gebal another point 
 of connection between these Institutions. 
 
 By-Laws. Every subordinate Lodge 
 is permitted to make its own by-laws, pro- 
 vided they do not conflict with the regula- 
 tions of the Grand Lodge, nor with the 
 ancient usages of the Fraternity. But of 
 this, the Grand Lodge is the only judge, 
 and therefore the original by-laws of every 
 Lodge, as well as all subsequent alterations 
 of them, must be submitted to the Grand 
 Lodge for approval and confirmation before 
 they can become valid. 
 
136 
 
 CABALA 
 
 CABUL 
 
 C. 
 
 Cabala. Now more correctly and 
 generally written Kabbala, which see. Its 
 derivatives also, such as Cabalist, Cabalistic 
 Mason, etc., will be found under the titles 
 Kabbalist, Kabbalistic Mason, etc. 
 
 Cabiric Mysteries. The Cabiri 
 were gods whose worship was first estab- 
 lished in the island of Samothrace, where 
 the Cabiric Mysteries were practised. The 
 gods called the Cabiri were originally two, 
 and afterwards four, in number, and are 
 supposed by Bryant (Anal. Ant Myth., in. 
 342,) to have referred to Noah and his three 
 sons, the Cabiric Mysteries being a modifi- 
 cation of the arkite worship. In these 
 mysteries there was a ceremony called the 
 " Cabiric Death," in which was represented, 
 amid the groans and tears and subsequent 
 rejoicings of the initiates, the death and 
 restoration to life of Cadmillus, the youngest 
 of the Cabiri. The legend recorded that he 
 was slain by his three brethren, who after- 
 wards fled with his virile parts in a mystic 
 basket. His body was crowned with flow- 
 ers, and was buried at the foot of Mount 
 Olympus. Clement of Alexandria speaks 
 of the legend as the sacred mystery of a bro- 
 ther slain by his brethren, " frater trucid- 
 atus a fratribus." 
 
 There is much perplexity connected with 
 the subject of these mysteries, but it is gen- 
 erally supposed that they were instituted in 
 honor of Atys, the son of Cybele or Deme- 
 ter, of whom Cadmillus was but another 
 name. According to Macrobius, Atys was 
 one of the appellations of the sun, and we 
 know that the mysteries were celebrated at 
 the vernal equinox. They lasted three 
 days, during which they represented in the 
 person of Atys, or Cadmillus, the enigmati- 
 cal death of the sun in winter, and his re- 
 generation in the spring. In all probabil- 
 ity, in the initiation, the candidate passed 
 through a drama, the subject of which was 
 the violent death of Atys. The " Cabiric 
 Death " was, in fact, a type of the Hiramic, 
 and the legend, so far as it can be under- 
 stood from the faint allusions of ancient 
 authors, was very analogous in spirit and 
 design to that of the third degree of Free- 
 masonry. 
 
 Many persons annually resorted to Samo- 
 thrace to be initiated into the celebrated 
 mysteries, among whom are mentioned Cad- 
 mus, Orpheus, Hercules, and Ulysses. 
 Jamblichus says, in his life of Pythagoras, 
 that from those of Lemnos that sage de- 
 rived much of his wisdom. The mysteries 
 of the Cabiri were much respected among 
 the common people, and great care was 
 taken in their concealment. The priests 
 
 made use of a language peculiar to the 
 rites. 
 
 The mysteries were in existence at Samo- 
 thrace as late as the eighteenth year of the 
 Christian era, at which time the Emperor 
 Germanicus embarked for that island, to be 
 initiated, but was prevented from accom- 
 plishing his purpose by adverse winds. 
 
 Cable Tow. The word " tow " signi- 
 fies, properly, a line wherewith to draw. 
 Richardson (Diet.) defines it as " that which 
 tuggeth, or with which we tug or draw." 
 A cable tow is a rope or line for drawing 
 or leading. The word is purely Masonic, 
 and in some of the writers of the early part 
 of the last century we find the expression 
 " cable rope." Prichard so uses it in 1730. 
 The German word for a cable or rope is 
 cabeltau, and thence our cable tow is proba- 
 bly derived. 
 
 In its first inception, the cable tow seems 
 to have been used only as a physical means 
 of controlling the candidate, and such an 
 interpretation is still given in the Entered 
 Apprentice's degree. But in the second and 
 third degrees a more modern symbolism 
 has been introduced, and the cable tow is 
 in these grades supposed to symbolize the 
 covenant by which all Masons are tied, thus 
 reminding us of the passage in Hosea (xi. 
 4), "I drew them with cords of a man, 
 with bands of love." 
 
 Cable Tow's Length. Gadicke 
 says that, " according to the ancient laws 
 of Freemasonry, every brother must attend 
 his Lodge if he is within the length of his 
 cable tow." The old writers define the 
 length of a cable tow, which they sometimes 
 called " a cable's length," to be three miles 
 for an Entered Apprentice. But the ex- 
 pression is really symbolic, and, as it was 
 defined by the Baltimore Convention in 
 1842, means the scope of a man's reasonable 
 ability. 
 
 Cabul. A district containing twenty 
 cities which Solomon gave to Hiram, king 
 of Tyre, for his assistance in the construc- 
 tion of the Temple. Clark (Comm.) thinks 
 it likely that they were not given to Hiram 
 so that they should be annexed to his Ty- 
 rian dominions, but rather to be held as 
 security for the money which he had ad- 
 vanced. This, however, is merely conject- 
 ural. The district containing them is 
 placed by Josephus in the north-west part 
 of Galilee, adjacent to Tyre. Hiram does 
 not appear to have been satisfied with the 
 gift ; why, is uncertain. Kitto thinks be- 
 cause they were not situated on the coast. 
 A Masonic legend says because they were 
 ruined and dilapidated villages, and in 
 
CADET 
 
 C^MENTARIUS 
 
 137 
 
 token of his dissatisfaction, Hiram called 
 the district Cabul. The meaning of this 
 word is not known. Josephus, probably 
 by conjecture from the context, says it 
 means " unpleasiug." Hiller (Onomast.) 
 and, after bim, Bates {Diet.) suppose that 
 Sl33 is derived from the particle jj), as, and 
 73, nothing. The Talmudic derivation from 
 CBL, tied with fetters, is Talmudically child- 
 ish. The dissatisfaction of Hiram and its 
 results constitute the subject of the legend 
 of the degree of Intimate Secretary in the 
 Scottish Rite. 
 
 Cadet - Gassieourt, Charles 
 LiOiiis. The author of the celebrated 
 work entitled Le Tombeau de Jacques Mo- 
 lay, which was published at Paris, in 179G, 
 and in which he attempted, like Barruel 
 and Robison, to show that Freemasonry 
 was the source and instigator of all the 
 political revolutions which at that time 
 were convulsing Europe. Cadet-Gassicourt 
 was himself the victim of political perse- 
 cution, and, erroneously attributing his 
 sufferings to the influences of the Masonic 
 Lodges in France, became incensed against 
 the Order, and this gave birth to his libel- 
 lous book. But subsequent reflection led 
 him to change his views, and he became an 
 ardent admirer of the Institution which he 
 had formerly maligned. He sought initi- 
 ation into Freemasonry, and in 1805 was 
 elected as Master of the Lodge l'Abeille in 
 Paris. He was born at Paris, Jan. 23, 1769, 
 and died in the same city Nov. 21, 1821. 
 
 Cadmillus. The youngest of the 
 Cabiri, and as he is slain in the Cabiric 
 Mysteries, he becomes the analogue of the 
 Builder in the legend of Freemasonry. 
 
 Caduceus. The Caduceus was the 
 magic wand of the god Hermes. It was 
 an olive staff" twined with fillets, which 
 were gradually converted to wings and ser- 
 pents. Hermes, or Mercury, was the mes- 
 senger of Jove. Among his numerous attri- 
 butes, one of the most important was that of 
 conducting disembodied spirits to the other 
 world, and, on necessary occasions, of bring- 
 ing them back. He was the guide of souls, 
 and the restorer of the dead to life. Thus, 
 Horace, in addressing him, says : 
 
 " Unspotted spirits you consign 
 To blissful seats and joys divine, 
 And powerful with your golden wand 
 The fight unburied crowd command." 
 
 Virgil also alludes to this attribute of 
 the magic wand when he is describing the 
 flight of Mercury on his way to bear Jove's 
 warning message to iEneas : 
 
 " His wand he takes; with this pale ghost he calls 
 From Pluto's realms, or sends to Tartarus 
 shore." 
 
 S 
 
 And Statius, imitating this passage, makes 
 
 the same allusion in his Thebaid, (I. 814,) 
 
 thus translated by Lewis. 
 
 " He grasps the wand which draws from hollow 
 
 graves, 
 
 Or drives the trembling shades to Stygian 
 
 waves ; 
 "With magic power seals the watchful eye 
 Iu slumbers soft or causes sleep to fly." 
 
 The history of this Caduceus, or magic 
 wand, will lead us to its symbolism. Mer- 
 cury, who had invented the lyre, making it 
 out of the shell of the tortoise, exchanged 
 it with Apollo for the latter's magical wand. 
 This wand was simply an olive . branch 
 around which were placed two fillets of 
 ribbon. Afterwards, when Mercury was in 
 Arcadia, he encountered two serpents en- 
 gaged in deadly combat. These he sepa- 
 rated with his wand ; hence the olive wand 
 became the symbol of peace, and the two 
 fillets were replaced by the two serpents, 
 thus giving to the Caduceus its well-known 
 form of a staff, around which two serpents 
 are entwined. 
 
 Such is the legend ; but we may readily 
 see that in the olive, as the symbol of im- 
 mortality, borne as the attribute of Mer- 
 cury, the giver of life to the dead, we 
 have a more ancient and profounder sym- 
 bolism. The serpents, symbols also of im- 
 mortality, are appropriately united with 
 the olive wand. The legend also accounts 
 for a later and secondary symbolism — that 
 of peace. 
 
 The Caduceus then — the original mean- 
 ing of which word is a herald's staff — as 
 the attribute of a life-restoring God, is in 
 its primary meaning the symbol of immor- 
 tality ; so in Freemasonry the rod of the 
 Senior Deacon, or the Master of Ceremo- 
 nies, is but an analogue of the Hermean 
 Caduceus. This officer, as leading the as- 
 pirant through the forms of initiation into 
 his new birth or Masonic regeneration, and 
 teaching him in the solemn ceremonies of 
 the third degree the lesson of eternal life, 
 may well use the magic wand as a represen- 
 tation of it, which was the attribute of that 
 ancient deity, who brought the dead into life. 
 
 Cffiineiitarius. Latin. A builder of 
 walls, a mason from cozmenta, rough un- 
 hewn stones as they come from the quarry. 
 In mediaeval Latin, the word is used to des- 
 ignate an operative mason. Du Cange 
 cites MagisterCozmentariorumos used to des- 
 ignate him who presided over the building 
 of edifices, that is, the Master of the works. 
 It has been adopted by some modern writers 
 as a translation of the word Freemason. Its 
 employment for that purpose is perhaps 
 more correct than that of the more usual 
 word latomus, which owes its use to the au- 
 thority of Thory. 
 
138 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 Cagliostro. Of all the Masonic char- 
 latans who flourished in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury the Count Cagliostro was most promi- 
 nent, whether we consider the ingenuity of 
 his schemes of deception, the extensive 
 field of his operations through almost every 
 country of Europe, or the distinguished 
 character and station of many of those whose 
 credulity made them his victims. The his- 
 tory of Masonry in that century would not 
 be complete without a reference to this 
 prince of Masonic impostors. To write the 
 history of Masonry in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury and to leave out Cagliostro, would be 
 like enacting the play of Hamlet and leav- 
 ing out the part of the Prince of Denmark. 
 And yet Carlyle has had occasion to 
 complain of the paucity of materials for 
 such a work. Indeed, of one so notorious 
 as Cagliostro comparatively but little is to 
 be found in print. The only works upon 
 which he who would write his life must de- 
 depend are a Life of him published in Lon- 
 don, 1787 ; Memoirs, in Paris, 1786 ; and 
 Memoirs Authentiques, Strasburg, 1786; a 
 Life, in Germany, published at Berlin, 1787; 
 another in Italian, published at Rome in 
 1791 ; and a few fugitive pieces, consisting 
 chiefly of manifestoes of himself and his 
 disciples. 
 
 Joseph Balsamo, subsequently known as 
 Count Cagliostro, was the son of Peter Bal- 
 samo and Felicia Braconieri, both of mean 
 extraction, who was born on the 8th of June, 
 1743, in the city of Palermo. Upon the death 
 of his father, he was taken under the pro- 
 tection of his maternal uncles, who caused 
 him to be instructed in the elements of re- 
 ligion and learning, by both of which he 
 profited so little, that he eloped several 
 times from the Seminary of St. Roch, near 
 Palermo, where he had been placed for his 
 instruction. At the age of thirteen he was 
 carried to the Convent of the Good Brother- 
 hood at Castiglione. There, having as- 
 sumed the habit of a novice, he was placed 
 under the tuition of the apothecary, from 
 whom he learned the principles of chemis- 
 try and medicine. His brief residence at 
 the convent was marked by violations of 
 many of its rules ; and finally, abandoning 
 it altogether, he returned to Palermo. 
 There he continued his vicious courses, and 
 was frequently seized and imprisoned for 
 infractions of the law. At length, having 
 cheated a goldsmith, named Marano, of a 
 large amount of gold, he was compelled to 
 flee from his native country. 
 
 He then repaired to Messina, where he 
 became acquainted with one Altotas, who 
 pretended to be a great chemist. Together 
 they proceeded to Alexandria in Egypt, 
 where, by means of certain chemical, or 
 perhaps rather by financial, operations, 
 
 they succeeded in collecting a considerable 
 amount of money. Their next appearance 
 is in the island of Malta, where they 
 worked for some time in the laboratory of 
 the Grand Master Pinto. There Altotas 
 died, and Balsamo, or — as I shall hence- 
 forth call him by the name which he sub- 
 sequently assumed — Cagliostro, proceeded 
 to visit Naples, under the protection of a 
 Knight of Malta, to whom he had been re- 
 commended by the Grand Master. He sub- 
 sequently united his fortunes to a Sicilian 
 prince, who was addicted to the study of 
 chemistry, and who carried him to visit his 
 estates in Sicily. He took this opportunity 
 of revisiting Messina, where he deserted 
 his princely patron, and became the asso- 
 ciate of a dissolute priest, with whom he 
 went to Naples and Rome. In the latter 
 place, which he visited for the first time, he 
 assumed several characters, appearing 
 sometimes in an ecclesiastical, and some- 
 times in a secular habit. His principal 
 occupation at this period was that of fill- 
 ing up outlines of copperplate engravings 
 with India ink, which he sold for pen-and- 
 ink drawings. Cagliostro could do nothing 
 without a mingling of imposture. 
 
 About this time he made the acquaint- 
 ance of a young woman, Lorenza Feliciani, 
 wliom he married, and to whom her parents 
 gave a trifling dower, but one which was 
 proportioned to her condition. This wo- 
 man subsequently made a principal figure 
 in his history, partaking of his manifold 
 adventures, aiding him in his impostures, 
 and finally betraying his confidence, by be- 
 coming the chief witness against him on 
 his trial at Rome. 
 
 I shall say nothing here or hereafter of 
 the domestic life of this well-assorted cou- 
 ple, except that, by the woman's own con- 
 fession, it was guided by the most immoral 
 principles, and marked by the most licen- 
 tious practices. 
 
 Soon after his marriage he became ac- 
 quainted with a notorious adventurer — his 
 countryman — called the Marquis Agliata, 
 whose character strongly resembled his 
 own, and with one Ottavio Nicastro, an ac- 
 complished villain, who subsequently fin- 
 ished his career on the gihbet. 
 
 This triumvirate of rogues occupied 
 themselves in the manufacture of forged 
 notes and bonds, with which they amassed 
 considerable sums of money. But the 
 course of roguery, like that of true love, 
 "never does run smooth;" and, having 
 quarrelled about a division of the spoils, 
 Nicastro, finding himself cheated by his 
 comrades, betrayed them to the police, who 
 sought to arrest them. But Cagliostro and 
 his wife, accompanied by the Marquis Ag- 
 liata, learning the design, made their es- 
 
CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 139 
 
 cape, and travelled towards Venice. They 
 stopped a short time at Bergamo, for the 
 purpose of replenishing their exhausted 
 purses by a resumption of their forgeries : 
 the municipal authorities however, discov- 
 ering their project, banished them from the 
 city. The marquis fled alone, carrying 
 with him the funds, and leaving Cagliostro 
 and his wife in so destitute a condition, 
 that they were compelled to beg their way 
 as pilgrims through Sardinia and Genoa. 
 At length they arrived at Antibes, in Spain. 
 Here, by the practice of a little of his usual 
 chicanery, the count was enabled to recruit 
 his impoverished fortunes. Thence they 
 travelled to Barcelona, where they re- 
 mained six months, living upon those 
 whom they could delude, and finally re- 
 tired to Lisbon, whence they subsequently 
 went to England. 
 
 In the year 1772 we find Cagliostro in 
 London, where he remained about twelve 
 months. During this period he attempted 
 to practise his chemical secrets, but not, it 
 appears, with much success; as he was 
 compelled to sell some of his jewels to ob- 
 tain the means of subsistence, and was at 
 length thrown into the King's Bench prison 
 by his creditors. Being released from con- 
 finement, he passed over into France, and 
 was engaged for some years in visiting the 
 different capitals of Europe, where he pro- 
 fessed to be in possession of the Hermetic 
 secrets for restoring youth, prolonging life, 
 and transmuting the baser metals into gold. 
 Dupes were not wanting, and Cagliostro 
 seems to have been successful in his schemes 
 for enriching himself by " obtaining money 
 under false pretences." In 1776 Cagliostro 
 again repaired to London. Here he ap- 
 peared with renovated fortunes, and, taking 
 a house in a fashionable neighborhood, at- 
 tracted attention by the splendor of his 
 domestic establishment. 
 
 In London, during this visit, Cagliostro 
 became connected with the Order of Free- 
 masonry. In the month of April he re- 
 ceived the degrees in Esperance Lodge, No. 
 289, which then met at the King's Head 
 Tavern. Cagliostro did not join the Order 
 with disinterested motives, or at least he 
 determined in a very short period after his 
 initiation to use the Institution as an in- 
 strument for the advancement of his per- 
 sonal interests. Here he is said to have in- 
 vented, in 1777, that grand scheme of im- 
 posture under the name of " Egyptian 
 Masonry," by the propagation of which he 
 subsequently became so famous as the great 
 Masonic charlatan of his age. 
 
 London did not fail to furnish him with 
 a fertile field for his impositions, and the 
 English Masons seemed noways reluctant 
 to become his dupes ; but, being ambitious 
 
 for the extension of his Rite, and anxious 
 for the greater income which it promised, 
 he again passed over to the Continent, 
 where he justly anticipated abundant suc- 
 cess in its propagation. 
 
 As this Egyptian Masonry constituted 
 the great pursuit of the rest of his life, 
 and was the instrument which he used for 
 many years to make dupes of thousands of 
 credulous persons, among whom not a few 
 princes, nobles, and philosophers are to be 
 counted, it is proper that, in any biography 
 of this great charlatan, some account should 
 be given of the so-called Masonic scheme 
 of which he was the founder. This ac- 
 count is to be derived, as all accounts 
 hitherto published on the same subject 
 have been, from the book which came into 
 the possession of the Inquisition at the 
 trial of Cagliostro, and which purports to 
 contain the rituals of his degrees. Of this 
 work, which Carlyle calls in his rough 
 style a " certain expository Masonic order- 
 book of Cagliostro's," the author of the 
 Italian biography,* who writes, however, in 
 the interest of the Church, and with the 
 sanction of the Apostolic Chamber, says, 
 that the style is so elegant, that it could 
 not have been composed by himself; but he 
 admits that the materials were furnished 
 by Cagliostro, and put into form by some 
 other person of greater scholarship. Be 
 this as it may, this book furnishes us with 
 the only authentic account of the Masonry 
 of Cagliostro, and to its contents we must 
 resort, as very fully extracted in the Com- 
 pendia delta Vita. 
 
 Cagliostro states that in England he pur- 
 chased some manuscripts from one George 
 Coston, which treated of Egyptian Ma- 
 sonry, but with a system somewhat magical 
 and superstitious. Upon this plan, how- 
 ever, he resolved to build up a new ritual 
 of Masonry. Assuming the title of Grand 
 Cophta, — a title derived from that of the 
 high priests of Egypt, — Cagliostro prom- 
 ised his followers to conduct them to per- 
 fection by means of moral and physical 
 regeneration: By the first, to make them 
 find the primal matter, or philosopher's 
 stone, and the acacia, which consolidates 
 in man the powers of the most vigorous 
 youth and renders him immortal ; by the 
 second, to teach him how to procure the 
 pentagon, which restores man to his prim- 
 itive state of innocence, forfeited by the 
 original sin. He supposes Egyptian Ma- 
 sonry was instituted by Enoch and Elias, 
 who propagated it in different parts of the 
 world, but that with time it lost much of 
 its purity and splendor. All Masonry but 
 
 * Compendio delta Vita e delle Gesta di Guis- 
 seppe Balsamo denominato it Conte Cagliostro, 
 Roma, 1791, p. 87. 
 
140 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 his own he called mere buffoonery, and 
 Adoptive Masonry he declares to have 
 been almost destroyed. The object, there- 
 fore, of Egyptian Masonry was to restore 
 to its original lustre the Masonry of either 
 sex. The ceremonies were conducted with 
 great splendor. The Grand Cophta was 
 supposed to be invested with the faculty of 
 commanding angels; he was invoked on 
 all occasions, and everything was supposed 
 to be accomplished through the force of 
 his power, imparted to him by the Deity. 
 Egyptian Masonry was very tolerant ; men 
 of all religions were admitted, provided 
 they acknowledged the existence of God 
 and the immortality of the soul, and had 
 been previously initiated into the ordinary 
 Masonry. There were three degrees, as in 
 Ancient Craft Masonry, and men elevated 
 to the rank of Masters took the names of 
 the ancient prophets, while women as- 
 sumed those of the Sybils. The oath ex- 
 acted from the former was in the following 
 words : " I promise, I engage, and I swear 
 never to reveal the secrets which shall be 
 imparted to me in this temple, and blindly 
 to obey my superiors." The oath of the 
 women differed slightly from this: "I 
 swear, before the eternal God of the Grand 
 Mistress, and of all who hear me, never to 
 write, or cause to be written, anything that 
 shall pass under my eyes, condemning my- 
 self, in the event of imprudence, to be 
 punished according to the laws of the Grand 
 Founder and of all my superiors. I like- 
 wise promise the exact observance of the 
 other six commandments imposed on me, 
 that is to say, love of God, respect for my 
 sovereign, veneration for religion and the 
 laws, love of my fellow-creatures, an at- 
 tachment without bounds for our Order, and 
 the blindest submission to the rules and code 
 of our ritual, such as they may be commu- 
 nicated to me by the Grand Mistress." 
 
 In the ceremonial of admitting a woman 
 to the degree of Apprentice, the Grand 
 Mistress breathed upon the face of the re- 
 cipiendary from the forehead to the chin, 
 saying, " I thus breathe upon you to cause 
 the truths possessed by us to germinate and 
 penetrate within your heart; I breathe 
 upon you to fortify your spiritual part ; I 
 breathe upon you to confirm you in the 
 faith of your brothers and sisters, according 
 to the engagements that you have con- 
 tracted. We create you a legitimate daugh- 
 ter of the true Egyptian adoption and of 
 the Lodge N. ; we will that you be recog- 
 nized as such by all the brothers and sis- 
 ters of the Egyptian ritual, and that you 
 enjoy the same prerogatives with them. 
 Lastly, we impart to you the supreme 
 pleasure of being, henceforth and forever, 
 a Freemasou." 
 
 In the admission of a man to the degree 
 of Companion or Fellow-Craft, the Grand 
 Master addressed the candidate in the fol- 
 lowing words : " By the power that I hold 
 from the Grand Cophta, the founder of our 
 Order, and by the grace of God, I confer 
 upon you the degree of Companion, and 
 constitute you a guardian of the new 
 science, in which we are preparing to make 
 you a participator, by the sacred names 
 of Helios, Mene, Tetragrammaton." 
 
 In the admission of a disciple into the 
 degree of Master, Cagliostro was careful to 
 adopt a ceremonial which might make an 
 impression of his own powers and those of 
 his Rite upon the recipiendary. The in- 
 quisitorial biographer is lavish of the 
 charges of immorality, sacrilege, and blas- 
 phemy, in his account of these ceremonies. 
 Such charges were to be expected when the 
 Church was dealing with Masonry, either in 
 its pure, or its spurious form ; for Masons 
 had long before been excommunicated 
 in a mass by repeated papal bulls. It is 
 not surprising, therefore, that the descrip- 
 tion of the ritual gives no color to these 
 charges. We find there, indeed, extrava- 
 gant pretensions to powers not possessed, 
 gaudy trappings, and solemn pageantry, 
 which might impress the imaginations of 
 the weak, and unfulfilled promises, which 
 could only deceive the too confiding ; but 
 everything was done under the cloak of 
 morality and religion : for Cagliostro was 
 careful to declare in his patents, that he 
 labored only, and wished his disciples to 
 labor, "for the glory of the Eternal and 
 for the benefit of humanity." This might 
 have been, nay, undoubtedly was, hypoc- 
 risy ; but it was certainly neither sacrilege 
 nor blasphemy. 
 
 We proceed now to give a specimen from 
 this "Inquisition biographer," to use a 
 Carlylism, of the ritual of admission into 
 the degree of Master. 
 
 A young girl (sometimes it was a boy) 
 was taken in a state of innocence, who was 
 called pupil or dove. Then the Master of 
 the Lodge imparted to this child the power 
 that he had received before the first fall, a 
 power which more particularly consisted in 
 commanding the pure spirits. These spirits 
 were seven in number : they were said to 
 surround the throne of the Deity, and to 
 govern the seven planets ; their names, ac- 
 cording to Cagliostro's book, being Asael, 
 Michael, Raphael, Gabriel, Uriel, Zobia- 
 chel, and Anachiel. The dove was brougnt 
 before the Master. The members addressed 
 a prayer to Heaven, that it would vouch- 
 safe the exercise of that power which it had 
 granted to the Grand Cophta. The pupil, 
 or dove, also prayed to obtain the grace of 
 working according to the behests of the 
 
CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 141 
 
 Grand Master, and of serving as a mediator 
 between him and the spirits, who on that 
 account are called intermediates. Clothed 
 in a long white robe, ornamented with blue 
 ribbon and a red scarf, and, having received 
 the sufflation, she was inclosed in the taber- 
 nacle, a place hung with white. It had an 
 entrance door, a window through which the 
 dove made herself heard, and within was a 
 bench and a little table, whereon burned 
 three tapers. The Master repeated his 
 prayer, and began to exercise the power 
 that he pretended to have received from 
 the Grand Cophta, in virtue of which he 
 summoned the seven angels to appear be- 
 fore the eyes of the pupil. When she an- 
 nounced that they were present, he charged 
 her, by the power granted by God to the 
 Grand Cophta, and by the Grand Cophta 
 imparted to himself, that she ask the angel 
 N. whether the candidate had the qualities 
 and the merits requisite for the degree of 
 Master. After having received an affirma- 
 tive answer, he proceeded to the other cere- 
 monies for completing the reception of the 
 candidate. 
 
 There is but little in the ceremony of 
 admitting women to the degree of Mistress. 
 The dove being placed as we have just de- 
 scribed, she was ordered to make one of the 
 seven angels appear in the tabernacle, and 
 to ask him whether it was permitted to lift 
 the black veil with which the initiate was 
 covered. Other superstitious ceremonies 
 followed, and the Venerable ordered the 
 dove to command the presence of the six 
 other angels, and to address to them the fol- 
 lowing commandment : " By the power 
 which the Grand Cophta has given to my 
 Mistress, and by that which I hold from 
 her, and by my innocence, I command you, 
 primitive angels, to consecrate the orna- 
 ments, by passing them through your 
 hands." These ornaments were the gar- 
 ments, the symbols of the Order, and a 
 crown of artificial roses. When the dove 
 had attested that the angel had performed 
 the consecration, she was desired to cause 
 Moses to appear, in order that he also 
 might bless the ornaments, and might hold 
 the crown of roses in his hand during the 
 rest of the ceremonies ; she afterwards 
 passed through the window of the taberna- 
 cle the garments, the symbols, and the 
 gloves, whereon was written, " I am man," 
 and all were presented to the initiate. 
 Other questions were now put to the dove ; 
 but above all to know whether Moses had 
 held the crown in his hand the whole time, 
 and when she answered "yes," it was 
 placed upon the head of the initiate. Then, 
 after other rites equally imposing, the dove 
 was questioned anew, to learn if Moses and 
 the seven angels had approved of this re- 
 
 ception ; finally, the presence of the Grand 
 Cophta was invoked, that he might bless 
 and confirm it; after which the Lodge was 
 closed. 
 
 Cagliostro professed that the object of his 
 Masonry was the perfecting of his disciples 
 by moral and physical regeneration, and 
 the ceremonies used to produce these results 
 were of a character partly mesmeric and 
 partly necromantic. They are too long for 
 detail. It is sufficient to say, that they 
 showed the ingenuity of their inventor, 
 and proved his aptitude for the profession 
 of a charlatan. 
 
 He borrowed, however, a great deal from 
 ordinary Masonry. Lodges were conse- 
 crated with great solemnity, and were dedi- 
 cated to Saint John the Evangelist, because, 
 as he said, of the great affinity that exists 
 between the Apocalypse and the working 
 of his ritual. 
 
 The principal emblems used in the Kite 
 were the septangle, the triangle, the trowel, 
 the compass, the square, the gavel, the 
 death's head, the cubical stone, the rough 
 stone, the triangular stone, the wooden 
 bridge, Jacob's ladder, the phoenix, the 
 globe, Time, and others, similar to those 
 which have always been used in Ancient 
 Craft Masonry. 
 
 Having instituted this new Rite, out of 
 which he expected, as a never-failing mine, 
 to extract a fortune, he passed over from 
 London to the Hague, and thence to Italy, 
 assuming at Venice the title of Marquis de 
 Pellegrini, and afterwards into Germany, 
 everywhere establishing Lodges and gain- 
 ing disciples, many of whom are found in 
 the highest ranks of the nobility : and thus 
 he may be traced through Saxony, Ger- 
 many, and Poland, arriving in the spring 
 of 1780 at St. Petersburg, in Russia; 
 whence, however, he was soon driven out 
 by the police, and subsequently visited 
 Vienna, Frankford, and Strasburg. In 
 all these journeys, he affected a magnifi- 
 cence of display which was not without its 
 effect upon the weak minds of his deluded 
 followers. His Italian biographer thus 
 describes the style of his travelling and 
 living : 
 
 " The train he commonly took with him 
 corresponded to the rest ; he always trav- 
 elled post, with a considerable suit: cou- 
 riers, lackeys, body-servants, domestics of 
 all sorts, sumptuously dressed, gave an air 
 of reality to the high birth vaunted. The 
 very liveries which were made in Paris cost 
 twenty louis each. Apartments furnished 
 in the height of the fashion, a magnificent 
 table opened to numerous guests, rich 
 dresses for himself and wife, corresponded 
 to his luxurious way of life. His feigned 
 generosity likewise made a great noise: 
 
142 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 CAGLIOSTRO 
 
 often he gratuitously doctored the poor, 
 and even gave them alms." 
 
 In 1783, Cagliostro was at Strasburg, 
 making converts, relieving the poor, and 
 giving his panacea, the " Extract of Sat- 
 urn," to the hospitals. Here he found the 
 Cardinal Prince de Rohan, who expressed 
 a wish to see him. Cagliostro's insolent 
 reply is an instance of that boastful assur- 
 ance which he always assumed, with the 
 intention of forcing men into a belief of 
 his lofty pretension : " If Monseigneur the 
 cardinal is sick, let him come to me, and I 
 will cure him ; if he is well, he has no need 
 of me, I none of him." This reply had 
 the desired effect, and the imbecile cardi- 
 nal sought the acquaintance which the 
 charlatan had seemed so indifferent to cul- 
 tivate. 
 
 Shortly after, Cagliostro visited Paris, 
 where he became involved with the Cardi- 
 nal de Rohan and the Countess de la 
 Motte-Valois, in the celebrated swindling 
 transaction of the diamond necklace, which 
 attracted at the time the attention of all 
 Europe, and still excites great interest 
 among the learned. 
 
 The history, or, rather, the romance of 
 this diamond necklace, is worth telling in 
 brief words. Boehmer, the king's jeweller 
 at Paris, had exhausted all his skill and 
 resources in the construction of a diamond 
 necklace, which he hoped to dispose of to 
 the Duchess du Barry, one of the royal 
 mistresses. But the necklace, when com- 
 
 fdeted, was of such exorbitant value — not 
 ess than seventy thousand pounds, or 
 almost half a million of dollars — as to be 
 beyond the purchasing power of even a 
 king's favorite. The necklace, therefore, 
 remained on the jeweller's hands for three 
 years, as so much dead and locked-up cap- 
 ital. In vain did he attempt to excite the 
 cupidity of the queen, Marie Antoinette : 
 she felt that it was a luxury in which she 
 dared not indulge in the crippled condition 
 of the French finances. But there were 
 others who had seen and longed for the 
 possession of the costly gaud. The Count- 
 ess de Valois, an adventuress about the 
 court, resolved upon a stupendous course 
 of fraud, through which she might obtain 
 the coveted prize and convert its gems into 
 ready money. She invited to her assist- 
 ance Cagliostro, who was then in Paris 
 working at his Egyptian Masonry, and, 
 through his influence over the Cardinal 
 Rohan, secured the complicity, innocent 
 or guilty as it may be, of the credulous 
 prince. A woman named d'Oliva — some 
 say it was Valois herself, of whose name 
 Oliva was most probably the anagram — 
 was engaged to personate the queen, and 
 through a contract, to which the forged 
 
 signature of Marie Antoinette was affixed, 
 and through the guarantee afforded by the 
 cardinal, — who, however, claimed that he 
 was himself deceived, — Boehmer was in- 
 duced to surrender the necklace to the 
 countess for the queen, as he supposed, on 
 terms of payment in instalments. But 
 the first instalment, and then the second, 
 remaining unpaid, the jeweller, becoming 
 impatient for his money, made a personal 
 application to the queen, when for the first 
 time the fraud was discovered. In the 
 meantime the necklace had disappeared. 
 But it was known that the countess, from 
 a state of indigence, had suddenly risen to 
 the possession of wealth; that her hus- 
 band, de la Motte, had been in England 
 selling diamonds, — for the necklace, too 
 costly to be sold as a whole, could be more 
 readily disposed of when taken to pieces, — 
 and that Cagliostro, too, was in possession 
 of funds, for which hardly the income of 
 his Egyptian Masonry would account. The 
 Cardinal de Rohan alone appears to have 
 derived no pecuniary advantage from the 
 transaction. He was, however, arrested 
 and placed in the Bastile, whither he was 
 speedily followed by his two accomplices, 
 the countess and Cagliostro. The cardinal, 
 either because no evidence could be found 
 of his guilt, — for he stoutly asserted his 
 innocence, — or because of his ecclesiastical 
 character, was soon liberated. But as a 
 suspicion still hovered over him, he was 
 banished from the court. The countess 
 and Cagliostro endured a longer imprison- 
 ment, but were subsequently released from 
 confinement and ordered to leave the king- 
 dom. The countess proceeded to England, 
 where she printed her vindication, and 
 attempted to expose the queen. Count 
 Cagliostro also repaired to England, to 
 resume his adventures. There he pub- 
 lished the memoirs of his life, in which he 
 also seeks to vindicate himself in the affair 
 of the diamond necklace. And hence, ac- 
 cording to the account of the actors, no- 
 body was guilty ; for the queen asseverated 
 her innocence as strongly as any, and per- 
 haps with greater truth. Nothing is certain 
 in the whole story except that Boehmer 
 lost his necklace and his money, and the 
 obscurity in which the transaction has been 
 left has afforded an ample field of specula- 
 tion for subsequent inquirers. 
 
 During Cagliostro's residence in Eng- 
 land, on this last visit, he was attacked by 
 the editor Morand, in the Courier de 
 F Europe, in a series of abusive articles, to 
 which Cagliostro replied in a letter to the 
 English people. But, although he had a 
 few Egyptian Lodges in London under his 
 government, he appears, perhaps from Mo- 
 rand's revelations of his character and life, 
 
1 CAHIER 
 
 CALENDAR 
 
 143 
 
 to have lost his popularity, and he left 
 England permanently in May, 1787. 
 
 He went to Savoy, Sardinia, and other 
 places in the south of Europe, and at last, in 
 May, 1789, by an act of rash temerity, pro- 
 ceeded to Rome, where he organized an Egyp- 
 tian Lodge under the very shadow of the Vat- 
 ican. But this was more than the Church, 
 which had been excommunicating Free- 
 masonry for fifty years, was willing to en- 
 dure. On the 27th of December of that 
 year, on the festival of St. John the Evan- 
 gelist, to whom he had dedicated his 
 Lodges, the Holy Inquisition arrested him, 
 and locked him up in the Castle of San An- 
 gelo. There, after such a trial as the In- 
 quisition is wont to give to the accused — 
 in which his wife is said to have been the 
 principal witness against him — he was 
 convicted of having formed "societies and 
 conventicles of Freemasonry." His manu- 
 script, entitled Maconnerie Egyptienne, was 
 ordered to be burned by the public execu- 
 tioner, and he himself was condemned to 
 death ; a sentence which the pope subse- 
 quently commuted for that of perpetual 
 imprisonment. Cagliostro appealed to the 
 French Constituent Assembly, but of course 
 in vain. Thenceforth no more is seen of 
 him. For four years this adventurer, who 
 had filled during his life so large a space 
 in the world's history, — the associate of 
 princes, prelates, and philosophers ; the in- 
 ventor of a spurious Rite, which had, how- 
 ever, its thousands of disciples, — languished 
 within the gloomy walls of the prison of 
 St. Leo, in the Duchy of Urbino, and at 
 length, in the year 1795, in a fit of apo- 
 plexy, bade the world adieu. 
 
 Caliier. French. A number of sheets 
 of parchment or paper fastened together by 
 one end. The word is used by French Ma- 
 sons to designate a small book printed, or 
 in manuscript, containing the ritual of a 
 degree. The word has been borrowed from 
 French history, where it denotes the re- 
 
 Eorts and proceedings of certain assem- 
 lies, such as the clergy, the States-Gen- 
 eral, etc. 
 
 Cairns. Celtic, cams. Heaps of stones 
 of a conical form erected by the Druids. 
 Some suppose them to have been sepul- 
 chral monuments, others altars. They 
 were undoubtedly of a religious character, 
 since sacrificial fires were lighted upon 
 them, and processions were made around 
 them. These processions were analogous 
 to the circumambulations in Masonry, and 
 were conducted, like them, with reference to 
 the apparent course of the sun. Thus, To- 
 land, in his Letters on the Celtic Religion, 
 (Let. II., xvii.,) says of these mystical pro- 
 cessions, that the people of the Scottish 
 islands " never come to the ancient sacri- | 
 
 ficing and fire-hallowing Cams but they 
 walk three times round them from east to 
 west, according to the course of the sun. 
 This sanctified tour, or round by the south, 
 is called Deaseal, as the unhallowed contrary 
 one by the north, Tuapholl;" and he says 
 that Deaseal is derived from " Deas, the right 
 (understanding hand), and soil, one of the 
 ancient names of the sun, the right hand in 
 this round being ever next the heap." In 
 all this the Mason will be reminded of the 
 Masonic ceremony of circumambulation 
 around the altar and the rules which gov- 
 ern it. 
 
 Calcott, Welling. A distinguished 
 Masonic writer of the eighteenth century, 
 and the author of a work published in 1769, 
 under the title of " A Candid Disquisition 
 of the Principles and Practices of the 
 Most Ancient and Honorable Society of 
 Free and Accepted Masons, together with 
 some Strictures on the Origin, Nature, and 
 Design of that Institution," in which he 
 has traced Masonry from its origin, ex- 
 plained its symbols and hieroglyphics, its 
 social virtues and advantages, suggested 
 the propriety of building halls for the pe- 
 culiar and exclusive practice of Masonry, 
 and reprehended its slanderers with great 
 but judicious severity. This was the first 
 extended effort to illustrate philosophically 
 the science of Masonry, and was followed, 
 a few years after, by Hutchinson's admira- 
 ble work ; so that Oliver justly says that 
 " Calcott opened the mine of Masonry, 
 and Hutchinson worked it." 
 
 Calendar. Freemasons, in affixing 
 dates to their official documents, never 
 make use of the common epoch or vulgar 
 era, but have one peculiar to themselves, 
 which, however, varies in the different 
 rites. Era and epoch are, in this sense, 
 synonymous. 
 
 Masons of the York, American, and 
 French Rites, that is to say, the Masons 
 of England, Scotland, Ireland, France, 
 Germany, and America date from the cre- 
 ation of the world, calling it " Anno Lu- 
 cis," which they abbreviate A/. L.\, signi- 
 fying in the Year of Light. Thus with them 
 the year 1872 is A.-. L.\ 5872. This they 
 do, not because they believe Freemasonry 
 to be coeval with the creation, but with 
 a symbolic reference to the light of Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 In the Scotch Rite, the epoch also begins 
 from the date of the creation, but Masons 
 of that Rite, using the Jewish chronology, 
 would call the year 1872 A.*. M.\ or Anno 
 Mundi (in the Year of the World) 5632. They 
 sometimes use the initials A.*. H.\, signi- 
 fying Anno Hebraico, or, in the Hebrew year. 
 They have also adopted the Hebrew months, 
 and the year, therefore, begins with them 
 
144 
 
 CALENDAR 
 
 CALLING 
 
 in the middle of September. See Months, 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Masons of the York and American Rites 
 begin the year on the first of January, but 
 in the French Rite it commences on the 
 first of March, and instead of the months 
 receiving their usual names, they are des- 
 ignated numerically, as first, second, third, 
 etc. Thus, the 1st of January, 1872, would 
 be styled, in a French Masonic document, 
 the " 1st day of the 11th Masonic month, 
 Anno Lucis, 5872." The French some- 
 times, instead of the initials A.'. L.\, use 
 Van de la V.'. L.'., or Vraie Lumiere, that 
 is, Year of True Light. 
 
 Royal Arch Masons commence their 
 epoch with the year in which Zerubbabel 
 began to build the second Temple, which 
 was 530 years before Christ. Their style 
 for the year 1872 is, therefore, A.'. Inv.\, 
 that is, Anno Inventionis, or, in the Year of 
 the Discovery, 2402. 
 
 Royal and Select Masters very often 
 make use of the common Masonic date, 
 Anno Lucis, but properly they should date 
 from the year in which Solomon's Temple 
 was completed ; and their style would then 
 be, Anno Depositionis, or, in the Year of the 
 Deposite, and they would date the year 
 1872 as 2872. 
 
 Knights Templars use the epoch of the 
 organization of their Order in 1118. Their 
 style for the year 1872 is A.'. 0.\, Anno 
 Ordinis, or, in the Year of the Order, 754. 
 
 I subjoin, for the convenience of refer- 
 ence, the rules for discovering these differ- 
 ent dates. 
 
 1. To find the Ancient Craft date. Add 
 4000 to the vulgar era. Thus 1872 and 
 4000 are 5872. 
 
 2. To find the date of the Scotch Rite. Add 
 3760 to the vulgar era. Thus 1872 and 
 3760 are 5632. After September add one 
 year more. 
 
 3. To find the date of Royal Arch Ma- 
 sonry. Add 530 to the vulgar era. Thus 
 530 and 1872 are 2402. 
 
 4. To find the Royal and Select Masters' 
 date. Add 1000 to the vulgar era. Thus 
 1000 and 1872 are 2872. 
 
 5. To find the Knights Templars' date. 
 Subtract 1118 from the vulgar era. Thus 
 1118 from 1872 is 754. 
 
 The following will show, in one view, the 
 date of the year 1872 in all the branches 
 of the Order : 
 
 Year of the Lord, A.D. 1872— Vulgar 
 era. 
 
 Year of Light, A.*. L.\ 5872 — Ancient 
 Craft Masonry. 
 
 Year of the World, A.-. M.\ 5632 — 
 Scotch Rite. 
 
 Year of the Discovery, A.*. I.\ 2402 — 
 Royal Arch Masonry. 
 
 Year of the Deposite, A.: Dep.\ 2872 — 
 Royal and Select Masters. 
 
 Year of the Order, A.*. 0.\ 754— Knights 
 Templars. 
 
 California. The Grand Lodge of 
 California was organized on the 19th of 
 April, 1850, in the city of Sacramento, by 
 the delegates of three legally constituted 
 Lodges working, at the time, under char- 
 ters from the Grand Lodges of the District 
 of Columbia, Connecticut, and Missouri. 
 Its present seat is at San Francisco, and 
 there are 215 Lodges under its jurisdiction. 
 The Grand Chapter and Grand Command- 
 ery were organized in 1854. 
 
 Calling Off. A technical term in 
 Masonry, which signifies the temporary 
 suspension of labor in a Lodge without 
 passing through the formal ceremony of 
 closing. The full form of the expression 
 is to call from labor to refreshment, and it 
 took its rise from the former custom of di- 
 viding the time spent in the Lodge between 
 the work of Masonry and the moderate en- 
 joyment of the banquet. The banquet 
 formed in the last century an indispensable 
 part of the arrangements of a Lodge meet- 
 ing. " At a certain hour of the evening," 
 says Brother Oliver, " with certain cere- 
 monies, the Lodge was called from labor to 
 refreshment, when the brethren enjoyed 
 themselves with decent merriment." That 
 custom no longer exists; and although in 
 England almost always, and in this coun- 
 try occasionally, the labors of the Lodge 
 are concluded with a banquet; yet the 
 Lodge is formally closed before the breth- 
 ren proceed to the table of refreshment. 
 Calling off in American Lodges is now only 
 used, except in a certain ceremony of the 
 third degree, when it is desired to have an- 
 other meeting at a short interval, and the 
 Master desires to avoid the tediousness of 
 closing and opening the Lodge. Thus, if 
 the business of the Lodge at its regular 
 meeting has so accumulated that it cannot 
 be transacted in one evening, it has be- 
 come the custom to call off until a subse- 
 quent evening, when the Lodge, instead of 
 being opened with the usual ceremony, is 
 simply " called on," and the latter meeting 
 is considered as only a continuation of the 
 former. This custom is very generally 
 adopted in Grand Lodges at their Annual 
 Communications, which are opened at the 
 beginning of the session, called off from 
 day to day, and finally closed at its end. I 
 do not know that any objection has ever 
 been advanced against this usage in Grand 
 Lodges, because it seems necessary as a 
 substitute for the adjournment, which is 
 resorted to in other legislative bodies, but 
 which is not admitted in Masonry. But 
 much discussion has taken place in refer- 
 
CALLING 
 
 CALVARY 
 
 145 
 
 ence to the practice of calling off in Lodges, 
 some authorities sustaining and others con- 
 demning it. Thus, twenty years ago, the 
 Committee of Correspondence of the Grand 
 Lodge of Mississippi proposed this ques- 
 tion : " In case of excess of business, can- 
 not the unfinished be laid over until the 
 next or another day, and must the Lodge 
 be closed in form, and opened the next, or 
 the day designated for the transaction of 
 that business?" To this question some 
 authorities, and among others Brother C. 
 W. Moore, {Mag., Vol. XII., No. 10,) reply 
 in the negative, while other equally good 
 jurists differ from them in opinion. 
 
 The difficulty seems to be in this, that if 
 the regular meeting of the Lodge is closed 
 in form, the subsequent meeting becomes a 
 special one, and many things which could 
 be done at a regular communication cease 
 to be admissible. The recommendation, 
 therefore, of Brother Moore, that the Lodge 
 should be closed, and, if the business be un- 
 finished, that the Master shall call a spe- 
 cial meeting to complete it, does not meet 
 the difficulty, because it is a well-settled 
 principle of Masonic law that a special 
 meeting cannot interfere with the business 
 of a preceding regular one. 
 
 As, then, the mode of briefly closing by 
 adjournment is contrary to Masonic law and 
 usage, and cannot, therefore, be resorted to, 
 as there is no other way except by calling off 
 to continue the character of a regular meet- 
 ing, and as, during the period that the Lodge 
 is called off, it is under the government of 
 the Junior Warden, and Masonic discipline 
 is thus continued, I am clearly of opinion 
 that calling off from day to day for the 
 purpose of continuing work or business is, 
 as a matter of convenience, admissible. 
 The practice may indeed be abused! But 
 there is a well-known legal maxim which 
 says, Ex abusu non ar guitar in usum. " No 
 argument, can be drawn from the abuse of 
 a thing against its use." Thus, a Lodge 
 cannot be called off except for continuance 
 of work and business, nor to an indefinite 
 day, for there must be a good reason for 
 the exercise of the practice, and the breth- 
 ren present must be notified before dispers- 
 ing of the time of re-assembling ; nor can 
 a Lodge at one regular meeting be called 
 off until the next, for no regular meeting 
 of a Lodge is permitted to run into another, 
 but each must be closed before its successor 
 can be opened. 
 
 Calling On. When a Lodge that is 
 called off at a subsequent time resumes 
 work or business, it is said to be " called 
 on." The full expression is "called on 
 from refreshment to labor." 
 
 Calumny. See Back. 
 
 Calvary. Mount Calvary is a small 
 T 10 
 
 hill or eminence, situated due west from 
 Mount Moriah, on which the Temple of 
 Solomon was built. It was originally a 
 hillock of notable eminence, but has, in 
 more modern times, been greatly reduced 
 by the excavations made in it for the con- 
 struction of the Church of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre. There are several coincidences which 
 identify Mount Calvary with the small hill 
 where the " newly -made grave," referred to 
 in the third degree, was discovered by the 
 weary brother. Thus, Mount Calvary was 
 a small hill ; it was situated in a westward 
 direction from the Temple, and near Mount 
 Moriah; and it was on the direct road from 
 Jerusalem to Joppa, and is the very spot 
 where a weary brother, travelling on that 
 road, would find it convenient to sit down 
 to rest and refresh himself ; it was outside the 
 gate of the Temple ; it has at least one cleft 
 in the rock, or cave, which was the place 
 which subsequently became the sepulchre 
 of our Lord. Hence Mount Calvary has 
 always retained an important place in the 
 legendary history of Freemasonry, and 
 there are many traditions connected with it 
 that are highly interesting in their import. 
 
 One of these traditions is, that it was the 
 burial-place of Adam, in order, says the old 
 legend, that where he lay, who effected the 
 ruin of mankind, there also might the Sa- 
 viour of the world suffer, die, and be buried. 
 Sir R. Torkington, who published a pil- 
 grimage to Jerusalem in 1517, says that 
 " under the Mount of Calvary is another 
 chapel of our Blessed Lady and St. John 
 the Evangelists, that was called Golgotha ; 
 and there, right under the mortise of the 
 cross, was found the head of our forefather, 
 Adam." Golgotha, it will be remembered, 
 means, in Hebrew, " the place of a skull ; " 
 and there may be some connection between 
 this tradition and the name of Golgotha, by 
 which, the Evangelists inform us, in the 
 time of Christ Mount Calvary was known. 
 Calvary, or Calvaria, has the same significa- 
 tion in Latin. 
 
 Another tradition states that it was in 
 the bowels of Mount Calvary that Enoch 
 erected his nine-arched vault, and deposited 
 on the foundation-stone of Masonry that 
 Ineffable Name, whose investigation, as a 
 symbol of divine truth, is the great object 
 of Speculative Masonry. 
 
 A third tradition details the subsequent 
 discovery of Enoch's deposit, by King Solo- 
 mon, whilst making excavations in Mount 
 Calvary during the building of the Temple. 
 
 On this hallowed spot was Christ the 
 Redeemer slain and buried. It was there 
 that, rising on the third day from his sep- 
 ulchre, he gave, by that act, the demonstra- 
 tive evidence of the resurrection of the 
 body and the immortality of the soul. 
 
146 
 
 CAMP 
 
 CANDLESTICK 
 
 And it is this spot that has been selected, 
 in the legendary history of Freemasonry, to 
 teach the same sublime truth, the develop- 
 ment of which by a symbol evidently forms 
 the design of the third or Master's degree. 
 
 Camp. A portion of the parapherna- 
 lia decorated with tents, flags, and pennons 
 of a Consistory of Sublime Princes of the 
 Royal Secret, or thirty-second degree of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 It constitutes the tracing board, and is worn 
 on the apron of the degree. It is highly 
 symbolic, and represents an imaginary Ma- 
 sonic camp. Its symbolism is altogether 
 esoteric. 
 
 Campe, Joachim Heinricb. A 
 Doctor of Theology, and Director of Schools 
 in Dessau and Hamburg, who was born in 
 1746, and died Oct. 22, 1818. He was the 
 author of many works on philosophy and 
 education, and was a learned and zealous 
 Mason, as is shown in his correspondence 
 with Lessing. 
 
 Canada. The Grand Lodge of Canada 
 was formed out of the Provincial Grand 
 Lodge by a Convention of Lodges in the 
 year 1855. It is formed upon the model 
 of the Grand Lodge of England, having 
 a Board of General Purposes, and similar 
 regulations as to representation. 
 
 Candidate. An applicant for admis- 
 sion into Masonry is called a candidate. 
 The Latin candidatus means clothed in 
 white, candidis vestibus indutus. In ancient 
 Rome, he who sought office from the peo- 
 ple wore a white shining robe of a peculiar 
 construction, flowing open in front, so as to 
 exhibit the wounds he had received in his 
 breast. From the color of his robe or toga 
 Candida, he was called candidatus, whence 
 the word candidate. The derivation will 
 serve to remind the Mason of the purity of 
 conduct and character which should dis- 
 tinguish all those who are candidates for 
 admission into the order. The qualifica- 
 tions of a candidate in Masonry are some- 
 what peculiar. He must be freeborn, 
 under no bondage, of at least twenty-one 
 years of age, in the possession of sound 
 senses, free from any physical defect or dis- 
 memberment, and of irreproachable man- 
 ners, or, as it is technically termed, " under 
 the tongue of good report." No atheist, 
 eunuch, or woman can be admitted. The 
 requisites as to age, sex, and soundness of 
 body have reference to the operative char- 
 acter of the Institution. We can only ex- 
 pect able workmen in able-bodied men. 
 The mental and religious qualifications 
 a-efer to the duties and obligations which a 
 Freemason contracts. An idiot could not 
 understand them, and an atheist would not 
 respect them. Even those who possess all 
 these necessary qualifications can be ad- 
 
 mitted only under certain regulations. Not 
 more than five candidates can be received 
 at one time, except in urgent cases, when a 
 dispensation may be granted by the Grand 
 Master, and no applicant can receive more 
 than two degrees on the same day. To the 
 last rule there can be no exception. 
 
 Candidates, Advancement of. 
 See Advancement, Hurried. 
 
 Candlestick, Golden . Th e gol d en 
 candlestick of seven branches, which is a 
 part of the furniture of a Royal Arch 
 Chapter, is derived from " the holy candle- 
 stick " which Moses was instructed to con- 
 struct of beaten gold for the use of the 
 tabernacle. Smith [Diet, of the Bible) thus 
 abbreviates Lightfoot's explanation of the 
 description given in Exodus. "The foot 
 of it was gold, from which went up a shaft 
 straight, which was the middle light. Near 
 the foot was a golden dish wrought almond- 
 wise; and a little above that a golden knop, 
 and above that a golden flower. Then two 
 branches one on each side bowed, and 
 coming up as high as the middle shaft. On 
 each of them were three golden cups placed 
 almondwise, in sharp, scallop-shell fashion ; 
 above which was a golden knop, a golden 
 flower, and the socket. Above the branches 
 on the middle shaft was a golden boss, 
 above which rose two shafts more; above 
 the coming out of these was another boss 
 and two more shafts, and then on the shaft 
 upwards were three golden scallop-cups, a 
 knop, and a flower; so that the heads of 
 the branches stood an equal height." In 
 the tabernacle, the candlestick was placed 
 opposite the table of shew-bread, which it 
 was intended to illumine, in an oblique 
 position, so that the lamps looked to the 
 east and south. What became of the 
 candlestick between the time of Moses and 
 that of Solomon is unknown ; but it does 
 not appear to have been present in the first 
 Temple, which was lighted by ten golden 
 candlesticks similarly embossed, and which 
 were connected by golden chains and 
 formed a sort of railing before the veil. 
 
 These ten candlesticks became the spoil 
 of the Chaldean conqueror at the time of 
 the destruction of the Temple, and could 
 not have been among the articles after- 
 wards restored by Cyrus ; for in the second 
 Temple, built by Ze'rubbabel, we find only 
 a single candlestick of seven branches, like 
 that of the tabernacle. Its form has been 
 perpetuated on the Arch of Titus, on which 
 it was sculptured with other articles taken 
 by that monarch, and carried to Rome as 
 spolia opima, after he had destroyed the 
 Herodian Temple. This is the candlestick 
 which is represented as a decoration in a 
 Royal Arch Chapter. 
 
 In Jewish symbolism, the seven branches 
 
CANOPY 
 
 CAPITULAR 
 
 147 
 
 were supposed by some to refer to the 
 seven planets, and by others to the seventh 
 day or Sabbath. The primitive Christians 
 made it allusive to Christ as the "light of 
 the world," and in this sense it is a favorite 
 symbol in early Christian art. In Masonry 
 it seems to have no symbolic meaning, 
 unless it be the general one of light ; but 
 is used in a Royal Arch Chapter simply to 
 indicate that the room is a representation 
 of the tabernacle erected near the ruins 
 of the first Temple, for the purpose of tem- 
 porary worship during the building of the 
 second, and in which tabernacle this can- 
 dlestick is supposed to have been present. 
 
 Canopy. Oliver says that in the Ma- 
 sonic processions of the Continent the 
 Grand Master walks under a gorgeous 
 canopy of blue, purple, and crimson silk, 
 with gold fringes and tassels, borne upon 
 staves, painted purple and ornamented with 
 gold, by eight of the oldest Master Masons 
 present ; and the Masters of private Lodges 
 walk under canopies of light blue silk with 
 silver tassels and fringes, borne by four 
 members of their own respective companies. 
 The canopies are in the form of an oblong 
 square, and are in length six feet, in breadth 
 and height three feet, having a semicircular 
 covering. The framework should be of 
 cedar, and the silken covering ought to 
 hang down two feet on each side. This is, 
 properly speaking, a Baldachin. See that 
 word. 
 
 Canopy, Clouded. The clouded 
 canopy, or starry-decked heaven, is a symbol 
 of the first degree, and is of such important 
 significance that Lenning calls it a " funda- 
 mental symbol of Freemasonry." In the lec- 
 tures of the York Rite, the clouded canopy is 
 described as the covering of the Lodge, teach- 
 ing us, as Krause says, "that the primitive 
 Lodge is confined within no shut up building, 
 but that it is universal , and reaches to heaven, 
 and especially teaching that in every clime 
 under heaven Freemasonry has its seat." 
 And Gadicke says, " Every Freemason 
 knows that by the clouded canopy we mean 
 the heavens, and that it teaches how widely 
 extended is our sphere of usefulness. There 
 is no portion of the inhabited world in 
 which our labor cannot be carried for- 
 ward, as there is no portion of the globe 
 without its clouded canopy." Hence, then, 
 the German interpretation of the symbol is 
 that it denotes the universality of Free- 
 masonry, an interpretation that does not 
 precisely accord with the English and 
 American systems, in which the doctrine 
 of universality is symbolized by the form 
 and extent of the Lodge. The clouded 
 canopy as the covering of the Lodge seems 
 rather to teach the doctrine of aspiration 
 for a higher sphere ; it is thus denned in 
 
 this work under the head of Covering of the 
 Lodge, which see. 
 Canzler, Carl Christian. A 
 
 librarian of Dresden, born Sept. 30, 1733, 
 died Oct. 16, 1786. He was an earnest, learn- 
 ed Freemason, who published in a literary 
 journal, conducted by himself and A. G. 
 Meissner at Leipsic, in 1783-85, under the 
 title of Fur altere Litteratur und neuere Lec- 
 ture, many interesting articles on the sub- 
 ject of Freemasonry. 
 
 Cape-Stone, or, as it would more cor- 
 rectly be called, the cope-stone, (but the 
 former word has been consecrated to us by 
 universal Masonic usage,) is the topmost 
 stone of a building. To bring it forth, 
 therefore, and to place it in its destined 
 position, is significative that the building is 
 completed, which event is celebrated, even 
 by the operative Masons of the present day, 
 with great signs of rejoicing. Flags are 
 hoisted on the top of every edifice by the 
 builders engaged in its construction, as soon 
 as they have reached the topmost post, and 
 thus finished their labors. This is the 
 " celebration of the cape-stone," — the cele- 
 bration of the completion of the building, — 
 when tools are laid aside, and rest and re- 
 freshment succeed for a time to labor. This 
 is the event in the history of the Temple 
 which is commemorated in the degree of 
 Most Excellent Master, the sixth in the 
 American Rite. The day set apart for the 
 celebration of the cape-stone of the Temple is 
 the day devoted to rejoicing and thanks- 
 giving for the completion of that glorious 
 structure. Hence there seems to be an im- 
 
 Kropriety in the ordinary use of the Mark 
 [aster's keystone in the ritual of the Most 
 Excellent Master. That keystone was de- 
 posited in silence and secrecy ; while the 
 cape-stone, as the legend and ceremonies 
 tell us, was placed in its position in the 
 presence of all the Craft. 
 
 Capitular Degrees. The degrees 
 conferred under the charter of an American 
 Royal Arch Chapter, which are Mark 
 Master, Past Master, Most Excellent Master, 
 and Royal Arch Mason. The capitular 
 degrees are almost altogether founded on 
 and composed of a series of events in Ma- 
 sonic history. Each of them has attached 
 to it some tradition or legend which it is 
 the design of the degree to illustrate, and 
 the memory of which is preserved in its 
 ceremonies and instructions. Most of these 
 legends are of symbolic signification. But 
 this is their interior sense. In their out- 
 ward and ostensible meaning, they appear 
 before us simply as legends. To retain 
 these legends in the memory of Masons ap- 
 pears to have been the primary design in 
 the establishment of the higher degrees ; 
 and as the information intended to be com- 
 
148 
 
 CAPITULAR 
 
 CAPTIVITY 
 
 municated in these degrees is of an histor- 
 ical character, there can of course be but 
 little room for symbols or for symbolic in- 
 struction ; the profuse use of which would 
 rather tend to an injury than to a benefit, 
 by complicating the purposes of the ritual 
 and confusing the mind of the aspirant. 
 These remarks refer exclusively to the Mark 
 and Most Excelleut Master's degree of the 
 American Rite, but are not so applicable to 
 the Royal Arch, which is eminently sym- 
 bolic. The legends of the second Temple, 
 and the lost word, the peculiar legends of 
 that degree, are among the most prominent 
 symbols of the Masonic system. 
 
 Capitular Masonry. The Masonry 
 conferred in a Royal Arch Chapter of the 
 York and American Rites. There are 
 Chapters in the Ancient and Accepted, 
 Scottish, and in the French and other 
 Rites ; but the Masonry therein conferred is 
 not called capitular. 
 
 Captain General. The third offi- 
 cer in a Commandery of Knights Tem- 
 plars. He presides over the Commandery 
 in the absence of his superiors, and is one 
 of its representatives in the Grand Com- 
 mandery. His duties are to see that the 
 council chamber and asylum are duly pre- 
 pared for the business of the meetings, and 
 to communicate all orders issued by the 
 Grand Council. His station is on the left 
 of the Grand Commander, and his jewel is 
 a level surmounted by a cock. See Cock. 
 
 Captain of the Guard. The sixth 
 officer in a Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters. In the latter degree he is said to 
 represent Azariah, the son of Nathan, who 
 had command of the twelve officers of the 
 king's household, (1 Kings iv. 7.) His 
 duties correspond in some measure with 
 those of a Senior Deacon in the primary 
 degrees. His post is, therefore, on the 
 right of the throne, and his jewel is a 
 trowel and battle-axe within a triangle. 
 
 Captain of the Host. The fourth 
 officer in a Royal Arch Chapter. He rep- 
 resents the general or leader of the Jewish 
 troops who returned from Babylon, and 
 who was called " Sar el hatzaba," and was 
 equivalent to a modern general. The word 
 Host in the title means army. He sits on 
 the right of the Council in front, and wears 
 a white robe and cap or helmet, with a red 
 sash, and is armed with a sword. His 
 jewel is a triangular plate, on which an 
 armed soldier is engraved. 
 
 CaptiYity. The Jews reckoned their 
 national captivities as four, — the Babylo- 
 nian, Medean, Grecian, and Roman. The 
 present article will refer only to the first, 
 when there was a forcible deportation of 
 the inhabitants of Jerusalem by Nebu- 
 zaradan, the general of King Nebuchad- 
 
 nezzar, and their detention at Babylon 
 until the reign of Cyrus, which alone is 
 connected with the history of Masonry, 
 and is commemorated in the Royal Arch 
 degree. 
 
 Between that portion of the ritual of the 
 Royal Arch which refers to the destruction 
 of the first Temple, and that subsequent 
 part which symbolizes the building of the 
 second, there is an interregnum (if we may 
 be allowed the term) in the ceremonial of the 
 degree, which must be considered as a long 
 interval in history, the filling up of which, 
 like the interval between the acts of a play, 
 must be left to the imagination of the specta- 
 tor. This interval represents the time passed 
 in the captivity of the Jews at Babylon. 
 That captivity lasted for seventy years, — 
 from the reign of Nebuchadnezzar until that 
 of Cyrus, — although but fifty-two of these 
 years are commemorated in the Royal Arch 
 degree. This event took place in the year 
 588 B. c. It was not, however, the begin- 
 ning of the "seventy years' captivity," 
 which had been foretold by the prophet 
 Jeremiah, which commenced eighteen years 
 before. The captives were conducted to 
 Babylon. What was the exact number 
 removed we have no means of ascertain- 
 ing. We are led to believe, from' certain 
 passages of Scripture, that the deportation 
 was not complete. Calmet says that Nebu- 
 chadnezzar carried away only the principal 
 inhabitants, the warriors and artisans of 
 every kind, and that he left the husband- 
 men, the laborers, and, in general, the 
 poorer classes, that constituted the great 
 body of the people. Among the prisoners 
 of distinction, Josephus mentions the high 
 priest, Seraiah, and Zephaniah, the priest 
 that was next to him, with the three rulers 
 that guarded the Temple, the eunuch who 
 was over the armed men, seven friends of 
 Zedekiah, his scribe, and sixty other rulers. 
 Zedekiah, the king, had attempted to escape 
 previous to the termination of the siege, 
 but being pursued, was captured and car- 
 ried to Riblah, the headquarters of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, where, having first been com- 
 pelled to behold the slaughter of his 
 children, his eyes were then put out, and 
 he was conducted in chains to Babylon. 
 
 A Masonic tradition informs us that the 
 captive Jews were bound by their conquer- 
 ors with triangular chains, and that this 
 was done by the Chaldeans as an additional 
 insult, because the Jewish Masons were 
 known to esteem the triangle as an emblem 
 of the sacred name of God, and must have 
 considered its appropriation to the form of 
 their fetters as a desecration of the Tetra- 
 grammaton. 
 
 Notwithstanding the ignominious mode 
 of their conveyance from Jerusalem, and 
 
CAPTIVITY 
 
 CARBONARISM 
 
 149 
 
 the vindictiveness displayed by their con- 
 queror in the destruction of their city and 
 Temple, they do not appear, on their arrival 
 at Babylon, to have been subjected to any 
 of the extreme rigors of slavery. They 
 were distributed into various parts of the 
 empire, some remaining in the city, while 
 others were sent into the provinces. The 
 latter probably devoted themselves to agri- 
 cultural pursuits, while the former were 
 engaged in commerce or in the labors of 
 architecture. Smith says that the captives 
 were treated not as slaves but as colonists. 
 They were permitted to retain their per- 
 sonal property, and even to purchase lands 
 and erect houses. Their civil and religious 
 government was not utterly destroyed, for 
 they kept up a regular succession of kings 
 and high priests, one of each of whom 
 returned with them, as will be seen here- 
 after, on their restoration. Some of the 
 principal captives were advanced to offices 
 of dignity and power in the royal palace, 
 and were permitted to share in the councils 
 of state. Their prophets, Daniel and Eze- 
 kiel, with their associates, preserved among 
 their countrymen the pure doctrines of 
 their religion. Although they had neither 
 place nor time of national gathering, nor 
 temple, and therefore offered no sacrifices, 
 yet they observed the Mosaic laws with 
 respect to the rite of circumcision. They 
 preserved their tables of genealogy and the 
 true succession to the throne of David. The 
 rightful heir being called the Head of the 
 Captivity,* Jehoiachin, who was the first 
 king of Judea carried captive to Babylon, 
 was succeeded by his son Shealtiel, and he 
 by his son Zerubbabel, who was the Head 
 of the Captivity, or nominal prince of 
 Judea at the close of the captivity. The 
 due succession of the high priesthood was 
 also preserved, for Jehosadek, who was the 
 high priest carried by Nebuchadnezzar 
 to Babylon, where he died during the cap- 
 tivity, was succeeded by his eldest son, 
 Joshua. The Jewish captivity terminated 
 in the first year of the reign of Cyrus, B. c. 
 536. Cyrus, from his conversations with 
 Daniel and the other Jewish captives of 
 learning and piety, as well as from his 
 perusal of their sacred books, more espe- 
 cially the prophecies of Isaiah, had become 
 imbued with a knowledge of true religion, 
 and hence had even publicly announced to 
 his subjects his belief in the God "which 
 the nation of the Israelites worshipped." 
 He was consequently impressed with an 
 earnest desire to fulfil the prophetic decla- 
 rations of which he was the subject, and 
 
 * So says the Talmud, but Smith {Diet, of the 
 Bible) affirms that the assertion is unsupported 
 by proof. The Masonic legends conform to the 
 Talmudic statement. 
 
 to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. Cy- 
 rus therefore issued a decree by which the 
 Jews were permitted to return to their 
 country. According to Milman, 42,360 be- 
 sides servants availed themselves of this 
 permission, and returned to Jerusalem 
 under Zerubbabel their prince and Joshua 
 their high priest, and thus ended the first 
 or Babylonian captivity, the only one 
 which has any connection with the legends 
 of Freemasonry as commemorated in the 
 lloyal Arch degree. 
 
 Carausius. A Roman emperor, who 
 assumed the purple A. D. 287. Of him 
 Preston gives the following account, which 
 may or may not be deemed apocryphal, ac- 
 cording to the taste and inclination of the 
 reader. " By assuming the character of a 
 Mason, he acquired the love and esteem of 
 the most enlightened part of his subjects. 
 He possessed real merit, encouraged learn- 
 ing and learned men, and improved the 
 country in the civil arts. In order to es- 
 tablish an empire in Britain, he brought 
 into his dominions the best workmen and 
 artificers from all parts ; all of whom, un- 
 der his auspices, enjoyed peace and tran- 
 quillity. Among the first class of his favor- 
 ites he enrolled the Masons: for their 
 tenets he professed the highest veneration, 
 and appointed Albanus, his steward, the 
 principal superintendent of their assem- 
 blies. Under his patronage, Lodges and 
 conventions of the Fraternity were formed, 
 and the rites of Masonry regularly prac- 
 tised. To enable the Masons to hold a 
 general council, to establish their own gov- 
 ernment and correct errors among them- 
 selves, he granted to them a charter, and 
 commanded Albanus to preside over them 
 in person as Grand Master." Anderson 
 also gives the legend of Carausius in the 
 second edition of his Constitutions, and adds 
 that " this is asserted by all the old copies 
 of the Constitutions, and the old English 
 Masons firmly believed it." But the fact is 
 that Anderson himself does not mention 
 the tradition in his first edition, published 
 in 1723, nor is any reference to Carausius 
 to be found in any of the old manuscripts 
 now extant. The legend is, it is true, in- 
 serted in Krause's Manuscript; but this 
 document is of very little authority, hav- 
 ing been, most probably, a production of the 
 early part of the eighteenth century, and 
 of a cotemporary of Anderson, written per- 
 haps between 1723 and 1738, which would 
 account for the omission of it in the first 
 edition of the Book of Constitutions, and 
 its insertion in the second. The reader 
 may hence determine for himself what au- 
 thenticity is to be given to the Carausian 
 legend. 
 
 Carbonarisin. A secret political so- 
 
150 
 
 CARBUNCLE 
 
 CASSIA 
 
 ciety which sprang up in Italy in the be- 
 ginning of the nineteenth century. It is 
 entitled to no place in a Masonic Encyclo- 
 paedia, except that the word affords an op- 
 portunity of repudiating the theory that it 
 was in any way connected with Freema- 
 sonry, although the Carbonari appear to 
 have borrowed many of their forms from 
 the Freemasons. The members called each 
 other " cousins." 
 
 Carbuncle. In Hebrew, n0"O, bara- 
 keth, the third stone in the first row of the 
 high priest's breastplate, according to the 
 authorized version, but the first stone in 
 the second row, according to the Septua- 
 gint. Braun, a writer on the sacerdotal 
 vestments of the Hebrews, (Amsterdam, 
 1680,) supposes that the baraketh was a 
 smaragdus or emerald, which view is sus- 
 tained by Kalisch, and is in accordance 
 with the Septuagint translation. The Tal- 
 mudists derive baraketh from a word signi- 
 fying "to shine with the brightness of 
 fire," which would seem to indicate some 
 stone of a coruscant color, and would ap- 
 ply to the bright green of the emerald as 
 well as to the bright red of the carbuncle. 
 The stone, whatever it was, was referred to 
 the tribe of Judah. The carbuncle in 
 Christian iconography signifies blood and 
 suffering, and is symbolical of the Lord's 
 passion. Five carbuncles placed on a cross 
 symbolize the five wounds of Christ. 
 
 Cardinal Points. The north, west, 
 east, and south are so called from the 
 Latin cardo, a hinge, because they are the 
 principal points of the compass on which 
 all the others hinge or hang. Each of 
 them has a symbolic signification in Ma- 
 sonry, which will be found under their re- 
 spective heads. Dr. Brinton, in an inter- 
 esting Treatise on the Symbolism and My- 
 thology of the Red Race of America, has a 
 chapter on the sacred number four ; the only 
 one, he says, that has any prominence in 
 the religions of the red race, and which 
 he traces to the four cardinal points. The 
 reason, he declares, is to be " found in the 
 adoration of the cardinal points;" and he 
 attributes to this cause the prevalence of 
 the cross as a symbol among the aborigines 
 of America, the existence of which so sur- 
 prised the Catholic missionaries that they 
 " were in doubt whether to ascribe the fact 
 to the pious labors of St. Thomas or the 
 sacrilegious subtlety of Satan." The arms 
 of the cross referred to the cardinal points, 
 and represented the four winds, the bringers 
 of rain. The theory is an interesting one, 
 and the author supports it with many in- 
 genious illustrations. In the symbolism 
 of Freemasonry each of the cardinal points 
 has a mystical meaning. The East repre- 
 sents Wisdom ; the West, Strength ; the 
 
 South, Beauty; and the North, Dark- 
 ness. 
 
 Cardinal Virtues. The pre-eminent 
 or principal virtues on which all the others 
 hinge or depend. They are temperance, 
 fortitude, prudence, and justice. They are 
 referred to in the ritual of the first degree, 
 and will be found in this work under their 
 respective heads. Oliver says [Revelation of 
 a Square, ch. i.,) that in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury the Masons delineated the symbols of 
 the four cardinal virtues by an acute angle 
 variously disposed. Thus, suppose you 
 face the east, the angle symbolizing tem- 
 perance will point to the south, >. It was 
 called a Guttural. Fortitude was denoted 
 by a saltire, or St. Andrew's Cross, X . This 
 was the Pectoral. The symbol of prudence 
 was an acute angle pointing towards the 
 south-east, ~J, and was denominated a 
 Manual ; and justice had its angle towards 
 the north, <, and was called a Pedestal or 
 Pedal. 
 
 Carlile. Richard. A printer and 
 bookseller of London, who in 1819 was 
 fined and imprisoned for the publication 
 of Paine's Age of Reason, and Palmer's 
 Light of Mature. He also wrote and pub- 
 lished several pretended expositions of 
 Masonry, which, after his death, were col- 
 lected, in 1845, in one volume, under the 
 title of a Manual of Freemasonry, in three 
 parts. Carlile was a professed Atheist, 
 and, although a fanatical reformer of what 
 he supposed to be the errors of the age, was 
 a man of some ability. His Masonic works 
 are interspersed with considerable learning, 
 and are not as abusive of the Order as ex- 
 positions generally are. He was born in 
 1790, and died in 1843, in London. For 
 ten years before his death his religious 
 opinions had been greatly modified. 
 
 Carpet. The chart or tracing board 
 on which the emblems of a degree are de- 
 picted for the instruction of a candidate. 
 " Carpets " were originally drawn on the 
 floor with chalk or charcoal, and at the 
 close of the Lodge obliterated. To avoid this 
 trouble, they were subsequently painted on 
 cloth, which was laid on the floor; hence 
 they were called carpets. Carpets, or 
 charts, as they are at the present time com- 
 monly designated, are now generally sus- 
 pended from the wall, or from a framework 
 in the Lodge. 
 
 Casmaran. The angel of air. Re- 
 ferred to in the degree of Scottish Knight 
 of St. Andrew. The etymology is uncer- 
 tain. 
 
 Cassia. A corruption of acacia, which 
 undoubtedly arose from the common habit, 
 among illiterate people, of sinking the 
 sound of the letter A in the pronunciation 
 of anv word of which it constitutes the ini- 
 
CASTELLAN 
 
 CATHARINE 
 
 151 
 
 tial syllable, aspothecary for apothecary, and 
 prentice for apprentice. The word prentice, 
 by the way, is almost altogether used in the 
 old records of Masonry, which were, for 
 the most part, the productions of unedu- 
 cated men. Unfortunately, however, the cor- 
 ruption of acacia into cassia has not always 
 been confined to the illiterate; but the long 
 employment of the corrupted form has at 
 length introduced it, in some instances, 
 among a few of our writers. Even Dr. 
 Oliver has sometimes used the objectiona- 
 ble corruption, notwithstanding he has 
 written so much upon the symbolism of the 
 acacia. 
 
 There is a plant which was called by the 
 ancients cassia, but it is entirely different 
 from the acacia. The acacia was a sacred 
 plant; the cassia an ignoble plant, having 
 no sacred character. The former is in Ma- 
 sonry profoundly symbolic; the latter has 
 no symbolism whatever. The cassia is only 
 three times mentioned in Scripture, but 
 always as an aromatic plant forming a por- 
 tion of some perfume. There is, indeed, 
 strong reason for believing that the cassia 
 was only a coarse kind of cinnamon, and 
 that it did not grow in Palestine, but was 
 imported from the East. Cassia, therefore, 
 has no rightful place in Masonic language, 
 and its use should be avoided as a vulgar 
 corruption. 
 
 Castellan. In Germany, the Super- 
 intendent or Steward of a Lodge building, 
 in which he resides. He is either a serving 
 brother or an actual member of the Lodge, 
 and has the care of the building and its 
 contents. 
 
 Casting Voice or Vote. The 
 twelfth of the thirty-nine General Regula- 
 tions prescribes that " all matters are to be 
 determined in the Grand Lodge by a ma- 
 jority of votes. Each member having one 
 vote and the Grand Master having two 
 votes." From this law has arisen the uni- 
 versal usage of giving to the Master of the 
 Lodge a casting vote in addition to his own 
 when there is a tie. The custom is so uni- 
 versal, and has been so long practised, that, 
 although I can find no specific law on the 
 subject, the right may be considered as 
 established by prescription. It may be re- 
 marked that the Masonic usage is probably 
 derived from the custom of the London 
 Livery Companies or Gilds, where the cast- 
 ing vote has always been given by the presid- 
 ing officers in all cases of equality, a rule 
 that has been recognized by Act of Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Catafalque. A temporary structure 
 of wood, appropriately decorated with 
 funereal symbols and representing a tomb 
 or cenotaph. It forms a part of the deco- 
 rations of a Sorrow Lodge, and is also 
 
 used in the ceremonies of the third degree 
 in Lodges of the French Rite. 
 
 Catch Questions. Questions not in- 
 cluded in the Catechism, but adopted from 
 an early period to try the pretensions of a 
 stranger, such as this used by American 
 Masons: '' Where does the Master hang his 
 hat? " and by the French, " Comment §tes- 
 vous entre dans le Temple de Salomon?" 
 Such as these are of course unsanctioned by 
 authority. But Dr. Oliver, in an essay on 
 this subject preliminary to the fourth vol- 
 ume of his Golden Remains, gives a long 
 list of these "additional tests," which had 
 been reduced to a kind of system, and were 
 practised by the English Masons of the 
 eighteenth century. Among them were 
 such as these. What is the punishment of 
 a cowan ? What does this stone smell of? 
 If a brother were lost, where would you look 
 for him? How blows a Mason's wind? and 
 many others of the same kind. Of these 
 tests or catch questions, Dr. Oliver says, 
 " that they were something like the conun- 
 drums of the present day— difficult of com- 
 prehension ; admitting only of one answer, 
 which appeared to have no direct corres- 
 pondence with the question, and applicable 
 only in consonance with the mysterious 
 terms and symbols of the Institution." 
 Catch questions in this country, at least, 
 seem to be getting out of use, and some of 
 the most learned Masons at the present day 
 would find it difficult to answer them. 
 
 Catechism. From the earliest times 
 the oral instructions of Masonry have been 
 communicated in a catechetical form. Each 
 degree has its peculiar catechism, the knowl- 
 edge of which constitutes what is called a 
 " bright Mason." The catechism, indeed, 
 should be known to every Mason, for every 
 aspirant should be thoroughly instructed 
 in that of the degree to which he has at- 
 tained before he is permitted to make fur- 
 ther progress. The rule, however, is not 
 rigidly observed ; and many Masons, unfortu- 
 nately, are very ignorant of all but the rudi- 
 mentary parts of their catechism, which 
 they derive only from hearing portions of 
 it communicated at the opening and clos- 
 ing of the Lodge. 
 
 Catenarian Arch. If a rope be 
 suspended loosely by its two ends, the 
 curve into which it falls is called a catena- 
 rian curve, and this inverted forms the 
 catenarian arch, which is said to be the 
 strongest of all arches. As the form of a 
 symbolic Lodge is an oblong square, that 
 of a Royal Arch Chapter, according to the 
 English ritual, is a catenarian arch. 
 
 Catharine II. Catharine the Great, 
 Empress of Russia, in 1762, prohibited by 
 an edict all Masonic meetings in her do- 
 minions. But subsequently better senti- 
 
152 
 
 CAUTION 
 
 CEDARS 
 
 merits prevailed, and having learned the 
 true character of the Institution, she not 
 only revoked her order of prohibition, but 
 invited the Masons to re-establish their 
 Lodges and to constitute new ones, and 
 went so far as to proclaim herself the Pro- 
 tectress of the Lodge of Clio, at Moscow. 
 During the remainder of her reign Free- 
 masonry was in a flourishing condition in 
 Russia, and many of the nobles organized 
 Lodges in their palaces. She died Novem- 
 ber 6, 1796, and the persecutions against 
 the Order were renewed by her successor. 
 
 Caution. Jt was formerly the custom 
 to bestow upon an Entered Apprentice, on 
 his initiation, a new name, which was 
 " caution." The custom is now very gen- 
 erally discontinued, although the principle 
 which it inculcated should never be for- 
 gotten. 
 
 The Old Charges of 1723 impress upon a 
 Mason the necessity, when in the presence 
 of strangers not Masons, to be " cautious in 
 his words and carriage, that the most pene- 
 trating stranger shall not be able to dis- 
 cover or find out what is not proper to be 
 intimated ; " as these Charges were particu- 
 larly directed to Apprentices, who then con- 
 stituted the great body of the Fraternity, it 
 is evident that the " new name " gave rise 
 to the Charge, or, more likely, that the 
 Charge gave rise to the " new name." 
 
 Cavern. In the Pagan mysteries of 
 antiquity the initiations were often per- 
 formed in caverns, of which a few, like the 
 cave of Elephanta in India, still remain to 
 indicate by their form and extent the 
 character of the rites that were then per- 
 formed. The cavern of Elephanta, which 
 was the most gorgeous temple in the world, 
 is one hundred and thirty feet square, and 
 eighteen feet high. It is supported by four 
 massive pillars, and its walls are covered 
 with statues and carved symbolic decora- 
 tions. The sacellum, or sacred place, which 
 contained the phallic symbol, was in the 
 western extremity, and accessible only to 
 the initiated. The caverns of Salsette, 
 greatly exceeded in magnitude that of Ele- 
 phanta, being three hundred in number, 
 all adorned with symbolic figures, among 
 which the phallic emblems were predomi- 
 nant, which were placed in the most secret 
 caverns, accessible only by private en- 
 trances. In every cavern was a basin to 
 contain the consecrated water of ablution, 
 on the surface of which floated the sacred 
 lotus flower. All these caverns were places 
 of initiation into the Hindu mysteries, 
 and every arrangement was made for the 
 performance of the most impressive cere- 
 monies. 
 
 Faber {Mys. Cab., ii. 257,) says that 
 "wherever the Cabiric Mysteries were 
 
 practised, they were always in some man- 
 ner or other connected with caverns;" and 
 he mentions, among other instances, the 
 cave Zirinthus, within whose dark recesses 
 the most mysterious Rites of the Samothra- 
 cian Cabiri were performed. 
 
 Maurice, (Ind. Ant, iii. 536,) speaking 
 of the subterranean passages of the Tem- 
 ple of Isis, in the island of Phile in the 
 river Nile, says, " it was in these gloomy 
 caverns that the grand and mystic arcana 
 of the goddess were unfolded to the adoring 
 aspirant, while the solemn hymns oi initia- 
 tion resounded through the long extent of 
 these stony recesses." 
 
 Many of the ancient oracles, as, for in- 
 stance, that of Trophonius in Boeotia, were 
 delivered in caves. Hence, the cave — sub- 
 terranean, dark, and silent — was mingled in 
 the ancient mind with the idea of mystery. 
 
 In the ceremonies of Masonry, we find 
 the cavern or vault in what is called the 
 Cryptic Masonry of the American Rite, 
 and also in the high degrees of the French 
 and Scottish Rites, in which it is a symbol 
 of the darkness of ignorance and crime 
 impenetrable to the light of truth. 
 
 In reference to the practical purposes of 
 the cavern, as recorded in the legend of 
 these degrees, it may be mentioned that 
 caverns, which abounded in Palestine in 
 consequence of the geological structure of 
 the country, are spoken of by Josephus as 
 places of refuge for banditti ; and Mr. 
 Phillott says, in Smith's Dictionary, that it 
 was the caves which lie beneath and around 
 so many of the Jewish cities that formed 
 the last hiding-places of the Jewish leaders 
 in the war with the Romans. 
 
 Cedars of Lebanon. In scriptural 
 symbology, the cedar-tree, says Wemyss, 
 (Symb. Lang. Scrip.,) was the symbol of 
 eternity, because its substance never decays 
 nor rots. Hence, the Ark of the Covenant 
 was made of cedar ; and those are said to 
 utter things worthy of cedar who write 
 that which no time ought to obliterate. 
 
 The Cedars of Lebanon are frequently 
 referred to in the legends of Masonry, es- 
 pecially in the higher degrees; not, however, 
 on account of any symbolical signification, 
 but rather because of the use made of them 
 by Solomon and Zerubbabel in the con- 
 struction of their respective Temples. Mr. 
 Phillott {Smith's Diet. Bible) thus describes 
 the grove so celebrated in scriptural and 
 Masonic history 
 
 The grove of trees known as the Cedars 
 of Lebanon consists of about four hundred 
 trees, standing quite alone in a depression 
 of the mountain with no trees near, about 
 six thousand four hundred feet above the 
 sea, and three thousand below the summit. 
 About eleven or twelve are very large and 
 
CELEBRATION 
 
 CENTAINE 
 
 153 
 
 old, twenty-five large, fifty of middle size, 
 and more than three hundred younger and 
 smaller ones. The older trees have each 
 several trunks and spread themselves wide- 
 ly round,, but most of the others are of 
 cone-like form, and do not send out wide, 
 lateral branches. In 1550, there were 
 twenty-eight old trees; in 1739, Pococke 
 counted fifteen, but the number of trunks 
 makes the operation of counting uncertain. 
 They are regarded with much reverence by 
 the native inhabitants as living records of 
 Solomon's power, and the Maronite patri- 
 arch was formerly accustomed to celebrate 
 there the festival of the Transfiguration at 
 an altar of rough stones. 
 
 Celebration. The third degree of 
 Fessler's Rite. See Fessler's Bile. 
 
 Celestial Alphabet. See Alphabet 
 of Angels. 
 Celtic Mysteries. See Druidism. 
 Celts. The early inhabitants of Italy, 
 Gaul, Spain, and Britain. They are sup- 
 posed to have left Asia during one of the 
 Aryan emigrations, and, having travelled in 
 a westerly direction, to have spread over 
 these countries of Europe. The Celtic 
 Mysteries or the Sacred Rites which they 
 instituted are known as Druidism, which 
 see. 
 
 Cement. The cement which in Oper- 
 ative Masonry is used to unite the various 
 parts of a building into one strong and 
 durable mass, is borrowed by Speculative 
 Masonry as a symbol to denote that 
 brotherly love which binds the Masons of 
 all countries in one common brotherhood. 
 As this brotherhood is recognized as being 
 perfected among Master Masons only, the 
 symbol is very appropriately referred to the 
 third degree. 
 
 Cemeteries, Masonic. The desire 
 to select some suitable spot wherein to de- 
 posit the remains of our departed kindred 
 and friends seems almost innate in the 
 human breast. The stranger's field was 
 bought with the accursed bribe of betrayal 
 and treason, and there is an abhorrence to 
 depositing our loved ones in places whose 
 archetype was so desecrated by its purchase- 
 money. The churchyard, to the man of 
 sentiment, is as sacred as the church itself. 
 The cemetery bears a hallowed character, 
 and we adorn its graves with vernal flowers 
 or with evergreens, to show that the dead, 
 though away from our presence visibly, 
 still live and bloom in our memories. The 
 oldest of all the histories that time has 
 saved to us contains an affecting story of 
 this reverence of the living for the dead, 
 when it tells us how Abraham, when Sarah, 
 his beloved wife, had died in a strange 
 land, reluctant to bury her among stran- 
 gers, purchased from the sons of Heth the 
 U 
 
 cave of Machpelah for a burial-place for 
 his people. 
 
 It is not, then, surprising that Masons, 
 actuated by this spirit, should have been 
 desirous to consecrate certain spots as rest- 
 ing-places for themselves and for the strange 
 brethren who should die among them. A 
 writer in the London Freemason's Magazine 
 for 1858 complained that there was not in 
 England a Masonic cemetery, nor portion 
 of an established cemetery especially dedi- 
 cated to the interment of the brethren of 
 the Craft. This neglect cannot be charged 
 against the Masons of America, for there 
 is scarcely a city or town of considerable 
 size in which the Masons have not pur- 
 chased and appropriated a suitable spot as 
 a cemetery to be exclusively devoted to the 
 use of the Fraternity. These cemeteries 
 are often, and should always be, dedicated 
 with impressive ceremonies ; and it is to be 
 regretted that our rituals have provided no 
 sanctioned form of service for these occa- 
 sions. 
 
 Censer. A small vessel of metal fitted 
 to receive burning coals from the altar, and 
 on which the incense for burning was sprin- 
 kled by the priest in the Temple. Among 
 the furniture of a Royal Arch Chapter is to 
 be found the censer, which is placed upon 
 the altar of incense within the sanctuary, 
 as a symbol of the pure thoughts and 
 grateful feelings which, in so holy a place, 
 should be offered up as a fitting sacrifice to 
 the great I AM. In a similar symbolic 
 sense, the censer, under the name of the 
 "pot of incense," is found among the em- 
 blems of the third degree. See Pot of 
 Incense. The censer also constitutes a 
 part of the Lodge furniture in many of the 
 high degrees. 
 
 Censor. Gadicke says this is not an 
 officer, but is now and then introduced into 
 some of the Lodges of Germany. He is 
 commonly found where the Lodge has its 
 own private house, in which, on certain 
 days, mixed assemblies are held of Free- 
 masons and their families and friends. 
 Of those assemblies the Censor has the 
 superintendence. 
 
 Censure. In Masonic law, the mild- 
 est form of punishment that can be in- 
 flicted, and may be defined to be a formal 
 expression of disapprobation, without other 
 result than the effect produced upon the 
 feelings of him who is censured. It is 
 adopted by a resolution of the Lodge on a 
 motion made at a regular communication ; 
 it requires only a bare majority of votes for 
 its passage, does not affect the Masonic 
 standing of the person censured, and may 
 be revoked at any subsequent regular com- 
 munication. 
 
 Centaine, Order of. A mystical 
 
154 
 
 CENTENNIAL 
 
 CERTIFICATE 
 
 society of the last century which admitted 
 females. It was organized at Bordeaux, in 
 1735. Lenning says that at a later period 
 some of its adherents attempted to engraft 
 it upon Freemasonry, but without effect. 
 
 Centennial. That which happens 
 every hundred years. Masonic bodies that 
 have lasted for that period very generally 
 celebrate the occasion by a commemorative 
 festival. On the 4th of November, 1852, 
 almost all of the Lodges of the United 
 States celebrated the centennial anniversary 
 of the initiation of George Washington as 
 a Freemason. 
 
 Centralists. A society which existed 
 in Europe from 1770 to 1780. It made use 
 of Masonic forms at its meeting simply to 
 conceal its secrets. Lenning calls it an al- 
 chemical association, but says that it had 
 religious and political tendencies. G'adicke 
 thinks that its object was to propagate 
 Jesuitism. 
 
 Central Point. See Point within a 
 Circle. 
 
 Centre, Opening on the. In the 
 English ritual, a Master Mason's Lodge is 
 said to be opened on the centre, because the 
 brethren present, being all Master Masons, 
 are equally near and equally distant from 
 that imaginary central point which among 
 Masons constitutes perfection. Neither of 
 the preliminary degrees can assert the same 
 conditions, because the Lodge of an Entered 
 Apprentice may contain all the three classes, 
 and that of a Fellow Craft may include 
 some Master Masons; and therefore the 
 doctrine of perfect equality is not carried 
 out in either. An attempt was made, but 
 without success, in the Trestle Board, 
 published under the sanction of the Balti- 
 more Masonic Convention, to introduce the 
 custom into the American Lodges. 
 
 Cephas. A word which in the Syriac 
 signifies a rock or stone, and is the name 
 which was bestowed by Christ upon Simon, 
 when he said to him, " Thou art a rock," 
 which the Greeks rendered by Jli-pog, and 
 the Latins by Petrus, both words meaning 
 "a rock." It is used in the degree of 
 Royal Master, and there alludes to the 
 Stone of Foundation. 
 
 Ceremonies. The outer garments 
 which cover and adorn Freemasonry as 
 clothing does the human body. Although 
 ceremonies give neither life nor truth to 
 doctrines or principles, yet they have an 
 admirable influence, since by their use 
 certain things are made to acquire a sacred 
 character which they would not otherwise 
 have had ; and hence, Lord Coke has most 
 wisely said, that " prudent antiquity did, 
 for more solemnity and better memory and 
 observation of that which is to be done, 
 express substances under ceremonies." 
 
 Ceremonies, Master of. See Master 
 of Ceremonies. 
 
 Ceres. Among the Romans, the god- 
 dess of agriculture ; but among the more 
 poetic Greeks she was worshipped under 
 the name of Demeter, as the symbol of the 
 prolific earth. To her is attributed the 
 institution of the Eleusinian Mysteries in 
 Greece, the most popular of all the ancient 
 initiations. 
 
 Cerneaii, Joseph. A French jew- 
 eller, born at Villeblerin, in 1763, and who 
 in the beginning of the nineteenth century 
 removed to the city of New York, where 
 in 1812 he established a spurious body 
 under the title of " Sovereign Grand Con- 
 sistory of the United States of America, its 
 Territories and Dependencies." This Ma- 
 sonic charlatan, who claimed the right to 
 organize bodies of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite, was expelled and his 
 pretensions denounced, in 1813, by the 
 legal Supreme Council sitting at Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina. Cerneau and his adhe- 
 rents gave much trouble in the Scottish 
 Rite for many years, and the bodies which 
 he had formed were not entirely dissolved 
 until long after the establishment of a 
 legal Supreme Council for the Northern 
 Jurisdiction. 
 
 Certificate. A diploma issued by a 
 Grand Lodge, or by a subordinate Lodge 
 under its authority, testifying that the 
 holder thereof is a true and trusty brother, 
 and recommending him to the hospitality 
 of the Fraternity abroad. The character 
 of this instrument has sometimes been 
 much misunderstood. It is by no means 
 intended to act as a voucher Hot the bearer, 
 nor can it be allowed to supersede the ne- 
 cessity of a strict examination. A stranger, 
 however, having been tried and proved by 
 a more unerring standard, his certificate 
 then properly comes in as an auxiliary tes- 
 timonial, and will be permitted to afford 
 good evidence of his correct standing in his 
 Lodge at home ; for no body of Masons, 
 true to the principles of their Order, would 
 grant such an instrument to an unworthy 
 brother, or to one who, they feared, might 
 make an improper use of it. But though 
 the presence of a Grand Lodge certificate 
 be in general required as collateral evidence 
 of worthiness to visit, or receive aid, its ac- 
 cidental absence, which may arise in vari- 
 ous ways, as from fire, captivity, or ship- 
 wreck, should not debar a strange brother 
 from the rights guaranteed to him by our 
 Institution, provided he can offer other evi- 
 dence of his good character. The Grand 
 Lodge of New York has, upon this subject, 
 taken the proper stand in the following 
 regulation : " That no Mason be admitted 
 to any subordinate Lodge under the juris- 
 
CHAILLOU 
 
 CHALDEA 
 
 155 
 
 diction of this Grand Lodge, or receive the 
 charities of any Lodge, unless he shall, on 
 such application, exhibit a Grand Lodge 
 certificate, duly attested by the proper au- 
 thorities, except he is known to the Lodge to 
 be a worfhi/ brother." 
 
 The certificate system has been warmly 
 discussed by the Grand Lodges of the 
 United States, and considerable opposition 
 to it has been made by some of them on 
 the ground that it is an innovation. If it 
 is an innovation, it certainly is not one of 
 the present day, as we may learn from the 
 Regulations made in General Assembly of 
 the Masons of England, on St. John the 
 Evangelist's day, 1663, during the Grand 
 Mastership of the Earl of St. Albans, one 
 of which reads as follows : 
 
 " That no person hereafter who shall be 
 accepted a Freemason shall be admitted 
 into any Lodge or Assembly, until he has 
 brought a certificate of the time and place 
 of his acceptation from the Lodge that ac- 
 cepted him, unto the Master of that limit 
 or division where such Lodge is kept." 
 
 Chaillou de Joinville. He played 
 an important part in the Freemasonry of 
 France about the middle of the last cen- 
 tury, especially during the schisms which 
 at that time existed in the Grand Lodge. 
 In 1761, he was an active member of the 
 Council of Emperors of the East and West, 
 or Rite of Perfection, which had been estab- 
 lished in 1758. Under the title of " Sub- 
 stitute General of the Order, Ven. Master 
 of the First Lodge in France, called St. 
 Anthony's, Chief of the Eminent Degrees, 
 Commander, and Sublime Prince of the 
 Royal Secret, etc., etc., etc.," he signed the 
 Patent of Stephen Morin, authorizing him 
 to extend the Royal Order in America, 
 which was the first step that subsequently 
 led to the establishment of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite in the United States. In 
 1762, the Prince of Clermont, Grand Mas- 
 ter of the Grand Lodge of France, removed 
 the dancing-master Lacorne, whom he had 
 previously appointed his Substitute Gene- 
 ral, and who had become distasteful to the 
 respectable members of the Grand Lodge, 
 and put Chaillou de Joinville in his place. 
 This action created a schism in the Grand 
 Lodge, during which De Joinville appears 
 to have acted with considerable energy, 
 but eventually he became almost as noto- 
 rious as his predecessor, by issuing irregular 
 charters and deputations. On the death of 
 the Prince of Clermont, in 1771, the La- 
 cornists regained much of their influence, 
 and De Joinville appears quietly to have 
 passed away from the field of French Ma- 
 sonry and Masonic intrigues. 
 
 Chain, Mystic. To form the mystic 
 chain is for the brethren to make a circle, 
 
 holding each other by the hands, as in sur- 
 rounding a grave, etc. Each brother crosses 
 his arms in front of his body, so as to give 
 his right hand to his left hand neighbor, and 
 his left hand to his right hand neighbor. 
 The French call it chaine d'union. It is a 
 symbol of the close connection of all Ma- 
 sons in one common brotherhood. 
 
 Chain of Flowers. In French Ma- 
 sonry, when a Lodge celebrates the day of 
 its foundation, or the semi-centennial mem- 
 bership of one of the brethren, or at the 
 initiation of a louveteau, the room is deco- 
 rated with wreaths of flowers called " chaine 
 de fleurs." 
 
 Chain of Union. See Chain, Mystic. 
 
 Chain, Triangular. One of the 
 legends of Freemasonry tells us that when 
 the Jewish Masons were carried as cap- 
 tives from Jerusalem to Babylon by Neb- 
 uchadnezzar, they were bound by triangu- 
 lar chains, which was intended as an addi- 
 tional insult, because to them the triangle, 
 or delta, was a symbol of the Deity, to be 
 used only on sacred occasions. The legend 
 is of course apocryphal, and is worth noth- 
 ing except as a legendary symbol. 
 
 Chair. A technical term signifying the 
 office of Master of a Lodge. Thus, " he is 
 eligible to the chair" is equivalent to "he 
 is eligible to the office of Master." The 
 word is applied in the same sense to the 
 presiding office in other Masonic bodies. 
 
 Chairman. The presiding officer of 
 a meeting or committee. In all committees 
 of a Lodge, the Worshipful Master, if he 
 chooses to attend, is ex-officio chairman ; as 
 is the Grand Master of any meeting of the 
 Craft when he is present. 
 
 Chair, Master in the. The Ger- 
 man Masons call the Worshipful Master, 
 " der Meister im Stuhl," or the Master in 
 the Chair. 
 
 Chair, Oriental. The seat or office 
 of the Master of a Lodge is thus called — 
 sometimes, more fully, the " Oriental Chair 
 of King Solomon." 
 
 Chair, Passing the. The ceremony 
 of inducting the Master elect of a Lodge 
 into his office is called " passing the chair." 
 He who has once presided over a Lodge as 
 its Master, is said to have "passed the 
 chair," hence the title "Past Master." 
 
 Chaldea. A large tract of country, 
 lying in a nearly north-west and south- 
 east direction for a distance of four hun- 
 dred miles along the course of the rivers 
 Euphrates and Tigris, with an average 
 width of one hundred miles. The kingdom 
 of Chaldea, of which Babylon was the 
 chief city, is celebrated in Masonic history 
 as the place where the Jewish captives were 
 conducted after the destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem. At that time Nebuchadnezzar was 
 
156 
 
 CHALDEANS 
 
 CHAPEAU 
 
 the king. His successors, during the cap- 
 tivity, were Evilmerodach, Neriglissar, 
 Labosordacus, and Belshazzar. Jn the 
 seventeenth year of his reign, the city of 
 Babylon was taken, and the Chaldean 
 kingdom subverted by Cyrus, king of Per- 
 sia, who terminated the captivity of the 
 Jews, and restored them to their native 
 country. 
 
 Chaldeans or Chaldees. The 
 ancient — Diodorus Siculus says the " most 
 ancient " — inhabitants of Babylonia. There 
 was among them, as among the Egyptians, 
 a true priestly caste, which was both exclu- 
 sive and hereditary ; for although not every 
 Chaldean was a priest, yet no man could 
 be a priest among them unless he were a 
 Chaldean." "At Babylon," says Dr. Smith, 
 (Anc. Hist, of the East, p. 398,) " they were in 
 all respects the ruling order in the body pol- 
 itic, uniting in themselves the characters of 
 the English sacerdotal and military classes. 
 They filled all the highest offices of state 
 under the king, who himself belonged to 
 the order." The Chaldean priests were 
 famous for their astronomical science, the 
 study of which was particularly favored by 
 the clear atmosphere and the cloudless 
 skies of their country, and to which they 
 were probably urged by their national 
 worship of the sun and the heavenly hosts. 
 Diodorus Siculus says that they passed 
 their whole lives in meditating questions of 
 philosophy, and acquired a great reputation 
 for their astrology. They were addicted 
 especially to the art of divination, and 
 framed predictions of the future. They 
 sought to avert evil and to insure good by 
 purifications, sacrifices, and enchantments. 
 They were versed in the arts of prophesy- 
 ing and explaining dreams and prodigies. 
 All this learning among the Chaldeans was 
 a family tradition ; the son inheriting the 
 
 Erofession and the knowledge of the priest- 
 ood from his father, and transmitting it 
 to his descendants. The Chaldeans were 
 settled throughout the whole country, but 
 there were some special cities, such as 
 Borsippa, Ur, Sippera, and Babylon, where 
 they had regular colleges. The reputation 
 of the Chaldeans for prophetic and magical 
 knowledge was so great, that astrologers, 
 and conjurers in general, were styled Baby- 
 lonians and Chaldeans, just as the wander- 
 ing fortune-tellers of modern times are 
 called Egyptians or gypsies, and Ars Chal- 
 dceorum was the name given to all occult 
 sciences. 
 
 Chalice. A cup used in religious rites. 
 It forms a part of the furniture of a Com- 
 mandery of Knights Templars, and of 
 some of the higher degrees of the French 
 and Scottish Rites. It should be made 
 either of silver or of gilt metal. The stem 
 
 of the chalice should be about four inches 
 high, and the diameter from three to six. 
 Chalk, Charcoal, and Clay. By 
 
 these three substances are beautifully sym- 
 bolized the three qualifications for the ser- 
 vitude of an Entered Apprentice — freedom, 
 fervency, and zeal. Chalk is the freest of 
 all substances, because the slightest touch 
 leaves a trace behind. Charcoal, the most 
 fervent, because to it, when ignited, the 
 most obdurate metals yield ; and clay, the 
 most zealous, because it is constantly em- 
 ployed in man's service, and is as constant- 
 ly reminding us that from it we all came, 
 and to it we must all return. In the earlier 
 lectures of the last century, the symbols, 
 with the same interpretation, were given 
 as " Chalk, Charcoal, and Earthen Pau." 
 
 Chamber, Middle. See Middle 
 Chamber. 
 
 Chamber of Reflection. In the 
 French and Scottish Rites, a small room 
 adjoining the Lodge, in which, preparatory 
 to initiation, the candidate is enclosed for 
 the purpose of indulging in those serious 
 meditations which its sombre appearance, 
 and the gloomy emblems with which it is 
 furnished, are calculated to produce. It is 
 also used in some of the high degrees for a 
 similar purpose. Its employment is very 
 appropriate, for, as Gadicke well observes, 
 " it is only in solitude that we can deeply 
 reflect upon our present or future under- 
 takings, and blackness, darkness, or solitari- 
 ness, is ever a symbol of death. A man who 
 has undertaken a thing after mature re- 
 flection seldom turns back." 
 
 Chancellor. An officer in a Council 
 of Knights of the Red Cross, correspond- 
 ing in some respects to the Senior Warden 
 of a Symbolic Lodge. 
 
 Chancellor, Grand. An officer in 
 the Supreme Councils and Grand Consisto- 
 ries of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite, whose duties are somewhat similar to 
 those of a Corresponding Secretary. 
 
 Chaos. A confused and shapeless 
 mass, such as is supposed to have existed 
 before God reduced creation into order. It 
 is a Masonic symbol of the ignorance and 
 intellectual darkness from which man is 
 rescued by the light and truth of Masonry. 
 Hence, ordo ab chao, or, "order out of 
 chaos," is one of the mottoes of the Insti- 
 tution. 
 
 Chaos Disentangled. One of the 
 names formerly given to the twenty-eighth 
 degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite, or Knight of the Sun. It is like- 
 wise found in the collection of M. Pyron. 
 Discrete and Wise Chaos are the forty-ninth 
 and fiftieth degrees of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Chapean. The cocked hat worn in 
 this country by Knights Templars. The 
 
CHAPEL 
 
 CHARGES 
 
 157 
 
 regulations of the Grand Encampment of 
 the United States, in 1862, prescribes that it 
 shall be "the military chapeau, trimmed 
 with black binding, one white and two 
 black plumes, and appropriate cross on the 
 left side." 
 
 Chapel. The closets and anterooms 
 so necessary and convenient to a Lodge lor 
 various purposes, are dignified by German 
 Masons with the title of " Capelan, or 
 chapels." 
 
 Chapel, St. Mary's. The oldest 
 Lodge in Edinburgh, Scotland, whose min- 
 utes, according to Lawrie, extend as far 
 back as the year 1598. They show that 
 Thomas Boswell, Esq., of Auchinleck, was 
 made a Warden of the Lodge in the year 
 1600, and that the Hon. Robert Moray, 
 Quartermaster-General of the Army in 
 Scotland, was created a Master Mason in 
 1641. These facts show that at that early 
 period persons who were not operative 
 Masons by profession were admitted into 
 the Order. 
 
 Chapiter. The uppermost part of a 
 column, pillar, or pilaster, serving as 
 the head or crowning, and placed imme- 
 diately over the shaft and under the en- 
 tablature. The pillars which stood in front 
 of the porch of King Solomon's Temple 
 were adorned with chapiters of a peculiar 
 construction, which are largely referred to, 
 and their symbolism explained, in the Fel- 
 low Craft's degree. See Pillars of the 
 Porch. 
 
 Chaplain. The office of Chaplain of 
 a Lodge is one which is not recognized in 
 the ritual of this country, although often 
 conferred by courtesy. The Master of a 
 Lodge in general performs the duties of a 
 Chaplain. 
 
 Chaplain, Grand. An office in a 
 Grand Lodge of very modern date. It was 
 first instituted on the 1st of May, 1775, on 
 the occasion of the laying of the corner- 
 stone of the Freemasons' Hall in London. 
 This office is now universally recognized by 
 the Grand Lodges of this country. His 
 duties are confined to offering up prayer at 
 the communications of the Grand Lodge, 
 and conducting its devotional exercises on 
 public occasions. 
 
 Chapter. In early times the meetings 
 of Masons were called not only Lodges, but 
 Chapters and Congregations. Thus, the 
 statute enacted in the third year of the 
 reign of Henry VI., of England, A. D. 
 1425, declares that " Masons shall not con- 
 federate in Chapters and Congregations." 
 The word is now exclusively appropriated 
 to designate the bodies in which degrees 
 higher than the symbolic are conferred. 
 Thus, there are Chapters of Royal Arch 
 Masons in the York and American Rites 
 
 and Chapters of Rose Croix Masons in the 
 Ancient and Accepted. 
 Chapter, General Grand. See 
 
 General Grand Chapter. 
 
 Chapter, Grand. See Grand Chap- 
 ter. 
 
 Chapter Mason. A colloquialism 
 denoting a Royal Arch Mason. 
 
 Chapter Masonry. A colloquial- 
 ism intended to denote the degrees con- 
 ferred in a Royal Arch Chapter. 
 
 Chapter, Rose Croix. See Rose 
 Croix, Prince of. 
 
 Chapter, Royal Areh. A convo- 
 cation of Royal Arch Masons is called a 
 Chapter. In Great Britain, Royal Arch 
 Masonry is connected with and under the 
 government of the Grand Lodge ; but in 
 America, the jurisdictions are separate. 
 Here, a Chapter of Royal Arch Masons is 
 empowered to give the preparatory degrees 
 of Mark, Past, and Most Excellent Master ; 
 although, of course, the Chapter, when 
 meeting in either of these degrees, is called 
 a Lodge. In some Chapters, the degrees 
 of Royal and Select Master are also given 
 as preparatory degrees ; but in most of the 
 States, the control of these is conferred 
 upon separate bodies, called " Councils of 
 Royal and Select Masters." 
 
 The presiding officers of a Chapter are 
 the High Priest, King, and Scribe, who 
 are, respectively, representatives of Joshua, 
 Zerubbabel, and Haggai. In the English 
 Chapters, these officers are generally styled 
 either by the founders' names, as above, or 
 as First, Second, and Third Principals. In 
 the Chapters of Ireland the order of the 
 officers is King, High Priest, and Scribe. 
 Chapters of Royal Arch Masons in this 
 country are primarily under the jurisdic- 
 tion of State Grand Chapters, as Lodges 
 are under Grand Lodges; and secondly, 
 under the General Grand Chapter of the 
 United States, whose meetings are held tri- 
 ennially, and which exercises a general 
 supervision over this branch of the Order 
 throughout the Union. See Royal Arch. 
 
 Chapters, Irish. See Irish Chapters. 
 
 Characteristic Name. See Order 
 Name. 
 
 Charcoal. See Chalk, Charcoal, and 
 Clay. 
 
 Charge. So called from the "Old 
 Charges," because, like them, it contains 
 an epitome of duty. It is the admonition 
 which is given by the presiding officer, at 
 the close of the ceremony of initiation, to 
 the candidate, and which the latter receives 
 standing, as a token of respect. There is 
 a charge for each degree, which is to be 
 found in all the monitors and manuals from 
 Preston onwards. 
 
 Charges. The "Masons' Constitu- 
 
158 
 
 CHARGES 
 
 CHARITY 
 
 tions " are old records, containing a history, 
 very often somewhat apocryphal, of the 
 origin and progress of Masonry, and regu- 
 lations for the government of the Craft. 
 These regulations are called " Charges," 
 and are generally the same in substance, 
 although they differ in number, in the dif- 
 ferent documents. These charges are di- 
 vided into "Articles" and "Points ^'al- 
 though it would be difficult to say in what 
 the one section differs in character from the 
 other, as each details the rules which should 
 govern a Mason in his conduct towards his 
 "lord," or employer, and to his brother 
 workmen. The oldest of these charges is 
 to be found in the York Constitutions, (if 
 they are authentic,) and consists of Fifteen 
 Articles and Fifteen Points. It was re- 
 quired by the Constitutions of the time of 
 Edward III., "that, for the future, at the 
 making or admission of a brother, the con- 
 stitutions and charges should be read." 
 This regulation is still preserved in form, 
 in modern Lodges, by the reading of " the 
 charge" by the Master to a candidate at 
 the close of the ceremony of his reception 
 into a degree. 
 
 Charges of 1722. The Fraternity 
 had long been in possession of many 
 records, containing the ancient regulations 
 of the Order; when, in 1722, the Duke of 
 Montague being Grand Master of England, 
 the Grand Lodge finding fault with their 
 antiquated arrangement, it was directed 
 that they should be collected, and after be- 
 ing properly digested, be annexed to the 
 Book of Constitutions, then in course of 
 publication under the superintendence of 
 Dr. James Anderson. This was accord- 
 ingly done, and the document now well- 
 known under the title of The Old Charges 
 of the Free and Accepted Masons, constitutes, 
 by universal consent, a part of the funda- 
 mental law of our Order. The charges are 
 divided into six general heads of duty, as 
 follows: 1. Concerning God and religion. 
 2. Of the civil magistrate, supreme and 
 subordinate. 3. Of Lodges. 4. Of Mas- 
 ters, Wardens, Fellows, and Apprentices. 
 5. Of the management of the Craft in work- 
 ing. 6. Of behavior under different cir- 
 cumstances, and in various conditions. 
 These charges contain succinct directions 
 for the proper discharge of a Mason's du- 
 ties, in whatever position he may be placed, 
 and are, as modern researches have shown, 
 a collation of the charges contained in the 
 Old Records, and from them have been 
 abridged, or by them suggested, all those 
 well-known directions found in our moni- 
 tors, which Masters are accustomed to read 
 to candidates on their reception. See 
 Records, Old. 
 
 Charity. " Though I speak with the 
 
 tongues of men and of angels, and have not 
 charity, I am become as sounding brass, or 
 a tinkling cymbal. And though I have the 
 gift of prophecy, and understand all mys- 
 teries and knowledge, and have all faith, so 
 that I could remove mountains, and have 
 not charity, I am nothing." (1 Corinth, 
 xiii. 1, 2.) Such was the language of an 
 eminent apostle of the Christian church, 
 and such is the sentiment that constitutes 
 the cementing bond of Freemasonry. The 
 apostle, in comparing it with faith and 
 hope, calls it the greatest of the three, and 
 hence in Masonry it is made the topmost 
 round of its mystic ladder. We must not 
 fall into the too common error that charity 
 is only that sentiment of commiseration 
 which leads us to assist the poor with pecu- 
 niary donations. Its Masonic, as well as 
 its Christian application is more noble and 
 more extensive. The word used by the 
 apostle is, in the original, 'ayanrj, or love, a 
 word denoting that kindly state of mind 
 which renders a person full of good-will 
 and affectionate regard towards others. 
 John Wesley expressed his regret that the 
 Greek had not been correctly translated as 
 love instead of charity, so that the apostolic 
 triad of virtues would have been, not " faith, 
 hope, and charity," but " faith, hope, and 
 love." Then would we have understood 
 the comparison made by St. Paul, when he 
 said, " Though I bestow all my goods to 
 feed the poor, and though I give my body 
 to be burned, and have not love, it profiteth 
 me nothing." Guided by this sentiment, 
 the true Mason will " suffer long and be 
 kind." He will be slow to anger and easy 
 to forgive. He will stay his falling brother 
 by gentle admonition, and warn him with 
 kindness of approaching danger. He will not 
 open his ear to his slanderers, and will close 
 his lips against all reproach. His faults 
 and his follies will be locked in his breast, 
 and the prayer for mercy will ascend to 
 Jehovah for his brother's sins. Nor will 
 these sentiments of benevolence be confined 
 to those who are bound to him by ties of 
 kindred or worldly friendship alone; but, 
 extending them throughout the globe, he 
 will love and cherish all who sit beneath 
 the broad canopy of our universal Lodge. 
 For it is the boast of our Institution, that 
 a Mason, destitute and worthy, may find in 
 every clime a brother, and in every land a 
 home. 
 
 Charity, Committee on. See Com- 
 mittee on Charity. 
 
 Charity Fund. Many Lodges and 
 Grand Lodges have a fund especially ap- 
 propriated to charitable purposes, and 
 which is not used for the disbursement of 
 the current expenses, but which is appro- 
 priated to the relief of indigent brethren, 
 
CHARLATAN 
 
 CHARTER 
 
 159 
 
 their widows and orphans. The charity 
 fund of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, 
 which was bequeathed to it by Stephen 
 Girard, and which is the largest in this 
 country, considerably exceeds fifty thou- 
 sand dollars. 
 
 Charlatan. A charlatan is a babbling 
 mountebank, who imposes on the populace 
 by large pretensions and high sounding 
 words. A charlatan in Masonry is one who 
 seeks by a display of pompous ceremonial, 
 and often by claims to supernatural powers, 
 to pervert the institution of Masonry to 
 the acquisition of gain, or the gratification 
 of a paltry ambition. Every man, says a 
 distinguished writer, is a charlatan who ex- 
 torts money by charging for sixpenny trash 
 the amount that should only be paid for 
 works of science, and that, too, under the 
 plea of conveying knowledge that cannot 
 otherwise be obtained [Lond. Freem. Mag., 
 1844, p. 505). The eighteenth century pre- 
 sented many examples of these Masonic 
 charlatans, of whom by far the greatest 
 was Cagliostro; nor has the nineteenth 
 century been entirely without them. 
 
 Charlemagne. The great Charles, 
 King of France, who ascended the throne 
 in the year 768, is claimed by some Masonic 
 writers as a patron of Masonry. This is 
 perhaps because architecture flourished in 
 France during his reign, and because he 
 encouraged the arts by inviting the archi- 
 tects and travelling Freemasons, who were 
 then principally confined to Italy, to visit 
 France and engage in the construction of 
 important edifices. 
 
 Charles Martel. He was the founder 
 of the Carlovingian dynasty, and governed 
 France with supreme power from 716 to 741, 
 under the title of Duke of the Franks. He 
 is claimed by the authors of the Old Records 
 as one of the patrons of Masonry. Thus, 
 the Landsdowne manuscript says : " There 
 was one of the Royall Line of France called 
 Charles Marshall, and he was a man that 
 loved well the said Craft and took upon 
 him the Rules and Manners, and after that 
 By the Grace of God he was elect to be 
 the King of France, and when he was in 
 his Estate he helped to make those Masons 
 that were now, and sett them on Work and 
 gave them Charges and Manners and good 
 pay as he had learned of other Masons, and 
 confirmed them a Charter from yeare to 
 yeare to hold their Assembly when they 
 would, and cherished them right well, and 
 thus came this Noble Craft into France." 
 
 Rebold {Hist. Gen.) has accepted this 
 legend as authentic, and says: "In 740, 
 Charles Martel, who reigned in France 
 under the title of Mayor of the Palace, at 
 the request of the Anglo-Saxon kings, sent 
 many workmen and Masters into England." 
 
 Charles I., and II. For their sup- 
 posed connection with the origin of Free- 
 masonry, see Stuart Masonry. 
 
 Charles XIII. The Duke of Siider- 
 manland was distinguished for his attach- 
 ment to Masonry. In 1809 he ascended the 
 throne of Sweden under the title of Charles 
 XIII. Having established the Masonic 
 order of knighthood of that name, he ab- 
 dicated in favor of Charles John Berna- 
 dotte, but always remained an active and 
 zealous member of the Order. There is no 
 king on record so distinguished for his at- 
 tachment to Freemasonry as Charles XIII., 
 of Sweden, and to him the Swedish Masons 
 are in a great measure indebted for the 
 high position that the Order has maintained 
 during the present century in that country. 
 
 Charles XIII., Order of. An order 
 of knighthood instituted in 1811 by Charles 
 XIII., King of Sweden, and which was to 
 be conferred only on the principal digni- 
 taries of the Masonic institution in his do- 
 minions. In the manifesto establishing 
 the Order, the king says : " To give to 
 this society (the Masonic) a proof of our 
 gracious sentiments towards it, we will and 
 ordain that its first dignitaries to the 
 number which we may determine, shall in 
 future be decorated with the most intimate 
 proof of our confidence, and which shall be 
 for them a distinctive mark of the highest 
 dignity." The number of Knights are 
 twenty-seven, all Masons, and the King of 
 Sweden is the perpetual Grand Master. 
 The color of the ribbon is red, and the 
 jewel a maltese cross pendent from an im- 
 perial crown. 
 
 Charleston. A city in the United 
 States of America, and the metropolis of 
 the State of South Carolina. It was there 
 that the first Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite was 
 established in 1801, whence all other Su- 
 preme Councils have emanated, directly or 
 indirectly. Hence, it has assumed the 
 title of "Mother Council of the world." 
 Its seat was removed in 1870 to the city of 
 Washington. See Scottish Rite. 
 
 Charms, Magical. See Talisman. 
 
 Chart. 1. A map on which is delineated 
 the emblems of a degree, to be used for the 
 instruction of candidates, formerly called a 
 carpet, which see. 2. The title given by 
 Jeremy L. Cross to his Hieroglyphic 
 Monitor, which acquired on its first ap- 
 pearance in the Lodges of America a pop- 
 ularity that it has not yet entirely lost. 
 Hence the word chart is still sometimes 
 used colloquially and improperly to desig- 
 nate any other Masonic manual of moni- 
 torial instruction. 
 
 Charter. Often used for Warrant of 
 Constitution, which see. 
 
160 
 
 CHARTERED 
 
 CHEREAU 
 
 Chartered Lodge. A Lodge work- 
 ing under the authority of a Charter or 
 Warrant of Constitution issued by a Grand 
 Lodge as distinguished from a Lodge work- 
 ing under a dispensation issued by a Grand 
 Master. Chartered Lodges only are entitled 
 to representation in the Grand Lodge. 
 They alone can make by-laws, elect mem- 
 bers, or have their officers installed. They 
 are the constituent bodies of a jurisdiction, 
 and by their representatives compose the 
 Grand Lodge. 
 
 Charter Member. A Mason whose 
 name is attached to the petition upon which 
 a Charter or Warrant of Constitution has 
 been granted to a Lodge, Chapter, or other 
 subordinate body. 
 
 Charter of Cologne. See Cologne, 
 Charter of. 
 
 Charter of Transmission. See 
 Transmission, Charter of. 
 
 Chasidim. In Hebrew, D*"PDIT 
 meaning saints. The name of a sect which 
 existed in the time of the Maccabees, and 
 which was organized for the purpose of op- 
 posing innovations upon the Jewish faith. 
 Their essential principles were to observe 
 all the ritual laws of purification, to meet 
 frequently for devotion, to submit to acts 
 of self-denial and mortification, to have all 
 things in common, and sometimes to with- 
 draw from society and to devote themselves 
 to contemplation. Lawrie, who seeks to 
 connect them with the Masonic institution 
 as a continuation of the Masons of the Solo- 
 monic era, describes them as " a religious 
 Fraternity, or an order of the Knights of 
 the Temple of Jerusalem, who bound 
 themselves to adorn the porches of that 
 magnificent structure, and to preserve it 
 from injury and decay. This association 
 was composed of the greatest men of Israel, 
 who were distinguished for their charitable 
 and peaceful dispositions, and always sig- 
 nalized themselves by their ardent zeal for 
 the purity and preservation of the Temple." 
 
 Chastanier, Benedict. A French 
 Mason, who in the year 1767 introduced 
 into England a modification of the Rite 
 of Pernetty, in nine degrees, and estab- 
 tished a Lodge in London under the name 
 of the "Illuminated Theosophists;" which, 
 however, according to Lenning, soon aban- 
 doned the Masonic forms, and was con- 
 verted into a mere theosophic sect, intended 
 to propagate the religious system of Sweden- 
 borg. Mr. White, in his IAfe of Emanuel 
 Swedenborg, (Lond., 1868, p. 683,) gives an 
 account of " The Theosophical Society, in- 
 stituted for the purpose of promoting the 
 Heavenly Doctrines of the New Jerusalem 
 by translating, printing, and publishing 
 the theological writings of Emanuel Swe- 
 denborg." This society was formed in 
 
 1784, and met on Sundays and Thursdays 
 at chambers in New Court, Middle Temple, 
 for the discussion of Swedenborg's writings. 
 Among the twenty-five persons mentioned 
 by White as having either joined the so- 
 ciety or sympathized with its object, we 
 find the name of " Benedict Chastanier, 
 French Surgeon, 62 Tottenham Court." 
 The nine degrees of Chastanier's Rite of 
 Illuminated Theosophists are as follows: 
 1, 2, and 3, Symbolic degrees ; 4, 5, 6, The- 
 osophic Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and 
 Master ; 7, Sublime Scottish Mason, or Ce- 
 lestial Jerusalem ; 8, Blue Brother ; and 9, 
 Red Brother. 
 
 Chastity. In the Halliwell MS. of 
 the Constitutions of Masonry, written not 
 later than the latter part of the fourteenth 
 century, and purporting to be a copy of the 
 Regulations adopted at York in 926, the 
 seventh point is in these words : 
 
 " Thou schal not by thy maystres wyf ly, 
 Ny by thy felows yn no manner wyse, 
 Lest the Craft wolde the despyse ; 
 Ny by thy felows concubyne, 
 No more thou woldest be dede by thyne." 
 
 Again, in the Constitutions known as the 
 Matthew Cooke MS., the date of which is 
 about the latter part of the fifteenth century, 
 the same regulation is enforced in these 
 words: "The 7th Point. That he covet 
 not the wyfe ne the daughter of his 
 masters, neither of his fellows but if [un- 
 less] it be in marriage." So all through 
 the Old Constitutions and Charges, we find 
 this admonition to respect the chastity of 
 our brethren's wives and daughters; an ad- 
 monition which, it is scarcely necessary to 
 say, is continued to this day. 
 
 Chasuhle. The outer dress worn by 
 the priest at the altar service, and is an 
 imitation of the old Roman toga. It is a 
 circular cloth, which falls down over the 
 body so as completely to cover it, with an 
 aperture in the centre for the head to pass 
 through. It is used in the ceremonies of 
 the Rose Croix degree. 
 
 Checkered Floor. See Mosaic Pave- 
 ment. 
 
 Chef-d'cenvre. It was a custom 
 among many of the gilds, and especially 
 among the Compagnons du Devoir, who 
 sprung up in the sixteenth century in 
 France, on the decay of Freemasonry in 
 that kingdom, and as one of its results, to 
 require every Apprentice, before he could 
 be admitted to the freedom of the gild, 
 to present a piece of finished work as a 
 
 Eroof of his skill in the art in which he had 
 een instructed. The piece of work was 
 called his chef-d'oeuvre, or masterpiece. 
 
 Chereau, Antoine Guillianme. 
 A painter in Paris, who published, in 1806, 
 
CHERUBIM 
 
 CHINA 
 
 161 
 
 two hermetico-philosophical brochures en- 
 titled, Explication de la Pierre Cubique, and 
 Explication de la Oroix Philosophique ; or 
 Explanations of the Cubical Stone and of 
 the Philosophical Cross. These works are 
 brief, but give much interesting informa- 
 tion on the ritualism and symbolism of the 
 high degrees. They have been republished 
 by Tessier in his Manuel General, without, 
 however, any acknowledgment to the orig- 
 inal author. 
 
 Cherubim. The second order of the 
 angelic hierarchy, the first being the sera- 
 phim. The two cherubim that overtopped 
 the mercy-seat or covering of the ark, in 
 the holy of holies, were placed there by 
 Moses, in obedience to the orders of God : 
 " And thou shalt make two cherubim of 
 gold, of beaten work shalt thou make them, 
 in the two ends of the mercy-seat. And 
 the cherubim shall stretch forth their 
 wings on high, covering the mercy -seat 
 with their wings, and their faces shall look 
 one to another; towards the mercy -seat 
 shall the faces of the cherubim be." (Exod. 
 xxv. 17, 19.) It was between these cheru- 
 bim that the Shekinah or divine presence 
 rested, and from which issued the Bathkol 
 or voice of God. Of the form of these 
 cherubim, we are ignorant. Josephus says, 
 that they resembled no known creature, 
 but that Moses made them in the form in 
 which he saw them about the throne of 
 God ; others, deriving their ideas from what 
 is said of them by Ezekiel, Isaiah, and St. 
 John, describe them as having the face and 
 breast of a man, the wings of an eagle, the 
 belly of a lion, and the legs and feet of an 
 ox, which three animals, with man, are the 
 symbols of strength and wisdom. But all 
 agree in this, that they had wings, and that 
 these wings were extended. The cherubim 
 were purely symbolic. But although there 
 is great diversity of opinion as to their ex- 
 act signification, yet there is a very general 
 agreement that they allude to and sym- 
 bolize the protecting and overshadowing 
 power of the Deity. Reference is made to 
 the extended wings of the cherubim in the 
 degree of Royal Master. 
 
 Chesed. A word which is most gen- 
 erally corrupted into Hesed. It is the He- 
 brew "ID!"!* an( i signifies mercy. Hence, 
 it very appropriately refers to that act of 
 kindness and compassion which is com- 
 memorated in the degree of Select Master 
 of the American system. It is the fourth 
 of the Kabbalistic Sephiroth, and is com- 
 bined in a triad with Beauty and Justice. 
 
 Chevalier. Employed by the French 
 Masons as the equivalent of Knight in the 
 name of any degree in which the latter 
 word is used by English Masons, as Cheva- 
 lier du Soleil, for the Knight of the Sun, or 
 V 11 
 
 Chevalier de F Orient for Knight of the 
 East. The German word is Bitter. 
 
 Chibbelum. A significant word used 
 in the rituals of the last century, which de- 
 fine it to mean "a worthy Mason." It is a 
 corruption of Giblim. 
 
 Chicago, Congress of. A conven- 
 tion of distinguished Masons of the United 
 States, held at the city of Chicago in Sep- 
 tember, 1859, during the session of the 
 Grand Encampment and General Grand 
 Chapter, for the purpose of establishing a 
 General Grand Lodge, or a Permanent Ma- 
 sonic Congress. Its results were not of a 
 successful character ; and the death of its 
 moving spirit, Cyril Pearl, which occurred 
 soon after, put an end to all future at- 
 tempts to carry into effect any of its pre- 
 liminary proceedings. 
 
 Chief of the Tabernacle. The 
 twenty-third degree in the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite. It commemorates 
 the institution of the order of the priest- 
 hood in Aaron and his sons Eleazar and 
 Ithamar. Its principal officers are three, 
 a Sovereign Sacrificer and two High Priests, 
 now called by the Supreme Councils of 
 America the Most Excellent High Priest 
 and Excellent Priests, and the members of 
 the " Hierarchy" or " Court," as the Lodge 
 is now styled, are called Levites. The 
 apron is white, lined with deep scarlet and 
 bordered with red, blue, and purple ribbon. 
 A golden chandelier of seven branches is 
 painted or embroidered on the centre 
 of the apron. The jewel, which is a 
 thurible, is worn from a broad yellow, 
 purple, blue, and scarlet sash from the left 
 shoulder to the right hip. 
 
 Chief of the Twelve Tribes. 
 (Chef des douze Tribus.) The eleventh de- 
 gree of the Chapter of Emperors of the 
 East and West. It is also called Illustrious 
 Elect. 
 
 Chiefs of Masonry. A title for- 
 merly given in the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite to Princes of Jerusalem. It 
 seems now to be more appropriate to In- 
 spectors General of the thirty-third degree. 
 
 Chili. Freemasonry was introduced 
 into Chili, in 1841, by the Grand Orient of 
 France. Lodges were subsequently organ- 
 ized in 1850 and 1851 by the Grand Lodges 
 of Massachusetts and California. On the 
 20th of April a Grand Lodge was formed, 
 and a Grand Chapter soon after. 
 
 China. Masonry was introduced many 
 years ago into China by the Grand Lodge 
 of England. A Provincial Grand Lodge 
 exists at Hong-Kong, and several Lodges. 
 These are mainly supported by the foreign 
 population. There are also Chapters and an 
 Encampment of Knights Templars, under 
 the English authority. 
 
162 
 
 CHINESE 
 
 CHRISTIANIZATION 
 
 Chinese Secret Societies. In 
 
 China, as in all other countries, secret so- 
 cieties have existed, such as the Tien-tee- 
 whee, or Association of Heaven and Earth, 
 and the Tien-lee, or Society of Celestial 
 Reason. But the attempt to trace any 
 analogy between them and Freemasonry 
 is a mistaken one. These societies have in 
 general been of a political character, with 
 revolutionary tendencies, and as such have 
 been prohibited by the government, some- 
 times under the penalty of the death or 
 banishment of their members. Their simi- 
 larity to Masonry consists only in these 
 points : that they have forms of initiation, 
 an esoteric instruction, and secret modes of 
 recognition. Beyond these all further re- 
 semblance fails. 
 
 Chisel. In the American Rite the 
 chisel is one of the working tools of a 
 Mark Master, and symbolizes the effects of 
 education on the human mind. For as the 
 artist, by the aid of this instrument, gives 
 form and regularity to the shapeless mass 
 of stone, so education, by cultivating the 
 ideas and by polishing the rude thoughts, 
 transforms the ignorant savage into the 
 civilized being. 
 
 In the English ritual, the chisel is one 
 of the working tools of the Entered Ap- 
 prentice, with the same reference to the 
 advantages of education. Preston (B. II., 
 Sect, vi.,) thus elaborates its symbolism as 
 one of the implements of Masonry : "The 
 chisel demonstrates the advantages of dis- 
 cipline and education. The mind, like the 
 diamond in its original state, is unpolished; 
 but as the effects of the chisel on the ex- 
 ternal coat soon presents to view the latent 
 beauties of the diamond, so education dis- 
 covers the latent virtues and draws them 
 forth to range the large field of matter and 
 space, in order to display the summit of 
 human knowledge, — our duty to God and 
 to man." But the idea is not original 
 with Preston. It is found in Hutchin- 
 son, who, however, does not claim it as 
 his own. It formed, most probably, a por- 
 tion of the lectures of the period. In the 
 French system, the chisel is placed on the 
 tracing board of the Fellow Craft as an 
 implement with which to work upon and 
 polish the Rough Ashlar. It has, there- 
 fore, there the same symbolic signification. 
 
 Chivalry. The origin of chivalry is 
 involved in very great obscurity. Almost 
 every author who has written on this sub- 
 ject has adopted an hypothesis of his own. 
 Some derive the institution from the eques- 
 trian order of ancient Rome, while others 
 trace it to the tribes who, under the name 
 of Northmen, about the ninth century, 
 invaded the southern parts of Europe. 
 Warburton ascribes the origin of chivalry 
 
 to the Arabians; Pinkerton, Mallet, and 
 Percy, to the Scandinavians. Clavel de- 
 rives it from the secret societies of the 
 Persians, which were the remains of the 
 mysteries of Mithras. In Christendom, it 
 gave rise to the orders of knighthood, some 
 of which have been incorporated into the 
 Masonic system. See Knighthood. 
 
 Christ, Order of. After the over- 
 throw of the Order of Knights Templars 
 throughout Europe, Dennis I., King of 
 Portugal, in 1317 solicited of Pope John 
 XXII. permission to re-establish the Order 
 of the Temple in his dominions under the 
 name of the Order of Christ, and to restore 
 to it the possessions which had been wrested 
 from the Templars. The pope consented, 
 approved the statutes which had been sub- 
 mitted to him, and, in 1319, confirmed the 
 institution, reserving to himself and to his 
 successors the right of creating knights, 
 which has given rise to the pontifical 
 branch of the Order which exists at Rome. 
 The knights follow the rule of St. Bene- 
 dict, and conform in all points to the stat- 
 utes of the Order of the Temple. The 
 Grand Mastership is vested in the king of 
 Portugal, and the Order having been secu- 
 larized in 1789, the members were divided 
 into the three classes of six Grand Crosses, 
 four hundred and fifty Commanders, and 
 an unlimited number of knights. It was 
 designated the Most Noble Order, and none 
 but those nobly descended, of unsullied char- 
 acter, could be admitted. That the grand- 
 father had been a mechanic was an impedi- 
 ment to the exaltation even of knights of 
 the third class. The Grand Crosses and Com- 
 manders had generally valuable grants and 
 great privileges; the latter were also enjoyed 
 by the knights, with pensions with rever- 
 sion to their wives. 
 
 Christianization of Freema- 
 sonry. The interpretation of the sym- 
 bols of Freemasonry from a Christian 
 point of view is a theory adopted by some 
 of the most distinguished Masonic writers 
 of England and this country, but one 
 which I think does not belong to the an- 
 cient system. Hutchinson, and after him 
 Oliver, — profoundly philosophical as are 
 the Masonic speculations of both, — have, 
 I am constrained to believe, fallen into a 
 great error in calling the Master Mason's 
 degree a Christian institution. It is true 
 that it embraces within its scheme the great 
 truths of Christianity upon the subject of 
 the immortality of the soul and the resur- 
 rection of the body; but this was to be 
 presumed, because Freemasonry is truth, 
 and all truth must be identical. But the 
 origin of each is different ; their histories 
 are dissimilar. The principles of Free- 
 masonry preceded the advent of Chris- 
 
CHUKCH 
 
 CIPHER 
 
 163 
 
 tianity. Its symbols and its legends are 
 derived from the Solomonic Temple and 
 from the people even anterior to that. Its 
 religion comes from the ancient priesthood ; 
 its faith was that primitive one of Noah 
 and his immediate descendants. If Ma- 
 sonry were simply a Christian institution, 
 the Jew and the Moslem, the Brahman and 
 the Buddhist, could not conscientiously 
 partake of its illumination. But its uni- 
 versality is its boast. In its language citi- 
 zens of every nation may converse ; at its 
 altar men of all religions may kneel ; to 
 its creed disciples of every faith may sub- 
 scribe. 
 
 Yet it cannot be denied that since the 
 advent of Christianity a Christian element 
 has been almost imperceptibly infused into 
 the Masonic system, at least among Chris- 
 tian Masons. This has been a necessity ; 
 for it is the tendency of every predomi- 
 nant religion to pervade with its influence 
 all that surrounds it or is about it, whether 
 religious, political, or social. This arises 
 from a need of the human heart. To the 
 man deeply imbued with the spirit of his 
 religion, there is an almost unconscious 
 desire to accommodate and adapt all the 
 business and the amusements of life, — the 
 labors and the employments of his every- 
 day existence, — to the in-dwelling faith of 
 his soul. 
 
 The Christian Mason, therefore, while 
 acknowledging and appreciating the great 
 doctrines taught in Masonry, and also while 
 grateful that these doctrines were preserved 
 in the bosom of his ancient Order at a time 
 when they were unknown to the multitudes 
 of the surrounding nations, is still anxious 
 to give to them a Christian character; to 
 invest them, in some measure, with the pe- 
 culiarities of his own creed, and to bring 
 the interpretation of their symbolism more 
 nearly home to his own religious senti- 
 ments. 
 
 The feeling is an instinctive one, belong- 
 ing to the noblest aspirations of our human 
 nature ; and hence we find Christian Ma- 
 sonic writers indulging in it to an almost 
 unwarrantable excess, and, by the extent 
 of their sectarian interpretations, materially 
 affecting the cosmopolitan character of the 
 Institution. 
 
 This tendency to Christianization has, in 
 some instances, been so universal, and has 
 prevailed for so long a period, that certain 
 symbols and myths have been, in this way, 
 so deeply and thoroughly imbued with the 
 Christian element as to leave those who 
 have not penetrated into the cause of this 
 peculiarity, in doubt whether they should 
 attribute to the symbol an ancient or a 
 modern and Christian origin. 
 Church, Freemasons of the. 
 
 An Architectural College was organized in 
 London, in the year 1842, under the name 
 of " Freemasons of the Church for the Re- 
 covery, Maintenance, and Furtherance of 
 the True Principles and Practice of Archi- 
 tecture." The founders announced their ob- 
 jects to be " the rediscovery of the ancient 
 principles of architecture ; the sanction of 
 good principles of building, and the con- 
 demnation of bad ones ; the exercise of 
 scientific and experienced judgment in the 
 choice and use of the most proper mate- 
 rials ; the infusion, maintenance, and ad- 
 vancement of science throughout architec- 
 ture; and eventually, by developing the 
 powers of the College upon a just and 
 beneficial footing, to reform the whole prac- 
 tice of architecture, to raise it from its pres- 
 ent vituperated condition, and to bring 
 around it the same unquestioned honor 
 which is at present enjoyed by almost every 
 other profession." The Builder, vol. i., 
 p. 23. 
 
 One of their own members has said that 
 " the title was not intended to express any 
 conformity with the general body of Free- 
 masons, but rather as indicative of the pro- 
 fessed views of the College, namely, the re- 
 covery, maintenance, and furtherance of 
 the free principles and practice of architec- 
 ture." And that, in addition, they made 
 it an object of their exertions to preserve 
 or effect the restoration of architectural re- 
 mains of antiquity threatened unneces- 
 sarily with demolition or endangered by 
 decay. But it is evident, from the close 
 connection of modern Freemasonry with 
 the building gilds of the Middle Ages, that 
 any investigations into the condition of 
 mediaeval architecture must throw light on 
 Masonic history. 
 
 Cipher Writing. Cryptography, or 
 the art of writing in cipher, so as to con- 
 ceal the meaning of what is written from 
 all except those who possess the key, may 
 be traced to remote antiquity. De la 
 Guilletiere (Lacedccmon) attributes its ori- 
 gin to the Spartans, and Polybius says that 
 more than two thousand years ago ^Eneas 
 Tacitus had collected more than twenty 
 different kinds of cipher which were then 
 in use. Kings and generals communicated 
 their messages to officers in distant prov- 
 inces, by means of a preconcerted cipher ; 
 and the system has always been employed 
 wherever there was a desire or a necessity 
 to conceal from all but those who were en- 
 titled to the knowledge the meaning of a 
 written document. 
 
 The Druids, who were not permitted by 
 the rules of their Order to commit any part 
 of their ritual to ordinary writing, pre- 
 served the memory of it by the use of the 
 letters of the Greek alphabet. The Kab- 
 
164 
 
 CIPHER 
 
 CIPHER 
 
 balists concealed many words by writing 
 them backwards : a method which is still 
 pursued by the French Masons. The old 
 alchemists also made use of cipher writing, 
 in order to conceal those processes the 
 knowledge of which was intended only for 
 the adepts. Thus Roger Bacon, who dis- 
 covered the composition of gunpowder, is 
 said to have concealed the names of the in- 
 gredients under a cipher made by a trans- 
 position of the letters. 
 
 Cornelius Agrippa tells us, in his Occult 
 Philosophy, that the ancients accounted it 
 unlawful to write the mysteries of God 
 with those characters with which profane 
 and vulgar things were written ; and he 
 cites Porphyry as saying that the ancients 
 desired to conceal God, and divine virtues, 
 by sensible figures which were visible, yet 
 signified invisible things, and therefore de- 
 livered their great mysteries in sacred 
 letters, and explained them by symbolical 
 representations. Porphyry here, undoubt- 
 edly, referred to the invention and use of 
 hieroglyphics by the Egyptian priests; but 
 these hieroglyphic characters were in fact 
 nothing else but a form of cipher intended 
 to conceal their instructions from the un- 
 initiated profane. 
 
 Peter Aponas, an astrological writer of 
 the thirteenth century, gives us some of the 
 old ciphers which were used by the Kabba- 
 lists, and among others one alphabet called 
 " the passing of the river," which is re- 
 ferred to in some of the high degrees of 
 Masonry. 
 
 But we obtain from Agrippa one alpha- 
 bet in cipher which is of interest to Masons, 
 and which he says was once in great esteem 
 among the Kabbalists, but which has now, 
 he adds, become so common as to be placed 
 among profane things. He describes this 
 cipher as follows, (Phllos. Occult., lib. iii., 
 cap. 3.) The twenty-seven characters (in- 
 cluding the finals) of the Hebrew alphabet 
 were divided into three classes of nine in 
 «ach, and these were distributed into nine 
 squares, made by the intersection of two 
 horizontal and two vertical lines, forming, 
 the following figure : 
 
 3 2 1 
 6 5 4 
 9 8 7 
 
 In each of these compartments three 
 letters were placed; as, for instance, in the 
 first compartment, the first, tenth, and 
 nineteenth letters of the alphabet; in the 
 
 second compartment, the second, eleventh, 
 and nineteenth, and so on. The three 
 letters in each compartment were distin- 
 guished from each other by dots or accents. 
 Thus, the first compartment, or [_, repre- 
 sented the first letter, or {< ; the same com- 
 partment with a dot, thus, Ll, represented 
 the tenth letter, or ") ; or with two dots, 
 thus, t:, it representedthe nineteenth letter, 
 or p; and so with the other compartments ; 
 the ninth or last representing the ninth, 
 eighteenth, and twenty-seventh letters, J^> 
 ¥, or ty, accordingly as it was figured 
 H, "H or ^|, without a dot in the centre or 
 with one or two. 
 
 About the middle of the last century, the 
 French Masons adopted a cipher similar to 
 this in principle, but varied in the details, 
 among which was the addition of four 
 compartments, made by the oblique inter- 
 section of two lines in the form of a St. 
 Andrew's Cross. This cipher was never 
 officially adopted by the Masons of any 
 other country, but was at one time assumed 
 by the American Royal Arch ; although it 
 is now becoming obsolete there. It is, how- 
 ever, still recognized in all the "Tuilleurs" 
 of the French Rite. It has become so 
 common as to be placed, as Agrippa said 
 of the original scheme, "among profane 
 things." Its use would certainly no longer 
 subserve any purpose of concealment. 
 Rockwell openly printed it in his Ahiman 
 Rezon of Georgia ; and it is often used by 
 those who are not initiated, as a means of 
 amusement. 
 
 There is, therefore, really no recognized 
 cipher in use in Ancient Craft Masonry. 
 Brown and Finch, who printed rituals in- 
 tended only for the use of Masons, and not 
 as expositions, invented ciphers for their 
 own use, and supplied their initiated read- 
 ers with the key. Without a key, their 
 works are unintelligible, except by the art 
 of the decipherer. 
 
 Although not used in symbolic Masonry, 
 the cipher is common in the high degrees, 
 of which there is scarcely one which has not 
 its peculiar cipher. But for the purposes 
 of concealment, the cipher is no longer of 
 any practical use. The art of deciphering 
 has been brought to so great a state of per- 
 fection that there is no cipher so compli- 
 cated as to bid defiance for many hours to 
 the penetrating skill of the experienced de- 
 cipherer. Hence, the cipher has gone out 
 of use in Masonry as it has among diplo- 
 matists, who are compelled to communi- 
 cate with their respective countries by 
 methods more secret than any that can be 
 supplied by a despatch written in cipher. 
 Edgar A. Poe has justly said, in his story 
 of The Gold Bug, that " it may well be 
 doubted whether human ingenuity can con- 
 
CIRCLE 
 
 CIRCUMAMBULATION 165 
 
 struct an enigma of the kind, which hu- 
 man ingenuity may not, by proper appli- 
 cation, resolve." 
 
 Circle. The circle being a figure which 
 returns into itself, and having therefore 
 neither beginning nor end, it has been 
 adopted in the symbology of all countries 
 and times as a symbol sometimes of the 
 universe and sometimes of eternity. With 
 this idea in the Zoroasteric mysteries of 
 Persia, and frequently in the Celtic myste- 
 ries of Druidism, the temple of initiation 
 was circular. In the obsolete lectures of 
 the old English system, it was said that 
 " the circle has ever been considered sym- 
 bolical of the Deity ; for as a circle appears 
 to have neither beginning nor end, it may 
 be justly considered a type of God, without 
 either beginning of days or ending of years. 
 It also reminds us of a future state, where 
 we hope to enjoy everlasting happiness and 
 joy." But whatever refers especially to 
 the Masonic symbolism of the circle will be 
 more appropriately contained in the article 
 on the Point within a Circle. 
 
 Circular Temples. These were used 
 in the initiations of the religion of Zoroas- 
 ter. Like the square temples of Masonry, 
 and the other mysteries, they were sym- 
 bolic of the world ; and the symbol was 
 completed by making the circumference of 
 the circle a representation of the zodiac. 
 In the mysteries of Druidism also, the 
 temples were sometimes circular. 
 
 Circumambulation, Rite of. Cir- 
 cumambulation is the name given by sacred 
 archaeologists to that religious rite in the 
 ancient initiations which consisted in a 
 formal procession around the altar, or 
 other holy and consecrated object. The 
 same Rite exists in Freemasonry. 
 
 In ancient Greece, when the priests were 
 engaged in the rite of sacrifice, they and 
 the people always walked three times round 
 the altar while singing a sacred hymn. In 
 making this procession, great care was 
 taken to move in imitation of the course 
 of the sun. For this purpose, they com- 
 menced at the east, and passing on by the 
 way of the south to the west and thence by 
 the north, they arrived at the east again.* 
 By this means, as it will be observed, the 
 right hand was always placed to the altar, f 
 
 This ceremony the Greeks called moving 
 en SeSjia ev Set; la, from the right to the right, 
 
 * The strophe of the ancient hymn was sung in 
 going from the east to the west ; the antistrophe 
 in returning to the east, and the epode while 
 standing still. 
 
 f " After this," says Potter, " they stood about 
 the altar, and the priest, turning towards the 
 right hand, went round it and sprinkled it with 
 meal and holy water." — Antiquities of Greece, 
 B. II., ch. iv., p. 206. 
 
 which was the direction of the motion, and 
 the Romans applied to it the term dextro- 
 vorsum, or dextrorsum, which signifies the 
 same thing. Thus, Plautus ( Curcul. I., i. 70, ) 
 makes Palinurus, a character in his comedy 
 of Curculio, say : " If you would do rever- 
 ence to the gods, you must turn to the 
 right hand." Si deos salutas dextroversum 
 censeo. Gronovius, in commenting on this 
 passage of Plautus, says : " In worshipping 
 and praying to the gods, they were ac- 
 customed to turn to the right hand." 
 
 A hymn of Callimachus has been pre- 
 served, which is said to have been chanted 
 by the priests of Apollo at Delos, while 
 
 {>erforming this ceremony of circumambu- 
 ation, the substance of which is "we 
 imitate the example of the sun, and follow 
 his benevolent course." 
 
 Among the Romans, the ceremony of 
 circumambulation was always used in the 
 rites of sacrifice, of expiation or purifica- 
 tion. Thus Virgil {JEn., vi. 229,) describes 
 Chorinseus as purifying his companions at 
 the funeral of Misenus, by passing three 
 times around them while aspersing them 
 with the lustral waters ; and to do so conve- 
 niently, it was necessary that he should 
 have moved with his right hand towards 
 them. 
 
 " Idem ter socios pura circumtulit unda, 
 Spargens rore levi et ramo felicis olivse." 
 
 That is: 
 
 Thrice with pure water compass'd he the crew, 
 Sprinkliug, with olive branch, the gentle dew. 
 
 In fact, so common was it to unite the 
 ceremony of circumambulation with that 
 of expiation or purification, or, in other 
 words, to make a circuitous procession in 
 performing the latter rite, that the term 
 lustrare, whose primitive meaning is "to 
 purify," came at last to be synonymous 
 with circuire, to walk round anything, and 
 hence a purification and a circumambula- 
 tion were often expressed by the same 
 word. 
 
 Among the Hindus, the same rite of cir- 
 cumambulation has always been practised. 
 As an instance, we may cite the ceremonies 
 which are to be performed by a Brahman, 
 upon first rising from bed in the morning, 
 an accurate account of which has been 
 given by Mr. Colebrooke in the sixth vol- 
 ume of the Asiatic Researches. The priest 
 having first adored the sun, while directing 
 his face to the east, then walks towards the 
 west by the way of the south, saying, at 
 the same time, " I follow the course of the 
 sun," which he thus explains: "As the 
 sun in his course moves round the world 
 by way of the south, so do I follow that 
 
1G6 
 
 CIRCUMSPECTION 
 
 CIVILIZATION 
 
 luminary, to obtain the benefit arising from 
 a journey round the earth by the way of 
 the south." 
 
 Lastly, we may refer to the preservation 
 of this Rite among the Druids, whose 
 " mystical dance " around the cairn, or 
 sacred stones, was nothing more nor less 
 than the Rite of circumambulation. On 
 these occasions, the priest always made 
 three circuits from east to west, by the 
 right hand, around the altar or cairn, ac- 
 companied by all the worshippers. And so 
 sacred was the rite once considered, that we 
 learn from Toland (Celt. Bel. and Learn., 
 II., xvii.,) that in the Scottish Isles, once a 
 principal seat of the Druidical religion, the 
 people " never come to the ancient sacrific- 
 ing and fire-hallowing cairns, but they walk 
 three times around them, from east to west, 
 according to the course of the sun." This 
 sanctified tour, or round by the south, he 
 observes, is called Deaseal, as the contrary, 
 or unhallowed one by the north, is called 
 Tuapholl. And, he further remarks, that 
 this word Deaseal was derived " from Deas, 
 the right (understanding hand) and soil, 
 one of the ancient names of the sun ; the 
 right hand in this round being ever next 
 the heap." 
 
 This Rite of circumambulation undoubt- 
 edly refers to the doctrine of sun-worship, 
 because the circumambulation was always 
 made around the sacred place, just as the 
 sun was supposed to move around the 
 earth; and although the dogma of sun- 
 worship does not of course exist in Free- 
 masonry, we find an allusion to it in the 
 Rite of circumambulation, which it pre- 
 serves, as well as in the position of the 
 officers of a Lodge and in the symbol of a 
 point within a circle. 
 
 Circumspect ion. A necessary watch- 
 fulness is recommended to every man, but 
 in a Mason it becomes a positive duty, and 
 the neglect of it constitutes a heinous 
 crime. On this subject, the Old Charges 
 of 1722 (vi. 4,) are explicit. " You shall 
 be cautious in your words and carriage, 
 that the most penetrating stranger shall 
 not be able to discover or find out what is 
 not proper to be imitated; and sometimes 
 you shall divert a discourse and manage it 
 prudently for the honor of the Worshipful 
 Fraternity." 
 
 City of I>avi<l. A section in the 
 southern part of Jerusalem, embracing 
 Mount Zion, where a fortress of the Jebu- 
 sites stood, which David reduced, and where 
 he built a new palace and city, to which he 
 gave his own name. 
 
 City of the Great King. Jerusa- 
 lem, so called in Psalm xlviii. 2, and by 
 the Saviour in Matt. v. 35. 
 
 Civilization and Freemasonry. 
 
 Those who investigate in the proper spirit 
 the history of Speculative Masonry, will 
 be strongly impressed with the peculiar 
 relations that exist between the history of 
 Masonry and that of civilization. They 
 will find these facts to be patent: that 
 Freemasonry has ever been the result of 
 civilization ; that in the most ancient times 
 the spirit of Masonry and the spirit of 
 civilization have always gone together; 
 that the progress of both has been with 
 equal strides; that where there has been 
 no appearance of civilization there has 
 been no trace of Masonry; and, finally, 
 that wherever Masonry has existed in any 
 of its forms, there it has been surrounded 
 and sustained by civilization, which social 
 condition it in turn elevated and purified. 
 
 Speculative Masonry, therefore, seems 
 to have been a necessary result of civiliza- 
 tion. It is, even in its primitive and most 
 simple forms, to be found among no bar- 
 barous or savage people. Such a state of 
 society has never been capable of intro- 
 ducing or maintaining its abstract princi- 
 ples of Divine truth. 
 
 But while Speculative Masonry is the 
 result of civilization, existing only in its 
 bosom and never found among barbarous 
 or savage races, it has, by a reactionary 
 law of sociology, proved the means of ex- 
 tending and elevating the civilization to 
 which it originally owed its birth. Civil- 
 ization has always been progressive. That 
 of Pelasgic Greece was far behind that 
 which distinguished the Hellenic period 
 of the same country. The civilization of 
 the ancient world was inferior to that of 
 the modern, and every century shows an 
 advancement in the moral, intellectual, and 
 social condition of mankind. But in this 
 progress from imperfection to perfection 
 the influence of those speculative systems 
 that are identical with Freemasonry has 
 always been seen and felt. Let us, for an 
 example, look at the ancient heathen world 
 and its impure religions. While the people 
 of Paganism bowed, in their ignorance, to 
 a many-headed god, or, rather, worshipped 
 at the shrines of many gods, whose mytho- 
 logical history and character must have 
 exercised a pernicious effect on the moral 
 purity of their worshippers, Speculative 
 Philosophy, in the form of the "Ancient 
 Mysteries," was exercising its influence 
 upon a large class of neophytes and disci- 
 ples, by giving this true symbolic interpre- 
 tation of the old religious myths. In the 
 adyta of their temples in Greece and Rome 
 and Egypt, in the sacred caves of India, 
 and in the consecrated groves of Scandina- 
 via and Gaul and Britain, these ancient 
 sages were secretly divesting the pagan faith 
 of its polytheism and of its anthropomor- 
 
CLANDESTINE 
 
 CLAY 
 
 167 
 
 phic deities, and were establishing a pure 
 monotheism in its place, and illustrating, 
 by a peculiar symbolism, the great dogmas 
 — since taught in Freemasonry — of the 
 unity of God and the immortality of the 
 soul. And in modern times, when the reli- 
 gious thought of mankind, under a better 
 dispensation, has not required this purifi- 
 cation, Masonry still, in other ways, exerts 
 its influence in elevating the tone of civil- 
 ization ; for through its working the social 
 feelings have been strengthened, the amen- 
 ities and charities of life been refined and 
 extended, and, as we have had recent rea- 
 son to know and see, the very bitterness of 
 strife and the blood-guiltiness of war have 
 been softened and oftentimes obliterated. 
 
 We then arrive at these conclusions, 
 namely, that Speculative Masonry is a 
 result of civilization, for it exists in no 
 savage or barbarous state of society, but 
 has always appeared with the advent in 
 any country of a condition of civilization, 
 "grown with its growth and strengthened 
 with its strength ; " and, in return, has 
 proved, by a reactionary influence, a potent 
 instrument in extending, elevating, and 
 refining the civilization which gave it 
 birth, by advancing its moral, intellectual, 
 and religious character. 
 
 Clandestine. The ordinary meaning 
 of this word is secret, hidden. The French 
 word clandestin, from which it is derived, is 
 defined by Boiste to be something " fait en 
 cachette et contre les lois," done in a hiding- 
 place and against the laws, which better 
 suits the Masonic signification, which is 
 illegal, not authorized. 
 
 Clandestine Lodge. A body of 
 Masons uniting in a Lodge without the 
 consent of a Grand Lodge, or, although 
 originally legally constituted, continuing 
 to work after its charter has been revoked, 
 is styled a " Clandestine Lodge." Neither 
 Anderson nor Entick employ the word. It 
 was first used in the Book of Constitutions 
 in a note by Noorthouck, on page 239 of 
 his edition. 
 
 Clandestine Mason. One made 
 in or affiliated with a clandestine Lodge. 
 With clandestine Lodges or Masons, regu- 
 lar Masons are forbidden to associate or 
 converse on Masonic subjects. 
 
 Clare, Martin. A celebrated Mason 
 of England in the last century. He was a 
 man of some distinction in literary circles, 
 for he was a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 In 1732 he was appointed by the Grand 
 Lodge to revise the system of lectures, 
 which at this time was the one that had 
 been prepared by Anderson and Desagu- 
 liers. In 1735 he was appointed Junior 
 Grand Warden, and in 1741, Deputy Grand 
 Master. He was distinguished lor zeal and 
 
 intelligence in Masonry, and made several 
 improvements in the ritual. He translated 
 into English a work which had been pub- 
 lished the preceding year, in Dublin, under 
 the title of Relation Apologique et Historique 
 de la Societe des Franc-Macons. In 1735, he 
 delivered an address before the Grand 
 Lodge, which was translated into French 
 and German. Clare's lectures were a great 
 improvement on those which preceded 
 them, and continued to be a standard of 
 English ritualism until superseded in or 
 about 1770 by the still better system of 
 Dunckerley. 
 
 Classification of Masons. Oliver 
 says, in his Landmarks and in his Dic- 
 tionary, that ancient Masonic tradition in- 
 forms us that the speculative and operative 
 Masons who were assembled at the build- 
 ing of the Temple were arranged in nine 
 classes, under their respective Grand Mas- 
 ters ; viz., 30,000 Entered Apprentices, un- 
 der their Grand Master Adoniram ; 80,000 
 Fellow Crafts, under Hiram Abif; 2000 
 Mark Men, under Stolkyn ; 1000 Master 
 Masons, under Mohabin; 600 Mark Mas- 
 ters, under Ghiblim ; 24 Architects, under 
 Joabert ; 1 2 Grand Architects, under Adoni- 
 ram ; 45 Excellent Masons, under Hiram 
 Abif; 9 Super-Excellent Masons, under 
 Tito Zadok ; besides the Ish Sabbal, or la- 
 borers. The tradition is, however, rather 
 apocryphal. 
 
 Clay Ground. In the clay ground 
 between Succoth and Zeredatha, Hiram 
 Abif cast all the sacred vessels of the Tem- 
 ple, as well as the pillars of the porch. 
 This spot was about thirty-five miles in a 
 north-east direction from Jerusalem ; and it 
 is supposed that Hiram selected it for his 
 foundry, because the clay which abounded 
 there was, by its great tenacity, peculiarly 
 fitted for making moulds. The Masonic 
 tradition on this subject is sustained by the 
 authority of Scripture. See 1 Kings vii. 46, 
 and 2 Chron. iv. 17. Morris, in his Freema- 
 sonry in the Holy Land, gives the following 
 interesting facts in reference to this locality. 
 " A singular fact came to light under the 
 investigations of my assistant at Jerusa- 
 lem. He discovered that the jewellers of 
 that city, at the present day, use a par- 
 ticular species of brown, arenaceous clay in 
 making moulds for casting small pieces in 
 brass, etc. Inquiring whence this clay 
 comes, they reply, ' From Seikoot, about 
 two days' journey north-east of Jerusalem.' 
 Here, then, is a satisfactory reply to the 
 question, Where was the 'clay ground' 
 of Hiram's foundries ? It is the best ma- 
 trix-clay existing within reach of Hiram 
 Abif, and it is found only in ' the clay 
 ground between Succoth and Zeredatha;' 
 and considerable as was the distance, and 
 
168 
 
 CLEAN 
 
 CLERKS 
 
 extremely inconvenient as was the locality, 
 so important did that master-workman 
 deem it, to secure a sharp and perfect 
 mould for his castings, that, as the Biblical 
 record informs us, he established his fur- 
 naces there." 
 
 Clean Hands. Clean hands are a 
 symbol of purity. The psalmist says, " that 
 he only shall ascend into the hill of the 
 Lord, or shall stand in his holy place, who 
 hath clean hands and a pure heart." 
 Hence, the washing of the hands is an out- 
 ward sign of an internal purification ; and 
 the psalmist says in another place, " I will 
 wash my hands in innocence. And I will 
 encompass thine altar, Jehovah." In the 
 Ancient Mysteries the washing of the 
 hands was always an introductory ceremony 
 to the initiation ; and, of course, it was used 
 symbolically to indicate the necessity of 
 purity from crime as a qualification of those 
 who sought admission into the sacred rites ; 
 and hence, on a temple in the Island of 
 Crete, this inscription was placed: " Cleanse 
 your feet, wash your hands, and then en- 
 ter." Indeed, the washing of hands, as 
 symbolic of purity, was among the ancients 
 a peculiarly religious rite. No one dared 
 to pray to the gods until he had cleansed 
 his hands. Thus, Homer makes Hector 
 say: 
 
 " Xepai i' avinrounv Ail Xciffetv aiBma otvov 
 A^nai." Iliad, vi. 266. 
 
 " I dread with unwashed hands to bring 
 My incensed wine to Jove an offering." 
 
 In a similar spirit of religion, iEneas, 
 when leaving burning Troy, refuses to en- 
 ter the Temple of Ceres until his hands, 
 polluted by recent strife, had been washed 
 in the living stream. 
 
 " Me bello e tanto digressum et ccede recenti, 
 Attractare nefas, donee me fluuiine vivo 
 Abluero." ( JEn,., ii. 718.) 
 
 " In me, now fresh from war and recent strife, 
 'T is impious the sacred things to touch, 
 Till in the living stream myself I bathe." 
 
 The same practice prevailed among the 
 Jews, and a striking instance of the sym- 
 bolism is exhibited in that well-known ac- 
 tion of.. Pilate, who, when the Jews clam- 
 ored for Jesus that they might crucify him, 
 appeared before the people, and, having 
 taken water, washed his hands, saying at 
 the same time, "I am innocent of the 
 blood of this just-man, see ye to it." 
 
 The white gloves worn by Masons as a 
 part of their clothing, alluded to this sym- 
 bolizing of clean hands ; and what in some 
 of the high degrees has been called "Ma- 
 
 sonic Baptism" is nothing else but the 
 symbolizing, by a ceremony, this doctrine 
 of clean hands as the sign of a pure heart. 
 
 Cleave. The word to cleave is twice 
 used in Masonry, and each time in an oppo- 
 site sense. First, in the sense of adhering, 
 where the sentence in which it is employed 
 is in the Past Master's degree, and is taken 
 from the 37th Psalm: " Let my tongue cleave 
 to the roof of my mouth;" second, in the 
 Master's degree, where, in the expres- 
 sion, "The flesh cleaves from the bone," 
 it has the intransitive meaning of to sepa- 
 rate, and is equivalent to " the flesh parts, 
 or separates, itself from the bone." In this 
 latter use the word is obsolete, and used 
 only technically as a Masonic term. 
 
 Clefts of the Rocks. The whole 
 of Palestine is very mountainous, and these 
 mountains abound in deep clefts or caves, 
 which were anciently places of refuge to 
 the inhabitants in time of war, and were 
 often used as lurking places for robbers. It 
 is, therefore, strictly in accordance with 
 geographical truth that the statement, in 
 relation to the concealment of certain per- 
 sons in the clefts of the rocks, is made in 
 the third degree. See the latter part of the 
 article Caverns. 
 
 Clement XII. A pope who assumed 
 the pontificate on the 12th of August, 1730, 
 and died on the 6th of February, 1740. 
 On the 28th of April, 1738, he published 
 his celebrated bull of excommunication, 
 entitled in Eminenti Aposlolatus Specula, in 
 which we find these words, " For which 
 reason the temporal and spiritual commu- 
 nities are enjoined, in the name of holy 
 obedience, neither to enter the society of 
 Freemasons, to disseminate its principles, 
 to defend it, nor to admit nor conceal it 
 within their houses or palaces, or else- 
 where, under pain of excommunication 
 ipso facto, for all acting in contradiction to 
 this, and from which the pope only can 
 absolve the dying." Clement was a bitter 
 persecutor of the Masonic Order, and hence 
 he caused his Secretary of State, the Car- 
 dinal Firrao, to issue on the 14th of Jan- 
 uary, 1739, a still more stringent edict for 
 the Papal States, in which death and con- 
 fiscation of property, without hope of 
 mercy, was the penalty, or, as the original 
 has it, " sotto Pena della raorte, e connsca- 
 zione de beni da incorressi, irremissibil- 
 mente senz a speranza di grazia." 
 
 Clerks of Strict Observance. 
 Known also as the Spiritual Branch of 
 the Templars, or Clerici Ordinis Templarii. 
 This was a schism from the Order or Rite 
 of Strict Observance, and was founded 
 by Starck in 1767. The members of this 
 Rite established it as a rival of the latter 
 system. They claimed a pre-eminence not 
 
CLERMONT 
 
 CLOSING 
 
 169 
 
 only over the Rite of Strict Observance, but 
 also over all the Lodges of ordinary Ma- 
 sonry, and asserted that they alone pos- 
 sessed the true secrets of the Order, and 
 knew the place where the treasures of the 
 Templars were deposited. For a further 
 history of this Rite, see the word Starch. 
 The Rite consisted of seven degrees, viz., 
 1 , 2, and 3. Symbolic Masonry. 4. Junior 
 Scottish Mason, or Jungschotte. 5. Scot- 
 tish Master, or Knight of St. Andrew. 
 
 6. Provincial Capitular of the Red Cross. 
 
 7. Magus, or Knight of Purity and Light. 
 This last was subdivided into five sections, 
 as follows : I. Knight Novice of the third 
 year. II. Knight Novice of the fifth year. 
 
 III. Knight Novice of the seventh year. 
 
 IV. Levite, and V. Priest. Ragon errs 
 in calling this the Rite of Lax Observance. 
 
 Clermont, Chapter of. On the 
 24th of November, 1754, the Chevalier de 
 Bonneville established in Paris a Chapter 
 of the high degrees under this name, which 
 was derived from the Jesuitical Chapter of 
 Clermont. This society was composed of 
 many distinguished persons of the court 
 and city, who, disgusted with the dissen- 
 sions of the Parisian Lodges, determined 
 to separate from them. They adopted the 
 Templar system, which had been created at 
 Lyons, in 1743, after the reform of Ramsay, 
 and their Rite consisted at first of but six 
 degrees, viz., 1, 2, 3. St. John's Masonry. 
 4. Knight of the Eagle. 5. Illustrious 
 Knight or Templar. 6. Sublime Illustrious 
 Knight. But soon after the number of 
 these degrees was greatly extended. The 
 Baron de Hund received the high degrees 
 in this Chapter, and derived from them the 
 idea of the Rite of Strict Observance, which 
 he subsequently established in Germany. 
 
 Clermont, College of. A college 
 of Jesuits in Paris, where James II., after 
 his flight from England, in 1688, resided 
 until his removal to St. Germains. During 
 his residence there, he is said to have 
 sought the establishment of a system of 
 Freemasonry, the object of which should 
 be the restoration of the House of Stuart to 
 the throne of England. Relics of this at- 
 tempted system are still to be found in 
 many of the high degrees, and the Chapter 
 of Clermont, subsequently organized in 
 Paris, appears to have had some reference 
 to it. 
 
 Clermont, Count of. Louis of 
 Bourbon, prince of the blood and Count 
 of Clermont, was elected by sixteen of the 
 Paris Lodges perpetual Grand Master, for 
 the purpose of correcting the numerous 
 abuses which had crept into French Ma- 
 sonry. He did not, however, fulfil the ex- 
 pectations of the French Masons ; for the 
 next year he abandoned the supervision of 
 W 
 
 the Lodges, and new disorders arose. He 
 still, however, retained the Grand Master- 
 ship, and died in 1771, being succeeded by 
 his nephew, the Duke of Chartres. 
 
 Clinton, De Witt. A distinguished 
 statesman, who was born at Little Britain, 
 New York, March 2, 1769, and died on 
 the 11th February, 1828. He entered the 
 Masonic Order in 1793, and the next year 
 was elected Master of his Lodge. In 1806, 
 he was elevated to the position of Grand 
 Master of the Grand Lodge of New York, and 
 in 1814, to that of Grand Master of the Grand 
 Encampment. In 1816, he was elected 
 General Grand High Priest of the General 
 Grand Chapter of the United States. In 
 1813, he became unwittingly complicated 
 with the Spurious Consistory, established 
 by Joseph Cerneau in the city of New 
 York, but he took no active part in its pro- 
 ceedings, and soon withdrew from all con- 
 nection with it. When the anti-Masonic 
 excitement arose in this country in 1826, in 
 consequence oftheaffair of William Morgan, 
 whom the Masons were accused of having 
 put to death, Mr. Clinton was Governor of 
 the State of New York, and took all the ne- 
 cessary measures for the arrest of the sup- 
 posed criminals. But, although he offered a 
 liberal reward for their detection, he was 
 charged by the anti-Masons with official 
 neglect and indifference, charges which 
 were undoubtedly false and malicious. 
 Spenser, the special attorney of the State, 
 employed for the prosecution of the 
 offenders, went so far as to resign his office, 
 and to assign, as a reason for his resignation, 
 the want of sympathy and support on the 
 part of the Executive. But all of the ac- 
 cusations and insinuations are properly to 
 be attributed to political excitement, anti- 
 Masonry having been adopted soon after 
 its origin by the politicians as an engine 
 for their advancement to office. Clinton 
 was an honorable man and a true patriot. 
 He was also an ardent and devoted Mason. 
 
 Closing. The duty of closing the 
 Lodge is as imperative, and the ceremony 
 as solemn, as that of opening ; nor should it 
 ever be omitted through negligence, nor 
 hurried over with haste, but everything 
 should be performed with order and pre- 
 cision, so that no brother shall go away 
 dissatisfied. From the very nature of our 
 constitution, a Lodge cannot properly be 
 adjourned. It must be closed either in due 
 form, or the brethren called off to refresh- 
 ment. But an adjournment on motion, as 
 in other societies, is unknown to the Order. 
 The Master can alone dismiss the brethren, 
 and that dismission must take place after 
 a settled usage. In Grand Lodges which 
 meet for several days successively, the ses- 
 sion is generally continued from day to 
 
170 
 
 CLOTHED 
 
 COCK 
 
 day, by calling to refreshment at the termi- 
 nation of each day's sitting. 
 
 Clothed. A Mason is said to be 
 properly clothed when he wears white 
 leather gloves, a white apron, and the jewel 
 of his Masonic rank. The gloves are now 
 often, but improperly, dispensed with, ex- 
 cept on public occasions. " No Mason is 
 permitted to enter a Lodge or join in its 
 labors unless he is properly clothed." 
 Lenning, speaking of Continental Masonry, 
 under the article Kleidung in his Lexicon, 
 says, that the clothing of a Freemason con- 
 sists of apron, gloves, sword, and hat. In 
 the York and American Rites, the sword 
 and hat are used only in the degrees of 
 chivalry. In the earliest code of lectures 
 arranged by Anderson and Desaguliers, at 
 the revival in 1717, the symbolical clothing 
 of a Master Mason was said to be "skull- 
 cap and jacket yellow, and nether garments 
 blue," in allusion to the brass top and steel 
 legs of a pair of compasses. After the 
 middle of the century, he was said to be 
 " clothed in the old colors, viz., purple, 
 crimson, and blue ; " and the reason assigned 
 for it was, " because they are royal, and 
 such as the ancient kings and princes used 
 to wear." The actual dress of a Master 
 Mason was, however, a full suit of black, 
 with white neckcloth, apron, gloves, and 
 stockings ; the buckles being of silver, and 
 the jewels being suspended from a white 
 ribbon by way of collar. For the clothing 
 and decorations of the different degrees, 
 see Regalia. 
 
 Clothing the Lodge. In the " Gen- 
 eral Regulations," approved by the Grand 
 Lodge of England in 1721, it is provided 
 in article seven that " Every new Brother 
 at his making is decently to cloath the 
 Lodge, that is, all the Brethren present; 
 and to deposit something for the relief of 
 indigent and decayed Brethren." By "cloth- 
 ing the Lodge" was meant furnishing the 
 Brethren with gloves and aprons. The 
 regulation no longer exists. It is strange 
 that Oliver should have quoted as the au- 
 thority for this usage a subsequent regula- 
 tion of 1767. 
 
 Clouded Canopy. See Canopy, 
 Clouded. 
 
 Cloud, Pillar of. See Pillar of Fire 
 and Cloud. 
 
 Cloudy. A word sometimes improper- 
 ly used by the Wardens of a Lodge when 
 reporting an unfavorable result of the ballot. 
 The proper word is foul. 
 
 Clubs. The eighteenth century was 
 distinguished in England by the existence 
 of numerous local and ephemeral associa- 
 tions under the name of clubs, where men 
 of different classes of society met for amuse- 
 ment and recreation. Each profession and 
 
 trade had its club, and " whatever might be 
 a man's character or disposition," says 
 Oliver, " he would find in London a club 
 that would square with his ideas." Addi- 
 son, in his paper on the origin of clubs 
 (Spectator No. 9), remarks: "Man is said 
 to be a social animal, and as an instance of 
 it we may observe that we take all occa- 
 sions and pretences of forming ourselves 
 into those little nocturnal assemblies which 
 are commonly known by the name of clubs. 
 When a set of men find themselves agree 
 in any particular, though never so trivial, 
 they establish themselves into a kind of 
 fraternity and meet once or twice a week, 
 upon the account of such a fantastic resem- 
 blauce." Hard drinking was characteristic 
 of those times, and excesses too often 
 marked the meetings of these societies. It 
 was at this time that the institution of 
 Freemasonry underwent its revival com- 
 monly known as the revival of 1717, and 
 it is not strange that its social character 
 was somewhat affected by the customs of 
 the day. The Lodges therefore assumed 
 at that time too much of a convivial char- 
 acter, derived from the customs of the ex- 
 isting clubs and coteries; but the moral and 
 religious principles upon which the Insti- 
 tution was founded prevented any undue 
 indulgence; and although the members 
 were permitted the enjoyment of decent re- 
 freshment, there was a standing law which 
 provided against all excess. 
 
 Coat of the Tiler. In olden times 
 it was deemed proper that the Tiler of a 
 Lodge, like the beadle of a parish, — whose 
 functions were in some respects similar, — 
 should be distinguished by a tawdry dress. 
 In a schedule of the regalia, records, etc., 
 of the Grand Lodge of all England, taken 
 at York in 1779, to be found in Hughan's 
 Masonic Sketches and Reprints, (p. 33,) we 
 find the following item: "a blue cloth 
 coat with a red collar for the Tyler." 
 
 Cochleus. A very corrupt word in 
 the fourth degree of the Scottish Rite; there 
 said to signify in the form of a screw, and to 
 be the name of the winding staircase which 
 led to the middle chamber. The true Latia 
 word is cochlea. But the matter is so his- 
 torically absurd that the word ought to be 
 and is rejected in the modern rituals. 
 
 Cock. The ancients made the cock a 
 symbol of courage, and consecrated him to 
 Mars, Pallas, and Bellona, deities of war. 
 Some have supposed that it is in reference 
 to this quality that the cock is used in the 
 jewel of the Captain-General of an En- 
 campment of Knights Templars. 
 
 Reghellini, however, gives a different 
 explanation of this symbol. He says that 
 the cock was the emblem of the sun and 
 of life, and that as the ancient Christians 
 
COCKADE 
 
 COLLAR 
 
 171 
 
 allegorically deplored the death of the solar 
 orb in Christ, the cock recalled its life and 
 resurrection. The cock, we know, was a 
 symbol among the early Christians, and is 
 repeatedly to be found on the tombs in the 
 catacombs of Rome. Hence I am induced 
 to believe that we should give a Christian 
 interpretation to the jewel of a Knight 
 Templar as symbolic of the resurrection. 
 
 Cockade. Some few of the German 
 Lodges have a custom of permitting their 
 members to wear a blue cockade in the hat 
 as a symbol of equality and freedom — a 
 symbolism which, as Lenning says, it is 
 difficult to understand, and the decoration 
 is inappropriate as a part of the clothing 
 of a Mason. Yet it is probable that it was 
 a conception of this kind that induced Cag- 
 liostro to prescribe the cockade as a part of 
 the investiture of a female candidate in the 
 initiation of his Lodges. Clavel says the 
 Venerable or Master of a French Lodge 
 wears a black cockade. 
 
 Cockle Sliell. The cockle shell was 
 worn by pilgrims in their hats as a token 
 of their profession ; now used in the cere- 
 monies of Templarism. See Scollop Shell. 
 
 Cost us. Latin. An assembly. It is 
 incorrectly used in some old Latin Masonic 
 diplomas for a Lodge. It is used by Lau- 
 rence Dermott in a diploma dated Sept. 
 10, 1764, where he signs himself "Sec. 
 M. Coetus," or Secretary of the Grand 
 Lodge. 
 
 Coffin. In the Ancient Mysteries the 
 aspirant could not claim a participation 
 in the highest secrets until he had been 
 placed in the Pastos, bed or coffin. The 
 placing him in the coffin was called the 
 symbolical death of the mysteries, and his 
 deliverance was termed a raising from the 
 dead. Hence arose a peculiarity in the 
 Greek verb teleutao, which, in the active 
 voice, signified " I die," and in the middle 
 voice, "I am initiated." "The mind," 
 says an ancient writer, quoted by Stobseus, 
 " is affected in death just as it is in the 
 initiation into the mysteries. And word 
 answers to word, as well as thing to thing ; 
 for relevrav is to die, and releiodai, to be ini- 
 tiated." The coffin in Masonry is found on 
 tracing boards of the early part of the last 
 century, and has always constituted a part 
 of the symbolism of the third degree, where 
 the reference is precisely the same as that 
 of the Pastos in the Ancient Mysteries. 
 
 Cohen. (TO- A Hebrew word signify- 
 ing a priest. The French Masonic writers, 
 indulging in a Gallic custom of misspelling 
 all name3 derived from other languages, 
 universally spell it com. 
 
 Cohens, Elected. See Pascalis, Alar- 
 tin. 
 
 Cole, Benjamin. He published at 
 
 London, in 1728, and again in 1731, the 
 Old Constitutions, engraved on thirty cop- 
 per plates, under the title of A Boot of the 
 Ancient Constitutions of the Free and Ac- 
 cepted Masons. In 1751, Cole printed a 
 third edition, with the title of "The An- 
 cient Constitutions and Charges of Free- 
 masons, with a true representation of their 
 noble Art in several Lectures or Speeches." 
 Subsequent editions were published up to 
 1794. Brother Richard Spencer, the well- 
 known Masonic bibliographer, says that 
 Cole engraved his plates from a MS. which 
 he calls the "Constitutions of 1726," or 
 from a similar MS. by the same scribe. 
 Brother Hughan published in 1869, in a 
 limited edition of seventy copies, a litho- 
 graph fac-simile of the 1729 edition of 
 Cole. 
 
 Cole, Samuel. He was at one time 
 the Grand Secretary of the Grand Lodge 
 of Maryland, and the author of a work en- 
 titled The Freemason's Librai-y, or General 
 Ahiman Rezon, the first edition of which 
 appeared in 1817, and the second in 1826. 
 It is something more than a mere monitor 
 or manual of the degrees, and greatly ex- 
 cels in literary pretensions the contempo- 
 rary works of Webb and Cross. 
 
 Cole's Manuscript. The MS. from 
 which Cole is supposed to have made his 
 engraved Constitutions. It is in the pos- 
 session of Bro. Richard Spencer, who pub- 
 lished it 1871, under the title of A Book 
 of the Ancient Constitutions of the Free 
 and Accepted Masons. Anno Dom., 1726. 
 The sub-title is " The Beginning and First 
 Foundation of the Most Worthy Craft of 
 Masonry, with the charges thereunto be- 
 longing." In 1739, a tract was published 
 by Mrs. Dodd with this latter title, to 
 which is added, " By a deceased Brother, 
 for the benefit of his widow." Spencer, 
 who has a copy of it, thinks that it is the 
 same as the MS. of 1726, from which Cole 
 took his engraved work. 
 
 Collar. An ornament worn around 
 the neck by the officers of Lodges, to which 
 is suspended a jewel indicative of the 
 wearer's rank. The color of the collar 
 varies in the different grades of Masonry. 
 That of a symbolic Lodge is blue; of a 
 Past Master, purple; of a Royal Arch Ma- 
 son, scarlet ; of a Secret Master, white bor- 
 dered with black; of a Perfect Master, 
 green, etc. These colors are not arbitrary, 
 but are each accompanied with a symbolic 
 signification. 
 
 In the United States, the collar worn by 
 Grand officers in the Grand Lodge is, pro- 
 perly, purple edged with gold. In the Grand 
 Lodge of England, the Grand officers wear 
 chains of gold or metal gilt instead of col- 
 lars, but on other occasions, collars of rib- 
 
172 
 
 COLLEGES 
 
 COLOGNE 
 
 bon, garter blue, four inches broad, em- 
 broidered or plain. 
 
 The use of the collar in Masonry, as an 
 official decoration, is of very old date. It 
 is a regulation that its form should be tri- 
 angular; that is, that it should terminate 
 on the breast in a point. The symbolical 
 reference is evident. The Masonic collar 
 is derived from the practices of heraldry ; 
 collars are worn not only by municipal 
 officers and officers of State, but also by 
 knights of the different orders as a part of 
 their investiture. 
 
 Colleges, Masonic. There was at 
 one time a great disposition exhibited by 
 the Fraternity of the United States to 
 establish colleges, to be placed under the 
 supervision of Grand Lodges. The first 
 one ever endowed in this country was that 
 at Lexington, in Missouri, established by 
 the Grand Lodge of that State, in October, 
 1841, which for some time pursued a pros- 
 perous career. Other Grand Lodges, such 
 as those of Kentucky, Mississippi, Ar- 
 kansas, North Carolina, Florida, and a few 
 others, subsequently either actually organ- 
 ized or took the preliminary steps for or- 
 ganizing Masonic colleges in their respec- 
 tive jurisdictions. But experience has 
 shown that there is an incongruity between 
 the official labors of a Grand Lodge as the 
 Masonic head of the Order, and the su- 
 perintendence and support of a college. 
 Hence, these institutions have been very 
 generally discontinued, and the care of pro- 
 viding for the education of indigent chil- 
 dren of the Craft has been wisely com- 
 mitted to the subordinate Lodges. 
 
 The late Thomas Brown, the distinguished 
 Grand Master of Florida, thus expressed 
 the following correct views on this subject. 
 
 " We question if the endowment of 
 colleges and large seminaries of learning, 
 under the auspices and patronage of Ma- 
 sonic bodies, be the wisest plan for the ac- 
 complishment of the great design, or is in 
 accordance with the character and princi- 
 ples of the Fraternity. Such institutions 
 savor more of pageantry than utility; and 
 as large funds, amassed for such purposes, 
 must of necessity be placed under the con- 
 trol and management of comparatively few, 
 it will have a corrupting influence, promote 
 discord, and bring reproach upon the Craft. 
 The principles of Masonry do not sympathize 
 with speculations in stock and exchange 
 brokerage. Such, we fear, will be the evils 
 attendant on such institutions, to say noth- 
 ing of the questionable right and policy of 
 drawing funds from the subordinate Lodges, 
 which could be appropriated by their pro- 
 per officers more judiciously, economically, 
 and faithfully to the accomplishment of 
 the same great and desirable object in the 
 
 true Masonic spirit of charity, which is the 
 bond of peace." 
 
 Collegia Artifieum. Colleges of 
 Artificers. See Roman Colleges of Artificers, 
 
 Collegium. In Roman j urispruden ce, 
 a collegium, or college, expressed the idea 
 of several persons united together in any 
 office or for any common purpose. It re- 
 quired not less than three to constitute a 
 college, according to the law maxim, "Tres 
 faciunt collegium," and hence, perhaps, the 
 Masonic rule that not fewer than three 
 Master Masons can form a Lodge. 
 
 Cologne, Cathedral of. The city 
 of Cologne, on the banks of the Rhine, is 
 memorable in the history of Freemasonry 
 for the connection of its celebrated Cathe- 
 dral with the labors of the Steinmetzen of 
 Germany in the Middle Ages, whence it be- 
 came the seat of one of the most important 
 Lodges of that period. It has been asserted 
 that Albertus Magnus designed the plan, 
 and that he there also altered the Constitu- 
 tion of the Fraternity, and gave it a new 
 code of laws. It is at least clear that in 
 this Cathedral the symbolic principles of 
 Gothic architecture, the distinguishing style 
 of the Travelling Freemasons, were carried 
 out in deeper significance than in any other 
 building of the time. Whether the docu- 
 ment known as the Charter of Cologne be 
 authentic or not, the fact that it is claimed 
 to have emanated from the Lodge of that 
 place, gives to the Cathedral an importance 
 in the views of the Masonic student. 
 
 The Cathedral of Cologne is one of the 
 most beautiful religious edifices in the 
 world, and the vastest construction of 
 Gothic architecture. The primitive Cathe- 
 dral, which was consecrated in 873, was 
 burned in 1248. The present one was com- 
 menced in 1249, and the work upon it con- 
 tinued until 1509. But during that long 
 period the labors were often interrupted by 
 the sanguinary contests which raged be- 
 tween the city and its archbishops, so that 
 only the choir and the chapels which sur- 
 rounded it were finished. In the eighteenth 
 century it suffered much from the ignorance 
 of its own canons, who subjected it to un- 
 worthy mutilations, and during the French 
 revolution it was used as a military depot. 
 In 1 820, this edifice, ravaged by men and mu- 
 tilated by time, began to excite serious anxi- 
 eties for the solidity of its finished portions. 
 The debris of the venerable pile were even 
 about to be overthrown, when archseologic 
 zeal and religious devotion came to the 
 rescue. Societies were formed for its resto- 
 ration by the aid of permanent subscrip- 
 tions, which were liberally supplied; and it 
 was resolved to finish the gigantic struc- 
 ture according to the original plans which 
 had been conceived by Gerhard de Saint 
 
COLOGNE 
 
 COLOGNE 
 
 173 
 
 Trond, the ancient master of the works. 
 The works were renewed under the direc- 
 tion of M. Zwiner. The building is not 
 yet completed ; but even in its unfinished 
 condition is, says Mr. Seddon (Ramb. on 
 the Rhine, p. 16), "without question, one 
 of the most stupendous structures ever con- 
 ceived." 
 
 Cologne, Charter of. This is an 
 interesting Masonic document, originally 
 written in Latin, and purporting to have 
 been issued in 1535. Its history, as given 
 by those who first offered it to the public, 
 and who claim that it is authentic, is as 
 follows. From the year 1519 to 1601, there 
 existed in the city of Amsterdam, in Hol- 
 land, a Lodge whose name was Het Vreden- 
 dall, or The Valley of Peace. In the latter 
 year, circumstances caused the Lodge to be 
 closed, but in 1637 it was revived, by four 
 of its surviving members, under the name 
 of Frederick's Vredendall, or Frederick's 
 Valley of Peace. In this Lodge, at the time 
 of its restoration, there was found a chest, 
 bound with brass and secured by three 
 locks and three seals, which, according to 
 a protocol published on the 29th of Janu- 
 ary, 1637, contained the following docu- 
 ments : 
 
 1. The original warrant of constitution 
 of the Lodge Het Vredendall, written in 
 the English language. 2. A roll of all the 
 members of the Lodge from 1519 to 1601. 
 3. The original charter given to the brother- 
 hood at the city of Cologne, and which is 
 now known among Masonic historians as 
 the Charter of Cologne. 
 
 It is not known how long these docu- 
 ments remained in possession of the Lodge 
 at Amsterdam. But they were subsequently 
 remitted to the charge of Bro. James Van 
 Vasner, Lord of Opdem, whose signature 
 is appended to the last attestation of the 
 Hague register, under the date of the 2d 
 of February, 1638. After his death, they 
 remained among the papers of his family 
 until 1790, when M. Walpenaer, one of his 
 descendants, presented them to Brother 
 Van Boetzelaer, who was then the Grand 
 Master of the Lodges of Holland. Subse- 
 quently they fell into the hands of some 
 person whose name is unknown, but who, in 
 1816, delivered them to Prince Frederick. 
 
 There is a story that the prince received 
 these documents accompanied by a letter, 
 written in a female hand, and signed " C, 
 child of V. J." In this letter the writer 
 states that she had found the documents 
 among the papers of her father, who had 
 received them from Mr. Van Boetzelaer. 
 It is suspected that the authoress of the 
 letter was the daughter of Brother Van 
 Jeylinger, who was the successor of Van 
 Boetzelaer as Grand Master of Holland. 
 
 There fs another version of the history 
 which states that these documents had long 
 been in the possession of the family of Was- 
 senaer Van Opdem, by a member of which 
 they were presented to Van Boetzelaer, 
 who subsequently gave them to Van Jey- 
 linger, with strict injunctions to preserve 
 them until the restitution of the Orange 
 regency. The originals are now, or were 
 very lately, deposited in the archives of a 
 Lodge at Namur, on the Meuse ; but copies » 
 of the charter were given to the Fraternity 
 under the following circumstances : 
 
 In the year 1819, Prince Frederick of 
 Nassau, who was then the Grand Master of 
 the National Grand Lodge of Holland, con- 
 templating a reformation in Masonry, ad- 
 dressed a circular on this subject to all the 
 Lodges under his jurisdiction, for the pur- 
 pose of enlisting them in behalf of his pro- 
 ject, and accompanied this circular with 
 copies of the charter, which he had caused 
 to be taken in facsimile, and also of the 
 register of the Amsterdam Lodge, Valley 
 of Peace, to which I have already referred 
 as contained in the brass-mounted chest. 
 A transcript of the charter in the original 
 Latin, with all its errors, was published, 
 in 18] 8, in the Annates Maconniques. The 
 document was also presented to the public 
 in a German version, in 1819, by Dr. Fred. 
 Heldmann; but his translation has been 
 proved, by Lenning and others, to be ex- 
 ceedingly incorrect. In 1821, Dr. Krause 
 published it in his celebrated work entitled, 
 The Three Oldest Masonic Documents. It 
 has been frequently published since in a 
 German translation, in whole or in part, but 
 is accessible to the English reader only in 
 Burnes' Sketch of the History of the Knights 
 Templars: London, 1840, in D. Murray 
 Lyons' translation of Findel's History of 
 Freemasonry, and in the American Quarterly 
 Review of Freemasonry, where it was pub- 
 lished with copious notes by the author 
 of the present work. P. J. Schouten, a 
 Dutch writer on the history of Freema- 
 sonry, who had undoubtedly seen the orig- 
 inal document, describes it as being written 
 on parchment in Masonic cipher, in the 
 Latin language, the characters uninjured 
 by time, and the subscription of the names 
 not in cipher, but in the ordinary cursive 
 character. The Latin is that of the Middle 
 Ages, and is distinguished by many incor- 
 rectly spelled words, and frequent gram- 
 matical solecisms. Thus, we find "bagistri " 
 for "magistri," "trigesimo" for "tricesi- 
 mo," "ad nostris ordinem" for "ad nos- 
 trum ordinem," etc. 
 
 Of the authenticity of this document, it 
 is but fair to say that there are well-founded 
 doubts among many Masonic writers. The 
 learned antiquaries of the University of 
 
174 
 
 COLOGNE 
 
 COLUMBIA 
 
 Leyden have testified that the paper on 
 which the register of the Lodge at the 
 Hague is written, is of the same kind that 
 was used in Holland at the commencement 
 of the seventeenth century, which purports 
 to he its date, and that the characters in 
 which it is composed are of the same period. 
 This register, it will be remembered, refers 
 to the charter of Cologne as existing at 
 that time; so that if the learned men of 
 Leyden have not been deceived, the 
 fraud — supposing that there is one in the 
 charter — must be more than two centuries 
 old. 
 
 Dr. Burnes professes to have no faith in 
 the document, and the editors of the Hermes 
 at once declare it to be surreptitious. But 
 the condemnation of Burnes is too sweep- 
 ing in its character, as it includes with the 
 charter all other German documents on 
 Freemasonry ; and the opinion of the edit- 
 ors of the Hermes must be taken with some 
 grains of allowance, as they were at the 
 time engaged in a controversy with the 
 Grand Master of Holland, and in the de- 
 fence of the high degrees, whose claims to 
 antiquity this charter would materially im- 
 pair. Dr. Oliver, on the other hand, quotes 
 it unreservedly, in his Landmarks, as an 
 historical document worthy of credit ; 
 and Reghellini treats it as authentic. In 
 Germany, the Masonic authorities of the 
 highest reputation, such as Heldermanu, 
 Morsdorf, Kloss, and many others, have re- 
 pudiated it as a spurious production, most 
 probably of the beginning of the present 
 century. Kloss objects to the document, 
 that customs are referred to in it that were 
 not known in the rituals of initiation until 
 1731 ; that the higher degrees were nowhere 
 known until 1725 ; that none of the eighteen 
 copied documents have been found; that 
 the declaimer against Templar Masonry 
 was unnecessary in 1535, as no Templar 
 degrees existed until 1741 ; that some of the 
 Latin expressions are not such as were 
 likely to have been used ; and a few other 
 objections of a similar character. Bobrik, 
 who published, in 1840, the Text, Transla- 
 tion, and Examination of the Cologne Docu- 
 ment, also advances some strong critical 
 arguments against its authenticity. On the 
 whole, the arguments to disprove the gen- 
 uineness of the charter appear to be very 
 convincing, and are strong enough to throw 
 at least great doubt upon it as being any- 
 thing else but a modern forgery. 
 
 Cologne, Congress of. A Congress 
 which is said to have been convened in 
 1525, by the most distinguished Masons of 
 the time, in the city of Cologne, as the 
 representatives of nineteen Grand Lodges, 
 and who issued the celebrated manifesto, in 
 defence of the character and aims of the 
 
 Institution, known as the Charter of Co- 
 logne. Whether this Congress was ever 
 held is a mooted point among Masonic 
 writers, most of them contending that it 
 never was, and that it is simply an inven- 
 tion of the early part of the present cen- 
 tury. See Cologne, Charter of. 
 
 Colonial Lodges. Lodges in the 
 colonies of Great Britain are under the 
 immediate supervision and jurisdiction of 
 Provincial Grand Lodges, to which title 
 the reader is referred. 
 
 Colorado. Freemasonry was intro- 
 duced into the territory of Colorado in 
 1860, in which year the Grand Lodge of 
 Kansas chartered Golden City Lodge at 
 Golden City. In 1861 two other Lodges, 
 Rocky Mountain at Gold Hill and Summit 
 Lodge at Parkville, were chartered by the 
 Grand Lodge of Nebraska. On August 
 2, 1861, representatives from these three 
 Lodges met in convention at Golden City, 
 and organized the Grand Lodge of Colo- 
 rado, the Grand East of which was placed 
 at Denver. J. M. Chivington was elected 
 first Grand Master. Chapters of Royal 
 Arch Masons and a Commandery of 
 Knights Templars were subsequently in- 
 troduced. 
 
 Colors, Symbolism of. Wemyss, 
 in his Clavis Symbolica, says : " Color, which 
 is outwardly seen on the habit of the body, 
 is symbolically used to denote the true 
 state of the person or subject to which it 
 is applied, according to its nature." This 
 definition may appropriately be borrowed 
 on the present occasion, and applied to the 
 system of Masonic colors. The color of a 
 vestment or of a decoration is never arbi- 
 trarily adopted in Freemasonry. Every 
 color is selected with a view to its power 
 in the symbolic alphabet, and it teaches the 
 initiate some instructive moral lesson, or 
 refers to some important historical fact in 
 the system. 
 
 Frederic Portal, a French archaeologist, 
 has written a valuable treatise on the sym- 
 bolism of colors, under the title of Des 
 Couleurs Symboliques dans Fantiquite, le 
 moyen age et les temps modcrnes, which is 
 well worth the attention of Masonic stu- 
 dents. The Masonic colors are seven in 
 number, namely: 1. blue; 2, purple; 3, 
 red; 4, white ; 5, black; 6, green; 7, yel- 
 low ; 8, violet. See those respective titles. 
 
 Columbia, British. Freemasonry 
 was introduced into British Columbia by 
 the Grand Lodges of England and Scot- 
 land. On October 21st, 1871, a convention 
 was held, with the consent of the Provin- 
 cial Grand Master, for the purpose of pre- 
 liminary action. On the 26th of December 
 following, a Lodge of Master Masons was 
 opened, and an independent Grand Lodge 
 
COLUMBIA 
 
 COMMANDERY 
 
 175 
 
 organized, with the title of "The Grand 
 Lodge of Ancient, Free, and Accepted Ma- 
 sons for the Province of British Columbia." 
 
 Columbia, District of. The Grand 
 Lodge of the District of Columbia was or- 
 ganized Dec. 11th, 1810, by Lodges having 
 warrants from Maryland and Virginia, and 
 Valentine Reintzel was elected Grand Mas- 
 ter. The Grand Chapter formed, originally, 
 a component part of the Grand Chapter of 
 Maryland and the District of Columbia; 
 but the connection was dissevered in 1867, 
 and an independent Grand Chapter formed, 
 which has now five Chapters under its 
 jurisdiction. There is neither a Grand 
 Commandery nor Grand Council in the 
 Territory, but several Commanderies sub- 
 ordinate to the Grand Encampment of the 
 United States, and a Council of Royal and 
 Select Masters chartered by the Grand 
 Council of Massachusetts. The Scottish 
 Rite, has also been successfully cultivated, 
 and there are in operation a Lodge of Per- 
 fection and a Chapter of Rose Croix. 
 
 Column. A round pillar made to 
 support as well as to adorn a building, 
 whose construction varies in the different 
 orders of architecture. In Masonry, col- 
 umns have a symbolic signification as the 
 supports of a Lodge, and are known as the 
 Columns of Wisdom, Strength, and Beauty. 
 The broken column is also a symbol in 
 Masonry. See the titles Supports of a Lodge, 
 and Broken Column. 
 
 Combination of Masons. The 
 combination of the Freemasons in the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to de- 
 mand a higher rate of wages, which even- 
 tually gave rise to the enactment of the 
 Statutes of Laborers, is thus described by a 
 writer in the Gentleman's Magazine, (Jan. 
 1740, p. 17:) "King Edward III. took so 
 great an affection to Windsor, the place of 
 his birth, that he instituted the Order of 
 the Garter there, and rebuilt and enlarged 
 the castle, with the church and chapel of 
 St. George. This was a great work and 
 required a great many hands ; and for the 
 carrying of it on writs were directed to the 
 sheriffs of several counties to send thither, 
 under the penalty of £100 each, such a 
 number of masons by a day appointed. 
 London sent forty, so did Devon, Somerset, 
 and several other counties ; but several 
 dying of the plague, and others deserting 
 the service, new writs were issued to send 
 up supplies. Yorkshire sent sixty, and 
 other counties proportionably, and orders 
 were given that no one should entertain 
 any of these runaway masons, under pain 
 of forfeiture of all their goods. Hereupon, 
 the masons entered into a combination not 
 to work, unless at higher wages. They 
 agreed upon tokens, etc., to know one an- 
 
 other by, and to assist one another against 
 being impressed, and not to work unless 
 free and on their own terms. Hence they 
 called themselves Freemasons ; and this 
 combination continued during the carrying 
 on of these buildings for several years. The 
 wars between the two Houses coming on in 
 the next reign, the discontented herded 
 together in the same manner, and the gen- 
 try also underhand supporting the malcon- 
 tents, occasioned several Acts of Parliament 
 against the combination of masons and 
 other persons under that denomination, the 
 titles of which Acts are still to be seen in 
 the printed statutes of those reigns." Ash- 
 mole, in his History of the Order of the 
 Garter, (p. 80,) confirms the fact of the im- 
 pressment of workmen by King Edward ; 
 and the combination that followed seems 
 but a natural consequence of this oppres- 
 sive act ; but the assertion that the origin 
 of Freemasonry as an organized institution 
 of builders is to be traced to such a combi- 
 nation, is not supported by the facts of 
 history, and, indeed, the writer himself 
 admits that the Masons denied its truth. 
 
 Commander. 1. The presiding of- 
 ficer in a Commandery of Knights Tem- 
 plars. His style is " Eminent," and the 
 jewel of his office is a cross, from which 
 issue rays of light. 2. The Superinten- 
 dent of a Commandery, as a house or resi- 
 dence of the Ancient Knights of Malta, was 
 so called. 
 
 Commander, Grand. See Grand 
 Commander. 
 
 Commander-in-Chief. The pre- 
 siding officer in a Consistory of Sublime 
 Princes of the Royal Secret in the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite. His style is 
 " Illustrious." In a Grand Consistory the 
 presiding officer is a Grand Commander-in- 
 Chief, and he is styled " Very Illustrious." 
 
 Commandery. 1. In the United 
 States all regular assemblies of Knights 
 Templars are called Commanderies, and 
 must consist of the following officers: Emi- 
 nent Commander, Generalissimo, Captain 
 General, Prelate, Senior Warden, Junior 
 Warden, Treasurer, Recorder, Warder, 
 Standard Bearer, Sword Bearer, and Sen- 
 tinel. These Commanderies derive their 
 warrants of Constitution from a Grand 
 Commandery, or, if there is no such body 
 in the State in which they are organized, 
 from the Grand Encampment of the United 
 States. They confer the degrees of Knight 
 of the Red Cross, Knight Templar, and 
 Knight of Malta. 
 
 In a Commandery of Knights Templars, 
 the throne is situated in the East. Above 
 it are suspended three banners : the centre 
 one bearing a cross, surmounted by a glory ; 
 the left one having inscribed on it the em- 
 
176 
 
 COMMANDERY 
 
 COMMITTEE 
 
 blems of the Order, and the right one, a 
 paschal lamb. The Eminent Commander 
 is seated on the throne ; the Generalissimo, 
 Prelate, and Past Commanders on his right; 
 the Captain General on his left ; the Treas- 
 urer and Recorder, as in a Symbolic Lodge ; 
 the Senior Warden at the south-west angle 
 of the triangle, and upon the right of the 
 first division; the Junior Warden at the 
 north-west angle of the triangle, and on 
 the left of the third division ; the Standard 
 Bearer in the West, between the Sword 
 Bearer on his right, and the Warder on his 
 left; and in front of him is a stall for the 
 initiate. The Knights are arranged in 
 equal numbers on each side, and in front 
 of the throne. 
 
 2. The houses or residences of the Knights 
 of Malta were called Commanderies, and 
 the aggregation of them in a nation was 
 called a Priory or Grand Priory. 
 
 Commaudery, Grand. When three 
 or more Commanderies are instituted in a 
 State, they may unite and form a Grand 
 Commandery, under the regulations pre- 
 scribed by the Grand Encampment of the 
 United States. They have the superinten- 
 dence of all Commanderies of Knights 
 Templars that are holden in their respec- 
 tive jurisdictions. 
 
 A Grand Commandery meets, at least, 
 annually, and its officers consist of a Grand 
 Commander, Deputy Grand Commander, 
 Grand Generalissimo, Grand Captain Gen- 
 eral, Grand Prelate, Grand Senior and 
 Junior Warden, Grand Treasurer, Grand 
 Recorder, Grand Warder, Grand Standard 
 Bearer, and Grand Sword Bearer. 
 
 Committee. To facilitate the trans- 
 action of business, a Lodge or Grand Lodge 
 often refers a subject to a particular com- 
 mittee for investigation, and report. By 
 the usages of Masonry, committees of this 
 character are always appointed by the pre- 
 siding officer; and the Master of a Lodge, 
 when present at the meeting of a committee, 
 may act, if he thinks proper, as its chair- 
 man ; for the Master presides over any as- 
 semblage of the Craft in his jurisdiction. 
 
 Committee, General. By the Con- 
 stitution of the Grand Lodge of England, 
 all matters of business to be brought under 
 the consideration of the Grand Lodge 
 must previously be presented to a General 
 Committee, consisting of the Present and 
 Past Grand Officers, and the Master of 
 every regular Lodge, who meet on the 
 Wednesday immediately preceding each 
 quarterly communication. No such regu- 
 lation exists in any of the Grand Lodges 
 of this country. 
 
 Committee of Charity. In most 
 Lodges there is a standing Committee of 
 Charity, appointed at the beginning of the 
 
 year, to which, in general, applications for 
 relief are referred by the Lodge. In cases 
 where the Lodge does not itself take imme- 
 diate action, the committee is also invested 
 with the power to grant relief to a limited 
 amount during the recess of the Lodge. 
 
 Committee of Finance. In many 
 Lodges the Master, Wardens, Treasurer, 
 and Secretary constitute a Committee of 
 Finance, to which is referred the general 
 supervision of the finances of the Lodge. 
 
 Committee on Foreign Cor- 
 respondence. In none of the Grand 
 Lodges of this country, forty years ago, 
 was such a committee as that on foreign 
 correspondence ever appointed. A few of 
 them had corresponding secretaries, to 
 whom were intrusted the duty of attending 
 to the correspondence of the body : a duty 
 which was very generally neglected. A re- 
 port on the proceedings of other bodies 
 was altogether unknown. Grand Lodges 
 met and transacted the local business of 
 their own jurisdictions without any refer- 
 ence to what was passing abroad." 
 
 But within the last twenty or thirty 
 years, improvements in this respect began 
 to show themselves. Intelligent Masons 
 saw that it would no longer do to isolate 
 themselves from the Fraternity in other 
 countries, and that, if any moral or intel- 
 lectual advancement was to be expected, it 
 must be derived from the intercommunica- 
 tion and collision of ideas ; and the first 
 step towards this advancement was the ap- 
 pointment in every Grand Lodge of a com- 
 mittee, whose duty it should be to collate 
 the proceedings of other jurisdictions, and 
 to eliminate from them the most important 
 items. These committees were, however, 
 very slow in assuming the functions which 
 devolved upon them, and in coming up to 
 the full measure of their duties. At first 
 their reports were little more than " reports 
 of progress." No light was derived from 
 their collation, and the bodies which had 
 appointed them were no wiser after their 
 reports had been read than they were 
 before. 
 
 As a specimen of the first condition and 
 subsequent improvement of these com- 
 mittees on foreign correspondence, let us 
 take at random the transactions of any 
 Grand Lodge old enough to have a history 
 and intelligent enough to have made any 
 progress; and, for this purpose, the pro- 
 ceedings of the Grand Lodge of Ohio, two 
 volumes of which lie conveniently at hand, 
 will do as well as any other. 
 
 The Grand Lodge of Ohio was organized 
 in January, 1808. From that time to 1829, 
 its proceedings contain no reference to a 
 committee on correspondence ; and except, 
 I think, a single allusion to the Wash- 
 
COMMITTEE 
 
 COMMITTEE 
 
 177 
 
 ington Convention, made in the report of 
 a special committee, the Masons of Ohio 
 seem to have had no cognizance, or at 
 least to have shown no recognition, of any 
 Masonry which might be outside of their 
 own jurisdiction. 
 
 But in the year 1830, for the first time, a 
 committee was appointed to report on the 
 foreign correspondence of the Grand Lodge. 
 This committee bore the title of the " Com- 
 mittee on Communications from Foreign 
 Grand Lodges," etc., and made during the 
 session a report of eight lines in length, 
 which contained just the amount of infor- 
 mation that could be condensed in that 
 brief space, and no more. In 1831, the re- 
 
 J)ort was fifteen lines long ; in 1832, ten 
 ines; in 1833, twelve lines ; and so on for 
 several years, the reports being sometimes 
 a little longer and sometimes a little shorter; 
 but the length being always measured by 
 lines, and not by pages, until, in 1837, 
 there was a marked falling off, the report 
 consisting only of one line and a half. Of 
 this report, which certainly cannot be ac- 
 cused of verbosity, the following is an ex- 
 act copy : " Nothing has been presented for 
 the consideration of your committee re- 
 quiring the action of the Grand Lodge." 
 
 In 1842, the labors of the committee 
 began to increase, and their report fills a 
 page of the proceedings. Things now rap- 
 idly improved. In 1843, the report was 
 three pages long; in 1845, four pages; in 
 1840, seven; in 1848, nearly thirteen; in 
 1853, fourteen; in 1850, thirty; and in 
 1857 , for ty-six. Thenceforward there is no 
 more fault to be found. The reports of the 
 future committees were of full growth, 
 and we do not again hear such an unmean- 
 ing phrase as " nothing requiring the ac- 
 tion of the Grand Lodge." 
 
 The history of these reports in other 
 Grand Lodges is the same as that in Ohio. 
 Beginning with a few lines, which an- 
 nounced the absence of all matters worthy 
 of consideration, they have grown up to 
 the full stature of elaborate essays, extend- 
 ing to one hundred and sometimes to one 
 hundred and fifty pages, in which the most 
 important and interesting subjects of Ma- 
 sonic history, philosophy, and jurispru- 
 dence are discussed, generally with much 
 ability. 
 
 At this day the reports of the commit- 
 tees on foreign correspondence in all the 
 Grand Lodges of this country constitute an 
 important portion of the literature of the 
 Institution. The chairmen of these com- 
 mittees — for the other members fill, for 
 the most part, only the post of " sleeping 
 partners" — are generally men of educa- 
 tion and talent, who, by the very occupa- 
 tion in which they are employed, of read- 
 X 12 
 
 ing the published proceedings of all the 
 Grand Lodges in correspondence with their 
 own, have become thoroughly conversant 
 with the contemporary history of the Order, 
 while a great many of them have extended 
 their studies in its previous history. 
 
 The " reportorial corps," as these hard- 
 laboring brethren are beginning to call 
 themselves, exercise, of course, a not trifl- 
 ing influence in the Order. These com- 
 mittees annually submit to their respective 
 Grand Lodges a mass of interesting infor- 
 mation, which is read with great avidity by 
 their brethren. Gradually — for at first it 
 was not their custom — they have added to 
 the bare narration of facts their comments 
 on Masonic law and their criticisms on the 
 decisions made in other jurisdictions. These 
 comments and criticisms have very naturally 
 their weight, sometimes beyond their actual 
 worth ; and it will not therefore be impro- 
 per to take a glance at what ought to be 
 the character of a report on foreign corres- 
 pondence. 
 
 In the first place, then, a reporter of for- 
 eign correspondence should be, in the most 
 literal sense of Shakespeare's words, "a 
 brief chronicler of the times." His report 
 should contain a succinct account of every- 
 thing of importance that is passing in the 
 Masonic world, so far as his materials sup- 
 ply him with the information. But, re- 
 membering that he is writing for the in- 
 struction of hundreds, perhaps thousands, 
 many of whom cannot spare much time, 
 and many others who have no inclination 
 to spare it, he should eschew the sin of te- 
 diousness, never forgetting that " brevity is 
 the soul of wit." He should omit all de- 
 tails that have no special interest ; should 
 husband his space for important items, and 
 be exceedingly parsimonious in the use of 
 unnecessary expletives, whose only use is 
 to add to the length of a line. In a word, 
 he should remember that he is not an 
 orator, but an historian. A rigid adherence 
 to these principles would save the expense 
 of many printed pages to his Grand Lodge, 
 and the waste of much time to his readers. 
 These reports will form the germ of future 
 Masonic history. The collected mass will 
 be an immense one, and it should not be 
 unnecessarily enlarged by the admission of 
 trivial items. 
 
 In the next place, although I admit 
 that these "brethren of the reportorial 
 corps" have peculiar advantages in read- 
 ing the opinions of their contemporaries 
 on subjects of Masonic jurisprudence, they 
 would be mistaken in supposing that these 
 advantages must necessarily make them 
 Masonic lawyers. Ex quovis ligno non fit 
 Mercurius. It is not every man that will 
 make a lawyer. A peculiar turn of mind 
 
178 
 
 COMMITTEE 
 
 COMMUNICATION 
 
 and a habit of close reasoning, as well as 
 a thorough acquaintance with the law it- 
 self, are required to fit one for the investi- 
 gation of questions of jurisprudence. Re- 
 porters, therefore, should assume the task 
 of adjudicating points of law with much 
 diffidence. They should not pretend to 
 make a decision ex cathedra, but only to ex- 
 press an opinion ; and that opinion they 
 should attempt to sustain by arguments 
 that may convince their readers. Dogma- 
 tism is entirely out of place in a Masonic 
 report on foreign correspondence. 
 
 But if tediousness and dogmatism are 
 displeasing, how much more offensive must 
 be rudeness and personality. Courtesy is 
 a Masonic as well as a knightly virtue, and 
 the reporter who takes advantage of his 
 official position to speak rudely of his 
 brethren, or makes his report the vehicle 
 of scurrility and abuse, most strangely for- 
 gets the duty and respect which he owes to 
 the Grand Lodge which he represents and 
 the Fraternity to which he addresses him- 
 self. 
 
 And, lastly, a few words as to style. 
 These reports, I have already said, consti- 
 tute an important feature of Masonic liter- 
 ature. It should be, then, the object and 
 aim of every one to give to them a tone and 
 character which shall reflect honor on the 
 society whence they emanate, and enhance 
 the reputation of their authors. The style 
 cannot always be scholarly, but it should al- 
 ways be chaste; it may sometimes want 
 eloquence, but it should never be marked 
 by vulgarity. Coarseness of language and 
 slang phrases are manifestly out of place in 
 a paper which treats of subjects such as 
 naturally belong to a Masonic document. 
 Wit and humor we would not, of course, 
 exclude. The Horatian maxim bids us 
 sometimes to unbend, and old Menander 
 thought it would not do always to appear 
 wise. Even the solemn Johnson could 
 sometimes perpetrate a joke, and Sidney 
 Smith has enlivened his lectures on moral 
 philosophy with numerous witticisms. 
 There are those who delight in the stateli- 
 ness of Coleridge ; but for ourselves we do 
 not object to the levity of Lamb, though. 
 we would not care to descend to the vul- 
 garity of Rabelais. 
 
 To sum up the whole matter in a few 
 words, these reports on foreign correspon- 
 dence should be succinct, and, if you please, 
 elaborate chronicles of all passing events 
 in the Masonic world ; they should express 
 the opinions of their authors on points of 
 Masonic law, not as judicial dicta, but sim- 
 ply as opinions, not to be dogmatically en- 
 forced, but to be sustained and supported 
 by the best arguments that the writers can 
 produce ; they should not be made the ve- 
 
 hicles of personal abuse or vituperation ; 
 and, lastly, they should be clothed in lan- 
 guage worthy of the literature of the Order. 
 
 Committee. Private. The well- 
 known regulation which forbids private 
 committees in the Lodge, that is, select 
 conversations between two or more mem- 
 bers, in which the other members are not 
 permitted to join, is derived from the Old 
 Charges : " You are not permitted to hold 
 private committees or separate conversa- 
 tion, without leave from the Master, nor to 
 talk of anything impertinent or unseemly, 
 nor to interrupt the Master or Wardens, or 
 any brother speaking to the Master." 
 
 Committee, Report of. See Re- 
 port of a Committee. 
 
 Common Gavel. See Gavel. 
 
 Communication. The meeting of 
 a Lodge is so called. There is a peculiar 
 significance in this term. " To communi- 
 cate," which, in the Old English form, was 
 " to common," originally meant to share in 
 common with others. The great sacrament 
 of the Christian church, which denotes a 
 participation in the mysteries of the religion 
 and a fellowship in the church, is called a 
 " communion," which is fundamentally the 
 same as a "communication," for he who 
 partakes of the communion is said " to 
 communicate." Hence, the meetings of 
 Masonic Lodges are called communications, 
 to signify that it is not simply the ordinary 
 meeting of a society for the transaction of 
 business, but that such meeting is the fel- 
 lowship of men engaged in a common pur- 
 suit, and governed by a common principle, 
 and that there is therein a communication 
 or participation of those feelings and sen- 
 timents that constitute a true brotherhood. 
 
 The communications of Lodges are regu- 
 lar or stated and special or emergent. 
 Regular communications are held under 
 the provision of the by-laws, but special 
 communications are called by order of the 
 Master. It is a regulation that no special 
 communication can alter, amend, or rescind 
 the proceedings of a regular communica- 
 tion. 
 
 Communication, Grand. The 
 meeting of a Grand Lodge. 
 
 Commnnieation of Degrees. 
 When the peculiar mysteries of a degree 
 are bestowed upon a candidate by mere 
 verbal description of the bestower, without 
 his being made to pass through the consti- 
 tuted ceremonies, the degree is technically 
 said to be communicated. This mode is, 
 however, entirely confined in this country 
 to the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 The degrees may in that Rite be thus con- 
 ferred in any place where secrecy is se- 
 cured; but the prerogative of communi- 
 cating is restricted to the presiding officers 
 
COMMUNICATION 
 
 COMPAGNONAGE 
 
 179 
 
 of bodies of the Rite, who may communicate 
 certain of the degrees upon candidates who 
 have been previously duly elected, and to 
 Inspectors and Deputy Inspectors General 
 of the thirty-third degree, who may com- 
 municate all the degrees of the Rite, except 
 the last, to any persons whom they may 
 deem qualified to receive them. 
 
 Communication, Quarter ly. 
 Anciently, Grand Lodges, which were then 
 called General Assemblies of the Craft, 
 were held annually. But it is said that the 
 Grand Master Iuigo Jones instituted quar- 
 terly communications at the beginning of 
 the seventeenth century, which were con- 
 tinued by his successors, the Earl of Pem- 
 broke and Sir Christopher Wren, until the 
 infirmities of the latter compelled him to 
 neglect them. On the revival in 1717, pro- 
 vision was made for their resumption ; and 
 in the twelfth of the thirty-nine Regula- 
 tions of 1721 it was declared that the Grand 
 Lodge must have a quarterly communica- 
 tion about Michaelmas, Christmas, and 
 Lady-Day. These quarterly communica- 
 tions are still retained by the Grand Lodge 
 of England, and in this country by the 
 Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, but all 
 other American Grand Lodges have adopted 
 the old system of annual communications. 
 
 Communion of the Brethren. 
 See Bread, Consecrated. 
 
 Como. A city of Lombardy, which 
 was the principal seat of that body of 
 architects who, under the name of Travel- 
 ling Freemasons, wandered over Europe 
 during the Middle Ages, and constructed 
 cathedrals, monasteries, and other religious 
 edifices. A school of architecture was es- 
 tablished at Como which obtained so much 
 renown that, according to Muratori, the 
 masons and bricklayers of that place, in 
 consequence of their superiority in their 
 art, received the appellation of Magistri 
 Comacini, or Masters of Como, a title which 
 became generic to all those of the profes- 
 sion. To the school of Como, architects of 
 all nations flocked for instruction. Rebold 
 intimates that it was the successor of the 
 Roman Colleges of Builders, and that, like 
 them, it had its secret teachings and mys- 
 teries. 
 
 Compagnon. In French Masonry, a 
 Fellow Craft is so called, and the grade du 
 Compagnon is the degree of Fellow Craft. 
 
 Compagnonage. This is the name 
 which is given in France to certain mysti- 
 cal associations formed between workmen 
 of the same or an analogous handicraft, 
 whose object is to afford mutual assistance 
 to the members. It was at one time con- 
 sidered among handicraftsmen as the second 
 degree of the novitiate, before arriving at 
 the mditrise, or mastership, the first being, 
 
 of course, that of apprentice; and work- 
 men were admitted into it only after five 
 years of apprenticeship, and on the produc- 
 tion of a skilfully constructed piece of work,, 
 which was called their chef-d'oeuvre. 
 
 Tradition gives to Compagnonage a He- 
 braic origin, which to some extent assimi- 
 lates it to the traditional history of Free- 
 masonry as springing out of the Solomonic 
 Temple. It is, however, certain that it 
 arose, in the twelfth century, out of a part 
 of the corporation of workmen. These, 
 who prosecuted the labors of their craft 
 from province to province, could not shut 
 their eyes to the narrow policy of the gilds 
 or corporations, which the masters were 
 constantly seeking to make more exclusive. 
 Thence they perceived the necessity of 
 forming for themselves associations or con- 
 fraternities, whose protection should ac- 
 company them in all their laborious wan- 
 derings, and secure to them employment 
 and fraternal intercourse when arriving in 
 strange towns. 
 
 The Compagnons de la Tour, which is the 
 title assumed by those who are the mem- 
 bers of the brotherhoods of Compagnonage, 
 have legends, which have been traditionally 
 transmitted from age to age, by which, like 
 the Freemasons, they trace the origin of 
 their association to the Temple of King 
 Solomon. These legends are three in num- 
 ber, for the different societies of Compag- 
 nonage recognize three different founders, 
 and hence made three different associations, 
 which are : 
 
 1. The Children of Solomon. 
 
 2. The Children of Maitre Jacques. 
 
 3. The Children of Pere Soubise. 
 These three societies or classes of the 
 
 Compagnons are irreconcileable enemies, 
 and reproach each other with the imagin- 
 ary contests of their supposed founders. 
 
 The Children of Solomon pretend that 
 King Solomon gave them their devoir, or 
 gild, as a reward for their labors at the 
 Temple, and that he had there united them 
 into a brotherhood. 
 
 The Children of Maitre Jacques say that 
 their founder, who was the son of a cele- 
 brated architect named Jacquain, or 
 Jacques, was one of the chief Masters of 
 Solomon, and a colleague of Hiram. He 
 was born in a small city of Gaul named 
 Carte, and now St. Romille, but which we 
 should in vain look for on the maps. 
 
 From the age of fifteen he was employed 
 in stone-cutting. He travelled in Greece, 
 where he learned sculpture and architec- 
 ture ; afterwards went to Egypt, and thence 
 to Jerusalem, where he constructed two pil- 
 lars with so much skill that he was imme- 
 diately received as a Master of the Craft. 
 Maitre Jacques and his colleague Pere Sou- 
 
180 
 
 COMPAGNONAGE 
 
 COMPAGNONAGE 
 
 bise, after the labors of the Temple were 
 completed, resolved to go together to Gaul, 
 swearing that they would never separate ; 
 but the union did not last very long in 
 consequence of the jealousy excited in 
 Pere Soubise by the ascendency of Maitre 
 Jacques over their disciples. They parted, 
 and the former landed at Bordeaux, and 
 the latter at Marseilles. 
 
 One day, Maitre Jacques, being far away 
 from his disciples, was attacked by ten of 
 those of Pere Soubise. To save himself, he 
 fled into a marsh, where he sustained him- 
 self from sinking by holding on to the reeds, 
 and was eventually rescued by his disci- 
 ples. He then retired to Saint Baume, but 
 being soon after betrayed by a disciple, 
 named, according to some, Jeron, and ac- 
 cording to others, Jamais, he was assassi- 
 nated by five blows of a dagger, in the 
 forty-seventh year of his age, four years and 
 nine days after his departure from Jerusa- 
 lem. On his robe was subsequently found 
 a reed which he wore in memory of his 
 having been saved in the marsh, and thence- 
 forth his disciples adopted the reed as the 
 emblem of their Order. 
 
 Pere Soubise is not generally accused of 
 having taken any part in the assassination. 
 The tears which he shed over the tomb of 
 his colleague removed in part the suspi- 
 cions which had at first rested on him. 
 The traitor who committed the crime sub- 
 sequently, in a moment of deep contrition, 
 cast himself into a well, which the disci- 
 ples of Maitre Jacques filled up with stones. 
 The relics of the martyr were long pre- 
 served in a sacred chest, and, when his dis- 
 ciples afterwards separated into different 
 crafts, his hat was given to the hatters, his 
 tunic to the stone-cutters, his sandals to the 
 locksmiths, his mantle to the joiners, his 
 girdle to the carpenters, and his staff to the 
 cartwrights. 
 
 According to another tradition, Maitre 
 Jacques was no other than Jacques de Mo- 
 lay, the last Grand Master of the Templars, 
 who had collected under his banner some 
 of the Children of Solomon that had sepa- 
 rated from the parent society, and who, 
 about 1268, conferred upon them a new 
 devoir or gild. Pere Soubise is said, in the 
 same legend, to have been a Benedictine 
 monk, who gave to the carpenters some 
 special statutes. This second legend is 
 generally recognized as more truthful than 
 the first. From this it follows that the 
 division of the society of Compagnonage 
 into three classes dates from the thirteenth 
 century, and that the Children of Maitre 
 Jacques and of Pere Soubise are more 
 modern than the Children of Solomon, from 
 whom they were a dismemberment. 
 
 The organization of these associations of 
 
 Compagnonage reminds one very strongly 
 of the somewhat similar organization of 
 the stone-masons of Germany and of other 
 countries in the Middle Ages. To one of 
 three classes every handicraftsman in 
 France was expected to attach himself. 
 There was an initiation, and a system of 
 degrees which were four in number: the 
 Accepted Companion, the Finished Com- 
 panion, the Initiated Companion, and, 
 lastly, the Affiliated Companion. There 
 were also signs and words as modes of re- 
 cognition, and decorations, which varied in 
 the different devoirs ; but to all, the square 
 and compasses was a common symbol. 
 
 As soon as a Craftsman had passed 
 through his apprenticeship, he joined one 
 of these gilds, and commenced his journey 
 over France, which was called the tour de 
 France, in the course of which he visited 
 the principal cities, towns, and villages, 
 stopping for a time wherever he could se- 
 cure employment. In almost every town 
 there was a house of call, presided over 
 always by a woman, who was affectionately 
 called " la Mere," or the Mother, and the 
 same name was given to the house itself. 
 There the Compagnons held their meetings 
 and annually elected their officers, and trav- 
 elling workmen repaired there to obtain 
 food and lodging, and the necessary infor- 
 mation which might lead to employment. 
 
 When two Companions met on the road, 
 one of them addressed the other with the 
 topage, or challenge, being a formula of 
 words, the conventional reply to which 
 would indicate that the other was a member 
 of the same devoir. If such was the case, 
 friendly greetings ensued. But if the reply 
 was not satisfactory, and it appeared that 
 they belonged to different associations, a war 
 of words, and even of blows, was the result. 
 Such was formerly the custom, but through 
 the evangelic labors of Agricol Perdiquier, 
 a journeyman joiner of Avignon, who trav- 
 elled through France inculcating lessons of 
 brotherly love, a better spirit now exists. 
 
 In each locality the association has a 
 chief, who is annually elected by ballot at 
 the General Assembly of the Craft. He is 
 called the First Compagnon of Dignity. 
 He presides over the meetings, which ordi- 
 narily take place on the first Sunday of 
 every month, and represents the society in 
 its intercourse with other bodies, with the 
 Masters, or with the municipal authorities. 
 
 Compagnonage has been exposed, at va- 
 rious periods, to the persecutions of the 
 Church and the State, as well as to the oppo- 
 sition of the Corporations of Masters, to 
 which, of course, its designs were antagonis- 
 tic, because it opposed their monopoly. Un- 
 like them, and particularly the Corporation 
 of Freemasons, it was not under the protec- 
 
COMPAGNONS 
 
 CONCORDISTS 
 
 181 
 
 tion of the Church. The practice of its mysti- 
 cal receptions was condemned by the Faculty 
 of Theology at Paris, in 1655, as impious. 
 But a hundred years before, in 1541, a de- 
 cree of Francis I. had interdicted the Coin- 
 pagnons de la Tour from binding themselves 
 by an oath, from wearing swords or canes, 
 from assembling in a greater number than 
 five outside of their Masters' houses, or 
 from having banquets on any occasion. 
 During the sixteenth, seventeenth, and 
 eighteenth centuries, the parliaments were 
 continually interposing their power against 
 the associations of Compagnonage, as well 
 as against other fraternities. The effects 
 of these persecutions, although embarrass- 
 ing, were not absolutely disastrous. In 
 spite of them, Compagnonage was never 
 entirely dissolved, although a few of the 
 trades abandoned their devoirs; some of 
 which, however, — such as that of the shoe- 
 makers, — were subsequently renewed. And 
 at this day, the gilds of the workmen still 
 exist in France, having lost, it is true, much 
 of their original code of religious dogmas 
 and symbols, and, although not recognized 
 by the law, always tolerated by the muni- 
 cipal authorities and undisturbed by the 
 police. To the Masonic scholar, the history 
 of these devoirs or gilds is peculiarly inter- 
 esting. In nearly all of them the Temple 
 of Solomon prevails as a predominant sym- 
 bol, while the square and compass, their 
 favorite and constant device, would seem, 
 in some way, to identify them with Free- 
 masonry so far as respects the probability 
 of a common origin. 
 
 Compagnons de la Tour. The 
 title assumed by the workmen in France 
 who belong to the different gilds of Com- 
 pagnonage, which see. 
 
 Companion. A title bestowed by 
 Royal Arch Masons upon each other, and 
 equivalent to the word brother in symbolic 
 Lodges. It refers, most probably, to the 
 companionship in exile and captivity of the 
 ancient Jews, from the destruction of the 
 Temple by Nebuchadnezzar to its restora- 
 tion by Zerubbabel, under the auspices of 
 Cyrus. In using this title in a higher de- 
 gree, the Masons who adopted it seem to 
 have intimated that there was a shade of 
 difference between its meaning and that of 
 brother. The latter refers to the universal 
 fatherhood of God and the universal bro- 
 therhood of man ; but the former represents 
 a companionship or common pursuit of one 
 object — the common endurance of suffering 
 or the common enjoyment of happiness. 
 Companion represents a closer tie than 
 brother. The one is a natural relation shared 
 by all men ; the other a connection, the result 
 of choice and confined to a few. All men 
 are our brethren, not all our companions. 
 
 Compasses*. As in Operative Ma- 
 sonry, the compasses are used for the ad- 
 measurement of the architect's plans, and 
 to enable him to give those just proportions 
 which will insure beauty as well as stability 
 to his work; so, in Speculative Masonry, is 
 this important implement symbolic of that 
 even tenor of deportment, that true stand- 
 ard of rectitude which alone can bestow 
 happiness here and felicity hereafter. Hence 
 are the compasses the most prominent em- 
 blem of virtue, the true and only measure 
 of a Mason's life and conduct. As the 
 Bible gives us light on our duties to God, 
 and the square illustrates our duties to our 
 neighborhood and brother, so the compasses 
 give that additional light which is to in- 
 struct us in the duty we owe to ourselves 
 — the great, imperative duty of circum- 
 scribing our passions, and keeping our de- 
 sires within due bounds. " It is ordained," 
 says the philosophic Burke, "in the eternal 
 constitution of things, that men of intem- 
 perate passions cannot be free ; their pas- 
 sions forge their fetters." Those brethren 
 who delight to trace our emblems to an as- 
 tronomical origin, find in the compasses a 
 symbol of the sun, the circular pivot rep- 
 resenting the body of the luminary, and 
 the diverging legs his rays. 
 
 In the earliest rituals of the last century, 
 the compasses are described as a part of the 
 furniture of the Lodge, and are said to be- 
 long to the Master. Some change will be 
 found in this respect in the ritual of the 
 present day. See Square and Compasses. 
 
 Composite. One of the five orders 
 of architecture introduced by the Romans, 
 and compounded of the other four, whence 
 it derives its name. Although it combines 
 strength with beauty, yet, as it is a com- 
 paratively modern invention, it is held in 
 little esteem among Freemasons. 
 
 Concealment of the Body. See 
 Aphanism. 
 
 Conclave. Commanderies of Knights 
 Templars in England and Canada are 
 called Conclaves, and the Grand Encamp- 
 ment the Grand Conclave. The word is 
 also applied to the meetings in some other 
 of the high degrees. The word is derived 
 from the Latin eon, "with," and clavis, "a 
 key," to denote the idea of being locked 
 up in seclusion, and in this sense was first 
 applied to the apartment in which the car- 
 dinals are literally locked up when met to 
 elect a pope. 
 
 Coneordists. A secret order estab- 
 lished in Prussia, by M. Lang, on the wreck 
 of the Tugendverein, which latter body 
 was instituted in 1790 as a successor of the 
 Illuminati, and suppressed in 1812 by the 
 Prussian government, on account of its sup- 
 posed political tendencies. 
 
182 
 
 CONFEDERACIES 
 
 CONSERVATORS 
 
 Confederacies. A title given to the 
 yearly meetings of the Masons in the time of 
 Henry VI., of England, and used in the 
 celebrated statute passed in the third year 
 of his reign, and which begins thus: 
 " Whereas, by yearly congregations and 
 confederacies made by the Masons in their 
 General Assemblies, etc." See Laborers, 
 Statutes of. 
 
 Conference Lodges. Assemblies 
 of the members of a Lodge sometimes held 
 in Germany. Their object is the discussion 
 of the financial and other private matters 
 of the Lodge. Lodges of this kind held 
 in France are said to be " en famille." 
 There is no such arrangement in English 
 or American Masonry. 
 
 Conferring Degrees. When a can- 
 didate is initiated into any degree of Ma- 
 sonry in due form, the degree is said to 
 have been conferred, in contradistinction to 
 the looser mode of imparting its secrets by 
 communication. 
 
 Confusion of Tongues. The 
 Tower of Babel is referred to in the ritual 
 of the third degree as the place where 
 language was confounded and Masonry lost. 
 Hence, in Masonic symbolism, as Masonry 
 professes to possess a universal language, 
 the confusion of tongues at Babel is a sym- 
 bol of that intellectual darkness from which 
 the aspirant is seeking to emerge on his 
 passage to that intellectual light which is 
 imparted by the Order. See Threshing- 
 Floor of Oman the Jebusite. 
 
 Congregations. In the Old Eecords 
 and Constitutions of Masonry, the yearly 
 meetings of the Craft are so called. Thus, 
 in the Halliwell MS. it is said, "Every 
 Master that is a Mason must be at the 
 General Congregation." What are now 
 called" Communications of a Grand Lodge" 
 were then called " Congregations of the 
 Craft." See Assembly, General. 
 
 Congresses, Masonic. At various 
 times in the history of Freemasonry con- 
 ferences have been held, in which, as in 
 the General Councils of the Church, the 
 interests of the Institution have been made 
 the subject of consideration. These con- 
 ferences have received the name of Ma- 
 sonic Congresses. Whenever a respectable 
 number of Masons, invested with delibera- 
 tive powers, assemble as the representa- 
 tives of different countries and jurisdic- 
 tions, to take into consideration matters 
 relating to the Order, such a meeting will 
 be properly called a Congress. Of these 
 Congresses some have been productive of 
 little or no effect, while others have un- 
 doubtedly left their mark; nor can it be 
 doubted, that if a General or Ecumenical 
 Congress, consisting of representatives of 
 all the Masonic powers of the world, were 
 
 to meet, with an eye single to the great ob- 
 ject of Masonic reform, and were to be 
 guided by a liberal and conciliatory spirit 
 of compromise, such a Congress might at 
 the present day be of incalculable advan- 
 tage. 
 
 The most important Congresses that 
 have met since the year 926 are those of 
 York, Strasburg, Ratisbon, Spire, Cologne, 
 Basle, Jena, Altenberg, Brunswick, Ly- 
 ons, Wolfenbuttel, Wilhelmsbad, Paris, 
 Washington, Baltimore, Lexington, and 
 Chicago. See them under their respective 
 titles. 
 
 Consecration. The appropriating or 
 dedicating, with certain ceremonies, any- 
 thing to sacred purposes or offices by sepa- 
 rating it from common use. Hobbes, in his 
 Leviathan, (p. iv., c. 44,) gives the best de- 
 finition of this ceremony. " To consecrate 
 is, in Scripture, to offer, give, or dedicate, 
 in pious and decent language and gesture, 
 a man, or any other thing, to God, by sepa- 
 rating it from common use." Masonic 
 Lodges, like ancient temples and modern 
 churches, have always been consecrated. 
 The rite of consecration is performed by 
 the Grand Master, when the Lodge is said 
 to be consecrated in ample form; by the 
 Deputy Grand Master, when it is said to be 
 consecrated in due form; or by the proxy 
 of the Grand Master, when it is said to be 
 consecrated in form. The Grand Master, 
 accompanied by his officers, proceeds to the 
 hall of the new Lodge, where, after the 
 performance of those ceremonies which are 
 described in all manuals and monitors, he 
 solemnly consecrates the Lodge with the 
 elements of corn, wine, and oil, after which 
 the Lodge is dedicated and constituted, 
 and the officers installed. 
 
 Consecration, Elements of. 
 Those things, the use of which in the cere- 
 mony as constituent and elementary parts 
 of it, are necessary to the perfecting and 
 legalizing of the act of consecration. In 
 Freemasonry, these elements are corn, wine, 
 and oil, which see. 
 
 Conservators of Masonry. About 
 the year 1859, a Mason of some distinction 
 in this country professed to have discov- 
 ered, by his researches, what he called 
 "the true Preston-Webb Work," and at- 
 tempted to introduce it into various juris- 
 dictions, sometimes in opposition to the 
 wishes of the Graud Lodge and leading 
 Masons of the State. To aid in the prop- 
 agation of this ritual, he communicated it 
 to several persons, who were bound to use 
 all efforts — to some, indeed, of question- 
 able propriety — to secure its adoption by 
 their respective Grand Lodges. These 
 Masons were called by him " Conserva- 
 tors," and the order or society which they 
 
CONSERVATORS 
 
 CONSTITUTIONS 
 
 183 
 
 constituted was called the "Conservators' 
 Association." This association, and the 
 efforts of its chief to extend his ritual, met 
 with the very general disapproval of the 
 Masons of the United States, and in some 
 jurisdictions led to considerable disturb- 
 ance and bad feeling. 
 
 Conservators, Grand. See Grand 
 Conservators. 
 
 Consistory. The meetings of mem- 
 bers of the thirty-second degree, or Sub- 
 lime Princes of the Royal Secret in the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, are 
 called Consistories. The elective officers 
 are, according to the ritual of the Southern 
 Jurisdiction of the United States, a Com- 
 mander-in-Chief, Seneschal, Preceptor, 
 Chancellor, Minister of State, Almoner, 
 Registrar, and Treasurer. In the Northern 
 Jurisdiction it is slightly different, the 
 second and third officers being called Lieu- 
 tenant-Commanders. A Consistory confers 
 the thirty-first and thirty-second degrees 
 of the Rite. 
 
 Consistory, Grand. See Grand 
 Consistory. 
 
 Constable, Grand. The fourth offi- 
 cer in a Grand Consistory. It is the title 
 which was formerly given to the leader of 
 the land forces of the Knights Templars. 
 
 Constant inc. See Bed Cross of Rome 
 and Constantine. 
 
 Constituted, legally. The phrase, 
 a legally-constituted Lodge, is often used 
 Masonically to designate any Lodge work- 
 ing under proper authority, which neces- 
 sarily includes Lodges working under dis- 
 pensation ; although, strictly, a Lodge 
 cannot be legally constituted until it has 
 received its warrant or charter from the 
 Grand Lodge. But so far as respects the 
 regularity of their work, Lodges under dis- 
 pensation and warranted Lodges have the 
 same standing. 
 
 Constitution of a Lodge. Any 
 number of Master Masons, not less than 
 seven, being desirous of forming a new 
 Lodge, having previously obtained a dis- 
 pensation from the Grand Master, must 
 apply by petition to the Grand Lodge of 
 the State in which they reside, praying for 
 a Charter, or Warrant of Constitution, to 
 enable them to assemble as a regular Lodge. 
 Their petition being favorably received, a 
 warrant is immediately granted, and the 
 Grand Master appoints a day for its conse- 
 cration and for the installation of its offi- 
 cers. The Lodge having been consecrated, 
 the Grand Master, or person acting as such, 
 declares the brethren " to be constituted and 
 formed into a regular Lodge of Free and 
 Accepted Masons," after which the officers 
 of the Lodge are installed. In this decla- 
 ration of the Master, accompanied with the 
 
 appropriate ceremonies, consists the con- 
 stitution of the Lodge. Until a Lodge is 
 thus legally constituted, it forms no compo- 
 nent of the constituency of the Grand 
 Lodge, can neither elect officers nor mem- 
 bers, and exists only as a Lodge under dis- 
 pensation at the will of the Grand Master. 
 See Dispensation, Lodges under. 
 
 Constitutions of 1763. This is the 
 name of one of that series of Constitutions, 
 or Regulations, which have always been 
 deemed of importance in the history of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite; al- 
 though the Constitutions of 1762 have 
 really nothing to do with that Rite, having 
 been adopted long before its establishment. 
 In the year 1758, there was founded at 
 Paris a Masonic body which assumed the 
 title of the Chapter, or Council, of Empe- 
 rors of the East and West, and which body 
 organized a Rite known as the Rite of Per- 
 fection, consisting of twenty-five degrees, 
 and in the same year the Rite was carried 
 to Berlin by the Marquis de Bernez. In 
 the following year, a Council of Princes 
 of the Royal Secret, the highest degree con- 
 ferred in the Rite, was established at Bor- 
 deaux. On Sept. 21, 1762, nine Commis- 
 sioners met and drew up Constitutions for 
 the government of the Rite of Perfection, 
 which have been since known as the " Con- 
 stitutions of 1762." Of the place where 
 the Commissioners met, there is some 
 doubt. Of the two copies, hereafter to be 
 noticed, which are in the archives of the 
 Southern Supreme Council, that of Dela- 
 hogue refers to the Orients of Paris and 
 Berlin, while that of Aveilhe' says that they 
 were made at the Grand Orient of Bor- 
 deaux. Thory also ( Act. Lat., i. 79,) names 
 Bordeaux as the place of their enactment, 
 and so does Ragon, ( Orthod. Mag., 133;) al- 
 though he doubts their authenticity, and 
 says that there is no trace of any such 
 document at Bordeaux, nor any recollec- 
 tion there of the Consistory which is said 
 to have drawn up the Constitutions. To 
 this it may be answered, that in the 
 Archives of the Mother Supreme Council 
 at Charleston there are two manuscript 
 copies of these Constitutions — one written 
 by Jean Baptiste Marie Delahogue in 
 1798, and which is authenticated by Count 
 de Grasse, under the seal of the Grand 
 Council of the Princes of the Royal Secret, 
 then sitting at Charleston; and another, 
 written by Jean Baptiste Aveilhe in 1797. 
 This copy is authenticated by Long, Dela- 
 hogue, De Grasse, and others. Both docu- 
 ments are written in French, and are al- 
 most substantially the same. The trans- 
 lated title of Delahogue's copy is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 " Constitutions and Regulations drawn 
 
18-4 
 
 CONSTITUTIONS 
 
 CONSTITUTIONS 
 
 up by nine Commissioners appointed by 
 the Grand Council of the Sovereign Princes 
 of the Royal Secret at the Grand Orients 
 of Paris and Berlin, by virtue of the de- 
 liberation of the fifth day of the third week 
 of the seventh month of the Hebrew Era, 
 5662, and of the Christian Era, 1762. To be 
 ratified and observed by the Grand Councils 
 of the Sublime Knights and Princes of Ma- 
 sonry as well as by the particular Councils 
 and Grand Inspectors regularly constituted 
 in the two Hemispheres." The title of 
 Aveilhe's manuscript differs in this, that it 
 says the Constitutions were enacted " at the 
 Grand Orient of Bordeaux," and that they 
 were " transmitted to our Brother Stephen 
 Morin, Grand Inspector of all the Lodges in 
 the New World." I am inclined to think 
 that this is a correct record, and that the 
 Constitutions were prepared at Bordeaux. 
 
 The Constitutions of 1762 consist of 
 thirty-five articles, and are principally oc- 
 cupied in providing for the government of 
 the Rite established by the Council of Em- 
 perors of the East and West and of the 
 bodies under it. 
 
 The Constitutions of 1762 were pub- 
 lished at Paris, in 1832, in the Kecueil des 
 Actes du Supreme Conseil de France. They 
 were also published, in 1859, in this 
 country ; but the best printed exemplar 
 of them is that published in French and 
 English in the Book of Grand Constitu- 
 tions, edited by Bro. Albert Pike, which is 
 illustrated with copious and valuable anno- 
 tations by the editor, who is the Sovereign 
 Grand Commander of the Southern Su- 
 preme Council. 
 
 Constitutions of 1786. These are 
 regarded by the members of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite as the funda- 
 mental law of their Rite. They are said 
 to have been established by Frederick II., 
 of Prussia, in the last year of his life; a 
 statement, however, that has been denied 
 by some writers, and the controversies as to 
 their authenticity have made them a subject 
 of interest to all Masonic scholars. Bro. 
 Albert Pike, the Grand Commander of the 
 Supreme Council for the Southern Juris- 
 diction of the United States, published 
 them, in 1872, in Latin, French, and Eng- 
 lish ; and I avail myself of his exhaustive 
 annotations, because he has devoted to the 
 investigation of their origin and their au- 
 thenticity more elaborate care than any 
 other writer. 
 
 Of these Constitutions, there are two ex- 
 amplars, one in French and one in Latin, 
 between which there are, however, some 
 material differences. For a long time the 
 French examplar only was known in this 
 country. It is supposed by Bro. Pike that 
 it was brought to Charleston by Count de 
 
 Grasse, and that under its provisions he 
 organized the Supreme Council in that 
 place. They were accepted by the Southern 
 Supreme Council, and are still regarded 
 by the Northern Council as the only au- 
 thentic Constitutions. But there is abun- 
 dant internal evidence of the incomplete- 
 ness and incorrectness of the French Con- 
 stitutions, of whose authenticity there is no 
 proof, nor is it likely that they were made 
 at Berlin and approved by Frederick, as they 
 profess. 
 
 The Latin Constitutions were probably 
 not known in France until after the Revo- 
 lution. In 1834, they were accepted as au- 
 thentic by the Supreme Council of France, 
 and published there in the same year. A 
 copy of this was published in America, in 
 1859, by Bro. Pike. These Latin Constitu- 
 tions of 1786 have been recently accepted 
 by the Supreme Council of the Southern 
 Jurisdiction in preference to the French ver- 
 sion. Most of the other Supreme Councils 
 — those, namely, of England and Wales, 
 of Italy, and of South America, — have 
 adopted them as the law of the Rite, re- 
 pudiating the French version as of no au- 
 thority. 
 
 The definite and well authorized conclu- 
 sions to which Bro. Pike has arrived on 
 the subject of these Constitutions have 
 been expressed by that eminent Mason in 
 the following language: 
 
 " We think we may safely say, that the 
 charge that the Grand Constitutions were 
 forged at Charleston is completely dis- 
 proved, and that it will be contemptible 
 hereafter to repeat it. No set of speculat- 
 ing Jews constituted the Supreme Council 
 established there ; and those who care for 
 the reputations of Colonel Mitchell, and 
 Doctors Dalcho, Auld, and Moultrie, may 
 well afford to despise the scurrilous libels 
 of the Ragons, Clavels, and Folgers. 
 
 "And, secondly, that it is not by any 
 means proven or certain that the Constitu- 
 tions were not really made at Berlin, as 
 they purport to have been, and approved 
 by Frederick. We think that the prepon- 
 derance of the evidence, internal and ex- 
 ternal, is on the side of their authenticity, 
 apart from the positive evidence of the cer- 
 tificate of 1832. 
 
 " And, thirdly, that the Supreme Council 
 at Charleston had a perfect right to adopt 
 them as the law of the new Order; no 
 matter where, when, or by whom they 
 were made, as Anderson's Constitutions 
 were adopted in Symbolic Masonry ; that 
 they are and always have been the law of 
 the Rite, because they were so adopted; 
 and because no man has ever lawfully re- 
 ceived the degrees of the Rite without 
 swearing to maintain them as its supreme 
 
CONSTITUTIONS 
 
 COOKE'S 
 
 185 
 
 law ; for as to the articles themselves, there 
 is no substantial difference between the 
 French and Latin copies. 
 
 "And, fourthly, that there is not one 
 particle of proof of any sort, circumstan- 
 tial or historical, or by argument from im- 
 probability, that they are not genuine and 
 authentic. In law, documents of great 
 age, found in the possession of those in- 
 terested under them, to whom they right- 
 fully belong, and with whom they might 
 naturally be expected to be found, are ad- 
 mitted in evidence without proof, to estab- 
 lish title or facts. They prove themselves, 
 and to be avoided must be disproved by 
 evidence. There is no evidence against the 
 genuineness of these Grand Constitutions." 
 
 Constitutions, Old. See Records, 
 Old. 
 
 Constitutions, Secret. See Secret 
 Constitutions. 
 
 Consummatuni est. Latin. It is 
 finished. A phrase used in some of the 
 higher degrees of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. It is borrowed from the ex- 
 pression used by our Lord when he said, 
 on the cross, " It is finished," meaning that 
 the work which had been given him to do 
 had been executed. It is, therefore, appro- 
 priately used in the closing ceremonies to 
 indicate that the sublime work of the de- 
 grees is finished, so that all may retire in 
 peace. 
 
 Contemplative. To contemplate is, 
 literally, to watch and inspect the Temple. 
 The augur among the Romans, having 
 taken his stand on the Capitoline Hill, 
 marked out with his wand the space in the 
 heavens he intended to consult. This space 
 he called the templum. Having divided 
 his templum into two parts from top to 
 bottom, he watched to see what would 
 occur. The watching of the templum was 
 called contemplating ; and hence those who 
 devoted themselves to meditation upon sa- 
 cred subjects assumed this title. Thus, 
 among the Jews, the Essenes and the 
 Therapeutists, and, among the Greeks, the 
 school of Pythagoras, were contemplative 
 sects. Among the Freemasons, the word 
 speculative is used as equivalent to contem- 
 plative. See Speculative Masonry. 
 
 Continental Lodges. This expres- 
 sion is used throughout this work, as it 
 constantly is by English writers, to desig- 
 nate the Lodges on the continent of Europe 
 which retain many usages which have either 
 been abandoned by, or never were observed 
 in, the Lodges of England, Ireland, and 
 Scotland, as well as the United States of 
 America. The words Continental Masonry 
 are employed in the same sense. 
 
 Contumacy. In civil law, it is the re- 
 fusal or neglect of a party accused to appear 
 Y 
 
 and answer to a charge preferred against 
 him in a court of justice. In Masonic 
 jurisprudence, it is disobedience of or re- 
 bellion against superior authority, as when 
 a Mason refuses to obey the edict of his 
 Lodge, or a Lodge refuses to obey that of 
 the Grand Master or the Grand Lodge. 
 The punishment, in the former case, is gen- 
 erally suspension or expulsion ; in the lat- 
 ter, arrest of charter or forfeiture of warrant. 
 
 Convention. In a State or Territory 
 where there is no Grand Lodge, but three 
 or more Lodges holding their Warrants of 
 Constitution from Grand Lodges outside 
 of the Territory, these Lodges may meet 
 together by their representatives, — who 
 should properly be the first three officers 
 of each Lodge, — and take the necessary 
 steps for the organization of a Grand Lodge 
 in that State or Territory. This preparatory 
 meeting is called a Convention. A Presi- 
 dent and Secretary are chosen, and a Grand 
 Lodge is formed by the election of a Grand 
 Master and other proper officers, when the 
 old warrants are returned to the Grand 
 Lodges, and new ones taken out from the 
 newly-formed Grand Lodge. Not less than 
 three Lodges are required to constitute a 
 Convention. The first Convention of this 
 kind ever held was that of the four old 
 Lodges of London, which met at the Apple- 
 Tree Tavern, in February, 1717, and formed 
 the Grand Lodge of England. 
 
 Convention Night. A title some- 
 times given in the minutes of English 
 Lodges to a Lodge of emergency. Thus, 
 in the minutes of Constitution Lodge, No. 
 390, (London,) we read: "This being a 
 Convention Night to consider the state of 
 the Lodge," etc. 
 
 Conversation. Conversation among 
 the brethren during Lodge hours is for- 
 bidden by the Charges of 1722 in these 
 words : " You are not to hold private com- 
 mittees or separate conversation without 
 leave from the Master." 
 
 Convocation. The meetings of Chap- 
 ters of Royal Arch Masons are so called 
 from the Latin convocatio, a calling to- 
 gether. It seems very properly to refer to 
 the convoking of the dispersed Masons at 
 Jerusalem to rebuild the second Temple, 
 of which every Chapter is a representation. 
 
 Convocation, Grand. The meet- 
 ing of a Grand Chapter is so styled. 
 
 Cooke's Manuscript. The old 
 document commonly known among Ma- 
 sonic scholars as " Matthew Cooke's Manu- 
 script," because it was first given to the 
 public by that distinguished Drother, was 
 published by him, in 1861, from the original 
 in the British Museum, which institution 
 purchased it, on the 14th of October, 1859, 
 from Mrs. Caroline Baker. Its principal 
 
186 
 
 COPE 
 
 CORNER 
 
 value is derived from the fact, as Brother 
 Cooke remarks, that until its appearance 
 "there was no prose work of such un- 
 doubted antiquity known to be in exist- 
 ence on the subject." 
 
 Brother Cooke gives the following ac- 
 count of the MS. in his preface to its re- 
 publication : 
 
 " By permission of the Trustees of the 
 British Museum, the following little work 
 has been allowed to be copied and pub- 
 lished in its entire form. The original is 
 to be found among the additional manu- 
 scripts in that national collection, and is 
 numbered 23,198. 
 
 "Judging from the character of the 
 handwriting and the form of contractions 
 employed by the scribe, it was most proba- 
 bly written in the latter portion of the fif- 
 teenth century, [about 1490, says Hughan,] 
 and may be considered a very clear speci- 
 men of the penmanship of that period. 
 
 " By whom or for whom it was originally 
 penned there is no means of ascertaining ; 
 but, from the style, it may be conjectured 
 to have belonged to some Master of the 
 Craft, and to have been used in assemblies 
 of Masons as a text- book of the traditional 
 history and laws of the Fraternity." 
 
 Cope-Stone. See Cape-Stone. 
 
 Cord, Hindu Sacred. See Zen- 
 naar. 
 
 Cord, Silver. See Silver Cord. 
 
 Cord, Threefold. See Threefold 
 Cord. 
 
 Cordon. The Masonic decoration, 
 which in English is called the collar, is 
 styled by the French Masons the cordon. 
 
 Corinthian Order. This is the 
 lightest and most ornamental of the pure 
 orders, and possesses the highest degree of 
 richness and detail that architecture at- 
 tained under the Greeks. Its capital is its 
 great distinction, and is richly adorned 
 with leaves of acanthus, olive, etc., and 
 other ornaments. The column of Beauty 
 which supports the Lodge is of the Corin- 
 thian order, and its appropriate situation 
 and symbolic officer are in the South. 
 
 Corner, North-East. See North- 
 East Corner. 
 
 Corner-Stone, Symbolism of 
 the. The corner-stone is the stone which 
 lies at the corner of two walls, and forms 
 the corner of the foundation of an edifice. 
 In Masonic buildings it is now always 
 placed in the north-east ; but this rule was 
 not always formerly observed. As the 
 foundation on which the entire structure is 
 supposed to rest, it is considered by Opera- 
 tive Masons as the most important stone in 
 the edifice. It is laid with impressive cere- 
 monies ; the assistance of Speculative Ma- 
 sons is often, and ought always to be, in- 
 
 vited to give dignity to the occasion ; and 
 for this purpose Freemasonry has provided 
 an especial ritual which is to govern the 
 proper performance of that duty. 
 
 Among the ancients the corner-stone of 
 important edifices was laid with impressive 
 ceremonies. These are well described by 
 Tacitus in the history of the rebuilding 
 of the Capitol. After detailing the pre- 
 liminary ceremonies, which consisted in a 
 procession of vestals, who with chaplets of 
 flowers encompassed the ground and conse- 
 crated it by libations of living water, he 
 adds that, after solemn prayer, Helvidius, 
 to whom the care of rebuilding the Capitol 
 had been committed, " laid his hand upon 
 the fillets that adorned the foundation 
 stone, and also the cords by which it was to 
 be drawn to its place. In that instant the 
 magistrates, the priests, the senators, the 
 Roman knights, and a number of citizens, 
 all acting with one effort and general de- 
 monstrations of joy, laid hold of the ropes 
 and dragged the ponderous load to its des- 
 tined spot. They then threw in ingots of 
 gold and silver, and other metals which had 
 never been melted in the furnace, but still 
 retained, untouched by human art, their 
 first formation in the bowels of the earth." 
 
 The symbolism of the corner-stone when 
 duly laid with Masonic rites is full of sig- 
 nificance, which refers to its form, to its 
 situation, to its permanence, and to its con- 
 secration. 
 
 As to its form, it must be perfectly square 
 on its surfaces, and in its solid contents 
 a cube. Now the square is a symbol of 
 morality, and the cube of truth. In its 
 situation it lies between the north, the 
 place of darkness, and the east, the place 
 of light; and hence this position symbo- 
 lizes the Masonic progress from darkness 
 to light, and from ignorance to knowledge. 
 The permanence and durability of the 
 corner-stone, which lasts long after the 
 building in whose foundation it was placed 
 has fallen into decay, is intended to remind 
 the Mason that, when this earthly house 
 of his tabernacle shall have passed away, 
 he has within him a sure foundation of 
 eternal life —a corner-stone of immortality 
 — an emanation from that Divine Spirit 
 which pervades all nature, and which, 
 therefore, must survive the tomb, and rise, 
 triumphant and eternal, above the decay- 
 ing dust of death and the grave. 
 
 The stone, when deposited in its appro- 
 priate place, is carefully examined with the 
 necessary implements of Operative Ma- 
 sonry, — the square, the level, and the 
 plumb, themselves all symbolic in mean- 
 ing, — and is then declared to be "well 
 formed, true, and trusty." Thus the Ma- 
 son is taught that his virtues are to be 
 
CORN 
 
 CORYBANTE3 
 
 187 
 
 tested by temptation and trial, by suffering 
 and adversity, before they can be pro- 
 nounced by the Master Builder of souls to 
 be materials worthy of the spiritual build- 
 ing of eternal life, fitted, " as living stones, 
 for that house not made with hands, eternal 
 in the heavens." 
 
 And lastly, in the ceremony of depositing 
 the corner-stone, the elements of Masonic 
 consecration are produced, and the stone is 
 solemnly set apart by pouring corn, wine, 
 and oil upon its surface, emblematic of the 
 Nourishment, Refreshment, and Joy which 
 are to be the rewards of a faithful perform- 
 ance of duty. 
 
 The corner-stone does not appear to have 
 been adopted by any of the heathen na- 
 tions, but to have been as the ebenpinah, pe- 
 culiar to the Jews, from whom it descended 
 to the Christians. In the Old Testament, it 
 seems always to have denoted a prince or 
 high personage, and hence the Evangelists 
 constantly use it in reference to Christ, who 
 is called the " chief corner-stone." In Ma- 
 sonic symbolism, it signifies a true Mason, 
 and therefore it is the first character which 
 the Apprentice is made to represent after 
 his initiation has been completed. 
 
 Corn of Nourishment. One of 
 the three elements of Masonic consecration. 
 See Corn, Wine, and Oil. 
 
 Corn, Wine, and Oil. Corn, wine, 
 and oil are the Masonic elements of con- 
 secration. The adoption of these symbols 
 is supported by the highest antiquity. 
 Corn, wine, and oil were the most im- 
 portant productions of Eastern countries; 
 they constituted the wealth of the people, 
 and were esteemed as the supports of life 
 and the means of refreshment. David 
 enumerates them among the greatest bless- 
 ings that we enjoy, and speaks of them as 
 "wine that maketh glad the heart of man, 
 and oil to make his face shine, and bread 
 which strengthened man's heart." Ps. 
 civ. 14. In devoting anything to religious 
 purposes, the anointing with oil was con- 
 sidered as a necessary part of the ceremony, 
 a rite which has descended to Christian na- 
 tions. The tabernacle in the wilderness, 
 and all its holy vessels, were, by God's ex- 
 press command, anointed with oil; Aaron 
 and his two sons were set apart for the 
 priesthood with the same ceremony ; and 
 the prophets and kings of Israel were con- 
 secrated to their offices by the same rite. 
 Hence, Freemasons' Lodges, which are but 
 temples to the Most High, are consecrated 
 to the sacred purposes for which they were 
 built by strewing corn, wine, and oil upon 
 the " Lodge," the emblem of the Holy Ark. 
 Thus does this mystic ceremony instruct 
 us to be nourished with the hidden manna 
 of righteousness, to be refreshed with the 
 
 Word of the Lord, and to rejoice with joy 
 unspeakable in the riches of divine grace. 
 "Wherefore, my brethren," says the vener- 
 able Harris, (Disc. iv. 81,) "wherefore do 
 you carry corn, wine, and oil in your pro- 
 cessions, but to remind you that in the 
 pilgrimage of human life you are to im- 
 part a portion of your bread to feed the 
 hungry, to send a cup of your wine to cheer 
 the sorrowful, and to pour the healing oil 
 of your consolation into the wounds which 
 sickness hath made in the bodies, or afflic- 
 tion rent in the hearts, of your fellow-trav- 
 ellers ? " 
 
 In processions, the corn alone is carried 
 in a golden pitcher, the wine and oil are 
 placed in silver vessels, and this is to re- 
 mind us that the first, as a necessity and 
 the "staff of life," is of more importance 
 and more worthy of honor than the others, 
 which are but comforts. 
 
 Cornucopia. The horn of plenty. 
 The old pagan myth tells us that Zeus was 
 nourished during his infancy in Crete by 
 the daughters of Melissus, with the milk of 
 the goat Amalthea. Zeus, when he came 
 to the empire of the world, in gratitude 
 placed Amalthea in the heavens as a con- 
 stellation, and gave one of her horns to his 
 nurses, with the assurance that it should 
 furnish them with a never failing supply 
 of whatever they might desire. Hence it 
 is a symbol of abundance, and as such has 
 been adopted as the jewel of the Stewards 
 of a Lodge, to remind them that it is their 
 duty to see that the tables are properly fur- 
 nished at refreshment, and that every bro- 
 ther is suitably provided for. Among the 
 deities whose images are to be found in 
 the ancient Temples at Elora, in Hindu- 
 stan, is the goddess Ana Puma, whose name 
 is compounded of Ana, signifying corn, 
 and Purna, meaning plenty. She holds a 
 corn measure in her hand, and the whole 
 therefore very clearly has the same allusion 
 as the Masonic Horn of plenty. 
 
 Correspondence. See Committee on 
 Foreign Correspondence. 
 
 Corresponding Grand Secre- 
 tary. An officer of a Grand Lodge to 
 whom was formerly intrusted, in some 
 Grand Lodges, the Foreign Correspon- 
 dence of the body. The office is now dis- 
 used, being retained only in the Grand 
 Lodge of Massachusetts. 
 
 Coryfoantes, Mysteries of. Rites 
 instituted in Phrygia in honor of Atys, the 
 lover of Cybele. The goddess was sup- 
 posed first to bewail the death of her lover, 
 and afterwards to rejoice for his restoration 
 to life. The ceremonies were a scenical 
 representation of this alternate lamentation 
 and rejoicing, and of the sufferings of Atys, 
 who was placed in an ark or coffin during 
 
188 
 
 COSMOPOLITE 
 
 COUSTOS 
 
 the mournful part of the orgies. If the de- 
 scription of these rites, given by Sainte- 
 Croix from various ancient authorities, be 
 correct, they were but a modification of the 
 Eleusinian mysteries. 
 
 Cosmopolite. The third degree of 
 the Rite of African Architects. 
 
 Council. In several of the high de- 
 grees of Masonry the meetings are styled 
 Councils ; as a Council of Royal and Se- 
 lect Masters, or Princes of Jerusalem, or 
 Knights of the Red Cross. 
 
 Council Chamber. A part of the 
 room in which the ceremonies of the 
 Knights of the Red Cross are performed. 
 Council, Grand. See Grand Council. 
 Council of Knights of the Red 
 Cross. A body in which the first degree 
 of the Templar system in this country is 
 conferred. It is held under the Charter of 
 aCommandery of Knights Templars, which, 
 when meeting as a council, is composed 
 of the following officers: A Sovereign 
 Master, Chancellor, Master of the Palace, 
 Prelate, Master of Despatches, Master of 
 Cavalry, Master of Infantry, Standard 
 Bearer, Sword Bearer, Warder, and Sentinel. 
 Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters. The united body in which the 
 Royal and Select degrees are conferred. 
 In some jurisdictions this Council confers 
 also the degree of Super-Excellent Master. 
 Council of Royal Masters. The 
 body in which the degree of Royal Master, 
 the eighth in the American Rite, is con- 
 ferred. It receives its Charter from a 
 Grand Council of Royal and Select Mas- 
 ters, and has the following officers : Thrice 
 Illustrious Grand Master, Illustrious 
 Hiram of Tyre, Principal Conductor of 
 the Works, Master of the Exchequer, Mas- 
 ter of Finances, Captain of the Guards, 
 Conductor of the Council, and Steward. 
 
 Council of Select Masters. The 
 body in which the degree of Select Mas- 
 ters, the ninth in the American Rite, is 
 conferred. It receives its Charter from a 
 Grand Council of Royal and Select Mas- 
 ters. Its officers are: Thrice Illustrious 
 Grand Master, Illustrious Hiram of Tyre, 
 Principal Conductor of the Works, Treas- 
 urer, Recorder, Captain of the Guards, 
 Conductor of the Council, and Steward. 
 
 Council of the Trinity. An inde- 
 pendent Masonic jurisdiction, in which are 
 conferred the degrees of Knight of the 
 Christian Mark, and Guard of the Con- 
 clave, Knight of the Holy Sepulchre, and 
 the Holy and Thrice Illustrious Order of 
 the Cross. They are conferred after the 
 Encampment degrees. They are Christian 
 degrees, and refer to the crucifixion. 
 
 Council, Supreme. See Supreme 
 Council. 
 
 Courtesy. Politeness of manners, as 
 the result of kindness of disposition, was 
 one of the peculiar characteristics of the 
 knights of old. " No other human laws 
 enforced," says M. de St. Palaye, " as chiv- 
 alry did, sweetness and modesty of temper, 
 and that politeness which the word courtesy 
 was meant perfectly to express." We find, 
 therefore, in the ritual of Templarism, the 
 phrase "a true and courteous knight;" and 
 Knights Templars are in the habit of clos- 
 ing their letters to each other with the ex- 
 pression, Yours in all knightly courtesy. 
 Courtesy is also a Masonic virtue, because 
 it is the product of a feeling of kindness; but 
 it is not so specifically spoken of in the sym- 
 bolic degrees, where brotherly love assumes 
 its place, as it is in the orders of knighthood. 
 
 Coustos, John. The sufferings in- 
 flicted, in 1743, by the Inquisition at Lisbon, 
 en John Coustos, a Freemason, and the 
 Master of a Lodge in that city; and the 
 fortitude with which he endured the severest 
 tortures, rather than betray his trusts and 
 reveal the secrets that had been confided to 
 him, constitute an interesting episode in 
 the history of Freemasonry. Coustos, after 
 returning to England, published, in 1746, 
 a book, detailing his sufferings, from which 
 the reader is presented with the following 
 abridged narrative. 
 
 John Coustos was born at Berne, in 
 Switzerland, but emigrated, in 1716, with 
 his father to England, where he became a 
 naturalized subject. In 1743 he removed 
 to Lisbon, in Portugal, and began the prac- 
 tice of his profession, which was that of a 
 lapidary, or dealer in precious stones. 
 
 In consequence of the bull or edict of 
 Pope Clement XII. denouncingthe Masonic 
 institution, the Lodges at Lisbon were not 
 held at public houses, as was the custom in 
 England and other Protestant countries, 
 but privately, at the residences of the 
 members. Of one of these Lodges, Cous- 
 tos, who was a zealous Mason, was elected 
 the Master. A female, who was cognizant 
 of the existence of the Lodge over which 
 Coustos presided, revealed the circumstance 
 to her confessor, declaring that, in her 
 opinion, the members were " monsters in 
 nature, who perpetrated the most shocking 
 crimes. " In consequence of this informa- 
 tion, it was resolved, by the Inquisition, 
 that Coustos should be arrested and sub- 
 jected to the tender mercies of the " Holy 
 Office." He was accordingly seized, a few 
 nights afterwards, in a coffee-house — the 
 public pretence of the arrest being that he 
 was privy to the stealing of a diamond, of 
 which they had falsely accused another 
 jeweller, the friend and Warden of Coustos, 
 whom also they had a short time previously 
 arrested. 
 
COUSTOS 
 
 COUSTOS 
 
 189 
 
 Coustos was then carried to the prison of 
 the Inquisition, and after having been 
 searched and deprived of all his money, 
 
 Eapers, and other things that he had about 
 im, he was led to a lonely dungeon, in 
 which he was immured, being expressly 
 forbidden to speak aloud or knock against 
 the walls, but if he required anything, to 
 beat with a padlock that hung on the out- 
 ward door, and which he could reach by 
 thrusting his arm through the iron grate. 
 " It was there," says he, " that, struck with 
 the horrors of a place of which I had 
 heard and read such baleful descriptions, I 
 plunged at once into the blackest melan- 
 choly ; especially when I reflected on the 
 dire consequences with which my confine- 
 ment might very possibly be attended." 
 
 On the next day he was led, bare-headed, 
 before the President and four Inquisitors, 
 who, after having made him reply on oath 
 to several questions respecting his name, 
 his parentage, his place of birth, his reli- 
 gion, and the time he had resided in Lisbon, 
 exhorted him to make a full confession of 
 all the crimes he had ever committed in 
 the whole course of his life ; but, as he re- 
 fused to make any such confession, declar- 
 ing that, from his infancy, he had been 
 taught to confess not to man but to God, 
 he was again remanded to his dungeon. 
 
 Three days after, he was again brought 
 before the Inquisitors, and the examination 
 was renewed. This was the first occasion 
 on which the subject of Freemasonry was 
 introduced, and there Coustos for the first 
 time learned that he had been arrested and 
 imprisoned solely on account of his con- 
 nection with the forbidden Institution. 
 
 The result of this conference was, that 
 Coustos was conveyed to a deeper dungeon, 
 and kept there in close confinement for 
 several weeks, during which period he was 
 taken three times before the Inquisitors. 
 In the first of these examinations they 
 again introduced the subject of Free- 
 masonry, and declared that if the Institu- 
 tion was as virtuous as their prisoner con- 
 tended that it was, there was no occasion for 
 concealing so industriously the secrets of it. 
 Coustos did not reply to this objection to the 
 Inquisitorial satisfaction, and he was re- 
 manded back to his dungeon, where a few 
 days after he fell sick. 
 
 After his recovery, he was again taken 
 before the Inquisitors, who asked him sev- 
 eral new questions with regard to the tenets 
 of Freemasonry — among others, whether 
 he, since his abode in Lisbon, had received 
 any Portuguese into the society ? He re- 
 plied that he had not. 
 
 When he was next brought before them, 
 " they insisted," he says, " upon my letting 
 them into the secrets of Freemasonry; 
 
 threatening me, in case I did not comply." 
 But Coustos firmly and fearlessly refused to 
 violate his obligations. 
 
 After several other interviews, in which 
 the effort was unavailingly made to extort 
 from him a renunciation of Masonry, he 
 was subjected to the torture of which he 
 gives the following account: 
 
 " I was instantly conveyed to the torture- 
 room, built in form of a square tower, 
 where no light appeared but what two can- 
 dles gave ; and to prevent the dreadful cries 
 and shocking groans of the unhappy victims 
 from reaching the ears of the other prisoners, 
 the doors are lined with a sort of quilt. 
 
 " The reader will naturally suppose that 
 I must be seized with horror, when, at my 
 entering this infernal place, I saw myself, 
 on a sudden, surrounded by six wretches, 
 who, after preparing the tortures, stripped 
 me naked, (all to linen drawers,) when, 
 laying me on my back, they began to lay 
 hold of every part of my body. First, they 
 put round my neck an iron collar, which 
 was fastened to the scaffold ; they then fixed 
 a ring to each foot; and this being done, 
 they stretched my limbs with all their 
 might. They next wound two ropes round 
 each arm, and two round each thigh, which 
 ropes passed under the scaffold, through 
 holes made for that purpose, and were all 
 drawn tight at the same time, by four men, 
 upon a signal made for this purpose. 
 
 "The reader will believe that my pains 
 must be intolerable, when I solemnly de- 
 clare that these ropes, which were of the size 
 of one's little finger, pierced through my 
 flesh quite to the bone, making the blood 
 gush out at eight different places that were 
 thus bound. As I persisted in refusing to 
 discover any more than what has been seen 
 in the interrogatories above, the ropes were 
 thus drawn together four different times. 
 At my side stood a physician and a sur- 
 geon, who often felt my temples, to judge 
 of the danger I might be in — by which 
 means my tortures were suspended, at in- 
 tervals, that I might have an opportunity 
 of recovering myself a little. 
 
 " Whilst I was thus suffering, they were 
 so barbarously unjust as to declare, that, 
 were I to die under the torture, I should be 
 guilty, by my obstinacy, of self-murder. In 
 fine, the last time the ropes were drawn 
 tight, I grew so exceedingly weak, occa- 
 sioned by the blood's circulation being 
 stopped, and the pains I endured, that I 
 fainted quite away ; insomuch that I was 
 carried back to my dungeon, without per- 
 ceiving it. 
 
 " These barbarians, finding that the tor- 
 tures above described could not extort any 
 further discovery from me; but that, the 
 more they made me suffer, the more fer- 
 
190 
 
 COUSTOS 
 
 COVENANT 
 
 vently I addressed my supplications, for pa- 
 tience, to heaven ; they were so inhuman, 
 six weeks after, as to expose me to another 
 kind of torture, more grievous, if possible, 
 than the former. They made me stretch 
 my arms in such a manner that the palms 
 of my hands were turned outward ; when, 
 by the help of a rope that fastened them 
 together at the wrist, and which they turned 
 by an engine, they drew them gently nearer 
 to one another behind, in such a manner 
 that the back of each hand touched, and 
 stood exactly parallel one to another; 
 whereby both my shoulders were dislo- 
 cated, and a considerable quantity of blood 
 issued from my mouth. This torture was 
 repeated thrice; after which I was again 
 taken to my dungeon, and put into the 
 hands of physicians and surgeons, who, in 
 setting my bones, put me to exquisite pain. 
 
 "Two months after, being a little re- 
 covered, I was again conveyed to the torture- 
 room, and there made to undergo another 
 kind of punishment twice. The reader 
 may judge of its horror, from the following 
 description thereof. 
 
 " The torturers turned twice around my 
 body a thick iron chain, which, crossing 
 upon my stomach, terminated afterwards at 
 my wrists. They next set my back against 
 a thick board, at each extremity whereof 
 was a pulley, through which there ran a 
 rope, that catched the ends of the chains at 
 my wrists. The tormentors then stretched 
 these ropes, by means of a roller, pressed 
 or bruised my stomach, in proportion as the 
 means were drawn tighter. They tortured 
 me on this occasion to such a degree, that 
 my wrists and shoulders were put out of joint. 
 
 " The surgeons, however, set them pres- 
 ently after; but the barbarians not yet 
 having satiated their cruelty, made me 
 undergo this torture a second time, which 
 I did with fresh pains, though with equal 
 constancy and resolution. I was then re- 
 manded back to my dungeon, attended by 
 the surgeons, who dressed my bruises; and 
 here I continued until their auto-da-fe, or 
 gaol delivery." 
 
 On that occasion, he was sentenced to 
 work at the galleys for four years. Soon, 
 however, after he had commenced the 
 degrading occupation of a galley slave, 
 the injuries which he had received during 
 his inquisitorial tortures having so much 
 impaired his health, that he was unable to 
 undergo the toils to which he had been 
 condemned, he was sent to the infirmary, 
 where he remained until October, 1744, 
 when he was released upon the demand of 
 the British minister, as a subject to the 
 king of England. He was, however, 
 ordered to leave the country. This, it may 
 be supposed, he gladly did, and repaired to 
 
 London, where he published the account 
 of his sufferings in a book entitled " The 
 Sufferings of John Coustos for Freemasonry, 
 and his refusing to turn Catholic, in the 
 Inquisition at Lisbon, &c, &c." London, 
 1746 ; 8vo, 400 pages. Such a narrative 
 is well worthy of being read. John Coustos 
 has not, by his literary researches, added 
 anything to the learning or science of our 
 Order ; yet, by his fortitude and fidelity 
 under the severest sufferings, inflicted to 
 extort from him a knowledge he was bound 
 to conceal, he has shown that Freemasonry 
 makes no idle boast in declaring that its 
 secrets " are locked up in the depository of 
 faithful breasts." 
 
 CoUYreur. The title of an officer in a 
 French Lodge, equivalent to the English 
 Tiler. 
 
 CooTrir le Temple. A French ex- 
 pression for the English one to close the 
 Lodge. But it has also another significa- 
 tion. "To cover the Temple to a bro- 
 ther," means, in French Masonic language, 
 to exclude him from the Lodge. 
 
 Covenant of Masonry. As a cov- 
 enant is defined to be a contract or agree- 
 ment between two or more parties on certain 
 terms, there can be no doubt that when a 
 man is made a Mason he enters into a cov- 
 enant with the Institution. On his part 
 he promises to fulfil certain promises and 
 to discharge certain duties, for which, on 
 the other part, the Fraternity bind them- 
 selves by an equivalent covenant of friend- 
 ship, protection, and support. This cove- 
 nant must of course be repeated and modi- 
 fied with every extension of the terms of 
 agreement on both sides. The covenant of 
 an Entered Apprentice is different from 
 that of a Fellow Craft, and the covenant 
 of the latter from that of a Master Mason. 
 As we advance in Masonry our obligations 
 increase, but the covenant of each degree 
 is not the less permanent or binding be- 
 cause that of a succeeding one has been su- 
 peradded. The second covenant does not 
 impair the sanctity of the first. 
 
 This covenant of Masonry is symbolized 
 and sanctioned by the most important and 
 essential of all the ceremonies of the Insti- 
 tution. It is the very foundation stone 
 which supports the whole edifice, and, un- 
 less it be properly laid, no superstructure 
 can with any safety be erected. It is in- 
 deed the covenant that makes the Mason. 
 
 A matter so important as this, in estab- 
 lishing the relationship of a Mason with 
 the Craft, — this baptism, so to speak, by 
 which a member is inaugurated into the 
 Institution, — must of course be attended 
 with the most solemn and binding ceremo- 
 nies. Such has been the case in all coun- 
 tries. Covenants have always been solem- 
 
COVENANT 
 
 COWAN 
 
 191 
 
 nized with certain solemn forms and reli- 
 gious observances which gave them a sacred 
 sanction in the minds of the contracting 
 parties. The Hebrews, especially, invested 
 their covenants with the most imposing 
 ceremonies. 
 
 The first mention of a covenant in form 
 that is met with in Scripture is that re- 
 corded in the fifteenth chapter of Genesis, 
 where, to confirm it, Abraham, in obedi- 
 ence to the Divine command, took a heifer, 
 a she-goat, and a ram, "and divided them in 
 the midst, and laid each piece one against 
 another." This dividing a victim into two 
 parts, that the covenanting parties might 
 pass between them, was a custom not con- 
 fined to the Hebrews, but borrowed from 
 them by all the heathen nations. 
 
 In the book of Jerem iah it is again alluded 
 to, and the penalty for the violation of the 
 covenant is also expressed. 
 
 " And I will give the men that have 
 transgressed my covenant, which have not 
 performed the words of my covenant which 
 they have made before me, when they' cut 
 the calf in twain, and passed between the 
 parts thereof, 
 
 " The princes of Judah, and the princes of 
 Jerusalem, the eunuchs, and the priests, and 
 all the people of the land, which passed 
 between the parts of the calf; 
 
 " I will even give them into the hand of 
 their enemies, and into the hand of them 
 that seek their life : and their dead bodies 
 shall be for meat unto the fowls of the heaven, 
 and to the beasts of tlie earth" Jeremiah 
 xxxiv. 18, 19, 20. 
 
 These ceremonies, thus briefly alluded to 
 in the passages which have been quoted, were 
 performed in full, as follows. The attentive 
 Masonic student will not fail to observe tbe 
 analogies to those of his own Order. 
 
 The parties entering into a covenant first 
 selected a proper animal, such as a calf or 
 a kid among the Jews, a sheep among the 
 Greeks, or a pig among the Romans. The 
 throat was then cut across, with a single 
 blow, so as to completely divide the wind- 
 pipe and arteries, without touching the 
 bone. This was the first ceremony of the 
 covenant. The second was to tear open 
 the breast, to take from thence the heart 
 and vitals, and if on inspection the least im- 
 perfection was discovered, the body was 
 considered unclean, and thrown aside for 
 another. The third ceremony was to di- 
 vide the body in twain, and to place the 
 two parts to the north and south, so that 
 the parties to the covenant might pass 
 between them, coming from the east and 
 going to the west. The carcass was then 
 left as a prey to the wild beasts of the 
 field and the vultures of the air, and thus 
 the covenant was ratified. 
 
 Covering of tne Lodge. As the 
 
 lectures tell us that our ancient brethren 
 met on the highest hills and lowest vales, 
 from this it is inferred that, as the meetings 
 were thus in the open air, the only covering 
 must have been the over-arching vault of 
 heaven. Hence, in the symbolism of Ma- 
 sonry, the covering of the Lodge is said to 
 be "a clouded canopy or starry -decked 
 heaven." The terrestrial Lodge of labor 
 is thus intimately connected with the ce- 
 lestial Lodge of eternal refreshment. The 
 symbolism is still farther extended to re- 
 mind us that the whole world is a Mason's 
 Lodge, and heaven its sheltering cover. 
 
 Cowan. This is a purely Masonic 
 term, and signifies in its technical meaning 
 an intruder, whence it is always coupled 
 with the word eavesdropper. It is not found 
 in any of the old manuscripts of the Eng- 
 lish Masons anterior to the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, unless we suppose that lowen, met 
 with in many of them, is a clerical error of 
 the copyists. It occurs in the Schaw manu- 
 script, a Scotch record which bears the 
 date of 1598, in the following passage : 
 " That no Master nor Fellow of Craft re- 
 ceive any cowans to work in his society or 
 company, nor send none of his servants to 
 work with cowans." In the second edition 
 of Anderson's Constitutions, published in 
 1738, we find the word in use among the 
 English Masons, thus : " But Free and Ac- 
 cepted Masons shall not allow cowans to 
 work with them, nor shall they be em- 
 ployed by cowans without an urgent neces- 
 sity ; and even in that case they shall not 
 teach cowans, but must have a separate 
 communication." There can, I think, be 
 but little doubt that the word, as a Masonic 
 term, comes to us from Scotland, and it is 
 therefore in the Scotch language that we 
 must look for its signification. 
 
 Now, Jamieson, in his Scottish Diction- 
 ary, gives us the following meanings of the 
 word : 
 
 "Cowan, s. 1. A term of contempt; 
 applied to one who does the work of a Ma- 
 son, but has not been regularly bred. 
 
 " 2. Also used to denote one who builds dry 
 walls, otherwise denominated a dry-diker. 
 
 " 3. One unacquainted with the secrets 
 of Freemasonry." 
 
 And he gives the following examples as 
 his authorities : 
 
 " ' A boat-carpenter, joiner, cowan (or 
 builder of stone without mortar), get Is. at 
 the minimum and good maintenance.' P. 
 Morven, Argyles. Statistic. Acct., X., 267. N. 
 
 " ' Cowans. Masons who build dry-stone 
 dikes or walls.' P. Halkirk, Carthn. Sta- 
 tistic. Acct., XIX., 24. N." 
 
 In the Hob Hoy of Scott, the word is used 
 by Allan Inverach, who says : 
 
192 
 
 CRAFT 
 
 CREED 
 
 "She does not value a Cawmil mair as a 
 cowan" 
 
 The word has therefore, I think, come to 
 the English Fraternity directly from the 
 Operative Masons of Scotland, among whom 
 it was used to denote a pretender, in the 
 exact sense of the first meaning of Jamieson. 
 
 There is no word that has given Masonic 
 scholars more trouble than this in tracing 
 its derivation. Many years ago, I sought 
 to find its root in the Greek kvuv, kuon, a 
 dog; and referred to the fact that in the 
 early ages of the Church, when the myste- 
 ries of the new religion were communicated 
 only to initiates under the veil of secrecy, 
 infidels were called "dogs," a term probably 
 suggested by such passages as Matthew 
 vii. 6, "Give not that which is holy to 
 dogs ; " or, Philip, iii. 2, " Beware of dogs, 
 beware of evil workers, beware of the con- 
 cision." This derivation has been adopted 
 by Oliver, and many other writers; and 
 although I am not now inclined to insist 
 upon it, I still think it a very probable one, 
 which may serve until a better shall be pro- 
 posed. Jamieson's derivations are from the 
 old Swedish kujon, kuzhjohn, a silly fellow, 
 and the French colon, coyon, a coward, a 
 base fellow. No matter how we get the 
 word, it seems always to convey an idea of 
 contempt. The attempt to derive it from the 
 chouans of the French revolution is mani- 
 festly absurd, for it has been shown that 
 the word was in use long before the French 
 revolution was even meditated. 
 
 Craft. It is from the Saxon crceft, 
 which indirectly signifies skill or dexterity 
 in any art. In reference to this skill, there- 
 fore, the ordinary acceptation is a trade or 
 mechanical art, and collectively, the per- 
 sons practising it. Hence, " the Craft," in 
 Speculative Masonry, signifies the whole 
 body of Freemasons, wherever dispersed. 
 
 Craft Masonry, Ancient. See 
 Ancient Craft Masonry. 
 
 Crafted. A word sometimes collo- 
 quially used, instead of the Lodge term 
 " passed," to designate the advancement of 
 a candidate to the second degree. It is not 
 only a colloquialism, but I think also an 
 Americanism. 
 
 Craftsman. A Mason. The word 
 originally meant any one skilful in his 
 art, and is so used by our early writers. 
 Thus Chaucer, in his Knights' Tale, v. 
 1889, says : 
 
 " For in the land there was no craftesman, 
 That geometry or arsmetrike can, 
 Nor pourtrayor, nor carver of images, 
 That Theseus ne gave him meat and wages. 
 The theatre to make and to devise." 
 
 Create. In chivalry, when any one re- 
 ceived the order of knighthood, he was said 
 
 to be created a knight. The word " dub " 
 had also the same meaning. The word 
 created is used in Commanderies of Knight3 
 Templars to denote the elevation of a can- 
 didate to that degree. See Dub. 
 
 Creation. Preston (Illust,, B. I., Sect. 3,) 
 says, " From the commencement of the 
 world, we may trace the. foundation of 
 Masonry. Ever since symmetry began, 
 and harmony displayed her charms, our 
 Order has had a being." Language like 
 this has been deemed extravagant, and just- 
 ly, too, if the words are to be taken in their 
 literal sense. The idea that the Order of 
 Masonry is coeval with the creation, is so 
 absurd, that the pretension cannot need 
 refutation. But the fact is, that Ander- 
 son, Preston, and other writers who have 
 indulged in such statements, did not mean 
 by the word Masonry anything like an or- 
 ganized Order or Institution bearing any 
 resemblance to the Freemasonry of the 
 present day. They simply meant to indi- 
 cate that the great moral principles on 
 which Freemasonry is founded, and by 
 which it professes to be guided, have al- 
 ways formed a part of the divine govern- 
 ment, and been presented to man from his 
 first creation for his acceptance. The words 
 quoted from Preston are unwise, because 
 they are liable to misconstruction. But the 
 symbolic idea which they intended to con- 
 vey, namely, that Masonry is truth, and 
 that truth is co-existent with man's crea- 
 tion, is correct, and cannot be disputed. 
 
 Creed, A Mason's. Although Free- 
 masonry is not a dogmatic theology, and is 
 tolerant in the admission of men of every 
 religious faith, it would be wrong to sup- 
 pose that it is without a creed. On the 
 contrary, it has a creed, the assent to which 
 it rigidly enforces, and the denial of which 
 is absolutely incompatible with member- 
 ship in the Order. This creed consists of 
 two articles: First, a belief in God, the 
 Creator of all things, who is therefore re- 
 cognized as the Grand Architect of the 
 Universe ; and secondly, a belief in the 
 eternal life, to which this present life is 
 but a preparatory and probationary state. 
 To the first of these articles assent is ex- 
 plicitly required as soon as the threshold 
 of the Lodge is crossed. The second is ex- 
 pressively taught by legends and symbols, 
 and must be implicitly assented to by every 
 Mason, especially by those who have re- 
 ceived the third degree, which is altogether 
 founded on the doctrine of the resurrection 
 to a second life. 
 
 At the revival of Masonry in 1717, the 
 Grand Lodge of England set forth the law, 
 as to the religious creed to be required of a 
 Mason, in the following words, to be found 
 in the charges approved by that body. 
 
CREUZER 
 
 CROMWELL 
 
 193 
 
 "In ancient times, Masons were charged 
 in every country to be of the religion of 
 that country or nation, whatever it was ; 
 yet it is now thought more expedient only 
 to oblige them to that religion in which all 
 men agree, leaving their particular opinions 
 to themselves." 
 
 This is now considered universally as the 
 recognized law on the subject. 
 
 Creuzer, Georg Friederich. 
 George Frederick Creuzer, who was born 
 in Germany in 1771, and was a professor at 
 the University of Heidelberg, devoted him- 
 self to the study of the ancient religions, 
 and, with profound learning, established a 
 peculiar system on the subject. His theory 
 was, that the religion and mythology of the 
 ancient Greeks were borrowed from a far 
 more ancient people, — a body of priests 
 coming from the East, — who received them 
 as a revelation. The myths and traditions 
 of this ancient people were adopted by 
 Hesiod, Homer, and the later poets, al- 
 though not without some misunderstanding 
 of them; and they were finally preserved 
 in the Mysteries, and became subjects of 
 investigation for the philosophers. Thi8 
 theory Creuzer has developed in his most 
 important work, entitled Symbolik und 
 Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders der 
 Oreichen, which was published at Leipsic 
 in 1819. There is no translation of this 
 work into English; but Guigniaut pub- 
 lished at Paris, in 1824, a paraphrastic 
 translation of it, under the title of Reli- 
 gions de VAntiquite considerdes principale- 
 Ttient dans leur Formes Symboliques et Mytho- 
 logiques. Creuzer's views throw much light 
 on the symbolic history of Freemasonry. 
 He died in 1858. 
 
 Crimes, Masonic. In Masonry, 
 every offence is a crime, because, in every 
 violation of a Masonic law, there is not 
 only sometimes an infringement of the 
 rights of an individual, but always, super- 
 induced upon this, a breach and violation 
 of public rights and duties, which affect 
 the whole community of the Order con- 
 sidered as a community. 
 
 The first class of crimes which are laid 
 down in the Constitutions, as rendering 
 their perpetrators liable to Masonic juris- 
 diction, are offences against the moral law. 
 " Every Mason," say the old Charges of 
 1722, " is obliged by his tenure to obey the 
 moral law." The same charge continues 
 the precept by asserting, that if he rightly 
 understands the art, he will never be a 
 stupid atheist, nor an irreligious libertine. 
 Atheism, therefore, which is a rejection of 
 a supreme, superintending Creator, and ir- 
 religious libertinism, which, in the lan- 
 guage of that day, signified a denial of all 
 moral responsibility, are offences against 
 Z 13 
 
 the moral law, because they deny its valid- 
 ity and contemn its sanctions ; and hence 
 they are to be classed as Masonic crimes. 
 
 Again : the moral law inculcates love of 
 God, love of our neighbor, and duty to our- 
 selves. Each of these embraces other in- 
 cidental duties which are obligatory on 
 every Mason, and the violation of any one 
 of which constitutes a Masonic crime. 
 
 The love of God implies that we should 
 abstain from all profanity and irreverent 
 use of his name. Universal benevolence is 
 the necessary result of love of our neighbor. 
 Cruelty to one's inferiors and dependents, 
 uncharitableness to the poor and needy, and 
 a general misanthropical neglect of our 
 duty as men to our fellow-beings, exhibit- 
 ing itself in extreme selfishness and indiffer- 
 ence to the comfort or happiness of all 
 others, are offences against the moral law, 
 and therefore Masonic crimes. Next to 
 violations of the moral law, in the category 
 of Masonic crimes, are to be considered the 
 transgressions of the municipal law, or the 
 law of the land. Obedience to constituted 
 authority is one of the first duties which is 
 impressed upon the mind of the candidate ; 
 and hence he who transgresses the laws of 
 the government under which he lives vio- 
 lates . the teachings of the Order, and is 
 guilty of a Masonic crime. But the Order 
 will take no cognizance of ecclesiastical or 
 political offences. And this arises from the 
 very nature of the society, which eschews 
 all controversies about national religion or 
 state policy. Hence apostasy, heresy, and 
 schisms, although considered in some gov- 
 ernments as heinous offences, and subject 
 to severe punishment, are not viewed as 
 Masonic crimes. Lastly, violations of the 
 Landmarks and Regulations of the Order 
 are Masonic crimes. Thus, disclosure of 
 any of the secrets which a Mason has pro- 
 mised to conceal ; disobedience and want 
 of respect to Masonic superiors ; the bring- 
 ing of" private piques or quarrels " into the 
 Lodge; want of courtesy and kindness to 
 the brethren ; speaking calumniously of a 
 Mason behind his back, or in any other way 
 attempting to injure him, as by striking 
 him except in self-defence, or violating his 
 domestic honor, is each a crime in Masonry. 
 Indeed, whatever is a violation of fidelity 
 to solemn engagements, a neglect of pre- 
 scribed duties, or a transgression of the car- 
 dinal principles of friendship, morality, and 
 brotherly love, is a Masonic crime. 
 
 Cromlech. A large stone resting on 
 two or more stones, like a table. Crom- 
 lechs are found in Brittany, Denmark, 
 Germany, and some other parts of Europe, 
 and are supposed to have Seen used in the 
 Celtic mysteries. 
 
 Cromwell. The Abbd Larudan pub- 
 
194 
 
 CROMWELL 
 
 CROSS 
 
 lished at Amsterdam, in 1746, a book enti- 
 tled Les Francs- Macons Ecrases, of which 
 Kloss says {Bibliog. der Freimaurerei, No. 
 1874,) that it is the armory from which all 
 the abuse of Freemasonry by its enemies 
 has been derived. Larudan was the first 
 to advance in this book the theory that 
 Oliver Cromwell was the founder of Free- 
 masonry. He says that Cromwell estab- 
 lished the Order for the furtherance of his 
 political designs; adopting with this view, 
 as its governing principles, the doctrines of 
 liberty and equality, and bestowed upon its 
 members the title of Freemasons, because 
 his object was to engage them in the build- 
 ing of a new edifice, that is to say, to re- 
 form the human race by the extermination 
 of kings and all regal powers. He selected 
 for this purpose the design of rebuilding 
 the Temple of Solomon. This Temple, 
 erected by divine command, had been the 
 sanctuary of religion. After years of glory 
 and magnificence, it had been destroyed by 
 a formidable army. The people who there 
 worshipped had been conveyed to Babylon, 
 whence, after enduring a rigorous captivity, 
 they had been permitted to return to Jeru- 
 salem and rebuild the Temple. This his- 
 tory of the Solomonic Temple Cromwell 
 adopted, says Larudan, as an allegory on 
 which to found his new Order. The Tem- 
 ple in its original magnificence was man in 
 his primeval state of purity ; its destruc- 
 tion and the captivity of its worshippers 
 typified pride and ambition, which have 
 abolished equality and introduced depend- 
 ence among men ; and the Chaldean de- 
 stroyers of the glorious edifice are the 
 kings who have trodden on an oppressed 
 people. 
 
 It was, continues the Abb6, in the year 
 1648 that Cromwell, at an entertainment 
 given by him to some of his friends, pro- 
 
 {>osed to them, in guarded terms, the estab- 
 ishment of a new society, which should 
 secure a true worship of God, and the de- 
 liverance of man from oppression and tyr- 
 anny. The proposition was received with 
 unanimous favor ; and a few days after, at a 
 house in King Street, and at six o'clock in 
 the evening, (for the Abbe is particular as 
 to time and place,) the Order of Freema- 
 sonry was organized, its degrees established, 
 its ceremonies and ritual prescribed, and 
 several of the adherents of the future Pro- 
 tector initiated. The Institution was used 
 by Cromwell for the advancement of his 
 projects, for the union of the contending 
 parties in England, for the extirpation 
 of the monarchy, and his own subsequent 
 elevation to supreme power. It extended 
 from England into other countries, but 
 was always careful to preserve the same 
 doctrines of equality and liberty among 
 
 men, and opposition to all monarchical 
 government. Such is the theory of the 
 Abb6 Larudan, who, although a bitter 
 enemy of Masonry, writes with seeming 
 fairness and mildness. But it is hardly 
 necessary to say that this theory of the 
 origin of Freemasonry finds no support 
 either in the legends of the Institution, or 
 in the authentic history that is connected 
 with its rise and progress. 
 
 Cross. We can find no symbolism of 
 the cross in the primitive degrees of An- 
 cient Craft Masonry. It does not appear 
 among the symbols of the Apprentice, the 
 Fellow Craft, the Master, or the Royal 
 Arch. This is undoubtedly to be attri- 
 buted to the fact that the cross was con- 
 sidered, by those who invented those de- 
 grees, only in reference to its character as 
 a Christian sign. The subsequent archaeo- 
 logical investigations that have given to the 
 cross a more universal place in iconogra- 
 phy were unknown to the rituals. It is 
 true, that it is referred to, under the name 
 of the rode or rood, in the manuscript of the 
 fourteenth century, published by Halliwell; 
 this Avas, however, one of the Constitutions 
 of the Operative Freemasons, who were 
 fond of the symbol, and were indebted for 
 it to their ecclesiastical origin, and to their 
 connection with the Gnostics, among whom 
 the cross was a much used symbol. But on 
 the revival in 1717, when the ritual was 
 remodified, and differed very greatly from 
 that meagre one in practice among the 
 mediaeval Masons, all allusion to the cross 
 was left out, because the revivalists laid 
 down the principle that the religion of 
 Speculative Masonry was not sectarian but 
 universal. And although this principle 
 was in some points, as in the "lines par- 
 allel," neglected, the reticence as to the 
 Christian sign of salvation has continued 
 to the present day ; so that the cross cannot 
 be considered as a symbol in the primary 
 and original degrees of Masonry. 
 
 But in the high degrees, the cross has been 
 introducedas an important symbol. In some 
 of them, — those which are to be traced to 
 the Temple system of Ramsay, — it is to be 
 viewed with reference to its Christian 
 origin and meaning. Thus, in the original 
 Rose Croix and Kadosh, — no matter what 
 may be the modern interpretation given to 
 it, — it was simply a representation of the 
 cross of Christ In others of a philosophi- 
 cal character, such as the Ineffable degrees, 
 the symbolism of the cross was in all prob- 
 ability borrowed from the usages of an- 
 tiquity, for from the earliest times and in 
 almost all countries the cross has been a 
 sacred symbol. It is depicted on the 
 oldest monuments of Egypt, Assyria, Per- 
 sia, and Hindustan. It was, says Faber, 
 
CROSS 
 
 CROSS 
 
 195 
 
 (Cabir., ii. 390,) a symbol throughout the 
 pagan world long previous to its becoming 
 an object of veneration to Christians. In 
 ancient symbology it was a symbol of eter- 
 nal life. M. de Mortillet, who in 1866 
 published a work entitled Le Signe de la 
 Croix avant le Christianisme, found in the 
 very earliest epochs three principal symbols 
 of universal occurrence : viz., the circle, 
 the pyramid, and the cross. Leslie, (Man's 
 Origin and Destiny, p. 312,) quoting from 
 him in reference to the ancient worship of 
 the cross, says, " It seems to have been a 
 worship of such a peculiar nature as to ex- 
 clude the worship of idols." This sacred- 
 ness of the crucial symbol may be one 
 reason why its form was often adopted, 
 especially by the Celts, in the construction 
 of their temples. 
 
 Of the Druidical veneration of the cross, 
 Higgins quotes from the treatise of Sche- 
 dius, De Moribus Oermanorum, (xxiv.,) the 
 following remarkable paragraph. 
 
 " The Druids seek studiously for an oak- 
 tree, large and handsome, growing up with 
 two principal arms in the form of a cross, 
 beside the main, upright stem. If the two 
 horizontal arms are not sufficiently adapted 
 to the figure, they fasten a cross beam to it. 
 This tree they consecrate in this manner. 
 Upon the right branch they cut in the bark, 
 in fair characters, the word HESUS ; upon 
 the middle or upright stem, the word 
 TAR AM IS; upon the left branch, BELE- 
 NUS ; over this, above the going off of the 
 arms, they cut the name of God, THAU. 
 Under all the same repeated, THAU. This 
 tree, so inscribed, they make their kebla in 
 the grove, cathedral, or summer church, 
 towards which they direct their faces in the 
 offices of religion." 
 
 Mr. Brinton, in his interesting work en- 
 titled Symbolism; The Myths of the New 
 World, has the following remarks : 
 
 " The symbol that beyond all others has 
 fascinated the human mind, the cross, finds 
 here its source and meaning. Scholars have 
 pointed out its sacredness in many natural 
 religions, and have reverently accepted it 
 as a mystery, or offered scores of conflict- 
 ing, and often debasing, interpretations. 
 It is but another symbol of the four cardinal 
 points, the four winds of heaven. This will 
 luminously appear by a study of its use 
 and meaning in America." (P. 95.) And 
 Mr. Brinton gives many instances of the 
 religious use of the cross by several of the 
 aboriginal tribes of this continent, where 
 the allusion, it must be confessed, seems 
 evidently to be to the four cardinal points, 
 or the four winds, or four spirits of the 
 earth. If this be so, and if it is probable 
 that a similar reference was adopted by the 
 Celtic and other ancient peoples, then we 
 
 would have in the cruciform temple as 
 much a symbolism of the world, of which 
 the four cardinal points constitute the 
 boundaries, as we have in the square, the 
 cubical, and the circular. 
 
 Cross, Double. See Cross, Patri- 
 archal. 
 
 Cross, Jerusalem. A Greek cross 
 between four crosslets. It was adopted by 
 Baldwyn as the arms 
 of the kingdom of Je- 
 rusalem, and has since 
 been deemed a symbol 
 of the Holy Land. It 
 is also the jewel of the 
 Knights of the Holy 
 Sepulchre. Symboli- 
 cally, the four small 
 crosses typify the four 
 wounds of the Saviour 
 in the hands and feet, and the large central 
 cross shows forth his death for that world 
 to which the four extremities point. 
 
 Cross, Maltese. A cross of eight 
 points, worn by the 
 Knights of Malta. It 
 is heraldically de- 
 scribed as "a cross 
 pattee, but the ex- 
 tremity of each pat- 
 tee notched at a deep 
 angle." The eight 
 points are said to 
 refer symbolically to 
 the eight beatitudes. 
 
 Cross of Constantine. 
 barum. 
 
 Cross of Salem. Called also the 
 Pontifical Cross, because it is borne before 
 the pope. It is a cross, the 
 upright piece being crossed 
 by three lines, the upper and 
 lower shorter than the mid- 
 dle one. It is the insignia 
 of the Grand Master and 
 Past Grand Masters of the 
 Grand Encampment of 
 Knights Templars of the 
 United States, and also of 
 the Sovereign Grand Com 
 mander of the Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 Cross, Passion. The cross on which 
 Jesus suffered crucifixion. It is the most 
 common form of the cross. 
 When rayonnant, or having rays 
 issuing from the point of inter- 
 section of the limbs, it is the in- 
 signia of the Commander of a 
 Commandery of Knights Tem- 
 plars, according to the American 
 system. 
 
 Cross, Patriarchal. A cross, the 
 upright piece being twice crossed, the up- 
 
 See La- 
 
196 
 
 CROSS 
 
 CROSS 
 
 per arms shorter than the lower. It is 
 so called because it is borne before a Patri- 
 arch in the Roman 
 Church. It is the in- 
 signia of the officers of 
 the Grand Encamp- 
 ment of Knights Tem- 
 plars of the United 
 States, and of all pos- 
 sessors of the thirty- 
 third degree in the 
 Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. 
 Cross, St. Andrew's. A saltier or 
 cross whose decussation is in the form of 
 the letter X. Said to be 
 the form of cross on which 
 St. Andrew suffered mar- 
 tyrdom. As he is the pa- 
 tron saint of Scotland, the 
 St. Andrew's cross forms a 
 part of the jewel of the 
 Grand Master of the Grand 
 Lodge of Scotland, which 
 is " a brilliant star, having 
 in the centre a field, azure, charged with a 
 St. Andrew on the cross, gold ; pendant 
 therefrom the Compasses extended, with 
 the Square and Segment of a Circle of 90° ; 
 the points of the Compasses resting on the 
 Segment. In the centre, between the 
 Square and Compasses, the Sun in full 
 glory." The St. Andrew's cross is also the 
 jewel of the twenty-ninth degree of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, or 
 Grand Scottish Knight of St. Andrew. 
 
 Cross, Tail. The cross on which St. 
 Anthony is said to have suffered martyr- 
 dom. It is in the form of 
 the letter T. See Tau. 
 
 Cross, Templar. 
 Andre Favin, a French her- 
 aldic writer, says that the 
 original badge of the 
 Knights Templars was a 
 Patriarchal Cross, and 
 Clarke, in his History of 
 Knighthood, states the same 
 fact; but this is an error. At first, the 
 Templars wore a white mantle without any 
 cross. But in 1146 Pope Eugenius III. 
 prescribed for them a red cross on the 
 breast, as a symbol 
 of the martyrdom to 
 which they were con- 
 stantly exposed. The 
 cross of the Hospital- 
 ers was white on a 
 black mantle, and 
 that of the Templars 
 was different in color 
 but of the same form, 
 namely, a cross pattSe. In this it differed 
 from the true Maltese cross, worn by the 
 Knights of Malta, which was a cross pattee, 
 
 the limbs deeply notched so as to make a 
 cross of eight points. Sir Walter Scott, with 
 his not unusual heraldic inaccuracy, and 
 Higgins, who is not often inaccurate, but 
 only fanciful at times, both describe the 
 Templar cross as having eight points, thus 
 confounding it with the cross of Malta. 
 In the statutes of the Order of the Temple, 
 the cross prescribed is that depicted in the 
 Charter of Transmission, and is a cross 
 pattee. 
 
 Cross, Teutonic. The cross for- 
 merly worn by the Teutonic Knights. It 
 is described in heraldry as "a cross po- 
 tent, sable, (black,) charged with another 
 cross double potent or, 
 (gold,) and surcharged 
 with an escutcheon ar- 
 gent (silver,) bearing 
 a double-headed eagle 
 (sable). It has been 
 adopted as the jewel 
 of the Kadosh of the 
 Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite in the 
 United States, but the original jewel of the 
 degree was a Latin or Passion Cross. 
 
 Cross, Thrice Illustrious Order 
 of the. A degree formerly conferred in 
 this country on Knights Templars, but now 
 extinct. Its meetings were called Councils, 
 and under the authority of a body which 
 styled itself the Ancient Council of the 
 Trinity. The degree is no longer con- 
 ferred. 
 Cross, Triple. See Cross of Salem. 
 Cross-Bearing Men. ( Viri Cruci- 
 geri.) A name sometimes assumed by the 
 Rosicrucians. Thus, in the Miracula Na- 
 turae, (Anno 1619,) there is a letter addressed 
 to the Fraternity of the Rosy Cross, which 
 begins : " Philosophi Fratres, Viri Cruci- 
 geri," — Brother Philosophers, Cross-Bearing 
 Men, 
 
 Crossing the RiTer. The Kabba- 
 lists have an alphabet so called, in allusion 
 to the crossing of the river Euphrates by 
 the Jews on their return from Babylon to 
 Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. It has 
 been adopted in some of the high degrees 
 which refer to that incident. Cornelius 
 Agrippa gives a copy of the alphabet in 
 his Occult Philosophy, 
 
 Cross, Jeremy Ii. A teacher of the 
 Masonic ritual, who, during his lifetime, 
 was extensively known, and for some time 
 very popular. He was born June 27, 1783, 
 at Haverhill, New Hampshire, and died 
 at the same place, in 1861. Cross was ad- 
 mitted into the Masonic Order in 1808, and 
 soon afterwards became a pupil of Thomas 
 Smith Webb, whose modifications of the 
 Preston lectures and of the higher degrees 
 were generally accepted by the Masons of 
 the United States. Cross, having acquired 
 
CROSS-LEGGED 
 
 CRUCEFIX 
 
 197 
 
 a competent knowledge of Webb's system, 
 began to travel and disseminate it through- 
 out the country. In 1819 he published 
 The True Masonic Chart or Hieroglyphic 
 Monitor, in which he borrowed liberally 
 from the previous work of Webb. In fact, 
 the Chart of Cross is, in nearly all its parts, 
 a mere transcript of the Monitor of Webb, 
 the first edition of which was published in 
 1797. Webb, it is true, took the same 
 liberty with Preston, from whose Illustra- 
 tions of Masonry he borrowed largely. The 
 engraving of the emblems constituted, how- 
 ever, an entirely new and original feature 
 in the Hieroglyphic Chart, and, as furnish- 
 ing aids to the memory, rendered the book 
 of Cross at once very popular ; so much so, 
 indeed, that for a long time it almost alto- 
 gether superseded that of Webb. In 1820 
 Cross published The Templars' Chart, which, 
 as a monitor of the degrees of chivalry, 
 met with equal success. Both of these 
 works have passed through numerous edi- 
 tions. 
 
 Cross received the appointment of Grand 
 Lecturer from many Grand Lodges, and 
 travelled for many years very extensively 
 through the United States, teaching his 
 system of lectures to Lodges, Chapters, 
 Councils, and Encampments. 
 
 He possessed little or no scholarly at- 
 tainments, and his contributions to the lit- 
 erature of Masonry are confined to the two 
 compilations already cited. In his latter 
 years he became involved in a schismatic 
 effort to establish a spurious Supreme Coun- 
 cil of the Ancient and Accepted Rite. But 
 he soon withdrew his name, and retired to 
 the place of his nativity, where he died at 
 the advanced age of seventy-eight. 
 
 Although Cross was not a man of any 
 very original genius, yet a recent writer has 
 announced the fact that the symbol of the 
 monument in the third degree, unknown to 
 the system of either Preston or Webb, was 
 invented by him. See Monument. 
 
 Cross-legged Knights. In the Mid- 
 dle Ages it was the custom to bury the body 
 of a Knight Templar with one leg crossed 
 over the other ; and on many monuments in 
 the churches of Europe, the effigies of these 
 knights are to be found, often in England, 
 of a diminutive size, with the legs placed 
 in this position. The cross-legged posture 
 was not confined to the Templars, but was 
 appropriated to all persons who had as- 
 sumed the cross and taken a vow to fight in 
 defence of the Christian religion. The pos- 
 ture, of course, alluded to the position of 
 the Lord while on the cross. 
 
 Cross-legged Masons. A name 
 given to the Knights Templars who in the 
 sixteenth century united themselves with 
 the Masonic Lodge at Sterling, in Scot- 
 
 land. The allusion is evidently to the fu- 
 neral posture of the Templars, so that a 
 " cross-legged Mason " must have been at 
 the time synonymous with a Masonic 
 Knight Templar. 
 
 Crotona. One of the most prominent 
 cities of the Greek colonists in Southern 
 Italy, where, in the sixth century, Pythag- 
 oras established his celebrated school. As 
 the early Masonic writers were fond of 
 citing Pythagoras as a brother of theirCraft, 
 Crotona became connected with the history 
 of Masonry, and was often spoken of as 
 one of the most renowned seats of the In- 
 stitution. Thus, in the Leland MS., whose 
 authenticity is now, however, doubted, it is 
 said that Pythagoras "framed a grate Lodge 
 at Groton, and maked many Maconnes," 
 in which sentence Groton, it must be re- 
 marked, is an evident corruption of Cro- 
 tona. 
 
 Crow. An iron implement used to 
 raise heavy stones. It is one of the work- 
 ing-tools of a Royal Arch Mason, and sym- 
 bolically teaches him to raise his thoughts 
 above the corrupting influence of worldly- 
 mindedness. 
 
 Crown. A portion of Masonic regalia 
 worn by officers who represent a king, more 
 especially King Solomon. In Ancient 
 Craft Masonry, nowever, the crown is dis- 
 pensed with, the hat having taken its place. 
 
 Crown, Knight of the. See Knight 
 of the Crown. 
 
 Crown, Princesses of the. 
 (Princesses de la Couronne.) A species of 
 androgynous Masonry established at Sax- 
 ony in 1770. It existed for only a brief 
 period. 
 
 Crowned Martyrs. See Four 
 Crowned Martyrs. 
 
 Crowning of Masonry. Le cou- 
 ronnement de la Maconnerie. The sixty- 
 first degree of the collection of the Metro- 
 politan Chapter of France. 
 
 Crneeflx, Robert T. An English 
 Mason, distinguished for his services to the 
 Craft. Robert Thomas Crucefix, M.D., 
 LL.D., was born in Holborn, Eng., in the 
 year 1797, and received his education at Mer- 
 chant Tailors' School. After leaving school, 
 he became the pupil of Mr. Chamberlayne, 
 a general and celebrated practitioner of his 
 day, at Clerkenwell; he afterwards became 
 a student at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, 
 and was a pupil of the celebrated Aberne- 
 thy. On receiving his diploma as a mem- 
 ber of the Royal College of Surgeons, in 
 1810 he went out to India, where he re- 
 mained but a short time ; upon his return 
 he settled in London, and he continued to 
 reside there till the year 1845, when he re- 
 moved to Milton-on-Thames, where he 
 spent the rest of his life till within a few 
 
198 
 
 CRUCIFIX 
 
 CRUX 
 
 weeks before his decease, when he removed, 
 for the benefit of his declining health, to 
 Bath, where he expired February 25, 1850. 
 Dr. Crucefix was initiated into Masonry in 
 1829, and during the greater part of his life 
 discharged the duties of important offices 
 in the Grand Lodge of England, of which he 
 was a Grand Deacon, and in several subordi- 
 nate Lodges, Chapters, and Encampments. 
 He was an earnest promoter of all the Ma- 
 sonic charities of England, of one of which, 
 the " Asylum for Aged and Decayed Free- 
 masons," he was the founder. In 1834, he es- 
 tablished the Freemason's Quarterly Review, 
 and continued to edit it for six years, during 
 which period he contributed many valuable 
 articles to its pages. 
 
 In 1840, through the machinations of his 
 enemies, (for he was too great a man not to 
 have had some,) he incurred the displeasure 
 of the ruling powers; and on charges which, 
 undoubtedly, were not sustained by suffi- 
 cient evidence, he was suspended by the 
 Grand Lodge for six months, and retired 
 from active Masonic life. But he never 
 lost the respect of the Craft, nor the affec- 
 tion of the leading Masons who were his 
 contemporaries. On his restoration, he 
 again began to labor in behalf of the In- 
 stitution, and spent his last days in ad- 
 vancing its interests. To his character, his 
 long-tried friend, the venerable Oliver, pays 
 this tribute. " Dr. Crucefix did not pretend 
 to infallibility, and, like all other public 
 men, he might be sometimes wrong ; but 
 his errors were not from the heart, and al- 
 ways leaned to the side of virtue and be- 
 neficence. He toiled incessantly for the 
 benefit of his brethren, and was anxious 
 that all inestimable blessings should be 
 conveyed by Masonry on mankind. In 
 sickness or in health he was ever found at 
 his post, and his sympathy was the most 
 active in behalf of the destitute brother, 
 the widow, and the orphan. His persever- 
 ance never flagged for a moment ; and he 
 acted as though he had made up his mind to 
 live and die in obedience to the calls of duty." 
 
 Crucifix. A cross with the image of 
 the Saviour suspended on it. A part of the 
 furniture of a Commandery of Knights 
 Templars and of a Chapter of Princes of 
 Rose Croix. 
 
 Crusades. There was between Free- 
 masonry and the Crusades a much more 
 intimate relation than has generally been 
 supposed. In the first place, the commu- 
 nications frequently established by the 
 Crusaders, and especially the Knights 
 Templars, with the Saracens, led to the 
 acquisition, by the former, of many of the 
 dogmas of the secret societies of the East, 
 such as the Essenes, the Assassins, and 
 the Druses. These were brought by the 
 
 knights to Europe, and subsequently, on 
 the establishment by Ramsay and his con- 
 temporaries and immediate successors of 
 Templar Masonry, were incorporated into 
 the nigh degrees, and still exhibit their 
 influence. Indeed, it is scarcely to be 
 doubted that many of these degrees were 
 invented with a special reference to the 
 events which occurred in Syria and Pales- 
 tine. Thus, for instance, the Scottish de- 
 gree of Knights of the East and West 
 must have originally alluded, as its name 
 imports, to the legend which teaches a 
 division of the Masons after the Temple 
 was finished, when the Craft dispersed, — a 
 part remaining in Palestine, as the Assi- 
 deans, whom Lawrie, citing Scaliger, calls 
 the " Knights of the Temple of Jerusalem," 
 and another part passing over into Europe, 
 whence they returned on the breaking out 
 of the Crusades. This, of course, is but a 
 legend, yet the influence is felt in the inven- 
 tion of the higher rituals. 
 
 But the influence of the Crusades on the 
 Freemasons and the, architecture of the 
 Middle Ages is of a more historical charac- 
 ter. In 1836, Mr. Westmacott, in a course 
 of lectures on art before the Royal Acad- 
 emy, remarked that the two principal causes 
 which materially tended to assist the resto- 
 ration of literature and the arts in Europe 
 were Freemasonry and the Crusades. The 
 adventurers, he said, who returned from 
 the Holy Land brought back some ideas 
 of various improvements, particularly in 
 architecture, and, along with these, a strong 
 desire to erect castellated, ecclesiastical, 
 and palatial edifices, to display the taste 
 they had acquired ; and in less than a cen- 
 tury from the first Crusade above six hun- 
 dred buildings of the above description 
 had been erected in southern and western 
 Europe. This taste was spread into almost 
 all countries by the establishment of the 
 Fraternity of Freemasons, who, it appears, 
 had, under some peculiar form of brother- 
 hood, existed for an immemorial period in 
 Syria and other parts of the East, from 
 whence some bands of them migrated to 
 Europe, and after a time a great efflux of 
 these ingenious men — Italian, German, 
 French, Spanish, etc. — had spread them- 
 selves in communities through all civilized 
 Europe; and in all countries where they 
 settled we find the same style of architec- 
 ture from that period, but differing in some 
 points of treatment, as suited the climate. 
 
 Crux A usata. This signifies, in Latin, 
 the cross with a handle. It is formed by a tau 
 cross surmounted by a circle or, more prop- 
 erly, an oval. It was one of the most sig- 
 nificant of the symbols of the ancient 
 Egyptians, and is depicted repeatedly on 
 their monuments borne in the hands of 
 
CRYPT 
 
 CUNNING 
 
 199 
 
 their deities, and especially Phtha. Among 
 
 them it was the symbol of 
 
 life, and with that meaning it 
 
 has been introduced into some 
 
 of the higher degrees of Masonry. 
 
 The crux ansata, surrounded by a 
 
 serpent in a circle, is the symbol 
 
 of immortality, because the cross 
 
 was the symbol of life, and the 
 
 serpent of eternity. 
 
 Crypt. From the Greek, 
 KpinrTT/. A concealed place, or subterranean 
 vault. The caves, or cells under ground, in 
 which the primitive Christians celebrated 
 their secret worship,were called cryptse ; and 
 the vaults beneath our modern churches re- 
 ceive the name of crypts. The existence of 
 crypts or vaults under the Temple of Solo- 
 mon is testified to by the earliest as well 
 as by the most recent topographers of Je- 
 rusalem. Their connection with the legend- 
 ary history of Masonry is more fully noticed 
 under the head of Secret Vault. 
 
 Cryptic Degrees. The degrees of 
 Royal and Select Master. Some modern 
 ritualists have added to the list the degree 
 of Super-Excellent Master; but this, al- 
 though now often conferred in a Cryptic 
 Council, is not really a Cryptic degree, 
 since its legend has no connection with the 
 crypt or secret vault. 
 
 Cryptic Masonry. That division 
 of the Masonic system which is directed to 
 the investigation and cultivation of the 
 Cryptic degrees. It is, literally, the Ma- 
 sonry of the secret vault. 
 
 Cteis. Greek, kteis. The female per- 
 sonification of the productive principle. 
 It generally accompanied the phallus, as 
 the Indian yoni did the lingam ; and as a 
 symbol of the prolific powers of nature, 
 was extensively venerated by the nations 
 of antiquity. See Phallus. 
 
 Cubical Stone. This symbol is called 
 by the French Masons, pierre cubique, and 
 by the German, cubik stein. It is the Per- 
 fect Ashlar of. the English and American 
 systems. See Ashlar, Perfect. 
 
 Cubit. A measure of length, origi- 
 nally denoting the distance from the elbow 
 to the extremity of the middle finger, or 
 the fourth part of a well-proportioned man's 
 stature. The Hebrew cubit, according to 
 Bishop Cumberland, was twenty-one inches ; 
 but only eighteen according to other au- 
 thorities. There were two kinds of cubits, 
 the sacred and profane, — the former equal 
 to thirty-six, and the latter to eighteen 
 inches. It is by the common cubit that 
 the dimensions of the various parts of the 
 Temple are to be computed. 
 
 Culdees. When St. Augustine came 
 over, in the beginning of the sixth cen- 
 tury, to Britain, for the purpose of convert- 
 
 ing the natives to Christianity, he found 
 the country already occupied by a body of 
 priests and their disciples, who were dis- 
 tinguished for the pure and simple apos- 
 tolic religion which they professed. These 
 were the Culdees, a name said by some to 
 be derived from Cultores Dei, or worship- 
 pers of God ; but by others, with, perhaps, 
 more plausibility, from the Gaelic, Cuildich, 
 which means a secluded corner, and evi- 
 dently alludes to their recluse mode of life. 
 The Culdees are said to have come over 
 into Britain with the Roman legions ; and 
 thus it has been conjectured that these 
 primitive Christians were in some way con- 
 nected with the Roman Colleges of Archi- 
 tects, branches of which body, it is well 
 known, everywhere accompanied the le- 
 gionary armies of the empire. The chief 
 seat of the Culdees was in the island of 
 Iona, where St. Columba, coming out of 
 Ireland, with twelve brethren, in the year 
 563, established their principal monastery. 
 At Avernethy, the capital of the kingdom 
 of the Picts, they founded another in the 
 year 600, and subsequently other principal 
 seats at Dunkeld, St. Andrew's, Brechin, 
 Dunblane, Dumferline, Kirkaldy, Melrose, 
 and many other places in Scotland. A 
 writer in the London Freemasons' Quar- 
 terly Review (1842, p. 36,) says they were 
 little solicitous to raise architectural struc- 
 tures, but sought chiefly to civilize and so- 
 cialize mankind by imparting to them the 
 knowledge of those pure principles which 
 they taught in their Lodges. Lenning and 
 Gadicke, however, both state that the Cul- 
 dees had organized within themselves, and 
 as a part of their social system, Corpora- 
 tions of Builders ; and that they exercised 
 the architectural art in the construction 
 of many sacred edifices in Scotland, Ire- 
 land, and Wales, and even in other coun- 
 tries of Northern Europe. Gadicke also 
 claims that the York Constitutions of the 
 tenth century were derived from them. 
 But neither of these German lexicographers 
 has furnished us with authorities upon 
 which these statements are founded. It is, 
 however, undeniable, that Masonic writers 
 have always claimed that there was a con- 
 nection — it might be only a mythical one 
 — between these apostolic Christians and 
 the early Masonry of Ireland and Scotland. 
 The Culdees were opposed and persecuted 
 by the adherents of St. Augustine, and were 
 eventually extinguished in Scotland. But 
 their complete suppression did not take 
 place until about the fourteenth century. 
 
 Cunning. Used by old English writ- 
 ers in the sense of skilful. Thus, in 1 Kings 
 viii. 14, it is said of the architect who was 
 sent by the king of Tyre to assist King 
 Solomon in the construction of his Temple, 
 
200 
 
 CUP 
 
 DA COSTA 
 
 that he was " cunning to work in all works 
 in brass." 
 
 Cup of Bitterness. ( Calice cFAmer- 
 tume. ) A ceremony in the first degree of 
 the French Rite. It is a symbol of the 
 misfortunes and sorrows that assail us in 
 the voyage of life, and which we are taught 
 to support with calmness and resignation. 
 
 Curetes. Priests of ancient Crete, 
 whose mysteries were celebrated in honor 
 of the Mother of the Gods, and bore, there- 
 fore, some resemblance to the Eleusinian 
 rites. The neophyte was initiated in a 
 cave, where he remained closely confined 
 for thrice nine days. Porphyry tells us 
 that Pythagoras repaired to Crete to re- 
 ceive initiation into their rites. 
 
 Curiosity. It is a very general opin- 
 ion among Masons that a candidate should 
 not be actuated by curiosity in seeking 
 admission into the Order. But, in fact, 
 there is no regulation nor landmark on the 
 subject. An idle curiosity is, it is true, the 
 characteristic of a weak mind. But to be 
 influenced by a laudable curiosity to pene- 
 trate the mysteries of an Institution vener- 
 able for its antiquity and its universality, 
 is to be controlled by a motive which is 
 not reprehensible. There are, indeed, in 
 legends of the high degrees, some instances 
 where curiosity is condemned ; but the cu- 
 riosity, in these instances, led to an intru- 
 sion into forbidden places, and is very dif- 
 ferent from the curiosity or desire for 
 knowledge which leads a profane to seek 
 fairly and openly an acquaintance with 
 mysteries which he has already learned to 
 respect. 
 
 Curious. Latin, curiosus, from cura, 
 
 care. An archaic expression for careful. 
 Thus in Masonic language, which abounds 
 in archaisms, an evidence, indeed, of its 
 antiquity, Hiram Abif is described as a 
 " curious and cunning workman," that is to 
 say, " careful and skilful." 
 
 Customs, Ancient. See Usages. 
 
 Cynocephalus. The figure of a man 
 with the head of a dog. A very general 
 and important hieroglyphic among the an- 
 cient Egyptians. It was with them a sym- 
 bol of the sun and moon ; and in their mys- 
 teries they taught that it had indicated to 
 Isis the place where the body of Osiris lay 
 concealed. The possessor of the high de- 
 grees of Masonry will be familiar with the 
 symbol of a dog, which is used in those de- 
 grees because that animal is said to have 
 pointed out on a certain occasion an im- 
 portant secret. Hence the figure of a dog 
 is sometimes found engraved among the 
 symbols on old Masonic diplomas. 
 
 Cyrus. Cyrus, king of Persia, was a 
 great conqueror, and after having reduced 
 nearly all Asia, he crossed the Euphrates, 
 and laid siege to Babylon, which he took 
 by diverting the course of the river 
 which ran through it. The Jews, who 
 had been carried away by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar on the destruction of the Temple, 
 were then remaining as captives in Baby- 
 lon. These Cyrus released A. M. 3466, or 
 B. c. 538, and sent them back to Jerusa- 
 lem to rebuild the house of God, under the 
 care of Joshua, Zerubbabel, and Haggai. 
 Hence, from this connection of Cyrus with 
 the history of Masonry, he plays an im- 
 portant part in the rituals of many of the 
 high degrees. 
 
 D. 
 
 Da Costa Hyppolito, Jose. A 
 
 Portuguese who was initiated into Masonry 
 in the beginning of this century, and was 
 subsequently persecuted by the Inquisition, 
 and was rescued only in time to save his 
 life by the aid of English brethren who got 
 him under the protection of the English 
 flag. He then passed over into England, 
 where he lived for several years, becoming 
 a zealous Mason and devoting himself to 
 Masonic literature. In 1811, he published 
 in London a Narrative of his persecution 
 in Lisbon, by the Inquisition, for the pre- 
 tended crime of Freemasonry, in 2 vols., 
 8vo. He wrote also a History of the Dio- 
 
 nysian Artificers, in which he attempts to 
 connect Freemasonry with the Dionysian 
 and other mysteries of the ancients. He 
 begins with the Eleusinian mysteries, as- 
 suming that Dionysus, Bacchus, Adonis, 
 Thammuz, and Apollo were all various 
 names for the sun, whose apparent move- 
 ments are represented by the death and 
 resurrection referred to in the ceremonies. 
 But as the sun is typified as being dead or 
 hidden for three months under the horizon, 
 he thinks that these mysteries must have 
 originated in a cold climate as far north as 
 latitude 66°, or among a people living near 
 the polar circle. He therefore attributes 
 
DADUCHOS 
 
 DALCHO 
 
 201 
 
 the invention of these mysteries to the 
 ancient Scythians or Massagetae, of whom 
 he confesses that we know nothing. He 
 afterwards gives the history of the Diony- 
 siac or Orphic mysteries of Eleusis, and 
 draws a successful parallel between the ini- 
 tiation into these and the Masonic initia- 
 tion. His disquisitions are marked by 
 much learning, although his reasoning may 
 not always carry conviction. 
 
 Dadnchos. A torch - bearer. The 
 title given to an officer in the Eleusinian 
 mysteries, who bore a torch in commemo- 
 ration of the torch lit by Ceres at the fire 
 of Mt. Etna, and carried by her through 
 the world in her search for her daughter. 
 
 Dagger. In the high degrees a symbol 
 of Masonic vengeance, or the punishment 
 of crime. See Vengeance. 
 
 Dais. From the French dais, a canopy. 
 The raised floor at the head of a banquet- 
 ing- room, designed for guests of distinction ; 
 so called because it used to be decorated 
 with a canopy. In Masonic language, the 
 dais is the elevated portion of the eastern 
 part of the Lodge room, which is occupied 
 by Past Masters and the dignitaries of the r- 
 der. This should be elevated three steps above 
 the floor. The station of the Junior Warden 
 is raised one, and that of the Senior two. 
 
 Dalcho, Frederick, M. D. One 
 of the founders of the Supreme Council of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 for the Southern Jurisdiction of the United 
 States. He was born in the city of London 
 in the year 1770, of Prussian parents. His 
 father had been a distinguished officer 
 under Frederick the Great, and, having 
 been severely wounded, was permitted to 
 retire to England for his health. He was 
 a very earnest Mason, and transmitted his 
 sentiments to his son. At his death, this 
 son was sent for by an uncle, who had a 
 few years before emigrated to Baltimore. 
 Here he obtained a good classical education, 
 after which he devoted himself successfully 
 to the study of medicine, including a more 
 extensive course of botany than is common 
 in medical schools. 
 
 Having received his degree of Doctor of 
 Medicine, he took a commission in the 
 medical department of the American army. 
 With his division of the army he came to 
 South Carolina, and was stationed at Fort 
 Johnson, in Charleston harbor. Here some 
 difficulty arose between Dr. Dalcho and his 
 brother officers, in consequence of which 
 he resigned his place in the army in 1799. 
 He then removed to Charleston, where he 
 formed a partnership in the practice of 
 physic with Isaac Auld, and he became a 
 member of the Medical Society, and a 
 trustee of the Botanic Garden, established 
 through its influence. 
 2A 
 
 On the 12th June, 1818, Dr. Dalcho was 
 admitted to the priesthood of the Protest- 
 ant Episcopal Church. On the 23d of 
 February, he was elected assistant minister 
 of St. Michael's Church, in Charleston. 
 He died on the 24th of November, 1836, in 
 the sixty-seventh year of his age, and the 
 seventeenth of his ministry in St. Michael's 
 Church. 
 
 The principal published work of Dr. 
 Dalcho is, An Historical Account of the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church in South Caro- 
 lina. He also published a work entitled 
 The Evidence from Prophecy for the Truth 
 of Christianity and the Divinity of Christ; 
 besides several sermons and essays, some 
 of which were the result of considerable 
 labor and research. He was also the pro- 
 jector, and for a long time the principal 
 conductor, of the Gospel Messenger, then 
 the leading organ of the Episcopal Church 
 in South Carolina. 
 
 The Masonic career of Dr. Dalcho closely 
 connects him with the history of York Ma- 
 sonry in South Carolina, and with that of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 throughout the United States. 
 
 He was initiated in a York or Athol 
 Lodge at the time when the jurisdiction of 
 South Carolina was divided by the exist- 
 ence and the dissensions of two Grand 
 Lodges, the one deriving its authority from 
 the Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted 
 Masons of England, and the other from the 
 spurious or Athol Grand Lodge of York 
 Masons. 
 
 His constant desire appears, however, to 
 have been to unite these discordant ele- 
 ments, and to uproot the evil spirit of Ma- 
 sonic rivalry and contention which at that 
 time prevailed — a wish which was hap- 
 pily gratified, at length, by the union of 
 the two Grand Lodges of South Carolina in 
 1817, a consummation to which he himself 
 greatly contributed. 
 
 In 1801 Dr. Dalcho received the thirty- 
 third and ultimate degree, or Sovereign 
 Grand Inspector of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite ; and May 31, 1801, he 
 became instrumental in the establishment 
 at Charleston of the Supreme Council for 
 the Southern Jurisdiction of the United 
 States, of which body he was appointed 
 Grand Secretary, and afterwards Grand 
 Commander ; which latter position he oc- 
 cupied until 1823, when he resigned. 
 
 September 23, 1801, he delivered an ora- 
 tion before the Sublime Grand Lodge in 
 Charleston. This and another delivered 
 March 21, 1803, before the same body, ac- 
 companied by a learned historical appen- 
 dix, were published in the latter year un- 
 der the general name of Dalcho's Orations. 
 The work was soon after republished in 
 
202 
 
 DAMASCUS 
 
 DANGER 
 
 Dublin by the Grand Council of Heredom, 
 or Prince Masons of that city ; and McCosh 
 says that there were other editions issued 
 in Europe, which, however, I have never 
 seen. The oration of 1803 and the appen- 
 dix furnish the best information that up to 
 that day, and for many years afterwards.was 
 accessible to the Craft in relation to the his- 
 tory of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Bite in this country. 
 
 In 1807, at the request of the Grand 
 Lodge of York Masons of South Carolina, 
 he published an " Ahiman Rezon," which 
 was adopted as the code for the government 
 of the Lodges under the jurisdiction of that 
 body. This work, as was to be expected 
 from the character of the Grand Lodge 
 which it represented, was based on the pre- 
 vious book of Laurence Dermott. 
 
 In 1808 he was elected Corresponding 
 Grand Secretary of the. Grand Lodge of 
 Ancient York Masons, and from that time 
 directed the influences of his high position to 
 the reconciliation of the Masonic difficul- 
 ties in South Carolina. 
 
 In 1817 the Grand Lodge of Free and 
 Accepted Masons and that of Ancient York 
 Masons of South Carolina became united 
 under the name of " The Grand Lodge of 
 Ancient Freemasons of South Carolina." 
 Dr. Dalcho took a very active part in this 
 reunion, and at the first annual communi- 
 cation he was elected Grand Chaplain. 
 The duties of this office he faithfully per- 
 formed, and for many years delivered a 
 public address or sermon on the Festival 
 of St. John the Evangelist. 
 
 In 1822 he prepared a second edition of 
 the "Ahiman Rezon," which was published 
 the following year, enriched with many 
 notes. Some of these notes he would have 
 hardly written, with the enlarged experience 
 of the present day ; but on the whole the 
 second edition was an improvement on the 
 first. Although retaining the peculiar title 
 which had been introduced by Dermott, it 
 ceased in a great measure to follow the 
 principles of the " Ancient Masons." 
 
 In 1823 Dalcho became involved in an 
 unpleasant controversy with some of his 
 Masonic associates, in consequence of diffi- 
 culties and dissensions which at that time 
 existed in the Scottish Rite ; and his feel- 
 ings were so wounded by the unmasonic 
 spirit which seemed to actuate his antago- 
 nists and former friends, that he resigned 
 the office of Grand Chaplain, and retired 
 for the remainder of his life from all par- 
 ticipation in the active duties of Masonry. 
 
 Damascus. An ancient and impor- 
 tant city of Syria, situated on the road 
 between Babylon and Jerusalem, and said 
 in Masonic tradition to have been one of 
 the resting - places of the Masons who, 
 
 under the proclamation of Cyrus, returned 
 from the former to the latter city to rebuild 
 the Temple. An attempt was made in 
 1868 to introduce Freemasonry into Da- 
 mascus, and a petition, signed by fifteen 
 applicants, for a charter for a Lodge was 
 sent to the Grand Lodge of England ; but 
 the petition was rejected on the ground 
 that all the petitioners were members of 
 Grand Lodges under other Grand Lodge 
 jurisdictions. 
 
 Dame. In one of the York and some 
 of the other old manuscripts, we find the 
 direction to the Apprentice that he shall 
 not so act as to bring harm or shame, during 
 his apprenticeship, " either to his Master 
 or Dame." It is absurd to suppose that 
 this gives any color to the theory that in 
 the ancient Masonic gilds women were ad- 
 mitted. The word was used in the same 
 sense as it still is in the public schools of 
 England, where the old lady who keeps the 
 house at which the pupils board and lodge, 
 is called " the dame." The Compagnons 
 de la Tour in France called her " la mere," 
 or the mother. It must, however, be ac- 
 knowledged, that women, under the title of 
 sisters, were admitted as members, and given 
 the freedom of the company, in the old 
 Livery Companies of London, — a custom 
 which Herbert (Hist. Liv. Comp., i. 83,) 
 thinks was borrowed, on the reconstitution 
 of the companies by Edward III., from 
 the religious gilds. See this subject dis- 
 cussed under the title Sisters. 
 
 Dames of Mt. Tabor. An an- 
 drogynous Masonic society, established 
 about the year 1818, under the auspices 
 of the Grand Orient of France. Its design 
 was to give charitable relief to destitute 
 females. 
 
 Dames of the Order of St. John. 
 Religious ladies who, from its first institu- 
 tion, had been admitted into the Fraternity 
 of Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Je- 
 rusalem. The rules for their reception 
 were similar to those for the Knights, and 
 the proofs of noble descent which were 
 required of them were sometimes more 
 rigid. They had many conventual estab- 
 lishments in France, Italy, and Spain. 
 
 Damoisel. A name given in the 
 times of chivalry to a page or candidate 
 for knighthood. 
 
 Dan. One of the twelve tribes of Israel, 
 whose blue banner, charged with an eagle, 
 is borne by the Grand Master of the First 
 Veil in a Royal Arch Chapter. 
 
 Danger. In all the old Constitutions 
 and Charges, Masons are taught to exercise 
 brotherly love, and to deal honestly and 
 truly with each other, whence results the 
 duty incumbent upon every Mason to warn 
 his brother of approaching danger. That 
 
DANNEBROG 
 
 D'ASSIGNY 
 
 203 
 
 this duty may never be neglected, it is im- 
 pressed upon every Master Mason by a 
 significant ceremony. 
 
 Danncbrog. The banner of Den- 
 mark containing a red cross. It is founded 
 upon the tradition, which reminds us of 
 that of Constantine, that Waldemar II., 
 of Denmark, in 1219 saw in the heavens 
 a fiery cross, which betokened his victory 
 over the Esthonians. 
 
 Dantzic. In the year 1768, on the 
 3d of October, the burgomaster and magis- 
 trates of the city of Dantzic commenced 
 a persecution against Freemasonry, which 
 Institution they charged with seeking to 
 undermine the foundations of Christianity, 
 and to establish in its place the religion of 
 nature. Hence, they issued a decree for- 
 bidding every citizen, inhabitant, and even 
 stranger sojourning in the city, from any 
 attempt to re-establish the society of Free- 
 masons, which was thenceforth to be re- 
 garded u as forever abolished," under penal- 
 ties of fine and imprisonment. 
 
 Darius. The successor of Cyrus on 
 the throne of Persia, Babylon, and Medea. 
 He pursued the friendly policy of his pre- 
 decessor in reference to the Jews, and con- 
 firmed the decrees of that monarch by a 
 new edict. In the second year of his reign, 
 Haggai and Zechariah, encouraged by this 
 edict, induced their countrymen to resume 
 the work of restoring the Temple, which 
 was finished four years afterwards. Darius 
 is referred to in the degrees of Princes of 
 Jerusalem, the sixteenth of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite, and of Knight 
 of the Red Cross in the American Rite. 
 
 Darkness. Darkness has, in all the 
 systems of initiation, been deemed a sym- 
 bol of ignorance, and so opposed to light, 
 which is the symbol of knowledge. Hence 
 the rule, that the eye should not see until 
 the heart has conceived the true nature of 
 those beauties which constitute the myste- 
 ries of the Order. In the Ancient' Myste- 
 ries, the aspirant was always shrouded in 
 darkness, as a preparatory step to the recep- 
 tion of the full light of knowledge. The 
 time of this confinement in darkness and 
 solitude varied in the different mysteries. 
 Among the Druids of Britain the period 
 was nine days and nights ; in the Grecian 
 Mysteries it was three times nine days; 
 while among the Persians, according to 
 Porphyry, it was extended to the almost 
 incredible period of fifty days of darkness, 
 solitude, and fasting. 
 
 Because, according to all the cosmogo- 
 nies, darkness existed before light was cre- 
 ated, darkness was originally worshipped 
 as the first-born, as the progenitor of day 
 and the state of existence before creation. 
 The apostrophe of Young to Night embod- 
 
 ies the feelings which gave origin to this 
 debasing worship of darkness : 
 
 " O majestic night ! 
 Nature's great ancestor ! day's elder born ! 
 And fated to survive the transient sun ! 
 By mortals and immortals seen with awe ! " 
 
 Freemasonry has restored darkness to its 
 proper place as a state of preparation ; the 
 symbol of that antemundane chaos from 
 whence light issued at the divine command ; 
 of the state of nonentity before birth, and 
 of ignorance before the reception of knowl- 
 edge. Hence, in the Ancient Mysteries, 
 the release of the aspirant from solitude 
 and darkness was called the act of regen- 
 eration, and he was said to be born again, 
 or to be raised from the dead. And in 
 Masonry, the darkness which envelops the 
 mind of the uninitiated being removed by 
 the bright effulgence of Masonic light, 
 Masons are appropriately called " the sons 
 of light." 
 
 In Dr. Oliver's Signs and Symbols there 
 is a lecture " On the Mysterious Darkness 
 of the Third Degree." This refers to the 
 ceremony of enveloping the room in dark- 
 ness when that degree is conferred — a cere- 
 mony once always observed, but now, in 
 this country at least, frequently but impro- 
 perly omitted. The darkness here is a 
 symbol of death, the lesson taught in the 
 degree, while the subsequent renewal of 
 light refers to that other and subsequent 
 lesson of eternal life. 
 
 Darmstadt, Grand Lodge of. 
 The Grand Lodge of Darmstadt, in Ger- 
 many, under the distinctive appellation of 
 the Grand Lodge zur Eintracht, was estab- 
 lished on the 23d of March, 1846, by three 
 Lodges, in consequence of a dissension be- 
 tween them and the Eclectic Union. The 
 latter body had declared that the religion 
 of Freemasonry was universal, and that 
 Jews could be admitted into the Order. 
 Against this liberal declaration a Lodge at 
 Frankfort had protested, and had been 
 erased from the roll for contumacy. Two 
 other Lodges, at Mainz and at Darmstadt, 
 espoused its cause, and united with it in 
 forming a new Grand Lodge for southern 
 Germany, founded on the dogma " that 
 Christian principles formed the basis on 
 which they worked." It was, in fact, a 
 dispute between tolerance and intolerance. 
 Nevertheless, the body was taken under the 
 patronage of the Grand Duke of Hesse, 
 and was recognized by most of the Grand 
 Lodges of Germany. 
 
 D'Assigny, Doctor Fifield. A 
 Mason of Dublin, Ireland, who published, 
 in 1744, at Dublin, A Serious and Impartial 
 Enquiry into the Cause of the present Decay of 
 Freemasonry in the Kingdom of Ireland. It 
 
204 
 
 DATES 
 
 DEAF 
 
 contained an abstract of the history of 
 Freemasonry, and several allusions to the 
 Royal Arch degree, on account of which 
 it has been cited by Dermott in his Ahiman 
 Rezon. Bro. Hugh an, who is the possessor 
 of a copy of this exceedingly scarce book, 
 also quotes a passage from it of some im- 
 portance. " I am informed," says D'As- 
 signy, " that in that city (York) is held an 
 assembly of Master Masons, under the title 
 of Royal Arch Masons." If true, this 
 would settle an important point in relation 
 to the history of the Royal Arch degree. 
 Hughan doubts its accuracy ; and, indeed, 
 D'Assigny — if we may judge from other 
 remarks in his Enquiry — does not seem to 
 have been acquainted with the true char- 
 acter of the Royal Arch. 
 Dates, Masonic. See Calendar. 
 Dathan. A Reubenite who, with Korah 
 and Abiram, revolted against Moses and 
 unlawfully sought the priesthood. In the 
 first chapter of the Book of Numbers, where 
 the whole account is given, it is said that 
 as a punishment the earth opened and 
 swallowed them up. The incident is re- 
 ferred to in the Order of High Priesthood, 
 an honorary degree of the American Rite, 
 which is conferred upon the installed High 
 Priests of Royal Arch Chapters. 
 
 Daughter, Mason's. See Mason's 
 Wife ana Daughter. 
 
 Daughter of a Mason. The daugh- 
 ter of a Mason is entitled to certain pecu- 
 liar privileges and claims upon the Fra- 
 ternity arising from her relationship to a 
 member of the Craft. There has been some 
 difference of opinion as to the time and 
 manner in which the privileges cease. 
 Masonic jurists, however, very generally in- 
 cline to the opinion that they are termi- 
 nated by marriage. If a Mason's daughter 
 marries a profane, she absolves her con- 
 nection with the Fraternity. If she marries 
 a Mason, she exchanges her relation of a 
 Mason's daughter for that of a Mason's 
 wife. 
 
 David. David has no place in Masonic 
 history, except that which arises from the 
 fact that he was the father of King Solomon, 
 and his predecessor on the throne of Israel. 
 To him, however, were the Jews indebted 
 for the design of a Temple in Jerusalem, 
 the building of which was a favorite object 
 with him. For this purpose he purchased 
 Mount Moriah, which had been the thresh- 
 ing-floor of Oman the Jebusite ; but David 
 had been engaged in so many wars, that it 
 did not seem good to the Lord that he 
 Bhould be permitted to construct so sacred 
 an edifice. This duty, therefore, he left to 
 his son, whom, before dying, he furnished 
 with plans and with means to accomplish 
 the task. Though David is a favorite sub- 
 
 ject among the Kabbalists and the Mussul- 
 mans, who relate many curious traditions 
 concerning him, he is not alluded to in the 
 legends or symbolism of Masonry, except 
 incidentally as the father of Solomon. 
 
 David, Shield of. See Shield of 
 David. 
 
 Hazard. Michel Francois. Born 
 at Chateaudun, in France, May 2, 1781. He 
 was a devoted student of Masonry, and 
 much occupied in the investigation of the 
 high degrees of all the Rites. He was an 
 opponent of the Supreme Council, against 
 which body he wrote, in 1812, a brochure 
 of forty-eight pages entitled Extraii des 
 colonnes gravees du Pere de Famille, vallee d' 
 Angers. Kloss calls it an important and 
 exhaustive polemic document. It attempts 
 to expose, supported by documents, what 
 the author and his party called the illegal 
 pretensions of the Supreme Council, and 
 the arrogance of its claim to exclusive juris- 
 diction in France. Dazard was the author 
 of several other interesting discourses on 
 Masonic subjects. 
 
 Deacon. In every Symbolic Lodge, 
 there are two officers who are called the 
 Senior and Junior Deacons. The former 
 is appointed by the Master, and the latter 
 by the Senior Warden. It is to the Deacons 
 that the introduction of visitors should be 
 
 Eroperly intrusted. Their duties compre- 
 end, also, a general surveillance over the 
 security of the Lodge, and they are the 
 proxies of the officers by whom they are 
 appointed. Hence their jewel, in allu- 
 sion to the necessity of circumspection 
 and justice, is a square and compasses. 
 In the centre, the Senior Deacon wears 
 a sun, and the Junior Deacon a moon, 
 which serve to distinguish their respec- 
 tive ranks. In the English system, the 
 jewel of the Deacons is a dove, in allusion 
 to the dove sent forth by Noah. In the 
 Rite of Mizraim, the Deacons are called 
 acolytes; 
 
 The office of Deacons in Masonry ap- 
 pears to have been derived from the usages 
 of the primitive church. In the Greek 
 church, the Deacons were always the irv?.upoi, 
 pylori or doorkeepers, and in the Apostoli- 
 cal Constitutions the Deacon was ordered to 
 stand at the men's door, and the sub-Deacon 
 at the women's, to see that none came in or 
 went out during the oblation. 
 
 In the earliest rituals of the last century, 
 there is no mention of Deacons, and the 
 duties of those officers were discharged 
 partly by the Junior Warden and partly by 
 the Senior and Junior Entered Apprentices. 
 
 Deacon's Rod. See Rod, Deacons. 
 
 Deaf and Dumb. Deaf mutes, as im- 
 perfect men, come under the provisions ofthe 
 Old Constitutions, and are disqualified for 
 
DEATH 
 
 DECALOGUE 
 
 205 
 
 initiation. Some years ago, however, a Lodge 
 in Paris, captivated by the eclat of the pro- 
 ceeding, and unmindful of the ancient land- 
 mark, initiated a deaf mute,who was an intel- 
 ligent professor in the Deaf and Dumb Asy- 
 lum. All the instructions were given 
 through the medium of the language of the 
 deaf mutes. It scarcely need be said that 
 this cannot be recognized as a precedent. 
 
 Heath. The Scandinavians, in their 
 Edda, describing the residence of Death in 
 Hell, where she was cast by her father, 
 Loke, say that she there possesses large 
 apartments, strongly built, and fenced with 
 
 fates of iron. Her hall is Grief; her table, 
 'amine; Hunger, her knife; Delay, her 
 servant ; Faintness, her porch ; Sickness 
 and Pain, her bed; and her tent, Curs- 
 ing and Howling. But the Masonic idea 
 of death, like the Christians, is accom- 
 panied with no gloom, because it is repre- 
 sented only as a sleep, from whence we 
 awaken into another life. Among the an- 
 cients, sleep and death were fabled as twins. 
 Old Gorgias, when dying, said, " Sleep is 
 about to deliver me up to his brother ; " 
 but the death-sleep of the heathen was a 
 sleep from which there was no awaking. 
 The popular belief was annihilation, and 
 the poets and philosophers fostered the 
 people's ignorance, by describing death as 
 the total and irremediable extinction of life. 
 Thus Seneca says — and he was too philo- 
 sophic not to have known better — " that after 
 death there comes nothing ; " while Virgil, 
 who doubtless had been initiated into the 
 mysteries of Eleusis, nevertheless calls death 
 " an iron sleep, an eternal night : " yet the 
 Ancient Mysteries were based upon the 
 dogma of eternal life, and their initiations 
 were intended to represent a resurrection. 
 Masonry, deriving its system of symbolic 
 teachings from these ancient religious asso- 
 ciations, presents death to its neophytes as 
 the gate or entrance to eternal existence. 
 To teach the doctrine of immortality is the 
 great object of the third degree. In its 
 ceremonies we learn that life here is the 
 time of labor, and that, working at the 
 construction of a spiritual temple, we are 
 worshipping the Grand Architect, for whom 
 we build that temple. But we learn also 
 that, when that life is ended, it closes only 
 to open upon a newer and higher one, 
 where, in a second temple and a purer Lodge, 
 the Mason will find eternal truth. Death, 
 therefore, in Masonic philosophy, is the 
 symbol of initiation completed, perfected, 
 and consummated. 
 
 Death of the Mysteries. Each 
 of the ancient religious Mysteries, those 
 quasi Masonic associations of the heathen 
 world, was accompanied by a legend, — 
 which was always of a funereal character, — 
 
 representing the death, by violence, of the 
 deity to whom it was dedicated, and his sub- 
 sequent resurrection or restoration to life. 
 Hence, the first part of the ceremonies of 
 initiation was solemn and lugubrious in 
 character, while the latter part was cheerful 
 and joyous. These ceremonies and this 
 legend were altogether symbolical, and the 
 great truths of the unity of God and the 
 immortality of the soul were by them in- 
 tended to be dramatically explained. 
 
 This representation of death, which finds 
 its analogue in the third degree of Masonry, 
 has been technically called the Death of 
 the Mysteries. It is sometimes more pre- 
 cisely defined, in reference to any special 
 one of the Mysteries, as " the Cabiric death " 
 or "the Bacchic death," as indicating the 
 death represented in the Mysteries of the 
 Cabiri or of Dionysus. 
 
 I>ehate. Debates in a Masonic Lodge 
 must be conducted according to the frater- 
 nal principles of the Institution. In the 
 language of Dr. Oliver, " the strictest cour- 
 tesy should be observed during a debate, in 
 a Mason's Lodge, on questions which elicit 
 a difference of opinion ; and any gross vio- 
 lation of decorum and good order is sure to 
 be met by an admonition from the chair." 
 It must be always remembered that the 
 object of a Masonic discussion is to elicit 
 truth, and not simply to secure victory. 
 
 When, in a debate, a brother desires to 
 speak, he rises and addresses the chair. 
 The presiding officer calls him by his name, 
 and thus recognizes his right to the floor. 
 While he is speaking, he is not to be inter- 
 rupted by any other member, except on a 
 point of order. If called to order by any 
 member, the speaker is immediately to take 
 his seat until the point is stated, when the 
 Master will make his decision without de- 
 bate. The speaker will then rise and re- 
 sume his discourse, if not ruled out by the 
 Master. During the time that he is speak- 
 ing, no motion is permissible. Every 
 member is permitted to speak once on the 
 subject under discussion ; nor can he speak 
 a second time, except by permission of the 
 Master, unless there is a more liberal pro- 
 vision in the by-laws of the Lodge. There 
 are to this rule two exceptions, namely, 
 when a member rises to explain, and when 
 the mover of the resolution closes the de- 
 bate by a second speech to which he is en- 
 titled by parliamentary law. 
 
 I>eealogue. The ten commandments 
 of the Masonic law, as delivered from 
 Mount Sinai and recorded in the twentieth 
 chapter of Exodus, are so called. They 
 are not obligatory upon a Mason as a Ma- 
 son, because the Institution is tolerant and 
 cosmopolite, and cannot require its mem- 
 bers to give their adhesion to any religious 
 
206 
 
 DECIUS 
 
 DEDICATION 
 
 dogmas or precepts, excepting those which 
 express a belief in the existence of God, 
 and the immortality of the soul. No par- 
 tial law prescribed for a particular religion 
 ean be properly selected for the government 
 of an Institution whose great characteristic 
 is its universality, i See Moral Law. 
 
 DecillS. The nom de plume of C. L. 
 Reinhold, a distinguished Masonic writer. 
 See Reinhold. 
 
 Declaration of Candidates. 
 Every candidate for initiation is required 
 to make, " upon honor," the following dec- 
 laration before an appropriate officer or 
 committee. That, unbiassed by the impro- 
 per solicitation of friends and uninfluenced 
 by mercenary motives, he freely and volun- 
 tarily offers himself as a candidate for the 
 mysteries of Masonry ; that he is prompted 
 to solicit the privileges of Masonry by a 
 favorable opinion conceived of the Institu- 
 tion and a desire of knowledge ; and that he 
 will cheerfully conform to all the ancient 
 usages and established customs of the Fra- 
 ternity. This form is very old. It is to be 
 found in precisely the same words in the 
 earliest edition of Preston. It is required 
 by the English Constitution, that the can- 
 didate should subscribe his name to the 
 declaration which is made before the Stew- 
 ards. But in this country the declaration 
 is made orally, and usually before the 
 Senior Deacon. 
 
 Declaration of the Master. Every 
 Master of a Lodge, after his election and 
 before his installation, is required to give, 
 in the presence of the brethren, his assent 
 to the following fifteen charges and regula- 
 tions. 
 
 1. Do you promise to be a good man and 
 true, and strictly to obey the moral law ? 
 2. Do you promise to be a peaceable citizen, 
 and cheerfully to conform to the laws of 
 the country in which you reside ? 3. Do 
 you promise not to be concerned in plots 
 and conspiracies against the government of 
 the country in which you live, but patiently 
 to submit to the decisions of the law and 
 the constituted authorities? 4. Do you 
 promise to pay proper respect to the civil 
 magistrates, to work diligently, live credit- 
 ably, and act honorably by all men? 5. Do 
 you promise to hold in veneration the orig- 
 inal rulers and patrons of the Order of 
 Freemasonry, and their regular successors, 
 supreme and subordinate, according to their 
 stations ; and to submit to the awards and 
 resolutions of your brethren in Lodge con- 
 vened, in every case consistent with the 
 constitutions of the Order? 6. Do you 
 promise, as much as in you lies, to avoid 
 private piques and quarrels, and to guard 
 against intemperance and excess? 7. Do 
 you promise to be cautious in your behavior, 
 
 courteous to your brethren, and faithful to 
 your Lodge ? 8. Do you promise to respect 
 genuine and true brethren, and to discoun- 
 tenance impostors and all dissenters from 
 the Ancient Landmarks and Constitutions 
 of Masonry? 9 Do you promise, accord- 
 ing to the best of your abilities, to promote 
 the general good of society, to cultivate the 
 social virtues, and to propagate the knowl- 
 edge of the mystic art, according to our 
 statutes ? 10. Do you promise to pay hom- 
 age to the Grand Master for the time being, 
 and to his officers when duly installed ; and 
 strictly to conform to every edict of the 
 Grand Lodge or General Assembly of 
 Masons that is not subversive of the prin- 
 ciples and groundwork of Masonry? 11. 
 Do you admit that it is not in the power of 
 any man, or body of men, to make innova- 
 tions in the body of Masonry? 12. Do you 
 promise a regular attendance on the com- 
 mittees and communications of the Grand 
 Lodge, on receiving proper notice, and to 
 pay attention to all the duties of Masonry, 
 on convenient occasions ? 13. Do you ad- 
 mit that no new Lodge can be formed with- 
 out permission of the Grand Lodge; and 
 that no countenance ought to be given to 
 any irregular Lodge, or to any person clan- 
 destinely initiated therein, as being con- 
 trary to the ancient charges of the Order? 
 14. Do you admit that no person can be 
 regularly made a Freemason in, or admitted 
 a member of, any regular Lodge, without 
 previous notice, and due inquiry into his 
 character? 15. Do you agree that no vis- 
 itors shall be received into your Lodge with- 
 out due examination, and producing proper 
 vouchers of their having been initiated 
 in a regular Lodge ? 
 
 Decorations. A Lodge room ought, 
 besides its necessary furniture, to be orna- 
 mented with decorations which, while they 
 adorn and beautify it, will not be unsuit- 
 able to its sacred character. On this sub- 
 ject, Dr. Oliver, in his Book of the Lodge, 
 (ch. v., p. 70,) makes the following judi- 
 cious remarks. " The expert Mason will be 
 convinced that the walls of a Lodge room 
 ought neither to be absolutely naked nor 
 too much decorated. A chaste disposal of 
 symbolical ornaments in the right places, 
 and according to propriety, relieves the 
 dulness and vacuity of a blank space, and, 
 though but sparingly used, will produce a 
 striking impression, and contribute to the 
 general beauty and solemnity of the scene." 
 
 Dedication of a Lodge. Among 
 the ancients every temple, altar, statue, or 
 sacred place was dedicated to some divinity. 
 The Romans, during the Republic, confided 
 this duty to their consuls, pnetors, censors, 
 or other chief magistrates, and afterwards 
 to the emperors. According to the Papirian 
 
DEDICATION 
 
 DEDICATION 
 
 207 
 
 law, the dedication must have been author- 
 ized by a decree of the senate and the peo- 
 ple, and the consent of the college of augurs. 
 The ceremony consisted in surrounding the 
 temple or object of dedication with gar- 
 lands of flowers, whilst the vestal virgins 
 floured on the exterior of the temple the 
 ustral water. The dedication was com- 
 pleted by a formula of words uttered by the 
 pontiff, and the immolation of a victim, 
 whose entrails were placed upon an altar 
 of turf. The dedication of a temple was 
 always a festival for the people, and was 
 annually commemorated. While the Pa- 
 gans dedicated their temples to different 
 deities, — sometimes to the joint worship 
 of several, — the monotheistic Jews dedi- 
 cated their religious edifices to the one 
 supreme Jehovah. Thus, David dedicated 
 with solemn ceremonies the altar which he 
 erected on the threshing-floor of Oman 
 the Jebusite, after the cessation of the 
 plague which had afflicted his people ; and 
 Calmet conjectures that he composed the 
 thirtieth Psalm on this occasion. The Jews 
 extended this ceremony of dedication even 
 to their private houses, and Clarke tells us, 
 in reference to a passage on this subject in 
 the book of Deuteronomy, that " it was a, 
 custom in Israel to dedicate a new house to 
 God with prayer, praise, and thanksgiving; 
 and this was done in order to secure the 
 divine presence and blessing, for no pious 
 or sensible man could imagine he could 
 dwell safely in a house that was not under 
 the immediate protection of God." 
 
 According to the learned Selden, there 
 was a distinction among the Jews between 
 consecration and dedication, for sacred 
 things were both consecrated and dedicated, 
 while profane things, such as private dwell- 
 ing-houses, were only dedicated. Dedica- 
 tion was, therefore, a less sacred ceremony 
 than consecration. This distinction has 
 also been preserved among Christians, 
 many of whom, and, in the early ages, all, 
 consecrated their churches to the worship 
 of God, but dedicated them to, or placed 
 them under, the especial patronage of some 
 particular saint. A similar practice pre- 
 vails in the Masonic institution ; and there- 
 fore, while we consecrate our Lodges " to 
 the honor of God's glory," we dedicate 
 them to the patrons of our Order. 
 
 Tradition informs us that Masonic Lodges 
 were originally dedicated to King Solomon, 
 because he was our first Most Excellent 
 Grand Master. In the sixteenth century 
 St. John the Baptist seems to have been 
 considered as the peculiar patron of Free- 
 masonry ; but subsequently this honor was 
 divided between the two Saints John, the 
 Baptist and the Evangelist; and modern 
 Lodges, in this country at least, are uni- 
 
 versally erected or consecrated to God, and 
 dedicated to the Holy Saints John. In the 
 Hemming lectures, adopted in 1813, at the 
 time of the union of the two Grand Lodges 
 of England, the dedication was changed 
 from the Saints John to King Solomon, 
 and this usage now prevails very generally 
 in England ; but the ancient dedication to 
 the Saints John has never been abandoned 
 by the American Lodges. 
 
 The formula in Webb which dedicates 
 the Lodge "to the memory of the Holy 
 Saint John," was, undoubtedly, an inad- 
 vertence on the part of that lecturer, since 
 in all his oral teachings he adhered to the 
 more general system, and described a Lodge 
 in his esoteric work as being " dedicated to 
 the Holy Saints John." This is now the 
 universal practice, and the language used 
 by Webb becomes contradictory and absurd 
 when compared with the fact that the fes- 
 tivals of both saints are equally celebrated 
 by the Order, and that the 27th of Decem- 
 ber is not less a day of observance in the 
 Order than the 24th of June. 
 
 In one of the old lectures of the last 
 century, this dedication to the two Saints 
 John is thus explained: 
 
 " Q. Our Lodges being finished, fur- 
 nished, and decorated with ornaments, 
 furniture, and jewels, to whom were they 
 consecrated? 
 
 "A. To God. 
 
 " Q. Thank you, brother; and can you 
 tell me to whom they were first dedicated? 
 
 "A. To Noah, who was saved in the 
 ark. 
 
 " Q. And by what name were the Masons 
 then known? 
 
 " A. They were called Noachidae, Sages, 
 or Wise Men. 
 
 " Q. To whom were the Lodges dedicated 
 during the Mosaic dispensation ? 
 
 " A. To Moses, the chosen of God, and 
 Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel, 
 who was an eminent patron of the Craft. 
 
 " Q. And under what name were the 
 Masons known during that period ? 
 
 "A. Under the name of Dionysiacs, 
 Geometricians, or Masters in Israel. 
 
 " Q. But as Solomon was a Jew, and 
 died long before the promulgation of Chris- 
 tianity, to whom were they dedicated under 
 the Christian dispensation ? 
 
 "A. From Solomon the patronage of 
 Masonry passed to St. John the Baptist. 
 
 " Q. And under what name were they 
 known after the promulgation of Christi- 
 anity ? 
 
 " A. Under the name of Essenes, Archi- 
 tects, or Freemasons. 
 
 " Q. Why were the Lodges dedicated to 
 St. John the Baptist? 
 
 " A. Because he was the forerunner of 
 
208 
 
 DEDICATION 
 
 DEDICATION 
 
 our Saviour, and, by preaching repentance 
 and humiliation, drew the first parallel of 
 the Gospel. 
 
 " Q. Had St. John the Baptist any- 
 equal? 
 
 " A. He had ; St. John the Evangelist. 
 
 " Q. Why is he said to be equal to the 
 Baptist? 
 
 "A. Because he finished by his learning 
 what the other began by his zeal, and thus 
 drew a second line parallel to the former ; 
 ever since which time Freemasons' Lodges, 
 in all Christian countries, have been dedi- 
 cated to the one or the other, or both, of 
 these worthy and worshipful men." 
 
 There is another old lecture, adopted into 
 the Prestonian system, which still further 
 developed these reasons for the Johannite 
 dedication, but with slight variations in 
 some of the details. 
 
 " From the building of the first Temple 
 at Jerusalem to the Babylonish captivity, 
 Freemasons' Lodges were dedicated to King 
 Solomon ; from thence to the coming of the 
 Messiah, they were dedicated to Zerub- 
 babel, the builder of the second Temple ; 
 and from that time to the final destruction 
 of the Temple by Titus, in the reign of 
 Vespasian, they were dedicated to St. John 
 the Baptist ; but owing to the many massa- 
 cres and disorders which attended that mem- 
 orable event, Freemasonry sunk very much 
 into decay ; many Lodges were entirely 
 broken up, and but few could meet in suf- 
 ficient numbers to constitute their legality ; 
 and at a general meeting of the Craft, held 
 in the city of Benjamin, it was observed 
 that the principal reason for the decline of 
 Masonry was the want of a Grand Master 
 to patronize it. They therefore deputed 
 seven of their most eminent members to 
 wait upon St. John the Evangelist, who 
 was at that time Bishop of Ephesus, re- 
 questing him to take the office of Grand 
 Master. He returned for answer, that 
 though well stricken in years (being up- 
 wards of ninety), yet having been initiated 
 into Masonry in the early part of his life, 
 he would take upon himself that office. 
 He thereby completed by his learning what 
 the other St. John effected by his zeal, and 
 thus drew what Freemasons term a ' line 
 parallel ; ' ever since which time Freema- 
 sons' Lodges, in all Christian countries, 
 have been dedicated both to St. John the 
 Baptist and St. John the Evangelist." 
 
 So runs the tradition, but, as it wants 
 every claim to authenticity, a more philo- 
 sophical reason may be assigned for this 
 dedication to the two Saints John. 
 
 One of the earliest deviations from the 
 pure religion of the Noachidae was distin- 
 guished by the introduction of sun wor- 
 ship. The sun, in the Egyptian mysteries, 
 
 was symbolized by Osiris, the principal ob- 
 ject of their rites, and whose name, accord- 
 ing to Plutarch and Macrobius, signified 
 the prince and leader, the soul of the uni- 
 verse and the governor of the stars. Ma- 
 crobius [Saturn., 1. i., c. 18,) says that the 
 Egyptians worshipped the sun as the only 
 divinity; and they represented him under 
 different forms, according to the different 
 phases, of his infancy at the winter solstice 
 in December, his adolescence at the vernal 
 equinox in March, his manhood at the 
 summer solstice in June, and his old age 
 at the autumnal equinox in September. 
 
 Among the Phoenicians, the sun was 
 adored under the name of Adonis, and in 
 Persia, under that of Mithras. In the Gre- 
 cian mysteries, the orb of day was repre- 
 sented by one of the officers who superin- 
 tended the ceremony of initiation ; and in 
 the Druidical rites his worship was intro- 
 duced as the visible representative of the 
 invisible, creative, and preservative princi- 
 ple of nature. In short, wherever the spu- 
 rious Freemasonry existed, the adoration 
 of, or, at least, a high respect for, the solar 
 orb constituted a part of its system. 
 
 In Freemasonry, the sun is still retained 
 as an important symbol. This fact must 
 be familiar to every Freemason of any in- 
 telligence. It occupies, indeed, its appro- 
 priate position, simply as a symbol, but, 
 nevertheless, it constitutes an essential part 
 of the system. " As an emblem of God's 
 power," says Hutchinson, (Sp. of Mas., led. 
 iv., p. 53,) "his goodness, omnipresence, 
 and eternity, the Lodge is adorned with the 
 image of the sun, which he ordained to 
 rise from the east and open the day ; there- 
 by calling forth the people of the earth to 
 their worship and exercise in the walks of 
 virtue." 
 
 " The government of a Mason's Lodge," 
 says Oliver, (Signs and Sym., 1. xi.,) "ia 
 vested in three superior officers, who are 
 seated in the East, West, and South, to 
 represent the rising, setting, and meridian 
 sun." 
 
 The sun, obedient to the all-seeing eye, 
 is an emblem in the ritual of the third de- 
 gree, and the sun displayed within an ex- 
 tended compass constitutes the jewel of the 
 Past Master in the American system, and 
 that of the Grand Master in the English. 
 
 But it is a needless task to cite authori- 
 ties or multiply instances to prove how 
 intimately the sun, as a symbol, is con- 
 nected with the whole system of Freema- 
 sonry. 
 . It is then evident that the sun, either as 
 an object of worship, or of symbolization, 
 has always formed an important part of 
 what has been called the two systems of 
 Freemasonry, the Spurious and the Pure. 
 
DEDICATION 
 
 To the ancient sun worshippers, the 
 movements of the heavenly bodies must 
 have been something more than mere as- 
 tronomical phenomena; they were the 
 actions of the deities whom they adored, 
 and hence were invested with the solem- 
 nity of a religious character. But, above 
 all, the particular periods when the sun 
 reached his greatest Northern and Southern 
 declination, at the winter and summer sol- 
 stices, by entering the zodaical signs of Can- 
 cer and Capricorn, marked as they would 
 be by the most evident effects on the sea- 
 sons, and on the length of the days and 
 nights, could not have passed unobserved, 
 but, on the contrary, must have occupied 
 an important place in their ritual. Now 
 these important days fall respectively on 
 the 21st of June and the 21st of December. 
 Hence, these solstitial periods were among 
 the principal festivals observed by the Pa- 
 gan nations. Du Pauw (Diss, on Egyp. 
 and Chinese, ii. 159,) remarks of the Egyp- 
 tians, that " they had a fixed festival at 
 each new moon ; one at the summer, and 
 one at the winter solstice, as well as the 
 vernal and autumnal equinoxes." 
 
 The Druids always observed the festivals 
 of midsummer and midwinter in June 
 and December. The former for a long 
 time was celebrated by the Christian de- 
 scendants of the Druids. " The eve of St. 
 John the Baptist," says Chambers, [Inf. 
 for the People, No. 89,) "variously called 
 midsummer eve, was formerly a time of 
 high observance amongst the English, as it 
 still is in Catholic countries. Bonfires 
 were everywhere lighted, round which the 
 people danced with joyful demonstrations, 
 occasionally leaping through the flame." 
 Higgins (Gelt. Druids, p. 165,) thus alludes 
 to the celebration of the festival of mid- 
 winter in the ancient world. 
 
 " The festival of the 25th of December 
 was celebrated, by the Druids in Britain 
 and Ireland, with great fires lighted on the 
 
 tops of the hills On the 25th 
 
 of December, at the first moment of the 
 day, throughout all the ancient world, the 
 birthday of the god Sol was celebrated. 
 This was the moment when, after the sup- 
 posed winter solstice and the lowest point 
 of his degradation below our hemisphere, 
 he began to increase and gradually to as- 
 cend. At this moment, in all the ancient 
 religions, his birthday was kept; from India 
 to the Ultima Thule, these ceremonies par- 
 took of the same character: everywhere 
 the god was feigned to be born, and his 
 festival was celebrated with great rejoic- 
 ings." 
 
 Our ancestors finding that the Church, 
 according to its usage of purifying Pagan 
 festivals by Christian application, had ap- 
 2B 14 
 
 DEDICATION 
 
 209 
 
 propriated two days near those solstitial 
 periods to the memory of two eminent 
 saints, incorporated these festivals by the 
 lapse of a few days into the Masonic cal- 
 endar, and adopted these worthies as pat- 
 rons of our Order. To this change, the 
 earlier Christian Masons were the more 
 persuaded by the peculiar character of 
 these saints. St. John the Baptist, by an- 
 nouncing the approach of Christ, and by 
 the mystic ablution to which he subjected 
 his proselytes, and which was afterwards 
 adopted in the ceremony of initiation into 
 Christianity, might well be considered as 
 the Grand Hierophant of the Church ; while 
 the mysterious and emblematic nature of 
 the Apocalypse assimilated the mode of 
 instruction adopted by St. John the Evan- 
 gelist to that practised by the Fraternity. 
 
 We are thus led to the conclusion that 
 the connection of the Saints John with the 
 Masonic institution is rather of a symbolic 
 than of an historical character. In dedi- 
 cating our Lodges to them, we do not so 
 much declare our belief that they were emi- 
 nent members of the Order, as demonstrate 
 our reverence for the great Architect of the 
 Universe in the symbol of his most splen- 
 did creation, the great light of day. 
 
 In conclusion it may be observed that 
 the ceremony of dedication is merely the 
 enunciation of a form of words, and this 
 having been done, the Lodge is thus, by 
 the consecration and dedication, set apart 
 as something sacred to the cultivation of 
 the principles of Masonry, under that pe- 
 culiar system which acknowledges the two 
 Saints John as its patrons. 
 
 Royal Arch Chapters are dedicated to 
 Zerubbabel, Prince or Governor of Judah, 
 and Commanderies of Knights Templars to 
 St. John the Almoner. Mark Lodges 
 should be dedicated to Hiram the Builder ; 
 Past Masters' to the Sts. John, and Most 
 Excellent Masters' to King Solomon. 
 
 Dedication of the Temple. 
 There are five dedications of the Temple 
 of Jerusalem which are recorded in Jew- 
 ish history. 1. The dedication of the Solo- 
 monic Temple, B. c. 1003. 2. The dedica- 
 tion in the time of Hezekiah, when it was 
 purified from the abominations of Ahaz, 
 b. o. 726. 3. The dedication of Zerub- 
 babel's Temple, b. o. 517. 4. The dedica- 
 tion of the Temple when it was purified 
 after Judas Maccabseus had driven out the 
 Syrians, b. c. 164. 5. The dedication of 
 Herod's Temple, B. c. 22. The fourth of 
 these is still celebrated by the Jews in their 
 " Feast of the Dedication." The first only 
 is connected with the Masonic ritual, and 
 is commemorated in the Most Excellent 
 Master's degree of the American Rite as 
 the "Celebration of the Cape -Stone." 
 
210 
 
 DEFAMATION 
 
 DEGREES 
 
 This dedication was made by King Solo- 
 mon in the year of the world 3001, and 
 lasted eight days, commencing in the month 
 of Tisri, corresponding to Friday the 30th 
 of October. The dedication of the Temple 
 is called, in the English system of Lectures, 
 " the third grand offering which consecrates 
 the floor of a Mason's Lodge." The same 
 Lectures contain a tradition that on that 
 occasion King Solomon assembled the 
 nine Deputy Grand Masters in the holy 
 place, from which all natural light had been 
 carefully excluded, and which only received 
 the artificial light which emanated from the 
 east, west, and south, and there made the 
 necessary arrangements. The legend must 
 be considered as a myth ; but the inimitable 
 prayer and invocation which were offered 
 up by King Solomon on the occasion are 
 recorded in the eighth chapter of the first 
 Book of Kings, which contains the scrip- 
 tural account of the dedication. 
 
 Defamation. See Back. 
 
 Definition of Freemasonry. 
 " The definitions of Freemasonry," says Oli- 
 ver, in his Historical Landmarks of Free- 
 masonry, " have been numerous ; but they 
 all unite in declaring it to be a system of 
 morality, by the practice of which its mem- 
 bers may advance their spiritual interest, 
 and mount by the theological ladder from 
 the Lodge on earth to the Lodge in heaven. 
 It is a mistake, however, to suppose that 
 Freemasonry is a system of religion. It is 
 but the handmaiden to religion, although 
 it largely and effectually illustrates one 
 great branch of it, which is practice." 
 The definition in the English Lectures is 
 most often quoted, which says that " Free- 
 masonry is a beautiful system of morality 
 veiled in allegory and illustrated by sym- 
 bols." 
 
 But a more comprehensive and exact def- 
 inition is, that it is a science which is en- 
 gaged in the search after Divine Truth, and 
 which employs symbolism as its method of 
 instruction. 
 
 Deformity. The old Constitutions 
 declare that the candidate for Masonry 
 must be a " perfect youth, having no maim 
 or defect in his body." The Masonic law 
 of physical qualifications is derived from 
 the Mosaic, which excluded from the priest- 
 bood a man having any blemishes or de- 
 formities. The regulation in Masonry con- 
 stitutes one of the landmarks, and is illus- 
 trative of the symbolism of the Institution. 
 The earliest of the old Constitutions, that 
 of the Halliwell MS., has this language on 
 the subject : 
 
 " To the Craft it were great shame 
 To make a halt man and a lame, 
 For an imperfect man of such blood 
 Should do the Craft but little good." 
 
 This question has been fully discussed in 
 the author's Text Book of Masonic Juris- 
 prudence, pp. 96-113. 
 
 Degrees. The word degree, in its prim- 
 itive meaning, signifies a step. The de- 
 grees of Freemasonry are then the steps by 
 which the candidate ascends from a lower 
 to a higher condition of knowledge. It is 
 now the opinion of the best scholars, that 
 the division of the Masonic system into de- 
 grees was the work of the revivalists of the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century ; that 
 before that period there was but one de- 
 gree, or rather one common platform of 
 ritualism ; and that the division into Mas- 
 ters, Fellows, and Apprentices was simply 
 a division of ranks, there being but one ini- 
 tiation for all. In 1717 the whole body of 
 the Fraternity consisted only of Entered 
 Apprentices, who were recognized by the 
 thirty-nine Kegulations, compiled in 1720, 
 as among the law-givers of the Craft, no 
 change in those Regulations being allowed 
 unless first submitted " even to the young- 
 est Apprentice." In the old Charges, col- 
 lected by Anderson and approved in 1722, 
 the degree of Fellow Craft is introduced as 
 being a necessary qualification for Grand 
 Master, although the word degree is not 
 used. No brother can be a ... . Grand 
 Master unless he has been a Fellow Craft 
 before his election." And in the " Man- 
 ner of constituting a New Lodge" of the 
 same date, the Master and Wardens are 
 taken from " among the Fellow Crafts," 
 which Dermott explains by saying that 
 "they were called Fellow Crafts because 
 the Masons of old times never gave any 
 man the title of Master Mason until he 
 had first passed the chair." In the thir- 
 teenth of the Regulations of 1720, approved 
 in 1721, the orders or degrees of Master and 
 Fellow Craft are recognized in the follow- 
 ing words : " Apprentices must be admitted 
 Masters and Fellow Crafts only in the 
 Grand Lodge." Between that period and 
 1738, the system of degrees had been per- 
 fected ; for Anderson, who, in that year, 
 published the second edition of the Book 
 of Constitutions, changed the phraseology 
 of the old Charge to suit the altered con- 
 dition of things, and said, "a Prentice, 
 when of age and expert, may become an 
 Enter'd Prentice or a Free-Mason of the 
 lowest degree, and upon his due improve- 
 ment a Fellow-Craft and a Master-Ma- 
 son." No such words are found in the 
 Charges as printed in 1723 ; and if at that 
 time the distinction of the three degrees 
 had been as well defined as in 1738, Ander- 
 son would not have failed to insert the 
 same language in his first edition. That 
 he did not, leads to the fair presumption 
 that the ranks of Fellow Craft and Master 
 
DEGREES 
 
 DEISM 
 
 211 
 
 were not then absolutely recognized as dis- 
 tinctive degrees. The earliest ritual ex- 
 tant, which is contained in the Grand 
 Mystery, published in 1725, makes no 
 reference to any degrees, but gives only 
 what I suppose was the common initiation 
 in use about that time. The division of 
 the Masonic system into three degrees must 
 have grown up between 1717 and 1730, 
 but in so gradual and imperceptible a man- 
 ner that we are unable to fix the precise 
 date of the introduction of each degree. 
 In 1717 there was evidently but one degree, 
 or rather one form of initiation, and one 
 catechism. Perhaps about 1721 the three 
 degrees were introduced, but the second 
 and third were not perfected for many 
 years. Even as late as 1735 the Entered 
 Apprentice's degree contained the most 
 prominent form of initiation, and he who 
 was an Apprentice was, for all practical 
 purposes, a Freemason. It was not until 
 repeated improvements, by the adoption of 
 new ceremonies and new regulations, that 
 the degree of Master Mason took the place 
 which it now occupies ; having been con- 
 fined at first to those who had passed the 
 chair. 
 
 Degrees, Ancient Craft. See An- 
 cient Craft Masonry. 
 
 Degrees, Androgynous. Degrees 
 that are conferred on females as well as 
 males. See Androgynous Masonry. 
 
 Degrees, Apocalyptic. See Apoc- 
 alyptic Degrees. 
 
 Degrees, High. See Hautes Grades. 
 
 Degrees, Honorary. See Hono- 
 rary Degrees. 
 
 Degrees, Ineffable. See Ineffable 
 Degrees. 
 
 Degrees of CniTalry. The reli- 
 gious and military orders of knighthood 
 which existed in the Middle Ages, such as the 
 Knights Templars and Knights of Malta, 
 which were incorporated into the Masonic 
 system and conferred as Masonic degrees, 
 have been called Degrees of Chivalry. 
 They are Christian in character, and seek to 
 perpetuate in a symbolic form the idea on 
 which the original Orders were founded. 
 The Knight of the Red Cross, although con- 
 ferred, in this country, in a Commandery 
 of Knights Templars, and as preliminary 
 to that degree, is not properly a degree of 
 chivalry. 
 
 Degrees of Knowledge. Fessler 
 was desirous of abolishing all the high de- 
 grees, but being unable to obtain the con- 
 sent of the Royal York Grand Lodge, he 
 composed out of them a new system of five 
 degrees which he called Degrees of Knowl- 
 edge, Erkenntnissstufen, to each of which 
 was annexed a form of initiation. "The 
 Degrees of Knowledge," says Findel, {Hist., 
 
 497,) " consisted of a regular detailed course 
 of instruction in each system of the Lodges, 
 whether extinct or in full activity, and 
 were to end with a complete critical re- 
 modelling of the history of Freemasonry, 
 and of the Fraternity of Freemasons from 
 the most ancient period to our own day." 
 See Fessler's Mite. 
 
 Degrees, Philosophical. See 
 Philosophical Degrees. 
 
 Degrees, Symbolic. See Symbolic 
 Degrees. 
 
 Deism. In an abstract sense, Deism, 
 or Theism, is the belief in God, but the 
 word is generally used to designate those 
 who, believing in God, reject a belief in 
 the Scriptures as a revelation. The sect 
 of Deists — which, in the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries, enrolled among its 
 followers many great intellects, such as 
 Toland, Collins, Lord Herbert of Cher- 
 bury, Hume, Gibbon, and Voltaire — is said 
 by Findel {Hist., p. 126,) to have "neces- 
 sarily exercised an important influence on 
 the Fraternity of Masons;" and, he adds, 
 that " we cannot doubt that it contributed 
 essentially to its final transformation from 
 an operative to a universal speculative so- 
 ciety." The refutation of this remarkable 
 assertion is best found in the first of the 
 Charges adopted at the revival in 1717, 
 and which was published in the Constitu- 
 tions of 1723: "A Mason is obliged, by 
 his tenure, to obey the moral law ; and if 
 he rightly understands the art, he will 
 never be a stupid atheist nor an irreligious 
 libertine," where the words irreligious lib- 
 ertine refer to the freethinkers or deists of 
 that period. It is evident, then, that the 
 Deists could have had no influence at that 
 time in moulding the Masonic organization. 
 There is still better evidence to be found in 
 the old records of Freemasonry during 
 several preceding centuries, when tne Oper- 
 ative was its dominant character, and when 
 the dogmas of Christianity were fully re- 
 cognized, which must necessarily have been 
 the case, since Freemasonry during that 
 period was under the patronage of the 
 Church. There is, in fact, no evidence to 
 sustain Findel's theory, that in the transi- 
 tion stage from the operative to the specu- 
 lative, when such men as the deeply-reli- 
 gious Ashmole were among its members, 
 the Deists could have infused any of their 
 principles into its organization or exercised 
 any influence in changing its character. 
 
 Freemasonry, at that time sectarian, de- 
 manded almost a Christian belief — at all 
 events, a Christian allegiance — from its 
 disciples. It is now more tolerant, and 
 Deism presents no disqualification for ini- 
 tiation. An atheist would be rejected, but 
 none would now be refused admission on 
 
212 
 
 DEITY 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 religious grounds who subscribed to the 
 dogmas of a belief in God and a resurrec- 
 tion to eternal life. 
 
 Deity. See Grand Architect of the Uni- 
 verse. 
 
 Delalande, Charles Florent 
 Jacques. A French litterateur of this 
 century, who was the author of many di- 
 dactic and poetic articles on Masonry 
 inserted in the Miroir de la Verite, the 
 Annates Maconniques, and other collections. 
 He was also the author of the Defense et 
 Apologie de la Franche- Maconnerie, ou Re- 
 futation des Accusations dirigees contre elle 
 a differentes Epoques et par divers Autems, 
 a prize essay before a Lodge in Leghorn, 
 published in 1814. He founded the ar- 
 chives of the Lodge of the Philosophic 
 Rite at Douay, France. 
 
 Delalande, Joseph Jerome 
 Francois. One of the most distin- 
 guished French astronomers of the eigh- 
 teenth century. He was born in 1732 and 
 died in 1807. He was one of the founders 
 of the Grand Orient of France, and pub- 
 lished, in 1774, an able memoir upon the 
 History of Freemasonry, which was sub- 
 sequently incorporated in the twentieth 
 volume of the Encyclopedic Methodique. 
 
 Delaunay, Francois U. Stanis- 
 laus. A French litterateur and historian, 
 and author of many works on Masonry, the 
 principal of which is the Tuileur des trente 
 trois degres de UEcossisme du .Rite Ancien et 
 Acceple. This is a work of great erudition, 
 and of curious research in reference to the 
 etymology of the words of the Rite. These 
 etymologies, however, are not always cor- 
 rect ; and, indeed, some of them are quite 
 absurd, betraying a want of the proper ap- 
 preciation of the construction of Hebrew, 
 from which language all of the words are 
 derived. 
 
 Delaware. The Grand Lodge of 
 Delaware was organized on the 6th of 
 June, 1806. Its seat is at Wilmington. The 
 Grand Chapter was instituted in 1818, but 
 having suspended labor for many years, a 
 new organization was established by the 
 General Grand High Priest of the United 
 States in 1869. 
 
 Delegates. Past Masters, or others 
 sent by a Lodge to represent it in the Grand 
 Lodge, in place of the Master and Wardens, 
 if these are absent, are in some of the 
 American jurisdictions called delegates. 
 The word is a modern one, and without good 
 authority. Those who represent a Lodge 
 in the Grand Lodge, whether the Master 
 and Wardens or their proxies, are properly 
 representatives. 
 
 Delta. A triangle. The name of a 
 piece of furniture in a Commandery of 
 Knights Templars, which, being of a trian- 
 
 gular form, derives its name from the Greek 
 letter A, delta. It is also the title given, in 
 the French and Scottish Rites, to the lumi- 
 nous triangle which encloses the Ineffable 
 name. See Triangle. 
 
 Demeter. The Greek name of Ceres, 
 which see. 
 
 Demit. A Mason is said to demit from 
 his Lodge when he withdraws his member- 
 ship ; and a demit is a document granted by 
 the Lodge which certifies that that demis- 
 sion has been accepted by the Lodge, and 
 that the demitting brother is clear of the 
 books and in good standing as a Mason. 
 To demit, which is the act of the member, is 
 then to resign ; and to grant a demit, which 
 is the act of the Lodge, is to grant a certifi- 
 cate that the resignation has been accepted. 
 It is derived from the French reflective verb se 
 demettre, which, according to the dictionary 
 of the Academy, means " to withdraw from 
 an office, to resign an employment." Thus it 
 gives as an example, " 11 s'est demis de sa 
 charge en faveur d'un tel," he resigned (de- 
 mitted) his office in favor of such a one. 
 
 The application for a demit is a matter 
 of form, and there is no power in the Lodge 
 to refuse it, if the applicant has paid all his 
 dues and is free of all charges. It is 
 true that a regulation of 1722 says that no 
 number of brethren shall withdraw or sepa- 
 rate themselves from the Lodge in which 
 they were made, without a dispensation; 
 yet I do not see how the law can be en- 
 forced, for Masonry being a voluntary as- 
 sociation, there is no power in any Lodge 
 to insist on any brother continuing a con- 
 nection with it which he desires to sever. 
 See, on this subject, the author's Text Book 
 of Masonic Jurisprudence, book iii., chap, 
 iii., sect. vi. 
 
 The usual object in applying for a demit 
 is to enable the brother to join some other 
 Lodge, into which he cannot be admitted 
 without some evidence that he was in good 
 standing in his former Lodge. This is in 
 accordance with an old law found in the 
 Regulations of 1663 in the following words : 
 " No person hereafter who shall be accepted 
 a Freemason, shall be admitted into any 
 Lodge or Assembly until he has brought a 
 certificate of the time and place of his ac- 
 ceptation from the Lodge that accepted him, 
 unto the Master of that limit or division 
 where such Lodge is kept." See the cor- 
 rupt word Dimit, 
 
 Denmark. The first Masonic Lodge 
 in Denmark was opened in Copenhagen, by 
 Baron G. O. Munich, on the 11th of No- 
 vember, 1743, under a charter, as he claimed, 
 from the Lodge of the Three Globes in 
 Berlin. In the next year a new Lodge 
 named Zorobabel was formed by members 
 who separated from the former Lodge. Both 
 
DEPOSITE 
 
 DEPUTY 
 
 213 
 
 of these bodies, however, appear to have 
 been imperfect in their constitution. This 
 imperfection was subsequently rectified. 
 The first Lodge, having changed its name 
 to St. Martin, received in 1749 a warrant 
 from Lord Byron, who was then Grand 
 Master of England. Lord Cranstoun had 
 previously, in October, 1715, granted a 
 warrant to the second Lodge. Preston says 
 that Lord Byron issued a Provincial Patent 
 for Denmark, in other words, established a 
 Provincial Grand Lodge. Calcott says he 
 appointed Count Denneskiold Laurwig 
 Provincial Grand Master for Denmark and 
 Norway. The Provincial Grand Lodge of 
 Denmark must then have been established 
 in 1749 ; but a writer in the London Free- 
 mason's Quarterly Magazine for September, 
 1853, places its date at 1745, and the Grand 
 Lodge of Denmark is said in the recent 
 calendars to have been organized in 1747. 
 These dates are irreconcilable. The Grand 
 Lodge of Denmark was actually founded 
 in 1792. A Lodge had been established at 
 Copenhagen, by the Grand Lodge of Scot- 
 land, under the name of "Le petit Nombre ;" 
 and in 1753 its Master was elevated by that 
 body to the rank of a Provincial Grand 
 Master. The vicinity of Denmark to Ger- 
 many caused the introduction of many of 
 the Rites which agitated the latter country. 
 But the primitive Lodges worked in the 
 York Rite. On January 6th, 1855, King 
 Christian VIIL, who, when crowned Prince, 
 had assumed the Protectorship of the 
 Danish Lodges, and who was distinguished 
 for his Masonic zeal, introduced the Rite 
 of Zinnendorf according to the Swedish 
 system, which was adopted as the national 
 Rite of Denmark. 
 
 Deposite. The deposite of the sub- 
 stitute ark is celebrated in the degree of 
 Select Master, and is supposed to have taken 
 
 glace in the last year of the building of 
 olomon's Temple, or 1000 B. c. This is 
 therefore adopted as the date in Cryptic 
 Masonry. 
 
 In the legendary history of Freemasonry 
 as preserved in the Cryptic degrees, two 
 deposites are spoken of; the deposite of the 
 substitute Ark, and the deposite of the 
 Word, both being referred to the same year 
 and being different parts of one transac- 
 tion. They have, therefore, sometimes 
 been confounded. The deposite of the Ark 
 was made by the three Grand Masters ; that 
 of the Word by Hiram Abif alone. 
 
 Deposite, Year of. See Anno De- 
 positions. 
 
 Depth of the Lodge. This is said 
 to be from the surface to the centre, and is 
 the expression of an idea connected with the 
 symbolism of the form of the Lodge as in- 
 dicating the universality of Masonry. The 
 
 oldest definition was that the depth ex- 
 tended " to the centre of the earth," which, 
 says Dr. Oliver, is the greatest extent that 
 can be imagined. See Form of the Lodge. 
 
 Deputation. The authority granted 
 by the Grand Master to a brother to act 
 as Provincial Grand Master was formerly 
 called a deputation. Thus, in Anderson's 
 Constitutions, (2d edition, 1738, p. 191,) it is 
 said, " Lovel, Grand Master, granted a depu- 
 tation to Sir Edward Matthews to be Pro- 
 vincial Grand Master of Shropshire." It 
 was also used in the sense in which dispensa- 
 tion is now employed to denote the Grand 
 Master's authority for opening a Lodge. 
 In German Masonry, a deputation is a com- 
 mittee of one Lodge appointed to visit and 
 confer with some other Lodge. 
 
 Depute Grand Master. Depute 
 is a Scotticism used in the " Laws and Regu- 
 lations of the Grand Lodge of Scotland " to 
 designate the officer known in England and 
 America as Deputy Grand Master. 
 
 Deputy. In French Masonry, the 
 officers who represent a Lodge in the 
 Grand Orient are called its deputies. The 
 word is also used in another sense. When 
 two Lodges are affiliated, that is, have 
 adopted a compact of union, each appoints 
 a deputy to represent it at the meetings 
 of the other. He is also called garant 
 d'amitie, and is entitled to a seat in the 
 East. 
 
 Deputy Grand Chapter. In the 
 Constitution adopted in January, 1798, by 
 the "Grand Royal Arch Chapter of the 
 Northern States of America," which after- 
 wards became the " General Grand Chap- 
 ter," it was provided that Grand Bodies of 
 the system should be established in the dif- 
 ferent States, which should be known as 
 " Deputy Grand Royal Arch Chapters." 
 But in the succeeding year, on the adop- 
 tion of a new Constitution, the title was 
 changed to "State Grand Chapters." Mas- 
 sachusetts, Rhode Island, and New York 
 are the only States in which Deputy Grand 
 Chapters were organized. 
 
 Deputy Grand Master. The as- 
 sistant and, in his absence, the representa- 
 tive of the Grand Master. The office 
 originated in the year 1721, when the Duke 
 of Montagu was authorized by the Grand 
 Lodge to appoint a Deputy. The object 
 evidently was to relieve a nobleman, who 
 was Grand Master, from troublesome de- 
 tails of office. The Constitutions give a 
 Deputy Grand Master no other preroga- 
 tives than those which he claims in the 
 Grand Master's right. He presides over 
 the Craft in the absence of the Grand Mas- 
 ter, and, on the death of that officer, suc- 
 ceeds to his position until a new election. 
 In England, and in a few States of Ameri- 
 
214 
 
 DEPUTY 
 
 DESAGULIERS 
 
 ca, he is appointed by the Grand Master ; 
 but the general usage in this country is to 
 elect him. 
 
 Deputy Lodge. In Germany, a 
 Deputations- Loge, or Deputy Lodge, was 
 formed by certain members of a Lodge who 
 lived at a remote distance from it, and who 
 met under the name and by the authority 
 of the mother Lodge, through whom alone 
 it was known to the Grand Lodge, or the 
 other Lodges. Such bodies are not known 
 in England or America, and are not now 
 so common in Germany as formerly. 
 
 Deputy Master. In England, when 
 the Grand Master is also Master of a pri- 
 vate Lodge, his functions are performed by 
 an officer appointed by him, and called a 
 Deputy Master, who exercises all the pre- 
 rogatives and enjoys all the privileges of a 
 regular Master. In Germany, the Master 
 of every Lodge is assisted by a Deputy Mas- 
 ter, who is either appointed by the Master, 
 or elected by the members, and who exer- 
 cises the powers of the Master in the ab- 
 sence of that officer. 
 
 Dermott, Laurence. He was at 
 first the Grand Secretary, and afterwards 
 the Deputy Grand Master, of that body of 
 Masons who, in 1739, seceded from the 
 Grand Lodge of England, and called them- 
 selves " Ancient York Masons," stigmatiz- 
 ing the regular Masons as " moderns." 
 In 1764, Dermott published the Book of 
 Constitutions of his Grand Lodge, under 
 the title of " Ahiman Rezon ; or a help to 
 all that are or would be Free and Accepted 
 Masons, containing the quintessence of all 
 that has been published on the subject of 
 Freemasonry." This work passed through 
 several editions, the last of which was 
 edited, in 1813. by Thomas Harper, the 
 Deputy Grand Master of the Ancient Ma- 
 sons, under the title of " The Constitutions 
 of Freemasonry, or Ahiman Rezon." 
 
 Dermott was undoubtedly the moving 
 and sustaining spirit of the great schism 
 which, from the middle of the eighteenth 
 to the beginning of the nineteenth century, 
 divided the Masons of England; and his 
 character has not been spared by the ad- 
 herents of the constitutional Grand Lodge. 
 Lawrie (Hist, p. 117,) says of him: "The 
 unfairness with which he has stated the 
 proceedings of the moderns, the bitterness 
 with which he treats them, and the quackery 
 and vainglory with which he displays his 
 own pretensions to superior knowledge, de- 
 serve to be reprobated by every class of 
 Masons who are anxious for the purity of 
 their Order and the preservation of that 
 charity and mildness which ought to char- 
 acterize all their proceedings." I am afraid 
 that there is much truth in this estimate of 
 Dermott's character. As a polemic, he was 
 
 sarcastic, bitter, uncompromising, and not 
 altogether sincere or veracious. But in intel- 
 lectual attainments he was inferior to none 
 of his adversaries, and in a philosophical 
 appreciation of the character of the Ma- 
 sonic institution he was in advance of the 
 spirit of his age. Doubtless he dismem- 
 bered the third degree, and to him we owe 
 the establishment of English Royal Arch 
 Masonry. He had the assistance of Ram- 
 say, but he did not adopt Ramsay's Scottish 
 degree. Royal Arch Masonry, as we now 
 have it, came from the fertile brain and in- 
 trepid heart of Dermott. It was finally 
 adopted by his opponents in 1813, and it is 
 hardly now a question that the change ef- 
 fected by him in the organization of the 
 York Rite in 1740 has been of evident ad- 
 vantage to the service of Masonic sym- 
 bolism. 
 
 Derwentwater. Charles Radcliffe, 
 titular Earl of Derwentwater, which title 
 he assumed on the death of the unmarried 
 son of his brother, James Radcliffe, Earl 
 of Derwentwater, who was executed for 
 rebellion in 1716, in London, was the first 
 Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of 
 France, to which office he was elected on 
 the organization of the Grand Lodge in 
 1725. Charles Radcliffe was arrested with 
 his brother, Lord Derwentwater, in 1715, 
 for having taken part in the rebellion of 
 that year to restore the house of Stuart to 
 the throne. Both were convicted of trea- 
 son, and the Earl suffered death, but his 
 brother Charles made his escape to France, 
 and thence to Rome, where he received a 
 trifling pension from the Pretender. After 
 a residence of some years, he went to Paris, 
 where, with the Chevalier Maskelyne, Mr. 
 Heguetty, and some other Englishmen, he 
 established a Lodge in the Rue des Bou- 
 cheries, which was followed by the organi- 
 zation of several others, and Radcliffe, who 
 had taken the title of Earl of Derwent- 
 water on the death of his youthful nephew, 
 the son of the last Earl, was elected Grand 
 Master. Leaving France for a time, in 
 1733 he was succeeded in the Grand Mas- 
 tership by Lord Harnouester. Radcliffe 
 made many visits to England after that 
 time in unsuccessful pursuit of a pardon. 
 Finally, on the attempt of the young Pre- 
 tender to excite a rebellion in 1745, he 
 sailed from France to join him, and the 
 vessel in which he had embarked having 
 been captured by an English cruiser, he was 
 carried to London and decapitated De- 
 cember 8, 1746. 
 
 Desaguliers, John Theophilus. 
 Of those who were engaged in the revival 
 of Freemasonry in the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, none performed a more 
 important part than he to whom may be 
 
DESAGULIERS 
 
 DESAGULIERS 
 
 215 
 
 well applied the epithet of the Father of 
 Modern Speculative Masonry, and to whom, 
 perhaps, more than any other person, is the 
 present Grand Lodge of England indebted 
 for its existence. A sketch of his life, 
 drawn from the scanty materials to be found 
 in Masonic records, and in the brief notices 
 of a few of his contemporaries, cannot fail 
 to be interesting to the student of Masonic 
 history. 
 
 The Rev. John Theophilus Desaguliers, 
 LL. D., F. R. S., was born on the 12th of 
 March, 1683, at Rochelle, in France. He 
 was the son of a French Protestant cler- 
 gyman ; and, his father having removed to 
 England as a refugee on the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, he was educated at 
 Christ Church, Oxford,where he took lessons 
 of the celebrated Keill in experimental phi- 
 losophy. In 1713 he received the degree 
 of Master of Arts, and in the same year 
 succeeded Dr. Keill as a lecturer on ex- 
 perimental philosophy at Hart Hall. In 
 the year 1714 he removed to Westminster, 
 where he continued his course of lectures, 
 being the first one, it is said, who ever lec- 
 tured upon physical science in the metrop- 
 olis. At this time he attracted the notice 
 and secured the friendship of Sir Isaac 
 Newton. His reputation as a philosopher 
 obtained for him a fellowship in the Royal 
 Society. He was also about this time ad- 
 mitted to clerical orders, and appointed by 
 the Duke of Chandos his chaplain, who 
 also presented him to the living of Whit- 
 church. In 1718 he received from the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford the degree of Doctor of 
 Laws, and was presented by the Earl of 
 Sunderland to a living in Norfolk, which 
 he afterwards exchanged for one in Essex. 
 He maintained, however, his residence in 
 London, where he continued to deliver his 
 lectures until his death. 
 
 His contributions to science consist of a 
 Treatise on the Construction of Chimneys, 
 translated from the French, and published 
 in 1716 ; A Course of Experimental Philoso- 
 phy, in two volumes, 4to, published in 
 1734 ; and in 1735 he edited an edition of 
 Gregory's Elements of Catoptrics and Diop- 
 trics. He also translated from the Latin 
 Gravesandes' Mathematical Elements of 
 Natural Philosophy. 
 
 In the clerical profession he seems not to 
 have been an ardent worker, and his theo- 
 logical labors were confined to the publica- 
 tion of a single sermon on repentance. He 
 was in fact more distinguished as a scientist 
 than as a clergyman, and Priestly calls him 
 "an indefatigable experimental philoso- 
 pher." 
 
 It is, however, as a Mason that Dr. De- 
 saguliers will most attract our attention. 
 Soon after his arrival in London he was 
 
 made a Mason in the Lodge meeting at 
 Goose and Gridiron, in St. Paul's church- 
 yard, which subsequently took the name of 
 the " Lodge of Antiquity." " The peculiar 
 principles of the Craft," says Dr. Oliver, 
 "struck him as being eminently calculated 
 to contribute to the benefit of the com- 
 munity at large, if they could be redirected 
 into the channel from which they had been 
 diverted by the retirement of Sir Chris- 
 topher Wren." It is said that he visited 
 that veteran architect, and from his con- 
 versations with him was induced to inau- 
 gurate those measures which led in 1717 to 
 the revival of Freemasonry in the south 
 of England. The reputation of Desagu- 
 liers as a man of science enabled him to se- 
 cure the necessary assistance of older Ma- 
 sons to carry the design of revival into 
 effect, and, supported by the activity and 
 zeal of many brethren, he succeeded in ob- 
 taining a meetingof the four London Lodges 
 in 1717 at the Apple-Tree Tavern, where 
 the Grand Lodge was constituted in due 
 form, and at a subsequent meeting, on St. 
 John the Baptist's day, Antony Sayer was 
 elected Grand Master. In 1719 Desaguliers 
 was elevated to the throne of the Grand 
 Lodge, succeeding George Payne, and being 
 thus the third Grand Master after the 
 revival. He paid much attention to the 
 interests of the Fraternity, and so elevated 
 the character of the Order, that the records 
 of the Grand Lodge show that during his 
 administration several of the older brethren 
 who had hitherto neglected the Craft re- 
 sumed their visits to the Lodges, and many 
 noblemen were initiated into the Institu- 
 tion. 
 
 Dr. Desaguliers was peculiarly zealous in 
 the investigation and collection of the old 
 records of the society, and to him we are 
 principally indebted for the preservation 
 of the " Charges of a Freemason " and the 
 preparation of the " General Regulations," 
 which are found in the first edition of the 
 Constitutions; which, although attributed 
 to Dr. Anderson, were undoubtedly com- 
 piled under the supervision of Desaguliers. 
 Anderson, we suppose, did the work, while 
 Desaguliers furnished much of the ma- 
 terial and the thought. One of the first con- 
 troversial works in favor of Freemasonry, 
 namely, A Detection of Dr. Plots' Account 
 of the Freemasons, was also attributed to his 
 pen ; but he is said to have repudiated the 
 credit of its authorship, of which indeed 
 the paper furnishes no internal evidence. 
 In 1721 he delivered before the Grand 
 Lodge what the records call " an eloquent 
 oration about Masons and Masonry." It 
 does not appear that it was ever published, 
 at least no copy of it is extant, although 
 Kloss puts the title at the head of his Cata- 
 
216 
 
 DESAGULIERS 
 
 DES 
 
 logue of Masonic Orations. It is, indeed, 
 the first Masonic address of which we have 
 any notice, and would be highly interesting, 
 because it would give us, in all probability, 
 as Kloss remarks, the views of the Masons 
 of that day in reference to the design of the 
 Institution. 
 
 After his retirement from the office of 
 Grand Master, in 1720, Desaguliers was 
 three times appointed Deputy Grand Mas- 
 ter : in 1723, by the Duke of Warton ; in 
 1724, by the Earl of Dalkeith ; in 1725, by 
 Lord Paisly; and during this period of 
 service he did many things for the benefit 
 of the Craft; among others, initiating that 
 scheme of charity which was subsequently 
 developed in what is now known in the 
 Grand Lodge of England as the Fund of 
 Benevolence. 
 
 After this, Dr. Desaguliers passed over 
 to the Continent, and resided for a few 
 years in Holland. In 1731 he was at the 
 Hague, and presided as Worshipful Master 
 of a Lodge organized under a special dep- 
 utation for the purpose of initiating and 
 passing the Duke of Lorraine, who was 
 subsequently Grand Duke of Tuscany, and 
 then Emperor of Germany. The duke 
 was, during the same year, made a Master 
 Mason in England. 
 
 On his return to England, Desaguliers 
 was considered, from his position in Ma- 
 sonry, as the most fitting person to confer 
 the degrees on the Prince of Wales, who 
 was accordingly entered, passed, and raised 
 in an occasional Lodge, held on two occa- 
 sions at Kew, over which Dr. Desaguliers 
 presided as Master. 
 
 Dr. Desaguliers was very attentive to his 
 Masonic duties, and punctual in his attend- 
 ance on the communications of the Grand 
 Lodge. His last recorded appearance by 
 name is on the 19th of March, 1741, but a 
 few years before his death. 
 
 Of Desagulier's Masonic and personal 
 character, Dr. Oliver gives, from tradition, 
 the following description : 
 
 "There were many traits in his charac- 
 ter that redound to his immortal praise. 
 He was a grave man in private life, almost 
 approaching to austerity; but he could 
 relax in the private recesses of a tiled 
 Lodge, and in company with brothers and 
 fellows, where the ties of social intercourse 
 are not particularly stringent. He consid- 
 ered the proceedings of the Lodge as strictly 
 confidential ; and being persuaded that his 
 brothers by initiation actually occupied the 
 same position as brothers by blood, he was 
 undisguisedly free and familiar in the mu- 
 tual interchange of unrestrained courtesy. 
 In the Lodge he was jocose and free- 
 hearted, sang his song, and had no objec- 
 tion to his share of the bottle, although 
 
 one of the most learned and distinguished 
 men of his day." 
 
 In 1713, Desaguliers had married a 
 daughter of William Pudsey, Esq., by 
 whom he had two sons, — Alexander, who 
 was a clergyman, and Thomas, who went 
 into the army, and became a colonel of 
 artillery and an equerry to George III. 
 
 The latter days of Dr. Desaguliers are 
 said to have been clouded with sorrow and 
 poverty. De Feller, in the Biographie 
 Universette, says that he became insane, 
 dressing sometimes as a harlequin, and 
 sometimes as a clown, and that in one of 
 these fits of insanity he died. And Caw- 
 thorn, in a poem entitled The Vanity of 
 Human Enjoyments, intimates, in the fol- 
 lowing lines, that Desaguliers was in very 
 necessitous circumstances at the time of 
 his death : 
 
 " JTow poor, neglected Desaguliers fell I 
 How he who taught two gracious kings to view 
 All Boyle ennobled and all Bacon knew, 
 Died in a cell, without a friend to save, 
 Without a guinea, and without a grave." 
 
 But the accounts of the French biogra- 
 pher and the English poet are most prob- 
 ably both apocryphal, or, at least, much 
 exaggerated ; for Nichols, who knew him 
 personally, and has given a fine portrait 
 of him in the ninth volume of his Literary 
 Anecdotes, says that he died on the 29th 
 of February, 1744, at the Bedford Coffee 
 House, and was buried in the Savoy. 
 
 To few Masons of the present day, except 
 to those who have made Freemasonry a 
 subject of especial study, is the name of 
 Desaguliers very familiar. But it is well 
 they should know that to him, perhaps, 
 more than to any other man, are we in- 
 debted for the present existence of Free- 
 masonry as a living institution ; for when, 
 in the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
 Masonry had fallen into a state of deca- 
 dence which threatened its extinction, it 
 was Desaguliers who, by his energy and 
 enthusiasm, infused a spirit of zeal into 
 his contemporaries, which culminated in 
 the revival of the year 1717 ; and it was 
 his learning and social position that gave 
 a standing to the Institution, which brought 
 to its support noblemen and men of influ- 
 ence, so that the insignificant assemblage 
 of four London Lodges at the Apple-Tree 
 Tavern has expanded into an association 
 which now overshadows the entire civilized 
 world. And the moving spirit of all this 
 was John Theophilus Desaguliers. 
 
 Des Etangs, Nicholas Charles. 
 A Masonic reformer, who was born at Alli- 
 champs, in France, on the 7th of September, 
 1766, and died at Paris on the 6th of May, 
 1847. He was initiated, in 1797, into Ma- 
 
DESIGN 
 
 DEUCHAR 
 
 217 
 
 sonry in the Lodge L'Heureuse Eencontre. 
 He subsequently removed to Paris, where, 
 in 1822, he became the Master of the Lodge 
 of Trinosophs, which position he held for 
 nine years. Thinking that the ceremonies 
 of the Masonic system in France did not 
 respond to the dignity of the Institution, 
 but were gradually being diverted from its 
 original design, he determined to com- 
 mence a reform in the recognized dogmas, 
 legends, and symbols, which he proposed .to 
 present in new forms more in accord with 
 the manners of the present age. There 
 was, therefore, very little of conservation 
 in the system of Des Etangs. It was, how- 
 ever, adopted for a time by many of the 
 Parisian Lodges, and Des Etangs was 
 loaded with honors. His Rite embraced 
 five degrees, viz., 1, 2. 3, the Symbolic de- 
 
 grees; 4, the Rose Croix rectified; 5, the 
 rrand Elect Knight Kadosh. He gave to 
 his system the title of " Masonry Restored 
 to its True Principles," and fully developed 
 it in his work entitled Veritable Lien des 
 Peuples, which was first published in 1823. 
 Des Etangs also published in 1825 a very 
 able reply to the calumnies of the Abb6 
 Barruel, under the title of La Franc-Ma- 
 connerie justifee de toute les calomnies repan- 
 dues contre elles. In the system of Des 
 Etangs, the Builder of the Temple is sup- 
 posed to symbolize the Good Genius of Hu- 
 manity destroyed by Ignorance, Falsehood, 
 and Ambition ; and hence the third degree 
 is supposed to typify the battle between lib- 
 erty and despotism. In the same spirit, the 
 justness of destroying impious kings is con- 
 sidered the true dogma of the Rose Croix. 
 In fact, the tumults of the French revolution, 
 in which Des Etangs took no inconsider- 
 able share, had infected his spirit with a 
 political temperament, which unfortunately 
 appears too prominently in many portions 
 of his Masonic system. Notwithstanding 
 that he incorporated two of the high de- 
 grees into his Rite, Des Etangs considered 
 the three Symbolic degrees as the only legi- 
 timate Masonry, and says that all other 
 degrees have been instituted by various 
 associations and among different peoples 
 on occasions when it was desired to re- 
 venge a death, to re-establish a prince, or 
 to give success to a sect. 
 
 Design of Freemasonry. It is 
 neither charity nor almsgiving, nor the cul- 
 tivation of the social sentiment ; for both 
 of these are merely incidental to its organ- 
 ization ; but it is the search after truth, 
 and that truth is the unity of God and the 
 immortality of the soul. The various de- 
 grees or grades of initiation represent the 
 various stages through which the human 
 mind passes, and the many difficulties 
 which men, individually or collectively, 
 2C 
 
 must encounter in their progress from igno- 
 rance to the acquisition of this truth. 
 Destruction of the Teniple. The 
 
 Temple of King Solomon was destroyed 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, King of the Chaldees, 
 during the reign of Zedekiah, A. M. 3416, 
 B. c. 588, and just four hundred and sixteen 
 years alter its dedication. Although the 
 city was destroyed and the Temple burnt, 
 the Masonic legends state that the deep 
 foundations of the latter were not affected. 
 Nebuchadnezzar caused the city of Jerusa- 
 lem to be levelled to the ground, the royal 
 palace to be burned, the Temple to be pil- 
 laged as well as destroyed, and the inhabi- 
 tants to be carried captive to Babylon. 
 These events are symbolically detailed in 
 the Royal Arch, and, in allusion to them, 
 the passage of the Book of Chronicles which 
 records them is appropriately read during 
 the ceremonies of this part of the degree. 
 
 Detached Degrees. Side or hono- 
 rary degrees outside of the regular succes- 
 sion of degrees of a Rite, and which, being 
 conferred without the authority of a su- 
 preme controlling body, are said to be to 
 the side of or detached from the regular 
 regime. The word detached is peculiar to 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 Thus, in the circular of the Southern Su- 
 preme Council, October 10, 1802, is the fol- 
 lowing: "Besides those degrees which are 
 in regular succession, most of the Inspec- 
 tors are in possession of a number of de- 
 tached degrees, given in different parts of 
 the world, and which they generally com- 
 municate, free of expense, to those breth- 
 ren who are high enough to understand 
 them." 
 
 Denchar Charters. Warrants some 
 of which are still in existence in Scotland, 
 and which are used to authorize the work- 
 ing of the Knights Templars degree by 
 certain Encampments in that country. 
 They were designated "Deuchar Charters," 
 on account of Alexander Deuchar, an en- 
 graver and heraldic writer, having been 
 the chief promoter of the Grand Conclave 
 and its first Grand Master. To his exer- 
 tions, also, the Supreme Grand Royal Arch 
 Chapter of Scotland may be said to have 
 owed its origin. He appears to have be- 
 come acquainted with Knight Templarism 
 early in the present century through breth- 
 ren who had been dubbed under a warrant 
 emanating from Dublin, and which was 
 held by Fratres serving in the Shropshire 
 Militia. This corps was quartered in Edin- 
 burgh in 1798; and in all probability it 
 was through the instrumentality of its 
 members that the first Grand Assembly 
 of Knights Templars was first set up in 
 Edinburgh. Subsequently, this gave place 
 to the Grand Assembly of High Knights 
 
218 
 
 DEUS 
 
 DEVICE 
 
 Templars in Edinburgh, working under a 
 charter, No. 31, of the Early Grand En- 
 campment of Ireland, of which in 1807 
 Deuchar was Grand Master. The Deuchar 
 Charters authorized Encampments to install 
 "Knights Templars and Knights of St. 
 John of Jerusalem," — one condition on 
 which these warrants were held being 
 " that no communion or intercourse shall 
 be maintained with any Chapter or En- 
 campment, or body assuming that name, 
 holding meetings of Knights Templars 
 under a Master Mason's Charter." In 
 1837 the most of these warrants were for- 
 feited, and the Encampments erased from 
 the roll of the Grand Conclave, on account 
 of not making the required returns. 
 
 Dens Meumque Jus. God and 
 my right. The motto of the thirty-third 
 degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite, and hence adopted as that also 
 of the Supreme Council of the Rite. It is 
 a Latin translation of the motto of the 
 royal arms of England, which is " Dieu 
 et mon droit," and concerning which we 
 have the following tradition. Richard Coeur 
 de Leon, besieging Gisors, in Normandy, in 
 1198, gave, as a parole, " Dieu et mon droit," 
 because Philip Augustus, king of France, 
 had, without right, taken that city, which 
 then belonged to England. Richard, hav- 
 ing been victorious with that righteous 
 parole, hence adopted it as his motto; and 
 it was afterwards marshalled in the arms 
 of England. 
 
 Development. The ancients often 
 wrote their books on parchment, which 
 were made up into a roll, hence called a vol- 
 ume, from volvere, " to roll up." Thus, he 
 who read the book commenced by unrolling 
 it, a custom still practised by the Jews in 
 reading their Sacred Law, and it was not 
 until the whole volume was unrolled and read 
 that he became the master of its contents. 
 Now, in the Latin language, to unfold or to 
 unroll was devolvere, whence we get our 
 English word to develop. The figurative 
 signification thus elicited from etymology 
 may be well applied to the idea of the de- 
 velopment Of Masonry. The system of 
 Speculative Masonry is a volume closely 
 folded from unlawful eyes, and he who 
 would understand its true intent and mean- 
 ing must follow the old proverb, and " com- 
 mence at the beginning." There is no 
 royal road of arriving at this knowledge. 
 It can be attained only by laborious re- 
 search. The student must begin as an Ap- 
 prentice, by studying the rudiments that 
 are unfolded on its first page. Then as a 
 Fellow Craft still more of the precious 
 writing is unrolled, and he acquires new 
 ideas. As a Master he continues the oper- 
 ation, and possesses himself of additional 
 
 material for thought. But it is not until 
 the entire volume lies unrolled before him, 
 in the highest degree, and the whole specu- 
 lative system of its philosophy is lying out- 
 spread before him, that he can pretend to 
 claim a thorough comprehension of its 
 plan. It is then only that he has solved 
 the problem, and can exclaim, "the end 
 has crowned the work." The Mason who 
 looks only on the ornamental covering of 
 the roll knows nothing of its contents. 
 Masonry is a scheme of development ; and 
 he who has learned nothing of" its design, 
 and who is daily adding nothing to his 
 stock of Masonic ideas, is simply one who 
 is not unrolling the parchment. It is a 
 custom of the Jews on their Sabbath, in the 
 synagogue, that a member should pay for the 
 privilege of unrolling the Sacred Law. So, 
 too, the Mason, who would uphold the law 
 of his Institution, must pay for the privi- 
 lege, not in base coin, but in labor and re- 
 search, studying its principles, searching 
 out its design, and imbibing all of its sym- 
 bolism ; and the payment thus made will 
 purchase a rich jewel. 
 
 Deviee. A term in heraldry signify- 
 ing any emblem used to represent a family, 
 person, nation, or society, and to distin- 
 guish such from any other. The device is 
 usually accompanied with a suitable motto 
 applied in a figurative sense, and its essence 
 consists in a metaphorical similitude be- 
 tween the thing representing and that rep- 
 resented. Thus, the device of a lion repre- 
 sents the courage of the person bearing it. 
 The oak is the device of strength; the 
 palm, of victory; the sword, of honor; and 
 the eagle, of sovereign power. The several 
 sections of the Masonic sodality are dis- 
 tinguished by appropriate devices. 
 
 1. Ancient Craft Masonry. Besides the 
 arms of Speculative Masonry, which are de- 
 scribed in this work under the appropriate 
 head, the most common device is a square 
 and compass. 
 
 2. Royal Arch Masonry. The device is 
 a triple tau within a triangle. 
 
 3. Knight Templarism. The ancient 
 device, which was borne on the seals and 
 banners of the primitive Order, was two 
 knights riding on one horse, in allusion to 
 the vow of poverty taken by the founders. 
 The modern device of Masonic Templarism 
 is a cross pattee. 
 
 4. Scottish Mite Masonry. The device is 
 a double-headed eagle crowned, holding in his 
 claios a sword. 
 
 5. Royal and Select Masters. The device 
 is a trowel suspended within a triangle, in 
 which the allusion is to the tetragrammaton 
 symbolized by the triangle or delta, and 
 the workmen at the first Temple symbolized 
 by the trowel. 
 
DEVOIR 
 
 DIMIT 
 
 219 
 
 6. Hose Croix Masonry. The device is a 
 cross charged with a rose ; at its foot an eagle 
 and a pelican. 
 
 7. Knight of the Sun. This old degree of 
 philosophical Masonry has for its device 
 rays of light issuing from a triangle inscribed 
 within a circle ofdarkness,yvh.ic\x "teaches us," 
 says Oliver, " that when man was enlight- 
 ened by the Deity with reason, he became 
 enabled to penetrate the darkness and ob- 
 scurity which ignorance and superstition 
 have spread abroad to allure men to their 
 destruction." 
 
 Each of these devices is accompanied by 
 a motto which properly forms a part of it. 
 These mottoes will be found under the 
 head of Motto. 
 
 The Italian heralds have paid peculiar 
 attention to the subject of devices, and have 
 established certain laws for their construc- 
 tion, which are generally recognized in 
 other countries. These laws are, 1. That 
 there be nothing extravagant or monstrous 
 in the figures. 2. That figures be never 
 joined together which have no relation or 
 affinity with one another. 3. That the 
 human body should never be used. 4. That 
 the figures should be few in number, and 5, 
 That the motto should refer to the device, 
 and express with it a common idea. Ac- 
 cording to P. Bouhours, the figure or em- 
 blem was called the body, and the motto 
 the soul of the device. 
 
 Devoir. The gilds or separate com- 
 munities in the system of French compag- 
 nonage are called devoirs. See Compag- 
 nonage. 
 
 Devoir of a Knight. The original 
 meaning of devoir is duty ; and hence, in 
 the language of chivalry, a knight's devoir 
 comprehended the performance of all those 
 duties to which he was obligated by the 
 laws of knighthood and the vows taken at 
 his creation. These were the defence of 
 widows and orphans, the maintenance of 
 justice, and the protection of the poor and 
 weak against the oppressions of the strong 
 and great. Thus, in one of Beaumont and 
 Fletcher's plays, the knight says to the 
 lady: 
 
 " Madame, if any service or devoir 
 Of a poor errant knight may right your wrongs, 
 Command it ; I am prest to give you succor, 
 For to that holy end I bear my armor." 
 KniglU of the Burning Pestle. Act II., Scene 1. 
 
 The devoir of a Knight Templar was 
 originally to protect pilgrims on their visit 
 to the Holy Land, and to defend the holy 
 places. The devoir of a modern Knight 
 Templar is to defend innocent virgins, des- 
 titute widows, helpless orphans, and the 
 Christian religion. 
 
 Devotions. The prayers in a Com- 
 
 mandery of Knights Templars are techni- 
 cally called the devotions of the knights. 
 
 Dialectics. That branch of logic 
 which teaches the rules and modes of rea- 
 soning. Dialecticke and dialeclicus are used 
 as corruptions of the Latin dialectica in 
 some of the old manuscript Constitutions, 
 instead of logic, in the enumeration of the 
 seven liberal arts and sciences. 
 
 Diamond. A precious stone; in He- 
 brew, DSni. It was the third stone in the 
 second row of the high priest's breastplate, 
 according to the enumeration of Aben Ezra, 
 and corresponded to the tribe of Zebulun. 
 But it is doubtful whether the diamond 
 was known in the time of Moses ; and if it 
 was, its great value and its insusceptibility 
 to the impression of a graving-tool would 
 have rendered it totally unfit as a stone in 
 the breastplate. The Vulgate more prop- 
 erly gives the jasper. 
 
 Dieseal. A term used by the Druids 
 to designate the circumambulation around 
 the sacred cairns, and is derived from two 
 words signifying "on the right of the sun," 
 because the circumambulation was always 
 in imitation of the course of the sun, with 
 the right hand next to the cairn or altar. 
 See Circumambulation. 
 
 Dieu et moil Droit. See Beits Me- 
 unique Jus. 
 
 Dieu le Tent. God wills it. The 
 war-cry of the old Crusaders, and hence 
 adopted as a motto in the degrees of Tem- 
 plarisra. 
 
 Dignitaries. The Master, the War- 
 dens, the Orator, and the Secretary in a 
 French Lodge are called dignitaries. The 
 corresponding officers in the Grand Orient 
 are called Grand Dignitaries. In English 
 and American Masonic language the term 
 is usually restricted to high officers of the 
 Grand Lodge. 
 
 Dimit. A modern, American, and 
 wholly indefensible corruption of the tech- 
 nical word Demit. As the use of this cor- 
 rupt form is beginning to be very prevalent 
 among American Masonic writers, it is 
 proper that we should inquire which is the 
 correct word, Demit or Dimit. 
 
 For almost a century and a half the 
 Masonic world has been content, in its 
 technical language, to use the word demit. 
 But within a few years, a few admirers of 
 neologisms — men who are always ready to 
 believe that what is old cannot be good, 
 and that new fashions are always the best 
 — have sought to make a change in the 
 well-established word, and, by altering the 
 e in the first syllable into an i, they make 
 another word dimit, which they assert is 
 the right one. It is simply a question of 
 orthography, and must be settled first by 
 reference to usage, and then to etymology, 
 
220 
 
 DIMIT 
 
 DIMIT 
 
 to discover which of the words sustains, by 
 its derivation, the true meaning which is 
 intended to be conveyed. 
 
 It is proper, however, to premise that 
 although in the seventeenth century Sir 
 Thomas Browne used the word demit as a 
 verb, meaning " to depress," and Bishop 
 Hall used dimit as signifying to send away, 
 yet both words are omitted by all the early 
 lexicographers. Neither of them is to be 
 found in Phillips, in 1706, nor in Blunt, in 
 1707, nor in Bailey, in 1732. Johnson and 
 Sheridan, of a still later date, have in- 
 serted in their dictionaries demit, but not 
 dimit; but Walker, Richardson, and Web- 
 ster give both words, but only as verbs. 
 The verb to demit or to dimit may be found, 
 but never the noun a demit or a dimit. As 
 a noun substantive, this word, however it 
 may be spelled, is unknown to the general 
 language, and is strictly a technical expres- 
 sion peculiar to Freemasonry. 
 
 As a Masonic technicality we must then 
 discuss it. And, first, as to its meaning. 
 
 Dr. Oliver, who omits dimit in his Dic- 
 tionary of Symbolical Masonry, defines demit 
 thus : " A Mason is said to demit from the 
 Order when he withdraws from all connec- 
 tion with it." It will be seen that he 
 speaks of it here only as a verb, and makes 
 no reference to its use as a noun. 
 
 Macoy, in his Cyclopaedia, omits demit, 
 but defines dimit thus : " From the Latin 
 dimitto, to permit to go. The act of with- 
 drawing from membership." To say noth- 
 ing of the incorrectness of this definition, to 
 which reference will hereafter be made, 
 there is in it a violation of the principles 
 of language which is worthy of note. No 
 rule is better settled than that which makes 
 the verb and the noun derived from it have 
 the same relative signification. Thus, " to 
 discharge" means "to dismiss;" "a dis- 
 charge " means " a dismission ; " "to ap- 
 prove " means " to express liking ; " " an 
 approval" means " an expression of liking;" 
 " to remit " means " to relax ; " "a remis- 
 sion" means " a relaxation," and so with a 
 thousand other instances. Now, according 
 to this rule, if "to demit" means "to per- 
 mit to go," then "a dimit " should mean 
 " a permission to go." The withdrawal is 
 something subsequent and consequent, but 
 it may never take place. According to 
 Macoy's definition of the verb, the grant- 
 ing of "a dimit" does not necessarily lead 
 to the conclusion that the Mason who re- 
 ceived it has left the Lodge. He has only 
 been permitted to do so. This is contrary 
 to the universally accepted definition of 
 the word. Accordingly, when he comes to 
 define the word as a noun, he gives it the 
 true meaning, which, however, does not 
 agree with his previous definition as a verb. 
 
 In instituting the inquiry which of these 
 two words is the true one, we must first 
 look to the general usage of Masonic writ- 
 ers ; for, after all, the rule of Horace holds 
 good, that in the use of words we must be 
 governed by custom or usage, 
 
 " whose arbitrary sway 
 
 Words and the forms of language must obey." 
 
 If we shall find that the universal usage 
 of Masonic writers until a very recent date 
 has been to employ the form demit, then 
 we are bound to believe that it is the cor- 
 rect form, notwithstanding a few writers 
 have very recently sought to intrude the 
 form dimit upon us. 
 
 Now, how stands the case? The first 
 time that we find the word demit used is 
 in the second edition of Anderson's Consti- 
 tutions, Anno 1732, p. 153. There it is said 
 that on the 25th of November, 1723, " it 
 was agreed that if a Master of a particular 
 Lodge is deposed, or demits, the Senior 
 Warden shall forthwith fill the Master's 
 Chair." 
 
 The word continued in use as a technical 
 word in the Masonry of England for many 
 years. In the editions of the Constitutions 
 published in 1756, p. 310, the passage just 
 quoted is again recited, and the word demit 
 is again employed in the fourth edition of 
 the Constitutions published in 1769, p. 358. 
 
 In the second edition of Dermott's 
 "Ahiman Rezon," published in 1764, (I 
 have not the first,) p. 52, and in the third 
 edition, published in 1778, p. 58, the word 
 demit is employed. Oliver, it will be seen, 
 uses it in his Dictionary, published in 1853. 
 But the word seems to have become obso- 
 lete in England, and to resign is now con- 
 stantly used by English Masonic writers in 
 the place of to demit. 
 
 In America, however, the word has been 
 and continues to be in universal use, and 
 has always beeu spelled, until very recently, 
 demit. 
 
 Thus we find it used by Taunehill, Man- 
 ual, 1845, p. 59 ; Morris, Code of Masonic 
 Law, 1856, p. 289 ; by Hubbard, in 1851 ; 
 by Chase, Digest, 1859, p. 104; by Mitch- 
 ell, Masonic History, vol. ii., pp. 556, 592, 
 and by all the Grand Lodges whose pro- 
 ceedings I have examined up to the year 
 1860, and probably beyond that date. 
 
 On the contrary, the word dimit is of 
 very recent origin, and has been used only 
 within a few years. Usage, therefore, both 
 English and American, is clearly in favor 
 of demit, and dimit must be considered as 
 an interloper, and ought to be consigned 
 to the tomb of the Capulets. 
 
 And now we are to inquire whether this 
 usage is sustained by the principles of ety- 
 
DIMIT 
 
 DIMIT 
 
 221 
 
 mology. First, let us obtain a correct defi- 
 nition of the word. 
 
 To demit, in Masonic language, means 
 simply to resign. The Mason who demits 
 from his Lodge resigns from it. The word 
 is used in the exact sense, for instance, in 
 the Constitution of the Grand Lodge of 
 Wisconsin, where it is said : " No brother 
 shall be allowed to demit from any Lodge 
 unless for the purpose of uniting with some 
 other." That is to say : " No brother shall 
 be allowed to resign from any Lodge." 
 
 Now what are the respective meanings 
 of demit and dimit in ordinary language? 
 
 There the words are found to be entirely 
 different in signification. 
 
 To demit is derived first from the Latin 
 demittere through the French demetlre. In 
 Latin the prefixed particle de has the 
 weight of down; added to the verb mittere, 
 to send, it signifies to let down from an 
 elevated position to a lower. Thus, Caesar 
 used it in this very sense, when, in describ- 
 ing the storming of Avaricum, (Bel. Gal., 
 vii. 28,) he says that the Roman soldiers 
 did not let themselves down, that is, de- 
 scend from the top of the wall to the level 
 ground. The French, looking to this ref- 
 erence to a descent from a higher to a 
 lower position, made their verb se demettre, 
 used in a reflective sense, signify to give up 
 a post, office, or occupation, that is to say, 
 to resign it. And thence the English use 
 of the word is reducible, which makes to 
 demit signify to resign. We have another 
 word in our language also derived from de- 
 mettre, and in which the same idea of resig- 
 nation is apparent. It is the word demise, 
 which was originally confined to express 
 a royal death. The old maxim was that 
 " the king never dies." So, instead of say- 
 ing "the death of the king," they said 
 " the demise of the king," thereby meaning 
 his resignation of the crown to his succes- 
 sor. The word is now applied more gene- 
 rally, and we speak of the demise of Mr. 
 Pitt, or any other person. 
 
 To dimit is derived from the Latin dimit- 
 tere. The prefixed -particle di or die has 
 the effect of off from, and hence dimittere 
 means to send away. Thus, Terence uses it 
 to express the meaning of dismissing or 
 sending away an army. 
 
 Both words are now obsolete in the Eng- 
 lish language. They were formerly used, 
 but in the different senses already indicated. 
 
 Thus, Hollinshed employs demit to signi- 
 fy a surrender, yielding up or resignation 
 of a franchise. 
 
 Bishop Hall uses dimit to signify a send- 
 ing away of a servant by his master. 
 
 Demit, as a noun, is not known in good 
 English ; the correlative nouns of the verbs 
 to demit and to dimit are demission and di- 
 
 mission. " A demit " is altogether a Ma- 
 sonic technicality, and is, moreover, an 
 Americanism of very recent usage. 
 
 It is then evident that to demit is the 
 proper word, and that to use to dimit is to 
 speak and write incorrectly. When a Ma- 
 son "demits from a Lodge," we mean that 
 he " resigns from a Lodge," because to demit 
 means to resign. But what does any one 
 mean when he says that a Mason "dimits 
 from a Lodge " ? To dimit means, as we 
 have seen, to send away, therefore " he di- 
 mits from the Lodge" is equivalent to say- 
 ing " he sends away from the Lodge," which 
 of course is not only bad English, but sheer 
 nonsense. If dimit is to be used at all, as 
 it is an active, transitive verb, it must be 
 used only in that form, and we must either 
 say that " a Lodge dimits a Mason," or that 
 "a Mason is dimitted by his Lodge." 
 
 I think that I have discovered the way 
 in which this blunder first arose. Robert 
 Morris, in his Code of Masonic Law, p. 289, 
 has the following passage : 
 
 "A 'demit,' technically considered, is 
 the act of withdrawing, and applies to the 
 Lodge and not to the individual. A Mason 
 cannot demit, in the strict sense, but the 
 Lodge may demit (dismiss) him." 
 
 It is astonishing how the author of this 
 passage could have crowded into so brief a 
 space so many violations of grammar, law, 
 and common sense. First, to demit means 
 to withdraw, and then this withdrawal is 
 made the act of the Lodge and not of the 
 individual, as if the Lodge withdrew the 
 member instead of the member withdraw- 
 ing himself. And immediately afterwards, 
 seeing the absurdity of this doctrine, and to 
 make the demission the act of the Lodge, 
 he changes the; signification of the word, 
 and makes to demit mean to dismiss. Cer- 
 tainly it is impossible to discuss the law of 
 Masonic demission when such contrary 
 meanings are given to the word in one and 
 the same paragraph. 
 
 But certain wiseacres, belonging prob- 
 ably to that class who believe that there is 
 always improvement in change, seizing 
 upon this latter definition of Morris, that to 
 demit meant to dismiss, and seeing that this 
 was a meaning which the word never had, 
 and, from its derivation from demittere, 
 never could have, changed the word from 
 demit to dimit, which really does have the 
 meaning of sending away or dismissing. 
 But as the Masonic act of demission does 
 not mean a dismissal from the Lodge, be- 
 cause that would be an expulsion, but 
 simply a resignation, the word dimit cannot 
 properly be applied to the act. 
 
 A Mason demits from the Lodge ; he re- 
 signs. He takes out his demit, (a strictly 
 technical expression and altogether con- 
 
222 
 
 DIOCESAN 
 
 DIONYSIAN 
 
 fined to this country;) he asks for and re- 
 ceives an acceptance of his resignation. 
 
 Diocesan. The fifth degree of Bahrdt's 
 German Union. 
 
 Dionysian Architects. The priests 
 of Bacchus, or, as the Greeks called him, 
 Dionysus, having devoted themselves to 
 architectural pursuits, established about 
 1000 years before the Christian era a so- 
 ciety or fraternity of builders in Asia 
 Minor, which is styled by the ancient 
 writers the Fraternity of Dionysian Archi- 
 tects, and to this society was exclusively 
 confined the privilege of erecting temples 
 and other public buildings. 
 
 The members of the Fraternity of Diony- 
 sian Architects were linked together by the 
 secret ties of the Dionysian mysteries, into 
 which they had all been initiated. Thus 
 constituted, the Fraternity was distinguished 
 by many peculiarities that strikingly as- 
 similate it to our Order. In the exercise 
 of charity, the "more opulent were sa- 
 credly bound to provide for the exigencies 
 of the poorer brethren." For the facilities 
 of labor and government, they were divided 
 into communities called awoudat, each of 
 which was governed by a Master and War- 
 dens. They held a general assembly or 
 grand festival once a year, which was sol- 
 emnized with great pomp and splendor. 
 They employed in their ceremonial observ- 
 ances many of the implements which are 
 still to be found among Freemasons, and 
 used, like them, a universal language, by 
 which one brother could distinguish another 
 in the dark as well as in the light, and 
 which served to unite the members scat- 
 tered over India, Persia, and Syria, into 
 one common brotherhood. The existence 
 of this order in Tyre, at the time of the 
 building of the Temple, is universally ad- 
 mitted; and Hiram, the widow's son, to 
 whom Solomon intrusted the superintend- 
 ence of the workmen, as an inhabitant of 
 Tyre, and as a skilful architect and cunning 
 and curious workman, was, very probably, 
 one of its members. Hence, we may legi- 
 timately suppose that the Dionysians were 
 sent by Hiram, king of Tyre, to assist 
 King Solomon in the construction of the 
 house he was about to dedicate to Jehovah, 
 and that they communicated to their Jew- 
 ish fellow-laborers a knowledge of the ad- 
 vantages of their Fraternity, and invited 
 them to a participation in its mysteries and 
 privileges. In this union, however, the 
 apocryphal legend of the Dionysians would 
 naturally give way to the true legend of 
 the Masons, which was unhappily fur- 
 nished by a melancholy incident that oc- 
 curred at the time. The latter part of this 
 statement is, it is admitted, a mere specula- 
 tion, but one that has met the approval of 
 
 Lawrie, Oliver, and our best writers; and 
 although this connection between the 
 Dionysian Architects and the builders of 
 King Solomon may not be supported by 
 documentary evidence, the traditionary 
 theory is at least plausible, and offers noth- 
 ing which is either absurd or impossible. 
 If accepted, it supplies the necessary link 
 which connects the Pagan with the Jewish 
 mysteries. 
 
 The history of this association subse- 
 quently to the Solomonic era has been de- 
 tailed by Masonic writers, who have derived 
 their information sometimes from conjec- 
 tural and sometimes from historical au- 
 thority. About 300 years B. c, they were 
 incorporated by the kings of Pergamos at 
 Teos, which was assigned to them as a settle- 
 ment, and where they continued for centu- 
 ries as an exclusive society engaged in the 
 erection of works of art and the celebra- 
 tion of their mysteries. Notwithstanding 
 the edict of the Emperor Theodosius which 
 abolished all mystical associations, they 
 are said to have continued their existence 
 down to the time of the Crusades, and 
 during the constant communication which 
 was kept up between the two continents 
 passed over from Asia to Europe, where 
 they became known as the "Travelling 
 Freemasons " of the Middle Ages, into 
 whose future history they thus became 
 merged. 
 
 Dionysian Mysteries. These mys- 
 teries were celebrated throughout Greece 
 and Asia Minor, but principally at Athens, 
 where the years were numbered by them. 
 They were instituted in honor of Bacchus, 
 or, as the Greeks called him, Dionysus, and 
 were introduced into Greece from Egypt. 
 In these mysteries, the murder of Dionysus 
 by the Titans was commemorated, in which 
 legend he is evidently identified with the 
 Egyptian Osiris, who was slain by his bro- 
 ther Typhon. The aspirant, in the cere- 
 monies through which he passed, repre- 
 sented the murder of the god and his 
 restoration to life, which, says the Baron de 
 Sacy, {Notes on Sainte-Croix, ii. 86,) were 
 the subject of allegorical explanations alto- 
 gether analogous to those which were given 
 to the rape of Proserpine and the murder 
 of Osiris. 
 
 The commencement of the mysteries was 
 signalized by the consecration of an egg, in 
 allusion to the mundane egg from which 
 all things were supposed to have sprung. 
 The candidate having been first purified by 
 water, and crowned with a myrtle branch, 
 was introduced into the vestibule, and 
 there clothed in the sacred habiliments. 
 He was then delivered to the conductor, 
 who, after the mystic warning, enag, emg, 
 cote pe^ri?Mi, "Depart hence, all ye pro- 
 
DIONYSIAN 
 
 DISCALCEATION 
 
 223 
 
 fane ! " exhorted the candidate to exert all 
 his fortitude and courage in the dangers 
 and trials through which he was about to 
 pass. He was then led through a series of 
 dark caverns, a part of the ceremonies 
 which Stobams calls " a rude and fearful 
 march through night and darkness." Dur- 
 ing this passage he was terrified by the 
 howling of wild beasts, and other fearful 
 noises; artificial thunder reverberated 
 through the subterranean apartments, and 
 transient flashes of lightning revealed mon- 
 strous apparitions to his sight. In this 
 state of darkness and terror he was kept 
 for three days and nights, after which he 
 commenced the aphanism or mystical death 
 of Bacchus. He was now placed on the 
 pastos or couch, that is, he was confined in 
 a solitary cell, where he could reflect seri- 
 ously on the nature of the undertaking in 
 which he was engaged. During this time, 
 he was alarmed with the sudden crash of 
 waters, which was intended to represent 
 the deluge. Typhon, searching for Osiris, 
 or Dionysus, for they are here identical, dis- 
 covered the ark in which he had been se- 
 creted, and, tearing it violently asunder, 
 scattered the limbs of his victim upon the 
 waters. The aspirant now heard the la- 
 mentations which were instituted for the 
 death of the god. Then commenced the 
 search of Rhea for the remains of Diony- 
 sus. The apartments were filled with 
 shrieks and groans; the initiated mingled 
 with their howlings of despair the frantic 
 dances of the Corybantes ; everything was 
 a scene of distraction, until, at a signal 
 from the hierophant, the whole drama 
 changed ; — the mourning was turned to joy ; 
 the mangled body was found ; and the as- 
 pirant was released from his confinement, 
 amid the shouts of 'EvpTjKaiiev, Evyx cu P f iev , 
 " We have found it; let us rejoice together." 
 The candidate was now made to descend 
 into the infernal regions, where he beheld 
 the torments of the wicked and the re- 
 wards of the virtuous. It was now that he 
 received the lecture explanatory of the 
 Rites, and was invested with the tokens 
 which served the initiated as a means of 
 recognition. He then underwent a lustra- 
 tion, after which he was introduced into 
 the holy place, where he received the name 
 of epopt, and was fully instructed in the 
 doctrine of the mysteries, which consisted 
 in a belief in the existence of one God and 
 a future state of rewards and punishments. 
 These doctrines were inculcated by a va- 
 riety of significant symbols. After the 
 performance of these ceremonies, the aspi- 
 rant was dismissed, and the Rites concluded 
 with the pronunciation of the mystic words, 
 Knox Ompax. Sainte-Croix (Myst. du Pag., 
 ii. 90,) says that the murder of Dionysus 
 
 by the Titans was only an allegory of the 
 physical revolutions of the world; but these 
 were in part, in the ancient initiations, sig- 
 nificant of the changes of life and death 
 and resurrection. 
 
 Dionysus. The Greek name of Bac- 
 chus. See Dionysian Mysteries. 
 
 Diploma. Literally means something 
 folded. From the Greek, &nvlo#. The word 
 is applied in Masonry to the certificates 
 granted by Lodges, Chapters, and Com- 
 manderies to their members, which should 
 always be written on parchment. The more 
 usual word, however, is Certificate, which see. 
 In the Scottish Rite they are called Patents. 
 
 Director of Ceremonies, 
 Grand. An officer in the Grand Lodge 
 of England, who has the care of the rega- 
 lia, clothing, insignia, and jewels belong- 
 ing to the Grand Lodge. His jewel is two 
 batons crossed in saltire. 
 
 Directory. In German Lodges, the 
 Master and other officers constitute a coun- 
 cil of management, under the name of Di- 
 rectorium or Directory. 
 
 Directory, Roman Helvetic. 
 The name assumed in 1739 by the Su- 
 preme Masonic authority at Lausanne, in 
 Switzerland. See Switzerland. 
 
 Discalceation, Rite of. The cere- 
 mony of taking off the shoes, as a token of 
 respect, whenever we are on or about to 
 approach holy ground. It is referred to in 
 Exodus iii. 5, where the angel of the 
 Lord, at the burning bush, exclaims to 
 Moses: "Draw not nigh hither; put off 
 thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place 
 whereon thou standest is holy ground." It 
 is again mentioned in Joshua v. 15, in the 
 following words : " And the captain of the 
 Lord's host said unto Joshua, Loose thy 
 shoe from off thy foot ; for the place whereon 
 thou standest is holy." And lastly, it is al- 
 luded to in the injunction given in Ecclesi- 
 astes v. 1 : " Keep thy foot when thou goest 
 to the house of God." 
 
 The Rite, in fact, always was, and still is, 
 used among the Jews and other Oriental 
 nations when entering their temples and 
 other sacred edifices. It does not seem to 
 have been derived from the command given 
 to Moses ; but rather to have existed as a 
 religious custom from time immemorial, 
 and to have been borrowed, as Mede sup- 
 poses, by the Gentiles, through tradition, 
 from the patriarchs. 
 
 The direction of Pythagoras to his dis- 
 ciples was in these words: A.vvtt66t)to^ 0ve 
 nal izpboKWEi — that is, "Offer sacrifice and 
 worship with thy shoes off." 
 
 Justin Martyr says that those who came 
 to worship in the sanctuaries and temples 
 of the Gentiles were commanded by their 
 priests to put off their shoes. 
 
224 
 
 DISCIPLINA 
 
 DISCIPLINE 
 
 Drusius, in his Notes on the Book of 
 Joshua, says that among most of the East- 
 ern nations it was a pious duty to tread the 
 pavement of the temple with unshod feet. 
 
 Maimonides, the great expounder of the 
 Jewish law, asserts {Beth Habbechirah, c. 
 vii.,) that "it was not lawful for a man to 
 come into the mountain of God's house 
 with his shoes on his feet, or with his staff, 
 or in his working garments, or with dust on 
 his feet." 
 
 Eabhi Solomon, commenting on the com- 
 mand in Leviticus xix. 30, " Ye shall rev- 
 erence my sanctuary," makes the same re- 
 mark in relation to this custom. On this 
 subject, Oliver [Hist. Landm., ii. 481,) ob- 
 serves : " Now the act of going with naked 
 feet was always considered a token of hu- 
 mility and reverence ; and the priests, in 
 temple worship, always officiated with feet 
 uncovered, although it was frequently in- 
 jurious to their health." 
 
 Mede quotes Zago Zaba, an Ethiopian 
 bishop, who was ambassador from David, 
 king of Abyssinia, to John III., of Portu- 
 gal, as saying: "We are not permitted to 
 enter the church except barefooted." 
 
 The Mohammedans, when about to per- 
 form their devotions, always leave their 
 slippers at the door of the mosque. The 
 Druids practised the same custom when- 
 ever they celebrated their sacred rites ; and 
 the ancient Peruvians are said always to 
 have left their shoes at the porch when 
 they entered the magnificent temple con- 
 secrated to the worship of the sun. 
 
 Adam Clarke (Comm. on Exod.) thinks 
 that the custom of worshipping the Deity 
 barefooted, was so general among all na- 
 tions of antiquity, that he assigns it as one 
 of his thirteen proofs that the whole hu- 
 man race have been derived from one 
 family. 
 
 Finally, Bishop Patrick, speaking of the 
 origin of this Rite, says, in his Commenta- 
 ries : " Moses -did not give the first begin- 
 ning to this Rite, but it was derived from 
 the patriarchs before him, and transmitted 
 to future times from that ancient, general 
 tradition ; for we find no command in the 
 law of Moses for the priests performing the 
 service of the temple without shoes, but it 
 is certain they did so from immemorial cus- 
 tom ; and so do the Mohammedans and 
 other nations at this day." 
 
 Disciplina Arcani. See Discipline 
 of the Secret. 
 
 Discipline. This word is used by 
 Masons, in its ecclesiastical sense, to sig- 
 nify the execution of the laws by which a 
 Lodge is governed, and the infliction of the 
 penalties enjoined against offenders who 
 are its members, or, not being members, live 
 within its jurisdiction. To discipline a Ma- 
 
 son is to subject him to punishment. See 
 Jurisdiction and Punishment. 
 
 Discipline of the Secret. There 
 existed in the earlier ages of the Christian 
 church, a mystic and secret worship, from 
 which a portion of the congregation was 
 peremptorily excluded, and whose privacy 
 was guarded, with the utmost care, from 
 the obtrusive eyes of all who had not been 
 duly initiated into the sacred rites that 
 qualified them to be present. 
 
 This custom of communicating only to a 
 portion of the Christian community, the 
 more abstruse doctrines and more sacred 
 ceremonies of the church, is known among 
 ecclesiastical writers by the name of " Dis- 
 ciplina Arcani," or " The Discipline of 
 the Secret." 
 
 Converts were permitted to attain a 
 knowledge of all the doctrines, and par- 
 ticipate in the sacraments of the church, 
 only after a long and experimental proba- 
 tion. The young Christian, like the dis- 
 ciple of Pythagoras, was made to pass 
 through a searching ordeal of time and 
 patience, by which his capacity, his fidelity, 
 and his other qualifications were strictly 
 tested. For this purpose, different ranks 
 were instituted in the congregation. The 
 lowest of these were the Catechumens. 
 These were occupied in a study of the ele- 
 mentary principles of the Christian religion. 
 Their connection with the church was not 
 consummated by baptism, to which rite 
 they were not admitted, even as spectators, 
 it being the symbol of a higher degree ; but 
 their initiation was accompanied with 
 solemn ceremonies, consisting of prayer, 
 signing with the cross, and the imposition 
 of hands by the priest. The next degree 
 was that of the Competentes, or seekers. 
 
 When a Catechumen had exhibited sat- 
 isfactory evidences of his proficiency in re- 
 ligious knowledge, he petitioned the Bishop 
 for the Sacrament of baptism. His name 
 was then registered in the books of the 
 church. After this registration, the can- 
 didate underwent the various ceremonies 
 appropriate to the degree upon which he 
 was about to enter. He was examined by 
 the bishop as to his attainments in Christi- 
 anity, and, if approved, was exorcised for 
 twenty days, during which time he was 
 subjected to rigorous fasts, and, having 
 made confession, the necessary penance was 
 prescribed. He was then, for the first time, 
 instructed in the words of the Apostles' 
 creed, a symbol of which the Catechumens 
 were entirely ignorant. 
 
 Another ceremony peculiar to the Com- 
 petentes, was that of going about with 
 their faces veiled. St. Augustine explains 
 the ceremony by saying that the Compe- 
 tentes went veiled in public as an image of 
 
DISCIPLINE 
 
 DISCIPLINE 
 
 225 
 
 the slavery of Adam after his expulsion 
 from Paradise, and that, after baptism, the 
 veils were taken away as an emblem of the 
 liberty of the spiritual lite which was ob- 
 tained by the sacrament of regeneration. 
 Some other significant ceremonies, but of 
 a less important character, were used, and 
 the Competent, having passed through them 
 all, was at length admitted to the highest 
 degree. 
 
 The Fideles, or Faithful, constituted the 
 third degree or order. Baptism was the 
 ceremony by which the Competeutes, after 
 an examination into their proficiency, were 
 admitted into this degree. "They were 
 thereby," says Bingham, "made complete 
 and perfect Christians, and were, upon that 
 account, dignified with several titles of 
 honor and marks of distinction above the 
 Catechumens." They were called Illumi- 
 nati, or Illuminated, because they had been 
 enlightened as to those secrets which were 
 concealed from the inferior orders. They 
 were also called Initiati, or Initiated, be- 
 cause they were admitted to a knowledge 
 of the sacred mysteries; and so commonly 
 was this name in use, that, when Chrysos- 
 tom and the other ancient writers spoke of 
 their concealed doctrines, they did so in 
 ambiguous terms, so as not to be under- 
 stood by the Catechumens, excusing them- 
 selves for their brief allusions, by saying. 
 " the Initiated know what we mean." And 
 so complete was the understanding of the 
 ancient Fathers of a hidden mystery, and 
 an initiation into them, that St. Am- 
 brose has written a book, the title of which 
 is, Concerning those who are Initiated into 
 the Mysteries. They were also called 
 the Perfect, to intimate that they had at- 
 tained to a perfect knowledge of all the 
 doctrines and sacraments of the church. 
 
 There were certain prayers, which none 
 but the Faithful were permitted to hear. 
 Among these was the Lord's prayer, which, 
 for this reason, was commonly called Ora- 
 tio Fidelium, or, " The Prayer of the Faith- 
 ful." They were also admitted to hear dis- 
 courses upon the most profound mysteries 
 of the church, to which the Catechumens 
 were strictly forbidden to listen. St. Am- 
 brose, in the book written by him to the 
 Inititated, says that sermons on the subject 
 of morality were daily preached to the 
 Catechumens; but to the Initiated they 
 gave an explanation of the Sacraments, 
 which, to have spoken of to the unbaptized, 
 would have rather been like a betrayal of 
 mysteries than instruction. And St. Au- 
 gustine, in one of his sermons to the Faith- 
 ful, says : " Having now dismissed the 
 Catechumens, you alone have we retained 
 to hear us, because, in addition to those 
 things which belong to all Christians in 
 ■2D 15 
 
 common, we are now about to speak in an 
 especial manner of the Heavenly Mysteries, 
 which none can hear except those who, 
 by the gift of the Lord, are able to com- 
 prehend them." 
 
 The mysteries of the church were di- 
 vided, like the Ancient Mysteries, into the 
 lesser and the greater. The former was 
 called " Missa Catechumenorum," or the 
 Mass of the Catechumens, and the latter, 
 " Missa Fidelium," or the Mass of the 
 Faithful. The public service of the church 
 consisted of the reading of the Scripture, 
 and the delivery of a sermon, which was 
 entirely of a moral character. These being 
 concluded, the lesser mysteries, or mass of 
 the Catechumens, commenced. The deacon 
 proclaimed in a loud voice, " Ne quis audi- 
 entium, ne quis infidelium" that is, "Let 
 none who are simply hearers, and let no 
 infidels be present." All then who had not 
 acknowledged their faith in Christ by plac- 
 ing themselves among the Catechumens, 
 and all Jews and Pagans, were caused to 
 retire, that the Mass of the Catechumens 
 might begin. And now, for better security, 
 a deacon was placed at the men's door and 
 a sub-deacon at the women's, for the dea- 
 cons were the door-keepers, and, in fact, 
 received that name in the Greek church. 
 The Mass of the Catechumens — which con- 
 sisted almost entirely of prayers, with the 
 Episcopal benediction — was then per- 
 formed. 
 
 This part of the service having been 
 concluded, the Catechumens were dismissed 
 by the deacons, with the expression, " Cat- 
 echumens, depart in peace. The Compe- 
 tentes, however, or those who had the 
 second or intermediate degree, remained 
 until the prayers for those who were pos- 
 sessed of evil spirits, and the supplications 
 for themselves, were pronounced. After 
 this, they too were dismissed, and none 
 now remaining in the church but the 
 Faithful, the Missa Fidelium, or greater 
 mysteries, commenced. 
 
 The formula of dismission used by the 
 deacon on this occasion was: "Holy 
 things for the holy, let the dogs depart," 
 Sancta Sanctis, /oris canes. 
 
 The Faithful then all repeated the creed, 
 which served as an evidence that no in- 
 truder or uninitiated person was present; 
 because the creed was not revealed to the 
 Catechumens, but served as a password to 
 prove that its possessor was an initiate. 
 After prayers had been offered up, — which, 
 however, differed from the supplications in 
 the former part of the service, by the in- 
 troduction of open allusions to the most 
 abstruse doctrines of the church, which 
 were never named in the presence of the 
 Catechumens, — the oblations were made, 
 
226 
 
 DISCOVERY 
 
 DISPENSATIONS 
 
 and the Eucharistical Sacrifice, or Lord's 
 Supper, was celebrated. Prayers and invo- 
 cations followed, and at length the service 
 was concluded, and the assembly was dis- 
 missed by the benediction, " Depart in 
 peace." 
 
 Bingham records the following rites as 
 having been concealed from the Catechu- 
 mens, and intrusted, as the sacred myste- 
 ries, only to the Faithful : the manner of 
 receiving baptism ; the ceremony of confir- 
 mation ; the ordination of priests ; the 
 mode of celebrating the Eucharist; the 
 liturgy, or divine service ; and the doc- 
 trine of the Trinity, the creed, and the 
 Lord's prayer, which last, however, were 
 begun to be explained to the Competentes. 
 
 Such was the celebrated Discipline of the 
 Secret in the early Christian church. That 
 its origin, so far as the outward form was 
 concerned, is to be found in the Mysteries 
 of Paganism, there can be no doubt, as has 
 been thus expressed by the learned Mos- 
 heim : " Religion having thus, in both its 
 branches, the speculative as well as the 
 practical, assumed a twofold character, — 
 the one public or common, the other pri- 
 vate or mysterious, — it was not long before 
 a distinction of a similar kind took place 
 also in the Christian discipline and form 
 of divine worship; for, observing that in 
 Egypt, as well as in other countries, the 
 heathen worshippers, in addition to their 
 public religious ceremonies, — to which 
 every one was admitted without distinc- 
 tion, — had certain secret and most sacred 
 rites, to which they gave the name of 
 1 mysteries,' and at the celebration of 
 which none but persons of the most ap- 
 proved faith and discretion were permitted 
 to be present, the Alexandrian Christians 
 first, and after them others, were beguiled 
 into a notion that they could not do better 
 than make the Christian discipline accom- 
 modate itself to this model ." 
 
 Discovery of the Body. See Eu- 
 resis. 
 
 Discovery, Year of the. " Anno 
 Inventionis," or " in the Year of the Dis- 
 covery," is the style assumed by the Royal 
 Arch Masons, in commemoration of an 
 event which took place soon after the com- 
 mencement of the rebuilding of the Temple 
 by Zerubbabel. 
 
 Dispensation. A permission to do 
 .that which, without such permission, is 
 forbidden by the Constitutions and usages 
 •of the Order. 
 
 Du Cange [Olossarium) defines a dispen- 
 sation to be a prudent relaxation of a gene- 
 ral law. Provida juris communis relaxatio. 
 While showing how much the ancient ec- 
 clesiastical authorities were opposed to the 
 granting of dispensations, since they pre- 
 
 ferred to pardon the offence after the law 
 had been violated, rather than to give a 
 previous license for its violation, he adds, 
 " but however much the Roman Pontiffs 
 and pious Bishops felt of reverence for the 
 ancient Regulations, they were often com- 
 pelled to depart in some measure from 
 them, for the utility of the church ; and 
 this milder measure of acting the jurists 
 called a dispensation." 
 
 This power to dispense with the provisions 
 of law in particular cases appears to be in- 
 herent in the Grand Master; because, al- 
 though frequently referred to in the old 
 Regulations, it always is as if it were a 
 power already in existence, and never by 
 way of a new grant. There is no record 
 of any Masonic statute or constitutional 
 provision conferring this prerogative in dis- 
 tinct words. The instances, however, in 
 which this prerogative may be exercised 
 are clearly enumerated in various places 
 of the Old Constitutions, so that there can 
 be no difficulty in understanding to what 
 extent the prerogative extends. 
 
 The power of granting dispensations is 
 confided to the Grand Master, or his repre- 
 sentative, but should not be exercised ex- 
 cept on extraordinary occasions, or for ex- 
 cellent reasons. The dispensing power is 
 confined to only four circumstances: 1. A 
 Lodge cannot be opened and held unless a 
 Warrant of Constitution be first granted by 
 the Grand Lodge ; but the Grand Master 
 may issue his dispensation, empowering a 
 constitutional number of brethren to open 
 and hold a Lodge until the next communi- 
 cation of the Grand Lodge. At this com- 
 munication, the dispensation of the Grand 
 Master is either revoked or confirmed. 
 A Lodge under dispensation is not per- 
 mitted to be represented, nor to vote in the 
 Grand Lodge. 2. Not more than five can- 
 didates can be made at the same communi- 
 cation of a Lodge; but the Grand Master, 
 on the showing of sufficient cause, may ex- 
 tend to a Lodge the privilege of making as 
 many more as he may think proper. 3. 
 No brother can, at the same time, belong 
 to two Lodges within three miles of each 
 other. But the Grand Master may dis- 
 pense with this regulation also. 4. Every 
 Lodge must elect and install its officers on 
 the constitutional night, which, in most 
 Masonic jurisdictions, precedes the anni- 
 versary of 1 St. John the Evangelist. Should 
 it, however, neglect this duty, or should 
 any officer die, or be expelled, or remove 
 permanently, no subsequent election or in- 
 stallation can take place, except under dis- 
 pensation of the Grand Master. 
 
 Dispensation;, Lodges under. 
 See Lodges under Dispensation. 
 
 Dispensations of Religion. An 
 
DISPENSATIONS 
 
 DISPERSION 
 
 227 
 
 attempt has been made to symbolize the 
 Pagan, the Jewish, and the Christian dis- 
 pensations by a certain ceremony of the 
 Master's degree which dramatically teaches 
 the resurrection of the body and the im- 
 mortality of the soul. The reference made 
 in this ceremony to portions of the first, 
 second, and third degrees is used to demon- 
 strate the difference of the three dispensa- 
 tions in the reception of these two dogmas. 
 It is said that the unsuccessful effort in the 
 Entered Apprentice's degree refers to the 
 heathen dispensation, where neither the 
 resurrection of the body nor the immor- 
 tality of the soul was recognized ; that the 
 second unsuccessful effort in the Fellow 
 Craft's degree refers to the Jewish dispensa- 
 tion, where, though the resurrection of the 
 body was unknown, the immortality of the 
 soul was dimly hinted ; and that the final 
 and successful effort in the Master's degree 
 symbolizes the Christian dispensation, in 
 which, through the teachings of the Lion 
 of the tribe of Judah, both the resurrection 
 of the body and the immortality of the soul 
 were clearly brought to light. This sym- 
 bolism, which was the invention of a peri- 
 patetic lecturer in the South about fifty 
 years ago, is so forced and fanciful in its 
 character, that it did not long survive the 
 local and temporary teachings of its in- 
 ventor, and is only preserved here as an 
 instance of how symbols, like metaphors, 
 may sometimes run mad. 
 
 But there is another symbolism of the 
 three degrees, as illustrating three dispen- 
 sations, which is much older, having ori- 
 ginated among the lecture-makers of the 
 eighteenth century, which for a long time 
 formed a portion of the authorized ritual, 
 and is still repeated with approbation by 
 some distinguished writers. In this the 
 three degrees are said to be symbols, in the 
 progressive knowledge which they impart 
 of the Patriarchal, the Mosaic, and the 
 Christian dispensations. 
 
 The first, or Entered Apprentice's de- 
 gree, in which but little Masonic light is 
 communicated, and which, indeed, is only 
 preparatory and introductory to the two 
 succeeding degrees, is said to symbolize the 
 first, or Patriarchal dispensation, the ear- 
 liest revelation, where the knowledge of 
 God was necessarily imperfect, his wor- 
 ship only a few simple rites of devotion, 
 and the religious dogmas merely a general 
 system of morality. The second, or Fellow 
 Craft's degree, is symbolic of the second or 
 Mosaic dispensation, in which, while there 
 were still many imperfections, there was 
 also a great increase of religious knowl- 
 edge, and a nearer approximation to divine 
 truth, with a promise in the future of a 
 better theodicy. But the third, or Master 
 
 Mason's degree, which, in its original con- 
 ception, before it was dismembered by the 
 innovations of the Royal Arch, was per- 
 fect and complete in its consummation of 
 all Masonic light, symbolizes the last, or 
 Christian dispensation, where the great and 
 consoling doctrine of the resurrection to 
 eternal life is the crowning lesson taught 
 by its Divine founder. This subject is very 
 fully treated by the Rev. James Watson, 
 in an address delivered at Lancaster, 
 Eng., in 1795, and contained in Jones's 
 Masonic Miscellanies, p. 245 ; better, I think, 
 by him than even by Hutchinson. 
 
 Beautiful as this symbolism may be, and 
 appropriately fitting in all its parts to the 
 laws of symbolic science, it is evident that 
 its origin cannot be traced farther back 
 than to the period when Masonry was first 
 divided into three distinctive degrees ; nor 
 could it have been invented later than the 
 time when Masonry was deemed, if not an 
 exclusively Christian organization, at least 
 to be founded on and fitly illustrated by 
 Christian dogmas. At present, this sym- 
 bolism, though preserved in the specula- 
 tions of such Christian writers as Hutchin- 
 son and Oliver, and those who are attached 
 to their peculiar school, finds no place in 
 the modern cosmopolitan rituals. It may 
 belong, as an explanation, to the history 
 of Masonry, but can scarcely make a part 
 of its symbolism. 
 
 Dispersion of Mankind. The 
 dispersion of mankind at the tower of Ba- 
 bel and on the plain of Shinar, which is 
 recorded in the book of Genesis, has given 
 rise to a Masonic tradition of the following 
 purport. The knowledge of the great truths 
 of God and immortality were known to 
 Noah, and by him communicated to his 
 immediate descendants, the Noachidse or 
 Noachites, by whom the true worship con- 
 tinued to be cultivated for some time after 
 the subsidence of the deluge ; but when the 
 human race were dispersed, a portion lost 
 sight of the divine truths which had been 
 communicated to them from their common 
 ancestor, and fell into the most grievous the- 
 ological errors, corrupting the purity of the 
 worship and the orthodoxy of the religious 
 faith which they had primarily received. 
 
 These truths were preserved in their in- 
 tegrity by but a very lew in the patriarchal 
 line, while still fewer were enabled to re- 
 tain only dim and glimmering portions of 
 the true light. 
 
 The first class was confined to the direct 
 descendants of Noah, and the second was 
 to be found among the priests and philoso- 
 phers, and, perhaps," still later, among 
 the poets of the heathen nations, and 
 among those whom they initiated into the 
 secrets of these truths. 
 
228 
 
 DISPUTES 
 
 DORIC 
 
 The system of doctrine of the former 
 class has been called by Masonic writers 
 the "Pure or Primitive Freemasonry" of 
 antiquity, and that of the latter class the 
 "Spurious Freemasonry" of the same pe- 
 riod. These terms were first used by Dr. 
 Oliver, and are intended to refer — the word 
 pure to the doctrines taught by the de- 
 scendants of Noah in the Jewish line, and 
 the word spurious to those taught by his 
 descendants in the heathen or Gentile line. 
 
 Disputes. The spirit of all the An- 
 cient Charges and Constitutions is, that 
 disputes among Masons should be settled 
 by an appeal to the brethren, to whose 
 award the disputants were required to sub- 
 rait. Thus, in an Old Record of the fif- 
 teenth century, it is provided, among other 
 charges, that " yf any discorde schall be bi- 
 twene hym and his felows, he schall abey 
 hym mekely and be stylle at the byddyng 
 of his Master or of the Wardeyne of his 
 Master, in his Master's absens, to the holy 
 day folowyng, and that he accorde then at 
 the dispocition of his felows." A similar 
 regulation is to be found in all the other 
 old Charges and Constitutions, and is con- 
 tinued in operation at this day by the 
 Charges approved in 1722, which express 
 the same idea in more modern language. 
 
 Distinctive Title. In the rituals, 
 all Lodges are called Lodges of St. John, 
 but every Lodge has also another name by 
 which it is distinguished. This is called 
 its distinctive title. This usage is preserved 
 in the diplomas of the continental Masons, 
 especially the French, where the specific 
 name of the Lodge is always given as well 
 as the general title of St. John, which it 
 has in common with all other Lodges. 
 Thus, a diploma issued by a French Lodge 
 whose name on the Register of the Grand 
 Orient would perhaps be La Verite", will 
 purport to have been issued by the Lodge 
 of St. John, under the distinctive title of 
 La V6rite, " Par la Loge de St. Jean sub la 
 title distinctive de la Verite." The expres- 
 sion is never used in English or American 
 diplomas. 
 
 Distress, Sign of. See Sign of Dis- 
 tress. 
 
 District Deputy Grand Master. 
 An officer appointed to inspect old Lodges, 
 consecrate new ones, install their officers, 
 and exercise a general supervision over the 
 Fraternity in the districts where, from the 
 extent of the jurisdiction, the Grand Mas- 
 ter or his Deputy cannot conveniently at- 
 tend in person. He is considered as a Grand 
 officer, and as the representative of the 
 Grand Lodge in the district in which he 
 resides. In England, officers of this de- 
 scription are called Provincial Grand Mas- 
 ters. 
 
 District Grand Lodges. In the 
 
 Constitution of the Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land, " Provincial Grand Lodges abroad," 
 that is, Grand Lodges in colonies or foreign 
 countries, are called District Grand Lodges. 
 But the title of Provincial Grand Lodges 
 is most commonly used in actual practice. 
 
 Documents, Three Oldest. See 
 Krause. 
 
 Dog. A symbol in the higher degrees. 
 See Oynocephalus. 
 
 Dolmen. A name given in France to 
 the Celtic stone tables termed in England 
 " cromlechs." 
 
 Dominican Republic. Masonry, 
 in the Dominican Republic, has for its 
 centre the National Grand Orient, which 
 possesses the supreme authority and which 
 practises the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite. The Grand Orient is divided 
 into a National Grand Lodge, under which 
 are all the Symbolic Lodges; a sovereign 
 Grand Chapter General, under which are 
 all Chapters; and a Supreme Council, which 
 controls the higher degrees of the Rite. 
 
 Donats. A class of men who were at- 
 tached to the Order of St. John of Jeru- 
 salem, or Knights of Malta. They did not 
 take the vows of the Order, but were em- 
 ployed in the different offices of the con- 
 vent and hospital. In token of their con- 
 nection with the Order, they wore what 
 was called the demi-cross. See Knight of 
 Malta. 
 
 Door. Every well constructed Lodge 
 room should be provided with two doors, 
 — one on the left hand of the Senior War- 
 den, communicating with the preparation 
 room, the other on his right hand, commu- 
 nicating with the Tiler's apartment. The 
 former of these is called the inner door, and 
 is under the charge of the Senior Deacon ; 
 the latter is called the outer door, and is 
 under the charge of the Junior Deacon. 
 In a well furnished Lodge, each of these 
 doors is provided with two knockers, one 
 on the inside and the other on the outside; 
 and the outside door has sometimes a small 
 aperture in the centre to facilitate commu- 
 nications between the Junior Deacon and 
 the Tiler. This, however, is a modern inno- 
 vation, and I very much doubt its propriety 
 and expediency. No communication ought 
 legally to be held between the inside and 
 the outside of the Lodge except through 
 the door, which should be opened only after 
 regular alarm duly reported, and on the 
 order of the Worshipful Master. 
 
 Doric Order. The oldest and most 
 original of the three Grecian orders. It is 
 remarkable for robust solidity in the col- 
 umn, for massive grandeur in the entabla- 
 ture, and for harmonious simplicity in its 
 construction. The distinguishing charac- 
 
DORMANT 
 
 DRAMATIC 
 
 229 
 
 teristic of this order is the want of a hase. 
 The flutings are few, large, and very little 
 concave. The capital has no astragal, but 
 only one or more fillets, which separate the 
 flutings from the torus. The column of 
 strength which supports the Lodge is of 
 the Doric order, and its appropriate situa- 
 tion and symbolic officer are in the West. 
 See Orders of Architecture. 
 
 Dormant Lodge. A Lodge whose 
 Charter has not been revoked, but which 
 has ceased to meet and work for a long 
 time, is said to be dormant. It can be re- 
 stored to activity only by the authority of 
 the Grand Master or the Grand Lodge on 
 the petition of some of its members, one 
 of whom, at least, ought to be a Past Master. 
 
 Dormer. In the Lectures, according 
 to the present English system, the orna- 
 ments of a Master Mason's Lodge are said 
 to be the porch, dormer, and stone pave- 
 ment. The dormer is the window which 
 is supposed to give light to the Holy of 
 Holies. In the Glossary of Architecture, 
 a dormer is defined to be a window 
 pierced through a sloping roof, and placed 
 in a small gable which rises on the side 
 of the roof. This symbol is not preserved 
 in the American system. 
 
 Dotage. The regulations of Masonry 
 forbid the initiation of an old man in his 
 dotage; and very properly, because the im- 
 becility of his mind would prevent his 
 comprehension of the truths presented to 
 him. 
 
 Double Cube. A cubical figure, 
 whose length is equal to twice its breadth 
 and height. Solomon's Temple is said to 
 have been of this figure, and hence it has 
 sometimes been adopted as the symbol of 
 a Masonic Lodge. Dr. Oliver (Diet Symb. 
 Mas.) thus describes the symbolism of the 
 double cube : " The heathen deities were 
 many of them represented by a cubical 
 stone. Pausanius informs us that a cube 
 was the symbol of Mercury, because, like 
 the cube, he represented Truth. In Arabia, 
 a black stone in the form of a double cube 
 was reputed to be possessed of many occult 
 virtues. Apollo was some time worshipped 
 under the symbol of a square stone ; and it 
 is recorded that when a fatal pestilence 
 raged at Delphi, the oracle was consulted 
 as to the means proper to be adopted for 
 the purpose of arresting its progress, and 
 it commanded that the cube should be dou- 
 bled. This was understood by the priests 
 to refer to the altar, which was of a cubical 
 form. They obeyed the injunction, increas- 
 ing the altitude of the altar to its prescribed 
 dimensions, like the pedestal in a Mason's 
 Lodge, and the pestilence ceased." 
 
 Double-Headed Eagle. See Ea- 
 gle, Double- Headed. 
 
 Dove. In ancient symbolism, the dove 
 represented purity and innocence; in eccle- 
 siology, it is a symbol of the Holy Spirit. 
 In Masonry, the dove is only viewed in ref- 
 erence to its use by Noah as a messenger. 
 Hence, in the Grand Lodge of England, 
 doves are the jewels of the Deacons, because 
 these officers are the messengers of the 
 Masters and Wardens. They are not so 
 used in this country. In an honorary or 
 side degree formerly conferred in America, 
 and called the " Ark and Dove," that bird 
 is a prominent symbol. 
 
 Draeseke, Joban Heinrieb 
 Dernhardt. A celebrated pulpit ora- 
 tor of great eloquence, who presided over 
 the Lodge "Oelzweig," in Bremen, for three 
 years, and whose contributions to Masonic 
 literature were collected and published in 
 1865, by A. W. Muller, under the title of 
 Bishop Drdseke as a Mason. Of this work 
 Findel says that it "contains a string of 
 costly pearls full of Masonic eloquence." 
 
 Drake, Francis, M. D. Francis 
 Drake, M. D., F. R. S., a celebrated anti- 
 quary and historian, was initiated in the 
 city of York in 1725, and, as Hughan says, 
 "soon made his name felt in Masonry." 
 His promotion was rapid; for in the same 
 year he was chosen Junior Grand Warden 
 of the Grand Lodge of York, and in 1726 
 delivered an address, which was published 
 with the following title: "A Speech deliv- 
 ered to the Worshipful and Ancient Society 
 of Free and Accepted Masons, at a Grand 
 Lodge held at Merchants' Hall, in the city 
 of York, on St. John's Day, December the 
 27th, 1726. The Right Worshipful Charles 
 Bathurst, Esq., Grand Master. By the Ju- 
 nior Grand Warden. Olim meminisse Juva- 
 bit. York." This address was so much 
 esteemed by the Grand Lodge at London, 
 that it caused its republication in 1729. In 
 this work Drake makes the important state- 
 ment that the first Grand Lodge in Eng- 
 land was held at York ; and that while it 
 recognizes the Grand Master of the Grand 
 Lodge in London as Grand Master of Eng- 
 land, it claims that its own Grand Master 
 is Grand Master of all England. 
 
 Dramatic Literature of Ma- 
 sonry. Freemasonry has frequently sup- 
 plied play-writers with a topic for the ex- 
 ercise of their genius. Kloss (Bibliog., p. 
 300,) gives the titles of no less than forty- 
 one plays of which Freemasonry has been 
 the subject. The earliest Masonic play is 
 noticed by Thory (Fond. G. 0., p. 360,) as 
 having been performed at Paris, in 1739, 
 under the title of Les Frimacons. Editions 
 of it were subsequently published at Lon- 
 don, Brunswick, and Strasburg. In 1741, 
 we have Das Geheimniss der Frimaurer at 
 Frankfort and Leipsic. France and Ger- 
 
230 
 
 DRESDEN 
 
 DRUIDICAL 
 
 many made many other contributions to 
 the Masonic drama. Even Denmark sup- 
 plied one in 1745, and Italy in 1785. The 
 English dramatists give us only a panto- 
 mime, Harlequin Freemason, which was 
 brought out at Covent Garden in 1781, 
 and Solomon's Temple, an oratorio. Tem- 
 plarism has not been neglected by the 
 dramatists. Kalchberg, in 1788, wrote Die 
 Templeherren, a dramatic poem in five acts. 
 Odon de Saint-Amand, Grand Maitre des 
 Templiers, a melo-drama in three acts, was 
 performed at Paris in 1806. Jacques Molai, 
 a melo-drama, was published at Paris in 
 1807, and La Mort de Jacques Molai, a 
 tragedy, in 1812. Some of the plays on 
 Freemasonry were intended to do honor to 
 the Order, and many to throw ridicule upon 
 it. From the specimens I have seen, I am 
 not inclined to regret that the catalogue of 
 the Masonic drama is not more copious. 
 
 Dresden, Congress of. A General 
 Congress of the Lodges of Saxony was 
 held in Dresden, where the representatives 
 of twelve Lodges were present. In this 
 Congreas it was determined to recognize 
 only the Masonry of St. John, and to con- 
 struct a National Grand Lodge. Accord- 
 ingly, on September 27, 1811, the National 
 Grand Lodge of Saxony was established in 
 the city of Dresden, which was soon joined 
 by all the Saxon Lodges, with the excep- 
 tion of one in Leipsic. Although it recog- 
 nizes only the Symbolic degrees, it permits 
 great freedom in the selection of a ritual; 
 and, accordingly, some of its Lodges work 
 in the Rite of Fessler, and others in the 
 Rite of Berlin. 
 
 Dress of a Mason. See Clothed. 
 
 Drop Cloth. A part of the furniture 
 used in the ceremony of initiation into the 
 third degree. It should be made of very 
 strong material, with a looped rope at each 
 corner and one in the middle of each side, 
 by which it may be securely held. 
 
 Druidical Mysteries. The Druids 
 were a sacred order of priests who existed 
 in Britain and Gaul, but whose mystical 
 rites were practised in most perfection in 
 the former country, where the isle of An- 
 glesea was considered as their principal 
 seat. Higgins thinks that they were also 
 found in Germany, but against this opinion 
 we have the positive statement of Caesar. 
 
 The meanings given to the word have 
 been very numerous, and most of them 
 wholly untenable. The Romans, seeing 
 that they worshipped in groves of oak, 
 because that tree was peculiarly sacred 
 among them, derived their name from the 
 Greek word, Apvg, drus ; thus absurdly 
 seeking the etymology of a word of an 
 older language in one comparatively mod- 
 ern. Their derivation would have been 
 
 more reasonable had they known that in 
 Sanscrit druma is an oak, from dru, wood. 
 It has also been traced to the Hebrew with 
 equal incorrectness, for the Druids were 
 not of the Semitic race. Its derivation is 
 rather to be sought in the Celtic language. 
 The Gaelic word Druiah signifies a holy or 
 wise man ; in a bad sense, a magician ; and 
 this we may readily trace to the Aryan 
 druh, applied to the spirit of night or dark- 
 ness, whence we have the Zend dru, a ma- 
 gician. Druidism was a mystical profes- 
 sion, and in the olden time mystery and 
 magic were always confounded. Vallencey 
 [Coll. Eeb. Hib., iii. 503,) says: "Welsh, 
 Drud, a Druid, i. e. the absolver or remitter 
 of sins ; so the Irish Drui, a Druid, most 
 certainly is from the Persic duru, a good 
 and holy man ; " and Ousely ( Coll. Orient, 
 iv. 302,) adds to this the Arabic dari, which 
 means a wise man. Bosworth (A. S. Diet.) 
 gives dry, pronounced dru, as the Anglo- 
 Saxon for " a magician, sorcerer, druid." 
 I think that with the old Celts the Druids 
 occupied the same place as the Magi did 
 with the old Persians. 
 
 Druidism was divided into three orders 
 or degrees, which were, beginning with the 
 lowest, the Bards, the Prophets, and the 
 Druids. Higgins thinks that the prophets 
 were the lowest order, but he admits that 
 it is not generally allowed. The constitu- 
 tion of the Order was in many respects like 
 that of the Freemasons. In every country 
 there was an Arch-Druid in whom all au- 
 thority was placed. In Britain it is said that 
 there were under him three arch-flamens or 
 priests, and twenty-five flamens. There 
 was an annual assembly for the administra- 
 tion of justice and the making of laws, and, 
 besides, four quarterly meetings, which took 
 place on the days when the sun reached 
 his equinoctial and solstitial points. The 
 latter two would very nearly correspond at 
 this time with the festivals of St. John the 
 Baptist and St. John the Evangelist. It 
 was not lawful to commit their ceremonies 
 or doctrines to writing, and Caesar says 
 {Bell. Gall., vi. 13,) that they used the 
 Greek letters, which was, of course, as a 
 cipher ; but Higgins (p. 90) says that one 
 of the Irish Ogum alphabets, which Toland 
 calls secret vrriting, " was the original, sa- 
 cred, and secret character of the Druids." 
 
 The places of worship, which were also 
 places of initiation, were of various forms : 
 circular, because a circle was an emblem 
 of the universe ; or oval, in allusion to the 
 mundane egg, from which, according to the 
 Egyptians, our first parents issued ; or ser- 
 pentine, because a serpent was a symbol of 
 Hu, the druidical !Noah; or winged, to 
 represent the motion of the Divine Spirit ; 
 or cruciform, because a cross was the em- 
 
DRUSES 
 
 DUALISM 
 
 231 
 
 blem of regeneration. Their only covering 
 was the clouded canopy, because they deemed 
 it absurd to confine the Omnipotent be- 
 neath a roof; and they were constructed 
 of embankments of earth, and of unhewn 
 stones, unpolluted with a metal tool. Nor 
 was any one permitted to enter their sacred 
 retreats, unless he bore a chain. 
 
 The ceremony of initiation into the 
 Druidical Mysteries required much pre- 
 liminary mental preparation and physical 
 purification. The aspirant was clothed 
 with the three sacred colors, white, blue, 
 and green ; white as the symbol of Light, 
 blue of Truth, and green of Hope. When 
 the rites of initiation were passed, the tri- 
 colored robe was changed for one of green ; 
 in the second degree, the candidate was 
 clothed in blue; and having surmounted 
 all the dangers of the third, and arrived at 
 the summit of perfection, he received the 
 red tiara and flowing mantle of purest white. 
 The ceremonies were numerous, the physi- 
 cal proofs painful, and the mental trials 
 appalling. They commenced in the first 
 degree, with placing the aspirant in the 
 pastos, bed or coflin, where his symbolical 
 death was represented, and they terminated 
 in the third, by his regeneration or restora- 
 tion to life from the womb of the giantess 
 Geridwin, and the committal of the body 
 of the newly born to the waves in a small 
 boat, symbolical of the ark. The result 
 was, generally, that he succeeded in reach- 
 ing the safe landing-place, but if his arm 
 was weak, or his heart failed, death was the 
 almost inevitable consequence. If he re- 
 fused the trial through timidity, he was 
 contemptuously rejected, and declared for- 
 ever ineligible to participate in the sacred 
 rites. But if he undertook it and suc- 
 ceeded, he was joyously invested with all 
 the privileges of Druidism. 
 
 The doctrines of the Druids were the 
 same as those entertained by Pythagoras. 
 They taught the existence of one Supreme 
 Being ; a future state of rewards and pun- 
 ishments; the immortality of the soul, and 
 a metempsychosis ; and the object of their 
 mystic rites was to communicate these doc- 
 trines in symbolic language, an object and 
 a method common alike to Druidism, to the 
 Ancient Mysteries and to Modern Free- 
 masonry. 
 
 Druses. A sect of mystic religionists 
 who inhabit Mounts Lebanon and Anti- 
 Lebanon, in Syria. They settled there 
 about the tenth century, and are said to 
 be a mixture of Cuthites or Kurds, Mardi 
 Arabs, and possibly of Crusaders; all of 
 whom were added, by subsequent immigra- 
 tions, to the original stock to constitute the 
 present or modern race of Druses. Their 
 religion is a heretical compound of Juda- 
 
 ism, Christianity, and Mohammedism ; the 
 last of which, greatly modified, predomi- 
 nates in their faith. They have a regular 
 order of priesthood, the office being filled 
 by persons consecrated for the purpose, 
 comprising principally the emirs and 
 sheiks, who form a secret organization di- 
 vided into several degrees, keep the sacred 
 books, and hold secret religious assemblies. 
 Their sacred books are written in anti- 
 quated Arabic. The Druses are divided 
 into three classes or degrees, according to 
 religious distinctions. To enable one Druse 
 to recognize another, a system of passwords 
 is adopted, without an interchange of which 
 no communication is made that may give 
 an idea of their religious tenets. (Tien's 
 Druse Religion Unveiled.) 
 
 Dr. Clarke tells us in his Travels that "one 
 class of the Druses are to the rest what the 
 initiated are to the profane, and are called 
 Okkals, which means spiritualists; and 
 they consider themselves superior to their 
 countrymen. They have various degrees 
 of initiation." 
 
 Col. Churchill, in his Ten Years' Resi- 
 dence on Mount Lebanon, tells us that 
 among this singular people there is an 
 order having many similar customs to the 
 Freemasons. It requires a twelvemonth's 
 probation previous to the admission of a 
 member. Both sexes are admissible. In 
 the second year the novice assumes the dis- 
 tinguishing mark of the white turban, and 
 afterwards, by degrees, is allowed to par- 
 ticipate in the whole of the mysteries. 
 Simplicity of attire, self-denial, temperance, 
 and irreproachable moral conduct are es- 
 sential to admission to the order. 
 
 All of these facts have led to the theory, 
 — based, however, 1 think, on insufficient 
 grounds, — that the Druses are an offshoot 
 from the early Freemasons, and that their 
 connection with the latter is derived from 
 the Crusaders, who, according to the same 
 theory, are supposed to have acquired their 
 Freemasonry during their residence in Pal- 
 estine. Some writers go so far as to say 
 that the degree of Prince of Lebanon, the 
 twenty-second in the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite, refers to the ancestors of these 
 mystical mountaineers in Syria. 
 
 Dnad. The number two in the Pytha- 
 gorean system of numbers. See Two. 
 
 Dualism. In the old mythologies, 
 there was a doctrine which supposed the 
 world to have been always governed by two 
 antagonistic principles, distinguished as 
 the good and the evil principle. This doc- 
 trine pervaded all the Oriental religions. 
 
 Thus in the system of Zoroaster we have 
 Ahriman and Ormuzd, and in the Hebrew 
 cosmogony we find the Creator and the Ser- 
 pent. There has been a remarkable devel- 
 
232 
 
 DUB 
 
 DUNCKERLEY 
 
 opment of this system in the three degrees 
 of Symbolic Masonry, which everywhere 
 exhibit in their organization, their symbol- 
 ism, and their design, the pervading influ- 
 ences of this principle of dualism. Thus, 
 in the first degree, there is Darkness over- 
 come by Light; in the second, Ignorance 
 dispersed by Knowledge, and in the third, 
 Death conquered by Eternal Life. 
 
 I)iil>. In the ancient ceremonies of 
 chivalry, a knight was made by giving him 
 three strokes on the neck with the flat end 
 of the sword, and he was then said to be 
 "dubbed a kniglit." Dubbing is from the 
 Saxon, dubban, to strike with a blow. Sir 
 Thomas Smith {Eng. Commonwealth), who 
 wrote in the sixteenth century, says : 
 " And when any man is made a knight, he, 
 kneeling down, is strooken of the prince, 
 with his sword naked, upon the back or 
 shoulder, the prince saying, Sus or sois chev- 
 alier au nom de Dieu, and (in times past) 
 they added St. George, and at his arising 
 the prince sayeth, Avancey. This is the 
 manner of dubbing of knights at this pres- 
 ent ; and that terme dubbing was the old 
 terme in this point, and not creation." 
 
 Due East and West. A Lodge is 
 said to be situated due East and West for 
 reasons which have varied at different 
 periods in the ritual and lectures. See 
 Orientation. 
 
 Due Examination. That sort of 
 examination which is correct and pre- 
 scribed by law. It is one of the three 
 modes of proving a strange brother ; the 
 other two being strict trial and lawful in- 
 formation. See Vouching. 
 
 Due Form. When the Grand Lodge 
 is opened, or any other Masonic ceremony 
 performed, by the Deputy Grand Master in 
 the absence of the Grand Master, it is said 
 to be done in due form. Subordinate 
 Lodges are always said to be opened and 
 closed in due form. It is derived from the 
 French word du, and that from devoir, " to 
 owe," — that which is owing or ought to be 
 done. Due form is the form in which an 
 act ought to be done to be done rightly. 
 French : En due forme. 
 
 Due Guard. A mode of recognition 
 which derives its name from its object, 
 which is to duly guard the person using 
 it in reference to his obligations, and «the 
 penalty for their violation. The Due 
 Guard is an Americanism, and of compara- 
 tively recent origin, being unknown to the 
 English and continental systems. In some 
 of the old rituals of the date of 1757, the 
 expression is used, but only as referring to 
 what is now called the Sign. 
 
 Duelling. Duelling has always been 
 considered a Masonic crime, and most of 
 the Grand Lodges have enacted statutes by 
 
 which Masons who engage in duels with 
 each other are subject to expulsion. The 
 Monde Maconnique (May, 1858,) gives the 
 following correct view on this subject: "A 
 Freemason who allows himself to be in- 
 volved in a duel, and who possesses not 
 sufficient discretion to be able to make 
 reparation without cowardice, and without 
 having recourse to this barbarous extrem- 
 ity, destroys by that impious act the con- 
 tract which binds him to his brethren. His 
 sword or his pistol, though it may seem to 
 spare his adversary, still commits a mur- 
 der, for it destroys his brothers — from that 
 time fraternity no longer exists for him." 
 
 Dues. The payment of annual dues 
 by a member to his Lodge is a compara- 
 tively modern custom, and one that cer- 
 tainly did not exist before the revival of 
 1717. As previous to that period, accord- 
 ing to Preston, Lodges received no war- 
 rants, but a sufficient number of brethren 
 meeting together were competent to prac- 
 tise the rites of Masonry, and as soon as 
 the special business which called them 
 together had been accomplished, they sepa- 
 rated, there could have been no permanent 
 organization of Speculative Masons, and no 
 necessity for contributions to constitute a 
 Lodge fund. Dues must therefore have 
 been unknown except in the Lodges of 
 Operative Masons, which, as we find, espe- 
 cially in Scotland, had a permanent exist- 
 ence. There is, accordingly, no regulation 
 in any of the old Constitutions for the pay- 
 ment of dues. It is not a general Masonic 
 duty, in which the Mason is affected to the 
 whole of the Craft, but an arrangement 
 between himself and his Lodge, with which 
 the Grand Lodge ought not to interfere. 
 As the payment of dues is not a duty owing 
 to the Craft in general, so the non-payment 
 of them is not an offence against the Craft, 
 but simply against his Lodge, the only pun- 
 ishment for which should be striking from 
 the roll or discharge from membership. 
 It is now the almost universal opinion of 
 Masonic jurists that suspension or expul- 
 sion from the Order is a punishment that 
 should never be inflicted for non-payment 
 of dues. 
 
 Dumbness. Although the faculty of 
 speech is not one of the five human senses, 
 it is important as the medium of communi- 
 cating instruction, admonition, or reproof, 
 and the person who does not possess it is 
 unfitted to perform the most important du- 
 ties of life. Hence dumbness disqualifies a 
 candidate for Masonic initiation. 
 
 Dummy. A word used in the Grand 
 Chapter of" Minnesota to signify what is 
 more usually called a substitute in the Royal 
 Arch degree. 
 
 Dunekerley, Thomas. No one, 
 
DUNCKERLEY 
 
 DUNCKERLEY 
 
 233 
 
 among the Masons of England, occupied a 
 more distinguished position or played a 
 more important part in the labors of the 
 Craft during the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century than Thomas Dunckerley, whose 
 private life was as romantic as his Masonic 
 was honorable. 
 
 Thomas Dunckerley was born in the 
 city of London on the 23d of October, 
 
 1724. He was the reputed son of Mr. 
 
 and Mrs. Mary Dunckerley, but really 
 owed his birth to a personage of a much 
 higher rank in life, being the natural son 
 of the Prince of Wales, afterwards George 
 II., to whom he bore, as his portrait 
 shows, a striking resemblance. It was 
 not until after his mother's death that he 
 became acquainted with the true history 
 of his birth ; so that for more than half of 
 his life this son of a king occupied a very 
 humble position on the stage of the world, 
 and was sometimes even embarrassed with 
 the pressure of poverty and distress. 
 
 At the age of ten he entered the navy, 
 and continued in the service for twenty-six 
 years, acquiring, by his intelligence and 
 uniformly good conduct, the esteem and 
 commendation of all his commanders. But 
 having no personal or family interest, he 
 never attained to any higher rank than 
 that of a gunner. During all this time, 
 except at brief intervals, he was absent 
 from England on foreign service. 
 
 He returned to his native country in 
 January, 1760, to find that his mother had 
 died a few days before, and that on her 
 death-bed she had made a solemn declara- 
 tion, accompanied by such details as left 
 no possible doubt of its truth, that Thomas 
 was the illegitimate son of King George 
 II., born while he was Prince of Wales. 
 The fact of the birth had, however, never 
 been communicated by the mother to the 
 prince, and George II. died without know- 
 ing that he had such a son living. 
 
 Dunckerley, in the account of the affair 
 which he left among his posthumous pa- 
 pers, says: "This information, gave me 
 great surprise and much uneasiness; and 
 as I was obliged to return immediately to 
 my duty on board of the Vanguard, I made 
 it known to no person at that time but 
 Captain Swanton. He said that those who 
 did not know me could look on it to be 
 nothing more than a gossip's story. We 
 were then bound a second time to Quebec, 
 and Captain Swanton did promise me that 
 on our return to England he would en- 
 deavor to get me introduced to the king, 
 and that he would give me a character; 
 but when we came back to England the 
 king was dead." 
 
 Dunckerley had hoped that his case 
 would have been laid before his royal 
 2E 
 
 father, and that the result would have 
 been an appointment equal to his birth. 
 But the frustration of these hopes by the 
 death of the king seems to have discour- 
 aged him, and no efforts appear for some 
 time to have been made by him or his 
 friends to communicate the facts to George 
 III., who had succeeded to the throne. 
 
 In 1761 he again left England as a gun- 
 ner in Lord Anson's fleet, and did not re- 
 turn until 1764, at which time, finding 
 himself embarrassed with a heavy debt, 
 incurred in the expenses of his family, (for 
 he had married in early life, in the year 
 1744,) knowing no person who could au- 
 thenticate the story of his birth, and seeing 
 no probability of gaining access to the ear 
 of the king, he sailed in a merchant vessel 
 for the Mediterranean. He had previously 
 been granted superannuation in the navy 
 in consequence of his long services, and 
 received a small pension, the principal part 
 of which he left for the support of his family 
 during his absence. 
 
 But the romantic story of his birth began 
 to be publicly known and talked about, and 
 in 1766 attracted the attention of several 
 persons of distinction, who endeavored, but 
 without success, to excite the interest of 
 the Princess Dowager of Wales in his be- 
 half. 
 
 In 1767, however, the declaration of his 
 mother was laid before the king, who was 
 George III., the grandson of his father. 
 It made an impression on him, and inquiry 
 into his previous character and conduct 
 having proved satisfactory, on May 7, 1767, 
 the king ordered Dunckerley to receive a 
 pension of £100, which was subsequently 
 increased to £800, together with a suite of 
 apartments in Hampton Court Palace. He 
 also assumed, and was permitted to bear, 
 the royal arms, with the distinguishing 
 badge of the bend sinister, and adopted as 
 his motto the appropriate words " Fato non 
 merito." In his familiar correspondence, 
 and in his book-plates, he used the name 
 of " Fitz-George." 
 
 In 1770 he became a student of law, and 
 in 1774 was called to the bar; but his fond- 
 ness for an active life prevented him from 
 ever making much progress in the legal 
 profession. 
 
 Dunckerley died at Portsmouth in the 
 year 1795, at the ripe age of seventy-one ; 
 but his last years were embittered by the 
 misconduct of his son, whose extravagance 
 and dissolute conduct necessarily afflicted 
 the mind while it straitened the means of 
 the unhappy parent. Every effort to re- 
 claim him proved utterly ineffectual ; and 
 on the death of his father, no provision 
 being left for his support, he became a 
 vagrant, living for the most part on Ma- 
 
234 
 
 DUNCKERLEY 
 
 DUNCKERLEY 
 
 sonic charity. At last he became a brick- 
 layer's laborer, and was often seen ascend- 
 ing a ladder with a hod on his shoulders. 
 His misfortunes and his misconduct at 
 length found an end, and the grandson of 
 a king of England died a pauper in a cellar 
 of St. Giles. 
 
 The Masonic career of Dunckerley, if 
 less remarkable than his domestic life, is 
 more interesting to the Freemason. There 
 is no record of the exact time of his recep- 
 tion into the Order ; but it must have been 
 not long before 1757, as he in that year de- 
 livered an address, as we should now call 
 it, before the Lodges of Plymouth, which 
 was published at the time under the title 
 of " The Light and Truth of Masonry Ex- 
 plained, being the Substance of a Charge 
 Delivered at Plymouth in 1757." In the 
 title of this production he styles himself 
 simply a "Master Mason," showing that 
 he had not been long enough in the Order 
 to have obtained official position, and in 
 the body of the charge he apologizes for 
 the apparent presumption of one " who had 
 been so few years a Mason." It is probable 
 that he was initiated about the year 1755, 
 and, as he was at that time in the navy, in 
 one of the Lodges of Plymouth, which was 
 then, as now, frequented by vessels of war. 
 In this charge, it is worthy of note that a 
 prayer, written by Dunckerley, appears for 
 the first time, which, slightly abridged, has 
 ever since been used in all English and 
 American Lodges at the initiation of a can- 
 didate. 
 
 Oliver says that shortly after his return 
 to England he was elected the Master of a 
 Lodge. This must have been in the year 
 1766 or 1767 ; for in the latter year he re- 
 ceived from Lord Blaney, the Grand Mas- 
 ter, the deputation for Provincial Grand 
 Master of Hampshire, which, I suppose, 
 would scarcely have been given him if he 
 had not " passed the chair." Preston speaks 
 of his " indefatigable assiduity " in the dis- 
 charge of the duties of the office, and of the 
 considerable progress of Masonry in the 
 province through his instrumentality. He 
 was soon after appointed to the superin- 
 tendency of the Lodges in Dorsetshire, 
 Essex, Gloucestershire, Somersetshire, and 
 Herefordshire. And some years afterwards, 
 the Grand Lodge, in grateful testimony of 
 his zeal in the cause of Masonry, resolved 
 that he should rank as a Past Senior Grand 
 Warden, and in all processions take place 
 next the present Senior Grand Warden for 
 the time being. During the rest of his life 
 Dunckerley received many evidences of the 
 high esteem in which he was held by the 
 Masonic authorities of the day, and at the 
 time of his death was occupying the follow- 
 ing prominent positions, in addition to that 
 
 of Provincial Grand Master, which ap- 
 pointment he held from the Prince of 
 Wales, viz., Grand Superintendent and 
 Past Grand Master of Royal Arch Masons 
 of Bristol and several counties, appointed 
 by the Duke of Clarence, and Supreme 
 Grand Master of the Knights of Rosa Cru- 
 cis, Templars, and Kadosh, under Prince 
 Edward, afterwards Duke of Kent. His 
 royal kinsmen did not neglect his claims to 
 patronage. 
 
 But far higher than any of these titles 
 and offices, and of far more lasting impor- 
 tance to the Craft, was the position occupied 
 by Dunckerley as an instructor of the 
 Lodges, and a reformer, or at least a re- 
 modeller, of the system of lectures. To 
 these duties he was called by the Grand 
 Lodge of England, which authorized him 
 to construct a new code of lectures, a care- 
 ful revision of the existing ritual, and a 
 collation of all ancient formulas. 
 
 For this task he was pre-eminently quali- 
 fied. Possessed of a fair share of learning, 
 and imbued with a philosophical spirit, he 
 was prepared to amplify the existing sys- 
 tem of Martin Clare by the addition of 
 much new symbolism, and the improve- 
 ment of that which had already been in- 
 troduced by his predecessor. He was also 
 liberal in his views, and not partaking of 
 the prejudices then so active against what 
 were called the innovations of Dermott, 
 he did not hesitate to avail himself of his 
 labors, as that schismatic had previously 
 not hesitated to profit by the suggestions 
 of the Chevalier Ramsay. Oliver says, 
 that he often visited the Lodges of the 
 " Ancients," for the purpose of ascertain- 
 ing what were the essential differences 
 between the two systems, and of that which 
 was good he culled the best, and trans- 
 planted it into the workings of the legiti- 
 mate Grand Lodge. 
 
 The results were not evanescent, but are 
 felt even in the ritual of the present day. 
 The most important was that which af- 
 fected the third degree. Dunckerley re- 
 constructed the Royal Arch of Dermott, 
 and introduced it into the Grand Lodge of 
 England; not, however, without opposition, 
 which was only overcome, Oliver says, by 
 the patronage of the Duke of Clarence, 
 and his own personal influence. By this 
 innovation, the true Word, which had 
 hitherto been a part of the Master's degree, 
 was transferred to the Royal Arch, and the 
 third degree was made incomplete, and re- 
 quired to be supplemented by a higher one, 
 which should supply its deficiency. The 
 Master's degree, as now given in England 
 and America, differs very considerably from 
 that which was left by Martin Clare, and 
 is indebted for its present organization to 
 
DUNCKERLEY 
 
 EAGLE 
 
 235 
 
 the labors of Dunckerley. It might, indeed, 
 be properly called Dunckerley's degree. 
 Dunckerley also introduced into his system 
 of lectures some new symbols. Thus to 
 him is ascribed the adoption of the " lines 
 parallel," as a symbol of the two Saints 
 John, and the " theological ladder." 
 
 Dunckerley wrote nothing of great im- 
 portance. His contributions to Masonic 
 literature seem to have been confined to a 
 couple of charges or addresses, delivered in 
 1757 and in 1769, and to a brief chrono- 
 logical sketch of the Order of Knights Tem- 
 plars, which was published in the 3d vol- 
 ume of the Freemason's Magazine. He was 
 also the author of some Masonic poetry, 
 and two of his odes are inserted in Noor- 
 thouck's edition of the Book of Constitu- 
 tions. But his most effective labors were 
 almost altogether esoteric and his instruc- 
 tions oral, and his industry in this way 
 seems to have been indefatigable, and his 
 influence extensive. The results are felt, 
 as has already been said, to the present 
 day. His popularity as a lecturer is to be 
 attributed to the active character of his 
 mind, and his thorough mastership of the 
 subjects which he taught, and the fluency 
 of his delivery. 
 
 His conduct was irreproachable, and 
 hence he was fortunate in securing the es- 
 teem and regard of the Craft, and the 
 friendship of the most distinguished Ma- 
 sons who were his contemporaries. Preston 
 styles him " that truly Masonic luminary ; " 
 and Oliver says that " he was the oracle of 
 the Grand Lodge, and the accredited inter- 
 preter of its Constitutions. His decision, 
 
 like the law of the Medes and Persians, was 
 final on all points, both of doctrine and dis- 
 cipline, and against it there was no appeal." 
 
 Were I to attempt a comparative esti- 
 mate of his character as a Masonic scholar, 
 in reference to his predecessors, his con- 
 temporaries, and his successors in English 
 Masonry, I should say that he was the 
 superior of both Anderson and Desaguiiers, 
 but inferior to Preston, to Hutchinson, and 
 to Oliver. Among his contemporaries he 
 certainly had a well-deserved reputation, 
 and is clearly entitled to the appellation 
 that was bestowed upon him, of being a 
 learned and philosophical Mason. 
 
 Dnpaty, Louis Emanuel 
 Charles Mercier. The author of 
 many Masonic songs and other fugitive 
 pieces inserted in the Annates Maconniques. 
 He wrote in 1810, with Reveroui de Saint- 
 Cyr, a comic opera entitled " Cagliostro 
 ou les Illumines." In 1818, he published 
 a Masonic tale entitled " l'Harmonie." 
 He was a poet and dramatic writer of some 
 reputation, born in the Gironde in 1775, 
 elected to the French Academy in 1835, 
 and died in 1851. 
 
 Duty. The duty of a Mason as an 
 honest man is plain and easy. It requires 
 of him honesty in contracts, sincerity in 
 affirming, simplicity in bargaining, and 
 faithfulness in performing. To sleep little, 
 and to study much; to say little, and to 
 hear and think much; to learn, that he may 
 be able to do; and then to do earnestly 
 and vigorously whatever the good of his 
 fellows, his country and mankind requires, 
 are the duties of every Mason. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eagle. The eagle, as a symbol, is of 
 
 freat antiquity. In Egypt, Greece, and 
 'ersia, this bird was sacred to the sun. 
 Among the Pagans it was an emblem of 
 Jupiter, and with the Druids it was a sym- 
 bol of their supreme god. In the Scrip- 
 tures, a distinguished reference is in many 
 instances made to the eagle ; especially do 
 we find Moses (Exod. xix. 4,) representing 
 Jehovah as saying, in allusion to the belief 
 that this bird assists its feeble young in 
 their flight by bearing them upon its own 
 pinions, " Ye have seen what I did unto the 
 Egyptians, and how I bare you on eagles' 
 wings, and brought you unto myself." Not 
 less elevated was the symbolism of the 
 
 eagle among the Pagans. Thus, Cicero, 
 speaking of the myth of Ganymede carried 
 up to Jove on an eagle's back, says that it 
 teaches us that the truly wise, irradiated by 
 the shining light of virtue, become more 
 and more like God, until by wisdom they 
 are borne aloft and soar to him. The her- 
 alds explain the eagle as signifying the 
 same thing among birds as the lion does 
 among quadrupeds. It is, they say, the 
 most swift, strong, laborious, generous, and 
 bold of all birds, and for this reason it has 
 been made, both by ancients and moderns, 
 the symbol of majesty. In the jewel of the 
 Rose Croix degree is found an eagle dis- 
 played at the foot of the cross ; and it is 
 
236 
 
 EAGLE 
 
 EAGLE 
 
 there very appropriately selected as a sym- 
 bol of Christ, in his divine character, bear- 
 ing the children of his adoption on his 
 wings, teaching them with unequalled love 
 and tenderness to poise their unfledged 
 wings and soar from the dull corruptions 
 of earth to a higher and holier sphere. 
 And for this reason the eagle in the jewel 
 of that degree is very significantly repre- 
 sented as having the wings displayed as if 
 in the very act of flight. 
 
 Eagle and Pelican, Knight of 
 the. See Knight of the Eagle and Pelican. 
 
 Eagle. Double - Headed. The 
 eagle displayed, that is, with extended 
 wings, as if in the act of flying, has always, 
 from the majestic character of the bird, 
 been deemed an emblem of imperial power. 
 Marius, the consul, first consecrated the 
 eagle, about eight years B. c, to be the sole 
 Roman standard at the head of every legion, 
 and hence it became the standard of the 
 Roman empire ever afterwards. As the 
 single-headed eagle was thus adopted as 
 the symbol of imperial power, the double- 
 headed eagle naturally became the repre- 
 sentative of a double empire ; and on the 
 division of the Roman dominions into the 
 eastern and western empire, which were 
 afterwards consolidated by the Carlovin- 
 gian race into what was ever after called 
 the Holy Roman empire, the double-headed 
 eagle was assumed as the emblem of this 
 double em pire ; one head looking, as it were, 
 to the West, or Rome, and the other to the 
 East, or Byzantium. Hence the escutcheons 
 of many persons now living, the descend- 
 ants of the princes and counts of the Holy 
 Roman empire, are placed upon the breast 
 of a double-headed eagle. Upon the disso- 
 lution of that empire, the emperors of Ger- 
 many, who claimed their empire to be the 
 representative of ancient Rome, assumed 
 the double-headed eagle as their symbol, 
 and placed it in their arms, which were 
 blazoned thus : Or, an eagle displayed sable, 
 having two heads, each inclosed within an 
 amulet, or beaked and armed gules, holding 
 in his right claw a sword and sceptre or, 
 and in his left the imperial mound. Russia 
 also bears the double-headed eagle, having 
 added, says Brewer, that of Poland to her 
 own, and thus denoting a double empire. 
 It is, however, probable that the double- 
 headed eagle of Russia is to be traced to 
 some assumed representation of the Holy 
 Roman empire based upon the claim of 
 Russia to Byzantium ; for Constantine, the 
 Byzantine emperor, is said to have been the 
 first who assumed this device to intimate 
 the division of the empire into East and 
 West. 
 
 The statement of Millington {Heraldry 
 in History, Poetry, and Romance, p. 290,) is 
 
 doubtful, that " the double-headed eagle of 
 the Austrian and Russian empires was first 
 assumed during the second Crusade, and 
 typified the great alliance formed by the 
 Christian sovereigns of Greece and Ger- 
 many against the enemy of their common 
 faith, and it is retained by Russia and 
 Austria as representations of those em- 
 pires." The theory is more probable as 
 well as more generally accepted which con- 
 nects the symbol with the eastern and west- 
 ern empires of Rome. It is, however, agreed 
 by all that while the single-headed eagle 
 denotes imperial dignity, the extension and 
 multiplication of that dignity is symbolized 
 by the two heads. 
 
 The double-headed eagle was probably 
 first introduced as a symbol into Masonry 
 in the year 1758. In that year the body 
 calling itself the Council of Emperors of 
 the East and West was established in Paris. 
 The double-headed eagle was likely to have 
 been assumed by this Council in reference 
 to the double jurisdiction which it claimed, 
 and which is represented so distinctly in its 
 title. Its ritual, which consisted of twenty- 
 five degrees, all of which are now contained 
 in the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 
 was subsequently established in the city of 
 Berlin, and adopted by the Grand Lodge 
 of the Three Globes. Frederick I L, king 
 of Prussia, who was the head of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite, is said to have 
 merged this body into his own Rite, adding 
 to its twenty-five degrees eight more, so as to 
 make the thirty-three degrees of which that 
 Rite is now composed. The double-headed 
 eagle was then adopted as the symbol of 
 the thirty-third and ultimate degree. The 
 whole Rite being considered as a repre- 
 sentative of the Holy Empire, as is indi- 
 cated by the titles of two of its officers, 
 
 who are still called the Secretary and the 
 Treasurer of the Holy Empire, the double- 
 headed eagle, which was the ensign, as it 
 has been seen, of that empire, was appropri- 
 ately adopted as the symbol of the govern- 
 ing degree of the Rite. 
 The jewel of the thirty-third degree, or 
 
EAGLE 
 
 EAST 
 
 237 
 
 Sovereign Grand Inspector General of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, is a 
 double-headed eagle (which was originally 
 black, but is now generally of silver), a 
 golden crown resting on both heads, wings 
 displayed, beak and claws of gold, his 
 talons grasping a wavy sword, the emblem 
 of cherubic tire, the hilt held by one talon, 
 the blade by the other. The banner of the 
 Order is also a double - headed eagle 
 crowned. 
 
 Eagle, Knight of the. See Knight 
 of the Eagle. 
 
 Eagle, Knight of the American. 
 See Knight of the American Eagle. 
 
 Eagle, Knight of the Black. 
 See Knight of the Black Eagle. 
 
 Eagle, Knight of the Gold. See 
 Knight of the Oold Eagle. 
 
 Eagle, Knight of the Prussian. 
 See Knight of the Prussian Eagle. 
 
 Eagle, Knight of the Bed. See 
 Knight of the Bed Eagle. 
 
 Eagle, Knight of the White and 
 Black. See Knight of the White and 
 Black Eagle. 
 
 Eagles, Knight of the Two 
 Crowned. See Knight of the Two 
 Crowned Eagles. 
 
 Ear of Corn. This was, among all 
 the ancients, an emblem of plenty. Ceres, 
 who was universally worshipped as the 
 goddess of abundance, and even called by 
 the Greeks Demeter, a manifest corruption 
 of Gemeter, or mother earth, was symboli- 
 cally represented with a garland on her 
 head composed of ears of corn, a lighted 
 torch in one hand, and a cluster of poppies 
 and ears of corn in the other. And in the 
 Hebrew, the most significant of all lan- 
 guages, the two words, which signify an ear 
 of corn, are both derived from roots which 
 give the idea of abundance. For shibboleth, 
 which is applicable both to an ear of corn 
 and a flood of water, has its root in shabal, 
 to increase or to flow abundantly ; and the 
 other name of corn, dagan, is derived from 
 the verb dagah, signifying to multiply, or 
 to be increased. 
 
 Ear of corn, which is a technical expres- 
 tion in the second degree, has been some- 
 times ignorantly displaced by a sheaf of 
 wheat. This is done in America, under the 
 mistaken supposition that corn refers only 
 to Indian maize, which was unknown to the 
 ancients. But corn is a generic word, and 
 includes wheat and every other kind of 
 grain. This is its legitimate English mean- 
 ing, and hence an ear of corn, which is an 
 old expression, and the right one, would 
 denote a stalk, but not a sheaf of wheat. See 
 Shibboleth. 
 
 Ear, The Listening. The listening 
 ear is one of the three precious jewels of a 
 
 Fellow Craft Mason. In the Hebrew lan- 
 guage, the verb j^Ot^> shemong, signifies 
 not only to hear, but also to understand and 
 to obey. Hence, when Jesus said, after a 
 parable, " he that hath ears to hear, let him 
 hear," he meant to denote that he who 
 hears the recital of allegories should en- 
 deavor to discover their hidden meaning, 
 and be obedient to their teaching. This is 
 the true meaning of the symbol of the lis- 
 tening ear, which admonishes the Fellow 
 Craft not only that he should receive les- 
 sons of instruction from his teacher, but 
 that he should treasure them in his breast, 
 so as to ponder over their meaning and 
 carry out their design. 
 
 Earthen Pan. In the lectures of the 
 early part of the eighteenth century used as 
 a symbol of zeal, together with chalk and 
 charcoal, which represented freedom and 
 fervency. In the modern lectures it has 
 been substituted by clay. Pan once signi- 
 fied hard earth, a meaning which is now 
 obsolete, though from it we derive the name 
 of a cooking utensil. 
 
 East. The East has always been con- 
 sidered peculiarly sacred. This was, with- 
 out exception, the case in all the Ancient 
 Mysteries. In the Egyptian rites, espe- 
 cially, and those of Adonis, which were 
 among the earliest, and from which the 
 others derived their existence, the sun waa 
 the object of adoration, and his revolutions 
 through the various seasons were fictitiously 
 represented. The spot, therefore, where 
 this luminary made his appearance at the 
 commencement of day, and where his wor- 
 shippers were wont anxiously to look for 
 the first darting of his prolific rays, was es- 
 teemed as the figurative birthplace of their 
 god, and honored with an appropriate degree 
 of reverence. And even among those nations 
 where sun - worship gave place to more 
 enlightened doctrines, the respect for the 
 place of sun-rising continued to exist. 
 The camp of Judah was placed by Moses 
 in the East as a mark of distinction ; the 
 tabernacle in the wilderness was placed due 
 East and West; and the practice was con- 
 tinued in the erection of Christian 
 churches. Hence, too, the primitive Chris- 
 tians always turned towards the East in 
 their public prayers, which custom St. Au- 
 gustine (Serm. Dom. in Monte, c. 5,) ac- 
 counts for " because the East is the most 
 honorable part of the world, being the re- 
 gion of light whence the glorious sun 
 arises." And hence all Masonic Lodges, 
 like their great prototype the Temple of 
 Jerusalem, are built, or supposed to be 
 built, due East and West ; and as the North 
 is esteemed a place of darkness, the East, on 
 the contrary, is considered a place of light. 
 
 In the primitive Christian church, ac- 
 
238 
 
 EAST 
 
 ECLECTIC 
 
 cording to St. Ambrose, in the ceremonies 
 accompanying the baptism of a catechu- 
 men, " he turned towards the West, the 
 image of darkness, to abjure the world, and 
 towards the East, the emblem of light, to 
 denote his alliance with Jesus Christ." 
 And so, too, in the oldest lectures of the 
 last century, the Mason is said to travel 
 from the West to the East, that is, from 
 darkness to light. In the Prestonian sys- 
 tem, the question is asked, " What induces 
 you to leave the West to travel to the 
 East ? " And the answer is : " In search 
 of a Master, and from him to gain instruc- 
 tion." The same idea, if not precisely the 
 same language, is preserved in the modern 
 and existing rituals. 
 
 The East, being the place where the Mas- 
 ter sits, is considered the most honorable 
 part of the Lodge, and is distinguished from 
 the rest of the room by a dais, or raised 
 platform, which is occupied only by those 
 who have passed the Chair. 
 
 Bazot (Manuel, p. 154,) says: "The ven- 
 eration which Masons have for the East, 
 confirms the theory that it is from the 
 East that the Masonic cult proceeded, and 
 that this bears a relation to the primitive 
 religion whose first degeneration was sun- 
 worship. 
 
 East and West, Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the East and West. 
 
 East, Grand. The place where a 
 Grand Lodge holds its communications, 
 and whence are issued its edicts, is often 
 called its Grand East. Thus, the Grand 
 East of Boston would, according to this 
 usage, be placed at the head of documents 
 emanating from the Grand Lodge of Massa- 
 chusetts. Grand Orient has sometimes been 
 used instead of Grand East, but improperly. 
 Orient might be admissible as signifying 
 East, but Grand Orient having been adopted 
 as the name of certain Grand Bodies, such 
 as the Grand Orient of France, which is 
 tantamount to the Grand Lodge of France, 
 the use of the term might lead to confu- 
 sion. Thus, the Orient of Paris is the seat 
 of the Grand Orient of France. The ex- 
 pression Grand East, however, is almost 
 exclusively confined to this country; and 
 even here is not in universal use. 
 
 East Indies. See India. 
 
 East, Knight of the. See Knight 
 of the East. 
 
 Easter. Easter Sunday, being the day 
 celebrated by the Christian church in com- 
 memoration of the resurrection of the 
 Lord Jesus, is appropriately kept as a feast- 
 day by Rose Croix Masons. 
 
 Easter Monday. On this day, in 
 every third year, Councils of Kadosh in 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 hold their elections. 
 
 Eastern Star, Order of the. An 
 
 American Adoptive Rite, called the " Order 
 of the Eastern Star," invented by Bro. 
 Robert Morris, and somewhat popular in 
 this country. It consists of five degrees, 
 viz., 1, Jephtha's daughter, or the daughter's 
 degree ; 2, Ruth, or the widow's degree ; 3, 
 Esther, or the wife's degree ; 4, Martha, or 
 the sister's degree; 5, Electa, or the Benevo- 
 lent. It is entirely different from Euro- 
 pean or French Adoptive Masonry. Re- 
 cently, this Order has undergone a thorough 
 organization, and been extended into other 
 countries, especially into South America. 
 
 East Port. An error of ignorance in 
 the Landsdowne Manuscript, where the ex- 
 pression, " the city of East Port," occurs as 
 a corruption of " the cities of the East." 
 
 Eavesdropper. A listener. The 
 punishment which was directed in the old 
 lectures, at the revival of Masonry in 1717, 
 to be inflicted on a detected cowan was : 
 " To be placed under the eaves of the house 
 in rainy weather, till the water runs in at 
 his shoulders and out at his heels." The 
 French inflict a similar punishment. " On 
 le met sous une gouttiere, une pompe, ou une 
 fontaine, jusqu'ace qu'il soit mouille depuis 
 la t§te jusqu'aux pieds." Hence a listener is 
 called an eavesdropper. The word is not, as 
 has by some been supposed, a peculiar Ma- 
 sonic term, but is common to the language. 
 Skinner gives it in his Etymologicon, and calls 
 it " vox sane elegantissima ;" and Blackstone 
 (Comm., iv. 18,) thus defines it: "Eaves- 
 droppers, or such as listen under walls, or 
 windows, or the eaves of a house, to hearken 
 after discourse, and thereupon to frame 
 slanderous and mischievous talcs, are a 
 common nuisance and presentable at the 
 court leet; or are indictable at the sessions, 
 and punishable by fine and finding sureties 
 for their good behavior." 
 
 Ebony Box. A symbol in the high 
 degrees of the human heart, and is intended 
 to teach reserve and taciturnity, which 
 should be inviolably maintained in regard 
 to the incommunicable secrets of the Order. 
 When it is said that the ebony box con- 
 tained the plans of the Temple of Solomon, 
 the symbolic teaching is, that in the human 
 heart are deposited the secret designs and 
 motives of our conduct by which we pro- 
 pose to erect the spiritual temple of our 
 lives. 
 
 Eeleetic Masonry. From the Greek, 
 EKXeKTiKbq,eklektikos, which means selecting. 
 Those philosophers who, in ancient times, 
 selected from the various systems of phil- 
 osophy such doctrines as appeared most 
 conformable to truth were called " eclectic 
 philosophers." So the confederation of 
 Masons in Germany, which consisted of 
 Lodges that selected the degrees which 
 
ECLECTIC 
 
 ECOSSAIS 
 
 239 
 
 they thought most conformable to ancient 
 Freemasonry, was called the eclectic union, 
 and the Masonry which it adopted received 
 the name of Eclectic Masonry. See Eclec- 
 tic Union. 
 
 Eclectic Rite. The Rite practised 
 by the Eclectic Union, which see. 
 
 Eclectic Union. The fundamental 
 idea of a union of the German Lodges for 
 the purpose of purifying the Masonic sys- 
 tem of the corruptions which had been in- 
 troduced by the numerous degrees founded 
 on alchemy, theosophy, and other occult 
 sciences which at that time flooded the con- 
 tinent of Europe, originated, in 1779, with 
 the Baron Von Ditfurth, who had been 
 a prominent member of the Rite of Strict 
 Observance; although Lenning attributes 
 the earlier thought of a circular letter to 
 Von Knigge. But the first practical step 
 towards this purification was taken in 1783 
 by the Provincial Grand Lodges of Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main and of Wetzlar. These 
 two bodies addressed an encyclical letter to 
 the Lodges of Germany, in which they in- 
 vited them to enter into an alliance for the 
 purpose of " re-establishing the Royal Art 
 of Freemasonry." The principal points on 
 which this union or alliance was to be 
 founded were, 1. That the three symbolic 
 degrees only were to be acknowledged by 
 the united Lodges. 2. That each Lodge 
 was permitted to practise for itself such 
 high degrees as it might select for itself, 
 but that the recognition of these was not 
 to be made compulsory on the other Lodges. 
 3. That all the united Lodges were to be 
 equal, none being dependent on any other. 
 These propositions were accepted by seve- 
 ral Lodges, and thence resulted the Eclec- 
 tisches Bund, or Eclectic Union of Germany, 
 at the head of which is the "Mother Grand 
 Lodge of the Eclectic Union " at Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main. The system of Mason- 
 ry practised by this union is called the 
 Eclectic system, and the Rite recognized 
 by it is the Eclectic Rite, which consists 
 of only the three degrees of Apprentice, 
 Fellow Craft, and Master Mason. 
 
 Ecossais. This is a French word, 
 which is most generally to be translated as 
 Scottish Master. The term was introduced 
 by the Chevalier Ramsay, who first invented 
 the degree, which he called Ecossais be- 
 cause he claimed that his system of Ma- 
 sonry came from Scotland. From this 
 original degree of Ramsay numerous others 
 have sprung up under the same or similar 
 name ; all of them, however, concurring in 
 one particular, namely, that of detailing 
 the method adopted for the preservation 
 of the true Word. The American Mason 
 will understand the character of the system 
 of Ecossaism, as it may be called, when he 
 is told that the Select Master of his own 
 
 Rite is really an Ecossias degree. It is 
 found, too, in many other Rites. Thus, in 
 the French Rite, it is the fifth degree. In 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, the 
 thirteenth degree or Knights of the Ninth 
 Arch is properly an Ecossais degree. The 
 Ancient York Rite is without an Ecossais 
 degree, but its principles are set forth in the 
 instructions of the Royal Arch. 
 
 Some idea of the extent to which these 
 degrees have been multiplied may be formed 
 from the fact that Oliver has a list of 
 eighty of them ; Ragon enumerates eighty- 
 three; and the Baron Tschoudy, rejecting 
 twenty-seven which he does not consider 
 legitimate, retains a far greater number to 
 whose purity he does not object. 
 
 In the Ecossais system there is a legend, 
 a part of which has been adopted in all 
 the Ecossais degrees, and which has in fact 
 been incorporated into the mythical his- 
 tory of Masonry. It is to the effect that 
 the builder of the Temple engraved the 
 word upon a triangle of pure metal, and, 
 fearing that it might be lost, he always 
 bore it about his person, suspended from 
 his neck, with the engraved side next to 
 his breast. In a time of great peril to him- 
 self, he cast it into an old dry well, which 
 was in the south-east corner of the Temple, 
 where it was afterwards found by three 
 Masters. They were passing near the well 
 at the hour of meridian, and were attracted 
 by its brilliant appearance ; whereupon one 
 of them, descending by the assistance of his 
 comrades, obtained it, and carried it to King 
 Solomon. But the more modern form of 
 the legend dispenses with the circumstance 
 of the dry well, and says that the builder 
 deposited it in the place which had been 
 purposely prepared for it, and where cen- 
 turies afterwards it was found. And this 
 amended form of the legend is more in ac- 
 cord with the recognized symbolism of the 
 loss and the recovery of the Word. 
 
 Ecossais. 1. The fourth degree of 
 Ramsay's Rite, and the original whence all 
 the degrees of Ecossaism have sprung. 2. 
 The fifth degree of the French Rite. 3. 
 The Ecossais degrees constitute the fourth 
 class of the Rite of Mizraim, — from the 
 fourteenth to the twenty-first degree. In 
 the subsequent articles only the principal 
 Ecossais degrees will be mentioned. 
 
 Ecossais Architect, Perfect. 
 [Ecossais Architecte Par/ait) A degree in 
 the collection of M. Pyrou. 
 
 Ecossais, English. (Ecoss. Anglais.) 
 A degree in the Mother Lodge of the Phil- 
 osophic Rite. 
 
 Ecossais, Faithful. {Ecossais Fi- 
 dele.) See Vielle Bru. 
 
 Ecossais, French. The thirty-fifth 
 degree of the collection of the Metropolitan 
 Chapter of France. 
 
240 
 
 ECOSSAIS 
 
 EDICT 
 
 Ecossais, Grand. The fourteenth 
 degree of" the Scottish Rite is so called in 
 some of the French rituals. 
 
 Ecossais, Grand Architect. 
 
 {Grand Architect Ecossais.) The forty-fifth 
 degree of the Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. 
 
 Ecossais, Grand Master. Form- 
 erly the sixth degree of the Capitular sys- 
 tem, practised in Holland. 
 
 Ecossais, Knight. A synonym of 
 the ninth degree of Illuminism. It is more 
 commonly called Illuminatus Dirigens. 
 
 Ecossais, master. The fifth degree 
 of the Rite of Zinnendorf. It was also for- 
 merly among the high degrees of the Ger- 
 man Chapter and those of the Rite of the 
 Clerks of Strict Observance. It is said to 
 have, been composed by Baron Hund. 
 
 Ecossais BfOTice. A synonym of 
 the eighth degree of Illuminism. It is 
 more commonly called Illuminatus Major. 
 
 Ecossais of Clermont. The thir- 
 tieth degree of the Metropolitan Chapter 
 of France. 
 
 Ecossais of England. A degree 
 in the collection of M. Le Rouge. 
 
 Ecossais of Franville. The thir- 
 ty-first degree of the Metropolitan Chapter 
 of France. 
 
 Ecossais of Hiram. A degree 
 in the Mother Lodge of the Philosophic 
 Scotch Rite. 
 
 Ecossais of Messina. A degree in 
 the nomenclature of M. Fustier. 
 
 Ecossais of Montpellier. The 
 thirty-sixth degree of the Metropolitan 
 Chapter of France. 
 
 Ecossais of Maples. The forty- 
 second degree of the collection of the 
 Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Ecossais of Perfection. The 
 thirty- ninth degree of the collection of the 
 Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Ecossais of Prussia. A degree in 
 the archives of the Mother Lodge of the 
 Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Ecossais of St. Andrew. A not 
 unusual form of Ecossaism, and found in 
 several Rites. 1. The second degree of the 
 Clerks of Strict Observance; 2. The twen- 
 ty-first degree of the Rite of Mizraim ; 3. 
 The twenty-ninth degree of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite is also an Ecos- 
 sais of St. Andrew ; 4. The sixty-third 
 degree of the collection of the Metropolitan 
 Chapter of France is an Ecossais of St. 
 Andrew of Scotland ; 5. The seventy-fifth 
 degree of the same collection is called Ecos- 
 sais of St. Andrew of the Thistle. 
 
 Ecossais of St. George. A degree 
 in the collection of Le Page. 
 
 Ecossais of the Forty. {Ecossais des 
 Quarante.) The thirty-fourth degree of the 
 
 collection of the Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. 
 
 Ecossais of the Lodge of Prince 
 Edward. A degree in the collection of 
 Pyron. This was probably a Stuart degree, 
 and referred to Prince Charles Edward, the 
 young Pretender. 
 
 Ecossais of the Sacred Tanlt of 
 James VI. 1. The thirty-third degree 
 of the collection of the Metropolitan Chap- 
 ter of France, said to have been composed 
 by the Baron Tschoudy. 2. The twentieth 
 degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 3. In the 
 French rituals, this name has been given to 
 the fourteenth degree of the Scottish Rite. 
 Chemin Dupontes says that the degree was 
 a homage paid to the kings of Scotland. 
 Nothing, however, of this can be found in 
 its present ritual ; but it is very probable 
 that the degree, in its first conception, and 
 in some ritual that no longer exists, was an 
 offspring of the house of Stuart, of which 
 James VI. was the first English king. 
 
 Ecossais of the Three J. J. J. 
 
 1. The thirty-second degree of the collec- 
 tion of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 2. The nineteenth degree of the Rite of 
 Mizraim. The three J. J. J. are the ini- 
 tials of Jourdain, Jaho, Jachin. 
 
 Ecossais of Toulouse. A degree 
 in the archives of the Mother Lodge of the 
 Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Ecossais of the Triple Trian- 
 gle. The thirty-seventh degree of the col- 
 lection of the Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. 
 
 Ecossais, Parisian. So Thory has 
 it; but Ragon, and all the other nomencla- 
 tors, give it as Ecossais Panissiere. The 
 seventeenth degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Ecossais, Perfect. A degree in the 
 archives of the Mother Lodge of the Philo- 
 sophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Ecossism. A name given by French 
 Masonic writers to the thirty-three degrees 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 This, in English, would be equivalent to 
 Scottish Masonry, which see. 
 
 Ecuador. Masonry was introduced 
 into the Republic of Ecuador, in the year 
 1857, by the Grand Orient of Peru, which 
 organized a Symbolic Lodge and Chapter 
 of the eighth degree in Guayaquil ; but in 
 consequence of the opposition of the priests, 
 these bodies did not flourish, and at the 
 end of two years their members surrendered 
 their warrants and ceased to pursue their 
 Masonic labors. 
 
 Edict of Cyrus. Five hundred and 
 thirty-six years before the Christian era, 
 Cyrus issued his edict permitting the Jews 
 to return from the captivity at Babylon to 
 Jerusalem, and to rebuild the House of the 
 Lord. At the same time he restored to 
 
EDICTS 
 
 EGG 
 
 241 
 
 them all the sacred vessels and precious 
 ornaments of the first Temple, which had 
 been carried away by Nebuchadnezzar, and 
 which were still in existence. This is com- 
 memorated in the Royal Arch degree of 
 the York and American Rites. It is also 
 referred to in the fifteenth degree, or Knight 
 of the East of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 Edicts. The decrees of a Grand Mas- 
 ter or of a Grand Lodge are called Edicts, 
 and obedience to them is obligatory on all 
 the Craft. 
 
 Edinburgh. The capital of Scotland. 
 The Official Register of the Grand Lodge 
 of Scotland, published at the end of its 
 "Laws and Constitutions," (Edit. 1852, p. 
 60,) states that the " Lodge of Edinburgh, 
 No. 1," was instituted in 1518; and the 
 Charter of Cologne speaks of the existence 
 of a Lodge in that city in 1535, but the au- 
 thenticity of this document is now gener- 
 ally disputed. Lawrie, however, [Hist. 
 Freem., p. 102,) says that the Minutes of St. 
 Mary's Lodge, which is the oldest Lodge 
 in Edinburgh, extend as far back as the 
 year 1598. See Scotland. 
 
 Edinburgh, Congress of. It was 
 convoked, in 1736, by William St. Clair of 
 Roslin, Patron of the Masons of Scotland, 
 (whose mother Lodge was at Kilwinning,) 
 with the view of abdicating his dignity as 
 hereditary Grand Patron, with all the privi- 
 leges granted in 1430, by King James II., 
 to the family of Roslin, and afterwards to 
 organize Masonry upon a new basis. The 
 members of thirty-two Lodges uniting for 
 this purpose, constituted the new Grand 
 Lodge of Scotland, and elected St. Clair 
 Grand Master. See St. Clair. 
 
 Edwin. The son of Edward, Saxon 
 king of England, who died in 924, and was 
 succeeded by his eldest son Athelstau. 
 The Masonic tradition is that Athelstan 
 appointed his brother Edwin the Patron 
 of Masonry in England, and gave him what 
 the Old Records call a free Charter to hold 
 an Annual Communication or General As- 
 sembly, under the authority of which he 
 summoned the Masons of England to meet 
 him in a Congregation at York, where they 
 met in 926 and formed the Grand Lodge 
 of England. The Old Records say that 
 these Masons brought with them many old 
 writings and records of the Craft, some in 
 Greek, some in Latin, some in French, and 
 other languages, and from these framed 
 the document now known as the York Con- 
 stitutions, whose authenticity has been in 
 recent years so much a subject of contro- 
 versy among Masonic writers. Prince Ed- 
 win died two years before his brother, and 
 a report was spread of his being put wrong- 
 fully to death by him ; " but this," says 
 Preston, " is so improbable in itself, so in- 
 2P 16 
 
 consistent with the character of Athelstan, 
 and, indeed, so slenderly attested, as to be 
 undeserving a place in history." William 
 of Malmesbury, the old chronicler, relates 
 the story, but confesses that it had no bet- 
 ter foundation than some old ballads. But 
 now come the later Masonic antiquaries, 
 who assert that Edwin himself is only a 
 myth, and that, in spite of the authority of 
 a few historical writers, Athelstan had no 
 son or brother of the name of Edwin. 
 Woodford ( Old Charges of the Brit. Free- 
 masons, p. xiv.,) thinks that the Masonic 
 tradition points to Edwin, king of Northum- 
 bria, whose rendezvous was once at Auldby, 
 near York, and who in 627 aided in the 
 building of a stone church at York, after 
 his baptism there, with Roman workmen. 
 " Tradition," he says, " sometimes gets con- 
 fused after the lapse of time; but I believe 
 the tradition is in itself true which links 
 Masonry to the church building at York 
 by the Operative Brotherhood, under Ed- 
 win, in 627, and to a gild Charter under 
 Athelstan, in 927." 
 
 The legend of Prince Edwin, of course, 
 requires some modification, but we should 
 not be too hasty in rejecting altogether a 
 tradition which has been so long and so 
 universally accepted by the Fraternity, and 
 to which Anderson, Preston, Krause, Oli- 
 ver, and a host of other writers, have sub- 
 scribed their assent. The subject will be 
 fully discussed under the head of York Con- 
 stitutions, which see. 
 
 Egg, Mundane. It was a belief of 
 almost all the ancient nations, that the 
 world was hatched from an egg made by 
 the Creator, over which the Spirit of God 
 was represented as hovering in the same 
 manner as a bird broods or flutters over her 
 eggs. Faber, {Pag. Idol., i. 4,) who traced 
 everything to the Arkite worship, says that 
 this egg, which was a symbol of the resur- 
 rection, was no other than the ark ; and as 
 Dionysus was fabled in the Orphic hymns 
 to be born from an egg, he and Noah were 
 the same person ; wherefore the birth of 
 Dionysus or Brahma, or any other hero 
 god from an egg, was nothing more than 
 the egress of Noah from the ark. Be this 
 as it may, the egg has been always deemed 
 a symbol of the resurrection, and hence the 
 Christian use of Easter eggs on the great 
 feast of the resurrection of our Lord. As 
 this is the most universally diffused of all 
 symbols, it is strange that it has found no 
 place in the symbolism of Freemasonry, 
 which deals so much with the doctrine of 
 the resurrection, of which the egg was 
 everywhere the recognized symbol. It was, 
 however, used by the ancient architects, 
 and from them was adopted by the Ope- 
 rative Masons of the Middle Ages, one of 
 
242 
 
 EGLINTON 
 
 EGYPTIAN 
 
 whose favorite ornaments was the ovolo, or 
 egg-moulding. 
 Eglinton Manuscript. An Old 
 
 Record supposed to be of the date of 1599. 
 It is so named from its having been dis- 
 covered some years ago in the charter chest 
 at Eglinton Castle. It is a Scottish manu- 
 script, and is valuable for its details of 
 early Masonry in Scotland. In it, Edin- 
 burgh is termed "the first and principal 
 Lodge," and Kilwinning is called " the 
 heid and secund Ludge of Scotland in all 
 tyme cuming." An exact copy of it was 
 taken by Bro. D. Murray Lyon, and first 
 published by Bro. W. J. Hughan in his 
 Unpublished Records of the Craft. 
 
 Egyptian Masonry. See Cagliostro. 
 
 Egyptian Mysteries. Egypt has 
 always been considered as the birthplace 
 of the mysteries. It was there that the 
 ceremonies of initiation were first estab- 
 lished. It was there that truth was first 
 veiled in allegory, and the dogmas of reli- 
 gion were first imparted under symbolic 
 forms. From Egypt — " the land of the 
 winged globe " — the land of science and 
 philosophy, "peerless for stately tombs 
 and magnificent temples — the land whose 
 civilization was old and mature before other 
 nations, since called to empire, had a 
 name" — this system of symbols was dis- 
 seminated through Greece and Rome and 
 other countries of Europe and Asia, giving 
 origin, through many intermediate steps, to 
 that mysterious association which is now rep- 
 resented by the Institution of Freemasonry. 
 
 To Egypt, therefore, Masons have always 
 looked with peculiar interest, as the cradle 
 of that mysterious science of symbolism 
 whose peculiar modes of teaching they 
 alone, of all modern institutions, have pre- 
 served to the present day. 
 
 The initiation into the Egyptian myste- 
 ries was, of all the systems practised by 
 the ancients, the most severe and impres- 
 sive. The Greeks at Eleusis imitated it to 
 some extent, but they never reached the 
 magnitude of its forms nor the austerity of 
 its discipline. The system had been organ- 
 ized for ages, and the priests, who alone 
 were the hierophants, — the explainers of 
 the mysteries, or, as we should call them 
 in Masonic language, the Masters of the 
 Lodges, — were educated almost from child- 
 hood for the business in which they were 
 engaged. That " learning of the Egyp- 
 tians," in which Moses is said to have been 
 so skilled, was all imparted in these myste- 
 ries. It was confined to the priests and to 
 the initiates; and the trials of initiation 
 through which the latter had to pass were 
 so difficult to be endured, that none but those 
 who were stimulated by the most ardent 
 thirst for knowledge dared to undertake 
 them or succeeded in submitting to them. 
 
 The priesthood of Egypt constituted a 
 sacred caste, in whom the sacerdotal func- 
 tions were hereditary. They exercised also 
 an important part in the government of the 
 state, and the kings of Egypt were but the 
 first subjects of its priests. They had 
 originally organized, and continued to con- 
 trol, the ceremonies of initiation. Their 
 doctrines were of two kinds — exoteric or 
 public, which were communicated to the 
 multitude, and esoteric or secret, which 
 were revealed only to a chosen few ; and to 
 obtain them it was necessary to pass through 
 an initiation which was characterized by 
 the severest trials of courage and fortitude. 
 
 The principal seat of the mysteries was 
 at Memphis, in the neighborhood of the 
 great Pyramid. They were of two kinds, 
 the greater and the less ; the former being 
 the mysteries of Osiris and Serapis, the 
 latter those of Isis. The mysteries of Osi- 
 ris were celebrated at the autumnal equinox, 
 those of Serapis at the summer solstice, and 
 those of Isis at the vernal equinox. 
 
 The candidate was required to exhibit 
 proofs of a blameless life. For some days 
 previous to the commencement of the cere- 
 monies of initiation, he abstained from all 
 unchaste acts, confined himself to an ex- 
 ceedingly light diet, from which animal 
 food was rigorously excluded, and purified 
 himself by repeated ablutions. 
 
 Apuleius, (Met., lib. xi.,) who had been 
 initiated in all of them, thus alludes, with 
 cautious reticence, to those of Isis : " The 
 priest, all the profane being removed to a 
 distance, taking hold of me by the hand, 
 brought me into the inner recesses of the 
 sanctuary itself, clothed in a new linen 
 garment. Perhaps, curious reader, you 
 may be eager to know what was then said 
 and dona I would tell you were it lawful 
 for me to tell you ; you should know it if 
 it were lawful for you to hear. But both 
 the ears that heard those things and the 
 tongue that told them would reap the evil 
 results of their rashness. Still, however, 
 kept in suspense, as you probably are, with 
 religious longing, I will not torment you 
 with long-protracted anxiety. Hear, there- 
 fore, but believe what is the truth. / ap- 
 proached the confines of death, and, having 
 trod on the threshold of Proserpine, I re- 
 turned therefrom, being borne through all 
 the elements. At midnight I saw the sun 
 shining with its brilliant light; and I ap- 
 proached the presence of the gods beneath 
 and the gods above, and stood near and 
 worshipped them. Behold, I have related 
 to you things of which, though heard by 
 you, you must necessarily remain ignorant." 
 
 The first degree, as we may term it, of 
 Egyptian initiation was that into the mys- 
 teries of Isis. What was its peculiar import, 
 we are unable to say. Isis, says Knight, 
 
EGYPTIAN 
 
 EGYPTIAN 
 
 243 
 
 was, among the later Egyptians, the per- 
 sonification of universal nature. To Apu- 
 leius she says: "I am nature — the parent 
 of all things, the sovereign of the elements, 
 the primary progeny of time." Plutarch 
 tells us that on the front of the temple of 
 Isis was placed this inscription: "I, Isis, 
 am all that has been, that is, or shall be, 
 and no mortal hath ever unveiled me." 
 Thus we may conjecture that the Isiac 
 mysteries were descriptive of the alternate 
 decaying and renovating powers of nature. 
 Higgins, (AnacaL, ii. 102,) it is true, says 
 that during the mysteries of Isis were cele- 
 brated the misfortunes and tragical death 
 of Osiris in a sort of drama ; and Apuleius 
 asserts that the initiation into her myste- 
 ries is celebrated as bearing a close resem- 
 blance to a voluntary death, with a preca- 
 rious chance of recovery. But Higgins 
 gives no authority for his statement, and 
 that of Apuleius cannot be constrained into 
 any reference to the enforced death of 
 Osiris. It is, therefore, probable that the 
 ceremonies of this initiation were simply 
 preparatory to that of the Osirian, and 
 taught, by instructions in the physical laws 
 of nature, the necessity of moral purifica- 
 tion, a theory which is not incompatible 
 with all the mystical allusions of Apuleius 
 when he describes his own initiation. 
 
 The mysteries of Serapis constituted the 
 second degree of the Egyptian initiation. 
 Of these rites we have but a scanty knowl- 
 edge. Herodotus is entirely silent concern- 
 ing them, and Apuleuis, calling them " the 
 nocturnal orgies of Serapis, a god of the first 
 rank," only intimates that they followed 
 those of Isis, and were preparatory to the 
 last and greatest initiation. Serapis is said 
 to have been only Osiris while in Hades; 
 and hence the Serapian initiation might 
 have represented the death of Osiris, but 
 leaving the lesson of resurrection for a sub- 
 sequent initiation. But this is merely a con- 
 jecture. 
 
 In the mysteries of Osiris, which were the 
 consummation of the Egyptian system, the 
 lesson of death and resurrection was sym- 
 bolically taught; and the legend of the 
 murder of Osiris, the search for the body, 
 its discovery and restoration to life is scen- 
 ically represented. This legend of initia- 
 tion was as follows. Osiris, a wise king of 
 Egypt, left the care of his kingdom to his 
 wife Isis, and travelled for three years to 
 communicate to other nations the arts of 
 civilization. During his absence, his broth- 
 er Typhon formed a secret conspiracy to 
 destroy him and to usurp his throne. On 
 his return, Osiris was invited by Typhon 
 to an entertainment in the month of No- 
 vember, at which all the conspirators were 
 present. Typhon produced a chest inlaid 
 with gold, and promised to give it to any 
 
 person present whose body would most ex- 
 actly fit it. Osiris was tempted to try the 
 experiment; but he had no sooner laid 
 down in the chest, than the lid was closed 
 and nailed down, and the chest thrown into 
 the river Nile. The chest containing the 
 body of Osiris was, after being for a long 
 time tossed about by the waves, finally 
 cast up at Byblos in Phoenicia, and left at 
 the foot of a tamarisk tree. Isis, over- 
 whelmed with grief for the loss of her hus- 
 band, set out on a journey, and traversed 
 the earth in search of the body. After 
 many adventures, she at length discovered 
 the spot whence it had been thrown up by 
 the waves, and returned with it in triumph 
 to Egypt. It was then proclaimed, with 
 the most extravagant demonstrations of 
 joy, that Osiris was risen from the dead 
 and had become a god. Such, with slight 
 variations of details by different writers, 
 are the general outlines of the Osiric le- 
 gend which was represented in the drama 
 of initiation. Its resemblance to the Hi- 
 ramic legend of the Masonic system will 
 be readily seen, and its symbolism will be 
 easily understood. Osiris and Typhon are 
 the representatives of the two antagonistic 
 principles — good and evil, light and dark- 
 ness, life and death. 
 
 There is also an astronomical interpreta- 
 tion of the legend which makes Osiris the 
 sun and Typhon the season of winter, 
 which suspends the fecundating and fertil- 
 izing powers of the sun or destroys its life, 
 to be restored only by the return of invig- 
 orating spring. 
 
 The sufferings and death of Osiris were 
 the great mystery of the Egyptian religion. 
 His being the abstract idea of the divine 
 goodness, his manifestation upon earth, his 
 death, his resurrection, and his subsequent 
 office as judge of the dead in a future state, 
 look, says Wilkinson, like the early revela- 
 tion of a future manifestation of the deity 
 converted into a mythological fable. 
 
 Into these mysteries Herodotus, Plu- 
 tarch, and Pythagoras were initiated, and 
 the former two have given brief accounts 
 of them. But their own knowledge must 
 have been extremely limited, for, as Clem- 
 ent of Alexandria [Strom., v. 7,) tells us, 
 the more important secrets were not re- 
 vealed even to all the priests, but to a 
 select number of them only. 
 
 Egyptian Priests, Initiations of 
 the. In the year 1770, there was pub- 
 lished at Berlin a work entitled Grata Be- 
 poa; oder Einweihungen der Egyptischen 
 Priester, i. e. Crata Repoa; or, Initiations 
 of the Egyptian Priests. This book was 
 subsequently republished in 1778, and 
 translated into French under the revision 
 of Ragon, and published at Paris in 1821, 
 by Bailleul. It professed to give the whole 
 
244 
 
 EHEYEH 
 
 EHEYEH 
 
 formula of the initiation into the mysteries 
 practised by the ancient Egyptian priests. 
 Lenning cites the work, and gives an out- 
 line of the system as if he thought it an 
 authentic relation ; but Giidicke more pru- 
 dently says of it that he doubts that there 
 are more mysteries described in the book 
 than were ever practised by the ancient 
 Egyptian priests. The French writers 
 have generally accepted it as genuine. 
 Forty years before, the Abbe Terrasson had 
 written a somewhat similar work, in which 
 he pretended to describe the initiation of 
 a Prince of Egypt. Kloss, in his Bibli- 
 ography, has placed this latter work under 
 the head of "Romances of theOrder ; " and a 
 similar place should doubtless be assigned to 
 the Crata Repoa. The curious may, however, 
 be gratified by a brief detail of the system. 
 
 According to the Crata Repoa, the priests 
 of Egypt conferred their initiation at 
 Thebes. The mysteries were divided into 
 the following seven degrees. 1. Pastoph- 
 oros. 2. Neocoros. 3. Melanophoros. 4. 
 Kistophoros. 5. Balahate. 6. Astrono- 
 mos. 7. Propheta. The first degree was 
 devoted to instructions in the physical 
 sciences ; the second, to geometry and archi- 
 tecture. In the third degree, the candidate 
 was instructed in the symbolical death of 
 Osiris, and was made acquainted with the 
 hieroglyphical language. In the fourth, he 
 was presented with the book of the laws of 
 Egypt, and became a judge. The instruc- 
 tions of the fifth degree were dedicated to 
 chemistry, and of the sixth to astronomy 
 and the mathematical sciences. In the 
 seventh and last degree the candidate re- 
 ceived a detailed explanation of all the 
 mysteries, his head was shaved, and he was 
 presented with a cross, which he was con- 
 stantly to carry, a white mantle, and a 
 square head dress. To each degree was at- 
 tached a word and sign. Any one who 
 should carefully read the Crata Repoa, 
 would be convinced that, so far from 
 being founded on any ancient system of 
 initiation, it was simply a modern in- 
 vention made up out of the high degrees 
 of continental Masonry. It is indeed sur- 
 prising that Lenning and Ragon should 
 have treated it as if it had the least claims 
 to antiquity. 
 
 Eheyeh st slier Eheyeh. The pro- 
 nunciation of rvn^ "ie\v St n& which 
 
 means, / am that I am, and is one of the 
 pentateuchal names of God. It is related 
 in the third chapter of Exodus, that when 
 God appeared to Moses in the burning 
 bush, and directed him to go to Pharaoh 
 and to the children of Israel in Egypt, 
 Moses required that, as preliminary to his 
 mission, he should be instructed in the 
 name of God, so that, when he was asked 
 by the Israelites, he might be able to prove 
 
 his mission by announcing what that name 
 was; and God said tohim,|"Vntf>(Eheyeh,) 
 lam that lam/ and he directed him to say, 
 " / am hath sent you." Eheyeh asher eheyeh 
 is, therefore, the name of God, in which 
 Moses was instructed at the burning bush. 
 
 Maimonides thinks that when the Lord 
 ordered Moses to tell the people that (THX 
 (Eheyeh) sent him, he did not mean that 
 he should only mention his name ; for if 
 they were already acquainted with it. he 
 told them nothing new, and if they were 
 not, it was not likely that they would be 
 satisfied by saying such a name sent me, for 
 the proof would still be wanting that this 
 was really the name of God ; therefore, he 
 not only told them the name, but also taught 
 them its signification. In those times, Sa- 
 baism being the predominant religion, al- 
 most all men were idolaters, and occupied 
 themselves in the contemplation of the 
 heavens and the sun and the stars, with- 
 out any idea of a personal God in the 
 world. Now, the Lord, to deliver his people 
 from such an error, said to Moses, " Go and 
 tell them I AM THAT I AM hath sent me 
 unto you," which name JTnN> (Eheyeh,) 
 signifying Being, is derived from rrn, 
 (heyeh,) the verb of existence, and which, 
 being repeated so that the second is the 
 predicate of the first, contains the mys- 
 tery. This is as if he had said, " Ex- 
 plain to them that lam what I am: that is, 
 that my Being is within myself, indepen- 
 dent of every other, different from all other 
 beings, who are so alone by virtue of my 
 distributing it to them, and might not have 
 been, nor could actually be, such without 
 it." So that rTn^ denotes the Divine 
 Being Himself, by which he taught Moses 
 not. only the name, but the infallible de- 
 monstration of the Fountain of Existence, 
 as the name itself denotes. The Kabba- 
 lists say that Eheyeh is the crown or high- 
 est of the Sephiroth, and that it is the 
 name that was hidden in the most secret 
 place of the tabernacle. 
 
 The Talmudists had many fanciful exer- 
 citations on this word JT("7tf> an( ^> among 
 others, said that it is equivalent to j"?liT> 
 and the four letters of which it is formed 
 possess peculiar properties. fc$ is in He- 
 brew numerically equivalent to 1, and * to 
 10, which is equal to 11; a result also ob- 
 tained by taking the second and third 
 letters of the holy name, or n and \ which 
 are 5 and 6, amounting to 11. But the 5 
 and 6 invariably produce the same number 
 in their multiplication, for 5 times 5 are 
 25, and 6 times 6 are 36, and this invari- 
 able product of ,"f aQ d 1 was said to denote 
 the unchangeableness of the First Cause. 
 Again, lam, (THX* commences with }< or 
 1, the beginning of numbers, and Jehovah, 
 H^IT* with * or 10, the end of numbers, 
 
EIGHT 
 
 ELECT 
 
 245 
 
 which signified that God was the begin- 
 ning and end of all things. The phrase, 
 Eheyeh as/ier eheyeh, is of importance in the 
 study of the legend of the .Royal Arch sys- 
 tem. Some years ago, that learned Mason, 
 William S. Rorkwell, while preparing his 
 Ahiman Rezon for the State of Georgia, 
 undertook, but beyond that jurisdiction 
 unsuccessfully, to introduce it as a password 
 to the veils. 
 
 Eight. Among the Pythagoreans the 
 number eight was esteemed as the first cube, 
 being formed by the continued multiplica- 
 tion of 2 X 2 X 2, and signified friendship, 
 prudence, counsel, and justice; and, as the 
 cube or reduplication of the first even num- 
 ber, it was made to refer to the primitive 
 law of nature, which supposes all men to 
 be equal. Christian numerical symbolo- 
 gists nave called it the symbol of the resur- 
 rection, because Jesus rose on the. 8th day, 
 i. e. the day after the 7th, and because the 
 name of Jesus in Greek numerals, corres- 
 ponding to its Greek letters, is 10, 8, 200, 
 70, 400, 200, which, being added up, is 888. 
 Hence, too, they call it the Dominical Num- 
 ber. As 8 persons were saved in the ark, 
 those who, like Faber, have adopted the 
 theory that the Arkite Rites pervaded 
 all the religions of antiquity, find an im- 
 
 Sortant symbolism in this number, and as 
 Toah was the type of the resurrection, they 
 again find in it a reference to that doctrine. 
 It can, however, be scarcely reckoned 
 among the numerical symbols of Masonry. 
 Eighty-One. A sacred number in 
 the high degrees, because it is the square 
 of nine, which is again the square of three. 
 The Pythagoreans, however, who considered 
 the nine as a fatal number, especially 
 dreaded eighty-one, because it was pro- 
 duced by the multiplication of nine by itself. 
 El, Sx. One of the Hebrew names of 
 God, signifying the Mighty One. It is the 
 root of many of the other names of Deity, 
 and also, therefore, of many of the sacred 
 words in the high degrees. Bryant (Anc. 
 Myth., i. 16,) says it was the true name of 
 God, but transferred by the Sabians to the 
 sun, whence the Greeks borrowed their 
 helios. 
 
 Elchanan, jJtwX. God has graciously 
 given. In the authorized version, it is im- 
 properly translated Elhanan. Jerome says 
 that it meant David, because in 2 Sam. 
 xxi. 19, it is said that Elchanan slew Go- 
 liath. A significant word in the high de- 
 grees, which has undergone much corrup- 
 tion and various changes of form. In the 
 old rituals it is Eleham. Lenning gives El- 
 chanam, and incorrectly translates, mercy 
 of Ood ; Delaunay calls it Eliham, and 
 translates it, God of the people, in which 
 Pike concurs. 
 
 Elders. This word is used in some of 
 the old Constitutions to designate those 
 Masons who, from their rank and age, were 
 deputed to obligate Apprentices when ad- 
 mitted into the Craft. Thus in the Con- 
 stitutions of Masonrie, preserved in the ar- 
 chives of the Lodge at York, with the date 
 of 1704, and which were firstpublished by 
 Bro. Wm. J. Hughan, [Hist. Frem. in York, 
 p. 98,) we find this expression, Tunc, unusex 
 Senioribus Teneat librum, etc., which in 
 another manuscript, dated 1693, preserved 
 in the same archives, and for the publica- 
 tion of which we are also indebted to Bro. 
 Hughan, the same passage is thus trans- 
 lated, " Then one of the elders takeing the 
 Booke, and that hee or shee that is to bee 
 made Mason shall lay their hands thereon, 
 and the charge shall be given." 
 
 Elect. See Elu. 
 
 Elect Brother. The seventh de- 
 gree of the Rite of Zinnendorf and of the 
 National Grand Lodge of Berlin. 
 
 Elect Cohens, Order of. See 
 Paschalis, Martin. 
 
 Elect Commander. {Elu Com- 
 mandeur.) A degree mentioned in Fus- 
 tier's nomenclature of degrees. 
 
 Elect. Grand. {Grand Elu.) The 
 fourteenth degree of the Chapter of the 
 Emperors of the East and West. The 
 same as the Grand Elect, Perfect and Sub- 
 lime Mason of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 Elect Lady, Sublime. {Dame, Elu 
 Sublime.) An androgynous degree con- 
 tained in the collection of Pyron. 
 
 Elect, Little English. {Petit Elu 
 Anglais.) The Little English Elect was a 
 degree of the Ancient Chapter of Cler- 
 mont. The degree is now extinct. 
 
 Elect Master. {Mditre Elu.) 1. 
 The thirteenth degree of the collection of 
 the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 2. 
 The fifth degree of the Rite of Zinnendorf. 
 
 Electof Fifteen. {Elu des Quinze.) 
 The tenth degree in the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite. The place of meet- 
 ing is called a chapter; the emblematic 
 color is black, strewed with tears ; and the 
 principal officers are a Thrice Illustrious 
 Master and two Inspectors. The history of 
 this degree develops the continuation and 
 conclusion of the punishment inflicted on 
 three traitors who, j ust before the conclu- 
 sion of the Temple, had committed a crime 
 of the most atrocious character. The de- 
 gree is now more commonly called Illustrious 
 Elu of the Fifteen. The same degree is 
 found in the Chapter of Emperors of the 
 East and West, and in the Rite of Miz- 
 raim. 
 
 Elect of London. {Elus des Lon- 
 dres.) The seventieth degree of the collec- 
 tion of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
246 
 
 ELECT 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 
 Elect of X i n e. ( Elu des Neuf. ) The 
 ninth degree of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite. In the old rituals there were two 
 officers who represented Solomon and 
 Stolkin. But in the revised ritual of the 
 Southern Jurisdiction, the principal officers 
 are a Master and two Inspectors. The 
 meetings are called Chapters. The degree 
 details the mode in which certain traitors, 
 who, just before the completion of the Tem- 
 ple, had been engaged in an execrable 
 deed of villany, received their punishment. 
 The symbolic colors are red, white, and 
 black ; the white emblematic of the purity 
 of the knights ; the red, of the crime which 
 was committed; and the black, of grief. 
 This is the first of the elu degrees, and the 
 one on which the whole elu system has 
 been founded. 
 
 Elect of Nine and Fifteen. (Au- 
 serwahlte der Neun und der Funfzehn.) The 
 first and second points of the fourth degree 
 of the old system of the Royal York Lodge 
 of Berlin. 
 
 Elect of Perignan. {Elu de Pe- 
 rignan.) A degree illustrative of the pun- 
 ishment inflicted upon certain criminals 
 whose exploits constitute a portion of the 
 legend of Symbolic Masonry. The sub- 
 stance of this degree is to be found in the 
 Elect of Nine, and Elect of Fifteen in the 
 Scottish Rite, with both of which it is 
 closely connected. It is the sixth degree 
 of the Adonhiramite Rite. See Perignan. 
 
 Elect of the Xew Jerusalem. 
 Formerly the eighth and last of the high 
 degrees of the Grand Chapter of Berlin. 
 
 Elect of the Twelve Tribes. {Elu 
 des douze Tribus.) The seventeenth degree 
 of the collection of the Metropolitan Chapter 
 of France. 
 
 Elect of Truth , Rite of. ( Rite des 
 Elus de la Verite.) This Rite was instituted 
 in 1776, by the Lodge of Perfect Union, at 
 Rennes, in France. A few Lodges in the 
 interior of France adopted this regime; but, 
 notwithstanding its philosophical character, 
 it never became popular, and finally, about 
 the end of the eighteenth century, fell into 
 disuse. It consisted of twelve degrees di- 
 vided into two classes, as follows : 
 
 1st Class. Knights Adepts. 1. Appren- 
 tice; 2. Fellow Craft; 3. Master; 4. Per- 
 ff*ot \T lister 
 
 2d Class.' Elects of Truth. 5. Elect of 
 Nine; 6. Elect of Fifteen; 7. Master Elect; 
 8. Architect; 9. Second Architect; 10. 
 Grand Architect; 11. Knight of the East; 
 12. Prince of Rose Croix. 
 
 Elect of Twelve. See Knight Elect 
 of Twelve. 
 
 Elect, Perfect. (Parfait Elu.) The 
 twelfth degree of the Metropolitan Chapter 
 of France, and also of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Elect, Perfect and Sublime 
 Mason. See Perfection, Degree of. 
 
 Elect Philosopher. A degree 
 under this name is found in the instruc- 
 tions of the Philosophic Scottish Rite, and 
 in the collection of Viany. 
 
 Elect Secret, Severe Inspector. 
 {Elu Secret, Severe Inspecteur.) The four- 
 teenth degree of the collection of the Me- 
 tropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Elect, Sovereign. {Elu Souverain.) 
 The fifty-ninth degree of the Rite of Miz- 
 raim. 
 
 Elect, Sublime. {Elu Sublime.) The 
 fifteenth degree of the collection of the Me- 
 tropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Elect, Supreme. {Elu Supreme.) 
 The seventy-fourth degree of the collection 
 of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 It is also a degree in the collection of 
 M. Pyron, and, under the name of Tab- 
 ernacle of Perfect Elect, is contained in 
 the archives of the Mother Lodge of the 
 Philosophic Rite. 
 
 Election of Officers. The election 
 of the officers of a Lodge is generally held 
 on the meeting which precedes the festival 
 of St. John the Evangelist, and sometimes 
 on that festival itself. Should a Lodge 
 fail to make the election at that time, no 
 election can be subsequently held except 
 by dispensation ; and it is now very gener- 
 ally admitted, that should any one of the 
 officers die or remove from the jurisdiction 
 during the period for which he was elected, 
 no election can take place to supply the 
 vacancy, but the office must be filled tem- 
 porarily until the next election. If it be 
 the Master, the Senior Warden succeeds to 
 the office. For the full exposition of the 
 law on this subject, see Vacancy. 
 
 Elective Officers. In this country, 
 all the officers of a Symbolic Lodge except 
 the Deacons, Stewards, and sometimes the 
 Tiler, are elected by the members of the 
 Lodge. In England, the rule is different. 
 There the Master, Treasurer, and Tiler only 
 are elected ; the other officers are appointed 
 by the Master. 
 
 Eleham. See Elchanan. 
 
 Elements. It was the doctrine of the 
 old philosophies, sustained by the author- 
 ity of Aristotle, that there were four prin- 
 ciples of matter — fire, air, earth, and water, 
 — which they called elements. Modern 
 science has shown the fallacy of the theory. 
 But it was also taught by the Kabbalists, 
 and afterwards by the Rosicrucians, who, 
 according to the Abbe de Villars, {Le Comte 
 de Gabalis,) peopled them with supernatural 
 beings called, in the fire, Salamanders ; in 
 the air, Sylphs ; in the earth, Gnomes ; and 
 in the water, Undines. From the Rosicru- 
 cians and the Kabbalists, the doctrine 
 
ELEPHANTA 
 
 ELEUSINIAN 
 
 247 
 
 passed over into some of the high degrees of 
 Masonry, and is especially referred to in the 
 Ecossais or Scottish Knight of St. Andrew, 
 originally invented by the Chevalier Ram- 
 say. In this degree we find the four angels 
 of the four elements described as Andarel, 
 the angel of fire ; Casmaran, of air ; Tal- 
 liad, of water ; and Furlac, of earth ; and 
 the signs refer to the same elements. 
 
 Elephanta. The cavern of Elephanta, 
 situated on the island of Gharipour, in the 
 Gulf of Bombay, is the most ancient tem- 
 ple in the world, and was the principal 
 place for the celebration of the mysteries 
 of India. It is one hundred and thirty-five 
 feet square and eighteen feet high, sup- 
 ported by four massive pillars, and its walls 
 covered on all sides with statues and carved 
 decorations. Its adytum at the western ex- 
 tremity, which was accessible only to the 
 initiated, was dedicated to the Phallic wor- 
 ship. On each side were cells and passages 
 for the purpose of initiation, and a sacred 
 orifice for the mystical representation of 
 the doctrine of regeneration. See Maurice's 
 Indian Antiquities, for a full description of 
 this ancient scene of initiation. 
 
 Eleiisi it i;i n Mysteries. Of all the 
 mysteries of the ancient religions, those 
 celebrated at the village of Eleusis, near 
 the city of Athens, were the most splendid 
 and the most popular. To them men came, 
 says Cicero, from the remotest regions to 
 be initiated. They were also the most an- 
 cient, if we may believe St. Epiphanius, 
 who traces them to the reign of Inachus, 
 more than eighteen hundred years before 
 the Christian era. They were dedicated 
 to the goddess Demeter, the Ceres of the 
 Romans, who was worshipped by the 
 Greeks as the symbol of the prolific earth ; 
 and in them were scenically represented 
 the loss and the recovery of Persephone, and 
 the doctrines of the unity of God and the 
 immortality of the soul were esoterically 
 taught. The learned Faber believed that 
 there was an intimate connection between 
 the Arkite worship and the mysteries of 
 Eleusis; but Faber's theory was that the 
 Arkite rites, which he traced to almost all 
 the nations of antiquity, symbolized, in the 
 escape of Noah and the renovation of the 
 earth, the doctrines of the resurrection and 
 the immortal life. Plutarch (Be Is. et Os.) 
 says that the travels of Isis in search of 
 Osiris were not different from those of 
 Demeter in search of Persephone ; and 
 this view has been adopted by St. Croix 
 [Myst. du Pag.) and by Creuzer,(&/wi6.;) and 
 hence we may well suppose that the recov- 
 ery of the former at Byblos, and of the lat- 
 ter in Hades, were both intended to sym- 
 bolize the restoration of the soul after 
 death to eternal life. The learned have 
 
 generally admitted that when Virgil, in the 
 sixth book of his jEneid, depicted the de- 
 scent of iEneas into hell, he intended to 
 give a representation of the Eleusinian 
 mysteries. 
 
 The mysteries were divided into two 
 classes, the lesser and the greater. The 
 lesser mysteries were celebrated on the 
 banks of the Ilissus, whose waters supplied 
 the means of purification of the aspirants. 
 The greater mysteries were celebrated in 
 the temple at Eleusis. An interval of six 
 months occurred between them, the former 
 taking place in March and the latter in 
 September; which has led some writers to 
 suppose that there was some mystical refer- 
 ence to the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. 
 But, considering the character of Demeter 
 as the goddess of Agriculture, it might be 
 imagined, although this is a mere conjec- 
 ture, that the reference was to seed-time and 
 harvest. A year, however, was required to 
 elapse before the initiate into the lesser 
 mysteries was granted admission into the 
 greater. 
 
 In conducting the mysteries, there were 
 four officers, namely: 1. The Hierophant, 
 or explainer of the sacred things. As the 
 pontifex maximus in Rome, so he was the 
 chief priest of Attica ; he presided over the 
 ceremonies and explained the nature of the 
 mysteries to the initiated. 2. The Da- 
 douchus, or torch-bearer, who appears to 
 have acted as the immediate assistant of 
 the Hierophant. 3. The Hieroceryx, or 
 sacred herald, who had the general care of 
 the temple, guarded it from the profana- 
 tion of the uninitiated, and took charge of 
 the aspirant during the trials of initiation. 
 4. The Epibomus, or altar-server, who con- 
 ducted the sacrifices. 
 
 The ceremonies of initiation into the lesser 
 mysteries were altogether purificatory, and 
 intended to prepare the neophyte for his 
 reception into the more sublime rites of 
 the greater mysteries. This, an ancient 
 poet, quoted by Plutarch, illustrates by 
 saying that sleep is the lesser mysteries of 
 the death. The candidate who desired to 
 pass through this initiation entered the 
 modest temple, erected for that purpose on 
 the borders of the Ilissus, and there sub- 
 mitted to the required ablutions, typical of 
 moral purification. The Dadouchus then 
 placed his feet upon the skins of the vic- 
 tims which had been immolated to Jupiter. 
 Hesychius says that only the left foot was 
 placed on. the skins. In this position he 
 was asked if he had eaten bread, and if he 
 was pure; and his replies being satisfactory, 
 he passed through other symbolic cere- 
 monies, the mystical signification of which 
 was given to him, an oath of secresy having 
 been previously administered. The initiate 
 
248 
 
 ELEUSINIAN 
 
 ELEUSINIAN 
 
 into the lesser mysteries was called a mys- I 
 tes, a title which, being derived from a 
 Greek word meaning to shut the eyes, sig- 
 nified that he was yet blind as to the greater 
 truths thereafter to be revealed. 
 
 The greater mysteries lasted for nine 
 days, and were celebrated partly on the 
 Thriasian plain, which surrounded the tem- 
 ple, and partly in the temple of Eleusis 
 itself. Of this temple, one of the most 
 magnificent and the largest in Greece, not 
 a vestige is now left. Its antiquity was 
 very great, having been in existence, ac- 
 cording to Aristides the rhetorician, when 
 the Dorians marched against Athens. It 
 was burned by the retreating Persians 
 under Xerxes, but immediately rebuilt, 
 and finally destroyed with the city by 
 Alaric, " the Scourge of God," and all that 
 is now left of Eleusis and its spacious tem- 
 ple is the mere site occupied by the insig- 
 nificant Greek village of Lepsina, an evi- 
 dent corruption of the ancient name. 
 
 The public processions on the plain and 
 on the sacred way from Athens to Eleusis 
 were made in honor of Demeter and Perse- 
 phone, and made mystical allusions to 
 events in the life of both, and of the infant 
 Iacchus. These processions were made in 
 the daytime, but the initiation was noc- 
 turnal, and was reserved for the nights of 
 the sixth and seventh days. 
 
 The herald opened the ceremonies of 
 initiation into the greater mysteries by the 
 proclamation, e/caf, EKag, eare (3e(lij?.oi, " Re- 
 tire, O ye profane." Thus were the sacred 
 precincts tiled. The aspirant was clothed 
 with the skin of a calf. An oath of secrecy 
 was administered, and he was then asked, 
 "Have you eaten bread?" The reply to 
 which was, " I have fasted ; I have drunk 
 the sacred mixture; I have taken it out of 
 the chest ; I have spun ; I have placed it in 
 the basket, and from the basket laid it in 
 the chest." By this reply, the aspirant 
 showed that he had been duly prepared by 
 initiation into the lesser mysteries; for 
 Clement of Alexandria says that this 
 formula was a shibboleth, or password, by 
 which the mystae, or initiates, into the 
 lesser mysteries were known as such, and 
 admitted to the epopteia or greater initia- 
 tion. The gesture of spinning wool, in imi- 
 tation of what Demeter did in the time of 
 her affliction, seemed also to be used as a 
 sign of recognition. 
 
 The aspirant was now clothed in the sa- 
 cred tunic, and awaited in the vestibule the 
 opening of the doors of the sanctuary. 
 
 What subsequently took place must be 
 left in great part to conjecture, although 
 modern writers have availed themselves 
 of all the allusions that are to be found in 
 the ancients. The temple consisted of 
 
 three parts : the megaron, or sanctuary, cor- 
 responding to the holy place of the Temple 
 of Solomon ; the anactoron, or holy of ho- 
 lies, and a subterranean apartment beneath 
 the temple. Each of these was probably 
 occupied at a different portion of the initia- 
 tion. The representation of the infernal 
 regions, and the punishment of the unini- 
 tiated impious was appropriated to the sub- 
 terranean apartment, and was, as Sylvestre 
 de Sacy says, (Notes to St. Croix, i. 860,) an 
 episode of the drama which represented the 
 adventures of Isis, Osiris, and Typhon, or 
 of Demeter, Persephone, and Pluto. This 
 drama, the same author thinks, represented 
 the carrying away of Persephone, the 
 travels of Demeter in search of her lost 
 daughter, her descent into hell ; the union 
 of Pluto with Persephone, and was termi- 
 nated by the return of Demeter into the 
 upper world and the light of day. The 
 representation of this drama commenced 
 immediately after the profane had been 
 sent from the temple. And it is easy to 
 understand how the groans and wait- 
 ings with which the temple at one time 
 resounded might symbolize the sufferings 
 and the death of man, and the subse- 
 
 auent rejoicings at the return of the god- 
 ess might be typical of the joy for the 
 restoration of the soul to eternal life. 
 Others have conjectured that the drama of 
 the mysteries represented, in the deporta- 
 tion of Persephone to Hades by Pluto, the 
 departure, as it were, of the sun, or the 
 deprivation of its vivific power during the 
 winter months, and her reappearance on 
 earth, the restoration of the prolific sun in 
 summer. Others again tell us that the 
 last act of the mysteries represented the 
 restoration to life of the murdered Zagreus, 
 or Dionysus, by Demeter. Diodorus says 
 that the members of the body of Zagreus 
 lacerated by the Titans was represented in 
 the ceremonies of mysteries, as well as in 
 the Orphic hymns ; but he prudently adds 
 that he was not allowed to reveal the de- 
 tails to the uninitiated. Whatever was 
 the precise method of symbolism, it is evi- 
 dent that the true interpretation was the 
 restoration from death to eternal life, and 
 that the funereal part of the initiation re- 
 ferred to a loss, and the exultation after- 
 wards to a recovery. Hence it was folly 
 to deny the coincidence that exists between 
 this Eleusinian drama and that enacted in 
 the third degree of Masonry. It is not 
 claimed that the one was the uninterrupted 
 successor of the other, but there must have 
 been a common ideal source for the origin of 
 both. The lesson, the dogma, the symbol, 
 and the method of instruction are the same. 
 Having now, as Pindar says, "descended 
 beneath the hollow earth, and beheld those 
 
ELEUSINIAN 
 
 ELOQUENCE 
 
 249 
 
 mysteries," the initiate ceased to be a 
 mystes, or blind man, and was thenceforth 
 called an epopt, a word signifying he who 
 beholds. 
 
 The Eleusinian mysteries, which, by 
 their splendor, surpassed all contemporary 
 institutions of the kind, were deemed of so 
 much importance as to be taken under the 
 special protection of the state, and to the 
 council of five hundred were intrusted the 
 observance of the ordinances which regu- 
 lated them. By a law of Solon, the magis- 
 trates met every year at the close of the 
 festival, to pass sentence upon any who had 
 violated or transgressed any of the rules 
 which governed the administration of the 
 sacred rites. Any attempt to disclose the 
 esoteric ceremonies of initiation was pun- 
 ished with death. Plutarch tells us, in his 
 Lifeoj Alcibiades, that that votary of pleasure 
 was indicted for sacrilege, because he had 
 imitated the mysteries, and shown them to 
 his companions in the same dress as that 
 worn by the Hierophant ; and we get from 
 Livy (xxxi. 14,) the following relation: 
 
 Two Acarnanian youths, who had not 
 been initiated, accidentally entered the 
 temple of Demeter .during the celebration 
 of the mysteries. They were soon detected 
 by their absurd questions, and being carried 
 to the managers of the temple, although 
 it was evident that their intrusion was ac- 
 cidental, they were put to death for so hor- 
 rible a crime. It is not, therefore, surpris- 
 ing that, in the account of them, we should 
 find such uncertain and even conflicting 
 assertions of the ancient writers, who hesi- 
 tated to discuss publicly so forbidden a 
 subject. 
 
 The qualifications for initiation were ma- 
 turity of age and purity of life. Such was 
 the theory, although in practice these 
 qualifications were not always rigidly re- 
 garded. But the early doctrine was that 
 none but the pure, morally and ceremonially, 
 could be admitted to initiation. At first, 
 too, the right of admission was restricted 
 to natives of Greece; but even in the time 
 of Herodotus this law was dispensed with, 
 and the citizens of all countries were con- 
 sidered eligible. So in time these myste- 
 ries were extended beyond the limits of 
 Greece, and in the days of the empire they 
 were introduced into Rome, where they be- 
 came exceedingly popular. 
 
 The scenic representations, the partici- 
 pation in secret signs and words of recog- 
 nition, the instruction in a peculiar dogma, 
 and the establishment of a hidden bond of 
 fraternity, gave attraction to these myste- 
 ries, which lasted until the very fall of the 
 Roman empire, and exerted a powerful in- 
 fluence on the mystical associations of the 
 Middle Ages. The bond of union which 
 2G 
 
 connects them with the modern initiations 
 of Freemasonry is evident in the common 
 thought which pervades and identifies both; 
 though it is difficult, and perhaps impos- 
 sible, to trace all the connecting links of 
 the historic chain. We see the beginning 
 and we see the end of one pervading idea, 
 but the central point is hidden from us to 
 await some future discoverer. 
 
 Eleven. In the Prestonian lectures, 
 eleven was a mystical number, and was the 
 final series of steps in the winding stairs 
 of the Fellow Craft, which were said to 
 consist of 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11. The eleven 
 was referred to the eleven apostles after the 
 defection of Judas, and to the eleven sons 
 of Jacob after Joseph went into Egypt. 
 But when the lectures were revived by 
 Hemming, the eleven was struck out. In 
 Templar Masonry, however, eleven is still 
 significant as being the constitutional num- 
 ber required to open a Commandery ; and 
 here it is evidently allusive of the eleven 
 true disciples. 
 
 Eligibility for Initiation. See 
 Qualifications of Candidates. 
 
 Elihoreph. One of Solomon's secre- 
 taries. See Ahiah. 
 
 Elizabeth of England. Preston 
 {Illustrations, B. IV., §iv.,) states that the 
 following circumstance is recorded of this 
 sovereign : Hearing that the Masons were 
 in possession of secrets which they would 
 not reveal, and being jealous of all secret 
 assemblies, she sent an armed force to York, 
 with intent to break up their annual Grand 
 Lodge. This design, however, was happily 
 frustrated by the interposition of Sir 
 Thomas Sackville, who took care to initi- 
 ate some of the chief officers whom she 
 had sent on this duty. They joined in 
 communication with the Masons, and made 
 so favorable a report to the queen on their 
 return that she countermanded her orders, 
 and never afterwards attempted to disturb 
 the meetings of the Fraternity. The icon- 
 oclasts, of course, assert that the story is 
 void of authenticity. 
 
 Elizabeth of Portugal. In May, 
 1792, this queen, having conceived a suspi- 
 cion of the Lodges in Madeira, gave an 
 order to the governor to arrest all the Free- 
 masons in the island, and deliver them over 
 to the Inquisition. The rigorous execution 
 of this order occasioned an emigration of 
 many families, ten of whom repaired to 
 New York, and were liberally assisted by 
 the Masons of that city. 
 
 Elohini. DT6x. A name applied in 
 Hebrew to any deity, but sometimes also 
 to the true God. According to Lanci, it 
 means the most beneficent. It is not, how- 
 ever, much used in Masonry. 
 
 Eloquence of Masonry. Lawyers 
 
250 
 
 ELU 
 
 EMBLEM 
 
 boast of the eloquence of the bar, and 
 point to the arguments of counsel in well 
 known cases ; the clergy have the eloquence 
 of the pulpit exhibited in sermons, many 
 of which have a world-wide reputation ; 
 and statesmen vaunt of the eloquence of 
 Congress — some of the speeches, however, 
 being indebted, it is said, for their power 
 and beauty, to the talent of the stenographic 
 reporter rather than the member who is 
 supposed to be the author. 
 
 Freemasonry, too, has its eloquence, 
 which is sometimes, although not always, 
 of a very high order. This eloquence is to 
 be found in the addresses, orations, and 
 discourses which have usually been de- 
 livered on the great festivals of the Order, 
 at consecrations of Lodges, dedications of 
 halls, and the laying of foundation-stones. 
 These addresses constitute, in fact, the 
 principal part of the early literature of 
 Freemasonry. See Addresses, Masonic. 
 
 Kin. The fourth degree of the French 
 Eite. See Elus. 
 
 Eliil. V?X. The sixth month of the 
 ecclesiastical and the twelfth of the civil 
 year of the Jews. The twelfth also, there- 
 fore, of the Masonic calendar used in the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Eite. It 
 begins on the new moon of August or Sep- 
 tember, and consists of twenty-nine days. 
 
 KIus. The French word elu means 
 elected; and the degrees, whose object is to 
 detail the detection and punishment of the 
 actors in the crime traditionally related in 
 the third degree, are called Elus, or the 
 degrees of the Elected, because they re- 
 ferred to those of the Craft who were 
 chosen or elected to make the discovery, 
 and to inflict the punishment. They form 
 a particular system of Masonry, and are to 
 be found in every Eite, if not in all in 
 name, at least in principle. In the York 
 and American Eites, the Elu is incorporated 
 in the Master's degree; in the French Eite 
 it constitutes an independent degree ; and in 
 the Scottish Eite it consists of three de- 
 grees, the ninth, tenth, and eleventh. Ea- 
 gon counts the five preceding degrees among 
 the Elus, but they more properly belong to 
 the Order of Masters. The symbolism of 
 these Elu degrees has been greatly mistaken 
 and perverted by anti-Masonic writers, who 
 have thus attributed to Masonry a spirit of 
 vengeance which is not its characteristic. 
 They must be looked upon as conveying 
 only a symbolic meaning. Those higher 
 degrees, in which the object of the election 
 is changed and connected with Templarism, 
 are more properly called Kadoshes. Thory 
 says that all the Elus are derived from the 
 degree of Kadosh, which preceded them. 
 The reverse, I think, is the truth. The 
 Elu system sprang naturally from the 
 
 Master's degree, and was only applied to 
 Templarism when De Molay was substituted 
 for Hiram the Builder. 
 
 Emanation. Literally, "a flowing 
 forth." The doctrine of emanations was a 
 theory predominant in many of the Ori- 
 ental religions, such, especially, as Brah- 
 manism and Parseeism, and subsequently 
 adopted by the Kabbalists and the Gnostics, 
 and taught by Philo and Plato. It assumed 
 that all things emanated, flowed forth, 
 (which is the literal meaning of the word,) 
 or were developed and descended by de- 
 grees from the Supreme Being. Thus, in 
 the ancient religion of India, the anima 
 mundi, or soul of the word, the mys- 
 terious source of all life, was identified 
 with Brahma, the Supreme God. The 
 doctrine of Gnosticism was that all be- 
 ings emanated from the Deity ; that there 
 was a progressive degeneration of these 
 beings from the highest to the lowest 
 emanation, and a final redemption and 
 return of all to the purity of the Creator. 
 Philo taught that the Supreme Being was 
 the Primitive Light or the Archetype of 
 Light, whose rays illuminate, as from a 
 common source, all souls. The theory of 
 emanations is interesting to the Mason, 
 because of the reference in many of the 
 higher degrees to the doctrines of Philo, 
 the Gnostics, and the Kabbalists. 
 
 Emanuel. A sacred word in some of 
 the high degrees, being one of the names 
 applied in Scripture to the Lord Jesus Christ. 
 It is a Greek form from the Hebrew, Im- 
 manuel, SttTjqp, and signifies " God is with 
 us." 
 
 Embassy. The embassy of Zerubba- 
 bel and four other Jewish chiefs to the 
 court of Darius, to obtain the protection 
 of that monarch from the encroachments 
 of the Samaritans, who interrupted the 
 labors in the reconstruction of the Temple, 
 constitutes the legend of the sixteenth de- 
 gree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Eite, and also of the Eed Cross degree of 
 the American Eite, which is surely bor- 
 rowed from the former. The history of 
 this embassy is found in the eleventh book 
 of the Antiquities of Josephus, whence the 
 Masonic ritualists have undoubtedly taken 
 it. The only authority of Josephus is the 
 apocryphal record of Esdras, and the au- 
 thenticity of the whole transaction is doubt- 
 ed or denied by modern historians. 
 
 Emblem. The emblem is an occult 
 representation of something unknown or 
 concealed by a sign or thing that is known. 
 Thus, a square is in Freemasonry an em- 
 blem of morality ; a plumb line, of recti- 
 tude of conduct ; and a level, of equality 
 of human conditions. Emblem is very gen- 
 erally used as synonymous with symbol, al- 
 
EMERALD 
 
 EMPERORS 
 
 251 
 
 though the two words do not express ex- 
 actly the same meaning. An emblem is 
 properly a representation of an idea by a 
 visible object, as in the examples quoted 
 above ; but a symbol is more extensive in 
 its application, includes every representa- 
 tion of an idea by an image, whether that 
 image is presented immediately to the 
 senses as a visible and tangible substance, 
 or only brought before the mind by words. 
 Hence an action or event as described, a 
 myth or legend, may be a symbol ; and 
 hence, too, it follows that while all emblems 
 are symbols, all symbols are not emblems. 
 See Symbol. 
 
 Emerald. In Hebrew, ~\3D, caphak. 
 It was the first stone in the first row of the 
 high priest's breastplate, and was referred 
 to Levi. Adam Clarke says it is the same 
 stone as the smaragdus, and is of a bright 
 green color. Joseph us, the Septuagint, 
 and the Jerusalem Targum understood by 
 the Hebrew word the carbuncle, which is 
 red. The modern emerald, as everybody 
 knows, is green. 
 
 Emergency. The general law of Ma- 
 sonry requires a month to elapse between 
 the time of receiving a petition for initia- 
 tion and that of balloting for the candi- 
 date, and also that there shall be an in- 
 terval of one month between the reception 
 of each of the degrees of Craft Masonry. 
 Cases sometimes occur when a Lodge de- 
 sires this probationary period to be dis- 
 pensed with, so that the candidate's peti- 
 tion may be received and balloted for at 
 the same communication, or so that the de- 
 grees may be conferred at much shorter in- 
 tervals. As some reason must be assigned 
 for the application to the Grand Master for 
 the dispensation, such reason is generally 
 stated to be that the candidate is about to 
 go on a long journey, or some other equally 
 valid. Cases of this kind are called, in the 
 technical language of Masonry, cases of 
 emergency. It is evident that the emer- 
 gency is made for the sake of the candi- 
 date, and not for that of the Lodge or of 
 Masonry. The too frequent occurrence of 
 applications for dispensations in cases of 
 emergency have been a fruitful source of 
 evil, as thereby unworthy persons, escap- 
 ing the ordeal of an investigation into 
 character, have been introduced into the 
 Order; and even where the candidates have 
 been worthy, the rapid passing through the 
 degrees prevents a due impression from 
 being made on the mind, and the candidate 
 fails to justly appreciate the beauties and 
 merits of the Masonic system. Hence, 
 these cases of emergency have been very 
 unpopular with the most distinguished 
 members of the Fraternity. In the olden 
 time the Master and Wardens of the 
 
 Lodge were vested with the prerogative of 
 deciding what was a case of emergency ; 
 but modern law and usage (in this country, 
 at least,) make the Grand Master the sole 
 judge of what constitutes a case of emer- 
 gency. 
 
 Emergent Lodge. A Lodge held 
 at an emergent meeting. 
 
 Emergent Meeting. The meeting 
 of a Lodge called to elect a candidate, and 
 confer the degrees in a case of emergency, 
 or for any other sudden and unexpected 
 cause, has been called an emergent meet- 
 ing. The term is not very common, but it 
 has been used by W. S. Mitchell and a few 
 other writers. 
 
 Emeritus. Latin ; plural, emeriti. 
 The Romans applied this word — which 
 comes from the verb emerere, to be greatly 
 deserving — to a soldier who had served out 
 his time; hence, in the Supreme Councils 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 of this country, an active member, who re- 
 signs his seat by reason of age, infirmity, 
 or for other cause deemed good by the 
 Council, may be elected an Emeritus mem- 
 ber, and will possess the privilege of pro- 
 posing measures and being heard in debate, 
 but not of voting. 
 
 Emetli. Hebrew, HEtf- One of the 
 words in the high degrees. It signifies 
 integrity, fidelity, firmness, and constancy in 
 keeping a promise, and especially Truth, 
 as opposed to falsehood. In the Scottish 
 Rite, the Sublime Knights Elect of Twelve 
 of the eleventh degree are called " Princes 
 Emeth," which means simply men of ex- 
 alted character who are devoted to truth. 
 
 Eminent. The title given to the 
 Commander or presiding officer of a Com- 
 mandery of Knights Templars, and to all 
 officers below the Grand Commander in a 
 Grand Commandery. The Grand Com- 
 mander is styled " Right Eminent," and the 
 Grand Master of the Grand Encampment 
 of the United States, "Most Eminent." 
 The word is from the Latin eminens, "stand- 
 ing above," and literally signifies "exalted 
 in rank." Hence, it is a title given to the 
 cardinals in the Roman Church. 
 
 Emperor of Lebanon. ( Empereur 
 du Liban.) This degree, says Thory, {Act. 
 Lat., i. 311,) which was a part of the col- 
 lection of M. Le Rouge, was composed in 
 the isle of Bourbon, in 1778, by the Mar- 
 quis de Beurnonville, who was then Na- 
 tional Grand Master of all the Lodges of 
 India. 
 
 Emperors of the East and West. 
 In 1758 there was established in Paris a 
 Chapter called the " Council of Emperors 
 of the East and West." The members as- 
 sumed the titles of " Sovereign Prince Ma- 
 sons," "Substitutes General of the Royal 
 
252 
 
 EMPERORS 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 Art," " Grand Superintendents and officers 
 of the Grand and Sovereign Lodge of St. 
 John of Jerusalem." Their ritual, which 
 was based on the Templar system, con- 
 sisted of twenty-five degrees, as follows: 
 1 to 19, the same as the Scottish Rite ; 20, 
 Grand Patriarch Noachite ; 21, Key of Ma- 
 sonry ; 22, Prince of Lebanon ; 23, Knight 
 of the Sun ; 24, Kadosh ; 25, Prince of the 
 Royal Secret. It granted warrants for 
 Lodges of the high degrees, appointed 
 Grand Inspectors and Deputies, and estab- 
 lished several subordinate bodies in the 
 interior of France, among which was a 
 " Council of Princes of the Royal Secret," 
 at Bordeaux. In 1763, one Pincemaille, 
 the Master of the Lodge La Candeur, at 
 Metz, began to publish an exposition of 
 these degrees in the serial numbers of a 
 work entitled, Conversations Allegoriques sur 
 la Franche-Magonnerie. In 1764, the Grand 
 Lodge of France offered him 300 livres to 
 suppress the book. Pincemaille accepted 
 the bribe, but continued the publication, 
 which lasted until 1766. 
 
 In 1758, the year of their establishment 
 in France, the degrees of this Rite of Here- 
 dom, or of Perfection, as it was called, were 
 carried by the Marquis de Bernez to Berlin, 
 and adopted by the Grand Lodge of the 
 Three Globes. 
 
 Between the years 1760 and 1765, there 
 was much dissension in the Rite. A new 
 Council, called the Knights of the East, 
 was established at Paris, in 1760, as the 
 rival of the Emperors of the East and 
 West. The controversies of these two bod- 
 ies were carried into the Grand Lodge, 
 which, in 1766, was compelled, for the sake 
 of peace, to issue a decree in opposition to 
 the high degrees, excluding the malcon- 
 tents, and forbidding the symbolical Lodges 
 to recognize the authority of these Chap- 
 ters. But the excluded Masons continued 
 to work clandestinely and to grant war- 
 rants. From that time until its dissolution, 
 the history of the Council of the Emperors 
 of the East and West is but a history of 
 continuous disputes with the Grand Lodge 
 of France. At length, in 1781, it was com- 
 
 Eletely absorbed in the Grand Orient, and 
 as no longer an existence. 
 The assertion of Thory, (Act. Lat.,) and 
 of Ragon. (Orthod. Mac.,) that the Council 
 of the Emperors of the East and West was 
 the origin of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite, — Frederick of Prussia having added 
 eight to the original twenty-five, — although 
 it has been denied, does not seem destitute 
 of truth. It is very certain, if the docu- 
 mentary evidence is authentic, that the 
 Constitutions of 1762 were framed by this 
 Council ; and it is equally certain that under 
 these Constitutions a patent was granted to 
 
 Stephen Morin, through whom the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite was established 
 in America. 
 
 Emnnah. fOlON- Sometimes spelled 
 Amunah, but not in accordance with the 
 Masoretic points. A significant word in 
 the high degrees signifying fidelity, espe- 
 cially in fulfilling one's promises. 
 
 Encampment. All regular assem- 
 blies of Knights Templars were formerly 
 called Encampments, and are still so called 
 in England. They are now styled Oom- 
 manderies in this country, and Grand En- 
 campments of the States are called Graud 
 Commanderies. See Commandery and Com- 
 mandery, Grand. 
 
 Encampment. General Grand. 
 The title, before the adoption of the Con- 
 stitution of 1856, of the Grand Encamp- 
 ment of the United States. 
 
 Encampment. Grand. The Grand 
 Encampment of the United States was in- 
 stituted on the 22d of June, 1816, in the 
 city of New York. It consists of a Grand 
 Master, Deputy Grand Master, and other 
 Grand officers who are similar to those of 
 a Grand Commandery, with Past Grand 
 officers and the representatives of the 
 various Grand Commanderies, and of the 
 subordinate Commanderies deriving their 
 warrants immediately from it. It exercises 
 jurisdiction over all the Templars of the 
 United States, and meets triennially. The 
 term Encampment is borrowed from mili- 
 tary usage, and is very properly applied to 
 the temporary congregation at stated 
 periods of" the army of Templars, who may 
 be said to be, for the time being, in camp. 
 
 Encyclical. Circular ; sent to many 
 places or persons. Encyclical letters, con- 
 taining information, advice, or admonition, 
 are sometimes issued by Grand Lodges or 
 Grand Masters to the Lodges and Masons 
 of a jurisdiction. The word is not in very 
 common use; but I find that in 1848 the 
 Grand Lodge of South Carolina issued " an 
 encyclical letter of advice, of admonition, 
 and of direction," to the subordinate Lodges 
 under her jurisdiction ; and that a similar 
 letter was issued in 1865 by the Grand 
 Master of Iowa. 
 
 En famille. French, meaning as a 
 /amity. In French Lodges, during the 
 reading of the minutes, and sometimes 
 when the Lodge is engaged in the discus- 
 sion of delicate matters affecting only it- 
 self, the Lodge is said to meet " en famille," 
 at which time visitors are not admitted. 
 
 England. I shall give a brief resume 
 of the nistory of Freemasonry in England 
 as it has hitherto been written, and is now 
 generally received by the Fraternity. It is 
 but right, however, to say, that recent re- 
 searches have thrown doubts on the authen- 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 253 
 
 ticity of many of the statements, — that the 
 legend of Prince Edwin has been doubted ; 
 the establishment of a Grand Lodge at 
 York in the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century denied; and the existence of any 
 thing but Operative Masonry before 1717 
 controverted. These questions are still in 
 dispute; but the labors of Masonic anti- 
 quaries, through which many old records 
 and ancient constitutions are being con- 
 tinually exhumed from the British Museum 
 and from Lodge libraries, will eventually 
 enable us to settle upon the truth. 
 
 According to Anderson and Preston, the 
 first charter granted in England to the 
 Masons, as a body, was bestowed by King 
 Athelstan, in 926, upon the application of 
 his brother, Prince Edwin. " Accordingly," 
 says a legend first cited by Anderson, 
 " Prince Edwin summoned all the Masons 
 in the realm to meet him in a congregation 
 at York, who came and composed a Gen- 
 eral Lodge, of which he was Grand Master ; 
 and having brought with them all the writ- 
 ings and records extant, some in Greek, 
 some in Latin, some in French, and other 
 languages, from the contents thereof that 
 assembly did frame the Constitution and 
 Charges of an English Lodge." 
 
 From this assembly at York, the rise of 
 Masonry in England is generally dated; 
 from the statutes there enacted are derived 
 the English Masonic Constitutions ; and 
 from the place of meeting, the ritual of the 
 English Lodges is designated as the " An- 
 cient York Rite." 
 
 For a long time, the York Assembly ex- 
 ercised the Masonic jurisdiction over all 
 England ; but in 1567 the Masons of the 
 southern part of the island elected Sir 
 Thomas Gresham, the celebrated merchant, 
 their Grand Master. He was succeeded by 
 the illustrious architect, Inigo Jones. There 
 were now two Grand Masters in England 
 who assumed distinctive titles ; the Grand 
 Master of the north being called Grand 
 Master of all England, while he who pre- 
 sided in the south was called Grand Master 
 of England. 
 
 In the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, Masonry in the south of England had 
 fallen into decay. The disturbances of the 
 revolution, which placed William III. on 
 the throne, and the subsequent warmth of 
 political feelings which agitated the two 
 parties of the state, had given this peace- 
 ful society a wound fatal to its success. Sir 
 Christopher Wren, the Grand Master in the 
 reign of Queen Anne, had become aged, in- 
 firm, and inactive, and hence the general 
 assemblies of the Grand Lodge had ceased 
 to take place. There were, in the year 
 1715, but four Lodges in the south of Eng- 
 land, all working in the city of London. 
 
 These four Lodges, desirous of reviving the 
 prosperity of the Order, determined to 
 unite themselves under a Grand Master, 
 Sir Christopher Wren being now dead, and 
 none having, as yet, been appointed in his 
 place. They therefore " met at the Apple- 
 Tree Tavern ; and having put into the chair 
 the oldest Master Mason, (being the Master 
 of a Lodge,) they constituted themselves a 
 Grand Lodge, pro tempore, in due form, and 
 forthwith revived the quarterly communi- 
 cation of the officers of Lodges, (called the 
 Grand Lodge,) resolved to hold the annual 
 assembly and feast, and then to choose a 
 Grand Master from among themselves, till 
 they should have the honor of a noble 
 brother at their head." 
 
 Accordingly, on St. John the Baptist's 
 day, 1717, the annual assembly and feast 
 were held, and Mr. Anthony Sayer duly 
 proposed and elected Grand Master. The 
 Grand Lodge adopted, among its regula- 
 tions, the following: "That the privilege 
 of assembling as Masons, which had hith- 
 erto been unlimited, should be vested in 
 certain Lodges or assemblies of Masons 
 convened in certain places ; and that every 
 Lodge to be hereafter convened, except the 
 four old Lodges at this time existing, should 
 be legally authorized to act by a warrant 
 from the Grand Master, for the time being, 
 granted to certain individuals by petition, 
 with the consent and approbation of the 
 Grand Lodge in communication, and that, 
 without such warrant, no Lodge should be 
 hereafter deemed regular or constitutional." 
 
 In compliment, however, to the four old 
 Lodges, the privileges which they had al- 
 ways possessed under the old organization 
 were particularly reserved to them ; and it 
 was enacted that " no law, rule, or regula- 
 tion, to be hereafter made or passed in 
 Grand Lodge, should ever deprive them of 
 such privilege, or encroach on any land- 
 mark which was at that time established 
 as the standard of Masonic government." 
 
 The Grand Lodges of York and of Lon- 
 don kept up a friendly intercourse, and mu- 
 tual interchange of recognition, until the 
 latter body, in 1725, granted a warrant of 
 constitution to some Masons who had se- 
 ceded from the former. This unmasonic 
 act was severely reprobated by the York 
 Grand Lodge, and produced the first inter- 
 ruption to the harmony that had long sub- 
 sisted between them. It was, however, fol- 
 lowed some years after by another unjusti- 
 fiable act of interference. In 1735, the 
 Earl of Crawford, Grand Master of Eng- 
 land, constituted two Lodges within the ju- 
 risdiction of the Grand Lodge of York, and 
 granted, without its consent, deputations 
 for Lancashire, Durham, and Northumber- 
 land. " This circumstance," says Preston, 
 
254 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 ENOCH 
 
 {Illust., p. 184,) " the Grand Lodge at York 
 highly resented, and ever afterward viewed 
 the proceedings of the brethren in the 
 south with a jealous eye. All friendly in- 
 tercourse ceased, and the York Masons, 
 from that moment, considered their inte- 
 rests distinct from the Masons under the 
 Grand Lodge in London." 
 
 Three years after, in 1738, several brethren, 
 dissatisfied with the conduct of the Grand 
 Lodge of England, seceded from it, and held 
 unauthorized meetings for the purpose of ini- 
 tiation. Taking advantage of the breach 
 between the Grand Lodges of York and 
 London, they assumed the character of 
 York Masons. On the Grand Lodge's de- 
 termination to put strictly in execution the 
 laws against such seceders, they still fur- 
 ther separated from its jurisdiction, and 
 assumed the appellation of "Ancient York 
 Masons." They announced that the ancient 
 landmarks were alone preserved by them ; 
 and, declaring that the regular Lodges had 
 adopted new plans, and sanctioned inno- 
 vations, they branded them with the name of 
 "Modern Masons." In 1739, they established 
 a new Grand Lodge in London, under the 
 name of the "Grand Lodge of Ancient 
 York Masons," and, persevering in the meas- 
 ures they had adopted, held communications 
 and appointed annual feasts. They were 
 soon afterward recognized by the Masons 
 of Scotland and Ireland, and were encour- 
 aged and fostered by many of the nobility. 
 The two Grand Lodges continued to exist, 
 and to act in opposition to each other, ex- 
 tending their schisms into other countries, 
 especially into America, until the year 1813, 
 when, under the Grand Mastership of the 
 Duke of Sussex, they were united under 
 the title of the United Grand Lodge of 
 England. 
 
 Such is the history of Freemasonry in 
 England as uninterruptedly believed by all 
 Masons and Masonic writers for nearly a 
 century and a half. Recent researches 
 have thrown great doubts on its entire ac- 
 curacy. Until the year 1717, the details 
 are either traditional, or supported only by 
 manuscripts whose authenticity has not yet 
 been satisfactorily proved. Much of the 
 history is uncertain ; some of it, especially 
 as referring to York, is deemed apocryphal 
 by Hughan and other laborious writers. 
 Yet, as the hereditary tradition of the 
 Order, it cannot be safely or justly thrown 
 altogether aside; though it should be re- 
 ceived with many reservations until the 
 profound researches of Masonic antiquaries, 
 now being actively pursued in England, 
 shall have been brought to a satisfactory 
 conclusion. The investigations on this im- 
 portant subject should oe conducted with 
 impartial judgment, and with an earnest 
 
 desire to find the truth, and not to uphold 
 a theory. The legend may not be true ; but 
 if it has been long accepted and venerated 
 as truth, it should not be rejected until there 
 is incontestable evidence of its falsity. In 
 criticisms of this kind we should remember 
 the caution of an eminent metaphysician, 
 that " the hand that cannot build a hovel 
 may demolish a palace." So far, the re- 
 searches of these inquiries into the early 
 history of English Freemasonry, of whom 
 Bro. Hughan, of Cornwall, may justly be 
 considered as the chief, have been generally 
 conducted with earnest fairness and labori- 
 ous learning. See York. 
 
 Englct. A corruption of Euclid, found 
 in the Old Constitutions known as the 
 Matthew Cooke MS., " wherefore y e for- 
 sayde maister Englet ordegnet thei were 
 passing of conying schold be passing hon- 
 oured," (line 674-7.) lam inclined to think 
 that the copyist has mistaken a badly-made 
 old English u for an n, and that the origi- 
 nal had Euglet, which would be a nearer 
 approximation to Euclid. 
 
 Engrave. In French Lodges, buriner, 
 to engrave, is used instead of ecrire, to 
 write. The " engraved tablets " are the 
 " written records." 
 
 Enlightened. This word, equivalent 
 to the Latin illuminatus, is frequently used 
 to designate a Freemason as one who ha3 
 been rescued from darkness, and received 
 intellectual light. Webster's definition 
 shows its appositeness : "Illuminated; in- 
 structed ; informed ; furnished with clear 
 views." Many old Latin diplomas com- 
 mence with the heading, " Omnibus illu- 
 minatis," i. e., " to all the enlightened." 
 
 Enlightenment, Shock of. See 
 Shock of Enlightenment. 
 
 Enoch. Though the Scriptures fur- 
 nish but a meagre account of Enoch, the 
 traditions of Freemasonry closely connect 
 him, by numerous circumstances, with the 
 early history of the Institution. All, in- 
 deed, that we learn from the Book of Gene- 
 sis on the subject of his life is, that he was 
 the seventh of the patriarchs ; the son of 
 Jared, and the great-grandfather of Noah ; 
 that he was born in the year of the world 
 622 ; that his life was one of eminent virtue, 
 so much so, that he is described as " walk- 
 ing with God ; " and that in the year 987 
 his earthly pilgrimage was terminated, (as 
 the commentators generally suppose,) not by 
 death, but by a bodily translation to heaven. 
 
 In the very commencement of our in- 
 quiries, we shall find circumstances in the 
 life of this great patriarch that shadow 
 forth, as it were, something of that mysti- 
 cism with which the traditions of Masonry 
 have connected him. His name, in the 
 Hebrew language, "piT Henoch, signifies 
 
ENOCH 
 
 ENOCH 
 
 255 
 
 to initiate and to instruct, and seems intended 
 to express the fact that he was, as Oliver 
 remarks, the first to give a decisive charac- 
 ter to the rite of initiation, and to add to 
 the practice of divine worship the study 
 and application of human science. In 
 confirmation of this view, a writer in the 
 Freemason's Quarterly Review says, on this 
 subject, that " it seems probable that Enoch 
 introduced the speculative principles into 
 the Masonic creed, and that he originated 
 its exclusive character," which theory must 
 be taken, if it is accepted at all, with very 
 considerable modifications. 
 
 The years of his life may also be supposed 
 to contain a mystic meaning, for they 
 amounted to three hundred and sixty-five, 
 being exactly equal to a solar revolution. 
 In all the ancient rites this number has oc- 
 cupied a prominent place, because it was 
 the representative of the annual course of 
 that luminary which, as the great fructifier 
 of the earth, was the peculiar object of 
 divine worship. 
 
 Of the early history of Enoch, we know 
 nothing. It is, however, probable that, like 
 the other descendants of the pious Seth, he 
 passed his pastoral life in the neighbor- 
 hood of Mount Moriah. From the other 
 f>atriarchs he differed only in this, that, en- 
 ightened by the divine knowledge which 
 had been imparted to him, he instructed 
 his contemporaries in the practice of those 
 rites, and in the study of those sciences, with 
 which he had himself become acquainted. 
 
 The Oriental writers abound in tradition- 
 ary evidence of the learning of the venera- 
 ble patriarch. One tradition states that he 
 received from God the gift of wisdom and 
 knowledge, and that God sent him thirty 
 volumes from heaven, filled with all the se- 
 crets of the most mysterious sciences. The 
 Babylonians supposed him to have been in- 
 timately acquainted with the nature of the 
 stars; and they attribute to him the inven- 
 tion of astrology. The Rabbins maintain 
 that he was taught by God and Adam how 
 to sacrifice, and how to worship the Deity 
 aright. The kabbalistic book of Raziel 
 says that he received the divine mysteries 
 from Adam, through the direct line of the 
 preceding patriarchs. 
 
 The Greek Christians supposed him to 
 have been identical with the first Egyptian 
 Hermes, who dwelt at Sais. They say he 
 was the first to give instruction on the ce- 
 lestial bodies ; that he foretold the deluge 
 that was to overwhelm his descendants ; 
 and that he built the Pyramids, engraving 
 thereon figures of artificial instruments and 
 the elements of the sciences, fearing lest 
 the memory of man should perish in that 
 general destruction. Eupolemus, a Grecian 
 writer, makes him the same as Atlas, and 
 
 attributes to him, as the Pagans did to that 
 deity, the invention of astronomy. 
 
 Mr. Wait, in his Oriental Antiquities, 
 quotes a passage from Bar Hebraeus, a Jew- 
 ish writer, which asserts that Enoch was 
 the first who invented books and writing ; 
 that he taught men the art of building 
 cities; that he discovered the knowledge 
 of the Zodiac and the course of the planets ; 
 and that he inculcated the worship of God 
 by fasting, prayer, alms, votive offerings, 
 and tithes. Bar Hebraeus adds, that he 
 also appointed festivals for sacrifices to the 
 sun at the periods when that luminary en- 
 tered each of the zodiacal signs ; but this 
 statement, which would make him the au- 
 thor of idolatry, is entirely inconsistent 
 with all that we know of his character, 
 from both history and tradition, and arose, 
 as Oliver supposes, most probably from a 
 blending of the characters of Enos and 
 Enoch. 
 
 In the study of the sciences, in teaching 
 them to his children and his contempora- 
 ries, and in instituting the rites of initiation, 
 Enoch is supposed to have passed the years 
 of his peaceful, his pious, and his useful 
 life, until the crimes of mankind had in- 
 creased to such a height that, in the ex- 
 pressive words of Holy Writ, " every imag- 
 ination of the thoughts of man's heart was 
 only evil continually." It was then, ac- 
 cording to a Masonic tradition, that Enoch, 
 disgusted with the wickedness that sur- 
 rounded him, and appalled at the thought 
 of its inevitable consequences, fled to the 
 solitude and secrecy of Mount Moriah, and 
 devoted himself to prayer and pious con- 
 templation. In was on that spot — then 
 first consecrated by this patriarchal hermit- 
 age, and afterwards to be made still more 
 holy by the sacrifices of Abraham, of David, 
 and of Solomon — that we are informed 
 that the Shekinah or sacred presence ap- 
 peared to him, and gave him those instruc- 
 tions which were to preserve the wisdom 
 of the antediluvians to their posterity when 
 the world, with the exception of but one 
 family, should have been destroyed by the 
 forthcoming flood. The circumstances 
 which occurred at that time are recorded 
 in a tradition which forms what has been 
 called the great Masonic "Legend of 
 Enoch," and which runs to this effect: 
 
 Enoch, being inspired by the Most High, 
 and in commemoration of a wonderful vi- 
 sion, built a temple under ground, and ded- 
 icated it to God. His son, Methuselah, 
 constructed the building ; although he was 
 not acquainted with his father's motives 
 for the erection. This temple consisted of 
 nine brick vaults, situated perpendicularly 
 beneath each other, and communicating by 
 apertures left in the arch of each vault. 
 
256 
 
 ENOCH 
 
 ENOCH 
 
 Enoch then caused a triangular plate of 
 gold to be made, each side of which was a 
 cubit long; he enriched it with the most 
 precious stones, and encrusted the plate 
 upon a stone of agate of the same form. 
 On the plate he engraved, in ineffable char- 
 acters, the true name of Deity, and, placing 
 it on a cubical pedestal of white marble, 
 he deposited the whole within the deepest 
 arch. 
 
 When this subterranean building was 
 completed, he made a door of stone, and 
 attaching to it a ring of iron, by which it 
 might be occasionally raised, he placed it 
 over the opening of the uppermost arch, 
 and so covered it over that the aperture 
 could not be discovered. Enoch himself 
 was not permitted to enter it but once a 
 year ; and on the death of Enoch, Methu- 
 selah, and Lamech, and the destruction of 
 the world by the deluge, all knowledge of 
 this temple, and of the sacred treasure which 
 it contained, was lost until, in after times, 
 it was accidentally discovered by another 
 worthy of Freemasonry, who, like Enoch, 
 was engaged in the erection of a temple on 
 the same spot. 
 
 The legend goes on to inform us that 
 after Enoch had completed the subterra- 
 nean temple, fearing that the principles of 
 those arts and sciences which he had culti- 
 vated with so much assiduity would be lost 
 in that general destruction of which he had 
 received a prophetic vision, he erected two 
 pillars,— the one of marble, to withstand the 
 influence of fire, and the other of brass, to 
 resist the action of water. On the pillar of 
 brass he engraved the history of the cre- 
 ation, the principles of the arts and sci- 
 ences, and the doctrines of Speculative 
 Freemasonry as they were practised in his 
 times ; and on the one of marble he in- 
 scribed characters in hieroglyphics, im- 
 porting that near the spot where they stood 
 a precious treasure was deposited in a sub- 
 terranean vault. 
 
 Josephus gives an account of these pil- 
 lars in the first book of his Antiquities. 
 He ascribes them to the children of Seth, 
 which is by no means a contradiction of 
 the Masonic tradition, since Enoch was one 
 of these children. " That their inventions," 
 says the historian, " might not be lost before 
 they were sufficiently known, upon Adam's 
 prediction that the world was to be de- 
 stroyed at one time by the force of fire and 
 at another time by the violence and quan- 
 tity of water, they made two pillars — the 
 one of brick, the other of stone ; they in- 
 scribed their discoveries on them both, that 
 in case the pillar of brick should be de- 
 stroyed by the flood, the pillar of stone 
 might remain and exhibit those discoveries 
 to mankind, and also inform them that 
 
 there was another pillar of brick erected by 
 them. Now this remains in the land of 
 Siriad to this day." 
 
 Enoch, having completed these labors, 
 called his descendants around him on 
 Mount Moriah, and having warned them 
 in the most solemn manner of the conse- 
 quences of their wickedness, exhorted them 
 to forsake their idolatries and return once 
 more to the worship of the true God. Ma- 
 sonic tradition informs us that he then de- 
 livered up the government of the Craft to 
 his grandson, Lamech, and disappeared 
 from earth. 
 
 Enoch, Brother. [Frere Enoch.) 
 Evidently the nom de plume of a French 
 writer and the inventor of a Masonic rite. 
 He published at Liege, in 1773, two works : 
 1. Le Vrai Franc-Magon, in 276 pages ; 2. 
 Lettres Magonniques pour servir de Supple- 
 ment au Vrai Franc-Magon. The design of 
 the former of these works was to give an 
 account of the origin and object of Free- 
 masonry, a description of all the degrees, 
 and an answer to the objections urged 
 against the Institution. The historical 
 theories of Frere Enoch were exceedingly 
 fanciful and wholly untenable. Thus, he 
 asserts that in the year 814, Louis the Fair 
 of France, being flattered by the fidelity 
 and devotion of the Operative Masons, or- 
 ganized them into a society of four degrees, 
 granting the Masters the privilege of wear- 
 ing swords in the Lodge, — a custom still 
 continued in French Lodges, — and, having 
 been received into the Order himself, ac- 
 cepted the Grand Mastership on the festival 
 of St. John the Evangelist in the year 814. 
 Other equally extravagant opinions make 
 his book rather a source of amusement 
 than of instruction. His definition of 
 Freemasonry is, however, good. He saya 
 that it is " a holy and religious society of 
 men who are friends, which has for its 
 foundation, discretion ; for its object, the 
 service of God, fidelity to the sovereign, 
 and love of our neighbor ; and for its doc- 
 trine, the erection of an allegorical build- 
 ing dedicated to the virtues, which it teaches 
 with certain signs of recognition." 
 
 Enoch, Legend of. This legend is 
 detailed in a preceding article. It never 
 formed any part of the old system of Ma- 
 sonry, and was first introduced from Tal- 
 mudic and Rabbinical sources into the high 
 degrees, where, however, it is really to be 
 viewed rather as symbolical than as his- 
 torical. Enoch himself is but the symbol 
 of initiation, and his legend is intended 
 symbolically to express the doctrine that 
 the true Word or divine truth was preserved 
 in the ancient initiations. 
 
 Enoch, Rite of. A Eite attempted 
 to be established at Liege, in France, about 
 
EN SOPH 
 
 EPHRAIMITES 
 
 257 
 
 the year 1773. It consisted of four de- 
 grees, viz., 1. Manouvre, or Apprentice, 
 whose object was friendship and benevo- 
 lence. 2. Ouvrier, or Fellow Craft, whose 
 object was fidelity to the Sovereign. 3. 
 Maitre, or Master, whose object was sub- 
 mission to the Supreme Being. 4. Archi- 
 tected whose object was the perfection of all 
 the virtues. The Rite never made much 
 progress. 
 
 En Soph. SID m In the Kabbalis- 
 tic doctrines, the Divine Word, or Supreme 
 Creator, is called the En Soph, or rather the 
 Or En Soph, the Infinite Intellectual Light. 
 The theory is, that all things emanated 
 from this Primeval Light. See Kabbala. 
 
 Entered. When a candidate receives 
 the first degree of Masonry he is said to be 
 entered. It is used in the sense of admitted, 
 or introduced ; a common as well as a Ma- 
 sonic employment of the word, as when we 
 say, " the youth entered college ; " or, " the 
 soldier entered the service." 
 
 Entered Apprentice. See Appren- 
 tice. 
 
 Entick, John. An English clergy- 
 man, born in 1713, who took much interest 
 in Freemasonry about the middle of the 
 eighteenth century. He revised the third 
 and fourth editions of Anderson's Constitu- 
 tions, by order of the Grand Lodge. They 
 were published in 1756 and 1767. Both of 
 these editions were printed in quarto form, 
 and have the name of Entick on the title- 
 
 {>age. In 1769 another edition was pub- 
 ished in octavo, being an exact copy of 
 the 1767 edition, except a slight alteration 
 of the title-page, from which Entick's name 
 is omitted, and a brief appendix, which 
 carries the transactions of the Grand Lodge 
 up to 1769. On a careful collation, I can 
 find no other differences. Kloss does not 
 appear to have seen this edition, for he 
 only refers to it briefly in his Bibliographic, 
 as No. 147, without full title, on the au- 
 thority of Krause. Entick was also the 
 author of many Masonic sermons, a few 
 of which were published. Oliver speaks 
 of him as a man of grave and sober habits, 
 a good Master of his Lodge, a fair disciplin- 
 arian, and popular with the Craft. But 
 Entick did not confine his literary labors 
 to Masonry. He was the author of a His- 
 tory of the War which ended in 1763, in 5 
 vols., 8vo ; and a History of London, in 4 
 vols., 8vo. As an orthoepist he had consid- 
 erable reputation, and published a Latin 
 and English Dictionary, and an English 
 Spelling Dictionary. He died in 1773. 
 
 Entombment. An impressive cere- 
 mony in the degree of Perfect Master of 
 the Scottish Rite. 
 
 Entrance, Points of. See Points 
 of Entrance. 
 
 2H 17 
 
 Entrance, Shock of. See Shock 
 of Entrance. 
 
 Envy. This meanest of vices has al- 
 ways been discouraged in Masonry. The 
 fifth of the Old Charges, approved in 
 1722, says : " None shall discover envy at 
 the prosperity of a brother." 
 
 Eons. In the doctrine of Gnosticism, 
 divine spirits occupying the intermediate 
 state which was supposed to exist between 
 the Supreme Being and the Jehovah of the 
 Jewish theology, whom the Gnostics called 
 only a secondary deity. These spiritual 
 beings were indeed no more than abstrac- 
 tions, such as Wisdom, Faith, Prudence, etc. 
 They derived their name from the Greek 
 aiuv, an age, in reference to the long du- 
 ration of their existence. Valentinius said 
 there were but thirty of them ; but Basilides 
 reckons them as three hundred and sixty- 
 five, which certainly has an allusion to the 
 days of the solar year. In some of the 
 philosophical degrees, references are made 
 to the Eons, whose introduction into them 
 is doubtless to be attributed to the con- 
 nection of Gnosticism with certain of the 
 high degrees. 
 
 Eons, Rite of the. Ragon ( Tu.il- 
 leur Gen., 186,) describes this Rite as one 
 full of beautiful and learned instruction, 
 but scarcely known, and practised only in 
 Asia, being founded on the religious dog- 
 mas of Zoroaster. I doubt the existence 
 of it as a genuine Rite. Ragon's informa- 
 tion is very meagre. 
 
 Ephod. The sacred vestment worn by 
 the high priest of the Jews over the tunic 
 and outer garment. It was without sleeves, 
 and divided below the arm-pits into two 
 parts or halves, one falling before and the 
 other behind, and both reaching to the 
 middle of the thighs. They were joined 
 above on the shoulders by buckles and two 
 large precious stones, on which were in- 
 scribed the names of the twelve tribes, six 
 on each. The ephod was a distinctive 
 mark of the priesthood. It was of two 
 kinds, one of plain linen for the priests, and 
 another, richer and embroidered, for the 
 high priest, which was composed of blue, 
 purple, crimson, and fine linen. The robe 
 worn by the High Priest in a Royal Arch 
 Chapter is intended to be a representation, 
 but hardly can be called an imitation, of the 
 ephod. 
 
 Ephraimites. The descendants of 
 Ephraim. They inhabited the centre of 
 Judea between the Mediterranean and the 
 river Jordan. The character given to them 
 in the ritual of the Fellow Craft's degree, 
 of being " a stiffnecked and rebellious 
 people," coincides with history, which de- 
 scribes them as haughty, tenacious to a 
 fault of their rights, and ever ready to re- 
 
258 
 
 EPOCH 
 
 EQUES 
 
 sist the pretensions of the other tribes, and 
 more especially that of Judah, of which 
 they were peculiarly jealous. The circum- 
 stance in their history which has been ap- 
 propriated for a symbolic purpose in the 
 ceremonies of the second degree of Ma- 
 sonry, may be briefly related thus. The 
 Ammonites, who were the descendants of 
 the younger son of Lot, and inhabited a 
 tract of country east of the river Jordan, 
 had been always engaged in hostility 
 against the Israelites. On the occasion re- 
 ferred to, they had commenced a war upon 
 the pretext that the Israelites had deprived 
 them of a portion of their territory. Jeph- 
 tha, having been called by the Israelites to 
 the head of their army, defeated the Am- 
 monites, but had not called upon the 
 Ephraimites to assist in the victory. Hence, 
 that high-spirited people were incensed, and 
 more especially as they had had no share 
 in the rich spoils obtained by Jephtha from 
 the Ammonites. They accordingly gave 
 him battle, but were defeated with great 
 slaughter by the Gileadites, or countrymen 
 of Jephtha, with whom alone he resisted 
 their attack. As the land of Gilead, the 
 residence of Jephtha, was on the west side 
 of the Jordan, and as the Ephraimites 
 lived on the east side, in making their in- 
 vasion it was necessary that they should 
 cross the river, and after their defeat, in at- 
 tempting to effect a retreat to their own 
 country, they were compelled to recross the 
 river. But Jephtha, aware of this, had 
 placed forces at the different fords of the 
 river, who intercepted the Ephraimites, and 
 detected their nationality by a peculiar de- 
 fect in their pronunciation. For although 
 the Ephraimites did not speak a dialect 
 different from that of the other tribes, they 
 had a different pronunciation of some 
 words, and an inability to pronounce the 
 letter Jjf or SH, which they pronounced as 
 if it were Q or S. Thus, when called upon 
 to say SHIBBOLETH, they pronounced 
 it SIBBOLETH, " which trifling defect," 
 says the ritual," proved them to be enemies." 
 The test to a Hebrew was a palpable one, 
 for the two words have an entirely different 
 signification ; shibboleth meaning an ear of 
 corn, and sibboleth, a burden. The biblical 
 relation will be found in the twelfth chapter 
 of the Book of Judges. 
 
 Epoch. In chronology, a certain point 
 of time marked by some memorable event 
 at which the calculation of years begins. 
 Different peoples have different epochs or 
 epocha. Thus, the epoch of Christians 
 is the birth of Christ ; that of Jews, the 
 creation of the world ; and that of Moham- 
 medans, the flight of their prophet from 
 Mecca. See Calendar. 
 
 Epopt. This was the name given to 
 
 one who had passed through the Great 
 Mysteries, and been permitted to behold 
 what was concealed from the mystoz, who 
 had only been initiated into the Lesser. It 
 signifies an eye-witness, and is derived 
 from the Greek, e-kotztevu, to look into, to be- 
 hold. The epopts repeated the oath of 
 secrecy which had been administered to 
 them on their initiation into the Lesser 
 Mysteries, and were then conducted into 
 the lighted interior of the sanctuary and 
 permitted to behold what the Greeks em- 
 phatically termed "the sight," avroipia. 
 The epopts alone were admitted to the 
 sanctuary, for the mystse were confined to 
 the vestibule of the temple. The epopts 
 were, in fact, the Master Masons of the 
 Mysteries, while the mystse were the Ap- 
 prentices and Fellow Crafts ; these words 
 being used, of course, only in a comparative 
 sense. 
 
 Equality. Among the ancient icon- 
 ologists, equality was symbolized by a fe- 
 male figure holding in one hand a pair of 
 scales equipoised and in the other a nest 
 of swallows. The moderns have substi- 
 tuted a level for the scales. And this is 
 the Masonic idea. In Masonry, the level 
 is the symbol of that equality which, as 
 Higgins [Anac., i. 790,) says, is the very 
 essence of Freemasonry. " All, let their 
 rank in life be what it may, when in the 
 Lodge are brothers — brethren with the 
 Father at their head. No person can read 
 the Evangelists and not see that this is 
 correctly Gospel Christianity." 
 
 Equerry. An officer in some courts 
 who has the charge of horses. I do not 
 know why the title has been introduced 
 into some of the high degrees. 
 
 Eques. A Latin word signifying 
 knight. Every member of the Rite of 
 Strict Observance, on attaining to the sev- 
 enth or highest degree, received a "char- 
 acteristic name," which was formed in Latin 
 by the addition of a noun in the ablative 
 case, governed by the preposition a or ab, 
 to the word Eques, as " Eques a Serpente," 
 or Knight of the Serpent, " Eques ab Aquila," 
 or Knight of the Eagle, etc., and by this 
 name he was ever afterwards known in the 
 Order. Thus Bode, one of the founders of 
 the Rite, was recognized as " Eques a Lilio 
 Convallium," or Knight of the Lily of the 
 Valleys, and the Baron Hund, another 
 founder, as " Eques ab Euse," or Knight of 
 the Sword. A similar custom prevailed 
 among the Illuminati and in the Royal 
 Order of Scotland. Eques signified among 
 the Romans a knight, but in the Middle 
 Ages the knight was called miles; although 
 the Latin word miles denoted only a soldier, 
 yet, by the usage of chivalry, it received 
 the nobler signification. Indeed, Muratori 
 
EQUES 
 
 ERICA 
 
 259 
 
 says, on the authority of an old inscription, 
 that Eques was inferior in dignity to Miles. 
 See Miles. 
 
 Eques Professus. Professed Knight. 
 The seventh and last degree of the Rite 
 of Strict Observance. Added, it is said, to 
 the original series by Von Hund. 
 
 Equilateral Triangle. See Tri- 
 angle. 
 
 Equity. The equipoised balance is an 
 ancient symbol of equity. On the medals, 
 this virtue is represented by a female hold- 
 ing in the right hand a balance, and in the 
 left a measuring wand, to indicate that she 
 gives to each one his just measure. In the 
 Ancient and Accepted Rite, the thirty-first 
 degree, or Grand Inspector Inquisitor Com- 
 mander, is illustrative of the virtue of 
 equity ; and hence the balance is a promi- 
 nent symbol of that degree, as it is also of 
 the sixteenth degree, or Princes of Jerusa- 
 lem, because, according to the old rituals, 
 they were chiefs in Masonry, and adminis- 
 tered justice to the inferior degrees. 
 
 Equivocation. The words of the 
 covenant of Masonry require that it should 
 be made without evasion, equivocation, or 
 mental reservation. This is exactly in ac- 
 cordance with the law of ethics in relation 
 to promises made. And it properly applies 
 in this case, because the covenant, as it is 
 called, is simply a promise, or series of 
 promises, made by the candidate to the 
 Fraternity — to the brotherhood into whose 
 association he is about to be admitted. In 
 making a promise, an evasion is the eluding 
 or avoiding the terms of the promise ; and 
 this is done, or attempted to be done, by 
 equivocation, which is by giving to the 
 words used a secret signification, different 
 from that which they were intended to con- 
 vey by him who imposed the promise, so 
 as to mislead, or by a mental reservation, 
 which is a concealment or withholding in 
 the mind of the promiser of certain condi- 
 tions under which he makes it, which con- 
 ditions are not known to the one to whom 
 the promise is made. All of this is in 
 direct violation of the law of veracity. The 
 doctrine of the Jesuits is very different. 
 Suarez, one of their most distinguished 
 casuists, lays it down as good law, that if 
 any one makes a promise or contract, he 
 may secretly understand that he does not 
 sincerely promise, or that he promises with- 
 out any intention of fulfilling the promise. 
 This is not the rule of Masonry, which re- 
 quires that the words of the covenant be 
 taken in the patent sense which they were 
 intended by the ordinary use of language 
 to convey. It adheres to the true rule of 
 ethics, which is, as Paley says, that a prom- 
 ise is binding in the sense in which the prom- 
 iser supposed the promisee to receive it. 
 
 Eranoi. Among the ancient Greeks 
 there were friendly societies, whose object 
 was, like the modern Masonic Lodges, to re- 
 lieve the distresses of their necessitous mem- 
 bers. They were permanently organized, 
 and had a common fund by the voluntary 
 contributions of the members. If a mem- 
 ber was reduced to poverty, or was in tem- 
 porary distress for money, he applied to the 
 eranos, and, if worthy, received the neces- 
 sary assistance, which was, however, ad- 
 vanced rather as a loan than a gift, and the 
 amount was to be returned when the recip- 
 ient was in better circumstances. In the 
 days of the Roman empire these friendly 
 societies were frequent among the Greek 
 cities, and were looked on with suspicion 
 by the emperors, as tending to political 
 combinations. Smith says {Diet. Or. and 
 Rom. Ant.) that the Anglo-Saxon gilds, or 
 fraternities for mutual aid, resembled the 
 eranoi of the Greeks. In their spirit, these 
 Grecian confraternities partook more of the 
 Masonic character, as charitable associa- 
 tions, than of the modern friendly societies, 
 where relief is based on a system of mu- 
 tual insurance ; for the assistance was given 
 only to cases of actual need, and did not 
 depend on any calculation of natural con- 
 tingencies. 
 
 Erica. The Egyptians selected the 
 erica as a sacred plant. The origin of the 
 consecration of this plant will be peculiarly 
 interesting to the Masonic student. There 
 was a legend in the mysteries of Osiris, 
 which related that Isis, when in search of 
 the body of her murdered husband, dis- 
 covered it interred at the brow of a hill near 
 which an erica grew ; and hence, after the 
 recovery of the body and the resurrection 
 of the god, when she established the mys- 
 teries to commemorate her loss and her re- 
 covery, she adopted the erica as a sacred 
 plant, in memory of its having pointed out 
 the spot where the mangled remains of 
 Osiris were concealed. 
 
 Ragon ( Gours des Initiations, p. 151,) thus 
 alludes to this mystical event : " Isis found 
 the body of Osiris in the neighborhood of 
 Biblos, and near a tall plant called the erica. 
 Oppressed with grief, she seated herself on 
 the margin of a fountain, whose waters is- 
 sued from a rock. This rock is the small 
 hill mentioned in the ritual; the erica ha9 
 been replaced by the acacia, and the grief 
 of Isis has been changed for that of the 
 Fellow Crafts." 
 
 The lexicographers define epeUtj as " the 
 health plant; " but it is really, as Plutarch 
 asserts, the tamarisk tree; and Schwenk 
 {Die Mythologie der Semiten, p. 248,) says 
 that Phylce, so renowned among the an- 
 cients as one of the burial-places of Osiris, 
 and among the moderns for its wealth of 
 
260 
 
 ERNEST 
 
 ESSENES 
 
 architectural remains, contains monuments 
 in which the grave of Osiris is overshad- 
 owed by the tamarisk. 
 
 Ernest and Fa Ik. Ernst und Folk. 
 Gesprache far Freimaurerei, i. e., " Ernest 
 and Falk. Conversations on Freemasonry," 
 is the title of a German work written by 
 Gottfried Ephraim Lessing, and first pub- 
 lished in 1778. Ernest is an inquirer, and 
 Falk a Freemason, who gives to his inter- 
 locutor a very philosophical idea of the 
 character, aims, and objects of the Institu- 
 tion. The work has been faithfully trans- 
 lated by Bro. Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie, 
 F. S. A., in the London Freemason's Quar- 
 terly Magazine, in 1854, and continued and 
 finished, so far as the author had completed 
 it, in the London Freemason in 1872. Fin- 
 del says of this work, that it is one of the 
 best things that has ever been written upon 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 Erwin Ton Steinbach. A distin- 
 guished German, who was born, as his name 
 imports, at Steinbach, near Buhl, about 
 the middle of the 13th century. He was 
 the master of the works at the Cathedral 
 of Strasburg, the tower of which he com- 
 menced in 1275. He finished the tower and 
 doorway before his death, which was in 
 1318. He was at the head of the German 
 Fraternity of Stonemasons, who were the 
 precursors of the modern Freemasons. 
 See Strasburg. 
 
 Esoteric Masonry. That secret 
 portion of Masonry which is known only 
 to the initiates as distinguished from exo- 
 teric Masonry, or monitorial, which is acces- 
 sible to all who choose to read the manuals 
 and published works of the Order. The 
 words are from the Greek, 'eoorrepiKog, in- 
 ternal, and 'eS-wTEpiKoq, external, and were 
 first used by Pythagoras, whose philosophy 
 was divided into the exoteric, or that 
 taught to all, and the esoteric, or that 
 taught to a select few ; and thus his disci- 
 ples were divided into two classes, accord- 
 ing to the degree of initiation to which they 
 had attained, as being either fully admitted 
 into the society, and invested with all the 
 knowledge that the Master could commu- 
 nicate, or as merely postulants, enjoying 
 only the public instructions of the school, 
 and awaiting the gradual reception of fur- 
 ther knowledge. This double mode of in- 
 struction was borrowed by Pythagoras 
 from the Egyptian priests, whose theology 
 was of two kinds — the one exoteric, and 
 addressed to the people in general; the 
 other esoteric, and confined to a select num- 
 ber of the priests and to those who pos- 
 sessed, or were to possess, the regal power. 
 And the mystical nature of this concealed 
 doctrine was expressed in their symbolic 
 language by the images of sphinxes placed 
 
 at the entrance of their temples. Two cen- 
 turies later, Aristotle adopted the system 
 of Pythagoras, and, in the Lyceum at 
 Athens, delivered in the morning to his 
 select disciples his subtle and concealed 
 doctrines concerning God, Nature, and 
 Life, and in the evening lectured on more 
 elementary subjects to a promiscuous audi- 
 ence. These different lectures he called 
 his Morning and his Evening Walk. 
 
 Essenes. Lawrie, in his History of 
 Freemasonry, in replying to the objection, 
 that if the Fraternity of Freemasons had 
 flourished during the reign of Solomon, it 
 would have existed in Judea in after ages, 
 attempts to meet the argument by showing 
 that there did exist, after the building of 
 the Temple, an association of men resem- 
 bling Freemasons in the nature, ceremo- 
 nies, and object of their institution. The 
 association to which he here alludes is that 
 of the Essenes, whom he subsequently de- 
 scribes as an ancient Fraternity originat- 
 ing from an association of architects who 
 were connected with the building of Solo- 
 mon's Temple. 
 
 Lawrie evidently seeks to connect his- 
 torically the Essenes with the Freemasons, 
 and to impress his readers with the identity 
 of the two Institutions. I am not pre- 
 pared to go so far; but there is such a simi- 
 larity between the two, and such remarka- 
 ble coincidences in many of their usages, as 
 to render this Jewish sect an interesting 
 study to every Freemason, to whom there- 
 fore some account of the usages and doc- 
 trines of this holy brotherhood will not, 
 perhaps, be unacceptable. 
 
 At the time of the advent of Jesus Christ, 
 there were three religious sects in Judea — 
 the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Es- 
 senes ; and to one of these sects every Jew 
 was compelled to unite himself. The Sa- 
 viour has been supposed by many writers 
 to have been an Essene, because, while re- 
 peatedly denouncing the errors of the two 
 other sects, he has nowhere uttered a word 
 of censure against the Essenes; and be- 
 cause, also, many of the precepts of the 
 New Testament are to be found among the 
 laws of this sect. 
 
 In ancient authors, such as Josephus, 
 Philo, Porphyry, Eusebius, and Pliny, who 
 have had occasion to refer to the subject, 
 the notices of this singular sect have been 
 so brief and unsatisfactory, that modern 
 writers have found great difficulty in pro- 
 perly understanding the true character of 
 Esseuism. And yet our antiquaries, never 
 weary of the task of investigation, have at 
 length, within a recent period, succeeded 
 in eliciting, from the collation of all that 
 has been previously written on the subject, 
 very correct details of the doctrines and 
 
ESSENES 
 
 ESSENES 
 
 261 
 
 practices of the Essenes. Of these writers, 
 none, I think, have been more successful 
 than the laborious German critics Frankel 
 and Rappaport. Their investigations have 
 been ably and thoroughly condensed by 
 Dr. Christian D. Ginsburg, whose essay on 
 The Essenes, their History and Doctrines, 
 (Lond., 1864,) has supplied the most ma- 
 terial facts contained in the present article. 
 It is impossible to ascertain the precise 
 date of the development of Essenism as a 
 distinct organization. The old writers are 
 so exaggerated in their statements, that 
 they are worth nothing as historical au- 
 thorities. Philo says, for instance, that 
 Moses himself instituted the order, and 
 Josephus that it existed ever since the an- 
 cient time of the Fathers; while Pliny as- 
 serts, with mythical liberality, that it has 
 continued for thousands of ages. Dr. 
 Ginsburg thinks that Essenism was a grad- 
 ual development of the prevalent religious 
 notions out of Judaism, a theory which 
 Dr. Dollinger repudiates. But Rappaport, 
 who was a learned Jew, thoroughly con- 
 versant with the Talmud and other He- 
 brew writings, and who is hence called by 
 Ginsburg "the corypheus of Jewish critics," 
 asserts that the Essenes were not a distinct 
 sect, in the strict sense of the word, but 
 simply an order of Judaism, and that there 
 never was a rupture between them and the 
 rest of the Jewish community. This theory 
 is sustained by Frankel, a learned German, 
 who maintains that the Essenes were sim- 
 ply an intensification of the Pharisaic sect, 
 and that they were the same as the Chasi- 
 dim, whom Lawrie calls the Kassideans, 
 and of whom he speaks as the guardians 
 of King Solomon's Temple. If this view 
 be the correct one, and there is no good 
 reason to doubt it, then there will be an- 
 other feature of resemblance and coinci- 
 dence between the Freemasons and the Es- 
 senes ; for, as the latter was not a religious 
 sect, but merely a development of Judaism, 
 an order of Jews entertaining no heterodox 
 opinions, but simply carrying out the reli- 
 gious dogmas of their faith with an un- 
 usual strictness of observance, so are the 
 Freemasons not a religious sect, but simply 
 a development of the religious idea of the 
 age. The difference, however, between 
 Freemasonry and Essenism lies in the 
 spirit of universal tolerance prominent in 
 the one and absent in the other. Free- 
 masonry is Christian as to its membership 
 in general, but recognizing and tolerating 
 in its bosom all other religions : Essenism, 
 on the contrary, was exclusively and in- 
 tensely Jewish in its membership, its usages, 
 and its doctrines. 
 
 The Essenes are first mentioned by Jose- 
 phus as existing in the days of Jonathan 
 
 the Maccabaean, one hundred and sixty-six 
 years before Christ. The Jewish historian 
 repeatedly speaks of them at subsequent 
 periods; and there is no doubt that they 
 constituted one of the three sects which di- 
 vided the Jewish religious world at the ad- 
 vent of our Saviour, and of this sect he is 
 supposed, as has been already said, to have 
 been a member. 
 
 On this subject, Ginsburg says : " Jesus, 
 who in all things conformed to the Jewish 
 law, and who was holy, harmless, undefiled, 
 and separate from sinners, would, there- 
 fore, naturally associate himself with that 
 order of Judaism which was most congenial 
 to his holy nature. Moreover, the fact that 
 Christ, with the exception of once, was not 
 heard of in public till his thirtieth year, 
 implying that he lived in seclusion with 
 this Fraternity, and that, though he fre- 
 quently rebuked the Scribes, Pharisees, and 
 Sadducees, he never denounced the Es- 
 senes, strongly confirms this decision." 
 But he admits that Christ neither adopted 
 nor preached their extreme doctrines of as- 
 ceticism. 
 
 After the establishment of Christianity, 
 the Essenes fade out of notice, and it has 
 been supposed that they were among the 
 earliest converts to the new faith. Indeed, 
 De Quincey rather paradoxically asserts 
 that they were a disguised portion of the 
 early Christians. 
 
 The etymology of the word has not been 
 settled. Yet, among the contending opin- 
 ions, the preferable one seems to be that it 
 is derived from the Hebrew CHASID, 
 — holy, pious, — which connects the Es- 
 senes with the Chasidim, a sect which pre- 
 ceded them, and of whom Lawrie says, 
 (quoting from Scaliger,) that they were "an 
 order of the Knights of the Temple of 
 Jerusalem, who bound themselves to 
 adorn the porches of that magnificent struc- 
 ture, and to preserve it from injury and 
 decay." 
 
 The Essenes were so strict in the ob- 
 servance of the Mosaic laws of purity, that 
 they were compelled, for the purpose of 
 avoiding contamination, to withdraw al- 
 together from the rest of the Jewish nation 
 and to form a separate community, which 
 thus became a brotherhood. The same 
 scruples which led them to withdraw from 
 their less strict Jewish brethren induced 
 most of them to abstain from marriage, 
 and hence the unavoidable depletion of 
 their membership by death could only be 
 repaired by the initiation of converts. They 
 had a common treasury, in which was de- 
 posited whatever any one of them possessed, 
 and from this the wants of the whole com- 
 munity were supplied by stewards appoint- 
 ed by the brotherhood, so that they had 
 
262 
 
 ESSENES 
 
 ESSENES 
 
 everything in common. Hence there was 
 no distinction among them of rich and 
 poor, or masters and servants ; but the only 
 gradation of rank which they recognized 
 was derived from the degrees or orders into 
 which the members were divided, and 
 which depended on holiness alone. They 
 lived peaceably with all men, reprobated 
 slavery and war, and would not even manu- 
 facture any warlike instruments. They 
 were governed by a president, who was 
 elected by the whole community; and 
 members who had violated their rules were, 
 after due trial, excommunicated or ex- 
 pelled. 
 
 As they held no communication outside 
 of their own fraternity, they had to raise 
 their own supplies, and some were engaged 
 in tilling, some in tending flocks, others in 
 making clothing, and others in preparing 
 food. They got up before sunrise, and, 
 after singing a hymn of praise for the re- 
 turn of light, which they did with their 
 faces turned to the east, each one repaired 
 to his appropriate task. At the fifth hour, 
 or eleven in the forenoon, the morning 
 labor terminated. The brethren then again 
 assembled, and after a lustration in cold 
 water, they put on white garments and 
 proceeded to the refectory, where they par- 
 took of the common meal, which was always 
 of the most frugal character. A mysterious 
 silence was observed during this meal, 
 which, to some extent, had the character 
 of a sacrament. The feast being ended, 
 and the priest having returned thanks, the 
 brethren withdrew and put off their white 
 garments, resumed their working - clothes 
 and their several employments until even- 
 ing, when they again assembled as before, 
 to partake of a common meal. 
 
 They observed the Sabbath with more 
 than Judaic strictness, regarding even the 
 removal of a vessel as a desecration of the 
 holy day. On that day, each took his seat 
 in the synagogue in becoming attire ; and, 
 as they had no ordained ministers, any one 
 that liked read out of the Scriptures, and 
 another, experienced in spiritual matters, 
 expounded the passages that had been read. 
 The distinctive ordinances of the brother- 
 hood and the mysteries connected with the 
 Tetragrammaton and the angelic worlds 
 were the prominent topics of Sabbatical 
 instruction. In particular, did they pay 
 attention to the mysteries connected with 
 the Tetragrammaton, or the Shem hampho- 
 rash, the expository name, and the other 
 names of God which play so important a 
 part in the mystical theosophy of the Jew- 
 ish Kabbalists, a great deal of which has 
 descended to the Freemasonry of our own 
 days. 
 
 Josephus describes them as being distin- 
 
 guished for their brotherly love, and for 
 their charity in helping the needy, and 
 showing mercy. He says that they are 
 just dispensers of their anger, curbers of 
 their passions, representatives of fidelity, 
 ministers of peace, and every word with 
 them is of more force than an oath. They 
 avoid taking an oath, and regard it as 
 worse than perjury ; for they say that he 
 who is not believed without calling on God 
 to witness, is already condemned of per- 
 jury. He also states that they studied 
 with great assiduity the writings of the 
 ancients on distempers and their remedies, 
 alluding, as it is supposed, to the magical 
 works imputed by the Talmudists to Solo- 
 mon. 
 
 It has already been observed that, in 
 consequence of the celibacy of the Essenes, 
 it was found necessary to recruit their ranks 
 by the introduction of converts, who were 
 admitted by a solemn form of initiation. 
 The candidate, or aspirant, was required to 
 pass through a novitiate of two stages, 
 which extended over three years, before he 
 was admitted to a full participation in the 
 privileges of the Order. Upon entering 
 the first stage, which lasted for twelve 
 months, the novice cast all his possessions 
 into the common treasury. He then re- 
 ceived a copy of the regulations of the 
 brotherhood, and was presented with a 
 spade, an apron, and a white robe. The 
 spade was employed to bury excrement, the 
 apron was used at the daily lustrations, and 
 the white robe was worn as a symbol of 
 purity. During all this period the aspi- 
 rant was considered as being outside the 
 order, and, although required to observe 
 some of the ascetic rules of the society, he 
 was not admitted to the common meal. At 
 the end of the probationary year, the aspi- 
 rant, if approved, was advanced to the 
 second stage, which lasted two years, and 
 was then called an approacher. During 
 this period he was permitted to unite with 
 the brethren in their lustrations, but was 
 not admitted to the common meal, nor to 
 hold any office. Should this second stage 
 of probation be passed with approval, the 
 approacher became an associate, and was 
 admitted into full membership, and at 
 length allowed to partake of the common 
 meal. 
 
 There was a third rank or degree, called 
 the disciple or companion, in which there 
 was a still closer union. Upon admission 
 to this highest grade, the candidate was 
 bound by a solemn oath to love God, to be 
 just to all men, to practise charity, main- 
 tain truth, and to conceal the secrets of the 
 society and the mysteries connected with 
 the Tetragammaton and the other names 
 of God. 
 
ESSENE3 
 
 ESTHER 
 
 2G^ 
 
 These three sections or degrees, of aspi- 
 rant, associate, and companion, were sub- 
 divided into four orders or ranks, distin- 
 guished from each other by different de- 
 grees of holiness; and so marked were 
 these distinctions, that if one belonging to 
 a higher degree of purity touched one of 
 a lower order, he immediately became im- 
 pure, and could only regaiu his purity by a 
 series of lustrations. 
 
 The earnestness and determination of 
 these Essenes, says Ginsburg, to advance to 
 the highest state of holiness, were seen in 
 their self-denying and godly life, and it 
 may fairly be questioned whether any reli- 
 gious system has ever produced such a com- 
 munity of saints. Their absolute confi- 
 dence in God and resignation to the deal- 
 ings of Providence; their uniformly holy 
 and unselfish life; their unbounded love of 
 virtue and utter contempt for worldly fame, 
 riches, and pleasures; their industry, tem- 
 perance, modesty, and simplicity of life; 
 their contentment of mind and cheerful- 
 ness of temper; their love of order, and 
 abhorrence of even the semblance of false- 
 hood; their benevolence and philanthropy; 
 their love for the brethren, and their fol- 
 lowing peace with all men ; their hatred 
 of slavery and war ; their tender regard for 
 children, and reverence and anxious care 
 for the aged ; their attendance on the sick, 
 and readiness to relieve the distressed; 
 their humility and magnanimity; their 
 firmness of character and power to subdue 
 their passions; their heroic endurance 
 under the most agonizing sufferings for 
 righteousness' sake; and their cheerfully 
 looking forward to death, as releasing their 
 immortal souls from the bonds of the body, 
 to be forever in a state of bliss with their 
 Creator, — have hardly found a parallel in 
 the history of mankind. 
 
 Lawrie, in his History of Freemasonry, 
 gives, on the authority of' Pictet, of Bas- 
 nage, and of Philo, the following con- 
 densed recapitulation of what has been 
 said in the preceding pages of the usages 
 of the Essenes: 
 
 "When a candidate was proposed for 
 admission, the strictest scrutiny was made 
 into his character. If his life had hitherto 
 been exemplary, and if he appeared capable 
 of curbing his passions, and regulating his 
 conduct according to the virtuous, though 
 austere, maxims of their order, he was pre- 
 sented, at the expiration of his novitiate, 
 with a white garment, as an emblem of the 
 regularity of his conduct and the purity of 
 his heart. A solemn oath was then ad- 
 ministered to him, that he would never di- 
 vulge the mysteries of the Order; that he 
 would make no innovations on the doctrines 
 of the society ; and that he would continue 
 
 in that honorable course of piety and virtue 
 which he had begun to pursue. Like Free- 
 masons, they instructed the young member 
 in the knowledge which they derived from 
 their ancestors. They admitted no women 
 into their order. They had particular 
 signs for recognizing each other, which 
 have a strong resemblance to those of Free- 
 masons. They had colleges or places of 
 retirement, where they resorted to practise 
 their rites and settle the affairs of the so- 
 ciety ; and, after the performance of these 
 duties, they assembled in a large hall, 
 where an entertainment was provided for 
 them by the president or master of the 
 college, who allotted a certain quantity of 
 provisions to every individual. They abol- 
 ished all distinctions of rank ; and if pref- 
 erence was ever given, it was given to 
 piety, liberality, and virtue. Treasurers 
 were appointed; in every town, to supply 
 the wants of indigent strangers." 
 
 Lawrie thinks that this remarkable coin- 
 cidence between the chief features of the 
 Masonic and Essenian fraternities can be 
 accounted for only by referring them to the 
 same origin ; and, to sustain this view, he 
 attempts to trace them to the Kassideans, 
 or Assideans, more properly the Chasidim, 
 " an association of architects who were 
 connected with the building of Solomon's 
 Temple." But, aside from the considera- 
 tion that there is no evidence that the 
 Chasidim were a body of architects, — for 
 they were really a sect of Jewish puritans, 
 who held the Temple in especial honor, — we 
 cannot conclude, from a mere coincidence 
 of doctrines and usages, that the origin of 
 the Essenes and the Freemasons is identi- 
 cal. Such a course of reasoning would 
 place the Pythagoreans in the same cate- 
 gory : a theory that has been rejected by 
 the best modern critics. 
 
 The truth appears to be that the Essenes, 
 the School of Pythagoras, and the Free- 
 masons, derive their similarity from that 
 spirit of brotherhood which has prevailed 
 in all ages of the civilized world, the inhe- 
 rent principles of which, as the results of 
 any fraternity, — all the members of which 
 are engaged in the same pursuit and as- 
 senting to the same religious creed, — are 
 brotherly love, charity, and that secrecy 
 which gives them their exclusiveness. And 
 hence, between all fraternities, ancient and 
 modern, these " remarkable coincidences" 
 will be found. 
 
 Esther. The second degree of the 
 American Adoptive Rite of the Eastern 
 Star. It is also called " the wife's degree," 
 and in its ceremonies comprises the history 
 of Esther the wife and queen of Ahasuerus, 
 king of Persia, as related in the Book of 
 Esther. 
 
264 
 
 ETERNAL 
 
 ETHICS 
 
 Eternal Life. The doctrine of eter- 
 nal lite is taught in the Master's degree, as 
 it was in the Ancient Mysteries of all na- 
 tions. See Immortality of the Soul. 
 
 Eternity. The ancient symbol of 
 eternity was a serpent in the form of a cir- 
 cle, the tail being placed in the mouth. 
 The simple circle, the figure which has 
 neither beginning nor end, but returns 
 continually into itself, was also a symbol 
 of eternity. 
 
 Ethics of Freemasonry. There 
 is a Greek word, edoc {ethos), which signifies 
 custom, from which Aristotle derives another 
 word rjdoq, [ethos,) which means ethics ; be- 
 cause, as he says, from the custom of doing 
 good acts arises the habit of moral virtue. 
 Ethics, then, is the science of morals teach- 
 ing the theory and practice of all that is 
 good in relation to God and to man, to the 
 state and the individual ; it is, in short, to 
 use the emphatic expression of a German 
 writer, " the science of the good " Ethics 
 being thus engaged in the inculcation of 
 moral duties, there must be a standard of 
 these duties, an authoritative ground-prin- 
 ciple on which they depend, a doctrine 
 that requires their performance, making 
 certain acts just those that ought to be done, 
 and which, therefore, are duties, and that 
 forbid the performance of others which are, 
 therefore, offences. Ethics, then, as a sci- 
 ence, is divisible into several species, vary- 
 ing in name and character, according to the 
 foundation on which it is built. 
 
 Thus we have the Ethics of Theology, 
 which is founded on that science which 
 teaches the nature and attributes of God; 
 and, as this forms a part of all religious 
 systems, every religion, whether it be 
 Christianity, or Judaism, Brahmanism, or 
 Buddhism, or any other form of recognized 
 worship, has within its bosom a science of 
 theological ethics which teaches, accord- 
 ing to the lights of that religion, the du- 
 ties which are incumbent on man from his 
 relations to a Supreme Being. And then 
 we have the Ethics of Christianity, which, 
 being founded on the Scriptures, recog- 
 nized by Christians as the revealed will of 
 God, is nothing other than theological 
 ethics applied to and limited by Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 Then, again, we have the Ethics of Phi- 
 losophy, which is altogether speculative, 
 and derived from and founded on man's 
 speculations concerning God and himself. 
 There might be a sect of philosophers who 
 denied the existence of a Superintending 
 Providence ; but it would still have a sci- 
 ence of ethics referring to the relations of 
 man to man, although that system would 
 be without strength, because it would have 
 no Divine sanction for its enforcement. 
 
 And, lastly, we have the Ethics of Free- 
 masonry, whose character combines those 
 of the three others. The first and second 
 systems in the series above enumerated are 
 founded on religious dogmas; the third on 
 philosophical speculations. Now, as Free- 
 masonry claims to be a religion, in so far 
 as it is founded on a recognition of the re- 
 lations of man and God, and a philosophy 
 in so far as it is engaged in speculations 
 on the nature of man, as an immortal, so- 
 cial, and responsible being, the ethics of 
 Freemasonry will be both religious and 
 philosophical 
 
 The symbolism of Masonry, which is its 
 peculiar mode of instruction, inculcates all 
 the duties which we owe to God as being 
 his children, and to men as being their 
 brethren. "There is," says Dr. Oliver, 
 " scarcely a point of duty or morality which 
 man has been presumed to owe to God, his 
 neighbor, or himself, under the Patriarchal, 
 the Mosaic, or the Christian dispensation, 
 which, in the construction of our symboli- 
 cal system, has been left untouched." 
 Hence, he says, that these symbols all 
 unite to form " a code of moral and theo- 
 logical philosophy ; " the term of which ex- 
 pression would have been better if he had 
 called it a "a code of philosophical and 
 theological ethics." 
 
 At a very early period of his initiation, 
 the Mason is instructed that he owes a 
 threefold duty, — to God, his neighbor, and 
 himself, — and the inculcation of these du- 
 ties constitutes the ethics of Freemasonry. 
 
 Now, the Tetragrammaton, the letter G, 
 and many other symbols of a like charac- 
 ter, impressively inculcate the lesson that 
 there is a God in whom " we live, and 
 move, and have our being," and of whom 
 the apostle, quoting from the Greek poet, 
 tells us that " we are his offspring." To 
 him, then, as the Universal Father, does 
 the ethics of Freemasonry teach us that 
 we owe the duty of loving and obedient 
 children. 
 
 And, then, the vast extent of the Lodge, 
 making the whole world the common home 
 of all Masons, and the temple, in which 
 we all labor for the building up of our 
 bodies as a spiritual house, are significant 
 symbols, which teach us that we are not 
 only the children of the Father, but fel- 
 low-workers, laboring together in the same 
 task and owing a common servitude to God 
 as the Grand Architect of the universe — the 
 Algabil or Master Builder of the world and 
 all that is therein ; and thus these symbols 
 of a joint labor, for a joint purpose, tell us 
 that there is a brotherhood of man : to that 
 brotherhood does the ethics of Freemasonry 
 teach us that we owe the duty of fraternal 
 kindness in all its manifold phases. 
 
ETHIOPIA 
 
 EUCLID 
 
 265 
 
 And so we find that the ethics of Free- 
 masonry is really founded on the two great 
 ideas of the universal fatherhood of God 
 and the universal hrotherhood of man. 
 
 Ethiopia.. A tract of country to the 
 south of Egypt, and watered by the upper 
 Nile. The reference to Ethiopia, in the 
 Master's degree of the American Rite, as 
 a place of attempted escape for certain 
 criminals, is not to be found in the English 
 or French rituals, and I am inclined to 
 think that this addition to the Hiramic le- 
 gend is an American interpolation. The 
 selection of Ethiopia, by the ritualist, as a 
 place of refuge, seems to be rather inappro- 
 priate when we consider what must have 
 been the character of that country in the 
 age of Solomon. 
 
 Etymology. For the etymology of 
 the word Mason, see Mason, derivation of. 
 
 Euclid. In the year of the world 3650, 
 which was G46 years after the building of 
 King Solomon's Temple, Euclid, the cele- 
 brated geometrician, was born. His name 
 has been always associated with the history 
 of Freemasonry, and in the reign of Ptol- 
 emy Soter, the Order is said to have greatly 
 flourished in Egypt, under his auspices. 
 The well known forty-seventh problem 
 of his first book, although not discovered 
 by him, but long before by Pythagoras, has 
 been adopted as a symbol in the third de- 
 gree. 
 
 Euclid, Legend of. All the old 
 manuscript Constitutions contain the well 
 known " legend of Euclid," whose name is 
 presented to us as the " Worthy Clerk Eu- 
 clid" in every conceivable variety of cor- 
 rupted form. I select, of these Old Re- 
 cords, the so-called Dowland Manuscript, 
 from which to give the form of this Euclid- 
 ian legend of the old Masons. The Dow- 
 land Manuscript, although apparently writ- 
 ten in the seventeenth century, is believed, 
 on good authority, to be only a copy, in 
 more modern and more intelligible lan- 
 guage, of an earlier manuscript of the year 
 1530. And it is because of its easier in- 
 telligibility by modern readers that I have 
 selected it, in preference to any of the older 
 records, although in each the legend is sub- 
 stantially the same. The legend is in the 
 following words : 
 
 " Moreover, when Abraham and Sara his 
 wife went into Egipt, there he taught the 
 Seaven Sciences to the Egiptians ; and he 
 had a worthy Scoller that height Ewclyde, 
 and he learned right well, and was a master 
 of all the vij Sciences liberall. And in his 
 dayes it befell that the lord and the estates 
 of the realme had soe many sonns that 
 they had gotten some by their wifes and 
 some by other ladyes of the realme ; for 
 that land is a hott land and a plentious of 
 21 
 
 generacion. And they had not competent 
 livehode to find with their children ; where- 
 fore they made much care. And then the 
 King of the land made a great counsell 
 and a parliament, to witt, how they might 
 find their children honestly as gentlemen. 
 And they could find no manner of good 
 way. And then they did crye through all 
 the realme, if there were any man that 
 could enforme them, that he should come 
 to them, and he should be soe rewarded for 
 his travail, that he should hold him pleased. 
 
 "After that this cry was made, then 
 came this worthy clarke Ewclyde, and said 
 to the King and to all his great lords: ' If 
 yee will, take me your children to governe, 
 and to teach them one of the Seaven Sci- 
 ences, wherewith they may live honestly as 
 gentlemen should, under a condition that 
 yee will grant me and them a commission 
 that I may have power to rule them after 
 the manner that the science ought to be 
 ruled.' And that the King and all his 
 counsell granted to him anone, and sealed 
 their commission. And then this worthy 
 tooke to him these lords' sonns, and taught 
 them the science of Geometrie in practice, 
 for to work in stones all manner of worthy 
 worke that belongeth to buildinge churches, 
 temples, castells, towres, and mannors, and 
 all other manner of buildings ; and he gave 
 them a charge on this manner: " 
 
 Here follow the usual " charges " of a 
 Freemason as given in all the old Consti- 
 tutions; and then the legend concludes 
 with these words : 
 
 "And thus was the science grounded 
 there; and that worthy Master Ewclyde 
 gave it the name of Geometrie. And now 
 it is called through all this land Masonrye." 
 
 This legend, considered historically, is 
 certainly very absurd, and the anachronism 
 which makes Euclid the contemporary of 
 Abraham adds, if possible, to the absurdity. 
 But interpreted as all Masonic legends 
 should be interpreted, as merely intended 
 to convey a Masonic truth in symbolic lan- 
 guage, it loses its absurdity, and becomes 
 invested with an importance that we should 
 not otherwise attach to it. 
 
 Euclid is here very appropriately used as 
 a type of geometry, that science of which 
 he was so eminent a teacher ; and the myth 
 or legend then symbolizes the fact that 
 there was in Egypt a close connection be- 
 tween that science and the great moral and 
 religious system which was among the 
 Egyptians, as well as other ancient nations, 
 what Freemasonry is at the present day — 
 a secret institution, established for the in- 
 culcation of the same principles, and in- 
 culcating them in the same symbolic man- 
 ner. So interpreted, this legend corre- 
 sponds to all the developments of Egyptian 
 
266 
 
 EULOGY 
 
 EXAMINATION 
 
 history, which teach us how close a con- 
 nection existed in that country between 
 the religious and scientific systems. Thus 
 Kenrick (Anc. Eg., i. 383) tells us that 
 " when we read of foreigners [in Egypt] 
 being obliged to submit to painful and te- 
 dious ceremonies of initiation, it was not 
 that they might learn the secret meaning 
 of the rites of Osiris or Isis, but that they 
 might partake of the knowledge of astron- 
 omy, physic, geometry, and theology." 
 
 The legend of Euclid belongs to that 
 class of narrations which, in another work, 
 I have ventured to call "The Mythical 
 Symbols of Freemasonry." 
 
 Eulogy. Masonry delights to do honor 
 to the memory of departed brethren by the 
 delivery of eulogies of their worth and 
 merit, which are either delivered at the 
 time of their burial, or at some future pe- 
 riod. The eulogy forms the most important 
 part of the ceremonies of a Sorrow Lodge. 
 But the language of the eulogist should be 
 restrained within certain limits ; while the 
 veil of charity should be thrown over the 
 frailties of the deceased, the praise of his 
 virtues should not be expressed with exag- 
 gerated adulation. 
 
 Eumolpus. A king of Eleusis, who 
 founded, about the year 1374 B. c, the Mys- 
 teries of Eleusis. His descendants, the 
 Eumolpidae, presided for twelve hundred 
 years over these Mysteries as Hierophants. 
 
 Ennnch. It is usual, in the most cor- 
 rect rituals of the third degree, especially 
 to name eunuchs as being incapable of ini- 
 tiation. In none of the old Constitutions 
 and Charges is this class of persons alluded 
 to by name, although of course they are 
 comprehended in the general prohibition 
 against making persons who have any 
 blemish or maim. However, in the Charges 
 which were published by Dr. Anderson, 
 in his second edition, they are included in 
 the list of prohibited candidates. It is 
 probable from this that at that time it was 
 usual to name them in the point of OB. 
 referred to ; and this presumption derives 
 strength from the fact that Dermott, in 
 copying his Charges from those of Ander- 
 son's second edition, added a note com- 
 plaining of the " moderns" for having dis- 
 regarded this ancient law, in at least one 
 instance. The question is, however, not 
 worth discussion, except as a matter of 
 ritual history, since the legal principle is 
 already determined that eunuchs cannot 
 be initiated because they are not perfect 
 men, " having no maim or defect in their 
 bodies." 
 
 Euphrates. One of the largest and 
 most celebrated rivers of Asia. Rising in 
 the mountains of Armenia and flowing into 
 the Persian gulf, it necessarily lies between 
 
 Jerusalem and Babylon. In the ritual of 
 the higher degrees it is referred to as the 
 stream over which the Knights of the East 
 won a passage by their arms in returning 
 from Babylon to Jerusalem. 
 
 Euresis. From the Greek, evpeaig, a 
 discovert/. That part of the initiation in 
 the Ancient Mysteries which represented 
 the finding of the body of the god or hero 
 whose death and resurrection was the sub- 
 ject of the initiation. The euresis has been 
 adopted in Freemasonry, and forms an es- 
 sential portion of the ritual of the third 
 degree. 
 
 Evangelist. See St. John the Evan- 
 gelist. 
 
 Evergreen. An evergreen plant is a 
 symbol of the immortality of the soul. The 
 ancients, therefore, as well as the moderns, 
 planted evergreens at the heads of graves. 
 Freemasons wear evergreens at the funerals 
 of their brethren, and cast them into the 
 grave. The acacia is the plant which 
 should be used on these occasions, but 
 where it cannot be obtained, some other 
 evergreen plant, especially the cedar, is 
 used as a substitute. See Acacia. 
 
 Exalted. A candidate is said to be 
 exalted, when he receives the degree of 
 Holy Royal Arch, the seventh in American 
 Masonry. Exalted means elevated or lifted 
 up, and is applicable both to a peculiar cere- 
 mony of the degree, and to the fact that 
 this degree, in the Rite in which it is prac- 
 tised, constitutes the summit of ancient 
 Masonry. 
 
 The rising of the sun of spring from his 
 wintry sleep into the glory of the vernal 
 equinox was called by the old sun-worship- 
 pers his " exaltation ; " and the Fathers of 
 the Church afterwards applied the same 
 term to the resurrection of Christ. St. 
 Athanasius says that by the expression, 
 " God hath exalted him," St. Paul meant 
 the resurrection. Exaltation, therefore, 
 technically means a rising from a lower to 
 a higher sphere, and in Royal Arch Ma- 
 sonry may be supposed to refer to the being 
 lifted up out of the first temple of this life 
 into the second temple of the future life. 
 The candidate is raised in the Master's de- 
 gree, he is exalted in the Royal Arch. In 
 both the symbolic idea is the same. 
 
 Examination of Candidates. 
 It is an almost universal rule of the modern 
 Constitutions of Masonry, that an examina- 
 tion upon the subjects which had been taught 
 in the preceding degree shall be required 
 of every brother who is desirous of receiv- 
 ing a higher degree; and it is directed that 
 this examination shall take place in an 
 open Lodge of the degree upon which the 
 examination is made, that all the members 
 present may have an opportunity of judg- 
 
EXAMINATION 
 
 EXCELLENT 
 
 267 
 
 ing from actual inspection of the proficiency 
 and fitness of the candidate for the advance- 
 ment to which he aspires. The necessity 
 of an adequate comprehension of the mys- 
 teries of one degree, before any attempt is 
 made to acquire a higher one, seems to have 
 been duly appreciated from the earliest 
 times; and hence the Old York Constitu- 
 tions of 926, or the document usually re- 
 garded as such, prescribe, " that if the Mas- 
 ter have an Apprentice, he shall thoroughly 
 teach him, so that he may perfectly under- 
 stand his Craft." But there is no evidence 
 that the system of examining candidates as 
 to their proficiency, before their advance- 
 ment, is other than a modern improvement, 
 and first adopted not very early in the pres- 
 ent century. 
 
 Examination of the Ballot- 
 Box. This is always done during the bal- 
 lot for a candidate, by presenting the box 
 first to the Junior Warden, then to the 
 Senior, and lastly to the Master, each of 
 whom proclaims the result as " clear " or 
 " foul." This order is adopted so that the 
 declaration of the inferior officer, as to the 
 state of the ballots, may be confirmed and 
 substantiated by his superior. 
 
 Examination of Visitors. The 
 due examination of strangers who claim the 
 right to visit, should be intrusted only to 
 the most skilful and prudent brethren of 
 the Lodge. And the examining committee 
 should never forget, that no man applying 
 for admission is to be considered as a Ma- 
 son, however strong may be his recommen- 
 dations, until by undeniable evidence he 
 has proved himself to be such. 
 
 All the necessary forms and antecedent 
 cautions should be observed. Inquiries 
 should be made as to the time and place of 
 initiation, as a preliminary step the Tiler's 
 OB, of course, never being omitted. Then 
 remember the good old rule of " commenc- 
 ing at the beginning." Let everything pro- 
 ceed in regular course, not varying in the 
 slightest degree from the order in which it 
 is to be supposed that the information 
 sought was originally received. Whatever 
 be the suspicions of imposture, let no ex- 
 pression of those suspicions be made until 
 the final decree for rejection is uttered. And 
 let that decree be uttered in general terms, 
 such as, " I am not satisfied," or " I do not 
 recognize you." and not in more specific 
 language, such as, " You did not answer this 
 inquiry," or " You are ignorant on that 
 point." The candidate for examination is 
 only entitled to know that he has not com- 
 plied generally with the requisitions of his 
 examiner. To descend to particulars is al- 
 ways improper and often dangerous. Above 
 all, never ask what the lawyers call " lead- 
 ing questions," which include in themselves 
 
 the answers, nor in any manner aid the 
 memory or prompt the forgetfulness of the 
 party examined, by the slightest hints. If 
 he has it in him it will come out without 
 assistance, and if he has it not, he is clearly 
 entitled to no aid. The Mason who is so 
 unmindful of his obligations as to have for- 
 gotten the instructions he has received, 
 must pay the penalty of his carelessness, 
 and be deprived of his contemplated visit 
 to that society whose secret modes of recog- 
 nition he has so little valued as not to have 
 treasured them in his memory. 
 
 Lastly, never should an unjustifiable 
 delicacy weaken the rigor of these rules. 
 Remember, that for the wisest and most 
 evident reasons, the merciful maxim of the 
 law, which says that it is better that ninety- 
 nine guilty men should escape than that 
 one innocent man should be punished, is 
 with us reversed, and that in Masonry it is 
 better that ninety and nine true men should 
 be turned away from, the door of a Lodge than 
 that one cowan should be admitted. 
 
 Excavations. Excavations beneath 
 Jerusalem have for some years past been in 
 progress, under the direction of the Eng- 
 lish society, which controls the " Palestine 
 Exploration Fund," and many important 
 discoveries, especially interesting to Masons, 
 have been made. For the results, see Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 Excellent. A title conferred on the 
 Grand Captain of the Host, and Grand 
 Principal Sojourner of a Grand Chapter, 
 and on the King and Scribe of a subordi- 
 nate Chapter of Royal Arch Masons in 
 America. 
 
 Excellent Masons. Dr. Oliver 
 [Hist. Landm., i. 420,) gives a tradition 
 that at the building of Solomon's Temple 
 there were nine Lodges of Excellent Ma- 
 sons, having nine in each, which were dis- 
 tributed as follows: Six Lodges, or fifty- 
 four Excellent Masons in the quarries; 
 three Lodges, or twenty-seven Excellent 
 Masons in the forest of Lebanon ; eight 
 Lodges, or seventy-two Excellent Masons 
 engaged in preparing the materials; and 
 nine Lodges, or eighty-one Excellent Ma- 
 sons subsequently employed in building the 
 Temple. Of this tradition there is not the 
 slightest support in authentic history, and 
 it must have been invented altogether for 
 a symbolic purpose, in reference perhaps to 
 the mystical numbers which it details. 
 
 Excellent Master. A degree in 
 the Irish system which, with Super-Excel- 
 lent Master, is given as preparatory to the 
 Royal Arch. It is given in a Lodge gov- 
 erned by a Master and two Wardens, and 
 refers to the legation of Moses. 
 
 Excellent, Most. See Most Excel- 
 lent. 
 
268 
 
 EXCELLENT 
 
 EXCLUSIVENESS 
 
 Excellent, Right. See Right Ex- 
 cellent. 
 
 Excellent, Super. See Super-Ex- 
 cellent. 
 
 Excellent, Very. See Very Excel- 
 lent. 
 
 Exclusion. In England the Grand 
 Lodge only expels from the rights and 
 privileges of Masonry. But a subordinate 
 Lodge may exclude a member after giving 
 him due notice of the charge preferred 
 against him, and of the time appointed for 
 its consideration. The name of any one 
 so excluded, and the cause of his exclusion 
 must be sent to the Grand Secretary. No 
 Mason excluded is eligible to any other 
 Lodge until the Lodge to which he applies 
 has been made acquainted with his exclu- 
 sion, and the cause, so that the brethren 
 may exercise their discretion as to his ad- 
 mission. In America, the word used as 
 synonymous with exclusion is striking from 
 the roll, except that the latter punishment 
 is only inflicted for non-payment of Lodge 
 dues. 
 
 Exclusiveness of Masonry. The 
 exclusiveness of Masonic benevolence is a 
 charge that has frequently been made 
 against the Order ; and it is said that the 
 charity of which it boasts is always con- 
 ferred on its own members in preference 
 to strangers. It cannot be denied that 
 Masons, simply as Masons, have ever been 
 more constant and more profuse in their 
 charities to their own brethren than to the 
 rest of the world; that in apportioning the 
 alms which God has given them to bestow, 
 they have first looked for the poor in their 
 own home before they sought those who 
 were abroad; and that their hearts have 
 felt more deeply for the destitution of a 
 brother than a stranger. 
 
 The principle that governs the institution 
 of Freemasonry, in the distribution of its 
 charities, and the exercise of all the friendly 
 affections, is that which was laid down by 
 St. Paul for the government of the infant 
 church at Galatia: "As we have therefore 
 opportunity, let us do good unto all men, 
 especially unto them who are of the house- 
 hold." 
 
 This sentiment of preference for one's 
 own household, thus sanctioned by apos- 
 tolic authority, is the dictate of human na- 
 ture, and the words of Scripture find their 
 echo in every heart. " Blood," says the 
 Spanish proverb, " is thicker than water," 
 and the claims of kindred, of friends and 
 comrades to our affections, must not be 
 weighed in the same scale with those of 
 the stranger, who has no stronger tie to 
 bind him to our sympathies, than that of a 
 common origin from the founder of our 
 race. All associations of men act on this 
 
 principle. It is acknowledged in the 
 church, which follows with strict obedience 
 the injunction of the apostle; and in the 
 relief it affords to the distressed, in the 
 comforts and consolations which it imparts 
 to the afflicted, and in the rights and 
 privileges which it bestows upon its own 
 members, distinguishes between those who 
 have no community with it of religious 
 belief, and those who, by worshipping at 
 the same altar, have established the higher 
 claim of being of the household. 
 
 It is recognized by all other societies, 
 which, however they may, from time to 
 time, and under the pressure of peculiar 
 circumstances, extend temporary aid to 
 accidental cases of distress, carefully pre- 
 serve their own peculiar funds for the re- 
 lief of those who, by their election as mem- 
 bers, by their subscription to a written con- 
 stitution, and by the regular payment of 
 arrears, have assumed the relationship which 
 St. Paul defines as being of the household. 
 
 It is recognized by governments, which, 
 however liberally they may frame their 
 laws, so that every burden may bear equally 
 on all, and each may enjoy the same civil 
 and religious rights, never fail, in the privi- 
 leges which they bestow, to discriminate 
 between the alien and foreigner, whose visit 
 is but temporary or whose allegiance is 
 elsewhere, and their own citizens, the chil- 
 dren of their household. 
 
 This principle of preference is universally 
 diffused, and it is well that it is so. It is 
 well that those who are nearer should be 
 dearer ; and that a similitude of blood, an 
 indentity of interest, or a community of 
 purpose, should give additional strength to 
 the ordinary ties that bind man to man. 
 Man, in the weakness of his nature, re- 
 quires this security. By his own unaided 
 efforts, he cannot accomplish the objects of 
 his life nor supply the necessary wants of 
 his existence. In this state of utter help- 
 lessness, God has wisely and mercifully 
 provided a remedy by implanting in the 
 human breast a love of union and an 
 ardent desire for society. Guided by this 
 instinct of preservation, man eagerly seeks 
 the communion of man, and the weakness 
 of the individual is compensated by the 
 strength of association. It is to this con- 
 sciousness of mutual dependence, that na- 
 tions are indebted for their existence, and 
 governments for their durability. And 
 under the impulse of the same instinct of 
 society, brotherhoods and associations are 
 formed, whose members, concentrating 
 their efforts for the attainment of one com- 
 mon object, bind themselves by voluntary 
 ties of love and friendship, more powerful 
 than those which arise from the ordinary 
 sentiments and feelings of human nature. 
 
EXCUSE 
 
 EXPOSITIONS 
 
 269 
 
 Excuse. Many Lodges in the last 
 century and in the beginning of this in- 
 flicted pecuniary fines for non-attendance 
 at Lodge meetings, and of course excuses 
 were then required to avoid the penalty. 
 But this has now grown out of use. Ma- 
 sonry being considered a voluntary institu- 
 tion, fines for absence are not inflicted, and 
 excuses are therefore not now required. 
 The infliction of a fine would, it is sup- 
 posed, detract from the solemnity of the 
 obligation which makes attendance a duty. 
 The old Constitutions, however, required 
 excuses for non-attendance, although no 
 penalty was prescribed for a violation of 
 the rule. Thus, in the Matthew Cooke 
 Manuscript (fifteenth century), it is said, 
 " that every master of this art should be 
 warned to come to his congregation that 
 they come duly, but if (unless) they may be 
 excused by some manner of cause." And 
 in the Halliwell Manuscript, which pur- 
 ports to contain the York Constitutions of 
 926, it is written : 
 
 "That every mayster, that is a Mason, 
 Must ben at the generale congregacyon, 
 So that he hyt resonebly y-colde 
 Where that the semble shall be holde ; 
 And to that semble he must nede gon, 
 But he have a resenabul skwsacyon." 
 
 Executive Powers of a Grand 
 Eodge. See Grand Lodge. 
 Exemplification of the Work. 
 
 This term is of frequent use in American 
 Masonry. When a lecturer or teacher per- 
 forms the ceremonies of a degree for in- 
 struction, using generally one of the Ma- 
 sons present as a substitute for the candi- 
 date, he is said " to exemplify the work." 
 It is done for instruction, or to enable the 
 members of the Grand or subordinate 
 Lodge to determine on the character of 
 the ritual that is taught by the exemplifier. 
 
 Exoteric. Public, not secret. See 
 Esoteric. 
 
 Expert. In Lodges of the French 
 Rite, there are two officers called First and 
 Second Experts, whose duty it is to assist 
 the Master of Ceremonies in the initiation 
 of a candidate. In Lodges of Perfection 
 of the Scottish Rite, there are similar 
 officers who are known as the Senior and 
 Junior Expert. 
 
 Expositions. Very early after the 
 revival of Masonry, in the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century, pretended exposi- 
 tions of the ritual of Masonry began to be 
 published. The following catalogue com- 
 prises the most notorious of these pseudo- 
 revelations. The leading titles only are 
 given. 
 
 1. The Grand Mystery of Freemasons 
 Discovered. London, 1724. 
 
 2. The Secret History of the Freemason- 
 ry. London, 1725. 
 
 3. Masonry Dissected, by Samuel Prich- 
 ard. London, 1730. There were several 
 subsequent editions, and a French transla- 
 tion in 1737, and a German one in 1736, 
 
 4. The Secrets of Masonry made known 
 to all men, by S. P. [Samuel Prichard.J 
 London, 1737. 
 
 5. Masonry further dissected. London. 
 1738. 
 
 6. The Mystery of Masonry. London, 
 1737. 
 
 7. Le Secret des Franc-Maqons, par M. 
 l'Abbe Perau. Geneva, 1742. 
 
 8. Catechisme des Franc-Macons, par 
 Leonard Gabanon (Louis Travenol). Paris, 
 1745. He published several editions, vary- 
 ing the titles. 
 
 9. L'Ordre de Franc-Macons train et le 
 Secret des Mopses revele. Amsterdam, 
 1745. Many subsequent editions, and a 
 German and a Dutch translation. 
 
 10. Solomon in all his Glory. London, 
 1766. 
 
 11. Jachin and Boaz. London, 1750. 
 
 12. The Three Distinct Knocks. Lon- 
 don, 1767. 
 
 13. Hiram ; or, The Grand Master Key. 
 London, 1764. 
 
 14. The Freemason Stripped Naked, by 
 Charles Warren. London, 1769. 
 
 15. Shibboleth ; or, Every Man a Free- 
 mason. Dublin, 1775. 
 
 16. Receuil precieux de la Maqonnerie 
 Adonhiramite, par Louis Guillemin de St. 
 Victor. Paris, 1781. This work was not 
 written with an unfriendly purpose, and 
 many editions of it were published. 
 
 17. The Master Key, by I. Browne. Lon- 
 don, 1794. Scarcely an exposition, since 
 the cipher in which it is printed renders it 
 a sealed book to all who do not possess the 
 key. 
 
 18. A Masonic Treatise, with an Eluci- 
 dation on the Religious and Moral Beauties 
 of Freemasonry, etc., by W. Finch. Lon- 
 don, 1801. 
 
 19. Manual of Freemasonry, in three 
 parts, by the late Richard Carlisle. Now 
 first collected in one volume. London, 
 1845. 
 
 20. Illustrations of Masonry, by William 
 Morgan. The first edition is without date 
 or place, but it was probably printed at 
 Batavia, in 1828. 
 
 21. Light on Masonry, by David Bernard. 
 Utica, N. Y., 1829. 
 
 22. A Ritual of Freemasonry, by Avery 
 Allyn. New York, 1852. 
 
 There have been several other American 
 expositions, but the compilers have only 
 been servile copyists of Morgan, Ber- 
 nard, and Allyn. It has been, and con- 
 
270 
 
 EXPULSION 
 
 EXPULSION 
 
 tinues to be, simply the pouring out of one 
 vial into another. 
 
 The expositions which abound in the 
 French, German, and other continental 
 languages, are not attacks upon Freema- 
 sonry, but are written often under author- 
 ity, for the use of the Fraternity. The 
 usages of continental Masonry permit a 
 freedom of publication that would scarcely 
 be tolerated by the English or American 
 Fraternity. 
 
 Expulsion. Expulsion is, of all Ma- 
 sonic penalties, the highest that can be in- 
 flicted on a member of the Order, and 
 hence it has been often called a Masonic 
 death. It deprives the expelled of all the 
 rights and privileges that he ever enjoyed, 
 not only as a member of the particular 
 Lodge from which he has been ejected, but 
 also of those which were inherent in him 
 as a member of the Fraternity at large. He 
 is at once as completely divested of his Ma- 
 sonic character as though he had never 
 been admitted, so far as regards his rights, 
 while his duties and obligations remain as 
 firm as ever, it being impossible for any 
 human power to cancel them. He can no 
 longer demand the aid of his brethren, nor 
 require from them the performance of any 
 of the duties to which he was formerly en- 
 titled, nor visit any Lodge, nor unite in any 
 of the public or private ceremonies of the 
 Order. He is considered as being without 
 the pale, and it would be criminal in any 
 brother, aware of his expulsion, to hold 
 communication with him on Masonic sub- 
 jects. 
 
 The only proper tribunal to impose this 
 heavy punishment is a Grand Lodge. A 
 subordinate Lodge tries its delinquent 
 member, and if guilty declares him ex- 
 pelled. But the sentence is of no force un- 
 til the Grand Lodge, under whose jurisdic- 
 tion it is working, has confirmed it. And 
 it is optional with the Grand Lodge to do 
 so, or, as is frequently done, to reverse the de- 
 cision and reinstate the brother. Some of 
 the Lodges in this country claim the right 
 to expel independently of the action of the 
 Grand Lodge, but the claim is not valid. 
 The very fact that an expulsion is a penalty, 
 affecting the general relations of the pun- 
 ished brother with the whole Fraternity, 
 proves that its exercise never could with 
 propriety be intrusted to a body so circum- 
 scribed in its authority as a subordinate 
 Lodge. Besides, the general practice of 
 the Fraternity is against it. The English 
 Constitutions vest the power to expel ex- 
 clusively in the Grand Lodge. " The sub- 
 ordinate Lodge may suspend and report 
 the case to the Grand Lodge. If the offence 
 and evidence be sufficient, expulsion is de- 
 creed." 
 
 All Masons, whether members of Lodges 
 or not, are subject to the infliction of this 
 punishment when found to merit it. Resig- 
 nation or withdrawal from the Order does 
 not cancel a Mason's obligations, nor exempt 
 him from that wholesome control which 
 the Order exercises over the moral conduct 
 of its members. The fact that a Mason, 
 not a member of any particular Lodge, but 
 who has been guilty of immoral or unma- 
 sonic conduct, can be tried and punished 
 by any Lodge within whose jurisdiction he 
 may be residing, is a point on which there 
 is no doubt. 
 
 Immoral conduct, such as would subject 
 a candidate for admission to rejection, 
 should be the only offence visited with 
 expulsion. As the punishment is general, 
 affecting the relation of the one expelled 
 with the whole Fraternity, it should not be 
 lightly imposed for the violation of any 
 Masonic act not general in its character. 
 The commission of a grossly immoral act 
 is a violation of the contract entered into 
 between each Mason and his Order. If 
 sanctioned by silence or impunity, it would 
 bring discredit on the Institution, and tend 
 to impair its usefulness. A Mason who is 
 a bad man is to the Fraternity what a mor- 
 tified limb is to the body, and should be 
 treated with the same mode of cure, — he 
 should be cut off, lest his example spread, 
 and disease be propagated through the 
 constitution. 
 
 Expulsion from one of what is called the 
 higher degrees of Masonry, such as a Chap- 
 ter or an Encampment, does not affect the 
 relations of the expelled party to Blue 
 Masonry. A Chapter of Royal Arch Ma- 
 sons is not and cannot be recognized as a 
 Masonic body by a Lodge of Master Masons 
 by any of the modes of recognition known 
 to Masonry. The acts, therefore, of a Chap- 
 ter cannot be recognized by a Master Ma- 
 son's Lodge any more than the acts of a 
 literary or charitable society wholly uncon- 
 nected with the Order. Besides, by the 
 present organization of Freemasonry, Grand 
 Lodges are the supreme Masonic tribunals. 
 If, therefore, expulsion from a Chapter of 
 Royal Arch Masons involved expulsion 
 from a Blue Lodge, the right of the Grand 
 Lodge to hear and determine causes, and 
 to regulate the internal concerns of the 
 Institution, would be interfered with by 
 another body beyond its control. But the 
 converse of this proposition does not hold 
 good. Expulsion from a Blue Lodge in- 
 volves expulsion from all the higher de- 
 grees; because, as they are composed of 
 Blue Masons, the members could not of 
 right sit and hold communications on Ma- 
 sonic subjects with one who was an expelled 
 Mason. 
 
EXTENDED 
 
 EZRA 
 
 271 
 
 Extended Wings of the Cheru- 
 bim. An expression used in the ceremo- 
 nies of Eoyal Master, the tenth degree of 
 the American Rite, and intended to teach 
 symbolically that he who comes to ask and 
 to seek Divine Truth symbolized by the 
 True Word, should begin by placing him- 
 self under the protection of that Divine 
 Power who alone is Truth, and from whom 
 alone Truth can be obtained. Of him the 
 cherubim with extended wings in the Holy 
 of Holies were a type. 
 
 Extent of the Lodge. The extent 
 of a Mason's Lodge is said to be in height 
 from the earth to the highest heavens ; in 
 depth, from the surface to the centre; in 
 length, from east to west; and in breadth, 
 from north to south. The expression is a 
 symbolic one, and is intended to teach the 
 extensive boundaries of Masonry and the 
 coterminal extension of Masonic charity. 
 See Form of the Lodge. 
 
 External Qualifications. The 
 external qualifications of candidates for 
 initiation are those which refer to their 
 outward fitness, based upon moral and reli- 
 gious character, the frame of body, the 
 constitution of the mind, and social posi- 
 tion. Hence they are divided into Moral, 
 Religious, Physical, Mental, and Polit- 
 ical, for all of which see the respective 
 words. The expression in the ritual, that 
 " it is the internal and not the external 
 qualifications that recommend a man to be 
 made a Mason," it is evident, from the con- 
 text, refers entirely to "worldly wealth and 
 honors," which, of course, are not to be 
 taken " into consideration in inquiring into 
 the qualifications of a candidate." 
 
 Extinct Lodge. A Lodge is said to 
 be extinct which has ceased to exist and 
 work, which is no longer on the registry of 
 the Grand Lodge, and whose Charter has 
 been revoked for mis-use or forfeited for 
 non-use. 
 
 Extra Communication. The 
 same as Special Communication, which see. 
 
 Extraneous. Not_ regularly made; 
 clandestine. The word is now obsolete in 
 this signification, but was so used by the 
 Grand Lodge of England in a motion 
 adopted March 31, 1735, and reported by 
 Anderson in his 1738 edition of the Consti- 
 tutions, p. 182. "No extraneous brothers, 
 that is, not regularly made, but clandestine, 
 . . . . shall be ever qualified to par- 
 take of the Mason's general charity." 
 
 Extrusion. Used in the Constitution 
 of the Royal Order of Scotland for expul- 
 sion. " If a brother shall be convicted of 
 crime by any Court of Justice, such brother 
 shall be permanently extruded." (Sect. 29.) 
 Not in use elsewhere as a Masonic term. 
 
 Eye. See All-Seeing Eye. 
 
 Ezckiel, Temple of. See Temple 
 of Ezekiel. 
 
 Ezel. In Hebrew, SlXH px, eben hah- 
 ezel, the stone of the departure, viz., a 
 mile-stone. An old testimonial stone in 
 the neighborhood of Saul's residence, the 
 scene of the parting of David and Jona- 
 than, and the mark beyond which the fall- 
 ing of Jonathan's arrow indicated danger. 
 Hence, a word adopted in the honorary 
 degree called the "Mason's wife and 
 daughter." 
 
 Ezra. There are two persons named 
 Ezra who are recorded in Scripture. 1. 
 Ezra, a leading priest among the first colo- 
 nists who came up to Jerusalem with Ze- 
 rubbabel, and who is mentioned by Nehe- 
 miah ; and, 2. Ezra, the celebrated Jewish 
 scribe and restorer of the law, who visited 
 Jerusalem forty-two years after the second 
 Temple had been completed. Calmet, 
 however, says that this second Ezra had 
 visited Jerusalem previously in company 
 with Zerubbabel. Some explanation of 
 this kind is necessary to reconcile an other- 
 wise apparent inconsistency in the English 
 system of the Royal Arch, which makes 
 two of its officers represent Ezra and Ne- 
 hemiah under the title of scribes, while at 
 the same time it makes the time of the 
 ritual refer to the laying of the foundation 
 of the second Temple, and yet places in the 
 scene, as a prominent actor, the later Ezra, 
 who did not go up to Jerusalem until more 
 than forty years after the completion of the 
 building. It is, I think, more probable 
 that the Ezra who is said in the ritual to 
 have wrought with Joshua, Haggai, and 
 Zerubbabel, was intended by the original 
 framer of the ritual to refer to the first 
 Ezra, who is recorded by Nehemiah as hav- 
 ing been present; and that the change was 
 made in the reference, without due consid- 
 eration, by some succeeding ritualist, whose 
 mistake has been carelessly perpetuated by 
 those who followed him. Dr. Oliver {Hist. 
 Landmarks, ii. 428,) attempts to reconcile 
 the difficulty, and to remove the anachron- 
 ism, by saying that Esdras was the scribe 
 under Joshua, Haggai, and Zerubbabel, 
 and that he was succeeded in this impor- 
 tant office by Ezra and Nehemiah. But the 
 English ritual makes no allusion to this 
 change of succession ; and if it did, it would 
 not enable us to understand how Ezra and 
 Nehemiah could be present as scribes when 
 the foundations of the second Temple were 
 laid, and the important secrets of the Royal 
 Arch degree were brought to light, unless 
 the Ezra meant is the one who came to Je- 
 rusalem with Nehemiah. There is a con- 
 fusion in all this which should be rectified. 
 
272 
 
 FV 
 
 FELICITY 
 
 F. 
 
 F.*. In French Masonic documents the 
 abbreviation of Frere, or Brother. FF.\ is 
 the abbreviation of Freres, or Brethren. 
 
 Fabre-Palaprat,Bernard Ray- 
 mond. The restorer, or, to speak more 
 correctly, the organizer of the Order of the 
 Temple at Paris, of which he was elected 
 Grand Master in 1804. He died at Pau, in 
 the lower Pyrenees, February 18, 1838. See 
 Temple, Order of the. 
 
 Faculty of Abrac. In the so-called 
 Leland Manuscript, it is said that Masons 
 " conceal the way of wynninge the facultye 
 of Abrac." That is, that they conceal the 
 method of acquiring the powers bestowed 
 by a knowledge of the magical talisman 
 that is called Abracadabra. See Abraca- 
 dabra and Leland Manuscript. 
 
 Faith. In the theological ladder, the 
 explanation of which forms a part of the 
 ritual of the first degree of Masonry, faith 
 is said to typify the lowest round. Faith, 
 here, is synonymous with confidence or trust, 
 and hence we find merely a repetition of 
 the lesson which had been previously 
 taught that the first, the essential qualifi- 
 cation of a candidate for initiation, is that 
 he should trust in God. 
 
 In the lecture of the same degree, it is 
 said that " Faith may be lost in sight ; 
 Hope ends in fruition ; but Charity extends 
 beyond the grave, through the boundless 
 realms of eternity." And this is said, be- 
 cause as faith is " the evidence of things 
 not seen," when we see we no longer be- 
 lieve by faith but through demonstration ; 
 and as hope lives only in the expectation 
 of possession, it ceases to exist when the 
 object once hoped for is at length enjoyed, 
 but charity, exercised on earth in acts of 
 mutual kindness and forbearance, is still 
 found in the world to come, in the sublimer 
 form of mercy from God to his erring crea- 
 tures. 
 
 Faithful Breast. See Breast, the 
 Faithful. 
 
 Fall of Water. See Waterfall. 
 
 Family Lodge. A Lodge held es- 
 
 f>ecially for the transaction of private and 
 ocal business of so delicate a nature that it 
 is found necessary to exclude, during the 
 session, the presence of all except members. 
 In France a Lodge when so meeting is said 
 to be en famille, and the meeting is called 
 a tenue de famille or family session; in 
 Germany such Lodges are called, some- 
 times, Familien-Logen, but more generally 
 Conferenz-Jjogen. See Conference Lodge. 
 
 Fasces. The bundle of rods borne be- 
 fore the Roman magistrates as an ensign 
 of their authority. In French Masonry, 
 
 faisceau, or fasces, is used to denote a num- 
 ber of speeches or records tied up in a roll 
 and deposited in the archives. 
 
 Favorite Brother of St. An- 
 drew. -The ninth degree of the Swedish 
 Rite. 
 
 Favorite Brother of St. John. 
 The eighth degree of the Swedish Rite. 
 
 Feast. The convocation of the Craft 
 together at an annual feast, for the lauda- 
 ble purpose of promoting social feelings, 
 and cementing the bonds of brotherly love 
 by the interchange of courtesies, is a time- 
 honored custom, which is unfortunately 
 growing into disuse. The " Assembly and 
 Feast" are words constantly conjoined in 
 the Book of Constitutions. At this meet- 
 ing, no business of any kind, except the 
 installation of officers, was transacted, and 
 the day was passed in innocent festivity. 
 The election of officers always took place 
 at a previous meeting, in obedience to a 
 regulation adopted by the Grand Lodge 
 of England, in 1720, as follows : " It was 
 agreed, in order to avoid disputes on the 
 annual feast-day, that the new Grand 
 Master for the future shall be named and 
 proposed to the Grand Lodge some time 
 before the feast." 
 
 Feasts of the Order. The festi- 
 vals of St. John the Baptist and St. John 
 the Evangelist, June 24th and December 
 27th, are so called. 
 
 Feeling. One of the five human 
 senses, and esteemed by Masons above all 
 the others. For as Anthony Brewer, an 
 old dramatist, says : 
 
 " Though one hear, and see, and smell, and taste, 
 If he wants touch, he is counted but a block." 
 
 Fees of Honor. In the Grand 
 Lodge of England every Grand officer, on 
 his election or re-election, is required to 
 pay a sum of money, varying from two to 
 twenty guineas. The sums thus paid for 
 honors bestowed are technically called 
 " fees of honor." A similar custom pre- 
 vails in the Grand Lodges of Ireland and 
 Scotland; but the usage is unknown in 
 this country. 
 
 Felicity, Order of. An androgy- 
 nous secret society, founded in 1743, at 
 Paris, by M. Chambonnet. It was among 
 the first of the pseudo-Masonic associa- 
 tions, or coteries, invented by French Ma- 
 sons to gratify the curiosity and to secure 
 the support of women. It had a ritual and 
 a vocabulary which were nautical in their 
 character, and there was a rather too free 
 indulgence in the latitude of gallantry. 
 
FELD 
 
 FENDEURS 
 
 273 
 
 It consisted of four degrees, Cabin boy, 
 Master, Commodore, and Vice Admiral. 
 The chief of the order was called Admiral, 
 and this position was of course occupied 
 by M. Chambonnet, the inventor of the 
 system. 
 
 ■ Feld LiOge. What is designated in 
 England and America as a Military or 
 Travelling Lodge is called in Germany a 
 Feld Loge. Sometimes, "ein ambulante 
 Loge." 
 
 Fellow. The Saxon word for fellow 
 is felaw. Spelman derives it from two 
 words, fe and lot/, which signifies bound in 
 mutual trust; a plausible derivation, and 
 not unsuited to the meaning of .the word. 
 But Hicks gives a better etymology when 
 he derives it from the Anglo-Saxon folgian, 
 "to follow," and thus a fellow would be a 
 follower, a companion, an associate. In the 
 Middle Ages, the Operative Masons were 
 divided into Masters and Fellows. Thus 
 in the Harleian MS. it is said: "Now I 
 will rehearse other charges in singular for 
 Maisters and Fellowes." Those who were of 
 greater skill held a higher position and 
 were designated as Masters, while the 
 masses of the fraternity, the commonalty, 
 as we might say, were called Fellows. In 
 the Matthew Cooke MS. this principle is 
 very plainly laid down. There it is written 
 that Euclid " ordained that they who were 
 passing of cunning should be passing hon- 
 ored, and commanded to call the cunninger 
 Master .... and commanded that they 
 that were less of wit should not be called 
 servant nor subject, but Fellow, for nobility 
 of their gentle blood." (Lines 675-688.) 
 From this custom has originated the mod- 
 ern title of Fellow Craft, given to the second 
 degree of Speculative Masonry; although 
 not long after the revival of 1717 the Fel- 
 lows ceased to constitute the main body of 
 the Fraternity, the Masters having taken 
 and still holding that position. 
 
 Fellow Craft. The second degree 
 of Freemasonry in all the Rites is that of 
 the Fellow Craft. In French it is called 
 Compagnon ; in Spanish, Companero; in 
 Italian, Oompagno ; and in German, Oesell; 
 in all of which the radical meaning of the 
 word is a. fellow workman, thus showing the 
 origin of the title from an operative insti- 
 tution. Like the degree of Apprentice, it 
 is only preparatory to the higher initia- 
 tion of the Master ; and yet it differs essen- 
 tially from it in its symbolism. For, as 
 the first degree was typical of youth, the 
 second is supposed to represent the stage 
 of manhood, and hence the acquisition of 
 science is made its prominent characteristic. 
 While the former is directed in all its sym- 
 bols and allegorical ceremonies to the puri- 
 fication of the heart, the latter is intended 
 2K 18 
 
 by its lessons to cultivate the reasoning 
 faculties and improve the intellectual pow- 
 ers. Before the eighteenth century, the 
 great body of the Fraternity consisted of 
 Fellow Crafts, who are designated in all the 
 old manuscripts as " Fellows." After the 
 revival in 1717, the Fellow Crafts, who then 
 first began to be called by that name, lost 
 their prominent position, and the great 
 body of the brotherhood was, for a long 
 time, made up altogether of Apprentices, 
 while the government of the Institution 
 was committed to the Masters and Fellows, 
 both of whom were made only in the Grand 
 Lodge until 1725, when the regulation was 
 repealed, and subordinate Lodges were per- 
 mitted to confer these two degrees. 
 
 Fellow Craft Perfect Architect. 
 ( Compagnon Parfait Architect.) The twen- 
 ty-sixth degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 There are several other degrees which, like 
 this, are so called, not because they have 
 any relation to the orignal second degree 
 of Symbolic Masonry, but to indicate that 
 they constitute the second in any particular 
 series of degrees which are preparatory to 
 the culmination of that series. Thus, in the 
 Rite of Mizraim, we have che Master Per- 
 fect Architect, which is the twenty-seventh 
 degree, while the twenty-fifth and twenty- 
 sixth are Apprentice and Fellow Craft Per- 
 fect Architect. So we have in other rites and 
 systems the Fellow Craft Cohen, Hermetic, 
 and Kabbalistic Fellow Craft, where Master 
 Cohen and Hermetic and Kabbalistic Mas- 
 ter are the topmost degrees of the different 
 series. Fellow Craft in all these, and many 
 other instances like them, means only the 
 second preparation towards perfection. 
 
 Fellowship, FiTC Points of. See 
 Points of Fellowship. 
 
 Female Masonry. See Adoption, 
 Rite of. 
 
 Female Masons. The landmarks 
 of Speculative Masonry peremptorily ex- 
 clude females from any active participation 
 in its mysteries. But there are a few in- 
 stances in which the othewise unalterable 
 rule of female exclusion has been made to 
 yield to the peculiar exigencies of the occa- 
 sion ; and some cases are well authenticatd 
 where this "Salique law" has been vio- 
 lated from necessity, and females have been 
 permitted to receive at least the first de- 
 gree. Such, however, have been only the 
 exceptions which have given confirmation 
 to the rule. See Aldworth, Beaton, and 
 Xentrailles. 
 
 Fendenrs. L'Ordre des Fendeurs, 
 i. c. the Order of Wood-cutters, was a secret 
 society established at Paris, in 1743, by the 
 Chevalier Beauchain. The Lodge repre- 
 sented a forest, and was generally held in 
 a garden. It was androgynous, and had 
 
274 
 
 FERDINAND 
 
 FESSLER 
 
 secret signs and words, and an allegorical 
 language borrowed from the profession of 
 wood-cutting. The Abbe' Barruel (torn, ii., 
 p. 345,) thought that the Order originated 
 in the forests among the actual wood-cut- 
 ters, and that many intelligent inhabitants 
 of the city having united with them, the 
 operative business of felling trees was aban- 
 doned, and Philosophic Lodges were estab- 
 lished, — a course of conversion from Oper- 
 ative to Speculative precisely like that, he 
 Bays, which occurred in Masonry, and this 
 conversion was owing to the number of 
 Fendeurs who were also Freemasons. 
 
 Ferdinand IV. This king of the 
 two Sicilies, on the 12th of September, 
 1775, issued an edict forbidding the meeting 
 of Masons in Lodges in his dominions, 
 under penalty of death. In 1777, at the 
 solicitation of his queen, Caroline, this 
 edict was repealed, and Masonry was once 
 more tolerated ; but in 1781 the decree was 
 renewed. 
 
 Ferdinand VI. In 1751, Ferdinand 
 VI., king of Spain, at the solicitation of 
 Joseph Ferrubia, Visitor of the Holy In- 
 quisition, enforced in his dominions the 
 bull of excommunication of Pope Bene- 
 dict XIV., and forbade the congregation 
 of Masons under the highest penalties of 
 law. In the Journal of Freemasonry, Vi- 
 enna, 1784, (pp. 176-224,) will be found a 
 translation from Spanish into German of 
 Ferrubia's "Act of Accusation," which 
 gave rise to this persecution. 
 
 Ferdinand VII. The king of Spain 
 who bore this title was one of the greatest 
 bigots of his time. He had no sooner as- 
 cended the throne in 1814, than he re- 
 established the Inquisition, which had been 
 abolished by his predecessor, proscribed the 
 exercise of Freemasonry, and ordered the 
 closing of all the Lodges, under the heaviest 
 penalties. In September following, twenty- 
 five persons, among whom were several 
 distinguished noblemen, were arrested as 
 "suspected of Freemasonry." On March 
 30, 1818, a still more rigorous edict was 
 issued, by which those convicted of being 
 Freemasons were subjected to the most 
 severe punishments, such as banishment to 
 India and confiscation of goods, or some- 
 times death by a cruel form of execution. 
 But the subsequent revolution of 1820 and 
 the abolition of the Inquisition removed 
 these blots from the Spanish records. 
 
 Fervency. From the middle of the 
 last century, ardent devotion to duty, fervor 
 or fervency, was taught as a Masonic virtue 
 in the lectures of the first degree, and sym- 
 bolized by charcoal, because, as later rituals 
 say, all metals were dissolved by the fervor 
 of ignited charcoal. Subsequently, in the 
 higher degrees, fervency and zeal were sym- 
 bolized by the color scarlet, which is the 
 
 appropriate tincture of Eoyal Arch Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 Fessler, Ignaz Anrelius. A dis- 
 tinguished German writer and Masonic re- 
 former, and was born at Czurendorf. in Hun- 
 gary, in 1756. He was the son of very poor 
 parents. His mother, who was a bigoted 
 Catholic, had devoted him to a monastic 
 life, and having been educated at the Jesuit 
 Bchool of Raab, he took holy orders in 1772, 
 and was removed to the Capuchin monas- 
 tery in Vienna. In consequence, however, 
 of his exposure to the Emperor Joseph II. 
 of monastic abuses, he incurred the perse- 
 cutions of his superiors. But the emperor, 
 having taken him under his protection, 
 nominated him, in 1783, as ex-professor of 
 the Oriental languages in the University 
 of Lemberg. But the monks having threat- 
 ened him with legal proceedings, he fled to 
 Breslau in 1788, where he subsequently 
 was appointed the tutor of the son of the 
 Prince of Corolath. Here he established a 
 secret Order, called by him the " Ever- 
 geten," which bore a resemblance to Free- 
 masonry in its organization, and was in- 
 tended to effect moral reforms, which at 
 the time he thought Masonry incapable of 
 producing. The Order, however, never 
 really had an active existence, and the at- 
 tempt of Fessler failed by the dissolution, 
 in 1793, of the society. In 1791 he adopted 
 the Lutheran faith, and, having married, 
 settled in Berlin, where until 1806 he was 
 employed as a superintendent of schools. 
 He wrote during this period several his- 
 torical works, which gave him a high repu- 
 tation as an author. But the victorious 
 progress of the French army in Prussia 
 caused him to lose his official position. 
 Having been divorced from his wife in 1802, 
 he again married, and, retiring in 1803 from 
 Berlin, betook himself to the quietude of a 
 country life. Becoming now greatly em- 
 barrassed in pecuniary matters, he received 
 adequate relief from several of the German 
 Lodges, for which he expressed the most 
 lively gratitude. In 1808 he accepted the 
 position of a professor in the University of 
 St. Petersburg, which, however, he was 
 soon compelled to relinquish in consequence 
 of the intrigues of the clergy, who were 
 displeased with his liberal views. Subse- 
 quently he was appointed superintendent 
 of the Evangelical community, over nine 
 Russian departments, and Ecclesiastical 
 President of the consistory at Saratow, with 
 a large salary. In 1827, on the invitation 
 of the Emperor Alexander, he removed 
 permanently to St. Petersburg, where, in 
 1833, he received the appointment of Ec- 
 clesiastical Counsellor, and died there De- 
 cember 15, 1839, at the advanced age of 
 eighty-three years. 
 
 Fessler was initiated into Masonry at 
 
FESSLER 
 
 FESSLER 
 
 275 
 
 Lemberg, in 1783, and immediately devoted 
 himself to the study of its science and his- 
 tory. In June, 1796, he affiliated with the 
 Lodge Royal York, zur Freundschaft, in 
 Berlin, and having been made oueof its Sub- 
 lime Council, was invested with the charge 
 of revising and remodelling the entire ritual 
 of the Lodge, which was based on the high de- 
 grees of the French system. To the accom- 
 plishment of this laborious task, Fessler at 
 once, and for a long time afterwards, de- 
 voted his great intellect and his indefati- 
 gable energies. In a very short period he 
 succeeded in a reformation of the symbolic 
 degrees, and finding the brethren unwilling 
 to reject the high degrees, which were four 
 in number, then practised by the Lodge, he 
 remodelled them, retaining a considerable 
 part of the French ritual, but incorporated 
 with it a portion of the Swedish system. The 
 work thus accomplished met with general 
 approbation. In his next task of forming 
 a new Constitution he was not so success- 
 ful, although at length he induced the Royal 
 York Lodge to assume the character and 
 rank of a Grand Lodge, which it did in 
 1798, with seven subordinate Lodges under 
 its obedience. Again Fessler commenced 
 the work of a revision of the ritual. He 
 had always been opposed to the high degree 
 system. He proposed, therefore, the abo- 
 lition of everything above the degree of 
 Master. In this, however, he was warmly 
 opposed, and was compelled to abandon his 
 project of reducing German Masonry to the 
 simplicity of the English system. Yet he 
 was enabled to accomplish something, and 
 had the satisfaction, in 1800, of metamor- 
 phosing the Elu, the Ecossais, and the Rose 
 Croix, of the old ritual of the Royal York 
 Lodge into the "degrees of knowledge," 
 which constitute the Rite known as the 
 Rite of Fessler. 
 
 In 1798, Fessler had been elected Deputy 
 Grand Master when there were but three 
 Lodges under the Grand Lodge. In 1801, 
 by his persevering activity, the number had 
 been increased to sixteen. Still, notwith- 
 standing his meritorious exertions in be- 
 half of Masonry, he met with that ingrati- 
 tude, from those whom he sought to serve, 
 which appears to be the fate of almost all 
 Masonic reformers. In 1802, wearied with 
 the opposition of his antagonists, he re- 
 nounced all the offices that he had filled, 
 and resigned from the Grand Lodge. 
 Thenceforth he devoted himself in a more 
 retired way to the pursuits of Masonry. 
 
 Before Fessler resigned, he had con- 
 ceived and carried out the scheme of estab- 
 lishing a great union of scientific Masons, 
 who should devote themselves to the inves- 
 tigation of the history of Masonry. Of this 
 society Mossdorf, Fischer, and many other 
 
 distinguished Masons, were members. See 
 Scientific Masons. 
 
 Fessler's contributions to the literature 
 of Freemasonry were numerous and valu- 
 able. His chief work was, An Attempt to 
 Furnish a Critical History of Freemasonry 
 and the Masonic Fraternity from the earliest 
 times to the year 1802. This work was never 
 printed, but only sold in four folio manu- 
 script volumes, at the price of £30, to per- 
 sons who pledged themselves eventually to 
 return it. It was a mistake to circumscribe 
 the results of his researches within so nar- 
 row a field. But he published many other 
 works. His productions were mostly his- 
 torical and judicial, and made a great im- 
 pression on the German Masonic mind. 
 His collected works were published in Ber- 
 lin, from 1801 to 1807, but, unfortunately, 
 they have never been translated into Eng- 
 lish. The object of all he wrote was to 
 elevate Freemasonry to the highest sphere 
 of intellectual character. 
 
 Fessler, Rite of. This Rite, which 
 was prepared by Fessler at the request of 
 the Grand Lodge Royal York of Berlin, 
 consisted of nine degrees, as follows : 
 
 1. Entered Apprentice. 
 
 2. Fellow Craft. 
 
 3. Master Mason. 
 
 These but slightly differ from the same 
 degrees in all the Rites, and are followed 
 by six other degrees, which he called the 
 higher knowledge, namely : 
 
 4. The Holy of Holies. — This degree is 
 occupied in a critical exposition of the vari- 
 ous hypotheses which have been proposed 
 as to the origin of Freemasonry ; as, whether 
 it sprang from the Templars, from the 
 Cathedral of Strasburg, from the Rose 
 Croix of the seventeenth century, from 
 Oliver Cromwell, from the Cathedral of 
 St. Paul's at London, from that of the 
 Palace of Kensington, or from the Jesuits. 
 
 5. Justification. — Critical examination of 
 the origin of certain of the high degrees, 
 such as the Ecossais and the Chapter of 
 Clermont. 
 
 6. Celebration. — Critical examination of 
 the four following systems: Rose Croix, 
 Strict Observance, African Architects, and 
 Initiated Brothers of Asia. 
 
 7. True Light. — Critical examination of 
 the Swedish System, the System of Zin- 
 nendorf, the Royal Arch of England, of 
 the succession of the Mysteries, and of all 
 systems and their ramifications. 
 
 8. The Country. — Examination of the 
 origin of the Mysteries of the Divine King- 
 dom, introduced by Jesus of Nazareth ; of 
 the exoteric doctrines communicated by 
 him immediately to his disciples, and of 
 those which sprang up after his death, up 
 to the time of the Gnostics. 
 
276 
 
 FESTIVALS 
 
 FIFTEEN 
 
 9. Perfection. — A complete critical his- 
 tory of all Mysteries comprehended in ac- 
 tual Freemasonry. 
 
 Both Clavel and Ragon say that the 
 rituals of these degrees were drawn up 
 from the rituals of the Golden Rose Croix, 
 of the Rite of Strict Observance, of the Il- 
 luminated Chapter of Sweden, and the An- 
 cient Chapter of Clermont. Fessler's Rite 
 was, perhaps, the most abstrusely learned 
 and philosophical of all the Masonic sys- 
 tems; but it did not have a long existence, 
 as it was abandoned by the Grand Lodge, 
 which had at first accepted it, for the pur- 
 pose of adopting the Ancient York Rite 
 under the Constitutions of England. 
 
 Festivals. In all religions there have 
 been certain days consecrated to festive en- 
 joyment, and hence called festivals. Sir 
 Isaac Newton (on Daniel, p. 204,) says : 
 "The heathen were delighted with the 
 festivals of their gods, and unwilling to part 
 with these delights ; and, therefore, Gregory 
 Thaumaturgus, who died in 265, and was 
 Bishop of Neocsesarea, to facilitate their 
 conversion, instituted annual festivals to 
 the saints and martyrs. Hence it came to 
 pass that, for exploding the festivals of the 
 heathens, the principal festivals of the 
 Christians succeeded in their room ; as the 
 keeping of Christmas with joy, and feast- 
 ing, and playing, and sports, in the room 
 of the Bacchinalia and Saturnalia; the cele- 
 brating of May day with flowers, in the 
 room of the Floralia ; and the keeping of 
 festivals to the Virgin Mary, John the 
 Baptist, and divers of the apostles, in the 
 room of the solemnities at the entrance of 
 the sun into the signs of the Zodiac, in the 
 old Julian Calendar." The Masons, bor- 
 rowing from and imitating the usage of 
 the Church, have also always had their 
 festivals or days of festivity and celebra- 
 tion. The chief festivals of the Operative 
 or Stone Masons of the Middle Ages were 
 those of St. John the Baptist on the 24th 
 June, and the Four Crowned Martyrs on 
 the 4th November. The latter were, how- 
 ever, discarded by the Speculative Masons ; 
 and the festivals now most generally cele- 
 brated by the Fraternity are those of St. 
 John the Baptist, June 24, and St. John 
 the Evangelist, December 27. These are 
 the days kept in this country. Such, too, 
 was formerly the case in England ; but the 
 annual festival of the Grand Lodge of 
 England now falls on the Wednesday fol- 
 lowing St. George's day, April 23, that 
 saint being the patron of England. For 
 a similar reason, St. Andrew's day, Novem- 
 ber 30, is kept by the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland. In Ireland the festivals kept 
 are those of the two Saints John. 
 
 Fidelity. See Fides. 
 
 Fides. In the lecture of the first degree, 
 it is said that " our ancient brethren wor- 
 shipped deity under the name of Fides or 
 Fidelity, which was sometimes represented 
 by two right hands joined, and sometimes 
 by two human figures holding each other 
 by the right hands." The deity here re- 
 ferred to was the goddess Fides, to whom 
 Numa first erected temples, and whose 
 priests were covered by a white veil as a 
 symbol of the purity which should charac- 
 terize Fidelity. No victims were slain on 
 her altars, and no offerings made to her 
 except flowers, wine, and incense. Her 
 statues were represented clothed in a white 
 mantle, with a key in her hand and a dog 
 at her feet. The virtue of Fidelity is, 
 however, frequently symbolized in ancient 
 medals by a heart in the open hand, but 
 more usually by two right hands clasped. 
 Horace calls her " incorrupta fides," and 
 makes her the sister of Justice ; while Cicero 
 says that that which is religion towards 
 God and piety towards our parents is fidel- 
 ity towards our fellow-men. There was 
 among the Romans another deity called 
 Fidius, who presided over oaths and con- 
 tracts, a very usual form of imprecation 
 being " Me Dius Fidius adjuvet," that is, 
 so help me the god Fidius. No'el {Diet. 
 Fab.) says that there was an ancient marble 
 at Rome consecrated to the god Fidius, on 
 which was depicted two figures clasping 
 each other's hands as the representatives of 
 Honor and Truth, without which there can 
 be no fidelity nor truth among men. Ma- 
 sonry, borrowing its ideas from the ancient 
 poets, also makes the right hand the sym- 
 bol of Fidelity. 
 
 Fiducial Sign. That is, the sign of 
 confiding trust, called also the sign of 
 Truth and Hope. One of the signs of the 
 
 lEnglish Royal Arch system, which is thus 
 explained by Dr. Oliver, {Diet. Symb. 
 Mas.) "The fiducial sign shows us if we 
 prostrate ourselves with our face to the 
 earth, we thus throw ourselves on the 
 mercy of our Creator and Judge, looking 
 forward with humble confidence to his holy 
 promises, by which alone we hope to pass 
 through the ark of our redemption into 
 the mansion of eternal bliss and glory 
 to the presence of Him who is the great 
 I AM, the Alpha and Omega, the Begin- 
 ning and the Ending, the First and the 
 Last." 
 
 Fifteen. A sacred number symbolic 
 of the name of God, because the letters of 
 
 'the holy name HS JAH > are equal, in the 
 Hebrew mode of numeration by the letters 
 of the alphabet, to fifteen ; for *> is equal 
 to ten, and |"7 is equal to five. Hence, 
 from veneration for this sacred name, the 
 Hebrews do not, in ordinary computations, 
 
FINANCES 
 
 FIRE 
 
 277 
 
 when they wish to express the number 
 fifteen, make use of these two letters, but 
 of two others, which are equivalent to nine 
 and six. 
 
 Finances. According to universal 
 usage in Masonry, the Treasurer of the 
 Lodge or other body is the banker or de- 
 positary of the finances of the Lodge. 
 They are first received by the Secretary, 
 who receipts for them, and immediately 
 pays them over to the Treasurer. The 
 Treasurer distributes them under the orders 
 of the Master and the consent of the Lodge. 
 This consent can only be known officially 
 to him by the statement of the Secretary. 
 And hence all orders drawn on the Treas- 
 urer for the disbursement of money should 
 be countersigned by the Secretary. 
 
 Finch, William. A Masonic char- 
 latan, who flourished at the end of the last 
 and the beginning of the present century. 
 Finch was a tailor in Canterbury, who, 
 having been expelled for some misconduct 
 by the Grand Lodge, commenced a system 
 of practical Masonry on his own account, 
 and opened a Lodge in his house, where he 
 undertook to initiate candidates and to 
 give instructions in Masonry. He pub- 
 lished a great number of pamphlets, many 
 of them in a cipher of his own, which he 
 pretended were for the instruction of the 
 Fraternity. Among the books published 
 by him are A Masonic Treatise, with an Elu- 
 cidation on the Religious and Moral Beauties 
 of Freemasonry, etc. ; printed at Canterbury 
 in 1802. The Lectures, Laws, and Ceremo- 
 nies of the Holy Arch Degree of Freemasonry, 
 etc.: Lambeth, 1812. The Origin of Free- 
 masons, etc. : London, 1816. Finch found 
 many dupes, and made a great deal of 
 money. But having on one occasion been 
 sued by an engraver named Smith, for 
 money due for printing his plates, Finch 
 pleaded an offset of money due by Smith 
 for initiation and instruction in Masonry. 
 Smith brought the Grand Secretary and 
 other distinguished Masons into court, who 
 testified that Finch was an impostor. In 
 consequence of this exposure, Finch lost 
 credit with the community, and, sinking 
 into obscurity, died sometime after, 1816, 
 in abject poverty. 
 
 As it is impossible to read Finch's Trea- 
 tises without a knowledge of the cipher 
 employed by him, the following key will 
 be found useful. We owe it to the re- 
 searches of Bro. H. C. Levander, (Freem. 
 Mag. and Rev., 1859, p. 490.) In the first 
 part of the book the cipher used is formed 
 by reversing the alphabet, writing z for a, y 
 for b, etc. The cipher used on the title- 
 page differs somewhat from this, as will be 
 seen from the following tables : 
 
 FOE THE TITLE-PAGE. 
 
 Cipher, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, 
 o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. 
 
 ■ Key. b, d, f, h, j, 1, n, p, r, t, v, x, z, y, w, 
 u, s, q, o, m, k, i, g, e, c, a. 
 
 FOR THE FIRST PART. 
 
 Cipher, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m, n, 
 
 0, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. 
 
 Key. z, y, x, w, v, u, t, s, r, q, p, o, n, m, 
 
 1, k, j, i, h, g, f, e, d, c, b, a. 
 
 In the second part of the work, a totally 
 different system is employed. The words 
 may be deciphered by taking the last letter, 
 then the first, then the last but one, then 
 the second, and so on. Two or three words 
 are also often run into one ; for example, 
 ereetemhdrdoh, is he ordered them. The nine 
 digits represent certain words of frequent 
 recurrence, a repetition of the same digit 
 denoting the plural ; thus, 1 stands for 
 Lodge; 11, for Lodges; 3, Fellow Craft; 
 33, Fellow Crafts, etc. 
 
 Fines. Fines for non-attendance or 
 neglect of duty are not now usually im- 
 posed in Masonic bodies, because each 
 member is bound to the discharge of these 
 duties by a motive more powerful than 
 any that could be furnished by a pecuniary 
 penalty. The imposition of such a penalty 
 would be a tacit acknowledgment of the 
 inadequacy of that motive, and would hence 
 detract from its solemnity and its binding 
 nature. It cannot, however, be denied that 
 the records of old Lodges show that it 
 was formerly a common custom to impose 
 fines for a violation of the rules. 
 
 Fire. The French, in their Table 
 Lodges, called the drinking a toast, feu, or 
 fire. 
 
 Fire Philosophers. See Theo- 
 
 Fire, Pillars of. See Pillars of Fire. 
 
 Fire, Purification hy. See Puri- 
 fication. 
 
 Fire-Worship. Of all the ancient 
 religions, fire-worship was one of the ear- 
 liest, next to Sabaism ; and even of this it 
 seems only to have been a development, as 
 with the Sabaists the sun was deemed the 
 Universal Fire. " Darius," says Quintus 
 Curtius, " invoked the sun as Mithras, the 
 sacred and eternal fire." It was the faith 
 of the ancient Magi and the old Persians, 
 still retained by their modern descendants 
 the Parsees. But with them it was not an 
 idolatry. The fire was venerated only as a 
 visible symbol of the Supreme Deity, of 
 the creative energy, from whom all things 
 come, and to whom all things ascend. The 
 flame darting upwards to meet its divine 
 original, the mundane fire seeking an 
 
278 
 
 FISH 
 
 FIVE 
 
 ascension to and an absorption into the ce- 
 lestial fire, or God himself, constituted what 
 has been called " the flame-secret " of the 
 fire-worshippers. This religion was not 
 only very ancient, but also very universal. 
 From India it passed over into Egypt, and 
 thence extended to the Hebrews and to the 
 Greeks, and has shown its power and preva- 
 lence even in modern thought. On the 
 banks of the Nile, the people did not, in- 
 deed, fall down like the old Persians and 
 worship fire, but they venerated the fire- 
 secret and its symbolic teaching. Hence 
 the Pyramids, {pyr is Greek for fire,) the 
 representation of ascending flame; and 
 Jennings Hargrave shrewdly says that 
 what has been supposed to be a tomb, in 
 the centre of the Great Pyramid, was in 
 reality a depository of the sacred, ever- 
 burning fire. Monoliths were everywhere 
 in antiquity erected to fire or to the sun, 
 as the type of fire. Among the Hebrews, 
 the sacred idea of fire, as something con- 
 nected with the Divine Being, was very 
 prominent. God appeared to Moses in a 
 flame of fire; he descended on Mount 
 Sinai in the midst of flames ; at the Tem- 
 ple the fire descended from heaven to con- 
 sume the burnt-offering. Everywhere in 
 Scripture, fire is a symbol of the holiness 
 of God. The lights on the altar are the 
 symbols of the Christian God. The puri- 
 fying power of fire is naturally deduced 
 from this symbol of the holiness of the ele- 
 ment. And in the high degrees of Mason- 
 ry, as in the ancient institutions, there is a 
 purification by fire, coming down to us 
 insensibly and unconsciously from the old 
 Magian cultus. In the Mediaeval ages 
 there was a sect of " fire-philosophers " — 
 philosophi per ignem — who were a branch 
 or offshoot of Rosicrucianism, with which 
 Freemasonry has so much in common. 
 These fire-philosophers kept up the venera- 
 tion for fire, and cultivated the "fire-se- 
 cret," not as an idolatrous belief, but modi- 
 fied by their hermetic notions. They were 
 also called " theosophists," and through 
 them, or in reference to them, we find 
 the theosophic degrees of Masonry, which 
 sprang up in the eighteenth century. As 
 fire and light are identical, so the fire, 
 which was to the Zoroastrians the symbol 
 of the Divine Being, is to the Mason, under 
 the equivalent idea of light, the symbol of 
 Divine Truth, or of the Grand Architect. 
 
 Fish. The Greek word for fish is 
 IX6T2. Now these five letters are the ini- 
 tials of the five words Yrjaovq Xpiaroc Qeov 
 T^of "Zurrip, that is, Jesus Christ the Son of 
 God, the Saviour. Hence the early Chris- 
 tians adopted the fish as a Christian sym- 
 bol ; and it is to be fouud on many of their 
 tombs, and was often worn as an ornament. 
 
 Clement of Alexandria, in writing of the 
 ornaments that a Christian may constantly 
 wear, mentions the fish as a proper device 
 for a ring, as serving to remind the Chris- 
 tian of the origin of his spiritual life, the 
 fish referring to the waters of baptism. 
 The Vesica Piscis, which is an oval figure, 
 pointed at both ends, and representing the 
 air bladder of a fish, was adopted, and is 
 still often used as the form of the seal of 
 religious houses and confraternities. Mar- 
 goliouth ( Vest, of Gen. Freem., 45,) says : 
 " In former days, the Grand Master of our 
 Order used to wear a silver fish on his per- 
 son ; but it is to be regretted that, amongst 
 the many innovations which have been of 
 late introduced into the society to con- 
 ciliate the prejudices of some who cannot 
 consistently be members of it, this beauti- 
 ful emblem has disappeared." 
 
 Five. Among the Pythagoreans five 
 was a mystical number, because it wa3 
 formed by the union of the first even num- 
 ber and the first odd, rejecting unity ; and 
 hence it symbolized the mixed conditions 
 of order and disorder, happiness and mis- 
 fortune, life and death. The same union 
 of the odd and even, or male and female, 
 numbers made it the symbol of marriage. 
 Among the Greeks it was a symbol of the 
 world, because, says Diodorus, it repre- 
 sented ether and the four elements. It 
 was a sacred round number among the 
 Hebrews. In Egypt, India, and other 
 Oriental nations, says Gesenius, the five 
 minor planets and the five elements and 
 elementary powers were accounted sacred. 
 It was the pentas of the Gnostics and the 
 Hermetic Philosophers ; it was the symbol 
 of their quintessence, the fifth or highest 
 essence of power in a natural body. In 
 Masonry, five is a sacred number, inferior 
 only in importance to three and seven. It 
 is especially significant in the Fellow 
 Craft's degree, where five are required to 
 hold a Lodge, and where, in the winding 
 stairs, the five steps are referred to the 
 orders of architecture and the human 
 senses. In the third degree, we find the 
 reference to the five points of fellowship 
 and their symbol, the five-pointed star. 
 Geometry, too, which is deemed synony- 
 mous with Masonry, is called the fifth sci- 
 ence; and, in fact, throughout nearly all the 
 degrees of Masonry, we find abundant allu- 
 sions to five as a sacred and mystical 
 number. 
 
 Five-Pointed Star. The five- 
 pointed star, which is not to be con- 
 founded with the blazing star, is not found 
 among the old symbols of Masonry; in- 
 deed, some writers have denied that it is a 
 Masonic emblem at all. Jt is undoubtedly 
 of recent origin, and was probably intro- 
 
FIVE 
 
 FLORIDA 
 
 279 
 
 duced by Jeremy Cross, who placed it 
 among the plates in the emblems of the 
 third degree prefixed to his Hieroglyphic 
 Chart. It is not mentioned in the ritual 
 or the lecture of the third degree, but the 
 Masons of this country have, by tacit con- 
 sent, referred to it as a symbol of the Five 
 Points of Fellowship. The outlines of the 
 five-pointed star are the same as those of 
 the pentalpha of Pythagoras, which was 
 the symbol of health. M. Jomard, in his 
 Description de VEgypte, (torn, viii., p. 423,) 
 says that the star engraved on the Egyptian 
 monuments, where it is a very common 
 hieroglyphic, has constantly five points, 
 never more nor less. 
 
 Five Points of Fellowship. See 
 Points of Fellowship. 
 
 Five Senses. The five senses of Hear- 
 ing, Seeing, Feeling, Tasting, and Smelling 
 are introduced into the lecture of the Fel- 
 low Craft as a part of the instructions of 
 that degree. See each word in its appro- 
 priate place. In the earlier lectures of the 
 eighteenth century, the five senses were 
 explained in the first degree as referring to 
 the five who make a Lodge. Their subse- 
 quent reference to the winding stairs, and 
 their introduction into the second degree, 
 were modern improvements. As these 
 senses are the avenues by which the mind 
 receives its perceptions of things exterior 
 to it, and thus becomes the storehouse of 
 ideas, they are most appropriately referred 
 to that degree of Masonry whose professed 
 object is the pursuit and acquisition of 
 knowledge. 
 
 Fixed Lights. In the old lectures 
 of the last century, the fixed lights were the 
 three windows always supposed to exist in 
 the East, South, and West. Their uses were, 
 according to the ritual, " to light the men to, 
 at, and from their work." In the modern 
 lectures they have been omitted, and their 
 place as symbols supplied by the lesser lights. 
 
 Flaming Sword. A sword whose 
 blade is of a spiral or twisted form is called 
 by the heralds a flaming sword, from its re- 
 semblance to the ascending curvature of a 
 flame of fire. Until very recently, 
 this was the form of the Tiler's 
 sword. Carelessness or ignorance 
 has now in many Lodges substi- 
 tuted for it a common sword of any 
 form. The flaming sword of the 
 Tiler refers to the flaming sword 
 which guarded the entrance to 
 Paradise, as described in Genesis, 
 (iii. 24:) "So he drove out the 
 man ; and he placed at the east of 
 the garden of Eden cherubim, 
 and a flaming sword which turned 
 every way, to keep the way of the 
 tree of life ; " or, as Eaphall has 
 
 translated it, " the flaming sword which re- 
 volveth, to guard the way to the tree of 
 life." In former times, when symbols and 
 ceremonies were more respected than they 
 are now ; when collars were worn, and not 
 ribbons in the button-hole ; and when the 
 standing column of the Senior Warden, 
 and the recumbent one of the Junior dur- 
 ing labor, to be reversed during refresh- 
 ment, were deemed necessary for the com- 
 plete furniture of the Lodge, the cavalry 
 sword was unknown as a Masonic imple- 
 ment, and the Tiler always bore a flaming 
 sword. It were better if we could get back 
 to the old customs. 
 
 Floats. Pieces of timber, made fast 
 together with rafters, for conveying bur- 
 dens down a river with the stream. The 
 use of these floats in the building of the 
 Temple is thus described in the letter of 
 King Hiram to Solomon : " And we will 
 cut wood out of Lebanon, as much as thou 
 shalt need ; and we will bring it to thee in 
 floats by sea to Joppa; and thou shalt 
 carry it up to Jerusalem." 2 Chron. ii. 16. 
 
 Floor. The floor of a properly con- 
 structed Lodge room should be covered 
 with alternate squares of black and white, 
 to represent the Mosaic pavement which 
 was the ground floor of King Solomon's 
 Temple. 
 
 Floor-Cloth. A frame-work of board 
 or canvas, on which the emblems of any 
 particular degree are inscribed, for the as- 
 sistance of the Master in giving a lecture. 
 It is so called because formerly it was the 
 custom to inscribe these designs on the 
 floor of the Lodge room in chalk, which 
 was wiped out when the Lodge was closed. 
 It is the same as the " Carpet," or "Trac- 
 ing Board." 
 
 Flooring. The same as floor-cloth, 
 which see. 
 
 Florida. Freemasonry was first intro- 
 duced into Florida, in 1806, by the organi- 
 zation, in the city of St Augustine, of St. 
 Fernando Lodge by the Grand Lodge of 
 Georgia. In the year 1811, it was sup- 
 pressed by a mandate of the Spanish gov- 
 ernment. In 1820, the Grand Lodge of 
 South Carolina granted a Charter to Flo- 
 ridian Virtue Lodge, No. 28, but, in conse- 
 quence of the hostility of the political and 
 religious authorities, it did not long exist. 
 In 1824, the Grand Lodge of South Caro- 
 lina granted another Charter for Esperanza 
 Lodge at St. Augustine, which body, how- 
 ever, became extinct after a year by the 
 removal of most of its members to Ha- 
 vana. In 1826, the Grand Lodges of 
 Tennessee and Georgia granted warrants 
 for the establishment respectively of Jack- 
 son Lodge at Tallahassee, Washington 
 Lodge at Quincy, and Harmony Lodge at 
 
280 
 
 FLUDD 
 
 FOLKES 
 
 Mariana. On the 5th July, 1830, delegates 
 from these three Lodges met at Tallahassee, 
 and organized the Grand Lodge of Florida. 
 
 Fludd, Robert. Robert Fludd, or, 
 as he called himself in his Latin writings, 
 Robertus de Fluctibus, was in the seven- 
 teenth century a prominent member of the 
 Rosi crucian Fraternity. He was born in 
 England in 1574, and having taken the de- 
 grees of Bachelor and Master of Arts at 
 St. John's College, Oxford, he commenced 
 the study of physic, and in due time took 
 the degree of Doctor of Medicine. He 
 died in 1637. In 1616, he commenced the 
 publication of his works and became a 
 voluminous writer, whose subject and style 
 were equally dark and mysterious. The 
 most important of his publications are 
 Apologia Compendaria, Fraternitatem de 
 Rosea Cruce, suspicionis et in/amice maculis 
 aspersum abluens," (Leyden, 1616,) i. e., A 
 Brief Apology, clearing the Fraternity of the 
 Rosy Cross from the stigma of suspicion and 
 infamy with which they have been aspersed ; 
 and Tractatus Apologeticus integritatem Socie- 
 tatis de Rosea Oruce defendem contra Liba- 
 nium et alios, (Leyden, 1617,) or, An Apol- 
 ogetic Tract defending the purity of the So- 
 ciety of the Rosy Cross from the attacks of 
 lAbanius and others. And last, and wildest 
 of all, was his extravagant work on magic, 
 the kabbala, alchemy, and Rosicrucianism, 
 entitled Summum bonum, quod est verum 
 magim, cabalos, alchymice, fratrum Rosoz 
 Crucis verorum veroz subjectum. Rosicruci- 
 anism was perhaps indebted more to Fludd 
 than to any other person for its introduc- 
 tion from Germany into England, and it may 
 have had its influence in moulding the form 
 of Speculative Freemasonry ; but I am not 
 prepared to go as far as a distinguished writer 
 in the London Freemason's Magazine, (April, 
 1858, ) who says that " Fludd must be consid- 
 ered as the immediate father of Freemasonry 
 as Andrea was its remote father." Nicolai 
 more rationally remarks that Fludd, like 
 Andrea, exerted a considerable and benefi- 
 cial influence on the manners of his age. 
 His explanation of the Rose Croix is worth 
 quoting. He says that it symbolically sig- 
 nifies the cross dyed with the blood of the 
 Saviour; a Christian idea which was in ad- 
 vance of the original Rosicrucians. 
 
 Folkes, Martin. From his acquaint- 
 ance with Sir Christopher Wren, and his 
 intimacy with Dr. Desaguliers, Martin 
 Folkes was induced to take an active part 
 in the reorganization of Freemasonry in 
 the beginning of the last century, and his 
 literary attainments and prominent position 
 in the scientific world enabled him to ex- 
 ercise a favorable influence on the character 
 of the Institution. He was descended 
 from a good family, being the eldest son of 
 
 Martin Folkes, Esq., Counsellor at Law, and 
 Dorothy, the daughter of Sir William 
 Howell, Knt., of the county of Norfolk. 
 He was born in Queen Street, Leicester 
 Inn Fields, Westminster, October 29, 1690. 
 In 1707 he was entered at Clare Hall, Cam- 
 bridge, and in 1713 elected a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society, of which, in 1723, he 
 was appointed Vice President. In 1727, 
 on the death of Sir Isaac Newton, he be- 
 came a candidate for the Presidency, in 
 which he was defeated by Sir Hans Sloane, 
 who, however, renewed his appointment as 
 Vice President, and in 1741, on the resig- 
 nation of Sloane as President, he was 
 elected his successor. In 1742, he was 
 elected a member of the Royal Academy 
 of Sciences of Paris, and in 1746 received 
 the degree of Doctor of Laws from the 
 Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. 
 
 In 1750, he was elected President of the 
 Society of Antiquaries. To this and to the 
 Royal Society he contributed many essays, 
 and published a work entitled, A Table of 
 English Silver Coins, which is still much es- 
 teemed as a numismatic authority. On 
 September 26, 1751, he was struck with 
 paralysis, from which he never completely 
 recovered. On November 30, 1753, he re- 
 signed the Presidency of the Royal Society, 
 but retained that of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries until his death. In 1733, he visited 
 Italy, and remained there until 1735, dur- 
 ing which time he appears to have ingrati- 
 ated himself with the Masons of that 
 country, for in 1742 they struck a medal in 
 his honor, a copy of which is to be found 
 in Thory's History of tlie Foundation of the 
 Grand Orient of France. On one side is a 
 pyramid, a sphinx, some Masonic ciphers, 
 and the two pillars, and on the obverse a 
 likeness of Folkes. 
 
 Of the Masonic life of Folkes we have 
 but few records. In 1725, he was appointed 
 Deputy Grand Master of the Grand Lodge 
 of England, and is recorded as having paid 
 great attention to the duties of his office. 
 Anderson says that he presided over the 
 Grand Lodge in May of that year, and 
 " prompted a most agreeable communica- 
 tion." But he held no office afterwards; 
 yet he is spoken of as having taken great in- 
 terest in the Institution. Of his literary 
 contributions to Masonry nothing remains. 
 
 The Pocket Companion cites an address 
 by him, in 1725, before the Grand Lodge, 
 probably at that very communication to 
 which Anderson has alluded, but it is un- 
 fortunately no longer extant. He died June 
 25, 1754, and was buried in the Chancel of 
 Hillington Church near Lynn, Norfolk. 
 He left a wife and two daughters, an only 
 son having died before him. 
 
 Nichols, who knew him personally, says 
 
FOOL 
 
 FORM 
 
 281 
 
 {Lit. Anecd., ii. 591,) of him: "His knowl- 
 edge was very extensive, his judgment ex- 
 act and accurate, and the precision of his 
 ideas appeared from the perspicuity and 
 conciseness of his expression in his dis- 
 courses and writings on abstruse and diffi- 
 cult topics He had turned his 
 
 thoughts to the study of antiquity and the 
 polite arts with a philosophical spirit, 
 which he had contracted by the cultivation 
 of the mathematical sciences from his 
 earliest youth." His valuable library of 
 more than five thousand volumes wafe sold 
 for £3,090 at auction after his decease. 
 
 Fool. A fool, as one not in possession 
 of sound reason, a natural or idiot, is intel- 
 lectually unfit for initiation into the mys- 
 teries of Freemasonry, because he is in- 
 capable of comprehending the principles of 
 the Institution, and is without any moral 
 responsibility for a violation or neglect of 
 its duties. 
 
 Foot stone. The corner - stone. " To 
 level the footstone " = to lay the corner- 
 stone. Thus, Oliver : " Solomon was en- 
 abled to level the footstone of the Temple 
 in the fourth year of his reign." 
 
 Foot to Foot. The old lectures of 
 the last century descanted on the symbolism 
 of foot to foot as teaching us " that indo- 
 lence should not permit the foot to halt or 
 wrath to turn our steps out of the way ; 
 but forgetting injuries and selfish feelings, 
 and remembering that man was born for 
 the aid of his fellow-creatures, not for his 
 own enjoyments only, but to do that which 
 is good, we should be swift to extend our 
 mercy and benevolence to all, but more 
 particularly to a brother Mason." The 
 present lecture on the same subject gives the 
 same lesson more briefly and more emphati- 
 cally, when it says, " we should never halt 
 nor grow weary in the service of a brother 
 Mason." 
 
 Fords of the Jordan. The slaugh- 
 ter of the Ephraimitesat the passages or fords 
 of the river Jordan, which is described in the 
 twelfth chapter of the Book of Judges, is re- 
 ferred to in the ritual of the Fellow Craft's 
 degree. Morris, in his Freemasonry in the 
 Holy Land, (p. 316,) says : " The exact locali- 
 ty of" these fords (or *■ passages,' as the Bible 
 terms them,) cannot now be designated, 
 but most likely they were those nearly due 
 east of Seikoot and opposite Mizpah. At 
 these fords, in summer time, the water is not 
 more than three or four feet deep, the bottom 
 being composed of a hard limestone rock. 
 If, as some think, the fords, thirty miles 
 higher up, are those referred to, the same de- 
 scription will apply. At either place, the 
 Jordan is about eighty feet wide, its banks 
 encumbered by a dense growth of tama- 
 risks, cane, willows, thorn-bushes, and other 
 2L 
 
 low vegetation of the shrubby and thorny 
 sorts, which make it difficult even to ap- 
 proach the margin of the stream. The 
 Arabs cross the river at the present day, 
 at stages of low water, at a number of 
 fords, from the one near the point where 
 the Jordan leaves the Sea of Galilee down 
 to the Pilgrims' Ford, six miles above the 
 Dead Sea." 
 
 Foreign Country. The lecture of 
 the third degree begins by declaring that 
 the recipient was induced to seek that 
 sublime degree " that he might perfect him- 
 self in Masonry, so as to travel into foreign 
 countries, and work and receive wages as a 
 Master Mason." 
 
 Thousands have often heard this ritual- 
 istic expression at the opening and closing 
 of a Master's Lodge, without dreaming for 
 a moment of its hidden and spiritual mean- 
 ing, or, if they think of any meaning at all, 
 they content themselves by interpreting it 
 as referring to the actual travels of the Ma- 
 sons, after the completion of the Temple, 
 into the surrounding countries in search of 
 employment, whose wages were to be the 
 gold and silver which they could earn by the 
 exercise of their' skill in the operative art. 
 
 But the true symbolic meaning of the 
 foreign country into which the Master Ma- 
 son travels in search of wages is far dif- 
 ferent. 
 
 The symbolism of this life terminates 
 with the Master's degree. The completion 
 of that degree is the lesson of death and the 
 resurrection to a future life, where the tkue 
 word, or Divine Truth, not given in this, 
 is to be received as the reward of a life 
 worthily spent in its search. Heaven, the 
 future life, the higher state of existence 
 after death, is the foreign country in which 
 the Master Mason is to enter, and there he 
 is to receive his wages in the reception of 
 that truth which can be imparted only in 
 that better land. 
 
 Foresters' Degrees. This title has 
 been given to certain secret associations 
 which derive their symbols and ceremonies 
 from trades practised in forests, such as the 
 Carbonari, or Charcoal-burners; the Fen- 
 deurs, or Wood-cutters ; the Sawyers, etc. 
 They are all imitative of Freemasonry. 
 
 Forest of ^Lebanon. See Lebanon. 
 
 Forfeiture of Charter. A Lodge 
 may forfeit its charter for misconduct, and 
 when forfeited, the warrant or charter is 
 revoked by the Grand Lodge. See Revoca- 
 tion of Charter. 
 
 Form. In Masonry, an official act is 
 said to be done, according to the rank of 
 the person who does it, either in ample form, 
 in due form, or simply inform. Thus, when 
 the Grand Lodge is opened by the Grand 
 Master in person, it is said to be opened in 
 
282 
 
 FORM 
 
 FORTY 
 
 ample form ; when by the Deputy Grand 
 Master, it is said to be in due form ; when 
 by any other qualified officer, it is said to 
 be in form. The legality of the act is the 
 same whether it be done in form or in 
 ample form ; and the expletive refers only 
 to the dignity of the officer by whom the 
 act is performed. 
 
 Form of the Lodge. The form of 
 a Mason's Lodge is said to be an oblong 
 square, having its greatest length from east 
 to west, and its greatest breadth from north 
 to south. This oblong form of the Lodge 
 has, I think, a symbolic allusion that has 
 not been adverted to by any other writer. 
 
 If, on a map of the world, we draw lines 
 which shall circumscribe just that portion 
 which was known and inhabited at the 
 time of the building of Solomon's Temple, 
 these lines, running a short distance north 
 and south of the Mediterranean Sea, and 
 extending from Spain to Asia Minor, will 
 form an oblong square, whose greatest length 
 will be from east to west, and whose greatest 
 breadth will be from north to south, as is 
 shown in the annexed diagram. 
 
 AFR I C A^- ^ 
 
 There is a peculiar fitness in this theory, 
 which is really only making the Masonic 
 Lodge a symbol of the world. It must be 
 remembered that, at the era of the Temple, 
 the earth was supposed to have the form of 
 a parallelogram, or " oblong square." Such 
 a figure inscribed upon a map of the world, 
 and including only that part of it which 
 was known in the days of Solomon, would 
 present just such a square, embracing the 
 Mediterranean Sea and the countries lying 
 immediately on its northern, southern, and 
 eastern borders. Beyond, far in the north, 
 would be Cimmerian deserts as a place of 
 darkness, while the pillars of Hercules in 
 the west, on each side of the Straits of Ga- 
 des — now Gibraltar — might appropriately 
 be referred to the two pillars that stood at 
 the porch of the Temple. Thus the world 
 itself would be the true Mason's Lodge, in 
 which he was to live and labor. Again : 
 the solid contents of the earth below, "from 
 the surface to the centre," and the profound 
 expanse above, "from the earth to the 
 highest heavens," would give to this paral- 
 
 lelogram the outlines of a double cube, and 
 meet thereby that definition which says 
 that " the form of the Lodge ought to be a 
 double cube, as an expressive emblem of 
 the powers of light and darkness in the 
 creation." 
 
 Formula. A prescribed mode or form 
 of doing or saying anything. The word is 
 derived from the technical language of the 
 Roman law, where, after the old legal ac- 
 tions had been abolished, suits were prac- 
 tised according to certain prescribed forms 
 called 'formu Ice. 
 
 Formulas in Freemasonry are very fre- 
 quent. They are either oral or monitorial. 
 Oral formulas are those that are employed 
 in various parts of the ritual, such as the 
 opening and closing of a Lodge, the investi- 
 ture of a candidate, etc. From the fact of 
 their oral transmission they are frequently 
 corrupted or altered, which is one of the 
 most prolific sources of non-conformity so 
 often complained of by Masonic teach- 
 ers. Monitorial formulas are those that are 
 committed to writing, and are to be found 
 in the various monitors and manuals. They 
 are such as relate to public installations, 
 to laying foundation-stones, to dedica- 
 tions of halls, to funerals, etc. Their 
 monitorial character ought to preserve 
 them from change ; but uniformity is not 
 even here always attained, owing to the 
 whims of the compilers of manuals or of 
 monitors, who have often unnecessarily 
 changed the form of words from the 
 original standard. 
 
 Fortitude. One of the four cardi- 
 nal virtues, whose excellencies are di- 
 lated on in the first degree. It not only 
 instructs the worthy Mason to bear the ills 
 of life with becoming resignation, " taking 
 up arms against a sea of trouble," but. by its 
 intimate connection with a portion of our 
 ceremonies, it teaches him to let no dan- 
 gers shake, no pains dissolve the inviolable 
 fidelity he owes to the trusts reposed in 
 him. Or, in the words of the old Presto- 
 nian lecture, it is " a fence or security 
 against any attack that might be made 
 upon him, by force or otherwise, to extort 
 from him any of our Eoyal Secrets." 
 
 Spence, in his Polymetis, (p. 139,) when 
 describing the moral virtues, says of Forti- 
 tude : " She may be easily known by her 
 erect air and military dress, the spear she 
 rests on with one hand, and the sword which 
 she holds in the other. She has a globe 
 under her feet; I suppose to show that the 
 Romans, by means of this virtue, were to 
 subdue the whole world." 
 
 Forty -Seventh Prohlem. The 
 forty-seventh problem of Euclid's first book, 
 which has been adopted as a symbol in the 
 Master's degree, is thus enunciated: "In 
 
FORTY 
 
 FORTY 
 
 283 
 
 any right-angled triangle, the square which 
 is described upon the side subtending the 
 right angle is equal to the squares described 
 upon the sides which contain the right 
 angle." Thus, in a triangle whose perpen- 
 dicular is 3 feet, the square of which is 9, 
 and whose base is 4 feet, the square of 
 which is 16, the hypothenuse, or subtend- 
 ing side, will be 5 feet, the square of which 
 will be 25, which is the sum of 9 and 16. 
 This interesting problem, on account of its 
 great utility in making calculations and 
 drawing plans for buildings, is sometimes 
 called the " Carpenter's Theorem." 
 
 For the demonstration of this problem 
 the world is indebted to Pythagoras, who, 
 it is said, was so elated after making the 
 discovery, that he made an offering of a 
 hecatomb, or a sacrifice of a hundred 
 oxen, to the gods. The devotion to learn- 
 ing which this religious act indicated in 
 the mind of the ancient philosopher has 
 induced Masons to adopt the problem as a 
 memento, instructing them to be lovers of 
 the arts and sciences. 
 
 The triangle, whose base is 4 parts, whose 
 perpendicular is 3, and whose hypothenuse 
 is 5, and which would exactly serve for a 
 demonstration of this problem, was, accord- 
 ing to Plutarch, a symbol frequently em- 
 ployed by the Egyptian priests, and hence 
 it is called by M. Jomard, in his Exposi- 
 tion du Systime Metrique des Anciens Egyp- 
 tiens, the Egyptian triangle. It was, with 
 the Egyptians, the symbol of universal na- 
 ture, — the base representing Osiris, or the 
 male principle; the perpendicular, Isis, or 
 the female principle; and the hypothenuse, 
 Horus, their son, or the produce of the two 
 principles. They added that 3 was the 
 first perfect odd number, that 4 was the 
 square of 2, the first even number, and 
 that 5 was the result of 3 and 2. 
 
 But the Egyptians made a still more im- 
 portant use of this triangle. It was the 
 standard of all their measures of extent, 
 and was applied by them to the building 
 of the pyramids. The researches of M. 
 Jomard, on the Egyptian system of meas- 
 ures, published in the magnificent work of 
 the French savans on Egypt, has placed us 
 completely in possession of the uses made 
 by the Egyptians of this forty-seventh 
 problem of Euclid, and of the triangle 
 which formed the diagram by which it was 
 demonstrated. 
 
 If we inscribe within a circle a triangle, 
 whose perpendicular shall be 300 parts, 
 whose base shall be 400 parts, and whose 
 hypothenuse shall be 500 parts, which, of 
 course, bear the same proportion to each 
 other as 3, 4, and 5; then if we let a per- 
 pendicular fall from the angle of the per- 
 pendicular and base to the hypothenuse, 
 
 and extend it through the hypothenuse to 
 the circumference of the circle, this chord 
 or line will be equal to 480 parts, and the 
 two segments of the hypothenuse, on each 
 side of it, will be found equal, respectively, 
 to 180 and 320. From the point where 
 this chord intersects the hypothenuse let 
 another line fall perpendicularly to the 
 shortest side of the triangle, and this line 
 will be equal to 144 parts, while the shorter 
 segment, formed by its junction with the 
 perpendicular side of the triangle, will be 
 equal to 108 parts. Hence, we may derive 
 the following measures from the diagram : 
 500, 480, 400, 320, 180, 144, and 108, and 
 all these without the slightest fraction. 
 Supposing, then, the 500 to be cubits, we 
 have the measure of the base of the great 
 pyramid of Memphis. In the 400 cubits 
 of the base of the triangle we have the 
 exact length of the Egyptian stadium. 
 The 320 gives us the exact number of 
 Egyptian cubits contained in the Hebrew 
 and Babylonian stadium. The stadium of 
 Ptolemy is represented by the 480 cubits, 
 or length of the line falling from the right 
 angle to the circumference of the circle, 
 through the hypothenuse. The number 
 180, which expresses the smaller segment 
 of the hypothenuse, being doubled, will 
 give 360 cubits, which will be the stadium 
 of Cleomedes. By doubling the 144, the 
 result will be 288 cubits, or the length of 
 the stadium of Archimedes ; and by dou- 
 bling the 108, we produce 216 cubits, or 
 the precise value of the lesser Egyptian 
 stadium. In this manner, we obtain from 
 this triangle all the measures of length 
 that were in use among the Egyptians; 
 and since this triangle, whose sides are 
 equal to 3, 4, and 5, was the very one that 
 most naturally would be used in demon- 
 strating the forty-seventh problem of Eu- 
 clid; and since by these three sides the 
 Egyptians symbolized Osiris, Isis, and Ho- 
 rus, or the two producers and the product, 
 the very principle, expressed in symbolic 
 language, which constitutes the terms of 
 the problem as enunciated by Pythagoras, 
 that the sum of the squares of the two sides 
 will produce the square of the third, we 
 have no reason to doubt that the forty- 
 seventh problem was perfectly known to 
 the Egyptian priests, and by them commu- 
 nicated to Pythagoras. 
 
 Dr. Lardner, in his edition of Euclid, 
 says : " Whether we consider the forty- 
 seventh proposition with reference to the 
 peculiar and beautiful relation established 
 in it, or to its innumerable uses in every 
 department of mathematical science, or to 
 its fertility in the consequences derivable 
 from it, it must certainly be esteemed the 
 most celebrated and important in the whole 
 
284 
 
 FOUL 
 
 FOUR 
 
 of the elements, if not in the whole range, 
 of mathematical science. It is by the influ- 
 ence of this proposition, and that which 
 establishes the similitude of equiangular 
 triangles, (in the sixth book,) that geom- 
 etry has been brought under the dominion 
 of algebra ; and it is upon the same princi- 
 ples that the whole science of trigonometry 
 is founded. 
 
 "The XXXIId and XLVIIth proposi- 
 tions are said to have been discovered by 
 Pythagoras, and extraordinary accounts are 
 given of his exultation upon his first percep- 
 tion of their truth. It is, however, supposed 
 by some that Pythagoras acquired a knowl- 
 edge of them in Egypt, and was the first to 
 make them known in Greece." 
 
 Foul. The ballot-box is said to be 
 " foul" when, in the ballot for the initiation 
 or advancement of a candidate, one or more 
 black balls are found in it. 
 
 Foundation-Stone. This term has 
 been repeatedly used by Dr. Oliver, and 
 after him by some other writers, to desig- 
 nate the chief or corner-stone of the Tem- 
 ple or any other building. Thus, Oliver 
 says, " the Masonic days proper for laying 
 the foundation-stone of a Mason's Lodge 
 are from the loth of April to the 15th of 
 May ; " evidently meaning the corner- 
 stone. The usage is an incorrect one. 
 The foundation-stone, more properly the 
 stone of foundation, is very different from 
 the corner-stone. 
 
 Foundation, Stone of. See Stone 
 of Foundation. 
 
 Fountain. In some of the high de- 
 grees a fountain constitutes a part of the 
 furniture of the initiation. In the science 
 of symbology, the fountain, as representing 
 a stream of continually flowing water, is a 
 symbol of refreshment to the weary ; and so 
 it might be applied in the degrees in which 
 it is found, although there is no explicit 
 interpretation of it in the ritual, where it 
 seems to have been introduced rather as an 
 exponent of the dampness and darkness of 
 the place which was a refuge for criminals 
 and a spot fit for crime. Brother Pike re- 
 fers to the fountain as " tradition, a slender 
 stream flowing from the Past into the Pres- 
 ent, which, even in the thickest darkness 
 of barbarism, keeps alive some memory of 
 the Old Truth in the human heart." But 
 this beautiful idea is not found in the sym- 
 bolism as interpreted in the old rituals. 
 
 Four. Four is the tetrad or quarternary 
 of the Pythagoreans, and it is a sacred 
 number in the high degrees. The Pytha- 
 goreans called it a perfect number, and 
 hence it has been adopted as a sacred num- 
 ber in the degree of Perfect Master. In 
 many nations of antiquity the name of God 
 consists of four letters, as the Adad of the 
 
 Syrians, the Amum of the Egyptians, the 
 9E02 of the Greeks, the Deus of the Ro- 
 mans, and pre-eminently the Tetragramma- 
 ton or lour- lettered name of the Jews. But 
 in Symbolic Masonry this number has no 
 special significance. 
 
 Four Crowned Martyrs. The 
 legend of "The Four Crowned Martyrs" 
 should be interesting to Masonic scholars, 
 because it is one of the few instances, per- 
 haps the only one, in which the church 
 has been willing to do honor to those old 
 workers in stone, whose services it readily 
 secured in the Mediaeval ages, but with 
 whom, as with their successors the modern 
 Freemasons, it has always appeared to be 
 in a greater or less degree of antagonism. 
 Besides, these humble but true-hearted con- 
 fessors of the faith of Christianity were 
 adopted by the Stone-masons of Germany 
 as the patron saints of Operative Masonry, 
 just as the two Saints John have been 
 since selected as the patrons of the Specu- 
 lative branch of the Institution. 
 
 The late Dr. Christian Ehrmann, of 
 Strasburg, who for thirty years had de- 
 voted his attention to this and to kindred 
 subjects of Masonic archaeology, has sup- 
 plied us with the most interesting details 
 of the life and death of the Four Crowned 
 Martyrs. 
 
 The Roman Church has consecrated the 
 8th of November to the commemoration of 
 these martyrs, and yearly, on that day, 
 offers up the prayer: "Grant, we beseech 
 thee, O Almighty God, that as we have 
 been informed of the constancy of the glo- 
 rious martyrs in the profession of Thy 
 faith, so we may experience their kindness 
 in recommending us to Thy mercy." The 
 Roman Breviary of 1474 is more explicit, 
 and mentions them particularly by name. 
 
 It is, therefore, somewhat remarkable, 
 that, although thus careful in their com- 
 memoration, the missals of the church 
 give us no information of the deeds of these 
 holy men. It is only from the breviaries 
 that we can learn anything of the act on 
 which the commemoration in the calendar 
 was founded. Of these breviaries, Ehr- 
 mann has given full citations from two : 
 the Breviary of Rome, published in 1474, 
 and the Breviary of Spire, published in 
 1478. These, with some few extracts from 
 other books on the subject, have been made 
 accessible to us by George Kloss, in his in- 
 teresting work entitled, Freimaurerei in 
 ihrer wahren Bedeutung, or Freemasonry in 
 its true Significance. 
 
 The Breviarium Romanum is much more 
 complete in its details than the Breviarium 
 Spireme; and yet the latter contains a few 
 incidents that are not related in the former. 
 Both agree in applying to the Four Crowned 
 
FOUR 
 
 FOUR 
 
 285 
 
 Martyrs the title of " quadratarii.'" Now 
 quadratarius, in the Latin of the lower age, 
 signified a Stone-squarer or a Mason. This 
 will remind us of the passage in the Book 
 of Kings, thus translated in the authorized 
 version : "And Solomon's builders and Hi- 
 ram's builders did hew them, and the stone- 
 squarers." It is evident from the use of 
 this word " quadratarii " in the ecclesiasti- 
 cal legends, as well as from the incidents 
 of the martyrdom itself, that the four mar- 
 tyrs were not simply sculptors, but stone- 
 cutters and builders of temples : in other 
 words, Operative Masons. Nor can we 
 deny the probability of the supposition, 
 that they were members of one of those col- 
 leges of architects, which afterwards gave 
 birth to the gilds of the Middle Ages, the 
 corporations of builders, and through these 
 to the modern Lodges of Freemasons. Sup- 
 posing the legend to be true, or even ad- 
 mitting that it is only symbolical, we must 
 acknowledge that there has been good rea- 
 son why the Operative Masons should have 
 selected these martyrs as the patron saints 
 of their profession. 
 
 And now let us apply ourselves to the 
 legend. Taking the Roman Breviary as 
 the groundwork, and only interpolating it 
 at the proper points with the additional 
 incidents related in the Breviary of Spire, 
 we have the following result as the story 
 of the Four Crowned Martyrs. 
 
 In the last quarter of the third century 
 Diocletian was emperor of the Roman em- 
 pire. In his reign commenced that series 
 of persecutions of the Christian church, 
 which threatened at one time to annihilate 
 the new religion, and gave to the period 
 among Christian writers the name of the 
 iEra of Martyrs. Thousands of Christians, 
 who refused to violate their consciences by 
 sacrificing to the heathen gods, became the 
 victims of the bigotry and intolerance, the 
 hatred and the cruelty, of the Pagan priests 
 and the Platonic philosophers; and the 
 scourge, the cross, or the watery grave 
 daily testified to the constancy and firm- 
 ness of the disciples of the prophet of 
 Nazareth. 
 
 Diocletian had gone to the province of 
 Pannonia, that he might by his own pres- 
 ence superintend the bringing of metals 
 and stones from the neighboring mines of 
 Noricum, wherewith to construct a temple 
 consecrated to the sun-god, Apollo. Among 
 the six hundred and twenty-two artisans 
 whom he had collected together for this 
 purpose were four — by name Claudius, 
 Castorius, Symphorianus, and Nichostra- 
 tus — said to have been distinguished for 
 their skill as Stone-masons. They had aban- 
 doned the old heathen faith and were in 
 secret Christians, doing all their work as 
 
 Masons in the name of the Lord Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 The Breviary of Spires relates here an 
 additional occurrence, which is not con- 
 tained in the Breviary of Rome, and which, 
 as giving a miraculous aspect to the legend, 
 must have made it doubly acceptable to the 
 pious Christians of the fifteenth century, 
 upon whose religious credulity one could 
 safely draw without danger of a protest. 
 
 It seems that, in company with our four 
 blessed martyrs, there worked another Ma- 
 son, one Simplicius, who was also a Mason, 
 but a heathen. While he was employed 
 in labor near them, he wondered to see how 
 much they surpassed in skill and cunning 
 all the other artisans. They succeeded in 
 all that they attempted, while he was un- 
 fortunate, and always breaking his working 
 tools. At last he approached Claudius, and 
 said to him : 
 
 "Strengthen, I beseech thee, my tools, 
 that they may no longer break." 
 
 Claudius took them in his hands, and 
 said: 
 
 "In the name of the Lord Jesus Christ 
 be these tools henceforth strong and faith- 
 ful to their work." 
 
 From this time, Simplicius did his work 
 well, and succeeded in all that he attempted 
 to do. Amazed at the change, Simplicius 
 was continually asking his fellow-workmen 
 how it was that the tools had been so 
 strengthened that now they never broke. 
 At length Claudius replied : 
 
 " God, who is our Creator, and the Lord 
 of all things, has made his creatures 
 strong." 
 
 Then Simplicius inquired : 
 
 " Was not this done by the God Zeus? " 
 
 To this Claudius replied : 
 
 "Repent, O my brother, of what thou 
 hast said, for thou hast blasphemed God, 
 our Creator, whom alone we worship ; that 
 which our own hands have made we do not 
 recognize as a God." 
 
 With these and such sentences they con- 
 verted Simplicius to the Christian faith, 
 who, being baptized by Cyrillus, bishop of 
 Antioch, soon afterwards suffered martyr- 
 dom for his refusal to sacrifice to the Pagan 
 
 But to return from this episode to the le- 
 gend of the Four Martyrs : It happened 
 that one day Diocletian issued an order, 
 that out of a piece of marble should be con- 
 structed a noble statue of Apollo sitting in 
 his chariot. And now all the workmen 
 and the philosophers began to consult on 
 the subject, and each one had arrived at a 
 different opinion. 
 
 And when at length they had found a 
 huge block of stone, which had been brought 
 from the Island of Thasos, it proved that 
 
286 
 
 FOUR 
 
 FOUR 
 
 the marble was not fit for the statue which 
 Diocletian had commanded ; and now be- 
 gan a great war of words between the mas- 
 ters of the work and the philosophers. But 
 one day the whole of the artisans, six hun- 
 dred and twenty-two in number, with five 
 philosophers, came together, that they 
 might examine the defects and the veins 
 of the stone, and there arose a still more 
 wonderful contest between the workmen 
 and the philosophers. 
 
 Then began the philosophers to rail 
 against Claudius, Symphorianus, Nicho- 
 stratus, and Simplicius, and said : 
 
 " Why do ye not hearken to the com- 
 mands of our devout emperor, Diocletian, 
 and obey his will." 
 
 And Claudius answered and said : 
 
 " Because we cannot offend our Creator 
 and commit a sin, whereof we should be 
 found guilty in his sight." 
 
 Then said the philosophers : 
 
 "From this it appears that you are 
 Christians." 
 
 And Claudius replied : 
 
 " Truly we are Christians." 
 
 Hereupon the philosophers chose other 
 Masons, and caused them to make a statue 
 of Esculapius out of the stone which had 
 been rejected, which, after thirty-one days, 
 they finished and presented to the philoso- 
 phers. These then informed the emperor 
 that the statue of Esculapius was finished, 
 when he ordered it to be brought before 
 him for inspection. But as soon as he saw 
 it he was greatly astonished, and said : 
 
 " This is a proof of the skill of these men, 
 who receive my approval as sculptors." 
 
 It is very apparent that this, like all 
 other legends of the church, is insufficient 
 in its details, and that it leaves many links 
 in the chain of the narrative to be supplied 
 by the fancy or the judgment of the read- 
 ers. It is equally evident from what has 
 already been said, in connection with what 
 is subsequently told, that the writer of the 
 legend desired to make the impression that 
 it was through the influence of Claudius 
 and the other Christian Masons that the 
 rest of the workmen were persuaded that 
 the Thasian stone was defective and unfit 
 for the use of a sculptor ; that this was done 
 by them because they were unwilling to 
 engage in the construction of the statue of 
 a Pagan god ; that this was the cause of the 
 controversy between the workmen and the 
 philosophers ; that the latter denied the de- 
 fectiveness of the stone ; and, lastly, that 
 they sought to prove its fitness by causing 
 other Masons, who were not Christians, to 
 make out of it a statue of Esculapius. 
 These explanations are necessary to an un- 
 derstanding of the legend, which proceeds 
 as follows : 
 
 As soon as Diocletian had expressed his 
 admiration of the statue of Esculapius, the 
 philosopher said : 
 
 "Most mighty Caesar, know that these 
 men whom your majesty has praised for 
 their skill in Masonry, namely, Claudius, 
 Symphorianus, Nichostratus, and Castorius, 
 are Christians, and by magic spells or in- 
 cantations make men obedient to their 
 will." 
 
 Then said Diocletian : 
 
 " If they have violated the laws, and if 
 your accusations be true, let them suffer the 
 punishment of sacrilege." 
 
 But Diocletian, in consideration of their 
 skill, sent for the Tribune Lampadius, and 
 said to him : 
 
 " If they refuse to offer sacrifice to the 
 sun-god Apollo, then let them be scourged 
 with scorpions. But if they are willing to 
 do so, then treat them with kindness." 
 
 For five days sat Lampadius in the same 
 place, before the temple of the sun-god, 
 and called on them by the proclamation of 
 the herald, and showed them many dreadful 
 things, and all sorts of instruments for the 
 punishment of martyrs, and then he said to 
 them: 
 
 " Hearken to me and avoid the doom of 
 martyrs, and be obedient to the mighty 
 prince, and offer a sacrifice to the sun-god, 
 for no longer can I speak to you in gentle 
 words." 
 
 But Claudius replied for himself and for 
 his companions with great boldness : 
 
 " This let the Emperor Diocletian know : 
 that we truly are Christians, and never can 
 depart from the worship of our God." 
 
 Thereupon the Tribune Lampadius, be- 
 coming enraged, caused them to be stripped 
 and to be scourged with scorpions, while a 
 herald, by proclamation, announced that 
 this was done because they had disobeyed 
 the commands of the emperor. In the 
 same hour Lampadius, being seized by an 
 evil spirit, died on his seat of judgment. 
 
 As soon as the wife and the domestics of 
 Lampadius heard of his death, they ran 
 with great outcries to the palace. Diocle- 
 tian, when he had learned what had hap- 
 pened, ordered four leaden coffins to be 
 made, and that — Claudius and his three 
 companions being placed therein alive — 
 they should be thrown into the river Dan- 
 ube. This order Nicetius, the assistant of 
 Lampadius, caused to be obeyed, and thus 
 the faithful Masons suffered the penalty 
 and gained the crown of martyrdom. 
 
 There are some legend books which give 
 the names of the Four Crowned Martyrs as 
 Severus, Severianus, Carpophorus, and Vic- 
 torinus, and others again which speak of 
 five confessors who, a few years afterwards, 
 suffered martyrdom for refusing to sacrifice 
 
FOUR 
 
 FOURFOLD 
 
 287 
 
 to the Pagan gods, and whose names being 
 at the time unknown, Pope Melchiades 
 caused them to be distinguished in the 
 church calendar as the Four Crowned 
 Martyrs : an error, says Jacob de Voragine, 
 which, although subsequently discovered, 
 was never corrected. But the true legend 
 of the Four Crowned Martyrs is that which 
 has been given above from the best author- 
 ity, the Roman Breviary of 1474. 
 
 "On the other side of the Esquiline," 
 says Mrs. Jameson, (in her Sacred and Le- 
 gendary Art, vol. ii., p. 624,) "and on the 
 road leading from the Coliseum to the Lat- 
 eran, surmounting a heap of sand and 
 ruins, we come to the church of the 'Quat- 
 tro Coronati,' the Four Crowned Brothers. 
 On this spot, sometime in the fourth cen- 
 tury, were found the bodies of four men 
 who had suffered decapitation, whose names 
 being then unknown, they were merely dis- 
 tinguished as Corokati, crowned — that is, 
 with the crown of martyrdom." 
 
 There is great obscurity and confusion in 
 the history of these. 
 
 Their church, Mrs. Jameson goes on to 
 say, is held in particular respect by the 
 builders and stone-cutters of Koine. She 
 has found allusion to these martyr Masons 
 not only in Roman art, but in the old sculp- 
 ture and stained glass of Germany. Their 
 effigies, she tells us, are easily distinguished 
 by the fact, that they stand in a row, bear- 
 ing palms, with crowns upon their heads 
 and various Masonic implements at their 
 feet — such as the rule, the square, the mal- 
 let, and the chisel. 
 
 They suffered on the 8th of November, 
 287, and hence in the Roman Catholic mis- 
 sal that day is dedicated to their commem- 
 oration. From their profession as Stone- 
 masons and from the pious firmness with 
 which they refused, at the cost of their lives, 
 to consecrate their skill in their art to the 
 construction of Pagan temples, they have 
 been adopted by the Stone-masons of Europe 
 as the Patron Saints of Operative Masonry. 
 Thus the oldest regulation of the Stone- 
 masons of Strasburg, which has the date of 
 the year 1459, commences with the follow- 
 ing invocation : " In the name of the Fa- 
 ther, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost, and of our gracious Mother Mary, 
 and also of her Blessed Servants, the Four 
 Crowned Martyrs of everlasting memory." 
 
 Such allusions are common in the German 
 Masonic documents of the Middle Ages. 
 It is true, however, that the English Ma- 
 sons ceased at a later period to refer in 
 their constitutions to those martyrs, although 
 they undoubtedly borrowed many of their 
 usages from Germany. Yet the Halliwell 
 Manuscript of the Constitutions of Ma- 
 sonry, one of the oldest of the English 
 
 Records, whose date is variously traced 
 from the end of the fourteenth to the middle 
 of the fifteenth century, under the title of 
 "ars quatuor coronatorum" gives a rather 
 copious detail of the legend, which is here 
 inserted with only those slight alterations 
 of its antiquated phraseology which are 
 necessary to render it intelligible to modern 
 readers, although in doing so the rhyme of 
 the original is somewhat destroyed : 
 
 " Pray we now to God Almighty, 
 And to His Mother, Mary bright, 
 That we may keep these articles here 
 And these points well altogether, 
 As did those holy martyrs four 
 That were in this Craft of great honor. 
 They were as good Mason as on earth shall go, 
 Gravers and image makers they were also, 
 For they were workmen of the best, 
 The emperor had them in great liking; 
 He invoked them an image to make, 
 That might be worshiped for his sake ; 
 Such idols he had in his day 
 To turn the people from Christ's law, 
 But they were steadfast in Christ's religion 
 And to their Craft, without denial ; 
 They loved well God and all his doctrines, 
 And were in his service evermore. 
 True men they were, in that day, 
 And lived well in God's law ; 
 They resolved no idols for to make, 
 For no good that they might take ; 
 To believe on that idol for their god, 
 They would not do so, though he were mad, 
 For they would not forsake their true faith, 
 And believe on his false religion. 
 The emperor caused to take them at once 
 And put them in a deep prison. 
 The sorer he punished them in that place, 
 The more joy was to them of Christ's grace. 
 Then when he saw no other way, 
 To death he caused them to go. 
 Who so will of their life more know, 
 By the book he may it learn, 
 In the legends of the saints, 
 The names of the four crowned ones. 
 Their feast will be, without denial, 
 After All Hallows, the eighth day." 
 
 The devotion of these saints, which led 
 to the introduction of their legend into an 
 ancient Constitution of Masonry, shows 
 how much they were reverenced, by the 
 Craft. In fact, the Four Crowned Martyrs 
 were to the Stone-cutters of Germany and 
 to the earlier Operative Masons of England 
 what St. John the Baptist and St. John the 
 Evangelist became to their successors, the 
 Speculative Freemasons of the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 Fourfold Cord. In the ritual of the 
 Past Master's degree in this country we 
 find the following expression: "A twofold 
 cord is strong, a threefold cord is stronger, 
 but a fourfold cord is not easily broken." 
 The expression is taken from a Hebrew 
 proverb which is to be found in the book 
 of Ecclesiastes, (iv. 12:) "And if one pre- 
 vail against him, two shall withstand him ; 
 
288 
 
 FOURTEEN 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 and a threefold cord is not easily broken." 
 The form of the Hebrew proverb has been 
 necessarily changed to suit the symbolism 
 of the degree. 
 
 Fourteen. It is only necessary to 
 remind the well-informed Mason of the 
 fourteen days of burial mentioned in the 
 legend of the third degree. Now, this pe- 
 riod of fourteen was not, in the opinion 
 of Masonic symbologists, an arbitrary se- 
 lection, but was intended to refer to or 
 symbolize the fourteen days of lunary dark- 
 ness, or decreasing light, which intervene 
 between the full moon and its continued 
 decrease until the end of the lunar month. 
 In the Egyptian mysteries, the body of 
 Osiris is said to have been cut into fourteen 
 pieces by Typhon, and thrown into the 
 Nile. Plutarch, speaking of this in his 
 treatise On Isis and Osiris, thus explains 
 the symbolism of the number fourteen, 
 which comprises the Masonic idea: "The 
 body of Osiris was cut/' says Plutarch, 
 " into fourteen pieces ; that is, into as many 
 parts as there are days between the full 
 moon and the new. This circumstance has 
 reference to the gradual diminution of the 
 lunary light during the fourteen days that 
 follow the full moon. The moon, at the 
 end of fourteen days, enters Taurus, and 
 becomes united to the sun, from whom she 
 collects fire upon her disk during the four- 
 teen days which follow. She is then found 
 every month in conjunction with him in 
 the superior parts of the signs. The equi- 
 noctial year finishes at the moment when 
 the sun and moon are found united with 
 Orion, or the star of Orus, a constellation 
 placed under Taurus, which unites itself 
 to the Neomenia of spring. The moon 
 renews herself in Taurus, and a few days 
 afterwards is seen, in the form of a cres- 
 cent, in the following sign, that is, Gemini, 
 the home of Mercury. Then Orion, united 
 to the sun in the attitude of a formidable 
 warrior, precipitates Scorpio, his rival, into 
 the shades of night; for he sets every time 
 Orion appears above the horizon. The 
 day becomes lengthened, and the germs of 
 evil are by degrees destroyed. It is thus 
 that the poet Nonnus pictures to us Typhon 
 conquered at the end of winter, when the 
 sun arrives in Taurus, and when Orion 
 mounts into the heavens with him." 
 
 France. The early history of Ma- 
 sonry in France is, from the want of au- 
 thentic documents, in a state of much 
 uncertainty. Kloss, in his Geschichte der 
 Freimaurerei in Frankreich, (vol. i., p. 14,) 
 says, in reference to the introduction of 
 Freemasonry into that kingdom, that the 
 earliest date of any certainty is 1725. Yet 
 he copies the statement of the Sgeau Bompu, 
 — a work published in 1745, — that the ear- 
 
 liest recognized date of its introduction is 
 1718; and the Abbe Robin says that noth- 
 ing of it is to be found farther back than 
 1720. 
 
 Lalande, the great astronomer, was the 
 author of the article on Freemasonry in the 
 Encyclopedic Mtthodique, and his account 
 has been generally recognized as authentic 
 by succeeding writers. According to him, 
 Lord Derwentwater, the Chevalier Maske- 
 leyue, Mr. Heguetty, and some other Eng- 
 lishmen, (the names being corrupted, of 
 course, according to French usage,) founded, 
 in 1725, the first Lodge in Paris. It was 
 held at the house of an English confec- 
 tioner named Hure, in the Rue de Bouch- 
 eries. In ten years the number of Lodges 
 in Paris had increased to six, and there 
 were several also in the provincial towns. 
 
 As the first Paris Lodge had been opened 
 by Lord Derwentwater, he was regarded as 
 the Grand Master of the French Masons, 
 without any formal recognition on the part 
 of the brethren, at least until 1736, when 
 the six Lodges of Paris formally elected 
 Lord Harnouester as Provincial Grand Mas- 
 ter; in 1738, he was succeeded by the Duke 
 D' Antin ; and on the death of the Duke, in 
 1743, the Count de Clermont was elected to 
 supply his place. 
 
 Organized Freemasonry in France dates 
 its existence from this latter year. In 
 1735, the Lodges of Paris had petitioned 
 the Grand Lodge of England for the estab- 
 lishment of a Provincial Grand Lodge, 
 which, on political grounds, had been re- 
 fused. In 1743, however, it was granted, 
 and the Provincial Grand Lodge of France 
 was constituted under the name of the 
 "Grand Loge Anglaise de France." The 
 Grand Master, the Count de Clermont, was, 
 however, an inefficient officer ; anarchy and 
 confusion once more invaded the Frater- 
 nity; the authority of the Grand Lodge 
 was prostrated; and the establishment of 
 Mother Lodges in the provinces, with the 
 original intention of superintending the 
 proceedings of the distant provincial Lodges, 
 instead of restoring harmony, as was vainly 
 expected, widened still more the breach. 
 For, assuming the rank and exercising the 
 functions of Grand Lodges, they ceased all 
 correspondence with the metropolitan body, 
 and became in fact its rivals. 
 
 Under these circumstances, the Grand 
 Lodge declared itself independent of Eng- 
 land in 1756, and assumed the title of the 
 "National Grand Lodge of France." It 
 recognized only the three degrees of Ap- 
 prentice, Fellow Craft, and Master Mason, 
 and was composed of the grand officers to 
 be elected out of the body of the Frater- 
 nity, and of the Masters for life of the Pa- 
 risian Lodges ; thus formally excluding the 
 
FRANCE 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 289 
 
 provincial Lodges from any participation in 
 the government of the Craft. 
 
 But the proceedings of this body were 
 not less stormy than those of its predeces- 
 sor. The Count de Clermont appointed, in 
 succession, two deputies, both of whom had 
 been displeasing to the Fraternity. The 
 last, Lacorne, was a man of such low origin 
 and rude manners, that the Grand Lodge 
 refused to meet him as their presiding 
 officer. Irritated at this pointed disrespect, 
 he sought in the taverns of Paris those 
 Masters who had made a traffic of initia- 
 tions, but who, heretofore, had submitted to 
 the control, and been checked by the au- 
 thority of, the Grand Lodge. From among 
 them he selected officers devoted to his ser- 
 vice, and undertook a complete reorganiza- 
 tion of the Grand Lodge. 
 
 The retired members, however, protested 
 against these illegal proceedings; and in 
 the subsequent year, the Grand Master con- 
 sented to revoke the authority he had be- 
 stowed upon Lacorne, and appointed as his 
 deputy, M. Chaillou de Jonville. The re- 
 spectable members now returned to their 
 seats in the Grand Lodge ; and in the trien- 
 nial election which took place in June, 
 1765, the officers who had been elected dur- 
 ing the Deputy Grand Mastership of La- 
 corne were all removed. The displaced 
 officers protested, and published a defama- 
 tory memoir on the subject, and were in 
 consequence expelled from Masonry by the 
 Grand Lodge. Ill feeling on both sides 
 was thus engendered, and carried to such a 
 height, that, at one of the communications 
 of the Grand Lodge, the expelled brethren, 
 attempting to force their way in, were re- 
 sisted with violence. The next day the 
 lieutenant of police issued an edict, forbid- 
 ding the future meetings of the Grand 
 Lodge. 
 
 The expelled party, however, still con- 
 tinued their meetings. The Count de 
 Clermont died in 1771 ; and the excluded 
 brethren having invited the Duke of Char- 
 tres (afterwards Duke of Orleans) to the 
 Grand Mastership, he accepted the appoint- 
 ment. They now offered to unite with the 
 Grand Lodge, on condition that the latter 
 would revoke the decree of expulsion. The 
 proposal was accepted, and the Grand Lodge 
 went once more into operation. 
 
 Another union took place, which has 
 since considerably influenced the character 
 of French Masonry. During the troubles 
 of the preceding years, Masonic bodies 
 were instituted in various parts of the king- 
 dom, which professed to confer degrees of 
 a higher nature than those belonging to 
 Craft Masonry, and which have since been 
 known by the name of the High De- 
 grees. These Chapters assumed a right to 
 2M 19 
 
 organize and control Symbolic or Blue 
 Lodges, and this assumption had been a 
 fertile source of controversy between them 
 and the Grand Lodge. By the latter body 
 they had never been recognized, but the 
 Lodges under their direction had often been 
 declared irregular, and their members ex- 
 pelled. They now, however, demanded a 
 recognition, and proposed, if their request 
 was complied with, to bestow the govern- 
 ment of the "hautes grades" upon the 
 same person who was at the head of the 
 Grand Lodge. The compromise was made, 
 the recognition was decreed, and the Duke 
 of Chartres was elected Grand Master of 
 all the Councils, Chapters, and Scotch 
 Lodges of France. 
 
 But peace was not yet restored. The 
 party who had been expelled, moved by a 
 spirit of revenge for the disgrace formerly 
 inflicted on them, succeeded in obtaining 
 the appointment of a committee which was 
 empowered to prepare a new Constitution. 
 All the Lodges of Paris and the provinces 
 were requested to appoint deputies, who 
 were to form a convention to take the new 
 Constitution into consideration. This con- 
 vention, or, as they called it, National As- 
 sembly, met at Paris in December, 1771. 
 The Duke of Luxemburg presided, and on 
 the twenty-fourth of that month the An- 
 cient Grand Lodge of France was declared 
 extinct, and in its place another substituted, 
 with the title of Grand Orient de France. 
 
 Notwithstanding the declaration of ex- 
 tinction by the National Assembly, the 
 Grand Lodge continued to meet and to 
 exercise its functions. Thus the Fraternity 
 of France continued to be harassed, by the 
 bitter contentions of these rival bodies, until 
 the commencement of the revolution com- 
 
 Eelled both the Grand Orient and the Grand 
 lodge to suspend their labors. 
 On the restoration of civil order, both 
 bodies resumed their operations, but the 
 Grand Lodge had been weakened by the 
 death of many of the perpetual Masters, 
 who had originally been attached to it ; and 
 a better spirit arising, the Grand Lodge 
 was, by a solemn and mutual declaration, 
 united to the Grand Orient on the 28th of 
 June, 1799. 
 
 Dissensions, however, continued to arise 
 between the Grand Orient and the different 
 Chapters of the high degrees. Several of 
 those bodies had at various periods given in 
 their adhesion to the Grand Orient, and 
 again violated the compact of peace. Fi- 
 nally, the Grand Orient, perceiving that 
 the pretensions of the Scotch Bite Masons 
 would be a perpetual source of disorder, de- 
 creed on the 16th of September, 1805, that 
 the Supreme Council of the thirty-third de- 
 gree should thenceforth become an inde- 
 
290 
 
 FRANCIS 
 
 FRANKLIN 
 
 pendent body, with the power to confer 
 warrants of constitution for all the degrees 
 superior to the eighteenth, or Rose Croix ; 
 while the Chapters of that and the inferior 
 degrees were placed under the exclusive 
 control of the Grand Orient. 
 
 But the concordat was not faithfully ob- 
 served by either party, and dissensions con- 
 tinued to exist with intermittent and un- 
 successful attempts at reconciliation, which 
 was, however, at last effected in some sort in 
 1841. The Masonic obedience of France is 
 now divided between the two bodies, and 
 the Grand Orient and the Supreme Council 
 now both exist as independent powers in 
 French Masonry. The constant tendency 
 of the former to interfere in the administra- 
 tion of other countries would furnish an 
 unpleasant history for the succeeding thirty 
 years, at last terminated by the refusal of 
 all the Grand Lodges in the United States, 
 and some in Europe, to hold further Ma- 
 sonic communication with it; a breach 
 which every good Mason must desire to see 
 eventually healed. One of the most extra- 
 ordinary acts of the Grand Orient of France 
 has been the recent abolition of the office of 
 Grand Master, the duties being performed by 
 the President of the Council of the Order. 
 
 Francis II., Emperor of Germany, 
 was a bitter enemy of Freemasonry. In 
 1789, he ordered all the Lodges in his do- 
 minions to be closed, and directed all civil 
 and military functionaries to take an oath 
 never to unite with any secret society, under 
 pain of exemplary punishment and desti- 
 tution of office.' In 1794, he proposed to 
 the diet of Ratisbon the suppression of 
 the Freemasons, the Illuminati, and all 
 other secret societies. The diet, controlled 
 by the influence of Prussia, Brunswick, and 
 Hanover, refused to accede to the proposi- 
 tion, replying to the emperor that he might 
 interdict the Lodges in his own states, but 
 that others claimed Germanic liberty. In 
 1801, he renewed his opposition to secret 
 societies, and especially to the Masonic 
 Lodges, and all civil, military, and ecclesi- 
 astical functionaries were restrained from 
 taking any part in them under the penalty 
 of forfeiting their offices. 
 
 Francken, Henry A. The first 
 Deputy Inspector General appointed by 
 Stephen Morin, under his commission from 
 the Emperors of the East and West. 
 Francken received his degrees and his ap- 
 pointment at Kingston, Jamaica. The 
 date is not known, but it must have been 
 between 1762 and 1767. Francken soon 
 afterwards repaired to the United States, 
 where he gave the appointment of a Deputy 
 to Moses M. Hayes, at Boston, and organ- 
 ized a council of Princes of Jerusalem at 
 Albany. He may, I think, be considered 
 
 as the first propagator of the high degrees 
 in the United States. 
 
 Franc - Macon, Franc - Macon- 
 nerie. The French names of Freemason 
 and of Freemasonry. The construction of 
 these words is not conformable to the genius 
 or the idiom of the French language, which 
 would more properly employ the terms 
 "Mac,on libre," and "Maqonnerie libre;" 
 and hence Laurens, in his Essais historiques 
 et critiques sur la Franc- Maconnerie, adduces 
 their incorporation into the language as an 
 evidence that the Institution in France was 
 derived directly from England, the words 
 being a literal and unidiomatic translation 
 of the English titles. But he blunders in 
 supposing that Franc-Mason and Franc- 
 Masonry are any part of the English lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Frankfort-on-the-M ain. A Pro- 
 vincial Grand Lodge was established in this 
 city, in 1766, by the Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land. In the dissensions which soon after 
 prevailed among the Masons of Germany, 
 the Provincial Grand Lodge of Frankfort, 
 not finding itself supported by its mother 
 Grand Lodge, declared itself independent 
 in 1782. Since 1825, it has worked under 
 the title of the " Grand Lodge of the Eclec- 
 tic Union of Freemasons." 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin. This sage 
 and patriot was born in the city of Boston, 
 Massachusetts, on the 6th of January, 1706. 
 Of the time and place of his initiation as a 
 Freemason we have no positive evidence; 
 it was, however, certainly anterior to the 
 year 1734, and he was probably made a 
 Mason in England during a temporary visit 
 which he paid to that country. On the 24th 
 of June, 1734, a petition was signed by him- 
 self and several brethren residing at Phila- 
 delphia, and presented to the Grand Lodge 
 of Massachusetts, praying for a Constitution 
 to hold a Lodge in that city. The prayer 
 of the petition was granted, and Franklin 
 was appointed the first Master. " He was," 
 says C. W. Moore, " probably invested with 
 special powers, for we find that in Novem- 
 ber following he affixes to his name the 
 title of ' Grand Master of Pennsylvania.' " 
 [Freemason's Magazine, vol. v., 105.) In 
 November, 1734, Franklin applied to Henry 
 Price, who had received from England au- 
 thority to establish Masonry in this country, 
 for a confirmation of those powers conferred 
 by the first deputation or warrant. It is 
 probable that the request was granted, al- 
 though I can find no record of the fact. 
 In 1734, Franklin edited an edition of An- 
 derson's Constitutions, which was proba- 
 bly the first Masonic work published in 
 America. 
 
 While Franklin was in France as the 
 Ambassador from this country, he appears 
 
FRATER 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 291 
 
 to have taken much interest in Masonry. 
 He affiliated with the celebrated Lodge of 
 the Nine Sisters, of which Lalande, Court 
 de Gebelin, and other celebrities of French 
 literature, were members. He took a prom- 
 inent part in the initiation of Voltaire, and 
 on his death acted as Senior Warden of the 
 Lodge of Sorrow held in his memory. The 
 Lodge of Nine Sisters held Franklin in such 
 esteem that it struck a medal in his honor, 
 of which a copy, supposed to be the only 
 one now in existence, belongs to the Pro- 
 vincial Grand Lodge of Mecklenburg. 
 
 Frater. Latin, Brother. A term 
 borrowed from the monks by the Military 
 Orders of the Middle Ages, and applied by 
 the members to each other. It is constant- 
 ly employed in England by the Masonic 
 Knights Templars, and is beginning to be 
 adopted, although not very generally, in 
 the United States. When speaking of two 
 or more, it is an error of ignorance, some- 
 times committed, to call them f raters. The 
 correct plural \%fratres. 
 
 Fraternally. The usual mode of 
 subscription to letters written by one Ma- 
 son to another is, " I remain, fraternally, 
 yours." 
 
 Fraternity. The word was originally 
 used to designate those associations formed 
 in the Roman Catholic Church for the pur- 
 suit of special religious and ecclesiastical 
 purposes, such as the nursing of the sick, 
 the support of the poor, the practice of par- 
 ticular devotions, etc. They do not date 
 earlier than the thirteenth century. The 
 name was subsequently applied to secular 
 associations, such as the Freemasons. The 
 word is only a Latin form of the Anglo- 
 Saxon Brotherhood. 
 
 In the earliest lectures of the last century 
 we find the word fraternity alluded to in 
 the following formula : 
 
 " Q. How many particular points per- 
 tain to a Freemason? 
 
 "A. Three: Fraternity, Fidelity, and 
 Taciturnity. 
 
 " Q. What do they represent ? 
 "A. Brotherly Love, Relief, and Truth 
 among all Right Masons." 
 
 Fraternize. To recognize as a 
 brother; to associate with Masonically. 
 
 Frederick of Nassau. Prince 
 Frederick, son of the king of the Nether- 
 lands, was for many years the Grand Master 
 of the National Grand Lodge of that king- 
 dom. He was ambitious of becoming a 
 Masonic reformer, and in addition to his 
 connection with the Charter of Cologne, an 
 account of which has been given under 
 that head, he attempted, in 1819, to intro- 
 duce a new Rite. He denounced the high 
 degrees as being contrary to the true intent 
 of Masonry ; and in a circular to all the 
 
 Lodges under the obedience of the National 
 Grand Lodge, he proposed a new system, 
 to consist of five degrees, namely, the three 
 symbolic, and two more as complements or 
 illustrations of the third, which he called 
 Elect Master and Supreme Elect Master. 
 Some few Lodges adopted this new system, 
 but most of them rejected it. The Grand 
 Chapter, whose existence it had attacked, 
 denounced it. The Lodges practising it in 
 Belgium were dissolved in 1830, but a few 
 of them probably still remain in Holland. 
 The full rituals of the two supplementary 
 degrees are printed in the second volume 
 of Hermes, and an attentive perusal of them 
 does not give an exalted idea of the inven- 
 tive genius of the Prince. 
 
 Frederick the Great. Frederick 
 II., king of Prussia, surnamed the Great, 
 was born on the 24th of January, 1712, and 
 died on the 17th of August, 1786, at the 
 age of seventy-four years and a few months. 
 He was initiated as a Mason, at Brunswick, 
 on the night of the 14th of August, 1738, 
 not quite two years before he ascended the 
 throne. 
 
 In English, we have two accounts of this 
 initiation, — one by Campbell, in his work on 
 Frederick the Great and his Times, and the 
 other by Carlyle in his History of Frederick 
 the Second. Both are substantially the same, 
 because both are merely translations of the 
 original account given by Bielfeld in his 
 Freundschaftliche Briefe, or Familiar Let- 
 ters. The Baron von Bielfeld was, at the 
 time, an intimate companion of the Prince, 
 and was present at the initiation. 
 
 Bielfeld tells us that in a conversation 
 which took place on the 6th of August at 
 Loo, (but Carlyle corrects him as to time 
 and place, and says it probably occurred at 
 Minden, on the 17th of July,) the institu- 
 tion of Freemasonry had been enthusiasti- 
 cally lauded by the Count of Lippe Bucke- 
 burg. The Crown Prince soon after pri- 
 vately expressed to the Count his wish to 
 join the society. Of course, this wish was 
 to be gratified. The necessary furniture 
 and assistance for conferring the degrees 
 were obtained from the Lodge at Hamburg. 
 Bielfeld gives an amusing account of the 
 embarrassments which were encountered in 
 passing the chest containing the Masonic 
 implements through the custom-house 
 without detection. Campbell, quoting from 
 Bielfeld, says : 
 
 "The whole of the 14th (August) was 
 spent in preparations for the Lodge, and at 
 twelve at night the Prince Royal arrived, 
 accompanied by Count Wartenslefen, a 
 captain in the king's regiment at Potsdam. 
 The Prince introduced him to us as a can- 
 didate whom he very warmly recommended, 
 and begged that he might be admitted im- 
 
292 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 mediately after himself. At the same time, 
 he desired that he might be treated like 
 any private individual, and that none of 
 the usual ceremonies might be altered on 
 his account. Accordingly, he was admitted 
 in the customary form, and I could not suf- 
 ficiently admire his fearlessness, his com- 
 posure, and his address. After the double 
 reception, a Lodge was held. All was over 
 by four in the morning, and the Prince re- 
 turned to the ducal palace, apparently as 
 well pleased with us as we were charmed 
 with him." 
 
 Of the truth of this account there never 
 has been any doubt. Frederick the Great 
 was certainly a Mason. But Carlyle, in his 
 usual sarcastic vein, adds: "The Crown 
 Prince prosecuted his Masonry at Reins- 
 berg or elsewhere, occasionally, for a year or 
 two, but was never ardent in it, and very 
 soon after his accession left off altogether. 
 .... A Royal Lodge was established at 
 Berlin, of which the new king consented to 
 be patron ; but he never once entered the 
 palace, and only his portrait (a welcomely 
 good one, still to be found there) presided 
 over the mysteries of that establishment." 
 
 Now how much of truth with the sar- 
 casm, and how much of sarcasm without 
 the truth, there is in this remark of Carlyle, 
 is just what the Masonic world is bound to 
 discover. Until further light is thrown 
 upon the subject by documentary evidence 
 from the Prussian Lodges, the question can- 
 not be definitely answered. But what is 
 the now known further Masonic history of 
 Frederick ? 
 
 Bielfeld tells us that the zeal of the 
 Prince for the Fraternity induced him to 
 invite the Baron Von Oberg and himself 
 to Reinsberg, where, in 1739, they founded 
 a Lodge, into which Keyserling, Jordan, 
 Moolendorf, Queis, and Fredersdorf (Fred- 
 erick's valet) were admitted. 
 
 Bielfeld is again our authority for stating 
 that on the 20th of June, 1740, King Fred- 
 erick — for he had then ascended the throne 
 — held a Lodge at Charlottenburg, and, as 
 Master in the chair, initiated Prince William 
 of Prussia, his brother, the Margrave 
 Charles of Brandenburg, and Frederick 
 "William, Duke of Holstein. The Duke of 
 Holstein was seven years afterwards elected 
 Adjutant Grand Master of the Grand 
 Lodge of the Three Globes at Berlin. 
 
 We hear no more of Frederick's Masonry 
 in the printed records until the 16th of 
 July, 1774, when he granted his protection 
 to the National Grand Lodge of Germany, 
 and officially approved of the treaty with 
 the Grand Lodge of England, by which the 
 National Grand Lodge was established. In 
 the year 1777, the Mother Lodge " Royal 
 York of Friendship," at Berlin, celebrated, 
 
 by a festival, the King's birthday, on which 
 occasion Frederick wrote the following 
 letter, which, as it is the only printed dec- 
 laration of his opinion of Freemasonry 
 that is now extant, is well worth copying : 
 "I cannot but be sensible of the new 
 homage of the Lodge 'Royal York of 
 Friendship ' on the occasion of the anni- 
 versary of my birth, bearing, as it does, the 
 evidence of its zeal and attachment for my 
 person. Its orator has well expressed the 
 sentiments which animate all its labors; 
 and a society which employs itself only in 
 sowing the seed and bringing forth the 
 fruit of every kind of virtue in my domin- 
 ions may always be assured of my protec- 
 tion. It is the glorious task of every good 
 sovereign, and I will never cease to fulfil it. 
 And so I pray God to take you and your 
 Lodge under his holy and deserved pro- 
 tection. Potsdam, this 14th of February, 
 1777. — Frederick." 
 
 In the circular issued by the Supreme Coun- 
 cil of Sovereign Inspectors from Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, on the 10th of October, 
 1802, it is stated that " on the first of May, 
 1786, the Grand Constitution of the thirty- 
 third degree, called the Supreme Council 
 of Sovereign Grand Inspectors General, was 
 finally ratified by his Majesty the King of 
 Prussia, who, as Grand Commander of the 
 Order of Prince of the Royal Secret, pos- 
 sessed the sovereign Masonic power over all 
 the Craft. In the new Constitution, this 
 high power was conferred on a Supreme 
 Council of nine brethren in each nation, 
 who possess all the Masonic prerogatives, 
 in their own district, that his Majesty in- 
 dividually possessed, and are sovereigns of 
 Masonry." 
 
 The " Livre d'Or " of the Supreme Coun- 
 cil of France contains a similar statement, 
 but with more minute details. It says that 
 on the 1st of May, 1786, Frederick II., King 
 of Prussia, caused the high degrees and 
 Masonic Constitutions of the Ancient Rite 
 to be revived. He added eight degrees to 
 the twenty-five already recognized in Prus- 
 sia, and founded a Supreme Council of 
 thirty-three degrees, of which he himself 
 constructed the regulations in eighteen 
 articles. 
 
 It must not be concealed that the truth 
 of these last statements has been contro- 
 verted ; not, however, by positive evidence, 
 but simply on grounds of probability. Len- 
 ning denies it, because he says that Fred- 
 erick had, for the last fifteen years of his 
 life, abandoned all direct and indirect ac- 
 tivity in Masonry; and he adds, that he 
 was said to be decidedly opposed to the 
 high degrees because, in common with 
 many of the respectable brethren and 
 Lodges of Germany, he thought that he 
 
FREDERICK 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 293 
 
 saw in them the root of all the corruptions 
 in Masonry, and the seed of the discord 
 which existed between different Lodges and 
 systems. But for this assertion of the King's 
 antipathy to the high degrees, Lenning 
 gives no other authority than indefinite re- 
 report. 
 
 Reghellini (t. 2, p. 263,) says that the 
 opponents of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite had denied that Frederick could have 
 had anything to do with the establishment 
 of the Constitutions of May, 1786, because 
 the King, although the protector of the 
 Order, had never been either its Chief or 
 its Grand Master ; and because it was im- 
 possible for him to have approved of any 
 Masonic regulations, since he had not been 
 able, in consequence of severe illness, 
 to attend to the affairs of his kingdom for 
 eleven months before his death, which took 
 place in August, 1786. 
 
 The idea that Frederick never had been 
 Grand Master of the Prussian Lodges 
 seems to be inferred from a passage in Mi- 
 rabeau's Histoire de la Monarchic Prussienne, 
 which is in the following words : " It is a 
 great pity that Frederick II. never carried 
 his zeal so far as to become the Grand 
 Master of the German, or at least of the 
 Prussian, Lodges. His power would have 
 been greatly increased, and perhaps many 
 of his military enterprises would have 
 taken another turn, if he had never been 
 embroiled with the superiors of this associ- 
 ation." Mirabeau acknowledges himself 
 to be indebted for this remark to Fischer's 
 Geschicte Friedericks II. But I look in 
 vain in Thory, or any other historians of 
 Masonry, for an account of those embroil- 
 ments of which Fischer, and Mirabeau after 
 him, have spoken. 
 
 That Frederick did not, in his latter days, 
 take that active interest in Masonry which 
 had distinguished the beginning of his 
 reign, although he always continued to be 
 partial to the Institution, is attempted to 
 be accounted for by the author of a German 
 work entitled Erwinia. I am not acquaint- 
 ed with the book ; but an extract from it 
 was published several years ago by that 
 distinguished Masonic antiquary, Giles F. 
 Yates, in the Boston Magazine. It seems, 
 from the anecdote there related, that Gen. 
 Wallgrave, an officer of distinction, and 
 one of the members of a select Lodge in 
 Berlin over which Frederick had presided 
 for many years, had been guilty of treason- 
 able practices, which became known to his 
 Master. While the Lodge was in session, 
 the King communicated the fact that one 
 of the brethren, whose name he did not 
 disclose, had violated the laws of the Order 
 and of the State. He called upon him to 
 make a full confession, in open Lodge, of 
 
 his guilt, and to ask forgiveness, on which 
 conditions, as a Mason, he consented to 
 pardon and forget the offence. Wallgrave, 
 however, did not avail himself of the fra- 
 ternal offer ; when the monarch, expressing 
 his regret at the conviction that no Mason- 
 ic sentiment could prevail even among so 
 small a number as composed that Lodge, 
 closed it, and laid down the gavel, which 
 he never afterwards resumed, and Wall- 
 grave was subsequently punished. The 
 author adds, that from the moment Fred- 
 erick had been thus forced to break the ties 
 which bound him to a brother Mason he 
 ceased to engage in the active work of a 
 Lodge. But this did not induce him to 
 dissolve his connection with the Order, 
 which, to the day of his death, he never 
 ceased to honor, and to extend to it his 
 protection and patronage. 
 
 The evidence of the connection of Fred- 
 erick with the Institution in his latter days, 
 and of his organization of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite, are, it must be 
 confessed, derived only from the assertions 
 made in the Grand Constitutions of 1786, 
 and from the statements of the earliest 
 bodies that have received and recognized 
 these Constitutions. If the document is 
 not authentic, and if those who made the 
 statements here have been mistaken or been 
 dishonest, then the proof of Frederick's in- 
 terest and labors in Masonry must fall to 
 the ground. Yet, on the other side, the 
 oppugners of the theory that in May, 1786, 
 the King signed the Constitutions, — which 
 fact alone would be sufficient to establish 
 his Masonic character, — have been able to 
 bring forward in support of their denial 
 little more than mere conjecture, and, in 
 some instances, perversions of acknowledged 
 history. Brother Albert Pike, in the edi- 
 tion of the Grand Constitutions which he 
 prepared for the use of the Supreme Coun- 
 cil of the Southern Jurisdiction, and pub- 
 lished in 1872, has most thoroughly inves- 
 tigated this subject with the learning of 
 a scholar and the acumen of a lawyer. 
 While unable to advance any new facts, he 
 has collected all the authorities, and has, 
 by the most irrefragable arguments, shown 
 that the conclusions of those who deny the 
 authenticity of the Constitutions of 1786, 
 and Frederick's connection with them, are 
 illogical, and are sustained only by false 
 statements and wild conjecture. Brother 
 Pike very candidly says : 
 
 "There is no doubt that Frederick came 
 to the conclusion that the great pretensions 
 of Masonry in the blue degrees were mere- 
 ly imaginary and deceptive. He ridiculed 
 the Order, and thought its ceremonies mere 
 child's play; and some of his sayings to 
 that effect have been preserved. But i* 
 
294 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 FREE 
 
 does not at all follow that he might not at 
 a later day have found it politic to put 
 himself at the head of an Order that had 
 become a power; and, adopting such of the 
 degrees as were not objectionable, to reject 
 all that were of dangerous tendency, that 
 had fallen into the hands of the Jesuits, or 
 been engrafted on the Order by the Illumi- 
 nati." 
 
 It is evident that the question of what 
 active part Frederick took in the affairs of 
 Masonry is not yet settled. Those who 
 claim him as having been, to within a short 
 period before his death, an active patron 
 of and worker in the Order, attempt to sus- 
 tain their position by the production of 
 certain documents. Those who deny that 
 
 Eosition assert that those documents have 
 een forged. Yet it must be admitted that 
 the proofs of forgery that have been offered 
 are not such as in an ordinary criminal 
 trial would satisfy a jury. 
 
 Frederick 'William III. King 
 of Prussia, and, although not a Freemason, 
 a generous patron of the Order. On De- 
 cember 29, 1797, he wrote to the Lodge 
 Royal York of Friendship, at Berlin, these 
 words : . " I have never been initiated, as 
 every one knows, but I am far from con- 
 ceiving the slightest distrust of the inten- 
 tions of the members of the Lodge. I be- 
 lieve that its design is noble, and founded 
 on the cultivation of virtue ; that its methods 
 are legitimate, and that every political ten- 
 dency is banished from its operations. 
 Hence, I shall take pleasure in manifesting 
 on all occasions my good-will and my affec- 
 tion to the Lodge Royal York of Friend- 
 ship, as well as to every other Lodge in my 
 dominions." In a similar tone of kindness 
 towards Masonry, he wrote three months 
 afterwards to Fessler. And when he issued, 
 October 20, 1798, an edict forbidding secret 
 societies, he made a special exemption in 
 favor of the Masonic Lodges. To the time 
 of his death, he was always the avowed 
 friend of the Order. 
 
 Free. The word " free," in connection 
 with " Mason," originally signified that the 
 person so called was free of the company or 
 gild of incorporated Masons. For those 
 operative Masons who were not thus made 
 free of the gild, were not permitted to work 
 with those who were. A similar regulation 
 still exists in many parts of Europe, al- 
 though it is not known to this country. 
 The term appears to have been first thus 
 used in the tenth century, when the travel- 
 ling Freemasons were incorporated by the 
 Roman Pontiff. See Travelling Freemasons. 
 
 In reference to the other sense of free as 
 meaning not bound, not in captivity, it is a 
 rule of Masonry that no one can be initiated 
 who is at the time restrained of his liberty. 
 
 The Grand Lodge of England extends 
 this doctrine, that Masons should be free in 
 all their thoughts and actions, so far, that 
 it will not permit the initiation of a candi- 
 date who is only temporarily in a place of 
 confinement. In the year 1782, the Master 
 of the Royal Military Lodge at Woolwich 
 being confined, most probably for debt, in 
 the King's Bench prison, at London, the 
 Lodge, which was itinerant in its character 
 and allowed to move from place to place 
 with its regiment, adjourned, with its war- 
 rant of Constitution, to the Master in prison, 
 where several Masons were made. The 
 Grand Lodge, being informed of the cir- 
 cumstances, immediately summoned the 
 Master and Wardens of the Lodge "to 
 answer for their conduct in making Masons 
 in the King's Bench prison," and, at the 
 same time, adopted a resolution, affirming 
 that " it is inconsistent with the principles 
 of Freemasonry for any Freemason's Lodge 
 to be held, for the purpose of making, pass- 
 ing, or raising Masons, in any prison or 
 place of confinement." 
 
 Free and Accepted. The title of 
 " Free and Accepted Masons " was first used 
 by Dr. Anderson in the second edition of the 
 Book of Constitutions, published in 1738, 
 the title of which is " The History and 
 Constitutions of the Most Ancient and Hon- 
 orable Fraternity of Free and Accepted 
 Masons." In the first edition of 1723, the 
 title was " The Constitutions of the Free- 
 masons." The newer title continued to be 
 used by the Grand Lodge of England, in 
 which it was followed by those of Scotland 
 and Ireland ; and a majority of the Grand 
 Lodges in this country have adopted the 
 same style, and call themselves Grand 
 Lodges of Free and Accepted Masons. 
 See Accepted. The old lectures formerly 
 used in England give the following account 
 of the origin of the term : 
 
 " The Masons who were selected to build 
 the Temple of Solomon were declared Free, 
 and were exempted, together with their de- 
 scendants, from imposts, duties, and taxes. 
 They had also the privilege to bear arms. 
 At the destruction of the Temple by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, the posterity of these Masons 
 were carried into captivity with the ancient 
 Jews. But the good-will of Cyrus gave 
 them permission to erect a second Temple, 
 having set them at liberty for that purpose. 
 It is from this epoch that we bear the name 
 of Free and Accepted Masons." 
 
 Free Born. In all the old Constitutions, 
 free birth is required as a requisite to the re- 
 ception of Apprentices. Thus the Lands- 
 downe MS. says, " That the prentice be able 
 of birth, that 'is, free born." So it is in the 
 Edinburgh Kilwinning, the York, the An- 
 tiquity, and in every other manuscript that 
 
FREE 
 
 FREEMASON 
 
 295 
 
 has been so far discovered. And hence, 
 the modern Constitutions framed in 1721 
 continue the regulation. After the aboli- 
 tion of slavery in the West Indies by the 
 British Parliament, the Grand Lodge of 
 England changed the word " free born " into 
 "free," but the ancient landmark never 
 has been removed in this country. 
 
 The non-admission of a slave seems to 
 have been founded upon the best of rea- 
 sons; because, as Freemasonry involves a 
 solemn contract, no one can legally bind 
 himself to its performance who is not a free 
 agent and the master of his own actions. 
 That the restriction is extended to those 
 who were originally in a servile condition, 
 but who may have since acquired their lib- 
 erty, seems to depend on the principle that 
 birth in a servile condition is accompanied 
 by a degradation of mind and abasement 
 of spirit which no subsequent disenthral- 
 ment can so completely efface as to render 
 the party qualified to perform his duties, as 
 a Mason, with that " freedom, fervency, and 
 zeal " which are said to have distinguished 
 our ancient brethren. "Children," says 
 Oliver, "cannot inherit a free and noble 
 spirit except they be born of a free woman." 
 
 The same usage existed in the spurious 
 Freemasonry or the mysteries of the ancient 
 world. There, no slave, or man born in 
 slavery, could be initiated; because the 
 prerequisites imperatively demanded that 
 the candidate should not only be a man of 
 irreproachable manners, but also a freeborn 
 denizen of the country in which the mys- 
 teries were celebrated. 
 
 Some Masonic writers have thought that 
 in this regulation, in relation to free birth, 
 some allusion is intended, both in the mys- 
 teries and in Freemasonry, to the relative 
 conditions and characters of Isaac and Ish- 
 mael. The former — the accepted one, to 
 whom the promise was given — was the son 
 of a free woman, and the latter, who was 
 cast forth to have " his hand against every 
 man and every man's hand against him," 
 was the child of a slave. Wherefore, we 
 read that Sarah demanded of Abraham, 
 " Cast out this bondwoman and her son ; 
 for the son of the bondwoman shall not be 
 heir with my son." Dr. Oliver, in speaking 
 of the grand festival with which Abraham 
 celebrated the weaning of Isaac, says that 
 he " had not paid the same compliment at 
 the weaning of Ishmael, because he was the 
 son of a bondwoman, and consequently 
 could not be admitted to participate in the 
 Freemasonry of his father, which could only 
 be conferred on free men born of free wo- 
 men." The ancient Greeks were of the 
 same opinion; for they used the word 
 dovAoTrpeneia, or " slave manners," to desig- 
 nate any very great impropriety of manners. 
 
 Freedom. This is defined to be a 
 state of exemption from the control or 
 power of another. The doctrine that Ma- 
 sons should enjoy unrestrained liberty, and 
 be free in all their thoughts and actions, 
 is carried so far in Masonry, that the Grand 
 Lodge of England will not permit the ini- 
 tiation of a candidate who is only tempo- 
 rarily deprived of his liberty, or even in a 
 place of confinement. See Free. 
 
 It is evident that the word freedom is 
 used in Masonry in a symbolical or meta- 
 physical sense differing from its ordinary 
 signification. While, in the application of 
 the words free born and freeman, we use 
 them in their usual legal acceptation, we 
 combine freedom with fervency and zeal 
 as embodying a symbolic idea. Gadicke, 
 under the word Freiheit, in his Freimaurer- 
 Lexicon, thus defines the word : 
 
 " A word that is often heard among us, 
 but which is restricted to the same limita- 
 tion as the freedom of social life. We have 
 in our assemblies no freedom to act each 
 one as he pleases. But we are, or should 
 be, free from the dominion of passion, 
 pride, prejudice, and all the other follies of 
 human nature. We are free from the false 
 delusion that we need not be obedient to 
 the laws." Thus he makes it equivalent to 
 integrity; a sense that I think it bears in 
 the next article. 
 
 Freedom, Fervency, and Zeal. 
 The earliest lectures in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury designated freedom, fervency, and zeal 
 as the qualities which should distinguish 
 the servitude of Apprentices, and the same 
 symbolism is found in the ritual of the 
 present day. The word freedom is not here 
 to be taken in its modern sense of liberty, 
 but rather in its primitive Anglo-Saxon 
 meaning of frankness, generosity, a generous 
 willingness to work or perform one's duty. 
 So Chaucer uses it in the Prior's Tale, 
 (v. 46:) 
 
 " A knight there was, and that a worthy man, 
 That fro the time that he first began 
 To riden out, he loved chivalrie, 
 Trouthe and Honour, Freedom and Chivalrie." 
 See Fervency and Zeal. 
 
 Freeman. The Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land, some years ago, erased from their list 
 of the qualifications of candidates the word 
 " free born," and substituted for it " free- 
 man." Their rule now reads, " every can- 
 didate must be a freeman." This has been 
 generally considered an unauthorized vio- 
 lation of a landmark. 
 
 Freemason. One who has been ini- 
 tiated into the mysteries of the fraternity 
 of Freemasonry. Freemasons are so called 
 to distinguish them from the Operative or 
 
296 
 
 FREEMASON 
 
 FREEMASONRY 
 
 Stone-masons, who constituted an inferior 
 class of workmen, and out of whom they 
 sprang. See Stone-Masons and Travelling 
 Freemasons. The meaning of the epithet 
 free, as applied to Mason, is given under 
 the word Free. In the old lectures of the 
 last century a Freemason was described as 
 being "a freeman, born of a freewoman, 
 brother to a king, fellow to a prince, or 
 companion to a beggar, if a Mason," and 
 by this was meant to indicate the univer- 
 sality of the brotherhood. 
 
 The word "Freemason" was until re- 
 cently divided into two words, sometimes 
 with and sometimes without a hyphen; 
 and we find in all the old books and manu- 
 scripts "Free Mason" or " Free -Mason." 
 But this usage has been abandoned by all 
 good writers, and " Freemason " is now 
 always spelled as one word. The old Con- 
 stitutions constantly used the word Mason. 
 I do not recollect meeting with Freemason 
 in any of them. Yet the word was em- 
 ployed at a very early period in the parish 
 registers of England, and by some writers. 
 Thus, in the register of the parish of Ast- 
 bury we find these items : 
 
 " 1685. Smallwood, Jos., fils Jos. Hen- 
 shaw, Freemason, bapt. 3° die Nov. 
 
 " 1697. Jos. fil Jos. Henshaw, Freema- 
 son, buried 7 April." 
 
 But the most singular passage is one 
 found in Cawdray's Treasurie of Similies, 
 published in 1609, and which he copied from 
 Bishop Coverdale's translation of Werd- 
 muller's A Spiritual and most Precious Perle, 
 which was published in 1550. It is as fol- 
 lows: "As the Free -Mason heweth the 
 hard stones .... even so God the Heav- 
 enly Free -Mason buildeth a Christian 
 church." But, in fact, the word was used 
 at a much earlier period, and occurs, Stein- 
 brenner says, {Orig. and Early Hist of Mas., 
 p. 110,) for the first time in a statute passed 
 in 1350, in the twenty-fifth year of Edward 
 I., where the wages of a master Freemason 
 are fixed at 4 pence, and of other masons 
 at 3 pence. The original French text of 
 the statute is "Mestre de franche-peer." 
 "Here," saysSteinbrenner, " the word Free- 
 mason evidently signifies a free-stone ma- 
 son — one who works in free-stone, (Fr. 
 franche-peer, i. e., franche-pierre, ) as distin- 
 guished from the rough mason, who merely 
 built walls of rough, unhewn stone." This 
 latter sort of workmen was that class called 
 by the Scotch Masons cowans, whom the 
 Freemasons were forbidden to work with, 
 whence we get the modern use of that 
 word. Ten years after, in 1360, we have a 
 statute of Edward III., in which it is or- 
 dained that " every mason shall finish his 
 work, be it of free-stone or of rough-stone," 
 where the French text of the statute is 
 
 " de francbe-pere ou de grosse-pere." Thus 
 it seems evident that the word free-mason 
 was originally used in contradistinction 
 to rough-mason. The old Constitutions 
 sometimes call these latter masons rough- 
 la"ers. 
 
 Freemasonry, History of. It is 
 the opprobrium of Freemasonry that its 
 history has never yet been written in a 
 spirit of critical truth ; that credulity, and 
 not incredulity, has been the foundation on 
 which all Masonic historical investigations 
 have hitherto been built ; that imagination 
 has too often " lent enchantment to the 
 view ; " that the missing links of a chain 
 of evidence have been frequently supplied 
 by gratuitous invention ; and that state- 
 ments of vast importance have been care- 
 lessly sustained by the testimony of docu- 
 ments whose authenticity has not been 
 proved. 
 
 And this leads me to the important ques- 
 tion : How is the history of Freemasonry 
 to be written, so that the narrative shall 
 win the respect of its enemies, and secure 
 the assent and approbation of its friends ? 
 
 In the first place, we must begin by a 
 strict definition of the word Masonry. If 
 we make it synonymous with Freemasonry, 
 then must we confine ourselves closely to 
 the events that are connected with the In- 
 stitution in its present form and organ- 
 ization. We may then say that Ma- 
 sonry received a new organization and a 
 restoration in the beginning of the eight- 
 eenth century. We may trace this very 
 Institution, with an older but not dissimilar 
 form, in the Masonic gilds of Europe ; in 
 the corporations of Stone-masons of Ger- 
 many ; in the travelling Freemasons of the 
 Middle Ages, and connect it with the Col- 
 leges of Architects of Rome. Such a his- 
 tory will not want authentic memorials to 
 substantiate its truth, and there will be no 
 difficulty in conferring upon the Institution 
 an enviable antiquity. 
 
 But if we confound the term Masonry with 
 Geometry, with Architecture, or with Moral 
 Science, we shall beget in the mind, equally 
 of the writer and the reader, such a confu- 
 sion of ideas as can never lead to any prac- 
 tical result. And yet this has been the pre- 
 vailing error of all" the great English writ- 
 ers on Masonry in the last, and, with a few 
 exceptions, even in the present century. 
 At one moment they speak of Masonry as 
 a mystical institution which, in its then 
 existing form, was familiar to their readers. 
 Soon afterwards, perhaps on the same page, 
 a long paragraph is found to refer, without 
 any change of name, under the identical 
 term Masonry, to the rise of Architecture, 
 to the progress of Geometry, or perhaps to 
 the condition of the moral virtues. 
 
FREEMASONRY 
 
 FREEMASONS 
 
 297 
 
 Thus Preston, in his Illustrations of Ma- 
 sonry, begins his section on the Origin of 
 Masonry by stating that, " from the com- 
 mencement of the world we may trace the 
 foundation of Masonry." And he adds: 
 " Ever since symmetry began and harmony 
 displayed her charms, our Order has had a 
 being." But, after we have read through 
 the entire chapter, we find that it is not to 
 Freemasonry, such as we know and recog- 
 nize it, that the author has been referring, 
 but to some great moral virtue, to the social 
 feeling, to the love of man for man, which, 
 as inherent in the human breast, must have 
 existed from the very creation of the race, 
 and necessarily have been the precursor of 
 civilization and the arts. 
 
 Oliver, who, notwithstanding the valua- 
 ble services which he has rendered to Ma- 
 sonry, was unfortunately too much given 
 to abstract speculations, has "out-heroded 
 Herod," and, in commenting on this pas- 
 sage of Preston, proclaims " that our science 
 existed before the creation of this globe, and 
 was diffused amidst the numerous systems 
 with which the grand empyreum of uni- 
 versal space is furnished." But on further 
 reading, we find that by Speculative Ma- 
 sonry the writer means " a system of ethics 
 founded on the belief of a God," and that 
 in this grandiloquent sentence he does not 
 refer to the Freemasonry of whose history 
 he is professing to treat, but to the exist- 
 ence of such a belief among the sentient 
 intelligences who, as he supposes, inhabit 
 the planets and stars of the solar system. 
 
 Anderson is more modest in his claims, 
 and traces Masonry only to Adam in the 
 garden of Eden ; but soon we find that he, 
 too, is treating of different things by the 
 same name, and that the Masonry of the 
 primal patriarch is not the Freemasonry of 
 our day, but Geometry and Architecture. 
 
 Now, all this is to write romance, not his- 
 tory. Such statements may be said to be 
 what the French call fagons de parler — 
 rhetorical flourishes, having much sound, 
 and no meaning. But when the reader 
 meets with them in books written by men 
 of eminence, professedly intended to give 
 the true history of the Order, he either aban- 
 dons in disgust a study which has been 
 treated with so much folly, or he is led to 
 adopt theories which he cannot maintain, 
 because they are absurd. In the former 
 case Freemasonry perhaps loses a disciple; 
 in the latter, he is ensnared by a delusion. 
 
 The true history of Freemasonry is much 
 in its character like the history of a nation. 
 It has its historic and its pre-historic era. 
 In its historic era, the Institution can be 
 regularly traced through various antece- 
 dent associations, similar in design and 
 organization, to a comparatively remote 
 2N 
 
 period. Its connection with these associa- 
 tions can be rationally established by au- 
 thentic documents, and by other evidence 
 which no historian would reject. Thus 
 dispassionately and philosophically treated, 
 as though it were the history of an empire 
 that was under investigation, — no claim 
 being advanced that cannot be substanti- 
 ated, no assertion made that cannot be 
 proved, — Freemasonry — the word so used 
 meaning, without evasion or reservation, 
 precisely what everybody supposes it to 
 mean — can be invested with an antiquity 
 sufficient for the pride of the most exacting 
 admirer of the Society. 
 
 And then, for the pre-historic era, — that 
 which connects it with the mysteries of the 
 Pagan world, and with the old priests of 
 Eleusis, of Samothrace, or of Syria, — let 
 us honestly say that we now no longer 
 treat of Freemasonry under its present or- 
 ganization, which we know did not exist 
 in those days, but of a science peculiar, 
 and peculiar only, to the Mysteries and to 
 Freemasonry, — a science which we may 
 call Masonic symbolism, and which con- 
 stituted the very heart-blood of the ancient 
 and the modern institutions, and gave to 
 them, while presenting a dissimilarity of 
 form, an identity of spirit. And then, in 
 showing the connection and in tracing the 
 germ of Freemasonry in those pre-historic 
 days, although we shall be guided by no 
 documents, and shall have no authentic 
 spoken or written narratives on which to 
 rely, we shall find fossil thoughts embalmed 
 in those ancient intellects precisely like 
 the living ones which crop out in modern 
 Masonry, and which, like the fossil shells 
 and fishes of the old physical formations 
 of the earth, show, by their resemblance to 
 living specimens, the graduated connection 
 of the past with the present. 
 
 No greater honor could accrue to any 
 man than that of having been the founder 
 of a new school of Masonic history, in 
 which the fictions and loose statements of 
 former writers would be rejected, and in 
 which the rule would be adopted that has 
 been laid down as a vital maxim of all in- 
 ductive science, — in words that have been 
 chosen as his motto by a recent powerful 
 investigator of historical truth : 
 
 " Not to exceed and not to fall short of 
 facts — not to add and not to take away. 
 To state the truth, the whole truth, and 
 nothing but the truth." 
 
 Freemasons of the Church. An 
 architectural college was organized in Lon- 
 don, in the year 1842, under the name of 
 " Freemasons of the Church for the Recov- 
 ery, Maintenance, and Furtherance of the 
 True Principles and Practice of Architec- 
 ture." The founders of the association 
 
298 
 
 FREE-WILL 
 
 FRENCH 
 
 announced their objects to be " the redis- 
 covery of the ancient principles of archi- 
 tecture ; the sanction of good principles of 
 building, and the condemnation of bad 
 ones ; the exercise of scientific and expe- 
 rienced judgment in the choice and use of 
 the proper materials; the infusion, main- 
 tenance, and advancement of science 
 throughout architecture; and eventually, 
 by developing the powers of the college 
 upon a just and beneficial footing, to reform 
 the whole practice of architecture, to raise 
 it from its present vituperated condition, 
 and to bring around it the same unques- 
 tioned honor which is at present enjoyed 
 by almost every other profession." One of 
 their members has said that the title as- 
 sumed was not intended to express any 
 conformity with the general bodyof Free- 
 masons, but rather as indicative of the pro- 
 found views of the college, namely, the 
 recovery, maintenance, and furtherance of 
 the free principles and practice of archi- 
 tecture ; and that, in addition, they made 
 it an object of their exertions to preserve 
 or effect the restoration of architectural 
 remains of antiquity, threatened unnecessa- 
 rily with demolition or endangered by de- 
 cay. But it is evident, from the close 
 connection of modern Freemasonry with 
 the building gilds of the Middle Ages, that 
 any investigation into the condition of 
 Mediaeval architecture must throw light on 
 Masonic history. 
 
 Free- Will and Aceord. There is 
 one peculiar feature in the Masonic Insti- 
 tution that must commend it to the respect 
 of every generous mind. In other associa- 
 tions it is considered meritorious in a mem- 
 ber to exert his influence in obtaining 
 applications for admission ; but it is wholly 
 uncongenial with the spirit of our Order 
 to persuade any one to become a Mason. 
 Whosoever seeks a knowledge of our mys- 
 tic rites, must first be prepared for the 
 ordeal in his heart; he must not only be 
 endowed with the necessary moral qualifi- 
 cations which would fit him for admission 
 into our ranks, but he must come, too, un- 
 influenced by friends and unbiassed by 
 unworthy motives. This is a settled land- 
 mark of the Order ; and, therefore, nothing 
 can be more painful to a true Mason than 
 to see this landmark violated by young and 
 heedless brethren. For it cannot be denied 
 that it is sometimes violated; and this 
 habit of violation is one of those unhappy 
 influences sometimes almost insensibly ex- 
 erted upon Masonry by the existence of 
 the many secret societies to which the 
 present age has given birth, and which re- 
 semble Masonry in nothing except in hav- 
 ing some sort of a secret ceremony of 
 initiation. These societies are introducing 
 
 into some parts of our country such phrase- 
 ology as a " card " for a " demit," or "wor- 
 thy" for "worshipful," or "brothers" for 
 " brethren." And there are some men who, 
 coming among us imbued with the princi- 
 ples and accustomed to the usages of these 
 modern societies, in which the persevering 
 solicitation of candidates is considered as a 
 legitimate and even laudable practice, 
 bring with them these preconceived no- 
 tions, and consider it their duty to exert 
 all their influence in persuading their 
 friends to become members of the Craft. 
 Men who thus misunderstand the true 
 policy of our Institution should be in- 
 structed by their older and more experi- 
 enced brethren that it is wholly in opposi- 
 tion to all our laws and principles to ask 
 any man to become a Mason, or to exercise 
 any kind of influence upon the minds of 
 others, except that of a truly Masonic life 
 and a practical exemplification of its tenets, 
 by which they may be induced to ask ad- 
 mission into our Lodges, We must not 
 seek, — we are to be sought. 
 
 And if this were not an ancient law, 
 imbedded in the very cement that upholds 
 our system, policy alone would dictate an 
 adherence to the voluntary usage. We 
 need not now fear that our Institution will 
 suffer from a deficiency of members. Our 
 greater dread should be that, in its rapid 
 extension, less care may be given to the 
 selection of candidates than the interests 
 and welfare of the Order demand. There 
 can, therefore, be no excuse for the prac- 
 tice of persuading candidates, and every 
 hope of safety in avoiding such a practice. 
 It should always be borne in mind that the 
 candidate who comes to us not of his own 
 " free-will and accord," but induced by the 
 persuasions of his friends, — no matter how 
 worthy he otherwise may be, — violates, by 
 so coming, the requirements of our Institu- 
 tion on the very threshold of its temple, 
 and, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, 
 fails to become imbued with that zealous 
 attachment to the Order which is absolutely 
 essential to the formation of a true Ma- 
 sonic character. 
 
 Freimaurer. German for Freemason. 
 Matter means " a wall," and mauern, " to 
 build a wall." Hence, literally, freimaurer 
 is a " builder of walls" who is free of his 
 gild, from the fact that the building of 
 walls was the first occupation of masons. 
 
 Freimaurerei. German for Free- 
 masonry. 
 
 French, Benjamin Brown. A 
 distinguished Mason of the United States, 
 who was born at Chester, in New Hamp- 
 shire, September 4, 1800, and died at the 
 city of Washington, where he had long re- 
 sided, on August 12, 1870. He was initi- 
 
FRENCH 
 
 FUND 
 
 299 
 
 ated into Masonry in 1825, and during his 
 whole life took an active interest in the 
 affairs of the Fraternity. He served for 
 many years as General Grand Secretary of 
 the General Grand Chapter, and Grand Re- 
 corder of the Grand Encampment of the 
 United States. In 1846, soon after his ar- 
 rival in Washington, he was elected Grand 
 Master of the Grand Lodge of the District, 
 a position which he repeatedly occupied. 
 In 1859 he was elected Grand Master of the 
 Templars of the United States, a distin- 
 guished position which he held for six 
 years, having been re-elected in 1862. His 
 administration, during a period of much 
 excitement in the country, was marked by 
 great firmness, mingled with a spirit of 
 conciliation. He was also a prominent 
 member of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite, and at the time of his death was 
 the Lieutenant Grand Commander of the 
 Supreme Council for the Southern Juris- 
 diction of the United States. 
 
 Brother French was possessed of much 
 intellectual ability, and contributed no 
 small share of his studies to the literature 
 of Masonry. His writings, which have not 
 yet been collected, were numerous, and 
 consisted of Masonic odes, many of them 
 marked with the true poetic spirit, eloquent 
 addresses on various public occasions, 
 learned dissertations on Masonic law, and 
 didactic essays, which were published at the 
 time in various periodicals. His decisions 
 on Templar law have always been esteemed 
 of great value. 
 
 French Rite. [Rite Frangais on 
 Modeme.) The French or Modern Rite is 
 one of the three principal Rites of Freema- 
 sonry. It consists of seven degrees, three 
 symbolic and four higher, viz. : 1. Appren- 
 tice; 2. Fellow-Craft; 3. Master; 4. Elect; 
 5. Scotch Master ; 6. Knight of the East ; 
 7. Rose Croix. This Rite is practised in 
 France, in Brazil, and in Louisiana. It 
 was founded, in 1786, by the Grand Orient 
 of France, who, unwilling to destroy entire- 
 ly the high degrees which were then prac- 
 tised by the different Rites, and yet anxious 
 to reduce them to a smaller number and to 
 greater simplicity, extracted these degrees 
 out of the Rite of Perfection, making some 
 few slight modifications. Most of the au- 
 thors who have treated of this Rite have 
 given to its symbolism an entirely astro- 
 nomical meaning. Among these writers, 
 we may refer to Ragon, in his Cours Phi- 
 losophique, as probably the most scientific. 
 
 Ragon, in his Tuileur General, (p. 51,) 
 says that the four degrees of the French 
 Rite, which were elaborated to take the 
 place of the thirty degrees of the Scottish 
 Rite, have for their basis the four physical 
 proofs to which the recipiendary submits in 
 
 the first degree. And that the symbolism 
 further represents the sun in his annual 
 progress through the four seasons. Thus, 
 the Elect degree represents the element of 
 Earth and the season of Spring ; the Scot- 
 tish Master represents Air and the Summer; 
 the Knight of the East represents Water 
 and Autumn; and the Rose Croix repre- 
 sents Fire; but he does claim that it is con- 
 secrated to Winter, although that would be 
 the natural conclusion. 
 
 The original Rose Croix was an eminent- 
 ly Christian degree, which, being found in- 
 convenient, was in 1860 substituted by the 
 Philosophic Rose Croix, which now forms 
 the summit of the French Rite. 
 
 Friendly Societies. Societies first 
 established towards the end of the last cen- 
 tury, in England, for the relief of mechanics, 
 laborers, and other persons who derived their 
 support from their daily toil. By the week- 
 ly payment of a stipulated sum, the mem- 
 bers secured support and assistance from 
 the society when sick, and payment of the 
 expenses of burial when they died. These 
 societies gave origin to the Odd Fellow's 
 and other similar associations, but they 
 have no relation whatever to Freemasonry. 
 
 Friend of St. John. The sixth de- 
 
 free of the system practised by the Grand 
 iodge of Sweden. It is comprehended in 
 the degree of Knight of the East and West. 
 
 Friend of Truth. The filth degree 
 of the Rite of African Architects. 
 
 Friendship. Leslie, in 1741, de- 
 livered the first descant on Friendship as 
 peculiarly a Masonic virtue. He was fol- 
 lowed by Hutchinson, Preston, and other 
 writers, and now in the modern lectures it 
 is adopted as one of the precious jewels of 
 a Master Mason. Of universal friendship, 
 blue is said to be the symbolic color. " In 
 regular gradation," says Munkhouse, (Disc, 
 i. 17,) "and by an easy descent, brotherly 
 love extends itself to lesser distinct societies 
 or to particular individuals, and thus be- 
 comes friendship either of convenience or 
 of personal affection." Cicero says, " Ami- 
 citia nisi inter bonos non potest," Friend- 
 ship can exist only among the good. 
 
 Fund of Benevolence. A fund 
 established many years ago by the Grand 
 Lodge of England, principally through the 
 exertions of Dr. Crucefix. The regulations 
 for its management are as follows. Its dis- 
 tribution and application is directed by the 
 Constitution to be monthly, for which pur- 
 pose a committee or Lodge of Benevolence 
 is holden on the last Wednesday of every 
 month. This Lodge consists of all the 
 
 K resent and past Grand officers, all actual 
 [asters of Lodges, and twelve Past Masters. 
 The brother presiding is bound strictly to 
 enforce all the regulations of the Craft re- 
 
300 
 
 FUND 
 
 G 
 
 specting the distribution of the fund, and 
 must be satisfied, before any petition is read, 
 that all the required formalities have been 
 complied with. To every petition must be 
 added a recommendation, signed in open 
 Lodge by the Master, Wardens, and a ma- 
 jority of the members then present, to 
 which the petitioner does or did belong, or 
 from some other contributing Lodge, certi- 
 fying that they have known him to have 
 been in reputable, or at least tolerable, cir- 
 cumstances, and that he has been not less 
 than two years a subscribing member to a 
 regular Lodge. 
 
 Funds of the Lodge. The funds of 
 the Lodge are placed in the keeping of the 
 Treasurer, to whom all moneys received by 
 the Secretary must be immediately paid. 
 Hence each of these officers is a check on 
 the other. And hence, too, the "Thirty- 
 nine Regulations" of 1721 say that the 
 Treasurer should be "a brother of good 
 worldly substance," lest impecuniosity 
 should tempt him to make use of the Lodge 
 funds. 
 
 Funeral Rites. See Burial. 
 
 Furl stc. A word in the high degrees, 
 whose etymology is uncertain, but probably 
 Arabic. It is said to signify the angel of 
 the earth. 
 
 Furniture of a Lodge. The Bible, 
 square, and compasses are technically said 
 to constitute the furniture of a Lodge. 
 They are respectfully dedicated to God, the 
 Master of the Lodge, and the Craft. Our 
 English brethren differ from us in their ex- 
 planation of the furniture. Oliver gives 
 their illustration, from the English lectures, 
 as follows : 
 
 " The Bible is said to derive from God 
 to man in general, because the Almighty 
 has been pleased to reveal more of hia 
 
 divine will by that holy book than by any 
 other means. The compasses, being the 
 chief implement used in the construction 
 of all architectural plans and designs, are 
 assigned to the Grand Master in particular 
 as emblems of his dignity, he being the 
 chief head and ruler of the Craft. The 
 square is given to the whole Masonic body, 
 because we are all obligated within it, and 
 are consequently bound to act thereon." 
 But the lecture of the early part of the last 
 century made the furniture consist of the 
 Mosaic Pavement, Blazing Star, and the In- 
 dented Tarsel, while the Bible, square, and 
 compass were considered as additional 
 furniture. 
 
 Fustier. An officer of the Grand 
 Orient of France in the beginning of this 
 century. In 1810, he published, and pre- 
 sented to the Grand Orient, a Geographical 
 Chart of the Lodges in France and its Depen- 
 dencies. He was the author of several 
 memoirs, dissertations, etc., on Masonic 
 subjects, and of a manuscript entitled No- 
 menclature Alphabetique des Grades. Oliver 
 {Landmarks, ii. 95,) says that he promul- 
 gated a new system of sixty-four degrees. 
 I think he has mistaken Fustier's catalogue 
 of degrees invented by others for a system 
 established by himself. I can find no rec- 
 ord elsewhere of such a system. Lenning 
 says (Encyc. der Freimaurerei) that Fustier 
 was a dealer in Masonic decorations and in 
 the transcript of rituals, of which he had 
 made a collection of more than four hun- 
 dred, which he sold at established prices. 
 
 Future L.ife. Lorenzo de Medici 
 said that all those are dead, even for the 
 present life, who do not believe in a future 
 state. The belief in that future life, it is 
 the object of Freemasonry, as it was of the 
 ancient initiations, to teach. 
 
 G 
 
 ©. As in all Roman Catholic and in 
 many Protestant churches the cross, en- 
 graved or sculptured in some prominent 
 position, will be found as the expressive 
 symbol of Christianity, so in every Masonic 
 Lodge a letter G may be seen in the east, 
 either painted on the wall or sculptured in 
 wood or metal, and suspended over the 
 Master's chair. This is, in fact, if not the 
 most prominent, certainly the most familiar, 
 of all the symbols of Freemasonry. It is 
 the one to which the poet Burns alluded in 
 
 those well-known and often-quoted lines, 
 in which he speaks of 
 
 " that hieroglyphic bright, 
 
 Which none but Craftsmen ever saw ; " 
 
 that is to say, ever saw understanding^ — 
 ever saw, knowing at the same time what it 
 meant. 
 
 There is an uncertainty as to the exact 
 time when this symbol was first introduced 
 into Speculative Masonry. It was not de- 
 rived, in its present form, from the opera- 
 
G 
 
 G 
 
 301 
 
 tive Masons of the Middle Ages, who be- 
 stowed upon Freemasonry so much of its 
 symbolism, for it is not found among the 
 architectural decorations of the old cathe- 
 drals. Dr. Oliver says it was " in the old 
 lectures ; " but this is an uncertain expres- 
 sion. From Prichard's Masonry Dissected, 
 which was published in 1730, it would seem 
 that the symbol was not in use at that date. 
 But it may have been omitted. If Tubal 
 Gain, which was published in 1768, is, as 
 it purported to be, identical with Prichard's 
 work, the question is settled ; for it contains 
 the lecture on the letter G, to which refer- 
 ence will directly be made. 
 
 It is, however, certain that the symbol 
 was well known and recognized in 1766, and 
 some few years before. The book entitled 
 Solomon in all his Glory, the first edition 
 of which appeared in that year, and is said, 
 on the title-page, to be a translation of a 
 French original, contains the reference to 
 and the explanation of the symbol. The 
 work contains abundant internal evidence 
 that it is a translation, and hence the sym- 
 bol may, like some others of the system 
 subsequent to 1717, have been first intro- 
 duced on the Continent, and then returned 
 in the translation, all of which would indi- 
 cate a date some years anterior to 1776 for 
 the time of its adoption. 
 
 In the ritual contained in Tubal Gain, 
 (p. 18,) or, if that be only a reprint, in Ma- 
 sonry Dissected, that is to say, in 1768 or 
 in 1730, there is a test which is called "The 
 Eepeating the Letter G," and which Dr. 
 Oliver gives in his Landmarks (i. 454) as a 
 part of the "old lectures." It is doggerel 
 verse, and in the form of a catechism be- 
 tween an examiner and a respondent, a 
 form greatly affected in these old lectures, 
 and is as follows : 
 
 "Kesp. — In the Midst of Solomon's Temple 
 there stands a G, 
 A letter for all to read and see ; 
 But few there be that understand 
 What means the letter G. 
 
 " Ex. — My friend, if you pretend to be 
 Of this Fraternity, 
 You can forthwith and rightly tell 
 What means that letter G. 
 
 " Kesp. — By sciences are brought about, 
 Bodies of various kinds, 
 Which do appear to perfect sight ; 
 But none but males shall know my 
 mind. 
 
 "Ex. — The Right shall. 
 
 " Resp. — If Worshipful. 
 
 " Ex. — Both Right and Worshipful I am ; 
 To hail you I have command, 
 That you forthwith let me know, 
 As I you may understand. 
 
 " Resp. — By letters four and science five, 
 This G aright doth stand, 
 In a due art and proportion ; 
 You have your answer, Friend." 
 
 And now as to the signification of the 
 symbol. We may say, in the first place, 
 that the explanation is by no means, and 
 never has been, esoteric. As the symbol it- 
 self has always been exposed to public view, 
 forming, as it does, a prominent part of the 
 furniture of a Lodge, to be seen by every 
 one, so our Masonic authors, from the 
 earliest times, have not hesitated to write, 
 openly and in the plainest language, of its 
 signification. The fact is, that the secret 
 instruction in reference to this symbol re- 
 lates not to the knowledge of the symbol 
 itself, but to the mode in which, and the 
 object for which, that knowledge has been 
 obtained. 
 
 Hutchinson, who wrote as early as 1776, 
 says, in his Spirit of Masonry, (Lect. viii.,) 
 " It is now incumbent on me to demonstrate 
 to you the great signification of the letter 
 G, wherewith Lodges and the medals of 
 Masons are ornamented. 
 
 "To apply it to the name of God only is 
 depriving it of part of its Masonic import; 
 although I have already shown that the 
 symbols used in Lodges are expressive of 
 the Divinity's being the great object of Ma- 
 sonry as Architect of the world. 
 
 " This significant letter denotes Geome- < 
 try. which, to artificers, is the science by 
 which all their labors are calculated and 
 formed ; and to Masons contains the deter- 
 mination, definition, and proof of the order, 
 beauty, and wonderful wisdom of the power 
 of God in His creation." • 
 
 Again, Dr. Frederick Dalcho, a distin- 
 guished Mason of South Carolina, in one 
 of his Orations, delivered and published in 
 1801, uses the following language: 
 
 " The letter G, which ornaments the Mas- 
 ter's Lodge, is not only expressive of the 
 name of the Grand Architect of the uni- 
 verse, but also denotes the science of Geom- 
 etry, so necessary to artists. But the adop- 
 tion of it by Masons implies no more than 
 their respect for those inventions which 
 demonstrate to the world the power, the 
 wisdom, and beneficence of the Almighty 
 Builder in the works of the creation." 
 
 Lastly, Dr. Oliver has said, in his Golden 
 Remains of the Early Masonic Writers, that 
 " the term G. A. O. T. U. is used among 
 Masons for this great and glorious being, 
 designated by the letter G, that it may be 
 applied by every brother to the object of 
 his adoration." 
 
 More quotations are unnecessary to show 
 that from the earliest times, since the adop- 
 tion of the letter as a symbol, its explana- 
 
302 
 
 G 
 
 GABAON 
 
 tion has not been deemed an esoteric or se- 
 cret part of the ritual. No Masonic writer 
 has hesitated openly to give an explanation 
 of its meaning. The mode in which, and 
 the purpose for which, that explanation 
 was obtained are the only hidden things 
 about the symbol. 
 
 It is to be regretted that the letter G, as 
 a symbol, was ever admitted into the Ma- 
 sonic system. The use of it, as an initial, 
 would necessarily confine it to the English 
 language and to modern times. It wants, 
 therefore, as a symbol, the necessary char- 
 acteristics of both universality and anti- 
 quity. The Greek letter gamma is said to 
 nave been venerated by the Pythagoreans 
 because it was the initial of yeufierpia, or 
 Geometry. But this veneration could not 
 have been shared by other nations whose 
 alphabet had no gamma, and where the 
 word for geometry was entirely different. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the letter G 
 is a very modern symbol, not belonging to 
 any old system anterior to the origin of the 
 English language. It is, in fact, a corrup- 
 tion of the old Hebrew Kabbalistic symbol, 
 the letter yod, >, by which the sacred name 
 of God — in fact, the most sacred name, the 
 Tetragrammaton — is expressed. This let- 
 ter, yod, is the initial letter of the word 
 nii"Pi or Jehovah, and is constantly to be 
 met with among Hebrew writers, as the 
 abbreviation or symbol of that most holy • 
 name, which, indeed, was never written at 
 length. Now, as G is in like manner the 
 initial of God, the English equivalent of 
 the Hebrew Jehovah, the letter has been 
 adopted as a symbol intended to supply to 
 modern Lodges the place of the Hebrew 
 symbol. First adopted by the English 
 ritual makers, it has, without remark, been 
 transferred to the Masonry of the Conti- 
 nent, and it is to be found as a symbol in 
 all the systems of Germany, France, Spain, 
 Italy, Portugal, and every other country 
 where Masonry has been introduced; al- 
 though in Germany only can it serve, as it 
 does in England, for an intelligent symbol. 
 
 The letter G, then, has in Masonry the 
 same force and signification that the letter 
 yod had among the Kabbalists. It is only a 
 symbol of the Hebrew letter, and, as that 
 is a symbol of God, the letter G is only a 
 symbol of a symbol. As for its reference 
 to geometry, Kloss, the German Masonic 
 historian, says that the old Operative Ma- 
 sons referred the entire science of geometry 
 to the art of building, which gave to the 
 modern English Masons occasion to em- 
 brace the whole system of Freemasonry 
 under the head of Geometry, and hence 
 the symbol of that science, as well as of 
 God, was adopted for the purpose of giving 
 elevation to the Fellow Craft's degree. 
 
 Indeed, the symbol, made sacred by its 
 reference to the Grand Geometrician of the 
 universe, was well worthy to be applied to 
 that science which has, from the remotest 
 times, been deemed synonymous with Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 Oabaon. A significant word in the 
 high degrees. Oliver says, {Landm., i. 335,) 
 "in philosophical Masonry, heaven, or, 
 more correctly speaking, the "third heaven, is 
 denominated Mount Gabaon, which is 
 feigned to be accessible only by the seven 
 degrees that compass the winding staircase. 
 These are the degrees terminating in the 
 Royal Arch." Gabaon is defined to signify 
 " a high place." It is the Septuagint and 
 Vulgate form of |l^3J, Gibeon, which was 
 the city in which the tabernacle was sta- 
 tioned during the reigns of David and Sol- 
 omon. The word means a city built on a hill, 
 and is referred to in 2 Chron. i. 3. "So 
 Solomon, and all the congregation with him, 
 went to the high place that was at Gibeon; 
 for there was the tabernacle of the congre- 
 gation of God." 
 
 In a ritual of the middle of the last cen- 
 tury, it is said that Gabanon is the name 
 of a Master Mason. This word is a striking 
 evidence of the changes which Hebrew 
 words have undergone in their transmission 
 to Masonic rituals, and of the almost im- 
 possibility of tracing them to their proper 
 root. It would seem difficult to find a con- 
 nection between Gabanon and any known 
 Hebrew word. But if we refer to Guille- 
 main's Ritual of Adonhiramite Masonry, we 
 will find the following passage: 
 
 " Q. How is a Master called? 
 
 " A. Gabaoc, which is the name of the 
 place where the Israelites deposited the 
 ark in the time of trouble. 
 
 " Q. What does this signify? 
 
 " A. That the heart of a Mason ought to 
 be pure enough to be a temple suitable for 
 God." 
 
 There is abundant internal evidence that 
 these two rituals came from a common 
 source, and that Gabaoc is a French distor- 
 tion, as Gabanon is an English one, of some 
 unknown word — connected, however, with 
 the Ark of the Covenant as the place where 
 that article was deposited. 
 
 Now, we learn from the Jewish records 
 that the Philistines, who had captured the 
 ark, deposited it " in the house of Abinadab 
 that was in Gibeah ; " and that David, sub- 
 sequently recapturing it, carried it to Jeru- 
 salem, but left the tabernacle at Gibeon. 
 The ritualist did not remember that the 
 tabernacle at Gibeon was without the ark, 
 but supposed that it was still in that sacred 
 shrine. Hence, Gabaoc or Gabanon must 
 have been corrupted from either Gibeah or 
 Gibeon, because the ark was considered to 
 
GABAONNE 
 
 GAVEL 
 
 303 
 
 be at some time in both places. But Gib- 
 eon bad already been corrupted by the 
 Septuagint and the Vulgate versions into 
 Gabaon ; and this undoubtedly is the word 
 from which Gabanon is derived, through 
 either the Septuagint or the Vulgate, or 
 perhaps from Josephus, who calls it Gabao. 
 
 Gabaonne. In French Masonic lan- 
 guage, the widow of a Master Mason. De- 
 rived from Gabaon. 
 
 Gabor. Heb., ^3J, strong. A signifi- 
 cant word in the high degrees. 
 
 Gabriel. Heb., Sxnoi, a man of God. 
 The name of one of the archangels, referred 
 to in some of the high degrees. 
 
 Gaedicke, J oh ami Christian. 
 A bookseller of Berlin, born on the 14th 
 of December, 1763, and initiated into Ma- 
 sonry in 1804. He took much interest in 
 the Order, and was the author of several 
 works, the most valuable and best known 
 of which is the Freimaurer- Lexicon, or 
 Freemason's Lexicon, published in 1818 ; 
 which, although far inferior to that of Len- 
 ning, which appeared four years afterwards, 
 is, as a pioneer work, very creditable to its 
 author. The Lexicon was translated into 
 English and published in the London Free- 
 mason's Magazine. 
 
 Galahad. Also spelled Galaad. Most 
 probably a corruption of Gilead. Said in 
 the old rituals to have been the keeper of 
 the Seals in the Scottish degree of Knights 
 of the Ninth, Arch or Sacred Vault of 
 James VI. 
 
 G.\ A.*. O.*. T.\ IJ.\ An abbrevia- 
 tion of Grand Architect of the Universe, which 
 see. 
 
 Garinous. Said in the old ritual of 
 the degree of Knights of the East and West 
 to have been the Patriarch of Jerusalem, 
 between whose hands the first Knights of 
 that Order took, in 1182, their vows. It is 
 a corruption, by the French ritualists, of 
 Garimond or Garimund, Patriarch of Je- 
 rusalem, before whom the Hospitallers took 
 their three vows of obedience, chastity, and 
 poverty. 
 
 Gassicourt, Cadet de. An apothe- 
 cary of Paris, who, in the year 1796, pub- 
 lished a work entitled Le Tombeau de 
 Jacques Molai, ou histoire secrete et abregee 
 des inities anciens et modernes. In this book, 
 which embraced all the errors of Barruel 
 and Robison, he made the same charges of 
 atheism and conspiracy against the Frater- 
 nity, and loaded the Chevalier Ramsay, the 
 inventor of some of the high degrees, with 
 the most vehement indignation asalibertine 
 and traitor. But De Gassicourt subsequen tly 
 acknowledged his folly in writing against 
 a society of which he really knew nothing. 
 In fact, in 1805, he solicited admission into 
 the Order, and was initiated in the Lodge 
 " I'Abeille," at Paris, where, in the various 
 
 offices of Orator and Master, which he filled, 
 he taught and recommended that Institu- 
 tion which he had once abused ; and even 
 on a public occasion pronounced the eulogy 
 of that Ramsay whom he had formerly 
 anathematized. 
 
 Gaston, John. Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cany; in 1737 he inaugurated a persecu- 
 tion against the Freemasons in his domin- 
 ions. See Tuscany. 
 
 Gates of the Temple. In the sys- 
 tem of Freemasonry, the Temple of Solo- 
 mon is represented as having a gate on the 
 east, west, and south sides, but none on the 
 north. In reference to the historical Tem- 
 ple of Jerusalem, such a representation is 
 wholly incorrect. In the walls of the build- 
 ing itself there were no places of entrance 
 except the door of the porch, which gave 
 admission to the house. But in the sur- 
 rounding courts there were gates at every 
 point of the compass. The Masonic idea 
 of the Temple is, however, entirely symbolic. 
 The Temple is to the Speculative Mason only 
 a symbol not an historical building, and 
 the gates are imaginary and symbolic also. 
 They are, in the first place, symbols of the 
 progress of the sun in his daily course, 
 rising in the east, culminating to the me- 
 ridian in the south, and setting in the west. 
 They are also, in the allegory of life, which 
 it is the object of the third degree to illus- 
 trate, symbols of the three stages of youth, 
 manhood, and old age, or, more properly of 
 birth, life, and death. 
 
 Gauge. See Twenty-four-inch Gauge. 
 
 Gauntlets. Gloves formerly made of 
 steel and worn by knights as a protection 
 to their hands in battle. They have been 
 adopted in the United States, as a part of 
 the costume of a Knight Templar, under a 
 regulation of the Grand Encampment, 
 which directs them to be " of buff leather, 
 the flap to extend four inches upwards from 
 the wrist, and to have the appropriate cross 
 embroidered in gold, on the proper colored 
 velvet, two inches in length.'' 
 
 Gavel. The common gavel is one of 
 the working tools of an Entered Apprentice. 
 It is made use of by the Operative Mason 
 to break off the corners of the rough ashlar, 
 and thus fit it the better for the builder's use, 
 and is therefore adopted as a symbol in 
 Speculative Masonry, to admonish us of 
 the duty of divesting our minds and con- 
 sciences of all the vices and impurities of 
 life, thereby fitting our bodies as living 
 stones for that spiritual building not made 
 with hands, eternal in the heavens. 
 
 It borrows its name from its shape, being 
 that of the gable or gavel end of a house ; 
 and this word again comes from the Ger- 
 man gipfel, a summit, top, or peak, — the 
 idea of a pointed extremity being common 
 to all. 
 
304 
 
 GEBAL 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 The true form of the gavel is that of the 
 stone-mason's 
 hammer. It is 
 to be made with 
 a cutting edge, 
 as in the annex- 
 ed engraving, 
 that it may be 
 used " to break 
 off the corners of rough stones," an opera- 
 tion which could never be effected by the 
 common hammer or mallet. The gavel 
 thus shaped will give, when looked at in 
 front, the exact representation of the gavel 
 or gable end of a house, whence, as I have 
 already said, the name is derived. 
 
 The gavel of the Master is also called a 
 " Hiram," because, like that architect, it 
 governs the Craft and keeps order in the 
 Lodge, as he did in the Temple. 
 
 Gebal. A city of Phoenicia, on the 
 Mediterranean, and under Mount Lebanon. 
 It was the Byblos of the Greeks, where the 
 worship of Adonis, the Syrian Thammuz, 
 was celebrated. The inhabitants, who were 
 Giblites or, in Masonic language, Giblemites, 
 are said to have been distinguished for the 
 art of stone-carving, and are called in the 
 first Book of Kings " stone-squarers." See 
 Giblim. 
 
 Oedaliah. The second officer in a 
 Council of Super-Excellent Masters repre- 
 sents Gedaliah the son of Pashur. An 
 historical error has crept into the ritual of 
 this degree in reference to the Gedaliah 
 who is represented in it. I have sought 
 to elucidate the question in my work 
 on Cryptic Masonry in the following 
 manner : 
 
 There are five persons of the name of 
 Gedaliah who are mentioned in Scripture, 
 but only two of them were contemporary 
 with the destruction of the Temple. 
 
 Gedaliah the son of Pashur is mentioned 
 by the prophet Jeremiah (xxxviii. 1) as a 
 prince of the court of Zedekiah. He was 
 present at its destruction, and is known to 
 have been one of the advisers of the king. It 
 was through his counsels, and those ot his 
 colleagues, that Zedekiah was persuaded to 
 deliver up the prophet Jeremiah to death, 
 from which he was rescued only by the in- 
 tercession of a eunuch of the palace. 
 
 The other Gedaliah was the son of Ahi- 
 kam. He seems to have been greatly in 
 favor with Nebuchadnezzar, for after the 
 destruction of Jerusalem, and the deporta- 
 tion of Zedekiah, he was appointed by the 
 Chaldean monarqh as his satrap or govern- 
 or over Judea. He took up his residence 
 at Mizpah, where he was shortly afterwards 
 murdered by Ishmael, one of the descend- 
 ants of the house of David. 
 The question now arises, which of these 
 
 two is the one referred to in the ceremonies 
 of a Council of Super- Excellent Masters? 
 I think there can be no doubt that the 
 founders of the degree intended the second 
 officer of the Council to represent the former, 
 and not the latter Gedaliah — the son of 
 Pashur, and not Gedaliah the son of Ahi- 
 kam ; the prince of Judah, and not the 
 governor of Judea. 
 
 We are forced to this conclusion by vari- 
 ous reasons. The Gedaliah represented in 
 the degree must have been a resident of 
 Jerusalem during the siege, and at the very 
 time of the assault, which immediately 
 preceded the destruction of the Temple and 
 the city. Now, we know that Gedaliah the 
 son of Pashur was with Hezekiah as one 
 of his advisers. On the other hand, it is 
 most unlikely that Gedaliah the son of 
 Ahikara could have been a resident of 
 Jerusalem, for it is not at all probable that 
 Nebuchadnezzar would have selected such 
 an one for the important and confidential 
 office of a satrap or governor. We should 
 rather suppose that Gedaliah the son of 
 Ahikam had been carried away to Babylon 
 after one of the former sieges; that he had 
 there, like Daniel, gained by his good con- 
 duct the esteem and respect of the Chal- 
 dean monarch ; that he had come back to 
 Judea with the army ; and that, on the 
 taking of the city, he had been appointed 
 governor by Nebuchadnezzar. Such being 
 the facts, it is evident that he could not 
 have been in the council of King Zedekiah, 
 advising and directing his attempted escape. 
 
 The modern revivers of the degree of 
 Super-Excellent Master have, therefore, 
 been wrong in supposing that Gedaliah the 
 son of Ahikam, and afterwards governor of 
 Judea, was the person represented by the 
 second officer of the Council. He was Ge- 
 daliah the son of Pashur, a wicked man, 
 one of Zedekiah's princes, and was most 
 probably put to death by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 with the other princes and nobles whom he 
 captured in the plains of Jericho. 
 
 Gemara. See Talmud. 
 
 General Assembly. See Assembly. 
 
 General Grand Chapter. Until 
 the year 1797, the Koyal Arch degree and 
 the degrees subsidiary to it were conferred 
 in this country, either in irresponsible bodies 
 calling themselves Chapters, but obedient 
 to no superior authority, or in Lodges work- 
 ing under a Grand Lodge Warrant. On 
 the 24th of October, 1797, a convention of 
 committees from three Chapters, namely, 
 St. Andrew's Chapter of Boston, Temple 
 Chapter of Albany, and Newburyport 
 Chapter, was held at Boston, which re- 
 commended to the several Chapters with- 
 in the States of New Hampshire, Massa- 
 chusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Ver- 
 
GENERAL 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 305 
 
 mont, and New York, to hold a convention 
 at Hartford on the fourth Wednesday of 
 January ensuing, to form a Grand Chapter 
 for the said States. 
 
 Accordingly, on the 24th of January, 
 1798, delegates from St. Andrew's Chapter 
 of Boston, Mass. ; King Cyrus Chapter of 
 Newburyport, Mass. ; Providence Chapter 
 of Providence, R. I. ; Solomon Chapter of 
 Derby, Conn.; Franklin Chapter of Nor- 
 wich, Conn. ; Franklin Chapter of New 
 Haven, Conn. ; and Hudson Chapter of 
 Hudson, N. Y. ; to which were the next 
 day added Temple Chapter of Albany, N. 
 Y., and Horeb Chapter of Whitestown, 
 N. Y., assembled at Hartford in Conven- 
 tion, and, having adopted a Constitution, or- 
 ganized a governing body which they styled, 
 "The Grand Eoyal Arch Chapter of the 
 Northern States of America." This body 
 assumed in its Constitution jurisdiction over 
 only the States of New England and New 
 York, and provided that Deputy Grand 
 Chapters, subject to its obedience, should 
 be organized in those States. Ephraim 
 Kirby, of Litchfield, Conn., was elected 
 Grand High Priest; and it was ordered that 
 the first meeting of the Grand Chapter 
 should be held at Middletown, Conn., on 
 the third Wednesday of September next 
 ensuing. 
 
 On that day the Grand Chapter met, but 
 the Grand Secretary and Grand Chaplain 
 were the only Grand officers present. The 
 Grand King was represented by a proxy. 
 The Grand Chapter, however, proceeded to 
 an election of Grand officers, and the old 
 officers were elected. The body then ad- 
 journed to meet in January, 1 799, at Provi- 
 dence, R. I. 
 
 On the 9th of January, 1799, the Grand 
 Chapter met at Providence, the Deputy 
 Grand Chapters of Massachusetts, Rhode 
 Island, and New York being represented. 
 At this meeting, the Constitution was 
 very considerably modified, and the Grand 
 Chapter assumed the title of " The General 
 Grand Chapter of Royal Arch Masons for the 
 six Northern States enumerated in the pre- 
 amble." The meetings were directed to be 
 held septennially ; and the Deputy Grand 
 Chapters were in future to be called "State 
 Grand Chapters." No attempt was, how- 
 ever, made in words to extend the jurisdic- 
 tion of the General Grand Chapter beyond 
 the States already named. 
 
 On the 9th of January, 1806, a meeting 
 of the General Grand Royal Arch Chapter 
 was held at Middletown, representatives 
 being present from the States of Rhode 
 Island, Connecticut, Vermont, and New 
 York. The Constitution was again revised. 
 The title was for the first time assumed of 
 "The General Grand Chapter of Royal 
 20 
 
 Arch Masons for the United States of 
 America," and jurisdiction was extended 
 over the whole country. This year may, 
 therefore, be considered as the true date of 
 the establishment of the General Grand 
 Chapter. 
 
 In 1826, the septennial meetings were 
 abolished, and the General Grand Chapter 
 has ever since met triennially. 
 
 The General Grand Chapter consists of 
 the present and past Grand High Priests, 
 Deputy Grand High Priests, Grand Kings 
 and Scribes of the State Grand Chapters, 
 and the Past General Grand officers. 
 
 The officers are a General Grand High 
 Priest, Deputy General Grand High Priest, 
 General Grand King, General Grand Scribe, 
 General Grand Treasurer, General Grand 
 Secretary, General Grand Chaplain, Gen- 
 eral Grand Captain of the Host, and Gen- 
 eral Grand Royal Arch Captain. 
 
 It originally possessed large prerogatives, 
 extending even to the suspension of Grand 
 Chapters ; but by its present Constitution 
 it has " no power of discipline, admonition, 
 censure, or instruction over the Grand 
 Chapters, nor any legislative powers what- 
 ever not specially granted " by its Consti- 
 tution. It may, indeed, be considered as 
 scarcely more than a great Masonic Con- 
 gress meeting triennially for consultation. 
 But even with these restricted powers, it is 
 capable of doing much good. 
 
 General Grand High Priest. 
 The presiding officer of the General Grand 
 Chapter of the United States of America. 
 He is elected every third year by the Gen- 
 eral Grand Chapter. The title was first 
 assumed in 1799, although the General 
 Grand Chapter did not at that time extend 
 its jurisdiction beyond six of the Northern 
 States. 
 
 General Grand Iiodge. Ever 
 since the Grand Lodges of this country 
 began, at the commencement of the Revo- 
 lutionary war, to abandon their dependence 
 on the Grand Lodges of England and Scot- 
 land, — that is to say, as soon as they 
 emerged from the subordinate position of 
 Provincial Grand Lodges, and were com- 
 pelled to assume a sovereign and indepen- 
 dent character, — attempts have, from time 
 to time, been made by members of the 
 Craft to destroy this sovereignty of the 
 State Grand Lodges, and to institute in its 
 place a superintending power, to be consti- 
 tuted either as a Grand Master of North 
 America or as a General Grand Lodge of the 
 United States. Led, perhaps, by the analogy 
 of the united Colonies under one federal 
 head, or, in the very commencement of the 
 Revolutionary struggle, controlled by long 
 habits of dependence on the mother Grand 
 Lodges of Europe, the contest had no 
 
306 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 sooner begun, and a disseverance of politi- 
 cal relations between England and America 
 taken place, than the attempt was made to 
 institute the office of Grand Master of the 
 United States, the object being — of which 
 there can hardly be a doubt — to invest 
 Washington with the distinguished dignity. 
 The effort emanated, it appears, with the 
 military Lodges in the army. For a full 
 account of it we are indebted to the indus- 
 trious researches of Bro. E. G. Storer, who 
 published the entire Minutes of the "Amer- 
 ican Union Lodge," attached to the Con- 
 necticut line, in his work on The Early 
 Records of Freemasonry in the State of Con- 
 
 On the 27th of December, 1779, the 
 Lodge met to celebrate the day at Morris- 
 town, in New Jersey, which, it will be re- 
 membered, was then the winter-quarters of 
 the army. At that communication — at 
 which, it may be remarked, by the way, 
 " Bro. Washington " is recorded among the 
 visitors — a petition was read, represent- 
 ing the present state of Freemasonry to 
 the several Deputy Grand Masters in the 
 United States of America, desiring them to 
 adopt some measures for appointing a Grand 
 Master over said States. 
 
 The petition purports to emanate from 
 " Ancient Free and Accepted Masons in 
 the several lines of the army ; " and on its 
 being read, it was resolved that a committee 
 be appointed from the different Lodges in 
 the army, and from the staff, to meet in 
 ■convention at Morristown on the 7th of 
 February next. Accordingly, on the 7th 
 of February, 1780, a convention, called in 
 •the records " a committee," met at Morris- 
 town. This convention adopted an address 
 to the "Grand Masters of the several 
 Lodges in the respective United States." 
 The recommendations of this address were 
 that the said Grand Masters should adopt 
 and pursue the most necessary measures 
 for establishing one Grand Lodge in Amer- 
 ica, to preside over and govern all other 
 Lodges of whatsoever degree or denomina- 
 tion, licensed or to be licensed, upon the 
 continent; that they should nominate, as 
 Grand Master of said Lodge, a brother 
 whose merit and capacity may be adequate 
 to a station so important and elevated ; 
 and that his name should be transmitted 
 " to our Grand Mother Lodge in Europe " 
 for approbation and confirmation. 
 
 This convention contained delegates from 
 the States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, 
 New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
 Delaware, and Maryland. Between the 
 time of its conception, on the 27th of De- 
 cember, 1779, and that of its meeting on 
 the 7th of February, 1780, that is to say in 
 January, 1780, the Grand Lodge of Penn- 
 
 sylvania had held an emergent meeting, 
 and in some measure anticipated the pro- 
 posed action of the convention by electing 
 General Washington Grand Master of the 
 United States. 
 
 From the contemporaneous character of 
 these events, it would seem probable that 
 there was some concert of action between 
 the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania and the 
 Masons of Morristown. Perhaps, the ini- 
 tiative having been taken by the latter in 
 December, the former determined to give 
 its influence, in January, to the final recom- 
 mendations which were to be made in the 
 following February. All this, however, 
 although plausible, is but conjecture. 
 Nothing appears to have resulted from the 
 action of either body. The only further 
 reference which I find to the subject, in 
 subsequent Masonic documents, is the dec- 
 laration of a convention held in 1783, to 
 organize the Grand Lodge of Maryland, 
 where it is remarked that " another Grand 
 Lodge was requisite before an election 
 could be had of a Grand Master for the 
 United States." 
 
 But the attempt to form a General Grand 
 Lodge, although, on this occasion, unsuc- 
 cessful, was soon to be renewed. In 1790, 
 the proposition was again made by the 
 Grand Lodge of Georgia, and here, true to 
 the Roman axiom, Tempora mutantur et 
 nos mutamur in illis, the Grand Lodge of 
 Pennsylvania became the opponent of the 
 measure, and declared it to be impracti- 
 cable. 
 
 Again, in 1799, the Grand Lodge of 
 South Carolina renewed the proposition, 
 and recommended a convention to be held 
 at the city of Washington for the purpose 
 of establishing a " Superintending Grand 
 Lodge of America." The reasons assigned 
 by the Grand Lodge of South Carolina for 
 making this proposition are set forth in the 
 circular which it issued on the subject to 
 its sister Grand Lodges. They are " to 
 draw closer the bonds of union between the 
 different Lodges of the United States, and 
 to induce them to join in some systematic 
 plan whereby the drooping spirit of the 
 Ancient Craft may be revived and become 
 more generally useful and beneficial, and 
 whereby Ancient Masonry, so excellent and 
 beautiful in its primitive institution, may 
 be placed upon such a respectable and firm 
 basis in this western world as to bid defi- 
 ance to the shafts of malice or the feeble 
 attempts of any foreign disclaimers to 
 bring it into disrepute." The allusion 
 here is to the Abbe Barruel, who had just 
 published his abusive and anti-Masonic 
 History of Jacobinism. 
 
 Several Grand Lodges acceded to the 
 proposition for holding a convention, al- 
 
GENERAL 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 307 
 
 though they believed the scheme of a 
 " Superintending Grand Lodge " inexpedi- 
 ent and impracticable; but they were will- 
 ing to send delegates for the purpose of 
 producing uniformity in the Masonic sys- 
 tem. The convention, however, did not 
 assemble. 
 
 The proposition was again made in 1803, 
 by the Grand Lodge of North Carolina, 
 and with a like want of success. 
 
 In 1806, the subject of a General Grand 
 Lodge was again presented to the consid- 
 eration of the Grand Lodges of the Union, 
 and propositions were made for conventions 
 to be held in Philadelphia in 1807, and in 
 Washington city in 1808, neither of which 
 was convened. The " Proceedings " of the 
 various Grand Lodges in the years 1806, 
 1807, and 1808 contain allusions to this 
 subject, most of them in favor of a conven- 
 tion to introduce uniformity, but unfavor- 
 able to the permanent establishment of a 
 General Grand Lodge. North Carolina, 
 however, in 1807, expressed the opinion 
 that " a National Grand Lodge should pos- 
 sess controlling and corrective powers over 
 all Grand Lodges under its jurisdiction." 
 
 An unsuccessful attempt was again made 
 to hold a convention at Washington in 
 January, 1811, " for the purpose of forming 
 a Superintending Grand Lodge of Amer- 
 ica." 
 
 After the failure of this effort, the Grand 
 Lodge of North Carolina, which seems to 
 have been earnest in its endeavors to ac- 
 complish its favorite object, again proposed 
 a convention, to be convoked at Washing- 
 ton in 1812. But the effort, like all which 
 had preceded it, proved abortive. No con- 
 vention was held. 
 
 The effort seems now, after all these dis- 
 couraging efforts, to have been laid upon 
 the shelf for nearly ten years. At length, 
 however, the effort for a convention which 
 had so often failed was destined to meet 
 with partial success, and one rather extem- 
 poraneous in its character was held in 
 Washington on the 8th of March, 1822. 
 Over this convention, which the Grand 
 Lodge of Maryland rather equivocally de- 
 scribes as " composed of members of Con- 
 gress and strangers," the renowned orator 
 and statesman Henry Clay presided. A 
 strong appeal, most probably from the facile 
 pen of its eloquent president, was made to 
 the Grand Lodges of the country to concur 
 in the establishment of a General Grand 
 Lodge. But the appeal fell upon unwilling 
 ears, and the Grand Lodges continued firm 
 in their opposition to the organization of 
 such a superintending body. 
 
 The subject was again brought to the 
 attention of the Fraternity by the Grand 
 Lodge of Maryland, which body, at its 
 
 communication in May, 1845, invited its 
 sister Grand Lodges to meet in convention 
 at Baltimore on the 23d of September, 1847, 
 for the purpose of reporting a Constitution 
 of a General Grand Lodge. 
 
 This convention met at the appointed 
 time and place, but only seven Grand 
 Lodges were represented by twice that 
 number of delegates. A Constitution was 
 formed for a "Supreme Grand Lodge of 
 the United States," which was submitted 
 for approval or rejection to the Grand 
 Lodges of the Union. The opinion ex- 
 pressed of that Constitution by the Grand 
 Lodge of Ohio, " that it embraced, in seve- 
 ral of its sections, indefinite and unmeaning 
 powers, to which it was impossible to give 
 a definite construction, and that it gave a 
 jurisdiction to the body which that Grand 
 Lodge would in no event consent to," seems 
 to have been very generally concurred in 
 by the other Grand bodies, and the " Su- 
 preme Grand Lodge of the United States " 
 never went into operation. The formation 
 of its Constitution was its first, its last, and 
 its only act. 
 
 The next action that we find on this 
 much discussed subject was by the Grand 
 Lodge of New York, which body recom- 
 mended, in 1848, that each of the Grand 
 Lodges should frame the outlines of a Gen- 
 eral Grand Constitution such as would be 
 acceptable to it, and send it with a delegate 
 to a convention to be holden at Boston in 
 1850, at the time of meeting of the Gen- 
 eral Grand Chapter and General Grand En- 
 campment. The committee of the Grand 
 Lodge of New York, who made this recom- 
 mendation, also presented the outlines of a 
 General Grand Constitution. 
 
 This instrument defines the jurisdic- 
 tion of the proposed General Grand 
 Lodge as intended to be " over all contro- 
 versies and disputes between the different 
 Grand Lodges which may become parties 
 to the compact, when such controversies 
 are referred for decision ; and the decisions 
 in all cases to be final when concurred in 
 by a majority of the Grand Lodges present;" 
 but it disclaims all appeals from State Grand 
 Lodges or their subordinates in matters re- 
 lating to their own internal affairs. It is 
 evident that the friends of the measure had 
 abated much of their pretensions since the 
 year 1779, when they wanted a Grand 
 Lodge of America, "to preside over and 
 govern all other Lodges of whatsoever de- 
 gree or denomination, licensed or to be 
 licensed, on the continent." 
 
 The Grand Lodge of Rhode Island also 
 submitted the draft of a General Grand 
 Constitution, more extensive in its details 
 than that presented by New York, but sub- 
 stantially the same in principle. The 
 
308 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 GENUFLECTION 
 
 Grand Lodge of the District of Columbia 
 also concurred in the proposition. The 
 convention did not, however, meet ; for the 
 idea of a Supreme Grand Lodge was still 
 an unpopular one with the Craft. In Jan- 
 uary, 1850, Texas expressed the general 
 sentiment of the Fraternity when it said : 
 "The formation of a General Grand Lodge 
 will not accomplish the desired end. The 
 same feeling and spirit that now lead to 
 difficulties between the different Grand 
 Lodges would produce insubordination and 
 disobedience of the edicts of a General 
 Grand Lodge." 
 
 But another attempt was to be made by 
 its friends to carry this favorite measure, 
 and a convention of delegates was held at 
 Lexington, Ky., in September, 1853, during 
 the session of the General Grand Chapter 
 and Encampment at that city. This con- 
 vention did little more than invite the 
 meeting of a fuller convention, whose dele- 
 gates should be clothed with more plenary 
 powers, to assemble at Washington in Jan- 
 uary, 1855. 
 
 The proposed convention met at Wash- 
 ington, and submitted a series of nine propo- 
 sitions styled "Articles of Confederation." 
 The gist of these articles is to be found in 
 the initial one, and is in these words : "All 
 matters of difficulty which may hereafter 
 arise in any Grand Lodge, or between two 
 or more Grand Lodges of the United States, 
 which cannot by their own action be satis- 
 factorily adjusted or disposed of, shall, if 
 the importance of the case or the common 
 welfare of the Fraternity demand it, be 
 submitted, with accompanying evidence and 
 documents, to the several Grand Lodges in 
 their individual capacities ; and the con- 
 current decision thereon of two-thirds of 
 the whole number, officially communicated, 
 shall be held authoritative, binding, and 
 final on all parties concerned." 
 
 The provisions of these articles were to 
 be considered as ratified, and were to take 
 effect as soon as they were approved by 
 twenty Grand Lodges of the United States. 
 It is needless to say that this approbation 
 was never received, and the proposed con- 
 federation failed to assume a permanent 
 form. 
 
 It will be perceived that the whole ques- 
 tion of a General Grand Lodge is here, at 
 onceandin full, abandoned. The proposition 
 was simply for a confederated league, with 
 scarcely a shadow of power to enforce its 
 decisions, with no penal jurisdiction what- 
 soever, and with no other authority than 
 that which, from time to time, might be 
 delegated to it by the voluntary consent of 
 the parties entering into the confederation. 
 If the plan had been adopted, the body 
 would, in all probability, have died in a 
 
 few years of sheer debility. There was no 
 principle of vitality to keep it together. 
 
 But the friends of a General Grand Lodge 
 did not abandon the hope of effecting their 
 object, and in 1857 the Grand Lodge of 
 Maine issued a circular, urging the forma- 
 tion of a General Graud Lodge at a con- 
 vention to be held at Chicago in September, 
 1859, during the session of the General 
 Grand Chapter and General Grand En- 
 campment at that city. This call was gen- 
 erally and courteously responded to; the 
 convention was held, but it resulted in a 
 failure, and since then all idea of a Gen- 
 eral Grand Lodge appears to have been 
 abandoned. 
 
 Generalissimo. The second officer 
 in a Commandery of Knights Templars, and 
 one of its representatives in the Grand 
 Commandery. His duty is to receive and 
 communicate all orders, signs, and peti- 
 tions ; to assist the Eminent Commander, 
 and, in his absence, to preside over the 
 Commandery. His station is on the right 
 of the Eminent Commander, and his jewel 
 is a square, surmounted by a paschal 
 lamb. 
 
 The use of the title in Templarism is of 
 very recent origin, and peculiar to this 
 country. No such officer was known in 
 the old Order. It is, besides, inappropriate 
 to a subordinate officer, being derived from 
 the French generalissime, and that from the 
 Italian generalissimo, both signifying a su- 
 preme commander. It has the same mean- 
 ing in English. 
 
 Gentleman Mason. In some of 
 the old lectures of the last century this title 
 is used as equivalent to Speculative Free- 
 mason. Thus they had the following cate- 
 chism : 
 
 " Q. What do you learn by being a Gen- 
 tleman Mason? 
 
 "A. Secrecy, Morality, and Good-Fellow- 
 ship. 
 
 " Q. What do you learn by being an 
 Operative Mason ? 
 
 "A. Hew, Square, Mould stone, lay a 
 Level, and raise a Perpendicular." 
 
 Hence we see that Gentleman Mason was 
 in contrast with Operative Mason. 
 
 Genuflection. Bending the knees 
 has, in all ages of the world, been consid- 
 ered as an act of reverence and humility, 
 and hence Pliny, the Roman naturalist, 
 observes, that " a certain degree of religious 
 reverence is attributed to the knees of a 
 man." Solomon placed himself in this po- 
 sition when he prayed at the consecration 
 of the Temple ; and Masons use the same 
 posture in some portions of their ceremo- 
 nies, as a token of solemn reverence. In 
 Ancient Craft Masonry, during prayer, it is 
 the custom for the members to stand, but in 
 
GEOMETRICAL 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 309 
 
 the higher degrees, kneeling, and generally 
 on one knee, is the more usual form. 
 Geometrical Master Mason. A 
 
 term in use in England during the last cen- 
 tury. By the primitive regulations of the 
 Grand Chapter, an applicant for the Royal 
 Arch degree was required to produce a cer- 
 tificate that he was " a Geometrical Master 
 Mason," and had passed the chair. The 
 word Geometrical was here synonymous 
 with Speculative. 
 
 Geometric Points. In the lan- 
 guage of French Masonry, this name is 
 given to the four cardinal points of the 
 compass, because they must agree with the 
 four sides of a regular Temple or Lodge. 
 They are a symbol of regularity and per- 
 fection. 
 
 Geometry. In the modern rituals, 
 geometry is said to be the basis on which 
 the superstructure of Masonry is erected ; 
 and in the old Constitutions of the Medi- 
 aeval Freemasons of England the most 
 prominent place of all the sciences is given 
 to geometry, which is made synonymous 
 with Masonry. Thus, in the Halliwell MS., 
 which dates not later than the latter part of 
 the fourteenth century, the Constitutions 
 of Masonry are called "the Constitution of 
 the art of geometry according to Euclid," 
 the words geometry and Masonry being 
 used indifferently throughout the document; 
 and in the Harleian MS. it is said, " thus 
 the craft Geometry was governed there, and 
 that worthy Master (Euclid) gave it the 
 name of Geometry, and it is called Masonrie 
 in this land long after." In another part 
 of the same MS. it is thus defined : " The 
 fifth science is called Geometry, and it 
 teaches a man to mete and measure of the 
 earth and other things, which science is 
 Masonrie." 
 
 The Egyptians were undoubtedly one of 
 the first nations who cultivated geometry 
 as a science. " It was not less useful and 
 necessary to them," as Goguet observes, 
 (Orig. des Lois., I., iv. 4,) "in the affairs of 
 life, than agreeable to their speculatively 
 philosophical genius." From Egypt, which 
 was the parent both of the sciences and the 
 mysteries of the Pagan world, it passed 
 over into other countries ; and geometry 
 and Operative Masonry have ever been 
 found together, the latter carrying into ex- 
 ecution those designs which were first 
 traced according to the principles of the 
 former. 
 
 Speculative Masonry is, in like manner, 
 intimately connected with geometry. In 
 deference to our operative ancestors, and, 
 in fact, as a necessary result of our close 
 connection with them, Speculative Free- 
 masonry derives its most important symbols 
 from this parent science. Hence it is not 
 
 strange that Euclid, the most famous of 
 geometricians, should be spoken of in all 
 the Old Records as a founder of Ma- 
 sonry in Egypt, and that a special legend 
 should have been invented in honor of his 
 memory. 
 
 Georgia. Freemasonry was intro- 
 duced at a very early period into the pro- 
 vince of Georgia. Roger Lacey is said to 
 have been the first Provincial Grand Mas- 
 ter, and to him the warrant for Solomon's 
 Lodge, at Savannah, was directed in 1735. 
 Rockwell (Ahim. Rez., p. 323,) denies this, 
 and thinks that there was an earlier Lodge 
 organized by Lacey, perhaps in 1730. The 
 original warrant of Solomon's Lodge has, 
 however, been destroyed, and we have no 
 authentic evidence on the subject ; although 
 it is very generally conceded that the intro- 
 duction of organized Masonry into Georgia 
 does not date later than the year 1735. 
 There is no evidence, except tradition, of 
 the existence of an earlier Lodge. In 1786 
 — Mitchell, (Hist., i. 570,) with his usual 
 typographical inaccuracy, says 1776 — the 
 Independent Grand Lodge of Georgia was 
 formed, Samuel Elbert, (again Mitchell 
 blunders and says Elliot,) the last Provin- 
 cial Grand Master resigning his position to 
 William Stephens, who was elected the first 
 Grand Master. 
 
 German Union of Two and 
 Twenty. A secret society founded in 
 Germany, in 1786, by Dr. Bahrdt, whose 
 only connection with Freemasonry was 
 that Bahrdt and the twenty-one others who 
 founded it were Masons, and that they in- 
 vited to their co-operation the most dis- 
 tinguished Masons of Germany. The 
 founder professed that the object of the as- 
 sociation was to diffuse intellectual light, 
 to annihilate superstition, and to perfect 
 the human race. Its instruction was di- 
 vided into six degrees, as follows : 1. The 
 Adolescent ; 2. The Man ; 3. The Old Man ; 
 4. The Mesopolite; 5. The Diocesan; 6. 
 The Superior. The first three degrees were 
 considered a preparatory school for the last 
 three, out of which the rules of the society 
 were chosen. It lasted only four years, and 
 was dissolved by the imprisonment of its 
 founder for a political libel, most of its 
 members joining the Illuminati. The pub- 
 lication of a work in 1789 entitled Mehr 
 Noten ah Text, etc., i. e., More Notes than 
 Text, or The German Union of XX II., which 
 divulged its secret organization, tended to 
 hasten its dissolution. See Bahrdt. 
 
 Germany. Of all countries Germany 
 plays the most important part in the history 
 of ancient Masonry, since it was there that 
 the gilds of Operative Stone-masons first 
 assumed that definite organization which 
 subsequently led to the establishment of 
 
310 
 
 GHIBLIM 
 
 GILDS 
 
 Speculative Freemasonry. But it was not 
 until a later date that the latter institution 
 obtained a footing on German soil. Findel 
 {Hkt., p. 238,) says that as early as 1730 
 temporary Lodges, occupied only in the 
 communication of Masonic knowledge and 
 in the study of the ritual, were formed at 
 different points. But the first regular Lodge 
 was established at Hamburg, in 1733, under 
 a warrant of Lord Strath more, Grand Mas- 
 ter of England; which did not, however, 
 come into active operation until four years 
 later. Its progress was at first slow ; but, 
 under the patronage of Frederick the Great, 
 it assumed a firm footing, which it has never 
 lost, and nowhere is Freemasonry now more 
 popular or more deserving of popularity. 
 Its scholars have brought to the study of 
 its antiquities and its philosophy all the 
 laborious research that distinguishes the 
 Teutonic mind, and the most learned works 
 on these subjects have emanated from the 
 German press. The detailed history of its 
 progress would involve the necessity of no 
 ordinary volume. 
 
 Ghiblim. The form in which Dr. 
 Anderson spells Giblim. In the Book of 
 Constitutions, ed. 1738, page 70, it is stated 
 that in 1350 "John de Spoulee, call'd Mas- 
 ter of the Ghiblim" rebuilt St. George's 
 chapel. 
 
 Gibalim. A Masonic corruption of 
 Giblim, the Giblites, or men of Gebal. See 
 Giblim. 
 
 Giblim. Heb., thli. A significant 
 word in Masonry. It is the plural of the 
 Gentile noun Gibli, (the g pronounced 
 hard,) and means, according to the idiom 
 of the Hebrew, Giblites, or inhabitants of 
 the city of Gebal. The Giblim, or Giblites, 
 are mentioned in Scripture as assisting 
 Solomon's and Hiram's builders to prepare 
 the trees and the stones for building the 
 Temple, and from this passage it is evident 
 that they were clever artificers. The pas- 
 sage is in 1 Kings v. 18, and, in our common 
 version, is as follows: "And Solomon's 
 builders and Hiram's builders did hew 
 them, and the stone-squarers ; so they pre- 
 pared timber and stones to build the house," 
 where the word translated in the authorized 
 version by stone-squarers is, in the original, 
 Giblim. It is so also in that translation 
 known as the Bishop's Bible. The Geneva 
 version has masons. The French version 
 of Martin has tailleurs de pierres, following 
 the English ; but Luther, in his German 
 version, retains the original word Giblim. 
 
 It is probable that the English transla- 
 tion followed the Jewish Targum, which 
 has a word of similar import in this pas- 
 sage. The error has, however, assumed 
 importance in the Masonic ritual, where 
 Giblim is supposed to be synonymous with 
 
 a Mason. And Sir Wm. Drummond con- 
 firms this by saying, in his Origines, (vol. 
 iii., b. v., ch. iv., p. 129,) that " the Gibalim 
 were Master Masons who put the finishing 
 hand to King Solomon's Temple." See 
 Gebal. 
 
 Gilds. The word gild, guild, or geld, 
 from the Saxon gildan, to pay, originally 
 meant a tax or tribute, and hence those 
 fraternities which, in the early ages, con- 
 tributed sums to a common stock, were 
 called Gilds. Cowell, the old English jurist, 
 defines a Gild to be " a fraternity or com- 
 monality of men gathered together into 
 one combination, supporting their common 
 charge by mutual contribution." 
 
 Societies of this kind, but not under the 
 same name, were known to the ancient 
 Greeks and Romans, and their artificers 
 and traders were formed into distinct com- 
 panies which occupied particular streets 
 named after them. But according to Dr. 
 Lujo Brentano, who published, in 1870, an 
 essay on The History and Development of 
 Gilds, England is the birthplace of the Med- 
 iaeval Gilds, from whom he says that the 
 modern Freemasons emerged. They ex- 
 isted, however, in every country of Europe, 
 and we identify them in the Compagnons 
 de la Tour of France, and the Baucorpora- 
 tionen of Germany. The difference, how- 
 ever, was that while they were patronized 
 by the municipal authorities in England, 
 they were discouraged by both the Church 
 and State on the Continent. 
 
 The Gilds in England were of three 
 kinds, Religious Gilds, Merchant Gilds, 
 and Craft Gilds, specimens of all of which 
 still exist, although greatly modified in 
 their laws and usages. The Religious or 
 Ecclesiastical Gilds are principally found 
 in Roman Catholic countries, where, under 
 the patronage of the Church, they often ac- 
 complish much good by the direction of 
 their benevolence to particular purposes. 
 Merchant Gilds are exemplified in the 
 twelve great Livery Companies of London. 
 And the modern Trades Unions are noth- 
 ing else but Craft Gilds under another 
 name. But the most interesting point in 
 the history of the Craft Gilds is the fact 
 that from them arose the Brotherhoods of 
 the Freemasons. 
 
 Brentano gives the following almost ex- 
 haustive account of the organization and 
 customs of the Craft Gilds : 
 
 " The Craft Gilds themselves first sprang 
 up amongst the free craftsmen, when they 
 were excluded from the fraternities which 
 had taken the place of the family unions, 
 and later among the bondmen, when they 
 ceased to belong to the familia of their 
 lord. Like those Frith Gilds, the object 
 of the early Craft Gilds was to create rela- 
 
GILDS 
 
 GILDS 
 
 311 
 
 tions as if among brothers ; and above all 
 things, to grant to their members that as- 
 sistance which the member of a family 
 might expect from that family. As men's 
 wants had become different, this assistance 
 no longer concerned the protection of life, 
 limbs, and property, for this was provided 
 for by the Frith Gilds, now recognized as 
 the legitimate authority ; but the princi- 
 pal object of the Craft Gilds was to secure 
 their members in the independent, unim- 
 paired, and regular earning of their daily 
 bread by means of their craft. 
 
 "The very soul of the Craft Gild was 
 its meetings, which brought all the Gild 
 brothers together every week or quarter. 
 These meetings were always held with cer- 
 tain ceremonies, tor the sake of greater 
 solemnity. The box, having several locks 
 like that of the Trade Unions, and contain- 
 ing the charters of the Gild, the statutes, 
 the money, and other valuable articles, was 
 opened on such occasions, and all present 
 had to uncover their heads. These meetings 
 possessed all the rights which they them- 
 selves had not chosen to delegate. They 
 elected the presidents (originally called 
 Aldermen, afterwards Masters and War- 
 dens) and other officials, except in those 
 cases already mentioned, in which the Mas- 
 ter was appointed by the king, the bishop, 
 or the authorities of the town. As a rule, 
 the Gilds were free to choose their Masters, 
 either from their own members, or from 
 men of higher rank, though they were 
 sometimes limited in their choice to the 
 former. 
 
 " The Wardens summoned and presided 
 at the meetings, with their consent enacted 
 ordinances for the regulation of the trade, 
 saw these ordinances properly executed, 
 and watched over the maintenance of the 
 customs of the Craft. They had the right 
 to examine all manufactures, and a right 
 of search for all unlawful tools and pro- 
 ducts. They formed, with the assistance 
 of a quorum of Gild brothers, the highest 
 authority in all the concerns of the Gild. 
 No Gild member could be arraigned about 
 trade matters before any other judge. We 
 have still numerous documentary proofs of 
 the severity and justice with which the 
 Wardens exercised their judicial duties. 
 Whenever they held a court, it was under 
 special forms and solemnities; thus, for 
 instance, in 1275 the chief Warden of the 
 masons building Strasburg cathedral held 
 a court sitting under a canopy. 
 
 " Besides being brotherhoods for the care 
 of the temporal welfare of their members, 
 the Craft Gilds were, like the rest of the 
 Gilds, at the same time religious fraterni- 
 ties. In the account of the origin of the 
 Company of Grocers, it is mentioned that 
 
 at the very first meeting they fixed a sti- 
 pend for the priest, who had to conduct 
 their religious services and pray for their 
 dead. In this respect the Craft Gilds of 
 all countries are alike ; and in reading their 
 statutes, one might fancy sometimes that 
 the old craftsmen cared only for the well- 
 being of their souls. All had particular 
 saints for patrons, after whom the society 
 was frequently called ; and, where it was 
 possible, they chose one who had some re- 
 lation to their trade. They founded masses, 
 altars, and painted windows in cathedrals ; 
 and even at the present day their coats of 
 arms and their gifts range proudly by the 
 side of those of kings and barons. Some- 
 times individual Craft Gilds appear to have 
 stood in special relation to a particular 
 church, by virtue of which they had to 
 perform special services, and received in 
 return a special share in all the prayers of 
 the clergy of that church. In later times, 
 the Craft Gilds frequently went in solemn 
 procession to their churches. We find in- 
 numerable ordinances also as to the support 
 of the sick and poor ; and to afford a set- 
 tled asylum for distress, the London Com- 
 panies early built dwellings near their 
 halls. The chief care, however, of the 
 Gildmen was always directed to the wel- 
 fare of the souls of the dead. Every year 
 a requiem was sung for all departed Gild 
 brothers, when they were all mentioned by 
 name ; and on the death of any member, 
 special services were held for his soul, and 
 distribution of alms was made to the poor, 
 who, in return, had to offer up prayers for 
 the dead, as is still the custom in Roman 
 Catholic countries." 
 
 In a History of the English Guilds, edited 
 by Toulmin Smith from old documents in 
 the Record Office at London, and published 
 by the Early English Text Society, we find 
 many facts confirmatory of those given by 
 Brentano, as to the organization of these 
 organizations. 
 
 The testimony of these old records shows 
 that a religious element pervaded the Gilds, 
 and exercised a very powerful influence 
 over them. Women were admitted to all 
 of them, which Herbert (Liv. Comp., i. 83,) 
 thinks was borrowed from the Ecclesiastical 
 Gilds of Southern Europe ; and the breth- 
 ren and sisters were on terms of complete 
 equality. There were fees on entrance, 
 yearly and special payments, and fines for 
 wax for lights to burn at the altar or in 
 funeral rites. The Gilds had set days of 
 meeting, known as " morning speeches," or 
 "days of spekyngges totiedare for here 
 comune profyte," and a grand festival on 
 the patron saint's day, when the members 
 assembled for worship, almsgiving, feast- 
 ing, and for nourishing of brotherly love. 
 
312 
 
 GILKES 
 
 GLOBE 
 
 Mystery plays were often performed. They 
 had a treasure-chest, the opening of which 
 was a sign that business had begun. While 
 it remained open all stood with uncovered 
 heads, when cursing and swearing and all 
 loose conduct were severely punished. The 
 Gild property consisted of land, cattle, 
 money, etc. The expenditure was on the 
 sick poor and aged, in making good losses 
 by robbery, etc. Loans were advanced, 
 pilgrims assisted, and, in one city, " any 
 good girl of the Gild " was to have a dowry 
 on marriage, if her father could not pro- 
 vide it. Poor travellers were lodged and 
 fed. Roads were kept in repair, and 
 churches were sustained and beautified. 
 They wore a particular costume, which was 
 enforced by their statutes, whence come the 
 liveries of the London Companies of the 
 present day and the "clothing" of the Free- 
 masons. 
 
 An investigation of the usages of these 
 Medieval Gilds, and a comparison of their 
 regulations with the old Masonic Constitu- 
 tions, will furnish a fertile source of inter- 
 est to the Masonic archaeologist, and will 
 throw much light on the early history of 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 Gilkes, Peter William. Born in 
 London in 1765, and died in 1833. He 
 was celebrated for his perfect knowledge 
 of the ritual of Ancient Craft Masonry 
 according to the English ritual, which he 
 successfully taught for many years. His 
 reputation in England as a Masonic teacher 
 was very great. 
 
 Girdle. In ancient symbology the 
 girdle was always considered as typical of 
 chastity and purity. In the Brahmanical 
 initiations, the candidate was presented 
 with the Zennar, or sacred cord, as a part 
 of the sacred garments ; and Gibbon says 
 that "at the age of puberty the faithful 
 Persian was invested with a mysterious 
 girdle ; fifteen genuflections were required 
 after he put on the sacred girdle." The 
 old Templars assumed the obligations of 
 poverty, obedience, and chastity; and a 
 girdle was given them, at their initiation, 
 as a symbol of the last of the three vows. 
 As a symbol of purity, the girdle is still 
 used in many chivalric initiations, and 
 may be properly considered as the analogue 
 of the Masonic apron. 
 
 Glaire, Peter Mauriee. A dis- 
 tinguished Mason, who was born in Switzer- 
 land in 1743, and died in 1819. In 1764, 
 he went to Poland, and became the inti- 
 mate friend of King Stanislaus Poniatow- 
 ski, who confided to him man, important 
 diplomatic missions. During his residence 
 in Poland, Glaire greatly patronized the 
 Freemasons of that kingdom, and estab- 
 lished there a Rite of seven degrees. He 
 
 returned to Switzerland in 1788, where he 
 continued to exercise an interest in Free- 
 masonry, and in 1810 was elected Grand 
 Master for three years, and in 1813, for life 
 of the Roman Grand Orient of Helvetia, 
 which body adopted his Rite. 
 
 Gleason, Benjamin. A lecturer 
 and teacher of the Masonic ritual, accord- 
 ing to the system of Webb, in the Grand 
 Lodge of Massachusetts, from 1806 to 1842. 
 Gleason is said to have been a man of lib- 
 eral education, and a graduate in 1802 of 
 Brown University. He became soon after 
 a pupil of Thomas Smith Webb, whose 
 lectures he taught in Massachusetts and 
 elsewhere. The assertion of some writers 
 that Gleason went to England and lectured 
 before the Grand Lodge of England, which 
 recognized his or Webb's system as being 
 the same as that of Preston, is highly im- 
 probable and wants confirmation. 
 
 Globe. In the second degree, the celes- 
 tial and terrestrial globes have been adopted 
 as symbols of the universal extension of 
 the Order, and as suggestive of the univer- 
 sal claims of brotherly love. The symbol 
 is a very ancient one, and is to be found in 
 the religious systems of many countries. 
 Among the Mexicans the globe was the 
 symbol of universal power. But the Ma- 
 sonic symbol appears to have been derived 
 from, or at least to have an allusion to, 
 the Egyptian symbol of the winged globe. 
 There is nothing more common among the 
 Egyptian monuments than the symbol of a 
 globe supported on each side by a serpent, 
 and accompanied with wings extended wide 
 beyond them, occupying nearly the whole 
 of the entablature above the entrance of 
 many of their temples. We are thus re- 
 minded of the globes on the pillars at the 
 entrance of the Temple of Solomon. The 
 winged globe, as the symbol of Cneph, the 
 Creator Sun, was adopted by the Egyptians 
 as their national device, as the Lion is that 
 of England, or the Eagle of the United 
 States. In the eighteenth chapter of Isa- 
 iah, where the authorized version of King 
 James's Bible has " Woe to the land shadow- 
 ing with wings," Lowth, after Bochart, 
 translates, " Ho 1 to the land of the 
 winged cymbal," supposing the Hebrew 
 byhy to mean the sistrum, which was a 
 round instrument, consisting of a broad 
 rim of metal, having rods passing through 
 it, and some of which, extending beyond 
 the sides, would, says Bishop Lowth, have 
 the appearance of wings, and be expressed 
 by the same Hebrew word. But Rosellini 
 translates the passage differently, and says, 
 " Ho, land of the winged globe." 
 
 Dudley, in his Naology, (p. 18,) says 
 that the knowledge of the spherical figure 
 of the earth was familiar to the Egyptians 
 
GLORY 
 
 GLOVES 
 
 313 
 
 in the early ages, in which some of their 
 temples were constructed. Of the round 
 figure described above, he says that al- 
 though it be called a globe, an egg, the 
 symbol of the world was perhaps intended ; 
 and he thinks that if the globes of the 
 Egyptian entablatures were closely ex- 
 amined, they would perhaps be found of an 
 oval shape, figurative of the creation, and 
 not bearing any reference to the form of 
 the world. 
 
 The interpretation of the Masonic globes, 
 as a symbol of the universality of Masonry, 
 would very well agree with the idea of the 
 Egyptian symbol referring to the extent of 
 creation. That the globes on the pillars, 
 placed like the Egyptian symbol before 
 the temple, were a representation of the 
 celestial and terrestrial globes, is a very 
 modern idea. In the passage of the Book 
 of Kings, whence Masonry has derived its 
 ritualistic description, it is said, (1 Kings 
 vii. 16,) "And he made two chapiters of 
 molten brass, to set upon the tops of the 
 pillars." In the Masonic ritual it is said 
 that " the pillars were surmounted by two 
 pomels or globes." Now pomel, VoiS, is the 
 very word employed by Rabbi Solomon in 
 his commentary on this passage, a word 
 which signifies a globe or spherical body. 
 The Masonic globes were really the chap- 
 iters described in the Book of Kings. Again 
 it is said, (1 Kings vii. 22,) " Upon the top 
 of the pillars was lily work." We now 
 know that the plant here called the lily 
 was really the lotus, or the Egyptian water- 
 lily. But among the Egyptians the lotus 
 was a symbol of the universe ; and hence, 
 although the Masons in their ritual have 
 changed the expanded flower of the lotus, 
 which crowned the chapiter and surmounted 
 each pillar of the porch, into a globe, they 
 have retained the interpretation of univer- 
 sality. The Egyptian globe or egg and 
 lotus or lily and the Masonic globe are all 
 symbols of something universal, and the 
 Masonic idea has only restricted by a 
 natural impulse the idea to the universality 
 of the Order and its benign influences. But 
 it is a pity that Masonic ritualists did not 
 preserve the Egyptian and scriptural sym- 
 bol of the lotus surrounding a ball or sphere, 
 and omit the more modern figures of globes 
 celestial and terrestrial. 
 
 Glory, Symbol of. The Blazing Star 
 in the old lectures was called " the glory 
 in the centre," because it was placed in the 
 centre of the floor-cloth, and represented 
 the glorious name of Deity. Hence Dr. 
 Oliver gives to one of his most interesting 
 works, which treats of the symbolism of the 
 Blazing Star, the title of The symbol of 
 Glory. 
 
 Gloves. In the continental Rites of 
 2P 
 
 Masonry, as practised in France, in Ger- 
 many, and in other countries of Europe, it 
 is an invariable custom to present the new- 
 ly-initiated candidate not only, as we do, 
 with a white leather apron, but also with 
 two pair of white kid gloves, — one a man's 
 pair for himself, and the other a woman's, — 
 to be presented by him in turn to his wife 
 or his betrothed, according to the custom 
 of the German Masons, or, according to the 
 French, to the female whom he most es- 
 teems, which, indeed, amounts, or should 
 amount, to the same thing. 
 
 There is in this, of course, as there is 
 in everything else which pertains to Free- 
 masonry, a symbolism. The gloves given 
 to the candidate for himself are intended 
 to teach him that the acts of a Mason 
 should be as pure and spotless as the gloves 
 now given to him. In the German Lodges, 
 the word used for acts is, of course, hand- 
 lung, or handlings, " the works of his hands," 
 which makes the symbolic idea more im- 
 pressive. 
 
 Dr. Robert Plot — no friend of Masonry, 
 but still an historian of much research — 
 says, in his Natural History of Staffordshire, 
 that the Society of Freemasons in his time 
 (and he wrote in 1686) presented their can- 
 didates with gloves for themselves and their 
 wives. This shows that the custom, still 
 preserved on the continent of Europe, once 
 was practised in England; although there, 
 as well as in America, it is discontinued, 
 which is perhaps to be regretted. 
 
 But although the presentation of the 
 gloves to the candidate is no longer prac- 
 tised as a ceremony in England or America, 
 yet the use of them as a part of the proper 
 professional clothing of a Mason in the 
 duties of the Lodge or in processions, is 
 still retained ; and in many well-regulated 
 Lodges the members are almost as regularly 
 clothed in their white gloves as in their 
 white aprons. 
 
 The symbolism of the gloves, it will be 
 admitted, is in fact but a modification of 
 that of the apron. They both signify the 
 same thing, both are allusive to a purifica- 
 tion of life. " Who shall ascend," says the 
 Psalmist, "into the hill of the Lord? or 
 who shall stand in his holy place? He 
 that hath clean hands and a pure heart." 
 The apron may be said to refer to the " pure 
 heart;" the gloves, to the "clean hands." 
 Both are significant of purification — of that 
 
 Eurification which was always symbolized 
 y the ablution which preceded the ancient 
 initiations into the sacred mysteries. But 
 while our American and English Masons 
 have adhered only to the apron, and rejected 
 the gloves as a Masonic symbol, the latter 
 appear to be far more important in symbolic 
 science, because the allusions to pure or 
 
314 
 
 GLOVES 
 
 GNOSTICS 
 
 clean hands are abundant in all the ancient 
 writers. 
 
 "Hands," says Wemyss, in his Clavis 
 Symbolica, " are the symbols of human ac- 
 tions — pure hands are pure actions ; unjust 
 hands are deeds of injustice." There are 
 numerous references in sacred or profane 
 writers to this symbolism. The washing 
 of the hands has the outward sign of an 
 internal purification. Hence the Psalmist 
 says, " I will wash my hands in innocence, 
 and I will encompass thine altar, Jehovah." 
 
 In the Ancient Mysteries, the washing of 
 the hands was always an introductory cere- 
 mony to the initiation, and, of course, it 
 was used symbolically to indicate the ne- 
 cessity of purity from crime as a qualifica- 
 tion of those who sought admission into 
 the sacred rites ; and hence on a temple in 
 the island of Crete this inscription was 
 
 E laced: "Cleanse your feet, wash your 
 ands, and then enter." 
 Indeed, the washing of hands, as sym- 
 bolic of purity, was among the ancients a 
 peculiarly religious rite. No one dared to 
 pray to the gods until he had cleansed his 
 hands. Thus, Homer makes Hector say, 
 
 " I dread with unwashed hands to bring 
 My incensed wine to Jove an offering." 
 
 The same practice existed among the 
 Jews ; and a striking instance of the sym- 
 bolism is exhibited in that well-known ac- 
 tion of Pilate, who, when the Jews clam- 
 ored for Jesus that they might crucify him, 
 appeared before the people, and, having 
 taken water, washed his hands, saying at 
 the same time, " I am innocent of the 
 blood of this just man. See ye to it." In 
 the Christian Church of the Middle Ages, 
 gloves were always worn by bishops or 
 priests when in the performance of ecclesi- 
 astical functions. They were made of linen 
 and were white; and Durandus, a celebrated 
 ritualist, says that "by the white gloves 
 were denoted chastity and purity, because 
 the hands were thus kept clean and free 
 from all impurity." 
 
 There is no necessity to extend examples 
 any further. There is no doubt that the 
 use of the gloves in Masonry is a symbolic 
 idea, borrowed from the ancient and uni- 
 versal language of symbolism, and was in- 
 tended, like the apron, to denote the neces- 
 sity of purity of life. 
 
 The builders, who associated in com- 
 panies, who traversed Europe and were en- 
 gaged in the construction of palaces and 
 cathedrals, have left to us, as their de- 
 scendants, their name, their technical lan- 
 guage, and the apron, that distinctive piece 
 of clothing by which they protected their 
 garments from the pollutions of their labo- 
 
 rious employment. Did they also bequeath 
 to us their gloves? This is a question 
 which some modern discoveries will at last 
 enable us to solve. 
 
 M. Didron, in his Annales Archeologiques, 
 presents us with an engraving copied from 
 the painted glass of a window in the Cathe- 
 dral of Chartres, in France. The painting 
 was executed in the thirteenth century, and 
 represents a number of operative masons 
 at work. Three of them are adorned with 
 laurel crowns. May not these be intended 
 to represent the three officers of a Lodge? 
 All of the masons wear gloves. M. Didron 
 remarks that in the old documents which 
 he has examined mention is often made of 
 gloves which are intended to be presented 
 to masons and stone-cutters. In a subse- 
 quent number of the Annales, he gives the 
 following three examples of this fact : 
 
 In the year 1331, the Chatelan of Vil- 
 laines, in Duemois, bought a considerable 
 quantity of gloves to be given to the work- 
 men, in order, as it is said, " to shield their 
 hands from the stone and lime." 
 
 In October, 1383, as he learns from a 
 document of that period, three dozen pair 
 of gloves were bought and distributed to 
 the masons when they commenced the 
 buildings at the Chartreuse of Dijon. 
 
 And, lastly, in 1486 or 1487, twenty-two 
 pair of gloves were given to the masons 
 and stone-cutters who were engaged in work 
 at the city of Amiens. 
 
 It is thus evident that the builders — the 
 operative masons — of the Middle Ages wore 
 gloves to protect their hands from the 
 effects of their work. It is equally evident 
 that the Speculative Masons have received 
 from their operative predecessors the gloves 
 as well as the apron, both of which, being 
 used by the latter for practical uses, have 
 been, in the spirit of symbolism, appropri- 
 ated by the former to " a more noble and 
 glorious purpose." 
 
 Gnostics. The general name of Gnos- 
 tics has been employed to designate several 
 sects that sprung up in the eastern parts 
 of the Roman empire about the time of the 
 advent of Christianity ; although it is sup- 
 posed that their principal doctrines had 
 been taught centuries before in many of 
 the cities of Asia Minor. The word Gnos- 
 ticism is derived from the Greek Gnosis or 
 knowledge, and was a term used in the ear- 
 liest days of philosophy to signify the sci- 
 ence of divine things, or, as Matter says, 
 "superior or celestial knowledge." He 
 thinks the word was first used by the Jew- 
 ish philosophers of the famous school of 
 Alexandria. The favorite opinion of 
 scholars is that the sect of Gnostics arose 
 among the philosophers who were the con- 
 I verts of Paul and the other Apostles, and 
 
GNOSTICS 
 
 GOD 
 
 315 
 
 who sought to mingle the notions of the 
 Jewish Egyptian school, the speculations 
 of the Kabbalists, and the Grecian and 
 Asiatic doctrines with the simpler teachings 
 of the new religion which they had em- 
 braced. They believed that the writings of 
 the Apostles enunciated only the articles of 
 the vulgar faith ; but that there were eso- 
 teric traditions which had been transmitted 
 from generation to generation in mysteries, 
 to which they gave the name of Gnosti- 
 cism or Gnosis. King says {Gnostics, p. 7,) 
 that they drew the materials out of which 
 they constructed their system from two re- 
 ligions, viz., the Zendavesta and its modi- 
 fications in the Kabbala, and the reformed 
 Brahmanical religion, as taught by the 
 Buddhist missionaries. 
 
 Notwithstanding the large area of coun- 
 try over which this system of mystical phi- 
 losophy extended, and the number of dif- 
 ferent sects that adopted it, the same fun- 
 damental doctrine was everywhere held by 
 the chiefs of Gnosticism. This was, that 
 the visible creation was not the work of the 
 Supreme Deity, but of the Demiurgus, a 
 simple emanation, and several degrees re- 
 moved from the Godhead. To the latter, 
 indeed, styled by them " the unknown 
 Father," they attributed the creation of the 
 intellectual world, the iEons and Angels, 
 while they made the creation of the world 
 of matter the work of the Demiurgus. 
 
 Gnosticism abounded in symbols and 
 legends, in talismans and amulets, many 
 of which were adopted into the popular su- 
 perstitions of the Mediaeval ages. It is, too, 
 interesting to the student of Masonic anti- 
 quities because of its remote connection 
 with that Order, some of whose symbols 
 have been indirectly traced to a Gnostic 
 origin. The Druses of Mount Lebanon 
 were supposed to be a sect of Gnostics; and 
 the constant intercourse which was main- 
 tained during the Crusades between Europe 
 and Syria produced an effect upon the 
 Western nations through the influence of 
 the pilgrims and warriors. 
 
 Towards the Manicheans, the most 
 prominent offshoot of Gnosticism, the 
 Templars exercised a tolerant spirit very 
 inconsistent with the professed objects of 
 their original foundation, which led to the 
 charge that they were affected by the 
 dogmas of Manicheism. 
 
 The strange ceremonies observed in the 
 initiation into various secret societies that 
 existed in the Lower Empire are said to 
 have been modelled on the Gnostic rites of 
 the Mithraic Cave. 
 
 The architects and stone-masons of the 
 Middle Ages borrowed many of the princi- 
 ples of ornamentation, by which they deco- 
 rated the ecclesiastical edifices which they 
 
 constructed, from the abstruse symbols of 
 the Gnostics. 
 
 So, too, we find Gnostic symbols in the Her- 
 metic Philosophy and in the system of Ro- 
 sicrucianism ; and lastly, many of the sym- 
 bols still used by Freemasonry — such, for 
 instance, as the triangle within a circle, the 
 letter G, and the pentacle of Solomon — 
 have been traced to a Gnostic source. 
 
 Goat, Riding the. The vulgar idea 
 that " riding the goat " constitutes a part 
 of the ceremonies of initiation in a Ma- 
 sonic Lodge has its real origin in the su- 
 perstition of antiquity. The old Greeks 
 and Romans portrayed their mystical god 
 Pan in horns and hoof and shaggy hide, 
 and called him "goat-footed." When the 
 demonology of the classics was adopted 
 and modified by the early Christians, Pan 
 gave way to Satan, who naturally inherited 
 his attributes; so that to the common mind 
 the Devil was represented by a he-goat, 
 and his best known marks were the horns, 
 the beard, and the cloven hoofs. Then 
 came the witch stories of the Middle Ages, 
 and the belief in the witch orgies, where, 
 it was said, the Devil appeared riding on 
 a goat. These orgies of the witches, where, 
 amid fearfully blasphemous ceremonies, 
 they practised initiation into their Satanic 
 rites, became, to the vulgar and the illiter- 
 ate, the type of the Masonic mysteries; for, 
 as Dr. Oliver says, it was in England a 
 common belief that the Freemasons were 
 accustomed in their Lodges " to raise the 
 Devil." So the " riding of the goat," which 
 was believed to be practised by the witches, 
 was transferred to the Freemasons; and the 
 saying remains to this day, although the 
 belief has very long since died out. 
 
 God. A belief in the existence of God 
 is an essential point of Speculative Ma- 
 sonry — so essential, indeed, that it is a 
 landmark of the Order that no Atheist can 
 be made a Mason. Nor is this left to an 
 inference ; for a specific declaration to that 
 effect is demanded as an indispensable 
 preparation for initiation. And hence 
 Hutchinson says that the worship of God 
 " was the first and corner-stone on which 
 our originals thought it expedient to place 
 the foundation of Masonry." The religion 
 of Masonry is cosmopolitan, universal ; but 
 the required belief in God is not incom- 
 patible with this universality; for it is the 
 belief of all peoples. "Be assured," says 
 Godfrey Higgins, "that God is equally 
 present with the pious Hindoo in the tem- 
 ple, the Jew in the synagogue, the Moham- 
 medan in the mosque, and the Christian in 
 the church." There never has been a time 
 since the revival of Freemasonry, when 
 this belief in God as a superintending 
 power did not form a part of the system. 
 
316 
 
 GODFATHER 
 
 GOOD 
 
 The very earliest rituals that are extant, 
 going back almost to the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, contain precisely the 
 same question as to the trust in God which 
 is found in those of the present day; and 
 the oldest manuscript Constitutions, dating 
 as far back as the fifteenth century at least, 
 all commence with, or contain, an invoca- 
 tion to the " Mighty Father of Heaven." 
 There never was a time when the dogma 
 did not form an essential part of the Ma- 
 sonic system. 
 
 Godfather. In French Lodges the 
 member who introduces a candidate for 
 initiation is called his "parrain," or "god- 
 father." 
 
 Goethe, John Wolfgang von. 
 This illustrious German poet was much at- 
 tached to Freemasonry. He was initiated 
 on the eve of the festival of St. John the 
 Baptist, in 1780 ; and on the eve of the same 
 festival, in 1830, the Masons of Weimar 
 celebrated the semi-centennial anniversary 
 of his admission into the Order, of which, 
 in a letter to the musical composer, Zeeter, 
 who had been, like himself, initiated on the 
 same day fifty years before, he speaks with 
 great gratification as his " Masonic jubi- 
 lee." He says, " The gentlemen have treated 
 this epoch with the greatest courtesy. I 
 responded to it in the most friendly man- 
 ner on the following day." Goethe's writ- 
 ings contain many favorable allusions to 
 the Institution. 
 
 Golden Candlestick. The golden 
 candlestick which was made by Moses for 
 the service of the tabernacle, and was after- 
 wards deposited in the holy place of the 
 temple, to throw light upon the altar of 
 incense, and the table of showbread, was 
 made wholly of pure gold, and had seven 
 branches; that is, three on each side, and 
 one in the centre. These branches were at 
 equal distances, and each one was adorned 
 with flowers like lilies, gold knobs after 
 the form of an apple, and similar ones re- 
 sembling an almond. Upon the extremi- 
 ties of the branches were seven golden 
 lamps, which were fed with pure olive-oil, 
 and lighted every evening by the priests on 
 duty. Its seven branches are explained in 
 the Ineffable degrees as symbolizing the 
 seven planets. It is also used as a deco- 
 ration in Chapters of the Royal Arch, but 
 apparently without any positive symbolic 
 signification. 
 
 Golden Fleece. In the lecture of 
 the first degree, it is said of the Mason's 
 apron, that it is " more ancient than the 
 Golden Fleece or Roman Eagle, more hon- 
 orable than the Star and Garter." The refer- 
 ence is here evidently not to the Argo- 
 nautic expedition in search of the golden 
 fleece, nor to the deluge, of which that 
 
 event is supposed to have been a figure, 
 as Dr. Oliver incorrectly supposes, [Symb. 
 Diet.,) but to certain decorations of honor 
 with which the apron is compared. The 
 eagle was to the Romans the ensign of im- 
 perial power; the Order of the Golden 
 Fleece was of high repute as an Order of 
 Knighthood. It was established in Flan- 
 ders, in 1429, by the Duke of Burgundy, 
 who selected the fleece for its badge be- 
 cause wool was the staple production of the 
 country. It has ever been considered, says 
 Clark, one of the most illustrious Orders in 
 Europe. The Order of the Garter was, and 
 is still considered, the highest decoration 
 that can be bestowed upon a subject by a 
 sovereign of Great Britain. Thus, the apron 
 is proudly compared with the noblest decora- 
 tions of ancient Rome and of modern Eu- 
 rope. But the Masons may have been also 
 influenced in their, selection, of a reference 
 to the Golden Fleece, by the fact that in 
 the Middle Ages it was one of the most im- 
 portant symbols of the Hermetic philoso- 
 phers. 
 
 Golden Key, Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the Golden Key. 
 
 Golden Lance, Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the Golden Lance. 
 
 Golgotha. Greek, To?.yodd, from the 
 Hebrew, rhlhl, Gulgoleth, "a skull." 
 The name given by the Jews to Calvary, 
 the place of Christ's crucifixion and burial. 
 It is a significant word in Templar Mason- 
 ry. See Calvary. 
 
 Good Samaritan. An androgy- 
 nous, honorary or side degree conferred in 
 the United States with rather impressive 
 ceremonies. It is, of course, as a degree to 
 be conferred on females, unconnected with 
 Masonic history or traditions, but draws its 
 allusions from the fate of Lot's wife, and from 
 the parable of the Good Samaritan related 
 in the Gospels. The passages of Scripture 
 which refer to these events are read during 
 the ceremony of initiation. This degree is 
 to be conferred only on Royal Arch Masons 
 and their wives, and in conferring it two 
 Good Samaritans must always be present, 
 one of whom must be a Royal Arch Mason. 
 Much dignity and importance has been 
 given to this degree by its possessors; and 
 it is usual in many places for a certain 
 number of Good Samaritans to organize 
 themselves into regular, but of course inde- 
 pendent, bodies to hold monthly meetings 
 under the name of Assemblies, to elect 
 proper officers, and receive applications for 
 initiation. In this manner the assemblies 
 of Good Samaritans, consisting of male and 
 female members, bear a very near resem- 
 blance to the female Lodges, which, under 
 the name of "Maqonnerie d'Adoption," 
 prevail in France. 
 
GOOD 
 
 GOTHIC 
 
 317 
 
 Good Shepherd. Our Saviour called 
 himself the Good Shepherd. Thus, in 
 St. John's Gospel, (x. 14, 15, 16,) he says: 
 " I am the Good Shepherd, and know my 
 sheep, and am known of mine. As the 
 Father knoweth me, even so know I the 
 Father: and I lay down my life for the 
 sheep. And other sheep I have, which are 
 not of this fold : them also must I bring, 
 and they shall hear my voice ; and there 
 shall be one fold, and one Shepherd." 
 Hence, in Masonic as well as in Christian 
 symbolism, Christ is naturally called the 
 Good Shepherd. 
 
 Good Shepherd, Sign of the. 
 When Jesus was relating (Luke xv.) the 
 parable in which one having lost a sheep 
 goes into the wilderness to search for it, he 
 said : " And when he hath found it, he 
 layeth it on his shoulders, rejoicing." Mr. 
 Hettner, a German writer on Greek cus- 
 toms, says : " When the Greek carries 
 home his lamb, he slings it round his neck, 
 holding it by the feet crossed over the 
 breast. This is to be seen with us also, 
 but the sight is especially attractive at 
 Athens, for it was in this manner that the 
 ancients represented Hermes as the guar- 
 dian and multiplier of flocks ; so stood the 
 statue of Hermes at Olympia, Occhalia, 
 and Tanagra. Small marble statues of this 
 kind have even come down to us, one of 
 which is to be seen in the Pembroke col- 
 lection at Wilton House ; another, a smaller 
 one, in the Stoa of Hadrian, at Athens. 
 This representation, however, appears most 
 frequently in the oldest works of Christian 
 art, in which the laden Hermes is turned 
 into a laden Christ, who often called him- 
 self the Good Shepherd, and expressly says 
 in the Gospel of St. Luke, that when the 
 shepherd finds the sheep, he lays it joyfully 
 on his shoulder." 
 
 Now, although the idea of the Good 
 Shepherd may have been of Pagan origin, 
 yet derived from the parable of our Saviour 
 in St. Luke and his language in St. John, 
 it was early adopted by the Christians as a 
 religious emblem. The Good Shepherd 
 bearing the sheep upon his shoulders, the 
 two hands of the Shepherd crossed upon 
 his breast and holding the legs of the sheep, 
 is a very common subject in the paintings 
 of the earliest Christian era. It is an ex- 
 
 Eressive symbol of the Saviour's love — of 
 im who taught us to build the new temple 
 of eternal life — and, consequently, as 
 Didron says, "the heart and imagination 
 of Christians have dwelt fondly upon this 
 theme; it has been unceasingly repeated 
 under every possible aspect, and may be 
 almost said to have been worn threadbare 
 by Christian art. From the earliest ages, 
 Christianity completely made it her own." 
 
 And hence the Christian degree of Rose 
 Croix has very naturally appropriated the 
 " sign of the Good Shepherd," the repre- 
 sentation of Christ bearing his once lost 
 but now recovered sheep upon his shoul- 
 ders, as one of its most impressive symbols. 
 
 Goose and Gridiron. An alehouse 
 with this sign, in London House- Yard, at 
 the north end of St. Paul's. In 1717 the 
 Lodge of Antiquity met at the Goose and 
 Gridiron, and it was there that the first 
 quarterly communication of the Grand 
 Lodge of England, after the revival of 1717, 
 was held on the 24th of June, 1717. 
 
 Gormogons. A secret society estab- 
 lished in 1724, in England, in opposition 
 to Freemasonry. One of its rules was that 
 no Freemason could be admitted until he 
 was first degraded, and had then renounced 
 the Masonic Order. It was absurdly and 
 intentionally pretentious in its character; 
 claiming, in ridicule of Freemasonry, a great 
 antiquity, and pretending that it was de- 
 scended from an ancient society in China. 
 There was much antipathy between the 
 two associations, as will appear from the 
 following doggerel, published in 1729 by 
 Henry Carey : 
 
 " The Masons and the Gormogons 
 
 Are laughing at one another, 
 While all mankind are laughing at them ; 
 Then why do they make such a bother ? 
 
 " They bait their hook for simple gulls, 
 And truth with bam they smother ; 
 But when they 've taken in their culls, 
 Why then 'tis — Welcome, Brother ! " 
 
 The Gormogons made a great splutter in 
 their day, and published many squibs against 
 Freemasonry ; yet that is still living, while 
 the Gormogons were long ago extinguished. 
 They seemed to have flourished for but a 
 very few years. 
 
 Gothic Architectnre. Of all the 
 styles of architecture, the Gothic is that 
 which is most intimately connected with 
 the history of Freemasonry, having been 
 the system peculiarly practised by the 
 Freemasons of the Middle Ages. To what 
 country or people it owes its origin has 
 never been satisfactorily determined; al- 
 though it has generally been conjectured 
 that it was of Arabic or Saracenic extrac- 
 tion, and that it was introduced into Eu- 
 rope by persons returning from the Cru- 
 sades. The Christians who had been in 
 the Holy Wars received there an idea of 
 the Saracenic works, which they imitated 
 on their return to the West, and refined 
 on them as they proceeded in the building 
 of churches. The Italians, Germans, 
 French, and Flemings, with Greek refugees, 
 united in a fraternity of architects and 
 
318 
 
 GOTHIC 
 
 GRAND 
 
 ranged from country to country, and erected 
 buildings according to the Gothic style, 
 which they had learned during their 
 visits to the East, and whose fundamental 
 principles they improved by the addition 
 of other details derived from their own 
 architectural taste and judgment. Hence 
 Sir Christopher Wren thinks that this style 
 of the Mediaeval Freemasons should be 
 rather called the Saracenic than the Gothic. 
 This style, which was distinguished, by its 
 pointed arches, and especially by the per- 
 pendicularity of its lines, from the rounded 
 arch and horizontal lines of previous styles, 
 was altogether in the hands of those archi- 
 tects who were known, from the tenth to 
 the sixteenth centuries, as Freemasons, and 
 who kept their system of building as a 
 secret, and thus obtained an entire mo- 
 nopoly of both domestic and ecclesiastical 
 architecture. At length, when the gilds or 
 fraternities of Freemasons, " who alone," 
 says Mr. Hope, " held the secrets of Gothic 
 art," were dissolved, the style itself was 
 lost, and was succeeded by what Paley says 
 {Man. of Goth. Arch., p. 15,) was " a worse 
 than brazen era of architecture." For fur- 
 ther details, see Travelling Freemasons. 
 
 Gothic Constitutions. A title 
 sometimes given to the Constitutions which 
 are supposed to have been adopted by the 
 Freemasons at the city of York, in the 
 tenth century, and so called in allusion to 
 the Gothic architecture which was intro- 
 duced into England by the Fraternity. A 
 more correct and more usual designation of 
 these laws is the York Constitutions, which 
 see. 
 
 Gothic Mysteries. See Scandina- 
 vian Mysteries. 
 
 Gourgas, John James Joseph. 
 A merchant of New York, who was born 
 in France in 1777, and received a member 
 of the Scottish Rite in 1806. His name is 
 intimately connected with the rise and pro- 
 gress of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite in the Northern Jurisdiction of the 
 United States. Through his representa- 
 tions and his indefatigable exertions, the 
 Mother Council at Charleston was induced 
 to denounce the spurious Consistory of 
 Joseph Cerneau in the city of New York, 
 and to establish there a Supreme Council 
 for the Northern Jurisdiction, of which Bro. 
 Gourgas was elected the Secretary General. 
 He continued to hold this office until 1832, 
 when he was elected Sovereign Grand Com- 
 mander. In 1851, on the removal of the 
 Grand East of the Supreme Council to 
 Boston, he resigned his office in favor of 
 Brother Giles Fonda Yates, but continued 
 to take an active interest, so far as his age 
 would permit, in the Rite until his death, 
 which occurred at New York on February 
 
 14, 1865, at the ripe old age of eighty-eight, 
 and being at the time probably the oldest 
 possessor of the thirtieth degree in the world. 
 Brother Gourgas was distinguished for the 
 purity of his life and the powers of his in- 
 tellect. His Masonic library was very val- 
 uable, and especially rich in manuscripts. 
 His correspondence with Dr. Moses Hol- 
 brook, at one time Grand Commander of 
 the Southern Council, is in the Archives of 
 that body, and bears testimony to his large 
 Masonic attainments. 
 
 Grades. Degrees in Masonry are 
 sometimes so called. It is a French word. 
 See Degrees. 
 
 Grammar. One of the seven liberal 
 arts and sciences, which forms, with Logic 
 and Rhetoric, a triad dedicated to the cul- 
 tivation of language. " God," says Sanc- 
 tius, " created man the participant of rea- 
 son ; and as he willed him to be a social 
 being, he bestowed upon him the gift of 
 language, in the perfecting of which there 
 are three aids. The first is Grammar, 
 which rejects from language all solecisms 
 and barbarous expressions ; the second is 
 Logic, which is occupied with the truthful- 
 ness of language ; and the third is Rhetoric, 
 which seeks only the adornment of lan- 
 guage." 
 
 Grand Architect. A degree in 
 several of the Rites modelled upon the 
 twelfth of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. It is, 1. The sixth degree 
 of the Reform of St. Martin ; 2. The four- 
 teenth of the Rite of Elected Cohens ; 3. 
 The twenty-third of the Rite of Mizraim ; 
 and 4. The twenty-fourth of the Metropol- 
 itan Chapter of France. 
 
 Grand Architect of the Uni- 
 verse. The title applied in the technical 
 language of Freemasonry to the Deity. It 
 is appropriate that a society founded on 
 the principles of architecture, which sym- 
 bolizes the terms of that science to moral 
 purposes, and whose members profess to be 
 the architects of a spiritual temple, should 
 view the Divine Being, under whose holy 
 law they are constructing that edifice, as 
 their Master Builder or Grand Architect. 
 
 Grand Chapter. A Grand Chapter 
 consists of the High Priests, Kings, and 
 Scribes, for the time being, of the several 
 Chapters under its jurisdiction, of the Past 
 Grand and Deputy Grand High Priests, 
 Kings.and Scribes of thesaid Grand Chapter. 
 In some Grand Chapters Past High Priests 
 are admitted to membership, but in others 
 they are not granted this privilege, unless 
 they shall have served as Grand and Dep- 
 uty Grand High Priests, Kings, or Scribes. 
 Grand Chapters have the sole government 
 and superintendence of the several Royal 
 Arch Chapters and Lodges of Most Excel- 
 
GRAND 
 
 GRAND 
 
 319 
 
 lent Past and Mark Masters within their 
 several jurisdictions. 
 
 Until the year 1797, there was no organ- 
 ization of Grand Chapters in the United 
 States. Chapters were held under the au- 
 thority of a Master's Warrant, although the 
 consent of a neighboring Chapter was 
 generally deemed expedient. But in 1797, 
 delegates from several of the Chapters in 
 the Northern States assembled at Boston 
 for the purpose of deliberating on the ex- 
 pediency of organizing a Grand Chapter 
 for the government and regulation of the 
 several Chapters within the said States. 
 This convention prepared an address to the 
 Chapters in New York and New England, 
 disclaiming the power of any Grand Lodge 
 to exercise authority over Royal Arch 
 Masons, and declaring it expedient to es- 
 tablish a Grand Chapter. In consequence 
 of this address, delegates from most of the 
 States above mentioned met at Hartford 
 in January, 1798, and organized a Grand 
 Chapter, formed and adopted a Constitu- 
 tion, and elected and installed their officers. 
 This example was quickly followed by other 
 parts of the Union, and Grand Chapters 
 now exist in nearly all the States. 
 
 The officers of a Grand Chapter are usu- 
 ally the same as those of a Chapter, with 
 the distinguishing prefix of "Grand" to 
 the titles. The jewels are also the same, 
 but enclosed within a circle. In England 
 and Scotland the Grand Chapter bears the 
 title of Supreme Grand Chapter. 
 
 Grand Commander. The presid- 
 ing officer of a Grand Commandery of 
 Knights Templars. 
 
 Grand Commander of the East- 
 ern Star. (Grand Commandeur de 
 VEtoile d' Orient.) A degree in Pyron's 
 collection. 
 
 Grand Conclave. The title of the 
 presiding body of Templarism in England 
 is the "Grand Conclave of the Religious 
 and Military Order of Masonic Knights 
 Templars." 
 
 Grand Conservators. On July 1, 
 1814, the Grand Mastership of the Order in 
 France, then held by Prince CambacSres, 
 was, in consequence of the political troubles 
 attendant upon the restoration of the mon- 
 archy, declared vacant by the Grand Orient. 
 On August 12, the Grand Orient decreed 
 that the functions of Grand Master should 
 be provisionally discharged by a commis- 
 sion consisting of three Grand officers, to 
 be called Grand Conservators, and Mac- 
 donald, Duke of Tarentum, the Count de 
 Beurnonville, and Timbrune, Count de 
 Val6nce, were appointed to that office. 
 
 Grand Consistory. The governing 
 body over a State of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite; subject, however, to 
 
 the superior jurisdiction of the Supreme 
 Council of the Thirty-third. The members 
 of the Grand Consistory are required to be 
 in possession of the thirty-second degree. 
 
 Grand Council. The title given to 
 the first three officers of a Royal Arch 
 Chapter. Also the name of the superin- 
 tending body of Cryptic Masonry in any 
 jurisdiction. It is composed of the first 
 three officers of each Council in the juris- 
 diction. Its officers are: Most Puissant 
 Grand Master, Thrice Illustrious Deputy 
 Grand Master, Illustrious Grand Conductor 
 of the Works, Grand Treasurer, Grand Re- 
 corder, Grand Chaplain, Grand Marshal, 
 Grand Captain of the Guards, Grand Con- 
 ductor of the Council, and Grand Steward. 
 
 Grand East. The city in which the 
 Grand Lodge, or other governing Masonic 
 Body, is situated, and whence its official 
 documents emanate, is called the Grand 
 East. Thus, a document issued by the 
 Grand Lodge of Massachusetts would be 
 dated from the " Grand East of Boston," 
 or if from the Grand Lodge of Louisiana, 
 it would be the " Grand East of New Or- 
 leans." The place where a Grand Lodge 
 meets is therefore called a Grand East. 
 The word is in constant use on the conti- 
 nent of Europe and in America, but seldom 
 employed in England, Scotland, or Ireland. 
 
 Grand Encampment. See En- 
 campment, Grand. 
 
 Grand High Priest. The presid- 
 ing officer of a Grand Royal Arch Chapter 
 in the American system. The powers and 
 prerogatives of a Grand High Priest are 
 far more circumscribed than those of a 
 Grand Master. As the office has been con- 
 stitutionally created by the Grand Chapter, 
 and did not precede it as that of Grand 
 Masters did the Grand Lodges, he possesses 
 no inherent prerogatives, but those only 
 which are derived from and delegated to 
 him by the Constitution of the Grand Chap- 
 ter and regulations formed under it for the 
 government of Royal Arch Masonry. 
 
 Grand Inquiring Commander. 
 The sixty-sixth degree of the Rite of Miz- 
 raim. 
 
 Grand Inspector, Inquisitor 
 Commander. The thirty-first degree 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 It is not an historical degree, but simply a 
 judicial power of the higher degrees. The 
 place of meeting is called a Supreme Tri- 
 bunal. The decorations are white, and the 
 presiding officer is styled Most Perfect 
 President. The jewel of the degree is a 
 Teutonic cross of silver attached to white 
 watered ribbon. 
 
 Grand Lodge. A Grand Lodge is the 
 dogmatic and administrative authority of 
 Ancient Craft Masonry, or the three Sym- 
 
320 
 
 GRAND 
 
 GRAND 
 
 bolic degrees. It is defined in the old Charges 
 of 1725 as " consisting of and formed by the 
 Masters and Wardens of all the regular 
 Lodges upon record, with the Grand Master 
 at their head, and his Deputy on his left 
 hand, and the Grand Wardens in their pro- 
 per places." This definition refers to a very 
 modern organization, for of Grand Lodges 
 thus constituted we have no written evi- 
 dence previous to the year 1717, when Free- 
 masonry was revived in England. Previ- 
 ous to that time the administrative au- 
 thority of the Craft was exercised by a 
 General Assembly of the Masons of a ju- 
 risdiction which met annually. (See Assem- 
 bly.) The true history of Grand Lodges 
 commences, therefore, from what has been 
 called the era of the revival. 
 
 In 1717, there were only four Lodges 
 in existence in London, and no others in 
 the whole south of England. These four 
 Lodges determimed, if possible, to revive 
 the Institution from its depressed state, and 
 accordingly they met in February, 1717, at 
 the Apple-Tree Tavern, (whose name has 
 thus been rendered famous for all time;) and 
 after placing the oldest Master Mason, who 
 was the Master of a Lodge, in the chair, 
 they constituted themselves into a Grand 
 Lodge, and resolved, says Preston, " to re- 
 vive the quarterly communications of the 
 Fraternity." On the following St. John 
 the Baptist's day, the Grand Lodge wa3 
 duly organized, and Mr. Anthony Sayre 
 was elected Grand Master, who " appointed 
 his Wardens, and commanded the brethren 
 of the four old Lodges to meet him and 
 the Wardens quarterly in communication." 
 From that time Grand Lodges have been 
 uninterruptedly held ; receiving, however, 
 at different periods, various modifications. 
 
 A Grand Lodge is invested with power 
 and authority over all the Craft within its 
 jurisdiction. It is the Supreme Court of 
 Appeal in all Masonic cases, and to its 
 decrees implicit obedience must be paid 
 by every Lodge and every Mason situated 
 within its control. The government of 
 Grand Lodges is, therefore, completely des- 
 potic. While a Grand Lodge exists, its 
 edicts must be respected and obeyed with- 
 out examination by its subordinate Lodges. 
 
 This autocratic power of a Grand Lodge 
 is based upon a principle of expediency, and 
 derived from the fundamental law estab- 
 lished at the organization of Grand Lodges 
 in the beginning of the last century. In 
 so large a body as the Craft, it is absolutely 
 necessary that there should be a supreme 
 controlling body to protect the Institution 
 from anarchy, and none could be more con- 
 veniently selected than one which, by its 
 representative character, is, or ought to be, 
 composed of the united wisdom, prudence, 
 
 and experience of all the subordinate 
 Lodges under its obedience ; so that the 
 voice of the Grand Lodge is nothing else 
 than the voice of the Craft expressed by 
 their representatives. Hence the twelfth 
 of the General Regulations declares that 
 " the Grand Lodge consists of, and is formed 
 by, the Masters and Wardens of all the 
 regular particular Lodges upon record." 
 
 So careful has the Institution been to 
 preserve the dogmatic and autocratic power 
 of the Grand Lodge, that all elected Masters 
 are required, at the time of their installa- 
 tion, to make the following declaration : 
 
 "You agree to hold in veneration the 
 original rulers and patrons of the Order of 
 Freemasonry, and their regular successors, 
 supreme and subordinate, according to 
 their stations ; and to submit to the awards 
 and resolutions of your brethren in Grand 
 Lodge convened, in every case, consistent 
 with the Constitutions of the Order. 
 
 "You promise to pay homage to the 
 Grand Master for the time being, and to 
 his officers when duly installed, and strictly 
 to conform to every edict of the Grand 
 Lodge." 
 
 The organization of new Grand Lodges 
 in America has followed that adopted, in 
 essential particulars, by the four Lodges 
 which established the Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land in 1717. When it is desired to or- 
 ganize a Grand Lodge, three or more le- 
 gally-constituted Lodges, working in any 
 State, territory, or other independent po- 
 litical division, where no Grand Lodge al- 
 ready exists, may meet in convention, 
 adopt by-laws, elect officers, and organize 
 a Grand Lodge. The Lodges within its 
 jurisdiction then surrender their Warrants 
 of constitution to the Grand Lodges from 
 which they respectively had received them, 
 and accept others from the newly-organ- 
 ized Grand Lodge, which thenceforward 
 exercises all Masonic jurisdiction over the 
 State in which it has been organized. 
 
 A Grand Lodge thus organized consists 
 of the Masters and Wardens of all the 
 Lodges under its jurisdiction, and such 
 Past Masters as may enroll themselves or 
 be elected as members. Past Masters are 
 not, however, members of the Grand Lodge 
 by inherent right, but only by courtesy, 
 and no Past Master can remain a member 
 of the Grand Lodge unless he is attached 
 to some subordinate Lodge in its jurisdic- 
 tion. 
 
 All Grand Lodges are governed by the 
 following officers: Grand Master, Deputy 
 Grand Master, Senior and Junior Grand 
 Wardens, Grand Treasurer, and Grand 
 Secretary. These are usually termed the 
 Grand officers; in addition to them there 
 are subordinate officers appointed by the 
 
GRAND 
 
 GRAND 
 
 321 
 
 Grand Master and the Grand Warden3, 
 such as Grand Deacons, Grand Stewards, 
 Grand Marshal, Grand Pursuivant, Grand 
 Sword Bearer, and Grand Tiler ; but their 
 number and titles vary in different Grand 
 Lodges. 
 
 Grand Lodge Manuscript. A 
 roll of parchment, nine inches in length 
 and five in breadth, containing the Legend 
 of the Craft and the Old Charges. It is 
 
 E reserved in the archives of the Grand 
 rodge of England, but there is no record 
 of how it got there. Affixed to it is the 
 date A. D. 1132, which is evidently an error, 
 and was most probably intended for 1632, 
 perhaps 1532, for in the sixteenth century 
 manuscripts there is a very slight differ- 
 ence in the form of the 1 and the 5. This 
 manuscript was first noticed by Brother W. 
 J. Hughan, who transcribed it, and pub- 
 lished it in his Old Charges of British Free- 
 masons. 
 
 Grand Master. The presiding offi- 
 cer of the symbolic degrees in a jurisdic- 
 tion. He presides, of course, over the 
 Grand Lodge, and has the right not only 
 to be present, but also to preside in every 
 Lodge, with the Master of the Lodge on 
 his left hand, and to order his Grand War- 
 dens to attend him, and act as Wardens in 
 that particular Lodge. He has the right 
 of visiting the Lodges and inspecting their 
 books and mode of work as often as he 
 pleases, or, if unable to do so, he may de- 
 
 Eute his Grand officers to act for him. He 
 as the power of granting dispensations for 
 the formation of new Lodges ; which dis- 
 pensations are of force until revoked by 
 himself or the Grand Lodge. He may also 
 grant dispensations for several other pur- 
 poses, for which see the article Dispensa- 
 tion. Formerly, the Grand Master ap- 
 pointed his Grand officers, but this regula- 
 tion has been repealed, and the Grand offi- 
 cers are now all elected by the Grand 
 Lodges. 
 
 When the Grand Master visits a Lodge, 
 he must be received with the greatest re- 
 spect, and the Master of the Lodge should 
 always offer him the chair, which the 
 Grand Master may or may not accept at 
 his pleasure. 
 
 Should the Grand Master die, or be ab- 
 sent from the jurisdiction during his term 
 of office, the Deputy Grand Master assumes 
 his powers, or, if there be no Deputy, then 
 the Grand Wardens according to seniority. 
 
 Grand Master Architect. ( Grand 
 Maitre Architect.) The twelfth degree in the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Eite. This 
 is strictly a scientific degree, resembling in 
 that respect the degree of Fellow Craft. 
 In it the principles of architecture and the 
 connection of the liberal arts with Masonry 
 2Q 21 
 
 are unfolded. Its officers are three — a 
 Master, and two Wardens. The Chapter 
 is decorated with white and red hangings, 
 and furnished with the five orders of archi- 
 tecture, and a case of mathematical instru- 
 ments. The apron is white, lined with 
 blue; and the jewel is a gold medal, on 
 which are engraved the orders of architec- 
 ture. It is suspended by a stone-colored 
 ribbon. 
 
 Grand Master Mason. The title 
 given to the Grand Master in the Grand 
 Lodge of Scotland. 
 
 Grand Master of all Symbolic 
 Lodges. ( Venirable Maitre de toutes les 
 Loges. ) The twentieth degree in the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite. The presiding 
 officer is styled Venerable Grand Master, 
 and is assisted by two Wardens in the west. 
 The decorations of the Lodge are blue and 
 yellow. The old ritual contains some inter- 
 esting instructions respecting the first and 
 second Temple. 
 
 Among the traditions preserved by the 
 possessors of this degree, is one which 
 states that after the third Temple was de- 
 stroyed by Titus, the son of Vespasian, the 
 Christian Freemasons who were then in 
 the Holy Land, being filled with sorrow, 
 departed from home with the determina- 
 tion of building a fourth, and that, dividing 
 themselves into several bodies, they dis- 
 persed over the various parts of Europe. 
 The greater number went to Scotland, and 
 repaired to the town of Kilwinning, where 
 they established a Lodge and built an ab- 
 bey, and where the records of the Order 
 were deposited. This tradition, preserved 
 in the original rituals, is a very strong pre- 
 sumptive evidence that the degree owed its 
 existence to the Templar system of Ramsay. 
 
 Grand Master of Light. One of 
 the various names bestowed on the degree 
 of Knight of St. Andrew. 
 
 Grand Offerings. According to the 
 English system of lectures, three important 
 events recorded in Scripture are designated 
 as the three grand offerings of Masonry, 
 because they are said to have occurred on 
 Mount Moriah, which symbolically repre- 
 sents the ground-floor of the Lodge. These 
 three grand offerings are as follows: The 
 first grand offering was when Abraham 
 prepared to offer up his son Isaac ; the sec- 
 ond was when David built an altar to stay 
 the pestilence with which his people were 
 afflicted ; and the third was when Solomon 
 dedicated to Jehovah the Temple which he 
 had completed. See Ground-Floor of the 
 Lodge. 
 
 Grand Officers. The elective officers 
 of a superintending Masonic body, such as 
 Grand Lodge, Grand Chapter, etc., are so 
 called. The appointed officers are desig- 
 
322 
 
 GRAND 
 
 GRAND 
 
 nated as subordinate officers ; but this dis- 
 tinction is not always strictly observed. 
 
 Orand Orient. Most of the Grand 
 Lodges established by the Latin races, 
 such as those of France, Spain, Italy, and 
 the South American States, are called 
 Grand Orients. Tbe word is thus, in one 
 sense, synonymous with Grand Lodge ; but 
 these Grand Orients have often a more ex- 
 tensive obedience than Grand Lodges, fre- 
 quently exercising jurisdiction over the 
 highest degrees, from which English and 
 American Grand Lodges refrain. Thus, 
 the Grand Orient of France exercises juris- 
 diction not only over the seven degrees of 
 its own Rite, but also over the thirty-three 
 of the Ancient and Accepted, and over all 
 the other Rites which are practised in 
 France. 
 
 Grand Orient is also used in English, 
 and especially in American, Masonry to in- 
 dicate the seat of the Grand Lodge of 
 highest Masonic power, and is thus equiva- 
 lent to Grand East, which see. 
 
 Orand Pontiff. ( Grand Pontife ou 
 Sublime Ecossais.) The nineteenth degree 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 The degree is occupied in an examination 
 of the Apocalyptic mysteries of the New 
 Jerusalem. Its officers are a Thrice Puis- 
 sant and one Warden. The Thrice Puis- 
 sant is seated in tbe east on a throne 
 canopied with blue, and wears a white satin 
 robe. The Warden is in the west, and holds 
 a staff of gold. The members are clothed 
 in white, with blue fillets embroidered with 
 twelve stars of gold, and are called True 
 and Faithful Brothers. The decorations 
 of the Lodge are blue sprinkled with gold 
 stars. 
 
 Orand Principals. The first three 
 officers of the Grand Chapter of England 
 are so called. They are respectively desig- 
 nated as Z., H., and J., meaning Zerubba- 
 bel, Haggai, and Joshua. 
 
 Orand Prior. 1. Each chief or con- 
 ventual bailiff of the eight languages of 
 the Order of Malta was called a Grand 
 Prior. There were also other Grand Priors, 
 under whom were several Commanderies. 
 The Grand Priors of the Order were twenty- 
 six in number. 2. The third officer in the 
 Supreme Council of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite for the Southern Ju- 
 risdiction of the United States. See Prior. 
 
 Orand Secretary. The recording 
 and corresponding officer of a Grand Lodge, 
 whose signature must be attached to every 
 document issued from the Grand Lodge; 
 where there is no Grand Register or Keeper 
 of the Seals, he is the custodian of the Seal 
 of the Grand Lodge. The Regulations of 
 1722 had provided for the office, but no ap- 
 pointment was made until 1723, when Wil- 
 
 liam Cowper was chosen by the Grand 
 Lodge. The office was therefore at first an 
 elective one, but Anderson, in his edition 
 of 1738, says that "ever since, the new 
 Grand Master, upon his commencement, 
 appoints the Secretary, or continues him 
 by returning him the books." This usage 
 is still pursued by the modern Grand Lodge 
 of England ; but in every jurisdiction of 
 this country the office of Grand Secretary 
 is an elective one. The jewel of the Grand 
 Secretary is a circle enclosing two pens 
 crossed. His badge of office was formerly 
 a bag. See Bag. 
 
 Orand Stewards. Officers of a Grand 
 Lodge, whose duty it is to prepare and serve 
 at the Grand Feast. This duty was at first 
 performed by the Grand Wardens, but in 
 1720 they were authorized " to take some 
 Stewards to their assistance." This was 
 sometimes done and sometimes omitted, so 
 that often there were no Stewards. In 1732, 
 the Stewards, to the number of twelve, 
 were made permanent officers ; and it was 
 resolved that in future, at the annual elec- 
 tion, each Steward should nominate his 
 successor. At present, in the Grand Lodge 
 of England, eighteen Grand Stewards are 
 annually appointed from eighteen different 
 Lodges. Each Lodge recommends one of 
 its subscribing members, who is nominated 
 by the former Steward of that Lodge, and 
 the appointment is made by the Grand 
 Master. The number of Grand Stewards 
 in this country seldom exceeds two, and 
 the appointment is made in some Grand 
 Lodges by the Grand Master, and in others 
 by the Junior Grand Warden. The jewel 
 of a Grand Steward is a cornucopia within 
 a circle, and his badge of office a white rod. 
 
 Orand Stewards' Lodge. Ac- 
 cording to the Constitutions of England, 
 the past and present Grand Stewards con- 
 stitute a Lodge, which has no number, but 
 is registered in the Grand Lodge books at 
 the head of all other Lodges. It is repre- 
 sented in the Grand Lodge by its Master, 
 Wardens, and Past Masters, but has no 
 power of making Masons. The institution 
 has not been introduced into this country 
 except in the Grand Lodge of Maryland, 
 where the Grand Stewards' Lodge acts as a 
 Committee of Grievances during the recess 
 of the Grand Lodge. 
 
 Orand Tiler. An officer who per- 
 forms in a Grand Lodge the same duties 
 that a Tiler does in a subordinate Lodge. 
 The Grand Tiler is prohibited from being a 
 member of the Grand Lodge, because his 
 duties outside of the door would prevent 
 his taking part in the deliberations of the 
 body. 
 
 Orand Treasurer. The office of 
 Grand Treasurer was provided for by the 
 
GRAND 
 
 GRAVE 
 
 323 
 
 Regulations of 1722, and in 1724, on the 
 organization of the Committee of Charity, 
 it was enacted that a Treasurer should be 
 appointed. But it was not until 1727 that 
 the office appears to have been really filled 
 by the selection of Nathaniel Blakerly. 
 But as he was elected Deputy Grand Mas- 
 ter in the same year, and yet continued to 
 perform the duties of Treasurer, it does not 
 appear to have been considered as a dis- 
 tinct appointment. In 1738, he demitted 
 the office, when Revis, the Grand Secretary, 
 was appointed. But he declined on the 
 ground that the offices of Secretary and 
 Treasurer should not be held by the same 
 person, — "the one being a check on the 
 other." So that, in 1739, it was made a 
 permanent office of the Grand Lodge by 
 the appointment of Bro. John Jesse. It is 
 an elective office ; and it was provided, by 
 the Old Regulations, that he should be " a 
 brother of good worldly substance." The 
 duties are similar to those of the Treasurer 
 of a subordinate Lodge. The jewel is a 
 circle enclosing two keys crossed, or in 
 saltire. According to ancient custom, his 
 badge of office was a white staff", but this is 
 generally disused in this country. 
 
 Grand Wardens. The Senior and 
 Junior Grand Wardens are the third and 
 fourth officers of a Grand Lodge. Their 
 duties do not differ very materially from 
 those of the corresponding officers of a sub- 
 ordinate Lodge, but their powers are of 
 course more extensive. 
 
 The Grand Wardens succeed to the gov- 
 ernment of the Craft, in order of rank, 
 upon the death or absence from the juris- 
 diction of the Grand and Deputy Grand 
 Masters. See Succession to the Chair. 
 
 It is also their prerogative to accompany 
 the Grand Master in his visitations of the 
 Lodges, and when there to act as his War- 
 dens. 
 
 In the absence of the Senior Grand War- 
 den, the Junior does not occupy the west, 
 but retains his position in the south. 
 Having been elected and installed to pre- 
 side in the south, and to leave that station 
 only for the east, the temporary vacancy 
 in the west must be supplied by the ap- 
 pointment by the Grand Master of some 
 other brother. See Wardens. 
 
 On the same principle, the Senior Grand 
 Warden does not supply the place of the 
 absent Deputy Grand Master, but retains 
 his station in the west. 
 
 The old Charges of 1722 required that 
 no one could be a Grand Warden until he 
 had been the Master of a Lodge. The rule 
 still continues in force, either by specific 
 regulations or by the force of usage. 
 
 By the Regulations of 1721, the Grand 
 Master nominated the Grand Wardens, but 
 
 if his nomination was not approved, the 
 Grand Lodge proceeded to an election. By 
 the present Constitutions of England the 
 power of appointment is vested absolutely 
 in the Grand Master. In this country the 
 Grand Wardens are elected by the Grand 
 Lodge. 
 
 Grasse Tilly, Alexandre Fran- 
 cois Auguste Comte de. He was 
 we son of the Comte de Grasse who com- 
 manded the French fleet that had been sent 
 to the assistance of the Americans in their 
 revolutionary struggle. De Grasse Tilly 
 was born at Versailles, in France, about the 
 year 1766. He was initiated in the Mother 
 Scottish Lodge du Contrat Social, and sub- 
 sequently, going over to America, resided 
 for some time in the island of St. Domingo, 
 whence he removed to the city of Charleston, 
 in South Carolina, where, in 1796, he affili- 
 ated with the French Lodge la Candeur. 
 In 1799, he was one of the founders of the 
 Lodge la Reunion Franchise, of which he 
 was at one time the Venerable or Master. 
 In 1802, the Comte de Grasse was a mem- 
 ber of the Supreme Council of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Rite, which had been estab- 
 lished the year before at Charleston ; and in 
 the same year he received a patent as 
 Grand Commander for life of the French 
 West India islands. In 1802 he returned 
 to St. Domingo, and established a Supreme 
 Council of the Scottish Rite at Port au 
 Prince. In 1804 he went to Europe, and 
 labored with great energy for the extension 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Rite. On 
 September 22, 1804, he founded at Paris a 
 Supreme Council of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite, of which body he was, 
 until 1806, the Grand Commander. On 
 March 5, 1805, he organized a Supreme 
 Council at Milan, in Italy, and on July 4, 
 1811, another at Madrid, in Spain. The 
 Comte de Grasse was an officer in the 
 French army, and was taken prisoner by 
 the English and detained in England until 
 1815, when he returned to Paris. He im- 
 mediately resumed his functions as Grand 
 Commander of a body which took the un- 
 authorized pretentious title of the Supreme 
 Council of America. For several years 
 Scottish Masonry in France was convulsed 
 with dissensions, which De Grasse vainly 
 labored to reconcile. Finally, in 1818, he 
 resigned his post as Grand Commander, 
 and was succeeded by the Comte Decazes. 
 From that period he appears to have passed 
 quietly out of the Masonic history of France, 
 and probably died soon after. 
 
 Grave. The grave is, in the Master's 
 degree, the analogue of the pastos, couch 
 or coffin, in the Ancient Mysteries, and is 
 intended scenically to serve the same pur- 
 pose. The grave is, therefore, in that de- 
 
324 
 
 GREATER 
 
 GREGORIANS 
 
 gree, intended, in connection with the sprig 
 of acacia, to teach symbolically the great 
 Masonic doctrine of a future life. 
 
 Greater Lights. See Lights, Sym- 
 bolic. 
 
 Greece. In 1867, the first steps were 
 taken to establish a Grand Lodge in Greece 
 by the Lodges wbich bad been recently 
 founded there by the Grand Orient of Italy, 
 but owing to various causes the organiza- 
 tion did not succeed, and until 1872 the 
 Grecian Lodges were presided over by a 
 Deputy Grand Master, appointed by and 
 the representative of the Grand Orient of 
 Italy. 
 
 On July 22, 1872, the Lodges of Greece 
 met at Athens, and organized the Grand 
 Lodge of Greece, electing His Imperial 
 Highness Prince Bhodocanakis the first 
 Grand Master. The Order is now repre- 
 sented by seven Lodges, at Syra, Athens, 
 Piraeus, Chalkis, Corfu, Patras, Lamia, and 
 Argos. 
 
 At the same time a Supreme Council of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Kite 
 was organized. The seat of both bodies is 
 at Athens. 
 
 Greece, Mysteries in. The princi- 
 pal Pagan mysteries celebrated in Greece 
 were the Eleusinian and the Bacchic, both 
 of which see. 
 
 Green. Green, as a Masonic color, is 
 almost confined to the four degrees of Per- 
 fect Master, Knight of the East, Knight of 
 the Red Cross, and Prince of Mercy. In 
 the degree of Perfect Master it is a symbol 
 of the moral resurrection of the candidate, 
 teaching him that being dead to vice he 
 should hope to revive in virtue. 
 
 In the degree of Knight of the Red Cross, 
 this color is employed as a symbol of the 
 immutable nature of truth, which, like the 
 bay tree, will ever flourish in immortal 
 green. 
 
 This idea of the unchanging immortality 
 of that which is divine and true, was al- 
 ways connected by the ancients with the 
 color of green. Among the Egyptians, the 
 god Phtha, the active spirit, the creator and 
 regenerator of the world, the goddess ■ 
 Pascht, the divine preserver, and Thoth, the 
 instructor of men in the sacred doctrines of 
 truth, were all painted in the hieroglyphic 
 system with green flesh. 
 
 Portal says, in his essay on Symbolic 
 Colors, that " green was the symbol of vic- 
 tory ; " and this reminds us of the motto 
 of the Red Cross Knights, " magna est Veri- 
 tas et prevalebit," — great is truth and 
 mighty above all things; and hence green is 
 the symbolic color of that degree. 
 
 In the degree of Prince of Mercy, or the 
 twenty-sixth degree of the Scottish Rite, 
 green is also symbolic of truth, and is the 
 
 appropriate color of the degree, because 
 truth is there said to be the palladium of 
 the Order. 
 
 In the degree of Knight of the East, in 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 
 green is also the symbolic color. We may 
 very readily suppose, from the close con- 
 nection of this degree in its ritual with that 
 of the Red Cross Knight, that the same 
 symbolic explanation of the color would 
 apply to both, and I think that such an ex- 
 planation might very properly be made; 
 but it is generally supposed by its posses- 
 sors that the green of the Knights of the 
 East alludes to the waters of the river Eu- 
 phrates, and hence its symbolism is not 
 moral but historical. 
 
 The evergreen of the third degree is to 
 the Master Mason an emblem of immortal- 
 ity. Green was with the Druids a symbol 
 of hope, and the virtue of hope with a Ma- 
 son illustrates hope of immortality. In all 
 the Ancient Mysteries, this idea was carried 
 out, and green symbolized the birth of the 
 world, and the moral creation or resurrec- 
 tion of the initiate. If we apply this to the 
 evergreen of the Master Mason we shall 
 again find a resemblance, for the acacia is 
 emblematic of a new creation of the body, 
 and a moral and physical resurrection. 
 
 Greeting. This word means saluta- 
 tion, and, under the form of " Thrice Greet- 
 ing," it is very common at the head of Ma- 
 sonic documents. In the beginning of the 
 last century it was usual at the meeting of 
 Masons to say, " God's good greeting be to 
 this our happy meeting." Brown gives the 
 formula as practised in 1800 : " The recom- 
 mendation I bring is from the right worthy 
 and worshipful brothers and fellows of the 
 Holy Lodge of St. John, who greet your 
 worship well." This formula is obsolete, 
 but the word greeting is still in use among 
 Freemasons. In Masonic documents it is 
 sometimes found in the form of S.*. S.\ S.\, 
 which three letters are the initials of the 
 Latin word salutem or health, three times 
 repeated, and therefore equivalent to 
 " Thrice Greeting." 
 
 Gregorians. An association estab- 
 lished early in the eighteenth century in 
 ridicule of and in opposition to the Free- 
 masons. There was some feud between the 
 two Orders, but the Gregorians at last suc- 
 cumbed, and long ago became extinct. 
 They lasted, however, at least until the end 
 of the century, for there is extant a Sermon 
 preached before them in 1797. They must 
 too, by that time, have changed their char- 
 acter, for Prince William Frederick of 
 Gloucester was then their presiding officer ; 
 and Dr. Munkhouse, the author of that 
 sermon, who was a very ardent Mason, 
 speaks in high terms of the Order as an 
 
GREINEMANN 
 
 GUGOMOS 
 
 325 
 
 ally of Freemasonry, and distinguished for 
 its " benign tendency and salutary effects.'' 
 
 Greinemann, Ludwig. A Do- 
 minican monk, who, while preaching a 
 course of Lent sermons at Aix-la-Chapelle 
 in 1779, endeavored to prove that the Jews 
 who crucified Jesus were Freemasons; that 
 Pilate and Herod were Wardens in a Ma- 
 sonic Lodge; and that Judas, before he be- 
 trayed his Lord, had been initiated in the 
 synagogue, the thirty pieces of silver which 
 he returned being the amount of his fee for 
 initiation. With discourses like these, 
 Greinemann, who had threatened, if his 
 followers would assist him, he would slay 
 every Freemason he met with his own hand, 
 so excited the people, that the magistrates 
 were compelled to issue an edict forbidding 
 the assemblies of the Freemasons. Peter 
 Schuff, a Capuchin, also vied with Greine- 
 mann in the labor of persecution, and peace 
 was not restored until the neighboring free 
 imperial states threatened that, if the 
 monks did not refrain from stirring up the 
 mob against Freemasonry, they should be 
 prohibited from collecting alms in their 
 territories. 
 
 Grip. This word is peculiar to Masonic 
 language. It is not to be found in any 
 English dictionary except Webster's, where 
 it is marked as " obsolete or vulgar." The 
 correct equivalent English word is " gripe," 
 which is used also in one or two Masonic 
 works of the beginning of the last century ; 
 but grip was very soon adopted as the tech- 
 nical word of Masonry; and so uninter- 
 rupted has been its use, that at length, not- 
 withstanding the derogatory remark of 
 Webster, it has passed into the colloquial 
 language of the day to signify a grasp of 
 the hand. But in Masonry the meaning of 
 the word is somewhat different. German 
 Masons call it der griff, and French ones, 
 V attouchement. 
 
 Groton. In the Leland Manuscript, a 
 corruption of Crotona, where Pythagoras 
 established his school. 
 
 Ground-Floor of the Lodge. 
 Mount Moriah, on which the Temple of 
 Solomon was built, is symbolically called 
 the ground-floor of the Lodge, and hence it 
 is said that "the Lodge rests on holy 
 ground." This ground-floor of the Lodge 
 is remarkable for three great events re- 
 corded in Scripture, and which are called 
 " the three grand offerings of Masonry." It 
 was here that Abraham prepared, as a token 
 of his faith, to offer up his beloved son 
 Isaac — this was the first grand offering ; it 
 was here that David, when his people were 
 afflicted with a pestilence, built an altar, and 
 offered thereon peace-offerings and burnt-of- 
 ferings to appease the wrath of God — this 
 
 was the second grand offering ; and lastly, it 
 was here, that when the Temple was com- 
 pleted, King Solomon dedicated that mag- 
 nificent structure to the service of Jehovah, 
 with the offering of pious prayers and many 
 costly presents — and this was the third 
 grand offering. 
 
 This sacred spot was once the threshing- 
 floor of Oman the Jebusite, and from him 
 David purchased it for fifty shekels of 
 silver. The Kabbalists delight to invest it 
 with still more solemn associations, and de- 
 clare that it was the spot on which Adam 
 was born and Abel slain. See Holy Ground. 
 
 Ground-Floor of King Solo- 
 mon's Temple. This is said to have 
 been a Mosaic pavement, consisting of 
 black and white stones laid lozengewise, 
 and surrounded by a tesselated border. The 
 tradition of the Order is that Entered Ap- 
 prentices' Lodges were held on the ground- 
 floor of King Solomon's Temple; and hence 
 a Mosaic pavement, or a carpet representing 
 one, is a very common decoration of Ma- 
 sonic Lodges. See Mosaic Pavement, and 
 Grand Offerings. 
 
 Guard. See Due Guard. 
 
 G uard of the Conclave. See Knight 
 of the Christian Mark. 
 
 Guards. Officers used in working the 
 rituals of the Red Cross and Templar de- 
 grees. They do not constitute regular 
 officers of a Council or Commandery, but 
 are appointed pro re natd. 
 
 Guerrier de Dumast. A distin- 
 guished French Mason, born at Nancy on 
 February 26, 1796. He is the author of a 
 poem entitled La Maconnerie, in three can- 
 tos, enriched with historical, etymological, 
 and critical notes, published in 1820. For 
 this work he received from the Lodge 
 Freres Artistes, of which he was the orator, 
 a gold medal. He was the author of several 
 other works both Masonic and secular. 
 
 Gugomos, Baron Ton. An im- 
 postor in Masonry, who, in 1775, appeared 
 in Germany, and, being a member of the 
 Order of Strict Observance, claimed that 
 lie had been delegated by the Unknown 
 Superiors of the Holy See at Cyprus to 
 establish a new Order of Knights Templars. 
 Calling himself Dux and High Priest, he 
 convoked a Masonic Congress at Wies- 
 baden, which, notwithstanding the warning 
 of Dr. Bode, was attended by many influen- 
 tial members of the Fraternity. His pre- 
 tensions were so absurd, that at length his 
 imposture was detected, and he escaped 
 secretly out of Wiesbaden. In 1786, Gu- 
 gomos confessed the imposition, and, it is 
 said, asserted that he had been employed 
 as a tool by the Jesuits to perform this part, 
 that Freemasonry might be injured. 
 
326 
 
 GUIBBS 
 
 HAGGAI 
 
 Gnibbs. The names given to the As- 
 sassins of the third degree by some of the 
 inventors of the high degrees, are of so 
 singular a form as to have almost irresist- 
 ibly led to the conclusion that these names 
 were bestowed by the adherents of the 
 house of Stuarts upon some of their ene- 
 mies as marks of infamy. Such, for in- 
 stance, is Romvel, the name of one of the 
 Assassins in certain Scottish degrees, which 
 is probably a corruption of Cromwell. 
 Jubelum Gulbbs, another name of one of 
 these traitors, has much puzzled the Ma- 
 sonic etymologists. I think that I have 
 found its origin in the name of the Rev. 
 Adam Gib, who was an antiburgher clergy- 
 man of Edinburgh. When that city was 
 taken possession of by the young Pre- 
 tender, Charles Edward, in 1745, the clergy 
 generally fled. But Gib removed only three 
 miles from the city, where, collecting his 
 loyal congregation, he hurled anathemas 
 for five successive Sundays against the Pre- 
 tender, and boldly prayed for the downfall 
 of the rebellion. He subsequently joined 
 the loyal army, and at Falkirk took a rebel 
 prisoner. So active was Gib in his oppo- 
 sition to the cause of the house of Stuart, 
 and so obnoxious had he become, that sev- 
 eral attempts were made by the rebels to 
 take his life. On Charles Edward's return 
 to France, he erected in 1747 his " Primor- 
 dial Chapter" at Arras; and in the compo- 
 sition of the high degrees there practised, 
 it is very probable that he bestowed the 
 name of his old enemy Gib on the most 
 atrocious of the Assassins who figure in the 
 legend of third degree. The letter u was 
 doubtless inserted to prevent the French, 
 in pronouncing the name, from falling into 
 the soft sound of the G and calling the 
 word Jib. The additional b and s were the 
 natural and customary results of a French 
 attempt to spell a foreign proper name. 
 
 Guillemain de St. Tic tor, 
 Louis. A distinguished French writer, 
 who published several works on Freema- 
 sonry, the most valuable and best known 
 of which is his Recueil Precieux de la Ma- 
 connerie Adonhiramite, first issued at Paris 
 in 1782. This work, of which several edi- 
 tions were published, contains the cate- 
 chisms of the first four degrees of Adoni- 
 ramite Masonry, and an account of several 
 other degrees, and is enriched with many 
 learned notes. Ragon, who speaks high- 
 ly of the work, erroneously attributes its 
 authorship to the celebrated Baron de 
 Tschoudy. 
 
 Gustavus IT., King of Sweden. He 
 was initiated into Masonry, at Stockholm, 
 on the 10th of March, 1793. Ten years 
 after, on the 9th of March, 1803, Gustavus 
 issued an Ordonnance by which he re- 
 quired all the secret societies in his domin- 
 ions to make known to the stadtholders of 
 the cities where they resided, and in the 
 provinces to his governors, not only the 
 formula of the oath which they adminis- 
 tered to their members, but the duties 
 which they prescribed, and the object of 
 their association; and also to submit at any 
 time to a personal inspection by the officers 
 of government. But at the end of the Or- 
 donnance the King says : " The Freemasons, 
 who are under our immediate protection, 
 are alone excepted from this inspection, 
 and from this Ordonnance in general." 
 
 Guttural Point of Entrance. 
 From the Latin guttur, the throat. The 
 throat is that avenue of the body which is 
 most employed in the sins of intemperance, 
 and hence it suggests to the Mason certain 
 symbolic instructions in relation to the vir- 
 tue of temperance. See Perfect Points of 
 Entrance. 
 
 Gymnosophist. The eighth degree 
 of the Kabbalistic Rite. 
 
 H. 
 
 H.". A.'. B.*. An abbreviation of 
 Hiram Abif. 
 
 Hadeeses. An Arabic word, signify- 
 ing the traditions handed down by Moham- 
 med and preserved by the Mohammedan 
 doctors. They are said to amount to 5266 
 in number. Many of the traditions of Mo- 
 hammedan Masonry are said to be bor- 
 rowed from the Hadeeses, just as much of 
 the legendary lore of European Masonry is 
 to be found in the Jewish Talmud. 
 
 Ilagar. The old lectures taught the 
 
 doctrine, and hence it was the theory of 
 the Masons of the eighteenth century, that 
 the landmark which requires all candidates 
 for initiation to be free born is derived from 
 the fact that the promise which was given 
 to Isaac, the free-born son of Abraham and 
 Sarah, was denied to Ishmael, the slave- 
 born son of the Egyptian bondwoman Ha- 
 gar. This theory is entertained by Oliver 
 in all his writings, as a part of the old Ma- 
 sonic system. See Free Born. 
 
 Haggai. According to Jewish tradi- 
 
HAGUE 
 
 HALL 
 
 327 
 
 tion, Haggai was born in Babylon during tbe 
 captivity, and being a young man at the 
 time of the liberation by Cyrus, he came 
 to Jerusalem in company with Joshua and 
 Zerubbabel, to aid in the rebuilding of the 
 Temple. The work being suspended during 
 the reigns of the two immediate successors 
 of Cyrus, on the accession of Darius, Hag- 
 gai urged the renewal of the undertaking, 
 and for that purpose obtained the sanction 
 of the King. Animated by the courage 
 and patriotism of Haggai and Zechariah, 
 the people prosecuted the work with vigor, 
 and the second Temple was completed and 
 dedicated in the year 516 B. c. 
 
 In the Royal Arch system of America, 
 Haggai represents the scribe, or third offi- 
 cer of a Royal Arch Chapter. In the Eng- 
 lish system he represents the second offi- 
 cer, and is called the prophet. 
 
 Hague, The. A city of the Nether- 
 lands, formerly South Holland. Free- 
 masonry was introduced there in 1731 by 
 the Grand Lodge of England, when an 
 occasional Lodge was opened for the initia- 
 tion of Francis, Duke of Lorraine, after- 
 wards Emperor of Germany. Between 
 that year and 1735 an English and a Dutch 
 Lodge were regularly instituted, from which 
 other Lodges in Holland subsequently pro- 
 ceeded. In 1749, the Lodge at the Hague 
 assumed the name of " The Mother Lodge 
 of the Royal Union," whence resulted the 
 National Grand Lodge, which declared its 
 independence of the Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land in 1770. See Netherlands. 
 
 Hah. The Hebrew definite article j"|, 
 " the." It forms the second syllable of the 
 Substitute Word. 
 
 Hail or Hale. This word is used 
 among Masons with two very different sig- 
 nifications. 1. When addressed as an in- 
 quiry to a visiting brother, it has the same 
 import as that in which it is used under 
 like circumstances by mariners. Thus: 
 "Whence do you hail? " that is, "of what 
 Lodge are you a member?" Used in this 
 sense, it comes from the Saxon term of salu- 
 tation" h^el," and should be spelled "hail." 
 2. Its second use is confined to what 
 Masons understand by the "tie," and in 
 this sense it signifies to conceal, being de- 
 rived from the Saxon word " helan," to 
 hide, the e being pronounced in Anglo- 
 Saxon as a in the word fate. By the rules 
 of etymology, it should be spelled " hale." 
 The preservation of this Saxon word in the 
 Masonic dialect, while it has ceased to exist 
 in the vernacular, is a striking proof of the 
 antiquity of the Order and its ceremonies 
 in England. " In the western parts of 
 England," says Lord King, ( Crit. Hist. Ap. 
 Creed, p. 178,) " at this very day, to hele 
 over anything signifies, among the common 
 
 Eeople, to cover it ; and he that covereth an 
 ouse with tile or slate is called a helliar." 
 Hall Committee. A committee es- 
 tablished in all Lodges and Grand Lodges 
 which own the building in which they meet, 
 to which is entrusted the supervision of the 
 building. The Grand Lodge of England 
 first appointed its Hall Committee in 1772, 
 for the purpose of superintending the erec- 
 tion of the hall which had been projected. 
 
 Hall, Masonic. For a long time 
 after the revival of Masonry in 1717, Ma- 
 sonic Lodges continued to meet, as they 
 had done before that period, in taverns. 
 Thus, the Grand Lodge of England was 
 organized, and, to use the language of An- 
 derson, " the quarterly communications 
 were revived," by four Lodges, whose re- 
 spective places of meeting were the Goose 
 and Gridiron Ale-House, the Crown Ale- 
 House, the Apple-Tree Tavern, and the 
 Rummer and Grapes Tavern. For many 
 years the Grand Lodge held its quarterly 
 meetings sometimes at the Apple-Tree, but 
 principally at the Devil Tavern, and kept 
 the Grand Feast at the hall of one of the 
 Livery companies. The first Lodge in 
 Paris was organized at a tavern kept in the 
 Rue des Boucheries by one Hure, and the 
 Lodges subsequently organized in France 
 continued to meet, like those of England, 
 in public houses. The custom was long 
 followed in other countries of Europe. In 
 America the practice ceased only at a com- 
 paratively recent period, and it is possible 
 that in some obscure villages it has not yet 
 been abandoned. 
 
 At as early a period as the beginning of 
 the fourteenth century, the Gilds, or Livery 
 Companies, of London had their halls or 
 places of meeting, and in which they stored 
 their goods for sale. At first these were 
 mean buildings, but gradually they rose 
 into importance, and the Goldsmith's Hall, 
 erected in the fifteenth century, is said to 
 have been an edifice of large dimensions 
 and of imposing appearance. These halls, 
 probably, as they were very common in the 
 eighteenth century, were suggestive to the 
 Freemasons of similar edifices for their 
 own Fraternity; but undoubtedly the ne- 
 cessity, as the Association grew into im- 
 portance, of a more respectable, more con- 
 venient, and more secure locality than was 
 afforded by temporary resort to taverns and 
 ale-houses must have led to the erection of 
 isolated edifices for their own special use. 
 
 The first Masonic Hall of which we have 
 any account is the one that was erected by 
 the Lodge at Marseilles, in France, in the 
 year 1765. Smith describes it very fully 
 in his Use and Abuse of Freemasonry, and 
 calls it "a very magnificent hall." In 
 1772, the Grand Lodge of England made 
 
328 
 
 HALL 
 
 HALL 
 
 preliminary arrangements for the construc- 
 tion of a hall, a considerable sum having 
 been already subscribed for that purpose. 
 On the 1st of May, 1775, the foundation- 
 stone of the new edifice was laid in solemn 
 form, according to a ceremonial which was 
 then adopted, and which, with a few modi- 
 fications, continues to be used at the pres- 
 ent day on similar occasions. On the 
 corner-stone it was designated as Aula La- 
 tamorum, " The Freemason's Hall." It was 
 finished in less than twelve months, and 
 was dedicated, on the 23d of May, 177(5, to 
 Masonry, Virtue, and Universal Benevolence ; 
 a formula still adhered to without variation 
 in the English and American rituals. 
 
 In the same year, the Lodge at Newcas- 
 tle, stimulated by the enterprise of the 
 London Freemasons, erected a hall; an ex- 
 ample which was followed, two years after- 
 wards, by the Lodge of Sunderland. And 
 after this the erection of isolated halls for 
 Masonic purposes became common not only 
 in England, Scotland, and Ireland, but all 
 over the Continent, wherever the funds of 
 a Lodge would permit of the expenditure. 
 
 In America, Lodges continued to be held 
 in taverns up to a very recent period. It 
 is not now considered reputable; although, 
 as has been already remarked, the custom 
 is, perhaps, not entirely discontinued, espe- 
 cially in remote country villages. It is 
 impossible to tell at what precise period 
 and in what locality the first Masonic hall 
 was erected in this country. It is true that 
 in a Boston paper of 1773 we find (Moore's 
 Mag., xv. 162,) an advertisement summon- 
 ing the Masons to celebrate the festival of 
 St. John the Evangelist at "Freemason's 
 Hall ; " but, on examination, we learn that 
 this was no other than a room in the Green 
 Dragon Tavern. Other buildings, such as 
 the Exchange Coffee-House, only partially 
 used for Masonic purposes, were subse- 
 quently erected in Boston, and received by 
 courtesy, but not by right, the name of 
 "Masonic Halls;" but it was not until 
 1832 that the first independent hall was 
 built in that city, which received the name 
 of the Masonic Temple, a title which has 
 since been very usually conferred on the 
 halls in the larger cities. We may suppose 
 that it was about this time, when a resusci- 
 tation of Masonic energy, which had been 
 paralyzed by the anti-Masonic opposition, 
 had commenced to develop itself, that the 
 Lodges and Grand Lodges began to erect 
 halls for their peculiar use. At present 
 there is no dearth of these buildings, and 
 Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Wash- 
 ington, Cincinnati, and other large cities, 
 present edifices for Masonic use of imposing 
 grandeur and architectural beauty to the 
 eye of the spectators, while buildings of 
 
 less pretentious appearance, and yet credit- 
 able to the Institution of which they are 
 the abiding-places, are to be found scattered 
 all over the land. 
 
 In this country, as well as in Britain, the 
 construction of Masonic Halls is governed 
 by no specific rules, and is too often left to 
 the judgment and taste of the architect, and 
 hence, if that person be not an experienced 
 Freemason, the building is often erected 
 without due reference to the ritual require- 
 ments of the Order. But in these particulars, 
 says Oliver, the Masons of the Continent 
 are governed by a Ritual of Building, and 
 he quotes, as a specimen of the Helvetian 
 Ritual in reference to the laying of the 
 foundation-stone of a Masonic Hall, the 
 following directions : 
 
 "A Mason, assisted by two others, if 
 there be a dearth of workmen, or distress, 
 or war, or peril, or threats of danger, may 
 begin the work of building a Lodge ; but it 
 is better to have seven known and sworn 
 workmen. The Lodge is, as we know, due 
 east and west ; but its chief window or its 
 chief door must look to the east. On a day 
 allowed and a place appointed, the whole 
 company of builders set out after high noon 
 to lay the first stone." 
 
 Far more practical are the directions of 
 Dr. Oliver himself for the construction of a 
 Masonic Hall, given in his Book of the 
 Lodge, (ch. iii,) which is here condensed. 
 
 "A Masonic Hall should be isolated, and, 
 if possible, surrounded with lofty walls, so 
 as to be included in a court, and apart from 
 any other buildings, to preclude the possi- 
 bility of being overlooked by cowans or 
 eavesdroppers. As, however, such a situa- 
 tion in large towns can seldom be obtained, 
 the Lodge should be formed in an upper 
 story ; and if there be any contiguous build- 
 ings, the windows should be either in the 
 roof, or very high from the floor. These 
 windows ought to be all on one side — the 
 south, if practicable — and furnished with 
 proper ventilation, that the brethren be not 
 incommoded, when pursuing their accus- 
 tomed avocations, by the heat of the Lodge. 
 The room, to preserve a just proportion, 
 must, of course, be lofty. It should be fur- 
 nished with a pitched roof, open within, 
 and relieved with an ornamental framework 
 of oak, or painted so as to represent that 
 species of timber. It should be supported 
 on corbels running along the cornice, on 
 which should be engraven Masonic orna- 
 ments. The. dimensions of the room, in 
 length and breadth, will depend in a great 
 measure on the situation ol the Lodge, or 
 the space which is assigned for its position; 
 and this will often be extremely circum- 
 scribed in a large and populous place, 
 where building land is scarce and dear, 
 
HALL 
 
 HALL 
 
 329 
 
 or the fund inadequate to any extensive 
 operations. But in all cases a due propor- 
 tion should be observed in the several mem- 
 bers of the fabric wherever it is practicable, 
 that no unsightly appearance may offend 
 the eye, by disturbing that general harmony 
 of parts which constitutes the beauty and 
 excellence of every architectural produc- 
 tion. 
 
 "The principal entrance to the Lodge 
 room ought to face the east, because the east 
 is a place of light both physical and moral ; 
 and therefore the brethren have access to 
 the Lodge by that entrance, as a symbol of 
 mental illumination. The approaches to 
 the Lodge must be angular, for a straight 
 entrance is unmasonic and cannot be toler- 
 ated. The advance from the external 
 avenue to the east ought to consist of 
 three lines and two angles. The first line 
 passes through a small room or closet for 
 the accommodation of visitors. At the ex- 
 tremity of this apartment there ought to be 
 another angular passage leading to the 
 Tiler's room adjacent to the Lodge; and 
 from thence, by another right angle, you 
 are admitted into the presence of the 
 brethren with your face to the Light. 
 
 " In every convenient place the architect 
 should contrive secret cryptae or closets. 
 They are of indispensable utility ; but in 
 practice are not sufficiently attended to in 
 this country. On the Continent they are 
 numerous, and are dignified with the name 
 of chapels. Two of these apartments have 
 already been mentioned — a room for vis- 
 itors and the Tiler's room; added to which 
 there ought to be a vestry, where the orna- 
 ments, furniture, jewels, and other regalia 
 are deposited. This is called the treasury, 
 or Tiler's conclave, because these things are 
 under his especial charge, and a communi- 
 cation is usually made to this apartment 
 from the Tiler's room. There ought to be 
 also a chapel for preparations, hung with 
 black, and having only one small light, 
 placed high up, near the ceiling ; a chapel 
 for the dead furnished with a table, on 
 which are a lamp and emblems of mortal- 
 ity ; the Master's conclave, where the 
 records, the warrants, the minutes, and 
 every written document are kept. To this 
 room the Worshipful Master retires when 
 the Lodge is called from labor to re- 
 freshment, and at other times when his 
 presence in the Lodge is not essential ; and 
 here he examines the visitors, for which 
 purpose a communication is formed be- 
 tween his conclave and the visitor's chapel. 
 It is furnished with blue. And here he 
 transacts the Lodge business with his Sec- 
 retary. The Ark of the Covenant is also 
 deposited in this apartment. None of these 
 closets should exceed twelve feet square. 
 2R 
 
 and may be of smaller dimensions, accord- 
 ing to circumstances. In the middle of the 
 hall there should be a movable trap-door 
 in the floor, seven feet long and three or 
 four feet broad, opening into a small crypt, 
 about three feet in depth, the use of which 
 is known to none but perfect Masons, who 
 have passed through all the symbolical de- 
 grees. All of these particulars may not be 
 equally necessary to the construction of a 
 Masonic Hall ; but a close attendance to 
 their general spirit and direction, or to 
 similar regulations, should be impressed on 
 every Lodge that undertakes the construc- 
 tion of a building exclusively for Masonic 
 purposes ; and such a building only is en- 
 titled to be called a Masonic Hall." 
 
 The division in the American Rite of the 
 degrees among different bodies imposes the 
 necessity, or at least the convenience, when 
 erecting a Masonic Hall in this country, 
 of appropriating some of the rooms to the 
 uses of Ancient Craft Lodges, some to 
 Royal Arch Chapters, some to Royal and 
 Select Councils, and some to Commanderies 
 of Knights Templars. It is neither proper 
 nor convenient that a Chapter should be 
 held in a Lodge ; and it is equally expedi- 
 ent that the Asylum of a Commandery 
 should be kept separate from both. 
 
 All of these rooms should be oblong in 
 form, lofty in height, with an elevated 
 dais or platform in the east, and two doors 
 in the west, the one in the north-west 
 corner leading into the preparation room, 
 and the other communicating with the 
 Tiler's apartment. But in other respects 
 they differ. First, as to the color of the 
 decorations. In a Lodge room the pre- 
 dominating color should be blue, in a 
 Chapter red, and in a Council and Com- 
 mandery black. 
 
 In a Lodge room the dais should be ele- 
 vated on three steps, and provided with a 
 pedestal for the Master, while on each side 
 are seats for the Past Masters, and digni- 
 taries who may visit the Lodge. The ped- 
 estal of the Senior Warden in the west 
 should be elevated on two steps, and that 
 of the Junior Warden in the south on one. 
 
 A similar arrangement, either perma- 
 nent or temporary, should be provided in 
 the Chapter room for working the interme- 
 diate degrees ; but the eastern dais should 
 be supplied with three pedestals instead of 
 one, for the reception of the Grand Coun- 
 cil. The tabernacle also forms an essential 
 part of the Chapter room. This is some- 
 times erected in the centre of the room, al- 
 though the consistency of the symbolism 
 would require that the whole room, during 
 the working of the Royal Arch degree, 
 should be deemed a tabernacle, and then 
 the veils would, with propriety, extend 
 
330 
 
 HALL 
 
 HAND 
 
 from the ceiling to the floor, and from one 
 side of the room to the other. There are 
 some other arrangements required in the 
 construction of a Chapter room, of which 
 it is unnecessary to speak. 
 
 Councils of Royal and Select Masters are 
 usually held in Chapter rooms, with an en- 
 tire disregard of the historical teachings 
 of the degrees. In a properly-constructed 
 Council chamber, which, of course, would 
 be in a distinct apartment, there should be 
 no veils, but nine curtains of a stone color ; 
 and these, except the last, starting from one 
 side of the room, should stop short of the 
 other, so as to form a narrow passage be- 
 tween the wall and the extremities of the 
 curtains, reaching from the door to the 
 ninth curtain, which alone should reach 
 across the entire extent of the room. These 
 are used only in the Select degree, and can 
 be removed when the Royal Master is to 
 be conferred. Unlike a Lodge and Chapter, 
 in a Council there is no dais or raised plat- 
 form ; but three tables, of a triangular 
 form, are placed upon the level of the floor 
 in the east. It is, however, very seldom 
 that the funds of a Council will permit of 
 the indulgence in a separate room, and 
 those bodies are content to work, although 
 at a disadvantage, in a Chapter room. 
 
 It is impossible, with any convenience, 
 to work a Commandery in a Lodge, or even 
 a Chapter room. The officers and their 
 stations are so different, that what is suit- 
 able for one is unsuitable for the other. 
 The dais, which has but one station in a 
 Lodge and three in a Chapter, requires four 
 in a Commandery, the Prelate taking his 
 proper place on the right of the Generalis- 
 simo. But there are other more important 
 differences. The principal apartment should 
 be capable of a division by a curtain, 
 which should separate the Asylum proper 
 from the rest of the room, as the mystical 
 veil in the ancient Church shut off the 
 prospect of the altar, during the eucha- 
 ristic sacrifice, from the view of the catechu- 
 mens. There are several other rooms re- 
 quired in the Templar ritual which are not 
 used by a Lodge, a Chapter, or a Council, 
 and which makes it necessary that the 
 apartments of a Commandery should be 
 distinct. A banquet-room in close prox- 
 imity to the Asylum is essential ; and con- 
 venience requires that there should be an 
 armory for the deposit of the arms and 
 costume of the Knights. But it is unneces- 
 sary to speak of reflection rooms, and other 
 places well known to those who are familiar 
 with the ritual, and which cannot be dis- 
 pensed with. 
 
 In the construction of a Masonic Hall all 
 these things require to be considered, and 
 the more they are considered and the more 
 
 thoroughly carried out, the more appropri- 
 ate will the edifice be for the accomplish- 
 ment of the purpose for which it is erected, 
 namely, that of a due, convenient, and 
 decorous observance of the Masonic ritual. 
 
 Hamburg. By a deputation of the 
 Earl of Strathmore, granted in 1733 to 
 eleven German Masons, a Lodge was estab- 
 lished in Hamburg, (Preston, p. 202,) from 
 which we date the introduction of Free- 
 masonry into Germany. Of the proceed- 
 ings of this Lodge we have no further in- 
 formation. In 1740 Brother Luettman 
 brought from England a Warrant for the 
 establishment of a Lodge, and a patent for 
 himself, as Provincial Grand Master of 
 Hamburg and Lower Saxony, (Lenn.) In 
 October, 1741, it assumed the name of Ab- 
 salom, and in the same year the Provincial 
 Grand Lodge of Hamburg and Saxony was 
 opened, a body which, Findel says, (p. 239,) 
 was the oldest Mother Lodge in Germany. 
 About the year 1787 the Provincial Grand 
 Lodge adopted the newly-invented Rite of 
 Frederick L. Schroder, consisting of only 
 three degrees. In 1801 it declared itself an 
 independent Grand Lodge, and has so con- 
 tinued. The Grand Lodge of Hamburg 
 practises Schroder's Rite. See Schroder. 
 There is also in Hamburg a sort of Chapter, 
 which was formed by Schroder, under the 
 title of Geschichtliche Engbund, or Histo- 
 rical Select Union. It was intended as a 
 substitute for Fessler's Degrees of Knowl- 
 edge, the members of which employ their 
 time in studying the various systems of 
 Masonry. The Mutter-Bund of the Con- 
 federacy of Hamburg Lodges, which make 
 up this system, is independent of the Grand 
 Lodge. The two authorities are entirely 
 distinct, and bear much the same relation 
 to each other as the Grand Lodges and 
 Grand Chapters of the United States. 
 
 Hand. In Freemasonry, the hand as 
 a symbol holds a high place, because it is 
 the principal seat of the sense of feeling so 
 necessary to and so highly revered by Ma- 
 sons. The same symbol is found in the 
 most ancient religions, and some of their 
 analogies to Masonic symbolism are pe- 
 culiar. Thus, Horapollo says that among 
 the Egyptians the hand was the symbol of 
 a builder, or one fond of buildi ng, because all 
 labor proceeds from the hand. In many of 
 the Ancient Mysteries the hand, especially 
 the left, was deemed the symbol of equity. 
 In Christian art a hand is the indication 
 of a holy person or thing. In early Medi- 
 aeval art, the Supreme Being was always 
 represented by a hand extended from a 
 cloud, and generally in the act of benedic- 
 tion. The form of this act of benediction, 
 as adopted by the Roman Church, which 
 seems to have been borrowed from the sym- 
 
HAND 
 
 HARLEIAN 
 
 331 
 
 bols of the Phrygian and Eleusiniari priests 
 or hierophants, who used it in their mystical 
 processions, presents a singular analogy, 
 which will be interesting to Mark Mas- 
 ter Masons, who will recognize in it a sym- 
 bol of their own ritual. In the benediction 
 referred to, as given in the Latin 
 Church, the thumb, index, and 
 middle fingers are extended, and 
 the two others bent against the 
 palm. The church explains this 
 position of the extended thumb 
 and two fingers as representing 
 the Trinity ; but the older symbol of the 
 Pagan priests, which was precisely of the 
 same form, must have had a different mean- 
 ing. A writer in the British Magazine (vol. 
 i., p. 565,) thinks that the hand, which was 
 used in the Mithraic mysteries in this posi- 
 tion, was symbolic of theLight emanating not 
 from the sun, but from the Creator, directly 
 as a special manifestation; and he remarks 
 that chiromancy or divination by the hand 
 is an art founded upon the notion that the 
 human hand has some reference to the de- 
 crees of the supreme power peculiar to it 
 above all other parts of the microcosmus — 
 man. Certainly, to the Mason, the hand 
 is most important as the symbol of that 
 mystical intelligence by which one Mason 
 knows another " in the dark as well as in 
 the light." 
 
 Hand, Left. See Left Hand. 
 
 Hand, Right. See Right Hand. 
 
 Hand to Back. See Points of Fel- 
 lowship. 
 
 Hand to Hand. See Points of Fel- 
 lowship. 
 
 Hanover. Freemasonry was intro- 
 duced into Hanover, in the year 1744, by 
 the organization of the Lodge " Frederick ;" 
 which did not, however, get into active 
 operation, in consequence of the opposi- 
 tion of the priests, until two years after. 
 A Provincial Grand Lodge was established 
 in 1755, which in 1828 became an inde- 
 pendent Grand Lodge. In 1866, in conse- 
 quence of the war between Austria and 
 Prussia, Hanover was annexed to the latter 
 country. There being three Grand Lodges 
 at that time in Prussia, the King deemed it 
 inexpedient to add a fourth, and, by a cabi- 
 net order of February 17, 1867, the Grand 
 Lodge of Hanover was dissolved. Most of 
 the Hanoverian Lodges united with the 
 Grand Lodge Royal York at Berlin, and a 
 few with the Grand Lodge of the Three 
 Globes. 
 
 Ha rn in. Grand. The seventy-third 
 degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Hardie, James. A Mason of New 
 York, who published, in 1818, a work en- 
 titled The New Freemason's Monitor and 
 Masonic Guide. It evinces considerable 
 
 ability, is more valuable than the Monitors 
 
 of Webb and Cross, and deserved a greater 
 
 popularity than it seems to have received. 
 
 Harleian Manuscript. An old 
 
 record of the Constitutions of Freemasonry, 
 so called because it forms No. 2,054 of the 
 collection of manuscripts in the British Mu- 
 seum, which were originally collected by 
 Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, the celebrat- 
 ed prime minister of Queen Anne, and known 
 as the "Bibliotheca Harleian," or Harleian 
 Library. The MS. consists of four leaves, 
 containing six and a half pages of close 
 writing in a cramped hand, said to be that 
 of Randle Holmes, Chester Herald, who 
 died in 1659. The MS. was first published 
 by Bro. William James Hughan, in his 
 Unpublished Records of the Craft. The 
 Manuscript was carefully transcribed for 
 Bro. Hughan by a faithful copyist, and its 
 correctness was verified by Mr. Sims, of the 
 MS. department of the British Museum. 
 Bro. Hughan places the date of the record 
 in the middle of the seventeenth century, 
 and in this he is probably correct. 
 
 " The two following folios," says the Rev. 
 Mr. Woodford, "in the volume (viz., 33 and 
 34) are of a very important character, inas- 
 much as the secrets of Freemasonry are 
 referred to in the 'obligation' taken by 
 Initiates, and the sums are recorded which 
 ' William Wade give to be a Freemason,' 
 and others who were admitted members of 
 the Lodge. The amounts varied from five 
 shillings to a pound, the majority being 
 ten shillings and upwards. The fragment 
 on folio 33 is as follows, and was written 
 about the same time as the MS. Constitu- 
 tions : 
 
 " ' There is severall words & signes of a 
 free mason to be reveiled to y u w ch as y" will 
 answ r before God at the Great & terrible 
 day of Judgmt y" keep secret & not to re- 
 vaile the same in the heares of any person 
 or to any but to the M™ & fellows of the 
 said society of free masons so helpe me 
 God, etc' " 
 
 There is another MS. in the same collec- 
 tion marked No. 1492, the date of which 
 is conjectured to be about 1670. It was 
 copied by Bro. Henry Phillips, and first 
 published in the Freemason's Quarterly Re- 
 view in 1836, pp. 228-295. The copy, how- 
 ever, unfortunately, is not an exact one, as 
 Mr. E. A. Bond, of the Museum, who com- 
 pared a part of the transcript with the 
 original, says that " the copyist has over- 
 looked peculiarities in many instances." 
 It is important in containing the " Oath 
 of Secrecy," which is in the following 
 words : 
 
 " I, A. B. Doe, in the presence of Al- 
 mighty God, and my fellows and Brethren 
 here present, promise and declare that I 
 
332 
 
 HARMONY 
 
 HARODIM 
 
 will not at any time hereafter, by any Act, 
 or Circumstance whatsoever, directly or 
 indirectly publish, discover, reveall, or 
 make knowne any of the Secrets, privi- 
 ledges, or Counsels of the Fraternity or fel- 
 lowship of Freemasonry, which at this 
 time, or any time hereafter shall be made 
 known unto me ; soe helpe mee God and 
 the holy contents of this book." 
 
 Harmony. It is a duty especially in- 
 trusted to the Senior Warden of a Lodge, 
 who is figuratively supposed to preside over 
 the Craft during the hours of labor, so to 
 act that none shall depart from the Lodge 
 dissatisfied or discontented, that harmony 
 may be thus preserved, because, as the 
 ritual expresses it, harmony is the strength 
 and support of all well-regulated institu- 
 tions. 
 
 Harmony. Universal. See Mes- 
 meric Masonry. 
 
 Harnouester. More properly Ham- 
 wester. The Earl of Harnvvester was elect- 
 ed by the four Lodges of Paris, as the sec- 
 ond Grand Master of France, in 1732, suc- 
 ceeding the Earl of Derwentwater. He 
 left France in 1734, and having resigned 
 his office was succeeded by the Duke d' 
 Antin. I have sought in vain to find some 
 account of this nobleman in contemporary 
 history. Burke makes no allusion to him 
 in his Extinct Peerages, and I am inclined 
 to think that the word has undergone one 
 of those indecipherable mutations to which 
 French writers are accustomed to subject 
 all foreign names. 
 
 Harodim. We owe the Masonic 
 use of this word to Anderson, who first 
 employed it in the Book of Constitutions, 
 where he tells us that " there were employed 
 about the Temple no less than three thou- 
 sand and six hundred Princes or Master 
 Masons to conduct the work," and in a note 
 he says that " in 1 Kings v. 16 they are 
 called Harodim, Rulers or Provosts." The 
 passage here alluded to may be translated 
 somewhat more literally than in the author- 
 ized version, thus : " Besides from the chiefs 
 or princes appointed by Solomon who were 
 over the work, there were three thousand 
 and three hundred harodim over the people 
 who labored at the work." Harodim, in 
 Hebrew Q 1 1""in> is a grammatically com- 
 pounded word of the plural form, and is 
 composed of the definite article n, hah, 
 the or those, and a participle of the verb 
 HTI, radah, to rule over, and means, there- 
 fore, those who rule over, or overseers. In 
 the parallel passage of 2 Chronicles ii. 18, 
 the word used is Menatzchim, which has a 
 similar meaning. But from the use of this 
 word Harodim in 1 Kings, and the com- 
 mentary on it by Anderson, it has come to 
 pass that Harodim is now technically used 
 
 to signify "Princes in Masonry." They 
 were really overseers of the work, and hence 
 the Masonic use of the term is not al- 
 together inappropriate. Whoever inspects 
 the two parallel passages in 1 Kings v. 16 
 and 2 Chron. ii. 18, will notice an apparent 
 discrepancy. In the former it is said that 
 there were three thousand and three hun- 
 dred of these overseers, and in the latter 
 the number is increased to three thousand 
 and six hundred. The commentators have 
 noted but not explained the incongruity. 
 Lee, in his Temple of Solomon, attempts to 
 solve it by supposing that " possibly three 
 hundred at a second review might be added 
 to the number of officers for the greater 
 care of the business." This is not satisfac- 
 tory ; not more so is the explanation offer- 
 ed by myself, many years ago, in the Lexi- 
 con of Freemasonry. It is much more rea- 
 sonable to suspect a clerical error of some 
 old copyist which has been perpetuated. 
 There is room for such an inadvertence, for 
 there is no very great difference between 
 ll'bw, the Hebrew for three, and K'K', which 
 is six. The omission of the central letter 
 would create the mistake. Masonic writers 
 have adhered to the three thousand and 
 six hundred, which is the enumeration in 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Harodim, Grand Chapter of. 
 An institution under the title of the " Grand 
 Chapter of the Ancient and Venerable Or- 
 der of Harodim " was established in Lon- 
 don, in the year 1787, by the celebrated 
 Masonic lecturer, William Preston. He 
 thus defines, in his Illustrations, its nature 
 and objects : 
 
 " The mysteries of this Order are peculiar 
 to the institution itself; while the lectures 
 of the Chapter include every branch of the 
 Masonic system, and represent the art of 
 Masonry in a finished and complete form. 
 
 " Different classes are established, and 
 particular lectures restricted to each class. 
 The lectures are divided into sections, and 
 the sections into clauses. The sections are 
 annually assigned by the Chief Harod to a 
 certain number of skilful Companions in 
 each class, who are denominated Section- 
 ists ; and they are empowered to distribute 
 the clauses of their respective sections, with 
 the approbation of the Chief Harod and 
 General Director, among the private com- 
 panions of the Chapter, who are denomi- 
 nated Clauseholders. Such Companions 
 as by assiduity become possessed of all the 
 sections in the lecture are called Lecturers; 
 and out of these the General Director is 
 always chosen. 
 
 "Every Clauseholder, on his appointment, 
 is presented with a ticket, signed by the 
 Chief Harod, specifying the clause allotted 
 to him. This ticket entitles him to enjoy 
 
HARODIM 
 
 HAUTES 
 
 333 
 
 the rank and privileges of a Clauseholder 
 in the Chapter ; and no Clauseholder can 
 transfer his ticket to another Companion, 
 unless the consent of the Council has been 
 obtained for that purpose, and the General 
 Director has approved the Companion to 
 whom it is to be transferred as qualified to 
 hold it. In case of the death, sickness, or 
 non-residence in London of any Lecturer, 
 Sectionist, or Clauseholder, another Com- 
 panion is appointed to fill up the vacancy 
 for the time being, that the lectures may be 
 always complete; and during the session 
 a public lecture is usually delivered at 
 stated times. 
 
 "The Grand Chapter is governed by a 
 Grand Patron, two Vice Patrons, a chief 
 Ruler, and two Assistants, with a Council 
 of twelve respectable Companions, who are 
 chosen annually at the Chapter nearest to 
 the festival of St. John the Evangelist." 
 
 The whole system was admirably adapted 
 to the purposes of Masonic instruction, and 
 was intended for the propagation of the 
 Prestonian system of lectures. The body 
 no longer exists, but the Prestonian lectures 
 are still delivered in London at stated 
 times by the authority of the Grand Lodge. 
 
 Harodim, Prince of. In the old 
 lectures of the Ineffable degrees, it is said 
 that Tito, the oldest of the Provosts and 
 Judges, was the Prince of Harodim, that is, 
 chief of the three hundred architects who 
 were the Harodim, or additional three hun- 
 dred added to the thirty-three thousand 
 Menatzchim mentioned in Chronicles, and 
 who thus make up the number of three 
 thousand six hundred recorded in the first 
 Book of Kings, and who in the old lecture 
 of the degree of Provost and Judge are 
 supposed to have been the Harodim or 
 Rulers in Masonry. The statement is a 
 myth ; but it thus attempts to explain the 
 discrepancy alluded to in the article Haro- 
 dim. 
 
 Harpocrates. The Greek god of 
 silence and secrecy. He was, however, a 
 divinity of the Egyptian mythology; his 
 true name being, according to Bunsen and 
 Lepsius, Har-pi-chrati, that is, Horus the 
 child ; and he is supposed to have been the 
 son of Osiris and Isis. He is represented 
 as a nude figure, sitting sometimes on a 
 lotus flower, either bareheaded or covered 
 by an Egyptian mitre, but always with his 
 finger pressed upon his lips. Plutarch 
 thinks that this gesture was an indication 
 of his childlike and helpless nature; but the 
 Greeks, and after them the Romans, sup- 
 
 Eosed it to be a symbol of silence ; and 
 ence, while he is sometimes described as 
 the god of the renewed year, whence peach 
 blossoms were consecrated to him because 
 of their early appearance in spring, he is 
 
 more commonly represented as the god of 
 silence and secrecy. Thus, Ovid says of 
 him: 
 
 " Quique premit vocem digitoque silentia 
 suadet." 
 
 He who controls the voice and persuades to 
 silence with his finger. 
 
 In this capacity, his statue was often 
 placed at the entrance of temples and places 
 where the mysteries were celebrated, as an 
 indication of the silence and secrecy that 
 should there be observed. Hence the finger 
 on the lips is a symbol of secrecy, and has 
 so been adopted in Masonic symbolism. 
 
 Harris, Thaddeus llason. The 
 Rev. Thaddeus Mason Harris, D.D., an 
 American Masonic writer of some reputa- 
 tion, was born in Charlestown, Mass., July 7, 
 1767, and graduated at Harvard University 
 in 1787. He was ordained as minister of a 
 church in Dorchester in 1793, and died at 
 Boston, April 3, 1842. He held at different 
 times the offices of Deputy Grand Master, 
 Grand Chaplain, and Corresponding Grand 
 Secretary of the Grand Lodge of Massa- 
 chusetts. " His first great Masonic work," 
 says Hun toon, [Eulogy,) " was the editing of 
 a collation, revision, and publication of the 
 ' Constitutions of the Ancient and Honor- 
 able Fraternity of Free and Accepted Ma- 
 sons,' a quarto volume, printed at Wor- 
 cester, Mass., 1792 ; a work which he ac- 
 complished with the accustomed diligence 
 and fidelity with which he performed every 
 enterprise confided to his care. His vari- 
 ous occasional addresses while Grand 
 Chaplain of the Grand Lodge, Masonic 
 defences, and his volume of Masonic Dis- 
 courses, published in 1801 , constitute a large 
 and valuable portion of the Masonic classic 
 literature of America." 
 
 I nasi dim. Sovereign Prince. 
 The seventy-fifth and seventy-sixth degrees 
 of the Rite of Mizraim. It should be 
 Chasidim, which see. 
 
 Hat. To uncover the head in the pres- 
 ence of superiors has been, among all 
 Christian nations, held as a mark of respect 
 and reverence. The Eastern nations un- 
 cover the feet when they enter a place of 
 worship; the Western uncover the head. 
 The converse of this is also true ; and to 
 keep the head covered while all around are 
 uncovered is a token of superiority of rank 
 or office. The king remains covered, the 
 courtiers standing around him take off their 
 hats. 
 
 Haupt-Hutte. Among the German 
 Stone - masons of the Middle Ages, the 
 original Lodge at Strasburg was considered 
 as the head of the Craft, under the title of 
 the Haupt-Hutte, or Grand Lodge. 
 
 Haute* Grades. French. High 
 Degrees, which see. 
 
334 
 
 HEAL 
 
 HELMET 
 
 Ileal. A technical Masonic term 
 which signifies to make valid or legal. 
 Hence one who has received a degree in an 
 irregular manner or from incompetent au- 
 thority is not recognized until he has been 
 healed. The precise mode of healing de- 
 pends on circumstances. If the Lodge 
 which conferred the degree was clandestine, 
 the whole ceremony of initiation would 
 have to be repeated. If the authority which 
 conferred the degree was only irregular, 
 and the question was merely a technical one 
 of legal competence, it has been supposed 
 that it was only necessary to exact an obli- 
 gation of allegiance, or in other words to 
 renew the covenant. 
 
 Hearing. One of the five senses, and 
 an important symbol in Masonry, because 
 it is through it that we receive instruction 
 when ignorant, admonition when in dan- 
 ger, reproof when in error, and the claim 
 of a brother who is in distress. Without 
 this sense, the Mason would be crippled in 
 the performance of all his duties ; and hence 
 deafness is deemed a disqualification for ini- 
 tiation. 
 
 Heart. Notwithstanding that all the 
 modern American Masonic Manuals and 
 Master's Carpets from the time of Jeremy 
 L. Cross exhibit the picture of a heart 
 among the emblems of the third degree, 
 there is no such symbol in the ritual. But 
 the theory that every man who becomes a 
 Mason must first be prepared in his heart 
 was advanced among the earliest lectures 
 of the last century, and demonstrates, as 
 Krause properly remarks, in Speculative 
 Masonry, an internal principle which ad- 
 dresses itself not simply to the outward 
 conduct, but to the inner spirit and con- 
 science of all men who seek its instruc- 
 tions. 
 
 Heart of Hiram Abif. There is a 
 legend in some of the high degrees and in 
 continental Masonry, that the heart of 
 Hiram Abif was deposited in an urn and 
 
 E laced upon a monument near the holy of 
 olies ; and in some of the tracing boards it 
 is represented as a symbol. The myth, for 
 such it is, was probably derived from the 
 very common custom in the Middle Ages 
 of persons causing their bodies to be dis- 
 membered after death for the purpose of 
 having parts of them buried in a church, or 
 some place which had been dear to them in 
 life. Thus Hardynge, in his Metrical Chron- 
 icle of England, tells us of Richard I. that 
 
 " He queathed his corpse then to be buried 
 At Fount Everard, there at his father's feete ; 
 
 ■z- ■» * • * # * * 
 His herte invyncyble to Rome he sent full 
 
 mete 
 For their great truth and stedfast great con- 
 stance." 
 
 The Mediaeval idea has descended to mod- 
 ern times ; for our present lectures say that 
 the ashes of Hiram were deposited in an urn. 
 
 Hecart, Gabriel Antoiiie Jo- 
 seph. A French Masonic writer, who was 
 born at Valenciennes in 1755, and died in 
 1838. He made a curious collection of 
 degrees, and invented a system of five, 
 namely : 1. Knight of the Prussian Eagle ; 
 2. Knight of the Comet ; 3. The Scottish 
 Purifier ; 4. Victorious Knight ; 5. Scottish 
 Trinitarian, or Grand Master Commander 
 of the Temple. This cannot be called a 
 Rite, because it was never accepted and 
 practised by any Masonic authority. It is 
 known in nomenclatures as Hecart's system. 
 He was the author of many dissertations 
 and didactic essays on Masonic subjects. 
 He at one time proposed to publish his 
 collection of degrees with a full explanation 
 of each, but did not carry his design into 
 execution. Many of them are cited in this 
 work. 
 
 Height of the L.odge. From the 
 earth to the highest heavens. A symbolic 
 expression. See Form of the Lodge. 
 
 Heldmann, Dr. Friedrich. He 
 was a professor of political science in the 
 Academy of Bern, in Switzerland, and was 
 born at Margetshochheim, in Franconia, 
 November 24, 1770. He was one of the 
 most profound of the German investigators 
 into the history and philosophy of Masonry. 
 He was initiated into the Order at Frei- 
 burg, in 1809, and, devoting himself to the 
 study of the works of Fessler and other 
 eminent scholars, he resolved to establish a 
 system founded on a collation of all the 
 rituals, and which should be more in ac- 
 cordance with the true design of the Insti- 
 tution. For this purpose, in 1816, he or- 
 ganized the Lodge zur Brudertreue at 
 Aarau, in Switzerland, where he then re- 
 sided as a professor. For this Lodge he 
 prepared a Manual, which he proposed to 
 publish. But the Helvetian Directory de- 
 manded that the manuscript should be 
 given to that body for inspection and cor- 
 rection, which the Lodge, unwilling to sub- 
 mit to such a censorship, refused to do. 
 Heldmann, being reluctant to involve the 
 Lodge in a controversy with its superiors, 
 withdrew from it. He subsequently pub- 
 lished a valuable work entitled Die drei dies- 
 ten geschichtlichen Denkmale der deutschen 
 Freimaurerbruderschaft ; i. e., The three 
 oldest Memorials of the German Masonic 
 Brotherhood, which appeared at Aarau in 
 1819. In this work, which is chiefly founded 
 on the learned researches of Krause, theCon- 
 stitutions of the Stone-masons of Strasburg 
 were published for the first time. 
 
 Helmet. A defensive weapon where- 
 with the head and neck are covered. In 
 
HELMETS 
 
 HEREDOM 
 
 335 
 
 heraldry, it is a mark of chivalry and no- 
 bility. It was, of course, a part of the ar- 
 mor of a knight, and therefore, whatever 
 may be the head covering adopted by mod- 
 ern Knights Templars, it is in the ritual 
 called a helmet. 
 
 Helmets, To Deposit. In Tem- 
 plar ritualism, to lay aside the covering of 
 the head. 
 
 Helmets, To Recover. In Tem- 
 plar ritualism, to resume the covering of 
 the head. 
 
 Help. See Aid and Assistance. 
 
 Hemming, Samuel, I>. I>. Pre- 
 vious to the union of the two Grand Lodges 
 of England in 1813, the Prestonian system 
 of lectures was practised by the Grand 
 Lodge of Modern Masons, while the Athol 
 Masons recognized higher degrees, and va- 
 ried somewhat in their ritual of the lower. 
 When the union was consummated, and 
 the United Grand Lodge of England was 
 organized, a compromise was effected, and 
 Dr. Hemming, who was the Senior Grand 
 Warden, and had been distinguished for 
 his skill as the Master of a Lodge and his 
 acquaintance with the ritual, was appointed 
 to frame a new system of lectures. The Pres- 
 tonian system was abandoned, and the Hem- 
 ming lectures adopted in its place, not with- 
 out the regret of many distinguished Masons, 
 among whom was Dr. Oliver. The Hem- 
 ming lectures are now the authorized sys- 
 tem of the Grand Lodge of England. Some 
 of the country Lodges, however, still ad- 
 here to the system of Preston, and the Pres- 
 tonian lectures are annually delivered in 
 London. Among the innovations of Dr. 
 Hemming, which are to be regretted, are 
 the abolition of the dedication to the two 
 Saints John, and the substitution for it of a 
 dedication to Solomon. Some other changes 
 that were made were certainly no improve- 
 ments. 
 
 .Henrietta Maria. The widow of 
 Charles I., of England. It is asserted, by 
 those who support the theory that the Mas- 
 ter's degree was invented by the adherents 
 of the exiled house of Stuart, and that its 
 legend refers to the death of Charles I. and 
 the restoration of his son, that in the tech- 
 nical Masonic expression of the " widow's 
 son," the allusion is to the widow of the 
 decapitated monarch. Those who look 
 farther for the foundation of the legend 
 give, of course, no credence to a statement 
 whose plausibility depends only on a coin- 
 cidence. 
 
 Henry VI. King of England from 
 1422 to 1461. This monarch is closely con- 
 nected with the history of Masonry because, 
 in the beginning of his reign and during his 
 minority, the celebrated "Statute of La- 
 borers," which prohibited the congregations 
 
 of the Masons, was passed by an intolerant 
 Parliament, and because of the questions 
 said to have been proposed to the Masons 
 by the king, and their answers, which are 
 contained in what is called the " Leland 
 Manuscript," a document which, if authen- 
 tic, is highly important ; but of whose au- 
 thenticity there are as many oppugners as 
 there are defenders. 
 
 Heredom. In what are called the 
 " high degrees " of the continental Kites, 
 there is nothing more puzzling than the 
 etymology of this word. We have the 
 Royal Order of Heredom, given as the ne 
 plus ultra of Masonry in Scotland, and in 
 almost all the Rites the Rose Croix of Here- 
 dom, but the true meaning of the word is 
 apparently unknown. Ragon, in his Ortho- 
 doxie Maconnique, (p. 91,) asserts that it 
 has a political signification, and that it was 
 invented between the years 1740 and 1745, 
 by the adherents of Charles Edward the 
 Pretender, at the Court of St. Germain, 
 which was the residence, during that period, 
 of the unfortunate prince, and that in their 
 letters to England, dated from Heredom, they 
 mean to denote St. Germain. He supposes 
 it to be derived from the Mediaeval Latin 
 word " hoeredum," signifying " a heritage," 
 and that it alludes to the Castle of St. 
 Germain, the only heritage left to the de- 
 throned sovereign. But as Ragon's favor- 
 ite notion was that the hautes grades were 
 originally instituted for the purpose of aid- 
 ing the house of Stuart in its restoration to 
 the throne, a theory not now generally ac- 
 cepted, at least without modification, this 
 etymology must be taken with some grains 
 of allowance. The suggestion is, however, 
 an ingenious one. 
 
 In some of the old manuscripts the word 
 Heroden is found as the name of a mountain 
 in Scotland; and we sometimes find in the 
 French Cahiers the title of " Rose Croix de 
 Heroden." There is not a very great dif- 
 ference in the French pronunciation of 
 Heredom and Heroden, and one might be a 
 corruption of the other. I was once in- 
 clined to this theory ; but even if it were the 
 correct one we should gain nothing, for the 
 same difficulty would recur in tracing the 
 root and meaning of Heroden. 
 
 The most plausible derivation is one given 
 in 1858, by a writer in the London Free- 
 mason's Magazine. He thinks it should be 
 spelled " Heredom," and traces it to the two 
 Greek words, ispbq, hieros, holy, and 66/iog, 
 domos, house. It would thus refer to Ma- 
 sonry as symbolically the Holy House or 
 Temple. In this way the title of Rose 
 Croix of Heredom would signify the Rosy 
 Cross of the Holy House of Masonry. This 
 derivation is now very generally recognized 
 as the true one. 
 
336 
 
 HERMAIMES 
 
 HEROIXE 
 
 Hermaimes. A corruption of Her- 
 mes, found in some of the old Constitutions. 
 
 Hermaphrodite. The merest igno- 
 rance has, in a few instances, permitted the 
 introduction of this word into the ritual 
 as one of the classes which the Masons 
 promise not to initiate. The word is not 
 mentioned in the old Constitutions nor in 
 any of the rituals; but if such monsters did 
 actually exist, which naturalists deny, their 
 exclusion would be founded on the general 
 law which prohibits the initiation of those 
 who have any physical defect or maim. 
 
 Hermes. In all the old manuscript 
 records which contain the Legend of the 
 Craft, mention is made of Hermes as one 
 of the founders of Masonry. Thus, in the 
 " Grand Lodge MS.," whose date is 1632, it 
 is said — and the statement is substantially 
 and almost verbally the same in alh, the 
 others — that "The great Hermarines that 
 was Cubys sonne, the which Cubye was 
 Semmes sonne, that was Noes sonne. This 
 same Hermarines was afterwards called 
 Hermes the father of Wisdome ; he found 
 one of the two pillars of stone, and found 
 the science written thereon, and he taught 
 it to other men." 
 
 There are two persons of the name of 
 Hermes mentioned in sacred history. The 
 first is the divine Hermes, called by the 
 Romans Mercury. Among the Egyptians 
 he was known as Thoth. Diodorus Siculus 
 describes him as the secretary of Osiris ; he 
 is commonly supposed to have been the son 
 of Mizraim, and Cumberland says that he 
 was the same as Osiris. There is, however, 
 much confusion among the mythologists 
 concerning his attributes. 
 
 The second was Hermes Trismegistus or 
 the Thrice Great, who was a celebrated 
 Egyptian legislator, priest, and philosopher, 
 who lived in the reign of Ninus, about the 
 year of the world 2670. He is said to have 
 written thirty-sixbooks on theology and phi- 
 losophy, and six upon medicine, all which are 
 lost. There are many traditions of him ; one 
 of which, related by Eusebius, is that he in- 
 troduced hieroglyphics into Egypt. This 
 Hermes Trismegistus, although the reality 
 of his existence is doubtful, was claimed by 
 the alchemists as the founder of their art, 
 whence it is called the Hermetic science, 
 and whence we get in Masonry, Hermetic 
 Eites and Hermetic degrees. It is to him 
 that the Legend of the Craft refers ; and, in- 
 deed, the York Constitutions, which are of 
 importance, though not probably of the 
 date of 926, assigned to them by Krause, 
 give him that title, and say that he brought 
 the custom of making himself understood 
 by signs with him to Egypt. In the first 
 ages of the Christian church, this mythical 
 Egyptian philosopher was in fact con- 
 
 sidered as the inventor of everything known 
 to the human intellect. It was fabled that 
 Pythagoras and Plato had derived their 
 knowledge from him, and that he had re- 
 corded his inventions on pillars. The 
 Operative Masons, who wrote the old Con- 
 stitutions, obtained their acquaintance with 
 him from the Polycronycon of the monk 
 Ranulf Higdeu, which was translated from 
 the Latin by Trevisa, and printed by Wil- 
 liam Caxton in 1482. It is repeatedly 
 quoted in the Cooke MS., whose probable 
 date is the latter part of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, and was undoubtedly familiar to the 
 writers of the other Constitutions. 
 
 Hermetic Art. The art or science 
 of Alchemy, so termed from Hermes Tris- 
 megistus, who was looked up to by the 
 alchemists as the founder of their art. The 
 Hermetic philosophers say that all the 
 sages of antiquity, such as Plato, Socrates, 
 Aristotle, and Pythagoras, were initiated 
 into the secrets of their science ; and that 
 the hieroglyphics of Egypt and all the fables 
 of mythology were invented to teach the dog- 
 mas of Hermetic philosophy. See Alchemy. 
 
 Hermetic Bite. A Rite established 
 by Pernetty at Avignon, in France, and 
 more commonly called the Illuminati of 
 Avignon. See Avignon. 
 
 Herodem. See Heredom. 
 
 Herodem, Royal Order of. See 
 Royal Order of Scotland. 
 
 Heroden. "Heroden," says a MS. 
 of the Ancient Scottish Rite in my posses- 
 sion, " is a mountain situated in the north- 
 west of Scotland, where the first or metro- 
 politan Lodge of Europe was held." The 
 word is not now used by Masonic writers, 
 and was, undoubtedly, a corruption of 
 Heredom. 
 
 Heroine of Jericho. An androgy- 
 nous degree conferred, in America, on Royal 
 Arch Masons, their wives, and daughters. 
 It is intended to instruct its female recipi- 
 ents in the claims which they have upon 
 the protection of their husbands' and fathers' 
 companions, and to communicate to them 
 an effectual method of proving those claims. 
 An instance of friendship extended to the 
 whole family of a benefactress by those 
 whom she had benefited, and of the influ- 
 ence of a solemn contract in averting dan- 
 ger, is referred to in the case of Rahab, the 
 woman of Jericho, from whom the degree 
 derives its name ; and for this purpose the 
 second chapter of the Book of Joshua is 
 read to the candidate. When the degree is 
 received by a male, he is called a Knight 
 of Jericho, and when by a female, she is 
 termed a Heroine. It is a side or honorary 
 degree, and may be conferred by any Royal 
 Arch Mason on a candidate qualified to 
 receive it. 
 
HESED 
 
 HIGHEST 
 
 337 
 
 Hesed. A corruption of Ghesed, which 
 see. 
 
 Hexagon. A figure of six equal sides 
 constitutes a part of the camp in the Scot- 
 tish degree of Sublime Princes of the Royal 
 Secret. Stieglitz, in an essay on the sym- 
 bols of Freemasonry, published in 1825, in 
 the Altenburg Zeitschrift, says that the hex- 
 agon, formed by six triangles, whose apices 
 converge to a point, making the following 
 figure, 
 
 is a symbol of the universal creation, the 
 six points crossing the central point; thus 
 assimilating the hexagon to the older sym- 
 bol of the point within a circle. 
 
 Hieroglyphics. From two Greek 
 words which signify the engraving of sa- 
 cred things. Hieroglyphics are properly 
 the expressions of ideas by representations 
 of visible objects, and the word is more 
 peculiarly applied to that species of pic- 
 ture-writing which was in use among the 
 ancient Egyptians, whose priests by this 
 means concealed from the profane that 
 knowledge which they communicated only 
 to their initiates. Browne says ( Master Key, 
 p. 87), "The usages amongst Masons have 
 ever corresponded with those of the ancient 
 Egyptians. Their Philosophers, unwilling 
 to expose their Mysteries to vulgar Curios- 
 ity, couched the Principles of their Learn- 
 ing and Philosophy under Hieroglyphical 
 Figures and Allegorical Emblems, and ex- 
 pressed their notions of Government by 
 Signs and Symbols, which they communi- 
 cated to the Magi, or wise Men only, who were 
 solemnly obligated never to reveal them." 
 
 II ierogrammatists. The title of 
 those priests in the Egyptian mysteries to 
 whom were confided the keeping of the sa- 
 cred records. Their duty was also to in- 
 struct the neophytes in the ritual of initia- 
 tion, and to secure its accurate observance. 
 
 Hierophant. From the Greek, 
 'ispoipavTEg, which signifies one who explains 
 the sacred things. The Hierophant was, in 
 the Ancient Mysteries, what the Master is 
 in a Masonic Lodge — he who instructed 
 the neophyte in the doctrines which it was 
 the object of the mysteries to inculcate. 
 
 High Degrees. Not long after the 
 introduction of Freemasonry on the Conti- 
 nent, in the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century, the Chevalier Ramsay invented 
 three new degrees, which he called Ecos- 
 2S 22 
 
 sais, Novice, and Knight Templar. These 
 gave the impulse to the invention of many 
 other degrees, all above the Master's degree. 
 To these the name ofhautes grades or high de- 
 grees was given. Their number is very great. 
 Many of them now remain only in the cata- 
 logues of Masonic collectors, or are known 
 merely by their titles; while others still exist, 
 and constitute the body of the different 
 Rites. The word is not properly applicable 
 to the Royal Arch or degrees of the Eng- 
 lish and American systems, which are in- 
 timately connected with the Master's de- 
 gree, but is confined to the additions made 
 to Ancient Craft Masonry by continental 
 ritualists. These degrees have, from time 
 to time, met with great opposition as inno- 
 vations on Ancient Masonry, and some of 
 the Grand Lodges have not only rejected 
 them, but forbidden their cultivation by 
 those who are under their obedience. But 
 on the other hand, they have been strenu- 
 ously supported by many who have believed 
 the Ancient Craft degrees do not afford a 
 sufficient field for the expansion of Masonic 
 thought. A writer in the London Freema- 
 son's Magazine (1858, i. 1167,) has, I think, 
 expressed the true theory on this subject in 
 the following language : 
 
 " It is the necessary consequence of an 
 exclusive addiction to Craft Masonry that 
 the intellectual and artistic development 
 of the minds of the members must suffer, 
 the ritual sink to formalism, and the ad- 
 ministration fall into the hands of the lower 
 members of the Order, by a diminution in 
 the initiations of men of high intellectual 
 calibre, and by the inactivity, or practical 
 secession, of those within the Order. The 
 suppression of the higher degrees, that is, 
 of the higher Masonry, may be agreeable to 
 those who are content to possess the admin- 
 istrative functions of the Order without gen- 
 uine qualifications for their exercise, but it 
 is a policy most fatal to the true progress 
 of the Order. When Masonry has so fallen, 
 to restore the higher degrees to their full 
 activity is the measure essential for re- 
 storing the efficacy of Masonry within and 
 without. Thus, in the last century, when 
 Craft Masonry had spread rapidly over the 
 whole of Europe, a reaction set in, till the 
 heads of the Order brought the high degrees 
 into vigor, and they continued to exercise 
 the most powerful influence." 
 
 Highest of Hills. In the Old York 
 Lectures was the following passage : " Be- 
 fore we had the convenience of such well- 
 formed Lodges, the Brethren used to meet 
 on the highest of hills and in the lowest of 
 valleys. And if they were asked why they 
 met so high, so low, and so very secret, 
 they replied — the better to see and observe 
 all that might ascend or descend ; and in 
 
338 
 
 HIGH 
 
 HIGH 
 
 case a cowan should appear, the Tiler 
 might give timely notice to the Worshipful 
 Master, by which means the Lodge might be 
 closed, the jewels put by, thereby prevent- 
 ing any unlawful intrusion." Comment- 
 ing on this, Dr. Oliver (Landm., i. 319,) says : 
 "Among other observances which were 
 common to both the true and spurious 
 Freemasonry, we find the practice of per- 
 forming commemorative rites on the highest 
 of hi Us and in the lowest of valleys. This 
 practice was in high esteem amongst all the 
 inhabitants of the ancient world, from a 
 fixed persuasion that the summit of moun- 
 tains made a nearer approach to the celes- 
 tial deities, and the valley or holy cavern 
 to the infernal and submarine gods than 
 the level country ; and that, therefore, the 
 
 Erayers of mortals were more likely to be 
 eard in such situations." Hutchinson 
 also says : " The highest hills and the low- 
 est valleys were from the earliest times es- 
 teemed sacred, and it was supposed that the 
 Spirit of God was peculiarly diffusive in 
 those places." The sentiment was expressed 
 in the language of the earliest lectures of 
 the eighteenth century, and is still re- 
 tained, without change of words, in the 
 lectures of the present day. But intro- 
 duced, at first, undoubtedly with special 
 reference to the ancient worship on " high 
 places," and the celebration of the myste- 
 ries in the caverns of initiation, it is now 
 retained for the purpose of giving warning 
 and instruction as to the necessity of secu- 
 rity and secrecy in the performance of our 
 mystical rites, and this is the reason as- 
 signed in the modern lectures. And, in- 
 deed, the notion of thus expressing the ne- 
 cessity of secrecy seems to have been early 
 adopted, while that of the sacredness of 
 these places was beginning to be lost sight 
 of; for in a lecture of the middle of the last 
 century, or perhaps earlier, it was said that 
 " the Lodge stands upon holy ground, or 
 the highest hill or lowest vale, or in the 
 Vale of Jehosophat, or any oilier secret 
 place." The sacredness of the spot is, it is 
 true, here adverted to, but there is an em- 
 phasis given to its secrecy. 
 
 High Grades. Sometimes used for 
 High Degrees, which see. 
 
 High Priest. The presiding officer 
 of a Chapter of Eoyal Arch Masons accord- 
 ing to the American system. His title 
 is " Most Excellent," and he represents 
 Joshua, or Jeshua, who was the son of 
 Josedech, and the High Priest of the Jews 
 when they returned from the Babylonian 
 exile. He is seated in the east, and clothed 
 in the apparel of the ancient High Priest of 
 the Jews. He wears a robe of blue, purple, 
 scarlet, and white linen, and is decorated 
 with a breastplate and mitre. On the 
 
 front of the mitre is inscribed the words, 
 " Holiness to the Lord." His jewel is 
 a mitre. 
 High Priesthood, Order of. 
 
 This order is an honorarium, to be bestowed 
 upon the High Priest of a Royal Arch Chap- 
 ter in the United States, and consequently no 
 one is legally entitled to receive it until he 
 has been duly elected to preside as High 
 Priest in a regular Chapter of Royal Arch 
 Masons. It should not be conferred when 
 a less number than three duly qualified 
 High Priests are present. Whenever the 
 ceremony is performed in ample form, the 
 assistance of at least nine High Priests, 
 who have received it, is requisite. The 
 General Grand Chapter of the United 
 States has decided that although it is 
 highly expedient that every High Priest 
 should receive the order, yet its posses- 
 sion is not essentially necessary as a qual- 
 ification lor the discharge of his official 
 duties. 
 
 r> ' '.'. , .. l !E3SE«: 
 
 The jewel of the degree consists of a plate 
 of gold in the form of a triple triangle, a 
 breastplate being placed over the point of 
 union. In front, the face of each triangle 
 is inscribed with the Tetragrammaton, 
 niiT; on tne other side, the upper tri- 
 angle has the following mystical notation, 
 JTJ fj***; the two lower triangles have 
 the Hebrew letters Q and p inserted upon 
 them. Each side of each triangle should 
 be one inch in length, and may be orna- 
 mented at the fancy of the wearer. The 
 breastplate may be plainly engraved or set 
 with stones. It was adopted in 1856, on the 
 suggestion of the author of this work, at a 
 very general but informal meeting of Grand 
 
HIGH 
 
 HIGH 
 
 339 
 
 and Past Grand High Priests during the 
 session of the General Grand Chapter held 
 at Hartford. It is now in general use. 
 
 It is impossible, from the want of au- 
 thentic documents, to throw much light 
 upon the historical origin of this degree. 
 No allusion to it can be found in any ritual 
 works out of America, nor even here an- 
 terior to about the end of the last and be- 
 ginning of this century. Webb is the first 
 who mentions it, and gives it a place in the 
 series of capitular degrees. The question 
 has, however, been exhaustively examined 
 by Brother William Hacker, Past Grand 
 High Priest of Indiana, who has paid much 
 attention to the subject of American Masonic 
 archaeology. In a letter to the author in Au- 
 gust, 1873, he has sought to investigate the 
 origin of this Order, and I gladly avail my- 
 self of the result of his inquiries. 
 
 "Thomas Smith Webb," says Brother 
 Hacker, " in the first edition of his Monitor, 
 published in 1797, makes no mention of it. 
 But in the second edition, published in 
 1802, he gives a monitorial ritual for the 
 Order; or, as he terms it, Observations on 
 the Order of High Priests. 
 
 "Now, I infer, as we find no mention 
 of the Order in the edition of 1797, and a 
 monitorial ritual appearing in the edition 
 of 1802, that at some time between those 
 dates we must look for the true origin of 
 the Order. 
 
 " Turning then to the proceedings of the 
 General Grand Chapter of the United States, 
 we find that at the Communication held in 
 the city of Providence, in the State of 
 Rhode Island, on the 9th day of January, 
 1799, Benjamin Hurd, Jr., Thomas S. Webb, 
 and James Harrison were appointed 'a 
 Committee to revise the Constitution, and 
 report such alterations and amendments 
 thereto as they shall find necessary to be 
 made.' 
 
 " The next day, January 10, 1799, Webb, 
 as chairman of the committee, submitted 
 their report, which was adopted as reported. 
 In Article IV. of that Constitution, we find 
 the forms for constituting new Chapters 
 and installing High Priests fully laid down 
 and provided for. In those forms, after 
 certain ceremonies had been gone through 
 with, 'All the Companions, except High 
 Priests and Past High Priests, are requested 
 to withdraw, while the new High Priest is 
 solemnly bound to the performance of his 
 duties ; and after the performance of other 
 necessary ceremonies, not proper to be 
 written, they are permitted to return.' 
 
 " Now, right here the question naturally 
 arises, What were those 'other necessary 
 ceremonies not proper to be written ' ? A 
 few lines farther on we find this language 
 laid down : ' In consequence of your cheer- 
 
 ful acquiescence with the charges and reg- 
 ulations just recited, I now declare you duly 
 installed and anointed High Priest of this 
 new* Chapter.' Now do not the words 
 ' and anointed^ as here used, fully answer 
 the question as to what those 'other ne- 
 cessary ceremonies ' were ? It seems so to 
 me. 
 
 " Upon this theory, then, we have Thomas 
 Smith Webb and his associates on the com- 
 mittee, Benjamin Hurd, Jr., and James 
 Harrison, as the authors of the Order. It 
 was adopted by the General Grand Chapter 
 on the 10th day of January, 1799, when it 
 became a part of the constitutional re- 
 quirements of Royal Arch Masonry, so far, 
 at least, as the authority of the General 
 Grand Chapter extended. 
 
 " Following this matter out, we find that 
 this provision of the Constitution was re- 
 tained until the Triennial Communication 
 held in the city of Lexington, Kentucky, 
 on the 19th day of September, 1853, when, 
 on motion of Companion Gould, the sec- 
 tion was repealed; thus leaving the Order 
 of High Priesthood the exclusive property 
 of those who were in possession of it. 
 
 " Where these Excellent Companions got 
 the original thought or germ out of which 
 the Order was formed will have, perhaps, to 
 be left to conjecture ; yet even here I think 
 we may find some data upon which to found 
 a conclusion. 
 
 "In setting about the formation of an 
 order suitable for the office of High Priest, 
 what could be more natural or appropriate 
 than to take the scriptural history of the 
 meeting of Abraham with Melchizedek, 
 Priest of the Most High God ; the circum- 
 stances which brought that meeting about; 
 the bringing forth the bread and wine; the 
 blessing, etc. ; and the anointing of Aaron 
 and his sons to the Priesthood under the 
 Mosaic dispensations. It does seem to me 
 that these would be the most natural sources 
 for any one to go to for facts and circum- 
 stances to work into an order of this kind. 
 
 " We can illustrate this point farther by 
 reference to a note found in an old ritual 
 of the 'Mediterranean Pass,' as then — 
 and perhaps it may be so now — conferred 
 under the Grand Priory of England and 
 Wales, preparatory to the Order of Malta. 
 That note read as follows : 
 
 " ' In some Priories the candidate partakes 
 of bread from the point of a sword, and 
 wine from a chalice placed upon the blade, 
 handed to him by the Prelate.' 
 
 " Again, in an old manuscript of the ritual 
 of the Royal Grand Conclave of Scotland, 
 now also lying before me, I find similar 
 language used in the ritual of the Templars' 
 Order. How well the thoughts contained 
 in these extracts have been worked into 
 
340 
 
 HIGH 
 
 HIGH 
 
 the order of High Priest, every well-in- 
 formed High Priest must very well under- 
 stand. 
 
 " But the question now comes up : were 
 Webb and his associates in possession of 
 these rituals at the time they originated the 
 order of High Priesthood? I think they 
 were, and for these reasons : In these rituals 
 to which I have referred I find these ex- 
 pressions used : ' That I will not shed the 
 blood of a K. T. unlawfully ; ' ' the skull 
 to be laid open, and all the brains to be ex- 
 posed to the scorching rays of the sun ; ' 
 with several other familiar expressions, 
 which every Royal Arch Mason will read- 
 ily recognize as appropriately wrought into 
 Webb's Royal Arch degree. 
 
 "From the foregoing facts, as well as 
 others not stated, I infer that Thomas 
 Smith Webb, with his co-advisers, Benja- 
 min Hurd, Jr., and James Harrison, were 
 the true authors of the Order ; that it dates 
 from the 10th day of January, 1799, at 
 which time it was adopted by the General 
 Grand Chapter, and became a part of the 
 constitutional regulations and requirements 
 of Royal Arch Masonry so far as the au- 
 thority of the General Grand Chapter ex- 
 tended, and that it continued as such until 
 the 19th day of September, 1853, when it 
 was repealed, as before stated. 
 
 "A thought or two further, and I will 
 have done. Webb, in arranging the Order, 
 evidently intended that it should be con- 
 ferred as a part of the installation ceremo- 
 nies of a High Priest ; and whether he ever 
 conferred it at any other time or in any 
 other manner I have been unable to learn, 
 as I have never met with any one who 
 claimed to have received the Order from 
 him. At what time and by whom it was 
 first conferred as a separate ceremonial is 
 equally unknown to me. All I have yet 
 been able to find upon this point is in 
 Cross's Chart, where, in the edition of 1826, 
 and it may also be in the earlier editions, 
 I find it arranged as a separate ceremonial, 
 and disconnected with the ceremonies of 
 installation. 
 
 "The earliest authentic record of the or- 
 ganization of a Council of High Priests I 
 have yet found is in the proceedings of the 
 Grand Chapter of Ohio in 1828, where it 
 appears that a Council was duly formed, 
 rules adopted for its government, and a full 
 list of officers elected, with Companion 
 John Snow as President. 
 
 "It is more than probable that the Order 
 has always been conferred, west of the 
 mountains, as a separate ceremonial, and 
 never as a part of the installation ceremo- 
 nies. It is well known that John Snow, 
 who no doubt brought it with him when he 
 came to the West, always so conferred it, 
 
 and not then until the applicant had been 
 regularly elected and installed as High 
 Priest of his Chapter. I have also met 
 with those who claimed to have received it 
 from the celebrated Lorenzo Dow, of whom 
 it is further alleged that he always required 
 an election and installation as a prerequisite 
 to the Order. With these facts before us, 
 and I have no doubt of the truth of every 
 word of them, I would ask of those who 
 have attempted to heap such obloquy and 
 derision upon the Order, as Dr. Mitchell 
 and others who have followed him, to 
 point us to any other single order or degree 
 of Masonry that can be traced so success- 
 fully to the source from whence it came ; 
 that has in it more of the elements of sub- 
 limity and impressiveness, and that is more 
 scripturally and Masonically appropriate 
 for that for which it was intended, than has 
 this much-maligned Order of High Priest- 
 hood ; remembering also that it was estab- 
 lished upon the constitutional authority of 
 the General Grand Chapter of the United 
 States, which is, and ever has been, the 
 highest authority in Royal Arch Masonry 
 in the United States. And again, among 
 the names of those zealous companions who 
 participated in its adoption stands that 
 of the Honorable De Witt Clinton, for 
 so many years the zealous and efficient 
 General Grand High Priest. Then I say, 
 when we take all these facts together, as 
 they stand recorded before us, I think the 
 question as to the origin and authenticity 
 may be considered as fully settled." 
 
 High Priest of the Jews. The 
 important office of the High Priesthood 
 was instituted by Moses after the comple- 
 tion of the directions for erecting the taber- 
 nacle, and was restricted to Aaron and his 
 descendants, and was so confined until 
 the time of the Asmonean dynasty, when it 
 passed into the family of Judas Maccabaeus. 
 The High Priest was at the head not only 
 of ecclesiastical but of civil affairs, presiding 
 in the Sanhedrim and judging the people. 
 He superintended the Temple, directing the 
 mode of worship, and preserving the build- 
 ing from profanation. He was inducted 
 into his office by anointment and sacrifices, 
 and was invested with a peculiar dress. 
 This dress, as the Rabbins describe it, con- 
 sisted of eight parts, namely, the breast- 
 plate, the ephod, with its curious girdle, 
 the robe of the ephod, the mitre, the Droid- 
 ered coat, and the girdle. The materials 
 of which these were composed were gold, 
 blue, red, purple, and fine white linen. As 
 these garments are to a certain extent rep- 
 resented in the vestment of a High Priest 
 of a Royal Arch Chapter, a brief descrip- 
 tion of them may be expedient: 
 
 The High Priest was first clothed in a 
 
HIGH 
 
 HINDUSTAN 
 
 341 
 
 pair of linen drawers. Over this was a coat 
 or shirt of fine linen reaching to his feet, 
 and with sleeves extending to his wrists. 
 Over this again was a robe of blue, called 
 the coat of ephod. It was without sleeves, 
 but consisted of two pieces, one before and 
 another behind, having a large opening in 
 the top for the passage of the head, and an- 
 other on each side to admit the arms. It 
 extended only to the middle of the legs, 
 and its skirt was adorned with little golden 
 bells and pomegranates. Above all these 
 vestments was placed the ephod, which has 
 already been described as a short garment 
 coming down only to the breast before, but 
 somewhat longer behind, without sleeves, 
 and artificially wrought with gold, and 
 blue, and purple, and scarlet, in embroidery 
 of various figures. It was looped on the 
 shoulders with two onyx stones, on each of 
 which was inscribed the names of six of the 
 tribes. On the front of the ephod he wore 
 the breastplate ; at solemn ministrations a 
 mitre of fine linen of a blue color. This was 
 wrapped in several folds, and worn about 
 his head in the manner of a Turkish turban, 
 except that it was without a crown, being 
 open on top, and sitting on his head like a 
 garland. In front of it there hung down 
 upon his forehead a square plate of gold, 
 called the plate of the golden crown, upon 
 which were inscribed the words Holiness 
 to the Lord, which were engraved in the 
 ancient Hebrew or Samaritan characters. 
 The vestments of a High Priest of a Royal 
 Arch Chapter are intended to represent — 
 though the representation is imperfect — 
 the gorgeous apparel of the Jewish Pontiff. 
 They area mitre, breastplate, and a robe of 
 four colors. To these the Masonic ritual- 
 ists have ascribed a symbolic signification. 
 The mitre teaches the High Priest the 
 dignity of his office; the breastplate, his 
 responsibility to the laws and ordinances 
 of the Institution, and that the honor and 
 interest of the Chapter should be always 
 near his heart ; and the robe, the different 
 graces and virtues which are symbolized 
 by the various colors of which it is com- 
 posed. 
 
 High Twelve. The hour of noon or 
 twelve o'clock in the day, when the sun is 
 high in the heavens, in contradistinction 
 to low twelve, or midnight, when the sun is 
 low down beneath the earth. The expres- 
 sion is always used, in Masonic language, 
 to indicate the hour of noon, at which time, 
 as the tradition tells us, the Craft in the 
 Temple were called from labor to refresh- 
 ment. The phrase was used in the earliest 
 rituals of the last century. The answer in 
 the old catechisms to the question, " What's 
 a clock ? " was always, " High Twelve." 
 
 Hindustan, Mysteries of. Of all 
 
 the ethnic religions, that of Hindustan is 
 admitted to be the oldest, for its Vedas or 
 sacred books claim an antiquity of nearly 
 forty centuries. However Brahmanism 
 may have been corrupted in more modern 
 times, in its earliest state it consisted of a 
 series of doctrines which embraced a belief 
 in a Supreme Being and in the immortality 
 of the soul. All primitive religions were 
 more or less mystical, and that of India 
 formed no exception to the rule. Oliver, 
 in his History of Initiation, has given a 
 very succinct account of the Brahmanical 
 mysteries, collected from the most authen- 
 tic sources, such as Maurice, Colebrook, 
 Jones, and Faber. His description refers 
 almost exclusively to the reception and 
 advancement of a Brahman in his sacred 
 profession; for the initiations of India, like 
 those of Egypt, were confined to the priest- 
 hood. All Brahmans, it is true, do not 
 necessarily belong to the sacerdotal order, 
 but every Brahman who has been initiated, 
 and thus been made acquainted with the 
 formulas of worship, may at any time be- 
 come an officiating priest. The ceremonies 
 of initiation, as they have been described 
 by Oliver, were celebrated in spacious cav- 
 erns, the principal of which were Elephanta 
 and Salsette, both situated near Bombay. 
 The mysteries were divided into four de- 
 grees, and the candidate was permitted to 
 perform the probation of the first at the 
 early age of eight years. It consisted sim- 
 ply in the investiture with the linen gar- 
 ment and Zennar or sacred cord; of sacri- 
 fices accompanied by ablutions ; and of an 
 explanatory lecture. The aspirant was now 
 delivered into the care of a Brahman, who 
 thenceforth became his spiritual guide, and 
 prepared him by repeated instructions and 
 a life of austerity for admission into the 
 second degree. To this, if found qualified, 
 he was admitted at the requisite age. The 
 probationary ceremonies of this degree con- 
 sisted in an incessant occupation in pray- 
 ers, fastings, ablutions, and the study of 
 astronomy. Having undergone these aus- 
 terities for a sufficient period, he was led at 
 night to the gloomy caverns of initiation, 
 which had been duly prepared for his re- 
 ception. 
 
 The interior of this cavern was brilliantly 
 illuminated, and there sat the three chief 
 hierophants, in the east, west, and south, 
 representing the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and 
 Siva, surrounded by the attendant mysta- 
 gogues, dressed in appropriate vestments. 
 After an invocation to the sun, the aspi- 
 rant was called upon to promise that he 
 would be obedient to his superiors, keep 
 his body pure, and preserve inviolable 
 secrecy on the subject of* the mysteries. He 
 was then sprinkled with water, an invoca- 
 
342 
 
 HINDUSTAN 
 
 HIRAM 
 
 tion of the deity was whispered in his ear ; 
 he was divested of his shoes, and made to 
 circumambulate the cavern three times, in 
 imitation of the course of the sun, whose 
 rising was personated by the hierophant 
 representing Brahma, stationed in the 
 east, whose meridian height by the repre- 
 sentative of Siva in the south, and whose 
 setting by the representative of Vishnu 
 in the west. He was then conducted 
 through seven ranges of dark and gloomy 
 caverns, during which period the wail- 
 ing of Mahadeva for the loss of Siva 
 was represented by dismal howlings. The 
 usual paraphernalia of flashes of light, of 
 dismal sounds and horrid phantoms, was 
 practised to intimidate or confuse the aspi- 
 rant. After the performance of a variety 
 of other ceremonies, many of which we can 
 only conjecture, the candidate reached the 
 extremity of the seven caverns; he was 
 now prepared for enlightenment by requi- 
 site instruction and the administration of a 
 solemn oath. 
 
 This part of the ceremonies being con- 
 cluded, the sacred conch was blown, the 
 folding-doors were suddenly thrown open, 
 and the aspirant was admitted into a spa- 
 cious apartment filled with dazzling light, 
 ornamented with statues and emblematical 
 figures, richly decorated with gems, and 
 scented with the most fragrant perfumes. 
 This was a representation of Paradise. 
 
 The candidate was now supposed to be 
 regenerated, and he was invested by the 
 chief Brahman with the white robe and 
 tiara; a cross was marked upon his fore- 
 head, and a tau upon his breast, and he 
 was instructed in the signs, tokens, and 
 lectures of the Order. He was presented 
 with the sacred belt, the magical black 
 stone, the talismanic jewel to be worn upon 
 his breast, and the serpent stone, which, as 
 its name imported, was an antidote against 
 the bite of serpents. And, lastly, he was 
 intrusted with the sacred name, known 
 only to the initiated. This ineffable name 
 was AUM, which, in its triliteral form, was 
 significant of the creative, preservative, 
 and destroying power, that is, of Brahma, 
 Vishnu, and Siva. It could not be pro- 
 nounced, but was to be the subject of in- 
 cessant silent contemplation. The symbols 
 and the aporrheta, or secret things of the 
 mysteries, were now explained. 
 
 Here ended the second degree. The third 
 took place when the candidate had grown 
 old, and his children had all been provided 
 for. This consisted in a total exclusion in 
 the forest, where, as an anchorite, he occu- 
 pied himself in ablutions, prayers, and sac- 
 rifices. 
 
 In the fourth degree he underwent still 
 greater austerities, the object of which was 
 to impart to the happy sage who observed 
 
 them a portion of the divine nature, and 
 to secure him a residence among the im- 
 mortal gods. 
 
 The object of the Indian mysteries ap- 
 pears, says Oliver, to have been to teach 
 the unity of God and the necessity of virtue. 
 The happiness of our first parents, the sub- 
 sequent depravity of the human race, and 
 the universal deluge were described in a 
 manner which showed that their knowledge 
 must have been derived from an authentic 
 source. What was the instruction intended 
 to be conveyed by these mystical initiations 
 will be best learned from the Vedas, in 
 which the true dogma of the ancient Brah- 
 manical faith is fully developed. 
 
 Hiram. The gavel, when wielded by 
 the Master of the Lodge, is sometimes 
 called the Hiram, because as the workmen 
 at the Temple were controlled and directed 
 by Hiram, the chief builder, so the Master 
 preserves order in the Lodge by the proper 
 use of the gavel. 
 
 Hiram or Huram. In Hebrew, 
 □"I'll or □")"in> meaning noble-born. The 
 more correct pronunciation, according to 
 the true value of the Hebrew letters, is 
 Khuramor Khurum; but universal Masonic 
 usage renders it now impossible, or, at least, 
 inexpedient, to make the change. The name 
 of the king of Tyre is spelled Hiram every- 
 where in Scripture except in 1 Chronicles 
 xiv. 1, where it occurs as Huram. In 1 
 Chron. xiv. 1, the original Hebrew text has 
 Hiram, but the Masorites in the margin 
 direct it to be read Huram. In our author- 
 ized version, the name is spelled Hiram, 
 which is also the form used in the Vulgate 
 and in the Targums; the Septuagint has 
 Xeipafi, or Cheiram. The same changes 
 occur in Chronicles. 
 
 Hiram Abif. There is no character 
 in the annals of Freemasonry whose life is 
 so dependent on tradition as the celebrated 
 architect of King Solomon's Temple. Pro- 
 fane history is entirely silent in respect to 
 his career, and the sacred records supply us 
 with only very unimportant items. To fill 
 up the space between his life and his death, 
 we are necessarily compelled to resort to 
 those oral legends which have been handed 
 down from the ancient Masons to their suc- 
 cessors. Yet, looking to their character, I 
 should be unwilling to vouch for the au- 
 thenticity of all ; most of them were prob- 
 ably at first symbolical in their character; 
 the symbol in the lapse of time having been 
 converted into a myth, and the myth, by con- 
 stant repetition, having assumed the formal 
 appearance of a truthful narrative. Such 
 has been the case in the history of all nations. 
 But whatever may have been their true 
 character, to the Mason, at least, they are 
 interesting, and cannot be altogether void 
 of instruction. 
 
HIRAM 
 
 HIRAM 
 
 343 
 
 When King Solomon was about to build 
 a temple to Jehovah, the difficulty of ob- 
 taining skilful workmen to superintend and 
 to execute the architectural part of the un- 
 dertaking was such, that he found it neces- 
 sary to request of his friend and ally, Hiram, 
 King of Tyre, ' ne use * some of his most 
 able builders ; for the Tyrians and Sidonians 
 were celebrated artists, and at that time 
 were admitted to be the best mechanics in 
 the world. Hiram willingly complied with 
 his request, and despatched to his assistance 
 an abundance of men and materials, to be 
 employed in the construction of the Temple, 
 and among the former, a distinguished 
 artist, to whom was given the superinten- 
 dence of all the workmen, both Jews and 
 Tyrians, and who was in possession of all 
 the skill and learning that were required to 
 carry out, in the most efficient manner, all 
 the plans and designs of the king of Israel. 
 
 Of this artist, whom Freemasons recog- 
 nize sometimes as Hiram the Builder, some- 
 times as the Widow's Son, but more com- 
 monly as Hiram Abif, the earliest account 
 is found in the first Book of Kings (vii. 13, 
 14,) where the passage reads as follows: 
 
 " And King Solomon sent and fetched 
 Hiram out of Tyre. He was a widow's 
 son of the tribe of Naphtali, and his father 
 was a man of Tyre, a worker in brass, and 
 he was filled with wisdom and understand- 
 ing, and cunning to work all works in brass. 
 And he came to King Solomon and wrought 
 all his work." 
 
 He is next mentioned in the second Book 
 of Chronicles, (ch. ii. 13, 14,) in the fol- 
 lowing letter from Hiram of Tyre to King 
 Solomon. 
 
 " And now I have sent a cunning man, 
 endued with understanding, of Huram my 
 father's. The son of a woman of the 
 daughters of Dan, and his father was a man 
 of Tyre, skilful to work in gold and in sil- 
 ver, in brass, in iron, in stone and in tim- 
 ber, in purple, in blue and in fine linen and 
 in crimson ; also to grave any manner of 
 graving, and to find out every device which 
 shall be put to him, with thy cunning men, 
 and with the cunning men of my lord 
 David, thy father." 
 
 In reading these two descriptions, every 
 one will be at once struck with an apparent 
 contradiction in them in relation to the 
 parentage of their subject. There is no 
 doubt — for in this both passages agree — 
 that his father was a man of Tyre; but the 
 discrepancy is in reference to the birth- 
 place of his mother, who in one passage is 
 said to have been " of the tribe of Naph- 
 tali," and in the other, " of the daughters 
 of Dan." Commentators have, however, 
 met with no difficulty in reconciling the 
 contradiction, and the suggestion of Bishop 
 
 Patrick is now generally adopted on this 
 subject. He supposes that she herself was 
 of the tribe of Dan, but that her first hus- 
 band was of the tribe of Naphtali, by whom 
 she had this son ; and that when she was a 
 widow, she married a man of Tyre, who is 
 called Hiram's father because he bred him 
 up and was the husband of his mother. 
 
 Hiram Abif undoubtedly derived much 
 of his knowledge in mechanical arts from 
 that man of Tyre who had married his 
 mother, and we may justly conclude that 
 he increased that knowledge by assiduous 
 study and constant intercourse with the 
 artisans of Tyre, who were greatly distin- 
 guished for their attainments in architec- 
 ture. Tyre, was one of the principal seats 
 of the Dionysiac fraternity of artificers, a 
 society engaged exclusively in the construc- 
 tion of edifices, and living under a secret 
 organization, which was subsequently imi- 
 tated by the Operative Freemasons. Of this 
 association, it is not unreasonable to sup- 
 pose that Hiram Abif was a member, and 
 that on arriving at Jerusalem he intro- 
 duced among the Jewish workmen the same 
 exact system of discipline which he had 
 found of so much advantage in the Diony- 
 siac associations at home, and thus gave, 
 under the sanction of King Solomon, a pe- 
 culiar organization to the Masons who were 
 engaged in building the Temple. 
 
 Upon the arrival of this celebrated artist 
 at Jerusalem, which was in the year B. c. 
 1012, he was at once received into the inti- 
 mate confidence of Solomon, and intrusted 
 with the superintendence of all the work- 
 men, both Tyrians and Jews, who were en- 
 gaged in the construction of the building. 
 He received the title of "Principal Con- 
 ductor of the Works," an office which, pre- 
 vious to his arrival, had been filled by Adoni- 
 ram, and, according to Masonic tradition, 
 formed with Solomon and King Hiram of 
 Tyre, his ancient patron, the Supreme 
 Council of Grand Masters, in which every 
 thing was determined in relation to the 
 construction of the edifice and the govern- 
 ment of the workmen. 
 
 The Book of Constitutions, as it was edited 
 by Entick, (p. 19,) speaks of him in the 
 following language: This inspired master 
 was. without question, the most cunning, 
 skilful, and curious workman that ever 
 lived; whose abilities were not confined to 
 building only, but extended to all kinds of 
 work, whether in gold, silver, brass or iron ; 
 whether in linen, tapestry or embroidery ; 
 whether considered as architect, statuary, 
 founder or designer, separately or together, 
 he equally excelled. From his designs and 
 under his direction, all the rich and splen- 
 did furniture of the Temple and its several 
 appendages were begun, carried on, and 
 
344 
 
 HIRAM 
 
 HIRAM 
 
 finished. Solomon appointed him, in his 
 absence, to fill the Chair as Deputy Grand 
 Master, and in his presence, Senior Grand 
 Warden, Master of Work, and general over- 
 seer of all artists, as well those whom 
 David had formerly procured from Tyre 
 and Sidon, as those Hiram should now 
 send." 
 
 This statement requires some correction. 
 According to the most consistent systems 
 and the general course of the traditions, 
 there were three Grand Masters at the build- 
 ing of the Temple, of whom Hiram Abif 
 was one, and hence in our Lodges he al- 
 ways receives the title of a Grand Master. 
 We may, however, reconcile the assertion of 
 Anderson, that he was sometimes a Deputy 
 Grand Master, and sometimes a Senior 
 Grand Warden, by supposing that the three 
 Grand Masters were, among the Craft, pos- 
 sessed of equal authority, and held in equal 
 reverence, while among themselves there 
 was an acknowledged subordination of sta- 
 tion and power. But in no way can the as- 
 sertion be explained that he was at any time 
 a Senior Grand Warden, which would be 
 wholly irreconcilable with the symbolism 
 of the Temple. In the mythical Master's 
 Lodge, supposed to have been held in the 
 Temple, and the only one ever held before 
 its completion, at which the three Grand 
 Masters alone were present, the office of 
 Junior Warden is assigned to Hiram Abif. 
 According to Masonic tradition, which is 
 in part supported by scriptural authority, 
 Hiram was charged with all the architec- 
 tural decorations and interior embellish- 
 ments of the building. He cast the vari- 
 ous vessels and implements that were to be 
 used in the religious service of the Temple, 
 as well as the pillars that adorned the porch, 
 selecting as the most convenient and ap- 
 propriate place for the scene of his oper- 
 ations, the clay grounds which extend be- 
 tween Succoth and Zaredatha ; and the old 
 lectures state that the whole interior of the 
 bouse, its posts and doors, its very floors 
 and ceilings, which were made of the most 
 expensive timber, and overlaid with plates 
 of burnished gold, were, by his exquisite 
 taste, enchased with magnificent designs 
 and adorned with the most precious gems. 
 Even the abundance of these precious 
 jewels, in the decorations of the Temple, 
 is attributed to the foresight and prudence 
 of Hiram Abif; since a Masonic tradition, 
 quoted by Dr. Oliver, informs us, that about 
 four years before the Temple was begun, he, 
 as the agent of the Tyrian king, purchased 
 some curious stones from an Arabian mer- 
 chant, who told him, upon inquiry, that 
 they had been found by accident on an 
 island in the Red Sea. By the permission 
 of King Hiram, he investigated the truth 
 
 of this report, and had the good fortune to 
 discover many precious gems, and among 
 the rest an abundance of the topaz. They 
 were subsequently imported by the ships of 
 Tyre for the service of King Solomon. 
 
 In allusion to these labors of taste and 
 skill displayed by the widow's son, our 
 lectures say, that while the wisdom of 
 Solomon contrived the fabric, and the 
 strength of King Hiram's wealth and power 
 supported the undertaking, it was adorned 
 by the beauty of Hiram Abif's curious and 
 cunning workmanship. 
 
 In the character of the chief architect of 
 the Temple, one of the peculiarities which 
 most strongly attract attention, was the 
 systematic manner in which he conducted 
 all the extensive operations which were 
 placed under his charge. In the classifica- 
 tion of the workmen, such arrangements 
 were made, by his advice, as to avoid any 
 discord or confusion; and although about 
 two hundred thousand craftsmen and labor- 
 ers were employed, so complete were his 
 arrangements, that the general harmony 
 was never once disturbed. In the payment 
 of wages, such means were, at his suggestion, 
 adopted, that every one's labor was readily 
 distinguished, and his defects ascertained, 
 every attempt at imposition detected, and 
 the particular amount of money due to 
 each workman accurately determined and 
 easily paid, so that, as Webb remarks, "the 
 disorder and confusion that might other- 
 wise have attended so immense an under- 
 taking was completely prevented." It was 
 his custom never to put off until to-morrow 
 the work that might have been accomplished 
 to-day, for he was as remarkable for his 
 punctuality in the discharge of the most 
 trifling duties, as he was for his skill in 
 performing the most important. It was his 
 constant habit to furnish the craftsmen 
 every morning with a copy of the plans 
 which he had, on the previous afternoon, 
 designed for their labor in the course of the 
 ensuing day. As new designs were thus fur- 
 nished by him from day to day, any neglect 
 to provide the workmen with them on each 
 successive morning would necessarily have 
 stopped the labors of the whole body of the 
 workmen for that day ; a circumstance that 
 in so large a number must have produced 
 the greatest disorder and confusion. Hence 
 the practice of punctuality was in him a 
 duty of the highest obligation, and one 
 which could never for a moment have been 
 neglected without leading to immediate ob- 
 servation. Such is the character of this 
 distinguished personage, whether mythical 
 or not, that has been transmitted by the 
 uninterrupted stream of Masonic tradition. 
 
 The trestle-board used by him in drawing 
 his designs is said to have been made, as 
 
HIRAM 
 
 HIRAM 
 
 345 
 
 the ancient tablets were, of wood, and 
 covered with a coating of wax. On this 
 coating he inscribed bis plans with a pen 
 or stylus of steel, which an old tradition, 
 preserved by Oliver, says was found upon 
 him when he was raised, and ordered by 
 King Solomon to be deposited in tbe centre 
 of his monument. Tbe same tradition in- 
 forms us tbat the first time he used tbis 
 stylus for any of the purposes of the Tem- 
 ple was on the morning that the foundation- 
 stone of the building was laid, when he 
 drew the celebrated diagram known as the 
 forty-seventh problem of Euclid, and which 
 gained a prize that Solomon had offered on 
 that occasion. But this is so evidently a 
 mere myth, invented by some myth-maker 
 of the last century, without even the excuse 
 of a symbolic meaning, that it has been 
 rejected or, at least, forgotten by the Craft. 
 
 Another and more interesting legend has 
 been preserved by Oliver, which may be 
 received as a mythical symbol of the faith- 
 ful performance of duty. It runs thus : 
 
 " It was the duty of Hiram Abif to su- 
 
 Eerintend the workmen, and the reports of 
 is officers were always examined with the 
 most scrupulous exactness. At the open- 
 ing of the day, when the sun was rising in 
 the east, it was his constant custom, before 
 the commencement of labor, to go into the 
 Temple, and offer up his prayers to Jeho- 
 vah for a blessing on the work ; and in like 
 manner when the sun was setting in the 
 west. And after the labors of the day were 
 closed, and the workmen had left the Tem- 
 ple, he returned his thanks to the Great 
 Architect of the Universe for the harmo- 
 nious protection of the day. Not content 
 with this devout expression of his feelings, 
 he always went into the Temple at the 
 hour of high twelve, when the men were 
 called off from labor to refreshment, to 
 inspect the work, to draw fresh designs 
 upon the trestle-board, if such were neces- 
 sary, and to perform other scientific labors, 
 — never forgetting to consecrate the duties 
 by solemn prayer. These religious customs 
 were faithfulty performed for the first six 
 years in the secret recesses of his Lodge, 
 and for the last year in the precincts of the 
 most holy place." 
 
 While assiduously engaged in the dis- 
 charge of these arduous duties, seven years 
 passed rapidly away, and the magnificent 
 Temple at Jerusalem was nearly completed. 
 The Fraternity were about to celebrate the 
 cope-stone with the greatest demonstrations 
 of joy ; but, in the language of the vener- 
 able Book of Constitutions, " their joy was 
 soon interrupted by the sudden death of 
 their dear and worthy master, Hiram Abif." 
 On the very day appointed for celebrating 
 the cope-stone of the building, says one 
 2 T 
 
 tradition, he repaired to his usual place of 
 retirement at the meridian hour, and did 
 not return alive. On this subject we can 
 say no more. This is neither the time nor 
 the place to detail the particulars of his 
 death. It is enough to say that the circum- 
 stance filled the Craft with the most pro- 
 found grief, which was deeply shared by 
 his friend and patron, King Solomon, who, 
 according to the Book of Constitutions, 
 "after some time allowed to the Craft to 
 vent their sorrow, ordered his obsequies to 
 be performed with great solemnity and de- 
 cency, and buried him in the Lodge near 
 the Temple, — according to the ancient 
 usages among Masons, — and long mourned 
 his loss." 
 
 Hiramites. In the degree of Patri- 
 arch Noachites, the legend is, that the Ma- 
 sons of that degree are descended from Noah 
 through Peleg. Distinguishing themselves, 
 therefore, as Noachites, they call the Masons 
 of the other degrees Hiramites, as being 
 descended from Hiram Abif. The word is 
 not elsewhere used. 
 
 Hiram, King of Tyre. He was 
 the son of Abibal, and the contemporary of 
 both David and Solomon. In the begin- 
 ning of the former's reign, he sent messen- 
 gers to him, and Hiram supplied the 
 Israelitish king with " cedar-trees, and car- 
 penters, and masons : and they built David 
 a house." (2 Sam. v. 11.) Nearly forty 
 years afterwards, when Solomon ascended 
 the throne and began to prepare for build- 
 ing the Temple, he sent to the old friend 
 of his father for the same kind of assist- 
 ance. The king of Tyre gave a favorable 
 response, and sent workmen and materials 
 to Jerusalem, by the aid of which Solomon 
 was enabled to carry out his great design. 
 Historians celebrate the friendly intercourse 
 of these monarchs, and Josephus says that 
 the correspondence between them in respect 
 to the building of the Temple was, in his 
 days, preserved in the archives of the king- 
 dom of Tyre. The answer of Hiram to the 
 application of Solomon is given in the first 
 Book of Kings (v. 8, 9,) in the following 
 language: "I will do all thy desire con- 
 cerning timber of cedar and timber of fir. 
 My servants shall bring them down from 
 Lebanon unto the sea; and I will convey 
 them by sea in floats unto tbe place that 
 thou shalt appoint me, and will cause them 
 to be discharged there, and thou shalt re- 
 ceive them ; and thou shalt accomplish my 
 desire in giving food for my household." 
 In return for this kindness, Solomon gave 
 Hiram 20,000 measures, or corim, of wheat 
 and the same quantity of oil, which was 
 nearly 200,000 bushels of one and 1,500,000 
 gallons of the other ; an almost incredible 
 amount, but not disproportioned to the 
 
346 
 
 HIRAM 
 
 HO-HI 
 
 magnificent expenditure of the Temple in 
 other respects. After Solomon had finished 
 his work, he presented the king of Tyre 
 with twenty towns in Galilee; but when 
 Hiram viewed these places, he was so dis- 
 satisfied with their appearance that he called 
 them the land of Cabul, — which signifies 
 barren, desolate, — saying reproachfully to 
 Solomon, "Are these, my brother, the 
 towns which you have given me?" On 
 this incident the Scottish Rite Masons have 
 founded their sixth degree, or Intimate Sec- 
 retary. 
 
 Hiram appears, like Solomon, to have 
 been disposed to mysticism, for Dius and 
 Menander, two Greek historians, tell us 
 that the two kings proposed enigmas to 
 each other for solution. Dius says that 
 Solomon first sent some to Hiram ; and that 
 the latter king, being unable to solve them, 
 paid a large sum of money as a forfeit, but 
 that afterwards he explained them with the 
 assistance of one Abdemon; and that he in 
 turn proposed some to Solomon, who, not 
 being able to solve them, paid a much 
 greater sum to Hiram than he had himself 
 received on the like occasion. 
 
 The connection of the king of Tyre with 
 king Solomon in the construction of the 
 Temple has given him a great importance 
 in the legendary history of Masonry. An- 
 derson says, " The tradition is that King 
 Hiram had been Grand Master of all Ma- 
 sons ; but when the Temple was finished, 
 Hiram came to survey it before its conse- 
 cration, and to commune with Solomon 
 about wisdom and art ; and finding that 
 the Great Architect of the Universe had 
 inspired Solomon above all mortal men, 
 Hiram very readily yielded the pre-emi- 
 nence to Solomon Jedediah, the beloved of 
 God." He is called in the rituals one of 
 our " Ancient Grand Masters," and when 
 the mythical Master's Lodge was held in 
 the Temple is supposed to have acted as 
 the Senior Warden. It is said, too, that 
 in the symbolic supports of Masonry he 
 represented the pillar of strength, because 
 " by his power and wealth he assisted the 
 great undertaking" of constructing the 
 Temple. He is reported, also, to have 
 visited Jerusalem several times (a fact on 
 which profane history is silent) for the 
 purpose of consultation with Solomon and 
 his great architect on the symbolism of the 
 Word, and to have been present at the 
 time of the death of the latter. Many 
 other legends are related of him in the 
 Master's degree and those connected with 
 it, but he is lost sight of after the comple- 
 tion of the first Temple, and is seldom heard 
 of in the high degrees. 
 
 Hiram Ike Builder. See Hiram 
 Abif. 
 
 Hirschau, Wilhelm Ton. The 
 
 Abbot Wilhelm von Hirschau, Count Pal- 
 atine of Scheuren, is said to have been the 
 founder, at the close of the eleventh centu- 
 ry, of the German Bauhutten. Having been 
 previously the Master of the Bauhutte, or 
 Lodge of St. Emmerau, in Ratisbon, when 
 he became Abbot of Hirschau, he col- 
 lected together in 1080-1091 the Masons 
 for the purpose of enlarging the convent. 
 He incorporated the workmen, says Findel, 
 [Hist, p. 54,) with the monastery, as lay 
 brethren, and greatly promoted their in- 
 struction and general improvement. Their 
 social life was regulated by special laws ; 
 and the one most frequently inculcated by 
 him was that brotherly concord should pre- 
 vail, because only by working together and 
 lovingly uniting all their strength would 
 it be possible to accomplish such great 
 works as were these undertakings for the 
 public benefit. 
 
 H.\ K.\ T.\ The abbreviation of 
 Hiram, King of Tyre. 
 
 Blo-hi. A combination of the two He- 
 brew pronouns 1,~J, ho, meaning "he," and 
 *JX hi, meaning "she;" thus mystically 
 representing the twofold sex of the Creator, 
 and obtained by a Kabbalistic transposition 
 or inversion of the letters of the Tetragram- 
 maton, HIIT or IHOH. HO-HI, therefore, 
 thus Kabbalistically obtained, denotes the 
 male and female principle, the vis genitrix, 
 the phallus and lingam, the point within the 
 circle ; the notion of which, in some one 
 form or another of this double gender, per- 
 vades all the ancient systems as the repre- 
 sentative of the creative power. 
 
 Thus, one of the names given by the my- 
 thological writers to the Supreme Jupiter 
 was appevoOrjXvg, the man-woman. In one 
 of the Orphic hymns we find the following 
 line: 
 
 Zev( aporjv, ytvtro, Zcvs ap/?poru? irXtro w/ify. 
 Jove is a male, Jove is an immortal virgin. 
 
 And Plutarch, in his Isis and Osiris, says, 
 " God, who is a male and female intelli- 
 gence, being both life and light, brought 
 forth another intelligence, the Creator of 
 the world." All the Pagan gods and god- 
 desses, however various their appellation, 
 were but different expressions for the male 
 and female principle. " In fact," says 
 Russel, "they may all be included in the 
 one great Hermaphrodite, the a'ppevoftrjlvq, 
 who combines in his nature all the ele- 
 ments of production, and who continues to 
 support the vast creation which originally 
 proceeded from his will." And thus, too, 
 may we learn something of the true mean- 
 ing of the passage in Genesis, (i. 27,) where 
 it is said, " So God created man in his own 
 
HOLINESS 
 
 HOLY 
 
 347 
 
 image, in the image of God created he him ; 
 male and female created he them." 
 
 For the suggestion of this working of 
 Ho-hi out of Ih-ho, I was many years 
 ago indebted to my learned and lamented 
 friend, George R. Gliddon, the great Egyp- 
 tologist, who had obtained it from the writ- 
 ings of Lanzi, the Italian antiquary. 
 
 Holiness to the Lord. In Hebrew, 
 mrr 1 ? BHp, KODESH LAYEHOVAH. It 
 was the 'inscription on the plate of gold 
 that was placed in front of the high priest's 
 mitre. The letters were in the ancient Sa- 
 maritan character. 
 
 Holland. See Netherlands. 
 
 Holy Ghost, Knight of the. See 
 Knight of the Holy Ghost. 
 
 Holy Ground. A Masonic Lodge is 
 said to be held on holy ground, according 
 to the Prestonian lecture, because the first 
 regularly constituted Lodge was held on 
 that holy, consecrated ground wherein the 
 first three grand offerings were made, which 
 afterwards met with Divine approbation. 
 See Ground-Floor of the Lodge. 
 
 Holy Lodge. The old lectures of 
 the last century taught symbolically that 
 there were three Lodges opened at three 
 different periods in Masonic history ; these 
 were the Holy Lodge, the Sacred Lodge, 
 and the Royal Lodge. The Holy Lodge 
 was opened in the tabernacle in the wil- 
 derness, and over it presided Moses, Aho- 
 liab, and Bezaleei ; the Sacred Lodge was 
 opened on Mount Moriah during the build- 
 ing of the first Temple, and was presided 
 over by Solomon, King of Israel, Hiram, 
 King of Tyre, and Hiram the Builder; the 
 Royal Lodge was opened among the ruins 
 of the first Temple, at the building of the 
 second, and was presided over by Joshua, 
 Zerubbabel, and Haggai. Though pre- 
 sented as a tradition, it is really only a 
 symbol intended to illustrate three impor- 
 tant events in the progress of Masonic 
 science. 
 
 Holy Name. Freemasonry teaches, 
 in all its symbols and rituals, a reverence 
 for the name of God, which is emphatically 
 called the " Holy Name." In the prayer 
 " Ahabath Olam," first introduced by Der- 
 mott, it is said, " because we trusted in thy 
 holy, great, mighty, and terrible Name;" 
 and in the introductory prayer of the Royal 
 Arch, according to the American system, 
 similar phraseology is employed : " Teach 
 us, we pray thee, the true reverence of thy 
 great, mighty, and terrible Name." The 
 expression, if not the sentiment, is bor- 
 rowed from the Hebrew mysteries. 
 
 Holy of Holies. Every student of 
 Jewish antiquities knows, and every Mason 
 who has taken the third degree ought to 
 know, what was the peculiar construction, 
 
 character, and uses of the Sanctum Sanc- 
 torum or Holy of Holies in King Solomon's 
 Temple. Situated in the western end of 
 the Temple, separated from the rest of the 
 building by a heavy curtain, and enclosed 
 on three sides by dead walls without any 
 aperture or window, it contained the sacred 
 ark of the covenant, and was secluded and 
 set apart from all intrusion save of the 
 high priest, who only entered it on certain 
 solemn occasions. As it was the most 
 sacred of the three parts of the Temple, so 
 has it been made symbolic of a Master's 
 Lodge, in which are performed the most 
 sacred rites of initiation in Ancient Craft 
 Masonry. 
 
 But as modern hierologists have found in 
 all the Hebrew rites and ceremonies the 
 traces of more ancient mysteries, from 
 which they seem to have been derived, or 
 on which they have been modified, whence 
 we trace also to the same mysteries most of 
 the Masonic forms which, of course, are 
 more immediately founded on the Jewish 
 Scriptures, so we shall find in the ancient 
 Gentile temples the type of this same Sanc- 
 tum Sanctorum or Holy of Holies, under 
 the name of Adyton or Adytum. And what 
 is more singular, we shall find a greater re- 
 semblance between this Adytum of the 
 Pagan temples and the Lodge of Master 
 Masons, than we will discover between the 
 latter and the Sanctum Sanctorum of the 
 Solomonic Temple. It will be curious and 
 interesting to trace this resemblance, and to 
 follow up the suggestions that it offers in 
 reference to the antiquity of Masonic rites. 
 
 The Adytum was the most retired and 
 secret part of the ancient Gentile temple, 
 into which, as into the Holy of Holies of 
 the Jewish Temple, the people were, not 
 permitted to enter, but which was acces- 
 sible only to the priesthood. And hence the 
 derivation of the word from the Greek 
 Adoein, " not to enter," " that which it is 
 not permitted to enter." Seclusion and 
 mystery were always characteristic of the 
 Adytum, and therefore, like the Holy of 
 Holies, it never admitted of windows. 
 
 In the Adytum was to be found a taphos 
 or tomb, and some relic or image or statue 
 of the god to whom the temple was dedicated. 
 The tomb reminds us of the characteristic 
 feature of the third degree of Masonry ; the 
 image or statue of the god finds its analogue 
 in the ark of the covenant and the over- 
 shadowing cherubim. 
 
 It being supposed that temples owed their 
 first origin to the reverence paid by the 
 ancients to their deceased friends, and as it 
 was an accepted theory that the gods were 
 once men who had been deified on account 
 of their heroic virtues, temples were, per- 
 haps, in the beginning only stately monu- 
 
348 
 
 HOLY 
 
 HONORARY 
 
 ments erected in honor of the dead. Hence 
 the interior of the temple was originally 
 nothing more than a cell or cavity, that is 
 to say, a grave regarded as a place of de- 
 posit for the reception of a person interred, 
 and, therefore, in it was to be found the 
 soros or coffin, and the taphos or tomb, or, 
 among the Scandinavians, the barrow or 
 mound grave. In time the statue or image 
 of a god took the place of the coffin ; but 
 the reverence for the spot, as one of peculiar 
 sanctity, remained, and this interior part 
 of the temple became among the Greeks 
 the sekos or chapel, among the Romans 
 the Adytum or forbidden place, and among 
 the Jews the kodesh kodashim, or Holy of 
 Holies. 
 
 " The sanctity thus acquired," says Dud- 
 ley in his Naology, (p. 393,) " by the cell 
 of interment might readily and with pro- 
 priety be assigned to any fabric capable of 
 containing the body of the departed friend, 
 or relic, or even the symbol of the presence 
 or existence, of a divine personage." And 
 thus it happened that there was in every 
 ancient temple an Adytum or most holy 
 place. 
 
 There was in the Holy of Holies of the 
 Jewish Temple, it is true, no tomb nor coffin 
 containing the relics of the dead. But there 
 was an ark of the covenant which was the 
 recipient of the rod of Aaron, and the pot 
 of manna, which might well be considered 
 the relics of the past life of the Jewish 
 nation in the wilderness. There was an 
 analogy easily understood according to the 
 principles of the science of symbolism. 
 There was no statue or image of a god, but 
 there were the sacred cherubim, and, above 
 all, the Shekinah or Divine Presence, and 
 the bathkol or voice of God. 
 
 But when Masonry established its system 
 partly on the ancient rites and partly on 
 the Jewish ceremonies, it founded its third 
 degree as the Adytum or holy of holies of 
 all its mysteries, the exclusive place into 
 which none but the most worthy — the 
 priesthood of Masonry — the Masters in 
 Israel — were permitted to enter; and then 
 going back to the mortuary idea of the an- 
 cient temple, it recognized the reverence for 
 the dead which constitutes the peculiar 
 characteristic of that degree. And, there- 
 fore, in every Lodge of Master Masons there 
 should be found, either actually or alle- 
 gorically, a grave, or tomb, and coffin, be- 
 cause the third degree is the inmost sanc- 
 tuary, the kodesh kodashim, the Holy of 
 Holies of the Masonic temple. 
 
 Holy Place. Called also the sanc- 
 tuary. It was that part of the Temple of 
 Solomon which was situated between the 
 Porch and the Holy of Holies. It was ap- 
 propriated to the purposes of daily worship, 
 
 and contained the altars and utensils used 
 in that service. It has no symbolic mean- 
 ing in Masonry; although really, as it 
 occupied the ground-floor of the Temple, 
 it might be properly considered as repre- 
 sented by an Entered Apprentice's Lodge, 
 that is to say, by the Lodge when occupied 
 in the ceremonies of the first degree. 
 
 Holy Sepulchre, Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the Holy Sejmlchre. 
 
 Honorable. This was the title for- 
 merly given to the degree of Fellow Craft. 
 
 Honorarium. When a degree of 
 Masonry is conferred honoris causa, that is, 
 as a mark of respect, and without the pay- 
 ment of a fee, it is said to be conferred as an 
 honorarium. This is seldom done in An- 
 cient Craft Masonry ; but it is not unusual 
 in the high degrees of the Scottish Rite, 
 which are sometimes bestowed by Inspect- 
 ors on distinguished Masons as an honora- 
 rium. 
 
 Honorary Degrees. 1. The Mark 
 Master's degree in the American system is 
 called the Honorary degree of Mark Mas- 
 ter," because it is traditionally supposed to 
 have been conferred in the Temple upon 
 a portion of the Fellow Crafts as a mark 
 of honor and of trust. The degrees of Past 
 Master and of High Priesthood are also 
 styled honorary, because each is conferred 
 as an honorarium or reward attendant upon 
 certain offices ; that of Past Master upon 
 the elected Master of a symbolic Lodge, 
 and that of High Priesthood upon the 
 elected High Priest of a Chapter of Royal 
 Arch Masons. 
 
 2. Those degrees which are outside of 
 the regular series, and which are more com- 
 monly known by the epithet " side degrees," 
 are also sometimes called honorary degrees, 
 because no fee is usually exacted for them. 
 
 Honorary Masons. A schismatic 
 body which arose soon after the revival in 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
 the members of which rejected the estab- 
 lished formula of an obligation, and bound 
 themselves to secrecy and obedience by a 
 pledge of honor only. Like the Gregorians 
 and the Gormogons, who arose about the 
 same time, they soon died a natural death. 
 A song of theirs, preserved in Carey's Mu- 
 sical Century, is almost the only record left 
 of their existence. 
 
 Honorary Members. It is a cus- 
 tom in some Lodges to invest distinguished 
 Masons with the rank and title of honorary 
 membership. This confers upon them, as 
 the by-laws may prescribe, sometimes all 
 the rights of active membership and some- 
 times only the right of speaking, but al- 
 ways without the exaction of annual dues. 
 Nor does honorary membership subject the 
 person receiving it to the discipline of the 
 
HONORARY 
 
 HONORS 
 
 349 
 
 Lodge further than to a revocation of the 
 honor bestowed. The custom of electing 
 honorary members is a usage of very mod- 
 ern date, and has not the sanction of the 
 old Constitutions. It is common in France ; 
 less so, but not altogether unknown, in 
 America and England. Oliver, in the title 
 of one of his works, claimed honorary mem- 
 bership in more than nine Lodges. It may 
 be considered unobjectionable as a method 
 of paying respect to distinguished merit and 
 Masonic services, when it is viewed only 
 as a local regulation, and does not attempt 
 to interfere with Masonic discipline. A 
 Mason who is expelled forfeits, of course, 
 with his active membership in his own 
 Lodge, his honorary membership in other 
 Lodges. 
 
 Honorary Thirty - Thirds. The 
 Supreme Councils of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite in this country have, 
 within a few years past, adopted the cus- 
 tom of electing honorary members, who 
 are sometimes called " Honorary Thirty- 
 Thirds." They possess none of the rights 
 of Inspectors General or Active Members, 
 except that of being present at the meet- 
 ings of the Council, and taking part to a 
 limited extent in its deliberations. 
 
 Honors, Grand. The Grand Honors 
 of Masonry are those peculiar acts and ges- 
 tures by which the Craft have always been 
 accustomed to express their homage, their 
 joy, or their grief on memorable occasions. 
 In the Symbolic degrees of the American 
 Rite, they are of two kinds, the private and 
 public, which are used on different occa- 
 sions and for different purposes. 
 
 The private Grand Honors of Masonry 
 are performed in a manner known only to 
 Master Masons, since they can only be used 
 in a Master's Lodge. They are practised 
 by the Craft only on four occasions : when 
 a Masonic hall is to be consecrated, a new 
 Lodge to be constituted, a Master elect to 
 be installed, or a Grand Master, or his 
 Deputy, to be received on an official visita- 
 tion to a Lodge. They are used at all these 
 ceremonies as tokens of congratulation and 
 homage. And as they can only be given 
 by Master Masons, it is evident that every 
 consecration of a hall, or constitution of a 
 new Lodge, every installation of a Wor- 
 shipful Master, and every reception of a 
 Grand Master, must be done in the third 
 degree. It is also evident, from what has 
 been said, that the mode and manner of 
 giving the private Grand Honors can only 
 be personally communicated to Master Ma- 
 sons. They are among the aporrheta — the 
 things forbidden to be divulged. 
 
 The public Grand Honors, as their name 
 imports, do not partake of this secret char- 
 acter. They are given ou all public occa- 
 
 sions, in the presence of the profane as well 
 as the initiated. They are used at the lay- 
 ing of corner-stones of public buildings, or 
 in other services in which the ministra- 
 tions of the Fraternity are required, and 
 especially in funerals. They are given in 
 the following manner: Both arms are 
 crossed on the breast, the left uppermost, 
 and the open palms of the hands sharply 
 striking the shoulders ; they are then raised 
 above the head,, the palms striking each 
 other, and then made to fall smartly upon 
 the thighs. This is repeated three times, 
 and as there are three blows given each 
 time, namely, on the breast, on the palms 
 of the hands, and on the thighs, making 
 nine concussions in all, the Grand Honors 
 are technically said to be given " by three 
 times three." On the occasion of funerals, 
 each one of these honors is accompanied 
 by the words, "the will of God is accom- 
 plished; so mote it be" audibly pronounced 
 by the brethren. 
 
 These Grand Honors of Masonry have 
 undoubtedly a classical origin, and are but 
 an imitation of the plaudits and acclama- 
 tions practised by the ancient Greeks and 
 Romans in their theatres, their senates, 
 and their public games. There is abun- 
 dant evidence in the writings of the an- 
 cients, that in the days of the empire, the 
 Romans had circumscribed the mode of 
 doing homage to their emperors and great 
 men when they made their appearance in 
 public, and of expressing their approbation 
 of actors at the theatre, within as explicit 
 rules and regulations as those that govern 
 the system of giving the Grand Honors in 
 Freemasonry. This was not the case in the 
 earlier ages of Rome, for Ovid, speaking of 
 the Sabines, says that when they applauded, 
 they did so without any rules of art : 
 
 " In medio plausu, plausus tunc arte carebat." 
 
 And Propertius speaks, at a later day, of 
 the ignorance of the country people, who, 
 at the theatres, destroyed the general har- 
 mony by their awkward attempts to join 
 in the modulated applauses of the more 
 skilful citizens. 
 
 The ancient Romans had carried their 
 science on this subject to such an extent as 
 to have divided these honors into three 
 kinds, differing from each other in the 
 mode in which the hands were struck 
 against each other, and in the sound that 
 thence resulted. Suetonius, in his life of 
 Nero, (cap. xx.,) gives the names of these 
 various kinds of applause, which he says 
 were called bombi, imbrices, testoz ; and Sen- 
 eca, in his Naturales Qucestiones, gives a de- 
 scription of the manner in which they were 
 executed. The "bombi," or hums, were 
 produced by striking the palms of the 
 
350 
 
 HOODWINK 
 
 HOSPITALLER 
 
 hands together, while they were in a hol- 
 low or concave position, and doing this at 
 frequent intervals, but with little force, so 
 as to imitate the humming sound of a swarm 
 of bees. The " imbrices," or tiles, were 
 made by briskly striking the flattened and 
 extended palms of the hands against each 
 other, so as to resemble the sound of hail 
 pattering upon the tiles of a roof. The 
 " testa?," or earthen vases, were executed by 
 striking the palm of the left hand, with the 
 fingers of the right collected into one point. 
 By this blow a sound was elicited which 
 imitated that given out by an earthen vase 
 when struck by a stick. 
 
 The Romans, and other ancient nations, 
 having invested this system of applauding 
 with all the accuracy of a science, used it 
 in its various forms, not only for the pur- 
 pose of testifying their approbation of act- 
 ors in the theatre, but also bestowed it, as 
 a mark of respect or a token of adulation, 
 on their emperors, and other great men, on 
 the occasion of their making their appear- 
 ance in public. Huzzas and cheers have, 
 in this latter case, been generally adopted 
 by the moderns, while the manual applause 
 is only appropriated to successful public 
 speakers and declaimers. The Freemasons, 
 however, have altogether preserved the 
 ancient custom of applause, guarding and 
 regulating its use by as strict, though dif- 
 ferent rules as did the Romans ; and thus 
 showing, as another evidence of the anti- 
 quity of their Institution, that the "Grand 
 Honors " of Freemasonry are legitimately 
 derived from the " plausus," or applaud- 
 ings, practised by the ancients on public 
 occasions. 
 
 In the higher degrees, and in other Rites, 
 the Grand Honors are different from those 
 of Ancient Craft Masonry in the American 
 Rite. 
 
 ^ Hoodwink. A symbol of the secrecy, 
 silence, and darkness in which the myste- 
 ries of our art should be preserved from the 
 unhallowed gaze of the profane. It has 
 been supposed to have a symbolic reference 
 to the passage in St. John's Gospel, (i. 5,) 
 " And the light shineth in darkness ; and 
 the darkness comprehended it not." But 
 it is more certain that there is in the hood- 
 wink a representation of the mystical dark- 
 ness whicn always preceded the rites of the 
 ancient initiations. 
 
 Hope. The 9t*;ond round in the theo- 
 logical and Masonic ladder, and symbolic 
 of a hope in immortality. It is appropri- 
 ately placed there, for, having attained the 
 first, or faith in God, we are led by a belief 
 in his wisdom and goodness to the hope of 
 immortality. This is but a reasonable ex- 
 pectation ; without it, virtue would lose its 
 necessary stimulus and vice its salutary 
 
 fear ; life would be devoid of joy, and the 
 grave but a scene of desolation. The an- 
 cients represented Hope by a nymph hold- 
 inginher hand a bouquet of opening flowers, 
 indicative of the coming fruit ; but in mod- 
 ern and Masonic iconology it is represent- 
 ed by a virgin leaning on an anchor, the 
 anchor itself being a symbol of hope. 
 
 Hope Manuscript. A manuscript 
 copy of the old Constitutions, which is in 
 the possession of the Lodge of Hope at 
 Bradford, in England. The parchment 
 roll on which this Constitution is written is 
 six feet long and six inches wide, and is 
 defaced and worn away at the lower edge. 
 It is considered a very important manu- 
 script. Its date is supposed to be about 
 1680. From a transcript in the possession 
 of Bro. A. F. A. Woodford, whose correct- 
 ness is certified to by the Master of the 
 Lodge, Bro. Hughan first published it in 
 his Old Charges of the British Freemasons. 
 
 Horn of Plenty. The jewel of the 
 Steward of a Lodge. See Cornucopia. 
 Horns of the Altar. In the Jewish 
 Temple, the altars of 
 burnt-offering and of 
 incense had each at 
 the four corners four 
 horns of shittim wood. 
 Among the Jews, as 
 well as all oth^r an- 
 cient peoples, the al- 
 tar was considered 
 peculiarly holy and 
 privileged ; an y . hence, 
 when a criminal, flee- 
 ing, took hold of these horns, he found an 
 asylum and safety. As the Masonic altar 
 is a representation of the altar of the Solo- 
 monic member, it should be constructed 
 with these horns ; and Cross has very prop- 
 erly so represented it in his Hieroglyphic 
 Chart. 
 
 Hoschea. The word of acclamation 
 used by the French Masons of the Scottish 
 Rite. In some of the Cahiers it is spelled 
 Ozee. It is, I think, a corruption of the 
 word huzza, which is used by the English 
 and American Masons of the same Rite. 
 
 Hospitality. This virtue has always 
 been highly esteemed among Masons. 
 Nothing is more usual in diplomas or cer- 
 tificates than to recommend the bearer "to 
 the hospitality of all the brethren where- 
 soever dispersed over the globe ; " a recom- 
 mendation that is seldom disregarded. All 
 of the old Constitutions detail the practice 
 of hospitality, as one of the duties of the 
 Craft, in language like this : " Every Mason 
 shall receive and cherish strange fellowes 
 when they come over the countreye." 
 
 Hospitaller, Knight. See Knight 
 Hospitaller. 
 
HOSPITALLERS 
 
 HU 
 
 351 
 
 Hospitallers of Jerusalem. In 
 
 the middle of the eleventh century, some 
 merchants of Amalfi, a rich city of the 
 kingdom of Naples, while trading in Egypt, 
 obtained from the Caliph Monstaser Billah 
 permission to establish hospitals in the city 
 of Jerusalem for the use of poor and sick 
 Catholic pilgrims. A site was assigned to 
 them close to the Holy Sepulchre, on which 
 they erected a chapel dedicated to the Vir- 
 gin, giving it the name of St. Mary ad Lat- 
 inos, to distinguish it from those churches 
 where the service was performed according 
 to the Greek ritual. The building was 
 completed in the year 1048; and at the 
 same time two hospitals, one for either sex, 
 were erected in the vicinity of the chapel 
 for the reception of pilgrims. Subsequently 
 each of these hospitals had a separate 
 chapel annexed to it ; that for the men be- 
 ing dedicated to St. John the Almoner, and 
 that for the women to St. Mary Magdalen. 
 Many of the pilgrims, who had experienced 
 the kindness so liberally bestowed upon all 
 wayfarers, abandoned all idea of returning 
 to Europe, and formed themselves into a 
 band of charitable assistants, and, without 
 assuming any regular, religious profession, 
 devoted themselves to the service of the 
 hospital and the care of its sick inmates. 
 The chief cities of the south of Europe 
 subscribed liberally for the support of this 
 institution; and the merchants of Amalfi 
 who were its original founders acted as the 
 stewards of their bounty, which was greatly 
 augmented from the favorable reports of 
 grateful pilgrims who had returned home, 
 and the revenues of the hospital were thus 
 much increased. The associates assumed 
 the name of Hospitallers of Jerusalem. 
 Afterwards, taking up arms for the protec- 
 tion of the holy places against the Saracens, 
 they called themselves Knights Hospital- 
 lers, a title which they subsequently changed 
 to that of Knights of Rhodes, and finally 
 to that of Knights of Malta. 
 
 Host, Captain of the. See Captain 
 of the Host. 
 
 Hour-Glass. An emblem used in the 
 third degree, according to the Webb lec- 
 tures, to remind us by the quick passage of 
 its sands of the transitory nature of human 
 life. As a Masonic symbol it is of com- 
 paratively modern date, but the use of the 
 hour-glass as an emblem of the passage 
 of time is older than our oldest rituals. 
 Thus, in a speech before Parliament, in 
 1627, it is said : " We may dandle and play 
 with the hour-glass that is in our power, but 
 the hour will not stay for us ; and an op- 
 portunity once lost cannot be regained." 
 We are told in Notes and Queries, (1st Ser., 
 v. 223,) that in the early part of the last cen- 
 tury it was a custom to inter an hour-glass 
 
 with the dead, as an emblem of the sand of 
 life being run out. 
 
 Hours, Mason ic. The language of 
 Masonry, in reference to the hours of labor 
 and refreshment, is altogether symbolical. 
 The old lectures contained a tradition that 
 our ancient brethren wrought six days in 
 the week and twelve hours in the day, 
 being called off regularly at the hour of 
 high twelve from labor to refreshment. In 
 the French and German systems, the Craft 
 were said to be called from labor at low 
 twelve, or midnight, which is therefore the 
 supposed or fictitious time at which a 
 French or German Lodge is closed. But 
 in the English and American systems the 
 Craft are supposed to be called off at high 
 twelve, and when called on again the time 
 for recommencing labor is said to be " one 
 hour past high twelve:" all this refers to 
 Ancient Craft Masonry. In some of the 
 high degrees the hours designated for labor 
 or rest are different. So, too, in the different 
 Kites : thus, in the system of Zinnendorf, it 
 is said that there are in a Mason's Lodge 
 five hours, namely, twelve struck, noon, 
 high noon, midnight and high midnight; 
 which are thus explained. Twelve struck, 
 is before the Lodge is opened and after it is 
 closed; noon is when the Master is about to 
 open the Lodge; high noon, when it is 
 duly open ; midnight, when the Master is 
 about to close it; and high midnight, when 
 it is closed and the uninitiated are permit- 
 ted to draw near. 
 
 Hours of Initiation. In Masonic 
 Lodges, as they were in the Ancient Mys- 
 teries, initiations are always at night. 
 No Lodges ever meet in the daytime for 
 that purpose, if it can be avoided. See 
 Night. 
 
 How go Squares ? The question was 
 one of the earliest of the tests which were 
 common in the eighteenth century. In the 
 Grand Mystery, published in 1724, we find 
 it in the following form : 
 
 " Q. How go squares ? 
 
 "A. Straight." 
 
 It is noteworthy, that this phrase has an 
 earlier date than the eighteenth century, 
 and did not belong exclusively to the Ma- 
 sons. In Thomas May's comedy of The 
 Old Couple, published in 1658, (Act. iv., sc. 
 i.,) will be found the following passage: 
 
 "Sir Argent Scrape. Ha ! Mr. Frightful, 
 welcome. How go squares ? What do you 
 think of me to make a bridegroom ? Do I 
 look young enough? " See it in Dodsley's 
 Collection of Old Plays, Vol. 10. 
 
 H.\ R.\ D.\ M.\ An abbreviation 
 of Heredom or Herodem. 
 
 Hu. The name of the chief god among 
 the Druids, commonly called Hu Gadam, 
 or Hu the Mighty. He is thus described 
 
352 
 
 HUMILITY 
 
 HUND 
 
 by one of the Welsh bards: "The smallest 
 of the small, Hu is the mighty in the world's 
 judgment ; yet he is the greatest and Lord 
 over us and our God of mystery. His 
 course is light and swift, his car is a parti- 
 cle of bright sunshine. He is great on 
 land and sea, the greatest whom I shall be- 
 hold, greater than the worlds. Offer not 
 indignity to him, the Great and Beautiful." 
 Bryant and Davies, in accordance with 
 their arkite theory, think that he was Noah 
 deified ; but the Masonic scholar will be re- 
 minded of the Hi-hu eliminated by the 
 Kabbalists out of the name of Jehovah. 
 
 Humility. The Divine Master has 
 said, " He that humbleth himself shall be 
 exalted," (Luke xiv. 2,) and the lesson is 
 emphatically taught by a portion of the 
 ritual of the Royal Arch degree. Indeed, 
 the first step towards the acquisition of 
 truth is a humility of mind which teaches 
 us our own ignorance and our necessity for 
 knowledge, so that thus we may be prepared 
 for its reception. Dr. Oliver has greatly 
 erred in saying [Landmarks, ii. 471,) that 
 bare feet are a Masonic symbol of humility. 
 They are properly a symbol of reverence. 
 The true Masonic symbol of humility is 
 bodily prostration, and it is so exemplified 
 in the Royal Arch degree. 
 
 Hand, Baron Von. Carl Gotthhelf, 
 Baron Von Hund, was born in Oberlausitz, 
 in Germany, on the 11th of September, 1722. 
 He was a nobleman and hereditary landed 
 proprietor in the Lausitz. He is said to 
 have been upright in his conduct, although 
 beset by vanity and a love of adventure. 
 But Findel is scarcely correct in character- 
 izing him as a man of moderate understand- 
 ing, since the position which he took among 
 his Masonic contemporaries — many of 
 whom were of acknowledged talent — and 
 the ability with which he defended and 
 maintained his opinions, would indicate the 
 possession of very respectable intelligence. 
 In religious faith he was a Protestant. 
 That rare work, the Anti-Saint- Nicaise, 
 contains in its first volume a brief biogra- 
 phy of Von Hund, from which some de- 
 tails of his personal appearance and char- 
 acter may be obtained. He was of middling 
 stature, but well formed; never dressed 
 sumptuously, but always with taste and 
 neatness ; and although himself a moderate 
 liver, was distinguished for his hospitality, 
 and his table was always well supplied for 
 the entertainment of friends and visitors. 
 The record that his servants were never 
 changed, but that those who were employed 
 in his domestic service constantly remained 
 with him, is a simple but conclusive testi- 
 mony to the amiability of his character. 
 
 The scanty details of the life of Hund, 
 which are supplied by Clavel in his His- 
 
 toire Pittoresque ; by Thory, in the Acta 
 Latamorum; by Ragon, in his Orthodoxie 
 Maconnique; by Robison, in his Proofs of 
 a Conspiracy ; by Lenning and Gadicke, in 
 the Encyclopadie of each ; by Oliver, in 
 his Historical Landmarks ; and by Findel, 
 in his History, vary so much in dates and 
 in the record of events, that he who should 
 depend on their conflicting authority for 
 information would be involved in almost 
 inextricable confusion in attempting to 
 follow any connected thread of a narrative. 
 As Thory, however, writes as an annalist, 
 in chronological order, it may be presumed 
 that his dates are more to be depended on 
 than those of the looser compilers of his- 
 torical essays. He, therefore, will furnish 
 us with at least an outline of the principal 
 Masonic events in the life of Hund, while 
 from other writers we may derive the ma- 
 terial facts which the brevity of Thory 
 does not provide. But even Thory must 
 sometimes be abandoned, where he has 
 evidently neglected to note a particular 
 circumstance, and his omission must be 
 supplied from some other source. 
 
 On the 20th of March, 1742, when still 
 lacking some months of being twenty years 
 of age, he was initiated into the mysteries 
 of Freemasonry in the Lodge of the Three 
 Thistles at Frankfort-on-the-Main. Fin- 
 del places the date of his initiation in the 
 year 1741 ; but, for the reason already as- 
 signed, I prefer the authority of Thory, 
 with whom Lenning concurs. The first 
 and second degrees were conferred on the 
 same day, and in due time his initiation 
 into the symbolic degrees was completed. 
 
 Soon after his initiation, the Baron Von 
 Hund travelled through England and Hol- 
 land, and paid a visit to Paris. Robison, 
 who speaks of the Baron as "a gentleman 
 of honorable character," and whose own 
 reputation secures him from the imputation 
 of wilful falsehood, although it could not 
 preserve him from the effects of prejudice, 
 says that Hund, while in Paris, became 
 acquainted with the Earl of Kilmarnock 
 and some other gentlemen, who were ad- 
 herents of the Pretender, and received from 
 them the new degrees, which had been in- 
 vented, it is said, for political purposes by 
 the followers of the exiled house of Stuart. 
 Gadicke states that while there he also 
 received the Order of the Mopses, which 
 he afterwards attempted, but without suc- 
 cess, to introduce into Germany. This 
 must, however, be an error ; for the Order 
 of the Mopses, an androgynous institution, 
 which subsequently gave birth to the French 
 Lodges of Adoption, was not established 
 until 1776, long after the return of Hund to 
 his native country. 
 
 While he resided in Paris he received, 
 
HUND 
 
 HUND 
 
 353 
 
 says Findel, some intimations of the exist- 
 ence of the Order of Knights Templars in 
 Scotland. The legend, which it is necessary 
 to say has been deemed fabulous, is given 
 to us by Clavel, (Hist. Pittor., 184,) who 
 tells us that, after the execution of Jacques 
 de Molay, Pierre d'Aumont, the Provincial 
 Grand Master of Auvergne, accompanied 
 by two Commanders and five Knights, es- 
 caped to Scotland, assuming during their 
 journey, for the purpose of concealment, 
 the costume of Operative Masons. Having 
 landed on one of the Scottish Islands, they 
 met several other companions, Scottish 
 Knights, with whom they resolved to con- 
 tinue their existence of the Order, whose 
 abolition had been determined by the Pope 
 and the King of France. At a Chapter 
 held on St. John's day, 1313, Aumont was 
 elected Grand Master, and the Knights, to 
 avoid in future the persecutions to which 
 they had been subjected, professed to be 
 Freemasons, and adopted the symbols of 
 that Order. In 1361 the Grand Master 
 transported his see to the city of Aberdeen, 
 and from that time the Order of the Temple 
 spread, under the guise of Freemasonry, 
 throughout the British Islands and the 
 Continent. 
 
 The question is not now as to the truth 
 or even the probability of this legend. It 
 is sufficient for our present purpose to say, 
 that the Baron Von Hund accepted it as a 
 veritable historical fact. He was admitted, 
 at Paris, to the Order of Knights Templars, 
 Clavel says, by the Pretender, Charles 
 Edward, who was the Grand Master of the 
 Order. Of this we have no other evidence 
 than the rather doubtful authority of Cla- 
 vel. Robison intimates that he was in- 
 ducted by the Earl of Kilmarnock, whose 
 signature was attached to his diploma. G'a- 
 dicke says that he travelled over Brabant 
 to the French army, and was there made a 
 Templar by high chiefs of the Order. And 
 this statement might be reconciled with 
 that of Robison, for the high chiefs (hohe 
 Obere) of Gadicke were possibly the fol- 
 lowers of the Pretender, some of whom 
 were likely to have been with the French 
 army. The point is not, however, worth 
 the trouble of an investigation. Two things 
 have been well settled, namely: That in 
 1743 Von Hund was initiated as a Knight 
 Templar, and that at the same time he re- 
 ceived the appointment of a Provincial 
 Grand Master, with ample powers to pro- 
 pagate the Order in Germany. He re- 
 turned to his native country, but does not 
 appear to have been very active at first as 
 a missionary of Templarism, although he 
 continued to exhibit his strong attachment 
 to Ancient Craft Masonry. In the year 
 1749 he erected, at his own expense, a Lodge 
 2U 23 
 
 on his estates at Kittlitz, near Loban, to 
 which he gave the name of the " Lodge of 
 the Three Pillars." At the same time he 
 built there a Protestant church, the corner- 
 stone of which was laid by the brethren, 
 with the usual Masonic ceremonies. 
 
 I am compelled to suppose, from inci- 
 dents in his life which subsequently oc- 
 curred, that Hund must have visited Paris 
 a second time, and that he was there in the 
 year 1754. On the 24th of November in 
 that year, the Chevalier de Bonneville, 
 supported by some of the most distinguished 
 Masons of Paris, instituted a Chapter of 
 the High Degrees, which received the name 
 of the "Chapter of Clermont," and into 
 which he introduced the Templar system, 
 that is, the system which finds the origin 
 of Freemasonry in Templarism. In this 
 Chapter Baron Von Hund, who was then 
 in Paris, received the degrees of the Cler- 
 mont system, and there, says Thory, he 
 learned the doctrine upon which he subse- 
 quently founded his new Rite of Strict Ob- 
 servance. This doctrine was, that Free- 
 masonry owes its existence to Knight Tem- 
 plarism, of which it is the natural successor; 
 and, therefore, that every Mason is a Tem- 
 plar, although not entitled to all the privi- 
 leges of the Order until he has attained the 
 highest degree. 
 
 Von Hund returned to Germany pos- 
 sessed of powers, or a deputation granted 
 to him in Paris by which he was author- 
 ized to disseminate the high degrees in that 
 country. He was not slow to exhibit these 
 documents, and soon collected around him 
 a band of adherents. He then attempted 
 what he termed a reform in primitive Ma- 
 sonry or the simple English system of the 
 three symbolic degrees, which alone most 
 of the German Lodges recognized. The 
 result was the establishment of a new sys- 
 tem, well known as the Rite of Strict Ob- 
 servance. 
 
 But here we again encounter the em- 
 barrassments of conflicting authorities. 
 The distinctive feature of the Rite of Strict 
 Observance was, that Freemasonry is the 
 successor of Templarism ; the legend of Au- 
 mont being unhesitatingly accepted as au- 
 thentic. The author of Anti- Saint- Nicaise, 
 the book already referred to, asserted that 
 between the years 1730 and 1740 there was 
 already in Lusatia a Chapter of Templars ; 
 that he knew one, at least, who had been 
 there initiated before the innovation of the 
 Baron Von Hund ; and that the dignities 
 of Prior, Sub-prior, Prefect, and Com- 
 mander, which he professed to introduce 
 into Germany for the first time, had been 
 known there at a long antecedent period. 
 
 Ragon also asserts that the Templar sys- 
 tem of Ramsay was known in Germany be- 
 
354 
 
 HUND 
 
 HUND 
 
 fore the foundation of the Chapter of Cler- 
 mont, whence Von Hund derived his infor- 
 mation and his powers; that it consisted 
 of six degrees, to which Hund added a 
 seventh; and that at the time of Von 
 Hund's arrival in Germany this regime 
 had Baron Von Marshall as its head, to 
 whom Hund's superiors in Paris had re- 
 ferred him. 
 
 This seems to be the correct version of 
 the affair ; and so the Rite of Strict Observ- 
 ance was not actually established, but only 
 reformed and put into more active opera- 
 tion, by Von Hund. 
 
 One of the peculiarities of this Rite was, 
 that every member was called a Knight, or 
 Eques; the classical Latin for a Roman 
 knight being, by a strange inconsistency, 
 adopted by these professed Templars, in- 
 stead of the Mediaeval word Miles, which 
 had been always appropriated to the mili- 
 tary knights of chivalry. To this word was 
 appended another, and the title thus formed 
 was called the " characteristic name." Lists 
 of these characteristic names, and of the 
 persons whom they represented, are given 
 in all the registers and lists of the Rite. 
 Von Hund selected for himself the title of 
 Eques ab Ense, or Knight of the Sword; 
 and, to show the mixed military and Ma- 
 sonic character of his regime, chose for his 
 seal a square and sword crossed, or, in 
 heraldic language, saltierwise. 
 
 Von Hund divided Europe into nine 
 provinces, and called himself the Grand 
 Master of the seventh province, which em- 
 braced Lower Saxony, Prussian Poland, 
 Livonia, and Courland. He succeeded in 
 getting the Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick 
 to place himself at the head of the Rite, 
 and secured its adoption by most of the 
 Lodges of Berlin and of other parts of 
 Prussia. After this he retired into com- 
 parative inactivity, and left the Lodges of 
 his Rite to take care of themselves. 
 
 But in 1763 he was aroused by the ap- 
 pearance of one Johnson on the Masonic 
 stage. This man, whose real name was 
 Leucht, was a Jew, and had formerly been 
 the secretary of the Prince of Anhalt- 
 Bernburg, under the assumed name of 
 Becker. But, changing his name again to 
 that of Johnson, he visited the city of Jena, 
 .and proclaimed himself to the Masons 
 there as possessed of powers far more ex- 
 tensive than those of Von Hund, which 
 he pretended to have received from " un- 
 known Superiors " at Aberdeen, Scotland, 
 the supposed seat of the Templar Order, 
 which had been revived by Aumont. Von 
 Hund at first admitted the claims of John- 
 son, and recognized him as the Grand Prior 
 of the Order. Ragon says that this recog- 
 nition was a fraud on the part of Von 
 
 Hund, who had really selected Johnson as 
 his agent, to give greater strength to his 
 Rite. I am reluctant to admit the truth 
 of this charge, and am rather disposed to 
 believe that the enthusiasm and credulity 
 of Von Hund had made him for a time the 
 victim of Johnson's ostentatious preten- 
 sions. If this be so, he was soon unde- 
 ceived, and, discovering the true character 
 as well as the dangerous designs of John- 
 son, he proclaimed him to be an adven- 
 turer. He denied that Johnson had been 
 sent as a delegate from Scotland, and as- 
 serted anew that he alone was the Grand 
 Master of the Order in Germany, with the 
 power to confer the high degrees. Johnson, 
 accused of abstracting the papers of a Lord 
 of Courland, in whose service he had been, 
 and of the forgery of documents, was ar- 
 rested at Magdeburg through the influence 
 of Von Hund, on the further charges of 
 larceny and counterfeiting money, and died 
 in 1775 in prison. 
 
 Von Hund now renewed his activity as a 
 Mason, and assembled a Congress of the 
 Rite at Altenberg, where he was recognized 
 as Grand Master of the Templars, and aug- 
 mented his strength by numerous impor- 
 tant initiations. His reappearance among 
 the brethren exerted as much surprise as 
 joy, and its good effects were speedily seen 
 in a large increase of Chapters; and the 
 Rite of Strict Observance soon became the 
 predominating system in Germany. 
 
 But dissatisfaction began to appear as a 
 consequence of the high claims of the mem- 
 bers of the Rite to the possession of supe- 
 rior knowledge. The Knights looked haugh- 
 tily upon the Masons who had been invested 
 only with the primitive degrees, and these 
 were offended at the superciliousness with 
 which they were treated. A Mother Lodge 
 was established at Frankfort, which recog- 
 nized and worked only the three degrees. 
 Other systems of high degrees also arose 
 as rivals of the Rite, and Von Hund's 
 regime began to feel sensibly the effects of 
 this compound antagonism. 
 
 Hitherto the Rite of Strict Observance 
 had been cosmopolitan in its constitution, 
 admitting the believers in all creeds to its 
 bosom, and professing to revive only the 
 military and chivalric character of the an- 
 cient Templars, without any reference to 
 their religious condition. But in 1767, Von 
 Starck, the rector at Wismar, proposed to 
 engraft upon the Rite a new branch, to be 
 called the clerical system of Knights Tem- 
 plars. This was to be nominally spiritual 
 in character ; and, while announcing that 
 it was in possession of secrets not known to 
 the chivalric branch of the Order, demand- 
 ed, as preliminary to admission, that every 
 candidate should be a Roman Catholic, and 
 
HUND 
 
 ** or thi 
 #14tVER» tTY 
 
 HUTCHINSON 
 
 355 
 
 have previously received the degrees of the 
 Strict Observance. 
 
 Starck wrote to Von Hund, proposing a 
 fusion of the two branches ; and he, " be- 
 cause," to borrow the language of Findel, 
 " himself helpless and lacking expedients, 
 eagerly stretched out his hand to grasp the 
 offered assistance, and entered into connec- 
 tion with the so-called clergy." He even, 
 it is said, renounced Protestantism and be- 
 came a Catholic, so as to qualify himself 
 for admission. 
 
 In 1774, a Congress assembled at Kohlo, 
 the object of which was to reconcile the 
 difference between these two branches of 
 the Rite. Here Von Hund appears to have 
 been divested of some portion of his dig- 
 nities, for he was appointed only Provin- 
 cial Superior of Upper and Lower Alsace, 
 of Denmark and of Courland, while the 
 Grand Mastership of the Rite was con- 
 ferred on Frederick, Duke of Brunswick. 
 
 Another Congress was held in 1775, at 
 Brunswick, where Hund again appeared. 
 Here Findel, who seems to have no friendly 
 disposition towards Von Hund, charges him 
 with " indulgence in his love of outward 
 pomp and show," a charge that is not con- 
 sistent with the character given him by 
 other writers, who speak of his modesty of 
 demeanor. The question of the Superiores 
 Incogniti, or Unknown Superiors, from whom 
 Von Hund professed to derive his powers, 
 came under consideration. His replies 
 were not satisfactory. He denied that he 
 was bound to give any explanations at all, 
 and asserted that his oath precluded him 
 from saying anything more. Confidence 
 in him now declined, and the Rite to which 
 he was so much attached, and of which he 
 had been the founder and the chief sup- 
 porter, began to lose its influence. The 
 clerical branch of the Rite seceded, and 
 formed an independent Order, and the 
 Lodges of Strict Observance thenceforward 
 called themselves the "United German 
 Lodges." 
 
 With his failure at Brunswick, the func- 
 tions of Von Hund ceased. He retired 
 altogether from the field of Masonic labor, 
 and died, in the fifty-fifth year of his age, on 
 the 8th of November, 1776, at Meiningen, 
 in Prussia. The members of the Lodge 
 Minerva, at Leipsic, struck a medal in com- 
 memoration of him, which contains on the 
 obverse an urn encircled by a serpent, the 
 symbol of immortality, and on the reverse 
 a likeness of him, which is said to be ex- 
 ceedingly accurate. A copy of it may be 
 found in the Taschenbuche der Freimaurerei, 
 and in the American Quarterly Review of 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 For this amiable enthusiast, as he cer- 
 tainly was — credulous but untiring in his 
 
 devotion to Masonry ; deceived but enthu- 
 siastic ; generous and kind in his disposi- 
 tion ; whose heart was better than his head 
 — we may not entertain the profoundest 
 veneration ; but we cannot but feel an emo- 
 tion of sympathy. We know not how 
 much the antagonism and contests of years, 
 and final defeat and failure, may have em- 
 bittered his days or destroyed his energy ; 
 but we do know that he ceased the warfare 
 of life while still there ought to have been 
 the promise of many years of strength and 
 vigor. 
 
 Hungary. Masonry was introduced 
 into Hungary about the middle of the 
 eighteenth century. In 1760, a Lodge, ac- 
 cording to Hund's Templar system, wa3 
 instituted at Presburg. Smith says ( Use 
 and Abuse, p. 219,) that there were several 
 Lodges there in 1783, but none working 
 under the English Constitution. Most 
 probably they received their Warrants from 
 Germany. In 1870, there were seven 
 Lodges in Hungary. On the 30th of Jan- 
 uary in that year these Lodges met in con- 
 vention at Pesth, and organized the Grand 
 Lodge of Hungary. 
 
 Hutchinson, William. Of all the 
 Masonic writers of the last century there 
 was no one who did more to elevate the 
 spirit and character of the Institution than 
 William Hutchinson of Barnard Castle, in 
 the county of Durham, England. To him 
 are we indebted for the first philosophical 
 explanation of the symbolism of the Order, 
 and his Spirit of Masonry still remains a 
 priceless boon to the Masonic student. 
 
 Hutchinson was born in 1732, and died 
 April 7, 1814, at the ripe age of eighty-two 
 years. He was by profession a solicitor; 
 but such was his literary industry, that a 
 very extensive practice did not preclude 
 his devotion to more liberal studies. He 
 published several works of fiction, which, 
 at the time, were favorably received. His 
 first contribution to literature was The 
 Hermitage, a British Story, which was pub- 
 lished in 1772. This was followed, in 1773, 
 by a descriptive work, entitled An Excur- 
 sion to the Lakes of Westmoreland and Cum- 
 berland. In 1775, he published The Doubt- 
 ful Marriage, and in 1776 A Week in a Cot- 
 tage, and A Romance after the Fashion of 
 the Castle of Otranto. In 1778, he com- 
 menced as a dramatic writer, and besides 
 two tragedies, Pygmalion, King of Tyre and 
 Tlie Tyrant of Onia, which were never acted, 
 he also wrote The Princess of Zanfara, which 
 was successfully performed at several of the 
 provincial theatres. 
 
 Hutchinson subsequently devoted him- 
 self to archaeological studies, and became a 
 prominent member of the Royal Society of 
 Antiquaries. His labors in this direction 
 
356 
 
 HUTCHINSON 
 
 HUTCHINSON 
 
 were such as to win for him from Nichols 
 the title of "an industrious antiquary." 
 He published in 1776-4 View of Northum- 
 berland, in two volumes ; in 1785, 1787, and 
 1794, three consecutive quarto volumes of 
 The History and Antiquities of the County 
 Palatinate of Durham ; and in 1794, in two 
 quarto volumes, A History of Cumberland, 
 — works which are still referred to by schol- 
 ars as containing valuable information on 
 the subjects of which they treat, and are 
 an evidence of the learning and industry 
 of the author. 
 
 But it is as a Masonic writer that Hutch- 
 inson has acquired the most lasting reputa- 
 tion, and his labors as such have made his 
 name a household word in the Order. He 
 was for some years the Master of Barnard 
 Castle Lodge, where he sought to instruct 
 the members by the composition and deliv- 
 ery of a series of Lectures and Charges, 
 which were so far superior to those then in 
 use as to attract crowds of visitors from 
 neighboring Lodges to hear him and to 
 profit by his instructions. Some of these 
 were from time to time printed, and won so 
 much admiration from the Craft that he was 
 requested to make a selection, and publish 
 them in a permanent form. 
 
 Accordingly, he applied in 1774, for per- 
 mission to publish, to the Grand Lodge, — 
 which then assumed to be a rigid censor of 
 the Masonic press, — and, having obtained 
 it, he gave to the Masonic world the first 
 edition of his now celebrated treatise en- 
 titled, The Spirit of Masonry, in Moral and 
 Elucidatory Lectures; but the latter part of 
 the title was omitted in all the subsequent 
 editions. The sanction for its publication, 
 prefixed to the first edition, has an almost 
 supercilious sound, when we compare the 
 reputation of the work — which at once 
 created a revolution in Masonic literature 
 — with that of those who gave the sanction, 
 and whose names are preserved only by the 
 official titles which were affixed to them. 
 The sanction is in these words : 
 
 " Whereas, Brother William Hutchinson 
 has compiled a book, entitled The Spirit of 
 Masonry, and has requested our sanction 
 for the publication thereof; we, having 
 perused the said book and finding it will be 
 of use to this Society, do recommend the 
 same." This is signed by the Grand Mas- 
 ter and his Deputy, by the Grand Wardens, 
 and the Grand Treasurer and Secretary. 
 But their judgment, though tamely ex- 
 pressed, was not amiss. A century has 
 since shown that the book of Hutchinson 
 has really been " of use to the Socity." It 
 opened new thoughts on the symbolism 
 and philosophy of Masonry, which, worked 
 out by subsequent writers, have given to 
 Masonry the high rank it now holds, and 
 
 has elevated it from a convivial association, 
 such as it was in the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, to that school of reli- 
 gious philosophy which it now is. To the 
 suggestions of Hutchinson, Hemming un- 
 doubtedly owed that noble definition, that 
 " Freemasonry was a science of morality 
 veiled in allegory, and illustrated by sym- 
 bols." 
 
 The first edition of The Spirit of Mason- 
 ry was published in 1775, the second in 
 1795, the third in 1802, the fourth in 1813, 
 the fifth in 1814, and the sixth in 1815, all 
 except the last in the lifetime of the au- 
 thor. Several subsequent editions have 
 been published both in this country and in 
 Great Britain. In 1780 it was translated 
 into German, and published at Berlin un- 
 der the title of Der Geist der Freimaurerei, 
 in moralischen und erlauternden Vortragen. 
 
 Of this great work the Craft never appear 
 to have had but one opinion. It was re- 
 ceived on its first appearance with enthu- 
 siasm, and its popularity among Masonic 
 scholars has never -decreased. Dr. Oliver 
 says of it: " It was the first efficient attempt 
 to explain, in a rational and scientific man- 
 ner, the true philosophy of the Order. Dr. 
 Anderson and the writer of the Gloucester 
 sermon indicated the mine, Calcott opened 
 it, and Hutchinson worked it. In this 
 book he gives to the science its proper value. 
 After explaining his design, he enters copi- 
 ously on the rites, ceremonies, and institu- 
 tions of ancient nations. Then he dilates 
 on the Lodge, with its ornaments, furniture, 
 and jewels ; the building of the Temple ; 
 geometry ; and after explaining the third 
 degree with a minuteness which is highly 
 gratifying, he expatiates on secrecy, char- 
 ity, and brotherly love; and sets at rest all 
 the vague conjectures of cowans and unbe- 
 lievers, by a description of the occupations 
 of Masons and a masterly defence of our 
 peculiar rites and ceremonies." 
 
 The peculiar theory of Hutchinson in 
 reference to the symbolic design of Mason- 
 ryis set forth more particularly in his ninth 
 lecture, entitled " The Master Mason's Or- 
 der." His doctrine was that the lost word 
 was typical of the lost religious purity, 
 which had been occasioned by the corrup- 
 tions of the Jewish faith. The piety which 
 had planted the Temple at Jerusalem had 
 been expunged, and the reverence and 
 adoration due to God had been buried in 
 the filth and rubbish of the world, so that 
 it might well be said " that the guide to 
 heaven was lost, and the master of the 
 works of righteousness was smitten." ^ In 
 the same way he extends the symbolism. 
 " True religion," he says, " was fled. Those 
 who sought her through the wisdom of 
 the ancients were not able to raise her, 
 
HUTCHINSON 
 
 IATRIC 
 
 357 
 
 She eluded the grasp, and their polluted 
 hands were stretched forth in vain for her 
 restoration. Those who sought her by the 
 old law were frustrated, for death had step- 
 ped between, and corruption defiled the 
 embrace." 
 
 Hence the Hutchinsonian theory is, that 
 the third degree of Masonry symbolizes the 
 new law of Christ, taking the place of 
 the old law of Judaism, which had become 
 dead and corrupt. With him, Hiram or 
 Huram is only the Greek huramen, "we 
 have found it," and Acacia, from the same 
 Greek, signifies freedom from sin; and 
 "thus the Master Mason represents a man, 
 under the Christian doctrine, saved from 
 the grave of iniquity and raised to the faith 
 of salvation." 
 
 Some of Hutchinson's etymologies are 
 unquestionably inadmissible; as, when he 
 derives Tubal Cain from a corruption of the 
 Greek, tumbon choeo, " I prepare my sepul- 
 chre," and when he translates the substitute 
 word as meaning " I ardently wish for life." 
 But fanciful etymologies are the besetting 
 sin of all antiquaries. So his theory of 
 the exclusive Christian application of the 
 third degree will not be received as the 
 dogma of the present day. But such was 
 the universally recognized theory of all his 
 
 contemporaries. Still, in his enlarged and 
 elevated views of the symbolism and philo- 
 sophy of Masonry as a great moral and 
 religious science, he was immeasurably in 
 advance of his age. 
 
 In his private life, Hutchinson was greatly 
 respected for his cultivated mind and exten- 
 sive literary acquirements, while the suavity 
 of his manners and the generosity of his 
 disposition secured the admiration of all 
 who knew him. He had been long married 
 to an estimable woman, whose death was 
 followed in only two days by his own, 
 and they were both interred in the same 
 grave. 
 
 Iluttc. A word equivalent among the 
 Stone-masons of Germany, in the Middle 
 Ages, to the English word Lodge. Findel 
 defines it as "a booth made of boards, 
 erected near the edifice that was being 
 built, where the stone-cutters kept their 
 tools, carried on their work, assembled, and 
 most probably occasionally eat and slept." 
 These hutten accord exactly with the 
 Lodges which Wren describes as having 
 been erected by the English Masons around 
 the edifice they were constructing. 
 
 Huzza. The acclamation in the Scot- 
 tish Rite. In the old French rituals it is 
 generally written Lloschea. 
 
 I 
 
 I. A. A. T. Reghellini (i. 29,) says 
 that the Rose Croix Masons of Germany 
 and Italy always wear a ring of gold or 
 silver, on which are engraved these letters, 
 the initials of Ignis, Aer, Aqua, Terra, in 
 allusion to the Egyptian mystical doctrine 
 of the generation, destruction, and regen- 
 eration of all things by the four elements, 
 fire, air, water, and earth ; which doctrine 
 passed over from the Egyptians to the 
 Greeks, and was taught in the philosophy 
 of Empedocles. But these Rose Croix 
 Masons, I think, must have borrowed their 
 doctrine from the Gnostics. 
 
 I Am that I Am. The name which 
 the Grand Architect directed Moses to u^e, 
 (Exod. iii. 14,) that he might identify 
 himself to the Israelites as the messenger 
 sent to them by God. It is one of the 
 modifications of the Tetragrammaton, and 
 as such, in its Hebrew form of "IJ^K rVHN 
 J-pnNj eheyeh asher eheyeh, (the e pro- 
 nounced like a in fate,) has been adopted 
 as a significant word in the high degrees of 
 
 the York, American, and several other 
 Rites. The original Hebrew words are act- 
 ually in the future tense, and grammati- 
 cally mean I will be what 1 will be; but all 
 the versions give a present signification. 
 Thus, the Vulgate has it, I am who am; the 
 Septuagint, / am he who exists; and the 
 Arabic paraphrase, / am the Eternal who 
 passes not away. The expression seems in- 
 tended to point out the eternity and self- 
 existence of God, and such is the sense in 
 which it is used in Masonry. See Eheyeh 
 asher eheyeh. 
 
 lilt ric Masonry. From \a.TpiKT), the 
 art of medicine. Ragon, in his Orthodoxie 
 Magonnique, (p. 450,) says that this system 
 was instituted in the eighteenth century, 
 and that its adepts were occupied in the 
 search for the universal medicine. It must 
 therefore have been a Hermetic Rite. Ra- 
 gon knew very little of it, and mentions 
 only one degree, called the " Oracle of Cos." 
 The island of Cos was the birthplace of 
 Hippocrates, the father of medicine, and 
 
358 
 
 IDIOT 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 to him the degree is dedicated. The Order 
 or Rite has, I suppose, no longer an exist- 
 ence. 
 
 Idiot. Idiocy is one of the mental dis- 
 qualifications for initiation. This does not, 
 however, include a mere dulness of intel- 
 lect and indocility of apprehension. These 
 amount only to stupidity, and " the judg- 
 ment of the heavy or stupid man," as Dr. 
 Good has correctly remarked, " is often as 
 sound in itself as that of the man of more 
 capacious comprehension." The idiot is 
 defined by Blackstone as "one that hath 
 had no understanding from his nativity; 
 and therefore is by law presumed never 
 likely to attain any." A being thus men- 
 tally imperfect is incompetent to observe 
 the obligations or to appreciate the instruc- 
 tions of Freemasonry. It is true that the 
 word does not occur in any of the old Con- 
 stitutions, but from their general tenor it is 
 evident that idiots were excluded, because 
 " cunning," or knowledge and skill, are 
 everywhere deemed essential qualifications 
 of a Mason. But the ritual law is explicit 
 on the subject. 
 
 Idolatry. The worship paid to any 
 created object. It was in some one of its 
 forms the religion of the entire ancient 
 world except the Jews. The forms of idol- 
 atry are generally reckoned as four in num- 
 ber. 1. Fetichism, the lowest form, con- 
 sisting in the worship of animals, trees, 
 rivers, mountains, and stones. 2. Sabian- 
 ism or Sabaism, the worship of the sun, 
 moon, and stars. 3. Sintooism, or the wor- 
 ship of deceased ancestors or the leaders 
 of a nation. 4. Idealism, or the worship 
 of abstractions or mental qualities. Oli- 
 ver and his school have propounded the 
 theory that among the idolatrous nations 
 of antiquity, who were, of course, the de- 
 scendants, in common with the monotheis- 
 tic Jews, of Noah, there were the remains 
 of certain legends and religious truths 
 which they had received from their com- 
 mon ancestor, but which had been greatly 
 distorted and perverted in the system which 
 they practised. This system, taught in the 
 Ancient Mysteries, he called " the Spurious 
 Freemasonry " of antiquity. 
 
 Iconology. The science which teaches 
 the doctrine of images and symbolic repre- 
 sentations. It is a science collateral with 
 Masonry, and is of great importance to the 
 Masonic student, because it is engaged in 
 the consideration of the meaning and his- 
 tory of the symbols which constitute so 
 material a part of the Masonic system. 
 
 Idaho. One of the United States very 
 recently settled. In 1867 there were four 
 Lodges in what was then the Territory, 
 three chartered by the Grand Lodge of Ore- 
 gon, and one by the Grand Lodge of Wash- 
 ington Territory. In that year these 
 
 Lodges met in convention and organized 
 the Grand Lodge of Idaho. The Grand 
 Lodge is migratory, holding its sessions on 
 the first Monday in October, at such place 
 as may be determined at the previous ses- 
 sion. 
 
 Igne Natura RenoTatnr Inte- 
 gra. By fire, nature is perfectly renewed. 
 See I:. N.\ R.\ I.: 
 
 Ignorance. The ignorant Freema- 
 son is a drone and an incumbrance in the 
 Order. He who does not study the nature, 
 the design, the history, and character of the 
 Institution, but from the hour of his initia- 
 tion neither gives nor receives any ideas 
 that could not be shared by a profane, is of 
 no more advantage to Masonry than Ma- 
 sonry is to him. The true Mason seeks 
 light that darkness may be dispelled, and 
 knowledge that ignorance may be removed. 
 The ignorant aspirant, no matter how 
 loudly he may have asked for light, is still 
 a blind groper in the dark. 
 
 Ili-IIo. The Kabbalistic mode of read- 
 ing Ho-hi, one of the forms of the Tetra- 
 grammaton. See Ho- JR. 
 
 I. H. S. A monogram, to which va- 
 rious meanings have been attached. Thus, 
 these letters have been supposed to be the 
 initials of In hoc signo, words which sur- 
 rounded the cross seen by Constantine. 
 But that inscription was in Greek ; and be- 
 sides, even in a Latin translation, the letter 
 V, for vinces, would be required to complete 
 it. The Church has generally accepted the 
 monogram as containing the initials of 
 Jesus Hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour 
 of Men; a sense in which it has been 
 adopted by the Jesuits, who have taken it 
 
 in this form, I. H. S., as the badge of their 
 society. So, too, it is interpreted by the 
 Masonic Templars, on whose banners it 
 often appears. A later interpretation is ad- 
 vocated by the Cambridge Camden So- 
 ciety in a work published by them on the 
 subject. In this work they contend that 
 the monogram is of Greek origin, and is 
 the first three letters of the Greek name, 
 IHS0T2, Jesus. But the second of these 
 interpretations is the one most generally 
 received. 
 
 I jar. "V*fc{. The seventh month of 
 the Hebrew civil year. It corresponds to 
 a part of the months of May and June. 
 
 Illinois. The first Grand Lodge es- 
 tablished in this State was in the year 1822 ; 
 but this body yielded in a few years to the 
 storm of anti-Masonry which swept over 
 the country, and ceased to exist. Subse- 
 
 ?iuently, Lodges were chartered by the 
 Wand Lodges of Kentucky and other juris- 
 dictions, and on the 20th January, 1840, a 
 convention of six Lodges was held in the 
 city of Jackson, which organized the G^and 
 
ILLITERACY 
 
 ILLUMINATI 
 
 359 
 
 Lodge of Illinois. The seat of the Grand 
 Lodge ia Springfield. A Grand Chapter, 
 Grand Council, and Grand Commandery 
 were subsequently established. 
 
 Illiteracy. The word illiteracy, as 
 signifying an ignorance of letters, an inca- 
 pability to read and write, suggests the in- 
 quiry whether illiterate persons are quali- 
 fied to be made Masons. There can be no 
 doubt, from historic evidence, that at the 
 period when the Institution was operative 
 in its character, the members for the most 
 part — that is, the great mass of the Fra- 
 ternity — were unable to read or write. At 
 a time when even kings made at the foot 
 of documents the sign of the cross, "pro 
 ignorantia liter arum" because they could 
 not write their names, it could hardly be 
 expected that an Operative Mason should 
 be gifted with a greater share of education 
 than his sovereign. But the change of the 
 society from Operative to Speculative gave 
 to it an intellectual elevation, and the phi- 
 losophy and science of symbolism which 
 was then introduced could hardly be under- 
 stood by one who had no preliminary edu- 
 cation. Accordingly, the provision in all 
 Lodges, that initiation must be preceded 
 by a written petition, would seem to indi- 
 cate that no one is expected or desired to 
 apply for initiation unless he can comply 
 with that regulation, by writing, or at 
 least signing, such a petition. The Grand 
 Lodge of England does not leave this prin- 
 ciple to be settled by implication, but in 
 express words requires that a candidate 
 shall know how to write, by inserting in its 
 Constitution the provision that a candidate, 
 " previous to his initiation, must subscribe 
 his name at full length to a declaration." 
 The official commentary on this, in an ac- 
 companying note, is, that " any individual 
 who cannot write is consequently ineligible 
 to be initiated into the Order," and this is 
 now the very generally accepted law. The 
 ne varietur in Masonic diplomas, which fol- 
 lows the signature in the margin, indicates 
 that the holder is required to know how to 
 sign his name. 
 
 Illuminated Theosophists. A 
 modification of the system of Pernetty in- 
 stituted at Paris by Benedict Chastanier, 
 who subsequently succeeded in introducing 
 it into London. It consisted of nine de- 
 grees, for an account of which see Chastanier, 
 
 Illuminati. This is a Latin word, 
 signifying the enlightened, and hence often 
 applied in Latin diplomas as an epithet of 
 Freemasons. 
 
 Illuminati of Bavaria. A secret 
 society, founded on May 1, 1776, by Adam 
 Weishaupt, who was professor of canon law 
 at the University of Ingoldstadt. Its found- 
 er at first called it the Order of the Per- 
 
 fectibilists ; but he subsequently gave it the 
 name by which it is now universally known. 
 Its professed object was, by the mutual assist- 
 ance of its members, to attain the highest 
 possible degree of morality and virtue, and 
 to lay the foundation for the reformation 
 of the world by the association of good men 
 to oppose the progress of moral evil. To 
 give to the Order a higher influence, Weis- 
 haupt connected it with the Masonic insti- 
 tution, after whose system of degrees, of 
 esoteric instruction, and of secret modes of 
 recognition, it was organized. It has thus 
 become confounded by superficial writers 
 with Freemasonry, although it never could 
 be considered as properly a Masonic Rite. 
 Weishaupt, though a reformer in religion 
 and a liberal in politics, had originally 
 been a Jesuit; and he employed, therefore, 
 in the construction of his association, the 
 shrewdness and subtlety which distinguish- 
 ed the disciples of Loyola ; and having been 
 initiated in 1777 in a Lodge at Munich, he 
 also borrowed for its use the mystical or- 
 ganization which was peculiar to Freema- 
 sonry. In this latter task he was greatly 
 assisted by the Baron Von Knigge, a zeal- 
 ous and well-instructed Mason, who joined 
 the Illuminati in 1780, and soon became a 
 leader, dividing with Weishaupt the con- 
 trol and direction of the Order. 
 
 In its internal organization the Order of 
 Illuminati was divided into three great 
 classes, namely, 1. The Nursery ; 2. Syon- 
 bolic Freemasonry ; and 3. The Mysteries ; 
 each of which was subdivided into several 
 degrees, making ten in all, as in the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 I. Nursery. 
 
 After a ceremony of preparation it began : 
 
 1. Novice. 
 
 2. Mi nerval. 
 
 3. Illuminatus Minor. 
 
 II. Symbolic Freemasonry. 
 
 The first three degrees were communi- 
 cated without any exact respect to the di- 
 visions, and then the candidate proceeded : 
 
 4. Illuminatus Major, or Scottish Nov- 
 
 ice. 
 
 5. Illuminatus Dirigens, or Scottish 
 
 Knight. 
 
 III. The Mysteries. 
 
 This class was subdivided into the Les- 
 ser and the Greater Mysteries. 
 The Lesser Mysteries were : 
 
 6. Presbyter, Priest, or Epopt. 
 
 7. Prince, or Regent. 
 The Greater Mysteries were : 
 
 8. Magus. 
 
 9. Rex, or King. 
 
360 
 
 ILLUMINATI 
 
 IMMANUEL 
 
 Any one otherwise qualified could be 
 received into the degree of Novice at the 
 age of eighteen ; and after a probation of 
 not less than a year he was admitted to the 
 second and third degrees, and so on to the 
 higher degrees ; though but few reached the 
 ninth and tenth degrees, in which the in- 
 most secret designs of the Order were con- 
 tained, and, in fact, it is said that these 
 last degrees were never thoroughly worked 
 up. 
 
 The Illuminati selected for themselves 
 Order names, which were always of a classi- 
 cal character. Thus, Weishaupt called him- 
 self Spartacus, Knigge was Philo, and 
 Zvvack, another leader, was known as Cato. 
 They gave also fictitious names to coun- 
 tries. Ingoldstadt, where the Order origi- 
 nated, was called Eleusis; Austria was 
 Egypt, in reference to the Egyptian darkness 
 of that kingdom, which excluded all Ma- 
 sonry from its territories; Munich was 
 called Athens, and Vienna was Rome. The 
 Order had also its calendar, and the months 
 were designated by peculiar names; as, 
 Dimeh for January, and Bemeh for Feb- 
 ruary. They had also a cipher, in which 
 the official correspondence of the members 
 was conducted. The character CD, now so 
 much used by Masons to represent a Lodge, 
 was invented and first used by the Illumi- 
 nati. 
 
 The Order was at first very popular, and 
 enrolled no less than two thousand names 
 upon its registers, among whom were some 
 of the most distinguished men of Germany. 
 It extended rapidly into other countries, 
 and its Lodges were to be found in France, 
 Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Po- 
 land, Hungary, and Italy. 
 
 The original design of Illuminism was 
 undoubtedly the elevation of the human 
 race. Knigge, who was one of its most 
 prominent working members, and the au- 
 thor of several of its degrees, was a religious 
 man, and would never have united with it 
 had its object been, as has been charged, to 
 abolish Christianity. But it cannot be de- 
 nied, that in process of time abuses had 
 crept into the Institution, and that by the 
 influence of unworthy men the system be- 
 came corrupted ; yet the coarse accusations 
 of such writers as Barruel and Eobison 
 are known to be exaggerated, and some of 
 them altogether false. The Conversations- 
 Lexicon, for instance, declares that the 
 society had no influence whatever on the 
 French Revolution, which is charged upon 
 it by these as well as other writers. 
 
 But Illuminism came directly and pro- 
 fessedly in conflict with the Jesuits and 
 with the Roman Church, whose tendencies 
 were to repress the freedom of thought. 
 The priests became, therefore, its active 
 
 enemies, and waged war so successfully 
 against it, that on June 22, 1784, the Elec- 
 tor of Bavaria issued an edict for its sup- 
 pression. Many of its members were fined 
 or imprisoned, and some, among whom 
 was Weishaupt, were compelled to flee the 
 country. The edicts of the Elector of Ba- 
 varia were repeated in March and August, 
 1785, and the Order began to decline, so 
 that by the end of the last century it had 
 ceased to exist. Adopting Masonry only 
 as a means of its own more successful 
 propagation, and using it only as, inci- 
 dental to its own organization, it exercised 
 while in prosperity no favorable influence 
 on the Masonic institution, nor any un- 
 favorable effect on it by its dissolution. 
 
 Illuminati of Avignon. See Avig- 
 non. 
 
 Illuminati of Stockholm. An 
 Order but little known ; mentioned by Ra- 
 gon in his Catalogue as having been insti- 
 tuted for the propagation of Martinism. 
 
 Illuminism. The system or Rite 
 practised by the German Illuminati is so 
 called. 
 
 Illustrious. A title given in the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite to all 
 those who possess the thirty-second or 
 thirty-third degree. 
 
 Illustrious Elect of the Fifteen. 
 The title now generally given to the Elect 
 of Fifteen, which see. 
 
 Imitative Societies. A title some- 
 times given to those secret societies which, 
 imitating the general organization of Free- 
 masonry, differ from it entirely in their 
 character and object. Such, in the last 
 century, when at one time they abounded, 
 were the Bucks, the Sawyers, the Gormo- 
 gons, and the Gregorians ; and, in the pres- 
 ent century, the Odd Fellows, the Good 
 Templars, and the Knights of Pythias. 
 Most of them imitate the Masons in their 
 external appearance, such as the wearing 
 of aprons, collars, and jewels, and in calling 
 their places of meeting, by a strange mis- 
 nomer, Lodges. But in these points is their 
 only resemblance to the original Institu- 
 tion. 
 
 I in in a unci. A Hebrew word signi- 
 fying "God with us," from "0£]7, immanu, 
 ''with us," and Sx, el, "God." It was the 
 symbolical name given by the prophet Isa- 
 iah to the child who was announced to 
 Ahaz and the people of Judah as the sign 
 which God would give of their deliverance 
 from their enemies, and afterwards applied 
 by the Apostle Matthew to the Messiah 
 born of the Virgin. As one of the appel- 
 lations of Christ, it has been adopted as a 
 significant word in modern Templarism, 
 where, however, the form of Emanuel is 
 most usually employed. 
 
IMMORTALITY 
 
 IMPOSTORS 
 
 361 
 
 Immortality of the Soul. Very 
 wisely has Max Miiller said, [Chips, i. 45,) 
 that " without a belief in personal immor- 
 tality, religion is surely like an arch resting 
 on one pillar, like a bridge ending in an 
 abyss ; " and he cites passages from the 
 Vedas to show that to the ancient Brah- 
 mans the idea was a familiar one. Indeed, 
 almost all the nations of the earth with 
 whose religious faith we are acquainted 
 recognize the dogma, although sometimes 
 in vague and, perhaps, materialistic forms. 
 
 It was the professed teaching of the An- 
 cient Mysteries, where, in the concluding 
 rites of their initiation, the restoration of 
 the hero of their legend was a symbol of 
 the immortal life. So, too, the same doc- 
 trine is taught by a similar legendary and 
 symbolic method in the third degree of 
 Masonry. 
 
 Archdeacon Mant thus describes the dif- 
 ferences, in the teaching of this doctrine of 
 immortality, between what he calls, after 
 the school of Oliver, the spurious and the 
 true Freemasonry : 
 
 " Whereas the heathens had taught this 
 doctrine only by the application of a fable 
 to their purpose, the wisdom of the pious 
 Grand Master of the Israelitish Masons 
 took advantage of a real circumstance, 
 which would more forcibly impress the 
 sublime truths he intended to inculcate 
 upon the minds of all brethren." 
 
 It will be doubted by some of our modern 
 sceptics whether the Hiramic myth is enti- 
 tled to more authenticity as an historic 
 narrative than the Osiric or the Diony- 
 sian ; but it will not be denied that, while 
 they all taught the same dogma of immor- 
 tality, the method of teaching by symbolism 
 was in all the same. 
 
 Immovable Jewels. See Jewels of 
 a Lodge. 
 
 Implements. The Operative Free- 
 masons of the Middle Ages gave to certain 
 of their implements — the most important 
 of which were the square, the compasses, 
 the stone-hammer, or gavel, and the foot- 
 rule — a special symbolic meaning. When 
 the Operative Institution was merged in the 
 Speculative, the custom of thus spiritual- 
 izing, as it was called, these implements 
 was continued ; but the system of symbolic 
 instruction has been so greatly enlarged 
 and improved as to constitute, in fact, the 
 characteristic feature of modern Freema- 
 sonry, — a feature which widely distinguishes 
 it from all other societies, whether secret or 
 open. Thus, the twenty-four inch gauge 
 and gavel are bestowed upon the Entered 
 Apprentice because these are the imple- 
 ments used in the quarries in hewing the 
 stones and fitting them for the builder's use, 
 an occupation which, for its simplicity, is 
 2 V 
 
 properly suited to the unskilled apprentice. 
 The square, level, and plumb are employed 
 in the still further preparation of these 
 stones and in adjusting them to their proper 
 positions. This is the labor of the crafts- 
 men, and hence to the Fellow Craft are 
 they presented. But the work is not com- 
 
 Eleted until the stones thus adjusted have 
 een accurately examined by the master 
 workman, and permanently secured in their 
 places by cement. This is accomplished 
 by the trowel, and hence this implement is 
 intrusted to the Master Mason. Thus, the 
 tools attached to each degree admonish the 
 Mason, as an Apprentice, to prepare his 
 mind for the reception of the great truths 
 which are hereafter to be unfolded to him ; 
 as a Fellow Craft, to mark their importance 
 and adapt them to their proper uses ; and 
 as a Master, to adorn their beauty by the 
 practice of brotherly love and kindness, the 
 cement that binds all Masons in one com- 
 mon fraternity. 
 
 There is no doubt, as Findel says, (Hist., 
 68,) that the stone-masons were not the 
 first who symbolized the implements of 
 their craft. But they had reason, above all 
 other gilds, for investing them with a far 
 higher worth, and associating them with a 
 spiritual meaning, on account of the sacred 
 calling to which they were devoted. By 
 the erection of churches, the Master Mason 
 not only perpetuated his own name, but as- 
 sisted in giving glory to God, in spreading 
 the knowledge of Christianity, and in 
 stimulating to the practice of the Christian 
 virtues. And hence the church-building 
 Masons naturally gave a more sacred sig- 
 nification in their symbolism to the imple- 
 ments employed in such holy purposes. 
 And thus it was that they transmitted to 
 their successors, the Speculative Masons, 
 the same sacred interpretation of their 
 symbols. Modern Freemasonry has been 
 derived from an association of church 
 architects, and this accounts for the reli- 
 gious character of its symbolism. Had it 
 been the offspring of the Templars, as 
 Kamsay contends, its symbolism would 
 have been undoubtedly military, somewhat 
 like that employed by St. Paul in his 
 epistle to the Ephesians. 
 
 Impostors. Impostors in Masonry 
 may be either profanes who, never having 
 been initiated, yet endeavor to pass them- 
 selves for regular Freemasons, or Masons 
 who, having been expelled or suspended 
 from the Order, seek to conceal the fact and 
 still claim the privileges of members in 
 good standing. The false pretensions of 
 the former class are easily detected, be- 
 cause their real ignorance must after a 
 proper trial become apparent. The latter 
 class, having once been invested with the 
 
362 
 
 IN 
 
 INCORPORATION 
 
 proper instructions, can stand the test of an 
 examination ; and their true position must 
 be discovered only by information derived 
 from the Lodges which have suspended or 
 expelled them. The Tiler's oath is in- 
 tended to meet each of these cases, because 
 it requires every strange visitor to declare 
 that he has been lawfully initiated, and 
 that he is in good standing. But perjury 
 added to imposture will easily escape this 
 test. Hence the necessity for the utmost 
 caution, and therefore the Charges of 1722 
 say, " You are cautiously to examine a 
 strange brother in such a method as pru- 
 dence shall direct you, that you may 
 not be imposed on by an ignorant, false, 
 pretender, whom you are to reject with con- 
 tempt and derision, and beware of giving 
 him any hints of knowledge." The Ma- 
 sonic rule is, that it is better that ninety 
 and nine true brethren be rejected than 
 that one impostor be admitted. 
 
 In Activity. When a Lodge is per- 
 forming all its duties and functious, and is 
 regularly represented in the Grand Lodge, 
 it is said to be in activity, in contradistinc- 
 tion to a Lodge which has ceased to work 
 or hold communications, which is said to 
 be dormant. 
 
 Inauguration. A word applied by 
 the ancient Romans to the ceremony by 
 which, after the augurs had been consulted, 
 some thing or person was solemnly conse- 
 crated. The consecration of a Master of a 
 Lodge to his office, which is equivalent to 
 the ancient inauguration of a priest or 
 king, is in Masonic language called an In- 
 stallation, which see. 
 
 Incense. The use of incense as a 
 part of the divine worship was common to 
 all the nations of antiquity. Among the 
 Hebrews, the Egyptians, and the Hindus it 
 seems to have been used for no other pur- 
 poses ; but the Persians burnt it also before 
 the king. The Roman Catholic Church has 
 borrowed the usage from the ancients ; and 
 the burning of incense in certain sacred 
 rites is also practised in Masonry, especially 
 in the high degrees. In Scripture, incense 
 is continually spoken of, both in the Old 
 and the New Testaments, as a symbol of 
 prayer. Thus the Psalmist says, (cxli. 2,) 
 " Let my prayer be set before thee as in- 
 cense." It has in Masonry a similar signi- 
 fication ; and hence the pot of incense has 
 been adopted as a symbol in the third de- 
 gree, typifying the pure heart from which 
 Srayers and aspirations arise, as incense 
 oes from the pot or incensorium, as an 
 acceptable sacrifice to the Deity. 
 
 Inchoate Lodges. From the Latin, 
 inchoatus, unfinished, incomplete. Lodges 
 working under the dispensation of the 
 Grand Master are said to be " inchoate " or 
 
 incomplete, because they do not possess all 
 the rights and prerogatives that belong to 
 a Lodge working under the Warrant of 
 constitution of a Grand Lodge. The same 
 term is applied to Chapters which work 
 under the dispensation of a Grand High 
 Priest. See Lodges under Dispensation. 
 
 Incommunicable. The Tetra- 
 grammaton, so called because it was not 
 common to, and could not be bestowed 
 upon, nor shared by, any other being. It 
 was proper to the true God alone. Thus 
 Drusius (Telragrammaton, sive de Nomine 
 Dei proprio, p. 108,) says, "Nomen quatuor 
 literarum proprie et absolute non tribui 
 nisi Deo vero. Unde doctores catholici di- 
 cunt incommunicabile [not common] esse 
 creaturae." 
 
 That is: "The name of four letter?, 
 which is not to be attributed, properly and 
 absolutely, except to the true God. Whence 
 the Catholic doctors say that it is incom- 
 municable, not common to or to be shared 
 by any creature." Oliver, in his Symbolic 
 Dictionary, commits a curious blunder in 
 supposing that the Incommunicable Name 
 is the Name not to be communicated to or 
 pronounced by any one; thus incorrectly 
 confounding the words incommunicable and 
 ineffable. Although the two epithets are 
 applied to the same name, yet the qualities 
 of incommunicability and ineffability are 
 very different. 
 
 Incorporation. By an act of in- 
 corporation, the supreme legislature of a 
 country creates a corporation or body poli- 
 tic, which is defined by Mr. Kyd ( Corp., i. 
 13,) to be "a collection of many individuals 
 united in one body, under a special denomi- 
 nation, having perpetual succession under 
 an artificial form, and vested by the policy 
 of the law with a capacity of acting in several 
 respects as an individual, particularly of 
 taking and granting property, contracting 
 obligations, and of suing and being sued ; 
 of enjoying privileges and immunities in 
 common, and of exercising a variety of po- 
 litical rights." Some Grand Lodges in this 
 country are incorporated by act of the Gen- 
 eral Assembly of their respective States; 
 others are not, and these generally hold 
 their property through Trustees. In 1768, 
 an effort was made in the Grand Lodge of 
 England to petition Parliament for incor- 
 poration, and after many discussions the 
 question was submitted to the Lodges; a 
 large majority of whom having agreed to 
 the measure, a bill was introduced in Par- 
 liament by the Deputy Grand Master, but, 
 being approved on its second reading, at 
 the request of several of the Fraternity, 
 who had petitioned the House against it, 
 it was withdrawn by the mover, and thus 
 the design of an incorporation fell to the 
 
INDEFEASIBLE 
 
 INDUCTOR 
 
 363 
 
 ground. Perhaps the best system of Ma- 
 sonic incorporation in existence is that of 
 the Grand Lodge of South Carolina. There 
 the act, by which the Grand Lodge was in- 
 corporated, in 1817, delegates to that body 
 the power of incorporating its subordi- 
 nates ; so that a Lodge, whenever it receives 
 from the Grand Lodge a Warrant of con- 
 stitution, acquires thereby at once all the 
 rights of a corporate body, which it ceases 
 to exercise whenever the said Warrant is 
 revoked by the Grand Lodge. 
 
 Objections have been made to the incor- 
 poration of Lodges in consequence of some 
 of the legal results which would follow. 
 An incorporated Lodge becomes subject to 
 the surveillance of the courts of law, from 
 which an unincorporated Lodge is exempt. 
 Thus, a Mason expelled by an unincorpo- 
 rated Lodge must look for his redress to the 
 Grand Lodge alone. But if the Lodge be 
 incorporated, he may apply to the courts 
 for a restoration of his franchise as a mem- 
 ber. Masonic discipline would thus be 
 seriously affected. The objection to incor- 
 poration is, I think, founded on good rea- 
 sons. 
 
 Indefeasible. Unavoidable, that 
 which cannot be voided or taken away. 
 The word is thus used in the second of 
 the Charges of 1722, where, speaking of a 
 brother who has been guilty of treason or 
 rebellion, it is said that he cannot for this 
 cause be expelled from the Lodge, and that 
 "his relation to it remains indefeasible." It 
 is a law term, which is usually applied to 
 an estate or right which cannot be defeated. 
 
 Indelibility. The indelibility of the 
 Masonic character, as expressed in the 
 often repeated maxim, '"'once a Mason, 
 always a Mason," is universally admitted. 
 That is to say. no voluntary or even forced 
 withdrawal from the Order can cancel cer- 
 tain obligations which have been contracted, 
 and place the person withdrawing in pre- 
 cisely the same relative position towards 
 the Institution that he had occupied before 
 his initiation. 
 
 Indented Tarsel. In the old rituals 
 these words were used for what is now called 
 the tessellated border. See Tarsel. 
 
 Indented Tessel. The ornamented 
 border which surrounds the Mosaic pave- 
 ment. See Tessellated Border. 
 
 India. In 1728, Lord Kingston, Grand 
 Master of England, granted a Deputation 
 to George Pomfret, Esq., for Bengal, in the 
 East Indies, but no action seems to have 
 been taken, under that authority, until 
 1740, in which year the Lodge Star in the 
 East, No. 70 on the English Register, was 
 established at Calcutta; and this may there- 
 fore be considered as the era of the intro- 
 duction of Freemasonry into India. In 
 
 Hutchinson's List of Lodges we find the 
 next established at Madras in 1752 ; a third 
 at Bombay in 1757 ; and a fourth at Cal- 
 cutta in 1761. From that time Masonry 
 made rapid progress in India, and in 1779 
 there was scarcely a town of importance 
 in Hindustan in which there was not a 
 Lodge. The dissensions of the Ancients 
 and the Moderns, which commenced in 
 England in 1738, unhappily spread to In- 
 dia, and an Ancient York Lodge was estab- 
 lished on the coast of Coromandel. This 
 subsequently voluntarily surrendered its 
 Warrant, and all differences were reconciled 
 in 1787, by the establishment of a Provin- 
 cial Grand Lodge, of which Brigadier-Gen- 
 eral Home was appointed Provincial Grand 
 Master by the Duke of Cumberland. Tem- 
 plarism and Royal Arch Masonry were sub- 
 sequently introduced, and Lodges, Chap- 
 ters, and Commanderies are now in success- 
 ful operation. 
 
 Indiana. Freemasonry was intro- 
 duced into the State of Indiana in 1807, 
 by the establishment of Vincennes Lodge, 
 No. 15, at Vincennes, under a Warrant 
 granted by the Grand Lodge of Kentucky. 
 Five other Lodges were subsequently char- 
 tered by the same authority. On Dec. 3, 
 
 1817, a convention assembled at Corydon, 
 at which were present the representatives 
 of six chartered Lodges, and two under dis- 
 pensation from Kentucky, and one under 
 dispensation from Ohio. The convention, 
 having taken the preliminary steps, ad- 
 journed to meet at Madison on Jan. 12, 
 
 1818, on which day the Grand Lodge was 
 organized. 
 
 The Grand Chapter was established in 
 1845 ; the Grand Commandery on May 16, 
 1854, and the Grand Council of Royal* and 
 Select Masters on Dec. 11, 1855. 
 
 Indifferent**. A secret society of 
 men and women established in Paris, in 
 1738, in imitation of Freemasonry. The 
 object of the society was to protect its 
 members from the influence of love, and 
 hence it wore, as an appropriate device, a 
 jewel representing an icicle. 
 
 Induetion. 1. The Master of a 
 Lodge, when installed into office, is said to 
 be inducted into the Oriental Chair of King 
 Solomon. The same term is applied to 
 the reception of a candidate into the Past 
 Master's degree. The word is derived from 
 the language of the law, where the giving a 
 clerk or parson possession of his benefice is 
 called his induction. 2. Induction is also 
 used to signify initiation into the degree 
 called Thrice Illustrious Order of the 
 Cross. 
 
 Indnetor. The Senior and Junior 
 Inductors are officers in a Council of the 
 Thrice Illustrious Order of the Cross, cor- 
 
364 
 
 INDUSTRY 
 
 INHERENT 
 
 responding to the Senior and Junior Dea- 
 cons. 
 
 Industry. A virtue inculcated 
 amongst Masons, because by it they are 
 enabled not only to support themselves 
 and families, but to contribute to the re- 
 lief of worthy distressed brethren. " All 
 Masons," say the Charges of 1722, "shall 
 work honestly on working days that they 
 may live creditably on holy days." The 
 Masonic symbol of industry is the beehive, 
 which is used in the third degree. 
 
 Ineffable Degrees. From the Latin 
 word, ineffabilis, that which cannot or ought 
 not to be spoken or expressed. The de- 
 grees from the fourth to the fourteenth 
 inclusive of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite, and are so called because they 
 are principally engaged in the investigation 
 and contemplation of the Ineffable name. 
 
 Ineffable IVame. It was forbidden 
 to the Jews to pronounce the Tetragramma- 
 ton or sacred name of God ; a reverential 
 usage which is also observed in Masonry. 
 Hence the Tetragrammaton is called the 
 Ineffable Name. As in Masonry, so in all 
 the secret societies of antiquity, much mys- 
 tery has been attached to the Divine Name, 
 which it was considered unlawful to pro- 
 nounce, and for which some other word 
 was substituted. Adonai was among the 
 Hebrews the substitute for the Tetragram- 
 maton. 
 
 Ineligible. Who are and who are not 
 ineligible for initiation into the mysteries 
 of Freemasonry is treated of under the 
 head of Qualifications, which see. 
 
 Information, Lawful. One of the 
 modes of recognizing a stranger as a true 
 brother, is from the " lawful information " 
 of a third party. No Mason can lawfully 
 give information of another's qualifications 
 unless he has actually tested him by the 
 strictest trial and examination, or knows 
 that it has been done by another. But it 
 is not every Mason who is competent to give 
 "lawful information." Ignorant and un- 
 skilful brethren cannot do so, because they 
 are incapable of discovering truth or of de- 
 tecting error. A "rusty Mason" should 
 never attempt to examine a stranger, and 
 certainly, if he does, his opinion as to the 
 result is worth nothing. If the informa- 
 tion given is on the ground that the party 
 who is vouched for has been seen sitting 
 in a Lodge, care must be taken to inquire 
 if it was a "just and legally constituted 
 Lodge of Master Masons." A person may 
 forget from the lapse of time, and vouch 
 for a stranger as a Master Mason, when the 
 Lodge in which he saw him was only 
 opened in the first or second degree. In- 
 formation given by letter, or through a 
 third party, is irregular. The person giving 
 
 the information, the one receiving it, and 
 the one of whom it is given, should all be 
 present at the same time, for otherwise 
 there would be no certainty of identity. 
 The information must be positive, not 
 founded on belief or opinion, but derived 
 from a legitimate source. And, lastly, it 
 must not have been received casually, but 
 for the very purpose of being used for 
 Masonic purposes. For one to say to an- 
 other, in the course of a desultory conver- 
 sation, " A. B. is a Mason," is not sufficient. 
 He may not be speaking with due caution, 
 under the expectation that his words will 
 be considered of weight. He must say 
 something to this effect: "I know this man 
 to be a Master Mason, for such or such 
 reasons, and you may safely recognize him 
 as such." This alone will ensure the neces- 
 sary care and proper observance of pru- 
 dence. 
 
 Inherent Rights of a Grand 
 Master. This has been a subject of fer- 
 tile discussion among Masonic jurists, al- 
 though only a few have thought proper to 
 deny the existence of such rights. Upon 
 the theory which, however recently con- 
 troverted, has very generally been recog- 
 nized, that Grand Masters existed before 
 Grand Lodges were organized, it must be 
 evident that the rights of a Grand Master 
 are of two kinds — those, namely, which 
 he derives from the Constitution of a Grand 
 Lodge of which he has been made the pre- 
 siding officer, and those which exist in the 
 office independent of any Constitution, be- 
 cause they are derived from the landmarks 
 and ancient usages of the Craft. The rights 
 and prerogatives which depend on and are 
 prescribed by the Constitution may be 
 modified or rescinded by that instrument. 
 They differ in different jurisdictions, be- 
 cause one Grand Lodge may confer more 
 or less power upon its presiding officer than 
 another ; and they differ at different times, 
 because the Constitution of every Grand 
 Lodge is subject, in regard to its internal 
 regulations, to repeated alteration and 
 amendment. These may be called the acci- 
 dental rights of a Grand Master, because they 
 are derived from the accidental provisions 
 of a Grand Lodge, and have in them noth- 
 ing essential to the integrity of the office. 
 It is unnecessary to enumerate them, be- 
 cause they may be found in varied modifi- 
 cations in the Constitutions of all Grand 
 Lodges. But the rights and prerogatives 
 which Grand Masters are supposed to have 
 possessed, not as the presiding officers of 
 an artificial body, but as the rulers of the 
 Craft in general, before Grand Lodges came 
 into existence, and which are dependent, 
 not on any prescribed rules which may be 
 enacted to-day and repealed to-morrow, 
 
IN 
 
 INNOVATIONS 
 
 365 
 
 but on the long-continued usages of the 
 Order and the concessions of the Craft from 
 time out of mind, inhere in the office, and 
 cannot be augmented or diminished by 
 the action of any authority, because they 
 are landmarks, and therefore unchangeable. 
 These are culled the inherent rights of a 
 Grand Master. They comprise the right 
 to preside over the Craft whenever assem- 
 bled, to grant dispensations, and, as a part 
 of that power, to make Masons at sight. 
 
 In IIoc Signo Vinces. On the 
 Grand Standard of a Commandery of 
 Knights Templars these words are inscribed 
 over " a blood-red Passion Cross," and they 
 constitute in part the motto of the Ameri- 
 can branch of the Order. Their meaning, 
 " by this sign thou shalt conquer," is a sub- 
 stantial, but not literal, translation of the 
 original Greek, ev tcvtu vina. For the ori- 
 gin of the motto, we must go back to a 
 well-known legend of the church, which 
 has, however, found more doubters than 
 believers among the learned. Eusebius, 
 who wrote a life of Constantino, says that 
 while the emperor was in Gaul, in the year 
 312, preparing for war with his rival, Max- 
 entius, about tbe middle hours of the day, 
 as the sun began to verge towards its set- 
 ting, he saw in the heavens, with his own 
 eyes, the sun surmounted with the trophy 
 of the cross, which was composed of light, 
 and a legend annexed, which said " by this 
 conquer." This account Eusebius affirms to 
 be in the words of Constantine. Lactan- 
 tius, who places the occurrence at a later 
 date and on the eve of a battle with Max- 
 entius, in which the latter was defeated, 
 relates it not as an actual occurrence, but 
 as a dream or vision ; and this is now the 
 generally received opinion of those who do 
 not deem the whole legend a fabrication. 
 On the next day Constantine had an image 
 of this cross made into a banner, called the 
 labarum, which he ever afterwards used as 
 the imperial standard. Eusebius describes 
 it very fully. It was not a Passion Cross, 
 such as is now used on the modern Tem- 
 plar standard, but the monogram of Christ. 
 The shaft was a very long spear. On the 
 top was a crown composed of gold and pre- 
 cious stones, and containing the sacred 
 symbol, namely, the Greek letter rho or P, 
 intersected by the chi or X, which two let- 
 ters are the first and second of the name 
 XPI2T02, or CHRIST. If, then, the Tem- 
 plars retain the motto on their banner, they 
 should, for the sake of historical accuracy, 
 discard the Passion Cross, and replace it 
 with the Constantinian Chronogram, or 
 Cross of the Labarum. But the truth is, 
 that the ancient Templars used neither the 
 Passion Cross, nor that of Constantine, nor 
 yet the motto in hoc signo vinces on their 
 
 standard. Their only banner was the black 
 and white Beauseant, and at the bottom of 
 it wa3 inscribed their motto, " Non nobis 
 Domine, non nobis, sed nomini tuo da glo- 
 riam," — not unto us, Lord, not unto us, 
 but unto thee give the glory. This was the 
 song or shout of victory sung by the Tem- 
 plars when triumphant in battle. 
 
 Ill Menioriam. Lat. As a memo- 
 rial. Words frequently placed at the heads 
 of pages in the transactions of Grand 
 Lodges on which are inscribed the names 
 of brethren who have died during the past 
 year. The fuller phrase, of which they are 
 an abbreviated form, is " In perpetuam rei 
 memoriam," As a perpetual memorial of the 
 event. Words often inscribed on pillars 
 erected in commemoration of some person 
 or thing. 
 
 Initiate. (Iniliatus.) 1. The fifth and 
 last degree of the Order of the Temple ; 2. 
 The eleventh degree of the Rite of Philale- 
 tb.es ; 3. The candidate in any of the de- 
 grees of Masonry is called an Initiate. 
 
 Initiated Knight and Brother 
 of Asia. The thirty-second degree of the 
 Order of Initiated Brothers of Asia. See 
 Asia, Brotliers of. 
 
 Initiate in the Egyptian Se- 
 crets. The second degree in the Rite of 
 African Architects. 
 
 Initiate in the Mysteries. The 
 twenty-first degree in the Metropolitan 
 Chapter of France. 
 
 Initiate in the Profound Mys- 
 teries. The sixty-second degree of the 
 collection of the Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. 
 
 Initiation. A term used by the Ro- 
 mans to designate admission into the mys- 
 teries of their sacred and secret rites. It 
 is derived from the word initio,, which sig- 
 nifies the first principles of a science. Thus 
 Justin {Lib. xi., c. 7,) says of Mida, king of 
 Phrygia, that he was initiated into the 
 mysteries by Orpheus. " Ab Orpheo sacro- 
 rum solemnibus initiatus." The Greeks 
 used the term Mvarayuyla, from fivaTTjpLov, a 
 mystery. From the Latin, the Masons 
 have adopted the word to signify a recep- 
 tion into their Order. It is sometimes spe- 
 cially applied to a reception into the first 
 degree, but he who has been made an En- 
 tered Apprentice is more correctly said to 
 be Entered. See Mysteries. 
 
 Inner Guard. An officer of a Lodge, 
 according to the English system, whose 
 functions correspond in some particulars 
 with those of the Junior Deacon in the 
 American Rite. His duties are to admit 
 visitors, to receive candidates, and to obey 
 the commands of the Junior Warden. This 
 officer is unknown in the American system. 
 
 Innovations. There is a well-known 
 
366 
 
 INNOVATIONS 
 
 I.-. N.\ R.-. I. 
 
 maxim of the law which says Omnis inno- 
 vatio plus novitate perturbat quam utililate 
 prodest, that is, every innovation occasions 
 more harm and disarrangement by its nov- 
 elty than benefit by its actual utility. This 
 maxim is peculiarly applicable to Freema- 
 sonry, whose system is opposed to all in- 
 novations. Thus Dr. Dalcho says, in his 
 Ahiman Rezon, (p. 191,) "Antiquity is 
 dear to a Mason's heart; innovation is 
 treason, and saps the venerable fabric of 
 the Order." In accordance with this sen- 
 timent, we find the installation charges of 
 the Master of a Lodge affirming that "it is 
 not in the power of any man or body of 
 men to make innovations in the body of 
 Masonry." 
 
 By the "body of Masonry " is here meant, 
 undoubtedly, the landmarks, which have 
 always been declared to be unchangeable. 
 The non-essentials, such as the local and 
 general regulations and the lectures, are 
 not included in this term. The former are 
 changing every day, accordingly as experi- 
 ence or caprice suggests improvement or 
 alteration. The most important of these 
 changes in this country has been the aboli- 
 tion of the Quarterly Communications of 
 the Grand Lodge, and the substitution for 
 them, except, perhaps, in a single State, of 
 an Annual Communication. But, after all, 
 this is, perhaps, only a recurrence to first 
 usages ; for, although Anderson says that in 
 1717 the Quarterly Communications " were 
 revived," there is no evidence extant that 
 before that period the Masons ever met 
 except once a year in their " General As- 
 sembly." If so, the change in 1717 was an 
 innovation, and not that which has almost 
 universally prevailed in America. 
 
 The lectures, which are but the commen- 
 taries on the ritual and the interpretation 
 of the symbolism, have been subjected, from 
 the time of Anderson to the present day, to 
 repeated modifications. 
 
 But notwithstanding the repugnance of 
 Masons to innovations, a few have occurred 
 in the Order. Thus, in the schism which 
 took place in the middle of the eighteenth 
 century, and which resulted in the forma- 
 tion of the Grand Lodge of Ancients, as 
 they called themselves in contradistinction 
 to the regular Grand Lodge of England, 
 which was styled the Grand Lodge of 
 Moderns, the former body, to prevent the 
 intrusion of the latter upon their meetings, 
 made changes in some of the modes of re- 
 cognition, — changes which, although Dal- 
 cho has said that they amounted to no 
 more than a dispute " whether the glove 
 should be placed first upon the right hand 
 or on the left," (Ahim. Rez., 193,) were 
 among the causes of continuous acrimony 
 among the two bodies, which was only 
 
 healed, in 1813, by a partial sacrifice of 
 principle on the part of the legitimate 
 Grand Lodge, and have perpetuated differ- 
 ences which still exist among the English 
 and American and the continental Freema- 
 sons. 
 
 But the most important innovation which 
 sprang out of this unfortunate schism is 
 that which is connected with the Royal 
 Arch degree. On this subject there have 
 been two theories: One, that the Royal 
 Arch degree originally constituted a part 
 of the Master's degree, and that it was dis- 
 severed from it by the Ancients ; the other, 
 that it never had any existence until it was 
 invented by Ramsay, and adopted by Der- 
 mott for his Ancient Grand Lodge. If the 
 first, which is the most probable and the 
 most generally received opinion, be true, 
 then the regular or Modern Grand Lodge 
 committed an innovation in continuing the 
 disseverance at the union in 1813. If the 
 second be the true theory, then the Grand 
 Lodge equally perpetuated an innovation 
 in recognizing it as legal, and declaring, as 
 it did, that " Ancient Craft Masonry con- 
 sists of three degrees, including the Holy 
 Royal Arch." But however the innovation 
 may have been introduced, the Royal Arch 
 degree has now become, so far as the York 
 and American Rites are concerned, well 
 settled and recognized as an integral part 
 of the Masonic system. 
 
 About the same time there was another 
 innovation attempted in France. The ad- 
 herents of the Pretender, Charles Edward, 
 sought to give to Masonry a political bias 
 in favor of the exiled house of Stuarts, 
 and, for this purpose, altered the interpre- 
 tation of the great legend of the third de- 
 gree, so as to make it applicable to the exe- 
 cution or, as they called it, the martyrdom 
 of Charles the First. But this attempted 
 innovation was not successful, and the sys- 
 tem in which this lesson was practised has 
 ceased to exist, although its workings are 
 now and then seen in some of the high de- 
 grees, without, however, any manifest evil 
 effect. 
 
 On the whole, the spirit of Freemasonry, 
 so antagonistic to innovation, has been suc- 
 cessfully maintained; and an investigator 
 of the system as it prevailed in the year 
 1717, and as it is maintained at the present 
 day, will not refrain from wonder at the 
 little change which has been brought about 
 by the long cycle of one hundred and fifty 
 years. 
 
 I.*. IX.'. R.*. I.*. The initials of the 
 Latin sentence which was placed upon the 
 cross : Jesus Nazarenu* Bex Judceorum. The 
 Rosicrucians used them as the initials of 
 one of their hermetic secrets : Igne Natura 
 Benovatur Integra, " By fire, nature is per- 
 
INSIGNIA 
 
 INTEGRITY 
 
 367 
 
 fectly renewed." They also adopted them 
 to express the names of their three ele- 
 mentary principles — salt, sulphur, and mer- 
 cury — by making them the initials of the 
 sentence, Igne Nitrum Boris Invenitur. Ra- 
 gon finds in the equivalent Hebrew letters 
 i"\^ the initials of the Hebrew names of 
 the ancient elements: Iaminim, water; 
 Nour, fire ; Ruach, air ; and Iebschah, earth. 
 
 Insignia. See Jewels of Office. 
 
 Inspector. See Sovereign Grand In- 
 spector General. 
 
 Installation. The act by which an 
 officer is put in possession of the place he 
 is to fill. In Masonry it is, therefore, ap- 
 plied to the induction of one who has been 
 elected into his office. The officers of a 
 Lodge, before they can proceed to discharge 
 their functions, must be installed. The 
 officers of a new Lodge are installed by the 
 Grand Master, or by some Past Master 
 deputed by him to perform the ceremony. 
 Formerly, the Master was installed by the 
 Grand Master, the Wardens by the Grand 
 Wardens, and the Secretary and Treasurer 
 by the Grand Secretary and Treasurer ; but 
 now this custom is not continued. At the 
 election of the officers of an old Lodge, the 
 Master is installed by his predecessor or 
 some Past Master present, and the Master 
 elect then installs his subordinate officers. 
 No officer after his installation can resign. 
 At his installation, the Master receives the 
 degree of Past Master. It is a law of Ma- 
 sonry that all officers hold on to their re- 
 spective offices until their successors are 
 installed. It is installation only that gives 
 the right to exercise the franchises of an 
 office. 
 
 The ceremony is an old one, and does not 
 pertain exclusively to Masonry. The an- 
 cient Romans installed their priests, their 
 kings, and their magistrates ; but the cere- 
 mony was called inauguration, because per- 
 formed generally by the augurs. The word 
 installation is of comparatively modern ori- 
 gin, being Mediaeval Latin, and is com- 
 pounded of in and stallum, a seat. Priests, 
 after ordination or reception into the sacer- 
 dotal order, were installed into the churches 
 or parishes to which they were appointed. 
 The term as well as the custom is still in 
 use. 
 
 Installation as a Masonic ceremony was 
 early used. We find in the first edition of 
 Anderson's Constitutions, a form of " Con- 
 stituting a New Lodge," which was practised 
 by the Duke of Wharton, who was Grand 
 Master in 1723. It was probably prepared 
 by Desaguliers, who was Deputy, or by An- 
 derson, who was one of the Wardens, and 
 perhaps by both. It included the cere- 
 mony of installing the new Master and 
 Wardens. The words " Shall, in due form, 
 
 install them " are found in this document. 
 The usage then was for the Grand Master, 
 or some brother for him, to install the Mas- 
 ter, and for the Master to install his War- 
 dens ; a usage which still exists. 
 
 Installed Masters, Board of. 
 An expression used in England to desig- 
 nate a committee of Masters to whom " the 
 Master elect is presented that he may re- 
 ceive from his predecessor the benefit of 
 installation." It is the same as the emer- 
 gent Lodge of Past Masters assembled in 
 this country for the same purpose. 
 
 Installing Officer. The person who 
 performs the ceremony of installation is 
 thus called. He should be of the same 
 official dignity at least; although necessity 
 has sometimes permitted a Grand Master 
 to be installed by a Past Deputy, who in 
 such case acts as locum tenens of a Grand 
 Master. The Masonic rule is that any one 
 who has been installed into an office may 
 install others into similar or inferior offices. 
 In this it agrees with the old Rabbinical 
 law as described by Maimonides, (Stat, de 
 Sanhed., c. 4,) who says : " Formerly, all 
 Rabbis who had been installed, hasmocha- 
 chim, could install others; but since the 
 time of Hillel the faculty can be exercised 
 only by those who have been invested with 
 it by the Prince of the Grand Sanhedrim; 
 nor then, unless there be two witnesses 
 present, for an installation cannot be per- 
 formed by less than three." So the strict 
 Masonic rule requires the presence of three 
 Past Masters in the complete installation 
 of a Master and his investiture with the 
 Past Master's degree. 
 
 The first Master of a new Lodge can be 
 installed only by the Grand Master, or by a 
 Past Master especially appointed by him 
 and acting as his proxy. 
 
 Instruction. It is the duty of the 
 Master of the Lodge to give the necessary 
 instruction to the candidate on his initia- 
 tion. In some of the higher and in the 
 continental Rites these instructions are 
 imparted by an officer called the Orator; 
 but the office is unknown in the English 
 and American systems of Ancient Craft 
 Masonry. 
 
 Instruction, todge of. See Lodge 
 of Instruction. 
 
 Instructive Tongue. See Tongue, 
 the Instructive. 
 
 Instrumental Masonry. Oliver 
 by this term defines a species of Masonry 
 which is engaged in the study of mechani- 
 cal instruments. But I find no authority in 
 any other writer for the use of the term, nor 
 can I perceive its necessity or relevancy. 
 
 Integrity. Integrity of purpose and 
 conduct is symbolized by the plumb, which 
 
368 
 
 INTEMPERANCE 
 
 IONIC 
 
 Intemperance. This is a vice which 
 is wholly incompatible with the Masonic 
 character, and the habitual indulgence in 
 which subjects the offender to the penalty of 
 expulsion from the Order. See Temperance. 
 
 I nt curia nl or the Building. [In- 
 tendant du Bdtiment.) This degree is some- 
 times called " Master in Israel." It is the 
 eighth in the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite. Its emblematic color is red; and 
 its principal officers, according to the old 
 rituals, are a Thrice Puissant, representing 
 Solomon; a Senior Warden, representing 
 the illustrious Tito, one of the Harodim ; 
 and a Junior Warden, representing Adoni- 
 ram the son of Abda. But in the present 
 rituals of the two Supreme Councils of the 
 United States the three chief officers repre- 
 sent Adoniram, Joabert, and Stolkin ; but 
 in the working of the degree the past officer 
 assumes the character of Solomon. The 
 legend of the degree is, that it was insti- 
 tuted to supply the place of the chief archi- 
 tect of the Temple. 
 
 Intention. The obligations of Ma- 
 sonry are required to be taken with an 
 honest determination to observe them ; and 
 hence the Mason solemnly affirms that in 
 assuming those responsibilities he does so 
 without equivocation, secret evasion, or 
 mental reservation. 
 
 Internal Preparation. See Pre- 
 paration of Candidates. 
 
 Internal Qualifications. Those 
 qualifications of a candidate which refer 
 to a condition known only to himself, and 
 which are not patent to the world, are called 
 internal qualifications. They are : 1st. That 
 he comes forward of his own free-will and 
 accord, and unbiassed by the solicitations 
 of others. 2d. That he is not influenced 
 by mercenary motives; and, 3d, That he 
 has a disposition to conform to the usages 
 of the Order. The knowledge of these can 
 only be obtained from his own statements, 
 and hence they are included in the pre- 
 liminary questions which are proposed be- 
 fore initiation. See Questions to Candidates. 
 
 Intimate Initiate. [Intimus Initia- 
 tes.) Lat. The fourth degree of the Order 
 of the Temple. 
 
 . Intimate Secretary. {Secretaire in- 
 time.) The sixth degree in the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite. Its emblem- 
 atic color is black, strewed with tears; and 
 its collar and the lining of the apron are 
 red. Its officers are only three : Solomon, 
 King of Israel ; Hiram, King of Tyre ; and 
 a Captain of the Guards. Its history records 
 an instance of unlawful curiosity, the pun- 
 ishment of which was only averted by the 
 previous fidelity of the offender. The legend 
 in this degree refers to the cities in Galilee 
 which were presented by Solomon to Hiram, 
 
 King of Tyre; and with whose character 
 the latter was so displeased that he called 
 them the land of Cabul. 
 
 Introductor and Introduc- 
 tress. Officers in a Lodge of Adoption, 
 whose functions resemble those of a Master 
 of Ceremonies. 
 
 Intrusting. That portion of the cere- 
 mony of initiation which consists in com- 
 municating to the candidate the modes of 
 recognition. 
 
 Investiture. The presentation of the 
 apron to a candidate in the ceremony of 
 initiation. 
 
 Invincible. The degree of Knights 
 of the Christian Mark, formerly conferred 
 in this country, was called the Invincible 
 Order, and the title of the presiding officer 
 was Invincible Knight. 
 
 Inwood, Jetbro. The Rev. Jethro 
 Inwood was curate of St. Paul's at Dept- 
 ford, in England. He was born about the 
 year 1767, and initiated into Masonry in 
 1785 as a lewis, according to Oliver. He 
 was soon after appointed Chaplain of the 
 Provincial Grand Lodge of Kent, an office 
 which he held for more than twenty years, 
 during which time he delivered a great 
 number of sermons on festival and other 
 occasions. A volume of these sermons was 
 published in 1799, with a portrait of the 
 author, under the title of Sermons, in which 
 are explained and enforced the religious, 
 moral, and political virtues of Freemasonry, 
 preached upon several occasions before the 
 Provincial Grand Officers and Brethren in 
 the Counties of Kent and Essex. An edition 
 of these sermons was published by Oliver, 
 in 1849, in the fourth volume of his Golden 
 Remains. These sermons are written, to 
 use the author's own expression, " in a lan- 
 guage that is plain, homely, and search- 
 ing;" but, in Masonic character, surpass 
 the generality of sermons called Masonic, 
 simply because they have been preached 
 before the Craft. Dr. Oliver describes him 
 as " an assiduous Mason, who permitted no 
 opportunity to pass unimproved of storing 
 his mind with useful knowledge, or of im- 
 parting instruction to those who needed it." 
 
 Ionic Order. One of the three Gre- 
 cian orders, and the one that takes the 
 highest place in Masonic symbolism. Its 
 distinguishing characteristic is the volute 
 of its capital, and the shaft is cut into 
 twenty flutes separated by fillets. It is 
 more delicate and graceful than the Doric, 
 and more simply majestic than the Corin- 
 thian. The judgment and skill displayed 
 in its construction, as combining the 
 strength of the former with the beauty of 
 the latter, has caused it to be adopted in 
 Masonry as the symbol of Wisdom, and 
 being placed in the east of the Lodge it is 
 
IOWA 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 369 
 
 referred to as represented by the Worship- 
 ful Master. 
 
 Iowa. Freemasonry was introduced 
 into Iowa on Nov. 20, 1840, by the forma- 
 tion of a Lodge at Burlington, under a 
 Warrant from the Grand Lodge of Missouri. 
 Of this Lodge, Bro. Theodore S. Parvin, 
 since a Past Grand Master of the State, was 
 one of the founders, and James R. Hart- 
 sock, another Past Grand Master, was the 
 first initiate. A second Lodge was formed 
 at Bloomington, now Muscatine, Feb. 4, 
 1841 ; a third at Dubuque, Oct. 20, 1841 ; 
 and a fourth in Iowa City, Oct. 10, 1842. 
 A convention was held on Jan. 2, 1844, 
 and a Grand Lodge organized ; Oliver Cock 
 being elected Grand Master. 
 
 The Grand Chapter was organized June 
 8, 1854; the Grand Council in 1857, and 
 the Grand Commandery, June 6, 1864. 
 The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 has also been introduced into the State, and 
 there is a Grand Consistory and several 
 subordinate bodies. 
 
 Ireland. The early history of Free- 
 masonry in Ireland is involved in the deep- 
 est obscurity. It is vain to look in Ander- 
 son, in Preston, Smith, or any other Eng- 
 lish writer of the last century, for any ac- 
 count of the organization of Lodges in that 
 kingdom anterior to the establishment of 
 a Grand Lodge. In none of the published 
 registers is there any reference to an Irish 
 Lodge. The late Bro. Michael Furnel, Pro- 
 vincial Grand Master of Munster, says, in 
 a Calendar published by him in 1850, that 
 there are irrefutable records and data which 
 show the existence of several self-designated 
 Grand Lodges in past centuries, and that 
 Lodge No. 1, on the present registry, claims 
 an uninterrupted descent from an indepen- 
 dent Lodge which existed from time im- 
 memorial, and retains many quaint docu- 
 ments in her archives. But I fear that the 
 evidence intended to support these asser- 
 tions is not such as would now satisfy any 
 student of Masonic history. The statement 
 in the Irish Book of Constitutions, (first 
 edition, Anno 1730,) that "about three 
 hundred and seventy years before the birth 
 of Christ, the four sons of Milesius the 
 Spaniard, subdued the kingdom, settled 
 themselves in several parts of it, planted 
 colonies and erected Lodges," is, of course, 
 utterly fabulous and mythical. The list of 
 " curious and stately buildings " erected by 
 Masons at various periods only proves the 
 existence of Operative Masons there as in 
 other countries of Europe. 
 
 Furnel says that the books of the Pro- 
 vincial Grand Lodge of Munster show that 
 that body was in existence in 1726, and 
 that the Hon. Col. James O'Brien was 
 Grand Master. I should be inclined, had 
 2W 24 
 
 I no other authority than conjecture, to 
 place credence in this statement, notwith- 
 standing the doubt of Findel, " because we 
 find no official documents to confirm the 
 report." This might be properly attributed 
 to the well-known scantiness and inaccu- 
 racy of the records of that period. And, 
 indeed, in 1869, Bro. W. J. Hughan, in a 
 communication to the London Freemason, 
 says : " Bro. J. G. Findel wrote me some- 
 time since respecting the ' Grand Lodge of 
 Munster,' and stated there were some val- 
 uable papers, consisting of records of its 
 transactions, in the possession of a brother 
 in Ireland, of about 1726 to 1729." So that 
 the German historian may have seen cause 
 to modify to some extent his opinion ex- 
 
 Eressed in 1865. This Provincial Grand 
 lodge is the only organized body of Masons 
 in Ireland of which we hear until 1730, and 
 its existence has now been clearly estab- 
 lished as an historical fact by the testimony 
 of that distinguished Irish Mason, Dr. J. 
 F. Townsend, who, in a letter to Bro. Al- 
 bert Pike, writes as follows : 
 
 " The earliest records (written) that I am 
 aware of, are the transactions of what ap- 
 
 E eared to be then the head or governing 
 ody in Ireland, called the Grand Lodge of 
 Munster, as it is on the old seal. This 
 body was established in Cork. The date 
 of the earliest entry is 1721. It is a record 
 of a Lodge meeting, and is signed by the 
 Earl of Kingston, G. M., and, what may be 
 interesting to you, by Springett Penn, as 
 Deputy Grand Master. This Penn was the 
 eldest son of the celebrated William Penn. I 
 find that William Penn married the daugh- 
 ter of Sir Wm. Springett, an English baro- 
 net, hence the name of his son. Penn got 
 grants of considerable property in lands in 
 the county of Cork, which are now vested 
 in his descendant, a young man, Penn 
 Gaskell. He is a member of No. 1 Lodge, 
 Cork ; and was much gratified when I 
 showed him Springett Penn's signature, 
 and told him what I now write. In a few 
 years after, this Lodge or Grand Lodge was, 
 as was natural, transferred to Dublin, the 
 metropolis, and then commenced the issuing 
 of Warrants according to the Grand Lodge 
 system established in or about 1717. No. 1 
 Warrant was granted to Cork ; and it is still 
 there, a flourishing Blue Lodge, very proud 
 of its ancient charter. I have been always 
 a member of it, and am still, as many of 
 my family had been for a century back. 
 No. 2 granted to Dublin, No. 3 to Cork, 
 No. 4 to Dublin, and so on. The Provin- 
 cial Grand Lodge of Munster seems to be 
 the successor of that old body. I was Pro- 
 vincial Grand Master for many years be- 
 fore I came to reside in Dublin- It holds 
 the ancient records still." 
 
370 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 IRISH 
 
 In the year 1730, a Grand Lodge was or- 
 ganized, by whom it is not stated, at Dub- 
 lin. The brief account of this event in the 
 Irish Book of Constitutions is in these 
 words : " At last the ancient Fraternity of 
 the Free and Accepted Masons in Ireland, 
 being duly assembled in their Grand Lodge 
 at Dublin, chose a Noble Grand Master, in 
 imitation of their brethren." The Grand 
 Master so chosen was Lord Viscount King- 
 ston, who the year preceding had been 
 Grand Master of England. He introduced 
 the English Constitutions and usages, and 
 in the same year "The Constitutions of 
 the Freemasons, containing the History, 
 Charges, Regulations, etc., of that most 
 Ancient and Right Worshipful Fraternity. 
 For the use of the Lodges," was published 
 at Dublin. A second edition was published 
 in 1744, and a third, in 1751. 
 
 In 1749, the "Grand Master's Lodge" 
 was instituted, which still exists ; a singular 
 institution, possessing several unusual privi- 
 leges, among which are that its members 
 are members of the Grand Lodge without 
 the payment of dues, that the Lodge takes 
 precedence of all other Lodges, and that 
 any candidates nominated by the Grand 
 Master are to be initiated without ballot. 
 
 In 1772, the Grand Lodge of Ireland re- 
 cognized the schismatic Grand Lodge of 
 Ancient Masons, and entered into an alli- 
 ance with it, which was also done in the 
 same year by the Grand Lodge of Scotland. 
 This does not appear to have given any of- 
 fence to the regular Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land; for when that body, in 1777, passed a 
 vote of censure on the Lodges of Ancient 
 Masons, it specially excepted from the cen- 
 sure the Lodges of Ireland and Scotland. 
 
 In 1779, an application was made to the 
 Mother Kilwinning Lodge of Scotland, by 
 certain brethren in Dublin, for a charter 
 empowering them to form a Lodge to be 
 called the " High Knights Templars," that 
 they might confer the Templar degree. The 
 Kilwinning Lodge granted the petition for 
 the three Craft degrees only, but at a later 
 period this Lodge became, says Findel, the 
 source of the Grand Encampment of Ire- 
 land. 
 
 To Bro. Townsend's interesting letter am 
 I indebted for an account of the working 
 system in Ireland. The Grand Lodge holds 
 jurisdiction over all the Blue Lodges. The 
 Duke of Leinster, who has been Grand Mas- 
 ter for sixty years, having been elected in 
 1813, is also head of all the degrees worked 
 in Ireland. The Mark degree is worked 
 under the Grand Royal Arch Chapter. 
 Next comes the Royal Arch, which formerly 
 consisted of three degrees, the Excellent, 
 Super- Excellent, and Royal Arch — the first 
 two being nothing more than passing the 
 
 first two veils with each a separate obliga- 
 tion. But that system was abolished some 
 years ago, and a new ritual framed some- 
 thing like the American, except that the 
 King and not the High Priest is made the 
 Presiding Officer. The next degrees are 
 the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth, 
 which are under the jurisdiction of the 
 Templar Grand Conclave, and are given to 
 the candidate previous to his being created 
 a Knight Templar. Some change will here 
 have now to be made in consequence of the 
 recent alliance of the Templars of England 
 and Ireland, and their abolition of connec- 
 tion with all Masonry except the Craft de- 
 grees. Next to the Templar degree in the 
 Irish system comes the eighteenth or Rose 
 Croix, which is under the jurisdiction of 
 the Grand Chapter of Prince Masons or 
 Council of Rites, composed of the first 
 three officers of all the Rose Croix Chap- 
 ters, the Supreme Council having some 
 years ago surrendered its authority over 
 the degree. The twenty-eighth degree or 
 Knight of the Sun is the next conferred, 
 and then the thirtieth or Kadosh in a body 
 over which the Supreme Council has no 
 control except to grant certificates to its 
 members. The Supreme Council confers 
 the thirty-first, thirty-second, and thirty- 
 third degrees, there being no Grand Con- 
 sistory. 
 
 The Supreme Council of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite for Ireland was 
 established by a Patent from the Supreme 
 Council of the United States, at Charles- 
 ton, dated Aug. 13, 1824, by which the 
 Duke of Leinster, John Fowler, and Thomas 
 McGill were constituted a Supreme Council 
 for Ireland, and under that authority it 
 continues to work. 
 
 Whence the high degrees came into Ire- 
 land is not clearly known. Bro. Townsend 
 says they came " by piecemeal, in a dis- 
 jointed, irregular way." The Rose Croix 
 and Kadosh degrees existed in Ireland long 
 before the establishment of the Supreme 
 Council. I have in my library a copy of 
 Dalcho's Orations, republished at Dublin, 
 in 1808, by "the Illustrious College of 
 Knights of K. H., and the Original Chapter 
 of Prince Masons." It is probable that 
 these degrees were received from Bristol, 
 England, where are preserved the earliest 
 English records of the Rose Croix. 
 
 The Grand Lodge of Ireland practises 
 the simplest form of Masonry, that of the 
 York Rite, which with its Constitutions it 
 received in 1730 from England. 
 
 Irish Chapters. These Chapters 
 existed in Paris about the year 1730 to 
 1740, and were thence disseminated through 
 France. They consisted of degrees, such 
 as Irish Master, Perfect Irish Master, and 
 
IRISH 
 
 ITALY 
 
 371 
 
 Sublime Irish Master, which, it is said, 
 were invented by the adherents of the 
 house of Stuart when they sought to make 
 Freemasonry a political means of restoring 
 the exiled family to the throne of England. 
 Ramsay, when he assumed his theory of 
 the establishment of Freemasonry in Scot- 
 land by the Templars, who had fled thither 
 under d'Aumont, took possession of these 
 degrees, (if he did not, as some suppose, in- 
 vent them himself, ) and changed their name, 
 in deference to his theory, from Irish to 
 Scottish, calling, for instance, the degree 
 of Maitre Irlandais or Irish Master, the 
 Maitre Ecossais or Scottish Master. 
 
 Irish Colleges. The Irish Chapters 
 are also called by some writers Irish Col- 
 leges. 
 
 Irish Degrees. See Irish Chapters. 
 
 Iron Tools. The lectures teach us 
 that at the building of King Solomon's 
 Temple there was not heard the sound of 
 axe, hammer, or other metallic tool. But 
 all the stones were hewn, squared, and 
 numbered in the quarries ; and the timbers 
 felled and prepared in the forest of Leb- 
 anon, whence they were brought on floats 
 by sea to Joppa, and thence carried by 
 land to Jerusalem, where, on being put up, 
 each part was found to fit with such exact 
 nicety that the whole, when completed, 
 seemed rather the handiwork of the Grand 
 Architect of the Universe than of mere hu- 
 man hands. This can hardly be called a 
 legend, because the same facts are substan- 
 tially related in the first Book of Kings; 
 but the circumstance has been appropri- 
 ated in Masonry to symbolize the entire 
 peace and harmony which should prevail 
 among Masons when laboring on that 
 spiritual temple of which the Solomonic 
 Temple was the archetype. 
 
 Isaae and Ishmael. The sons of 
 Abraham by Sarah and Hagar. They are 
 recognized, from the conditions of their 
 mothers, as the free born and the bondman. 
 According to Oliver, the fact that the in- 
 heritance which was bestowed upon Isaac, 
 the son of his free-born wife, was refused 
 to Ishmael, the son of a slave woman, gave 
 rise to the Masonic theory which constitutes 
 a landmark that none but the free born are 
 entitled to initiation. 
 
 Ish Chotzeb. 2¥H I2>*N- Liter- 
 ally, " men of hewing," i, e., " hewers." 
 The phrase was first used by Anderson in 
 the first edition of the " Constitutions," but 
 is not found in the original Hebrew. 1 
 Kings v. 18, to which he refers, where it 
 is said that Solomon had fourscore " hewers 
 in the mountains," chotzeb bahar. But ish 
 clwtzeb is properly constructed according 
 to the Hebrew idiom, and is employed by 
 Anderson to designate the hewers who, with 
 
 the "Giblim," or stone-cutters, and the 
 " Bonai," or builders, amounted to eighty 
 thousand, all of whom he calls, in his sec- 
 ond edition, " bright Fellow Crafts." But 
 he distinguishes them from the thirty thou- 
 sand who cut wood on Mount Lebanon 
 under Adoniram.* 
 
 Ish Salmi. 73D E^tf- Men of bur- 
 den. Anderson thus designates the 70,000 
 laborers who, in the original Hebrew, are 
 (1 Kings v. 18,) called noshe sabal, bear- 
 ers of burdens. Anderson says " they were 
 of the remains of the old Canaanites, and, 
 being bondmen, are not to be reckoned 
 among Masons." But in Webb's system 
 they constitute the Apprentices at the build- 
 ing of the Temple. 
 
 Ish Sod i. Corruptly, Ish Soudy. This 
 expression is composed of the two Hebrew 
 words, g», ISH, and T)[), SOD. The first 
 of these words, ISH, means a man, and SOD 
 signifies primarily a couch on which one 
 reclines. Hence ISH SODI would mean, 
 first, a man of my couch, one who reclines 
 with me on the same seat, an indication 
 of great familiarity and confidence. Thence 
 followed the secondary meaning given to 
 SOD, of familiar intercourse, consultation, 
 or intimacy. Job (xix. 19) applies it in 
 this sense, when, using MATI, a word sy- 
 nonymous with ISH, he speaks of MATI 
 SODI in the passage which the common 
 version has translated thus : " all my in- 
 ward friends abhorred me," but which the 
 marginal interpretation has more correctly 
 rendered, " all the men of my secret." Ish 
 Sodi, therefore, in this degree, very clearly 
 means a man of my intimate counsel, a man 
 of my choice, one selected to share with me 
 a secret task or labor. Such was the posi- 
 tion of every Select Master to King Solo- 
 mon, and in this view those are not wrong 
 who have interpreted Ish Sodi as meaning 
 a Select Master. 
 
 Isis. The sister and the wife of Osiris, 
 and worshipped by the Egyptians as the 
 great goddess of nature. Her mysteries 
 constituted one of the degrees of the ancient 
 Egyptian initiation. See Egyptian Mysteries 
 and Osiris. 
 
 Italy. In the year 1733, Freemasonry 
 was introduced into Italy, by the establish- 
 ment of a Lodge at Florence, by Charles 
 Sackville, Duke of Dorset. Thory, and after 
 him Findel, calls him Duke of Middlesex ; 
 but there was at that time no such title in 
 the peerage of England. A medal was 
 struck on this occasion. It is not known 
 under what authority the Duke of Dorset 
 established this Lodge, but most probably 
 under that of the Grand Lodge of England. 
 The initiation of the Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cany had a favorable influence on the pros- 
 pects of the Order, and in 1735 Lodges* were 
 
372 
 
 ITALY 
 
 JACOBINS 
 
 established at Milan, Verona, Padua, Vin- 
 cenza, Venice, and Naples. In 1737, John 
 Gaston, the last duke of the house of the 
 Medicis, prohibited Freemasonry, but dy- 
 ing soon after, the Lodges continued to 
 meet. His successor, the Grand Duke of 
 Lorraine, declared himself the protector of 
 the Order, and many new Lodges were 
 established under his auspices. In 1738, 
 Pope Clement XIV. issued his bill forbid- 
 ding all congregations of Freemasons, which 
 was followed in January, 1739, by the edict 
 of Cardinal Firrao, which inflicted the pen- 
 alty of death and confiscation of goods on 
 all who should contravene the Papal order. 
 Several arrests were made at Florence by 
 the Inquisition, but, through the interces- 
 sion of the Grand Duke, the persons who 
 had been arrested were set at liberty. 
 
 For many years Freemasonry held but a 
 precarious existence in Italy, the persecu- 
 tions of the church preventing any healthy 
 growth. The Masons continued to meet, 
 although generally in secret. The Masons 
 of Rome struck a medal, in 1746, in honor 
 of Martin Folkes; and the author of Anti- 
 Saint-Xicaise says that there was a Grand 
 Lodge at Naples in 1756, which was in 
 correspondence with the Lodges of Ger- 
 many. Naples, indeed, seems to have been 
 for a long time the only place where the 
 Lodges were in any kind of activity. In 
 1776, Queen Caroline exerted her interest 
 in behalf of the Order. Smith, writing in 
 1783, ( Use and Abuse, p. 211,) says, "At 
 present most of the Italian nobles and dig- 
 nified ecclesiastics are Freemasons, who 
 hold their meetings generally in private 
 houses, though they have established 
 Lodges at Naples, Leghorn, Venice, Vero- 
 
 na, Turin, Messina, in the island of Sicily, 
 Genoa, and Modena." 
 
 In 1805 a Supreme Council of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Rite was established at 
 Milan by Count de Grasse-Tilly, and Prince 
 Eugene accepted the offices of Grand Com- 
 mander of the Council and Grand Master 
 of the Grand Orient. 
 
 When, by the defeat of Napoleon in 
 1814, the liberal policy of France was with- 
 drawn from Italy, to be again substituted 
 by the ignorance of the Bourbon dynasty 
 and the bigotry of the Roman Church, 
 Italian Masonry ceased any longer to have 
 an existence, nor did it revive until 1860. 
 But the centralization of Italy, and the 
 political movements that led to it, restored 
 Italy to freedom and intelligence, and Free- 
 masonry has again found, even beneath the 
 shadow of the Vatican, a congenial soil. 
 
 A Lodge was established at Turin in 
 1859, and a Grand Lodge in 1861. A Grand 
 Orient was subsequently established by 
 Garibaldi, who adopted the system of the 
 Scottish Rite. A Supreme Council was also 
 formed at Naples. Internal dissensions, 
 however, unfortunately took place. The 
 Grand Orient was removed from Turin to 
 Florence, when many resignations took 
 place, and a recusant body was formed. But 
 peace at length prevails, and at a Constit- 
 uent Assembly held at Rome on April 28, 
 1873, " the fundamental bases of Italian Ma- 
 sonic Fraternity" were adopted; and "the 
 Grand Lodge of Freemasons of Italy and 
 its Masonic Colonies" is now in success- 
 ful operation. There is also a Supreme 
 Council of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 Izabud. A corruption of Zabud, 
 which see. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jacliin. ry. Hence called by Dud- 
 ley and some other writers, who reject the 
 Eoints, ichin. It is the name of the right- 
 and pillar that stood at the porch of King 
 Solomon's Temple. It is derived from two 
 Hebrew words, 7V, jah, "God," and yy, 
 iachin, " will establish." It signifies, there- 
 fore, "God will establish," and is often 
 called " the pillar of establishment." 
 
 JjK'liinai. A Gallic corruption of 
 Shekinah, to be found only in the French 
 Cahiers of the high degrees. 
 
 Jacobins. A political sect that sprang 
 up in the beginning of the French Revolu- 
 tion, and which gave origin to the Jacobin 
 clubs, so well known as having been the 
 
 places where the leaders of the Revolution 
 concocted their plans for the abolition of 
 the monarchy and the aristocracy. Lieber 
 says that it is a most surprising phenome- 
 non, that " so large a body of men could be 
 found uniting rare energy with execrable 
 vice, political madness, and outrageous cru- 
 elty, committed always in the name of vir- 
 tue." Barruel, in his Histoire de Jacobinisme, 
 and Robison, in his Proofs of a Conspiracy, 
 both endeavor to prove that there was a 
 coalition of the revolutionary conspirators 
 with the Illuminati and the Freemasons 
 which formed the Jacobin clubs, those bod- 
 ies being, as they contend, only Masonic 
 Lodges in disguise. The falsity of these 
 
JACOB'S 
 
 JACOB'S 
 
 373 
 
 charges will be evident to any one who 
 reads the history of French Masonry dur- 
 ing the Revolution, and more especially 
 during that part of the period known as 
 the " Reign of Terror," when the Jacobin 
 clubs were in most vigor. The Grand 
 Orient, in 1788, declared that a politico- 
 Masonic work, entitled Les Jesuites chasses 
 de la Magonnerie et leur Poignard brise par 
 les Masons, was the production of a perverse 
 mind, prepared as a poison for the destruc- 
 tion of Masonry, and ordered it to be 
 burned. During the Revolution, the Grand 
 Orient suspended its labors, and the Lodges 
 in France were dissolved ; and in 1793, the 
 Duke of Orleans, the head of the Jacobins, 
 who was also, unfortunately, Grand Master 
 of the French Masons, resigned the latter 
 position, assigning as a reason that he did 
 not believe that there snould be any mys- 
 tery nor any secret society in a republic. 
 It is evident that the Freemasons, as an 
 Order, held themselves aloof from the po- 
 litical contests of that period. 
 
 Jacob's Ladder. The introduction 
 of Jacob's ladder into the symbolism of 
 Speculative Masonry is to be traced to the 
 vision of Jacob, which is thus substantially 
 recorded in the twenty-eighth chapter of 
 the Book of Genesis : When Jacob, by the 
 command of his father Isaac, was jour- 
 neying towards Padan-aram, while sleeping 
 one night with the bare earth for his couch 
 and a stone for his pillow, he beheld the 
 vision of a ladder, whose foot rested on the 
 earth and whose top reached to heaven. 
 Angels were continually ascending and de- 
 scending upon it, and promised him the 
 blessing of a numerous and happy posterity. 
 When Jacob awoke, he was filled with pious 
 gratitude, and consecrated the spot as the 
 house of God. 
 
 This ladder, so remarkable in the history 
 of the Jewish people, finds its analogue in 
 all the ancient initiations. Whether this 
 is to be attributed simply to a coincidence — 
 a theory which but few scholars would be 
 willing to accept — or to the fact that these 
 analogues were all derived from a common 
 fountain of symbolism, or whether, as sug- 
 gested by Oliver, the origin of the symbol 
 was lost among the practices of the Pagan 
 rites, while the symbol itself was retained, 
 it is, perhaps, impossible authoritatively to 
 determine. It is, however, certain that the 
 ladder as a symbol of moral and intellec- 
 tual progress existed almost universally in 
 antiquity, presenting itself either as a suc- 
 cession of steps, of gates, of degrees, or in 
 some other modified form. The number of 
 the steps varied; although the favorite one 
 appears to have been seven, in reference, 
 apparently, to the mystical character almost 
 everywhere given to that number. 
 
 Thus, in the Persian mysteries of Mi- 
 thras, there was a ladder of seven rounds, 
 the passage through them being symbolical 
 of the soul's approach to perfection. These 
 rounds were called gates, and, in allusion 
 to them, the candidate was made to pass 
 through seven dark and winding caverns, 
 which process was called the ascent of the 
 ladder of perfection. Each of these cav- 
 erns was the representative of a world, or 
 state of existence through which the soul 
 was supposed to pass in its progress from 
 the first world to the last, or the world of 
 truth. Each round of the ladder was said 
 to be of metal of increasing purity, and 
 was dignified also with the name of its pro- 
 tecting planet. Some idea of the con- 
 struction of this symbolic ladder may be 
 obtained from the following table : 
 
 7 Gold, 
 6 Silver, 
 5 Iron, 
 4 Tin, 
 3 Copper ? 
 
 Sun, Truth. [Blessed. 
 
 Moon, Mansion of the 
 
 Mars, World of Births. 
 
 Jupiter, Middle World. 
 
 Venus, Heaven. [ence. 
 
 2 Quicksilver, Mercury, World of Pre-exist- 
 1 Lead, Saturn, First World. 
 
 In the mysteries of Brahma we find the 
 same reference to the ladder of seven steps. 
 The names of these were not different, and 
 there was the same allusion to the symbol 
 of the universe. The seven steps were em- 
 blematical of the seven worlds which con- 
 stituted the Indian universe. The lowest 
 was the Earth ; the second, the World 
 of Pre-existence ; the third, Heaven ; the 
 , fourth, the Middle World, or interme- 
 diate region between the lower and upper 
 worlds ; the fifth, the World of Births, in 
 which souls are again born ; the sixth, the 
 Mansion of the Blessed ; and the seventh, 
 or topmost round, the Sphere of Truth, and 
 the abode of Brahma. Dr. Oliver thinks 
 that in the Scandinavian mysteries the tree 
 Yggrasil was the representative of the mys- 
 tical ladder. But although the ascent of 
 the tree, like the ascent of the ladder, was 
 a change from a lower to a higher sphere — 
 from time to eternity, and from death to 
 life — yet the unimaginative genius of the 
 North seems to have shorn the symbolism 
 of many of its more salient features. 
 
 Among the Kabbalists, the ladder was 
 represented by the ten Sephiroths, which, 
 commencing from the bottom, were the 
 Kingdom, Foundation, Splendor, Firmness, 
 Beauty, Justice, Mercy, Intelligence, Wis- 
 dom, and the Crown, by which we arrive 
 at the En Soph, or the Infinite. 
 
 In the higher Masonry we find the ladder 
 of Kadosh, which consists of seven steps, 
 thus commencing from the bottom : Justice, 
 Equity, Kindness, Good Faith, Labor, 
 Patience, and Intelligence. The arrange- 
 
374 
 
 JACOB'S 
 
 JACOB'S 
 
 ment of these steps, for which we are in- 
 debted to modern ritualism, does not seem 
 to be perfect ; but yet the idea of intellec- 
 tual progress to perfection is carried out by 
 making the topmost round represent Wis- 
 dom or Understanding. 
 
 The Masonic ladder which is presented 
 in the symbolism of the first degree ought 
 really to consist of seven steps, which thus 
 ascend: Temperance, Fortitude, Prudence, 
 Justice, Faith, Hope, and Charity ; but the 
 earliest examples of it present it only with 
 three, referring to the three theological 
 virtues, whence it is called the theological 
 ladder. It seems, therefore, to have been 
 settled by general usage that the Masonic 
 ladder has but three steps. 
 
 As a symbol of progress, Jacob's ladder 
 was early recognized. Picus of Mirandola, 
 who wrote in the sixteenth century, in his 
 oration, " De Hominis Dignitate," says that 
 Jacob's ladder is a symbol of the progressive 
 scale of intellectual communication betwixt 
 earth and heaven; and upon the ladder, as 
 it were, step by step, man is permitted with 
 the angels to ascend and descend until the 
 mind finds blissful and complete repose in 
 the bosom of divinity. The highest step 
 he defines to be theology, or the study and 
 contemplation of the Deity in his own ab- 
 stract and exalted nature. 
 
 Other interpretations have, however, been 
 given to it. The Jewish writers differ very 
 much in their expositions of it. Thus, a 
 writer of one of the Midrashes or Com- 
 mentaries, finding that the Hebrew words 
 for Ladder and Sinai have each the same 
 numerical value of letters, expounds the 
 ladder as typifying the giving of the law 
 on that mount. Aben Ezra thought that 
 it was a symbol of the human mind, and 
 that the angels represented the sublime 
 meditations of man. Maimonides supposed 
 the ladder to symbolize nature in its oper- 
 ations ; and, citing the authority of a Mi- 
 drash which gives to it four steps, says that 
 they represent the four elements; the two 
 heavier, earth and water, descending by 
 their specific gravity, and the two lighter, 
 fire and air, ascending from the same cause. 
 Abarbanel, assuming the Talmudic theory 
 that Luz, where Jacob slept, was Mount 
 Moriah, supposes that the ladder, resting on 
 the spot which afterwards became the holy 
 of holies, was a prophetic symbol of the 
 building of the Temple. And, lastly, Ra- 
 phael interprets the ladder, and the ascent 
 and the descent of the angels, as the prayers 
 of man and the answering inspiration of 
 God. Fludd, the hermetic philosopher, in 
 his Philosophia Mosaica, (1638,) calls the 
 ladder the symbol of the triple world, moral, 
 physical, and intellectual ; and Nicolai says 
 that the ladder with three steps was, among 
 
 the Rosicrucian Freemasons in the seven- 
 teenth century, a symbol of the knowledge 
 of nature. Finally, Krause says in his 
 drei altestenten Kumturkunden, (ii. 481,) 
 that a Brother Keher of Edinburgh, whom 
 he describes as a skilful and truthful Ma- 
 son, had in 1802 assured the members of a 
 Lodge at Altenberg that originally only one 
 Scottish degree existed, whose object was 
 the restoration of James II. to the throne 
 of England, and that of that restoration 
 Jacob's ladder had been adopted by them 
 as a symbol. Of this fact he further said 
 that an authentic narrative was contained 
 in the archives of the Grand Lodge of Scot- 
 land. Notwithstanding Lawrie's silence 
 on the subject, Krause is inclined to believe 
 the story, nor is it in all its parts alto- 
 gether without probability. It is more than 
 likely that the Chevalier Ramsay, who 
 was a warm adherent of the Stuarts, trans- 
 ferred the symbol of the mystical ladder 
 from the Mithraic mysteries, with which he 
 was very familiar, into his Scottish degrees, 
 and that thus it became a part of the sym- 
 bolism of the Kadosh system. In some of 
 the political Lodges instituted under the 
 influence of the Stuarts to assist in the res- 
 toration of their house, the philosophical 
 interpretation of the symbol may have been 
 perverted to a political meaning, and to 
 these Lodges it is to be supposed that Ke- 
 her alluded ; but that the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland had made any official recognition 
 of the fact is not to be believed. Lawrie's 
 silence seems to be conclusive. 
 
 In the Ancient Craft degrees of the York 
 Rite, Jacob's ladder was not an original 
 symbol. It is said to have been introduced 
 by Dunckerley when he reformed the lec- 
 tures. This is confirmed by the fact that 
 it is not mentioned in any of the early rit- 
 uals of the last century, nor even by 
 Hutchinson, who had an excellent oppor- 
 tunity of doing so in his lecture on the 
 Nature of the Lodge, where he speaks of 
 the covering of the Lodge, but says nothing 
 of the means of reaching it, which he would 
 have done, had he been acquainted with 
 the ladder as a symbol. Its first appear- 
 ance is in a Tracing Board, on which the 
 date of 1776 is inscribed, which very well 
 agrees with the date of Dunckerley's im- 
 
 f>rovements. In this Tracing Board, the 
 adder has but three rounds; a change from 
 the old seven-stepped ladder of the mys- 
 teries; which, however, Preston corrected 
 when he described it as having many 
 rounds, but three principal ones. Dunc- 
 kerley, I think, was indebted for this sym- 
 bol to Ramsay, from whom he liberally 
 borrowed on several other occasions, taking 
 from him his Royal Arch, and learning from 
 him to eliminate the Master's Word from the 
 
JACQUES 
 
 JAMBLICHUS 
 
 375 
 
 third degree, where it had heen placed by 
 his predecessors. 
 
 As to the modern Masonic symbolism of 
 the ladder, it is, as I have already said, a 
 symbol of progress, such as it is in all the 
 old initiations. Its three principal rounds, 
 representing Faith, Hope, and Charity, 
 present us with the means of advancing 
 from earth to heaven, from death to life — 
 from the mortal to immortality. Hence 
 its foot is placed on the ground-floor of the 
 Lodge, which is typical of the world, and 
 its top rests on the covering of the Lodge, 
 which is symbolic of heaven. 
 
 In the Prestonian lecture, which was 
 elaborated out of Dunckerley's system, the 
 ladder is said to rest on the Holy Bible, 
 and to reach to the heavens. This sym- 
 bolism is thus explained. 
 
 " By the doctrines contained in the Holy 
 Bible we are taught to believe in the divine 
 dispensation of Providence, which belief 
 strengthens our Faith, and enables us to as- 
 cend the first step. 
 
 " That Faith naturally creates in us a 
 Hope of becoming partakers of some of the 
 blessed promises therein recorded, which 
 Hope enables us to ascend the second step. 
 
 "But the third and last being Charity 
 comprehends the whole, and he who is 
 possessed of this virtue in its ample sense, 
 is said to have arrived to the summit of his 
 profession, or, more metaphorically, into an 
 ethereal mansion veiled from the mortal 
 eye by the starry firmament." 
 
 In the modern lectures, the language is 
 materially changed, but the idea and the 
 symbolism are retained unaltered. 
 
 The delineation of the ladder with three 
 steps only on the Tracing Board of 1776, 
 which is a small one, may be attributed to 
 notions of convenience. But the fact that 
 Dunckerley derived his symbol from Ram- 
 say ; that Ramsay's ladder had seven steps, 
 being the same as the Kadosh symbol ; that 
 in all the old initiations the number seven 
 was preserved ; and lastly, that Preston de- 
 scribes it as having "many rounds or 
 staves, which point out as many moral vir- 
 tues, but three principal ones, namely, 
 Faith, Hope, and Charity," irresistibly lead 
 us to the conclusion that the Masonic lad- 
 der should properly have seven steps, which 
 represent the four cardinal and the three 
 theological virtues. 
 
 Jacques de Holay. See Molay. 
 
 Jail. In Hebrew, |"|\ Maimonides 
 calls it the " two-lettered name," and de- 
 rives it from the Tetragrammaton, of which 
 he says it is an abbreviation. Others have 
 denied this, and assert that Jah is a name 
 independent of Jehovah, but expressing 
 the same idea of the Divine Essence. It 
 is uniformly translated in the author- 
 
 ized version of the Bible by the word 
 Lord, being thus considered as synony- 
 mous with Jehovah, except in Psalm lxviii. 
 4, where the original word is preserved: 
 " Extol him that rideth upon the heavens 
 by his name JAH," upon which the Tar- 
 gum comment is : " Extol him who sitteth 
 on the throne of glory in the ninth heaven ; 
 YAH is his name." It seems, also, to have 
 been well known to the Gentile nations as 
 the triliteral name of God; for, although 
 biliteral among the Hebrews, it assumed 
 among the Greeks the triliteral form, as 
 IA£2. Macrobius, in his Saturnalia, says 
 that this was the sacred name of the Su- 
 preme Deity ; and the Clarian Oracle being 
 asked which of the gods was Jao, replied, 
 "The initiated are bound to conceal the 
 mysterious secrets. Learn thou that IAQ 
 is the Great God Supreme who ruleth over 
 all." See Jehovah. 
 
 Jamblichus. It is strange that the 
 old Masons, when inventing their legend, 
 which gave so prominent a place to Pythag- 
 oras as " an ancient friend and brother," 
 should have entirely forgotten his biogra- 
 pher, Jamblichus, whose claims to their es- 
 teem and veneration are much greater than 
 those of the Samian sage. Jamblichus was 
 a Neoplatonic philosopher, who was born 
 at Chalcis, in Calo, Syria, and flourished 
 in the fourth century. He was a pupil of 
 Porphyry, and was deeply versed in the 
 philosophic systems of Plato and Pythag- 
 oras, and, like the latter, had studied the 
 mystical theology of the Egyptians and 
 Chaldeans, whose divine origin and truth 
 he attempts to vindicate. He maintained 
 that man, through theurgic rites and cere- 
 monies, might commune with the Deity; 
 and hence he attached great importance to 
 initiation as the means of inculcating truth. 
 He carried his superstitious veneration for 
 numbers and numerical formula to a far 
 greater extent than did the school of Py- 
 thagoras ; so that all the principles of his 
 philosophy can be represented by numbers. 
 
 Thus, he taught that one, or the monad, 
 was the principle of all unity as well as di- 
 versity ; the duad, or two, was the intellect; 
 three, the soul ; four, the principle of uni- 
 versal harmony ; eight, the source of mo- 
 tion ; nine, perfection ; and ten, the result 
 of all the emanations of the to en. It will 
 thus be seen that Jamblichus, while adopt- 
 ing the general theory of numbers that 
 distinguished the Pythagorean school, dif- 
 fered very materially in his explanations. 
 He wrote many philosophical works on the 
 basis of these principles, and was the au- 
 thor of a Life of Pythagoras, and a Treatise 
 of the Mysteries. Of all the ancient phil- 
 osophers, his system assimilates him most 
 — if not in its details, at least in its spirit 
 
376 
 
 JANITOR 
 
 JEHOVAH 
 
 — to the mystical and symbolic character 
 of the Masonic philosophy. 
 
 Janitor. A door-keeper. The word 
 Sentinel, which in a Royal Arch Chapter is 
 the proper equivalent of the Tiler in a 
 Lodge, is in some jurisdictions replaced by 
 the word Janitor. There is no good author- 
 ity for the usage. 
 
 Japan. Freemasonry was introduced in 
 Japan by the establishment at Yokohama, 
 in 1868, of a Lodge by the Grand Lodge of 
 England. A Masonic hall was built at 
 Yokohama, in 1869. 
 
 Japhet. Heb., j"l£)*. The eldest son 
 of Noah. It is said that the first ark — the 
 ark of safety, the archetype of the taberna- 
 cle — was constructed by Shem, Ham, and 
 Japhet under the superintendence of Noah. 
 Hence these are significant words in the 
 Royal Arch degree. 
 
 Jasper. Heb., n£)&^*- A precious 
 stone of a dullish green color, which was 
 the last of the twelve inserted in the high 
 priest's breastplate, according to the au- 
 thorized version ; but the Vulgate trans- 
 lation more correctly makes it the third 
 stone of the second row. It represented 
 the tribe of Zebulun. 
 
 Jebusite. See Oman. 
 
 Jedadian. A special name given to 
 King Solomon at his birth. It signifies 
 "beloved of God." 
 
 Jehoshaphat. East of Jerusalem, be- 
 tween Mount Zion and the Mount of Olives, 
 lies the Valley of Jehoshaphat. In the most 
 recent rituals this word has lost its signifi- 
 cance, but in the older ones it played an 
 important part. There was in reality no 
 such valley in ancient Judea, nor is there 
 any mention of it in Scripture, except once 
 by the prophet Joel. The name is alto- 
 gether modern. But, as the Hebrew means 
 the judgment of God, and as the prophecy 
 of Joel declared that God would there judge 
 the heathen for their deeds against the 
 Israelites, it came at last to be believed by 
 the Jews, which belief is shared by the 
 Mohammedans, that the Valley of Jehosha- 
 phat is to be the place of the last judgment. 
 Hence it was invested with a peculiar de- 
 gree of sanctity as a holy place. The idea 
 was borrowed by the Masons of the last 
 century, who considered it as the symbol 
 of holy ground. Thus, in the earliest rit- 
 uals we find this language : 
 
 " Where does the Lodge stand ? 
 
 " Upon holy ground, or the highest hill 
 or lowest vale, or in the Valley of Jehosha- 
 phat, or any other secret place." 
 
 This reference to the Valley of Jehosha- 
 phat as the symbol of the ground-floor of 
 the Lodge was in this country retained 
 until a very recent period ; and the expres- 
 sion which alludes to it in the ritual of the 
 
 second degree has only within a few years 
 past been abandoned. Hutchinson referred 
 to this symbolism, when he said that the 
 Spiritual Lodge was placed in the Valley 
 of Jehoshaphat to imply that the principles 
 of Masonry are derived from the knowl- 
 edge of God, and are established in the 
 judgments of the Lord. 
 
 Jehovah. Jehovah is, of all the sig- 
 nificant words of Masonry, by far the most 
 important. Reghellini very properly calls 
 it " the basis of our dogma and of our mys- 
 teries." In Hebrew it consists of four fet- 
 ters, niiT, and hence is called the Tetra- 
 grammaton, or four-lettered name ; and be- 
 cause it was forbidden to a Jew, as it is to 
 a Mason, to pronounce it, it is also called 
 the Ineffable or Unpronounceable name. 
 For its history we must refer to the sixth 
 chapter of Exodus, (verses 2, 3.) When 
 Moses returned discouraged from his first 
 visit to Pharaoh, and complained to the 
 Lord that the only result of his mission 
 had been to incense the Egyptian king, and 
 to excite him to the exaction of greater 
 burdens from the oppressed Israelites, God 
 encouraged the patriarch by the promise 
 of the great wonders which he would per- 
 form in behalf of his people, and confirmed 
 the promise by imparting to him that sub- 
 lime name by which he had not. hitherto 
 been known : "And God," says the sacred 
 writer, " spake unto Moses, and said unto 
 him, I am Jehovah : and I appeared unto 
 Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob as 
 El Shaddai, but by my name Jehovah 
 was I not known unto them." 
 
 This Ineffable name is derived from the 
 substantive verb nTl? hayah, to be; and 
 combining, as it does, in its formation the 
 present, past, and future significations of 
 the verb, it is considered as designating 
 God in his immutable and eternal exist- 
 ence. This idea is carried by the Rabbins 
 to such an extent, that Menasseh Ben 
 Israel says that its four letters may be so ar- 
 ranged by permutations as to form twelve 
 words, every one of which is a modification 
 of the verb to be, and hence it is called the 
 nomen substantive vel essential, the name of 
 his substance or existence. 
 
 The first thing that attracts our atten- 
 tion in the investigation of this name is 
 the ancient regulation, still existing, by 
 which it was made unlawful to pronounce 
 it. This, perhaps, originally arose from a 
 wish to conceal it from the surrounding 
 heathen nations, so that they might not 
 desecrate it by applying it to their idols. 
 Whatever may have been the reason, the 
 rule was imperative among the Jews. The 
 Talmud, in one of its treatises, the " San- 
 hedrim," which treats of the question, Who 
 of the Israelites shall have future life and 
 
JEHOVAH 
 
 JEHOVAH 
 
 377 
 
 who shall not? says: "Even he who thinks 
 the name of God with its true letters for- 
 feits his future life." Abraham Ben David 
 Halevi, when discussing the names of God, 
 says: "But the name niH* we are n °t 
 allowed to pronounce. In its original mean- 
 ing it is conferred upon no other being, and 
 therefore we abstain from giving any ex- 
 planation of it." We learn from Jerome, 
 Origen, and Eusebius that in their time 
 the Jews wrote the name in their copies of 
 the Bible in Samaritan instead of Hebrew 
 letters, in order to veil it from the inspec- 
 tion of the profane. Capellus says that the 
 rule that the holy name was not to be pro- 
 nounced was derived from a tradition, 
 based on a passage in Leviticus, (xxiv. 
 16,) which says that he who blasphemeth 
 the name of Jehovah shall be put to death ; 
 and he translates this passage, " whosoever 
 shall pronounce the name Jehovah shall 
 suffer death," because the word nokeb, here 
 translated to blaspheme," means also " to 
 pronounce distinctly, to call by name." 
 Another reason for the rule is to be found 
 in a rabbinical misinterpretation of a pas- 
 sage in Exodus. 
 
 In the third chapter of that book, when 
 Moses asks of God what is his name, he re- 
 plies "I Am that I Am; and he said, 
 Thus shalt thou say unto the children of 
 Israel, I AM hath sent me unto you," and 
 he adds, " this is my name forever." Now, 
 the Hebrew word I AM is JlTl^ Ehyeh. 
 But as Mendelsohn has correctly observed, 
 there is no essential difference between 
 nV"!Ki m the sixth chapter and Hlrl* m the 
 third, the former being the first person sin- 
 gular, and the latter the third person of the 
 same verb, (the future used in the present 
 sense of the verb to be;) and hence what 
 was said of the name Ehyeh was applied 
 by the Rabbins to the name Jehovah. But 
 of Ehyeh God had said, " this is my name 
 forever." Now the word forever is repre- 
 sented in the original by dSj; 1 ?, Polam; 
 but the Rabbins, says Capellus, by the 
 change of a single letter, made Volam, for- 
 ever, read as if it had been written Valam, 
 which means "to be concealed," and hence 
 the passage was translated "this is my 
 name to be concealed," instead of " this is 
 my name forever." And thus Josephus, in 
 writing upon this subject, uses the follow- 
 ing expressions : " Whereupon God de- 
 clared to Moses his holy name, which had 
 never been discovered to men before ; con- 
 cerning which it is not lawful for me to say 
 any more." In obedience to this law, when- 
 ever the word Jehovah occurs to a Jew in 
 reading, he abstains from pronouncing it, 
 and substitutes in its place the word *^"Tfr$, 
 Adonai. Thus, instead of saying " holi- 
 ness to Jehovah," as it is in the original, 
 2X 
 
 he would say " holiness to Adonai." And 
 this same reverential reticence has been 
 preserved by our translators in the author- 
 ized version, who, wherever Jehovah oc- 
 curs, have, with a few exceptions, trans- 
 lated it by the word " Lord," the very pas- 
 sage just quoted, being rendered " holiness 
 to the Lord." 
 
 Maimonides tells us that the knowledge 
 of this word was confined to the hachamin 
 or wise men, who communicated its true 
 pronunciation arid the mysteries connected 
 with it only on the Sabbath day, to such 
 of their disciples as were found worthy ; 
 but how it was to be sounded, or with what 
 vocal sounds its four letters were to be 
 uttered, was utterly unknown to the people. 
 Once a year, namely, on the day of atone- 
 ment, the holy name was pronounced with 
 the sound of its letters and with the utmost 
 veneration by the high priest in the Sanc- 
 tuary. The last priest who pronounced it, 
 says Rabbi Bechai, was Simeon the Just, 
 and his successors used in blessing only the 
 twelve- lettered name. After the destruc- 
 tion of the city and Temple by Vespasian, 
 the pronunciation of it ceased, for it was 
 not lawful to pronounce it anywhere except 
 in the Temple at Jerusalem, and thus the 
 true and genuine pronunciation of the 
 name was entirely lost to the Jewish people. 
 Nor is it now known how it was originally 
 pronounced. The Greeks called it Jao ; 
 the Romans, Jova ; the Samaritans always 
 pronounced it Jah\ue. 
 
 The task is difficult to make one unac- 
 quainted with the peculiarities of the He- 
 brew language comprehend how the pro- 
 nunciation of a word whose letters are pre- 
 served can be wholly lost. It may, how- 
 ever, be attempted. The Hebrew alphabet 
 consists entirely of consonants. The vowel 
 sounds were originally supplied by the 
 reader while reading, he being previously 
 made acquainted with the correct pronun- 
 ciation of each word ; and if he did not 
 Eossess this knowledge, the letters before 
 im could not supply it, and he was, of 
 course, unable to pronounce the word. 
 Every Hebrew, however, knew from prac- 
 tice the vocal sounds with which the con- 
 sonants were pronounced in the different 
 words, in the same manner as every Eng- 
 lish reader knows the different sounds of 
 a in hat, hate, far, was, and that knt is pro- 
 nounced knight. The words " God save the 
 republic," written in the Hebrew method, 
 would appear thus: "Gd sv th rpblc." 
 Now, this incommunicable name of God 
 consists of four letters, Yod, He, Vau, 
 and He, equivalent in English to the com- 
 bination JHVH. It is evident that these 
 four letters cannot, in our language, be 
 pronounced, unless at least two vowels be 
 
378 
 
 JEHOVAH 
 
 JEHOVAH 
 
 supplied. Neither can they in Hebrew. 
 In other words, the vowels were known to 
 the Jew, because he heard the words con- 
 tinually pronounced, just as we know that 
 Mr. stands for Mister, because we contin- 
 ually hear this combination so pronounced. 
 But the name of God, of which these four 
 letters are symbols, was never pronounced, 
 but another word, Adonai, substituted for 
 it; and hence, as the letters themselves 
 have no vocal power, the Jew, not knowing 
 the implied vowels, was unable to supply 
 them, and thus the pronunciation of the 
 word was in time entirely lost. 
 
 Hence some of the most learned of the 
 Jewish writers even doubt whether Jehovah 
 is the true pronunciation, and say that the 
 recovery of the name is one of the mys- 
 teries that will be revealed only at the 
 coming of the Messiah. They attribute 
 the loss to the fact that the Masoretic or 
 vowel points belongingto another word were 
 applied to the sacred name, whereby in time 
 a confusion occurred in its vocalization. 
 
 In the ineffable degrees of the Scottish 
 Rite, there is a tradition that the pronun- 
 ciation varied among the patriarchs in 
 different ages. Methuselah, Lamech, and 
 Noah pronounced it Juha; Shem, Arphaxad, 
 Selah, Heber, and Peleg pronounced it 
 Jeva; Reu, Serug, Nahor, Terah, Abraham, 
 Isaac, and Judah, called it Jova; by Hez- 
 rom and Ram it was pronounced Jevo; by 
 Aminadab and Nasshon, Jevah; by Salmon, 
 Boaz, and Obed, Johe; by Jesse and David, 
 Jehovah. And they imply that none of 
 these was the right pronunciation, which 
 was only in the possession of Enoch, Jacob, 
 and Moses, whose names are, therefore, not 
 mentioned in this list. In all these words 
 it must be noticed that the J is to be pro- 
 nounced as Y, the a as in father, and the 
 e as a in fate. Thus, Je-ho-vah would be 
 pronounced Yay-ho-vah. 
 
 The Jews believed that this holy name, 
 which they held in the highest veneration, 
 was possessed of unbounded powers. " He 
 who pronounces it," said they, " shakes 
 heaven and earth, and inspires the very 
 angels with astonishment and terror. There 
 is a sovereign authority in this name: it 
 governs the world by its power. The other 
 names and surnames of the Deity are 
 ranged about it like officers and soldiers 
 about their sovereigns and generals : from 
 this king-name they receive their orders, 
 and obey." 
 
 It was called the Shem hamphorash, the 
 explanatory or declaratory name, because it 
 alone, of all the divine names, distinctly 
 explains or declares what is the true essence 
 of the Deity. 
 
 Among the Essenes, this sacred name, 
 which was never uttered aloud, but always 
 in a whisper, was one of the mysteries of 
 
 their initiation, which candidates were 
 bound by a solemn oath never to divulge. 
 
 It is reported to have been, under a modi- 
 fied form, a password in the Egyptian mys- 
 teries, and none, says Schiller, dare enter 
 the temple of Serapis who did not bear on 
 his breast or forehead the name Jao or Je- 
 ha-ho ; a name almost equivalent in sound 
 to that of Jehovah, and probably of iden- 
 tical import ; and no name was uttered in 
 Egypt with more reverence. 
 
 The Rabbins asserted that it was engraved 
 on the rod of Moses, and enabled him to 
 perform all his miracles. Indeed, the Tal- 
 mud says that it was by the utterance of 
 this awful name, and not by a club, that he 
 slew the Egyptian ; although it fails to tell 
 us how he got at that time his knowledge 
 of it. 
 
 That scurrilous book of the Jews of the 
 Middle Ages, called the Toldoth Jeshu, at- 
 tributes all the wonderful works of Jesus 
 Christ to the potency of this incommunica- 
 ble name, which he is said to have abstract- 
 ed from the Temple, and worn about him. 
 But it would be tedious and unprofitable to 
 relate all the superstitious myths that have 
 been invented about this name. 
 
 And now as to the grammatical signifi- 
 cation of this important word. Gesenius 
 ( Thesaur., ii. 577,) thinks — and many mod- 
 ern scholars agree with him — that the 
 word is the future form of the Hiphil con- 
 jugation of the verb to be, pronounced Ya- 
 vah, and therefore that it denotes "He who 
 made to exist, called into existence," that 
 is, the Creator. The more generally ac- 
 cepted definition of the name is, that it ex- 
 presses the eternal and unchangeable exist- 
 ence of God in respect to the past, the pre- 
 sent, and the future. The word HliT is 
 derived from the substantive verb n*jf> 
 hay ah, to be, and in its four letters combines 
 those of the past, present, and future of the 
 verb. The letter * in the beginning, says 
 Buxtorf, (de Nomine, v,) is a characteristic 
 of the future ; the "| in the middle, of the 
 participle or present time; and the Jf a * 
 the end, of the past. Thus, out of HliT we 
 get rVi7» ne was > mn> he is; and fVn*> 
 he will be. Hence, among other titles it re- 
 ceived that of nomen essentia, because it shows 
 the essential nature of God's eternal exist- 
 ence. The other names of God define his 
 power, wisdom, goodness, and other quali- 
 ties; but this alone defines his existence. 
 
 It has been a controverted point whether 
 this name was made known for the first 
 time to Moses, or whether the patriarchs had 
 been previously acquainted with it. The 
 generally recognized opinion now is, and 
 the records of Genesis and Exodus sustain 
 it, that the name was known to the patri- 
 archs, but not in its essential meaning, into 
 which Moses was the first to be initiated- 
 
JEHOVAH 
 
 JEHOVAH 
 
 379 
 
 In the language of Aben Ezra, " Certainly 
 the name was already known to the patri- 
 archs, but only as an uncomprehended and 
 unmeaning noun, not as a descriptive, ap- 
 pellative one, indicative of the attributes 
 and qualities of the Deity." " It is mani- 
 fest," says Kallisch, (Comm. on Ex.,) "that 
 Moses, in being initiated into the holy and 
 comprehensive name of the Deity, obtains 
 a superiority over the patriarchs, who, al- 
 though perhaps from the beginning more 
 believing than the long-wavering Moses, 
 lived more in the sphere of innocent, child- 
 like obedience than of manly, spiritual en- 
 lightenment." This, too, is the Masonic 
 doctrine. In Freemasonry the Holy Name 
 is the representative of the Word, which is 
 itself the symbol of the nature of God. To 
 know the Word is to know the true nature 
 and essence of the Grand Architect. 
 
 When the pronunciation of the name 
 was first interdicted to the people is not 
 certainly known. Leusden says it was a 
 rabbinical prohibition, and was probably 
 made at the second Temple. The state- 
 ment of the Rabbi Bechai, already cited, 
 that the word was pronounced for the last 
 time by Simeon, before the spoliation by 
 the Roman emperor Vespasian, would 
 seem to indicate that it was known at the 
 second Temple, although its utterance was 
 forbidden, which would coincide with the 
 Masonic tradition that it was discovered 
 while the foundations of the second Tem- 
 ple were being laid. But the general opin- 
 ion is, that the prohibition commenced in 
 the time of Moses, the rabbinical writers 
 tracing it to the law of Leviticus, already 
 cited. This, too, is the theory of Masonry, 
 which also preserves a tradition that the 
 prohibition would have been removed at 
 the first Temple, had not a well-known oc- 
 currence prevented it. But this is not to 
 be viewed as an historic statement, but only 
 as a medium of creating a symbol. 
 
 The Jews had four symbols by which 
 they expressed this Ineffable name of God : 
 the first and most common was two Yods, 
 with a Sheva and the point Kametz under- 
 neath, thus, * T *; the second was three 
 
 points in a radiated form like a diadem, 
 thus, \;/, to represent, in all probability, the 
 sovereignty of God ; the third was a Yod 
 within an equilateral triangle, which the 
 Kabbalists explained as a ray of light, 
 whose lustre was too transcendent to be 
 contemplated by human eyes; and the 
 fourth was the letter JJJ, which is the ini- 
 tial letter of Shadai, " the Almighty," and 
 was the symbol usually placed upon their 
 phylacteries. Buxtorf mentions a fifth 
 method, which was by three Yods, with a 
 Kametz underneath * * ♦, inclosed in a circle. 
 
 In Freemasonry, the equilateral triangle, 
 called the delta, with or without a Yod in 
 the centre, the Yod alone, and the letter G, 
 are recognized as symbols of the sacred and 
 Ineffable name. 
 
 The history of the introduction of this 
 word into the ritualism of Freemasonry 
 would be highly interesting, were it not so 
 obscure. Being in almost all respects an 
 esoteric symbol, nearly all that we know 
 of its Masonic relations is derived from 
 tradition ; and as to written records on the 
 subject, we are compelled, in general, to 
 depend on mere intimations or allusions, 
 which are not always distinct in their mean- 
 ing. In Masonry, as in the Hebrew mys- 
 teries, it was under the different appellations 
 of the Word, the True Word, or the Lost 
 Word, the symbol of the knowledge of Di- 
 vine Truth, or the true nature of God. 
 
 That this name, in its mystical use, was 
 not unknown to the Mediaeval Freemasons 
 there can be no doubt. Many of their ar- 
 chitectural emblems show that they pos- 
 sessed this knowledge. Nor can there be 
 any more doubt that through them it 
 came to their successors, the Freemasons 
 of the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. No one can read Dr. Anderson's 
 Defence of Masonry, written in 1730, with- 
 out being convinced that this prominent 
 actor in the revival was well acquainted 
 with this name; although he is, of course, 
 careful to make no very distinct reference 
 to it, except in one instance. " The occa- 
 sion," he says, " of the brethren searching 
 so diligently for their Master was, it seems, 
 to receive from him the secret Word of Ma- 
 sonry, which should be delivered down to 
 their posterity in after ages." 
 
 It is now conceded, from indisputable 
 evidence, that the holy name was, in the 
 earlier years, and, indeed, up to the middle 
 of the last century, attached to the third 
 degree, and then called the Master's Word. 
 I have now lying before me two tracing- 
 boards of that degree, one^an Irish one of 
 the date of 1769, the other a continental 
 one of 1778; but both, apparently, copies 
 of some earlier one. Among the emblems 
 displayed is a coffin, on which is inscribed, 
 in capital letters, the word JEHOVAH. 
 Hutchinson, who wrote in 1774, makes no 
 reference whatever to the Royal Arch, al- 
 though that system had, by that time, been 
 partially established in England; but in his 
 lectures to Master Masons and on the third 
 degree refers to " the mystic word, the Tet- 
 ragrammaton." Oliver tells us distinctly 
 that it was the Master's Word until Dunck- 
 erley took it out of the degree and trans- 
 ferred it to the Royal Arch. That it was 
 so on the Continent, we have the unmis- 
 takable testimony of Guillemain de St. 
 
380 
 
 JEHOVAH 
 
 JEHOVAH 
 
 Victor, who says, in his Adonhiramite Ma- 
 sonry, that Solomon placed a medal on the 
 tomb of Hiram, " on which was engraved 
 Jehova, the old Master's Word, and which 
 signifies the Supreme Being." 
 
 So far, then, these facts appear to be es- 
 tablished: that this Ineffable name was 
 known to the Operative Freemasons of the 
 Middle Age3; that it was derived from 
 them by the Speculative Masons, who, in 
 1717, revived the Order in England ; that 
 they knew it as Master Masons ; and that 
 it continued to be the Master's Word until 
 late in that century, when it was removed 
 by Dunckerley into the Royal Arch. 
 
 Although there is, perhaps, no point in 
 the esoteric system of Masonry more clearly 
 established than that the Tetragrammaton 
 is the true omnific word, yet innovations 
 have been admitted, by which, in some 
 jurisdictions in this country, that word has 
 been changed into three others, which sim- 
 ply signify Divine names in other lan- 
 guages, but have none of the sublime sym- 
 bolism that belongs to the true name of 
 God. It is true that the General Grand 
 Chapter of the United States adopted a 
 regulation disapproving of the innovation 
 of these explanatory words, and restoring 
 the Tetragrammaton ; but this declaration 
 of what might almost be considered a tru- 
 ism in Masonry has been met with open 
 opposition or reluctant obedience in some 
 places. 
 
 The Grand Chapter of England has fallen 
 into the same error, and abandoned the 
 teachings of Dunckerley, the founder of 
 the Royal Arch in that country, as some 
 of the Grand Chapters in America did those 
 of Webb, who was the founder of the sys- 
 tem here. It is well, therefore, to inquire 
 what was the omnific word when the Royal 
 Arch system was first invented. 
 
 We have the authority of Oliver, who 
 had the best opportunity of any man in 
 England of knowing the facts, for saying 
 that Dunckerley established the Royal 
 Arch for the modern Grand Lodge; that 
 he wisely borrowed many things from Ram- 
 say and Dermott ; and that he boldly trans- 
 S Ian ted the word Jehovah from the Master's 
 egree and placed it in his new system. 
 
 Now, what was " The Word " of the 
 Royal Arch, as understood by Dunckerley? 
 We have no difficulty here, for he himself 
 answers the question. To the first edition 
 of the Laws and Regulations of the Royal 
 Arch, published in 1782, there is prefixed 
 an essay on Freemasonry, which is attrib- 
 uted to Dunckerley. In this he makes the 
 following remarks : 
 
 " It must be observed that the expression 
 The Word is not to be understood as a 
 watchword only, after the manner of those 
 
 annexed to the several degrees of the Craft ; 
 but also theologically, as a term, thereby to 
 convey to the mind some idea of that Grand 
 Being who is the sole author of our exist- 
 ence ; and to carry along with it the most 
 solemn veneration for his sacred Name and 
 Word, as well as the most clear and perfect 
 elucidation of his power and attributes 
 that the human mind is capable of receiv- 
 ing. And this is the light in which the 
 Name and Word hath always been con- 
 sidered, from the remotest ages, amongst us 
 Christians and the Jews." 
 
 And then, after giving the well-known 
 history from Josephus of the word, which, 
 to remove all doubt of what it is, he says 
 is the " Shem Hamphorash, or the Unutter- 
 able Name," he adds : " Philo, the learned 
 Jew, tells us not only that the word was lost, 
 but also the time when, and the reason why. 
 But, to make an end of these unprofitable 
 disputes among the learned, be it remem- 
 bered that they all concur with the Royal 
 Arch Masons in others much more essen- 
 tial : first, that the Name or Word is ex- 
 pressive of Self- Existence and Eter- 
 nity ; and, secondly, that it can be appli- 
 cable only to that Great Being who was 
 and is and will be." 
 
 Notwithstanding this explicit and un- 
 mistakable declaration of the founder of 
 the English Royal Arch, that the Tetra- 
 grammaton is the omnific word, the pres- 
 ent system in England has rejected it, and 
 substituted in its place three other words, 
 the second of which is wholy unmeaning." 
 
 In the American system, as revised by 
 Thomas Smith Webb, there can be no 
 doubt that the Tetragrammaton was recog- 
 nized as the omnific word. In the Free- 
 mason's Monitor, prepared by him for mon- 
 itorial instruction, he has inserted, among 
 the passages of Scripture to be read during 
 an exaltation, the following from Exodus, 
 which is the last in order, and which any 
 one at all acquainted with the ritual will 
 at once see is appropriated to the time of 
 the euresis or discovery of the Word. 
 
 "And God spake unto Moses, and said 
 unto him, I am the Lord, and I appeared 
 unto Abraham, and unto Isaac, and unto 
 Jacob by the name of God Amighty, but 
 by my name JEHOVAH was I not known 
 to them." 
 
 From this it will be evident that Webb 
 recognized the word Jehovah, and not the 
 three other words that have since been sub- 
 stituted for them by some Grand Chapters 
 in this country, and which it is probable 
 were originally used by Webb as merely 
 explanatory or declaratory of the Divine 
 nature of the other and principal word. 
 And this is in accordance with one of the 
 traditions of the degree, . that they were 
 
JEPHTHAH 
 
 JERUSALEM 
 
 381 
 
 placed on the substitute ark around the 
 real word, as a key to explain its significa- 
 tion. 
 
 To call anything else but this four- 
 lettered name an omnific word — an all- 
 creating and all -performing word — either 
 in Masonry or in Hebrew symbolism, whence 
 Masonry derived it, is to oppose all the 
 doctrines of the Talmudists, the Kabbalists, 
 and the Gnostics, and to repudiate the 
 teachings of every Hebrew scholar from 
 Buxtorf to Gesenius. To fight the battle 
 against such odds is to secure defeat. It 
 shows more of boldness than of discretion. 
 And hence the General Grand Chapter of 
 the United States has very wisely restored 
 the word Jehovah to its proper place. It 
 is only in the York and in the American 
 Rites that this error has ever existed. In 
 every other Rite the Tetragrammaton is 
 recognized as the true word. 
 
 Jephthah. A Judge of Israel, and the 
 leader of the Gileadites in their war against 
 the Ephraimites, which terminated in the 
 slaughter of so many of the latter at the 
 passes of the river Jordan. See Ephraim- 
 ites. 
 
 Jericho, Heroine of. See Heroine 
 of Jericho. 
 
 Jericho, Knight of. See Knight 
 of Jericho. 
 
 Jermyn, Henry. Preston says 
 [Illustrations, p. 161. ol. ed.,) that Henry 
 Jermyn, Earl of St. Albans, was elected 
 Grand Master at a General Assembly held 
 on the 27th of December, 1663, and that at 
 this Assembly " several useful regulations 
 were made," some of which he gives in a 
 note. Roberts, in his edition of the "Old 
 Constitutions " printed in 1722, the earli- 
 est printed Masonic book that we have, re- 
 fers also to this General Assembly ; the date 
 of which he, however, makes the 8th of 
 December. Roberts gives what he calls 
 the Additional Orders and Constitutions. 
 The Harleian MS., in the British Museum, 
 numbered 1942, which Hughan supposes to 
 have the date of 1670, and which he has 
 published in his Old Charges of the Brit- 
 ish Freemasons, (p. 52,) contains also three 
 " new articles." The articles in Roberts' 
 and the Harleian MS. are identical. In 
 Preston, they are modified in language, 
 as they are also in the 1738 edition of An- 
 derson. But neither of these writers is trust- 
 worthy in relation to citations from old 
 documents. Of these new articles, one of 
 the most important is that which prescribes 
 that the society of Freemasons shall there- 
 after be governed by a Master and War- 
 dens. Bro. Hughan thinks that there is no 
 evidence of the statement that a General As- 
 sembly was held in 1663. But I think that 
 the concurring testimony of Roberts in 
 
 1722, and of Anderson in 1738, with the 
 significant fact that the charges are found 
 in a manuscript written seven years after, 
 give some plausibility to the statement that 
 a General Assembly was held at that time. 
 
 Jekson. This word is found in the 
 French Cahiers of the high degrees. It is 
 undoubtedly a corruption of Jacquesson, 
 and this a mongrel word compounded of 
 the French Jacques and the English son, 
 and means the son of James, that is, James 
 II. It refers to Charles Edward the Pre- 
 tender, who was the son of that abdicated 
 and exiled monarch. It is a significant 
 relic of the system attempted to be intro- 
 duced by the adherents of the house of 
 Stuart, and by which they expected to enlist 
 Masonry as an instrument to effect the res- 
 toration of the Pretender to the throne of 
 England. For this purpose they had altered 
 the legend of the third degree, making it 
 applicable to Charles II., who, being the son 
 of Henrietta Maria, the widow of Charles 
 L, was designated as " the widow's son." 
 
 Jena, Congress of. Jena is a city 
 of Saxe- Weimar, in Thuringia. A Ma- 
 sonic Congress was convoked there in 1763, 
 by the Lodge of Strict Observance, under 
 the presidency of Johnson, a Masonic char- 
 latan, but whose real name was Becker. In 
 this Congress the doctrine was announced 
 that the Freemasons were the successors of 
 the Knights Templars, a dogma peculiarly 
 characteristic of the Rite of Strict Observ- 
 ance. In the year 1764, a second Congress 
 was convoked by Johnson or Leucht with 
 the desire of authoritatively establishing his 
 doctrine of the connection between Tem- 
 plarism and Masonry. The empirical char- 
 acter of Johnson was here discovered by the 
 Baron Hund, and he was denounced, and 
 subsequently punished at Magdeburg by 
 the public authorities. 
 
 Jerusalem. The capital of Judea, 
 and memorable in Masonic history as the 
 place where was erected the Temple of Sol- 
 omon. It is early mentioned in Scripture, 
 and is supposed to be the Salem of which 
 Melchizedek was king. At the time that 
 the Israelites entered the Promised Land, 
 the city was in possession of the Jebusites, 
 from whom, after the death of Joshua, it 
 was conquered, and afterwards inhabited 
 by the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The 
 Jebusites were not, however, driven out ; 
 and we learn that David purchased Mount 
 Moriah from Oman or Araunah the Jebu- 
 site as a site for the Temple. It is only in 
 reference to this Temple that Jerusalem is 
 connected with the legends of Ancient 
 Craft Masonry. In the degrees of chivalry 
 it is also important, because it was the 
 city where the holy places were situated, 
 and for the possession of which the Cru- 
 
382 
 
 JERUSALEM 
 
 JEWELS 
 
 saders so long and so bravely contested. It 
 was there, too, that the Templars and the 
 Hospitallers were established as Orders of 
 religious and military knighthood. 
 
 Modern Speculative Masonry was intro- 
 duced into Jerusalem by the establish- 
 ment of a Lodge in 1872. The warrant for 
 which, on the application of Robert Morris 
 and others, was granted by the Grand Lodge 
 of Canada. 
 
 Jerusalem, Knight of. See Knight 
 of Jerusalem. 
 
 Jerusalem, New. The symbolic 
 name of the Christian Church (Rev. xxi. 
 2-21 ; iii. 12). The Apostle John, (Rev. 
 xxi.,) from the summit of a high mountain, 
 beheld, in a pictorial symbol or scenic rep- 
 resentation, a city resplendent with celes- 
 tial brightness, which seemed to descend 
 from the heavens to the earth. It was 
 stated to be a square of about 400 miles, 
 or 12,000 stadia, equal to about 16,000 
 miles in circumference — of course, a mys- 
 tical number, denoting that the city was 
 capable of holding almost countless myriads 
 of inhabitants. The New Jerusalem was 
 beheld, like Jacob's ladder, extending from 
 earth to heaven. It plays an important 
 part in the ritual of the nineteenth degree, 
 or Grand Pontiff of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite, where the descent of 
 the New Jerusalem is a symbol of the de- 
 scent of the empire of Light and Truth 
 upon the earth. 
 
 Jerusalem, Prince of. See Prince 
 of Jerusalem. 
 
 Jerusalem Word. In the cate- 
 chism of 1724 occurs the following ques- 
 tion and answer. 
 
 " Q. Give me the Jerusalem Word. 
 
 "A. Giblin." 
 
 The origin of this phrase may perhaps be 
 thus traced. The theory that after the com- 
 pletion of the Temple a portion of the work- 
 men travelled abroad to seek employment, 
 while another portion remained at Jerusa- 
 lem, was well known to the Fraternity at 
 the beginning of the last century. It is 
 amply detailed in that old manuscript 
 known as the York MS., which is now lost, 
 but was translated by Krause, and inserted 
 in his Kunsturkunden. It may be sup- 
 posed that this " Jerusalem Word " was the 
 word which the Masons used at Jerusalem, 
 while the " Universal Word," which is 
 given in the next question and answer, was 
 the word common to the Craft everywhere. 
 The Jerusalem Word, as such, is no longer 
 in use, but the Universal Word is still 
 found in the first degree. 
 
 Jesuits. In the last century the Jesuits 
 were charged with having an intimate con- 
 nection with Freemasonry, and the inven- 
 tion of the degree of Kadosh was even at- 
 
 tributed to those members of the Society 
 who constituted the College of Clermont. 
 This theory of a Jesuitical Masonry seems 
 to have originated with the Illuminati, who 
 were probably governed in its promulgation 
 by a desire to depreciate the character of 
 all other Masonic systems in comparison 
 with their own, where no such priestly in- 
 terference was permitted. Barruel scoffs 
 at the idea of such a connection, and calls 
 it {Hist, de Ja., iv. 287,) "la fable de la 
 Franc-Ma<jonnerie Je'suiteque." For once 
 he is right. Like oil and water, the toler- 
 ance of Freemasonry and the intolerance 
 of the "Society of Jesus" cannot com- 
 mingle. 
 
 Yet it cannot be denied that, while the 
 Jesuits have had no part in the construc- 
 tion of pure Freemasonry, there are reasons 
 for believing that they took an interest in 
 the invention of some degrees and sys- 
 tems which were intended to advance their 
 own interests. But wherever they touched 
 the Institution they left the trail of the ser- 
 pent. They sought to convert its pure 
 philanthropy and toleration into political 
 intrigue and religious bigotry. Hence it is 
 believed that they had something to do 
 with the invention of those degrees, which 
 were intended to aid the exiled house of 
 Stuart in its efforts to regain the English 
 throne, because they believed that would 
 secure the restoration in England of the 
 Roman Catholic religion. Almost a library 
 of books has been written on both sides of 
 this subject in Germany and in France. 
 
 Jewel of an Ancient Grand 
 Master. A Masonic tradition informs us 
 that the jewel of an ancient Grand Master 
 at the Temple was the square and compass 
 with the letter G between. This was the 
 jewel worn by Hiram Abif on the day 
 which deprived the Craft of his invaluable 
 services, and which was subsequently found 
 upon him. 
 
 Jewel, Member's. In many Lodges, 
 especially among the Germans, where it is 
 called "Mitgleider Zeichen," a jewel is 
 provided for every member, and presented 
 to him on his initiation or affiliation. It 
 is to be worn from the button-hole, and 
 generally contains the name of the Lodge 
 and some Masonic device. 
 
 Jewels, Immovable. See Jewels 
 of a Lodge. 
 
 Jewels, Movable. See Jewels of a 
 Lodge. 
 
 Jewels of a TLodge. Every Lodge 
 is furnished with six jewels, three of which 
 are movable and three immovable. They 
 are termed jewels, says Oliver, because they 
 have a moral tendency which renders them 
 jewels of inestimable value. The movable 
 jewels, so called because they are not con- 
 
JEWELS 
 
 JEWS 
 
 383 
 
 fined to any particular part of the Lodge, 
 are the rough ashlar, the perfect ashlar, 
 and the trestle-board. The immovable jew- 
 els are the square, the level, and the plumb. 
 They are termed immovable, because they 
 are appropriated to particular parts of the 
 Lodge, where alone they should be found, 
 namely, the square to the east, the level to 
 the west, and the plumb to the south. In 
 the English system the division is the re- 
 verse of this. There, the square, level, and 
 plumb are called movable jewels, because 
 they pass from the three officers who wear 
 them to their successors. 
 
 Jewels, Official. Jewels are the 
 names applied to the emblems worn by the 
 officers of Masonic bodies as distinctive 
 badges of their offices. For the purpose 
 of reference, the jewels worn in symbolic 
 Lodges, in Chapters, Councils, and Encamp- 
 ments are here appended. 
 
 1. In Symbolic Lodges. 
 
 W.\ Master wears a square. 
 
 Senior Warden " a level. 
 
 Junior Warden " a plumb. 
 
 Treasurer " cross keys. 
 
 Secretary " cross pens. 
 
 Senior Deacon " square and compass, 
 
 sun in the centre. 
 Junior Deacon " square and compass, 
 
 moon in the centre. 
 Steward " a cornucopia. 
 
 Tiler " cross swords. 
 
 The jewels are of silver in a subordinate 
 Lodge, and of gold in a Grand Lodge. In 
 English Lodges, the jewel of the Deacon is 
 a dove. 
 
 2. In Royal Arch Chapters. 
 
 High Priest wears a mitre. 
 
 King " a level surmounted 
 
 by a crown. 
 
 Scribe " a plumb-rule sur- 
 
 mounted by a 
 turban. 
 
 Captain of the Host " a triangular plate 
 inscribed with a 
 soldier. 
 
 Principal Sojourner " a triangular plate 
 inscribed with a 
 pilgrim. 
 
 Royal Arch Captain " a sword. 
 
 Grand Master of 
 the Veils. " a sword. 
 
 The other officers as in a symbolic Lodge. 
 All the jewels are of gold, and suspended 
 within an equilateral triangle. 
 
 3. In Royal and Select Councils. 
 
 T. I. Grand Master wears a trowel and 
 
 square. 
 
 I. Hiram of Tyre wears a trowel and 
 
 level. 
 Principal Conductor " a trowel and 
 
 of the works plumb. 
 
 Treasurer " a trowel and 
 
 cross keys. 
 Recorder " a trowel and 
 
 cross pens. 
 Captain of the Guards " a trowel and 
 
 sword. 
 Steward " a trowel and 
 
 cross swords. 
 Marshal " a trowel and 
 
 baton. 
 
 If a Conductor of the Council is used, 
 he wears a trowel and baton, and then a 
 scroll is added to the Marshal's baton to 
 distinguish the two officers. 
 
 All the jewels are of silver, and are en- 
 closed within an equilateral triangle. 
 
 4. In Commanderies of Knighte Templars. 
 Em't Commander wears a cross surmounted 
 by rays of light. 
 Generalissimo " a square sur- 
 
 mounted by a 
 paschal lamb. 
 Captain General " a level sur- 
 mounted by a 
 cock. 
 Prelate " a triple triangle. 
 
 Senior Warden " a hollow square 
 
 and sword of 
 justice. 
 Junior Warden " eagle and flaming 
 
 sword. 
 Treasurer " cross keys. 
 
 Recorder " cross pens. 
 
 Standard Bearer " a plumb sur- 
 mounted by a 
 banner. 
 Warder " a square plate 
 
 inscribed with a 
 trumpet and 
 cross swords. 
 Three Guards " a square plate in- 
 
 scribed with a 
 battle-axe. 
 The jewels are of silver. 
 Jewels, Precious. In the lectures 
 of the second and third degrees, allusion is 
 made to certain moral qualities, which, as 
 they are intended to elucidate and impress 
 the most important moral principles of the 
 degree, are for their great value called the 
 Precious Jewels of a Fellow Craft and the 
 Precious Jewels of a Master Mason. There 
 are three in each degree, and they are re- 
 ferred to by the Alarm. Their explanation 
 is esoteric. 
 
 Jews, Disqualification of. The 
 great principles of religious and political 
 toleration which peculiarly characterize 
 Freemasonry would legitimately make no 
 
384 
 
 JEZIRAH 
 
 JOHNSON 
 
 religious faith which recognized a Supreme 
 Being a disqualification for initiation. But, 
 unfortunately, these principles have not 
 always been regarded, and from an early 
 period the German Lodges, and especially 
 the Prussian, were reluctant to accord ad- 
 mission to Jews. This action has given 
 great offence to the Grand Lodges of other 
 countries which were more liberal in their 
 views, and were more in accord with the 
 Masonic spirit, and was productive of dis- 
 sensions among the Masons of Germany, 
 many of whom were opposed to this intol- 
 erant policy. But a better spirit now pre- 
 vails ; and very recently the Grand Lodge 
 of the Three Globes at Berlin, the leading 
 Masonic body of Prussia, has removed the 
 interdict, and Judaism is there no longer a 
 disqualification for initiation. 
 
 Jezirali, or Jetzirah, Book of. 
 JT"Vy* HpD) *• e -> Book of the Creation. 
 A Kabbalistic work, which is claimed by 
 the Kabbalists as their first and oldest code 
 of doctrines, although it has no real affinity 
 with the tenets of the Kabbala. The au- 
 thorship of it is attributed to the patriarch 
 Abraham; but the actual date of its first 
 appearance is supposed to be about the 
 ninth century. Steinschneider says that it 
 opens the literature of the Secret Doctrine. 
 Its fundamental idea is, that in the ten 
 digits and the twenty letters of the Hebrew 
 alphabet we are to find the origin of all 
 things. Landauer, a German Hebraist, 
 thinks that the author of the Jetzirah bor- 
 rowed his doctrine of numbers from the 
 School of Pythagoras, which is very prob- 
 able. The old Masons, it is probable, de- 
 rived some of their mystical ideas of sacred 
 numbers from this work. 
 
 Joabert. This, according to the le- 
 gends of the high degrees, was the nataie 
 of the chief favorite of Solomon, who in- 
 curred the displeasure of Hiram of Tyre 
 on a certain occasion, but was subsequently 
 pardoned, and, on account of the great at- 
 tachment he had shown to the person of 
 his master, was appointed the Secretary of 
 Solomon and Hiram in their most intimate 
 relations. He was afterwards still further 
 promoted by Solomon, and appointed with 
 Tito and Adoniram a Provost and Judge. 
 He distinguished himself in his successful 
 efforts to bring certain traitors to condign 
 punishment, and although by his rashness 
 he at first excited the anger of the king, he 
 was subsequently forgiven, and eventually 
 received the highest reward that Solomon 
 could bestow, by being made an Elect, Per- 
 fect, and Sublime Mason. The name is evi- 
 dently not Hebrew, or must at least have 
 undergone much corruption, for in its pres- 
 ent form it cannot be traced to a Hebrew 
 root. Lenning says {Encycbpddve) that it 
 
 is Johaben, or, more properly, Ihaoben, 
 which he interprets the Son of God; but it 
 would be difficult to find any such meaning 
 according to the recognized rules of the 
 Hebrew etymology. 
 
 Joachim, Order of. A secret asso- 
 ciation instituted in Germany towards the 
 end of the last century. Its recipients swore 
 that they believed in the Trinity, and 
 would never waltz. None but nobles, their 
 wives and children, were admitted. It had 
 no connection with Masonry. 
 
 Johannite Masonry. A term in- 
 troduced by Dr. Oliver to designate the sys- 
 tem of Masonry, of which the two Sts. John 
 are recognized as the patrons, and to whom 
 the Lodges are dedicated, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the more recent system of Dr. Hem- 
 ming, in which the dedication is to Moses 
 and Solomon. Oliver was much opposed 
 to the change, and wrote an interesting 
 work on the subject, entitled A Mirror for 
 the Johannite Mawns, which was published 
 in 1848. According to his definition, the 
 system practised in the United States is 
 Johannite Masonry. 
 
 Johannites. A Masonico -religious 
 sect established in Paris, in 1814, by Fabr6- 
 Paliprat, and attached to the Order of the 
 Temple, of which he was the Grand Mas- 
 ter. See Leviticon, and Temple, Order of the. 
 
 John's Brothers. In the charter 
 of Cologne, it is said that before the year 
 1440 the society of Freemasons was known 
 by no other name than that of "John's 
 Brothers," Joannaeorum fratrum; that 
 they then began to be called at Valenci- 
 ennes, Free and Accepted Masons; and 
 that at that time, in some parts of Flanders, 
 by the assistance and riches of the brother- 
 hood, the first hospitals were erected for 
 the relief of such as were afflicted with St. 
 Anthony's fire. In another part of the 
 charter it is said that the authors of the 
 associations were called "Brothers conse- 
 crated to John," — fratres Joanni Sacros, — 
 because " they followed the example and 
 imitation of John the Baptist." 
 
 Johnson. Sometimes spelled John- 
 stone. An adventurer, and Masonic char- 
 latan, whose real name was Leucht. He 
 assumed Masonry as a disguise under which 
 he could carry on his impositions. He ap- 
 peared first at Jena, in the beginning of 
 the year 1763, and proclaimed that he had 
 been deputed by the chiefs of Templar 
 Masonry in Scotland to introduce a reform 
 into the German Lodges. He established a 
 Chapter of Strict Observance, (the Rite then 
 dominating in Germany,) and assumed the 
 dignity of Grand Prior. He made war upon 
 Rosa, the founder of the Rosaic Rite, and 
 upon the Grand Lodge of the Three Globes, 
 which then sustained that enthusiast. Many 
 
JOHN 
 
 JONES 
 
 385 
 
 of the German Lodges succumbed to his pre- 
 tensions, and, surrendering their Warrants, 
 gave in their adhesion to Johnson. Von 
 Hund himself was at first deceived by him; 
 but in 1764, at Aitenberg, having dis- 
 covered that Johnson had been formerly, 
 under the name of Becker, the secretary 
 of the Prince of Bernberg, whose confidence 
 he had betrayed ; that during the seven years' 
 war he had been wandering about, becom- 
 ing, finally, the servant of a Mason, whose 
 papers he had stolen, and that by means of 
 these papers he had been passing himself 
 as that individual. Von Hund denounced 
 him as an impostor. Johnson fled, but 
 was subsequently arrested at Magdeburg, 
 and imprisoned in the fortress of Wartz- 
 berg, where in 1773 he died suddenly. 
 
 John the Baptist. See Saint John 
 the Baptist. 
 
 John the Evangelist. See Saint 
 John the Evangelist. 
 
 Jones, Inigo. One of the most cele- 
 brated of English architects, and hence 
 called the Vitruvius of England. He was 
 born at London on July 15, 1573, and died 
 June 21, 1652, in the seventy-ninth year of 
 his age. He was successively the archi- 
 tect of three kings, — James I., Charles 
 I., and Charles II., — and during his long 
 career superintended the erection of many 
 of the most magnificent public and private 
 edifices in England, among which were the 
 Banqueting-House of Whitehall, and the 
 old church of St. Paul's. Jones's official 
 position placed him, of course, in close con- 
 nection with the Operative Masons. An- 
 derson, seizing on this circumstance, says 
 that James I. "approved of his being 
 chosen Grand Master of England, to pre- 
 side over the Lodges;" but the Earl of 
 Pembroke being afterwards chosen Grand 
 Master, he appointed Jones his Deputy. 
 These statements are copied by Entick and 
 Noorthouck in their respective editions of 
 the Book of Constitutions ; but it is hardly 
 necessary to say that they need historical 
 confirmation. Preston says : 
 
 " During his administration, several 
 learned men were initiated into the Order, 
 and the society considerably increased in 
 consequence and reputation. Ingenious 
 artists daily resorted to England, where 
 they met with great encouragement ; 
 Lodges were instituted as seminaries of 
 instruction in the sciences and polite arts, 
 after the model of the Italian schools ; the 
 communications of the Fraternity were es- 
 tablished, and the annual festivals regu- 
 larly observed." 
 
 There may be exaggeration or assump- 
 tion in much of this, but it cannot be de- 
 nied that the office of Jones as "King's 
 Architect," and his labors as the most ex- 
 2Y 25 
 
 tensive builder of his time, must have 
 brought him into close intimacy with the 
 associations of Operative Masons, which 
 were being rapidly influenced by a specu- 
 lative character. It will be remembered 
 that five years before Jones's death, Elias 
 Ashmole was, by his own account, made a 
 Freemason at Warrington, and Jones the 
 architect and builder could hardly have 
 taken less interest in the society than Ash- 
 mole the astrologer and antiquary. We 
 have, I think, a right to believe that Jones 
 was a Freemason. 
 
 Jones, Stephen. A miscellaneous 
 writer and Masonic author of some celeb- 
 rity. He was born at London in 1764, and 
 educated at St. Paul's school. He was, on 
 leaving school, placed under an eminent 
 sculptor, but, on account of some difference, 
 was removed and apprenticed to a printer. 
 On the expiration of his articles, he was en- 
 gaged as corrector of the press, by Mr. Stra- 
 han, the king's printer. Four years after- 
 wards, he removed to the office of Mr. 
 Thomas Wright, where he remained until 
 1797, when the death of his employer dis- 
 solved his immediate connection with the 
 printing business. He then became the 
 editor of the Whitehall Evening Post, and, 
 on the decline of that paper, of the General 
 Evening Post, and afterwards of the Euro- 
 pean Magazine. His contributions to liter- 
 ature were very various. He supervised 
 an edition of Reed's Biographia Dramati- 
 ca, an abridgment of Burke's Reflections on 
 the French Revolution, and also abridgments 
 of many other popular works. But he is 
 best known in general literature by his 
 Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary 
 of the English Language, published in 1798. 
 This production, although following Walk- 
 er's far superior work, was very favorably 
 received by the public. 
 
 In Masonry, Stephen Jones occupied a 
 very high position. He was a Past Master 
 of the Lodge of Antiquity, of which Wil- 
 liam Preston was a member, and of whom 
 Jones was an intimate friend, and one of 
 his executors. Preston had thoroughly 
 instructed him in his system, and after the 
 death of that distinguished Mason, he was 
 the first to fill the appointment of Presto- 
 nian lecturer. In 1797 he published Ma- 
 sonic Miscellanies in Prose and Poetry, which 
 went through many editions, the last being 
 that of 1811. In a graceful dedication to 
 Preston, he acknowledges his indebtedness 
 to him for any insight that he may have 
 acquired into the nature and design of Ma- 
 sonry. In 1816, he contributed the article 
 " Masonry or Freemasonry " to the Ency- 
 clopaedia Londinensis. In 1821, after the 
 death of Preston, he published an edition 
 of the Rlustrations, with Additions and Cor- 
 
386 
 
 JOPPA 
 
 JOSHUA 
 
 reclions. Bro. Matthew Cooke (London 
 Freemason's Magazine, Sept., 1859,) says of 
 him : " In the Masonic Craft, Bro. Jones 
 was very deeply versed. He was a man of 
 genial sympathies, and a great promoter 
 of social gatherings." John Britton the 
 architect, who knew him well, says of him, 
 (Autobiog., p. 302,) that " he was a man of 
 mild disposition, strict honesty, great in- 
 dustry, and unblemished character." In his 
 latter days he was in embarrassed circum- 
 stances, and derived pecuniary aid from 
 the Literary Fund. He died, on Dec. 
 20, 1828, of dropsy, in King St., Holborn, 
 London. 
 
 Joppa. A town of Palestine and the 
 seaport of Jerusalem, from which it is dis- 
 tant about forty miles in a westerly direc- 
 tion. It was here that the King of Tyre 
 sent ships laden with timber and marble to 
 be forwarded overland to Solomon for the 
 construction of the Temple. Its shore is 
 exceedingly rough, and much dreaded by 
 navigators, who, on account of its exposure, 
 and the perpendicularity of its banks, are 
 compelled to be perpetually on their guard. 
 The following extract from the narrative 
 of the Baron Geramb, a Trappist, who 
 visited the Holy Land in 1842, will be in- 
 teresting to Mark Masters. " Yesterday 
 morning at daybreak, boats put off and 
 surrounded the vessel to take us to the 
 town (of Joppa), the access to which is diffi- 
 cult on account of the numerous rocks that 
 present to view their bare flanks. The walls 
 were covered with spectators, attracted by 
 curiosity. The boats being much lower 
 than the bridge, upon which one is obliged 
 to climb, and having no ladder, the landing 
 is not effected without danger. More than 
 once it has happened that passengers, in 
 springing out, have broken their limbs; and 
 we might have met with the like accident, 
 if several persons had not hastened to our 
 assistance." (Pilgrimage to Jerusalem and 
 Mount Sinai, vol. i., p. 27.) The place is 
 now called Jaffa. 
 
 Jordan. A river of Judea, on the 
 banks of which occurred the slaughter of 
 the Ephraimites, which is alluded to in the 
 second degree. 
 
 Jordan, Charles Stephen. Se- 
 cret counsellor of the King of Prussia, 
 and Vice President of the Academy of 
 Sciences in Berlin, was born in the year 
 1700, and died in the year 1745. In the 
 year 1740, he founded, with the Baron von 
 Bielfeld, the Lodge of Three Globes at 
 Berlin, of which he was Secretary until the 
 time of his death. 
 
 Jordan, Fords of the. The exact 
 locality of these fords (or "passages," as 
 the Bible terms them,) cannot now be des- 
 ignated, but most likely they were those 
 nearly due east of Seikoot, and opposite 
 
 Mizpah. At these fords, in summer time, 
 the water is not more than three or four 
 feet deep, the bottom being composed of a 
 hard limestone rock. If, as some think, 
 the fords thirty miles higher up are those 
 referred to, the same description will apply. 
 At either place, the Jordan is about eighty 
 feet wide ; its banks encumbered by a dense 
 growth of tamarisks, cane, willows, thorn- 
 bushes, and other low vegetation of the 
 shrubby and thorny sorts, which make it 
 difficult even to approach the margin of the 
 stream. The Arabs cross the river at the 
 present day, at stages of low water, at a 
 number of fords, from the one near the 
 point where the Jordan leaves the sea of 
 Galilee, down to the Pilgrims' Ford, six 
 miles above the Dead Sea. Morris : Free- 
 masonry in the Holy Land, p. 316. 
 
 Joseph II. This emperor of Ger- 
 many, who succeeded his mother Maria 
 Theresa, at one time encouraged the Masons 
 in his dominions, and, notwithstanding the 
 efforts of the priests to prevent it, issued a 
 decree in 1785, written, says Lenning, by 
 his own hand, which permitted the meet- 
 ings of Lodges under certain restrictions as 
 to number. In this decree he says : 
 
 " In return for their compliance with this 
 ordinance, the government accords to the 
 Freemasons welcome, protection, and lib- 
 erty ; leaving entirely to their own direc- 
 tion the control of their members and their 
 constitutions. The government will not at- 
 tempt to penetrate into their mysteries. 
 
 " Following these directions, the Order of 
 Freemasons, in which body are comprised a 
 great number of worthy men who are well- 
 known to me, may become useful to the 
 state." 
 
 But the Austrian Masons did not enjoy 
 this tolerance long; the Emperor at length 
 yielded to the counsels and the influence of 
 the bigoted priesthood, and in 1789 the or- 
 dinance was rescinded, and the Lodges were 
 forbidden to congregate under the severest 
 penalties. 
 
 Josephns, Flavins. A Jewish au- 
 thor who lived in the first century, and 
 wrote in Greek, among other works, a His- 
 tory of the Jews, to which recourse has been 
 had in some of the high degrees, such as 
 the Prince of Jerusalem, and Knight of the 
 Red Cross, or Red Cross of Babylon, for de- 
 tails in framing their rituals. 
 
 Joshua. The high priest who,- with 
 Zerubbabel the Prince of Judah, superin- 
 tended the rebuilding of the Temple after 
 the Babylonian captivity. He was the high 
 priest by lineal descent from the pontifical 
 family, for he was the son of Josadek, who 
 was the son of Seraiah, who was the high 
 priest when the Temple was destroyed by 
 the Chaldeans. He was distinguished for 
 the zeal with which he prosecuted the work 
 
JOURNEY 
 
 JURISDICTION 
 
 387 
 
 of rebuilding, and opposed the interference 
 of the Samaritans. He is represented by 
 the High Priest in the Royal Arch degree 
 according to the York and American Rites. 
 
 Journey. Journeywork, or work by 
 the day, in contradistinction to task, or 
 work by the piece, and so used in all the 
 old Constitutions. Thus, in the Dowland 
 MS., there is the charge " that noe maister 
 nor fellowe, put no lord's work to taske 
 that was want to goe to jornaye." It was 
 fairer to the lord and to the craftsman to 
 work by the day than by the piece. 
 
 Journeyman. When the Lodges 
 were altogether operative in their charac- 
 ter, a Mason, having served his apprentice- 
 ship, began to work for himself, and he was 
 then called & journeyman; but he was re- 
 quired, within a reasonable period, (in 
 Scotland it was two years,) to obtain ad- 
 mission into a Lodge, when he was said to 
 have passed a Fellow Craft. Hence the 
 distinction between Fellow Crafts and jour- 
 neymen was that the former were and the 
 latter were not members of Lodges. Thus, 
 in the minutes of St. Mary's Chapel Lodge 
 of Edinburgh, on the 27th of December, 
 1689, it was declared that " No Master shall 
 employ a person who has not been passed 
 a Fellow Craft in two years after the expir- 
 ing of his apprenticeship ; " and the names 
 of several journeymen are given who had 
 not complied with the law. A similar reg- 
 ulation was repeated by the same Lodge in 
 1705, complaint having been made "that 
 there are several Masteris of this house 
 that tolerate jurnimen to work up and down 
 this citie contrary to their oath of admis- 
 sion; " and such journeymen were forbidden 
 to seek employment. The patronage of 
 the Craft of Freemasons was bestowed only 
 on those who had become " free of the gild." 
 
 Jova. A significant word in the high 
 degrees. It is a corrupted form of the Tet- 
 ragrammaton. 
 
 J int. A corrupted form of the Tetra- 
 grammaton, and a significant word in the 
 high degrees. 
 
 J Uriah. The whole of Palestine was 
 sometimes called the land of Judah, be- 
 cause Judah was a distinguished tribe in 
 obtaining possession of the country. The 
 tribe of Judah bore a lion in its standard, 
 and hence the Masonic allusion to the Lion 
 of the tribe of Judah. See also Genesis 
 xlix. 9, " Judah is a lion's whelp." 
 
 Judah and Benjamin. Of the 
 twelve tribes of Israel who were, at various 
 times, carried into captivity, only two, those 
 of Judah and Benjamin, returned under 
 Zerubbabel to rebuild the second Temple. 
 Hence, in the high degrees, which are 
 founded on events that occurred at and 
 after the building of the second Temple, 
 
 the allusions are made only to the tribes of 
 Judah and Benjamin. 
 
 Jug Lodges. An opprobrious epithet 
 bestowed, during the anti-Masonic excite- 
 ment, upon certain assemblages of worthless 
 men who pretended to confer the degrees 
 upon candidates weak enough to confide in 
 them. They derived their instructions 
 from the so-called expositions of Morgan, 
 and exacted a trifling fee for initiation, 
 which was generally a jug of whiskey, or 
 money enough to buy one. They were 
 found in the mountain regions of North 
 and South Carolina and Georgia. 
 
 Junior Adept. {Junior Adeptus.) One 
 of the degrees of the German Rose Croix. 
 
 Junior Entered Apprentice. 
 According to the rituals of the early part 
 of the last century, the Junior Entered 
 Apprentice was placed in the North, and 
 his duty was to keep out all cowans and 
 eavesdroppers. There was also a Senior 
 Entered Apprentice, and the two seem to 
 have occupied, in some manner, the posi- 
 tions now occupied by the Senior and 
 Junior Deacons. See Senior Entered Ap- 
 prentice. 
 
 Junior Overseer. The lowest offi- 
 cer in a Mark Lodge. When Royal Arch 
 Chapters are opened in the Mark degree, 
 the duties of the Junior Overseer are per- 
 formed by the Grand Master of the first 
 Veil. 
 
 Junior Warden. The third officer 
 in a symbolic Lodge. He presides over 
 the Craft during the hours of refreshment, 
 and, in the absence of the Master and Se- 
 nior Warden, he performs the duty of pre- 
 siding officer. Hence, if the Master and 
 Senior Warden were to die or remove from 
 the jurisdiction, the Junior Warden would 
 assume the chair for the remainder of the 
 term. The jewel of the Junior Warden is 
 a plumb, emblematic of the rectitude of 
 conduct which should distinguish the 
 brethren when, during the hours of re- 
 freshment, they are beyond the precincts 
 of the Lodge. His seat is in the South, 
 and he represents the Pillar of Beauty. 
 He has placed before him, and carries in 
 procession, a column, which is the repre- 
 sentative of the left-hand pillar which stood 
 at the porch of the Temple. See Wardens. 
 
 The sixth officer in a Commandery of 
 Knights Templars is also styled Junior 
 Warden. His duties, especially in the re- 
 ception of candidates, are very important. 
 His jewel of office is an Eagle holding a 
 Flaming Sword. 
 
 Jupiter, Knight of. See Knight 
 of Jupiter. 
 
 Jurisdiction of a Grand Lodge. 
 The jurisdiction of a Grand Lodge extends 
 over every Lodge working within its terri- 
 
388 
 
 JURISDICTION 
 
 JUST 
 
 torial limits, and over all places not already 
 occupied by a Grand Lodge. The territo- 
 rial limits of a Grand Lodge are deter- 
 mined in general by the political bounda- 
 ries of the country in which it is placed. 
 Thus the territorial limits of the Grand 
 Lodge of New York are circumscribed 
 within the settled boundaries of that State. 
 Nor can its jurisdiction extend beyond 
 these limits into any of the neighboring 
 States. The Grand Lodge of New York 
 could not, therefore, without an infringe- 
 ment of Masonic usage, grant a Warrant 
 of Constitution to any Lodge located in 
 any State where there was already a Grand 
 Lodge. It might, however, charter a Lodge 
 in a Territory where there is not in exist- 
 ence a Grand Lodge of that Territory. 
 Thus the Lodges of France held of the 
 Grand Lodge of England until the forma- 
 tion of a Grand Lodge of France, and the 
 Grand Lodges of both England, Scotland, 
 and France granted Warrants to various 
 Lodges in America until after the Revolu- 
 tion, when the States began to organize 
 Grand Lodges for themselves. For the pur- 
 pose of avoiding collision and unfriendly 
 feeling, it has become the settled usage, 
 that when a Grand Lodge has been legally 
 organized in a State, all the Lodges within 
 its limits must surrender the charters which 
 they have received from foreign bodies, and 
 accept new ones from the newly estab- 
 lished Grand Lodge. This is the settled 
 and well-recognized law of American and 
 English Masonry. But the continental 
 Masons, and especially the Germans, have 
 not so rigidly interpreted this law of un- 
 occupied territory ; and there have been in 
 France, and still are in Germany, several 
 Grand Lodges in the same kingdom exer- 
 cising co-ordinate powers. 
 
 Jurisdiction of a Lodge. The 
 jurisdiction of a Lodge is geographical or 
 personal. The geographical jurisdiction of 
 a Lodge is that which it exercises over the 
 territory within which it is situated, and 
 extends to all the Masons, affiliated and 
 unaffiliated, who live within that territory. 
 This jurisdiction extends to a point equally 
 distant from the adjacent Lodge. Thus, 
 if two Lodges are situated within twenty 
 miles of each other, the geographical juris- 
 diction of each will extend ten miles from 
 its seat in the direction of the other Lodge. 
 But in this case both Lodges must be situ- 
 ated in the same State, and hold their War- 
 rants from the same Grand Lodge ; for it 
 is a settled point of Masonic law that no 
 
 Lodge can extend its geographical juris- 
 diction beyond the territorial limits of its 
 own Grand Lodge. 
 
 The personal jurisdiction of a Lodge is 
 that penal jurisdiction which it exercises 
 over its own members wherever they may 
 be situated. No matter how far a Mason 
 may remove from the Lodge of which he 
 is a member, his allegiance to that Lodge 
 is indefeasible so long as he continuas a 
 member, and it may exercise penal juris- 
 diction over him. 
 
 Jurisdiction of a Supreme 
 Council. The Masonic jurisdiction of 
 the whole territory of the United States 
 for the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Bite 
 was divided between the Southern and 
 Northern Supreme Councils in accordance 
 with a special concession made by the for- 
 mer body in 1813, when the latter was or- 
 ganized. By this concession the Northern 
 Supreme Council has jurisdiction over the 
 States of Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- 
 mont, Massachusetts, Bhode Island, Con- 
 necticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana ; 
 all the other States and Territories are un- 
 der the jurisdiction of the Southern Su- 
 preme Council. 
 
 Justice. One of the four cardinal vir- 
 tues, the practice of which is inculcated in 
 the first degree. The Mason who remembers 
 how emphatically he has been charged to 
 preserve an upright position in all his deal- 
 ings with mankind, should never fail to act 
 justly to himself, to his brethren, and to 
 the world. This is the corner-stone on 
 which alone he can expect " to erect a su- 
 perstructure alike honorable to himself and 
 to the Fraternity." In iconology, Justice 
 is usually represented as a matron with 
 bandaged eyes, holding in one hand a 
 sword and in the other a pair of scales at 
 equipoise. But in Masonry the true sym- 
 bol of Justice, as illustrated in the first de- 
 gree, is the feet firmly planted on the ground, 
 and the body upright. 
 
 Justification. The fifth degree in 
 the Rite of Fessler. 
 
 Just Lodge. A Lodge is said to be 
 Just, Perfect, and Regular under the fol- 
 lowing circumstances : Just, when it is fur- 
 nished with the three Great Lights ; Per- 
 fect, when it contains the constitutional 
 number of members ; and Regular, when it 
 is working under a Charter of Warrant 
 of Constitution emanating from the legal 
 authority. 
 
KAABA 
 
 KABBALA 
 
 389 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaaba. The name of the holy tem- 
 ple of Mecca, which is to the Mohamme- 
 dans what the Temple of Solomon was to 
 the Jews. It is certainly older, as Gibbon 
 admits, than the Christian era, and is sup- 
 posed, by the tradition of the Arabians, to 
 have been erected in the nineteenth cen- 
 tury B. c, by Abraham, who was assisted 
 by his son Ishmael. It derives its name 
 of Kaaba from its cubical form, it being 
 fifteen feet long, wide, and high. It has 
 but one aperture for light, which is a door 
 in the east end. In the north-east corner is 
 a black stone, religiously venerated by the 
 Mussulmans, called " the black stone of the 
 Kaaba," around which cluster many tra- 
 ditions. One of these is that it came down 
 from Paradise, and was originally as white 
 as milk, but that the sins of mankind turned 
 it black ; another is, that it is a ruby which 
 was originally one of the precious stones 
 of heaven, but that God deprived it of its 
 brilliancy, which would have illuminated 
 the world from one end to the other. Syed 
 Ahmed, who, for a Mussulman, has written 
 a very rational History of the Holy Mecca, 
 (London, 1870,) says that the black stone 
 is really a piece of rock from the moun- 
 tains in the vicinity of Mecca ; that it owes 
 its black color to the effects of fire ; and that 
 before the erection of the temple of the 
 Kaaba, it was no other than one of the 
 numerous altars erected for the worship of 
 God, and was, together with other stones, 
 laid up in one of the corners of the tem- 
 ple at the time of its construction. It is, 
 in fact, one of the relics of the ancient 
 stone worship ; yet it reminds us of the 
 foundation-stone of the Solomonic Temple, 
 to which building the temple of the Kaaba 
 has other resemblances. Thus, Syed Ah- 
 med, who, in opposition to most Christian 
 writers, devoutly believes in its Abrahamic 
 origin, says that (p. 6,) " the temple of the 
 Kaaba was built by Abraham in conformity 
 with those religious practices according to 
 which, after a lapse of time, the descend- 
 ants of his second son built the Temple of 
 Jerusalem." 
 
 Kabbala. The mystical philosophy 
 or theosophy of the Jews is called the 
 Kabbala. The word is derived from the 
 Hebrew S3D, Kabal, signifying to receive, 
 because it' is the doctrine received from 
 the elders. It has sometimes been used in 
 an enlarged sense, as comprehending all 
 the explanations, maxims, and ceremonies 
 which have been traditionally handed down 
 to the Jews ; but in that more limited ac- 
 ceptation, in which it is intimately con- 
 nected with the symbolic science of Free- 
 
 masonry, the Kabbala may be defined to be a 
 system of philosophy which embraces cer- 
 tain mystical interpretations of Scripture, 
 and metaphysical speculations concerning 
 the Deity, man, and spiritual beings. In 
 these interpretations and speculations, ac- 
 cording to the Jewish doctors, were envel- 
 oped the most profound truths of religion, 
 which, to be comprehended by finite beings, 
 are obliged to be revealed through the me- 
 dium of symbols and allegories. Buxtorf 
 {Lex. Talm.,) defines the Kabbala to be a 
 secret science, which treats in a mystical 
 and enigmatical manner of things divine, 
 angelical, theological, celestial, and meta- 
 physical ; the subjects being enveloped in 
 striking symbols and secret modes of teach- 
 ing. Much use is made of it in the high 
 degrees, and entire Kites have been con- 
 structed on its principles. Hence it de- 
 mands a place in any general work on Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 In what estimation the Kabbala is held 
 by Jewish scholars, we may learn from the 
 traditions which they teach, and which Dr. 
 Ginsburg has given in his exhaustive work, 
 [Kabbalah, p. 84,) in the following words: 
 
 " The Kabbalah was first taught by God 
 himself to a select company of angels, who 
 formed a theosophic school in Paradise. 
 After the fall, the angels most graciously 
 communicated this heavenly doctrine to 
 the disobedient child of earth, to furnish 
 the protoplasts with the means of return- 
 ing to their pristine nobility and felicity. 
 From Adam it passed over to Noah, .and 
 then to Abraham, the friend of God, who 
 emigrated with it to Egypt, where the 
 patriarch allowed a portion of this mysteri- 
 ous doctrine to ooze out. It was in this 
 way that the Egyptians obtained some 
 knowledge of it, and the other Eastern na- 
 tions could introduce it into their philo- 
 sophical systems. Moses, who was learned in 
 all the wisdom of Egypt, was first initiated 
 into it in the land of his birth, but became 
 most proficient in it during his wanderings 
 in the wilderness, when he not only devoted 
 to it the leisure hours of the whole forty 
 years, but received lessons in it from one of 
 the angels. By the aid of this mysterious 
 science, the lawgiver was enabled to solve 
 the difficulties which arose during his man- 
 agement of the Israelites, in spite of the 
 pilgrimages, wars, and the frequent miseries 
 of the nation. He covertly laid down the 
 principles of this secret doctrine in the first 
 four books of the Pentateuch, but withheld 
 them from Deuteronomy. This constitutes 
 the former the man, and the latter the 
 woman. Moses also initiated the seventy 
 
390 
 
 KABBALA 
 
 KABBALA 
 
 elders into the secrets of this doctrine, and 
 they again transmitted them from hand to 
 hand. Of all who formed the unbroken 
 line of tradition, David and Solomon were 
 first initiated into the Kabbalah. No one, 
 however, dared to write it down till Simon 
 ben Jochai, who lived at the time of the 
 destruction of the second Temple. Having 
 been condemned to death by Titus, Eabbi 
 Simon managed to escape with his son, and 
 concealed himself in a cavern, where he re- 
 mained for twelve years. Here in this sub- 
 terranean abode, he occupied himself en- 
 tirely with the contemplation of the sub- 
 lime Kabbalah, and was constantly visited 
 by the prophet Elias, who disclosed to him 
 some of its secrets, which were still con- 
 cealed from the theosophical Rabbi. Here, 
 too, his disciples resorted to be initiated by 
 their master into these divine mysteries; 
 and here Simon ben Jochai expired with 
 this heavenly doctrine in his mouth, whilst 
 discoursing on it to hi3 disciples. Scarcely 
 had his spirit departed, when a dazzling light 
 filled the cavern, so that no one could look 
 at the Rabbi; whilst a burning fire ap- 
 peared outside, forming as it were a senti- 
 nel at the entrance of the cave, and denying 
 admittance to the neighbors. It was not 
 till the light inside, and the fire outside, 
 had disappeared, that the disciples per- 
 ceived that the lamp of Israel was extin- 
 guished. As they were preparing for his 
 obsequies, a voice was heard from heaven, 
 saying, ' Come ye to the marriage of Simon 
 b. Jochai ; he is entering into peace, and 
 shall rest in his chamber ! ' A flame pre- 
 ceded the coffin, which seemed enveloped 
 by and burning like fire. And when the 
 remains were deposited in the tomb, another 
 voice was heard from heaven, saying, 'This 
 is he who caused the earth to quake and 
 the kingdoms to shake ! ' His son, R. 
 Eliezer, and his secretary, R. Abba, as 
 well as his disciples, then collated R. Simon 
 b. Jochai's treatises, and out of these com- 
 posed the celebrated work called Sohar, 
 (*1HD)) i- e -> Slendour, which is the grand 
 storehouse of Kabbalism." 
 
 The Kabbala is divided into two kinds, 
 the Practical and the Theoretical. The 
 Practical Kabbala is occupied in instruc- 
 tions for the construction of talismans and 
 amulets, and has no connection with Ma- 
 sonic science. The Theoretical Kabbala 
 is again divided into the Dogmatic and 
 the Literal. The Dogmatic Kabbala is the 
 summary of the rabbinical theosophy and 
 philosophy. The Literal Kabbala is the 
 science which teaches a mystical mode of 
 explaining sacred things by a peculiar use 
 of the letters of words, and a reference to 
 their value. Each of these divisions de- 
 mands a separate attention. 
 
 I. The Dogmatic Kabbala. The 
 
 origin of the Kabbala has been placed by 
 some scholars at a period posterior to the 
 advent of Christianity, but it is evident, 
 from the traces of it which are found in the 
 Book of Daniel, that it arose at a much 
 earlier day. It has been supposed to he 
 derived originally from the system of Zoro- 
 aster, but whether its inventors were the 
 contemporaries or the successors of that 
 philosopher and reformer it is impossible 
 to say. The doctrine of emanation is, 
 says King, [Gnostics, p. 10,) " the soul, the 
 essential element of the Kabbala ; it is like- 
 wise the essential element of Zoroastrism." 
 But as we advance in the study of each we 
 will find important differences, showing 
 that, while the idea of the Kabbalistic the- 
 osophy was borrowed from the Zendavesta, 
 the sacred book of the Persian sage, it was 
 not a copy, but a development of it. 
 
 The Kabbalistic teaching of emanation 
 is best understood by an examination of 
 the doctrine of the Sephiroth. 
 
 The Supreme Being, say the Kabbalists, 
 is an absolute and inscrutable unity, hav- 
 ing nothing without him and everything 
 within him. He is called T1D fX, EN 
 SOPH, "The Infinite One." In this in- 
 finitude he cannot be comprehended by the 
 intellect, nor described in words intelligible 
 by human minds, so as to make his exist- 
 ence perceptible. It was necessary, there- 
 fore, that, to render himself comprehensible, 
 the En Soph should make himself active 
 and creative. But he could not become the 
 direct creator ; because, being infinite, he is 
 without will, intention, thought, desire, or 
 action, all of which are qualities of a finite 
 being only. The En Soph, therefore, was 
 compelled to create the world in an indirect 
 manner, by ten emanations from the infin- 
 ite light which he was and in which he 
 dwelt. These ten emanations are the ten 
 Sephiroth, or Splendors of the Infinite One, 
 and the way in which they were produced 
 was thus : At first the En Soph sent forth 
 into space one spiritual emanation. This 
 first Sephira is called "in?> Kether, "the 
 Crown," because it occupies the highest 
 position. This first Sephira contained 
 within it the other nine, which sprang forth 
 in the following order : At first a male, or 
 active potency, proceeded from it, and this, 
 the second Sephira, is called HOD IT 
 Chocmah or "Wisdom." This sent forth 
 an opposite, female or passive potency, 
 named HYD, Binah or "Intelligence." 
 These three Sephiroth constitute the first 
 triad, and out of them proceeded the other 
 seven. From the junction of Wisdom and 
 Intelligence came the fourth Sephirah, 
 called 1DH. Chesed or "Mercy." This 
 was a male potency, and from it emanated 
 the fifth Sephira, named miDJ}> Giburah 
 or "Justice." The union of Mercy and 
 
KABBALA 
 
 KABBALA 
 
 391 
 
 Justice produced the sixth Sephira, 
 n^{<£3n, Tiphereth or "Beauty;" and 
 these three constitute the second triad. 
 From the sixth Sephira came forth the 
 seventh Sephira, |"7!» J> Niizach or " Firm- 
 ness." This was a male potency, and pro- 
 duced the female potency named *l^n» Hod 
 or " Splendor." From these two proceeded 
 *"11D*, hod or " Foundation ; " and these 
 three constituted the third triad of the 
 Sephiroth. Lastly, from the Foundation 
 came the tenth Sephira, called ni^D, 
 Malcuth or " Kingdom," which was at the 
 foot of all, as the Grown was at the top. 
 
 This division of the ten Sephiroth into 
 three triads was arranged into a form 
 called by the Kabbalists the Kabbalistic 
 Tree, or the Tree of Life, as shown in the 
 following diagram : 
 
 In this diagram the vertical arrangement 
 of the Sephiroth is called " Pillars." Thus 
 the four Sephiroth in the centre are called 
 the " Middle Pillar ; " the three on the right, 
 
 the " Pillar of Mercy ; " and the three on 
 the left, the " Pillar of Justice." They al- 
 lude to these two qualities of God, of which 
 the benignity of the one modifies the rigor 
 of the other, so that the Divine Justice is 
 always tempered by the Divine Mercy. C. 
 W. King, in his Gnostics, (p. 12,) refers the 
 right-hand pillar to the Pillar Jachin, and 
 the left-hand pillar to the Pillar Boaz, 
 which stood at the porch of the Temple; 
 and " these two pillars," he says, " figure 
 largely amongst all the secret societies of 
 modern times, and naturally so ; for these 
 illuminati have borrowed, without under- 
 standing it, the phraseology of the Kabba- 
 lists and the Valentinians." But an in- 
 spection of the arrangement of the Sephi- 
 roth will show, if he is correct in his gene- 
 ral reference, that he has transposed the 
 pillars. Firmness would more naturally 
 symbolize Boaz or Strength, as Splendor 
 would Jachin or Establishment. 
 
 These ten Sephiroth are collectively de- 
 nominated the archetypal man, the Micro- 
 cosm, as the Greek philosophers called it, 
 and each of them refers to a particular part 
 of the body. Thus the Crown is the head ; 
 Wisdom, the brain; and Intelligence, the 
 heart, which was deemed the seat of under- 
 standing. These three represent the intel- 
 lectual ; and the first triad is therefore 
 called the Intellectual World. Mercy is the 
 right arm, and Justice the left arm, and 
 Beauty is the chest. These three represent 
 moral qualities ; and hence the second triad 
 is called the Moral World. Firmness is the 
 right leg, Splendor the left leg, and Founda- 
 tion the privates. These three represent 
 power and stability ; and hence the third 
 triad is called the Material World. Lastly, 
 Kingdom is the feet, the basis on which all 
 stand, and represents the harmony of the 
 whole archetypal man. 
 
 Again, each of these Sephiroth was rep- 
 resented by a Divine name and by an An- 
 gelic name, which may be thus tabulated : 
 
 Sephiroth. 
 
 Crown, 
 
 Wisdom, 
 
 Intelligence, 
 
 Mercy, 
 
 Justice, 
 
 Beauty, 
 
 Firmness, 
 
 Splendor, 
 
 Foundation, 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 These ten Sephiroth constitute in their 
 totality the Atzilatic world or the world 
 of emanations, and from it proceeded three 
 other worlds, each having also its ten Sephi- 
 roth, namely, the Briatic world or the world 
 of creation; the Jetziratic world or the 
 
 Divine A'ames. 
 
 Angelic Names. 
 
 Eheyeh, 
 
 Chajoth, 
 
 Jah, 
 
 Ophanim, 
 
 Jehovah, 
 
 Arelim, 
 
 El, 
 
 Cashmalim, 
 
 Eloha, 
 
 Seraphim, 
 
 Elohim, 
 
 Shinanim, 
 
 Jehovah Sabaoth, 
 
 Tarshishim, 
 
 Elohim Sabaoth, 
 
 Beni Elohim, 
 
 El Chai, 
 
 Ishim, 
 
 Adonai. 
 
 Cherubim. 
 
392 
 
 KABBALA 
 
 KADOSH 
 
 world of .formation ; and the Ashiatic 
 world or the world of action : each inhab- 
 ited by a different order of beings. But to 
 enter fully upon the nature of these worlds 
 would carry us too far into the obscure 
 mysticism of the Kabbala. 
 
 These ten Sephiroth, represented in their 
 order of ascent from the lowest to the 
 highest, from the Foundation to the Crown, 
 forcibly remind us of the system of Mysti- 
 cal Ladders which pervaded all the ancient 
 as well as the modern initiations; the 
 Brahmanical Ladder of the Indian myste- 
 ries ; the Ladder of Mithras, used in the 
 Persian mysteries; the Scandinavian Lad- 
 der of the Gothic mysteries, and in the Ma- 
 sonic mysteries the Ladder of Kadosh ; and 
 lastly, the Theological Ladder of the Sym- 
 bolical degrees. 
 
 II. The Literal Kabbala. This divi- 
 sion of the Kabbala, being, as has already 
 been said, occupied in the explanation of 
 sacred words by the value of the letters of 
 which they are composed, has been exten- 
 sively used by the inventors of the high 
 degrees in the symbolism of their signifi- 
 cant words. It is divided into three spe- 
 cies : Gematria, Notaricon, and Temura. 
 
 1. Gematria. This word, which is evi- 
 dently a rabbinical corruption of the 
 Greek geometria, is defined by Buxtorf to 
 be " a species of the Kabbala which col- 
 lects the same sense of different words from 
 their equal numerical value." The He- 
 brews, like other ancient nations, having 
 no figures in their language, made use of 
 the letters of their alphabet instead of 
 numbers, each having a numerical value. 
 Gematria is, therefore, a mode of contem- 
 plating words according to the numerical 
 value of their letters. 
 
 Any two words, the letters of which have 
 the same numerical value, are mutually 
 convertible, and each is supposed to con- 
 tain the latent signification of the other. 
 Thus the words in Genesis xlix. 10, " Shiloh 
 shall come," are supposed to contain a 
 prophecy of the Messiah, because the letters 
 of " Shiloh shall come," riS'tWO', and of 
 " Messiah," j"Vt^O> Dot h have the numer- 
 ical value of 358, according to the above 
 table. By Gematria, applied to the Greek 
 language, we find the identity of Abraxas 
 and Mithras. The letters of each word 
 having in the Greek alphabet the equal 
 value of 365. This is by far the most 
 common mode of applying the literal Kab- 
 bala. 
 
 2. Notaricon is derived from the Latin 
 notarius, a short-hand writer or writer in 
 cipher. The lloman Notarii were accus- 
 tomed to use single letters, to signify whole 
 words with other methods of abbreviation, 
 by marks called " notae." Hence, among 
 
 the Kabbalists, notaricon is a mode of con- 
 structing one word out of the initials or 
 finals of many, or a sentence out of the 
 letters of a word, each letter being used 
 as the initial of another word. Thus of 
 the sentence in Deuteronomy xxx. 12, 
 " Who shall go up for us to heaven?" in 
 Hebrew HD-DtPH ) ih rhjr '0, the initial letters 
 of each word are taken to form the word 
 nS'D, " circumcision," and the finals to form 
 rnrV "Jehovah;" hence it is concluded 
 that Jehovah hath shown circumcision to 
 be the way to heaven. Again: the six 
 letters of the first word in Genesis, 
 fVCN^O "* n tne beginning," are made 
 use of to form the initials of six words 
 which constitute a sentence signifying that 
 " In the beginning God saw that Israel 
 would accept the law," rntn Sjrw V72iTtP 
 
 Q'nVx ran rvjp>ro. 
 
 3. Temura is a rabbinical word which 
 signifies permutation. Hence temura is a 
 Kabbalistic result produced by a change 
 or permutation of the letters of a word. 
 Sometimes the letters are transposed to 
 form another word, as in the modern ana- 
 gram; and sometimes the letters are 
 changed for others, according to certain 
 fixed rules of alphabetical permutation, 
 the 1st letter being placed for the 22d, the 
 2d for the 21st, the 3d for the 20th, and so 
 on. It is in this way that Babel, ^33, is 
 made out of Sheshach, "|tPSP, and hence the 
 Kabbalists say that when Jeremiah used 
 the word Sheshach (xxv. 26) he referred to 
 Babel. 
 
 Kadiri, Order of. A secret society 
 existing in Arabia, which so much resem- 
 bles Freemasonry in its object and forms, 
 that Lieut. Burton, who succeeded in ob- 
 taining initiation into it, calls the members 
 "Oriental Freemasons." Burton gives a 
 very interesting account of the Order in his 
 Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Mecca. 
 
 Kadosh. The name of a very im- 
 portant degree in many of the Masonic 
 Rites. The word BHp is Hebrew, and sig- 
 nifies holy or consecrated, and is thus in- 
 tended to denote the elevated character of 
 the degree and the sublimity of the truths 
 which distinguish it and its possessors from 
 the other degrees. Pluche says that in the 
 East, a person preferred to honors bore a 
 sceptre, and sometimes a plate of gold on 
 the forehead, called a Kadosh, to apprise 
 the people that the bearer of this mark or 
 rod was a public person, who possessed the 
 privilege of entering into hostile camps 
 without the fear of losing his personal 
 liberty. 
 
 The degree of Kadosh, though found in 
 many of the Rites and in various countries, 
 seems, in all of them, to have been more 
 or less connected with the Knights Tern- 
 
KADOSH 
 
 KELLY 
 
 393 
 
 plars. In some of the Rites it was placed 
 at the head of the list, and was then digni- 
 fied as the "ne plus ultra" of Masonry. 
 
 It was sometimes given as a separate 
 order or Rite within itself, and then it was 
 divided into the three degrees of Illus- 
 trious Knight of the Temple, Knight of 
 the Black Eagle, and Grand Elect. 
 
 Oliver enumerates six degrees of Kadosh : 
 the Knight Kadosh ; Kadosh of the Chap- 
 ter of Clermont ; Philosophical Kadosh ; 
 Kadosh Prince of Death ; and Kadosh of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 The French rituals speak of seven : Ka- 
 dosh of the Hebrews ; Kadosh of the first 
 Christians ; Kadosh of the Crusades ; Ka- 
 dosh of the Templars ; Kadosh of Crom- 
 well or the Puritans ; Kadosh of the Jes- 
 uits ; and the True Kadosh. But I doubt 
 the correctness of this enumeration, which 
 cannot be sustained by documentary evi- 
 dence. In all of these Kadoshes the doc- 
 trine and the modes of recognition are 
 substantially the same, though in most of 
 them the ceremonies of initiation differ. 
 
 Ragon mentions a Kadosh which is said 
 to have been established at Jerusalem in 
 1118 ; but here he undoubtedly refers to the 
 Order of Knights Templars. He gives also 
 in his Tuileur General the nomenclature of 
 no less than fourteen Kadosh degrees. 
 
 The doctrine of the Kadosh system is 
 that the persecutions of the Knights Tem- 
 plars by Philip the Fair of France, and 
 Pope Clement v., however cruel and san- 
 guinary in its results, did not extinguish the 
 Order, but it continued to exist under the 
 forms of Freemasonry. That the ancient 
 Templars are the modern Kadoshes, and 
 that the builder at the Temple of Solomon 
 is now replaced by James de Molay, the 
 martyred Grand Master of the Templars, 
 the assassins being represented by the king 
 of France, the Pope, and Naffodei the in- 
 former against the Order; or, it is some- 
 times said, by the three informers, Squin 
 de Florian, Naffodei, and the Prior of Mont- 
 faucon. 
 
 As to the history of the Kadosh degree, it 
 is said to have been first invented at Lyons, 
 in France, in 1743, where it appeared under 
 the name of the Petit Elu. This degree, 
 which is said to have been based upon the 
 Templar doctrine heretofore referred to, 
 was afterwards developed into the Kadosh, 
 which we find in 1758 incorporated as the 
 Grand Elect Kadosh into the system of the 
 Council of Emperors of the East and West, 
 which was that year formed at Paris, whence 
 it descended to the Scottish Rite Masons. 
 
 Of all the Kadoshes, two only are now 
 
 important, viz. : the Philosophic Kadosh, 
 
 which has been adopted by the Grand 
 
 Orient of France, and the Knight Kadosh, 
 
 2Z 
 
 which constitutes the thirtieth degree of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 
 this latter being the most generally diffused 
 of the Kadoshes. 
 
 Kadosh, called also the Holy Man. 
 (Kadosch ou V Homme Saint.) The tenth and 
 last degree of the Rite of Martinism. 
 
 Kadosh, Grand, Elect Knight. 
 The sixty-fifth degree of the Rite of Miz- 
 raim. 
 
 Kadosh, Knight. The thirtieth 
 degree of the Scottish Rite. See White 
 and Black Eagle, Knight of the. 
 
 Kadosh of the Jesuits. Accord- 
 ing to Thory, [Act. Lot., i. 320,) this degree 
 is said to have been invented by the Jesuits 
 of the College of Clermont. The state- 
 ment is not well supported. De Bonne- 
 ville's Masonic Chapter of Clermont was 
 probably, either with or without design, 
 confounded with the Jesuitical College of 
 Clermont. See Jesuits. 
 
 Kadosh, Philosophic. A modifi- 
 cation of the original Kadosh, for which it 
 has been substituted and adopted by the 
 Grand Orient of France. The military 
 character of the Order is abandoned, and 
 the Philosophic Kadosh wear no swords. 
 Their only weapon is the Word. 
 
 Kadosh, Prince. A degree of the 
 collection of Pyron. 
 
 Kadosh Prince of Death. The 
 twenty-seventh degree of the Rite of Miz- 
 raim. 
 
 Kamea. Hebrew, JPDp, an amulet. 
 More particularly applied by the Kab- 
 balists to magic squares inscribed on paper 
 or parchment, and tied around the neck as 
 a safeguard against evil. See Magic Squares. 
 Kasideans. A Latinized spelling of 
 Chasidim, which see. 
 
 Katharsis. Greek, _ mdapciq. The 
 ceremony of purification in the Ancient 
 Mysteries. Muller says {Dorians, i. 384,) 
 that "one of the important parts of the 
 Pythagorean worship was the pcean, which 
 was sung to the lyre in spring-time by a 
 person sitting in the midst of a circle of 
 listeners: this was called the katharsis or 
 purification." 
 
 Keeper of the Seals. An ofiicer 
 called Garde des Sceaux in Lodges of the 
 French Rite. It is also the title of an 
 officer in Consistories of the Scottish Rite. 
 The title sufficiently indicates the functions 
 of the office. 
 
 Kelly, Christopher. A Masonic 
 plagiarist, who stole bodily the whole of 
 the typical part of the celebrated work of 
 Samuel Lee entitled Orbis Miraculum, or 
 The Temple of Solomon pourtrayed by Scrip- 
 ture Light, and published it as his own under 
 the title of Solomon's Temple spiritualized,- 
 setting forth the Divine Mysteries of the Tern- 
 
394 
 
 KEY 
 
 KEY-STOKE 
 
 pie, with an account of its Destruction. He 
 prefaced the book with An Address to all 
 Free and Accepted Masons. The first edi- 
 tion was published at Dublin in 1803, and 
 on his removal to America he published a 
 second in 1820, at Philadelphia. Kelly 
 was, unfortunately, a Freemason, but not an 
 honest one. 
 
 Key. "The key," says Dr. Oliver, 
 (Landm., i. 180,) "is one of the most im- 
 portant symbols of Freemasonry. It bears 
 the appearance of a common metal instru- 
 ment, confined to the performance of one 
 simple act. But the well-instructed brother 
 beholds in it the symbol which teaches him 
 to keep a tongue of good report, and to ab- 
 stain from the debasing vices of slander 
 and defamation." Among the ancients the 
 key was a symbol of silence and circum- 
 spection ; and thus Sophocles alludes to it 
 in the OEdipus Goloneus, (1051) where he 
 makes the chorus speak of "the golden 
 key which had come upon the tongue of 
 the ministering hierophant in the mysteries 
 of Eleusis — uv nal XR va ^ a kXtj- iwi yluoap 
 ftiflane irpoa-rrd'kuv evuo2.Tudav. ' Callimachus 
 says that the priestess of Ceres bore a key 
 as the ensign of her mystic office. The key 
 was in the mysteries of Isis a hieroglyphic 
 of the opening or disclosing of the heart 
 and conscience, in the kingdom of death, 
 for trial and judgment. 
 
 In the old rituals of Masonry the key 
 was an important symbol, and Dr. Oliver 
 regrets that it has been abandoned in the 
 modern system. In the rituals of the first 
 degree, in the eighteenth century, allusion 
 is made to a key by whose help the secrets 
 of Masonry are to be obtained, which key 
 " is said to hang and not to lie, because it 
 is always to hang in a brother's defence 
 and not to lie to his prejudice." It was said, 
 too, to hang " by the thread of life at the 
 entrance," and was closely connected with 
 the heart, because the tongue "ought to 
 utter nothing but what the heart dictates." 
 And, finally, this key is described as being 
 " composed of no metal, but a tongue of good 
 report." In the ritual of the Master's de- 
 gree in the Adonhiramite Rite, we find this 
 catechism : 
 
 " Q. What do you conceal ? 
 
 " A. All the secrets which have been in- 
 trusted to me. 
 
 " Q. Where do you conceal them ? 
 
 " A. In the heart. 
 
 " Q. Have you a key to gain entrance 
 there? 
 
 "A. Yes, Right Worshipful. 
 
 " Q. Where do you keep it ? 
 
 " A. In a box of coral which opens and 
 shuts only with ivory keys. 
 
 " Q. Of what metal is it composed ? 
 
 " A. Of none. It is a tongue obedient 
 
 to reason, which knows only how to speak 
 well of those of whom it speaks in their 
 absence as in their presence." 
 
 All of this shows that the key as a sym- 
 bol was formerly equivalent to the modern 
 symbol of the " instructive tongue," which, 
 however, with almost the same interpreta- 
 tion, has now been transformed to the sec- 
 ond or Fellow Craft's degree. The key, 
 however, is still preserved as a symbol of 
 secrecy in the Royal Arch degree; and it is 
 also presented to us in the same sense in 
 the ivory key of the Secret Master, or 
 fourth degree of the Scottish Rite. In 
 many of the German Lodges an ivory key 
 is made a part of the Masonic clothing of 
 each brother, to remind him that he should 
 lock up or conceal the secrets of Freema- 
 sonry in his heart. 
 
 But among the ancients the key was also 
 a symbol of power; and thus among the 
 Greeks the title of uleiSovxos, or key-bearer, 
 was bestowed upon one holding high office ; 
 and with the Romans, the keys are given 
 to the bride on the day of marriage, as a 
 token that the authority of the house was 
 bestowed upon her ; and if afterwards di- 
 vorced, they were taken from her, as a 
 symbol of the deprivation of her office. 
 Among the Hebrews the key was used in 
 the same sense. "As the robe and the 
 baldric," says Lowth, (Is., p. 2, s. 4,) " were 
 the ensigns of power and authority, so like- 
 wise was the key the mark of office, either 
 sacred or civil." Thus in Isaiah it is said : 
 " The key of the house of David will I lay 
 upon his shoulders ; so he shall open, and 
 none shall shut; and he shall shut, and 
 none shall open," (xxii. 22.) Our Saviour 
 expressed a similar idea when he said to St. 
 Peter, " I will give unto thee the keys of 
 the kingdom of heaven." It is in reference 
 to thi n . interpretation of the symbol, and 
 not that of secrecy, that the key has been 
 adopted as the official jewel of the treas- 
 urer of a Lodge, because he has the purse, 
 the source of power, under his command. 
 
 Key of Masonry. See Knight of 
 the Sun. 
 
 Key-Stone. The stone placed in the 
 centre of an arch which preserves the 
 others in their places, and secures firmness 
 and stability to the arch. As it was for- 
 merly the custom of Operative Masons to 
 Elace a peculiar mark on each stone of a 
 uilding to designate the workman by 
 whom it had been adjusted, so the Key- 
 Stone was most likely to receive the most 
 prominent mark, that of the superintend- 
 ent of the structure. Such is related to 
 have occurred to that Key -Stone which 
 plays so important a part in the legend of 
 the Royal Arch degree. 
 
 The objection has sometimes been made, 
 
KILWINNING 
 
 KILWINNING 
 
 395 
 
 that the arch was unknown in the time of 
 Solomon. But this objection has been com- 
 pletely laid at rest by the researches of an- 
 tiquaries and travellers within a few years 
 past. Wilkinson discovered arches with 
 regular key-stones in the doorways of the 
 tombs of Thebes, the construction of which 
 he traced to the year 1540 B. a, or 460 
 years before the building of the Temple of 
 Solomon. And Dr. Clark asserts that the 
 Cycoplean gallery of Tyrius exhibits lancet- 
 shaped arches almost as old as the time of 
 Abraham. In fact, at the Solomonic era, 
 the construction of the arch must have 
 been known to the Dionysian artificers, of 
 whom, it is the received theory, many were 
 present at the building of the Temple. 
 
 Kilwinning. As the city of York 
 claims to be the birthplace of Masonry in 
 England, the obscure little village of Kil- 
 winning is entitled to the same honor with 
 respect to the origin of the Order in the 
 sister kingdom of Scotland. The claim to 
 the honor, however, in each case, depends 
 on the bare authority of a legend, the au- 
 thenticity of which is now doubted by many 
 Masonic historians. A place, which, in it- 
 self small and wholly undistinguishable 
 in the political, the literary, or the com- 
 mercial annals of its country, has become 
 of great importance in the estimation of 
 the Masonic antiquary from its intimate 
 connection with the history of the Institu- 
 tion. 
 
 The abbey of Kilwinning is situated in 
 the bailiwick of Cunningham, about three 
 miles north of the royal burgh of Irving, 
 near the Irish Sea. The abbey was founded 
 in the year 1140, by Hugh Morville, Con- 
 stable of Scotland, and dedicated to St. 
 Winning, being intended for a company of 
 monks of the Tyronesian Order, who had 
 been brought from Kelso. The edifice 
 must have been constructed at great ex- 
 pense, and with much magnificence, since 
 it is said to have occupied several acres of 
 ground in its whole extent. 
 
 Lawrie [Hist, of Freemasonry) says that, 
 by authentic documents as well as by other 
 collateral arguments which amount almost 
 to a demonstration, the existence of the 
 Kilwinning Lodge has been traced back as 
 far as the end of the fifteenth century. But 
 we know that the body of architects who 
 perambulated the continent of Europe 
 under the name of "Travelling Free- 
 masons," flourished at a much earlier 
 period ; and we learn, also, from Lawrie 
 himself, that several of these Masons 
 travelled into Scotland, about the beginning 
 of the twelfth century. Hence, we have 
 every reason to suppose that these men 
 were the architects who constructed the 
 abbey at Kilwinning, and who first estab- 
 
 lished the institution of Freemasonry in 
 Scotland. If such be the fact, we must 
 place the origin of the first Lodge in that 
 kingdom at an earlier date, by three cen- 
 turies, than that claimed for it by Lawrie, 
 which would bring it much nearer, in point 
 of time, to the great Masonic Assembly, 
 which is traditionally said to have been 
 convened in the year 926, by Prince Edwin, 
 at York, in England. 
 
 There is some collateral evidence to sus- 
 tain the probability of this early commence- 
 ment of Masonry in Scotland. It is very 
 generally admitted that the Royal Order of 
 Herodem was founded by King Kobert 
 Bruce, at Kilwinning. Thory, in the Acta 
 Latamorum, gives the following chronicle : 
 " Kobert Bruce, King of Scotland, under 
 the title of Kobert I., created the Order of 
 St. Andrew of Chardon, after the battle of 
 Bannockburn, which was fought on the 24th 
 of June, 1314. To this Order was after- 
 wards united that of Herodem, for the sake 
 of the Scotch Masons, who formed a part 
 of the thirty thousand troops with whom 
 he had fought an army of one hundred 
 thousand Englishmen. King Robert re- 
 served the title of Grand Master to himself 
 and his successors forever, and founded the 
 Koyal Grand Lodge of Herodem at Kil- 
 winning." 
 
 Dr. Oliver says that "the Royal Order 
 of Herodem had formerly its chief seat at 
 Kilwinning; and there is every reason to 
 think that it and St. John's Masonry were 
 then governed by the same Grand Lodge." 
 
 In 1820, there was published at Paris a 
 record which states that in 1286, James, 
 Lord Stewart, received the Earls of Glou- 
 cester and Ulster into his Lodge at Kil- 
 winning ; which goes to prove that a Lodge 
 was then existing and in active operation 
 at that place. 
 
 The modern iconoclasts, however, who 
 are levelling these old legends with un- 
 sparing hands, have here been at work. 
 Brother D. Murray Lyon has attacked the 
 Bruce legend, and in the London Free- 
 mason's Magazine, (1868, p. 141,) says: 
 " Seeing that the fraternity of Kilwinning 
 never at any period practised or acknowl- 
 edged other than Craft degrees, and have 
 not preserved even a shadow of a tradition 
 that can in the remotest degree be held to 
 identify Robert Bruce with the holding of 
 Masonic Courts, or the Institution of a 
 Secret Order at Kilwinning, the fraternity 
 of the ' Herodim ' must be attributed to 
 another than the hero of Bannockburn, and 
 a birthplace must be sought for it in a soil 
 still more favorable to the growth of the 
 high grades than Scotland has hitherto 
 proved." He intimates that the legend 
 was the invention of the Chevalier Ramsay, 
 
396 
 
 KILWINNING 
 
 KILWINNING 
 
 whose birthplace was in the vicinity of 
 Kilwinning. 
 
 I confess that I look upon the legend and 
 the documents that contain it with some 
 favor, as at least furnishing the evidence 
 that there has been among the Fraternity a 
 general belief of the antiquity of the Kil- 
 winning Lodge. Those, however, whose 
 faith is of a more hesitating character, will 
 find the most satisfactory testimonies of the 
 existence of that Lodge in the beginning 
 of the fifteenth century. At that period, 
 when James II. was on the throne, the 
 Barons of Roslin, as hereditary Patrons of 
 Scotch Masonry, held their annual meet- 
 ings at Kilwinning, and the Lodge at that 
 place granted Warrants of Constitution for 
 the formation of subordinate Lodges in 
 other parts of the kingdom. The Lodges 
 thus formed, in token of their respect for, 
 and submission to, the mother Lodge 
 whence they derived their existence, affixed 
 the word Kilwinning to their own dis- 
 tinctive name; many instances of which 
 are still to be found on the register of the 
 Grand Lodge of Scotland — such as Cannon- 
 gate Kilwinning, Greenock Kilwinning, 
 Cumberland Kilwinning, etc. 
 
 But, in process of time, this Grand Lodge 
 at Kilwinning ceased to retain its suprem- 
 acy, and finally its very existence. As 
 in the case of the sister kingdom, where 
 the Grand Lodge was removed from York, 
 the birthplace of English Masonry, to 
 London, so in Scotland, the supreme seat 
 of the Order was at length transferred from 
 Kilwinning to the metropolis ; and hence, 
 in the doubtful document entitled the 
 " Charter of Cologne," which purports to 
 have been written in 1542, we find, in a 
 list of nineteen Grand Lodges in Europe, 
 that that of Scotland is mentioned as sit- 
 ting at Edinburgh, under the Grand Mas- 
 tership of John Bruce. In 1736, when the 
 Grand Lodge of Scotland was organized, 
 the Kilwinning Lodge was one of its con- 
 stituent bodies, and continued in its obedi- 
 ence until 1743. In that year petitioned 
 to be recognized as the oldest Lodge in Scot- 
 land; but as the records of the original 
 Lodge had been lost, the present Lodge 
 could not prove, says Lawrie, that it was 
 the identical Lodge which had first prac- 
 tised Freemasonry in Scotland. The peti- 
 tion was therefore rejected, and, in con- 
 sequence, the Kilwinning Lodge seceded 
 from the Grand Lodge and established it- 
 self as an independent body. It organized 
 Lodges in Scotland ; and several instances 
 are on record of its issuing charters as 
 Mother Kilwinning Lodge to Lodges in 
 foreign countries. Thus, it granted one to 
 a Lodge in Virginia in 1758, and another 
 in 1779 to some brethren in Ireland calling 
 
 themselves the Lodge of High Knights 
 Templars. But in 1807 the Mother Lodge 
 of Kilwinning renounced all right of grant- 
 ing charters, and came once more into the 
 bosom of the Grand Lodge, bringing with 
 her all her daughter Lodges. 
 
 Here terminates the connection of Kil- 
 winning as a place of any special import- 
 ance with the Masonry of Scotland. As 
 for the abbey, the stupendous fabric which 
 was executed by the Freemasons who first 
 migrated into Scotland, its history, like that 
 of the Lodge which they founded, is one 
 of decline and decay. In 1560, it was in a 
 great measure demolished by Alexander, 
 Earl of Glencairne, in obedience to an 
 Order from the States of Scotland, in the 
 exercise of their usurped authority during 
 the imprisonment of Mary Stuart. A few 
 years afterwards, a part of the abbey chapel 
 was repaired and converted into the parish 
 church, and was used as such until about 
 the year 1775, when, in consequence of its 
 ruinous and dangerous state, it was pulled 
 down and an elegant church erected in the 
 modern style. In 1789, so much of the 
 ancient abbey remained as to enable Grose, 
 the antiquary, to take a sketch of the ruins; 
 but now not a vestige of the building is to 
 be found, nor can its exact site be ascer- 
 tained with any precision. 
 
 Kilwinning Manuscript. Also 
 called the Edinburgh Kilwinning. This 
 manuscript derives its name from its being 
 written in a small quarto book, belonging 
 to the celebrated "Mother Kilwinning 
 Lodge" of Scotland. For its publication, 
 the Masonic Fraternity is indebted to Bro. 
 William James Hughan, who has inserted 
 it in his Unpublished Records of the Craft, 
 from a copy made for him from the original 
 by Bro. D. Murray Lyon, of Ayr, Scotland. 
 Bro. Lyon, "whilst glancing at the min- 
 utes of the Lodge of Edinburgh from Decem- 
 ber 27, 1675, till March 12, 1678, was struck 
 with the similarity which the handwriting 
 bore to that in which the Kilwinning copy 
 of the Narrative of the Founding of the Craft 
 is written, and upon closer examination he 
 was convinced that in both cases the calli- 
 graphy is the same." I agree with him in 
 believing that this proves the date as well 
 as the source of the manuscript, which, 
 says Bro. Hughan, " was probably written 
 earlier than A. D. 1670. The Anglican 
 phraseology, and the fact that one of the 
 charges requires that Masons should be 
 "liedgemen to the King of England," con- 
 clusively show thatthe manuscript was writ- 
 ten in England and introduced into Scot- 
 land. It is so much like the text of the Grand 
 Lodge MS., published by Bro. Hughan in 
 his Old Charges of British Freemasons, that, 
 to use the language of Bro. Woodford, " it 
 
KILWINNING 
 
 KNIGGE 
 
 397 
 
 would pass as an indifferent copy of that 
 document." 
 Kilwinning, Mother Lodge. For 
 
 an account of this body, which was for 
 some time the rival of the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland, see Kilwinning. 
 
 Kilwinning System. The Masonry 
 practised in Scotland, so called because it 
 is supposed to have been instituted at the 
 Abbey of Kilwinning. Oliver uses the 
 term in his Mirror for the Johannite Masons, 
 (p. 120.) See Saint John's Masonry, 
 
 King. The second officer in a Royal 
 Arch Chapter. He is the representative of 
 Zerubbabel, prince or governor of Judah. 
 When the Chapter meets as a Lodge of 
 Mark, Past, or Most Excellent Masters, the 
 King acts as Senior Warden. 
 
 After the rebuilding of the second Tem- 
 ple, the government of the Jews was ad- 
 ministered by the high priests as the vice- 
 gerents of the kings of Persia, to whom 
 they paid tribute. This is the reason that 
 the High Priest is the presiding officer in a 
 Chapter, and the King only a subordinate. 
 But in the Chapters of England and Ire- 
 land, the King is made the presiding officer. 
 The jewel of the King is a level surmounted 
 by a crown suspended within a triangle. 
 
 Kiss, Fraternal. The Germans call 
 it der bruder kuss; the French, le baiser fra- 
 ternal. It is the kiss given in the French 
 and German Lodges by each brother to his 
 right and left hand neighbor when the 
 labors of the Lodge are closed. It is not 
 adopted in the English or American sys- 
 tems of Ancient Craft Masonry, although 
 practised in some of the high degrees. 
 
 Kiss of Peace. In the reception 
 of an Ancient Knight Templar, it was the 
 practice for the one who received him to 
 greet him with a kiss upon the mouth. 
 This, which was called the osculum pads or 
 kiss of peace, was borrowed by the Tem- 
 plars from the religious orders, in all of 
 which it was observed. It is not practised 
 in the receptions of Masonic Templarism. 
 
 K loss. Oeorg Burkh. Franz. A 
 celebrated German Mason and Doctor of 
 Medicine, who was born in 1788. Dr. 
 Kloss was initiated into Masonry early in 
 life. He reorganized the Eclectic Grand 
 Lodge, of which he was several times Grand 
 Master. He resided at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main, where he enjoyed a high reputation 
 as a physician. He was the possessor of 
 an extensive Masonic library, and devoted 
 himself to the study of the antiquities and 
 true character of the Masonic institution, 
 insomuch that he was styled the " teacher 
 of the German Freemasons." Kloss's the- 
 ory was that the present Order of Freema- 
 sons found its origin in the stone-cutters 
 and building corporations of the Middle 
 
 Ages. He delivered, in the course of his 
 life, many valuable historical discourses 
 before the Lodge Zur Einigheit, several 
 of which were printed and published. An- 
 nals of the Lodge Zur Einigheit, Frankfort, 
 1840 ; Freemasonry in its true meaning , from 
 the ancient and genuine documents of the 
 Stonemasons, Leipsic, 1846 ; A History of 
 Freemasonry in England, Scotland, and Ire- 
 land, Leipsic, 1848; A History of the Free- 
 masons of France, from genuine documents, 
 Darmstadt, 1852; and a Bibliography of 
 Freemasonry, Frankfort, 1844. This last is a 
 most valuable contribution to Masonic lit- 
 erature. It contains a list of more than 
 six thousand Masonic works in all lan- 
 guages, with critical remarks on many of 
 them. Dr. Kloss died at Frankfort, Febru- 
 ary 10, 1854. Bro. Meisinger, who delivered 
 his funeral eulogy, says of him : " He had 
 a rare amount of learning, and was a dis- 
 tinguished linguist; his reputation as a phy- 
 sician was deservedly great ; and he added 
 to these a friendly, tender, amiable dispo- 
 sition, with great simplicity and upright- 
 ness of character." 
 
 Kneeling. Bending the knees has, in 
 all ages of the world, been considered as an 
 act of reverence and humility, and hence 
 Pliny, the Roman naturalist, observes, that 
 " a certain degree of religious reverence is 
 attributed to the knees of man." Solomon 
 placed himself in this position when he 
 prayed at the consecration of the Temple ; 
 and Masons use the same posture in some 
 portions of their ceremonies, as a token of 
 solemn reverence. In the act of prayer, 
 Masons in the lower degrees adopt the 
 standing posture, which was the usage of 
 the primitive Church, where it was sym- 
 bolic of the resurrection; but Masons in 
 the higher degrees generally kneel on one 
 knee. 
 
 Knee to Knee. When, in his 
 devotions to the G. A. O. T. U., he seeks 
 forgiveness for the past and strength for 
 the future, the Mason is taught that he 
 should, in these offices of devotion, join his 
 brother's name with his own. The pre- 
 rogative that Job, in his blindness, thought 
 was denied to him, when he exclaimed, 
 " Oh that one might plead for a man with 
 God, as a man pleadeth for his neighbor I " 
 is here not only taught as a right, but in- 
 culcated as a duty ; and the knee is directed 
 to be bent in intercession, not for ourselves 
 alone, but for the whole household of our 
 brethren. 
 
 Knigge, Adolph Franz Friede- 
 ricn Iaidwig, Baron Von. He was 
 at one time among the most distinguished 
 Masons of Germany ; for while Weishaupt 
 was the ostensible inventor and leader of 
 the system of Bavarian Illuminism, it was 
 
398 
 
 KNIGGE 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 indebted for its real form and organiza- 
 tion to the inventive genius of Knigge. 
 He was born at Brendenbeck, near Hano- 
 ver, October 16, 1752. He was initiated, 
 January 20, 1772, in a Lodge of Strict Ob- 
 servance at Cassel, but does not appear at 
 first to have been much impressed with 
 the Institution, for, in a letter to Prince 
 Charles of Hesse, he calls its ceremonies 
 "absurd, juggling tricks." Subsequently 
 his views became changed, at least for a 
 time. When, in 1780, the Marquis de Cos- 
 tan zo was despatched by Weishaupt to 
 Northern Germany to propagate the Order 
 of the Illuminati, he made the acquaint- 
 ance of Knigge, and succeeded in gaining 
 him as a disciple. Knigge afterwards en- 
 tered into a correspondence with Weis- 
 haupt, in consequence of which his enthu- 
 siasm was greatly increased. After some 
 time, in reply to the urgent entreaties of 
 Knigge for more light, Weishaupt confessed 
 that the Order was as yet in an unfinished 
 state, and actually existed only in his own 
 brain ; the lower classes alone having been 
 organized. Recognizing Knigge's abilities, 
 he invited him to Bavaria, and promised to 
 surrender to him all the manuscript mate- 
 rials in his possession, that Knigge might 
 out of them, assisted by his own invention, 
 construct the high degrees of the Rite. 
 
 Knigge accordingly repaired to Bavaria 
 in 1781, and when he met Weishaupt, the 
 latter consented that Knigge should elabo- 
 rate the whole system up to the highest 
 mysteries. 
 
 This task Knigge accomplished, and en- 
 tered into correspondence with the Lodges, 
 exerting all his talents, which were of no 
 mean order, for the advancement of the Rite. 
 He brought to its aid the invaluable labors 
 of Bode, whom he prevailed upon to receive 
 the degrees. 
 
 After Knigge had fully elaborated the 
 system, and secured for it the approval of the 
 Areopagites, he introduced it into his dis- 
 trict, and began to labor with every prospect 
 of success. But Weishaupt now interfered ; 
 and, notwithstanding his compact with 
 Knigge, he made many alterations and ad- 
 ditions, which he imperiously ordered the 
 Provincial Directors to insert in the ritual. 
 Knigge, becoming disgusted with this pro- 
 ceeding, withdrew from the Order and soon 
 afterwards entirely from Freemasonry, de- 
 voting the rest of his life to general litera- 
 ture. He died at Bremen, May 6, 1796. 
 
 Knigge was a man of considerable talents, 
 and the author of many books, both Ma- 
 sonic and non-Masonic. Of these the 
 following are the most important. A work 
 published anonymously in 1781, entitled 
 Ueber Jesuiten, Freimaureren und deutsche 
 Rosenkreuzer, i. e., " On the Jesuits, Free- 
 
 masons and Rosicrucians ; " Versuch iiber die 
 Freimaurerei, i. e., " Essay on Freemasonry," 
 in 1784; Beytrag zur neuesten Geschichte 
 des Freimaurerordens, i. e., " Contribution 
 towards the latest History of the Order of 
 Freemasons," in 1786 ; and, after he had 
 retired from the Illuminati, a work en- 
 titled Philo's endliche Erklarung, or " Phi- 
 lo's final Declaration," 1788, which pro- 
 fessed to be his answer to the numerous 
 inquiries made of him in reference to his 
 connection with the Order. 
 
 Among his most popular non-Masonic 
 works was a treatise on Social Philosophy, 
 with the title of Ueber den Umgang mit 
 Memchen, or, "On Conversation with 
 Men." This work, which was written 
 towards the close of his life, was very fa- 
 vorably received throughout Germany, and 
 translated into many languages. Although 
 abounding in many admirable remarks on 
 the various relations and duties of life, to 
 the Mason it will be particularly interest- 
 ing as furnishing a proof of the instability 
 of the author's opinions, for, with all his 
 abilities, Knigge evidently wanted a well- 
 balanced judgment. Commencing life with 
 an enthusiastic admiration for Freema- 
 sonry, in a few years he became disgusted 
 with it ; no long time elapsed before he was 
 found one of its most zealous apostles ; and 
 again retiring from the Order, he spent his 
 last days in writing against it. In his Con- 
 versation with Men, is a long chapter on 
 Secret Societies, in which he is scarcely 
 less denunciatory of them than Barruel or 
 Robison. 
 
 Knighthood. The Saxon word cnecht, 
 from which we get the English knight, sig- 
 nified at first a youth, and then a servant, 
 or one who did domestic service, or a sol- 
 dier who did military service, which might 
 either be on foot or on horseback ; but the 
 French word chevalier and the German ritter 
 both refer to his equestrian character. Al- 
 though Tacitus says that the German kings 
 and chiefs were attended in war and peace 
 by a select body of faithful servants, and 
 although the Anglo-Saxon kings and thanes 
 had their military attendants, who served 
 them with a personal fealty, the knight, in 
 the modern acceptation of the word, did 
 not appear until the establishment in 
 France of the order of chivalry. Thence 
 knighthood rapidly passed into the other 
 countries of Christendom ; for it always was 
 a Christian institution. 
 
 The stages through which a candidate 
 passed until his full investiture with the 
 rank of knighthood were three : the Page, 
 the Squire or Esquire, and the Knight. 
 
 1. The Page. The child who was des- 
 tined to knighthood continued until he 
 was seven years old in the charge of women, 
 
KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 399 
 
 who gave him that care which his tender 
 age required. He was then taken from 
 them and placed in the hands of a governor, 
 who prepared him by a robust and manly 
 education for the labors and dangers of 
 war. He was afterwards put into the 
 household of some noble, where he first as- 
 sumed the title of a Page. His employ- 
 ments were to perform the service of a do- 
 mestic about the person of his master and 
 mistress; to attend them in the chase, 
 on their journeys, their visits, and their 
 walks ; to carry their messages, or even to 
 wait on them at table. The first lessons 
 given to him were in the love of God and 
 attachment and respect to females. His 
 religious education was not neglected, and 
 he was taught a veneration for all sacred 
 things. His instructions in respect to 
 manners, conversation, and virtuous habits 
 were all intended to prepare him for his 
 future condition as a knight. 
 
 2. The Squire. The youth, on emerging 
 from the employment of a Page, took on 
 him that of Squire, called in French ecuyer. 
 This promotion was not unaccompanied by 
 an appropriate ceremony. The Page who 
 was to be made a Squire was presented to 
 the altar by his father and mother, or by 
 those who represented them, each holding 
 a lighted taper in his hand. The officiating 
 priest took from the altar a sword and belt, 
 on which he bestowed several benedictions, 
 and then placed them on the youth, who 
 from that time constantly wore them. The 
 Squires were divided into various classes, 
 each of whose employment was different. 
 To some, as to the chamberlains, was com- 
 mitted the care of the gold and silver of 
 the household; others, as the constable, 
 had the charge of the table utensils ; others 
 were carvers, and others butlers. But the 
 most honorable and the only one connected 
 immediately with chivalry was the Squire 
 of Honor or the Body Squire. He was 
 immediately attached to some knight, 
 whose standard he carried. He helped to 
 dress and undress him, and attended him 
 morning and evening in his apartment. 
 On a march, he led the war-horse of his 
 master and carried his sword, his helmet, 
 and his shield. In the hour of battle, the 
 Squire, although he did not actually take a 
 part in the combat, was not altogether an 
 idle spectator of the contest. In the shock 
 of battle, the two lines of knights, with 
 their lances in rest, fell impetuously on 
 each other; some, who were thrown from 
 their horses, drew their swords or battle- 
 axes to defend themselves and to make new 
 attacks, while advantage was sought by their 
 enemies over those who had been thrown. 
 During all this time, the Squire was atten- 
 tive to every motion of his master. In the 
 
 one case, to give him new arms, or to sup- 
 ply him with another horse ; to raise him 
 up when he fell, and to ward off the strokes 
 aimed at him ; while in the other case, he 
 seconded the knight by every means that 
 his skill, his valor, and his zeal could sug- 
 gest, always, however, within the strict 
 bounds of the defensive, for the Squire was 
 not permitted by the laws of chivalry to 
 engage in offensive combat with a knight. 
 
 3. The Knight. These services merited 
 and generally received from the knight the 
 most grateful acknowledgment, and in time 
 the high honor of the badge of knighthood 
 bestowed by his own hand, for every knight 
 possessed the prerogative of making other 
 knights. 
 
 The age of twenty-one was that in which 
 the youthful Squire, after so many proofs 
 of zeal, fidelity, and valor, might be ad- 
 mitted to the honor of knighthood. The 
 rule as to age was not, however, always ob- 
 served. Sometimes the Squire was not 
 knighted until he was further advanced in 
 years, and in the case of princes the time 
 was often anticipated. There are instances 
 of infants, the sons of kings, receiving the 
 dignity of knighthood. 
 
 The creation of a knight was accompanied 
 by solemn ceremonies, which some writers 
 have been pleased to compare to those of 
 the Church in the administration of its 
 sacraments, and there was, if not a close 
 resemblance, a manifest allusion in the one 
 to the other. The white habit and the bath 
 of the knight corresponded to the form of 
 baptism ; the stroke on the neck and the em- 
 brace given to the new knight were compared 
 to the ceremony of confirmation ; and as the 
 godfather made a present to the child whom 
 he held at the font, so the lord who con- 
 ferred knighthood was expected to make a 
 gift or grant some peculiar favor to the 
 knight whom he had dubbed. 
 
 The preliminary ceremonies which pre- 
 pared the neophyte for the sword of chiv- 
 alry were as follows: austere fasts; whole 
 nights passed in prayers in a church or 
 chapel ; the sacraments of confession, pen- 
 ance, and the eucharist; bathings, which 
 prefigured purity of manners and life ; a 
 white habit as a symbol of the same purity, 
 and in imitation of the custom with new 
 converts on their admission into the Church ; 
 and a serious attention to sermons, were all 
 duties of preparation to be devoutly per- 
 formed by the Squire previous to his being 
 armed with the weapons and decorated with 
 the honors of knighthood. 
 
 An old French chronicler thus succinctly 
 details the ceremony of creation and inves- 
 titure. The neophyte bathes ; after which, 
 clothed in white apparel, he is to watch all 
 night in the church, and remain there xn> 
 
400 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 prayer until after the celebration of high, 
 mass. The communion being then re- 
 ceived, the youth solemnly raises his joined 
 hands and his eyes to heaven, when the 
 priest who had administered the sacrament 
 passes the sword over the neck of the youth 
 and blesses it. The candidate then kneels 
 at the feet of the lord or knight who is to 
 arm him. The lord asks him with what 
 intent he desires to enter into that sacred 
 Order, and if his views tend only to the 
 maintenance and honor of religion and of 
 knighthood. The lord, having received 
 from the candidate a satisfactory reply to 
 these questions, administers the oath of 
 reception, and gives him three strokes on 
 the neck with the flat end of the sword, 
 which he then girds upon him. This scene 
 passes sometimes in a hall or in the court of 
 a palace, or, in time of war, in the open field. 
 
 The girding on of the sword was accom- 
 panied with these or similar words : " In 
 the name of God, of St. Michael, and of 
 St. George, I make thee a knight: be brave, 
 be hardy, and be loyal." And then the 
 kneeling candidate is struck upon the 
 shoulder or back of the neck, by him who 
 confers the dignity, with the flat of the 
 sword, and directed to rise in words like 
 these : " Arise, Sir Damian ; " a formula 
 still followed by the sovereigns of England 
 when they confer the honor of knighthood. 
 And hence the word "Sir," which is equiv- 
 alent to the old French "Sire," is ac- 
 counted, says Ashmole, "parcel of their 
 style." 
 
 Sir William Segar, in his treatise on 
 Civil and Military Honor, gives the follow- 
 ing account of the ceremonies used in Eng- 
 land in the sixth century : 
 
 " A stage was erected in some cathedral, 
 or spacious place near it, to which the gen- 
 tleman was conducted to receive the honor 
 of knighthood. Being seated on a chair 
 decorated with green silk, it was demanded 
 of him if he were of a good constitution, 
 and able to undergo the fatigue required in 
 a soldier ; also whether he were a man of 
 
 food morals, and what credible witnesses 
 e could produce to affirm the same. 
 
 " Then the Bishop or Chief Prelate of the 
 Church administered the following oath: 
 ' Sir, you that desire to receive the honor of 
 knighthood, swear before God and this holy 
 book that you will not fight against his Ma- 
 jesty, that now bestoweth the order of knight- 
 hood upon you. You shall also swear to 
 maintain and defend all Ladies, Gentlemen, 
 Widows and Orphans; and you shall shun 
 no adventure of your person in any war 
 wherein you shall happen to be.' 
 
 "The oath being taken, two Lords led 
 him to the King, who drew his sword, and 
 laid it upon his head, saying, God and St. 
 
 George (or what other saint the King 
 pleased to name, ) make thee a good knight ; 
 after which seven Ladies dressed in white 
 came and girt a sword to his side and four 
 knights put on his spurs. 
 
 " These ceremonies being over, the Queen 
 took him by the right hand, and a Duchess 
 by the left, and leading him to a rich seat, 
 placed him on an ascent, where they seated 
 him, the King sitting on his right hand, 
 and the Queen on his left. 
 
 "Then the Lords and Ladies also sat 
 down upon other seats, three descents 
 under the King ; and being all thus seated, 
 they were entertained with a delicate colla- 
 tion ; and so the ceremony ended." 
 
 The manner of arming a newly-made 
 knight was first to put on the spurs, then 
 the coat-of-mail, the cuirass, the brasset or 
 casque, and the gauntlets. The lord or 
 knight conferring the honor then girded 
 on the sword, which last was considered as 
 the most honorable badge of chivalry, and 
 a symbol of the labor that the knight was 
 in future to encounter. It was in fact 
 deemed the real and essential part of the 
 ceremony, and that which actually consti- 
 tuted the knight. Du Cange, in his Glos- 
 sarium, defines the Latin word rniliiare, in 
 its mediaeval sense, as signifying "to make 
 a knight," which was, he says, "balteo 
 militari accingere," i. e., to gird on him the 
 knightly belt ; and it is worthy of remark, 
 that cingulus, which in pure Latin signifies 
 a belt, came in the later Latin of Justinian 
 to denote the military profession. I need 
 not refer to the common expression, "a 
 belted knight," as indicating the close con- 
 nection between knighthood and the gird- 
 ing of the belt. It was indeed the belt and 
 sword that made the knight. 
 
 The oath taken by the knight at his re- 
 ception devoted him to the defence of re- 
 ligion and the Church, and to the protection 
 of widows, orphans, and all of either sex 
 who were powerless, unhappy, or suffering 
 under injustice and oppression ; and to 
 shrink from the performance of these du- 
 ties whenever called upon, even at the 
 sacrifice of his life, was to incur dishonor 
 for the rest of his days. 
 
 Of all the laws of chivalry, none was 
 maintained with more rigor than that which 
 secured respect for the female sex. " If an 
 honest and virtuous lady," says Brantome, 
 " will maintain her firmness and constancy, 
 her servant, that is to say the knight who 
 had devoted himself to her service, must 
 not even spare his life to protect and de- 
 fend her, if she runs the least risk either 
 of her fortune, or her honor, or of any cen- 
 sorious word, for we are bound by the laws 
 of Chivalry to be the champions of women's 
 afflictions." 
 
KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 401 
 
 Nor did any human law insist with so 
 much force as that of chivalry upon the 
 necessity of an inviolable attachment to 
 truth. Adherence to his word was esteemed 
 the most honorable part of a knight's 
 character. Hence to give the lie was con- 
 sidered the most mortal and irreparable 
 affront, to be expiated only by blood. 
 
 An oath or solemn promise given in the 
 name of a knight was of all oaths the most 
 inviolable. Knights taken in battle en- 
 gaged to come of their own accord to prison 
 whenever it was required by their captors, 
 and on their word of honor they were read- 
 ily allowed liberty for the time for which 
 they asked it ; for no one ever doubted that 
 they would fulfil their engagements. Sov- 
 ereigns considered their oath of knight- 
 hood as the most solemn that they could 
 give, and hence the Duke of Bretagne, 
 having made a treaty of peace with Charles 
 the Sixth of France, swore to its observ- 
 ance " by the faith of his body and the loy- 
 alty of his knighthood." 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to say that gen- 
 erous courage was an indispensable quality 
 of a knight. An act of cowardice, of cru- 
 elty, or of dishonorable warfare in battle, 
 would overwhelm the doer with deserved 
 infamy. In one of the tenzones, or poetical 
 contests of the Troubadours, it is said that 
 to form a perfect knight all the tender 
 offices of humanity should be united to the 
 greatest valor, and pity and generosity to 
 the conquered associated with the strictest 
 justice and integrity. Whatever was con- 
 trary to the laws of war was inconsistent 
 with the laws of chivalry. 
 
 The laws of chivalry also enforced with 
 peculiar impressiveness sweetness and mod- 
 esty of temper, with that politeness of de- 
 meanor which the word courtesy was meant 
 perfectly to express. An uncourteous knight 
 would have been an anomaly. 
 
 Almost all of these knightly qualities are 
 well expressed by Chaucer in the Prologue 
 to his Knight's Tale : 
 
 " A knight there was, and that a worthy man, 
 That from the time that he first began 
 To riden out he loved chivalry, 
 Truth and honor, freedom and courtesy. 
 Full worthy was he in his lord's war 
 And thereto had he ridden, no man farre ; 
 As well in Christendom as in Heatheness, 
 And ever honored for his worthiness. 
 
 " And ever more he had a sovereign price, 
 And though that he was worthy, he was wise 
 And of his port as meek as was a maid. 
 He never yet no villainy he said 
 In all his life unto no manner wight, 
 He was a very perfect, gentle knight." 
 
 The most common and frequent occa- 
 sions on which knights were created, inde- 
 3 A 26 
 
 pendent of those which happened in war, 
 were at the great feasts of the Church, and 
 especially at the feast of Pentecost ; also at 
 the publications of peace or a truce, the 
 coronations of kings, the birth or baptism 
 of princes, and the days on which those 
 princes had themselves received knight- 
 hood. But a knight could at any time con- 
 fer the distinction on one whom he deemed 
 deserving of it. 
 
 There was a distinction between the titles 
 as well as the dress of a knight and a 
 squire. The knight was called Don, Sire, 
 Messire, or, in English, Sir — a title not be- 
 stowed upon a squire : and while the wife 
 of the former was called a Lady, that of 
 the latter was only a Gentlewoman. The 
 wife of a knight was sometimes called 
 Militissa, or female knight. 
 
 In their dresses and their harness, 
 knights were entitled to wear gold and 
 golden decorations, while the squires were 
 confined to the use of silver. Knights 
 alone had a right to wear, for the lining of 
 their cloaks and mantles, ermine, sable, 
 and meniver, which were the most valua- 
 ble furs ; while those of a less costly kind 
 were for the squires. The long and train- 
 ing mantle, of a scarlet color, and lined 
 with ermine or other precious furs, which 
 was called the Mantle of Honor, was espe- 
 cially reserved for the knight. Such a 
 mantle was always presented by the kings 
 of France to knights whom they created. 
 The mantle was considered the most august 
 and noble decoration that a knight could 
 wear, when he was not dressed in his armor. 
 The official robes still worn by many mag- 
 istrates in Europe are derived from the 
 knightly Mantle of Honor. 
 
 It should be remarked that the order 
 of knighthood, and the ceremonies accom- 
 panying the investiture of a knight, were 
 of a symbolic character, and are well cal- 
 culated to remind the Freemason of the 
 symbolic character of his own Institution. 
 
 The sword which the knight received 
 was called " the arms of mercy," and he 
 was told to conquer his enemies by mercy 
 rather than by force of arms. Its blade 
 was two-edged, to remind him that he must 
 maintain chivalry and justice, and contend 
 only for the support of these two chief pil- 
 lars of the temple of honor. The lance rep- 
 resented Truth, because truth, like the 
 lance, is straight. The coat of mail was 
 the symbol of a fortress erected against 
 vice ; for, as castles are surrounded by walls 
 and ditches, the coat of mail is closed in all 
 its parts, and defends the knight against 
 treason, disloyalty, pride, and every other 
 evil passion. The rowels of the spur were 
 given to urge the possessor on to deeds of 
 honor and virtue. The shield, which he 
 
402 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 places betwixt himself and his enemy, was 
 to remind him that the knight is a shield 
 interposed between the prince and the peo- 
 ple, to preserve peace and tranquillity. 
 
 In a Latin manuscript of the thirteenth 
 century, copied by Anstis, (App., p. 95,) will 
 be found the following symbolical expla- 
 nation of the ceremonial of knighthood. 
 The bath was a symbol of the washing 
 away of sin by the sacrament of baptism. 
 The bed into which the novice entered and 
 reposed after the bath, was a symbol of the 
 peace of mind which would be acquired by 
 the virtue of chivalry. The white gar- 
 ments with which he was afterwards 
 clothed, were a symbol of the purity which 
 a knight should maintain. The scarlet 
 robe put on the newly-made knight was 
 symbolic of the blood which he should be 
 ready to shed for Christ and the Church. 
 The dark boots are a sign of the earth, 
 whence we all came, and to which we are 
 all to return. The white belt is a symbol 
 of chastity. The golden spur symbolizes 
 promptitude of action. The sword is a 
 symbol of severity against the attacks of 
 Satan ; its two edges are to teach the 
 knight that he is to defend the poor 
 against the rich, and the weak against the 
 powerful. The white fillet around the head 
 is a symbol of good works. The alapa or 
 blow was in memorial of him who made him 
 a knight. 
 
 There was one usage of knighthood 
 which is peculiarly worthy of attention. 
 The love of glory, which was so inspiring 
 to the knights of chivalry, is apt to pro- 
 duce a spirit of rivalry and emulation that 
 might elsewhere prove the fruitful source 
 of division and discord. But this was pre- 
 vented by the fraternities of arms so com- 
 mon among the knights. Two knights who 
 had, perhaps, been engaged in the same ex- 
 peditions, and had conceived for each other 
 a mutual esteem and confidence, would en- 
 ter into a solemn compact by which they 
 became and were called " Brothers in 
 arms." Under this compact, they swore to 
 share equally the labors and the glory, the 
 dangers and the profits of all enterprises, 
 and never, under any circumstances, to 
 abandon each other. The brother in arms 
 was to be the enemy of those who were the 
 enemies of his brother, and the friend of 
 those who were his friends ; both of them 
 were to divide their present and future 
 wealth, and to employ that and their lives 
 for the deliverance of each other if taken 
 prisoner. The claims of a brother in arms 
 were paramount to all others, except those 
 of the sovereign. If the services of a 
 knight were demanded at the same time by 
 a lady and by a brother in arms, the claim 
 of the former gave way to that of the latter. 
 
 But the duty which was owing to the prince 
 or to the country was preferred to all others, 
 and hence brothers in arms of different na- 
 tions were only united together so long as 
 their respective sovereigns were at peace, 
 and a declaration of war between two 
 princes dissolved all such confraternities 
 between the subjects of each. But except 
 in this particular case, the bond of brother- 
 hood was indissoluble, and a violation of 
 the oath which bound two brothers to- 
 gether was deemed an act of the greatest 
 infamy. They could not challenge each 
 other. They even wore in battle the same 
 habits and armor, as if they desired that 
 the enemy should mistake one for the 
 other, and thus that both might incur an 
 equal risk of the dangers with which each 
 was threatened. 
 
 Knights were divided into two ranks, 
 namely, Knights Bachelors and Knights 
 Bannerets. 
 
 The Knight Bachelor was of the lower 
 rank, and derived his title most prob- 
 ably from the French bas chevalier. In the 
 days of chivalry, as well as in later times, 
 this dignity was conferred without any refer- 
 ence to a qualification of property. Many 
 Knights Bachelors were in fact mere ad- 
 venturers, unconnected by feudal ties of 
 any sort, who offered their services in war 
 to any successful leader, and found in their 
 sword a means of subsistence, not only by 
 pay and plunder, but in the regularly es- 
 tablished system of ransom, which every 
 knight taken in action paid for his liberty. 
 The Knight Bachelor bore instead of a 
 square banner a pointed or triangular en- 
 sign, which was forked by being extended 
 in two cornets or points, and which was 
 called a pennon. The triangular banner, 
 not forked, was called a pennoncel, and was 
 carried by a squire. 
 
 The Knight Banneret, a name derived 
 from banneret, a little banner, was one who 
 possessed many fiefs, and who was obliged 
 to serve in war with a large attendance of 
 followers. 
 
 If a knight was rich and powerful enough 
 to furnish the state or his sovereign with a 
 certain number of armed men, and to enter- 
 tain them at his own expense, permission 
 was accorded to him to add to his simple 
 designation of Knight or Knight Bachelor, 
 the more noble and exalted title of Knight 
 Banneret. • This gave him the right to 
 carry a square banner on the top of his 
 lance. Knights Bachelors were sometimes 
 made Bannerets on the field of battle, and 
 as a reward of their prowess, by the simple 
 ceremony of the sovereign cutting off with 
 his sword the cornets or points of their 
 pennons, thus transforming them into 
 square banners. Clark, in his History of 
 
KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 403 
 
 Knighthood, (vol. i., p. 73,) thus describes 
 this ceremony in detail : 
 
 " The king or his general, at the head 
 of his army drawn up in order of battle 
 after a victory, under the royal standard 
 displayed, attended by all the officers and 
 nobility present, receives the knight led be- 
 tween two knights carrying his pennon of 
 arms in his hand, the heralds walking be- 
 fore him, who proclaim his valiant achieve- 
 ments for which he has deserved to be 
 made a Knight Banneret, and to display 
 his banner in the field ; then the king or 
 general says to him, Advancez toy banneret, 
 and causes the point of his pennon to be 
 rent off; then the new knight, having the 
 trumpets before him sounding, the nobility 
 and officers bearing him company, is sent 
 back to his tent, where they are all enter- 
 tained." 
 
 But generally the same ceremonial was 
 used in times of peace at the making of a 
 Knight Banneret as at the institution of 
 barons, viscounts, earls, and the other or- 
 ders of nobility, with whom they claimed 
 an almost equality of rank. 
 
 Not long after the institution of knight- 
 hood as an offshot of chivalry, we find, be- 
 sides the individual Knights Bachelors 
 and Knights Bannerets, associations of 
 knights banded together for some common 
 purpose, of which there were two classes. 
 First: Fraternities possessing property 
 and rights of their own as independent 
 bodies into which knights were admitted as 
 monks were into religious foundations. Of 
 this class may be mentioned, as examples, 
 the three great religious Orders — the Tem- 
 plars, the Hospitallers, and the Teutonic 
 Knights. 
 
 The second class consisted of honorary 
 associations established by sovereigns with- 
 in their respective dominions, consisting 
 of members whose only common tie is the 
 
 Possession of the same titular distinction, 
 uch are most of the European orders of 
 knighthood now existing, as the Knights 
 of the Garter in England, the Knights of 
 St. Andrew in Russia, and the Knights of 
 the Golden Fleece in Spain. The institu- 
 tion of these titular orders of knighthood 
 dates at a much more recent period than 
 that of the Fraternities who constitute the 
 first class, for not one of them can trace 
 its birth to the time of the Crusades, at 
 which time the Templars and similar or- 
 ders sprang into existence. 
 
 Ragon, in his Cours Philosophique, at- 
 tempts to draw a parallel between the in- 
 stitution of knighthood and that of Free- 
 masonry, such as that there were three de- 
 grees in one as there are in the other, and 
 that there was a close resemblance in the 
 ceremonies of initiation into both orders. 
 
 He thus intimates for them a common ori- 
 gin ; but these parallels should rather be 
 considered simply as coincidences. The 
 theory first advanced by the Chevalier 
 Ramsay, and adopted by Hund and the dis- 
 ciples of the Rite of Strict Observance, 
 that all Freemasons are Templars, and that 
 Freemasonry is a lineal successor of ancient 
 knighthood, is now rejected as wholly un- 
 tenable and unsupported by any authentic 
 history. The only connection between 
 knighthood and Freemasonry is that which 
 was instituted after the martyrdom of James 
 de Molay, when the Knights Templars 
 sought concealment and security in the 
 bosom of the Masonic fraternity. 
 
 When one was made a knight, he was 
 said to be dubbed. This is a word in con- 
 stant use in the Mediaeval manuscripts. In 
 the old Patavian statutes, "Miles adobatus," 
 a dubbed knight, is defined to be " one who, 
 by the usual ceremonies, acquires the dig- 
 nity and profession of chivalry." The 
 Provencal writers constantly employ the 
 term to dub, "adouber," and designate a 
 knight who has gone through the ceremony 
 of investiture as " un chevalier adoube'," a 
 dubbed knight. Thus, in the Jiomaunt 
 d'Auberi, the Lady d'Auberi says to the 
 King,— 
 
 " Sire, dit elle, par Deu de Paradis 
 Soit adouber mes freres auberis." 
 
 That is, " Sire, for the love of the God of 
 Paradise, let my brothers be dubbed." 
 
 The meaning of the word then is plain : 
 to dub, is to make or create a knight. But 
 its derivation is not so easily settled amid 
 the conflicting views of writers on the sub- 
 ject. The derivation by Menage from du- 
 plex is not worth consideration. Hen- 
 schell's, from a Provencal word adobare, 
 "to equip," although better, is scarcely 
 tenable. The derivation from the Anglo- 
 Saxon dubban, "to strike or give a blow," 
 would be reasonable, were it not presuma- 
 ble that the Anglo-Saxons borrowed their 
 word from the French and from the usages 
 of chivalry. It is more likely that dubban 
 came from adouber, than that adouber came 
 from dubban. The Anglo-Saxons took their 
 forms and technicalities of chivalry from 
 the French. After all, the derivation pro- 
 posed by Du Cange is the most plausible 
 and the one most generally adopted, be- 
 cause it is supported by the best author- 
 ities. He says that it is derived from the 
 Latin adoptare, to adopt, "quod qui ali- 
 quem armis instruit ac Militem facit, eum 
 quodammodo adoptat in filium," i. e., "He 
 who equips any one with arms, and makes 
 him a knight, adopts him, as it were, as a 
 son." To dub one as a knight is, then, to 
 
404 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 adopt him into the order of chivalry. The 
 idea was evidently taken from the Roman 
 law of adoptaiio, or adoption, where, as in 
 conferring knighthood, a blow on the cheek 
 was given. 
 
 The word accolade is another term of 
 chivalry about which there is much mis- 
 understanding. It is now supposed to 
 mean the blow of the sword, given by the 
 knight conferring the dignity, on the neck 
 or shoulder of him who received it. But 
 this is most probably an error. The word 
 is derived, says Brewer, [Diet. Phr. and 
 Fab.,) from the Latin ad collum, "around 
 the neck," and signifies the embrace "given 
 by the Grand Master when he receives a 
 neophyte or new convert." It was an early 
 custom to confer an embrace and the kiss 
 of peace upon the newly-made knight, 
 which ceremony, Ashmole thinks, was 
 called the accolade. Thus, in his History 
 of the Order of the Garter, (p. 15,) he says: 
 "The first Christian kings, at giving the 
 belt, kissed the new knight on the left 
 cheek, saying: In the honor of the Father 
 and the Son and the Holy Ghost, I make you 
 a knight. It was called the osmium pacts, 
 the kiss of favor or of brotherhood, [more 
 correctly the kiss of peace,] and is pre- 
 sumed to be the accolade or ceremony of 
 embracing, which Charles the Great used 
 when he knighted his son Louis the De- 
 bonnair." In the book of Johan de Vignay, 
 which was written in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, this kiss of peace is mentioned to- 
 gether with the accolade : " Et le Seigneur 
 leur doit donner une colee en signe de pro- 
 este et de hardement, et que il leur souveigne 
 de celui noble homme qui la fait chevalier. 
 Et done les doit le Seigneur baisier en la 
 bouche en signe de paix et d'amour ; " i. e., 
 "And the lord ought to give him [the 
 newly- made knight] an accolade as a 
 symbol of readiness and boldness, and in 
 memory of the nobleman who has made 
 him a knight ; and then the lord ought to 
 kiss him on the mouth as a sign of peace 
 and love." 
 
 In an old manuscript in the Cottonian Li- 
 brary, entitled " The manner of makynge 
 Knyghtes after the customeof Engelande," 
 a copy of which is inserted in Anstis's 
 Historical Essay on the Knighthood of the 
 Bath, (Append., p. 99,) is this account of 
 the embrace and kiss, accompanied with 
 a blow on the neck : " Thanne shall the 
 Squyere lift up his armes on high, and the 
 Kynge shall put his armes about thenekke 
 of the Squyer, and lyftynge up his right 
 hande he shall smyte the Squyer in the 
 nekke, seyeng thus : Be ye a good Knyhte ; 
 kissing him. Anstis himself is quite con- 
 fused in his description of the ceremonial, 
 and enumerates " the blow upon the neck, 
 
 the accolade, with the embracing and kiss 
 of peace," as if they were distinct and sepa- 
 rate ceremonies ; but in another part of his 
 book he calls the accolade "the laying 
 hands upon the shoulders." I am inclined 
 to believe, after much research, that both 
 the blow on the neck and the embrace con- 
 stituted properly the accolade. This blow 
 was sometimes given with the hand, but 
 sometimes with the sword. Anstis says that 
 "the action which fully and finally im- 
 presses the character of knighthood is the 
 blow given with the hand upon the neck 
 or shoulder." But he admits that there 
 has been a controversy among writers 
 whether the blow was heretofore given 
 with a sword or by the bare hand upon the 
 neck, (p. 73.) 
 
 The mystical signification which Case- 
 neuve gives in hhEtymologies (voc.Aceollee) 
 is ingenious and appropriate, namely, that 
 the blow was given on the neck to remind 
 him who received it that he ought never, 
 by flight from battle, to give an enemy the 
 opportunity of striking him on the same 
 place. 
 
 But there was another blow, which was 
 given in the earliest times of chivalry, and 
 which has by some writers been confounded 
 with the accolade, which at length came to 
 be substituted for it. This was the blow on 
 the cheek, or, in common language, the box 
 on the ear, which was given to a knight at 
 his investiture. This blow is never called 
 the accolade by the old writers, but gen- 
 erally the alapa, rarely the gatitada. Du 
 Cange says that this blow was sometimes 
 given on the neck, and that then it was 
 called the colaphus, or by the French colee, 
 from col, the neck. Duchesne says the 
 blow was always given with the hand, and 
 not with the sword. 
 
 Ashmole says : " It was in the time of 
 Charles the Great the way of knighting by 
 the colaphum, or blow on the ear, used in 
 sign of sustaining future hardships, .... 
 a custom long alter retained in Germany 
 and France. Thus William, Earl of Hol- 
 land, who was to be knighted before he 
 could be emperor, at his being elected king 
 of the Romans, received knighthood by the 
 box of the ear, etc., from John, king of Bo- 
 hemia, A. D. 1247." 
 
 Both the word alapa and the ceremony 
 which it indicated were derived from the 
 form of manumission among the Romans, 
 where the slave on being freed received a 
 blow called alapa on the cheek, character- 
 ized by Claudian as "feliz injuria," a happy 
 injury, to remind him that it was the last 
 blow he was compelled to submit to : for 
 thenceforth he was to be a freeman, capable 
 of vindicating his honor from insult. The 
 alapa, in conferring knighthood, was em- 
 
KNIGHTHOOD 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 405 
 
 ployed with a similar symbolism. Thus in 
 an old register of 1260, which gives an ac- 
 count of the knighting of Hildebrand by 
 the Lord Bidolfonus, we find this passage, 
 which I give in the original, for the sake 
 of the one word gautata, which is unusual : 
 " Postea Ridolfonus de more dedit illi gau- 
 tatam et dixit illi. Tu es miles nobilis mili- 
 tiae equestris, et haec gautata est in recorda- 
 tionem, illius qui te armavit militem, et hoec 
 gautata debet esse ultima injuria, quam 
 patienter acceperis." That is: "After- 
 wards Ridolfonus gave him in the custom- 
 ary way the blow, and said to him : Thou 
 art a noble Knight of the Equestrian Order 
 of Chivalry, and this blow is given in mem- 
 ory of him who hath armed thee as a knight, 
 and it must be the last injury which thou 
 shalt patiently endure." The first reason 
 assigned for the blow refers to an old cus- 
 tom of cuffing the witnesses to a transac- 
 tion, to impress it on their memory. Thus, 
 by the riparian law, when there was a sale 
 of land, some twelve witnesses were col- 
 lected to see the transfer of property and 
 the payment of the price, and each received 
 a box on the ear, that he might thus the 
 better remember the occurrence. So the 
 knight received the blow to make him re- 
 member the time of his receiving his knight- 
 hood and the person who conferred it. 
 
 For the commission of crime, more es- 
 pecially for disloyalty to his sovereign, a 
 knight might be degraded from the Order; 
 and this act of degradation was accom- 
 panied with many ceremonies, the chief of 
 which was the hacking off his spurs. This 
 was to be done for greater infamy, not by 
 a knight, but by the master cook. Thus 
 Stow says that, at the making of Knights of 
 the Bath, the king's master cook stood at 
 the door of the chapel, and said to each 
 knight as he entered, "Sir Knight, look 
 that you be true and loyal to the king my 
 master, or else I must hew these spurs from 
 your heels." His shield too was reversed, 
 and the heralds had certain marks called 
 abatements, which they placed on it to in- 
 dicate his dishonor. 
 
 M. de St. Palaye concludes his learned 
 and exhaustive Memoires sur Fancienne 
 Chevalerie with this truthful tribute to 
 that spirit of chivalry in which ancient 
 knighthood found its birth, and with it I 
 may appropriately close this article : 
 
 " It is certain that chivalry, in its earliest 
 period, tended to promote order and good 
 morals ; and although it was in some respects 
 imperfect, yet it produced the most accom- 
 plished models of public valor and of those 
 pacific and gentle virtues that are the orna- 
 ments of domestic life ; and it is worthy of 
 consideration, that in an age of darkness, 
 most rude and unpolished, such examples 
 
 were to be found as the results of an in- 
 stitution founded solely for the public wel- 
 fare, as in the most enlightened times 
 have never been surpassed and very seldom 
 equalled." 
 
 Knight. 1. An order of chivalry. See 
 Knighthood and Knight Masonic. 
 
 2. The eleventh and last degree of the 
 Order of African Architects. 
 
 Knight, Black. See Black Brothers. 
 
 Knight Commander. {Chevalier 
 Commandeur.) 1. The ninth degree of the 
 Rite of Elect Cohens. 2. A distinction 
 conferred by the Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite for 
 the Southern Jurisdiction of the United 
 States on deserving Honorary Thirty -Thirds 
 and Sublime Princes of the Royal Secret. 
 It is conferred by a vote of the Supreme 
 Council, and is unattended with any other 
 ceremony than the presentation of a dec- 
 oration and a patent. 
 
 Knight Commander of the 
 Temple. See Sovereign Commander of 
 the Temple. 
 
 Knight Commander of the 
 White and Black Eagle. {Cheva- 
 lier Commandeur de I'Aigle blanc et noir. ) The 
 eightieth degree of the collection of the 
 Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Knight, Crusader. ( Chevalier 
 Croise.) Thory says {Act. Lat., i. 303,) that 
 this is a chivalric degree, which was com- 
 municated to him by a member of the 
 Grand Lodge of Copenhagen. He gives 
 no further account of its character. 
 
 Knight Elect of Fifteen. 1. The 
 sixteenth degree of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Rite, more commonly called Illus- 
 trious Elect of the Fifteen. See Elect of 
 the Fifteen. 
 
 2. The tenth degree of the Chapter of 
 Emperors of the East and West. 
 
 3. The eleventh degree of the Rite of 
 Mizraim. 
 
 Knight Elect of Twelve, Sub- 
 lime. The eleventh degree of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Rite, sometimes called 
 " Twelve Illustrious Knights." After ven- 
 geance had been taken upon the traitors 
 mentioned in the degrees of Elected 
 Knights of Nine and Illustrious Elected 
 of Fifteen, Solomon, to reward those who 
 had exhibited their zeal and fidelity in in- 
 flicting the required punishment, as well as 
 to make room for the exaltation of others 
 to the degree of Illustrious Elected of 
 Fifteen, appointed twelve of these latter, 
 chosen by ballot, to constitute a new de- 
 gree, on which he bestowed the name of 
 Sublime Knights Elected, and gave them 
 the command over the twelve tribes of Is- 
 real. The Sublime Knights rendered an 
 account each day to Solomon of the work 
 
406 
 
 KXIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 that was done in the Temple by their re- 
 spective tribes, and received their pay. 
 The Lodge is called a Chapter. In the old 
 rituals Solomon presides, with the title of 
 Thrice Puissant, and instead of Wardens, 
 there are a Grand Inspector and a Master 
 of Ceremonies. In the modern ritual of 
 the Southern Jurisdiction, the Master 
 and Wardens represent Solomon, Hiram 
 of Tyre, and Adoniram, and the style of 
 the Master and Senior Warden is Thrice 
 Illustrious. The room is hung with black, 
 sprinkled with white and red tears. 
 
 The apron is white, lined and bordered 
 with black, with black strings ; on the flap, 
 a flaming heart. 
 
 The sash is black, with a flaming heart 
 on the breast, suspended from the right 
 shoulder to the left hip. 
 
 The jewel is a sword of justice. 
 
 This is the last of the three Elus which 
 are found in the Ancient Scottish Rite. In 
 the French Rite they have been condensed 
 into one, and make the fourth degree of 
 that ritual, but not, as Ragon admits, with 
 the happiest effect. 
 
 Knight Hospitaller. See Knight 
 of Malta. 
 
 Knight, Illustrious or Illustri- 
 ous Elect. ( Chevalier Illustre or Elu II- 
 luslre.) The thirteenth degree of the Rite 
 of Mizraim. 
 
 Knight Jupiter. (Le Chevalier 
 Jupiter.) The seventy -eighth degree of the 
 collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Knight Kadosh, formerly called 
 Grand Elect Knight Kadosh. ( Grand Elu 
 du Chevalier Kadosch.) The Knight Ka- 
 dosh is the thirtieth degree of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite, called also 
 Knight of the White and Black Eagle. 
 While retaining the general Templar doc- 
 trine of the Kadosh system, it symbolizes 
 and humanizes the old lesson of vengeance. 
 It is the most popular of all the Kadoshes. 
 
 In the Knight Kadosh of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite, the meetings 
 are called Councils. The principal officers 
 are, according to the recent rituals, a Com- 
 mander, two Lieutenant Commanders, called 
 also Prior and Preceptor; a Chancellor, 
 Orator, Almoner, Recorder, and Treasurer. 
 The jewel, as described in the ritual of the 
 Southern Supreme Council, is a double- 
 headed eagle, displayed resting on a teu- 
 tonic cross, the eagle silver, the cross gold 
 enamelled red. The Northern Council uses 
 instead of the eagle the letters J. B. M. 
 The Kadoshes, as representatives of the 
 Templars, adopt the Beauseant as their 
 standard. In this degree, as in all the other 
 Kadoshes, we find the mystical ladder of 
 seven steps. 
 
 Knight Kadosh of Cromwell. 
 
 Ragon says of this (Tuileur, 171,) that it is 
 a pretended degree, of which he has four 
 copies, and that it appears to be a mon- 
 strosity invented by an enemy of the Order 
 for the purposes of calumniation. The 
 ritual says that the degree is conferred only 
 in England and Prussia, which is un- 
 doubtedly untrue. 
 
 Knight Masonic. The word knight, 
 prefixed to so many of the high degrees as 
 a part of the title, has no reference what- 
 ever to the orders of chivalry, except in 
 the case of Knights Templars and Knights 
 of Malta. The word, in such titles as 
 Knight of the Ninth Arch, Knight of the 
 Brazen Serpent, etc., has a meaning totally 
 unconnected with Mediaeval knighthood. 
 In fact, although the English, German, and 
 French words Knight, Ritter, and Cheva- 
 lier, are applied to both, the Latin word 
 for each is different. A Masonic knight 
 is, in Latin, eques; while the Mediaeval 
 writers always called a knight of chivalry 
 miles. So constant is this distinction, that 
 in the two instances of Masonic knight- 
 hood derived from the chivalric orders, the 
 Knight Templar and the Knight of Malta, 
 this word miles is used, instead of eques, to 
 indicate that they are not really degrees of 
 Masonic knighthood. Thus we say Miles 
 Templarius and Miles Melitoz. If they had 
 been inventions of a Masonic ritualist, the 
 titles would have been Eques Templarius 
 and Eques Melitoz. 
 
 The eques, or Masonic knight, is there- 
 fore not, in the heraldic sense, a knight at 
 all. The word is used simply to denote a 
 position higher than that of a mere Master; 
 a position calling, like the "devoir" of 
 knighthood, for the performance of especial 
 duties. As the word " prince," in Masonic 
 language, denotes not one of princely rank, 
 but one invested with a share of Masonic 
 sovereignty and command, so " knight " 
 denotes one who is expected to be distin- 
 guished with peculiar fidelity to the cause 
 in which he has enlisted. It is simply, as I 
 have said, a point of rank above that of the 
 Master Mason. It is, therefore, confined to 
 the high degrees. 
 
 Knight .Haliadon. ( Chevalier Ma- 
 hadon.) A degree in the Archives of the 
 Lodge of Saint Louis des Amis Re'unis at 
 Calais. 
 
 Knight of Asia, Initiated. See 
 Asia, Initiated Knights of. 
 
 Knight of Athens. (Chevalier oV 
 Athenes.) 1. The fifty -second degree of 
 the Rite of Mizraim. 2. A degree in the 
 nomenclature of Fustier. 3. A degree in 
 the Archives of the Mother Lodge of the 
 Philosophic Rite in France. 
 
 Knight of Aurora. ( Chevalier de 
 VAurore.) A degree belonging to the Rite 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 407 
 
 of Palestine. It is a modification of the 
 Kadosh, and is cited in the collection of 
 Fustier. In the collection of M. Viany, it 
 is also called Knight of Palestine. 
 
 Knight of Beneficence. ( Cheva- 
 lier de la Bienfaisance.) The forty-ninth 
 degree of the collection of the Metropolitan 
 Chapter of France. It is also called Knight 
 of Perfect Silence. 
 
 Knight of Brightness. ( Chevalier 
 de la ClartS. ) The seventh and last degree 
 of the system of the Clerks of Strict Obser- 
 vance, called also Magus. 
 
 Knight of Christ. After the disso- 
 lution of the Templars in the fourteenth 
 century, those knights who resided in Por- 
 tugal retained the possessions of the Order 
 in that country, and perpetuated it under 
 the name of the Knights of Christ. Their 
 badge is a red cross patte'e, charged with a 
 plain white cross. See Christ, Order of. 
 
 Knight of Constantinople. A 
 side degree ; instituted, doubtless, by some 
 lecturer; teaching, however, an excellent 
 moral lesson of humility. Its history has 
 no connection whatever with Masonry. 
 The degree is not very extensively diffused ; 
 but several Masons, especially in the West- 
 ern States, are in possession of it. It may 
 be conferred by any Master Mason on 
 another ; although the proper performance 
 of the ceremonies requires the assistance of 
 several. When the degree is formally con- 
 ferred, the body is called a Council, and 
 consists of the following officers : Illustri- 
 ous Sovereign, Chief' of the Artisans, 
 Seneschal, Conductor, Prefect of the Pal- 
 ace, and Captain of the Guards. 
 
 Knight of Hope. 1. A species of 
 androgynous Masonry, formerly practised 
 in France. The female members were 
 called Dames or Ladies of Hope. 2. A 
 synonym of Knight of the Morning Star, 
 which see. 
 
 Knight of Iris. ( Chevalier de VIris. ) 
 The fourth degree of the Hermetic Rite of 
 Montpellier. 
 
 Knight of Jerusalem. ( Chevalier 
 de Jerusalem.) The sixty-fifth degree of 
 the collection of the Metropolitan Chapter 
 of France. 
 
 Knight of Justice. Knights Hos- 
 pitallers of St. John of Jerusalem or Knights 
 of Malta were called, in the technical lan- 
 guage of the Order, Knights of Justice. 
 
 Knights of Malta. This Order, which 
 at various times in the progress of its his- 
 tory received the names of Knights Hos- 
 pitallers, Knights of St. John of Jeru- 
 salem, Knights of Rhodes, and, lastly, 
 Knights of Malta, was one of the most im- 
 portant of the religious and military orders 
 of knighthood which sprang into exist- 
 ence during the Crusades which were insti- 
 
 tuted for the recovery of the Holy Land. 
 It owes its origin to the Hospitallers of Je- 
 rusalem, that wholly religious and charita- 
 ble Order which was established at Jerusa- 
 lem, in 1048, by pious merchants of Amalfi 
 for the succor of poor and distressed Latin 
 pilgrims. (See Hospitallers of Jerusalem.) 
 This society, established when Jerusalem 
 was in possession of the Mohammedans, 
 passed through many vicissitudes, but lived 
 to see the Holy City conquered by the 
 Christian knights. It then received many 
 accessions from the Crusaders, who, laying 
 aside their arms, devoted themselves to the 
 pious avocation of attending the sick. It 
 was then that Gerard, the Rector of the 
 Hospital, induced the brethren to take upon 
 themselves the vows of poverty, obedience, 
 and chastity, which they did at the hands 
 of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, who clothed 
 them in the habit selected for the Order, 
 which was a plain, black robe bearing a 
 white cross of eight points on the left 
 breast. This was in the year 1099, and 
 some writers here date the beginning of the 
 Order of Knights of Malta. But this is an 
 error. It was not until after the death of 
 Gerard that the Order assumed that mili- 
 tary character which it ever afterwards 
 maintained, or, in other words, that the 
 peaceful Hospitallers of Jerusalem became 
 the warlike Knights of St. John. 
 
 In 1118, Gerard, the Rector of the Hospi- 
 tal, died, and was succeeded by Raymond 
 du Puy, whom Marulli, the old chronicler 
 of the Order, in his Vile de' Oran Maestri, 
 (Napoli, 1636,) calls "secondo Rettore e 
 primo Maestro." 
 
 The peaceful habits and monastic seclu- 
 sion of the Brethren of the Hospital, which 
 had been fostered by Gerard, no longer 
 suited the warlike genius of his successor. 
 He therefore proposed a change in the 
 character of the society, by which it should 
 become a military Order, devoted to active 
 labors in the field and the protection of 
 Palestine from the encroachments of the 
 infidels. This proposition was warmly ap- 
 proved by Baldwyn II., king of Jerusalem, 
 who, harassed by a continual warfare, gladly 
 accepted this addition to his forces. The 
 Order having thus been organized on a mili- 
 tary basis, the members took a new oath, 
 at the hands of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, 
 by which they bound themselves to defend 
 the cause of Christianity against the infi- 
 dels in the Holy Land to the last drop of 
 their blood, but on no account to bear arms 
 for any other purpose. 
 
 This act, done in 1118, is considered as 
 the beginning of the establishment of the 
 Order of Knights Hospitallers of St. John, 
 of which Raymond du Puy is, by all his- 
 torians, deemed the first Grand Master. 
 
408 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 By the rule established by Du Puy for 
 the government of the Order, it was 
 divided into three classes, namely, 1. 
 Knights, who were called Knights of Jus- 
 tice; 2. Chaplains; and 3. Serving Bro- 
 thers ; all of whom took the three vows of 
 chastity, obedience, and poverty. There 
 was also attached to the institution a body 
 of men called Donats, who, without assum- 
 ing the vows of the Order, were employed 
 in the different offices of the hospital, and 
 who wore what was called the demi-cross, 
 as a badge of their connection. 
 
 The history of the Knights from this 
 time until the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury is but a chronicle of continued war- 
 fare with the enemies of the Christian faith. 
 When Jerusalem was captured by Saladin, 
 in 1187, the Hospitallers retired to Margat, 
 a town and fortress of Palestine which still 
 acknowledged the Christian sway. In 1191, 
 they made Acre, which in that year had 
 been recaptured by the Christians, their 
 
 Erincipal place of residence. For just one 
 undred years the knights were engaged, 
 with varying success, in sanguinary contests 
 with the Saracens and other infidel hordes, 
 until Acre, the last stronghold of the Chris- 
 tians in the Holy Land, having fallen be- 
 neath the blows of the victorious Moslems, 
 Syria was abandoned by the Latin race, and 
 the Hospitallers found refuge in the island 
 of Cyprus, where they established their con- 
 vent. 
 
 The Order had been much attenuated by 
 its frequent losses in the field, and its treas- 
 ury had been impoverished. But commands 
 were at once issued by John de Villiers, the 
 Grand Master, to the different Grand Prio- 
 ries in Europe, and large reinforcements in 
 men and money were soon received, so that 
 the Fraternity were enabled again to open 
 their hospital and to recommence the prac- 
 tice of their religious duties. No longer 
 able to continue their military exploits on 
 land, the knights betook themselves to their 
 galleys, and, while they protected the pil- 
 grims who still flocked in vast numbers to 
 Palestine, gave security to the Christian 
 commerce of the Mediterranean. On sea, 
 as on land, the Hospitallers still showed 
 that they were the inexorable and terrible 
 foes of the infidels, whose captured vessels 
 soon filled the harbor of Cyprus. 
 
 But in time a residence in Cyprus became 
 unpleasant. The king, by heavy taxes and 
 other rigorous exactions, had so disgusted 
 them, that they determined to seek some 
 other residence. The neighboring island 
 of Rhodes had long, under its independent 
 princes, been the refuge of Turkish corsairs; 
 a name equivalent to the more modern one 
 of pirates. Fulk de Villaret, the Grand 
 Master of the Hospital, having obtained the 
 
 approval of Pope Clement and the assist- 
 ance of several of the European States, 
 made a descent upon the island, and, after 
 months of hard fighting, on the 15th of 
 August, 1310, planted the standard of the 
 Order on the walls of the city of Rhodes ; 
 and the island thenceforth became the home 
 of the Hospitallers, whence they were often 
 called the Knights of Rhodes. 
 
 The Fraternity continued to reside at 
 Rhodes for two hundred years, acting as 
 the outpost and defence of Christendom 
 from the encroachments of the Ottoman 
 power. Of this long period, but few years 
 were passed in peace, and the military repu- 
 tation of the Order was still more firmly 
 established by the prowess of the knights. 
 These two centuries were marked by other 
 events which had an important bearing on 
 the fortunes of the institution. The rival 
 brotherhood of the Templars was abolished 
 by the machinations of a pope and a king 
 of France, and what of its revenues and 
 possessions was saved from the spoliation 
 of its enemies was transferred to the Hospi- 
 tallers. 
 
 There had always existed a bitter rivalry 
 between the two Orders, marked by un- 
 happy contentions, which on some occa- 
 sions, while both were in Palestine, 
 amounted to actual strife. Towards the 
 Knights of St. John the Templars had 
 never felt nor expressed a very kindly feel- 
 ing; and now this acceptance of an unjust 
 appropriation of their goods in the hour of 
 their disaster, keenly added to the sentiment 
 of ill-will, and the unhappy children of De 
 Molay, as they passed away from the thea- 
 tre of knighthood, left behind them the 
 bitterest imprecations on the disciples of 
 the Hospital. 
 
 The Order, during its residence at Rhodes, 
 also underwent several changes in its or- 
 ganization, by which the simpler system 
 observed during its infancy in the Holy 
 Land was rendered more perfect and more 
 complicated. The greatest of all these 
 changes was in the character of the Eu- 
 ropean Commanderies. During the period 
 that the Order was occupied in the defence 
 of the holy places, and losing large num- 
 bers of its warriors in its almost continual 
 battles, these Commanderies served as nur- 
 series for the preparation and education of 
 young knights who might be sent to Pales- 
 tine to reinforce the exhausted ranks of 
 their brethren. But now, secured in their 
 island home, Jerusalem permanently in 
 possession of the infidel, and the enthusi- 
 asm once inspired by Peter the Hermit 
 forever dead, there was no longer need for 
 new Crusaders. But the knights, engaged 
 in strengthening and decorating their in- 
 sular possession by erecting fortifications 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 409 
 
 for defence, and palaces and convents for 
 residence, now required large additions to 
 their revenue to defray the expenses thus 
 incurred. Hence the Commanderies were 
 the sources whence this revenue was to 
 be derived ; and the Commanders, once the 
 Principals, as it were, of military schools, 
 became lords of the manor in their respec- 
 tive provinces. There, by a judicious and 
 economical administration of the property 
 which had been intrusted to them, by the 
 cultivation of gardens and orchards, by the 
 rent received from arable and meadow- 
 lands, of mills and fisheries appertaining 
 to their estates, and even by the voluntary 
 contributions of their neighbors, and by the 
 raising of stock, they were enabled to add 
 greatly to their income. Of this one-fifth 
 was claimed, under the name of respon- 
 sions, as a tribute to be sent annually to 
 Rhodes for the recuperation of the always 
 diminishing revenue of the Order. 
 
 Another important change in the organi- 
 zation of the Order was made at a General 
 Chapter held about 1320 at Montpellier, 
 under the Grand Mastership of Villanova. 
 The Order was there divided into languages, 
 a division unknown during its existence in 
 Palestine. These languages were at first 
 seven in number, but afterwards increased to 
 eight, by the subdivision of that of Aragon. 
 The principal dignities of the Order were 
 at the same time divided among these 
 languages, so that a particular dignity 
 should be always enjoyed by the same 
 language. These languages, and the digni- 
 ties respectively attached to them, were as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Provence : Grand Commander. 
 
 2. Auvergne : Grand Marshal. 
 
 3. France: Grand Hospitaller. 
 
 4. Italy : Grand Admiral. 
 
 5. Aragon : Grand Conservator. 
 
 6. Germany : Grand Bailiff. 
 
 7. Castile: Grand Chancellor. 
 
 8. England : Grand Turcopolier. 
 
 But perhaps the greatest of all changes 
 was that which took place in the personal 
 character of the Knights. " The Order," 
 says Taafe, {Hist., iv. 234,) " had been above 
 two hundred years old before it managed a 
 boat, but was altogether equestrian during 
 its two first, and perhaps most glorious, cen- 
 turies." But on settling at Rhodes, the 
 knights began to attack their old enemies 
 by sea with the same prowess with which 
 they had formerly met them on land, and 
 the victorious contests of the galleys of St. 
 John with the Turkish corsairs, who were 
 infesting the Mediterranean, proved them 
 well entitled to the epithet of naval war- 
 riors." 
 
 In the year 1480, Rhodes was unsuccess- 
 fully besieged by the Ottoman army of 
 3B 
 
 Mahomet II., under the command of Pale- 
 ologus Pasha. After many contests, the 
 Turks were repulsed with great slaughter. 
 But the attack of the Sultan Solyman, forty- 
 four years afterwards, was attended with a 
 different result, and Rhodes was surren- 
 dered to the Turkish forces on the 20th De- 
 cember, 1522. The terms of the capitula- 
 tion were liberal to the knights, who were 
 permitted to retire with all their personal 
 property ; and thus, in the Grand Master- 
 ship of L'Isle Adam, Rhodes ceased forever 
 to be the home of the Order, and six days 
 afterwards, on New Year's day, 1523, the 
 fleet, containing the knights and four thou- 
 sand of the inhabitants, sailed for the island 
 of Candia. 
 
 From Candia, where the Grand Master 
 remained but a short time, he proceeded 
 with his knights to Italy. Seven long 
 years were passed in negotiations with the 
 monarchs of Europe, and in the search for 
 a home. At length, the Emperor Charles 
 V., of Germany, vested in the Order the 
 complete and perpetual sovereignty of the 
 islands of Malta and Gozo, and the city of 
 Tripoli; and in 1530, the knights took 
 formal possession of Malta, where, to borrow 
 the language of Porter, {Hist, ii. 33,) "for 
 upwards of two centuries and a half, waved 
 the banner of St. John, an honor to Christi- 
 anity and a terror to the infidel of the East." 
 From this time the Order received the des- 
 ignation of " Knights of Malta," a title 
 often bestowed upon it, even in official docu- 
 ments, in the place of the original one of 
 "Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- 
 salem." 
 
 For 268 years the Order retained pos- 
 session of the island of Malta. But in 
 1798 it was surrendered without a strug- 
 gle by Louis de Hompesch, the imbecile 
 and pusillanimous Grand Master, to the 
 French army and fleet under Bonaparte; 
 and this event may be considered as the 
 commencement of the suppression of the 
 Order as an active power. 
 
 Hompesch, accompanied by a few knights, 
 embarked in a few days for Trieste, and 
 subsequently retired to Montpellier, where 
 he resided in the strictest seclusion and 
 poverty until May 12, 1805, when he died, 
 leaving behind him not enough to remuner- 
 ate the physicians who had attended him. 
 
 The great body of the knights proceeded 
 to Russia, where the Emperor Paul had a few 
 years before been proclaimed the protector 
 of the Order. On the 27th October, 1798, 
 a Chapter of such of the knights as were 
 in St. Petersburg was held, and the Em- 
 peror Paul I. was elected Grand Master. 
 This election was made valid, so far as its 
 irregularities would permit, by the abdica- 
 tion of Hompesch in July, 1799. 
 
410 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 At the death of Paul in 1801, his suc- 
 cessor on the throne, Alexander, appointed 
 Count Soltikoff as Lieutenant of the 
 Mastery, and directed him to convene a 
 Council at St. Petersburg to deliberate on 
 future action. This assembly adopted a 
 new statute for the election of the Grand 
 Master, which provided that each Grand 
 Priory should in a Provincial Chapter 
 nominate a candidate, and that out of the 
 persons so nominated the Pope should 
 make a selection. Accordingly, in 1802, the 
 Pope appointed John de Tommasi, who 
 was the last knight that bore the title of 
 Grand Master. 
 
 On the death of Tommasi, the Pope de- 
 clined to assume any longer the responsi- 
 bility of nominating a Grand Master, and 
 appointed the Bailiff Guevarr Luardo 
 simply as Lieutenant of the Mastery, a 
 title afterwards held by his successors Cen- 
 telles, Busca. De Candida and Collavedo. 
 In 1826 and 1827, the first steps were taken 
 for the revival of the English language, and 
 Sir Joshua Meredith, Bart., who had been 
 made a knight in 1798 by Hompesch, 
 being appointed Lieutenant Prior of Eng- 
 land, admitted many English gentlemen 
 into the Order. 
 
 But the real history of the Order of St. 
 John of Jerusalem ends with the disgrace- 
 ful capitulation of Malta in 1798. All 
 that has since remained of it; all that now 
 remains, — however imposing may be the 
 titles assumed, — is but the diluted shadow 
 of its former existence. 
 
 The organization of the Order in its 
 days of prosperity was very complicated, 
 partaking both of a monarchial and a re- 
 publican character. Over all presided a 
 Grand Master, who, although invested with 
 extensive powers, was still controlled by the 
 legislative action of the General Chapter. 
 
 The Order was divided into eight lan- 
 guages, over each of which presided one of 
 the Grand dignitaries with the title of Con- 
 ventual Bailiff. These dignitaries were the 
 Grand Commander, the Grand Marshal, the 
 Grand Hospitaller, the Grand Conservator, 
 the Grand Turcopolier, the Grand Bailiff, 
 and the Grand Chancellor. Each of these 
 dignitaries resided in the palace or inn at 
 Malta which was appropriated to his lan- 
 guage. In every province there were one 
 or more Grand Priories presided over by 
 Grand Priors, and beneath these were the 
 Commanderies, over each of which was a 
 Commander. There were scattered through 
 the different countries of Europe 22 Grand 
 Priories and 596 Commanderies. 
 
 Those who desired admission into the 
 Order as members of the first class, or 
 Knights of Justice, were required to pro- 
 duce proofs of noble descent. The cere- 
 
 monies of initiation were public and exceed- 
 ingly simple, consisting of little more than 
 the taking of the necessary vow. In this 
 the Hospitallers differed from the Templars, 
 whose formula of admission was veiled in 
 secrecy. Indeed, Porter (Hist., i. 203,) at- 
 tributes the escape of the former Order 
 from the accusations that were heaped upon 
 the latter, and which led to its dissolution, 
 to the fact that the Knights "abjured all 
 secrecy in their forms and ceremonies." 
 
 The Order was dissolved in England by 
 Henry VIII., and, although temporarily 
 restored by Mary, was finally abolished in 
 England. A decree of the Constituent 
 Assembly abolished it in France in 1792. 
 By a decree of Charles IV., of Spain, in 
 1802, the two languages of Aragon and 
 Castile became the Royal Spanish Order of 
 St. John, of which he declared himself the 
 Grand Master. 
 
 Now, only the languages of Germany and 
 Italy remain. The Order is, therefore, at 
 this day in a state of abeyance, if not of 
 disintegration, although it still maintains 
 its vitality, and the functions of Grand 
 Master are exercised by a Lieutenant of the 
 Magistery, who resides at Rome. Attempts 
 have also been made, from time to time, to 
 revive the Order in different places, some- 
 times with and sometimes without the legal 
 sanction of the recognized head of the Or- 
 der. For instance, there are now in Eng- 
 land two bodies, — one Catholic, under Sir 
 George Bowyer, and the other Protestant, 
 at the head of which is the Duke of Man- 
 chester; but each repudiates the other. 
 But the relic of the old and valiant Order 
 of Knights Hospitallers claims no connec- 
 tion with the branch of Masonry which 
 bears the title of Knights of Malta, and 
 hence the investigation of its present con- 
 dition is no part of the province of this 
 work. 
 
 Knight of Malta, Masonic. The 
 degree of Knight of Malta is conferred in 
 the United States as "an appendant Order" 
 in a Commandery of Knights Templars. 
 There is a ritual attached to the degree, but 
 very few are in possession of it, and it is 
 generally communicated alter the candidate 
 has been created a Knight Templar; the 
 ceremony consisting generally only in the 
 reading of the passage of Scripture pre- 
 scribed in the Monitors, and the communi- 
 cation of the modes of recognition. 
 
 How anything so anomalous in history 
 as the commingling in one body of Knights 
 Templars and Knights of Malta, and making 
 the same person a representative of both 
 Orders, first arose, it is now difficult to de- 
 termine. It was, most probably, a device 
 of Thomas S. Webb, and was, it may be 
 supposed, one of the results of a too great 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 411 
 
 fondness for the accumulation of degrees. 
 Mitchell, in his History of Freemasonry, 
 (ii. 83,) says: "The degree, so called, of 
 Malta, or St. John of Jerusalem, crept in, 
 we suppose, by means of a bungler, who, 
 not knowing enough of the ritual to confer 
 it properly, satisfied himself by simply 
 adding a few words in the ceremony of 
 dubbing ; and thus, by the addition of a few 
 signs and words but imperfectly understood, 
 constituted a Knight Templar also a Knight 
 of Malta, and so the matter stands to this 
 day." I am not generally inclined to place 
 much confidence in Mitchell as an historian ; 
 yet I cannot help thinking that in this in- 
 stance his guess is not very far from the 
 truth, although, as usual with him, there 
 is a tinge of exaggeration in his statement. 
 
 There is evidence that the degree was 
 introduced at a very early period into the 
 Masonry of this country. In the Constitu- 
 tion of the " United States Grand Encamp- 
 ment," adopted in 1805, one section enu- 
 merates " Encampments of Knights of 
 Malta, Knights Templars, and Councils of 
 Knights of the Red Cross." It will be 
 observed that the Knight of Malta precedes 
 the Knight Templar ; whereas, in the pres- 
 ent system, the former is made the ultimate 
 degree of the series. Yet, in this Consti- 
 tution, no further notice is taken of the 
 degree ; for while the fees for the Red Cross 
 and the Templar degrees are prescribed, 
 there is no reference to any to be paid for 
 that of Malta. In the revised Constitution 
 of 1816, the order of the series was changed 
 to Red Cross, Templar, and Malta, which 
 arrangement has ever since been main- 
 tained. The Knights of Malta are desig- 
 nated as one of the " Appendant Orders," 
 a title and a subordinate position which 
 the pride of the old Knights of Malta would 
 hardly have permitted them to accept. 
 
 In 1856, the Knights Templars of the 
 United States had become convinced that 
 the incorporation of the Order of Malta 
 with the Knights Templars, and making 
 the same person the possessor of both 
 Orders, was so absurd a violation of all his- 
 toric truth, that at the session of the Gen- 
 eral Grand Encampment in that year, at 
 Hartford, Connecticut, on the suggestion 
 of the author, the degree was unanimously 
 stricken from the Constitution ; but at the 
 session of 1862, in Columbus, Ohio, it was, 
 I think, without due consideration, restored, 
 and is now communicated in the Com- 
 manderies of Knights Templars. 
 
 There is no fact in history better known 
 than that there existed from their very 
 birth a rivalry between the two Orders of 
 the Temple and of St. John of Jerusalem, 
 which sometimes burst forth into open hos- 
 tility. Porter says, (Hist. K. of Malta, i. 
 
 107,) speaking of the dissensions of the two 
 Orders, " instead of confining their rivalry 
 to a friendly emulation, whilst combating 
 against their common foe, they appeared 
 more intent upon thwarting and frustrating 
 each other, than in opposing the Saracen." 
 
 To such an extent had the quarrels of the 
 two Orders proceeded, that Pope Alexan- 
 der III. found it necessary to interfere; and 
 in 1179 a hollow truce was signed by the 
 rival houses of the Temple and the Hospi- 
 tal ; the terms of which were, however, 
 never strictly observed by either side. On 
 the dissolution of the Templars so much 
 of their possessions as were not confiscated 
 to public use were given by the sovereigns 
 of Europe to the Knights of Malta, who 
 accepted the gift without compunction. 
 And there is a tradition that the surviving 
 Templars, indignant at the spoliation and 
 at the mercenary act of their old rivals in 
 willingly becoming a party to the robbery, 
 solemnly registered a vow never thereafter 
 to recognize them as friends. 
 
 The attempt at this day to make a mod- 
 ern Knight Templar accept initiation into 
 a hated and antagonistic Order is to dis- 
 play a lamentable ignorance of the facts of 
 history. 
 
 Another reason why the degree of 
 Knight of Malta should be rejected from 
 the Masonic system is that the ancient 
 Order never was a secret association. Its 
 rites of reception were open and public, 
 wholly unlike anything in Masonry. In 
 fact, historians have believed that the favor 
 shown to the Hospitallers, and the persecu- 
 tions waged against the Templars, are to be 
 attributed to the fact that the latter Order 
 had a secret system of initiation which did 
 not exist in the former. The ritual of re- 
 ception, the signs and words as modes of 
 recognition now practised in the modern 
 Masonic ceremonial, are all a mere inven- 
 tion of a very recent date. The old Knights 
 knew nothing of such a system. 
 
 A third, and perhaps the best, reason for 
 rejecting the Knights of Malta as a Masonic 
 degree is to be found in the fact that the 
 Order still exists, although in a somewhat 
 decayed condition ; and that its members, 
 claiming an uninterrupted descent from the 
 Knights who, with Hompesch, left the 
 island of Malta in 1797, and threw them- 
 selves under the protection of Paul of Rus- 
 sia, utterly disclaim any connection with 
 the Freemasons, and almost contemptu- 
 ously repudiate the so-called Masonic 
 branch of the Order. In 1858, a manifesto 
 was issued by the supreme authority of 
 the Order, dated from "the Magisterial 
 Palace of the Sacred Order" at Rome, 
 which, after stating that the Order, as it 
 then existed, consisted only of the Grand 
 
412 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 Priories in the Langues of Italy and Ger- 
 many, the knights in Prussia, who trace 
 descent from the Grand Bailiwick of Bran- 
 denburg, and a few other knights who had 
 been legally received by the Mastership 
 and Council, declares that : 
 
 " Beyond and out of the above-men- 
 tioned Langues and Priories, and except- 
 ing the knights created and constituted as 
 aforesaid, all those who may so call or enti- 
 tle themselves are legally ignored by our 
 Sacred Order." 
 
 There is no room there provided for the 
 so-called Masonic Knights of Malta. But 
 a writer in Notes and Queries, (3d Ser., iii. 
 413,) who professes to be in possession of 
 the degree, says, in reply to an inquiry, that 
 the Masonic degree " has nothing whatever 
 to do with the Knights Hospitallers of St. 
 John of Jerusalem." This is most un- 
 doubtedly true in reference to the American 
 degree. Neither in its form, its ritual, the 
 objects it professes, its tradition, nor its 
 historical relations, is it in the slightest de- 
 gree assimilated to the ancient Order of 
 Hospitallers, afterwards called Knights of 
 Rhodes, and, finally, Knights of Malta. 
 To claim, therefore, to be the modern repre- 
 sentatives of that Order, to wear its dress, 
 to adopt its insignia, to flaunt its banners, 
 and to leave the world to believe that the 
 one is but the uninterrupted continuation 
 of the other, are acts which must be regarded 
 as a very ridiculous assumption, if not actu- 
 ally entitled to a less courteous appellation. 
 
 For all these reasons, I think that it is 
 much to be regretted that the action of the 
 Grand Encampment in repudiating the de- 
 gree in 1856 was reversed in 1862. The 
 degree has no historical or traditional con- 
 nection with Masonry; holds no proper 
 place in a Commandery of Templars, and 
 ought to be wiped out of the catalogue of 
 Masonic degrees. 
 
 Knight of Masonry, Terrible. 
 ( Chevalier Terrible de la Maconnerie. ) A de- 
 gree contained in the collection of Le Page. 
 
 Knight of Palestine. [Chevalier 
 de la Palestine.) 1. The sixty-third degree 
 of the Rite of Mizraim. 2. The ninth de- 
 gree of the Reform of St. Martin. 3. One 
 of the series of degrees formerly given in 
 the Baldwyn Encampment of England, and 
 said to have been introduced into Bristol, in 
 1800, by some French refugees under the 
 authority of the Grand Orient of France. 
 
 Knight of Patmos. An apocalyptic 
 degree mentioned by Oliver in his Land- 
 marks. It refers, he says, to the banish- 
 ment of St. John. 
 
 Knight of Perfumes. ( Chevalier 
 des Parfums.) The eighth degree of the 
 Rite of the East (Rite d'Orient) according 
 to the nomenclature of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of Pure Truth. ( Chevalier 
 de la Pure Verity.) Thory mentions this as 
 a secret society instituted by the scholars 
 of the Jesuitical college at Tulle. It could 
 scarcely have been Masonic. 
 
 Knight of Purity and Light. 
 [Bitter der Klarheit und des Lichts.) The 
 seventh and last degree of the Rite of the 
 Clerks of Strict Observance, which see. 
 
 Knight of Rhodes. 1. One of the 
 titles given to the Knights Hospitallers in 
 consequence of their long residence on the 
 island of Rhodes. 2. A degree formerly 
 conferred in the Baldwyn Encampment at 
 Bristol, England. It seems in some way to 
 have been confounded with the Mediterra- 
 nean Pass. 
 
 Knight of Rose Croix. See Rose 
 Croix. 
 
 Knight of St. Andrew, Grand 
 Scottish. {Grand Ecossak de Saint An- 
 dre.) Sometimes called " Patriarch of the 
 Crusades." The twenty-ninth degree of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. Its 
 ritual is founded on a legend, first promul- 
 gated by the Chevalier Ramsay, to this 
 effect: that the Freemasons were originally 
 a society of knights founded in Palestine for 
 the purpose of building Christian churches; 
 that the Saracens, to prevent the execution 
 of this design, sent emissaries among them, 
 who disguised themselves as Christians, 
 and were continually throwing obstacles in 
 their way ; that on discovering the exist- 
 ence of these spies, the knights instituted 
 certain modes of recognition to serve as the 
 means of detection ; that they also adopted 
 symbolic ceremonies for the purpose of in- 
 structing the proselytes who had entered 
 the society in the forms and principles of 
 their new religion ; and finally, that the 
 Saracens, having become too powerful for 
 the knights any longer to contend with 
 them, they had accepted the invitation of 
 a king of England, and had removed into 
 his dominions, where they thenceforth de- 
 voted themselves to the cultivation of arch- 
 itecture and the fine arts. On this mythical 
 legend, which in reality was only an appli- 
 cation of Ramsay's theory of the origin of 
 Freemasonry, the Baron de Tschoudy is 
 said, about the middle of the last century, to 
 have formed this degree, which Ragon says 
 (Orthod. Macon., p. 138,) at his death, in 
 1769, he bequeathed in manuscript to the 
 Council of Emperors of the East and West. 
 On the subsequent extension of the twenty- 
 five degrees of the Rite of Perfection, in- 
 stituted by that body, to the thirty-three de- 
 grees of the Ancient and Accepted Rite, 
 this degree was adopted as the twenty-ninth, 
 and as an appropriate introduction to the 
 Knights of Kadosh, which it immediate- 
 ly precedes. Hence the jewel, a St. An- 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 413 
 
 drew's cross, is said, by Ragon, to be only 
 a concealed form of the Templar Cross. In 
 allusion to the time of its supposed inven- 
 tion, it has been called " Patriarch of the 
 Crusades." On account of the Masonic in- 
 struction which it contains, it also some- 
 times receives the title of " Grand Master 
 of Light." 
 
 The Lodge is decorated with red hang- 
 ings supported by white columns. There 
 are eighty-one lights, arranged as follows : 
 four in each corner before a St. Andrew's 
 cross, two before the altar, and sixty-three 
 arranged by nines in seven different parts 
 of the room. There are three officers, a 
 Venerable Grand Master and two Wardens. 
 The jewel is a St. Andrew's cross, appropri- 
 ately decorated, and suspended from a green 
 collar bordered with red. 
 
 In the ritual of the Southern Jurisdiction, 
 the leading idea of a communication be- 
 tween the Christian knights and the Sara- 
 cens has been preserved ; but the ceremonies 
 and the legend have been altered. The lesson 
 intended to be taught is toleration of religion. 
 
 This degree also constitutes the sixty- 
 third of the collection of the Metropolitan 
 Chapter of France; the fifth of the Rite 
 of Clerks of Strict Observance ; and the 
 twenty-first of the Rite of Mizraim. It is 
 also to be found in many other systems. 
 
 Knight of St. Andrew, Free. 
 ( Chevalier libre de Saint- Andre'. ) A degree 
 found in the collection of Pyron. 
 
 Knight of St. Andrew of the 
 Thistle. ( Chevalier Ecossais de S. Andre 
 du Chardon.) The seventy-fifth degree of 
 the collection of the Metropolitan Chapter 
 of France. 
 
 Knight of St. John of Jerusa- 
 lem. 1. The original title of the Knights 
 of Malta, and derived from the church and 
 monastery built at Jerusalem in 1048 by 
 the founders of the Order, and dedicated to 
 St. John the Baptist. See Knight of Malta. 
 
 2. A mystical degree divided into three 
 sections, which is found in the collection of 
 Lemanceau. 
 
 Knight of SI . John of Palestine. 
 {Chevalier de Sainte Jean de la Palestine.) 
 The forty-eighth degree of the Metropol- 
 itan Chapter of France. 
 
 Knight of the Altar. ( Chevalier 
 de I 'Autel.) The twelfth degree of the Rite 
 of the East according to the nomenclature 
 of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of the American Ea- 
 gle. An honorary degree invented many 
 years ago in Texas or some of the Western 
 States. It was founded on incidents of the 
 American Revolution, and gave an absurd 
 legion of Hiram Abif's boyhood. It is 
 now, I believe, obsolete. 
 
 Knight of the Anchor. ( Cheva- 
 
 lier de I'Ancre.) 1. An androgynous de- 
 gree. See Anchor, Order of. 2. The twenty- 
 first degree of the collection of the Metro- 
 politan Chapter of France. 
 
 Knight of the Ape and I, ion. 
 Gadicke says (Freimaurer-Lez.) that this 
 Order appeared about the year 1780, but 
 that its existence was only made known by 
 its extinction. It adopted the lion sleep- 
 ing with open eyes as a symbol of watch- 
 fulness, and the ape as a symbol of those 
 who imitate without due penetration. The 
 members boasted that they possessed all 
 the secrets of the Ancient Templars, on 
 which account they were persecuted by the 
 modern Order. The lion and ape, as sym- 
 bols of courage and address, are found in 
 one of the degrees described in the Franc- 
 Macons Ecrasses. 
 
 Knight of the Arch. ( Chevalier de 
 FArche.) A degree found in the nomen- 
 clature of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of the Argonauts. ( Cheva- 
 lier dea Argonautes.) The first point of 
 the sixth degree, or Knight of the Golden 
 Fleece of the Hermetic Rite of Montpellier. 
 
 Knight of the Banqueting 
 Tahle of the Seven Sages. ( Cheva- 
 lier de la Table du Banquet des Sept Sages.) 
 A degree in the Archives of the Mother 
 Lodge of the Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Knight of the Black Eagle. 
 ( Chevalier de VAigle noir.) 1. The seventy- 
 sixth degree of the collection of the Met- 
 ropolitan Chapter of France; called also 
 Grand Inquisitor, Grand Inspector, Grand 
 Elu or Elect, in the collection of Le 
 Rouge. 2. The thirty-eighth degree of the 
 Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Knight of the Brazen Serpent. 
 ( Chevalier du Serpent d'Airain.) The twen- 
 ty-fifth degree of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. The history of this degree 
 is founded upon the circumstances related 
 in Numbers, ch. xxi., ver. 6-9 : " And the 
 Lord sent fiery serpents among the people, 
 and they bit the people ; and much people 
 of Israel died. Therefore the people came 
 to Moses, and said, We have sinned; for 
 we have spoken against the Lord, and 
 against thee : pray unto the Lord that he 
 take away the serpents from us. And Moses 
 prayed for the people. And the Lord said 
 unto Moses, Make thee a fiery serpent, and 
 set it upon a pole: and it shall come to 
 pass, that every one that is bitten, when he 
 looketh upon it shall live. And Moses 
 made a serpent of brass, and put it upon a 
 pole ; and it came to pass, that if a serpent 
 had bitten any man, when he beheld the 
 serpent of brass, he lived." In the old 
 rituals the Lodge was called the Court of 
 Sinai ; the presiding officer was styled Most 
 Puissant Grand Master, and represented 
 
414 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 Moses ; while the two Wardens, or Minis- 
 ters, represented Aaron and Joshua. The 
 Orator was called Pontiff; the Secretary, 
 Grand Graver ; and the candidate, a Travel- 
 ler. In the modern ritual adopted in this 
 country, the Council represents the camp of 
 the Israelites. The first three officers repre- 
 sent Moses, Joshua, and Caleb, and are 
 respectively styled Most Puissant Leader, 
 Valiant Captain of the Host, and Illus- 
 trious Chief of the Ten Tribes. The Ora- 
 tor represents Eleazar; the Secretary, 
 Ithamar ; the Treasurer, Phinehas ; and the 
 candidate an intercessor for the people. 
 The jewel is a crux ansata, with a serpent 
 entwined around it. On the upright of the 
 cross is engraved TlSn, khalati, I have suf- 
 fered, and on the arms |ruPinJ, nakhushtan, 
 a serpent. The French ritualists would 
 have done better to have substituted for the 
 first word YlXttn, khatati, / have sinned ; 
 the original in Numbers being USttWl, 
 Kathanu, we have sinned. The apron is 
 white, lined with black, and symbolically 
 decorated. 
 
 There is an old legend which says that 
 this degree was founded in the time of the 
 Crusades, by John Ralph, who established 
 the Order in the Holy Land as a military 
 and monastic society, and gave it the name 
 of the Brazen Serpent, because it was a 
 part of their obligation to receive and gra- 
 tuitously nurse sick travellers, to protect 
 them against the attacks of the Saraoens, 
 and escort them safely to Palestine ; thus 
 alluding to the healing and saving virtues 
 of the Brazen Serpent among the Israelites 
 in the wilderness. 
 
 Knight of the Burning Bush. 
 (Chevalier du Buisson ardent.) A theo- 
 sophic degree of the collection of the 
 Mother Lodge of the Philosophic Scottish 
 Rite. 
 
 Knight of the Chanuca. ( Cheva- 
 lier de la Kanuka.) The sixty-ninth degree 
 of the Rite of Mizraim. The rDljIl, or 
 Chanuca, is the feast of the dedication cele- 
 brated by the Jews in commemoration of 
 the dedication of the Temple by Judas Mac- 
 cabseus after its pollution by the Syrians. 
 In the ritual of the degree, the Jewish light- 
 ing of seven lamps, one on each day, is imi- 
 tated, and therefore the ceremony of initia- 
 tion lasts for seven days. 
 
 Knight of the Christian Mark. 
 Called also Guard of the Conclave. A de- 
 gree formerly conferred in the United 
 States on Knights Templars in a body 
 called a Council of the Trinity. The legend 
 of the Order is that it was organized by 
 Pope Alexander for the defence of his per- 
 son, and that its members were selected 
 from the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 In the ceremonies there is a reference to 
 
 the tau cross or mark on the forehead, 
 spoken of by the prophet Ezekiel, and 
 hence the name of the degree. The motto 
 of the Order is, " Christus regnat, vincit, 
 triumphat. Rex regnantium, Dominus 
 dominantium." Christ reigns, conquers, 
 and triumphs. King of kings and Lord 
 of lords. 
 
 Knight of the Columns. (Cheva- 
 lier des Colonnes.) The seventh degree of 
 the Rite of the East according to the no- 
 menclature of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of the Comet. (Chevalier 
 de la Cornite.) A degree found in the col- 
 lection of Hecart. 
 
 Knight of the Cork. ( Chevalier du 
 Bouchon.) An androgynous secret society 
 established in Italy after the Papal bull 
 excommunicating the Freemasons, and in- 
 tended by its founders to take the place of 
 the Masonic institution. 
 
 Knight of the Courts. ( Chevalier 
 des Parvis.) The third degree of the Rite 
 of the East according to the nomenclature 
 of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of the Crown. ( Chevalier 
 de la Couronne.) A degree in the collec- 
 tion of Pyron. 
 
 Knight of the Door. ( Chevalier de 
 la Porte.) The fourth degree of the Rite 
 of the East according to the nomenclature 
 of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of the Dove. See Dove, 
 Knights of the. The Knights and Ladies 
 of the Dove ( Chevaliers et Chevalieres de la 
 Colombe) was an androgynous secret society 
 framed on the model of Freemasonry, and 
 instituted at Versailles in 1784. It had but 
 an ephemeral existence. 
 
 Knight of the Eagle. (Chevalier 
 de V Aigle. ) 1 . The first degree of the Chap- 
 ter of Clermont. 2. The third degree of 
 the Clerks of Strict Observance. 3. The 
 fifty-fifth degree of the collection of the 
 Metropolitan Chapter of France. 4. It 
 was also one of the degrees of the Chapter 
 of the Grand Lodge Royal York of Berlin. 
 5. The thirty-seventh degree of the Rite of 
 Mizraim. Thory says it was also one of 
 the appellations of the degree more com- 
 monly called Perfect Master in Architecture, 
 which is the fourteenth of the Primitive 
 Scottish Rite, and is found also in some 
 other systems. 
 
 Knight of the Eagle and Peli- 
 ean. One of the appellations of the degree 
 of Rose Croix, because the jewel has on 
 one side an eagle and on the other a peli- 
 can, both at the foot of the cross, in allu- 
 sion to the symbolism of the degree. See 
 Rose Croix. 
 
 Knight of the Eagle reversed. 
 (Chevalier de P Aigle renverse.) Thory re- 
 cords this as a degree to be found in the 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 415 
 
 Archives of the Scottish Lodge Saint Louis 
 des Amis Reunis at Calais. In heraldic 
 phrase, an eagle reversed is an eagle with 
 the wings drooping. 
 
 Knight of the East. {Chevalier 
 d' Orient.) This is a degree which has been 
 extensively diffused through the most im- 
 portant Rites, and it owes its popularity to 
 the fact that it commemorates in its legend 
 and its ceremonies the labors of the Masons 
 in the construction of the second Temple. 
 
 1. It is the fifteenth degree of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Scottish Rite, the de- 
 scription of which will apply with slight 
 modifications to the same degree in all the 
 other Rites. It is founded upon the history 
 of the assistance rendered by Cyrus to the 
 Jews, who permitted them to return to Jeru- 
 salem, and to commence the rebuilding of 
 the house of the Lord. Zerubbabel, there- 
 fore, as the Prince of the Jews, and Cyrus 
 the King of Persia, as his patron, are im- 
 portant personages in the drama of recep- 
 tion ; which is conducted with great impres- 
 siveness even in the old and somewhat im- 
 perfect ritual of the last century, but which 
 has been greatly improved, I think, in the 
 modern rituals adopted by the Supreme 
 Councils of the United States. 
 
 The cordon of a Knight of the East is a 
 broad green watered ribbon, worn as a 
 baldric from left to right. The sash or 
 girdle is of white watered silk, edged above, 
 and fringed below with gold. On it is em- 
 broidered a bridge, with the letters L. D. 
 P. on the arch, and also on other parts 
 of the girdle human heads, and mutilated 
 limbs, and crowns, and swords. The apron 
 is crimson, edged with green, a bleeding 
 head and two swords crossed on the flap, 
 and on the apron three triangles interlaced 
 formed of triangular links of chains. The 
 jewel is three triangles interlaced enclosing 
 two naked swords. 
 
 Scripture and the traditions of the Order 
 furnish us with many interesting facts in 
 relation to this degree. The Knights of 
 the East are said to derive their origin from 
 the captivity of the Israelites in Babylon. 
 After seventy-two years of servitude, they 
 were restored to liberty by Cyrus, King of 
 Persia, through the intercession of Zerub- 
 babel, a prince of the tribe of Judah, and 
 Nehemias, a holy man of a distinguished 
 family, and permitted to return to Jeru- 
 salem and rebuild the Temple. 
 
 2. It is the sixth degree of the French 
 Rite. It is substantially the same as the 
 preceding degree. 
 
 3. The sixth degree of the old system of 
 the Royal York Lodge of Berlin. 
 
 4. The fifteenth degree of the Chapter of 
 the Emperors of the East and West, and 
 this was most probably the original degree. 
 
 5. The fifty -second degree of the col- 
 lection of the Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. 
 
 6. The forty-first degree of the Rite of 
 Mizraim. 
 
 7. The sixth degree of the Rite of Phila- 
 lethes. 
 
 8. The eleventh degree of the Adonhi- 
 ramite Rite. 
 
 9. It is also substantially the tenth de- 
 gree, or Knight of the Red Cross of the 
 American Rite. Indeed, it is found in all 
 the Rites and systems which refer to the 
 second Temple. 
 
 Knight of the East and West. 
 (Chevalier d' Orient et d' Occident.) 1. The 
 seventeenth degree of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite. The oldest rituals 
 of the degree were very imperfect, and did 
 not connect it with Freemasonry. They 
 contained a legend that upon the return of 
 the knights from the Holy Land, in the 
 time of the Crusaders, they organized the 
 Order, and that in the year 1118 the first 
 knights, to the number of eleven, took their 
 vows between ffle hands of Garinus, patri- 
 arch. The allusion, here, is evidently to the 
 Knights Templars; and this legend would 
 most probably indicate that the degree 
 originated with the Templar system of 
 Ramsay. This theory is further strength- 
 ened by the other legend, that the Knights 
 of the East represented the Masons who 
 remained in the East after the building of 
 the first Temple, while the Knights of the 
 East and West represented those who trav- 
 elled West and disseminated the Order 
 over Europe, but who returned during the 
 Crusades and reunited with their ancient 
 brethren, whence we get the name. 
 
 The modern ritual as used in the United 
 States has been greatly enlarged. It still 
 retains the apocalyptic character of the de- 
 gree which always attached to it, as is evi- 
 dent from the old tracing-board, which is 
 the figure described in the first chapter of 
 the Revelation of St. John. The jewel is 
 a heptagon inscribed with symbols derived 
 from the Apocalypse, among which are the 
 lamb and the book with seven seals. The 
 apron is yellow, lined and edged with crim- 
 son. In the old ritual its device was a two- 
 edged sword. In the new one is a tetractys 
 of ten dots. This is the first of the philo- 
 sophical degrees of the Scottish Rite. 2. 
 The seventeenth degree of the Chapter of 
 Emperors of the East and West. 
 
 Knight of the Eastern Star. 
 (Chevalier de VEtoile d' Orient.) The fifty- 
 seventh degree of the collection of the Met- 
 ropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Knight of the East, Victorious. 
 (Chevalier victorieux de V Orient.) A de- 
 gree found in the collection of Hecart. 
 
416 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 Knight of the East, White. 
 
 {Chevalier of Orient.) The fortieth degree 
 of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Knight of the Election. ( Cheva- 
 lier du Choice.) The thirty-third degree of 
 the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Knight of the Election, Sub- 
 lime. (Chevalier sublime du Choix.) The 
 thirty-fourth degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Knight of the Golden Eagle. 
 (Chevalier de V Aigle (for.) A degree in 
 the collection of Pyron. 
 
 Knight of the Golden Fleece. 
 (Chevalier de la Toisson (Tor.) The sixth 
 degree of the Hermetic Rite or Montpellier. 
 
 Knight of the Golden Key. 
 (Chevalier de la Clef (For.) The third de- 
 gree of the Hermetic Rite of Montpellier. 
 
 Knight of the Golden Star. 
 (Chevalier de I'Etoile (Tor.) A degree con- 
 tained in the collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Knight of the Grand Arch. 
 (Chevalier de la Grande Arche.) A degree 
 which Thory says is contained in the Ar- 
 chives of the Lodge of Saint Louis des 
 Amis Reunis at Calais. 
 
 Knight of the Holy City, Be- 
 neficent. ( Chevalier bienfaisant de la Cite 
 Sainte.) The Order of Beneficent Knights 
 of the Holy City of Jerusalem was created, 
 according to Ragon, at Lyons, in France, in 
 1782, by the brethren of the Lodge of Chev- 
 aliers Bienfaisants. But Thory says it was 
 instituted at the Congress of Wllhelmsbad. 
 Both are perhaps right. It was probably 
 first invented at Lyons, at one time a pro- 
 lific field for the hautes grades, and after- 
 wards adopted at Wilhelmsbad, whence it 
 began to exercise a great influence over the 
 Lodges of Strict Observance. The Order 
 professed the Rite of Martinism ; but the 
 members attempted to convert Freemasonry 
 into Templarism, and transferred all the 
 symbols of the former to the latter system. 
 Thus, they interpreted the two pillars of the 
 porch and their names as alluding to Jaco- 
 bus Burgundus or James the Burgundian, 
 meaning James de Molay, the last Grand 
 Master of the Templars ; the three gates of 
 the Temple signified the three vows of the 
 Knights Templars, obedience, poverty, and 
 chastity ; and the sprig of acacia referred 
 to that which was planted over the ashes 
 of De Molay when they were transferred 
 to Heredom in Scotland. The Order and 
 the doctrine sprang from the Templar sys- 
 tem of Ramsay. The theory of its Jesuitic 
 origin can scarcely be admitted. 
 
 Knight of the Holy Sepnlchre. 
 1. As a Masonic degree, this was formerly 
 given in what were called Councils of the 
 Trinity, next after the Knight of the Chris- 
 tian Mark ; but it is no longer conferred in 
 this country, and may now be considered 
 
 as obsolete. The Masonic legend that it 
 was instituted by St. Helena, the mother 
 of Constantine, in 302, after she had visited 
 Jerusalem and discovered the cross, and 
 that, in 304, it was confirmed by Pope 
 Marcellinus, is altogether apocryphal. The 
 military Order of Knights of the Holy 
 Sepulchre still exists; and Mr. Curzon, in 
 his Visits to the Monasteries in the Ijevant, 
 states that the Order is still conferred in 
 Jerusalem, but only on Roman Catholics 
 of noble birth, by the Reverendissimo or 
 Superior of the Franciscans, and that the 
 accolade, or blow of knighthood, is bestowed 
 with the sword of Godfrey de Bouillon, 
 which is preserved, with his spurs, in the 
 sacristy of the Church of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre. Madame Pfeiffer, in her Travels in 
 the Holy Land, confirms this account. Dr. 
 Heyliu says that the Order was instituted 
 in 1099, when Jerusalem was regained from 
 the Saracens by Philip of France. Faryn, 
 in his Theatre d' Honneur, gives a different 
 account of the institution. He says that 
 while the Saracens possessed the city they 
 permitted certain canons regular of St. 
 Augustine to have the custody of the Holy 
 Sepulchre. Afterwards Baldwyn, King of 
 Jerusalem, made them Men-of-Arms and 
 Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, and or- 
 dained that they should continue to wear 
 their white habits, and on the breast his 
 own arms, which were a red cross potent 
 between four Jerusalem crosses. Their 
 rule was confirmed by Pope Innocent III. 
 The Grand Master was the Patriarch of 
 Jerusalem. They engaged to fight against 
 infidels, to protect pilgrims, to redeem 
 Christian captives, hear Mass every day, re- 
 cite the hours of the cross, and bear the five 
 red crosses in memory of our Saviour's 
 wounds. On the loss of the Holy Land, 
 they retired to Perugia, in Italy, where 
 they retained their white habit, but assumed 
 a double red cross. In 1484, they were in- 
 corporated with the Knights Hospitallers, 
 who were then at Rhodes, but in 1496, 
 Alexander VI. assumed, for himself and the 
 Popes his successors, the Grand Mastership, 
 ana empowered the Guardian of the Holy 
 Sepulchre to bestow Knighthood of the 
 Order upon pilgrims. Unsuccessful at- 
 tempts were made by Philip II., of Spain, 
 in 1558, and the Duke of Nevers, in 1625, 
 to restore the Order. It is now found only 
 in Jerusalem, where it is conferred, as has 
 been already said, by the Superior of the 
 Franciscans. 
 
 2. It is also the fiftieth degree of the 
 Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Knight of the Interior. ( Cheva- 
 lier de rinterieur.) The fifth degree of the 
 Rite of the East according to the nomen- 
 clature of Fustier. 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 417 
 
 Knight of the Kahhala. ( Cheva- 
 lier de la Cabate.) The eighth degree of 
 the collection of the Metropolitan Chapter 
 of France. 
 
 Knight of the Lilies of the Val- 
 ley. This was a degree conferred by the 
 Grand Orient of France as an appendage 
 to Templarism. The Knights Templars 
 who received it were constituted Knights 
 Commanders. 
 
 Knight of the Uoii. (Chevalier 
 du Lion.) The twentieth degree of the 
 Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Knight of the Mediterranean 
 Pass. An honorary degree that was 
 formerly conferred in Encampments of 
 Knights Templars, but is now disused. 
 Its meetings were called Councils; and its 
 ritual, which was very impressive, supplies 
 the tradition that it was founded about the 
 year 1367, in consequence of certain events 
 which occurred to the Knights of Malta. 
 In an excursion made by a party of these 
 knights in search of forage and provisions, 
 they were attacked while crossing the river 
 Offanto, (the ancient Aufidio,) by a large 
 body of Saracens, under the command of 
 the renowned Amurath I. The Saracens 
 had concealed themselves in ambush, and 
 when the knights were on the middle of 
 the bridge which spanned the river, they 
 were attacked by a sudden charge of their 
 enemies upon both extremities of the bridge. 
 A long and sanguinary contest ensued; the 
 knights fought with their usual valor, and 
 were at length victorious. The Saracens 
 were defeated with such immense slaugh- 
 ter, that fifteen hundred of their dead bod- 
 ies encumbered the bridge, and the river 
 was literally stained with their blood. In 
 commemoration of this event, and as a re- 
 ward for their valor, the victorious knights 
 had free permission to pass and repass in 
 all the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea 
 without danger of molestation, whence the 
 name of the degree is derived. As the lat- 
 ter part of this legend has not been veri- 
 fied by voyagers in the Mediterranean, the 
 degree has long been disused. I had a 
 ritual of it, which was in the handwriting 
 of Dr. Moses Holbrook, the Grand Com- 
 mander of the Southern Supreme Council 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 Knight of the Moon. A mock 
 Masonic society, established in the last 
 century in London. It ceased to exist in 
 the year 1810. 
 
 Knight of the Morning Star. 
 Called also, Knight of Hope. A degree 
 in the Archives of the Mother Lodge of 
 the Philosophical Rite, which is said to be a 
 modification of the Kadosh. 
 
 Knight of the \ i nth Arch. The 
 thirteenth degree of the Ancient and Ac- 
 
 3C 27 
 
 cepted Scottish Rite, called also the " Royal 
 Arch of Solomon," and sometimes the 
 " Royal Arch of Enoch." It is one of the 
 most interesting and impressive of what 
 are called the Ineffable degrees. Its legend 
 refers to Enoch and to the method by which, 
 notwithstanding the destructive influence 
 of the deluge and the lapse of time, he was 
 enabled to preserve important secrets to be 
 afterwards communicated to the Craft. Ac- 
 cording to the present ritual, its principal 
 officers are a Thrice Puissant Grand Master, 
 representing King Solomon, and two War- 
 dens, representing the King of Tyre and the 
 Inspector Adoniram. Bodies of this degree 
 are called Chapters. The color is black 
 strewed with tears. The jewel is a circular 
 medal of gold, around which is inscribed 
 the following letters: R. S. R. S. T. P. S. 
 R. I. A. Y. E. S., with the date Anno Eno- 
 chi 2995. On the reverse is a blazing tri- 
 angle with theTetragrammaton in the centre 
 in Samaritan letters. 
 
 This degree claims great importance in 
 the history of Masonic ritualism. It is 
 found, under various modifications, in al- 
 most all the Rites; and, indeed, without it, 
 or something like it, the symbolism of Free- 
 masonry cannot be considered as complete. 
 Indebted for its origin to the inventive 
 genius of the Chevalier Ramsay, it was 
 adopted by the Council of the Emperors of 
 the East and West, whence it passed into 
 the Ancient and Accepted Rite. Brought 
 by Ramsay into England, — where, however, 
 he failed to secure its adoption, — it subse- 
 quently gave rise to the Royal Arch of Der- 
 mott and that of Dunckerley. Though 
 entirely different in its legend from the 
 Royal Arch of the York and American 
 Rites, its symbolic design is the same, for 
 one common thought of a treasure lost and 
 found pervades them all. Vassal, who is 
 exceedingly flippant in much that he has 
 written of Ecossism, says of this degree, 
 that, "considered under its moral and reli- 
 gious aspects, it offers nothing either in- 
 structive or useful." It is evident that he 
 understood nothing of its true symbolism. 
 
 Knight of the Worth. ( Chevalier 
 du Nord.\ A degree in the Archives of the 
 Lodge or Saint Louis des Amis Reunis at 
 Calais. Thory mentions another degree 
 called Sublime Knight of the North, which 
 he says is the same as one in the collection 
 of Peuvret, which has the singular title of 
 Daybreak of the Rough Ashlar, Point du 
 Jour de la Pierre Brute. 
 
 Knight of the Phoenix. ( Cheva- 
 lier du Phenix.) The fourth degree of the 
 Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Knight of the Prussian Eagle. 
 ( Chevalier de VAigle Prussien. ) A degree in 
 the collection of Hecart. 
 
418 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 Knight of the Purificatory. 
 
 {Chevalier du Purifieatoire.) The sixteenth 
 degree of the Rite of the East according to 
 the nomenclature of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of the Pyramid. ( Cheva- 
 lier de la Pyramids. ) The seventh degree 
 of the Kabbalistic Rite. 
 
 Knight of the Rainbow. {Cheva- 
 lier de F Arc-en-ciel.) The sixty-eighth de- 
 gree of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Knight of the Red Cross. This 
 degree, whose legend dates it far anterior 
 to the Christian era, and in the reign of 
 Darius, has no analogy with the chivalric 
 orders of knighthood. It is purely Ma- 
 sonic, and intimately connected with the 
 Royal Arch degree, of which, in fact, it 
 ought rightly to be considered as an ap- 
 pendage. It is, however, now always con- 
 ferred in a Commandery of Knights Tem- 
 f>lars in this country, and is given as a pre- 
 iminary to reception in that degree. For- 
 merly, the degree was sometimes conferred 
 in an independent council, which Webb 
 (edit. 1812, p. 123,) defines to be " a coun- 
 cil that derives its authority immediately 
 from the Grand Encampment unconnected 
 with an Encampment of Knights Tem- 
 plars." The embassy of Zerubbabel and 
 tour other Jewish chiefs to the court of 
 Darius to obtain the protection of that 
 monarch from the encroachments of the 
 Samaritans, who interrupted the labors in 
 the reconstruction of the Temple, consti- 
 tutes the legend of the Red Cross degree. 
 The history of this embassy is found in the 
 eleventh book of the Antiquities of Jose- 
 phus, whence the Masonic ritualists have 
 undoubtedly taken it. The only authority 
 of Josephus is the apocryphal record of 
 Esdras, and the authenticity of the whole 
 transaction is doubted or denied by modern 
 historians. The legend is as follows : After 
 the death of Cyrus, the Jews, who had been 
 released by him from their captivity, and 
 permitted to return to Jerusalem, for the pur- 
 pose of rebuilding the Temple, found them- 
 selves obstructed in the undertaking by the 
 neighboring nations, and especially by the 
 Samaritans. Hereupon they sent an em- 
 bassy, at the head of which was their 
 •prince, Zerubbabel, to Darius, the successor 
 -of Cyrus, to crave his interposition and 
 protection. Zerubbabel, awaiting a favor- 
 able opportunity, succeeded not only in 
 obtaining his request, but also in renewing 
 the friendship which formerly existed be- 
 tween the king and himself. In commemo- 
 ration of these events, Darius is said to 
 have instituted a new order, and called it 
 the Knights of the East. They afterwards 
 assumed their present name from the red 
 cross borne in their banners. Webb, or 
 whoever else introduced it into the Ameri- 
 
 can Templar system, undoubtedly took it 
 from the sixteenth degree, or Prince of 
 Jerusalem of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite. It has, within a few years, been car- 
 ried into England, under the title of the 
 " Red Cross of Babylon." In New Bruns- 
 wick, it has been connected with Cryptic 
 Masonry. It is there as much out of place 
 as it is in a Commandery of Knights Tem- 
 plars. Its only true connection is with the 
 Royal Arch degree. 
 
 Knight of the Red Eagle. {Chev- 
 alier de UAigle rouge.) The thirty-ninth 
 degree of the Rite of Mizraim. The red 
 eagle forms a part of the arms of the House 
 of Brandenburg, and the Order of Knights 
 of the Red Eagle was instituted, in 1705, 
 by George William, hereditary Prince of 
 Bayreuth. In 1792, it was placed among 
 the Prussian orders. The Masonic degree 
 has no connection with the political order. 
 The Mizraimites appropriated all titles that 
 they fancied. 
 
 Knight of the Rose. {Chevalier de 
 la Rose.) The Order of the Knights and 
 Ladies of the Rose ( Chevaliers et Chevalieres 
 de la Pose) was an order of adoptive or 
 androgynous Masonry, invented in France 
 towards the close of the eighteenth century. 
 M. de Chaumont, the Masonic secretary 
 of the Due de Chartres, was its author. 
 The principal seat of the order was at 
 Paris. The hall of meeting was called the 
 Temple of Love. It was ornamented with 
 garlands of flowers, and hung round with 
 escutcheons on which were painted various 
 devices and emblems of gallantry. There 
 were two presiding officers, a male and fe- 
 male, who were styled the Hierophant and 
 the High Priestess. The former initiated 
 men, and the latter, women. In the initia- 
 tions, the Hierophant was assisted by a 
 conductor or deacon called Sentiment, and 
 the High Priestess by a conductress or dea- 
 coness called Discretion. The members 
 received the title of Knights and Nymphs. 
 The Knights wore a crown of myrtle, the 
 Nymphs, a crown of roses. The Hierophant 
 and High Priestess wore, in addition, a rose- 
 colored scarf, on which were embroidered 
 two doves within a wreath of myrtle. Dur- 
 ing the time of initiation, the hall was lit 
 with a single dull taper, but afterwards it 
 was brilliantly illuminated by numerous 
 wax candles. 
 
 When a candidate was to be initiated, he 
 or she was taken in charge, according to 
 the sex, by the conductor or conductress, 
 divested of all weapons, jewels, or money, 
 hoodwinked, loaded with chains, and in this 
 condition conducted to the door of the Tem- 
 ple of Love, where admission was demanded 
 by two knocks. Brother Sentiment then 
 introduced the candidate by order of the 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 419 
 
 Hierophant or High Priestess, and he or she 
 was asked his or her name, country, condi- 
 tion of life, and, lastly, what he or she was 
 seeking. To this the answer was, " Happi- 
 ness." 
 
 The next question proposed was, " What 
 is your age ? " The candidate, if a male, 
 replied, "The age to love;" if a female, 
 " The age to please and to be loved." 
 
 The candidates were then interrogated 
 concerning their private opinions and con- 
 duct in relation to matters of gallantry. 
 The chains were then taken from them, and 
 they were invested with garlands of flowers 
 which were called "the chains of love." 
 In this condition they were made to trav- 
 erse the apartment from one extremity to 
 another, and then back in a contrary direc- 
 tion, over a path inscribed with love-knots. 
 The following obligation was then adminis- 
 tered: 
 
 11 1 promise and swear by the Grand Mas- 
 ter of the Universe never to reveal the se- 
 crets of the Order of the Rose ; and should I 
 fail in this my vow, may the mysteries I 
 shall receive add nothing to my pleasures, 
 aud instead of the roses of happiness may 
 I find nothing but the thorns of repent- 
 ance." 
 
 The candidates were then conducted to 
 the mysterious groves in the neighborhood 
 of the Temple of Love, where the Knights 
 received a crown of myrtle, and the Nymphs 
 a simple rose. During this time a soft, 
 melodious march was played by the orches- 
 tra. After this, the candidates were con- 
 ducted to the altar of mystery, placed at the 
 foot of the Hierophant's throne, and there 
 incense was offered up to Venus and her 
 son. If it was a Knight who had been ini- 
 tiated, he now exchanged his crown of myr- 
 tle for the rose of the last initiated Nymph ; 
 and if a Nymph, she exchanged her rose 
 for the myrtle crown of Brother Sentiment. 
 The Hierophant now read a copy of verses 
 in honor of the god of Mystery, and the 
 bandage was at length taken from the eyes 
 of the candidate. Delicious music and 
 brilliant lights now added to the charms 
 of this enchanting scene, in the midst of 
 which the Hierophant communicated to the 
 candidate the modes of recognition pecu- 
 lier to the Order. 
 
 The Order had but a brief existence. 
 In 1784, F. B. von Grossing invented, in 
 Germany, an Order bearing a similar name, 
 but its duration was as ephemeral as that 
 of the French one. 
 
 Knight of the Rosy and Triple 
 Cross. (Chevalier de la Hose et Triple 
 Croix.) A degree in the Archives of the 
 Lodge of St. Louis des Amis Reunis at Calais. 
 
 Knight of the Rosy Cross. See 
 Rosy Cross. 
 
 Knight of the Round -Table. 
 
 (Chevalier de la Table ronde.) A degree in 
 the Archives of the Lodge of Saint Louis 
 des Amis Reunis at Calais. 
 
 Knight of the Kou n d -Table of 
 King Arthur. ( Chevalier de la Table 
 ronde du Roi Arthur.) 1. Thory says that 
 this is a degree of the Primitive Rite ; but 
 I can find no such degree in the nomencla- 
 ture of the Rite. 
 
 2. I have seen the manuscript of a de- 
 gree of this name written many years ago, 
 which was in the possession of Brother C.W. 
 Moore, of Boston. It was an honorary de- 
 gree, and referred, if I recollect aright, to 
 the poetic legend of King Arthur and his 
 knights. 
 
 Knight of the Royal Axe. (Cheva- 
 lier de la royale Uache. ) The twenty -second 
 degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite, called also Prince of Libanus, or 
 Lebanon. It was instituted to record the 
 memorable services rendered to Masonry 
 by the " mighty cedars of Lebanon." The 
 legend of the degree informs us that the 
 Sidonians were employed in cutting cedars 
 on Mount Libanus or Lebanon for the 
 construction of Noah's ark. Their descend- 
 ants subsequently cut cedars from the same 
 place for the ark of the covenant ; and the 
 descendants of these were again employed 
 in the same offices, and in the same place, 
 in obtaining materials for building Solo- 
 mon's Temple. Lastly, Zerubbabel em- 
 ployed them in cutting the cedars of Leb- 
 anon for the use of the second Temple. 
 This celebrated nation formed colleges on 
 Mount Lebanon, and in their labors always 
 adored the Great Architect of the Universe. 
 I have no doubt that this last sentence re- 
 fers to the Druses, that secret sect of Theists 
 who still reside upon Mount Lebanon and 
 in the adjacent parts of Syria and Pales- 
 tine, and whose mysterious ceremonies have 
 attracted so much of the curiosity of East- 
 ern travellers. 
 
 The apron of the Knights of the Royal 
 Axe is white, lined and bordered with pur- 
 ple. On it is painted a round-table, on 
 which are laid several architectural plans. 
 On the flap is a three-headed serpent. The 
 jewel is a golden axe, having on the han- 
 dle and blade the initials of several per- 
 sonages illustrious in the history of Ma- 
 sonry. The places of meeting in this degree 
 are called " Colleges." This degree is espe- 
 cially interesting to the Masonic scholar in 
 consequence of its evident reference to the 
 mystical association of the Druses, whose 
 connection with the Templars at the time 
 of the Crusades forms a yet to be investi- 
 gated episode in the history of Freema- 
 sonry. 
 
 Knight of the Saered Moun- 
 
420 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 tain. ( Chevalier de la Montague Sacre'e.) 
 A degree in the Archives of the Lodge of 
 Saint Louis des Amis Reunis at Calais. 
 
 Knight of the Sanctuary. 
 (Chevalier du Sanctuaire.) The eleventh 
 degree of the Bite of the East according 
 to the collection of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of the Sepulchre. The 
 sixth degree of the system of the Grand 
 Lodge Royal York at Berlin. 
 
 Knight of the South. (Chevalier 
 du Sud. ) The eighth degree of the Swedish 
 Rite, better known as the Favorite of St. 
 John. 
 
 Knight of the Star. ( Chevalier de 
 VEtoile.) A degree in the collection of 
 Pyron. 
 
 Knight of the Sun. ( Chevalier du 
 Soleil.) The twenty-eighth degree of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, called 
 also Prince of the Sun, Prince Adept, and 
 Key of Masonry, or Chaos Disentangled. 
 It is a Kabbalistic and Hermetic degree, and 
 its instructions and symbols are full of the 
 Kabbala and Alchemy. Thus, one of its 
 favorite words is Stibium, which, with the 
 Hermetic Philosophers, meant the primal 
 matter of all things. The principal officers 
 are Father Adam and Brother Truth, alle- 
 
 forizing in the old rituals the search of 
 Ian after Truth. The other officers are 
 named after the seven chief angels, and the 
 brethren are called Sylphs, or, in the Amer- 
 can ritual, Aralim or Heroes. The jewel is 
 a golden sun, having on its reverse a hem- 
 isphere with the six northern signs of the 
 zodiac. There is but one light in the 
 Lodge, which shines through a globe of 
 glass. 
 
 This degree is not confined to the Scot- 
 tish Rite, but is found sometimes with a 
 different name, but with the same Hermetic 
 design, more or less developed in other 
 Rites. Ragon, with whom Delauuay and 
 Chemin - Dupontes concur, says that it is 
 not, like many of the high degrees, a mere 
 modern invention, but that it is of the 
 highest antiquity ; and was, in fact, the last 
 degree of the ancient initiations teaching, 
 under an Hermetic appearance, the doc- 
 trines of natural religion, which formed an 
 essential part of the Mysteries. But Ra- 
 gon must here evidently refer to the gen- 
 eral, philosophic design rather than to the 
 particular organization of the degree. 
 Thory, with more plausibility, ascribes its 
 invention as a Masonic degree to Pernetty, 
 the founder of the Hermetic Rite. Of all 
 the high degrees, it is, perhaps, the most 
 important and the most interesting to the 
 scholar who desires to investigate the true 
 secret of the Order. Its old catechisms, 
 now unfortunately too much neglected, are 
 full of suggestive thoughts, and in its mod- 
 
 ern ritual, for which we are indebted to the 
 inventive genius of Brother Albert Pike, it 
 is by far the most learned and philosophi- 
 cal of the Scottish degrees. 
 
 Knight of the Sword. ( Chevalier 
 de VEpee.) One of the titles of the Scot- 
 tish Rite degree of Knight of the East. So 
 called in allusion to the legend that the 
 Masons at the second Temple worked with 
 the trowel in one hand and the sword in 
 the other. Du Cange, on the authority of 
 Arnoldus Lubeckius, describes an Order, in 
 the Middle Ages, of Knights of the Sword, 
 {Milites Oladii,) who, having vowed to wield 
 the sword for God's service, wore a sword 
 embroidered on their mantles as a sign of 
 their profession, whence they took their 
 name. But it was not connected with the 
 Masonic degree. 
 
 Knight of the Tahernacle. In 
 the Minute Book of the " Grand Lodge of 
 all England," extracts from which are 
 given by Bro. Hughan in his Unpublished 
 Records, we find the expression Knight of 
 the Tabernacle, used in the year 1780, as 
 synonymous with Knight Templar. 
 
 Knight of the Tahernacle of 
 the Divine Truths. (Chevalier du 
 Tabernacle des Verites divines.) A degree 
 cited in the nomenclature of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of the Temple. ( Chevalier 
 du Temple.) This degree is common to all 
 the systems of Masonry founded on the 
 Templar doctrine. 
 
 1. It is a synonym of Knight Templar. 
 
 2. The eighth degree of the Rite of the 
 Philalethes. 
 
 3. The sixty-ninth degree of the collec- 
 tion of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 4. The sixth degree of the Clerks of Strict 
 Observance. 
 
 5. The ninth degree of the Rite of the 
 East according to the nomenclature of 
 Fustier. 
 
 6. The thirty-sixth degree of the Rite of 
 Mizraim. 
 
 Knight of the Three Kings. An 
 American side degree of but little impor- 
 tance. Its history connects it with the dedi- 
 cation of the first Temple, the conferrer of 
 the degree representing King Solomon. Its 
 moral tendency appears to be the inculca- 
 tion of reconciliation of grievances among 
 Masons by friendly conference. It may be 
 conferred by any Master Mason on another. 
 
 Knight of the Throne. ( Chevalier 
 du Tr&ne.) The second degree of the Rite 
 of the East according to the nomenclature 
 of Fustier. 
 
 Knight of the Triple Cross. 
 (Chevalier de la Triple Croix.) The sixty- 
 sixth degree of the collection of the Metro- 
 politan Chapter of France. 
 
 Knight of the Triple Period. 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 421 
 
 {Chevalier de la Triple Periode.) A degree 
 in the Archives of the Lodge of Saint 
 Louis des Amis Eeunis at Calais. 
 
 Knight of the Triple Sword. 
 (Chevalier de la Triple Epee.) A degree in 
 the collection of Pyron. 
 
 Knight of the Two Crowned 
 Eagles. ( Chevalier des teux Aigles Cou- 
 ronnees.) The twenty -second degree of the 
 collection of the Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. 
 
 Knight of the West. ( Chevalier <P 
 Occident.) 1. The sixty-fourth degree of 
 the collection of the Metropolitan Chapter 
 of France. 2. The forty-seventh degree of 
 the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Knight of the White and Blaek 
 Eagle. ( Chevalier de PAigle blanc et noir.) 
 One of the titles of the thirtieth degree of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, or 
 Knight Kadosh. In the Rite of Perfection 
 of the Emperors of the East and West, it 
 constituted the twenty-fourth degree, under 
 the title of Knight Commander of the 
 White and Black Eagle. The white eagle 
 was the emblem of the eastern empire, and 
 the black of the western. Hence we have 
 the Knights of the White Eagle in Russia, 
 and the Knights of the Black Eagle in 
 Prussia, as orders of chivalry. The two 
 combined were, therefore, appropriately 
 (so far as the title is concerned) adopted 
 by the Council which assumed Masonic 
 jurisdiction over both empires. 
 
 Knight of the White Eagle. 
 The sixty-fourth degree of the Rite of 
 Mizraim. As a political order, that of the 
 Knights of the White Eagle were instituted 
 by Wladistas, King of Poland, in 1325. 
 It is still conferred by the Czar of Russia. 
 
 Knight of Unetion. ( Chevalier d' 
 Onction.) The fifty-first degree of the col- 
 lection of the Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. 
 
 Knight, Perfect. {Chevalier Par- 
 fait.) A degree of the Ancient Chapter of 
 Clermont, found in the Archives of the 
 Mother Lodge of the Philosophic Rite. 
 
 Knight, Professed. See Eques 
 Prqfexsus. 
 
 Knight, Prussian. See Noachite. 
 Also the thirty-fifth degree of the Rite of 
 Mizraim. 
 
 Knight Rower. ( Chevalier Rameur. ) 
 The Order of the Knights and Ladies 
 Rowers (Ordre des Chevaliers Rameurs et 
 Chevalieres Rameures) was an androgynous 
 and adoptive Rite, founded at the city of 
 Rouen, in France, in 1738, and was there- 
 fore one of the earliest instances of the 
 adoptive system. It met with very little 
 success. 
 
 Knight, Royal Tictorions. 
 [Chevalier royal Victorieux.) A degree 
 
 formerly conferred in the Chapter attached 
 to the Grand Orient of Bologne. 
 
 Knight, Sacrificing. ( Chevalier 
 Sacrifiant.) A degree found in the Archives 
 of the Lodge of Saint Louis des Amis 
 Reunis at Calais. 
 
 Knights of the East, Council of. 
 ( ConseU des Chevaliers d' Orient.) A Chap- 
 ter of High Degrees, under this name, was 
 established at Paris, on July 22, 1762, by 
 one Pirlet, a tailor, as the rival of the 
 Council of Emperors of the East and West. 
 Baron de Tschoudy became one of its 
 members. 
 
 Knight Templar. The piety or 
 the superstition of the age had induced 
 multitudes of pilgrims in the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries to visit Jerusalem for the 
 purpose of offering their devotions at the 
 sepulchre of the Lord and the other holy 
 places in that city. Many of these religious 
 wanderers were weak or aged, almost all 
 of them unarmed, and thousands of them 
 were subjected to insult, to pillage, and 
 often to death, inflicted by the hordes of 
 Arabs who, even after the capture of Jeru- 
 salem by the Christians, continued to in- 
 fest the sea-coast of Palestine and the roads 
 to the capital. 
 
 To protect the pious pilgrims thus ex- 
 posed to plunder and bodily outrage, nine 
 French knights, the followers of Baldwyn, 
 united, in the year 1118, in a military con- 
 fraternity or brotherhood in arms, and en- 
 tered into a solemn compact to aid each 
 other in clearing the roads, and in defend- 
 ing the pilgrims in their passage to the 
 holy city. 
 
 Two of these knights were Hugh de 
 Payens and Godfrey de St. Aldemar. Ray- 
 nouard (Les Templiers) says that the names 
 of the other seven have not been preserved 
 in history, but Wilke (Geschichte des T. If. 
 Ordens) gives them as Roral, Gundemar, 
 Godfrey Bisol, Payens de Montidier, Arch- 
 ibald de St. Aman, Andre de Montbar, and 
 the Count of Provence. 
 
 Uniting the monastic with the military 
 character, they took, in the presence of the 
 Patriarch of Jerusalem, the usual vows of 
 poverty, chastity, and obedience, and with 
 great humility assumed the title of "Poor 
 Fellow Soldiers of Christ." Baldwyn, the 
 King of Jerusalem, assigned for their resi- 
 dence a part of his palace which stood near 
 the former site at the Temple; and the 
 Abbot and Canons of the Temple gave 
 them, as a place in which to store their 
 arms and magazines, the street between the 
 palace and the Temple, whence they de- 
 rived the name of Templars ; # a title which 
 they ever afterwards retained. 
 
 Raynouard says that Baldwyn sent Hugh 
 de Payens to Europe to solicit a new cru- 
 
422 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 sade, and that while there he presented his 
 companions to Pope Honorius II., from 
 whom he craved permission to form a reli- 
 gious military order in imitation of that 
 of the Hospitallers. The pontiff referred 
 them to the ecclesiastical council which 
 was then in session at Troyes, in Cham- 
 pagne. Thither De Payens repaired, and 
 represented to the fathers the vocation of 
 himself and his companions as defenders 
 of the pilgrim ; the enterprise was approved, 
 and St. Bernard was directed to prescribe a 
 rule for the infant Order. 
 
 This rule, in which the knights of the 
 Order are called Pauperes commilitis Christi 
 et Templi Salomonis, or " The Poor Fellow 
 Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of 
 Solomon," is still extant. It consists of 
 seventy-two chapters, the details of which 
 are remarkable for their ascetic character. 
 It enjoined severe devotional exercises, self- 
 mortification, fasting, and prayer. It pre- 
 scribed for the professed knights white gar- 
 ments as a symbol of a pure life; esquires 
 and retainers were to be clothed in black. 
 To the white dress, Pope Eugenius II. sub- 
 sequently added a red cross, to be worn on 
 the left breast as a symbol of martyrdom. 
 
 Hugh de Payens, thus provided with a 
 rule that gave permanence to his Order,and 
 encouraged by the approval of the Church, 
 returned to Jerusalem, carrying with him 
 many recruits from among the noblest fam- 
 ilies of Europe. 
 
 The Templars soon became pre-eminently 
 distinguished as warriors of the cross. St. 
 Bernard, who visited them in their Tem- 
 ple retreat, speaks in the warmest terms of 
 their self-denial, their frugality, their mod- 
 esty, their piety, and their bravery. " Their 
 arms," he says, " are their only finery, and 
 they use them with courage, without dread- 
 ing either the number or the strength of 
 the barbarians. All their confidence is in 
 the Lord of Hosts, and in fighting for his 
 cause they seek a sure victory or a Chris- 
 tian and honorable death." 
 
 Their banner was the Beauseant, of di- 
 vided white and black, indicative of peace 
 to their friends, but destruction to their 
 foes. At their reception each Templar swore 
 never to turn his back on three enemies, but 
 should he be alone, to fight them if they 
 were infidels. It was their wont to say 
 that a Templar ought either to vanquish or 
 die, since he had nothing to give for his 
 ransom but his girdle and his knife. 
 
 The Order of the Temple, at first ex- 
 ceedingly simple in its organization, became 
 in a short time very complicated. In the 
 twelfth century it was divided into three 
 classes, which were Knights, Chaplains, 
 and Serving Brethren. 
 
 1. The Knight*. It was required that 
 
 whoever presented himself for admission 
 into the Order must prove that he was 
 sprung from a knightly family, and was 
 born in lawful wedlock; that he was free 
 from all previous obligations ; that he was 
 neither married nor betrothed ; that he had 
 not made any vows of reception in another 
 Order; that he was not involved in debt; 
 and finally, that he was of a sound and 
 healthy constitution of body. 
 
 2. The Chaplains. The Order of the 
 Temple, unlike that of the Hospitallers, 
 consisted at first only of laymen. But the 
 bull of Pope Alexander III., issued in 
 1162, gave the Templars permission to re- 
 ceive into their houses spiritual persons 
 who were not bound by previous vows, 
 the technical name of whom was chap- 
 lains. They were required to serve a novi- 
 tiate of a year. The reception was, except 
 in a few points not applicable to the clergy, 
 the same as that of the knights, and they 
 were required to take only the three vows 
 of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Their 
 duties were to perform all religious offices, 
 and to officiate at all the ceremonies of the 
 Order, such as the admission of members 
 at installations, etc. Their privileges were, 
 however, unimportant, and consisted prin- 
 cipally in sitting next to the Master, and 
 being first served at table. 
 
 3. The Serving Brethren. The only qual- 
 ification required of the serving brethren, 
 was, that they should be free born and not 
 slaves ; yet it is not to be supposed that all 
 the persons of this class were of mean con- 
 dition. Many men, not of noble birth, but 
 of wealth and high position, were found 
 among the serving brethren. They fought 
 in the field under the knights, and per- 
 formed at home the menial offices of the 
 household. At first there was but one class 
 of them, but afterwards they were divided 
 into two — the Brethren-at-Arms, and the 
 Handicraft Brethren. The former were the 
 soldiers of the Order. The latter, who were 
 the most esteemed, remained in the Precep- 
 tories, and exercised their various trades, 
 such as those of farriers, armorers, etc. 
 The reception of the serving brethren did 
 not differ, except in some necessary par- 
 ticulars, from that of the knights. They 
 were, however, by the accident of their 
 birth, precluded from promotion out of 
 their class. 
 
 Besides these three classes there was a 
 fourth, — not, however, living in the bosom 
 of the Order, — who were called Affiliati 
 or the Affiliated. These were persons of 
 various ranks and of both sexes, who were 
 recognized by the Order, though not openly 
 connected with it, as entitled to its pro- 
 tection, and admitted to a participation in 
 some of its privileges, such as protection 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 423 
 
 from the interdicts of the Church, which 
 did not apply to the members of the Order. 
 
 There was also a class called Donates or 
 Donate. These were either youths whom 
 their parents destined for the service of the 
 Order when they had attained the proper 
 age, or adults who had bound themselves to 
 aid and assist the Order so long as they 
 lived, solely from their admiration of it, 
 and a desire to share its honors. 
 
 Over these presided the Grand Master, 
 more usually styled, in the early days of 
 the Order, simply the Master of the Temple. 
 In the treaty of peace executed in 1178, 
 between the Templars and the Hospitallers, 
 Odo de St. Armand calls himself " Humble 
 Master of the Order of the Temple." But 
 in after times this spirit of humility was 
 lost sight of, and the title of Grand Master 
 was generally accorded to him. His allow- 
 ances were suitable to the distinguished 
 rank he held, for in the best days of the 
 Order the Grand Master was considered as 
 the equal of a sovereign. 
 
 The Grand Master resided originally at 
 Jerusalem ; afterwards, when that city was 
 lost, at Acre, and finally at Cyprus. His 
 duty always required him to be in the Holy 
 Land; he consequently never resided in 
 Europe. He was elected for life from 
 among the knights in the following man- 
 ner. On the death of the Grand Master, a 
 Grand Prior was chosen to administer the 
 affairs of the Order until a successor could 
 be elected. When the day which had been 
 appointed for the election arrived, the 
 Chapter usually assembled at the chief seat 
 of the Order ; three or more of the most 
 esteemed knights were then proposed; the 
 Grand Prior collected the votes, and he who 
 had received the greatest number was nom- 
 inated to be the electing Prior. An Assist- 
 ant was then associated with him, in the 
 person of another knight. These two re- 
 mained all night in the chapel, engaged in 
 prayer. In the morning, they chose two 
 others, and these four, two more, and so on 
 until the number of twelve (that of the 
 apostles) had been selected. The twelve 
 then selected a Chaplain. The thirteen 
 then proceeded to vote for a Grand Master, 
 who was elected by a majority of the votes. 
 When the election was completed, it was 
 announced to the assembled brethren ; and 
 when all had promised obedience, the Prior, 
 if the person was present, said to him, " In 
 the name of God the Father, the Son, and 
 the Holy Ghost, we have chosen, and do 
 choose thee, Brother N., to be our Master." 
 Then, turning to the brethren, he said, 
 "Beloved Sirs and Brethren, give thanks 
 unto God; behold here our Master." The 
 Chaplains then chanted the Te Deum; and 
 the brethren, taking their new Master in 
 
 their arms, carried him into the chapel 
 and placed him before the altar, where he 
 continued kneeling, while the brethren 
 prayed, and the Chaplains repeated the 
 Kyrie Eleison, the Pater JVoster, and other 
 devotional exercises. 
 
 Next in rank to the Grand Master was 
 the Seneschal, who was his representative 
 and lieutenant. Then came the Marshal, 
 who was the General of the Order. Next 
 was the Treasurer, an office that was always 
 united with that of Grand Preceptor of Jeru- 
 salem. He was the Admiral of the Order. 
 The Draper, the next officer in rank, had 
 charge of the clothing of the Order. He 
 was a kind of Commissary General. The 
 Turcopolier was the Commander of the 
 light-horse. There was also a class of offi- 
 cers called Visitors, whose duties, as their 
 name imports, was to visit the different 
 Provinces, and correct abuses. There were 
 also some subordinate offices appropriated 
 to the Serving Brethren, such as Sub-Mar- 
 shal, Standard- Bearer, Farrier, etc. 
 
 These officers, with the Grand Preceptors 
 of the Provinces and the most distinguished 
 knights who could attend, constituted the 
 General Chapter or great legislative assem- 
 bly of the Order, where all laws and regula- 
 tions were made and great officers elected. 
 This assembly was not often convened, and 
 in the intervals its powers were exercised 
 by the Chapter of Jerusalem. 
 
 The Order thus organized, as it increased 
 in prosperity and augmented its possessions 
 in the East and in Europe, was divided in- 
 to Provinces, each of which was governed 
 by a Grand Preceptor or Grand Prior ; for 
 the titles were indiscriminately used. That, 
 however, of Preceptor was peculiar to the 
 Templars, while that of Prior was common 
 both to them and to the Knights Hospital- 
 lers of St. John. These Provinces were 
 fifteen in number, and were as follows: 
 Jerusalem, Tripolis, Antioch, Cyprus, Por- 
 tugal, Castile and Leon, Aragon, France 
 and Auvergne, Normandy, Aquitaine, Pro- 
 vence, England, including Scotland and Ire- 
 laud ; Germany, Upper and Central Italy, 
 and Apulia and Sicily. Hence it will be 
 seen that there was no part of Europe, ex- 
 cept the impoverished kingdoms of Den- 
 mark, Sweden, and Norway, where the 
 Templars had not extended their posses- 
 sions and their influence. 
 
 In all the Provinces there were numerous 
 temple-houses called Preceptories, presided 
 over by a Preceptor. In each of the larger 
 Preceptories there was a Chapter, in which 
 local regulations were made and members 
 were received into the Order. 
 
 The reception of a knight into the Order 
 was a very solemn ceremonial. It was se- 
 cret, none but members of the Order being 
 
424 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 permitted to be present. In this it differed 
 from that of the Knights of Malta, whose 
 form of reception was open and public; and 
 it is to this difference, between a public re- 
 ception and a secret initiation, that may, 
 perhaps, be attributed a portion of the spirit 
 of persecution exhibited by the Church to 
 the Order in its latter days. 
 
 Of this reception, the best and most au- 
 thentic account is given by Mlinter in his 
 Statutenbuch des Ordens der Tempelherren, 
 (pp. 29-42,) and on that I shall principally 
 rely. 
 
 On the day of the reception, the Master 
 and the knights being in the Chapter, the 
 Master said : 
 
 " Beloved Knights and Brethren, ye see 
 that the majority are willing that this man 
 shall be received as a brother. If there be 
 among you any one who knows anything 
 concerning him, wherefor he cannot right- 
 fully become a brother, let him say so. 
 For it is better that this should be made 
 known beforehand than after he has been 
 brought before us." All being silent, the 
 candidate is conducted into an adjoining 
 chamber. Two or three of the oldest 
 knights are sent to him to warn him of the 
 difficulties and hardships that he will have 
 to encounter; or, as the Benedictine rule 
 says, all the hard and rough ways that lead 
 to God — " omnia dura et aspera, per quae 
 itur ad Deum." 
 
 They commenced by saying : " Brother, do 
 you seek the fellowship of the Order? " If 
 he replied affirmatively, they warned him 
 of the rigorous services which would be de- 
 manded of him. Should he reply that he 
 was willing to endure all for the sake of 
 God and to become the slave of the Order, 
 they further asked him if he were married 
 or betrothed ; if he had ever entered any 
 other Order ; if he owed more than he could 
 pay ; if he was of sound body ; and if he 
 was of free condition? If his replies were 
 satisfactory, his examiners returned to the 
 Chapter room and made report; whereupon 
 the Master again inquired if any one pres- 
 ent knew anything against the candidate. 
 All being silent, he asked : " Are you will- 
 ing that he should be received in God's 
 name;" and all the knights answered: 
 "Let him be received in God's name." His 
 examiners then returned to him and asked 
 him if he still persisted in his intention. 
 If he replied that he did, they gave him the 
 necessary instructions how he should act, 
 and led him to the door of the Chapter 
 room. There entering he cast himself on 
 his knees before the Master, with folded 
 hands, and said : " Sir, I am come before God, 
 before you and the brethren, and pray and 
 beseech you, for God and our dear Lady's 
 sake, to admit me into your fellowship and 
 
 to the good deeds of the Order, as one who 
 will for all his life long be the servant and 
 slave of the Order." 
 
 The Master replied: "Beloved Brother, 
 you are desirous of a great matter, for you 
 see nothing but the outward shell of our 
 Order. It is only the outward shell when 
 you see that we have fine horses and rich 
 caparisons, that we eat and drink well, and 
 are splendidly clothed. From this you 
 conclude that you will be well off" with us. 
 But you know not the rigorous maxims 
 which are in our interior. For it is a hard 
 matter for you, who are your own master, 
 to become the servant of another. You 
 will hardly be able to perform, in future, 
 what you wish yourself. For when you 
 wish to be on this side of the sea, you will 
 be sent to the other side; when you will 
 wish to be in Acre, you will be sent to the 
 district of Antioch, to Tripolis, or to Ar- 
 menia; or you will be sent to Apulia, to 
 Sicily, or to Lombardy, or to Burgundy, 
 France, England, or any other country 
 where we have houses and possessions. 
 When you will wish to sleep, you will be 
 ordered to watch ; when you will wish to 
 watch, then you will be ordered to go to 
 bed ; when you will wish to eat, then you 
 will be ordered to do something else. And 
 as both we and you might suffer great in- 
 convenience from what you have, mayhap, 
 concealed from us, look here on the holy 
 Evangelists and the word of God, and an- 
 swer the truth to the questions which we 
 shall put to you ; for if you lie, you will be 
 perjured, and may be expelled the Order, 
 from which God keep you ! " 
 
 The questions which had been before 
 asked him by his examiners were then re- 
 peated more at large, with the additional 
 one whether he had made any contract with 
 a Templar or any other person to secure his 
 admission. 
 
 His answers being satisfactory, the Mas- 
 ter proceeded : " Beloved Brother, take 
 good heed that you have spoken truth to 
 us, for should you in any one point have 
 spoken falsely, you would be put out of the 
 Order, from which God preserve you. Now, 
 beloved Brother, heed well what we shall 
 say to you. Do you promise God and Mary, 
 our dear Lady, that your life long you will 
 be obedient to the Master of the Temple 
 and the Prior who is set over you ? " 
 
 " Yes, Sir, God willing." 
 
 " Do you promise God and Mary, our 
 dear Lady, all your life long to Uve chaste 
 in your body ? " 
 
 "Yes, Sir, God willing." 
 
 "Do you promise God and Mary, our 
 dear Lady, your life long to observe the 
 laudable manners and customs of our Or- 
 der, those which now are and those which 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 425 
 
 the Master and knights may hereafter 
 ordain?" 
 
 " Yes, Sir, God willing." 
 
 "Do you promise God and Mary, our 
 dear Lady, that your life long you will, 
 with the power and strength that God gives 
 you, help to conquer the holy land of Jeru- 
 salem, and with your best power you will 
 help to keep and guard that which the 
 Christians possess?" 
 
 "Yes, Sir, God willing." 
 
 "Do you promise God and Mary, our 
 dear Lady, never to hold this Order for 
 stronger or weaker, for worse or for better, 
 but with the permission of the Master or 
 the convent which has the authority ?" 
 
 "Yes, Sir, God willing." 
 
 " Finally, do you promise God and Mary, 
 our dear Lady, that you will never be pres- 
 ent when a Christian shall be unjustly and 
 unlawfully despoiled of his heritage, and 
 that you will never by counsel or act take 
 part therein ? " 
 
 " Yes, Sir, God willing." 
 
 Then the Master said: "Thus, in the 
 name of God and Mary our dear Lady, 
 and in the name of St. Peter of Rome, and 
 our Father the Pope, and in the name of 
 all the Brethren of the Temple, we receive 
 you to all the good works of the Order 
 which have been done from the beginning, 
 and shall be done to the end, you, your 
 father, your mother, and all your lineage, 
 who you are willing shall have a share 
 therein. In like manner do you receive us 
 into all the good works which you have 
 done or shall do. We assure you bread 
 and water, and the poor clothing of the Or- 
 der, and toil and labor in abundance." 
 
 The Chaplain then read the 133d Psalm 
 and the prayer of the Holy Ghost, Deus 
 qui cordafidelium, and the brethren repeated 
 the Lord's prayer. The Prior and the 
 Chaplain gave the recipient the fraternal 
 kiss. He was then seated before the Mas- 
 ter, who delivered to him a discourse on 
 his duties and obligations as a member of 
 the Order. 
 
 These duties may be thus summed up. 
 He was never to assault a Christian, nor 
 swear, nor receive any attendance from a 
 woman without the permission of his su- 
 periors; not to kiss a woman, even his 
 mother or sister ; to hold no child to the 
 baptismal font ; and to abuse no man, but 
 to be courteous to all. He was to sleep in 
 a linen shirt, drawers and hose, and girded 
 with a small girdle ; to attend divine ser- 
 vice punctually, and to begin and end his 
 meals with a prayer. 
 
 Such is the formula of reception, which 
 has been collected by Miinter from the 
 most authentic sources. It is evident, how- 
 ever, that it is not complete. The secret 
 3D 
 
 parts of the ritual are omitted, so that the 
 formula is here something like what a 
 Freemason would call the monitorial part 
 of the instruction. Miinter does not even 
 give the form of the oath taken by the can- 
 didate; although Raynouard says that it is 
 preserved in the Archives of the Abbey of 
 Alcobaza, in Aragon, and gives it in the 
 following words, on the authority of Hen- 
 ri gu ez in his Regula, etc. , Ordinis Cisterniensis. 
 
 " I swear to consecrate my discourse, my 
 arms, my faculties, and my life, to the de- 
 fence of the sacred mysteries of the faith, 
 and to that of the unity of God. I also 
 promise to be submissive and obedient to 
 
 the Grand Master of the Order At 
 
 all times that it may be necessary, I will 
 cross the seas to go to battle ; I will con- 
 tribute succor against infidel kings and 
 princes ; I will not turn my back on three 
 foes ; and even if I be alone, I will fight 
 them if they are infidels." 
 
 The fact that the Templars had a secret 
 initiation is now generally conceded, al- 
 though a few writers have denied it. But 
 the circumstantial evidence in its favor is 
 too great to be overcome by anything ex- 
 cept positive proof to the contrary, which 
 has never been adduced. It is known that 
 at these receptions none but members of the 
 Order were admitted ; a prohibition which 
 would have been unnecessary if the cere- 
 monies had not been secret. In the meet- 
 ings of the General Chapter of the Order, 
 even the Pope's Legate was refused admis- 
 sion. 
 
 It would not be fair to quote the one 
 hundred and twenty accusations preferred 
 against the Templars by Clement, because 
 they were undoubtedly malicious falsehoods 
 invented by an unprincipled Pontiff pan- 
 dering to the cupidity of an avaricious 
 monarch ; but yet some of them are of such 
 a nature as to indicate what was the gen- 
 eral belief of men at the time. Thus, Art. 
 32 says : " Quod receptiones istius clandes- 
 tine faciebant ; " i. e. that they were wont to 
 have their receptions in secret. The 100th is 
 in these words : " Quod sic se includunt ad 
 tenenda capitula ut omnes januas domus et 
 ecclesise in quibus tenent capitula ferment 
 adeo firmiter quod nullus sit nee esse pos- 
 sit accessus ad eos nee juxta: ut possit 
 
 auicunque videre vel audire de factis vel 
 ictis eorum ; " i. e., that when they held 
 their Chapters, they shut all the doors of the 
 house or church in which they met so closely 
 that no one could approach near enough to 
 see or hear vjhat they were doing and saying. 
 And the next article is more particular, for 
 it states that, to secure themselves against 
 eavesdroppers,they were accustomed to place 
 a watch, as we should now say a tiler, upon 
 the roof of the house, " excubicum super 
 
426 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 tectum," who could give the necessary 
 warning. 
 
 Of course it is impossible to obtain an 
 accurate knowledge of all the details of this 
 secret reception of the ancient Templars, 
 since it must have been generally oral ; but 
 I have always been inclined to tbink, from 
 allusions here and there scattered through 
 the history of their customs, that many of 
 its features have descended to us, and are 
 to be found in the ritual of initiation prac- 
 tised by the Masonic Knights Templars. 
 
 The dress of the Templars was prescribed 
 for them by St. Bernard, in the rule which 
 he composed for the government of the 
 Order, and is thus described in chapter xx. 
 " To all the professed knights, both in 
 winter and summer, we give, if they can be 
 procured, white garments, that those who 
 have cast behind them a dark life, may 
 know that they are to commend themselves 
 to their Creator by a pure and white life." 
 The white mantle was 
 therefore the peculiar 
 vestment of the Tem- 
 plars, as the black was 
 of the Hospitallers. 
 Subsequently, for at 
 first they wore no 
 cross, Pope Euge- 
 ^ nius III. gave them a 
 red cross pattee as a 
 symbol of martyrdom, which they were di- 
 rected to wear on the left breast, just over 
 the heart. 
 
 The general direction of St. Bernard as 
 to clothing was afterwards expanded, so that 
 the dress of a Templar consisted of a long, 
 white tunic, nearly resembling that of a 
 priest's in shape, with a red cross on the 
 front and back ; under this was his linen 
 shirt clasped by a girdle. Over all was the 
 white mantle with the red cross pattee. 
 The head was covered by a cap or hood at- 
 tached to the mantle. The arms were a 
 sword, lance, mace, and shield. Although 
 at first the Order adopted as a seal the rep- 
 resentation of two knights riding on one 
 horse, as a mark of their poverty, subse- 
 quently each knight was provided with 
 three horses, and an esquire selected usu- 
 ally from the class of Serving Brethren. 
 
 To write the history of the Templar 
 Order for the two centuries of its existence 
 would, says Addison, be to write the Latin 
 history of Palestine, and would occupy a 
 volume. Its details would be accounts of 
 glorious struggles with the infidel in de- 
 fence of the holy land, and of Christian 
 pilgrimage, sometimes successful and often 
 disastrous; of arid sands well moistened 
 with the blood of Christian and Saracen 
 warriors ; of disreputable contests with its 
 rival of St. John ; of final forced departure 
 
 from the places which its prowess had 
 conquered, but which it had not strength 
 to hold, and of a few years of luxurious, 
 and it may be of licentious indolence, ter- 
 minated by a cruel martyrdom and dissolu- 
 tion. 
 
 The fall of Acre in 1292, under the vigor- 
 ous assault of the Sultan Mansour, led at 
 once to the evacuation of Palestine by the 
 Christians. The Knights Hospitallers of 
 St. John of Jerusalem, afterwards called 
 Knights of Rhodes, and then of Malta, be- 
 took themselves to Rhodes, where the 
 former, assuming a naval character, resumed 
 the warfare in their galleys against the 
 Mohammedans. The Templars, after a 
 brief stay in the island of Cyprus, retired 
 to their different Preceptories in Europe. 
 
 Porter {Hist. K. of Malta, i. 174,) has no 
 panegyric for these recreant knights. After 
 eulogizing the Hospitallers for the persever- 
 ing energy with which, from their island 
 home of Rhodes, they continued the war 
 with the infidels, he says : 
 
 " The Templar, on the other hand, after 
 a brief sojourn in Cyprus, instead of ren- 
 dering the smallest assistance to his chival- 
 rous and knightly brethren in their new 
 undertaking, hurried with unseemly haste 
 to his numerous wealthy European Pre- 
 ceptories, where the grossness of his licen- 
 tiousness, the height of his luxury, and 
 the arrogance of his pride, soon rendered 
 him an object of the most invincible hatred 
 among those who possessed ample power to 
 accomplish his overthrow. During these 
 last years of their existence little can be 
 said in defence of the Order; and although 
 the barbarous cruelty with which their ex- 
 tinction was accomplished has raised a 
 feeling of compassion in their behalf, 
 which bids fair to efface the memory of 
 their crimes, still it cannot be denied that 
 they had of late years so far deviated from 
 the original purposes of their Institution 
 as to render them highly unfit depositaries 
 of that wealth which had been bequeathed 
 to them for purposes so widely different 
 from those to which they had appropriated 
 it." 
 
 The act of cruelty and of injustice by 
 which the Templar Order was dissolved in 
 the fourteenth century, has bequeathed an 
 inglorious memory on the names of the in- 
 famous king, and no less infamous pope 
 who accomplished it. In the beginning of 
 the fourteenth century, the throne of France 
 was filled by Philip the Fair, an ambitious, 
 a vindictive, and an avaricious prince. In 
 his celebrated controversy with Pope Bon- 
 iface, the Templars had, as was usual with 
 them, sided with the pontiff and opposed 
 the king ; this act excited his hatred : the 
 Order was enormously wealthy ; this aroused 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 427 
 
 his avarice : their power interfered with his 
 designs of political aggrandizement; and this 
 alarmed his ambition. He, therefore, secretly 
 concerted with Pope Clement V. a plan for 
 their destruction, and the appropriation of 
 their revenues. Clement, by his direction, 
 wrote in June, 1306, to De Molay, the 
 Grand Master, who was then at Cyprus, in- 
 viting him to come and consult with him 
 on some matters of great importance to the 
 Order. De Molay obeyed the summons, 
 and arrived in the beginning of 1307 at 
 Paris, with sixty knights and a large 
 amount of treasure. He was immediately 
 imprisoned, and, on the thirteenth of Oc- 
 tober following, every knight in France 
 was, in consequence of the secret orders of 
 the king, arrested on the pretended charge 
 of idolatry, and other enormous crimes, of 
 which Squin de Flexian, a renegade and 
 expelled Prior of the Order, was said to 
 have confessed that the knights were guilty 
 in their secret Chapters. 
 
 What these charges were has not been 
 left to conjecture. Pope Clement sent a 
 list of the articles of accusation, amounting 
 to one hundred and twenty in number, to all 
 the archbishops, bishops, and Papal commis- 
 saries upon which to examine the knights 
 who should be brought before them. This 
 list is still in existence, and in it we find 
 such charges as these. 1. That they re- 
 quired those who were received into the 
 Order to abjure Christ, the Blessed Virgin, 
 and all the saints. 7. That they denied 
 that Christ had suffered for man's redemp- 
 tion. 9. That they made their recipient spit 
 upon the cross or the crucifix. 14. That 
 they worshipped a cat in their assemblies. 
 16. That they did not believe in the eucha- 
 ristic sacrifice. 20. That they said that the 
 Grand Master had the power of absolution. 
 26. That they practised obscene ceremonies 
 in their receptions. 32. That their recep- 
 tions were secret; a charge repeated in arti- 
 cles 97, 98, 99, 100, and 101, in different 
 forms. 42. That they had an idol, which 
 was a head with one or with three faces, and 
 sometimes a human skull. 52, 53. That 
 they exercised magic arts. 
 
 On such preposterous charges as these 
 the knights were tried, and of course, as a 
 foregone conclusion condemned. On the 
 12th of May, 1310, fifty-four of the knights 
 were publicly burnt, and on the 18th of 
 March, 1313, De Molay, the Grand Master, 
 and the three principal dignitaries of the 
 order, suffered the same fate. They died 
 faithfully asserting their innocence of all 
 the crimes imputed to them. The Order was 
 now, by the energy of the king of France, 
 assisted by the spiritual authority of the 
 pope, suppressed throughout Europe. So 
 much of its vast possessions as were not 
 
 appropriated by the different sovereigns to 
 their own use, or to that of their favorites, 
 was bestowed upon the Order of the Knights 
 of Malta, whose acceptance of the donation 
 did not tend to diminish the ill feeling which 
 had always existed between the members 
 of the two Orders. 
 
 As to the story of the continuation of the 
 Order, after the death of James de Molay, 
 by Johannes Larmenius, under the au- 
 thority of a charter of transmission given 
 to him by De Molay a few days before his 
 death, that subject is more appropriately 
 treated in the history of the Order of the 
 Temple, which claims, by virtue of this 
 charter, to be the regular successor of the 
 ancient Order. 
 
 From the establishment of the Order by 
 Hugh de Payens, until its dissolution 
 during the Mastership of De Molay, twenty- 
 two Grand Masters presided over the Order, 
 of whom the following is an accurate list, 
 compiled on the authority of Addison. The 
 roll of Grand Masters in the Rite of Strict 
 Observance, and that in the Order of the 
 Templar, differ in several names ; but these 
 rolls are destitute of authenticity. 
 
 1. Hugh de Payens, elected in 1118. 
 
 2. Robert of Burgundy, " 1136. 
 
 3. Everard de Barri, " 1146. 
 
 4. Bernard de Tremellay, " 1151. 
 
 5. Bertrand de Blanqueiort, " 1154. 
 
 6. Philip of Naplous, " 1167. 
 
 7. Odo de St. Amand, " 1170. 
 
 8. Arnold de Troye, " 1180. 
 
 9. Gerard de Ridefort, " 1185. 
 
 10. Brother Walter, " 1189. 
 
 11. Robert de Sable, " 1191. 
 
 12. Gilbert Horal, " 1195. 
 
 13. Philip de Plessis, " 1201. 
 
 14. William de Chartres, " 1217. 
 
 15. Peter de Montaigu, " 1218. 
 
 16. Hermann de Perigord, " 1236. 
 
 17. William de Sonnac, " 1245. 
 
 18. Reginald de Vichier, " 1252. 
 
 19. Thomas Berard, " 1256. 
 
 20. William de Beaujeu, " 1273. 
 
 21. Theobald de Gaudini, " 1291. 
 
 22. James de Molay, " 1297. 
 Knight Templar, Masonic. 
 
 The connection of the Knights Templars 
 with the Freemasons may much more 
 plausibly be traced than that of the Knights 
 of Malta. Yet, unfortunately, the sources 
 from which information is to be derived 
 are for the most part traditionary ; authen- 
 tic dates and documents are wanting. 
 Tradition has always been inclined to trace 
 the connection to an early period, and to 
 give to the Templar system of secret recep- 
 tion a Masonic character, derived from 
 their association during the Crusades with 
 the mystical Society of the Assassins in 
 Syria. Lawrie, {Hist., p. 87,) or Brewster, 
 
428 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 who is said by some to have written the 
 work which bears Lawrie's name, embodies 
 the tradition in this form : 
 
 " Almost all the secret associations of the 
 ancients either flourished or originated in 
 Syria and the adjacent countries. It was 
 here that the Dionysian artists, the Essenes 
 and the Kassideans, arose. From this 
 country also came several members of that 
 trading association of Masons which ap- 
 peared in Europe during the dark ages; 
 and we are assured, that, notwithstanding 
 the unfavorable condition of that province, 
 there exists at this day, on Mount Libanus, 
 one of these Syriac fraternities. As the 
 Order of the Templars, therefore, was 
 originally formed in Syria, and existed 
 there for a considerable time, it would be 
 no improbable supposition that they re- 
 ceived their Masonic knowledge from the 
 Lodges in that quarter. But we are fortu- 
 nately, in this case, not left to conjecture, 
 for we are expressly informed by a foreign 
 author [Adler, de Drusis], who was well 
 acquainted with the history and customs 
 of Syria, that the Knights Templars were 
 actually members of the Syriac fraterni- 
 ties." 
 
 Even if this hypothesis were true, al- 
 though it might probably suggest the origin 
 of the secret reception of the Templars, it 
 would not explain the connection of the 
 modern Templars with the Freemasons, 
 because there is no evidence that these 
 Syriac fraternities were Masonic. 
 
 There are four sources from which the 
 Masonic Templars are said to have derived 
 their existence ; making, therefore, as many 
 different divisions of the Order. 
 
 1. The Templars who claim John Mark 
 Larmenius as the successor of James de 
 Molay. 
 
 2. Those who recognize Peter d'Aumont 
 as the successor of Molay. 
 
 3. Those who derive their Templarism 
 from the Count Beaujeu, the nephew of 
 Molay. 
 
 4. Those who claim an independent 
 origin, and repudiate alike the authority 
 of Larmenius, of Aumont, and of Beaujeu. 
 
 From the first class spring the Templars 
 of France, who professed to have continued 
 the Order by authority of a charter given 
 by Molay to Larmenius. This body of 
 Templars designate themselves as the 
 "Order of the Temple." Its seat is in 
 Paris. The Duke of Sussex received from 
 it the degree and the authority to establish 
 a Grand Conclave in England. He did so ; 
 and convened that body once, but only 
 once. During the remaining years of his 
 life, Templarism had no activity in England, 
 as he discountenanced all Christian and 
 chivalric Masonry. See Temple, Order of the. 
 
 The second division of Templars is that 
 which is founded on the theory that Peter 
 d'Aumont fled with several knights into 
 Scotland, and there united with the Freema- 
 sons. This legend is intimately connected 
 with Ramsay's tradition — that Freemasonry 
 sprang from Templarism, and that all Free- 
 masons are Knights Templars. The Chap- 
 ter of Clermont adopted this theory; and 
 in establishing their high degrees asserted 
 that they were derived from these Tem- 
 plars of Scotland. The Baron Hund car- 
 ried the theory into Germany, and on it 
 established his Rite of Strict Observance, 
 which was a Templar system. Hence the 
 Templars of Germany must be classed un- 
 der the head of the followers of Aumont. 
 See Strict Observance. 
 
 The third division is that which asserts 
 that the Count Beaujeu, a nephew of the 
 last Grand Master, Molay, and a member 
 of the Order of Knights of Christ, — the 
 name assumed by the Templars of Portu- 
 
 §al, — had received authority from that 
 Irder to disseminate the degree. He 
 is said to have carried the degree and its 
 ritual into Sweden, where he incorporated 
 it with Freemasonry. The story is, too, 
 that Beaujeu collected his uncle's ashes and 
 interred them in Stockholm, where a 
 monument was erected to his memory. 
 Hence the Swedish Templar Masons claim 
 their descent from Beaujeu, and the Swed- 
 ish Rite is through this source a Templar 
 system. 
 
 Of the last class, or the Templars who 
 recognized the authority of neither of the 
 leaders who have been mentioned, there 
 were two subdivisions, the Scotch and the 
 English ; for it is only in Scotland and 
 England that this independent Templarism 
 found a foothold. 
 
 It was only in Scotland that the Tem- 
 plars endured no persecution. Long after 
 the dissolution of the Order in every other 
 country of Europe, the Scottish Preceptories 
 continued to exist, and the knights lived 
 undisturbed. One portion of the Scottish 
 Templars entered the army of Robert 
 Bruce, and, after the battle of Bannock- 
 burn, were merged in the " Royal Order 
 of Scotland," then established by him. See 
 Royal Order of Scotland. 
 Another portion of the Scottish Tem- 
 
 {>lars united with the Knights Hospital- 
 ers of St. John. They lived amicably in 
 the same houses, and continued to do so 
 until the Reformation. At this time many 
 of them embraced Protestantism. Some 
 of them united with the Freemasons, and 
 established " the Ancient Lodge " at Stir- 
 ling, where they conferred the degrees of 
 Knight of the Sepulchre, Knight of Malta, 
 and Knight Templar. It is to this division 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 429 
 
 that we are to trace the Masonic Templars 
 of Scotland. 
 
 The Roman Catholic knights remain- 
 ing in the Order, placed themselves under 
 David Seaton. Lord Dundee afterwards 
 became their Grand Master. Charles 
 Edward, the " Young Pretender," was ad- 
 mitted into the Order at Holyrood House, 
 Edinburgh, on September 24, 1745, and 
 made the Grand Master. He carried the 
 degree with him, of course, into France, 
 after the downfall of his enterprise, and 
 established the Chapter of Arras and the 
 high degrees. To this branch, I think, 
 there can be but little doubt that we are 
 to attribute the Templar system of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Scottish Rite as devel- 
 oped in its degree of Kadosh. 
 
 The English Masonic Templars are most 
 probably derived from that body called the 
 " Baldwyn Encampment," or from some 
 one of the four co-ordinate Encampments 
 of London, Bath, York, and Salisbury, 
 which it is claimed were formed by the 
 members of the Preceptory which had long 
 existed at Bristol, and who, on the dissolu- 
 tion of their Order, are supposed to have 
 united with the Masonic fraternity. The 
 Baldwyn Encampment claims to have ex- 
 isted from " time immemorial," — an in- 
 definite period, — but we can trace it back 
 far enough to give it a priority over all 
 other English Encampments. From this 
 division of the Templars, repudiating all 
 connection with Larmenius, with Aumont, 
 or any other of the self-constituted leaders, 
 but tracing its origin to the independent 
 action of knights who fled for security and 
 for perpetuity into the body of Masonry, 
 are we, I think, justly entitled to derive 
 the Templars of the United States. 
 
 Of this brief statement, we may make the 
 following summary : 
 
 1. From Larmenius came the French 
 Templars. 
 
 2. From Aumont, the German Templars 
 of Strict Observance. 
 
 3. From Beaujeu, the Swedish Templars 
 of the Rite of Zinnendorf. 
 
 4. From the Protestant Templars of 
 Scotland and the Ancient Lodge of Stir- 
 ling, the Scotch Templars. 
 
 5. From Prince Charles Edward and his 
 adherents, the Templars of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 6. From the Baldwyn Encampment and 
 its co-ordinates, the old English and the 
 American Templars. 
 
 The Government of Masonic Knights 
 Templars in the United States is vested, 
 first, in Commanderies, which confer the 
 Red Cross and Templar degrees and instruct 
 in the secrets of Malta. The usual expres- 
 sion, that a candidate after being made a 
 
 Knight Templar is also created a Knight 
 of Malta, involves an absurdity. No man 
 being a Knight Templar could, by the 
 original statutes, be a member of any other 
 Order; and it is to be regretted that the 
 wise provision of the Grand Encampment 
 in 1856, which struck the degree of Malta 
 from the ritual of the Commanderies, should 
 have been in 1862 unwisely repealed. The 
 secrets in which the candidate is instructed 
 are the modern inventions of the Masonic 
 Knights of Malta. The original Order had 
 no secrets. 
 
 Commanderies are under the control of 
 Grand Commanderies in States in which 
 those bodies exist. Where they do not, the 
 Warrants are derived directly from the 
 Grand Encampment. 
 
 The supreme authority of the Order is 
 exercised by the Grand Encampment of 
 the United States, which meets triennially. 
 The presiding officer is a Grand Master. 
 
 The Costume of the Knights Templars 
 of the United States is of two kinds. First, 
 the original uniform, which was in general 
 use until the year 1859, and is still used 
 by Commanderies which were in existence 
 before that time. It is thus described : 
 
 The suit is black, with black gloves. A 
 black velvet sash, trimmed with silver lace, 
 crosses the body from the left shoulder to 
 right hip, having at its end a cross-hilted 
 dagger, a black rose on the left shoulder, 
 and a Maltese cross at the end. Where the 
 sash crosses the left breast, is a nine-point- 
 ed star in silver, with a cross and serpent 
 of gold in the centre, within a circle, around 
 which are the words, " in hoc signo vinces," 
 The apron is of black velvet, in triangular 
 form, to represent the delta, and edged with 
 silver lace. On its flap is placed a triangle 
 of silver, perforated with twelve holes, with 
 a cross and serpent in the centre ; on the 
 centre of the apron are a skull and cross- 
 bones, between three stars of seven points, 
 having a red cross in the centre of each. 
 The belt is black, to which is attached a 
 cross-hilted sword. The caps vary in form 
 and decoration in different Encampments. 
 The standard is black, bearing a nine-point- 
 ed cross of silver, having in its centre a 
 circle of green, with the cross and serpent 
 in gold, and the motto around " in hoc signo 
 vinces" 
 
 In 1859 the Grand Encampment enacted 
 a statute providing that all Commanderies 
 which might be thereafter chartered should 
 provide a new costume of an entirely differ- 
 ent kind, which should also be adopted by 
 the old Commanderies whenever they should 
 change their uniform. This new costume 
 was further altered in 1862, and is now of 
 the following description, as detailed in the 
 statute : 
 
430 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 Full Dress. — Black frock coat, black 
 pantaloons, scarf, sword, belt, sboulder 
 straps, gauntlets, and chapeau, with appro- 
 priate trimmings. 
 
 Fatigue Dress. — Same as full dress, ex- 
 cept for chapeau a black cloth cap, navy- 
 form, with appropriate cross in front, and 
 for gauntlets, white gloves. 
 
 Scarf. — Five inches wide in the whole, 
 of white, bordered with black one inch on 
 either side, a strip of navy lace one-fourth 
 of an inch wide, at the inner edge of the 
 black. On the front centre of the scarf a 
 metal star of nine points, in allusion to the 
 nine founders of the Temple Order, inclo- 
 sing the Passion Cross, surrounded by the 
 Latin motto, "In hoc signo vinces;" the 
 star to be three and three-quarter inches in 
 diameter. The scarf to be worn from the 
 right shoulder to the left hip, with the ends 
 extending six inches below the point of 
 intersection. 
 
 Chapeau. — The military chapeau, trim- 
 med with black binding, one white and two 
 black plumes, and appropriate cross on the 
 left side. 
 
 Gauntlets. — Of buff leather, the flap to 
 extend four inches upwards from the wrist, 
 and to have the appropriate cross embroid- 
 ered in gold, on the proper colored velvet, 
 two inches in length. 
 
 Sword. — Thirty-four to forty inches, in- 
 clusive of scabbard ; helmet head, cross han- 
 dle, and metal scabbard. 
 
 Belt. — Red enamelled or patent leather, 
 two inches wide, fastened round the body 
 with buckle or clasp. 
 
 From what has been said, it will appear 
 that there are two modes of dress or costume 
 in use among the Templars of the United 
 States — one, the old or "black uniform," 
 which was adopted at the first organization 
 of the Order in this country, and which is 
 still used by the old Commanderies which 
 were in existence previous to the year 1859; 
 and the new or " black uniform," which was 
 adopted by the Grand Encampment in 
 that year, and which has been prescribed 
 for all Commanderies chartered since that 
 year. 
 
 This difference of costume has recently 
 been the occasion of much discussion in 
 the Order. In 1872, Sir J. Q. A. Fellows, 
 the Grand Master, thinking that it was his 
 duty to enforce a uniform dress in the 
 Order, issued his decree requiring all the 
 Commanderies in the United States which 
 were then using " the black uniform," to 
 abandon it, and to adopt "the white uni- 
 form," which had been originally ordered 
 in 1859, and subsequently amended in 1862. 
 Much opposition has been manifested to this 
 order in the Commanderies and Grand Com- 
 manderies where the black costume was in 
 
 use. The Grand Master's interpretation of 
 the statute of the Grand Encampment has 
 been doubted or denied, and the order has 
 been virtually disobeyed by most, if not by all 
 of them. Thequestion has assumed greatim- 
 portance in consequence of the feeling that 
 has been created, and is therefore worthy of 
 discussion. The author's views were against 
 the correctness of the Grand Master's inter- 
 pretation of the law, and so were those of 
 the living Past Grand Masters of the Order. 
 It is, however, but fair to say that some 
 distinguished Templars have been of a 
 different opinion. The following views ad- 
 vanced by me in the National Freemason in 
 December, 1872, express what I am com- 
 pelled to think is the true condition of the 
 question. 
 
 Previous to the year 1859 the costume of 
 the Knights Templars of this country was 
 determined only by a traditional rule, and 
 consisted of a black dress, with the richly 
 decorated baldric and apron ; the latter in- 
 tended to show the connection which ex- 
 isted between the Order and Ancient Craft 
 Masonry. 
 
 In 1856, at Hartford, a new Constitution 
 was proposed and adopted, with the excep- 
 tion of the part that referred to costume. 
 Sir Knight Mackey, from the committee on 
 the Constitution, made a report on the sub- 
 ject of dress, as a part of the Constitution ; 
 but the consideration of this report was 
 postponed until the next triennial meeting. 
 The changes in costume proposed by the 
 committee were not very great ; the baldric 
 and the essential apron were preserved, and 
 a white tunic, not hitherto used, was re- 
 commended. 
 
 At the session of 1859, at Chicago, the 
 subject of dress was alluded to by the 
 Grand Master in his address ; and his re- 
 marks, together with the report of the 
 committee made in 1856, were referred to a 
 special committee of seven, of which the 
 Grand Master was chairman, and Sir 
 Knights Doyle, Pike, Simons, Mackey, 
 Morris, and French were the members. 
 
 This committee reported a uniform which 
 made material differences in the dress there- 
 tofore worn, and especially by the rejection 
 of the apron and the introduction of a 
 white tunic and a white cloak. These last 
 were favorite notions of Grand Master 
 Hubbard, and they were, I think, adopted 
 by the committee mainly in deference to 
 his high authority. 
 
 The proposed measure met at first with 
 serious opposition, partly on account of the 
 rejection of the apron, which many Tem- 
 plars then held, as they do now, to be an 
 essential feature of Masonic Templarism, 
 and a tangible record of the union at a 
 specific period in history of the two Orders ; 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 431 
 
 but mainly, perhaps, on account of the 
 very heavy expense and inconvenience 
 which would devolve on the old Command- 
 eries, if they were required at once to throw 
 aside their old dress and provide a new 
 one. 
 
 I have a distinct recollection that this 
 opposition was only quelled by the agree- 
 ment on a compromise, by which the old 
 Commanderies were to be exempted from the 
 operation of the law. The regulations for 
 the new costume were then passed, and the 
 compromise immediately after adopted in 
 the words of the following resolution, which 
 was proposed by Sir Knight Doyle, who 
 was one of the committee : 
 
 "Resolved, That the costume this day 
 adopted by the Grand Encampment be, 
 and the same is hereby, ordered to be worn 
 by all Commanderies chartered at this 
 Communication, or that shall hereafter be 
 established in this jurisdiction, and by all 
 Commanderies heretofore existing, when- 
 ever they shall procure a new costume;" 
 and all State Grand Commanderies were 
 directed to enforce it in all subordinates 
 that may hereafter be chartered in their re- 
 spective jurisdictions. 
 
 I say that this was a compromise, noth- 
 ing more or less, and so understood at the 
 time. The old Commanderies were then in 
 the majority, and would not, I think, have 
 consented to any change involving so much 
 expenditure, unless they had been relieved 
 from the burden themselves. 
 
 But the white tunic and cloak were never 
 popular with the knights, who had been 
 required by the regulations of 1859 to wear 
 them. In consequence of this, at the ses- 
 sion in 1862, on motion of Sir Knight 
 Bailey, " the subject-matter of costume and 
 the resolution relating thereto were referred 
 to a Select Committee of Five." 
 
 This committee made a report, in which 
 they " proposed " a uniform. The record 
 says that " the report was agreed to, and 
 the uniform was adopted." But there are 
 some points in this report that are worthy 
 of notice. In the first place, not a word is 
 said about the compromise resolution adopt- 
 ed in 1859, although it was referred to the 
 committee. That resolution was not re- 
 pealed by any action taken at the session 
 of 1862, and still must remain in force. It 
 secured to the old Commanderies the right 
 to wear the old black costume; a right 
 which could not be taken from them, ex- 
 cept by a repeal of the resolution confer- 
 ring the right. I say nothing of the mani- 
 fest injustice of repealing a resolution 
 granted by the friends of a measure to its 
 opponents to remove their opposition. In 
 1859, the promise was made to the old 
 Commanderies, that if they would agree to 
 
 a certain uniform, to be prescribed for new 
 Commanderies, their own old, traditional 
 costume should never be interfered with. 
 Might could, it is true, repeal this com- 
 promise; but Right would, for that pur- 
 pose, have to be sacrificed. But the fact is, 
 that the sense of right in the Grand En- 
 campment prevented such an act of dis- 
 courtesy, " not to put too fine a point upon 
 it," and no one can find in the proceedings 
 of the Grand Encampment any act which 
 repeals the compromise resolution of 1859 ; 
 and this has been the opinion and the de- 
 cision of all the Grand Masters who have 
 wielded the baculus of office, except the 
 present one. 
 
 But, in the second place, the report of 
 1862 shows clearly that the object of the 
 committee was to recommend a change in 
 the uniform that had been adopted for new 
 Commanderies in 1859, and which had be- 
 come objectionable on account of the tunic 
 and cloak, and that they did not intend to 
 refer at all to the old dress of the old Com- 
 manderies. 
 
 In the report the committee say : " The 
 objections advanced to the costume adopted 
 at the last Triennial Conclave of this Grand 
 Body are want of adaptation to the require- 
 ments of our modern Templars, its liability 
 to injury, and its expensiveness." Now, 
 who advanced these objections? Clearly, 
 not the old Commanderies. They were 
 well satisfied with the mode of dress which 
 they had received from their fathers ; and 
 which was dear to them for its solemn 
 beauty and its traditional associations ; and 
 the right to wear which had been secured 
 to them in 1859, with the understanding 
 that if they ever desired, of their own ac- 
 cord, to lay it aside, they would then adopt, 
 in its stead, the regulation dress of the 
 Grand Encampment. But this was to be 
 for their own free action. 
 
 It was very evident that the old Com- 
 manderies had never complained that the 
 tunics and cloaks were from their material 
 expensive, and from their color liable to 
 injury. The old Commanderies did not 
 use these expensive and easily- soiled 
 garments. It was the new Commanderies 
 that had made the objection, and for them 
 the legislation of 1862 was undertaken. 
 
 I hold, therefore, that the compromise 
 resolution of 1859 still remains in force ; 
 that even if the Grand Encampment had 
 the right to repeal it, which I do not believe 
 it has, it never has enacted any such repeal ; 
 that the old Commanderies have the right 
 to wear the old black uniform, and that the 
 legislation of 1862 was intended only to 
 affect the new Commanderies which had 
 been established since the year 1859, when 
 the first dress regulation was adopted. 
 
432 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 It would scarcely be proper to close this 
 article on Masonic Templarism without 
 some reference to a philological controversy 
 which has recently arisen among the mem- 
 bers of the Order in the United States in 
 reference to the question whether the proper 
 title in the plural is " Knights Templars " or 
 " Knights Templar." This subject was first 
 brought to the attention of the Order by 
 the introduction, in the session of the Grand 
 Encampment in 1871, of the following reso- 
 lutions by Sir Knight Charles F. Stansbury, 
 of Washington city. 
 
 " Resolved, That the proper title of the 
 Templar Order is ' Knights Templars/ and 
 not ' Knights Templar,' as now commonly 
 used under the sanction of the example of 
 this Grand Encampment. 
 
 " Resolved, That the use of the term 
 'Knights Templar' is an innovation, in 
 violation of historic truth, literary usage, 
 and the philology and grammar of the 
 English language." 
 
 This report was referred to a committee, 
 who reported "that this Grand Encamp- 
 ment has no authority to determine ques- 
 tions of ' historic truth, literary usage, and 
 the philology and grammar of the English 
 language ; ' " and they asked to be dis- 
 charged from the further consideration of 
 the subject. This report is not very credit- 
 able to the committee, and puts a very low 
 estimate on the character of the Grand 
 Encampment. Certainly, it is the duty of 
 every body of men to inquire whether the 
 documents issued under their name are in 
 violation of these principles, and if so to 
 correct the error. If a private man habit- 
 ually writes bad English, it shows that he 
 is illiterate; and the committee should have 
 sought to preserve the Grand Encampment 
 from a similar charge. It should have in- 
 vestigated the subject, which to scholars is 
 of more importance than they seemed to 
 consider it; they should have defended the 
 Grand Encampment in the use of the term, 
 or have recommended its abandonment. 
 Moreover, the Grand Recorder reports that 
 on examination he finds that the title 
 Knights Templars was always used until 
 1856, when it was changed to Knights Tem- 
 plar; and the committee should have in- 
 quired by whose authority the change was 
 made. But having failed to grapple with 
 the question of good English, the Craft 
 afterwards took the subject up, and a long 
 discussion ensued in the different Masonic 
 journals, resulting at last in the expression, 
 by the best scholars of the Order, of the 
 opinion that Knights Templars was correct, 
 because it was in accordance with the rules 
 of good English, and in unexceptional 
 agreement with the usage of all literary 
 men who have written on the subject. 
 
 Brother Stansbury, in an article on this 
 question which he published in Mackey's 
 National Freemason, (i. 191,) has almost 
 exhausted the subject of authority and 
 grammatical usage. He says : " That it 
 is an innovation in violation of historic 
 truth is proved by reference to all histori- 
 cal authorities. I have made diligent re- 
 searches in the Congressional Library, and 
 have invoked the aid of all my friends who 
 were likely to be able to assist me in such 
 an investigation, and so far from finding 
 any conflict of authority on the question, 
 I have never been able to discover a single 
 historical authority in favor of any other 
 title than ' Knights Templars.' 
 
 " I refer to the following list of authorities : 
 Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia 
 Americana, Chambers' Encyclopedia, Lon- 
 don Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Metro- 
 politana, Penny Cyclopedia, Cottage Cyclo- 
 pedia, Bees' Cyclopedia, Wade's British 
 Chronology, Blair's Chronological Tables, 
 Chambers' Miscellany (Crusades), Cham- 
 bers' Book of Days, Addison's Knights 
 Templars, Pantalogia, Boutelle's Heraldry, 
 Hallam's Middle Ages, Lingard's History 
 of England; Glossographia Anglicana 
 Nova, 1707; Blackstone's Commentaries, 
 vol. i., p. 406 ; Appleton's Cyclopedia of 
 Biography, (Molai;) Townsend's Calendar 
 of Knights, London, 1828 ; Mosheim's Ec- 
 clesiastical History, (ed. 1832,) vol. ii., p. 
 481 ; Dugdale's Monasticon Anglicanum, 
 vol. vi., p. 813; Hayden's Dictionary of 
 Dates; Beeton's Dictionary of Universal 
 Information ; Burne's Sketch of the History 
 of the Knights Templars ; Laurie's History 
 of Freemasonry; Taffe's History of Knights 
 of Malta; London Freemasons' Magazine; 
 Sutherland's Achievements of Knights of 
 Malta; Clark's History of Knighthood; 
 Ashmole's History of the Order of the 
 Garter; Turner's England in the Middle 
 Ages; Brande's Encyclopedia; Tanner's 
 Notitia Monastica, 1744, pp. 307-310. 
 
 "These will, perhaps, suffice to show 
 what, in the opinion of historical authori- 
 ties, is the proper title of the Order. In 
 all of them, the term ' Knights Templars ' 
 is the only one employed. 
 
 " They might, perhaps, be sufficient also 
 on the question of literary usage ; but on 
 that point I refer, in addition, to the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 "London Quarterly Review, 1829, p. 608. 
 Article: 'History of the Knights Tem- 
 plars.' 
 
 "Edinburgh Review, October, 1806, p. 
 196. Review of M. Renouard's work, 
 ' Les Templiers.' 
 
 "Eclectic Review, 1842, p. 189. Review 
 of the ' History of the Knights Templars, 
 the Temple Church, and the Temple,' by 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 433 
 
 Chas. G-. Addison. The running title is 
 ' History of the Knights Templars.' 
 
 " Retrospective Review, 1821, vol. iv., p. 
 250. Review of the ' History of the 
 Templars,' by Nicholas Gaulterius, Am- 
 sterdam, 1703. The running title is ' His- 
 tory of the Knights Templars.' 
 
 " In Dr. Mackey's various Masonic works 
 both titles are occasionally used ; but that 
 fact is fully explained in the letter from 
 that distinguished Masonic authority, with 
 which I shall conclude this article." 
 
 On the philological and grammatical 
 question, I would observe that it mainly 
 turns on the inquiry whether the word 
 Templar is a noun or an adjective. I think 
 it may be safely asserted that every 
 dictionary of the English language in 
 which the word occurs, gives it as a noun, 
 and as a noun only. This is certainly the 
 fact as to Johnson's Dictionary, Webster's 
 Dictionary, Cole's Dictionary, Crabb's 
 Dictionary (Technological), Imperial Dic- 
 tionary, Craig's Dictionary (Universal), and 
 Worcester's Dictionary. 
 
 If, then, the word " Templar" is a noun, 
 we have in the combination — "Knights 
 Templar" — two nouns, referring to the 
 same person, one of which is in the plural, 
 and the other in the singular. The well- 
 known rule of apposition, which prevails 
 in all the languages with which I am ac- 
 quainted, requires nouns under these cir- 
 cumstances to agree in number and case. 
 This is, in fact, a principle of general 
 grammar, founded in common sense. The 
 combination " Knights Templar " is there- 
 fore false in grammar, if the word " Tem- 
 plar " is a noun. But some may say that 
 it is a noun used as an adjective — a quali- 
 fying noun — a very common usage in the 
 English tongue. If this were so, the com- 
 bination "Knights Templar" would still 
 be entirely out of harmony with the usage 
 of the language in regard to qualifying 
 nouns, the invariable practice being to 
 place the adjective noun before the noun 
 which it qualifies. A few familiar ex- 
 amples will show this. Take the following : 
 mansion house, bird cage, sea fog, dog days, 
 mouse trap, devil fish, ink stand, and beer 
 cask. In every case the generic word 
 follows the qualifying noun. 
 
 But if we even went to the length of admit- 
 ting the word " Templar " to be an adjective, 
 the combination " Knights Templar" would 
 still be contrary to the genius of the language, 
 which, except in rare cases, places the ad- 
 jective before the noun which it qualifies. 
 In poetry, and in some technical terms of 
 foreign origin, the opposite practice prevails. 
 
 The analogy of the usage, in reference to 
 the designations of other Orders of knight- 
 hood, is also against the use of " Knights 
 3E 28 
 
 Templar." We have Knights Commanders, 
 Knights Bachelors, Knights Bannerets, 
 Knights Baronets, and Knights Hospi- 
 tallers. 
 
 Against all this, the only thing that can be 
 pleaded is the present usage of the Grand 
 Encampment of the United States, and of 
 some Commanderies which have followed 
 in its wake. The propriety of this usage 
 is the very question at issue ; and it would 
 be curious reasoning, indeed, that would 
 cite the fact of the usage in proof of its 
 propriety. If the Templars of to-day are 
 the successors of De Molay and Hugh de 
 Payens, the preservation and restoration of 
 the correct title of the Order cannot be a 
 matter of indifference to them. 
 
 In reference to the varying use of the two 
 expressions in the author's Lexicon of Free- 
 masonry, I find, on reference to that work, 
 that in the first part I used the phrase 
 " Knights Templars," and that in the latter 
 part I made a change of the expression to 
 " Knights Templar." I am unable now to 
 say from memory what led me to make the 
 change ; but I suppose that I must have 
 used the first form in compliance with the 
 general usage of writers, and that I subse- 
 quently made the alteration in deference to 
 the action of the Grand Encampment of the 
 United States, which body about that time 
 adopted the expression "Knights Templar ;" 
 and I must have made this alteration with- 
 out any reference to the philological merits 
 of the question. 
 
 In coming to the consideration of the 
 question, it appears to me that it must be 
 examined in two ways, grammatically and 
 traditionally: in other words, we must in- 
 quire, first, which of these two expressions 
 better accords with the rules of English 
 grammar ; and, secondly, which of them 
 has the support and authority of the best 
 English writers. 
 
 1. If we examine the subject grammati- 
 cally, we shall find that its proper decision 
 depends simply on the question : Is " Tem- 
 plar " a noun or an adjective? If it is an 
 adjective, then "Knights Templar" is 
 correct, because adjectives in English have 
 no plural form. It would, however, be an 
 awkward and unusual phraseology, because 
 it is the almost invariable rule of the Eng- 
 lish language that the adjective should pre- 
 cede and not follow the substantive which 
 it qualifies. 
 
 But if " Templar " is a substantive or 
 noun, then, clearly, "Knights Templar" 
 is an ungrammatical phrase, because " Tem- 
 plar" would then be in apposition with 
 " Knights" and should be in the same regi- 
 men ; that is to say, two nouns coming to- 
 gether, and referring to the same person or 
 thing, being thus said to be in apposition. 
 
434 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 KONX 
 
 must agree in number and case. Thus we 
 say King George or Duke William, when 
 King and Oeorge, and Duke and William 
 are in apposition and in the singular ; but 
 speaking of Thackeray's " Four Georges," 
 and intending to designate who they were 
 by an explanatory noun in apposition, we 
 should put both nouns in the plural, and 
 say " the four Georges, Kings of England." 
 So when we wish to designate a simple 
 Knight, who is not only a Knight, but al- 
 so belongs to that branch of the Order 
 which is known as Templars, we should 
 call him a " Knight Templar ; " and if there 
 be two or more of these Templars, we 
 should call them " Knights Templars," 
 just as we say " Knight Hospitaller" and 
 " Knights Hospitallers." 
 
 Now there is abundant evidence, in the 
 best works on the subject, of the use of the 
 word "Templar" as a substantive, and 
 none of its use as an adjective. 
 
 It would be tedious to cite authorities, 
 but a reference to our best English writers 
 will show the constant employment of 
 "Templar" as a substantive only. The 
 analogy of the Latin and French languages 
 supports this view, for " Templarius " is a 
 noun in Latin, as " Templier " is in French. 
 
 2. As to traditional authority, the usage 
 of good writers, which is the "jus et norma 
 loquendi," is altogether in favor of" Knights 
 Templars" and not " Knights Templar." 
 
 In addition to the very numerous au- 
 thorities collected by Brother Stansbury 
 from the shelves of the Congressional Li- 
 brary, I have collated all the authorities in 
 my own library. 
 
 All the English and American writers, 
 Masonic and unmasonic, except some recent 
 American ones, use the plural of Templar 
 to designate more than one Knight. I have 
 in a few instances found "Knight Tem- 
 plars," but never "Knights Templar." 
 The very recent American use of this lat- 
 ter phrase is derived from the authority of 
 the present Constitution of the Grand En- 
 campment of the United States, and is 
 therefore the very point in controversy. 
 The former Constitution used the phrase 
 " Knights Templars." On the whole, I am 
 satisfied that the expression " Knights Tem- 
 plar" is a violation both of the grammat- 
 ical laws of our language and of the usage 
 iof our best writers on both sides of the At- 
 lantic, and it should therefore, I think, be 
 •^abandoned. 
 
 Knight, Victorious. ( Chevalier 
 Victorious.) A degree contained in the col- 
 lection of Hecart. 
 
 Knowledge. In the dualism of Ma- 
 sonry, knowledge is symbolized by light, as 
 ignorance is by darkness. To be initiated, 
 to receive light is to acquire knowledge; 
 
 and the cry of the neophyte for light is the 
 
 natural aspiration of the soul for knowledge. 
 
 Knowledge, Degrees of. See 
 
 Degrees of Knowledge. 
 
 Konx Ompax. There is hardly any- 
 thing that has been more puzzling to the 
 learned than the meaning and use of these 
 two apparently barbarous words. Bishop 
 Warburton says, (Div. Leg., I., ii. 4,) but 
 without giving his authority, that in the 
 celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries, 
 "the assembly was dismissed with these 
 two barbarous words, KOrS OMIIAS;" 
 and he thinks that this "shows the Mys- 
 teries not to have been originally Greek." 
 Le Clerc (Bib. Univ., vi. 86,) thinks that 
 the words seem to be only an incorrect pro- 
 nunciation of kots and omphets, which, he 
 says, signify in the Phoenician language, 
 "watch, and abstain from evil." Potter 
 also (Gr. Ant, 346,) says that the words 
 were used in the Eleusinian mysteries. 
 
 The words occur in none of the old 
 Greek lexicons, except that of Hesychius, 
 where it is thus defined : 
 
 " K<5yf ouirat;. An acclamation used by 
 those who have finished anything. It is 
 also the sound of the judge's ballots and 
 of the clepsydra. The Athenians used the 
 word blops." 
 
 The words were always deemed inexpli- 
 cable until 1797, when Captain Wilford 
 offered, in the Asiatic Researches, (vol. v., 
 p. 300,) the following explanation. He 
 there says that the real words are Candsha 
 OmPacsha; that they are pure Sanscrit ; 
 and are used to this day by the Brahmans 
 at the conclusion of their religious rites. 
 Candsha signifies the object of our most 
 ardent wishes. Om is the famous monosyl- 
 lable used both at the beginning and con- 
 clusion of a prayer or religious rite, like our 
 word Amen. Pacsha exactly answers to 
 the obsolete Latin word vix ; it signifies 
 change, course, stead, place, turn of work, 
 duty, fortune, etc., and is particularly used 
 in pouring water in honor of the gods. 
 
 Uwaroff (Ess. sur les Myst. cPKletis.) calls 
 this "the most important of modern dis- 
 coveries." Creuzer, Schelling, and Mlinter 
 also approve of it. 
 
 Not so with Lobeck,who, in his Aglaopha- 
 mus, (p. 775,) denies not only that such 
 words were used in the Eleusinian myste- 
 ries, but the very existence of the words 
 themselves. He says that in the title of 
 the article in Hesychius there is a mis- 
 print. Instead of «<5yf "o/uira^, it should be 
 /cdyf 6fi. n&%, where 6u is the usual abbrevi- 
 ation of 6/ioiug, like or similar to; so that 
 the true reading would be «oyf d/aoiug irai-, or 
 konx, like pax ; and he confirms this by re- 
 ferring to na!-, to which Hesychius gives the 
 same meaning as he does to «oyf. This is 
 
KORAN 
 
 KRAUSE 
 
 435 
 
 too simple for Godfrey Higgins, who calls 
 it (Anacal., i. 253,) " a pretended emenda- 
 tion." It is nevertheless very ingenious, 
 and is calculated to shake our belief that 
 these words were ever used in the Eleusin- 
 ian rites, notwithstanding the learned au- 
 thority of Meursius, Warburton, Lempriere, 
 Creuzer, UwarofF, and others. 
 
 Koran. The sacred book of the Mo- 
 hammedans, and believed by them to con- 
 tain a record of the revelations made by 
 God to Mohammed, and afterwards dic- 
 tated by him to an amanuensis, since the 
 prophet could neither read nor write. In 
 a Lodge consisting wholly of Mohamme- 
 dans, the Koran would be esteemed as the 
 Book of the Law, and take the place on the 
 altar which is occupied iu Christian Lodges 
 by the Bible. It would thus become the 
 symbol to them of the Tracing-Board of 
 the Divine Architect. But, unlike the Old 
 and New Testaments, the Koran has no 
 connection with, and gives no support to, 
 any of the Masonic legends or symbols, ex- 
 cept in those parts which were plagiarized 
 by the prophet from the Jewish and Chris- 
 tian Scriptures. Finch, however, in one of 
 his apocryphal works, produced a system 
 of Mohammedan Masonry, consisting of 
 twelve degrees, founded on the teachings 
 of the Koran, and the Hadeeses or tradi- 
 tions of the prophet. This system was a 
 pure invention of Finch. 
 
 Krause, Carl Christian Frie- 
 derich. One of the most learned and 
 laborious Masons of Germany, and one who 
 received the smallest reward and the largest 
 persecution for his learning and his labors. 
 The record of his life reflects but little 
 credit on his contemporaries who were 
 high in office, but it would seem low in in- 
 tellect. Findel calls them " the antiquated 
 German Masonic world." Dr. Krause 
 was born at Eisenberg, a small city of Al- 
 tenberg, May 6, 1781. He was educated at 
 Jena, where he enjoyed the instructions of 
 Keinhold, Fichte, and Schelling. While 
 making theology his chief study, he de- 
 voted his attention at the same time to 
 philosophy and mathematics. In 1801, he 
 obtained his degree as Doctor of Philos- 
 ophy, and established himself at the Uni- 
 versity of Jena as an extraordinary professor. 
 There he remained until 1805, marrying in 
 the meantime a lady of the name of Fuchs, 
 with whom he passed thirty years, leaving 
 as the fruit of his union eight sons and 
 five daughters. 
 
 In 1805, Krause removed to Dresden, and 
 remained there until 1813. In April, 1805, 
 he was initiated into Freemasonry in the 
 Lodge " Archimides." As soon as he had 
 been initiated, he commenced the study of 
 the Institution by the reading of every Ma- 
 
 sonic work that was accessible. It was at 
 this time that Krause adopted his peculiar 
 system of philosophy, which was founded 
 on the theory that the collective life of 
 man — that is to say, of humanity — was an 
 organic and harmonious unity; and he con- 
 ceived the scheme of a formal union of the 
 whole race of mankind into one confed- 
 eracy, embracing all partial unions of 
 church organizations, of State government, 
 and of private, social aggregations, into one 
 general confederation, which should labor, 
 irrespective of political, ecclesiastical, or 
 personal influences, for the universal and 
 uniform culture of mankind. Of such a 
 confederation he supposed that he could 
 see the germ in the Order of Freemasonry, 
 which, therefore, it was his object to ele- 
 vate to that position. 
 
 He first submitted these views in a series 
 of lectures delivered before the Lodge " Zu 
 den drei Schwertern" in Dresden, of 
 which he had been appointed the Orator. 
 They were . received with much approba- 
 tion, and were published in 1811 under the 
 title of the Spiritualization of the Genuine 
 Symbols of Freemasonry. In these lectures, 
 Krause has not confined himself to the re- 
 ceived rituals and accustomed interpreta- 
 tions, but has adopted a system of his own. 
 This is the course that was pursued by 
 him in his greater work, the Kunsturkun- 
 den ; and it was this which partly gave so 
 much offence to his Masonic, but not his 
 intellectual, superiors. In 1810, he pub- 
 lished, as the result of all his labors and re- 
 searches, his greatest work, the one on 
 which his reputation principally depends, 
 and which, notwithstanding its errors, is 
 perhaps one of the most learned works that 
 ever issued from the Masonic press. This 
 is Die drei altesten Kunsturkunden der Frei- 
 maurerbruderschaft, or " The Three Oldest 
 Professional Documents of the Brotherhood 
 of Freemasons." 
 
 The announcement that this work was 
 shortly to appear, produced the greatest ex- 
 citement in the Masonic circles of Germany. 
 The progressive members of the Craft 
 looked with anxious expectation for the 
 new discoveries which must result from the 
 investigations of an enlightened mind. 
 The antiquated and unprogressive Masons, 
 who were opposed to all discussion of what 
 they deemed esoteric subjects, dreaded the 
 effects of such a work on the exclusiveness 
 of the Order. Hence attempts were made 
 by these latter to suppress the publication. 
 So far were these efforts carried, that one 
 of the German Grand Lodges offered the 
 author a large amount of money for his 
 book, which proposal was of course re- 
 jected. After the publication, the Grand 
 Master of the three Grand Lodges sought 
 
436 
 
 KRAUSE 
 
 KUM 
 
 every means of excommunicating Krause 
 and Mossdorf, who had sustained him in 
 his views. After much angry discussion, 
 the Dresden Lodge, " Zu den drei Schwer- 
 tern," was prevailed upon to act as execu- 
 tioner of this ignorant spirit of fanaticism, 
 and Krause and Mossdorf, two of the 
 greatest lights that ever burst upon the 
 horizon of Masonic literature, were excom- 
 municated. Nor did the persecution here 
 cease. Krause experienced its effects 
 through all the remaining years of his life. 
 He was prevented on frequent occasions, by 
 the machinations of his Masonic enemies, 
 from advancement in his literary and pro- 
 fessional pursuits, and failed through their 
 influence to obtain professorships to which, 
 from his learning and services, he was 
 justly entitled. Findel has approvingly 
 
 Suoted Dr. Schauberg as calling this " the 
 arkest page in the history of German 
 Freemasonry." 
 
 In 1814, Krause removed to Berlin. In 
 1821 he travelled through Germany, Italy, 
 and France, and in 1823 established him- 
 self at Gbttingen, where he gave lectures on 
 philosophy until 1830. He then removed 
 to Munich, where he died September 27, 
 1832. Besides his contributions to Free- 
 masonry, Krause was an extensive writer 
 on philosophical subjects. His most im- 
 portant works are his Lectures on the System 
 of Philosophy, 1828, and his Lectures on the 
 Fundamental Truths of Science, 1829; both 
 published at Gbttingen. 
 
 His great work, however, to which he 
 owes his Masonic fame, is his Kunsturkun- 
 den. He commences this work by a decla- 
 ration of his design in writing it, which was 
 twofold : first, to enlighten the brotherhood 
 in reference to the three oldest documents 
 in possession of the Craft, by a philological 
 ana philosophical examination of these 
 records ; and secondly, and with a higher 
 purpose, to call their attention to a clear 
 perception of the fundamental idea of a 
 general union of mankind, to be accom- 
 plished by a reorganization of their own bro- 
 
 therhood. To the rituals of the present day 
 he objected as wanting in scientific formula, 
 and he thought that out of these old records 
 they might well construct a better and more 
 practical system. 
 
 But with all his learning, while his ideas 
 of reform, if properly carried out, would 
 undoubtedly advance and elevate the Ma- 
 sonic institution, he committed grave errors 
 in his estimation of the documents that he 
 has made the groundwork of his system. 
 
 The three documents which he has pre- 
 sented as the oldest and most authentic rec- 
 ords of the Fraternity are: 1. The well- 
 known Leland Manuscript, a document of 
 whose authenticity there are the gravest 
 doubts ; 2. The Entered Apprentice's Lecture, 
 a document published early in the eigh- 
 teenth century, to which, in his second edi- 
 tion, he has added what he calls the New 
 English Lecture; but it is now known that 
 Krause's Lecture is by no means the oldest 
 catechism extant ; and 3. The York Con- 
 stitution, which, claiming the date of 926, 
 has been recently suspected to be not older 
 than the early part of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Notwithstanding these assumptions of 
 authenticity for documents not really au- 
 thentic, the vast learning of the author is 
 worthy of all admiration. His pages are 
 filled with important facts and suggestive 
 thoughts that cannot fail to exert an influ- 
 ence on all Masonic investigations. Krause 
 cannot but be considered as one of the 
 founders of a new Masonic literature, not 
 for Germany alone, but for the whole world 
 of Masonic students. 
 
 Iviiiii. Kivi. These two words, pro- 
 nounced koom and keevy, are found as cere- 
 monial words in one of the high degrees. 
 They are from the Hebrew, and are inter- 
 preted as meaning arise / and kneel! They 
 are not significant words, having no sym- 
 bolic allusion, and seem to have been intro- 
 duced merely to mark the Jewish origin of 
 the degree in which they are employed. In 
 the modern rituals they are disused. 
 
LABARUM 
 
 LABORERS 
 
 437 
 
 L. 
 
 eeit. it 
 
 I^abanim. The monogram of the 
 name of Christ, formed by the first two let- 
 ters of that name, XPI2T0Z, in Greek. It 
 is the celebrated sign which the 
 legend says appeared in the sky at 
 noonday to the Emperor Constan- 
 tine, and which was afterwards 
 placed by him upon his standard. 
 Hence it is sometimes called the 
 Cross of Constantine. It was adopted as a 
 symbol by the early Christians, and frequent 
 instances of it are to be found in the cata- 
 combs. According to Eusebius, the Laba- 
 rum was surrounded by the motto EN TOYTQ 
 NIKA, or "conquer by this," which has 
 been Latinized into In hoc signo vinces, the 
 motto assumed by the Masonic Knights 
 Templars. The derivation of the word 
 Labarum is uncertain. See In hoc signo 
 vinces. 
 
 Labor. It is one of the most beautiful 
 features of the Masonic institution, that it 
 teaches not only the necessity, but the no- 
 bility of labor. From the time of opening 
 to that of closing, a Lodge is said to be at 
 labor. This is but one of the numerous in- 
 stances in which the terms of Operative 
 Masonry are symbolically applied to Spec- 
 ulative ; for, as the Operative Masons were 
 engaged in the building of material edifices, 
 so Free and Accepted Masons are supposed 
 to be employed in the erection of a super- 
 structure of virtue and morality upon the 
 foundation of the Masonic principles which 
 they were taught at their admission into the 
 Order. When the Lodge is engaged in read- 
 ing petitions, hearing reports, debating 
 financial matters, etc., it is said to be occu- 
 pied in business ; but when it is engaged in 
 the form and ceremony of initiation into 
 any of the degrees, it is said to be at work. 
 Initiation is Masonic labor. This phrase- 
 ology at once suggests the connection of our 
 speculative system with an operative art that 
 preceded it, and upon which it has been 
 founded. 
 
 " Labor," says Gadicke, " is an important 
 word in Masonry; indeed, we might say 
 the most important. For this, and this 
 alone, does a man become a Freemason. 
 Every other object is secondary or inciden- 
 tal. Labor is the accustomed design of 
 every Lodge meeting. But does such meet- 
 ings always furnish evidence of industry? 
 The labor of an Operative Mason will be 
 visible, and he will receive his reward for 
 it, even though the building he has con- 
 structed may, in the next hour, be over- 
 thrown by a tempest. He knows that he 
 has done his labor. And so must the Free- 
 mason labor. His labor must be visible to 
 
 himself and to his brethren, or, at least, it 
 must conduce to his own internal satisfac- 
 tion. As we build neither a visible Solo- 
 monic Temple nor an Egyptian pyramid, 
 our industry must become visible in works 
 that are imperishable, so that when we 
 vanish from the eyes of mortals it may be 
 said of us that our labor was well done." 
 As Masons, we labor in our Lodge to make 
 ourselves a perfect building, without blem- 
 ish, working hopefully for the consumma- 
 tion, when the house of our earthly taber- 
 nacle shall be finished, when the lost 
 WORD of divine truth shall at last be dis- 
 covered, and when we shall be found by 
 our own efforts at perfection to have done 
 God service. 
 
 I -a bora re est orare. To labor u to 
 pray ; or, in other words, labor is worship. 
 This was a saying of the Mediaeval monks, 
 which is well worth meditation. This doc- 
 trine, that labor is worship, has been ad- 
 vanced and maintained, from time im- 
 memorial, as a leading dogma of the Order 
 of Freemasonry. There is no other human 
 institution under the sun which has set 
 forth this great principle in such bold re- 
 lief. We hear constantly of Freemasonry 
 as an institution that inculcates morality, 
 that fosters the social feeling, that teaches 
 brotherly love ; and all this is well, because 
 it is true ; but we must never forget that 
 from its foundation-stone to its pinnacle, 
 all over its vast temple, is inscribed, in 
 symbols of living light, the great truth that 
 labor is worship. 
 
 I .a borers. Statutes of. Towards the 
 middle of the fourteenth century, a plague 
 of excessive virulence, known in history 
 as the Black Death, invaded Europe, and 
 swept off fully one-half of the inhabitants. 
 The death of so many workmen had the 
 effect of advancing the price of all kinds 
 of labor to double the former rate. In 
 England, the Parliament, in 1350, enacted 
 a statute, which was soon followed by 
 others, the object of which was to regulate 
 the rate of wages and the price of the neces- 
 saries of life. Against these enactments, 
 which were called the Statutes of Laborers, 
 the artisans of all kinds rebelled ; but the 
 most active opposition was found among 
 the Masons, whose organization, being 
 better regulated, was more effective. In 
 1360, statutes were passed forbidding their 
 " congregations, chapters, regulations, and 
 oaths," which were from time to time re- 
 peated, until the third year of the reign of 
 Henry VI., A. D. 1425, when the celebrated 
 statute entitled " Masons shall not confed- 
 erate themselves in chapters and congre- 
 
438 
 
 LABORERS 
 
 LADDER 
 
 gations," was enacted in the following 
 words : 
 
 " Whereas, by yearly congregations and 
 confederacies, made by the Masons in their 
 General Assemblies, the good course and 
 effect of the Statutes for Laborers be openly 
 violated and broken, in subversion of the 
 law, and to the great damage of all the 
 Commons, our said sovereign lord the 
 king, willing in this case to provide a 
 remedy, by the advice and assent aforesaid, 
 and at the special request of the Commons, 
 hath ordained and established that such 
 chapters and congregations shall not be 
 hereafter holden ; and if any such be made, 
 they that cause such chapters and congre- 
 gations to be assembled and holden, if they 
 thereof be convict, shall be judged for 
 felons, and that the other Masons that 
 come to such chapters and congregations 
 be punished by imprisonment of their 
 bodies, and make fine and ransom at the 
 king's will." 
 
 Findel (Hist., p. 94,) thus explains the 
 causes which led to the enactment of this 
 law. Henry VI. being then but four years 
 old, Gloucester and the Bishop of Winches- 
 ter were both contending for the possession 
 of the government; the former was a great 
 patron and encourager of the Masons, who 
 naturally, therefore, took part with him in 
 the political contest, and opposed, with 
 actual violence, the entrance of the Bishop 
 into the city of London. On the arrival of 
 the Duke of Bedford, who was the Regent 
 of France, and to whom the dispute had 
 been referred, a Parliament was convened, 
 and which, for the reason already assigned, 
 (see Bat Parliament,) has been known in 
 history as the "Bat Parliament." The 
 Bishop, not forgetting the assistance given 
 by the Masons to his opponent, succeeded 
 in obtaining the passage of this law, 
 which was to restrain the meetings of his 
 old enemies. But the influence of the 
 Duke of Gloucester prevented its enforce- 
 ment during the king's minority ; and An- 
 derson tells us that the king, when he ar- 
 rived to man's estate, became the encourager 
 and patron of the Masons. So that, accord- 
 ing to the same authority, the law has 
 always existed as a deaa letter on the 
 statute-book, and the Freemasons have 
 never considered it worth while to use their 
 influence for its repeal. 
 
 All the Statutes of Laborers were repealed 
 in the fifth year of Elizabeth ; and Lord 
 Coke gave the opinion that this act of 
 Henry VI. became, in consequence, " of no 
 force or effect ; " a decision which led An- 
 derson, very absurdly, to suppose that 
 " this most learned judge really belonged 
 to the ancient Lodge, and was a faithful 
 brother ; " as if it required a judge to be a 
 
 Mason to give a just judgment concerning 
 the interests of Masonry. 
 
 Lacorne. The Count of Clermont, 
 who was Grand Master of France, having 
 abandoned all care of the French Lodges, 
 left them to the direction of his Deputies. 
 In 1761, he appointed one Lacorne, a danc- 
 ing-master, his Deputy; but the Grand 
 Lodge, indignant at the appointment, re- 
 fused to sanction it or to recognize Lacorne 
 as a presiding officer. He accordingly con- 
 stituted another Grand Lodge, and was sup- 
 ported by adherents of his own character, 
 who were designated by the more respecta- 
 ble Masons as the " Lacorne faction." In 
 1762, the Count of Clermont, influenced by 
 the representations that were made to him, 
 revoked the commission of Lacorne, and 
 appointed M. Chailous de Joinville his Sub- 
 stitute General. In consequence of this, 
 the two rival Grand Lodges became recon- 
 ciled, and a union was effected on the 24th 
 of June, 1762. But the reconciliation did 
 not prove altogether satisfactory. In 1765, 
 at the annual election, neither Lacorne nor 
 any of his associates were chosen to office. 
 They became disgusted, and, retiring from 
 the Grand Lodge, issued a scandalous pro- 
 test, for which they were expelled ; and sub- 
 sequently they organized a spurious Grand 
 Lodge and chartered several Lodges. But 
 from this time Lacorne ceased to have a 
 place in regular Masonry, although the 
 dissensions first begun by him ultimately 
 gave rise to the Grand Orient as the suc- 
 cessor of the Grand Lodge. 
 
 Ladder. A symbol of progressive ad- 
 vancement from a lower to a higher sphere, 
 which is common to Masonry and to many, 
 if not all, of the Ancient Mysteries. In 
 each, generally, as in Masonry, the number 
 of steps was seven. See Jacob's Ladder. 
 
 Ladder, Brahmanical. The sym- 
 bolic ladder used in the mysteries of Brah- 
 ma. It had seven steps, symbolic of the 
 seven worlds of the Indian universe. The 
 lowest was the Earth ; the second, the 
 World of Re-existence ; the third, Heaven ; 
 the fourth, the Middle World, or interme- 
 diate region between the lower and the 
 upper worlds; the fifth, the World of Births, 
 in which souls are born again ; the sixth, 
 the Mansion of the Blessed; and the 
 seventh, or topmost round, the Sphere of 
 Truth, the abode of Brahma, who was him- 
 self a symbol of the sun. 
 
 Ladder, Jacob's. See Jacob's Lad- 
 der. 
 
 Ladder, Kabbalistic. The ladder 
 of the Kabbalists consisted of the ten Se- 
 phiroths or emanations of Deity. The 
 steps were in an ascending series, — the 
 Kingdom, Foundation, Splendor, Firm- 
 ness, Beauty, Justice, Mercy, Intelligence, 
 
LADDER 
 
 LANDMARKS 
 
 439 
 
 Wisdom, and the Crown. This ladder 
 formed the exception to the usual number 
 of seven steps or rounds. 
 
 Ladder, Mithraitic. The symbolic 
 ladder used in the Persian mysteries of 
 Mithras. It had seven steps, symbolic of 
 the seven planets and the seven metals. 
 Thus, beginning at the bottom, we have Sat- 
 urn represented by lead, Venus by tin, Ju- 
 piter by brass, Mercury by iron, Mars by a 
 mixed metal, the Moon by silver, and the 
 Sun by gold ; the whole being a symbol of 
 the sidereal progress of the sun through the 
 universe. 
 
 Ladder of Kadosh. This ladder, 
 belonging to the high degrees of Masonry, 
 consists of the seven following steps, be- 
 ginning at the bottom: Justice, Equity, 
 Kindliness, Good Faith, Labor, Patience, 
 and Intelligence or Wisdom. Its supports 
 are love of God and love of our neighbor, 
 and their totality constitute a symbolism 
 of the devoir of Knighthood and Masonry, 
 the fulfilment of which is necessary to 
 make a Perfect Knight and Perfect Mason. 
 
 Ladder, Rosicrucian. Among 
 the symbols of the Rosicrucians is a ladder 
 of seven steps standing on a globe of the 
 earth, with an open Bible, square, and com- 
 passes resting on the top. Between each 
 of the steps is one of the following letters, 
 beginning from the bottom : I. N. R. I. F. 
 S. C., being the initials of Iesus, Nazarenus, 
 Rex, Iudaeorum, Fides, Spes, Caritas. But 
 a more recondite meaning is sometimes 
 given to the first four letters. 
 
 Ladder, Scandinavian. The sym- 
 bolic ladder used in the Gothic mysteries. 
 Dr. Oliver refers it to the Yggrasil, or 
 sacred ash -tree. But the symbolism is 
 either very abstruse or very doubtful. It 
 retains, however, the idea of an ascent from 
 a lower to a higher sphere, which was com- 
 mon to all the mystical ladder systems. 
 At its root lies the dragon of death ; at its 
 top are the eagle and hawk, the symbols 
 of life. 
 
 Ladder, Theological. The sym- 
 bolic ladder of the Masonic mysteries. It 
 refers to the ladder seen by Jacob in his 
 vision, and consists, like all symbolical 
 ladders, of seven rounds, alluding to the 
 four cardinal and the three theological 
 virtues. See Jacob's Ladder. 
 
 Ladrian. A corruption of Edwin. 
 It occurs in the Sloane MS., " hee [Athel- 
 stane] had a sonne y' was named Ladrian." 
 
 Lady. In the androgynous Lodges of 
 Adoption, where the male members are 
 called Knights, the .female members are 
 called Ladies ; as, the Knights and Ladies of 
 the Rose. The French use the word Dame. 
 
 Lalande. See De la Lalande. 
 
 Lamb. In ancient Craft Masonry the 
 
 lamb is the symbol of innocence ; thus in 
 the ritual of the first degree: " In all ages 
 the lamb has been deemed an emblem of 
 innocence." Hence it is required that a 
 Mason's apron should be made of lamb- 
 skin. In the high degrees, and in the de- 
 grees of chivalry, as in Christian iconog- 
 raphy, the lamb is a symbol of Jesus 
 Christ. The introduction of this Christian 
 symbolism of the lamb comes from the ex- 
 pression of St. John the Baptist, who ex- 
 claimed, on seeing Jesus, " Behold the 
 Lamb of God ; " which was undoubtedly 
 derived from the prophetic writers, who 
 compare the Messiah suffering on the cross 
 to a lamb under the knife of a butcher. 
 In the vision of St. John, in the Apocalypse, 
 Christ is seen, under the form of a lamb, 
 wounded in the throat, and opening the 
 book with the seven seals. Hence, in one 
 of the degrees of the Scottish Rite, the 
 seventeenth, or Knight of the East and 
 West, the lamb lying on the book with the 
 seven seals is a part of the jewel. 
 
 Lamb of God. See Lamb, Paschal. 
 
 Lamb, Paschal. The paschal lamb, 
 sometimes called the Holy Lamb, was the 
 lamb offered up by the Jews at the paschal 
 feast. This has been transferred to Chris- 
 tian symbolism, and naturally to chivalric 
 Masonry; and hence we find it among the 
 symbols of modern Templarism. The pas- 
 chal lamb, as a Christian and Masonic 
 symbol, called also the Agnus Dei, or the 
 Lamb of God, first appeared in Christian 
 art after the sixth century. It is depicted 
 as a lamb standing on the ground, holding 
 by the left forefoot a banner, on which a 
 cross is inscribed. This paschal lamb, or 
 Lamb of God, has been adopted as a symbol 
 by the Knights Templars, being borne in 
 one of the banners of the Order, and con- 
 stituting, with the square which it sur- 
 mounts, the jewel of the Generalissimo of 
 a Commandery. The lamb is a symbol of 
 Christ; the cross, of his passion; and the 
 banner, of his victory over death and hell. 
 Mr. Barrington states (Arcfueologia, ix. 134,) 
 that in a deed of the English Knights Tem- 
 plars, granting lands in Cambridgeshire, 
 the seal is a Holy Lamb, and the arms of 
 the Master of the Temple at London were 
 argent, a cross gules, and on the nombril 
 point thereof a Holy Lamb, that is, a pas- 
 chal or Holy Lamb on the centre of a red 
 cross in a white field. 
 
 Lambskin Apron. See Apron. 
 
 Landmarks. In ancient times, it 
 was the custom to mark the boundaries of 
 lands by means of stone pillars, the re- 
 moval of which, by malicious persons, 
 would be the occasion of much confusion, 
 men having no other guide than these pil- 
 lars by which to distinguish the limits of 
 
440 
 
 LANDMARKS 
 
 LANDMARKS 
 
 their property. To remove them, there- 
 fore, was considered a heinous crime. 
 " Thou shalt not," says the Jewish law, 
 M remove thy neighbor's landmark, which 
 they of old time have set in thine inher- 
 itance." Hence those peculiar marks of 
 distinction by which we are separated 
 from the profane world, and by which we 
 are enabled to designate our inheritance as 
 the " sons of light," are called the land- 
 marks of the Order. Th e universal language 
 and the universal laws of Masonry are land- 
 marks, but not so are the local ceremonies, 
 laws, and usages, which vary in different 
 countries. To attempt to alter or remove 
 these sacred landmarks, by which we ex- 
 amine and prove a brother's claims to share 
 in our privileges, is one of the most heinous 
 offences that a Mason can commit. 
 
 In the decision of the question what are 
 and what are not the landmarks of Masonry, 
 there has been much diversity of opinion 
 among writers. Dr. Oliver says, [Diet. 
 Symb. Mas.,) that "some restrict them to 
 the O. B. signs, tokens, and words. Others 
 include theceremonies of initiation, passing, 
 and raising; and the form, dimensions, and 
 support ; the ground, situation, and cover- 
 ing ; the ornaments, furniture, and jewels 
 of a Lodge, or their characteristic symbols. 
 Some think that the Order has no land- 
 marks beyond its peculiar secrets." But 
 all of these are loose and unsatisfactory 
 definitions, excluding things that are es- 
 sential, and admitting others that are un- 
 essential. 
 
 Perhaps the safest method is to restrict 
 them to those ancient, and therefore uni- 
 versal, customs of the Order, which either 
 gradually grew into operation as rules of 
 action, or, if at once enacted by any compe- 
 tent authority, were enacted at a period so 
 remote, that no account of their origin is 
 to be found in the records of history. Both 
 the enactors and the time of the enactment 
 have passed away from the record, and the 
 landmarks are therefore " of higher anti- 
 quity than memory or history can reach." 
 
 The first requisite, therefore, of a custom 
 or rule of action to constitute it a landmark, 
 is, that it must have existed from " time 
 whereof the memory of man runneth not 
 to the contrary." Its antiquity is its essen- 
 tial element. Were it possible for all the 
 Masonic authorities at the present day to 
 unite in a universal congress, and with the 
 most perfect unanimity to adopt any new 
 regulation, although such regulation would, 
 so long as it remained unrepealed, be ob- 
 ligatory on the whole Craft, yet it would 
 not be a landmark. It would have the 
 character of universality, it is true, but it 
 would be wanting in that of antiquity. 
 
 Another peculiarity of these landmarks 
 
 of Masonry is, that they are unrepealable. 
 As the congress to which I have just alluded 
 would not have the power to enact a land- 
 mark, so neither would it have the pre- 
 rogative of abolishing one. The landmarks 
 of the Order, like the laws of the Medes 
 and the Persians, can suffer no change. 
 What they were centuries ago, they still 
 remain, and must so continue in force until 
 Masonry itself shall cease to exist. 
 
 Until the year 1858, no attempt had been 
 made by any Masonic writer to distinctly 
 enumerate the landmarks of Freemasonry, 
 and to give to them a comprehensible form. 
 In October of that year, the author of this 
 work published in the American Quarterly 
 Review of Freemasonry (vol. ii., p. 230,) an 
 article on "The Foundations of Masonic 
 Law," which contained a distinct enumera- 
 tion of the landmarks, which was the first 
 time that such a list had been presented to 
 the Fraternity. This enumeration was sub- 
 sequently incorporated by the author in his 
 Text Book of Masonic Jurisprudence. It has 
 since been very generally adopted by the 
 Fraternity, and republished by many writers 
 on Masonic law; sometimes without any 
 acknowledgment of the source whence they 
 derived their information. According to 
 this recapitulation, the result of much labor 
 and research, the landmarks are twenty -five 
 in number, and are as follows : 
 
 1. The modes of recognition are, of all 
 the landmarks, the most legitimate and 
 unquestioned. They admit of no variation ; 
 and if ever they have suffered alteration or 
 addition, the evil of such a violation of the 
 ancient law has always made itself subse- 
 quently manifest. 
 
 2. The division of symbolic Masonry 
 into three degrees is a landmark that has 
 been better preserved than almost any other ; 
 although even here the mischievous spirit 
 of innovation has left its traces, and, by the 
 disruption of its concluding portion from 
 the third degree, a want of uniformity has 
 been created in respect to the final teaching 
 of the Master's Order; and the Royal Arch 
 of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Amer- 
 ica, and the "high degrees" of France and 
 Germany, are all made to differ in the 
 mode in which they lead the neophyte to 
 the great consummation of all symbolic 
 Masonry. In 1813, the Grand Lodge of 
 England vindicated the ancient landmark, 
 by solemnly enacting that ancient Craft 
 Masonry consisted of the three degrees of 
 Entered Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and 
 Master Mason, including the Holy Royal 
 Arch. But the disruption has never been 
 healed, and the landmark, although ac- 
 knowledged in its integrity by all, still con- 
 tinues to be violated. 
 
 3. The legend of the third degree is an 
 
LANDMARKS 
 
 LANDMARKS 
 
 441 
 
 important landmark, the integrity of 
 which has been well preserved. There is 
 no rite of Masonry, practised in any coun- 
 try or language, in which the essential ele- 
 ments of this legend are not taught. The 
 lectures may vary, and indeed are constantly 
 changing, but the legend has ever remained 
 substantially the same. And it is necessary 
 that it should be so, for the legend of the 
 Temple Builder constitutes the very essence 
 and identity of Masonry. Any rite which 
 should exclude it, or materially alter it, 
 would at once, by that exclusion or alter- 
 ation, cease to be a Masonic rite. 
 
 4. The government of the Fraternity by 
 a presiding officer called a Grand Master, 
 who is elected from the body of the Craft, 
 is a fourth landmark of the Order. Many 
 
 Sersons suppose that the election of the 
 rrand Master is held in consequence of a 
 law or regulation of the Grand Lodge. 
 Such, however, is not the case. The office 
 is indebted for its existence to a landmark 
 of the Order. Grand Masters, or persons 
 performing the functions under a different 
 but equivalent title, are to be found in the 
 records of the Institution long before Grand 
 Lodges were established ; and if the present 
 system of legislative government by Grand 
 Lodges were to be abolished, a Grand 
 Master would still be necessary. 
 
 5. The prerogative of the Grand Master 
 to preside over every assembly of the Craft, 
 wheresoever and whensoever held, is a fifth 
 landmark. It is in consequence of this 
 law, derived from ancient usage, and not 
 from any special enactment, that the Grand 
 Master assumes the chair, or as it is called 
 in England, " the throne," at every com- 
 munication of the Grand Lodge ; and that 
 he is also entitled to preside at the commu- 
 nication of every subordinate Lodge, where 
 he may happen to be present. 
 
 6. The prerogative of the Grand Master 
 to grant dispensations for conferring de- 
 grees at irregular times, is another and a 
 very important landmark. The statutory 
 law of Masonry requires a month, or other 
 determinate period, to elapse between the 
 presentation of a petition and the election 
 of a candidate. But the Grand Master has 
 the power to set aside or dispense with this 
 
 Erobation, and to allow a candidate to 
 e initiated at once. This prerogative he 
 possessed before the enactment of the law 
 inquiring a probation, and as no statute can 
 impair his prerogative, he still retains the 
 power. 
 
 7. The prerogative of the Grand Master 
 to give dispensations for opening and hold- 
 ing Lodges is another landmark. He may 
 grant, in virtue of this, to a sufficient num- 
 ber of Masons, the privilege of meeting to- 
 gether and conferring degrees. The Lodges 
 
 3F 
 
 thus established are called " Lodges under 
 dispensation." See Lodges under Dispensa- 
 tion. 
 
 8. The prerogative of the Grand Master 
 to make Masons at sight is a landmark 
 which is closely connected with the pre- 
 ceding one. There has been much misap- 
 prehension in relation to this landmark, 
 which misapprehension has sometimes led 
 to a denial of" its existence in jurisdictions 
 where the Grand Master was, perhaps, at 
 the very time substantially exercising the 
 prerogative, without the slightest remark 
 or opposition. See Sight, Making Masons at. 
 
 9. The necessity for Masons to congre- 
 gate in Lodges is another landmark. It 
 is not to be understood by this that any 
 ancient landmark has directed that perma- 
 nent organization of subordinate Lodges 
 which constitutes one of the features of 
 the Masonic system as it now prevails. 
 But the landmarks of the Order always 
 prescribed that Masons should, from time 
 to time, congregate together for the pur- 
 
 f>ose of either Operative or Speculative 
 abor, and that these congregations should 
 be called Lodges. Formerly, these were ex- 
 temporary meetings called together for 
 special purposes, and then dissolved, the 
 brethren departing to meet again at other 
 times and other places, according to the 
 necessity of circumstances. But Warrants 
 of constitution, by-laws, permanent officers, 
 and annual arrears are modern innovations 
 wholly outside the landmarks, and depen- 
 dent entirely on the special enactments of 
 a comparatively recent period. 
 
 10. The government of the Craft, when 
 so congregated in a Lodge, by a Master and 
 two Wardens, is also a landmark. A con- 
 gregation of Masons meeting together 
 under any other government, as that, for in- 
 stance, of a president and vice-president, 
 or a chairman and sub-chairman, would 
 not be recognized as a Lodge. The pres- 
 ence of a Master and two Wardens is as 
 essential to the valid organization of a 
 Lodge as a Warrant of constitution is at 
 the present day. The names, of course, 
 vary in different languages; but the officers, 
 their number, prerogatives, and duties are 
 everywhere identical. 
 
 11. The necessity that every Lodge, when 
 congregated, should be duly tiled, is an im- 
 portant landmark of the Institution which 
 is never neglected. The necessity of this 
 law arises from the esoteric character of 
 Masonry. The duty of guarding the door, 
 and keeping off cowans and eavesdroppers, 
 is an ancient one, which therefore consti- 
 tutes a landmark. 
 
 12. The right of every Mason to be rep- 
 resented in all general meetings of the 
 Craft, and to instruct his representatives, 
 
442 
 
 LANDMARKS 
 
 LANDMARKS 
 
 is a twelfth landmark. Formerly, these 
 general meetings, which were usually held 
 once a year, were called " General Assem- 
 blies," and all the Fraternity, even to the 
 youngest Entered Apprentice, were per- 
 mitted to be present. Now they are called 
 " Grand Lodges," and only the Masters and 
 Wardens of the subordinate Lodges are 
 summoned. But this is simply as the rep- 
 resentatives of tbeir members. Originally, 
 each Mason represented himself; now he 
 is represented by his officers. See Repre- 
 sentatives of Lodges. 
 
 13. The right of every Mason to appeal 
 from the decision of his brethren, in Lodge 
 convened, to the Grand Lodge or General 
 Assembly of Masons, is a landmark highly 
 essential to the preservation of justice, and 
 the prevention of oppression. A few mod- 
 ern Grand Lodges, in adopting a regula- 
 tion that the decision of subordinate 
 Lodges, in cases of expulsion, cannot be 
 wholly set aside upon an appeal, have vio- 
 lated this unquestioned landmark, as well 
 as the principles of just government. 
 
 14. The right of every Mason to visit and 
 sit in every regular Lodge is an unques- 
 tionable landmark of the Order. This 
 is called " the right of visitation." This 
 right of visitation has always been recog- 
 nized as an inherent right which inures to 
 every Mason as he travels through the 
 world. And this is because Lodges are 
 justly considered as only divisions for con- 
 venience of the universal Masonic family. 
 This right may, of course, be impaired or 
 forfeited on special occasions by various 
 circumstances ; but when admission is re- 
 fused to a Mason in good standing, who 
 knocks at the door of a Lodge as a visitor, 
 it is to be expected that some good and suffi- 
 cient reason shall be furnished for this vio- 
 lation of what is, in general, a Masonic 
 right, founded on the landmarks of the 
 Order. 
 
 15. It is a landmark of the Order, that 
 no visitor unknown to the brethren present, 
 or to some one of them as a Mason, can 
 enter a Lodge without first passing an ex- 
 amination according to ancient usage. Of 
 course, if the visitor is known to any 
 brother present to be a Mason in good 
 standing, and if that brother will vouch for 
 his qualifications, the examination may be 
 dispensed with, as the landmark refers 
 only to the cases of strangers, who are not 
 to be recognized unless after strict trial, 
 due examination, or lawful information. 
 
 16. No Lodge can interfere in the busi- 
 ness of another Lodge, nor give degrees to 
 brethren who are members of other Lodges. 
 This is undoubtedly an ancient landmark, 
 founded on the great principles of courtesy 
 and fraternal kindness, which are at the 
 
 very foundation of our Institution. It has 
 been repeatedly recognized by subsequent 
 statutory enactments of all Grand Lodges. 
 
 17. It is a landmark that every Free- 
 mason is amenable to the laws and regula- 
 tions of the Masonic jurisdiction in which 
 he resides, and this although he may not 
 be a member of any Lodge. Non-affilia- 
 tion, which is, in fact, in itself a Masonic 
 offence, does not exempt a Mason from 
 Masonic jurisdiction. 
 
 18. Certain qualifications of candidates 
 for initiation are derived from a landmark 
 of the Order. These qualifications are 
 that he shall be a man — unmutilated, free 
 born, and of mature age. That is to say, 
 a woman, a cripple, or a slave, or one born 
 in slavery, is disqualified for initiation into 
 the rites of Masonry. Statutes, it is true, 
 have from time to time been enacted, en- 
 forcing or explaining these principles ; but 
 the qualifications really arise from the very 
 nature of the Masonic institution, and from 
 its symbolic teachings, and have always ex- 
 isted as landmarks. 
 
 19. A belief in the existence of God as 
 the Grand Architect of the Universe, is one 
 of the most important landmarks of the 
 Order. It has been always admitted that 
 a denial of the existence of a Supreme and 
 Superintending Power is an absolute dis- 
 qualification for initiation. The annals of 
 the Order never yet have furnished or 
 could furnish an instance in which an 
 avowed Atheist was ever made a Mason. 
 The very initiatory ceremonies of the first 
 degree forbid and prevent the possibility 
 of such an occurrence. 
 
 20. Subsidiary to this belief in God, as a 
 landmark of the Order, is the belief in a 
 resurrection to a future life. This land- 
 mark is not so positively impressed on the 
 candidate by exact words as the preceding; 
 but the doctrine is taught by very plain 
 implication, and runs through the whole 
 symbolism of the Order. To believe in 
 Masonry, and not to believe in a resurrec- 
 tion, would be an absurd anomaly, which 
 could only be excused by the reflection, 
 that he who thus confounded his belief and 
 his skepticism was so ignorant of the mean- 
 ing of both theories as to have no rational 
 foundation for his knowledge of either. 
 
 21. It is a landmark that a "Book of 
 the Law " shall constitute an indispensable 
 part of the furniture of every Lodge. I 
 say, advisedly, Book of the Law, because it 
 is not absolutely required that everywhere 
 the Old and New Testaments shall be used. 
 The " Book of the Law " is that volume 
 which, by the religion of the country, is 
 believed to contain the revealed will of the 
 Grand Architect of the Universe. Hence, 
 in all Lodges in Christian countries, the 
 
LANDMARKS 
 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 443 
 
 " Book of the Law " is composed of the Old 
 and New Testaments ; in a country where 
 Judaism was the prevailing faith, the Old 
 Testament alone would be sufficient; and 
 in Mohammedan countries, and among 
 Mohammedan Masons, the Koran might be 
 substituted. Masonry does not attempt to 
 interfere with the peculiar religious faith 
 of its disciples, except so far as relates to 
 the belief in the existence of God, and what 
 necessarily results from that belief. The 
 " Book of the Law " is to the Speculative 
 Mason his spiritual trestle-board ; without 
 this he cannot labor ; whatever he believes 
 to be the revealed will of the Grand Arch- 
 itect constitutes for him this spiritual 
 trestle-board, and must ever be before him 
 in his hours of speculative labor, to be the 
 rule and guide of his conduct. The land- 
 mark, therefore, requires that a "Book of the 
 Law," a religious code of some kind, pur- 
 porting to be an exemplar of the revealed 
 will of God, shall form an essential part of 
 the furniture of every Lodge. 
 
 22. The equality of all Masons is another 
 landmark of the Order. This equality 
 has no reference to any subversion of those 
 gradations of rank which have been insti- 
 tuted by the usages of society. The mon- 
 arch, the nobleman, or the gentleman is 
 entitled to all the influence, and receives all 
 the respect, which rightly belong to his 
 position. But the doctrine of Masonic 
 equality implies that, as children of one 
 great Father, we meet in the Lodge upon 
 the level — that on that level we are all 
 travelling to one predestined goal — that 
 in the Lodge genuine merit shall receive 
 more respect than boundless wealth, and 
 that virtue and knowledge alone should be 
 the basis of all Masonic honors, and be re- 
 warded with preferment. When the labors 
 of the Lodge are over, and the brethren 
 have retired from their peaceful retreat, to 
 mingle once more with the world, each will 
 then again resume that social position, and 
 exercise the privileges of that rank, to 
 which the customs of society entitle him. 
 
 23. The secrecy of the Institution is 
 another and most important landmark. 
 The form of secrecy is a form inherent in 
 it, existing with it from its very founda- 
 tion, and secured to it by its ancient land- 
 marks. If divested of its secret character, 
 it would lose its identity, and would cease 
 to be Freemasonry. Whatever objections 
 may, therefore, be made to the Institution 
 on account of its secrecy, and however 
 much some unskilful brethren have been 
 unwilling in times of trial, for the sake of 
 expediency, to divest it of its secret char- 
 acter, it will be ever impossible to do so, 
 even were the landmark not standing be- 
 fore us as an insurmountable obstacle ; be- 
 
 cause such change of its character would 
 be social suicide, and the death of the 
 Order would follow its legalized exposure. 
 Freemasonry, as a secret association, has 
 lived unchanged for centuries ; as an open 
 society, it would not last for as many years. 
 
 24. The foundation of a speculative 
 science upon an operative art, and the 
 symbolic use and explanation of the terms 
 of that art, for the purposes of religious or 
 moral teaching, constitute another land- 
 mark of the Order. The Temple of Solo- 
 mon was the symbolic cradle of the Insti- 
 tution, and, therefore, the reference to the 
 Operative Masonry which constructed that 
 magnificent edifice, to the materials and 
 implements which were employed in its 
 construction, and to the artists who were 
 engaged in the building, are all component 
 and essential parts of the body of Free- 
 masonry, which could not be subtracted 
 from it without an entire destruction of 
 the whole identity of the Order. Hence, 
 all the comparatively modern rites of Ma- 
 sonry, however they may differ in other 
 respects, religiously preserve this Temple 
 history and these operative elements, as 
 the substratum of all their modifications 
 of the Masonic system. 
 
 25. The last and crowning landmark of 
 all is, that these landmarks can never be 
 changed. Nothing can be subtracted from 
 them — nothing can be added to them — not 
 the slightest modification can be made in 
 them. As they were received from our 
 predecessors, we are bound by the most 
 solemn obligations of duty to transmit 
 them to our successors. Not one jot or 
 one tittle of these unwritten laws can be 
 repealed; for, in respect to them, we are 
 not only willing, but compelled to adopt 
 the language of the sturdy old barons of 
 England, " Nolumus leges mutari." 
 
 Language, Universal. The in- 
 vention of a universal language, which 
 men of all nations could understand and 
 through which they could communicate 
 their thoughts, has always been one of the 
 Utopian dreams of certain philologists. 
 In the seventeenth century, Dalgarno had 
 written his Ars Signorum to prove the pos- 
 sibility of a universal character and a 
 philosophical language. About the same 
 time Bishop Wilkins published his Essay 
 towards a Real Character and a Philosophi- 
 cal Language ; and even the mathematical 
 Leibnitz entertained the project of a uni- 
 versal language for all the world. It is 
 not, therefore, surprising, that when the so- 
 called Lei and Manuscript stated that the 
 Masons concealed a " universelle longage,'' 
 Mr. Locke, or whoever was the commenta- 
 tor on that document, should have been 
 attracted by the statement. " A universal 
 
444 
 
 LAPICIDA 
 
 LATOMIA 
 
 language," he says, "has heen much de- 
 sired by the learned of many ages. It is a 
 thing rather to be wished than hoped for. 
 But it seems the Masons pretend to have 
 such a thing among them. If it be true, 
 I guess it must be something like the lan- 
 guage of the Pantomimes among the an- 
 cient Eomans, who are said to be able, 
 by signs only, to express and deliver any 
 oration intelligibly to men of all nations 
 and languages." 
 
 The "guess" of the commentator was 
 near the truth. A universal language 
 founded on words is utterly impracticable. 
 Even if once inaugurated by common con- 
 sent, a thing itself impossible, the lapse of 
 but a few years, and the continual innova- 
 tion of new phrases, would soon destroy its 
 universality. But there are signs and sym- 
 bols which, by tacit consent, have always 
 been recognized as the exponents of cer- 
 tain idea3, and these are everywhere under- 
 stood. It is well known that such a sys- 
 tem exists over the vast territory occupied 
 by the North American savages, and that 
 the Indians of two tribes, which totally 
 differ in language, meeting on the prairie 
 or in the forest, are enabled, by conventual 
 signs of universal agreement, to hold long 
 and intelligible intercourse. On such a basis 
 the "universal language" of Freemasonry is 
 founded. It is not universal to the world, 
 but it is to the Craft ; and a Mason of one 
 country and language meeting a Mason of 
 another can make himself understood for 
 all practical purposes of the Craft, simply 
 because the system of signs and symbols 
 has been so perfected that in every lan- 
 guage they convey the same meaning and 
 make the same impression! This, and this 
 only, is the extent to which the universal 
 language of Masonry reaches. It would be 
 an error to suppose that it meets the ex- 
 pectations of Dalgarno or Wilkins, or any 
 other dreamer, and that it is so perfect as 
 to supersede the necessity of any other 
 method of intercommunication. 
 
 Linpicida. A word sometimes used in 
 Masonic documents to denote a Freemason. 
 It is derived from lapis, a stone, and ccedo, 
 to cut, and is employed by Varro and Livy 
 to signify "a stone-cutter." But in the 
 low Latin of the Mediaeval age it took 
 another meaning ; and Du Cange defines it 
 in his Qlogsarium as "JEdeficiorum structor. 
 Gall. Macon," i. e., "A builder of edifices; 
 in French, a Mason ; " and he quotes two 
 authorities of 1304 and 1392, where lapicidce 
 evidently means builders. In the Vocabu- 
 larium of Ugutio, Anno 1592, Lapicedius is 
 defined " a cutter of stones." The Latin 
 word now more commonly used by Masonic 
 writers for Freemason is Latomus; but I think 
 that Lapicida is purer Latin. See Latomus. 
 
 Larmenius, Johannes Marcus. 
 
 According to the tradition of the Order of 
 the Temple, — the credibility of which is, 
 however, denied by most Masonic scholars, 
 — John Mark Larmenius was in 1314 ap- 
 pointed by James de Molay his successor 
 as Grand Master of the Templars, which 
 power was transmitted by Larmenius to his 
 successors, in a document known as the 
 " Charter of Transmission." See Temple, 
 Order of the. 
 
 Larudan, Abbe'. The author of a 
 work entitled Les Franc- Macons ecrases. 
 Suite du livre intitule I'Ordre des Franc- 
 Macons train, traduit du Latin. The first 
 edition was published at Amsterdam in 
 1746. In calling it the sequel ofL'Ordre 
 des Franc-Macons trahi, by the Abbe Perau, 
 Larudan has sought to attribute the author- 
 ship of his own libellous work to Perau, 
 but without success, as the internal evi- 
 dence of style and of tone sufficiently dis- 
 tinguishes the two works. Kloss says 
 (Bibliog., No. 1874,) that this work is the 
 armory from which all subsequent enemies 
 of Masonry have derived their weapons. 
 Larudan was the first to broach the theory 
 that Oliver Cromwell was the inventor of 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 Latin Lodge. In the year 1784, the 
 Grand Lodge of Scotland granted a War- 
 rant for the establishment of Roman Eagle 
 Lodge at Edinburgh ; the whole of whose 
 work was conducted in the Latin language. 
 Of this Lodge, the celebrated and learned 
 Dr. John Brown was the founder and 
 Master. He had himself translated the 
 ritual into the classical language of Rome ; 
 but it required his abilities as a linguist to 
 keep the Lodge alive, which became ex- 
 tinct on his removal to London. 
 
 Latomia. This word has sometimes 
 been used in modern Masonic documents 
 as the Latin translation of the word Lodge, 
 with what correctness we will see. The 
 Greek larofielov, latomeion, from the roots 
 laa&, a stone, and temno, to cut, meant a 
 place where stones were cut, a quarry. 
 From this the Romans got their latomia, 
 more usually spelled lautomia, which also, 
 in pure Latinity, meant a stone-quarry. 
 But as slaves were confined and made to 
 work in the quarries by way of punish- 
 ment, the name was given to any prison 
 excavated out of the living rock and below 
 the surface of the earth, and was especially 
 so applied to the prison excavated by Ser- 
 vius Tullius under the Capitoline hill at 
 Rome, and to the state prison at Syracuse. 
 Du Cange gives the same meaning to the 
 word lautumioz in his Glossarium, and refers 
 for an example to the Syracusan prison. 
 Lathomia, he defines a cutting of stone. It 
 seems to have lost and never recovered its 
 
LATOMUS 
 
 LAWRIE 
 
 445 
 
 primitive meaning as a stone-quarry, and 
 is, therefore, inappropriately applied to a 
 Masonic Lodge. 
 
 ] ,<u 1 0111 us. By Masonic writers used 
 as a translation of Freemason into Latin ; 
 thus, Thory entitles his valuable work, 
 Acta Latomorum, i. e., " Transactions of the 
 Freemasons." This word was not used in 
 classical Latinity. In the low Latin of the 
 Middle Ages it was used as equivalent to 
 lapicida. Du Cange defines it, in the form 
 of lathomus, as a cutter of stones, " Caesor 
 lapidum." He gives an example from one 
 of the ecclesiastical Constitutions, where 
 we find the expression "carpentarii ac 
 Latomi," which may mean Carpenters and 
 Masons or Carpenters and Stone-cutters. Du 
 Cange also gives Latomus as one of the defi- 
 nitions of Maconetus, which he derives from 
 the French Macon. But Maconetus and 
 Latomus could not have had precisely the 
 same meaning, for in one of the examples 
 cited by Du Cange, we have " Joanne de 
 Bareno, Maqoneto, Latonio de Gratiano- 
 
 golis," i. e., "John de Bareno, Mason and 
 tone-cutter (?) of Grenoble." Latomus is 
 here evidently an addition to Maconetus, 
 showing two different kinds of occupation. 
 We have abundant evidence in Mediaeval 
 documents that a Maconetus was a builder, 
 and a Latomus was most probably an in- 
 ferior order, what the Masonic Constitutions 
 call a " rough Mason." I doubt the pro- 
 priety of applying it to a Freemason. The 
 word is sometimes found as Lathomus and 
 Latonius. 
 
 Latres. This word has given much 
 unnecessary trouble to the commentators 
 on the old Records of Masonry. In the 
 legend of the Craft contained in all the 
 old Constitutions, we are informed that the 
 children of Lamech " knew well that God 
 would take vengeance for sinne, either by 
 fire or water, wherefore they did write these 
 sciences that they found in twoe pillars of 
 stone, that they might be found after that 
 God had taken vengeance ; the one was of 
 marble and would not burne, the other was 
 Latres and could not drowne in water." 
 (Harleian MS.) It is the Latin word later, 
 a brick. The legend is derived from 
 Josephus, (Antiq., I., ii.,) where the same 
 story is told. Whiston properly translates 
 the passage, "they made two pillars; the 
 one of brick, the other of stone." The 
 original Greek is nllvdog, which has the 
 same meaning. The word is variously cor- 
 rupted in the manuscript. Thus the Har- 
 leian MS. has laters, which comes nearest 
 to the correct Latin plural lateres ; the 
 Cooke MS. has laterus /tne Dowland, laterns; 
 the Landsdowne, latheme ; and the Sloane, 
 
 fetting furthest from the truth, has letera. 
 t is strange that Halliwell should have 
 
 been ignorant of the true meaning, and 
 that Phillips, in commenting on the Har- 
 leian MS., should have supposed that it 
 alluded " to some floating substance." The 
 Latin word later and the passage in Jose- 
 phus ought readily to have led to an expli- 
 cation. 
 
 Laurel Crown. A decoration used 
 in some of the higher degrees of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Scottish Rite. The 
 laurel is an emblem of victory ; and the 
 corona triumphalis of the Romans, which 
 was given to generals who had gained a 
 triumph by their conquests, was made of 
 laurel leaves. The laurel crown in Ma- 
 sonry is given to him who has made a con- 
 quest over his passions. 
 
 Laurens, J. Ii. A French Masonic 
 writer, and the author of an Essai historique 
 et antique sur la Franche-Maconnerie, pub- 
 lished at Paris in 1805. In this work he 
 gives a critical examination of the princi- 
 pal works that have treated of the Institu- 
 tion. It contains also a refutation of the 
 imputations of anti-Masonic writers. In 
 1808 he edited an edition of the Vocabu- 
 laire des Franc-Macons, the first edition of 
 which had been issued in 1805. In 1825 
 he published a Histoire des Initiations de 
 Fancienne Egypt. Of the authorship of 
 this last work I have only the statement 
 of Kloss, who attributes it to J. L. Laurens. 
 
 Laurie. See Lawrie, Alexander. 
 
 Lawful Information. See Infor- 
 mation, Lawful. 
 
 Law, Moral. See Moral Law. 
 
 Law, Oral. See Oral Law. 
 
 Law, Parliamentary. See Par- 
 liamentary Law. 
 
 Lawrie, Alexander. He was ori- 
 ginally a stocking-weaver, and afterwards 
 became a bookseller and stationer in Par- 
 liament Square, Edinburgh, and printer of 
 the Edinburgh Gazette. He was appointed 
 bookseller and stationer to the Grand Lodge 
 of Scotland, and afterwards Grand Sec- 
 retary. In 1804 he published a book en- 
 titled; " The History of Freemasonry, drawn 
 from authentic sources of information; 
 with an Account of the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland, from its Institution in 1736 to 
 the present time, compiled from the Rec- 
 ords; and an Appendix of Original Pa- 
 pers." Of this valuable and interesting 
 work, Lawrie has always been deemed the 
 author, notwithstanding that the learning 
 exhibited in the first part, and the numer- 
 ous references to Greek and Latin author- 
 ities, furnished abundant internal evidence 
 of his incapacity, from previous education, 
 to have written it. The doubt which natu- 
 rally arises,whether he was really the author, 
 derives great support from the testimony of 
 the late Dr. David Irving, Librarian to the 
 
446 
 
 LAW 
 
 LAX 
 
 Faculty of Advocates, Edinburgh. A writer 
 in the Notes and Queries, (3d Ser., iii. 366,) 
 on May 9, 1863, stated that at the sale 
 of the library of Dr. Irving, on Saturday, 
 March 28, 1862, a copy of Lawrie's History 
 of Freemasonry was sold for £1. In that 
 copy there was the following memorandum 
 in the handwriting of Dr. Irving : 
 
 " The history of this book is somewhat 
 curious, and perhaps there are only two in- 
 dividuals now living by whom it could be 
 divulged. The late Alexander Lawrie, 
 'Grand Stationer,' wished to recommend 
 himself to the Fraternity by the publication 
 of such a work. Through Dr. Anderson, 
 he requested me to undertake its compila- 
 tion, and offered a suitable remuneration. 
 As I did not relish the task, he made a 
 similar offer to my old acquaintance David 
 Brewster, by whom it was readily under- 
 taken, and I can say was executed to the 
 entire satisfaction of his employers. The 
 title-page does not exhibit the name of the 
 author, but the dedication bears the signa- 
 ture of Alexander Lawrie, and the volume 
 is commonly described as Lawrie's History 
 of Freemasonry." 
 
 There can be no doubt of the truth of 
 this statement. It has never been unusual 
 for publishers to avail themselves of the 
 labors of literary men and affix their own 
 names to books which they have written by 
 proxy. Besides, the familiarity with ab- 
 struse learning that this work exhibits, 
 although totally irreconcilable with the 
 attainments of the stocking- weaver, can 
 readily be assigned to Sir David Brewster 
 the philosopher. 
 
 Lawrie had a son, William Alexander 
 Laurie, (he had thus, for some unknown 
 reason, changed the spelling of his name,) 
 who was for very many years the Grand 
 Secretary of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, 
 and died in office in 1870, highly esteemed. 
 In 1859 he published a new edition of the 
 History, with many additions, under the title 
 of " The History of Freemasonry and the 
 Grand Lodge of Scotland, with chapters 
 on the Knights Templar, Knights of St. 
 John, Mark Masonry, and the R. A. De- 
 gree." 
 
 IiJi w, Sacred. See Sacred Law. 
 
 Laws, General. See Laws of Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 liii ws, Local. See Laws of Masonry. 
 
 Laws of Masonry. The laws of 
 Masonry, or those rules of action by which 
 the Institution is governed, are very prop- 
 erly divided into three classes : 1. Land- 
 marks. 2. General Laws or Regulations. 
 3. Local Laws or Regulations. 
 
 1. Landmarks. These are the unwritten 
 laws of the Order, derived from those an- 
 cient and universal customs which date at 
 
 so remote a period that we have no record 
 of their origin. 
 
 2. General Laws. These are all those 
 Regulations that have been enacted by 
 such bodies as had at the time universal 
 jurisdiction. They operate, therefore, over 
 the Craft wheresoever dispersed; and 
 as the paramount bodies which enacted 
 them have long ceased to exist, it would 
 seem that they are unrepealable. It 
 is generally agreed that these General or 
 Universal Laws are to be found in the old 
 Constitutions and Charges, so far as they 
 were recognized and accepted by the Grand 
 Lodge of England at the revival in 1717, 
 and adopted previous to the year 1721. 
 
 3. Local Laws. These are the Regula- 
 tions which, since 1721, have been and 
 continue to be enacted by Grand Lodges. 
 They are of force only in those jurisdic- 
 tions which have adopted them, and are re- 
 pealable by the bodies which have enacted 
 them. They must, to be valid, be not re- 
 pugnant to the Landmarks or the General 
 Laws, which are of paramount authority. 
 
 Lawsuits. In the Old Charges which 
 were approved in 1722, and published in 
 1723, by Anderson, in the Book of Consti- 
 tutions, the regulations as to lawsuits are 
 thus laid down : " And if any of them do 
 you injury, you must apply to your own or 
 his Lodge, and from thence you may appeal 
 to the Grand Lodge, at the Quarterly Com- 
 munication, and from thence to the Annual 
 Grand Lodge, as has been the ancient laud- 
 able conduct of our forefathers in every 
 nation ; never taking a legal course but 
 when the case cannot be otherwise decided, 
 and patiently listening to the honest and 
 friendly advice of Master and Fellows, 
 when they would prevent you going to law 
 with strangers, or would excite you to put 
 a speedy period to all lawsuits, that so you 
 may mind the affair of Masonry with the 
 more alacrity and success ; but with respect 
 to Brothers or Fellows at law, the Master 
 and Brethren should kindly offer their me- 
 diation, which ought to be thankfully sub- 
 mitted to by the contending brethren ; and 
 if that submission is impracticable, they 
 must, however, carry on their process or 
 lawsuit without wrath and rancor, (not in 
 the common way,) saying or doing nothing 
 which may hinder brotherly love and good 
 offices to be renewed and continued ; that 
 all may see the benign influence of Masonry, 
 as all true Masons have done from the be- 
 ginning of the world, and will do to the 
 end of time." 
 
 L.ax Observance. ( Observantia 
 Lata.) When the Rite of Strict Observ- 
 ance was instituted in Germany by Von 
 Hund, its disciples gave to all the other 
 German Lodges which refused to submit to 
 
LAYER 
 
 LECTURE 
 
 447 
 
 its obedience and adopt its innovations, but 
 
 S referred to remain faithful to the English 
 lite, the title of " Lodges of Lax Observ- 
 ance." Ragon, in his Orthodoxie Macon- 
 nique, (p. 236.) has committed the unac- 
 countable error of calling it a schism, 
 established at Vienna in 1767; thus evi- 
 dently confounding it with Starck's Rite 
 of the Clerks of Strict Observance. 
 
 Layer. A term used in the old 
 Records to designate a workman inferior 
 to an Operative Freemason. Thus : " Alsoe 
 that no Mason set noe layer within a Lodge 
 or without to have mould stones with one 
 mould of his workeing." In the Harleian 
 and Kilwinning MSS., it is layer ; in the 
 Sloane, Iyer; and in the Alnwick, rough layer. 
 In the contract for Fotheringay Church, 
 we find the word under the form of leye. 
 The word, I think, means one who builds 
 in brick, and is familiar to us in the com- 
 pound term bricklayer; a word not unknown 
 at the time of the writing of those manu- 
 scripts. Thus in The Bookefor a Justice of 
 Peace, (fol. 17,) published in 1559, we find 
 this passage: "None artificer nor labourer 
 hereafter named, take no more nor greater 
 wages than hereafter is limited .... that 
 is to say, a free mason, master carpenter, 
 rough mason, bricke layer" etc. 
 
 Lebanon. A mountain, or rather a 
 rauge of mountains in Syria, extending 
 from beyond Sidon to Tyre, and forming 
 the northern boundary of Palestine. Leb- 
 anon is celebrated for the cedars which it 
 produces, many of which are from fifty to 
 eighty feet in height, and cover with their 
 branches a space of ground the diameter 
 of which is still greater. Hiram, King of 
 Tyre, in whose dominions Mount Lebanon 
 was situated, furnished these trees for the 
 building of the Temple of Solomon. In 
 relation to Lebanon, Kitto, in his Biblical 
 Cyclopedia, has these remarks: "The for- 
 ests of the Lebanon mountains only could 
 supply the timber for the Temple. Such 
 of these forests as lay nearest the sea were 
 in the possession of the Phoenicians, among 
 whom timber was in such constant demand, 
 that they had acquired great and ac- 
 knowledged skill in the felling and trans- 
 portation thereof; and hence it was of such 
 importance that Hiram consented to em- 
 
 Eloy large bodies of men in Lebanon to 
 ew timber, as well as others to perform 
 the service of bringing it down to the sea- 
 side, whence it was to be taken along the 
 coasts in floats to the port of Joppa, from 
 which place it could be easily taken across 
 the country to Jerusalem." 
 
 The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 has dedicated to this mountain its twenty- 
 second degree, or Prince of Lebanon. The 
 Druses now inhabit Mount Lebanon, and 
 
 still preserve there a secret organization. 
 See Druses. 
 
 Lebanon, Prince of. See Prince 
 of Lebanon. 
 
 Le Bauld de Nans, Clande 
 Etienne. A distinguished Masonic 
 writer, born at Besancon in 1736. He was 
 by profession a highly respected actor, and 
 a man of much learning, which he devoted 
 to the cultivation of Freemasonry. He 
 was for seven years Master of the Lodge 
 St. Charles de l'Union, in Mannheim ; and 
 on his removal to Berlin, in 1771, became 
 the Orator of the Lodge Royale York de 
 l'Amitie', and editor of a Masonic journal. 
 He delivered, while Orator of the Lodge, 
 — a position which he resigned in 1778, — 
 a large number of discourses, a collection 
 of which was published at Berlin in 1788. 
 He also composed many Masonic odes and 
 songs, and published, in 1781, a collection 
 of his songs for the use of the Lodge Royale 
 York, and in 1786, his Lyre Maconnique. 
 He is described by his contemporaries as a 
 man of great knowledge and talents, and 
 Fessler has paid a warm tribute to his 
 learning and to his labors in behalf of 
 Masonry. He died at Berlin in 1789. 
 
 L<ecliaiigeur. An officer of one of 
 the Lodges of Milan, Italy, of whom Re- 
 bold [Hist, des Trois G. Loges, p. 573,) gives 
 the following account. When, in 1805, a 
 Supreme Council of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite was established at 
 Milan, Lechangeur became a candidate for 
 membership. He received some of the de- 
 grees; but subsequently the founders of the 
 Council, for satisfactory reasons, declined 
 to confer upon him the superior grades. 
 Incensed at this, Lechangeur announced to 
 them that he would elevate himself above 
 them by creating a Rite of ninety degrees, 
 into which they should not be admitted. 
 He carried this project into effect, and the 
 result was the Rite of Mizraim, of which 
 he declared himself to be the Superior 
 Grand Conservator. His energies seem to 
 have been exhausted in the creation of his 
 unwieldy Rite, for no Chapters were estab- 
 lished except in the city of Naples. But 
 in 1810 a patent was granted by him to 
 Michel Bedarride, by whom the Rite was 
 propagated in France. Lechangeur's fame, 
 as the founder of the Rite, was overshad- 
 owed by the greater zeal and impetuosity 
 of Bedarride, by whom his self-assumed 
 prerogatives were usurped. He died in 
 1812. 
 
 Lecture. Each degree of Masonry 
 contains a course of instruction, in which 
 the ceremonies, traditions, and moral in- 
 struction appertaining to the degree are 
 set forth. This arrangement is called a 
 lecture. Each lecture, for the sake of cop- 
 
448 
 
 LECTURE 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 venience, and for the purpose of conform- 
 ing to certain divisions in the ceremonies, 
 is divided into sections, the number of 
 which have varied at different periods, 
 although the substance remains the same. 
 According to Preston, the lecture of the 
 first degree contains six sections ; that of 
 the second, four; and that of the third, 
 twelve. But according to the arrangement 
 adopted in this country, commonly known 
 as the " Webb lectures," there are three 
 sections in the first degree, two in the 
 second, and three in the third. 
 
 In the Entered Apprentices', the first sec- 
 tion is almost entirely devoted to a reca- 
 pitulation of the ceremonies of initiation. 
 The initiatory portion, however, supplies 
 certain modes of recognition. The second 
 section is occupied with an explanation of 
 the ceremonies that had been detailed in 
 the first, — the two together furnishing the 
 interpretation of ritualistic symbolism. 
 The third is exclusively occupied in ex- 
 plaining the signification of the symbols 
 peculiar to the degree. 
 
 In the Fellow Craft's degree, the first 
 section, like the first section of the Entered 
 Apprentice, is merely a recapitulation of 
 ceremonies, with a passing commentary on 
 some of them. The second section intro- 
 duces the neophyte for the first time to the 
 differences between Operative and Specu- 
 lative Masonry and to the Temple of King 
 Solomon as a Masonic symbol, while the can- 
 didate is ingeniously deputed as a seeker 
 after knowledge. 
 
 In the Master's degree the first section 
 is again only a detail of ceremonies. The 
 second section is the most important and 
 impressive portion of all the lectures, for it 
 contains the legend on which the whole 
 symbolic character of the Institution is 
 founded. The third section is an interpre- 
 tation of the symbols of the degree, and is, 
 of all the sections, the one least creditable 
 to the composer. 
 
 In fact, it must be confessed that many 
 of the interpretations given in these lec- 
 tures are unsatisfactory to the cultivated 
 mind, and seem to have been adopted on 
 the principle of the old Egyptians, who 
 made use of symbols to conceal rather than 
 to express their thoughts. Learned Ma- 
 sons have been, therefore, always disposed 
 to go beyond the mere technicalities and 
 stereotyped phrases of the lectures, and to 
 look in the history and the philosophy of 
 the ancient religions, and the organization 
 of the ancient mysteries, for a true expla- 
 nation of most 01 the symbols of Masonry, 
 and there they have always been enabled 
 to find this true interpretation. The lec- 
 tures, however, serve as an introduction or 
 preliminary essay, enabling the student, as 
 
 he advances in his initiation, to become 
 acquainted with the symbolic character of 
 the Institution. But if he ever expects to 
 become a learned Mason, he must seek in 
 other sources for the true development of 
 Masonic symbolism. The lectures alone 
 are but the primer of the science. 
 
 Lecturer, Grand. An officer known 
 only in the United States. He is ap- 
 pointed by the Grand Master or the Grand 
 Lodge. His duty is to visit the subordi- 
 nate Lodges, and instruct them in the ritual 
 of the Order as practised in his jurisdic- 
 tion, for which he receives compensation 
 partly from the Grand Lodge and partly 
 from the Lodges which he visits. 
 
 Lectures, History of the. To 
 each of the degrees of Symbolic Masonry 
 a catechetical instruction is appended, in 
 which the ceremonies, traditions, and other 
 esoteric instructions of the degree are con- 
 tained. A knowledge of these lectures — 
 which must, of course, be communicated 
 by oral teaching — constitutes a very impor- 
 tant part of a Masonic education; and, 
 until the great progress made within the 
 present century in Masonic literature, 
 many " bright Masons," as they are tech- 
 nically styled, could claim no other founda- 
 tion than such a knowledge for their high 
 Masonic reputation. But some share of 
 learning more difficult to attain, and more 
 sublime in its character than anything to 
 be found in these oral catechisms, is now 
 considered necessary to form a Masonic 
 scholar. Still, as the best commentary on 
 the ritual observances is to be found in the 
 lectures, and as they also furnish a large 
 portion of that secret mode of recognition, 
 or that universal language, which has al- 
 ways been the boast of the Institution, not 
 only is a knowledge of them absolutely neces- 
 sary to every practical Freemason, but a 
 history of the changes which they have from 
 time to time undergone constitutes an in- 
 teresting part of the literature of the Order. 
 
 Comparatively speaking, (comparatively 
 in respect to the age of the Masonic insti- 
 tution,) the system of Lodge lectures is un- 
 doubtedly a modern invention. That is to 
 say, we can find no traces of any forms of 
 lectures like the present before the middle, 
 or perhaps the close, of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. Examinations, however, of a techni- 
 cal nature, intended to test the claims of 
 the person examined to the privileges of 
 the Order, appear to have existed at an 
 early period. They were used until at 
 least the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 but were perpetually changing, so that the 
 tests of one generation of Masons consti- 
 tuted no tests for the succeeding one. Oli- 
 ver very properly describes them as being 
 "something like the conundrums of the 
 
LECTURES 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 449 
 
 present day — difficult of comprehension — 
 admitting only of one answer, which ap- 
 peared to have no direct correspondence 
 with the question, and applicable only in 
 consonance with the mysteries and sym- 
 bols of the Institution." ( On the Masonic 
 Tests of the Eighteenth Century. Golden Re- 
 mains, vol. iv., p. 16.) These tests were 
 sometimes, at first, distinct from the lec- 
 tures, and sometimes, at a later period, in- 
 corporated with them. A specimen is the 
 answer to the question, " How blows the 
 wind ? " which was, " Due east and west." 
 
 The " Examination of a German Stone- 
 mason," which is given by Findel in the 
 appendix to his History, was most probably 
 in use in the fourteenth century. Dr. 
 Oliver was in possession of what purports 
 to be a formula, which he supposes to have 
 been used during the Grand Mastership of 
 Archbishop Chichely, in the reign of Henry 
 VI., and from which {Rev. of a Sq., p. 11,) 
 he makes the following extracts : 
 
 " Q. Peace be here? A. I hope there is. 
 Q. What o'clock is it? A. It is going to 
 six, or going to twelve. Q. Are you very 
 busy? A. No. Q. Will you give or take ? 
 A. Both ; or which you please. Q. How go 
 squares ? A. Straight. Q. Are you rich or 
 poor? A. Neither. Q. Change me that? 
 A. I will. Q. In the name of the King and 
 the Holy Church, are you a Mason ? A.I 
 am so taken to be. Q. What is a Mason ? 
 A. A man begot by a man, born of a wo- 
 man, brother to a king. Q. What is a fel- 
 low? A. A companion of a prince, etc." 
 
 There are other questions and answers of 
 a similar nature, conveying no instruction, 
 and intended apparently to be used only as 
 tests. Dr. Oliver attributes, it will be seen, 
 the date of these questions to the beginning of 
 the fifteenth century ; but I doubt the correct- 
 ness of this assumption. They have no inter- 
 nal evidence in style of having been the inven- 
 tion of so early a period of the English tongue. 
 
 The earliest form of catechism that we 
 have on record is that contained in the 
 Sloane MS., No. 3329, contained in the 
 British Museum, and for the publication 
 of which we are indebted to that laborious 
 exhumer of old documents, W. J. Hughan. 
 One familiar with the catechisms of the 
 eighteenth century will detect the origin of 
 much that they contain in this early speci- 
 men. It is termed in the manuscript the 
 Mason's "private discourse by way of ques- 
 tion and answer," and is in these words : 
 
 " Q. Are you a mason? A. Yes, I am a 
 Freemason. Q. How shall I know that ? A. 
 By perfect signes and tokens and the first 
 poynts of my Ent'rance. Q. Which is the 
 first signe or token, shew me the first and I 
 will shew you the second ? A. The first is 
 heal and conceal or conceal and keep se- 
 3G 29 
 
 crett by no less paine than cutting my tongue 
 from my throat. Q. Where were you made 
 a mason? A. In a just and perfect or just 
 and lawfull lodge. Q. What is a just and 
 perfect or just and lawfull lodge? A. A just 
 and perfect lodge is two Interprintices two 
 fellow craftes and two Mast'rs, more or fewer 
 the more the merrier the fewer the better 
 chear but if need require five will serve that 
 is, two Interprintices, two fellow craftes and 
 one Mast'r on the highest hill or lowest valley 
 of the world without the crow of a cock or 
 the bark of a dogg. Q. From whom do 
 you derive your principalis? A. From a 
 great'r than you. Q. Who is that on earth 
 that is great'r than a freemason ? A. He 
 y't was caryed to y'e highest pinnicall of 
 the temple of Jerusalem. Q. Whith'r is 
 your lodge shut or open? A. It is shut. 
 Q. Where lyes the keys of the lodge doore? 
 A. They ley in a bound case or under a 
 three cornered pavem't about a foot and 
 halfe from the lodge door. Q. What is 
 the key of your lodge doore made of? A. 
 It is not made of wood stone iron or steel 
 or any sort of mettle but the tongue of 
 good report behind a Broth'rs back as well 
 as before his face. Q. How many jewels 
 belong to your lodge? A. There are three 
 the square pavem't the blazing star and the 
 Danty tassley. Q. How long is the cable 
 rope of your lodge? A. As long as from 
 the top of the liver to the root of the tongue. 
 Q. How many lights are in your lodge? 
 A. Three the sun the mast'r and the square. 
 Q. How high is your lodge? A. Without 
 foots yards or Inches, it reaches to heaven. 
 Q. How stood your lodge? A. East and 
 west as all holly Temples stand. Q. W'ch 
 is the mast'rs place in the lodge? A. The 
 east place is the mast'rs place in the lodge 
 and the Jewell resteth on him first and he 
 sitteth men to worke w't the m'rs have in 
 the forenoon the wardens reap in the 
 afternoon. Q. Where was the word first 
 given? A. At the tower of Babylon. 
 Q. Where did they first call their lodge? 
 A. At the holy chapell of St. John. Q. 
 How stood your lodge? A. As the said 
 holy chapell and all other holy Temples 
 stand (viz.) east and west. Q. How many 
 lights are in your lodge ? A. Two one to 
 see to go in and another to see to work. 
 Q. What were you sworne by ? A. By God 
 and the square. Q. Whither above the 
 cloathes or und'r the cloathes? A. Und'r the 
 cloathes. Q. Und'r what arme? A. Und'r 
 the right arme. God is gratfull to all Wor- 
 shipfull Mast'rs and fellows in that worship- 
 full lodge from whence me last came and to 
 you good fellow w't is your name. A. I or 
 B then giving the grip of the hand he will 
 say Broth'r John greet you well you. A. 
 Goes good greeting to you dear Broth'r." 
 
450 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 But when we speak of the lectures, in the 
 modern sense, as containing an exposition 
 of the symbolism of the Order, we may con- 
 sider it as an established historical fact, that 
 the Fraternity were without any such sys- 
 tem until after the revival in 1717. Pre- 
 vious to that time, brief extemporary ad- 
 dresses and charges in addition to these 
 test catechisms were used by the Masters 
 of Lodges, which, of course, varied in ex- 
 cellence with the varied attainments and 
 talents of the presiding officer. We know, 
 however, that a series of charges were in 
 use about the middle and end of the seven- 
 teenth century, which were ordered "to 
 be read at the making of a Freemason." 
 These " Charges and Covenants," as they 
 were called, contained no instructions on 
 the symbolism and ceremonies of the Order, 
 but were confined to an explanation of the 
 duties of Masons to each other. They were 
 altogether exoteric in their character, and 
 have accordingly been repeatedly printed 
 in the authorized publications of the Fra- 
 ternity. 
 
 Dr. Oliver, who had ampler opportuni- 
 ties than any other Masonic writer of in- 
 vestigating this subject, says that the ear- 
 liest authorized lectures with which he has 
 met were those of 1720. They were ar- 
 ranged by Drs. Anderson and Desaguliers, 
 perhaps, at the same time that they were 
 compiling the Charges and Regulations 
 from the ancient Constitutions. They 
 were written in a catechetical form, which 
 form has ever since been retained in all 
 subsequent Masonic lectures. Oliver says 
 that the questions and answers are short 
 and comprehensive, and contain a brief di- 
 gest of the general principles of the Craft 
 as it was understood at that period." The 
 "digest" must, indeed, have been brief, 
 since the lecture of the third degree, or 
 what was called "the Master's Part," con- 
 tained only thirty-one questions, many of 
 which are simply tests of recognition. Dr. 
 Oliver says the number of questions was 
 only seven ; but I have very carefully col- 
 lated what purports to be a copy of them, 
 and can only explain his statement by the 
 probable supposition that he refers to the 
 seven tests which conclude the lecture. 
 There are, however, twenty-four other ques- 
 tions that precede these. 
 
 A comparison of these — the primitive 
 lectures, as they may be called — with those 
 in use in America at the present day, de- 
 monstrate that a great many changes have 
 taken place. There are not only omissions 
 of some things, and additions of others, 
 but sometimes the explanations of the same 
 points are entirely different in the two sys- 
 tems. Thus the Andersonian lectures de- 
 scribe the " furniture " of a Lodge as being 
 
 the "Mosaic pavement, blazing star, and 
 indented tassel," emblems which are now 
 more properly, I think, designated as 
 " ornaments." But the present furniture 
 of a Lodge is also added to the pavement, 
 star, and tassel, under the name of " other 
 furniture." The " greater lights " of Ma- 
 sonry are entirely omitted, or, if we are to 
 suppose them to be meant by the expres- 
 sion " fixed lights," then these are referred, 
 differently from our system, to the three 
 windows of the Lodge. 
 
 In the first degree I notice, among others, 
 the following points in the Andersonian 
 lectures which are omitted in the Ameri- 
 can system : the place and duty of the 
 Senior and Junior Entered Apprentices, 
 the punishment of cowans, the bone bone- 
 box, and all that refers to it ; the clothing 
 of the Master, the age of an Apprentice, 
 the uses of the day and night, and the direc- 
 tion of the wind. These latter, however, 
 are, strictly speaking, what the Masons of 
 that time denominated "tests." In the 
 same degree, the following, besides many 
 other important points in the present sys- 
 tem, are altogether omitted in the old lec- 
 tures of Anderson : the place where Masons 
 anciently met, the theological ladder, and 
 the lines parallel. Important changes 
 have been made in several particulars ; as, 
 for instance, in the " points of entrance," 
 the ancient lecture giving an entirely dif- 
 ferent interpretation of the expression, and 
 designating what are now called "points 
 of entrance " by the term " principal signs ; " 
 the distinctions between Operative and 
 Speculative Masonry, which are now re- 
 ferred to the second degree, are there given 
 in the first ; and the dedication of the Bible, 
 compass, and square is differently explained. 
 
 In the second degree, the variations of 
 the old from the modern lectures are still 
 greater. The old lecture is, in the first place, 
 very brief, and much instruction deemed 
 important at the present day was then al- 
 together omitted. There is no reference to 
 the distinctions between Operative and 
 Speculative Masonry, (but, as I have al- 
 ready observed, this topic is adverted to in 
 the former lecture ;) the approaches to the 
 middle chamber are very differently ar- 
 ranged ; and not a single word is said of the 
 fords of the river Jordan. It must be con- 
 fessed that the ancient lecture of the Fel- 
 low-Craft is immeasurably inferior to that 
 contained in the modern system, and espe- 
 cially in that of Webb. 
 
 The Andersonian lecture of the third 
 degree is brief, and therefore imperfect. 
 The legend is, of course, referred to. and its 
 explanation occupies nearly the whole of 
 the lecture ; but the details are meagre, and 
 many important facts are omitted, while 
 
LECTURES 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 451 
 
 there are in other points striking differences 
 between the ancient and the present system. 
 
 But, after all, there is a general feature of 
 similarity — a substratum of identity — per- 
 vading the two systems of lectures — the an- 
 cient and the modern — which shows that 
 the one derives its parentage from the other. 
 In fact, some of the answers given in the year 
 1730 are, word for word, the same as those 
 used in America at the present time. 
 
 Yet it was not long before the develop- 
 ments of Masonic science, and the increas- 
 ing intelligence of its disciples, made it 
 necessary to prepare an improved system. 
 The lectures of Anderson and Desaguliers 
 were the production of the infantile age of 
 lecture-making. They were imperfect and 
 unsatisfactory ; and it was determined that 
 a new course should be arranged. Accord- 
 ingly, in 1732, Martin Clare, A. M., was 
 commissioned by the Grand Lodge to pre- 
 pare a system oi lectures, which should be 
 " adapted to the existing state of the Order, 
 without infringing on the ancient land- 
 marks." 
 
 Martin Clare, to whom this important 
 trust was confided, appears to have been a 
 man of learning, or at least of literary 
 habits, as he is recorded as a Master of 
 Arts, and a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 He is first mentioned in Masonic history as 
 one of the Grand Stewards, in 1735. In 
 the same year he was appointed Junior 
 Grand Warden, and delivered an address 
 before the Quarterly Communication of the 
 Grand Lodge. In 1741, he received from 
 the Earl of Morton the appointment of 
 Deputy Grand Master. Oliver says, that 
 his version of the lectures was so judiciously 
 drawn up, that its practice was enjoined on 
 all the Lodges. 
 
 The Clare lectures were, of course, (for 
 that was the object of their compilation,) 
 an amplification and improvement of 
 those of Anderson. In them the symbol 
 of the point within the circle was for the 
 first time mentioned, and the numbers 
 Three, Five, and Seven were introduced, and 
 referred to the Christian Trinity, the hu- 
 man senses, and the institution of the Sab- 
 bath. Subsequently, but at what period 
 we are not informed, these references were 
 changed to the three divisions of the Tem- 
 ple, the five most sacred treasures of the 
 Sanctum Sanctorum, and the seven years 
 occupied in the construction of the Temple. 
 Dr. Oliver says that this change was made 
 by the Jewish Masons. I doubt it, for the 
 Jewish Masons were never in sufficient 
 preponderance in the Order in England to 
 effect so important an alteration. It was 
 made, I rather apprehend, by those sensible 
 brethren who were unwilling to see the cos- 
 mopolitan character of the Institution im- 
 
 paired by any sectarian references in reli- 
 gion. But it must be confessed that, from 
 the time of these lectures to the last ar- 
 rangement by Hemming, there has always 
 been in the Grand Lodge of England a 
 disposition to Christianize Masonry. The 
 system completed by Anderson was com- 
 paratively free from this defect; and we 
 will find in the lectures in use in 1730 
 very few allusions that can be tortured into 
 a religious meaning beyond the universal 
 religion recognized in the charges of 1722. 
 Anderson, in speaking of the winding stairs, 
 had mentioned, as I have already said, only 
 the number seven, which he explained by 
 referring to the fact that "seven or more 
 made a just and perfect Lodge." As to the 
 point within the circle, now one of the 
 most important symbols, he had only al- 
 luded to it, almost parenthetically, when, in 
 describing the Point, Line, Superficies, and 
 Solid as the " four principles of Masonry," 
 he explains the point as being "the centre 
 round which the Master cannot err." It 
 will be readily seen how, since his day, this 
 slight idea has been amplified by modern 
 lecture- makers, beginning with Martin 
 Clare and ending with Thomas Smith 
 Webb. 
 
 But lecture-making seems to have been 
 a popular fancy at that early period of what 
 may be called the Masonic renaissance. 
 The Clare lectures did not very long occupy 
 their authoritative position in the Order. 
 Though longer and more elevated than 
 those of Anderson, they were, in the course 
 of a few years, found to be neither long 
 enough, nor sufficiently elevated, for the in- 
 creasing demands of Masonic progress. 
 
 Accordingly, some time about the year 
 1770, (I am unable precisely to fix the date,) 
 the Grand Lodge of England authorized 
 Thomas Dunckerley, Esq., to prepare a new 
 course of lectures, which were to take the 
 place of those of Martin Clare. 
 
 Dunckerley was a brother of much dis- 
 tinction in those days. Preston calls him 
 " that truly Masonic luminary; " and Oliver 
 says that " he was the oracle of the Grand 
 Lodge, and the accredited interpreter of its 
 Constitutions." He held the position of a 
 Provincial Grand Master, and, for his emi- 
 nent services to the Craft, had been honored 
 by the Grand Lodge with the titular rank 
 of a Past Senior Grand Warden. 
 
 Dunckerley's lectures are said to have 
 been a very considerable amplification of 
 those of Clare. To him is ascribed the 
 adoption of the " lines parallel," as sym- 
 bolic of the two Saints John ; and he also 
 introduced the theological ladder, with its 
 three principal rounds, — a beautiful and 
 instructive symbol, that has been retained 
 to the present day, but imperfectly ex- 
 
452 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 plained. Webb, it is true, referred to its 
 " three principal rounds," leaving room, by 
 implication, for the addition of others. 
 But Cross, who was wholly unacquainted 
 with ancient symbolism, drew a picture, 
 (for which, by the by, he takes great credit,) 
 in which he absolutely made the rounds 
 three in number, and no more; thus fix- 
 ing an incorrect theory on the Masonic 
 mind. The Masonic ladder, like its pro- 
 totype in all the mysteries, consists of 
 seven rounds. 
 
 But by far the most important change 
 made by Dunckerley was in respect to the 
 Master's word. It is known that, in the 
 pursuit of his Masonic studies, he at one 
 time frequented the Ancient or Athol 
 Lodges, whose greatest point of difference 
 from the Moderns was, that they had dis- 
 severed the third degree, and established a 
 portion of it as their fourth, or Royal Arch. 
 Dunckerley was pleased with this arrange- 
 ment, and, inimitation of it, reconstructed 
 Dermott's Royal Arch, and introduced it 
 into the legal Grand Lodge. This of course 
 led to the necessity of transferring the 
 word formerly used in the third to the 
 fourth degree, and confining the former to 
 the substitute. This was undoubtedly an 
 innovation, and was at first received with 
 disapprobation by many brethren ; but in 
 time they became reconciled to the change, 
 which perhaps no one with less influence 
 than Dunckerley could have ventured to 
 propose. 
 
 But even Dunckerley, with all the influ- 
 ence of his talents, and his virtues, and his 
 social position, was at length forced to suc- 
 cumb at the approach of greater lights in 
 Masonry. At the very time that Duncker- 
 ley was establishing his course of lectures 
 in the London and adjacent Lodges, 
 William Hutchinson, as the Master of 
 Bernard Castle Lodge, in the county of 
 Durham, in the north of England, was 
 preparing and using a system of his own, 
 which, on account of its excellence, was 
 readily adopted by many Lodges in his 
 vicinity. What was the precise form of 
 the Hutchinsonian lectures I am unable to 
 say, as no ritual of his is perhaps existing; 
 but their general spirit may well be con- 
 jectured from the admirable treatise which 
 he published in 1775, and which was the 
 most, if not the first, scientific work on 
 Masonry that up to that period had ap- 
 peared in England. From the contents of 
 this book we may collect the ideas which 
 were entertained by the author on the sub- 
 ject of the Institution, and which we have 
 every reason to believe he incorporated 
 into the lectures with which he instructed 
 the Lodge over which he presided. The 
 treatise on the Spirit of Masonry we may 
 
 therefore suppose to be a commentary on 
 his lectures. If so, they introduced for the 
 first time a scientific element into Masonic 
 lectures — an element unknown to those 
 compiled by Anderson and Clare and 
 Dunckerley. Above all, we are indebted 
 to Hutchinson for restoring the ancient 
 symbolism of the third degree, and for 
 showing that, in all past times, its legend 
 was but typical of a resurrection from the 
 grave; a thought that does not seem to 
 have attracted the early lecturers, although 
 always existing in the Masonic system. 
 Even Webb, twenty- five years after Hutch- 
 inson's book appeared, could only find in 
 the legend of the third degree " an instance 
 of virtue, fortitude, and integrity seldom 
 equalled and never excelled in the history 
 of man." And to teach this lesson only 
 was the Institution preserved for centuries. 
 
 Alas 1 for such lectures. 
 
 Eminently philosophical must have been 
 the lectures of Hutchinson, and far su- 
 perior to the meagre details with which the 
 Craft had been previously content. Their 
 influence is undoubtedly still felt in the In- 
 stitution ; if not in its catechetical lec- 
 tures, at all events in the general notions 
 of symbolism which are now entertained 
 by the Craft. 
 
 But while Hutchinson was laboring in 
 the north of England, another light, ot al- 
 most equal splendor, appeared in the south ; 
 and a system of lectures was prepared by 
 William Preston, which soon superseded 
 all those that had previously been in use. 
 It is supposed that Hutchinson and Preston 
 at length united in this undertaking, and 
 that the Prestonian lectures, which were 
 afterwards universally adopted, were the 
 result of the combined labors of the two. 
 If such was the case — and Oliver suggests 
 it, though I know not on what authority — 
 it will rationally account for the fact that 
 the lectures of Hutchinson no longer exist. 
 They were merged in those of Preston. 
 
 The Prestonian lectures, which were ar- 
 ranged by that distinguished writer in 
 the last quarter of the last century, con- 
 tinued to be used authoritatively in Eng- 
 land until the union of the two Grand 
 Lodges in 1813, nor are they yet entirely 
 abandoned in that country. Though not 
 generally accessible to the Craft, they have, 
 it is said, been preserved in their integrity, 
 and the " Prestonian lectures " are annually 
 delivered in London, although now more 
 as a matter of curiosity than of instruction, 
 by a competent brother, who is appointed 
 for that purpose by the Grand Master of 
 England. 
 
 Preston divided the lecture on the first 
 degree into six sections, the second into 
 four, and the third into twelve. But of the 
 
LECTURES 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 453 
 
 twelve sections of the third lecture, seven 
 only strictly appertain to the Master's de- 
 gree, the remaining five referring to the 
 ceremonies of the Order, which, in the 
 American system, are contained in the Past 
 Master's lecture. Preston has recapitulated 
 the subjects of these several lectures in his 
 Illustrations of Masonry ; and if the book 
 were not now so readily accessible, it would 
 be worth while to copy his remarks. It is 
 sufficient, however, to say that he has pre- 
 sented us with a philosophical system of 
 Masonry, which, coming immediately after 
 the unscientific and scanty details which 
 up to his time had been the subjects of 
 Lodge instructions, must have been like 
 the bursting forth of a sun from the midst 
 of midnight darkness. There was no twi- 
 light or dawn to warn the unexpectant Fra- 
 ternity of the light that was about to shine 
 upon them. But at once, without prepara- 
 tion — without any gradual progress or 
 growth from almost nothing to superfluity 
 — the Prestonian lectures were given to 
 the Order in all their fulness of illustra- 
 tion and richness of symbolism and science, 
 as a substitute for the plain and almost un- 
 meaning systems that had previously pre- 
 vailed. Byron I think it was who said that 
 he awoke one morning and found himself 
 famous. Personifying Freemasonry, she 
 too might have said, on the day that Pres- 
 ton propounded his system, that she had 
 been awakened from the sleep of half a cen- 
 tury to find herself a science. Not that 
 Freemasonry had not always been a science, 
 but that for all that time, and longer, her 
 science had been dormant — had been in 
 abeyance. From 1717 the Craft had been 
 engaged in something less profitable, but 
 more congenial than the cultivation of 
 Masonic science. The pleasant suppers, 
 the modicums of punch, the harmony of 
 song, the miserable puns, which would have 
 provoked the ire of Johnson beyond any- 
 thing that Boswell has recorded, left no 
 time for inquiry into abstruser matters. 
 The revelations of Dr. Oliver's square fur- 
 nish us abundant positive evidence of the 
 low state of Masonic literature in those 
 days; and if we need negative proof, we 
 will find it in the entire absence of any 
 readable book on Scientific Masonry, until 
 the appearance of Hutchinson's and Pres- 
 ton's works. Preston's lectures were, there- 
 fore, undoubtedly the inauguration of a 
 new era in the esoteric system of Freema- 
 sonry. 
 
 These lectures continued for nearly half 
 a century to be the authoritative text of the 
 Order in England. But in 1813 the two 
 Grand Lodges — the " Moderns " and the 
 "Ancients," as they were called — after 
 years of antagonism, were happily united, 
 
 and then, as the first exercise of this newly- 
 combined authority, it was determined " to 
 revise " the system of lectures. 
 
 This duty was intrusted to the Rev. Dr. 
 Hemming, the Senior Grand Warden, and 
 the result was the Union or Hemming lec- 
 tures, which are now the authoritative 
 standard of English Masonry. In these 
 lectures many alterations of the Prestonian 
 system were made, and some of the most 
 cherished symbols of the Fraternity were 
 abandoned, as, for instance, the twelve grand 
 points, the initiation of the free born, and the 
 lines parallel. Preston's lectures were re- 
 jected in consequence, it is said, of their 
 Christian references; and Dr. Hemming, 
 in attempting to avoid this error, fell into 
 a greater one, of omitting in his new course 
 some of the important ritualistic landmarks 
 of the Order. Hence it is that many 
 Lodges still prefer the Prestonian to the 
 Hemming lectures, and that the Grand 
 Master still appoints annually a skilful 
 brother to deliver the Prestonian lectures, 
 although the Lodges no longer work under 
 their directions. 
 
 I have thus rapidly run through the his- 
 tory of the changes in the lectures in Eng- 
 land from 1717 to 1813. But all this time 
 there was an undercurrent working with 
 silent influence, of which it is necessary to 
 take some notice. In 1739 a schism oc- 
 curred in England, and the Grand Lodge 
 of Ancient York Masons was established in 
 opposition to the old Grand Lodge. The 
 latter was reproachfully denominated the 
 " Moderns," while the former assumed the 
 name of the " Ancients." The assump- 
 tion made by the latter body (whether cor- 
 rectly or not, this is not the place to inquire) 
 was, that the Moderns had lost, changed, or 
 never knew the true work, especially in the 
 third degree. Of course, under this con- 
 viction, the " Ancients " were compelled, 
 for the sake of consistency at least, to ar- 
 range a set of lectures peculiar to them- 
 selves. Of the history of lecture making 
 in the schismatic body we have no partic- 
 ulars, as the records of that body were not 
 published, as were those of the Moderns by 
 Preston, Smith, Anderson, and his succes- 
 sors. But we know that Laurence Dermott 
 was the Coryphaeus of that band of schis- 
 matics, and to him, as a man of talents 
 and Masonic intelligence, — a man, too, of 
 great zeal and energy, (for, say what we will 
 of him, we cannot deny him that praise,) 
 — it is almost certain that the task of 
 preparing the Ancient lectures must have 
 been intrusted. So, then, while the 
 " Moderns " were practising the systems of 
 Anderson and Clare and Dunckerley, the 
 "Ancients" were contenting themselves 
 with that of Dermott, and did so content 
 
454 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 themselve3, as we have every reason to be- 
 lieve, until the union in 1813, when, per- 
 haps, we are truly to look for the origin of 
 the Hemming lectures in the fact that they 
 were a compromise between the two sys- 
 tems of the Ancients and the Moderns. 
 
 But there is something more that 
 "hangs" upon this history, which it is 
 important for us to know. It has already 
 been seen that Dunckerley visited the 
 Ancient Lodges, and that he derived from 
 them the idea of dissevering the Royal 
 Arch from the Master's degree — an inno- 
 vation which he successfully introduced 
 into the Modern Grand Lodge. Now, to 
 enable him to do this, it was necessary that 
 he should incorporate something of the 
 Ancient lectures into his own. We know 
 this only from logical deduction — our 
 proof is ex necessitate rei — he could not 
 have done otherwise. Adopting Dermott's 
 Royal Arch, he must have adopted Der- 
 mott's illustrations of it, if not in exact 
 words, at least substantially and in spirit. 
 Here was the first influence exerted on the 
 lectures of the Modern Grand Lodge by 
 the system of the Ancients. 
 
 But again: we know that Preston was 
 initiated in a Dermott or Ancient Lodge, 
 and was afterwards induced to withdraw 
 from that body and unite with the Moderns. 
 But we have every reason to suppose that 
 the influences of his early Masonic educa- 
 tion were not altogether forgotten, and that, 
 like a wise man, as he was, in arranging 
 his new system, he " borrowed sweets from 
 every flower," and incorporated the best 
 
 f>arts of the Ancient system, so far as he 
 egally could, into his own. Here, then, was 
 a second instance of the influence exerted 
 by the one society upon the other, all of 
 which must have rendered the compromise 
 in 1813 a matter of still easier accomplish- 
 ment. 
 
 This episode in the history of the lec- 
 tures of the regular system was necessary 
 to enable us to lay a conjectural foundation 
 for the same history in America. I say a 
 " conjectural foundation ; " for in the treat- 
 ment of an esoteric subject like this, where 
 the greatest pains have necessarily been 
 taken to preserve secrecy, and where there 
 are no books of authority, and few manu- 
 scripts to reward our researches, it is abso- 
 lutely necessary that much must be left to 
 conjecture. But this conjecture must be 
 within the bounds of analogical reason. 
 When we conjecture a fact, and assign a 
 reason for the conjecture, we are to be 
 governed by the rules of circumstantial 
 evidence. The reason we assign must not 
 only account in every way for the fact, but 
 it must be the only reason that will. 
 
 I am unable to say definitely what lec- 
 
 tures were generally used in the United 
 States during the last century ; but there is 
 every reason for believing that the full 
 Prestonian lecture was not adopted. In 
 fact, a number of the Lodges in America 
 derived their charters from the Athol 
 Grand Lodge, or from Grand Lodges in 
 correspondence and union with it. Der- 
 mott's Ahiman Rezon was a more popular 
 work among the American Masons than 
 Anderson's Constitutions. The Royal 
 Arch was dissevered from the Master, and 
 given as a distinct degree. And hence we 
 may well suppose that the Dermott lectures 
 were more in use than the Prestonian. 
 This is, however, mere conjecture; for 
 manuscripts anterior to 1800 are rare — 
 perhaps do not exist; and we have no 
 Prichards, or Finches, or Brownes to give 
 us an inkling of the Lodge work in those 
 days. Neither had we any lecture makers 
 among us ; and whatever was first received 
 was retained without other change than 
 that which might have resulted from the 
 infirmity of memory in Masters and lec- 
 turers. 
 
 But in the last decennium of the eigh- 
 teenth century, a lecture maker did arise 
 among the American Masons; and to 
 Thomas Smith Webb we are indebted for 
 our present system of Lodge lectures. 
 
 Webb was a man of some talent — not 
 equal, it is true, to Hutchinson or Preston ; 
 but one who had paid more attention to 
 Masonry, and knew more about it, than any 
 man of his times in this country. It is 
 said, upon what authority I know not, but 
 I think the fact is credible, that he visited 
 England, and obtained instructions from 
 Preston himself. At the same time, such 
 a man would not have undertaken such a 
 voyage without making himself acquainted 
 with the other systems prevailing in Eng- 
 land, and his subsequent course shows that 
 he extended his investigations to the con- 
 tinental science of Masonry as developed 
 in the "hautes grades." On his return 
 home, he availed himself of all these va- 
 ried advantages to compile and arrange 
 that system, not only of lectures, but of 
 degrees, which has ever since been prac- 
 tised in this country. 
 
 The lectures of Webb contained much that 
 was almost a verbal copy of parts of Preston ; 
 but the whole system was briefer, and the 
 paragraphs were framed with an evident 
 view to facility in committing them to 
 memory. It is an herculean task to ac- 
 quire the whole system of Prestonian lec- 
 tures, while that of Webb may be mastered 
 in a comparatively short time, and by much 
 inferior intellects. There have, in conse- 
 quence, in former years, been many " bright 
 Masons" and "skilful lecturers" whose 
 
LEFRANC 
 
 LEGATE 
 
 455 
 
 brightness and skill consisted only in the 
 easy repetition from memory of the set 
 form of phrases established by Webb, and 
 who were otherwise ignorant of all the 
 science, the philosophy, and the history of 
 Masonry. But in the later years, a perfect 
 verbal knowledge of the lectures has not 
 been esteemed so highly in this country as 
 in England, and our most erudite Masons 
 have devoted themselves to the study of 
 those illustrations and that symbolism of 
 the Order which lie outside of the lectures. 
 Book Masonry — that is, the study of the 
 principles of the Institution as any other 
 science is studied, by means of the various 
 treatises which have been written on these 
 subjects — has been, from year to year, get- 
 ting more popular with us ; and the Ameri- 
 can Masonic public is becoming emphati- 
 cally a reading people. 
 
 This is not in any way to be regretted. 
 Nay, it is something upon which we may 
 congratulate ourselves, that a library is be- 
 coming as indispensable to a Masonic stu- 
 dent as a tool-chest to a mechanic. But, 
 at the same time, it is desirable that the 
 lectures, too, which contain, or ought to 
 contain, the elements of the science, should 
 be made the subject of special study. And 
 it is, above all, to be wished that our lec- 
 tures were more scientific — that Webb had 
 made them a little more Prestonian in their 
 character, and that they contained some- 
 thing elevated enough to entice and gratify 
 intellectual Masons. 
 
 The lecture on the third degree is, it is 
 true, less objection al on this ground than 
 the others. It is eminently Hutchinsonian 
 in its character, and contains the bud 
 from which, by a little cultivation, we 
 might bring forth a gorgeous blossom of 
 symbolism. Hence, the third degree has 
 always been the favorite of American Ma- 
 sons. But the lectures of the first and 
 second degrees, the latter particularly, are 
 meagre and unsatisfactory. The explana- 
 tions, for instance, of the form and extent 
 of the Lodge, of its covering, of the theo- 
 logical ladder, and especially of the point 
 within the circle, will disappoint any intel- 
 lectual student who is seeking, in a sym- 
 bolical science, for some rational explana- 
 tion of its symbols that promises to be 
 worthy of his investigations. 
 
 Lefranc. The Abb6 Lefranc, Su- 
 perior of the House of the Eudistes at Caen, 
 was a very bitter enemy of Freemasonry, 
 and the author of two libellous works 
 against Freemasonry, both published in 
 Paris; the first and best known, entitled 
 " Le Voile lev6 pour les curieux, ou le 
 secret des revolutions, r6vele a l'aide de la 
 Franc- Maqonnerie," 1791, (republished at 
 Liege in 1827,) and the other, " Conjura- 
 
 tion contre la religion Catholique et les 
 souverains, dont le projet, conqu eu France, 
 doit s'executer dans l'univers entier," 1792. 
 In these scandalous books, and especially 
 in the former, Lefranc has, to use the lan- 
 guage of Thory, " vomited the most unde- 
 served abuse of the Order." Of the Veil 
 Lifted, the two great detractors of Masonry, 
 Robison and Barruel, entertained different 
 opinions. Robison made great use of it in 
 his Proof 8 of a Conspiracy ; but Barruel, 
 while speaking highly of the Abbe's vir- 
 tues, doubts his accuracy and declines to 
 trust to his authority. Lefranc was slain 
 in the massacre of September 2, at the 
 Convent of the Carmelites, in Paris, with 
 one hundred and ninety-one other priests. 
 Thory {Act, Lat., i. 192,) says that M. Led- 
 hui, a Freemason, who was present at the 
 sanguinary scene, attempted to save the life 
 of Lefranc, and lost his own in the effort. 
 The Abbe' says that, on the death of a 
 friend, who was a zealous Mason and Mas- 
 ter of a Lodge, he found among his papers 
 a collection of Masonic writings contain- 
 ing the rituals of a great many degrees, 
 and from these he obtained the information 
 on which he has based his attacks upon the 
 Order. Some idea may be formed of his 
 accuracy and credibility, from the fact that 
 he asserts that Faustus Socinus, the Father 
 of Modern Unitarianism, was the contriver 
 and inventor of the Masonic system — a 
 theory so absurd that even Robison and 
 Barruel both reject it. 
 
 Left Hand. Among the ancients the 
 left hand was a symbol of equity and jus- 
 tice. Thus, Apuleius, (Met., 1. xi.,) when 
 describing the procession in honor of Isis, 
 says one of the ministers of the sacred rites 
 " bore the symbol of equity, a left hand, 
 fashioned with the palm extended ; which 
 seems to be more adapted to administering 
 equity than the right, from its natural in- 
 ertness, and its being endowed with no 
 craft and no subtlety. 
 
 Left Side. In the symbolism of Ma- 
 sonry, the first degree is represented by the 
 left side, which is to indicate that as the 
 left is the weaker part of the body, so is 
 the Entered Apprentice's degree the weak- 
 est part of Masonry. This doctrine, that 
 the left is the weaker side of the body, is 
 very ancient. Plato says it arises from the 
 fact that the right is more used ; but Aris- 
 totle contends that the organs of the right 
 side are by nature more powerful than 
 those of the left. 
 
 Legally Constituted. See Con- 
 stituted, Legally. 
 
 Legate. In the Middle Ages, a legate, 
 or legatus, was one who was, says Du 
 Cange, (Olossar.,) "in provincias k Prin- 
 cipe ad exercendas judicias mittebalur," 
 
456 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 sent by a prince into the provinces to ex- 
 ercise judicial functions. The word is now 
 applied by the Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite to 
 designate certain persons who are sent 
 into unoccupied territory to propagate 
 the Rite. The word is, however, of recent 
 origin, not having been used before 1866. 
 A legate should be in possession of at least 
 the thirty-second degree. 
 
 Legend. Strictly speaking, a legend, 
 from the Latin, legendus, "to be read," 
 should be restricted to a story that has 
 been committed to writing; but by good 
 usage the word has been applied more 
 extensively, and now properly means a 
 narrative, whether true or false, that has 
 been traditionally preserved from the time 
 of its first oral communication. Such is 
 the definition of a Masonic legend. The 
 authors of the Conversations- Lexicon, refer- 
 ring to the monkish lives of the saints 
 which originated in the twelfth and thir- 
 teenth centuries, say that the title legend 
 was given to all fictions which made pre- 
 tensions to truth. Such a remark, however 
 correct it may be in reference to these 
 monkish narratives, which were often in- 
 vented as ecclesiastical exercises, is by no 
 means applicable to the legends of Free- 
 masonry. These are not necessarily fic- 
 titious, but are either based on actual and 
 historical facts which have been but slightly 
 modified, or they are the offspring and ex- 
 
 {>ansion of some symbolic idea ; in which 
 atter respect they differ entirely from the 
 monastic legends, which often have only 
 the fertile imagination of some studious 
 monk for the basis of their construction. 
 
 The instructions of Freemasonry are 
 given to us in two modes: by the symbol 
 and by the legend. The symbol is a mate- 
 rial, and the legend a mental, representa- 
 tion of a truth. The sources of neither can 
 be in every case authentically traced. 
 Many of them come to us, undoubtedly, 
 from the old Operative Masons of the medi- 
 aeval gilds. But whence they got them is 
 a question that naturally arises, and which 
 still remains unanswered. Others have 
 sprung from a far earlier source ; perhaps, 
 as Creuzer has suggested in his Symbolik, 
 from an effort to engraft higher and purer 
 knowledge on an imperfect religious idea. 
 If so, then the myths of the Ancient Mys- 
 teries, and the legends or traditions of 
 Freemasonry, would have the same remote 
 and the same final cause. They would dif- 
 fer in construction, but they would agree in 
 design. For instance, the myth of Adonis in 
 the Syrian mysteries, and the legend of 
 Hiram Abif in the third degree, would dif- 
 fer very widely in their details ; but the ob- 
 ject of each would be the same, namely, to 
 
 teach the doctrine of the restoration from 
 death to eternal life. 
 
 The legends of Freemasonry constitute 
 a considerable and a very important part 
 of its ritual. Without them, its most valu- 
 able portions as a scientific system would 
 cease to exist. It is, in fact, in the tradi- 
 tions and legends of Freemasonry, more, 
 even, than in its material symbols, that we 
 are to find the deep religious instructions 
 which the Institution is intended to incul- 
 cate. It must be remembered that Free- 
 masonry has been defined to be " a system 
 of morality, veiled in allegory and illus- 
 trated by symbols." Symbols, then, alone, 
 do not constitute the whole of the system : 
 allegory comes in for its share; and this 
 allegory, which veils the divine truths of 
 Masonry, is presented to the neophyte in 
 the various legends which have been tradi- 
 tionally preserved in the Order. 
 
 They may be divided into three classes : 
 1. The Mythical legend. 2. The Philo- 
 sophical legend. 3. The Historical legend. 
 And these three classes may be defined as 
 follows : 
 
 1. The myth may be engaged in the trans- 
 mission of a narrative of early deeds and 
 events having a foundation in truth, which 
 truth, however, has been greatly distorted 
 and perverted by the omission or introduc- 
 tion of circumstances and personages, and 
 then it constitutes the mythical legend. 
 
 2. Or it may have been invented and 
 adopted as the medium of enunciating a 
 particular thought, or of inculcating a cer- 
 tain doctrine, when it becomes a philosophi- 
 cal legend. 
 
 3. Or, lastly, the truthful elements of act- 
 ual history may greatly predominate over 
 the fictitious and invented materials of the 
 myth; and the narrative may be, in the 
 main, made up of facts, with a slight color- 
 ing of imagination, when it forms a histori- 
 cal legend. 
 
 Legend of Enoch. See Enoch. 
 
 Legend of Euclid. See Euclid. 
 
 Legend of the Craft. The Old 
 Records of the Fraternity of Operative 
 Freemasons, under the general name of 
 " Old Constitutions" or " Constitutions of 
 Masonry," were written in the fourteenth, 
 fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth cen- 
 turies. The loss of many of these by the 
 indiscretion of over-zealous brethren was 
 deplored by Anderson ; but a few of them 
 have been long known to us, and many 
 more have been recently recovered, by the 
 labors of such men as Hughan, from the 
 archives of old Lodges and from manu- 
 script collections in the British Museum. 
 In these is to be found a history of Free- 
 masonry ; full, it is true, of absurdities and 
 anachronisms, and yet exceedingly inter- 
 
LEGEND 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 457 
 
 esting, as giving us the belief of our an- 
 cient brethren on the subject of the origin 
 of the Order. This history has been called 
 by Masonic writers the " Legend of the 
 Craft," because it is really a legendary 
 narrative, having little or no historic au- 
 thenticity. In all these "Old Constitu- 
 tions," the legend is substantially the same ; 
 showing, evidently, a common origin ; most 
 probably an oral teaching which prevailed 
 in the earliest ages of the confraternity. In 
 giving it, I have selected that contained in 
 what is called the Dowland Manuscript, be- 
 cause it is believed to be a copy of an older 
 one of the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, and because its rather modernized 
 spelling makes it more intelligible to the 
 general reader. 
 
 THE LEGEND OF THE CRAFT. 
 
 " Before Noyes floode there was a man 
 called Lameche as it is written in the Byble, 
 in the iiij" 1 chapter of Genesis ; and this 
 Lameche had two wives, and the one height 
 Ada and the other height Sella ; by his first 
 wife Ada he gott two sonns, and that one 
 Jabell, and thother Tuball. And by that 
 other wife Sella he gott a son and a daugh- 
 ter. All these four children founden the 
 begining of all the sciences in the world. 
 And this elder son Jabell found the science 
 of Geometrie, and he departed flocks of 
 sheepe and lambs in the field, and first 
 wrought house of stone and tree, as is 
 noted in the chapter above said. And his 
 brother Tuball found the science of Mu- 
 sicke, songe of tonge, harpe, and orgaine. 
 And the third brother Tuball Cain found 
 Smithcraft of gold, silver, copper, iron, and 
 Steele; and the daughter found the craft of 
 Weavinge. And these children knew well 
 that God would take vengeance for synn, 
 either by fire or by water ; wherefore they 
 writt their science that they had found in 
 two pillars of stone, that they might be 
 found after Noyes flood. And that one 
 stone was marble, for that would not bren 
 with fire. And that other stone was clep- 
 ped laterns, and would not drown in noe 
 water. 
 
 " Our intent is to tell you trulie how and 
 in what manner these stones were found, 
 that thise science were written in. The 
 great Hermarynes that was Cubys son, the 
 which Cub was Sem's sonn, that was Noy's 
 son. This Hermarynes, afterwards was 
 called Harmes the father of wise men : he 
 found one of the two pillars of stone, and 
 found the science written there, and he 
 taught it to other men. And at the making 
 of the Tower of Babylon there was Ma- 
 sonrye first made much of. And the Kinge 
 of Babylon that height Nemrothe, was a 
 mason himselfe ; and loved well the science, 
 3H 
 
 and it is said with masters of histories. 
 And when the City of Nyneve, and other 
 cities of the East should be made, Nem- 
 rothe, the King of Babylon, sent thither 
 threescore Masons at the rogation of the 
 King of Nyneve his cosen. And when he 
 sent them forth, he gave them a charge on 
 this manner: That they should be true 
 each of them to other, and that they should 
 love truly together, and that they should 
 serve their lord truly for their pay; soe 
 that the master may have worshipp, and 
 that long to him. And other moe charges 
 he gave them. And this was the first tyme 
 that ever Mason had any charge of his 
 science. 
 
 " Moreover, when Abraham and Sara his 
 wife went into Egipt, there he taught the 
 Seaven Sciences to the Egiptians; and he 
 had a worthy Scoller that height Ewclyde, 
 and he learned right well, and was a master 
 of all the vij Sciences liberall. And in his 
 dayes it befell that the lord and the estates 
 of the realme had soe many sonns that 
 they had gotten some by their wifes and 
 some by other laydes of the realme; for 
 that land is a hott land and a plentious of 
 generacion. And they had not competent 
 livehode to find with their children; where- 
 for they made much care. And then the 
 King of the land made a great counsell and 
 a parliament, to witt, how they might find 
 their children honestly as gentlemen. And 
 they could find no manner of good way. And 
 then they did crye through all the realme, 
 if there were any man that could enforme 
 them, that he should come to them, and 
 he should be soe rewarded for his travail, 
 that he should hold him pleased. 
 
 " After that this cry was made, then came 
 this worthy clarke Ewclyde, and said to the 
 King and to all his great lords : ' If yee 
 will, take me your children to governe, 
 and to teache them one of the Seaven Sci- 
 ences, wherewith they may live honestly as 
 gentlemen should, under a condicion that 
 yee will grant me and them a commission 
 that I may have power to rule them after 
 the manner that the science ought to be 
 ruled.' And that the King and all his 
 counsell granted to him anone, and sealed 
 their commission. And then this worthy 
 tooke to him these lords' sonns, and taught 
 them the science of Geometrie in practice, 
 for to work in stones all manner of worthy 
 worke that belongeth to buildinge churches, 
 temples, castells, towres, and mannors, and 
 all other manner of buildings ; and he gave 
 them a charge on this manner : 
 
 " The first was, that they should be true 
 to the Kinge, and to the lord that they owe. 
 And that they should love well together, 
 and be true each one to other. And that 
 they should call each other his felloe, or 
 
458 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 else brother, and not by servant, nor his 
 knave, nor none other foule name. And 
 that truly they should deserve their paie of 
 the lord, or of the master that they serve. 
 And that they should ordaine the wisest of 
 them to be master of the worke; and 
 neither for love nor great lynneadge, ne 
 riches ne for no favour to lett another that 
 hath little conning for to be master of the 
 lord's worke, wherethrough the lord should 
 be evill served and they ashamed. And 
 also that they should call the governors of 
 the worke, Master, in the time that they 
 worke with him. And other many moe 
 charges that longe to tell. And to all these 
 charges he made them to sweare a great oath 
 that men used in that time; and ordayned 
 them for reasonable wages, that they might 
 live honestly by. And also that they should 
 come and semble together every yeare once, 
 how they might worke best to serve the 
 lord for his profitt, and to their owne wor- 
 shipp; and to correct within themselves 
 him that had trespassed against the sci- 
 ence. And thus was the science grounded 
 there; and that worthy Master Ewclyde 
 gave it the name of Geometrie. And now 
 it is called through all this land Masonrye. 
 " Sythen longe after, when the Children 
 of Israeli were coming into the Land of 
 Beheast, that is now called amongst us the 
 Country of Jhrlm, Kinge David began the 
 Temple that they called Templum D'ni and 
 it is named with us the Temple of Jerusa- 
 lem. And the same King David loved 
 Masons well and cherished them much, and 
 gave them good paie. And he gave the 
 charges and the manners he had learned of 
 Egipt given by Ewclyde, and other moe 
 charges, that ye shall heare afterward. 
 And after the decease of Kinge David, Sal- 
 amon, that was David's sonn, performed 
 out the Temple that his father begonne; 
 and sent after Masons into divers coun- 
 tries and of divers lands; and gathered 
 them together, so that he had fourscore 
 thousand workers of stone, and were all 
 named Masons. And he chose out of them 
 three thousand that were ordayned to be 
 Maisters and governors of his worke. And 
 furthermore, there was a Kinge of another 
 region that men called Iram, and he loved 
 well Kinge Solomon, and he gave him 
 tymber to his worke. And he had a son 
 that height Anyon, and he was a Master 
 of Geometrie, and was chief Master of all 
 his Masons, and was Master of all his 
 gravings and carvinge, and of all other 
 manner of Masonrye that longed to the 
 Temple; and this is witnessed by the 
 Bible, in libro Begum the third chapter. 
 And this Solomon confirmed both charges 
 and the manners that his father had given 
 to Masons. And thus was that worthy sci- 
 
 ence of Masonrye confirmed in the country 
 of Jerusalem, and in many other kingdomes. 
 "Curious craftsmen walked about full 
 wide into divers countryes, some because 
 of learning more craft and cunninge, and 
 some to teach them that had but little 
 cunynge. And soe it befell that there was 
 one curious Mason that height Maymus 
 Grecus, that had beene at the making of 
 Solomon's Temple, and he came into 
 Fraunce, and there he taught the science 
 of Masonrye to men of Fraunce. And 
 there was one of the Regal lyne of Fraunce, 
 that height Charles Martell ; and he was a 
 man that loved well such a science, and 
 drew to this Maymus Grecus that is above- 
 said, and learned of him the science, and 
 tooke upon him the charges and manners ; 
 and afterwards, by the grace of God, he 
 was elect to be Kinge of Fraunce. And 
 when he was in his estate he tooke Ma- 
 sons, and did helpe to make men Masons 
 that were none; and set them to worke, 
 and gave them both the charge and the 
 manners and good paie, as he had learned 
 of other Masons; and confirmed them a 
 Charter from yeare to yeare, to hold their 
 cemble wher they would; and cherished 
 them right much; And thus came the 
 science into Fraunce. 
 
 " England in all this season stood voyd as 
 for any charge of Masonrye unto St. Al- 
 bones tyme. And in his days the King of 
 England that was a Pagan, he did wall the 
 towne about that is called Sainct Albones. 
 And Sainct Albones was a worthy knight, 
 and steward with the Kinge of his House- 
 hold, and had governance of the realme, 
 and also of the making of the town walls ; 
 and loved well Masons and cherished them 
 much. And he made their paie right good, 
 standinge as the realm did, for he gave 
 them ijs. vjrf. a weeke, and iijc?. to their 
 nonesynches. And before that time, 
 through all this land, a Mason took but 
 a penny a day and his meate, till Sainct 
 Albones amanded it, and gave them a 
 chartour of the Kinge and his counsell for 
 to hold a general councell, and gave it the 
 name of Assemble; and thereat he was 
 himselfe, and helped to make Masons, and 
 gave them charges as yee shall heare after- 
 ward. 
 
 " Right soone after the decease of Sainct 
 Albone, there came divers wars into the 
 realme of England of divers Nations, soe 
 that the good rule of Masonrye was de- 
 stroyed unto the tyme of Kinge Athel- 
 stone's days that was a worthy Kinge of 
 England and brought this land into good 
 rest and peace; and builded many great 
 works of Abbyes and Towres, and other 
 many divers buildings; and loved well 
 Masons. And he had a son that height 
 
LEGEND 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 4o9 
 
 Edwinne, and he loved Masons much more 
 than his father did. And he was a great 
 practiser in Geometry ; and he drew much 
 to talke and to commune with Masons, 
 and to learn of them science ; and after- 
 wards, for love that he had to Masons, and 
 to the science, he was made a Mason, and 
 he gatt of the Kinge his father a chartour 
 and commission to hold every yeare once 
 an Assemble, wher they ever would within 
 the realme of England; and to correct 
 within themselves defaults and trespasses 
 that were done within the science. And he 
 held himself an Assemble at Yorke, and 
 there he made Masons, and gave them 
 charges, and taught them the manners, 
 and commanded that rule to be kept 
 ever after, and tooke then the chartour and 
 commission to keepe, and made ordinance 
 that it should be renewed from kinge to 
 kinge. 
 
 " And when the assemble was gathered 
 he made a cry that all old Masons and 
 young that had any writeinge or under- 
 standing of the charges and the manners 
 that were made before in this land or in 
 any other, that they should show them 
 forth. And when it was proved, there were 
 founden some in Frenche, and some in 
 Greek, and some in English, and some in 
 other languages ; and the intent of them 
 all was founden all one. And he did make 
 a booke thereof, and how the science was 
 founded. And he himselfe had and com- 
 manded that it should be readd or tould, 
 when that any Mason should be made, for 
 to give him his charge. And fro that day 
 unto this tyme manners of Masons have 
 been kept in that form as well as men 
 might governe it. And furthermore divers 
 Assembles have beene put and ordayned 
 certaine charges by the best advice of Mas- 
 ters and fellowes." 
 
 If any one carefully examines this le- 
 gend, he will find that it is really a history 
 of the rise and progress of architecture, with 
 which is mixed allusions to the ancient 
 gilds of the Operative Masons. Geometry 
 also, as a science essentially necessary to 
 the proper cultivation of architecture, re- 
 ceives a due share of attention. In thus 
 confounding architecture, geometry, and 
 Freemasonry, the workmen of the Middle 
 Ages were but obeying a natural instinct 
 which leads every man to seek to elevate 
 the character of his profession, and to give 
 to it an authentic claim to antiquity. It is 
 this instinct which has given rise to so 
 much of the mythical element in the mod- 
 ern history of Masonry. Anderson has 
 thus written his records in the very spirit 
 of the legend of the Craft, and Preston and 
 Oliver have followed his example. Hence 
 this legend derives its great importance 
 
 from the fact that it has given a complexion 
 to all subsequent Masonic history. In dis- 
 secting it with critical hands, we shall be 
 enabled to dissever its historical from its 
 mythical portions, and assign to it its true 
 value as an exponent of the Masonic senti- 
 ment of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Legend of the Gild. A title by 
 which the Legend of the Craft is some- 
 times designated in reference to the Gild 
 of Operative Masons. 
 
 Legend of the Royal Areh De- 
 gree. Much of this legend is a myth, 
 having very little foundation, and some of 
 it none, in historical accuracy. But under- 
 neath it all there lies a profound stratum of 
 philosophical symbolism. The destruction 
 and the rebuilding of the Temple by the 
 efforts of Zerubbabel and his compatriots, 
 the captivity and the return of the captives, 
 are matters of sacred history ; but many of 
 the details have been invented and intro- 
 duced for the purpose of giving form to a 
 symbolic idea. And this idea, expressed 
 in the symbolism of the Royal Arch, is the 
 very highest form of that which the ancient 
 Mystagogues called the eurem, or the dis- 
 covery. There are some portions of the 
 legend which do not bear directly on 
 the symbolism of the second Temple as 
 a type of the second life, but which still 
 have an indirect bearing on the general 
 idea. Thus the particular legend of the 
 three weary sojournens is undoubtedly a mere 
 myth, there being no known historical tes- 
 timony for its support ; but it is evidently 
 the enunciation symbolically of the reli- 
 gious and philosophical idea that divine 
 truth may be sought and won only by suc- 
 cessful perseverance through all the dan- 
 gers, trials, and tribulatious of life, and that 
 it is not in this, but in the next life, that it 
 is fully attained. 
 
 The legend of the English and the 
 American systems is identical ; that of the 
 Irish is very different as to the time and 
 events; and the legend of the Royal Arch 
 of the Scottish Rite is more usually called 
 the legend of Enoch. 
 
 Legend of the Third Degree. 
 The most important and significant of the 
 legendary symbols of Freemasonry is, un- 
 doubtedly, that which relates to the fate of 
 Hiram Abif, commonly called, " by way of 
 excellence," the Legend of the Third De- 
 gree. 
 
 The first written record that I have been 
 able to find of this legend is contained in 
 the second edition of Anderson's Constitu- 
 tions, published in 1738, and is in these 
 words: 
 
 "It (the Temple) was finished in the 
 short space of seven years and six months, 
 to the amazement of all the world ; when 
 
460 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 the capestone was celebrated by the Fra- 
 ternity with great joy. But their joy was 
 soon interrupted by the sudden death of 
 their dear master, Hiram Abif, whom they 
 decently interred in the Lodge near the 
 Temple, according to ancient usage." 
 
 In the next edition of the same work, 
 published in 1754, a few additional circum- 
 stances are related, such as the participa- 
 tion of King Solomon in the general grief, 
 and the fact that the King of Israel or- 
 dered his obsequies to be conducted with 
 great solemnity and decency." With these 
 exceptions, and the citations of the same 
 passages, made by subsequent authors, the 
 narrative has always remained unwritten, 
 and descended, from age to age, through 
 the means of oral tradition. 
 
 The legend has been considered of so 
 much importance that it has been preserved 
 in the symbolism of every Masonic rite. No 
 matter what modifications or alterations 
 the general system may have undergone — 
 no matter how much the ingenuity or the 
 imagination of the founders of rites may 
 have perverted or corrupted other symbols, 
 abolishing the old and substituting new 
 ones — the legend of the Temple Builder 
 has ever been left untouched, to present 
 itself in all the integrity of its ancient 
 mythical form. 
 
 What, then, is the signification of this 
 symbol so important and so extensively 
 diffused ? What interpretation can we give 
 to it that will account for its universal 
 adoption ? How is it that it has thus be- 
 come so intimately interwoven with Free- 
 masonry as to make, to all appearances, a 
 part of its very essence, and to have been 
 always deemed inseparable from it? 
 
 To answer these questions satisfactorily, 
 it is necessary to trace, in a brief investiga- 
 tion, the remote origin of the institution of 
 Freemasonry and its connection with the 
 ancient systems of initiation. 
 
 It was, then, the object of all the rites 
 and mysteries of antiquity to teach the doc- 
 trine of the immortality of the soul. This 
 dogma, shining as an almost solitary beacon- 
 light in the surrounding gloom of Pagan 
 darkness, had undoubtedly been received 
 from that ancient people or priesthood, 
 among whom it probably existed only in 
 the form of an abstract proposition or a 
 simple and unembellished tradition. But 
 in the more sensual minds of the Pagan 
 philosophers and mystics, the idea, when 
 presented to the initiates in their mysteries, 
 was always conveyed in the form of a scenic 
 representation. The influence, too, of the 
 early Sabian worship of the sun and heav- 
 enly bodies, in which the solar orb was 
 adored on its resurrection, each morning, 
 from the apparent death of its evening set- 
 
 ting, caused this rising sun to be adopted 
 in the more ancient mysteries as a symbol 
 of the regeneration of the soul. 
 
 Thus, in the Egyptian mysteries we find 
 a representation of the death and subse- 
 quent regeneration of Osiris ; in the Phoe- 
 nician, of Adonis ; in the Syrian, of Dio- 
 nysus ; in all of which the scenic apparatus 
 of initiation was intended to indoctrinate 
 the candidate into the dogma of a future life. 
 
 It will be sufficient here to refer to the 
 theory of Oliver, that through the instru- 
 mentality of the Tyrian workmen at the 
 Temple of King Solomon, what he calls the 
 spurious and pure branches of the Masonic 
 system were united at Jerusalem, and that 
 the same method of scenic representation 
 was adopted by the latter from the former, 
 and the narrative of the Temple Builder 
 substituted for that of Dionysus, . which 
 was the myth peculiar to the mysteries 
 practised by the Tyrian workmen. 
 
 The idea, therefore, proposed to be com- 
 municated in the myth of the ancient mys- 
 teries was the same as that which is now 
 conveyed in the Masonic legend of the 
 third degree. 
 
 Hence, then, Hiram Abif is, in the Ma- 
 sonic system, the symbol of human nature, 
 as developed in the life here and the life to 
 come; and so, while the Temple was the 
 visible symbol of the world, its builder be- 
 came the mythical symbol of man, the 
 dweller and worker in that world. 
 
 Man, setting forth on the voyage of life, 
 with faculties and powers fitting him for 
 the due exercise of the high duties to 
 whose performance he has been called, 
 holds, if he be "a curious and cunning 
 workman," skilled in all moral and in- 
 tellectual purposes, (and it is only of such 
 men that the Temple Builder can be the 
 symbol,) within the grasp of his attainment, 
 the knowledge of all that divine truth im- 
 parted to him as the heir-loom of his race — 
 that race to whom it has been granted to look, 
 with exalted countenance, on high ; which 
 divine truth is symbolized by the word. 
 
 Thus provided, with the word of life, he 
 occupies his time in the construction of a 
 spiritual temple, and travels onward in the 
 faithful discharge of all his duties, laying 
 down his designs upon the trestle- board of 
 the future, and invoking the assistance and 
 direction of God. 
 
 But is his path always over flowery 
 meads and through pleasant groves? Is 
 there no hidden foe to obstruct his progress? 
 Is all before him clear and calm, with joy- 
 ous sunshine and refreshing zephyrs? Alas ! 
 not so. "Man is born to trouble, as the 
 sparks fly upward." At every "gate of 
 life" — as the Orientalists have beautifully 
 called the different ages — he is beset by 
 
LEGEND 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 461 
 
 peril. Temptations allure his youth ; mis- 
 fortunes darken the pathway of his man- 
 hood, and his old age is encumbered with 
 infirmity and disease. But clothed in the 
 armor of virtue he may resist the tempta- 
 tion; he may cast misfortunes aside and 
 rise triumphantly above them ; but to the 
 last — the direst, the most inexorable foe 
 of his race — he must eventually yield, and, 
 stricken down by death, he sinks prostrate 
 into the grave, and is buried in the rubbish 
 of his sin and human frailty. 
 
 Here then, in Masonry, is what was 
 called the aphanism, concealment or disap- 
 pearance in the Ancient Mysteries. The 
 bitter, but necessary lesson of death has 
 been imparted. The living soul, with the 
 lifeless body which encased it, has disap- 
 peared, and can nowhere be found. All is 
 darkness — confusion — despair. Divine 
 truth — the word — for a time is lost, and 
 the Master Mason may now say, in the 
 language of Hutchinson " I prepare my 
 sepulchre. I make my grave in the pollu- 
 tion of the earth. I am under the shadow 
 of death." 
 
 But if the mythic symbolism ended here, 
 with this lesson of death, then were the 
 lesson incomplete. That teaching would 
 be vain and idle — nay more, it would be 
 corrupt and pernicious — which should 
 stop short of the conscious and innate in- 
 stinct for another existence. And hence 
 the succeeding portions of the legend are 
 intended to convey the sublime symbolism 
 of a resurrection from the grave and a new 
 birth into a future life. The discovery of 
 the body, which, in the initiations of the 
 ancient mysteries, was called the euresis ; 
 and its removal, from the polluted grave 
 into which it had been cast, to an honored 
 and sacred place within the precincts of the 
 temple, are all profoundly and beautifully 
 symbolic of that great truth, the discovery 
 of which was the object of all the ancient 
 initiations, as it is almost the whole design 
 of Freemasonry, namely, that when man 
 shall have passed the gates of life and have 
 yielded to the inexorable fiat of death, he 
 shall then (not in the pictured ritual of 
 an earthly Lodge, but in the realities of 
 that eternal one, of which the former is 
 but an antitype,) be raised, at the omnific 
 word of the Grand Master of the Universe, 
 from time to eternity — from the tomb of 
 corruption to the chambers of hope — from 
 the darkness of death to the celestial beams 
 of life — and that his disembodied spirit 
 shall be conveyed as near to the holy of 
 holies of the divine presence as humanity 
 can ever approach to deity. 
 
 Such I conceive to be the true interpre- 
 tation of the symbolism of the legend of 
 the third degree. 
 
 I have said that this mythical history of the 
 Temple Builder was universal in all nations 
 and all rites, and that in no place and at 
 no time had it, by alteration, diminution, 
 or addition, acquired any essentially new or 
 different form: the myth has always re- 
 mained the same. 
 
 But it is not so with its interpretation. 
 That which I have just given, and which I 
 conceive to be the correct one, has been 
 very generally adopted by the Masons of 
 this country. But elsewhere, and by va- 
 rious writers, other interpretations have 
 been made, very different in their charac- 
 ter, although always agreeing in retaining 
 the general idea of a resurrection or regen- 
 eration, or a restoration of something from 
 an inferior to a higher sphere or function. 
 
 Thus, some of the earlier continental 
 writers have supposed the myth to have 
 been a symbol of the destruction of the 
 Order of the Templars, looking upon its 
 restoration to its original wealth and dig- 
 nities as being prophetically symbolized. 
 
 In some of the high philosophical de- 
 grees it is taught that the whole legend re- 
 fers to the sufferings and death, with the 
 subsequent resurrection of Christ. 
 
 Hutchinson, who has the honor of being 
 the earliest philosophical writer on Free- 
 masonry in England, supposes it to have 
 been intended to embody the idea of the 
 decadence of the Jewish religion and the 
 substitution of the Christian in its place 
 and on its ruins. 
 
 Dr. Oliver thinks that it is typical of the 
 murder of Abel and Cain, and that it sym- 
 bolically refers to the universal death of 
 our race through Adam and its restoration 
 to life in the Redeemer, according to the 
 expression of the Apostle, " as in Adam we 
 all died, so in Christ we all live." 
 
 Ragon makes Hiram a symbol of the sun 
 shorn of its vivifying rays and fructifying 
 power by the three winter months, and its 
 restoration to prolific heat by the season of 
 spring. 
 
 And, finally, Des Etangs, adopting, in 
 part, the interpretation of Ragon, adds to 
 it another which he calls the moral sym- 
 bolism of the legend, and supposes that 
 Hiram is no other than eternal reason, 
 whose enemies are the vices that deprave 
 and destroy humanity. 
 
 To each of these interpretations it seems 
 to me that there are important objections, 
 though perhaps to some less so than to 
 others. 
 
 As to those who seek for an astronomical 
 interpretation of the legend, in which the 
 annual changes of the sun are symbolized, 
 while the ingenuity with which they press 
 their argument cannot but be admired, it 
 is evident that, by such an interpretation, 
 
462 
 
 LEGISLATION 
 
 LELAND 
 
 they yield all that Masonry has gained of 
 religious development in past ages, and fall 
 back upon that corruption and perversion 
 of Sabaistn from which it was the object, 
 even of the Spurious Freemasonry of anti- 
 quity, to rescue its disciples. 
 
 The Templar interpretation of the myth 
 must at once be discarded if we would 
 avoid the difficulties of anachronism, unless 
 we deny that the legend existed before the 
 abolition of the Order of Knights Templars, 
 and such denial would be fatal to the anti- 
 quity of Freemasonry. 
 
 And as to the adoption of the Christian 
 reference, Hutchinson and, after him, Oli- 
 ver, profoundly philosophical as are the Ma- 
 sonic speculations of both, have, I am con- 
 strained to believe, fallen into a great error 
 in calling the Master Mason's degree a 
 Christian institution. It is true that it 
 embraces within its scheme the great 
 truths of Christianity upon the subject of 
 the immortality of the soul and the resur- 
 rection of the body ; but this was to be pre- 
 sumed, because Freemasonry is truth, and 
 Christianity is truth, and all truth must be 
 identical. But the origin of each is differ- 
 ent; their historias are dissimilar. The 
 creed of Freemasonry is the primitive one 
 of Noah and his immediate descendants. 
 If Masonry were simply a Christian insti- 
 tution, the Jew and the Moslem, the Brah- 
 man and the Buddhist, could not conscien- 
 tiously partake of it3 illumination ; but its 
 universality is its boast. In its language, 
 citizens of every nation may converse ; at 
 its altar men of all religions may kneel ; 
 to its creed, disciples of every faith may 
 subscribe. 
 
 But the true ancient interpretation of 
 the legend — the universal, Masonic one — 
 for all countries and all ages undoubtedly 
 was that the fate of the Temple Builder is 
 but figurative of the pilgrimage of man 
 on earth, through trials and temptations, 
 through sin and sorrow, until his eventual 
 fall beneath the blow of death and his final 
 and glorious resurrection to another and 
 an eternal life. 
 
 And now, in conclusion, a word of histor- 
 ical criticism may not be misplaced. It is 
 not at all essential to the value of the sym- 
 bolism that the legend shall be proved to be 
 historical. Whether considered as a truth- 
 ful narrative of an event that actually 
 transpired during the building of the Tem- 
 ple, or simply as a myth embodying the 
 utterance of a religious sentiment, the 
 symbolic lesson of life and death and im- 
 mortality is still contained in its teachings, 
 and commands our earnest attention. 
 
 Legislation. On the subject of that 
 crying sin of the Order, — over-legislation 
 by Grand Lodges, — Gov. Thomas Brown, 
 
 formerly Grand Master of Florida, has 
 wisely said : " Too much legislation is the 
 vice of the present day, as well in Masonio 
 as in civil government. The same thirst 
 for change and innovation which has 
 prompted tyros and demagogues to legislate 
 upon constitutional law, and write exposi- 
 tions of the common law, has prompted un- 
 informed and unscrupulous Masons to leg- 
 islate upon the landmarks of Masonry." 
 
 Lelirling. German for an Entered 
 Apprentice. 
 
 Iceland, John. An eminent Eng- 
 lish antiquary, the chaplain of King 
 Henry VIII., who appointed him "King's 
 Antiquary," a title which he was the first 
 and last to bear. The king also directed 
 him to search after the antiquities of Eng- 
 land, " and peruse the libraries of all cathe- 
 drals, abbies, priories, colleges, etc., as also 
 all places wherein records, writings, and 
 secrets of antiquity were deposited." Le- 
 land, accordingly, travelled over England 
 for several years, and made many collections 
 of manuscripts, which were afterwards de- 
 posited in the Bodleian Library. He was a 
 man of great learning and industry. He 
 was born in London in the beginning of 
 the sixteenth century, (the exact year is 
 uncertain,) and died on the 18th of April, 
 1552. Anthony Wood says that he was 
 by far the most eminent historian and anti- 
 quary ever born in England. His connec- 
 tion with Freemasonry arises from the 
 manuscript containing the questions of 
 King Henry VI., which he is said to have 
 copied from the original. See Leland Man- 
 uscript. 
 
 Leland Manuscript. There is no 
 one of the old Records of Freemasonry, ex- 
 cept, perhaps, the Charter of Cologne, that 
 has given rise to more controversy among 
 the critics than the one generally known as 
 the " Leland Manuscript." It derives this 
 name from the statement made in its title, 
 which is: "Certayne questyons with an- 
 sweres to the same, concernynge the mys- 
 tery of maconrye ; wryttene by the hande 
 of Kynge Henry the Sixthe of the name, 
 and faythfullye copied by me, Johan Ley- 
 lande Antiquarius, by the commaunde of 
 His Highnesse." It first appeared in the 
 Gentleman's Magazine for 1753, (p. 417,) 
 where it purports to be a reprint of a pam- 
 phlet published five years before at Frank- 
 fort. The title of the paper in the Gentle- 
 man's Magazine is : " Copy of a small pam- 
 phlet, consisting of twelve pages in 8vo, 
 printed in Germany in 1748, entitled ' Ein 
 Brief von dem bertlhmten Heren Heren 
 Johann Locke betreffend die Frey-Maure- 
 rein. So auf einem Schreib-Tisch eines 
 verstorbnen Bruders ist gefunden worden.' " 
 That is, " A Letter of the famous Mr. John 
 
LELAND 
 
 LELAND 
 
 463 
 
 Locke relating to Freemasonry. As found 
 in the writing-desk of a deceased brother." 
 Hearne copied it in his Life of Leland, (p. 
 67,) prefacing it with the remark that "it 
 also appears that an ancient manuscript o£. 
 Leland's has long remained in the Bod- 
 leian Library, unnoticed in any account of 
 our author yet published." Hearne speaks 
 of it thus : 
 
 "The original is said to be in the hand- 
 writing of King Henry VI., and copied by 
 Leland by order of His Highness (King 
 Henry VIII.). If the authenticity of this 
 ancient monument of literature remains 
 unquestioned, it demands particular notice 
 in the present publication, on account of 
 the singularity of the subject, and no less 
 from a due regard to the royal writer, and 
 our author, his transcriber, indefatigable 
 in every part of literature : it will also be 
 admitted acknowledgment is due to the 
 learned Mr. Locke, who, amidst the closest 
 studies and the most strict attention to hu- 
 man understanding, could unbend his mind 
 in search of this ancient treatise, which he 
 first brought from obscurity in the year 
 1696." 
 
 The Manuscript purports to be a series of 
 questions proposed by Henry VI. and an- 
 swers given by the Masons. It is accom- 
 panied by an introductory letter and a 
 commentary by Mr. Locke, together with 
 a glossary of the archaic words. The best 
 account of the Manuscript is contained in 
 the letter of Locke to a nobleman, said to 
 be the Earl of Pembroke, dated May 6th, 
 1696, in which, after stating that he had 
 
 Erocured a copy of it from the Bodleian 
 library, he adds : 
 
 " The Manuscript of which this is a copy 
 appears to be about one hundred and sixty 
 years old ; yet (as your Lordship will ob- 
 serve by the title) it is itself a copy of one 
 yet more ancient by about one hundred 
 years. For the original is said to have 
 been in the handwriting of King Henry 
 the VI. Where that prince had it is an 
 uncertainty; but it seems to me to be an 
 examination (taken, perhaps, before the 
 King) of some one of the Brotherhood of 
 Masons, among whom he entered himself, 
 as 'tis said, when he came out of his mi- 
 nority, and thenceforth put a stop to a per- 
 secution that had been raised against 
 them?" 
 
 After its appearance in the Gentleman's 
 Magazine, which first introduced the knowl- 
 edge of it to the world, and in Hearne's Life 
 of Leland, who evidently copied it from 
 the Magazine, it next appeared, in 1764, in 
 the Pocket Companion, and in 1769 in Cal- 
 cott's Candid Disquisition. In 1775, Hutch- 
 inson introduced it into his Spirit of Ma- 
 sonry. Dermott published it in his Ahiman 
 
 Rezon, and Preston in his Illustrations. 
 Noorthouck, in 1784, embodied it in his 
 edition of the Constitutions; and it has 
 since been repeatedly published in England 
 and America, so that the Craft have had 
 every opportunity of becoming familiar 
 with its contents. Translations of it have 
 also been given in French by Thory, in his 
 Acta Latomorum; in German by Lenning, 
 in his Encyclopddie ; by Krause, in his 
 Kunsturkunden, and also by Fessler and 
 several other French and German writers. 
 
 This document — so important, if true, as 
 a record of the condition of Freemasonry 
 in the beginning of the fifteenth century — 
 has been from an early period attacked 
 and defended with equal vehemence by 
 those who have denied and those who have 
 maintained its authenticity. As early as 
 1787, the Baron de Chefdebien, in a dis- 
 course entitled Recherches Maconniques a 
 V usage des Freres de Regime primif de Nar- 
 bonne, read before the Congress of the 
 Philalethans, attacked the authenticity of 
 the document. Thory also, although ac- 
 knowledging that he wished that the Man- 
 uscript was true, presented his objections 
 to its authenticity in a memoir read in 
 1806 before the Tribunal of the Philo- 
 sophic Rite. His objections are eight in 
 number, and are to this effect. 1. That it 
 was not published in any of the early edi- 
 tions of the works of Locke. 2. That it was 
 printed for the first time at Frankfort, in 
 1748. 3. That it was not known in Eng- 
 land until 1753. 4. That Anderson makes 
 no mention of it. 5. That it is not in any 
 of the editions of Leland's works printed 
 before 1772. 6. That Dr. Plot contends 
 that Henry VI. was never made a Mason. 
 
 7. That the Manuscript says that Masonry 
 was brought from the East by the Venetians. 
 
 8. That the troubles in the reign of Henry 
 VI., and his incapacity, render it improba- 
 ble that he would have occupied his mind 
 with the subject of Freemasonry. The 
 sixth and eighth of these objections merely 
 beg the question ; and the seventh is pue- 
 rile, founded on ignorance of the meaning 
 of the word " Venetian." But the other 
 objections have much weight. Soane, in 
 his New Curiosities of Literature, (1849, vol. 
 ii., p. 80,) attacks the document with the 
 bitterness which he usually displays wher- 
 ever Freemasonry is concerned. 
 
 Halliwell, in his Early History of Free- 
 masonry in England, (p. 40,) has advanced 
 the following arguments against its authen- 
 ticity : 
 
 " It is singular that the circumstances at- 
 tending its publication should have led no 
 one to suspect its authenticity. I was at 
 the pains of making a long search in the 
 Bodleian Library last summer, in the hopes 
 
464 
 
 LELAND 
 
 LENOIR 
 
 of finding the original, but without success. 
 In fact, there can be but little doubt that 
 this celebrated and well-known document 
 is a forgery ! 
 
 "In the first place, why should such 
 a document have been printed abroad? 
 Was it likely that it should have found its 
 way to Frankfort, nearly half a century 
 afterwards, and been published without 
 any explanation of the source whence it 
 was obtained? Again, the orthography is 
 most grotesque, and too gross ever to have 
 been penned either by Henry VI. or Le- 
 land, or both combined. For instance, we 
 have Peter Gower, a Grecian, explained 
 in a note by the fabricator — for who else 
 could have solved it? — to be Pythagoras! 
 As a whole, it is but a clumsy attempt at 
 deception, and is quite a parallel to the re- 
 cently discovered one of the first Englishe 
 Mercurie." 
 
 Among the German opponents of the 
 Manuscript are Lessing, Keller, and Fin- 
 del ; and more recently, the iconoclasts of 
 England, who have been attacking so many 
 of the ancient records of the Craft, have 
 not left this one unspared. 
 
 On the other hand, it has ranked among 
 its advocates some of the most learned 
 Masons of England, Germany, and France, 
 of whom may be named Krause, Fessler, 
 Lenning, Eeghellini, Preston, Hutchin- 
 son, Calcott, (these three, perhaps, without 
 critical examination,) and Oliver. Of these 
 the language of the last may be cited as a 
 specimen of the arguments adduced in its 
 favor. 
 
 " This famous Manuscript," says Dr. Oli- 
 ver, {Freemason's Quart. Rev., 1840, p. 10,) 
 " possesses the reputation of having con- 
 verted the learned Locke, who was initi- 
 ated after carefully perusing and analyzing 
 it. Before any faith can be placed on this 
 invaluable document, it will be necessary 
 to say a word respecting its authenticity. I 
 admit that there is some degree of mystery 
 about it, and doubts have been entertained 
 whether it be not a forgery. We have the 
 strongest presumptive proofs that it was 
 in existence about the middle of the last 
 century, because the utmost publicity was 
 given to it ; and as at that time Freema- 
 sonry was beginning to excite a considera- 
 ble share of public attention, the deception, 
 had it been such, would have been publicly 
 exposed by its opponents, who appear to 
 have used the lash of ridicule very freely, 
 as witness Hogarth's picture of Night, 
 where the principal figures represent some 
 brethren, decorated with aprons and jewels, 
 returning from the Lodge in a state of in- 
 toxication ; the broad sheet of the Scald 
 Miserables, and other prints and publica- 
 tions in which Freemasonry is burlesqued. 
 
 But no attempt was ever made to invalidate 
 its claim to be a genuine document." 
 
 After enumerating the several books in 
 which it had been published, he resumes 
 his argument, as follows : 
 
 " Being thus universally diffused, had it 
 been a suspected document, its exposure 
 would certainly have been attempted ; par- 
 ticularly about the close of the last century, 
 when the progress of Masonry was sensibly 
 checked by the publication of works which 
 charged it with being the depository of 
 principles fatal equally to the peace and 
 religion of civil society ; and if a forgery, 
 it would have been unable to have endured 
 the test of a critical examination. But no 
 such attempt was made ; and the presump- 
 tion therefore is that the document is au- 
 thentic. 
 
 " I should be inclined to pronounce, from 
 internal evidence only, that the ' Letter 
 and Annotations ' were written by Locke ; 
 but there are corroborating facts which 
 appear conclusive ; for this great philoso- 
 pher was actually residing at Oates, the 
 country-seat of Sir Francis Masham, at the 
 time when the paper is dated ; and shortly 
 afterwards he went up to town, where he 
 was initiated into Masonry. These facts 
 are fully proved by Locke's Letters to Mr. 
 Molyneaux, dated March 30 and July 2, 
 1696. For these reasons I entertain no 
 doubt of the genuineness and authenticity 
 of this valuable Manuscript." 
 
 If my own opinion is worth giving on this 
 subject, I should say with much reluctance, 
 and against my own wishes, that there is 
 neither internal nor external evidence of 
 the authenticity of this document to make 
 it a sufficient foundation for historical evi- 
 dence. 
 
 liCiiianceaii. A zealous French Ma- 
 son, and the possessor of a fine collection 
 of degrees, the nomenclature of which is 
 preserved by Thory in his Acta Latomorum. 
 The most important are referred to in the 
 present work. 
 
 Length of the Lodge. See Extent 
 of the Lodge. 
 
 Lenoir, Alexandre. A celebrated 
 archselogist, who was born at Paris in 1761. 
 Having studied at the Mazarin College, he 
 entered the studio of Doyeu, and successfully 
 cultivated painting. In 1790, the National 
 Assembly having decreed that the treas- 
 ures of art in the suppressed churches 
 and convents should be collected at the 
 Petits-Augustins, he was appointed the 
 Conservator of the depot, which was sub- 
 sequently called the Museum, of which he 
 was then made the Director. He there col- 
 lected more than five hundred monuments 
 rescued from destruction, and classified them 
 with great care. On the conversion of the 
 
LEPAGE 
 
 LESSONS 
 
 465 
 
 garden of Moasseaux into a Museum of 
 Monuments, he was appointed one of the 
 administrators, and subsequently the ad- 
 ministrator of the monuments of the Church 
 of St. Denis. In all these appointments, 
 Lenoir exhibited his taste and judgment as 
 an archaeologist. He was a member of the 
 Society of Antiquaries of France, to whose 
 Transactions he contributed several memoirs. 
 
 The Metropolitan Chapter of France 
 had, from the year 1777, annually held 
 philosophical conventions, at which lec- 
 tures on Masonic subjects were delivered 
 by such men as Court de Gebelin. In 
 1789 these conventions were discontinued 
 in consequence of the political troubles of 
 the times, but they were renewed in 1812 
 by M. Lenoir, who delivered before the 
 Chapter a course of eight lectures on the 
 relations which exist between the ancient 
 mysteries of the Egyptians and the Greeks 
 and those of Freemasonry. In 1814, he 
 published the substance of these lectures in 
 a work entitled La Franche-Magonnerie ven- 
 due a sa veritable origine, ou VAntiquite de la 
 Franche-Magonnerie prouvte par V Explica- 
 tion des Mysteres Anciens et Modernes, (Paris, 
 4to, pp. 304.) The theory of the author 
 being that the mysteries of Freemasonry 
 are only a repetition of those of antiquity, 
 he attempts to support it by investigations 
 into the ancient initiations that are marked 
 with profound learning, although the work 
 was severely criticised in the Journal de 
 DSats. He had previously published, in 
 1809, a work in three volumes, entitled 
 Nouvelle Explication des Hieroglyphes ou 
 Anciens Allegories sacre'es des Egiptiennes. 
 He died at Paris, June 12, 1839. 
 
 Lepage. One of those French Ma- 
 sons who in the latter part of the last cen- 
 tury occupied themselves in the accumula- 
 tion of cahiers or rituals of Masonic de- 
 grees. Most of the degrees in his collec- 
 tion, which is said to have been a valuable 
 one, are referred to by Thory in the no- 
 menclature contained in his Acta Lato- 
 morum. 
 
 Leroiige, Andre' Joseph Eti- 
 enne. A man of letters and zealous Ma- 
 son of Paris, born at Commercy, April 25, 
 1766. He made a large and valuable col- 
 lection of manuscript and printed degrees. 
 He died in 1834, and on the 7th of January, 
 1835, his collection was sold at public auc- 
 tion. Thory has made use of it in his 
 Nomenclature des Grades. Lerouge was 
 the author of several didactic writings on 
 Masonic subjects, all of which, however, 
 have had but an ephemeral existence. He 
 was one of the editors of the French Ma- 
 sonic journal Hermes, published in 1819, and 
 of the Melanges de Philosophic, d'Histoire 
 et de Literature Maconnique. He was a man 
 31 30 
 
 of much learning, and is said to have sup- 
 plied several of his Masonic contemporaries 
 with assistance in the preparation of their 
 works. 
 
 Lesser Lights. In the lecture of the 
 first degree we are told that a Lodge has 
 three symbolic lesser lights; one of these is 
 in the East, one in the West, and one in the 
 South. There is no light in the North, be- 
 cause King Solomon's Temple, of which 
 every Lodge is a representation, was placed 
 so far north of the ecliptic that the sun 
 and moon, at their meridian height, could 
 dart no rays into the northern part thereof. 
 The north we therefore Masonically call a 
 place of darkness. 
 
 This symbolic use of the three lesser 
 lights is very old, being found in the earli- 
 est lectures of the last century. 
 
 The three lights, like the three principal 
 officers and the three principal supports, re- 
 fer, undoubtedly, to the three stations of 
 the sun — its rising in the east, its meridian 
 in the south, and its setting in the west; 
 and thus the symbolism of the Lodge, as 
 typical of the world, continues to be pre- 
 served. 
 
 The use of lights in all religious ceremo- 
 nies is an ancient custom. There was a 
 seven-branched candlestick in the taber- 
 nacle, and in the Temple " were the golden 
 candlesticks, five on the right hand and 
 five on the left." They were always typical 
 of moral, spiritual, or intellectual light. 
 
 Lessing, Gottfried Ephraim. A 
 learned litterateur of Germany, who was 
 born at Kaumitz, in the Neiderlausetz, 22d 
 January, 1729, and died on the 15th Feb- 
 ruary, 1781, at Woefenbutal, where he was 
 librarian to the Duke of Brunswick. Les- 
 sing was initiated in a Lodge at Hamburg, 
 and took great interest in the Institution. 
 His theory, that it sprang out of a secret as- 
 sociation of Templars who had long existed 
 in London, and was modified in form by Sir 
 Christopher Wren, has long been rejected, if 
 it was ever admitted by any; but in his two 
 works Ernst und Falk and Nathan der Weise, 
 he has given profound and comprehensive 
 views on the genius and spirit of Free- 
 masonry. Lessing was the most eminent 
 litterateur of his age, and has been styled 
 " the man who was the forerunner of the 
 philosophers, and whose criticisms supplied 
 the place of poetry." See Ernest and Falk. 
 
 Lessons. The passages of Scripture 
 recited by the Prelate in the ceremony of 
 inducting a candidate into the Masonic 
 Order of Knights Templars. It is an eccle- 
 siastical term, and is used by the Templars 
 because these passages are intended to in- 
 struct the candidate in reference to the in- 
 cidents of our Saviour's life which are re- 
 ferred to in the ritual. 
 
466 
 
 LETTER 
 
 LEWIS 
 
 Letter of Application. More 
 properly called a Petition, which see. 
 Letters Patent. See Patents. 
 
 Lettuce. A sacred plant used in the 
 mysteries of Adonis, and therefore the 
 analogue of the Acacia in the mysteries of 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 Lencbt. A Masonic charlatan of the 
 eighteenth century, better known by his 
 assumed name of Johnson, which see. 
 
 Level. In Freemasonry, the level is 
 a symbol of equality; not of that social 
 equality which would destroy all distinc- 
 tions of rank and position, and beget con- 
 fusion, insubordination, and anarchy ; but 
 of that fraternal equality which, recog- 
 nizing the fatherhood of God, admits as a 
 necessary corollary the brotherhood of 
 man. It, therefore, teaches us that, in the 
 sight of the Grand Architect of the Uni- 
 verse, his creatures, who are at an im- 
 measurable distance from him, move upon 
 the same plane ; as the far-moving stars, 
 which though millions of miles apart, yet 
 seem to shine upon the same canopy of the 
 sky. In this view, the level teaches us 
 that all men are equal, subject to the same 
 infirmities, hastening to the same goal, 
 and preparing to be judged by the same 
 immutable law. 
 
 The level is deemed, like the square and 
 the plumb, of so much importance as a 
 symbol, that it is repeated in many dif- 
 ferent relations. First, it is one of the 
 jewels of the Lodge; in the English system 
 a movable, in the American an immovable 
 one. This leads to its being adopted as the 
 proper official ensign of the Senior Warden, 
 because the Craft when at labor, at which 
 time he presides over them, are on a 
 common level of subordination. And then 
 it is one of the working-tools of a Fellow 
 Craft, still retaining its symbolism of 
 equality. 
 
 Levi, Eliplias. The pseudonym of 
 Louis Alphonse Constance, a prolific writer 
 on Magical Masonry, or of works in which 
 he seeks to connect the symbols of Masonry 
 with the dogmas of the High Magic. His 
 principal works, which abound in dreamy 
 speculations, are Dogme et Rituel de la Haute 
 Magie, Paris, 1860 ; Histoire de la Magie, 
 same place and year; and Le Clef des Grand 
 Mysteres, published a year afterwards. 
 
 Levite, Knight. The Knight Le- 
 vite was the fourth section of the seventh 
 degree of the Rite of Clerks of Strict Ob- 
 servance. 
 
 Levite of the External Guard. 
 The lowest of the nine Orders of the 
 Priesthood, or highest of the Masonic de- 
 grees in the Order of the Temple as modi- 
 fied by Fabre-Palaprat. It was equivalent 
 to Kadosh. 
 
 Levites. Those descendants of Levi 
 who were employed in the lowest minis- 
 terial duties of the Temple, and were thus 
 subordinate to the priests, who were the 
 lineal descendants of Aaron. They are 
 represented in some of the high degrees. 
 
 Levite, Sacriflcer. A degree in the 
 collection of the Mother Lodge of the 
 Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Levitikon. There is a spurious Gos- 
 pel of St. John, supposed to have been 
 forged in the fifteenth century, which 
 contradicts the genuine Gospel in many 
 particulars. It contains an introduction 
 and a commentary, said to have been 
 written by Nicephorus, a Greek monk of 
 Athens. This commentary is called the 
 " Levitikon." Out of this gospel and its 
 commentary, Fabre-Palaprat, about the 
 year 1814, composed a liturgy for the sect 
 of Johannites, which he had established and 
 attached to the Order of the Temple at Paris. 
 
 Levy. A collection of men raised for 
 a particular purpose. The lectures tell us 
 that the timbers for building the Temple 
 at Jerusalem were felled in the forests of 
 Lebanon, where a levy of thirty thousand 
 men of Jerusalem were employed by 
 monthly courses of ten thousand. Adoni- 
 ram was placed over this levy. The facts 
 are derived from the statement in 1 Kings 
 v. 13, 14 : " And King Solomon raised a 
 levy out of all Israel; and the levy was 
 thirty thousand men. And he sent them 
 to Lebanon ten thousand a month by 
 courses; a month they were in Lebanon 
 and two months at home : and Adoniram 
 was over the levy." These wood-cutters 
 were not Tyrians, but all Israelites. 
 
 Lewis. 1. An instrument in Opera- 
 tive Masonry. It is an iron cramp which 
 is inserted in a cavity prepared for that 
 purpose in any large stone, so as to give 
 attachment to a pulley and hook whereby 
 the stone may be conveniently raised to 
 any height and deposited in its proper 
 position. It is well described by Mr. Gib- 
 son, in the British Archceologia, (vol. x., p. 
 127 ;) but he is in error in attributing its 
 invention to a French architect in the 
 time of Louis XIV., and its name to that 
 monarch. The contrivance was known to 
 the Romans, and several taken from old 
 ruins are now in the Vatican. In the 
 ruins of Whitby Abbey, in England, which 
 was founded by Oswy, king of Northum- 
 berland, in 658, large stones were dis- 
 covered, with the necessary excavation for 
 the insertion of a lewis. The word is most 
 probably derived from the old French levis, 
 any contrivance for lifting. The modern 
 French call the instrument a louve. 
 
 2. In the English system, the lewis is 
 found on the tracing-board of the Entered 
 
LEWIS 
 
 LIBAVIUS 
 
 467 
 
 Apprentice, where it is used as a symbol 
 of strength, because, by its assistance, the 
 Operative Mason is enabled to lift the 
 heaviest stones with a comparatively tri- 
 fling exertion of physical power. It has 
 not been adopted as a symbol by the 
 American Masons, except in Pennsylvania, 
 where, of course, it receives the English 
 interpretation. 
 
 3. The son of a Mason is, in England, 
 called a lewis, because it is his duty to sup- 
 port the sinking powers and aid the failing 
 strength of his father ; or, as Oliver has ex- 
 pressed it, " to bear the burden and heat 
 of the day, that his parents may rest in 
 their old age ; thus rendering the evening 
 of their lives peaceful and happy." In the 
 rituals of the middle of the last century 
 he was called a louffton. From this the 
 French derived their word lufton, which 
 they apply in the same way. They also 
 employ the word louvcteau, and call the 
 daughter of a Mason louvetine. Louveteau 
 is probably derived directly from the louve, 
 the French name of the implement ; but it 
 is a singular coincidence that louveteau 
 also means a young wolf, and that in the 
 Egyptian mysteries of Isis the candidate 
 was made to wear the mask of a wolfs 
 head. Hence, a wolf and a candidate in 
 these mysteries were often used as sy- 
 nonymous terms. Macrobius, in his Sat- 
 urnalia, says, in reference to this custom, 
 that the ancients perceived a relationship 
 between the sun, the great symbol in these 
 mysteries, and a wolf, which the candidate 
 represented at his initiation. For, he re- 
 marks, as the flocks of sheep and cattle fly 
 and disperse at the sight of the wolf, so the 
 flocks of stars disappear at the approach 
 of the sun's light. The learned reader will 
 also recollect that in the Greek language 
 lukos signifies both the sun and a wolf. 
 Hence some etymologists have sought to 
 derive louveteau, the son of a Mason, from 
 louveteau, a young wolf. But I prefer the 
 more direct derivation from louve, the 
 operative instrument. 
 
 Im Browne's Master Key, which is sup- 
 posed to represent the Prestonian lecture, 
 we find the following definition : 
 
 " What do we call the son of a Freema- 
 son? 
 
 " A lewis. 
 
 " What does that denote ? 
 
 "Strength. 
 
 " How is a lewis depicted in a Mason's 
 Lodge? 
 
 " As a cramp of metal, by which, when 
 fixed into a stone, great and ponderous 
 weights are raised to a certain height and 
 fixed upon their proper basis, without 
 which Operative Masons could not so con- 
 veniently do. 
 
 " What is the duty of a lewis, the son 
 of a Mason, to his aged parents ? 
 
 " To bear the heavy burden in the heat 
 of the day and help them in time of need, 
 which, by reason of their great age, they 
 ought to be exempted from, so as to render 
 the close of their days happy and comfort- 
 able. 
 
 " His privilege for so doing? 
 
 " To be made a Mason before any other 
 person, however dignified by birth, rank, 
 or riches, unless he, through complaisance, 
 waves this privilege." 
 
 The lecture does not state, in exact 
 terms, the whole nature of the privileges 
 of a lewis. Not only has he, in an initia- 
 tion, the precedence of all other candidates, 
 but in England and France the right to be 
 initiated at an earlier age. For while the 
 general law in both these countries requires 
 a candidate to have reached the age of 
 twenty-one, a lewis can be received when 
 only eighteen. No such regulation is, it is 
 true, tobe found in the English Constitution ; 
 but, as Oliver says, it is " a traditional cus- 
 tom ; " and a provision seems to have been 
 made for it by allowing the prerogative of 
 dispensing with the usual requirement of 
 age in certain cases. In this country, 
 where the symbolism of the lewis is un- 
 known, no such right is now recognized. 
 It is, however, probable that the custom 
 formerly existed, derived from England; 
 and it has been thus attempted, I think 
 reasonably enough, to explain the fact that 
 Washington was initiated when he was only 
 twenty years and eight months old. 
 
 Lexington, Congress of. This 
 Congress was convoked in 1853, at Lexing- 
 ton, Kentucky, for the purpose of attempt- 
 ing to form a General Grand Lodge. A 
 plan of constitution was proposed, but a 
 sufficient number of Grand Lodges did not 
 accede to the proposition to give it efficacy. 
 
 Iiibanus. The Latin name of Leb- 
 anon, which see. 
 
 Libation. Among the Greeks and 
 Romans the libation was a religious cere- 
 mony, consisting of the pouring of wine or 
 other liquid upon the ground, or, in a sacri- 
 fice, upon the head of the victim after it 
 had been first tasted by the priest and by 
 those who stood next to him. The liba- 
 tions were usually of unmixed wine, but 
 were sometimes of mingled wine and water. 
 Libations are used in some of the chivalric 
 and the high degrees of Masonry. 
 
 Iabavius, Andreas. A learned 
 German physician, who was born at Halle, 
 in Saxony, and died at Coburg, where he 
 was rector of the Gymnasium in 1616. He 
 was a vehement opponent of Paracelsus and 
 of the Rosicrucians. In 1613 he published 
 at Frankfort his Syntagma selectorum al- 
 
468 
 
 LIBERAL 
 
 LIBERTINE 
 
 chimia arcanorum, in two folio volumes, and 
 two years after, an Appendix, in which he 
 attacks the Society of the Rosicrucians, and 
 analyzes the Gonfessio of Valentine Andrea." 
 De Quincey has used the works of Libavius 
 in his article on Secret Societies. 
 
 Liberal Arts and Sciences. We 
 are indebted to the Scholastic philoso- 
 phers of the Middle Ages for the nomen- 
 clature by wbich they distinguished the 
 seven sciences then best known to them. 
 With the metaphorical spirit of the age in 
 which they lived, they called the two classes 
 into which they divided them the trivium, or 
 meeting of three roads, and the quadrivium, 
 or meeting of four roads ; calling grammar, 
 logic, and rhetoric the trivium, and arith- 
 metic, geometry, music, and astronomy the 
 quadrivium. These they styled the seven 
 liberal arts and sciences, to separate them 
 from the mechanical arts which were prac- 
 tised by the handicraftsmen. The liberal 
 man, liberalis homo, meant, in the Middle 
 Ages, the man who was his own master — 
 free, independent, and often a nobleman. 
 
 Mosheim, speaking of the state of litera- 
 ture in the eleventh century, uses the fol- 
 lowing language : " The seven liberal arts, 
 as they were now styled, were taught in 
 the greatest part of the schools that were 
 erected in this century for the education 
 of youth. The first stage of these sciences 
 was grammar, which was followed succes- 
 sively by rhetoric and logic. When the 
 disciple, having learned these branches, 
 which were generally known by the 
 name of trivium, extended his ambition 
 further, and was desirous of new improve- 
 ment in the sciences, he was conducted 
 slowly through the quadrivium (arithmetic, 
 music, geometry, and astronomy) to the 
 very summit of literary fame." 
 
 The Freemasons of the Middle Ages, al- 
 ways anxious to elevate their profession 
 above the position of a mere operative art, 
 readily assumed these liberal arts and sci- 
 ences as a part of their course of knowledge, 
 thus seeking to assimilate themselves rather 
 to the scholars who were above them than to 
 the workmen who were below them. Hence 
 in all the Old Constitutions we find these 
 liberal arts and sciences introduced at the 
 beginning as forming an essential part of 
 the body of Masonry. Thus, in the Lands- 
 downe MS., whose date is about 1560, (and 
 it may be taken aa a fair specimen of all 
 the others,) these sciences are thus referred 
 to: 
 
 " We minde to shew you the charge that 
 belongs to every treu Mason to keep, for in 
 good Faith if you take good heed it is well 
 worthy to be kept for A worthy Craft and 
 curious science, — Sirs, there be Seaven 
 Liberall Sciences of the which the Noble 
 
 Craft of Masonry is one." And then the 
 writer proceeds to define them in the order 
 which they still retain. It is noteworthy, 
 however, that that order must have been 
 changed; for in what is probably the earliest 
 of the manuscripts — the one edited by Mr. 
 Halliwell — geometry appears as the last, 
 instead of the fifth of the sciences, and 
 arithmetic as the sixth. 
 
 It is not therefore surprising that, on the 
 revival of Masonry in 1717, these seven 
 liberal arts and sciences were made a part 
 of the system of instruction. At first, of 
 course, they were placed in the Entered 
 Apprentice's degree, that being the most 
 important degree of the period, and they 
 were made to refer to the seven Masons who 
 composed a Lodge. Afterwards, on the 
 more methodical division of the degrees, 
 they were transferred to the Fellow Craft, 
 because that was the degree symbolic of 
 science, and were made to refer to seven of 
 the steps of the winding stairs, that being 
 itself, when properly interpreted, a symbol 
 of the progress of knowledge. And there 
 they still remain. 
 
 JLibertas. Latin. Liberty. A signifi- 
 cant word in the Bed Cross degree. It 
 refers to the " liberty of passage" gained by 
 the returning Jews over their opponents at 
 the river Euphrates, as described in the 
 Scottish Rite degree of Knight of the East, 
 where the old French rituals have " libert6 
 du passer." 
 
 Libertine. The Charges of 1722 com- 
 mence by saying that " a Mason is obliged 
 by his tenure to obey the moral law ; and 
 if he rightly understands the art, he will 
 never be a stupid Atheist, nor an irreli- 
 gious libertine." The word " libertine " there 
 used conveyed a meaning different from 
 that which it now bears. In the present 
 usage of language it signifies a profligate 
 and licentious person, but originally it 
 meant a freethinker, or Deist. Derived 
 from the Latin " libertinus," a man that 
 was once a bondsman but who has been 
 made free, it was metaphorically used to 
 designate one who had been released, or 
 who had released himself from the bonds 
 of religious belief, and become in matters 
 of faith a doubter or denier. Hence "a 
 stupid Atheist" denoted, to use the lan- 
 guage of the Psalmist, " the fool who has 
 said in his heart there is no God," while an 
 " irreligious libertine " designated the man 
 who, with a degree less of unbelief, denies 
 the distinctive doctrines of revealed religion. 
 And this meaning of the expression con- 
 nects itself very appropriately with the 
 succeeding paragraph of the Charge. " But 
 though in ancient times, Masons were 
 charged in every country to be of the reli- 
 gion of that country or nation, whatever it 
 
LIBERTY 
 
 LIGHT 
 
 469 
 
 was, yet it is now thought more expe- 
 dient only to oblige them to that religion 
 in which all men agree, leaving their par- 
 ticular opinions to themselves." 
 
 The expression "irreligious libertine," 
 alluding, as it does, to a scoffer at religious 
 truths, is eminently suggestive of the reli- 
 gious character of our Institution, which, 
 founded as it is on the great doctrines of 
 religion, cannot be properly appreciated by 
 any one who doubts or denies their truth. 
 
 Liberty of Passage. A significant 
 phrase in the high degrees. See Libertas. 
 The French rituals designate it by the letters 
 L.\ D.\ P.". as the initials of liberie de 
 passer, or liberty of passage. But Brother 
 Pike proposes to interpret these letters as 
 liberie de penser, liberty of thought ; the pre- 
 rogative of a freeman and a Freemason. 
 
 .Library. It is the duty as well as the 
 interest of Lodges to facilitate the efforts of 
 the members in the acquisition of Masonic 
 knowledge, and I know of no method more 
 appropriate than the formation of Masonic 
 libraries. The establishment of a Grand 
 Lodge library is of course not objection- 
 able, but it is of far less value and impor- 
 tance than a Lodge library. The original 
 outlay of a few dollars in the beginning for 
 its establishment, and of a few more an- 
 nually for its maintenance and increase, 
 would secure to every Lodge in the land a 
 rich treasury of Masonic reading for the in- 
 formation and improvement of its mem- 
 bers. The very fact that Masonic books 
 were within their reach, showing them- 
 selves on the well-filled shelves at every 
 meeting, and ready at their hands for the 
 mere asking or the trouble of taking them 
 down, would induce many brethren to read 
 who never yet have read a page or even a 
 line upon the subject of Masonic history 
 and science. 
 
 Considering the immense number of 
 books that have been published on the 
 subject of Speculative Masonry, many of 
 which would be rendered accessible to 
 every one by the establishment of Lodge 
 libraries, the Mason who would then be 
 ignorant of the true genius of his art 
 would be worthy of all shame and reproach. 
 
 As thoughtful municipalities place pub- 
 lic fountains in their parks and at the cor- 
 ners of streets, that the famished wayfarer 
 may allay his thirst and receive physical 
 refreshment, so should Masonic Lodges 
 place such intellectual fountains in reach 
 of their members, that they might enjoy 
 mental refreshment. Such fountains are 
 libraries ; and the Lodge which spends fifty 
 dollars, more or less, upon a banquet, and 
 yet does without a library, commits a grave 
 Masonic offence; for it refuses, or at least 
 neglects, to diffuse that light among its 
 
 children which its obligation requires it 
 to do. 
 
 Of two Lodges — the one without and 
 the other with a library — the difference is 
 this, that the one will have more igno- 
 rance in it than the other. If a Lodge 
 takes delight in an ignorant membership, 
 let it forego a library. If it thinks there 
 is honor and reputation and pleasure in 
 having its members well informed, it will 
 give them means of instruction. 
 
 Lieutenant Grand Com- 
 mander. The title of the second and 
 third officers of a Grand Consistory in the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, and 
 the second officer in a Supreme Council. 
 
 Life. The three stages of human life 
 are said in the lectures to be symbolized 
 by the three degrees of Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry, and the doctrine is illustrated in the 
 third degree by the emblem of the Three 
 Steps on the Master's Carpet, which see. 
 
 Life, Eternal. See Eternal Life. 
 
 Life Member. It is the custom in 
 some Lodges to permit a member to become 
 a life member by the immediate payment 
 of a sum of money, after which he is released 
 from any subsequent payment of quarterly 
 dues. Such a system is of advantage in a 
 pecuniary sense to the Lodge, if the money 
 paid for life membership is invested in 
 profitable stock, because the interest con- 
 tinues to accrue to the Lodge even after 
 the death of a member. A Lodge consist- 
 ing entirely of life members would be a 
 Lodge the number of whose members 
 might increase, but could never decrease. 
 Life members are subject to all the disci- 
 pline of the Lodge, such as suspension or 
 expulsion, just as the other members. 
 
 Light. Light is an important word in 
 the Masonic system. It conveys a far more 
 recondite meaning than it is believed to 
 possess by the generality of readers. It is 
 in fact the first of all the symbols presented 
 to the neophyte, and continues to be pre- 
 sented to him in various modifications 
 throughout all his future progress in his 
 Masonic career. It does not simply mean, 
 as might be supposed, truth or wisdom, but 
 it contains within itself a far more ab- 
 struse allusion to the very essence of Spec- 
 ulative Masonry, and embraces within its 
 capacious signification all the other sym- 
 bols of the Order. Freemasons are em- 
 phatically called the " sons of light," be- 
 cause they are, or at least are entitled to 
 be, in possession of the true meaning of 
 the symbol ; while the profane or uninitiated 
 who have not received this knowledge are, 
 by a parity of expression, said to be in 
 darkness. 
 
 The connection of material light with 
 this emblematic and mental illumination, 
 
470 
 
 LIGHT 
 
 LIGHT 
 
 •was prominently exhibited in all the an- 
 cient systems of religion and esoteric mys- 
 teries. 
 
 Among the Egyptians, the hare was the 
 hieroglyphic of eyes that are open, because 
 that animal was supposed to have his eyes 
 always open. The priests afterwards adopt- 
 ed the hare as the symbol of the moral illu- 
 mination revealed to the neophytes in the 
 contemplation of the divine truth, and 
 hence, according to Champollion, it was 
 also the symbol of Osiris, their principal 
 divinity, and the chief object of their mys- 
 tic rites, — thus showing the intimate con- 
 nection that they maintained in their sym- 
 bolic language between the process of ini- 
 tiation and the contemplation of divinity. 
 On this subject a remarkable coincidence 
 has been pointed out by M. Portal (Symb. 
 des Egypt, 69,) in the Hebrew language. 
 There the word for "hare" is arnebet, which 
 seems to be compounded of aur, "light," 
 and nabat, " to see; " so that the word which 
 among the Egyptians was used to designate 
 an initiation, among the Hebrews meant 
 to see the light. 
 
 If we proceed to an examination of the 
 other systems of religion which were prac- 
 tised by the nations of antiquity, we shall 
 find that light always constituted a princi- 
 pal object of adoration, as the primordial 
 source of knowledge and goodness, and that 
 darkness was with them synonymous with 
 ignorance and evil. Dr. Beard (Encyc. 
 Bib. Lit.) attributes this view of the divine 
 origin of light among the Eastern nations, 
 to the fact that " light in the East has a 
 clearness and brilliancy, is accompanied by 
 an intensity of heat, and is followed in its 
 influence by a largeness of good, of which 
 the inhabitants of less genial climates have 
 no conception. Light easily and naturally 
 became, in consequence, with Orientals, a 
 representative of the highest human good. 
 All the more joyous emotions of the mind, 
 all the pleasing sensations of the frame, all 
 the happy hours of domestic intercourse, 
 were described under imagery derived from 
 light. The transition was natural, — from 
 earthly to heavenly, from corporeal to 
 spiritual things; and so light came to 
 typify true religion and the felicity which 
 it imparts. But as light not only came 
 from God, but also makes man's way clear 
 before him, so it was employed to signify 
 moral truth, and pre-eminently that divine 
 system of truth which is set forth in the 
 Bible, from its earliest gleamings onward to 
 the perfect day of the Great Sun of Eight- 
 eousness." 
 
 As light was thus adored as the source 
 of goodness, darkness, which is the nega- 
 tion of light, was abhorred aa the cause of 
 evil, and hence arose that doctrine which 
 
 prevailed among the ancients, that there 
 were two antagonistic principles continu- 
 ally contending for the government of the 
 world. 
 
 "Light," says Duncan, {Relig. of Prof . 
 Ant., 187,) "is a source of positive happiness: 
 without it man could barely exist. And 
 since all religious opinion is based on the 
 ideas of pleasure and pain, and the corre- 
 sponding sensations of hope and fear, it is 
 not to be wondered if the heathen rever- 
 enced light. Darkness, on the contrary, by 
 replunging nature, as it were, into a state 
 of nothingness, and depriving man of the 
 pleasurable emotions conveyed through the 
 organ of sight, was ever held in abhor- 
 rence, as a source of misery and fear. The 
 two opposite conditions in which man thus 
 found himself placed, occasioned by the en- 
 joyment or the banishment of light, in- 
 duced him to imagine the existence of two 
 antagonistic principles in nature, to whose 
 dominion he was alternately subjected." 
 
 Such was the dogma of Zoroaster, the 
 great Persian philosopher, who, under the 
 names of Ormuzd and Ahriman, symbol- 
 ized these two principles of light and dark- 
 ness. 
 
 Such was also the doctrine, though some- 
 what modified, of Manes, the founder of 
 the sect of Manichees, who describes God 
 the Father as ruling over the kingdom of 
 light and contending with the powers of 
 darkness. 
 
 Pythagoras also maintained this doctrine 
 of two antagonistic principles. He called 
 the one, unity, light, the right hand, equal- 
 ity, stability, and a straight line ; the other 
 he named binary, darkness, the left hand, 
 inequality, instability, and a curved line. 
 Of the colors, he attributed white to the 
 good principle, and black to the evil one. 
 
 The Jewish Kabbalists believed that, be- 
 fore the creation of the world, all space 
 was filled with the Infinite Intellectual 
 Light, which afterwards withdrew itself to 
 an equal distance from a central point iu 
 space, and afterwards by its emanation pro- 
 duced future worlds. The first emanation 
 of this surrounding light into the abyss 
 of darkness produced what they called the 
 "Adam Kadmon," the first man, or the 
 first production of the divine energy. 
 
 In the Bhagvat Geeta, (one of the reli- 
 gious books of the Brahmans,) it is said: 
 " Light and darkness are esteemed the 
 world's eternal ways ; he who walketh in 
 the former path returneth not, — that is, he 
 goeth immediately to bliss ; whilst he who 
 walketh in the latter cometh back again 
 upon the earth." 
 
 In fact, in all the ancient systems, this 
 reverence for light, as an emblematic rep- 
 resentation of the Eternal Principle of 
 
LIGHTS 
 
 LINGAM 
 
 471 
 
 Good, is predominant. In the mysteries, 
 the candidate passed, during his initiation, 
 through scenes of utter darkness, and at 
 length terminated his trials by an admis- 
 sion to the splendidly illuminated sacel- 
 lum, where he was said to have attained 
 pure and perfect light, and where he re- 
 ceived the necessary instructions which 
 were to invest him with that knowledge of 
 the divine truth which had been the ob- 
 ject of all his labors. 
 
 Lights, Fixed. According to the old 
 rituals of the last century, every Lodge 
 room was furnished, or supposed to be fur- 
 nished, with three windows, situated in the 
 east, west, and south. They were called the 
 Fixed Lights, and their uses were said to 
 be " to light the men to, at, and from their 
 work." The symbolic lights of modern 
 Masonry were not substituted for them, be- 
 cause both were used at the same time ; but 
 the explanation now given as to the absence 
 of a light in the north, which is now applied 
 to the symbolic lights, was formerly referred 
 to the fixed lights. 
 
 Light, to Bring to. A technical 
 expression in Masonry meaning to initiate ; 
 as, "He was brought to light in such a 
 Lodge," that is, he was initiated in it. 
 
 Ligure. DtfS. The first stone in the 
 third row of the high priest's breastplate. 
 Commentators have been divided in opinion 
 as to the nature of this stone ; but it is now 
 supposed by the best authorities to have 
 been the rubellite, which is a red variety of 
 the tourmaline. The ligure in the breast- 
 plate was referred to the tribe of Dan. 
 
 Lily. The plant so frequently men- 
 tioned in the Old Testament under the 
 name of lily, as an emblem of purity and 
 
 feace, was the lotus lily of Egypt and India. 
 t occupied a conspicuous place among the 
 ornaments of the Temple furniture. The 
 brim of the molten sea was wrought with 
 flowers of the lotus ; the chapiters on the 
 tops of the pillars at the porch, and the 
 tops of the pillars themselves, were adorned 
 with the same plant. Sir Robert Ker 
 Porter, describing a piece of sculpture 
 which he found at Persepolis, says, " Al- 
 most every one in this procession holds in 
 his hand a figure like the lotus. This 
 flower was full of meaning among the 
 ancients, and occurs all over the East. 
 Egypt, Persia, Palestine, and India pre- 
 sent it everywhere over their architecture, 
 in the hands and on the heads of their 
 sculptured figures, whether in statue or in 
 bass-relief. We also find it in the sacred 
 vestments and architecture of the taber- 
 nacle and Temple of the Israelites. The 
 lily which is mentioned by our Saviour, as 
 an image of peculiar beauty and glory, 
 when comparing the works of nature with 
 
 the decorations of art, was a different flower; 
 probably a species of lilium. This is also 
 represented in all pictures of the salutation 
 of Gabriel to the Virgin Mary; and, in 
 fact, has been held in mysterious venera- 
 tion by people of all nations and times. 
 ' It is the symbol of divinity, of purity, 
 and abundance, and of a love most com- 
 plete in perfection, charity, and benediction ; 
 as in Holy Scripture, that mirror of purity, 
 Susanna is denned Susa, which signified 
 the lily flower, the chief city of the Per- 
 sians, bearing that name for excellency. 
 Hence, the lily's three leaves in the arms 
 of France meaneth Piety, Justice, and 
 Charity.' So far, the general impression 
 of a peculiar regard to this beautiful and 
 flagrant flower ; but the early Persians at- 
 tached to it a peculiar sanctity." We must 
 not, however, forget the difference between 
 the lotus of the Old Testament and the lily 
 of the New. The former is a Masonic plant ; 
 the latter is scarcely referred to. Never- 
 theless, through the ignorance of the early 
 translators as to sacred plants, the lotus is 
 constantly used for the lily ; and hence the 
 same error has crept into the Masonic 
 rituals. See Lotus. 
 
 Lily Work. The lily work which is 
 described as a part of the ornamentation 
 of the two pillars in the porch of Solomon's 
 Temple is said to be, from the whiteness of 
 the plant, symbolic of purity and peace. 
 Properly, it is lotus work. See Lily, Lotus, 
 and Pillars of the Porch. 
 
 Limbs. See Qualifications, Physical. 
 
 Lindner, Friederieh Wilbelm. 
 A professor of philosophy in Leipsic, who 
 published in 1818-1819 an attack on Free- 
 masonry under the title of Mac Benac; Er 
 lebet im Sohne ; oder das Positive der Frei- 
 maurerei. This work contains some good 
 ideas, although taken from an adverse 
 point of view ; but, as Lenning has observed, 
 these bear little fruit because of the fanati- 
 cal spirit of knight errantry with which he 
 attacks the Institution. 
 
 Line. One of the working-tools of a 
 Past Master, and presented to the Master 
 of a Lodge at his installation. See Plumb 
 Line. 
 
 Linear Triad. Oliver says that the 
 Linear Triad is a figure which appears in 
 some old Eoyal Arch floor-cloths. It bore 
 a reference to the sojourners, who repre- 
 sented the three stones on which prayers 
 and thanksgivings were offered on the dis- 
 covery of the lost Word; thereby affording 
 an example that it is our duty in every 
 undertaking to offer up our prayers and 
 thanksgivings to the God of our salvation. 
 
 Lines, Parallel. See Parallel Lines. 
 
 Lingam. The lingam and the youi 
 of the Indian mysteries were the same as 
 
472 
 
 LINK 
 
 LODGE 
 
 the phallus and cteis of the Grecian. See 
 Phallus. 
 
 Link. A degree formerly conferred in 
 England, in connection with the Mark de- 
 gree, under the title of the " Mark and Link 
 or Wrestle." It is now obsolete. 
 
 Linnecar, Richard. The author 
 of the celebrated Masonic anthem beginning 
 
 " Let there be Light ! th' Almighty spoke ; 
 Refulgent beams from chaos broke, 
 T' illume the rising earth." 
 
 Little is known of his personal history ex- 
 cept that he was the Coroner of Wakefield, 
 England, and for many years the Master 
 of the Lodge of Unanimity, No. 238, in that 
 town. He was a zealous and studious Ma- 
 son. In 1789 he published, at Leeds, a 
 volume of plays, poems, and miscellaneous 
 writings, among which was an essay enti- 
 tled Strictures on Freemasonry, and the an- 
 them already referred to. He appears to 
 have been a man of respectable abilities. 
 
 Lion's Paw. A mode of recognition 
 so called because of the rude resemblance 
 made by the hand and fingers to a lion's 
 
 Jaw. It refers to the " Lion of the tribe of 
 udah." 
 
 Literature of Masonry. Freema- 
 sonry has its literature, which has been 
 rapidly developed in the last few decades 
 of the present century, far more than in 
 any precedings ones. This literature is 
 not to be found in the working of its de- 
 grees, in the institution of its Lodges, in 
 the diffusion of its charities, or in the ex- 
 tension of its fraternal ties. Of all these, 
 although necessary and important ingre- 
 dients of the Order, its literature is wholly 
 independent. This is connected with its 
 ethics as a science of moral, social, and re- 
 ligious philosophy; with its history and 
 archaeology, as springing up out of the past 
 times ; with its biography as the field in 
 which men of intellect have delighted to 
 labor; and with its bibliography as the 
 record of the results of that labor. It is 
 connected, too, incidentally, with many 
 other arts and sciences. Mythology affords 
 an ample field for discussion in the effort 
 to collate the analogies of classic myths 
 and symbols with its own. Philology sub- 
 mits its laws for application to the origin 
 of its mystic words, all of which are con- 
 nected with its history. It has, in fine, its 
 science and its philosophy, its poetry and 
 romance. No one who has not studied the 
 literature of Masonry can even dream of 
 its beauty and extent; no one who has 
 studied it can have failed to receive the re- 
 ward that it bestows. 
 
 Litigation. See Lawsuits. 
 
 LiTery. The word livery is supposed 
 to be derived from the clothing delivered 
 
 by masters to their servants. The trading 
 companies or gilds of England began about 
 the time of Edward I. to wear a suit of cloth- 
 ing of a form, color, and material peculiar 
 to each company, which was called its 
 livery, and also its clothing. To be ad- 
 mitted into the membership and privileges 
 of the company was called " to have the 
 clothing." The Grocers' Company, for in- 
 stance, were ordered " to be clothed once a 
 year in a suit of livery ; " and there is an 
 order in the reign of Henry V. to purchase 
 cloth " for the clothing of the brethren of 
 the brewers' craft." There can be no doubt 
 that the usage of speaking of a Mason's 
 clothing, or of his being clothed, is de- 
 rived from the custom of the gilds. A 
 Mason's clothing, " black dress and white 
 gloves and apron," is, in fact, his livery. 
 See Clothing. 
 
 Livre d'Or. French. The Book of 
 Gold, which see. 
 
 Local Laws. See Laws of Masonry. 
 
 Locke's Letter. The letter of John 
 Locke which is said to have accompanied 
 the Leland MS., and which contains his 
 comments on it. See Leland Manuscript. 
 
 Lodge. There are three definitions 
 which, in the technical language of Ma- 
 sonry, apply to the word Lodge. 
 
 1. It is a place in which Freemasons meet. 
 In this sense the words more generally used 
 are Lodge Room, which see. 
 
 2. It is the assembly or organized body 
 of Freemasons duly congregated for labor 
 or for business. These two distinctions are 
 precisely the same as those to be found in 
 the word "church," which is expressive 
 both of the building in which a congrega- 
 tion meets to worship and the congregation 
 of worshippers themselves. This second 
 definition is what distinguishes a meeting 
 of symbolic Masons, who constitute a Lodge, 
 from one of Royal Arch Masons, whose 
 meeting would be called a Chapter, or of 
 Cryptic Masons, whose assembly would be 
 a Council. 
 
 The word appears in French as loge ; 
 German, loge ; Spanish, logia ; Portuguese, 
 loja; and Italian, loggia. This is irrefra- 
 gible evidence that the word was, with the 
 Institution, derived by the continent of 
 Europe from England. 
 
 The derivation of the word is, I think, 
 plain. Ragon says that it comes from the 
 Sanscrit loga, signifying the world. There 
 would, at first sight, seem to be a connec- 
 tion between this etymology and the sym- 
 bolic meaning of a Lodge, which repre- 
 sents the world; but yet it is evidently 
 far-fetched, since we have a much simpler 
 root immediately at hand. Mr. Hope says, 
 speaking of the Freemasons of the Middle 
 Ages, (and Wren had previously said the 
 
LODGE 
 
 LODGE 
 
 473 
 
 same thing,) that wherever they were en- 
 gaged to work, they "set themselves to 
 Building temporary huts, for their habita- 
 tion, around the spot where the work was to 
 be carried on." These huts the German 
 Masons called hutten; the English, lodges, 
 which is from the Anglo-Saxon, logian, to 
 dwell. Lodge, therefore, meant the dwell- 
 ing-place or lodging of the Masons; and 
 this is undoubtedly the origin of the mod- 
 ern use of the word. To corroborate this, 
 we find Du Cange (Oloss.) defining the 
 Mediaeval Latin, logia or logium, as "a 
 house or habitation." He refers to the 
 Italian, loggia, and quotes Lambertus Ar- 
 densis as saying that " logia is a place next 
 to the house, where persons were accustomed 
 to hold pleasant conversation." Hence 
 Lambertus thinks that it comes from the 
 Greek, logos, a discourse. Du Cange asserts 
 that there is no doubt that in the Middle 
 Ages logia or logium was commonly used 
 for an apartment or dwelling connected 
 with the main building. Thus, the small- 
 est apartments occupied by the cardinals 
 when meeting in conclave were called logix 
 or Lodges. All of which sustains the idea 
 that the Lodges of the old Operative Ma- 
 sons were small dwellings attached, or at 
 least contiguous, to the main edifice on 
 which they were at work. 
 
 In the Old Constitutions, the word is not 
 generally met with. The meeting of the 
 Craft is there usually called the Assembly. 
 But there are instances of its employment 
 in those documents. Thus in the Lodge of 
 Antiquity MS. whose date is 1786, and still 
 earlier in the York MS. No. 1, dated about 
 1600, it is said, "no Fellow within the 
 Lodge or without shall misanswer," etc. 
 There is also abundant documentary evi- 
 dence to show that the word Lodge was, 
 long before the eighteenth century, applied 
 to their meeting by the Freemasons of 
 England and Scotland. 
 
 Before the restoration of the Grand 
 Lodge of England in 1717, Preston tells 
 us that any number of brethren might as- 
 semble at any place for the performance 
 of work, and, when so assembled, were au- 
 thorized to receive into the Order brothers 
 and fellows, and to practise the rites of 
 Masonry. The ancient charges were the 
 only standard for the regulation of their 
 conduct. The Master of the Lodge was 
 elected pro tempore, and his authority ter- 
 minated with the dissolution of the meet- 
 ing over which he had presided, unless the 
 Lodge was permanently established at any 
 particular place. To the general assembly 
 of the Craft, held once or twice a year, all 
 the brethren indiscriminately were amen- 
 able, and to that power alone. But on the 
 formation of Grand Lodges, this inherent 
 3K 
 
 right of assembling was voluntarily sur- 
 rendered by the brethren and the Lodges, 
 and vested in the Grand Lodge. And from 
 this time Warrants of Constitution date 
 their existence. The first Warrant granted 
 by the Grand Lodge of England, after its 
 reorganization, is dated 1718. 
 
 The mode of bringing a Lodge into ex- 
 istence under the present system in Amer- 
 ica is as follows : Seven Master Masons, 
 being desirous of establishing a Lodge, 
 apply by petition to the Grand Master, 
 who will, if he thinks proper, issue his dis- 
 pensation authorizing them to congregate 
 as Masons in a Lodge, and therein to con- 
 fer the three degrees of Ancient Craft 
 Masonry. This instrument is of force dur- 
 ing the pleasure of the Grand Master. At 
 the next meeting of the Grand Lodge it ex- 
 pires, and is surrendered to the Grand Lodge, 
 which, if there be no objection, will issue 
 a Charter, technically called a Warrant of 
 Constitution, whereby the body is perma- 
 nently established as a Lodge, and as one 
 of the constituents of the Grand Lodge. 
 
 The power of granting Warrants of Con- 
 stitution is vested in the Grand Lodges of 
 Scotland, Ireland, Germany, and France, 
 as it is in America ; but in England the 
 rule is different, and there the prerogative 
 is vested in the Grand Master. 
 
 A Lodge thus constituted consists, in the 
 American system, of the following officers. 
 Worshipful Master, Senior and Junior 
 Wardens, Treasurer, Secretary, Senior and 
 Junior Deacons, two Stewards, and a Tiler. 
 
 In the York Rite, as practised in Eng- 
 land, the officers are, in addition to these, a 
 Director of Ceremonies, a Chaplain, and an 
 Inner Guard. 
 
 In a Lodge of the French Rite, the 
 officers are still more numerous. They are 
 Le Venerable or Worshipful Master, Pre- 
 mier and Second Surveillants or Senior 
 and Junior Wardens, Orator, Treasurer, 
 Secretary, Hospitaller or collector of alms, 
 the Expert, combining the duties of the 
 Senior Deacon and an examining com- 
 mittee, Master of Ceremonies, Architecte, 
 who attends to the decoration of the Lodge, 
 and superintends the financial department, 
 Archiviste or Librarian, Keeper of the 
 Seal, Master of the Banquets or Steward, 
 and Guardian of the Temple or Tiler. 
 
 The officers in a Lodge of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite are a Master, 
 two Wardens, Orator, Treasurer, Secretary, 
 Almoner, Expert, Assistant Expert, Master 
 of Ceremonies, Almoner Steward, Tiler, 
 and sometimes a few others as Pursuivant, 
 and Keeper of the Seals. 
 
 In other Rites and countries the officers 
 vary to a slight extent, but everywhere 
 there are three officers who always are 
 
474 
 
 LODGE 
 
 LODGE 
 
 found, and who may therefore he considered 
 as indispensable, namely, the Master, two 
 Wardens, and Tiler. 
 
 A Lodge thus constituted is a Lodge of 
 Master Masons. Strictly and legally speak- 
 ing, such a body as a Lodge of Entered 
 Apprentices or of Fellow Crafts is not 
 known under the present Masonic system. 
 No Warrant is ever granted for an Appren- 
 tices' or Fellow Crafts' Lodge, and with- 
 out a Warrant a Lodge cannot exist. The 
 Warrant granted is always for a Masters' 
 Lodge, and the members composing it are 
 all Master Masons. The Lodges mentioned 
 by Wren and Hope, to which allusion 
 has been made, and which were congre- 
 gated, in the Middle Ages, around the edi- 
 fices which the Masons were constructing, 
 were properly Fellow Crafts' Lodge, be- 
 cause all the members were Fellow Crafts ; 
 even the Master being merely a gradation of 
 rank, not a degree of knowledge. So at the 
 revival of Masonry in 1717, the Lodges were 
 Entered Apprentices' Lodges, because in 
 them nothing but the first degree was con- 
 ferred, and nearly all the members were 
 Entered Apprentices. But when the Grand 
 Lodge, where only at first the Fellow Craft 
 and Master's degree were conferred, per- 
 mitted them to be conferred in the subor- 
 dinate Lodges, then the degree of Master 
 Mason was sought for by all the Craft, and 
 became the object of every Mason's ambi- 
 tion. From that time the Craft became 
 Master Masons, and the first and second 
 degrees were considered only as preliminary 
 steps. So it has remained to this day ; and 
 all modern Lodges, wherever Masonry has 
 extended, are Masters' Lodge, and nothing 
 less. 
 
 Sometimes secretaries, ignorant of these 
 facts, will record in their minutes that " the 
 Lodge of Master Masons was closed and a 
 Lodge of Entered Apprentices was opened." 
 Neither written nor unwritten law sanc- 
 tions any such phraseology. If the Lodge 
 of Master Masons is closed, there is an end 
 of the Masonic congregation. Where is 
 the Warrant under which a Lodge of En- 
 tered Apprentices is opened, and how can 
 a Lodge, in which there is not, probably, a 
 single Apprentice, but where all the officers 
 and all the members are Master Masons, be 
 called a Lodge of Apprentices ? The ritual 
 has wisely provided for the avoidance of 
 such an anomaly, and, seeing that the War- 
 rant says that the Lodge of Master Masons 
 is empowered to make Apprentices and 
 Fellow Crafts, it says "the Lodge was 
 opened on the first degree." That is to say, 
 the Lodge of Masters still retaining its 
 character as a Masters' Lodge, without 
 which it would lose its legality, and not 
 venturing to open a kind of Lodge for 
 
 which its members had no Warrant nor 
 authority, simply placed itself on the 
 points of a degree in which it was about to 
 give instruction. 
 
 Some of the rituals speak, it is true, of 
 Lodges composed in ancient times of Mas- 
 ters and Fellow Crafts or Masters and Ap- 
 prentices; and the Webb lectures tell us 
 that at the Temple of Solomon the Lodges 
 of Entered Apprentices consisted of one 
 Master and six Apprentices, and the 
 Lodges of Fellow Crafts of two Masters 
 and three Fellow Crafts. But all this is 
 purely symbolic, and has no real existence 
 in the practical working of the Order. No 
 one in these days has seen a Lodge of one 
 Master Mason and six Apprentices. The 
 Masons working in the first degree are as 
 much Master Masons as the same Masons 
 are when they are working in the third. 
 The Lodge legally is the same, though it 
 may vary the subjects of its instruction so 
 as to have them in the first, second, or third 
 degree. 
 
 So important a feature in Masonry as a 
 Lodge, the congregations of Masons for 
 work or worship, cannot be without its ap- 
 propriate symbolism. Hence a Lodge 
 when duly opened becomes a symbol of 
 the world. Its covering is like the world's, 
 a sky or clouded canopy, to reach which, as 
 the abode of those who do the will of the 
 Grand Architect, it is furnished with the 
 theological ladder, which reaches from 
 earth to heaven ; and it is illuminated as is 
 the world, by the refulgent rays of the sun, 
 symbolically represented in his rising in 
 the east, his meridian height in the south, 
 and his setting in the west ; and lastly, its 
 very form, a long quadrangle or oblong 
 square, is in reference to the early tradition 
 that such was the shape of the inhabited 
 world. 
 
 3. The Lodge, technically speaking, is a 
 piece of furniture made in imitation of the 
 Ark of the Covenant, which was constructed 
 by Bazaleel, according to the form pre- 
 scribed by God himself, and which, after 
 the erection of the Temple, was kept in the 
 Holy of Holies. As that contained the ta- 
 ble of the laws, the Lodge contains the 
 Book of Constitutions and the Warrant of 
 Constitution granted by the Grand Lodge. 
 It is used only in certain ceremonies, such 
 as the constitution and consecration of new 
 Lodges. 
 
 IiOdge, Chartered. See Chartered 
 Lodge. 
 
 Lodge, Clandestine. See Clandes- 
 tine Lodge. 
 
 Lodge, Constituted. ^^Constituted 
 Legally. 
 
 Lodge, Dormant. See Dormant 
 Lodge. 
 
LODGE 
 
 LODGE 
 
 475 
 
 Lodge, Emergent. See Emergent 
 Lodge. 
 
 Lodge, Extinct. See Extinct Lodge. 
 
 Lodge, Holy. See Holy Lodge. 
 
 Lodge Hours. Dermott says (Ahim. 
 Rez., p. xxiii.,) " that Lodge hours, that is, 
 the time in which it is lawful for a Lodge 
 to work or do business, are from March 
 25th to September 25th, between the hours 
 of seven and ten ; and from September 25th 
 to March 25th, between the hours of six 
 and nine." I know not whence he derived 
 the law ; but it is certain that it has never 
 been rigidly observed even by the " ancient 
 Lodges," for whom his Ahiman Rezon was 
 written. 
 
 Lodge, Just. See Just Lodge. 
 
 Lodge Master, English. (Mditre 
 de Lodge Anglais.) A degree in the nomen- 
 clature of Thory, inserted on the authority 
 of Lemanceau. 
 
 Lodge Master, French. {Maitre 
 de Loge Erangais.) The twenty-sixth de- 
 gree of the collection of the Metropolitan 
 Chapter of France. 
 
 Lodge, Occasional. See Occasional 
 Lodge. 
 
 Lodge of Instruction. These are 
 assemblies of brethren congregated with- 
 out a Warrant of Constitution, under the 
 direction of a lecturer or skilful brother, for 
 the purpose of improvement in Masonry, 
 which is accomplished by the frequent re- 
 hearsal of the work and lectures of each 
 degree. These bodies should consist exclu- 
 sively of Master Masons ; and though they 
 possess no Masonic power, it is evident to 
 every Mason that they are extremely use- 
 ful as schools of preparation for the duties 
 that are afterwards to be performed in the 
 regular Lodge. In England, these Lodges 
 of Instruction are attached to regularly 
 Warranted Lodges, or are specially licensed 
 by the Grand Master. But they have an 
 independent set of officers, who are elected 
 at no stated periods — sometimes for a year, 
 sometimes for six or three months, and 
 sometimes changed at every night of meet- 
 ing. They of course have no power of 
 initiation, but simply meet for purposes of 
 practice in the ritual. They are, however, 
 bound to keep a record of their transac- 
 tions, subject to the inspection of the su- 
 perior powers. 
 
 Lodge of St. John. The Masonic 
 tradition is that the primitive or mother 
 Lodge was held at Jerusalem, and dedi- 
 cated to St. John, first the Baptist, then 
 the Evangelist, and finally to both. Hence 
 this Lodge was called " The Lodge of the 
 Holy St. John of Jerusalem." From this 
 Lodge all other Lodges are supposed figura- 
 tively to descend, and they therefore receive 
 the same general name, accompanied by 
 
 another local and distinctive one. In all 
 Masonic documents the words ran formerly 
 as follows : " From the Lodge of the holy 
 St. John of Jerusalem, under the distinct- 
 ive appellation of Solomon's Lodge, No. 1," 
 or whatever might be the local name. 
 In this style foreign documents still run ; 
 and it is but a few years since it has been 
 at all disused in this country. Hence we 
 say that every Mason hails from such a 
 Lodge, that is to say, from a just and le- 
 gally constituted Lodge. In the earliest 
 catechisms of the eighteenth century we 
 find this formula. "Q. What Lodge are 
 you of? A. The Lodge of St. John." And 
 another question is, " How many angles in 
 St. John's Lodge?" In one of the high 
 degrees it is stated that Lodges receive this 
 title " because, in the time of the Crusades, 
 the Perfect Masons communicated a knowl- 
 edge of their Mysteries to the Knights of 
 St. John of Jerusalem," and as both were 
 thus under the same law, the Lodges were 
 called St. John's Lodges. But this was 
 only one of the attempts to connect Free- 
 masonry with the Templar system. 
 
 Lodge, Perfect. See Perfect Lodge. 
 
 Lodge, Regular. See Regular 
 Lodge. 
 
 Lodge Room. The Masons on the 
 continent of Europe have a prescribed form 
 or ritual of building, according to whose 
 directions it is absolutely necessary that 
 every hall for Masonic purposes shall be 
 erected. No such regulation exists among 
 the Fraternity of this country or Great 
 Britain.. Still, the usages of the Craft, and 
 the objects of convenience in the adminis- 
 tration of our rites, require that certain 
 general rules should be followed in the 
 construction of a Lodge room. These rules, 
 as generally observed in this country, are as 
 follows : 
 
 A Lodge room should always, if possible, 
 be situated due east and west. This posi- 
 tion is not absolutely necessary ; and yet it 
 is so far so as to demand that some sacri- 
 fices should be made, if possible, to obtain 
 so desirable a position. It should also be 
 isolated, where it is practicable, from all 
 surrounding buildings, and should always 
 be placed in an upper story. No Lodge 
 should ever be held on the ground 
 floor. 
 
 The form of a Lodge room should be 
 that of a parallelogram or oblong square, 
 at least one-third larger from east to west 
 than it is from north to south. The ceiling 
 should be lofty, to give dignity to the ap- 
 pearance of the hall, as well as for the pur- 
 poses of health, by compensating, in some 
 degree, for the inconvenience of closed 
 windows, which necessarily will deteriorate 
 the quality of the air in a very short time 
 
476 
 
 LODGE 
 
 LOST 
 
 in a low room. The approaches to the 
 Lodge room from without should be angu- 
 lar, for, as Oliver says, "A straight en- 
 trance is unmasonic, and cannot be toler- 
 ated." There should be two entrances to 
 the room, which should be situated in the 
 west, and on each side of the Senior War- 
 den's station. The one on his right hand 
 is for the introduction of visitors and mem- 
 bers, and leading from the Tiler's room, is 
 called the Tiler's, or the outer door; the 
 other, on his left, leading from the prepa- 
 ration room, is known as the " inner door," 
 and sometimes called the " north-west door." 
 The situation of these two doors, as well as 
 the rooms with which they are connected, 
 and which are essentially necessary in a 
 well-constructed Lodge room, may be seen 
 from the diagram annexed to this article, 
 which also exhibits the seats of the officers 
 and the arrangement of the altar and lights. 
 For further observations, see Halls, Ma- 
 sonic. 
 
 East. 
 
 Platform 
 for 
 
 m 
 
 or Dais 
 Past Masters. 
 
 Senior Deacon. 
 * Treasurer. 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 Light. 
 
 Light * 
 
 Altar. 
 
 Light. 
 
 Steward. * 
 
 Junior Warden. * 
 Steward. * 
 
 5 o 
 
 '3 g 
 
 Inner 
 door. 
 
 Preparation 
 Koom. 
 
 Door. 
 
 Outer 
 door. 
 
 Tiler's 
 Room. 
 
 West. 
 
 •Door- 
 
 Lodge, Royal. See Royal Lodge. 
 
 Lodge, Sacred. See Sacred Lodge. 
 
 Lodge, Symbol of the. The mod- 
 ern symbol or hieroglyphic of the word 
 Lodge is the figure CD, which undoubtedly 
 refers to the form of the Lodge as an " ob- 
 long square." But in the old rituals of 
 A the early part of the last century we 
 find this symbol: The cross here, 
 as Krause {Kunsturk, i. 37,) sug- 
 J^ gests, refers to the " four angles" of 
 ^[^ the Lodge, as in the question : 
 
 ^^ " How many angles in St. John's 
 Lodge? A. Four, bordering on squares;" 
 and the delta is the Pythagorean symbol 
 of Divine Providence watching over the 
 Lodge. This symbol has long since be- 
 come obsolete. 
 
 Loge. The French word for Lodge. 
 
 Logic. The art of reasoning, and one 
 of the seven liberal arts and sciences, 
 whose uses are inculcated in the second de- 
 gree. The power of right reasoning, which 
 distinguishes the man of sane mind from 
 the madman and the idiot, is deemed essen- 
 tial to the Mason, that he may comprehend 
 both his rights and his duties. And hence 
 the unfortunate beings just named, who are 
 without this necessary mental quality, are 
 denied admission into the Order. The Old 
 Constitutions define logic to be the art 
 " that teacheth to discern truth from false- 
 hood." 
 
 Lombardy. At the close of the dark 
 ages, Lombardy and the adjacent Italian 
 states were the first which awakened to in- 
 dustry. New cities arose, and the kings, 
 lords, and municipalities began to encour- 
 age the artificers of different professions. 
 Among the arts exercised and improved in 
 Lombardy, the art of building held a pre- 
 eminent rank, and from that kingdom, as 
 from a centre, Masons were dispersed over 
 all Europe. See Travelling Freemasons. 
 
 London. With the city of London, 
 the modern history of Freemasonry is in- 
 timately connected. A congress of Masons, 
 as it may properly be called, was convened 
 there by the four old Lodges, at the Apple- 
 Tree Tavern, in February, 1717. Its results 
 were the formation of the Grand Lodge 
 of England, and a modification of the Ma- 
 sonic system, whence the Freemasonry of 
 the present day has descended. Anderson, 
 in his second edition of the Book of Con- 
 stitutions, (1738,) gives the account of this, 
 as it is now called, Revival of Masonry, 
 which see. 
 
 Lost Word. The mythical history of 
 Freemasonry informs us that there once 
 existed a WORD of surpassing value, and 
 claiming a profound veneration ; that this 
 Word was known to but few ; that it was 
 at length lost ; and that a temporary sub- 
 
LOTUS 
 
 LOWEN 
 
 477 
 
 stitute for it was adopted. But as the very- 
 philosophy of Masonry teaches us that 
 there can be no death without a resurrec- 
 tion, — no decay without a subsequent res- 
 toration, — on the same principle it follows 
 that the loss of the Word must suppose its 
 eventual recovery. 
 
 Now, this it is, precisely, that constitutes 
 the myth of the Lost Word and the search 
 for it. No matter what was the word, no 
 matter how it was lost, nor why a substi- 
 tute was provided, nor when nor where it 
 was recovered. These are all points of sub- 
 sidiary importance, necessary, it is true, for 
 knowing the legendary history, but not 
 necessary for understanding the symbolism. 
 The only term of the myth that is to be 
 regarded in the study of its interpretation, 
 is the abstract idea of a word lost and after- 
 wards recovered. 
 
 The WORD, therefore, I conceive to be 
 the symbol of Divine Truth; and all its 
 modifications — the loss, the substitution, 
 and the recovery — are but component 
 parts of the mythical symbol which repre- 
 sents a search after truth. In a general 
 sense, the Word itself being then the sym- 
 bol of Divine Truth, the narrative of its 
 loss and the search for its recovery becomes 
 a mythical symbol of the decay and loss of 
 the true religion among the ancient nations, 
 at and after the dispersion on the plains of 
 Shinar, and of the attempts of the wise 
 men, the philosophers, and priests, to find 
 and retain it in their secret mysteries and 
 initiations, which have hence been desig- 
 nated as the Spurious Freemasonry of 
 Antiquity. 
 
 But there is a special or individual, as 
 well as a general interpretation, and in this 
 special or individual interpretation the 
 Word, with its accompanying myth of a 
 loss, a substitute, and a recovery, becomes 
 a symbol of the personal progress of a can- 
 didate from his first initiation to the com- 
 pletion of his course, when he receives a 
 full development of the mysteries. 
 
 Lotus. The lotus plant, so celebrated 
 in the religions of Egypt and Asia, is a spe- 
 cies of Nymphsea, or water-lily, which grows 
 abundantly on the banks of streams in warm 
 climates. Although more familiarly known 
 as the lotus of the Nile, it was not indigenous 
 to Egypt, but was probably introduced into 
 that country from the East, among whose 
 people it was everywhere consecrated as a 
 sacred symbol. The Brahmanical deities 
 were almost always represented as either 
 decorated with its flowers, or holding it as a 
 sceptre, or seated on it as a throne. Coleman 
 says, [Mythol. Hindus, p. 388,) that to the 
 Hindu poets the lotus was what the rose was 
 to the Persians. Floating on the water it is 
 the emblem of the world, and the type also 
 
 of the mountain Meru, the residence of the 
 gods. Among the Egyptians, the lotus was 
 the symbol of Osiris and Isis. It was 
 esteemed a sacred ornament by the priests, 
 and was placed as a coronet upon the heads 
 of many of the gods. It was also much 
 used in the sacred architecture of the Egyp- 
 tians, being placed as an entablature upon 
 the columns of their temples. Thence it 
 was introduced by Solomon into Jewish 
 architecture, being found, under the name 
 of " lily work," as a part of the ornaments 
 of the two pillars at the porch of the Tem- 
 ple. See Lily and Pillars of the Porch. 
 
 Louisiana. Masonry was introduced 
 into Louisiana in 1793 by the organization 
 of Perfect Union Lodge, under a Charter 
 issued by the Grand Lodge of South Caro- 
 lina. A second Lodge was established by 
 the Mother Lodge of Marseilles, in France ; 
 and three others were subsequently char- 
 tered by the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania. 
 These five Lodges instituted a Grand Lodge 
 on July 11, 1812, and Francis du Bourg 
 was elected the first Grand Master. A dif- 
 ference of nationality and of Masonic rites 
 have been a fertile source of controversy in 
 Louisiana, the results of which it would be 
 tedious to follow in detail. In 1848, there 
 were two Grand Lodges, which were united 
 in 1850 to constitute the present Grand 
 Lodge. 
 
 The Grand Chapter of Louisiana was in- 
 stituted on 5th March, 1813 ; a Grand Coun- 
 cil of Royal and Select Masters on 16th 
 February, 1856 ; and a Grand Commandery 
 of Knights Templars on 4th February, 1864. 
 The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 has always held a prominent position in 
 the Masonry of Louisiana, and it has a 
 Grand Consistory and many subordinate 
 bodies of the Rite in active and successful 
 operation. The obedience of the Grand 
 Consistory is to the Supreme Council for 
 the Southern Jurisdiction. 
 
 l<ouveteau. See Lewis. 
 
 L.owen. In the Landsdowne Manu- 
 script we meet with this charge : " that a 
 Master or Fellow make not a mouldstone 
 square, nor rule to no Loiven, nor sett no 
 Lowen worke within the Lodge." The Lon- 
 don Freemason's Magazine, and Brother 
 Hughan, also, say, " this no doubt is a mis- 
 take for ' Cowan.' " I was at one time in- 
 clined to think so myself. But subsequent 
 investigations have led me to ehange my 
 opinion. I can find Cowan only in one 
 manuscript, namely, the Scottish one of 
 William Schaw. In the MS. Constitutions 
 from the York Archives, first published by 
 Brother Hughan, we have in the parallel 
 passage "Rough Mason." This gives us the 
 idea intended to be conveyed by the word, 
 whatever it was. It pointed to a handi- 
 
478 
 
 LOW 
 
 LUX 
 
 craftsman of an inferior character and 
 standing. For " Rough Mason," we have 
 in the Alnwick MS. "Layer" and " Rough 
 Layer." In the Harleian and Edinburgh- 
 Kilwinning MSS. we find " Layer; " in the 
 Sloane MS. it is " Lyer ; " and in the Dow- 
 land MS., which I have already said seems 
 almost identical in origin with the Lands- 
 downe, in the exactly parallel passage we 
 have" Layer" twice, just as "Lowen" is twice 
 used here. Layer is as easily corrupted 
 into Lowen as Cowan would be, in copying 
 the abbreviated writing of these Old Rec- 
 ords, and indeed more easily, since it is 
 more likely that small letters should be 
 mistaken and changed than capitals. 
 
 Ii<»w Twelve. In Masonic language 
 midnight is so called. The reference is to 
 the sun, which is then below the earth. 
 Low twelve in Masonic symbolism is an 
 unpropitious hour. 
 
 Loyalty. Notwithstanding the calum- 
 nies of Barruel, Ro bison, and a host of other 
 anti-Masonic writers who assert that Ma- 
 sonry is ever engaged in efforts to uproot 
 the governments within which it may 
 exist, there is nothing more evident than 
 that Freemasonry is a loyal institution, 
 and that it inculcates, in all its public in- 
 structions, obedience to government. Thus, 
 in the Prestonian charge given in the last 
 century to the Entered Apprentice, and 
 continued to this day in the same words in 
 English Lodges, we find the following 
 words : 
 
 " In the State, you are to be a quiet and 
 peaceable subject, true to your sovereign, 
 and just to your country; you are not 
 to countenance disloyalty or rebellion, but 
 patiently submit to legal authority, and 
 conform with cheerfulness to the govern- 
 ment under which you live, yielding obe- 
 dience to the laws which afford you protec- 
 tion, but never forgetting the attachment 
 you owe to the place of your nativity, or 
 the allegiance due to the sovereign or pro- 
 tectors of that spot." 
 
 The charge given in American Lodges is 
 of the same import, and varies but slightly 
 in its language. 
 
 " In the State, you are to be a quiet and 
 peaceful subject, true to your government, 
 and just to your country; you are not to 
 countenance disloyalty or rebellion, but pa- 
 tiently submit to legal authority, and con- 
 form with cheerfulness to the government 
 of the country in which you live." 
 
 The charge given in French Lodges, 
 though somewhat differing in form from 
 both of these, is couched in the same spirit 
 and teaches the same lesson. It is to this 
 effect : 
 
 " Obedience to the laws and submission 
 to the authorities are among the most im- 
 
 perious duties of the Mason, and he is for- 
 bidden at all times from engaging in plots 
 and conspiracies." 
 
 Hence it is evident that the true Mason 
 must be a true patriot. 
 
 Luehet, Jean Pierre Louis, 
 Marquis de. A French historical 
 writer, born at Saintes in 1740, and died in 
 1791. He was the writer of many works 
 of but little reputation, but is principally 
 distinguished in Masonic literature as the 
 author of an attack upon Illuminism under 
 the title of Essai sur la Secte des Lllumints. 
 It first appeared anonymously in 1789. 
 Four editions of it were published. The 
 third and fourth with augmentations and 
 revisions, which were attributed to Mira- 
 beau, were printed with the outer title of 
 Histoire secret de la Cour de Berlin {par Mira- 
 beau.) This work was published, it is 
 known, without his consent, and was 
 burned by the common executioner in con- 
 sequence of its libellous character. Lu- 
 chet's essay has become very scarce, and is 
 now valued rather on account of its rarity 
 than for its intrinsic excellence. 
 
 Luminaries. The first five officers 
 in a French Lodge, namely, the Master, two 
 Wardens, Orator, and Secretary, are called 
 luminaires or luminaries, because it is by 
 them that light is dispensed to the Lodge. 
 
 Lustration. A religious rite prac- 
 tised by the ancients, and which was per- 
 formed before any act of devotion. It con- 
 sisted in washing the hands, and sometimes 
 the whole body, in lustral or consecrated 
 water. It was intended as a symbol of the 
 internal purification of the heart. It was 
 a ceremony preparatory to initiation in all 
 the Ancient Mysteries. The ceremony is 
 practised with the same symbolic import in 
 some of the high degrees of Masonry. So 
 strong was the idea of a connection between 
 lustration and initiation, that in the low 
 Latin of the Middle Ages lustrare meant to 
 initiate. Thus Du Cange ( Glossarium) cites 
 the expression " lustrare religione Christi- 
 anorum " as signifying " to initiate into the 
 Christian religion." 
 
 Lux. Latin for light, which see. Free- 
 masonry anciently received, among other 
 names, that of " Lux," because it is that 
 sublime doctrine of truth by which the 
 pathway of him who has attained it is to 
 be illumined in the pilgrimage of life. 
 Among the Rosicrucians, light was the 
 knowledge of the philosopher's stone ; and 
 Mosheim says that in chemical language 
 the cross was an emblem of light, because 
 it contains within its figure the forms of 
 the three figures of which LVX, or light, 
 is composed. 
 
 Lux e tenebris. Light out of dark- 
 ness. A motto very commonly used in the 
 
LUX 
 
 MAC 
 
 479 
 
 caption of Masonic documents as expres- 
 sive of the object of Masonry, and of what 
 the true Mason supposes himself to have 
 attained. It has a recondite meaning. 
 In the primeval ages and in the early my- 
 thology, darkness preceded light. " In the 
 thought," says Cox, " of these early ages, 
 the sun was the child of night or dark- 
 ness," (Aryan Myth., i. 43.) So lux being 
 truth or Masonry, and tenebrce, or darkness, 
 the symbol of initiation, lux e tenebris is 
 Masonic truth proceeding from initiation. 
 
 tux Fiat et Iaix Fit. Latin. "Let 
 there be light, and there was light." A motto 
 sometimes prefixed to Masonic documents. 
 
 Ii. V. C Letters inscribed on the rings 
 of profession, worn by the Knights of Ba- 
 ron von Hund's Templar system. They 
 are the initials of the sentence Labor Viris 
 Convenit. Labor is suitable for men. It 
 was also engraved on their seals. 
 
 liyons. Congress of. A Masonic 
 congress was convoked in 1778, at the city 
 of Lyons, France, by the Lodge of Chev- 
 aliers Bienfaisants. It was opened on the 
 26th November, and continued in session un- 
 til the 27th December, under the presidency 
 of M. Villermoz. Its ostensible object was 
 to procure a reformation in Masonry by 
 the abjuration of the Templar theory ; but 
 it wasted its time in the correction of rituals 
 and in Masonic intrigues, and does not ap- 
 pear to have been either sagacious in its 
 methods, or successful in its results. Even 
 its abjuration of the Strict Observance doc- 
 trine that Templarism was the true origin 
 of Freemasonry, is said to have been in- 
 sincere, and forced upon it by the injunc- 
 tions of the political authorities, who were 
 opposed to the propagation of any system 
 which might tend to restore the Order of 
 Knights Templars. 
 
 M. 
 
 Maacha. In the tenth degree of the 
 Scottish Rite we are informed that certain 
 traitors fled to " Maacha king of Cheth," 
 by whom they were delivered up to King 
 Solomon on his sending for them. In 1 
 Kings ii. 39, we find it recorded that two 
 of the servants of Shimei fled from Jeru- 
 salem to " Achish, son of Maacha king of 
 Gath." There can be little doubt that the 
 carelessness of the early copyists of the 
 ritual led to the double error of putting 
 Cheth for Gath and of supposing that Ma- 
 acha was its king instead of its king's 
 father. The manuscripts of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite, too often 
 copied by unlearned persons, show many 
 such corruptions of Hebrew names, which 
 modern researches must eventually correct. 
 Delaunay, in his Thuileur, makes him King 
 of Tyre, and calls him Mahakah. 
 
 mac. Masonic writers have generally 
 given to this word the meaning of "is 
 smitten," deriving it probably from the 
 Hebrew verb HDJ, nacha, to smite. Others, 
 again, think it is the word pD, mak, rotten- 
 ness, and suppose that it means " he is 
 rotten" Both derivations are, I think, in- 
 correct. 
 
 Mac is a constituent part of the word 
 macbenac, which is the substitute Master's 
 word in the French Rite, and which is in- 
 terpreted by the French ritualists as mean- 
 ing "he lives in the son." But such a 
 
 derivation can find no support in any 
 known Hebrew root. Another interpreta- 
 tion must be sought. I think there is 
 evidence, circumstantial at least, to show 
 that the word was, if not an invention of 
 the Ancient or Dermott Masons, at least 
 adopted by them in distinction from the 
 one used by the Moderns, and which latter 
 is the word, now in use in this country. I 
 am disposed to attribute the introduction 
 of the word into Masonry to the adherents 
 of the house of Stuart, who sought in 
 every way to make the institution of Free- 
 masonry a political instrument in their 
 schemes for the restoration of their exiled 
 monarch. Thus the old phrase, "the 
 widow's son," was applied by them to 
 James the Second, who was the son of 
 Henrietta Maria, the widow of Charles the 
 First. So, instead of the old Master's word 
 which had hitherto been used, they in- 
 vented macbenac out of the Gaelic, which 
 to them was, on account of their Highland 
 supporters, almost a sacred language in the 
 place of Hebrew. Now, in Gaelic, Mac isjsow, 
 and benach is blessed, from the active verb 
 beannaich, to bless. The latest dictionary 
 published by the Highland Society gives 
 this example : " Benach De Righ Albane, 
 Alexander, Mac Alexander," etc., i. e., Bless 
 the King of Scotland, Alexander, son of 
 Alexander, etc. Therefore we find, with- 
 out any of those distortions to which ety- 
 
480 
 
 MACBENAC 
 
 MAGIC 
 
 mologists so often recur, that macbenac 
 means in Gaelic "the blessed son:' This 
 word the Stuart Masons applied to their 
 idol, the Pretender, the son of Charles I. 
 
 Macbenac. 1. A significant word in 
 the third degree according to the French 
 Rite and some other rituals. See Mac. 
 
 2. In the Order of Beneficent Knights 
 of the Holy City, the recipiendary, or nov- 
 ice, is called Macbenac. 
 
 Maccabees. A heroic family, whose 
 patriotism and valor form bright pictures 
 in the Jewish annals. The name is gen- 
 erally supposed to be derived from the let- 
 ters *. ^. 3. f2-> M - c - B - !•> — which were 
 inscribed upon their banners, — being the 
 initials of the Hebrew sentence, " Mi Ca- 
 mocha, Baalim, Iehovah," Who is like unto 
 thee among the gods, Jehovah. The He- 
 brew sentence has been appropriated in 
 some of the high Scottish degrees as a sig- 
 nificant word. 
 
 Macerio. Du Cange gives this as one 
 of the Middle Age Latin words for mason, 
 deriving it from maceria, a wall ; but ma- 
 ceria was a corruption of materia, materials 
 for building. The word is now never em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Macio. Du Cange (Oloss.) defines Ma- 
 cio, Mattio, or Machio, on the authority of 
 Isidore, as Maqon, latomus, a mason, a con- 
 structor of walls, from machinis, the ma- 
 chines on which they stood to work on 
 account of the height of the walls. He 
 gives Maco also. 
 
 Macon. The French for Mason, sup- 
 posed to be derived from maison, a house. 
 
 Maconetus. Low Latin, signifying a 
 mason, and found in documents of the 
 fourteenth century. 
 
 Macomie. A French word signifying 
 a female Mason, that is to say, the degrees 
 of the Rite of Adoption. It is a very con- 
 venient word. The formation of the Eng- 
 lish language would permit the use of the 
 equivalent word Masoness, if custom would 
 sanction it. 
 
 Macon ne Egyptienne. The third 
 degree in Cagliostro's Rite of Adoption. 
 
 Macomicr. Du Cange gives citations 
 from documents of the fourteenth century, 
 where this word is used as signifying to 
 build. 
 
 Maczo. Latin of the Middle Ages for 
 a mason. Du Cange quotes a Computum 
 of the year 1324, in which it is said that 
 the work was done "per manum Petri, 
 maczonis de Lagnicio." 
 
 Made. A technical word signifying 
 initiated into Masonry. See Make. 
 
 Madman. Madmen are specially des- 
 ignated in the oral law as disqualified for 
 initiation. See Qualifications. 
 
 Magazine. The earliest Masonic mag- 
 azine was published in Germany. It was 
 
 the Freimaurerzeitung, issued for a short 
 time at Berlin, in 1783. But the Journal 
 fur Freimaurer, which appeared the next 
 year at Vienna, had a more protracted ex- 
 istence. In England, the first work of this 
 kind was The Freemason's Magazine or Gen- 
 eral and Complete Library, begun in 1793, 
 and continued for several years. In France, 
 the earliest Masonic magazine of which I 
 can find any notice was Hermes, the first 
 number of which appeared in 1808. Of 
 American Masonic magazines the earliest 
 is the Freemason's Magazine and General 
 Miscellany, published at Philadelphia in 
 1811. Since then more than sixty Masonic 
 journals have been established in the United 
 States, of which about twenty still exist. 
 The oldest living periodical devoted to Ma- 
 sonry is the Freemason's Monthly Magazine, 
 published by Charles W. Moore, at Boston. 
 It was established in the year 1842. 
 
 Magi. The ancient Greek historians 
 so term the hereditary priests among the 
 Persians and Medians. The word is de- 
 rived from mog or mag, signifying priest in 
 the Pehlevi language. The Illuminati first 
 introduced the word into Masonry, and em- 
 ployed it in the nomenclature of their de- 
 grees to signify men of superior wisdom. 
 
 Magic. The idea that any connection 
 exists between Freemasonry and magic is 
 to be attributed to the French writers, es- 
 pecially to Ragon, who gives many pages 
 of his Masonic Orthodoxy to the subject 
 of Masonic magic; and still more to Louis 
 Constance, who has written three large vol- 
 umes on the History of Magic, on the 
 Ritual and Dogma of the Higher Magic, 
 and on the Key of the Grand Mysteries, in 
 all of which he seeks to trace an intimate 
 connection between the Masonic mysteries 
 and the science of magic. Ragon desig- 
 nates this sort of Masonry by the name of 
 "Occult Masonry." But he loosely con- 
 founds magic with the magism of the an- 
 cient Persians, the mediaeval philosophy 
 and modern magnetism, all of which, as 
 identical sciences, were engaged in the in- 
 vestigation of the nature of man, the mech- 
 anism of his thoughts, the faculties of 
 his soul, his power over nature, and the es- 
 sence of the occult virtues of all things. 
 Magism, he says, is to be found in the sen- 
 tences of Zoroaster, in the hymns of Or- 
 pheus, in the invocations of the Hiero- 
 phants, and in the symbols of Pythagoras ; 
 and it is reproduced in the philosophy of 
 Agrippa and of Cardan, and is recognized 
 under the name of Magic in the marvellous 
 results of magnetism. Cagliostro, it is 
 well known, mingled with his Spurious 
 Freemasonry the Superstitions of Magic 
 and the Operations of Animal Magnetism. 
 But the writers who have sought to estab- 
 lish a scheme of Magical Masonry refer 
 
MAGICIANS 
 
 MAGNANIMOUS 
 
 481 
 
 almost altogether to the supposed power of 
 mystical names or words, which they say is 
 common to both Masonry and magic. It 
 is certain that onomatology, or the science 
 of names, forms a very interesting part of 
 the investigations of the higher Masonry, 
 and it is only in this way that any connec- 
 tion can be created between the two sciences. 
 Much light, it must be confessed, is thrown 
 on many of the mystical names in the 
 higher degrees by the dogmas of magic; 
 and hence magic furnishes a curious and 
 interesting study for the Freemason. 
 
 Magicians, Society of the. A 
 society founded at Florence, which became 
 a division of the Brothers of Rose Croix. 
 They wore in their Chapters the habit of 
 members of the Inquisition. 
 
 Magic Squares. A magic square is 
 a series of numbers arranged in an equal 
 number of cells constituting a square fig- 
 ure, the enumeration of all of whose col- 
 umns, vertically, horizontally, and diagon- 
 ally, will give the same sum. The Oriental 
 philosophers, and especially the Jewish 
 Talmudists, have indulged in many fanciful 
 speculations in reference to these magic 
 squares, many of which were considered 
 as talismans. The following figure of nine 
 squares, containing the nine digits so ar- 
 ranged as to make fifteen when counted in 
 every way, was of peculiar import : 
 
 4 9 2 
 
 3 5 7 
 
 8 16 
 
 There was no talisman more sacred than 
 this among the Orientalists, when arranged 
 in the following figure : 
 
 Thus arranged, they called it by the 
 name of the planet Saturn, ZaHaL, because 
 the sum of the 9 digits in the square was 
 equal to 46, (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9,) 
 which is the numerical value of the letters 
 in the word ZaHaL, in the Arabic alphabet. 
 The Talmudists also esteemed it as a sacred 
 talisman, because 15 is the numerical value 
 of the letters of the word ."p, JaH, which 
 is one of the forms of the Tetragrammaton. 
 
 The Hermetic philosophers called these 
 magic squares "tables of the planets," 
 and attributed to them many occult vir- 
 tues. The table of Saturn consisted of 9 
 squares, and has just been given. The 
 table of Jupiter consisted of 16 squares of 
 numbers, whose total value is 136, and the 
 sum of them added, horizontally, perpen- 
 dicularly, and diagonally, is always 34; 
 thus : 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 So the table of Mars consists of 25 
 squares, of the Sun of 36, of Venus of 49, 
 of Mercury of 64, and of the Moon of 81. 
 These magic squares and their values have 
 been used in the symbolism of numbers in 
 some of the high degrees of Masonry. 
 
 Magister Ceenientariorum. A 
 title applied in the Middle Ages to one who 
 presided over the building of edifices = 
 Master of the Masons. 
 
 Magister Hospitalis. See Master 
 of the Hospital. ' 
 
 Magister Lapidifm. Du Cange de- 
 fines this as Master Mason ; and he cites 
 the statutes of Marseilles as saying : " Tres 
 Magistros Lapidis bonos et legales," i. e., 
 three good and lawful Master Masons 
 "shall be selected to decide on all ques- 
 tions about water in the city." 
 
 Magister Militia* Christ!. See 
 Master of the Chivalry of Christ. 
 
 Magister Perrerius. A name 
 given in the Middle Ages to a Mason ; lit- 
 erally, a Master of Stones, from the French 
 pierre, a stone. 
 
 Magister Templi. See Master of 
 the Temple. 
 
 Magistri Coinacini. See Como. 
 
 Magnanimous. The title applied 
 in modern usage to the Order of Knights 
 Templars. 
 
482 
 
 MAGNETIC 
 
 MAJORITY 
 
 Magnetic Masonry. This is a form 
 of Freemasonry which, although long ago 
 
 f>ractised by Cagliostro as a species of char- 
 atanism, was first introduced to notice as a 
 philosophic system by Ragon in his treatise 
 on Maconnerie Occulte. "The occult sci- 
 ences,'' says this writer, " reveal to man the 
 mysteries of his nature, the secrets of his 
 organization, the means of attaining per- 
 fection and happiness ; and, in short, the 
 decree of his destiny. Their study was 
 that of the high initiations of the Egyp- 
 tians ; it is time that they should become 
 the study of modern Masons." And again 
 he says : " A Masonic society which should 
 establish in its bosom a magnetic academy 
 would soon find the reward of its labors in 
 the good that it would do, and the happi- 
 ness which it would create." There can be 
 no doubt that the Masonic investigator 
 has a right to search everywhere for the 
 means of moral, intellectual, and religious 
 perfection ; and if he can find anything in 
 magnetism which would aid him in the 
 search, it is his duty and wisest policy to 
 avail himself of it. But, nevertheless, Mag- 
 netic Masonry, as a special regime,vfi\i hardly 
 ever be adopted by the Fraternity. 
 
 Magus. 1. The fourteenth degree, and 
 the first of the Greater Mysteries of the 
 system of llluminism. 2. The ninth and 
 last degree of the German Rose Croix. It 
 is the singular of Magi, which see. 
 
 Mali. The Hebrew interrogative pro- 
 noun ,-JO> signifying what? It is a com- 
 ponent part of a significant word in Ma- 
 sonry. The combination mahhah, literally 
 " what 1 the," is equivalent, according to 
 the Hebrew method of ellipsis, to the ques- 
 tion, " What ! is this the ? " 
 
 Mataer - S h a I a 1 -Hash - Baz. He- 
 brew, p t?n hhv? "\TV2- Four Hebrew 
 words which the prophet Isaiah was or- 
 dered to write upon a tablet, and which 
 were afterwards to be the name of his son. 
 They signify, " make haste to the prey, 
 fall upon the spoil," and were prognostic 
 of the sudden attack of the Assyrians. 
 They may be said, in their Masonic use, to 
 be symbolic of the readiness for action 
 which should distinguish a warrior, and 
 are therefore of significant use in the sys- 
 tem of Masonic Templarism. 
 
 Maicr, Michael. A celebrated Rosi- 
 crucian and interpreter and defender of 
 Rosicrucianism. He was born at Resins- 
 burg, in Holstein, in 1568, and died at 
 Magdeburg in 1620. He is said to have 
 been the first to introduce Rosicrucianism 
 into England. He wrote many works on 
 the system, among which the most noted 
 are Atlanta Fugiens, 1618 ; Septimana Pliil- 
 osophica, 1620 ; De Fraternitate Rosod Cru- 
 ris, 1618; and Lusus iSerius, 1617. Some 
 
 of his contemporaries having denied the 
 existence of the Rosicrucian Order, Maier 
 in his writings has refuted the calumny 
 and warmly defended the society, of which, 
 in one of his works, he speaks thus : " Like 
 the Pythagoreans and Egyptians, the Rosi- 
 crucians exact vows of silence and se- 
 crecy. Ignorant men have treated the 
 whole as a fiction ; but this has arisen 
 from the five years' probation to which 
 they subject even well -qualified novices 
 before they are admitted to the higher 
 mysteries, and within this period they are 
 to learn how to govern their own tongues." 
 
 Maine. Until the year 1820, the Dis- 
 trict of Maine composed a part, of the 
 political territory of the State of Massachu- 
 setts, and its Lodges were under the obedi- 
 ence of the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts. 
 In that year, a political division having 
 taken place, and Maine having been 
 erected into an independent State, the 
 Masons of Maine took the preliminary 
 steps towards an independent Masonic or- 
 ganization, in obedience to the universally 
 recognized law that political territory 
 makes Masonic territory, and that changes 
 of political jurisdiction are followed by 
 corresponding changes of Masonic jurisdic- 
 tion. A memorial was addressed to the 
 Grand Lodge of Massachusetts praying for 
 its consent to the organization of an inde- 
 pendent Grand Lodge and a just division 
 of the charity and other funds. A favor- 
 able response having been received, a con- 
 vention was held at Portland on June 1, 
 1820, consisting of delegates from twenty- 
 four Lodges, when the Grand Lodge of 
 Maine was organized, and William King 
 elected Grand Master. 
 
 The Grand Royal Arch Chapter was or- 
 ganized in 1821, the Grand Council of 
 Royal Arch Masons in 1855, and the 
 Grand Commandery in 1852. 
 
 Maitre Macon. The name of the 
 third degree in French. 
 
 Maitresse Agissante. Acting Mis- 
 tress. The title of the presiding officer of 
 a female Lodge in the Egyptian Rite of Cag- 
 liostro. 
 
 Maitresse Macon. The third de- 
 gree of the French Rite of Adoption. We 
 have no equivalent word in English. It 
 signifies a Mistress in Masonry. 
 
 Maitrise. This expressive word wants 
 an equivalent in English. The French use 
 la Maitrise to designate the third or Mas- 
 ter's degree. 
 
 Major. The sixth degree of the Ger- 
 man Rose Croix. 
 
 Major Illuminate. {Illuminatus Ma- 
 jor.) The eighth degree of the Illuminati 
 of Bavaria. 
 
 Majority. Elections in Masonic 
 
MAKE 
 
 MANNINGHAM 
 
 483 
 
 bodies are as a general rule decided by a 
 majority of the votes cast. A plurality 
 vote is not admissible unless it has been 
 provided for by a special by-law. 
 
 Make. "To make Masons" is a very 
 ancient term; used in the oldest charges 
 extant as synonymous with the verb to ini- 
 tiate or receive into the Fraternity. It is 
 found in the Landsdowne MS., whose date 
 is 1560. " These be all the charges .... 
 read at the making of a Mason." 
 
 Malaeh. ybn. An angel. A signifi- 
 cant word in the high degrees. Lenning 
 gives it improperly as Meleac. 
 
 Malaclii or Malachias. The last of 
 the prophets. A significant word in the 
 thirty-second degree of the Scottish Kite. 
 
 Mallet. One of the working-tools of 
 a Mark Master, having the same emblem- 
 atic meaning as the common gavel in the 
 Entered Apprentice's degree. It teaches 
 us to correct the irregularities of temper, 
 and, like enlightened reason, to curb the 
 aspirations of unbridled ambition, to depress 
 the malignity of envy, and to moderate the 
 ebullition of anger. It removes from the 
 mind all the excrescences of vice, and fits it, 
 as a well-wrought stone, for that exalted 
 station in the great temple of nature to 
 which, as an emanation of the Deity, it is 
 entitled. 
 
 The mallet or setting maul is also an em- 
 blem of the third degree, and is said to have 
 been the implement by which the stones 
 were set up at the Temple. It is often 
 improperly confounded with the common 
 
 The French Masons, to whom the word 
 gavel is unknown, uniformly use maillet, or 
 mallet, in its stead, and confound its sym- 
 bolic use, as the implement of the presiding 
 officer, with the mallet of the English and 
 American Mark Master. 
 
 Malta. Anciently, Melita. A small 
 island in the Mediterranean Sea, which, 
 although occupying only about 170 sq. 
 miles, possessed for several centuries a 
 greater degree of celebrity than was at- 
 tached to any other territory of so little ex- 
 tent. It is now a possession of the British 
 government, but was occupied from 1530 
 to 1798 by the Knights Hospitallers, then 
 called Knights of Malta, upon whom it was 
 conferred in the former year by Charles the 
 Fifth. 
 
 Malta, Cross of. See Gross of Malta. 
 
 Malta, Knight of. See Knight 
 of Malta. 
 
 Maltese Cross. See Cross of Malta. 
 
 Man. 1. Man has been called the 
 microcosm, or little world, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the macrocosm, or great world, by 
 some fanciful writers on metaphysics, by 
 reason of a supposed correspondence be- 
 
 tween the different parts and qualities of 
 his nature and those of the universe. But 
 in Masonic symbolism the idea is borrowed 
 from Christ and the Apostles, who repeat- 
 edly refer to man as a symbol of the Tem- 
 ple. 
 
 2. A man was inscribed on the standard 
 of the tribe of Reuben, and is borne on the 
 Royal Arch banners as appropriate to the 
 Grand Master of the second veil. It was 
 also the charge in the third quarter of the 
 arms of the Athol Grand Lodge. 
 
 3. Der Mann, or the man, is the second 
 degree of the German Union. 
 
 4. To be "a man, not a woman," is one 
 of the qualifications for Masonic initiation. 
 It is the first, and therefore the most im- 
 portant, qualification mentioned in the 
 ritual. 
 
 Mandate. That which is commanded. 
 The Benedictine editors of Du Cange define 
 mandatum as " breve aut edictum regium," 
 i. e., a royal brief or edict, and mandamentum 
 as " literae quibus magistratus aliquid mau- 
 dat," L «., letters in which a magistrate 
 commands anything. Hence the orders 
 and decrees of a Grand Master or a Grand 
 Lodge are called mandates, and implicit 
 obedience to them is of Masonic obligation. 
 There is an appeal, yet not a suspensive 
 one, from the mandate of a Grand Master 
 to the Grand Lodge, but there is none from 
 the latter. 
 
 Mangourit, Miehel Ange Ber- 
 nard de. A distinguished member of 
 the Grand Orient of France. He founded 
 in 1776, at Rennes, the Rite of Sublimes Elus 
 de la Ve'rite, or Sublime Elects of Truth, 
 and at Paris the androgynous society of 
 Dames of Mount Thabor. He also created 
 the Masonic Literary Society of Free 
 Thinkers, which existed for three years. 
 He delivered lectures which were subse- 
 quently published under the title of Coursde 
 Philosophie Maconnique, in 500 pp., 4to. He 
 also delivered a great many lectures and 
 discourses before different Lodges, several 
 of which were published. He died, after a 
 long and severe illness, February 17, 1829. 
 
 Manna, Pot of. Among the articles 
 laid up in the ark of the covenant by Aaron 
 was a pot of manna. In the substitute ark, 
 commemorated in the Royal Arch degree, 
 there was, of course, a representation of it. 
 Manna has been considered as a symbol of 
 life; not the transitory, but the enduring 
 one of a future world. Hence the Pot of 
 Manna, Aaron's rod that budded anew, and 
 the Book of the Law, which teaches Divine 
 Truth, all found together, are appropriately 
 considered as the symbols of that eternal life 
 which it is the design of the Royal Arch 
 degree to teach. 
 
 Manningham, Thomas. * Dr. 
 
484 
 
 MANTLE 
 
 MANUSCRIPTS 
 
 Thomas Manningham was a physician, 
 of London, of much repute in the last cen- 
 tury. He took an active interest in the 
 concerns of Freemasonry, having been ap- 
 pointed Deputy Grand Master, in the year 
 1752, by Lord Carysfort. He was the au- 
 thor of the prayer now so well known to 
 the Fraternity, which was presented by him 
 to the Grand Lodge, and adopted as a form 
 of prayer to be used at the initiation of a can- 
 didate. Before that period, no prayer was 
 used on such occasions, and the one com- 
 posed by Manningham (Oliver says with 
 the assistance of Anderson, which I doubt, 
 as Anderson died in 1746,) is here given as 
 a document of the time. It will be seen 
 that in our day it has been somewhat modi- 
 fied, Preston making the first change ; and 
 that, originally used as one prayer, it has 
 since been divided, in this country at least, 
 into two, the first part being used as a 
 prayer at the opening of a Lodge, and the 
 latter at the initiation of a candidate. 
 
 "Most Holy and Glorious Lord God, 
 thou Architect of heaven and earth, who 
 art the giver of all good gifts and graces ; 
 and hath promised that where two or three 
 are gathered together in thy name, thou 
 wilt be in the midst of them ; in thy Name 
 we assemble and meet together, most hum- 
 bly beseeching thee to bless us in all our 
 undertakings : to give us thy Holy Spirit, 
 to enlighten our minds with wisdom and 
 understanding; that we may know and 
 serve thee aright, that all our doings may 
 tend to thy glory and the salvation of our 
 souls. And we beseech thee, O Lord God, 
 to bless this our present undertaking, and 
 to grant that this our Brother may dedicate 
 his life to thy service, and be a true and 
 faithful Brother amongst us. Endue him 
 with Divine wisdom, that he may, with the 
 secrets of Masonry, be able to unfold the 
 mysteries of godliness and Christianity. 
 This we humbly beg, in the name and for 
 the sake of Jesus Christ our Lord and 
 Saviour, Amen." 
 
 Dr. Manningham rendered other im- 
 portant services to Masonry by his advo- 
 cacy of healthy reforms and his determined 
 opposition to the schismatic efforts of the 
 " Ancient Masons." He died February 3, 
 1794. The fourth edition of the Book of 
 Constitutions speaks of him in exalted 
 terms as "distinguished for his affection 
 and zeal for Masonry." 
 
 Mantle. A dress placed over all the 
 others. It is of very ancient date, being a 
 part of the costume of the Hebrews, Greeks, 
 and Romans. Among the Anglo-Saxons it 
 was the decisive mark of military rank, 
 being confined to the cavalry. In the 
 Mediaeval ages, and on the institution of 
 chivalry, the long, trailing mantle was espe- 
 
 cially reserved as an insignia of knight- 
 hood, and was worn by the knight as the 
 most august and noble decoration that he 
 could have, when he was not dressed in his 
 armor. The general color of the mantle, 
 in imitation of that of the Roman soldiers, 
 was scarlet, which was lined with ermine 
 or other precious furs. But some of the 
 Orders wore mantles of other colors. Thus 
 the Knights Templars were clothed with a 
 white mantle having a red cross on the 
 breast, and the Knights Hospitallers a black 
 mantle with a white cross. The mantle is 
 still worn in England and other countries 
 of Europe as a mark of rank on state oc- 
 casions by peers, and by some magistrates 
 as a token of official rank. 
 
 Mantle of Honor. The mantle worn 
 by a knight was called the Mantle of 
 Honor. This mantle was presented to a 
 knight whenever he was made by the king. 
 
 Manual. Relating to the hand, from 
 the Latin manus, a hand. See the Masonic 
 use of the word in the next two articles. 
 
 Manual Point of Entrance. 
 Masons are, in a peculiar manner, re- 
 minded, by the hand, of the necessity of a 
 prudent and careful observance of all their 
 pledges and duties, and hence this organ 
 suggests certain symbolic instructions in 
 relation to the virtue of prudence. 
 
 Manual Sign. In the early English 
 lectures this term is applied to what is now 
 called the Manual Point of Entrance. 
 
 Manuscripts. Anderson tells us, in 
 the second edition of his Constitutions, 
 that in the year 1717 Grand Master Payne 
 "desired any brethren to bring to the 
 Grand Lodge any old writings and records 
 concerning Masons and Masonry, in order 
 to show the usages of ancient times, and 
 several old copies of the Gothic Constitu- 
 tions were produced and collated;" but 
 in consequence of a jealous supposition 
 that it would be wrong to commit anything 
 to print which related to Masonry, an act 
 of Masonic vandalism was perpetrated. 
 For Anderson further informs us that in 
 1720, "at some private Lodges, several 
 very valuable manuscripts (for they had 
 nothing yet in print), concerning the Fra- 
 ternity, their Lodges, Regulations, Charges, 
 Secrets, and Usages, (particularly one writ- 
 ten by Mr. Nicholas Stone, the Warden of 
 Inigo Jones,) were too hastily burnt by 
 some scrupulous Brothers, that those pa- 
 pers might not fall into strange hands." 
 
 The recent labors of Masonic scholars 
 in England, among whom William James 
 Hughan, of Truro, Cornwall, deserves espe- 
 cial notice, have succeeded in rescuing 
 many of the old Masonic manuscripts from 
 oblivion, and we are now actually in pos- 
 session of more of these heretofore unpub- 
 
MARCHESHVAN 
 
 MARK 
 
 485 
 
 lished treasures of the Craft than were 
 probably accessible to Anderson and his 
 contemporaries. See Records, Old. 
 
 Marclieshvan. porno. The second 
 month of the Jewish civil year. It begins 
 with the new moon in November, and cor- 
 responds, therefore, to a part of that month 
 and of December. 
 
 Mark. The appropriate jewel of a 
 Mark Master. It is made of gold or silver, 
 usually of the former metal, and must be 
 in the form of a keystone. On the obverse 
 or front surface, the device or " mark " se- 
 lected by the owner must be engraved 
 within a circle composed of the following 
 letters: H. T. W. S. S. T. K. S. On the 
 reverse or posterior surface, the name of 
 the owner, the name of his chapter, and 
 the date of his advancement, may be in- 
 scribed, although this is not absolutely 
 necessary. The " mark " consists of the 
 device and surrounding inscription on the 
 obverse. The Mark jewel, as prescribed by 
 the Supreme Grand Chapter of Scotland, 
 is of mother-of-pearl. The circle on one 
 side is inscribed with the Hebrew letters 
 C'DN^SOVn, and the circle on the 
 other side with letters containing the same 
 meaning in the vernacular tongue of the 
 country in which the chapter is situated, 
 and the wearer's mark in the centre. The 
 Hebrew letters are the initials of a Hebrew 
 sentence equivalent to the English one 
 familiar to Mark Masons. It is but a 
 translation into Hebrew of the English 
 mystical sentence. 
 
 It is not requisite that the device or 
 mark should be of a strictly Masonic char- 
 acter, although Masonic emblems are fre- 
 quently selected in preference to other 
 subjects. As soon as adopted it should be 
 drawn or described in a book kept by the 
 Chapter for that purpose, and it is then 
 said to be "recorded in the Book of 
 Marks," after which time it can never be 
 changed by the possessor for any other, or 
 altered in the slightest degree, but remains 
 as his " mark " to the day of his death. 
 
 This mark is not a mere ornamental ap- 
 pendage of the degree, but is a sacred 
 token of the rites of friendship and 
 brotherly love, and its presentation at any 
 time by the owner to another Mark Master, 
 would claim, from the latter, certain acts 
 of friendship which are of solemn obliga- 
 tion among the Fraternity. A mark thus 
 presented, for the purpose of obtaining a 
 favor, is said to be pledged; though re- 
 maining in the possession of the owner, it 
 ceases, for any actual purposes of advan- 
 tage, to be his property; nor can it be 
 again used by him until, either by the re- 
 turn of the favor, or the consent of the 
 benefactor, it has been redeemed ; for it is 
 
 a positive law of the Order, that no Mark 
 Master shall " pledge his mark a second 
 time until he has redeemed it from its pre- 
 vious pledge." By this wise provision, the 
 unworthy are prevented from making an 
 improper use of this valuable token, or 
 from levying contributions on their hospi- 
 table brethren. Marks or pledges of this 
 kind were of frequent use among the an- 
 cients, under the name of tessera hospitalis 
 and "arrhabo." The nature of the tes- 
 sera hospitalis, or, as the Greeks called it, 
 ovfifioAov, cannot be better described than 
 in the words of the Scholiast on the Media 
 of Euripides, v. 613, where Jason promises 
 Medea, on her parting from him, to send 
 her the symbols of hospitality which should 
 procure her a kind reception in foreign 
 countries. It was the custom, says the 
 Scholiast, when a guest had been enter- 
 tained, to break a die in two parts, one of 
 which parts was retained by the guest, so 
 that if, at any future period he required 
 assistance, on exhibiting the broken pieces 
 of the die to each other, the friendship was 
 renewed. Plautus, in one of his comedies, 
 gives us an exemplification of the manner 
 in which these tessera; or pledges of friend- 
 ship were used at Rome, whence it appears 
 that the privileges of this friendship were 
 extended to the descendants of the con- 
 tracting parties. Poenulus is introduced, 
 inquiring for Agorastocles, with whose 
 family he had formerly exchanged the 
 tessera. 
 
 Ag. Siquidem Antidiinarchi quaaris adopta- 
 titium. 
 Ego sum ipsus quem tu quaeris. 
 
 Paen. Hem ! quid ego audio ? 
 
 Ag. Antidamae me gnatuni esse. 
 
 Pcen. Si ita est, tesseram 
 Conferre si vis hospitalem, eccam, attuli. 
 
 Ag. Agedum hue ostende; est par probe; 
 nam habeo domum. 
 
 Pcen. O mi hospes, salve multum ; nam mihi 
 tuus pater, 
 
 Pater tuus ergo hospes, Antidamas fuit : 
 Haec mihi hospitalis tessera cum illo fuit. 
 
 Pcenul., act. v., s'. c. 2, ver. 85. 
 
 Ag. Antidimarchus' adopted son, 
 If you do seek, I am the very man. 
 
 Pcen. How ! do I hear aright ? 
 
 Ag. I am the son 
 Of old Antidamus. 
 
 Pcen. If so, I pray you 
 Compare with me the hospitable die 
 I' ve brought this with me. 
 
 Ag. Prithee, let me see it. 
 It is, indeed, the very counterpart 
 Of mine at home. 
 
 Paen. All hail, my welcome guest, 
 Your father was my guest, Antidamus. 
 Your father was my honored guest, and then 
 This hospitable die with me he parted. 
 
 These tesseroz, thus used, like the Mark 
 Master's mark, for the purposes of perpetu- 
 ating friendship and rendering its union 
 
486 
 
 MARK 
 
 MARK 
 
 more sacred, were constructed in the fol- 
 lowing manner : they took a small piece of 
 bone, ivory, or stone, generally of a square 
 or cubical form, and dividing it into equal 
 parts, each wrote his own name, or some 
 other inscription, upon one of the pieces ; 
 they then made a mutual exchange, and, 
 lest falling into other hands it should give 
 occasion to imposture, the pledge was pre- 
 served with the greatest secrecy, and no 
 one knew the name inscribed upon it ex- 
 cept the possessor. 
 
 The primitive Christians seem to have 
 adopted a similar practice, and the tessera 
 was carried by them in their travels, as a 
 means of introduction to their fellow Chris- 
 tians. A favorite inscription with them 
 were the letters II. T. A. n., being the ini- 
 tials of HaTTjp, Tiog, Ayiov Tlvev/ia, or Father, 
 Son, and Holy Ghost. The use of these 
 tesserae, iu the place of written certificates, 
 continued, says Dr. Harris, (Diss, on the 
 Tess. Hosp.,) until the eleventh century, 
 at which time they are mentioned by Bur- 
 chardus, Archbishop of Worms, in a visita- 
 tion charge. — 
 
 The "arrhabo" was a similar keepsake, 
 formed by breaking a piece of money in 
 two. The etymology of this word shows 
 distinctly that the Romans borrowed the 
 custom of these pledges from the ancient 
 Israelites. For it is derived from the He- 
 brew arabon, a pledge. 
 
 With this detail of the customs of the 
 ancients before us, we can easily explain 
 the well-known passage in Revelation ii. 
 17. " To him that overcometh will I give 
 a white stone, and in it a new name writ- 
 ten, which no man knoweth saving he that 
 receiveth it." That is, to borrow the inter- 
 pretation of Harris, " To him that over- 
 cometh will I give a pledge of my affection, 
 which shall constitute him my friend, and 
 entitle him to privileges and honors of 
 which none else can know the value or the 
 extent." 
 
 Mark Man. According to Masonic 
 tradition, the Mark Men were the War- 
 dens, as the Mark Masters were the Mas- 
 ters of the Fellow Craft Lodges, at the 
 building of the Temple. They distributed 
 the marks to the workmen, and made the 
 first inspection of the work, which was 
 afterwards to be approved by the overseers. 
 As a degree, the Mark Man is not recog- 
 nized in the United States. In England 
 it is sometimes, but not generally, worked 
 as preparatory to the degree of Mark Master. 
 In Scotland, in 1778, it was given to Fel- 
 low Crafts, while the Mark Master was re- 
 stricted to Master Masons. It is not recog- 
 nized in the present regulations of the Su- 
 preme Grand Chapter of Scotland. Much 
 of the esoteric ritual of the Mark Man has 
 
 been incorporated into the Mark Master of 
 the American System. 
 
 Mark Master. The fourth degree 
 of the American Rite. The traditions of 
 the degree make it of great historical im- 
 portance, since by them we are informed 
 that by its influence each Operative Mason 
 at the building of the Temple was known 
 and distinguished, and the disorder and 
 confusion which might otherwise have at- 
 tended so immense an undertaking was 
 completely prevented. Not less useful is it 
 in its symbolic signification. As illustra- 
 tive of the Fellow Craft, the fourth degree 
 is particularly directed to the inculcation 
 of order, regularity, and discipline. It 
 teaches us that we should discharge all the 
 duties of our several stations with preci- 
 sion and punctuality ; that the work of 
 our hands and the thoughts of our hearts 
 should be good and true — not unfinished 
 and imperfect, not sinful and defective — 
 but such as the Great Overseer and Judge 
 of heaven and earth, will see fit to approve 
 as a worthy oblation from his creatures. 
 If the Fellow Craft's degree is devoted to 
 the inculcation of learning, that of the 
 Mark Master is intended to instruct us how 
 that learning can most usefully and judi- 
 ciously be employed for our own honor and 
 the profit of others. And it holds forth to 
 the desponding the encouraging thought, 
 that although our motives may sometimes 
 be misinterpreted by our erring fellow mor- 
 tals, our attainments be underrated, and 
 our reputations be traduced by the envious 
 and malicious, there is one, at least, who 
 sees not with the eyes of man, but may yet 
 make that stone which the builders rejected, 
 the head of the corner. The intimate con- 
 nection then, between the second and fourth 
 degrees of Masonry, is this, that while one 
 inculcates the necessary exercise of all the 
 duties of life, the other teaches the impor- 
 tance of performing them with systematic 
 regularity. The true Mark Master is a 
 type of that man mentioned in the sacred 
 parable who received from his master this 
 approving language — "Well done, good 
 and faithful servant; thou hast been faith- 
 ful over a few things, I will make thee ruler 
 over many things : enter thou into the joys 
 of thy Lord." 
 
 In this country, the Mark Master's is the 
 first degree given in a Royal Arch Chapter. 
 Its officers are a Right Worshipful Master, 
 Senior and Junior Wardens, Secretary, 
 Treasurer, Senior and Junior Deacons, 
 Master, Senior and Junior Overseers. The 
 degree cannot be conferred when less than 
 six are present, who, in that case, must be 
 the first and last three officers above named. 
 The working-tools are the Mallet and In- 
 denting Chisel, (which see.) The symbolic 
 
MARK 
 
 MARKS 
 
 487 
 
 color is purple. The Mark Master's degree 
 is now given in England under the author- 
 ity of the Grand Lodge of Mark Master, 
 which was established in June, 1856, and 
 is a jurisdiction independent of the Grand 
 Lodge. The officers are the same as in 
 America, with the addition of a Chaplain, 
 Director of Ceremonies, Assistant Director, 
 Registrar of Marks, Inner Guard or Time 
 Keeper, and two Stewards. Master Ma- 
 sons are eligible for initiation. Bro. Hu- 
 ghan says that the degree is virtually the 
 same in England, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 It differs, however, in some respects from 
 the American degree. 
 
 Mark of the Craft, Regular. In 
 the Mark degree there is a certain stone 
 which is said, in the ritual, not to have 
 upon it the regular mark of the Craft. This 
 expression is derived from the following 
 tradition of the degree. At the building 
 of the Temple, each workman placed his 
 own mark upon his own materials, so that 
 the workmanship of every mason might be 
 readily distinguished, and praise or blame 
 be justly awarded. These marks, accord- 
 ing to the lectures, consisted of mathemati- 
 cal figures, squares, angles, lines, and per- 
 pendiculars, and hence any figure of a 
 different kind, such as a circle, would not 
 be deemed " the regular mark of the Craft." 
 Of the three stones used in the Mark de- 
 gree, one is inscribed with a square and 
 another with a plumb or perpendicular, 
 because these were marks familiar to the 
 Craft; but the third, which is inscribed 
 with a circle and certain hieroglyphics, was 
 not known, and was not, therefore, called 
 " regular." 
 
 Marks of the Craft. In former 
 times, Operative Masons, the "Steinmetzen" 
 of Germany, were accustomed to place some 
 mark or sign of their own invention, 
 which, like the monogram of the painters, 
 would seem to identify the work of each. 
 They are to be found upon the cathedrals, 
 churches, castles, and other stately build- 
 ings erected since the twelfth century, or a 
 little earlier, in Germany, France, Eng- 
 land, and Scotland. As Mr. Godwin has 
 observed in his History in Ruins, it is 
 curious to see that these marks are of the 
 same character, in form, in all these dif- 
 ferent countries. They were principally 
 crosses, triangles, and other mathematical 
 figures, and many of them were religious 
 symbols. Specimens taken from different 
 buildings supply such forms as follow. 
 
 The last of these is the well-known 
 vesica piscis, the symbol of Christ among the 
 primitive Christians, and the last but one 
 is the Pythagorean pentalpha. A writer 
 in the London Times (August 13th, 1835,) 
 is incorrect in stating that these marks are 
 
 confined to Germany, and are to be found 
 only since the twelfth or thirteenth cen- 
 turies. More recent researches have shown 
 
 V AX + 
 
 + m J* 
 
 H -&X3 
 
 that they existed in many other countries, 
 especially in Scotland, and that they were 
 practised by the builders of ancient times. 
 Thus Ainsworth, in his Travels, (ii. 167,) 
 tells us, in his description of the ruins of 
 Al-Hadhv in Mesopotamia, that " every 
 stone, not only in the chief building, but 
 in the walls and bastions and other public 
 monuments, when not defaced by time, is 
 marked with a character which is for the 
 most part either a Chaldean letter or nu- 
 meral." M. Didron, who reported a series 
 of observations on the subject of these Ma- 
 sons' marks to the Comite Historique des 
 Arts et Monuraens, of Paris, believes that he 
 can discover in them references to distinct 
 schools or Lodges of Masons. He divides 
 them into two classes : those of the over- 
 seers, and those of the men who worked the 
 stones. The marks of the first class con- 
 sist of monogrammatic characters ; those of 
 the second, are of the nature of symbols, 
 such as shoes, trowels, mallets, etc. 
 
 A correspondent of the Freemason's 
 Quarterly Review states that similar marks 
 are to be found on the stones which com- 
 pose the walls of the fortress of Allahabad, 
 which was erected in 1542, in the East In- 
 dies. " The walls," says this writer, " are 
 composed of large oblong blocks of red 
 granite, and are almost everywhere covered 
 by Masonic emblems, which evince some- 
 thing more than mere ornament. They 
 are not confined to one particular spot, but 
 are scattered over the walls of the fortress, 
 in many places as high as thirty or forty 
 feet from the ground. It is quite certain 
 that thousands of stones on the walls, bear- 
 ing these Masonic symbols, were carved, 
 marked, and numbered in the quarry pre- 
 vious to the erection of the building." 
 
 In the ancient buildings of England and 
 France, these marks are to be found in 
 great abundance. In a communication, 
 on this subject, to the London Society of 
 
488 
 
 MARROW 
 
 MARYLAND 
 
 Antiquaries, Mr. Godwin states, "that, in his 
 opinion, these marks, if collected and com- 
 pared, might assist in connecting the vari- 
 ous bands of operatives, who, under the pro- 
 tection of the Church — mystically united 
 — spread themselves over Europe during 
 the Middle Ages, and are known as Free- 
 masons." Mr. Godwin describes these 
 marks as varying in length from two to 
 seven inches, and as formed by a single 
 line, slightly indented, consisting chiefly 
 of crosses, known Masonic symbols, em- 
 blems of the Trinity and of eternity, the 
 double triangle, trowel, square, etc. 
 
 The same writer observes that, in a con- 
 versation, in September, 1844, with a Ma- 
 son at work on the Canterbury Cathedral, 
 he "found that many Masons (all who 
 were Freemasons) had their mystic marks 
 handed down from generation to genera- 
 tion ; this man had his mark from his 
 father, and he received it from his grand- 
 father." 
 
 Marrow in the Bone. An absurd 
 corruption of a Jewish word, and still more 
 absurdly said to be its translation. It has 
 no appropriate signification in the place to 
 which it is applied, but was once religiously 
 believed in by many Masons, who, being ig- 
 norant of the Hebrew language, accepted it 
 as a true interpretation. It is now univer- 
 sally rejected by the intelligent portion of 
 the Craft. 
 
 Marseilles, Mother Lodge of. A 
 Lodge was established in 1748, at Marseilles, 
 in France, Thory says, by a travelling Ma- 
 son, under the name of St. Jean d'Ecosse. 
 It afterwards assumed the name of Mother 
 Lodge of Marseilles, and still later the 
 name of Scottish Mother Lodge of France. 
 It granted Warrants of its own authority 
 for Lodges in France and in the colonies ; 
 among others for one at New Orleans, in 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Marshal. An officer common to 
 several Masonic bodies, whose duty is to 
 regulate processions and other public solem- 
 nities. In Grand bodies he is called a 
 Grand Marshal. In the American Royal 
 Arch System, the Captain of the Host acts 
 on public occasions as the Marshal. The 
 Marshal's ensign of office is a baton or 
 Bhort rod. The office of Marshal in State 
 affairs is very ancient. It was found in the 
 court of the Byzantine emperors, and was 
 introduced into England from France at the 
 period of the conquest. His badge of office 
 was at first a rod or verge, which was after- 
 wards abbreviated to the baton, for, as an 
 old writer has observed, (Thinne,) "the 
 verge or rod was the ensign of him who 
 had authority to reform evil in warre and in 
 peace, and to see quiet and order observed 
 among the people." 
 
 Martel. Charles Martel, who died in 
 741, although not actually king, reigned 
 over France under the title of Mayor of the 
 Palace. Rebold (Hist. Gen., p. 69,) says 
 that " at the request of the Anglo-Saxon 
 kings, he sent workmen and Masters into 
 England." The Operative Masons of the 
 Middle Ages considered him as one of their 
 patrons, and give the following account of 
 him in their Legend of the Craft. " There 
 was one of the Royal line of France called 
 Charles Marshall, and he was a man that 
 loved well the said Craft and took upon 
 him the Rules and Manners, and after that 
 By the Grace of God he was elect to be 
 the King of France, and when he was in his 
 Estate, he helped to make those Masons 
 that were now, and sett them on Work and 
 gave them Charges and Manners and good 
 pay as he had learned of other Masons, and 
 confirmed them a Charter from yeare to 
 yeare to hold their Assembly when they 
 would, and Cherished them right well, and 
 thus came this Noble Craft into France." 
 
 Martha. The fourth degree of the 
 Eastern Star ; a Rite of American Adop- 
 tive Masonry. 
 
 Martinism. The Rite of Martinism, 
 called also the Rectified Rite, was instituted 
 at Lyons, by the Marquis de St. Martin, a 
 disciple of Martinez Paschalis, of whose Rite 
 it was pretended to be a reform. Martin- 
 ism was divided into two classes, called Tem- 
 ples, in which were the following degrees. 
 
 /. Temple. 1. Apprentice. 2. Fellow 
 Craft. 3. Master Mason. 4. Past Master. 
 5. Elect. 6. Grand Architect. 7. Mason 
 of the Secret. 
 
 II. Temple. 8. Prince of Jerusalem. 9. 
 Knight of Palestine. 10. Kadosh. 
 
 The degrees of Martinism abounded in 
 the reveries of the Mystics. See Saint 
 Martin. 
 
 Martin, Louis Claude de St. 
 See Saint Martin. 
 
 Martyr. A title bestowed by the 
 Templars on their last Grand Master, James 
 de Molay. If, as Du Cange says, the 
 Church sometimes gives the title of martyr 
 to men of illustrious sanctity, who have 
 suffered death not for the confession of the 
 name of Christ, but for some other cause, 
 being slain by impious men, then De Molay, 
 as the innocent victim of the malignant 
 schemes of an atrocious pope and king, 
 was clearly entitled to the appellation. 
 
 Martyrs, Four Crowned. See 
 Four Crowned Martyrs. 
 
 Maryland. Freemasonry was intro- 
 duced into Maryland, in 1750, by the Pro- 
 vincial Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, 
 which issued a Charter for the establish- 
 ment of a Lodge at Annapolis. Five other 
 Lodges were subsequently chartered by the 
 
MASON 
 
 MASON 
 
 489 
 
 Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, 
 and one in 1765, at Joppa, by the Grand 
 Lodge of England. On the 31st of July, 
 1783, these five Lodges held a convention 
 at Talbot Court-House, and informally or- 
 ganized a Grand Lodge. But as the Lodge 
 at Annapolis had taken no part in this 
 movement, another convention of all the 
 Lodges was held at Baltimore on the 17th 
 of April, 1787, and the Grand Lodge of 
 Maryland was duly organized, John Coates 
 being elected the Grand Master. The 
 Grand Chapter was established in 1812. 
 
 Mason Crowned. {Macon Couronne.) 
 A degree in the nomenclature of Fus- 
 tier. 
 
 Mason, Derivation of the 
 Word. The search for the etymology 
 or derivation of the word Mason has given 
 rise to numerous theories, some of them 
 ingenious, but many of them very absurd. 
 Thus, a writer in the European Magazine, 
 for February, 1792, who signs his name as 
 "George Drake," lieutenant of marines, 
 attempts to trace the Masons to the Druids, 
 and derives Mason from May's on, May's 
 being in reference to May-day, the great fes- 
 tival of the Druids, and on meaning men, as 
 in the French on dit, for homme dit. Ac- 
 cording to this, May's on therefore means 
 the Men of May. But this idea is not 
 r original with Drake, since the same deriva- 
 tion was urged in 1766 by Cleland, in his 
 essays on The Way to Things in Words, and 
 on The Real Secret of Freemasons. 
 
 Hutchinson, in his search for a deriva- 
 tion, seems to have been perplexed with 
 the variety of roots that presented them- 
 selves, and, being inclined to believe that 
 the name of Mason " has its derivation from 
 a language in which it implies some strong 
 indication or distinction of the nature of 
 the society, and that it has no relation to 
 architects," looks for the root in the Greek 
 tongue. Thus he thinks that Mason may 
 come from Maw Saov, Mao Soon, "I seek 
 salvation," or from Mtvrw, Mystes, " an ini- 
 tiate ; " and that Masonry is only a corrup- 
 tion of Meaovpaveu, Mesouraneo, " I am in 
 the midst of heaven ; " or from Mafrpovd, 
 Mazourouth, a constellation mentioned by 
 Job, or from Mvorripiov, Mysterion, " a mys- 
 tery." 
 
 Lessing says, in his Ernst und Falh, that 
 Masa in the Anglo-Saxon signifies a table, 
 and that Masonry, consequently, is a society 
 of the table. 
 
 Nicolai thinks he finds the root in the 
 Low Latin word of the Middle Ages Mas- 
 sonya, or Masonia, which signifies an ex- 
 clusive society or club, such as that of the 
 round-table. 
 
 Coming down to later times, we find Bro. 
 C. W. Moore, in his Boston Magazine, of 
 3M 
 
 May, 1844, deriving Mason from AiOoTo/uog, 
 Lithotomos, " a Stone-cutter." But although 
 fully aware of the elasticity of etymologi- 
 cal rules, it surpasses our ingenuity to get 
 Mason etymologically out of Lithotomos. 
 
 Bro. Giles F. Yates sought for the deri- 
 vation of Mason in the Greek word Mafrvec, 
 Mazones, a festival of Dionysus, and he 
 thought that this was another proof of the 
 lineal descent of the Masonic order from 
 the Dionysiac Artificers. 
 
 The late William S. Rockwell, who was 
 accustomed to find all his Masonry in the 
 Egyptian mysteries, and who was a thor- 
 ough student of the Egyptian hieroglyphic 
 system, derives the word Mason from a com- 
 bination of two phonetic signs, the one 
 being MAI, and signifying " to love," and 
 the other being SON, which means "a 
 brother." Hence, he says, " this combina- 
 tion, MAISON, expresses exactly in sound 
 our word MASON, and signifies literally 
 loving brother, that is, philadelphus, brother 
 of an association, and thus corresponds also 
 in sense." 
 
 But all of these fanciful etymologies, 
 which would have terrified Bopp, Grimm, 
 or M idler, or any other student of linguis- 
 tic relations, forcibly remind us of the 
 French epigrammatist, who admitted that 
 alphina came from equus, but that, in so 
 coming, it had very considerably changed 
 its route. 
 
 What, then, is the true derivation of the 
 word Mason ? Let us see what the orthce- 
 pists, who had no Masonic theories, have 
 said upon the subject. 
 
 Webster, seeing that in Spanish masa 
 means mortar, is inclined to derive Mason, 
 as denoting one that works in mortar, from 
 the root of mass, which of course gave 
 birth to the Spanish word. 
 
 In Low or Mediaeval Latin, Mason was 
 machio or macio, and this Du Cange derives 
 from the Latin maceria, "a long wall." 
 Others find a derivation in machinoz, be- 
 cause the builders stood upon machines to 
 raise their walls. But Richardson takes a 
 common sense view of the subject. He 
 says, " It appears to be obviously the same 
 word as maison, a house or mansion, ap- 
 plied to the person who builds, instead of 
 the thing built. The French Maissoner is 
 to build houses ; Masonner, to build of 
 stone. The word Mason is applied by usage 
 to a builder in stone, and Masonry to work 
 in stone." 
 
 Carpenter gives Massom, used in 1225, 
 for a building of stone, and Massonus, used 
 in 1304, for a Mason ; and the Benedictine 
 editors of Du Cange define Massoneria " a 
 building, the French Maqonnerie, and Mas- 
 sonerius," as Latomus or a Mason, both 
 words in manuscripts of 1385. 
 
490 
 
 MASONEY 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 As a practical question, we are com- 
 pelled to reject all those fanciful deriva- 
 tions which connect the Masons etymologi- 
 cally and historically with the Greeks, the 
 Egyptians, or the Druids, and to take the 
 word Mason iu its ordinary signification of a 
 worker in stone, and thus indicate the ori- 
 gin of the Order from a society or associa- 
 tion of practical and operative builders. 
 We need no better root than the Mediaeval 
 Latin Magonner, to build, or Magonetus, a 
 builder. 
 
 Masoney. Lessing, in his Ernst und 
 Falk, gives this word as signifying in Eng- 
 lish Masonry. He is in error. There is no 
 such English word. 
 
 Mason Hermetic. {Magon HermA- 
 tique.) A degree in the Archives of the 
 Mother Lodge of the Eclectic Philosophic 
 Rite. 
 Masonic Hall. See Hall, Masonic. 
 Mason, Illustrious and Sub- 
 lime Grand Master. {Macon Illustre 
 et Sublime Grand Maltre. ) A degree in the 
 manuscript collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Mason of the Secret. {Macon du 
 Secret.) 1. The sixth degree of the Rite of 
 Tschoudy. 2. The seventh degree of the 
 Rite of Saint Martin. 
 
 Mason, Operative. See Operative 
 Mason. 
 
 Mason, Perfect. {Macon Par/ait.) 
 The twenty-seventh degree of the collection 
 of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Mason Philosopher. {Macon Phi- 
 losophe.) A degree in the manuscript col- 
 lection of Peuvret. 
 
 Mason, Practical. The French so 
 call an Operative Mason, Macon de Pratique. 
 Masonry. Although Masonry is of 
 two kinds, Operative and Speculative, yet 
 Masonic writers frequently employ the word 
 Masonry as synonymous with Freemasonry. 
 Masonry, Operative. See Opera- 
 tive Masonry. 
 
 Masonry, Origin of. See Origin 
 of Masonry. 
 
 Masonry, Speculative. See Spec- 
 ulative Masonry. 
 
 Masons, Company of. One of the 
 ninety-one livery companies of London, but 
 not one of the twelve greater ones. Their 
 arms are azure, on a chevron, between three 
 castles argent, a pair of compasses some- 
 what extended of the 1st ; -crest, a castle of 
 the 2d ; and motto, " The Lord is all our 
 trust." These were granted by Clarencieux, 
 King of arms, in 1477, but they were not 
 incorporated until Charles II. gave them a 
 charter in 1677. They are not to be con- 
 founded with the Fraternity of Freemasons, 
 but originally there was some connection 
 between the two. At their hall in Basing- 
 hall Street, Ashmole says that in 1682 he 
 
 was " admitted into the fellowship of Free- 
 masons." 
 
 Mason, Scottish Master. {Magon 
 Ecossais Maltre.) Also called Perfect Elect, 
 Elu par/ait. A degree in the Archives of 
 the Mother Lodge of the Philosophic Scot- 
 tish Rite. 
 
 Masons, Emperor of all the. 
 {Magons, Empereur de tons les. ) A degree 
 cited in the nomenclature of Fustier. 
 
 Mason, Speculative. See Specula- 
 tive Mason. 
 
 Mason, Stone. See Stonemasons. 
 
 Mason Sublime. {Magon subHme.) 
 A degree in the manuscript collection of 
 Peuvret. 
 
 Mason, Suh lime Operative. 
 {Magon Sublime Pratique.) A degree in the 
 manuscript collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Mason's Wile and Daughter. 
 A degree frequently conferred in the United 
 States on the wives, daughters, sisters, and 
 mothers of Masons, to secure to them, by 
 investing them with a peculiar mode of 
 recognition,the aid and assistance of the Fra- 
 ternity. It may be conferred by any Master 
 Mason, and the requirement is that the recip- 
 ient shall be the wife, unmarried daughter, 
 unmarried sister, or widowed mother of a 
 Master Mason. It is sometimes called the 
 Holy Virgin, and has been by some deemed 
 of so much importance that a Manual of it, 
 with the title of The Ladies' Masonry, or 
 Hieroglyphic Monitor, was published at 
 Louisville, Kentucky, in 1851, by Past 
 Grand Master William Leigh, of Alabama. 
 
 Mason, True. {Magon Vrai.) A de- 
 gree composed by Pernetty. It is the only 
 one of the high hermetic degrees of the 
 Rite of Avignon, and it became the first 
 degree of the same system after it was 
 transplanted to Montpellier. See Academy 
 of True Masons. 
 
 Masoretic Points. The Hebrew 
 alphabet is without vowels, which were tra- 
 ditionally supplied by the reader from oral 
 instruction, and hence the true ancient 
 sounds of thewords have been lost. But about 
 the eighth and ninth centuries a school of 
 Rabbins, called Masorites, invented vowel 
 points, to be placed above or below the con- 
 sonants, so as to give them a determined 
 pronunciation. These Masoretic points are 
 never used by the Jews in their rolls of the 
 law, and in all investigations into the deri- 
 vation and meaning of Hebrew names, 
 Masonic scholars and other etymologists 
 always reject them. 
 
 Massachusetts. Freemasonry was 
 introduced into Massachusetts, in 1733, by 
 a Deputation granted to Henry Price as 
 Grand Master of North America, dated 
 April 30tb, 1733. Price, on July 30th of 
 the same year, organized the "St. John's 
 
MASSONUS 
 
 MASTER 
 
 491 
 
 Grand Lodge,'* which immediately granted 
 a Warrant to "St. John's Lodge" in Boston. 
 On Nov. 30th, 1752, the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland granted a Warrant to "St. An- 
 drew's Lodge ; " and thus the dissensions 
 of the Ancients and Moderns began in Mas- 
 sachusetts. On Dec. 27th, 1769, St. An- 
 drew's Lodge, with the assistance of three 
 travelling Lodges in the British army, or- 
 ganized the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, 
 and elected Joseph Warren Grand Master. 
 In 1792, the two Grand Lodges united and 
 formed the " Grand Lodge of the Most An- 
 cient and Honorable Society of Free and 
 Accepted Masons for the Commonwealth 
 of Massachusetts," and elected John Cutler 
 Grand Master. 
 
 The Grand Chapter of Massachusetts was 
 organized June 12th, 1798, and the Grand 
 Council of Royal and Select Masters in 
 1826. The Grand Commandery, which 
 exercises jurisdiction over both Massachu- 
 setts and Rhode Island, was established 
 May 6th, 1805. In 1807 it extended its 
 jurisdiction, and called itself "The United 
 States Grand Encampment." In 1816, it 
 united with other Encampments at a con- 
 vention in Philadelphia, where a General 
 Grand Encampment of the United States 
 was formed ; and in 1819, at the meeting 
 of that body, the representatives of the 
 "Grand Encampment of Massachusetts 
 and Rhode Island " are recorded as being 
 present. And from that time it has re- 
 tained that title, only changing it, in 1859, 
 to " Grand Commandery," in compliance 
 with the new Constitution of the Grand 
 Encampment of the United States. 
 
 Massonus. Used in the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth centuries, according to Car- 
 penter, (Gloss.,) for Mason. 
 
 Master, Absolute Sovereign 
 Grand. (Souverain Grand Maitre absolu.) 
 The ninetieth and last degree of the Rite 
 of Mizraim. 
 
 Master ad Vitam. In the French 
 Masonry of the earlier part of the last cen- 
 tury, the Masters of Lodges were not elected 
 annually, but held their office for life. 
 Hence they were called Masters ad Vitam, 
 or Masters for life. 
 
 Master, Aneient. (Maitre Ancien.) 
 The fourth degree of the Rite of Martinism. 
 This would more properly be translated 
 Past Master, for it has the same position in 
 the regime of St. Martin that the Past Mas- 
 ter has in the English system. 
 
 Master Architect, Grand. See 
 Grand Master Architect. 
 
 Master Architect, Perfect. {Mai- 
 tre Architecte Par/ait.) A degree in the 
 Archives of the Mother Lodge of the Phil- 
 osophic Scottish Rite, and in some other 
 collections. 
 
 Master Architect, Prussian. 
 
 (Maitre Architecte Prussien.) A degree in 
 the Archives of the Mother Lodge of the 
 Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Master, Blue. A name sometimes 
 given, in the Scottish Rite, to Master Ma- 
 sons of the third degree, in contradistinc- 
 tion to some of the higher degrees, and in 
 reference to the color of their collar. 
 
 Master Builder. Taking the word 
 master in the sense of one possessed of the 
 highest degree of skill and knowledge, the 
 epithet " Master Builder " is sometimes 
 used by Masons as an epithet of the Grand 
 Architect of the Universe. Urquhart (Pil- 
 lars of Hercules, ii. 67,) derives it from the 
 ancient Hebrews, who, he says, "used alga- 
 bil, the Master Builder, as an epithet of 
 God." 
 
 Master, Cohen. (Maitre Coen.) A 
 degree in the collection of the Mother 
 Lodge of the Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Master, Crowned. (Maitre Cou- 
 ronne.) A degree in the collection of the 
 Lodge of Saint Louis des Amis-Reunis at 
 Calais. 
 
 Master, Egyptian. (Maitre Egyp- 
 tien.) A degree in the Archives of the 
 Mother Lodge of the Philosophic Scottish 
 Rite. 
 
 Master, Elect. See Elect Master. 
 
 Master, English. ( Maitre A nglais. ) 
 The eighth degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Master, English Perfect. (Maitre 
 Par/ait Anglais.) A degree in the collec- 
 tion of Le Rouge. 
 
 Master, Four Times Venerable. 
 (Maitre quatre fois Venerable.) A degree 
 introduced into Berlin by the Marquis de 
 Bernez. 
 
 Master, Grand. See Grand Master. 
 
 Master Hermetic. (Maitre Herme- 
 tique.) A degree in the collection of Le- 
 manceau. 
 
 Master, Illustrious. ( Maitre Ulus- 
 tre.) A degree in the collection of Leman- 
 ceau. 
 
 Master, Illustrious Symbolic. 
 (Maitre Symbolique lllustre.) A degree in 
 the nomenclature of Fustier. 
 
 Master in Israel. See Intendant of 
 the Building. 
 
 Master in Perfect Architecture. 
 (Maitre en la Parfaite Architecture.) A de- 
 gree in the nomenclature of Fustier. 
 
 Master in the Chair. (Meisterim 
 Stuhl.) The name given in Germany to 
 the presiding officer of a Lodge. It is the 
 same as the Worshipful Master in Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 Master, Irish. (Maitre Irlandais.) 
 The seventh degree of the Rite of Miz- 
 raim. Ramsay gave this name at first to 
 the degree which he subsequently called 
 
492 
 
 MASTER 
 
 MASTER 
 
 Maitre Ecossais or Scottish Master. It is still 
 
 the seventh degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Master, Kabbalistic. {Maitre 
 
 Cabalistique.) A degree in the collection 
 of the Mother Lodge of the Philosophic 
 Scottish Rite. 
 
 Master, Little Elect. ( Petit Maitre 
 du.) A degree in the Archives of the 
 Mother Lodge of the Philosophic Scottish 
 Rite. 
 
 Master Mason. In all the Rites of 
 Masonry, no matter how variant may be 
 their organization in the high degrees, the 
 Master Mason constitutes the third degree. 
 In form this degree is also everywhere sub- 
 stantially the same, because its legend is an 
 essential part of it ; and, as on that legend 
 the degree must be founded, there can no- 
 where be any important variation, because 
 the tradition has at all times been the same. 
 
 The Master Mason's degree was originally 
 called the summit of Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry ; and so it must have been before the 
 disseverance from it of the Royal Arch, by 
 which I mean not the ritual, but the sym- 
 bolism of Arch Masonry. But under its 
 present organization the degree is actually 
 incomplete, because it needs a complement 
 that is only to be supplied in a higher one. 
 Hence its symbolism is necessarily re- 
 stricted, in it3 mutilated form, to the first 
 Temple and the present life, although it 
 gives the assurance of a future one. 
 
 As the whole system of Craft Masonry is 
 intended to present the symbolic idea of 
 man passing through the pilgrimage of life, 
 each degree is appropriated to a certain 
 portion of that pilgrimage. If, then, the 
 first degree is a representation of youth, the 
 time to learn, and the second of manhood 
 or the time to work, the third is symbolic 
 of old age, with its trials, its sufferings, and 
 its final termination in death. The time 
 for toiling is now over — the opportunity 
 to learn has passed away — the spiritual 
 temple that we all have been striving to 
 erect in our hearts, is now nearly completed, 
 and the wearied workman awaits only the 
 word of the Grand Master of the Universe, 
 to call him from the labors of earth to the 
 eternal refreshments of heaven. Hence, 
 this is, by far, the most solemn and sacred of 
 the degrees of Masonry ; and it has, in con- 
 sequence of the profound truths which it 
 inculcates, been distinguished by the Craft 
 as the sublime degree. As an Entered Ap- 
 prentice, the Mason was taught those ele- 
 mentary instructions which were to fit him 
 for further advancement in his profession, 
 just as the youth is supplied with that ru- 
 dimentary education which is to prepare 
 him for entering on the active duties of life ; 
 as a Fellow Craft, he is directed to continue 
 his investigations in the science of the Insti- 
 
 tution, and to labor diligently in the tasks it 
 prescribes, just as the man is required to 
 enlarge his mind by the acquisition of new 
 ideas, and to extend his usefulness to his 
 fellow-creatures ; but, as a Master Mason, 
 he is taught the last, the most important, 
 and the most necessary of truths, that hav- 
 ing been faithful to ail his trusts, he is at 
 last to die, and to receive the reward of his 
 fidelity. 
 
 It was the single object of all the ancient 
 rites and mysteries practised in the very 
 bosom of Pagan darkness, shining as a soli- 
 tary beacon in all that surrounding gloom, 
 and cheering the philosopher in his weary 
 pilgrimage of life, to teach the immortality 
 of the soul. This is still the great design of 
 the third degree of Masonry. This is the 
 scope and aim of its ritual. The Master Ma- 
 son represents man, when youth, manhood, 
 old age, and life itself, have passed away as 
 fleeting shadows, yet raised from the grave 
 of iniquity, and quickened into another and 
 a better existence. By its legend and all its 
 ritual, it is implied that we have been re- 
 deemed from the death of sin and the sep- 
 ulchre of pollution. " The ceremonies and 
 the lecture," says Dr. Crucefix, "beauti- 
 fully illustrate this all-engrossing subject ; 
 and the conclusion we arrive at is, that 
 youth, properly directed, leads us to honor- 
 able and virtuous maturity, and that the 
 life of man, regulated by morality, faith, 
 and justice, will be rewarded at its closing 
 hour, by the prospect of eternal bliss." 
 
 Masonic historians have found much dif- 
 ficulty in settling the question as to the 
 time of the invention and composition of 
 the degree. The theory that at the build- 
 ing of the Temple of Jerusalem the Craft 
 were divided into three or even more de- 
 grees, being only a symbolic myth, must be 
 discarded in any historical discussion of 
 the subject. The real question at issue is 
 whether the Master Mason's degree, as a 
 degree, was in existence among the Opera- 
 tive Freemasons before the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, or whether we owe it to the Revivalists 
 of 1717. Bro. Wm, J. Hughan, in a very 
 able article on this subject, published in 
 1873, in the Voice of Masonry, says that " so 
 far the evidence respecting its history goes 
 no farther back than the early part of the 
 last century." The evidence, however, is 
 all of a negative character. There is none 
 that the degree existed in the seventeenth 
 century or earlier, and there is none that 
 it did not. All the old manuscripts speak 
 of Masters and Fellows, but these might 
 have been and probably were onlv titles of 
 rank. The Sloane MS., No. 3329, speaks, 
 it is true, of modes of recognition peculiar 
 to Masters and Fellows, and also of a Lodge 
 consisting of Masters, Fellows, and Appren- 
 
MASTER 
 
 MASTER 
 
 493 
 
 tices. But even if we give to this MS. its 
 earliest date, that which is assigned to it 
 by Findel, near the end of the seventeenth 
 century, it will not necessarily follow that 
 these Masters, Fellows, and Apprentices 
 had each a separate and distinct degree. 
 Indeed, it refers only to one Lodge, which 
 was, however, constituted by three different 
 ranks ; and it records but one oath, so that 
 it is possible that there was only one com- 
 mon form of initiation. 
 
 The first positive historical evidence that 
 we have of the existence of a Master's de- 
 gree is to be found in the General Regula- 
 tions compiled by Payne in 1720. It ia 
 there declared that Apprentices must be 
 admitted Masters and Fellow Crafts only 
 in the Grand Lodge. The degree was then 
 in existence. But this record would not 
 militate against the theory advanced by 
 some that Desaguliers was its author in 
 1717. Dermott asserts that the degree, as 
 we now have it, was the work of Desaguliers 
 and seven others, who, being Fellow Crafts, 
 but not knowing the Master's part, boldly 
 invented it, that they might organize a 
 Grand Lodge. He intimates that the true 
 Master's degree existed before that time, 
 and was in possession of the Ancients. But 
 Dermott's testimony is absolutely worth 
 nothing, because he was a violent partisan, 
 and because his statements are irreconcila- 
 ble with other facts. If the Ancients were 
 in possession of the degree which had 
 existed before 1717, and the Moderns were 
 not, where did the former get it, since they 
 sprang out of the latter ? 
 
 Documentary evidence is yet wanting to 
 settle the precise time of the composition of 
 the third degree as we now have it. But it 
 would not be prudent to oppose too posi- 
 tively the theory that it must be traced to 
 the second decade of the eighteenth century. 
 The proofs, as they arise day by day, from 
 the resurrection of old manuscripts, seem 
 to incline that way. 
 
 But the legend, I think, is of much older 
 date. It may have made a part of the 
 general initiation ; but I have no doubt that, 
 like the similar one of the Compagnons de 
 la Tour in France, it existed among the 
 Operative Gilds of the Middle Ages as an 
 esoteric narrative. Such a legend all the 
 histories of the Ancient Mysteries prove to 
 us belongs to the spirit of initiation. 
 There would have been no initiation worth 
 preservation without it. 
 
 Master, Most High and Puis- 
 sant. {Maitre Ires haut et tre's puissant.) 
 The sixty-second degree of the Bite of 
 Mizraim. 
 
 Master, Most Wise. The title of 
 a presiding officer of a Chapter of Rose 
 Croix, usually abbreviated as Most Wise. 
 
 Master, Mystic. {Mat Ire Mystique.) 
 A degree in the collection of Pyron. 
 
 Master of all Symbolic Lodges, 
 Orand. See Grand Master of all Sym- 
 bolic Lodges. 
 
 Master of a Lodge. See Worship- 
 ful Master. 
 
 Master of Cavalry. An officer in 
 a Council of Knights of the Red Cross, 
 whose duties are, in some respects, similar 
 to those of a Junior Deacon in a symbolic 
 Lodge. The two offices of Master of Cav- 
 alry and Master of Infantry were first ap- 
 pointed by Constantine the Great. 
 
 Master of Ceremonies. An officer 
 found in many of the Lodges of England 
 and the Continent. In English Lodges the 
 office is almost a nominal one, without any 
 duties, but in the continental Lodges he 
 acts as the conductor of the candidate. 
 Oliver says that the title should be proper- 
 ly, Director of Ceremonies, and he objects 
 to Master of Ceremonies as " unmasonic." 
 
 Master of Dispatches. The Sec- 
 retary of a Council of Knights of the Red 
 Cross. The Magister Epistolarum was the 
 officer under the Empire who conducted the 
 correspondence of the Emperor. 
 
 Master of Finances. The Treas- 
 urer of a Council of Knights of the Red 
 Cross. 
 
 Master of Hamburg, Perfect. 
 {Maitre parf ait de Hamburg.) A degree in 
 the nomenclature of Fustier. 
 
 Master of Infantry. The Treas- 
 urer of a Council of Knights of the Red 
 Cross. See Master of Cavalry. 
 
 Master of Lodges. {Maitre desLoges.) 
 The sixty-first degree of the Rite of Miz- 
 raim. 
 
 Master of Masters, Grand. 
 {Grand Maitre des Maitres.) The fifty-ninth 
 degree of the Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. 
 
 Master of Paracelsns. {Maitre 
 de Paracelse.) A degree in the collection 
 of Pyron. 
 
 Master of Secrets, Perfect. {Mai- 
 tre parf ait des Secrets.) A degree in the 
 manuscript collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Master of St. Andrew. The fifth 
 degree of the Swedish Rite; the same as 
 the Grand Elu Ecossais of the Clermont 
 system. 
 
 Master of the Chivalry of 
 Christ. So St. Bernard addresses Hugh 
 de Payens, Grand Master of the Templars. 
 " Hugoni Militi Christi et Magistro Mili- 
 tise Christi, Bernardus Clercevallus," etc. 
 
 Master of the Hermetic Se- 
 crets, Orand. ( Maitre des Secrets Her- 
 mdique, Grand.) A degree in the manu- 
 script collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Master of the Hospital. " Sacri 
 
494 
 
 MASTER 
 
 MATERIALS 
 
 Domus Hospitalis Sancto Joannis Hieroso- 
 lymitaui Magister," or Master of the Sa- 
 cred House of the Hospital of St. John of 
 Jerusalem, was the official title of the 
 chief of the Order of Knights of Malta; 
 more briefly, "Magister Hospitalis," or 
 Master of the Hospital. Late in their his- 
 tory, the more imposing title of *' Magnus 
 Magister," or Grand Master, was some- 
 times assumed; but the humbler designa- 
 tion was still maintained. On the tomb 
 of Zacosta, who died in 1467, we find 
 "Magnus Magister;" but twenty-three 
 years after, D'Aubusson signs himself 
 "Magister Hospitalis Hierosolymitani." 
 
 Master of the Key to Masonry, 
 Grand. ( Grand Maltre de la Clef de la 
 Maconnerie.) The twenty-first degree of 
 the Chapter of the Emperors of the East 
 and West. 
 
 Master of the Legitimate Lodges, 
 Grand. {Maltre des Loges legitimes.) A 
 degree in the Archives of the Mother Lodge 
 of the Eclectic Philosophic Rite. 
 
 Master of the Palace. An officer 
 in a Council of Knights of the Red Cross, 
 whose duties are peculiar to the degree. 
 
 Master of the Sages. The fourth 
 degree of the Initiated Knights and Brothers 
 of Asia. 
 
 Master of the Seven Kabbalis- 
 tic Secrets, Illustrious. {Maltre II- 
 lustre des sept Secrets Cabalistiques. ) A degree 
 in the manuscript collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Master of the Temple. Origi- 
 nally the official title of the Grand Master 
 of the Templars. After the dissolution of 
 the Order in England, the same title was 
 incorrectly given to the custos or guardian 
 of the Temple Church at London, and the 
 error is continued to the present day. 
 
 Master of the Work. The chief 
 builder or architect of a cathedral or other 
 important edifice in the Middle Ages was 
 called the Master of the work; thus, Jost 
 Dotzinger was, in the fifteenth century, 
 called the Master of the work at the cathe- 
 dral of Strasburg. In the Middle Ages 
 the " Magister operis " was one to whom 
 the public works was intrusted. Such an 
 officer existed in the monasteries. He was 
 also called operarius and magister operarum. 
 Du Cange says that kings had their operarii, 
 magistri operarum or masters of the works. 
 It is these Masters of the works whom 
 Anderson has constantly called Grand 
 Masters. Thus, when he says (second edit. 
 69,) that " King John made Peter de Cole- 
 Church Grand Master of the Masons in re- 
 building London bridge," he should have 
 said that he was appointed operarius or 
 Master of the works. The use of the cor- 
 rect title would have made Anderson's his- 
 tory more valuable. 
 
 Master, Past. See Past Master. 
 Master, Perfect. See Perfect Mas- 
 ter. 
 Master, Perfect Architect. The 
 
 twenty-seventh degree of the Rite of Miz- 
 raim. 
 
 Master, Perfect Irish. See Per- 
 fect Irish Master. 
 
 Master Philosopher by the 
 dumber 3. {Maltre philosophe par le 
 Nombre 3.) A degree in the manuscript 
 collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Master Philosopher by the 
 X umber 9. {Maltre philosophe par le 
 Nombre 9.) A degree in the manuscript 
 collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Master Philosopher Hermetic. 
 [Maltre philosophe Hermetique.) A degree 
 in the collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Master, Private. {Maltre Particu- 
 lier.) The nineteenth degree of the Metro- 
 politan Chapter of France. 
 
 Master Provost and Judge. 
 ( Mai tre Prevot et Juge. ) The eighth degree 
 of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Master, Puissant Irish. See 
 Ptiissant Irish Master. 
 
 Master, Pythagorean. {Maltre 
 Pythagoricien.) Thory says that this is the 
 third and last degree of the Masonic system 
 instituted according to the doctrine of Py- 
 thagoras. 
 
 Master, Royal. See Royal Master. 
 
 Master, Secret. See Secret Master. 
 
 Master, Select. See Select Master. 
 
 Master, Supreme Elect. {Maltre 
 supreme Elu.) A degree in the Archives of 
 the Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Master Theosophist. {Maltre The- 
 osophie.) The third degree of the Rite of 
 Swedenborg. 
 
 Master through Curiosity. {Mal- 
 tre par Curiosite.) 1. The sixth degree of 
 the Rite of Mizraim ; 2. The sixth degree 
 of the collection of the Metropolitan Chap- 
 ter of France. It is a modification of the 
 Intimate Secretary of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 Master to the Xumber 15. {Mal- 
 tre au Nombre 15.) A degree in the manu- 
 script collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Master, True. ( Vrai Maltre.) A 
 degree of the Chapter of Clermont. 
 
 Master, Worshipful. See Wor- 
 shipful Master. 
 
 Materials of the Temple. Ma- 
 sonic tradition tells us that the trees out of 
 which the timbers were made for the Tem- 
 ple were felled and prepared in the forest 
 of Lebanon, and that the stones were hewn, 
 cut, and squared in the quarries of Tyre. 
 But both the Book of Kings and Josephus 
 concur in the statement that Hiram of Tyre 
 furnished only cedar and fir-trees for the 
 Temple. The stones were most probably 
 
MATERS 
 
 MELCHIZEDEK 
 
 495 
 
 (and the explorations of modern travellers 
 confirm the opinion) taken from the quar- 
 ries which abound in and around Jerusa- 
 lem. The tradition, therefore, which de- 
 rives these stones from the quarries of Tyre, 
 is incorrect. 
 
 Maters. In the Cooke MS., (line 825,) 
 — and it is the only Old Constitution in 
 which it occurs, — we find the word maters ; 
 "Hit is seyd in y* art of Masonry y' no 
 man scholde make ende so well of worke 
 begonne bi another to y* profite of his lorde 
 as he began hit for to end hit bi his maters 
 or to whom he scheweth his maters," where, 
 evidently, maters is a corruption of the Latin 
 matrix, a mould ; this latter being the word 
 used in all the other Old Constitutions in 
 the same connection. See Mould Stone. 
 
 Matriculation Book. In the Rite 
 of Strict Observance, the register which 
 contained the lists of the Provinces, Lodges, 
 and members of the Rite was called the 
 Matriculation Book. The term was bor- 
 rowed from the usage of the Middle Ages, 
 where matricula meant " a catalogue." It 
 was applied by the ecclesiastical writers of 
 that period to lists of the clergy, and also 
 of the poor, who were to be provided for 
 by the churches, whence we have matricula 
 clericorum and matricula pauperum. 
 
 Mature Age. The Charges of 1722 
 prescribe that a candidate for initiation 
 must be of "mature and discreet age;" but 
 the usage of the Craft has differed in various 
 countries as to the time when maturity of 
 age is supposed to have arrived. In the Reg- 
 ulations of 1663, it is set down at twenty-one 
 years ; and this continues to be the construc- 
 tion of maturity in all English Lodges both 
 in Great Britain and this country. France 
 and Switzerland have adopted the same 
 period. At Frankfort-on-the-Main it is 
 fixed at twenty, and in Prussia and Hano- 
 ver at twenty-five. The Grand Lodge of 
 Hamburg has decreed that the age of Ma- 
 sonic maturity shall be that which is deter- 
 mined by the laws of the land to be the 
 age of legal majority 
 
 Maul. See Setting Maul. 
 
 Medals. A medal is defined to be a 
 piece of metal in the shape of a coin, bear- 
 ing figures or devices and mottoes, struck 
 and distributed in memory of some person 
 or event. When Freemasonry was in its 
 operative stage, no medals were issued. 
 The medals of the Operative Masons were 
 the monuments which they erected in the 
 form of massive buildings, adorned with 
 all the beauties of architectural art. But 
 it was not long after its transformation into 
 a Speculative Order before it began to issue 
 medals. The earliest Masonic medal of 
 which we have an authentic account is 
 that known as the " Freemason's ducat," 
 
 which was struck at Brunswick in 1743. 
 The number have since so greatly increased, 
 that it would be impossible to give even a 
 catalogue of them. They are struck every 
 year by Lodges to commemorate some dis- 
 tinguished member or some remarkable 
 event in the annals of the Lodge. Many 
 Lodges in Europe have cabinets of medals, 
 of which the Lodge Minerva of the Three 
 Palms at Leipsic is especially valuable. 
 In America no Lodge has made such a col- 
 lection, except Pythagoras Lodge at New 
 York. 
 
 Mediterranean Pass. A side de- 
 gree sometimes conferred in this country 
 on Royal Arch Masons. It has no lecture 
 or legend, and should not be confounded, 
 as it sometimes is, with the very different 
 degree of Knight of the Mediterranean 
 Pass. It is, however, now nearly obsolete. 
 
 Meeting of a Chapter. See Con- 
 vocation. 
 
 Meeting of a Lodge. See Communi- 
 cation. 
 
 Meet on the Level. In the Presto- 
 nian lectures as practised in the beginning 
 of this century, it was said that Masons 
 met on the square and hoped to part on the 
 level. In the American system of Webb 
 a change was made, and we were instructed 
 that they meet on the level and part on the 
 square. And in 1842 the Baltimore Con- 
 vention made a still further change, by 
 adding that they act by the plumb; and this 
 formula is now, although quite modern, 
 generally adopted by the Lodges in this 
 country. 
 
 Meister. The German for Master. 
 
 Meister ini Slulil. [Master in the 
 Chair.) The Germans so call the Master 
 of a Lodge. 
 
 Melancthon, Philip. The name 
 of this celebrated reformer is signed to the 
 Charter of Cologne as the representative 
 of Dantzic. The evidence of his connec- 
 tion with Freemasonry depends entirely on 
 the authenticity of that document. 
 
 Melchizedek. King of Salem, and 
 a priest of the Most High God, of whom 
 all that we know is to be found in the pas- 
 sages of Scripture read at the conferring of 
 the degree of High Priesthood. Some theo- 
 logians have supposed him to have been 
 Shem, the son of Noah. The sacrifice of 
 offering bread and wine is first attributed 
 to Melchizedek ; and hence, looking to the 
 similar Mithraic sacrifice, Higgins is in- 
 clined to believe that he professed the re- 
 ligion of Mithras. He abandoned the 
 sacrifice of slaughtered animals, and, to 
 quote the words of St. Jerome, " offered 
 bread and wine as a type of Christ." 
 Hence, in the New Testament, Christ is 
 represented as a priest after the order of 
 
496 
 
 MELCHIZEDEK 
 
 MEMPHIS 
 
 Melchizedek. In Masonry, Melchizedek is 
 connected with the order or degree of High 
 Priesthood, and some of the high degrees. 
 
 Melchizedek, Degree of. The 
 sixth degree of the Order of Brothers of 
 Asia. 
 
 Melech. Properly, Malach, a mes- 
 senger, and hence an angel, because the 
 angels were supposed to be the messengers 
 of God. In the ritual of one of the high 
 degrees we meet with the sentence hamelech 
 Gebalim, which has been variously trans- 
 lated. The French ritualists handle He- 
 brew words with but little attention to He- 
 brew grammar, and hence they translate 
 this sentence as "Jabulum est un bon 
 Macon." The former American ritualists 
 gave it as meaning " Guibulum is a good 
 man." Guibulum is undoubtedly used as 
 a proper name, and is a corrupt deriva- 
 tion from the Hebrew Masonic Giblim, 
 which means stone-squarers or masons, and 
 melach for malach means a messenger, one 
 sent to accomplish a certain task. Bros. 
 Pike and Rockwell make the first word 
 hamalek, the king or chief. If the words 
 were reversed, we should have the Hebrew 
 vocative, " O ! Gibulum the messenger." As 
 it is, Bro. Pike makes it vocative, and inter- 
 
 frets it, " Oh ! thou glory of the Builders." 
 am inclined to think that the inventor of 
 the degree meant simply to say that Gibu- 
 lum was a messenger, or one who had been 
 sent to make a discovery, but that he did 
 not perfectly express the idea according to 
 the Hebrew idiom, or that his expression 
 has since been corrupted by the copyists. 
 
 Melesino, Rite of. This is a Rite 
 scarcely known out of Russia, where it was 
 founded about the year 1765, by Melesino, 
 a very learned man and Mason, a Greek by 
 birth, but high in the military service of 
 Russia. It consisted of seven degrees, viz. : 
 1. Apprentice. 2. Fellow Craft. 3. Master 
 Mason. 4. The Mystic Arch. 5. Scottish 
 Master and Knight. 6. The Philosopher. 
 7. The Priest or High Priest of the Tem- 
 plars. The four higher degrees abounded 
 in novel traditions and myths unknown to 
 any of the other Rites, and undoubtedly in- 
 vented by the founder. The whole Rite was 
 a mixture of Kabbalism, magic, gnosticism, 
 and the hermetic philosophy mixed in al- 
 most inextricable confusion. The seventh 
 or final degree was distinctly Rosicrucian, 
 and the religion of the Rite was Christian, 
 recognizing and teaching the belief in the 
 Messiah and the dogma of the Trinity. 
 
 Melita. The ancient name of the 
 hland of Malta. 
 
 Member, Honorary. See Hono- 
 rary Member. 
 
 Member, Life. See Life Member. 
 
 Member of a Lodge. As soon as 
 
 permanent Lodges became a part of the 
 Masonic organization, it seems to have been 
 required that every Mason should belong 
 to one, and this is explicitly stated in the 
 charges approved in 1722. See Affiliation. 
 
 Membership, Right of. The first 
 right which a Mason acquires, after the re- 
 ception of the third degree, is that of claim- 
 ing membership in the Lodge in which he 
 has been initiated. The very fact of his 
 having received that degree makes him at 
 once an inchoate member of the Lodge — 
 that is to say, no further application is ne- 
 cessary, and no new ballot is required ; but 
 the candidate, having now become a Master 
 Mason, upon signifying his submission to 
 the regulations of the Society, by affixing 
 his signature to the book of by-laws, is 
 constituted, by virtue of that act, a full 
 member of the Lodge, and entitled to all 
 the rights and prerogatives accruing to that 
 position. 
 
 Memphis, Rite of. In 1839, two 
 French Masons, named respectively Mar- 
 conis and Moullet, but of whom the former 
 was undoubtedly the leader, instituted, first 
 at Paris, then at Marseilles, and afterwards 
 at Brussels, a new Rite which they called 
 the " Rite of Memphis," and which con- 
 sisted of ninety-one degrees. Subsequently, 
 another degree was added to this already 
 too long list. The Rite, however, has re- 
 peatedly undergone modifications. The 
 Rite of Memphis was undoubtedly founded 
 on the extinct Rite of Mizraim ; for, as Ra- 
 gon says, the Egyptian Rite seems to have 
 inspired Marconis and Moullet in the or- 
 ganization of their new Rite. It is said by 
 Ragon, who has written copiously on the 
 Rite, that the first series of degrees, extend- 
 ing to the thirty-fifth degree, is an assump- 
 tion of the thirty-three degrees of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Rite, with scarcely a 
 change of name. The remaining degrees 
 of the Rite are borrowed, according to the 
 same authority, from other well-known 
 systems, and some, perhaps, the invention 
 of their founders. 
 
 The Rite of Memphis was not at first re- 
 cognized by the Grand Orient of France, 
 and consequently formed no part of legal 
 French Masonry. So about 1852 its Lodges 
 were closed by the civil authority, and the 
 Rite, to use a French Masonic phrase, 
 " went to sleep." 
 
 In the year 1862, Marconis, still faithful 
 to the system which he had invented, ap- 
 plied to the Grand Master of France to 
 give to it a new life. The Grand College 
 of Rites was consulted on the subject, and 
 the Council of the Order having made a 
 favorable decree, the Rite of Memphis was 
 admitted, in November, 1862, among those 
 Masonic systems which acknowledge obe- 
 
MEMPHIS 
 
 MEMPHIS 
 
 497 
 
 dience to the Grand Orient of France, and 
 perform their functions within its bosom. 
 To obtain this position, however, the only 
 one which, in France, preserves a Masonic 
 system from the reputation of being clan- 
 destine, it was necessary that Marconis, 
 who was then the Grand Hierophant, 
 should, as a step preliminary to any favor- 
 able action on the part of the Grand Orient, 
 take an obligation by which he forever 
 after divested himself of all authority, of 
 any kind whatsoever, over the Rite. It 
 passed entirely out of his hands, and, go- 
 ing into "obedience" to the Grand Orient, 
 that body has taken complete and undi- 
 vided possession of it, and laid its high de- 
 grees upon the shelf, as Masonic curiosities, 
 since the Grand Orient only recognizes, in 
 practice, the thirty-three degrees of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Rite. 
 
 This, then, is the present position of the 
 Rite of Memphis in France. Its original 
 possessors have disclaimed all further con- 
 trol or direction of it. It has been ad- 
 mitted by the Grand Orient among the 
 eight systems of Rites which are placed 
 "under its obedience; " that is to say, it ad- 
 mits its existence, but it does not suffer it 
 to be worked. Like all Masonic Rites that 
 have ever been invented, the organization 
 of the Rite of Memphis is founded on the 
 first three degrees of Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry. These three degrees, of course, are 
 given in symbolic Lodges. In 1862, when 
 Marconis surrendered the Rite into the 
 hands of the ruling powers of French Ma- 
 sonry, many of these Lodges existed in 
 various parts of France, although in a dor- 
 mant condition, because, as we have al- 
 ready seen, ten years before they had been 
 closed by the civil authority. Had they 
 been in active operation, they would not 
 have been recognized by the French Ma- 
 sons ; they would have been looked upon 
 as clandestine, and there would have been 
 no affiliation with them, because the Grand 
 Orient recognizes no Masonic bodies as 
 legal which do not in return recognize it as 
 the head of French Masonry. 
 
 But when Marconis surrendered his 
 powers as Grand Hierophant of the Rite 
 of Memphis to the Grand Orient, that 
 body permitted these Lodges to be -resusci- 
 tated and reopened only on the conditions 
 that they would acknowledge their subor- 
 dination to the Grand Orient; that they 
 would work only in the first three degrees 
 and never confer any degree higher than 
 that of Master Mason; the members of 
 these Lodges, however high might be their 
 dignities in the Rite of Memphis, were to 
 be recognized only as Master Masons ; every 
 Mason of the Rite of Memphis was to de- 
 posit his Masonic titles with the Grand 
 3N 32 
 
 Secretary of the Grand Orient ; these titles 
 were then to be vixe or approved and reg- 
 ularized, but only as far as the degree of 
 Master Mason ; no Mason of the Rite of 
 Memphis was to be permitted to claim any 
 higher degree, and if he attempted to as- 
 sume any such title of a higher degree 
 which was not approved by the Grand 
 Master, he was to be considered as irregu- 
 lar, and was not to be affiliated with by the 
 members of any of the regular Lodges. 
 
 Such is now the condition of the Rite 
 of Memphis in France. It has been ab- 
 sorbed into the Grand Orient; Marconis, 
 its founder and head, has surrendered all 
 claim to any jurisdiction over it; there are 
 Lodges under the jurisdiction of the Grand 
 Orient which originally belonged to the 
 Rite of Memphis, ana they practise its 
 ritual, but only so far as to give the de- 
 grees of Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and 
 Master Mason. Its " Sages of the Pyra- 
 mids," its " Grand Architects of the Mys- 
 terious City," its "Sovereign Princes of 
 the Magi of the Sanctuary of Memphis," 
 with its " Sanctuary," its " Mystical Tem- 
 ple," its " Liturgical College," its " Grand 
 Consistory," and its "Supreme Tribunal," 
 exist no longer except in the diplomas and 
 charters which have been quietly laid away 
 on the shelves of the Secretariat of the 
 Grand Orient. To attempt to propagate 
 the Rite is now in France a high Masonic 
 offence. The Grand Orient alone has the 
 power, and there is no likelihood that it 
 will ever exercise it. Some circumstances 
 which have recently occurred in the Grand 
 Orient of France very clearly show the 
 true condition of the Rite of Memphis. A 
 meeting was holden in Paris on the 26th 
 of August last, by the Council of the 
 Order, a body which, something like the 
 Committee of General Purposes of the 
 Grand Lodge of England, does all the pre- 
 liminary business for the Grand Orient, 
 but which is possessed of rather extensive 
 legislative and administrative powers, as it 
 directs the Order during the recess of the 
 Grand Orient. At that meeting, a com- 
 munication was received from a Lodge in 
 Moldavia, called "The Disciples of Truth," 
 which Lodge is under the jurisdiction of 
 the Grand Orient of France, having been 
 chartered by that body. This communica- 
 tion stated that certain brethren of that 
 Lodge had been invested by one Carence' 
 with the degree of Rose Croix in the Rite 
 of Memphis, and that the diplomas had 
 been dated at the "Grand Orient of 
 Egypt," and signed by Bro. Marconis as 
 Grand Hierophant. The commission of 
 the Council of the Order, to whom the sub- 
 ject was referred, reported that the con- 
 ferring of these degrees was null and void ; 
 
498 
 
 MEMPHIS 
 
 MEMPHIS 
 
 that neither Carence nor Marconis had 
 any commission, authority, or power to 
 confer degrees of the Memphis Kite or to 
 organize bodies; and that Marconis had, 
 by oath, solemnly divested himself of all 
 right to claim the title of Grand Hiero- 
 phant of the Rite ; which oath, originally 
 taken in May, 1862, had at several subse- 
 quent times, namely, in September, 1863, 
 March, 1864, September, 1865, and March, 
 1866, been renewed. As a matter of clem- 
 ency, the Council determined not, for the 
 E resent at least, to prefer charges against 
 [arconis and Carence before the Grand 
 Orient, but to warn them of the error they 
 committed in making a traffic of Masonic 
 degrees. It also ordered the report to be 
 published and widely diffused, so that the 
 Fraternity might be apprised that there 
 was no power outside of the Grand Orient 
 which could confer the high degrees of any 
 Rite. 
 
 An attempt having been made, in 1872, 
 to establish the Rite in England, Bro. Mon- 
 tague, the Secretary General of the Supreme 
 Council, wrote to Bro. Thevenot, the Grand 
 Secretary of the Grand Orient of France, 
 for information as to its validity. From 
 him he received a letter containing the fol- 
 lowing statements, from which official au- 
 thority we gather the fact that the Rite of 
 Memphis is a dead Rite, and that no one 
 has authority in any country to propa- 
 gate it. 
 
 " Neither in 1866, nor at any other pe- 
 riod, has the Grand Orient of France recog- 
 nized ' the Ancient and Primitive Rite of 
 Masonry,' concerning which you inquire, 
 and which has been recently introduced in 
 Lancashire. 
 
 " At a particular time, and with the in- 
 tention of* causing the plurality of Rites to 
 disappear, the Grand Orient of France an- 
 nexed and absorbed the Rite of Memphis, 
 under the express condition that the Lodges 
 of that Rite, which were received under its 
 jurisdiction, should confer only the three 
 symbolic degrees of Apprentice, Fellow 
 Craft, and Master, according to its special 
 rituals, and refused to recognize any other 
 degree, or any other title, belonging to such 
 Rite. 
 
 "At the period when this treaty was 
 negotiated with the Supreme Chief of this 
 Rite by Bro. Marconis de N£gre, Bro. H. J. 
 Seymour was at Paris, and seen by us, but no 
 power was conferred on him by the Grand 
 Orient of France concerning this Rite ; and, 
 what is more, the Grand Orient of France 
 does not give, and has never given, to any 
 single person the right to make Masons or 
 to create Lodges. 
 
 " Afterwards, and in consequence of the 
 bad faith of Bro. Marconis de Negre, who 
 
 pretended he had ceded his Rite to the 
 Grand Orient of France for France alone, 
 Bro. Harry J. Seymour assumed the title 
 of Grand Master of the Rite of Memphis 
 in America, and founded in New York a 
 Sovereign Sanctuary of this Rite. A cor- 
 respondence ensued between this new power 
 and the Grand Orient of France, and even 
 the name of this Sovereign Sanctuary ap- 
 peared in our Calendar for 1867. But when 
 the Grand Orient of France learned that 
 this power went beyond the three symbolic 
 degrees, and that its confidence had been 
 deceived, the Grand Orient broke off all 
 connection with this power, and personally 
 with Bro. Harry J. Seymour; and, in fact, 
 since that period, neither the name of Bro. 
 Harry J. Seymour, as Grand Master, nor 
 the Masonic power which he founded, have 
 any longer appeared in the Masonic Calen- 
 dar of the Grand Orient. 
 
 "Your letter leads me to believe that 
 Bro. Harry J. Seymour is endeavoring, I 
 do not know with what object, to introduce 
 a new Rite into England, in that country 
 of the primitive and only true Masonry, 
 one of the most respectable that I know of. 
 I consider this event as a misfortune. 
 
 " The Grand Orient of France has made 
 the strongest efforts to destroy the Rite of 
 Memphis; it has succeeded. The Lodges 
 of the Rite, which it at first received 
 within its jurisdiction, have all abandoned 
 the Rite of Memphis to work according to 
 the French Rite. I sincerely desire that 
 it may be the same in the United Kingdom, 
 and you will ever find me ready to second 
 your efforts. 
 
 "Referring to this letter, I have, very 
 illustrious brother, but one word to add, 
 and that is, that the Constitution of the 
 Grand Orient of France interdicts its found- 
 ing Lodges in countries where a regular 
 Masonic power already exists; and if it 
 cannot found Lodges a fortiori, it cannot 
 grant charters to establish Grand Masonic 
 Powers : in other terms, the Grand Orient 
 of France never has given to Bro. Harry 
 J. Seymour, nor to any other person, pow- 
 ers to constitute a Lodge, or to create a 
 Rite, or to make Masons. Bro. HarryJ. 
 Seymour may perfectly well have the sig- 
 natures of the Grand Master and of the 
 Chief of the Secretary's office of the Grand 
 Orient of France on a diploma, as a fra- 
 ternal vise"; but certainly he has neither a 
 charter nor a power. I also beg you to make 
 every effort to obtain the textual copy of 
 the documents of which Bro. Harry J. Sey- 
 mour takes advantage. It is by the inspec- 
 tion of this document it will be necessary 
 to judge the question, and I await new 
 communications on this subject from your 
 fraternal kindness." 
 
MENATZCHIM 
 
 METAL 
 
 499 
 
 Menatzchim. In 2 Chron. ii. 18, it 
 is said that at the building of the Temple 
 there were "three thousand and six hundred 
 overseers to set the people awork." The 
 word translated " overseers " is, in the ori- 
 ginal, D'flVJD. MeNaTZCHIM. Ander- 
 son, in his catalogue of workmen at the 
 Temple, calls these Menatzchim "expert 
 Master Masons ; " and so they have been 
 considered in all subsequent rituals. 
 
 Mental Qualifications. See Qual- 
 ifications. 
 
 Menu. In the Indian mythology, Menu 
 is the son of Brahma, and the founder of 
 the Hindu religion. Thirteen other Menus 
 are said to exist, seven of whom have al- 
 ready reigned on earth. But it is the first 
 one whose instructions constitute the whole 
 civil and religious polity of the Hindus. 
 The code attributed to him by the Brah- 
 mans has been translated by Sir William 
 Jones, with the title of The Institutes of 
 Menu. 
 
 Mercy. The point of a Knight Tem- 
 plar's sword is said to be characterized by 
 the quality of " mercy unrestrained ;" which 
 reminds us of the Shakspearian expression 
 — " the quality of mercy is not strained." 
 In the days of chivalry, mercy to the con- 
 quered foe was an indispensable quality of 
 a knight. An act of cruelty in battle was 
 considered infamous, for whatever was con- 
 trary to the laws of generous warfare was 
 also contrary to the laws of chivalry. 
 
 Mercy, Prince of. See Prince of 
 Mercy. 
 
 Mercy -Seat. The lid or cover of the 
 ark of the covenant was called the Mercy- 
 seat or the Propitiatory, because on the day 
 of the atonement the High Priest poured 
 on it the blood of the sacrifice for the sins 
 of the people. 
 
 Meridian Sun. The sun in the 
 south is represented in Masonry by the 
 Junior Warden, for this reason ; when the 
 sun has arrived at the zenith, at which 
 time he is in the south, the splendor of his 
 beams entitle him to the appellation which 
 he receives in the ritual as " the beauty and 
 glory of the day." Hence, as the Pillar of 
 Beauty which supports the Lodge is re- 
 ferred to the Junior Warden, that officer is 
 said to represent " the sun in the south at 
 High Twelve," at which hour the Craft are 
 called by him to refreshment, and therefore 
 is he also placed in the South that he may 
 the better observe the time and mark the 
 progress of the shadow over the dial-plate 
 as it crosses the meridian line. 
 
 Merit. The Old Charges say, "all 
 preferment among Masons is grounded 
 upon real worth and personal merit only ; 
 that so the Lords may be well served, the 
 Brethren not put to shame, nor the Royal 
 
 Craft despised. Therefore no Master or 
 Warden is chosen by seniority, but for his 
 merit." See Preferment. 
 Mesmer, Friedrich Anton. A 
 
 German physician who was born in Suabia, 
 1734, and, after a life a part of which was 
 passed in notoriety and the closing years in 
 obscurity, died in 1815. He was the founder 
 of the doctrine of animal magnetism, called 
 after him Mesmerism. He visited Paris, 
 and became there in some degree inter- 
 mixed with the Masonic charlatanism of 
 Cagliostro, who used the magnetic opera- 
 tions of Mesmer's new science in his initia- 
 tions. See Mesmeric Masonry. 
 
 Mesmeric Masonry. In the year 
 1782, Mesmer established in Paris a society 
 which he called " the Order of Universal 
 Harmony." It was based on the principles 
 of animal magnetism or mesmerism, and 
 had a form of initiation by which the 
 founder claimed that its adepts were puri- 
 fied and rendered more fit to propagate the 
 doctrines of his science. French writers 
 have, I scarcely known why, dignified this 
 Order by the title of " Mesmeric Masonry." 
 
 Mesopolyte. The fourth degree of 
 the German Union of XXII. 
 
 Mesouraneo. A Greek word, fieoov- 
 paveu, signifying, lam in the centre of heaven. 
 Hutchinson fancifully derives from it the 
 word Masonry, which he says is a corrup- 
 tion of the Greek, and refers to the constel- 
 lation Magaroth mentioned by Job; but he 
 fails to give a satisfactory reason for his 
 etymology. Nevertheless, Oliver favors it. 
 
 Metals. In the divestiture of metals as 
 a preliminary to initiation, we are symbol- 
 ically taught that Masonry regards no man 
 on account of his wealth. The Talmudical 
 treatise " Beracoth," with a like spirit of 
 symbolism, directs in the Temple service 
 that no man shall go into the mountain of 
 the house, that is, into the Holy Temple, 
 " with money tied up in his purse." 
 
 Metal Tools. We are told in Scrip- 
 ture that the Temple was " built of stone 
 made ready before it was brought thither : 
 so that there was neither hammer, nor axe, 
 nor any tool of iron heard in the house 
 while it was in building." (1 Kings vi. 7.) 
 Masonry has adopted this as a symbol of 
 the peace and harmony which should reign 
 in a Lodge, itself a type of the world. But 
 Clarke, in his commentary on the place, 
 suggests that it was intended to teach us 
 that the Temple was a type of the kingdom 
 of God, and that the souls of men are to 
 be prepared here for that place of blessed- 
 ness. There is no repentance, tears, nor 
 prayers : the stones must be all squared, and 
 fitted here for their place in the New Jerusa- 
 lem; and, being living stones, must be built 
 up a holy temple for the habitation of God. 
 
500 
 
 METROPOLITAN 
 
 MIDDLE 
 
 Metropolitan Chapter of 
 France. There existed in France, towards 
 the end of the last century, a body calling it- 
 self the Grand Chapter General of France. 
 It was formed out of the debris of the 
 Council of Emperors of the East and West, 
 and the Council of Knights of the East, 
 which had been founded by Pirlet. In 
 1786, it united with the schismatic Grand 
 Orient, and then received the title of the 
 Metropolitan Chapter of France. It pos- 
 sessed in its archives a large collection of 
 manuscript cahiers of degrees, most of them 
 being mere Masonic curiosities. 
 
 Mexico. The precise date of the first 
 appearance of organized Masonry in Mex- 
 ico is unknown, but there is evidence that 
 it existed there prior to the establishment 
 of the Republic in 1824. It was intro- 
 duced by the civil and military officers of 
 the monarchy, and was principally confined 
 to Europeans and their immediate descend- 
 ants. The working was in the Scottish 
 Rite, which was propagated with much cir- 
 cumspection and reserve. In 1825, Joel R. 
 Poinsett, who had been sent to Mexico aa 
 resident Minister by the United States, 
 disseminated among the Mexicans who were 
 his friends an attachment for York Mason- 
 ry ; so that in the same year authority was 
 obtained from the Grand Lodge of New 
 York for the establishment of three Lodges 
 in the city of Mexico. The Grand Lodge 
 was organized, and Jose Ignacio Esteva 
 elected the first Grand Master. 
 
 Soon afterwards a Grand Chapter was 
 established, and Masonry extended with 
 such rapidity that, by the end of the year 
 1826, there were more than twenty-five 
 Lodges in the country, there being one at 
 least in the capital of each of the States 
 which composed the federation. Politics 
 seem, however, from the first, to have in- 
 truded into the Masonic temples, and this 
 at length excited the suspicions of the 
 government, by whom all secret societies 
 were prescribed. Masonry continued to 
 be practised for a few years in secret, but 
 gradually disappeared. 
 
 But Masonry is again in a prosperous 
 condition, and between twenty and thirty 
 Lodges are now in operation under the 
 obedience of the Supreme Council of Mex- 
 ico, which was established in 1860, by au- 
 thority of the Supreme Council at Charles- 
 ton, S. C. 
 
 Michael. SxD'D- Who w like unto 
 God. The chief of the seven archangels. 
 He is the leader of the celestial host, as 
 Lucifer is of the infernal spirits, and the 
 especial protector of Israel. He is promi- 
 nently referred to in the twenty-eighth de- 
 gree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite, or Knight of the Sun. 
 
 Michigan. On September 7th, 1794, 
 Thomas Ainslie, Deputy Grand Master of 
 the Athol Grand Lodge of Canada, granted 
 a Warrant for the organization of Zion 
 Lodge, No. 10, at Detroit ; and this appears 
 to have been the date of the introduction 
 of Masonry into that province. This 
 Lodge probably ceased to exist about 1805, 
 and a dispensation for its revival was 
 issued in 1807 by De Witt Clinton, Grand 
 Master of New York. Other Lodges were 
 subsequently established, and on July 31st, 
 1826, a Grand Lodge was organized by 
 them and Lewis Cass elected Grand Master. 
 In consequence of the political pressure of 
 the anti-Masonic party at that time, the 
 Grand Lodge suspended its labors in 1829, 
 and remained in a dormant condition until 
 1840, when, at a general meeting of the 
 Masons of the State, it was resolved that 
 the old Grand officers who were still alive 
 should, on the principle that their preroga- 
 tives had never ceased but only been in 
 abeyance, grant dispensations for the revi- 
 val of the Lodges and the renewal of labor. 
 But this course having been objected to as 
 irregular by most of the Grand Lodges of 
 the United States, a constitutional number 
 of Lodges met in June, 1841, and organized 
 the Grand Lodge, electing Gen. Lewis Cass 
 Grand Master. 
 
 The Grand Chapter was organized in 
 1848, the Grand Council in 1858, and the 
 Grand Commandery in 1857. 
 
 Microcosm. See Man. 
 
 Middle Ages. These are supposed 
 by the best historians to extend from the 
 year 400 B. c. to the end of the fifteenth 
 century, the last important event being the 
 doubling of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497. 
 This period of twelve centuries is one of 
 great importance to the Masonic student, 
 because it embraces within its scope events 
 intimately connected with the history of 
 the Order, such as the diffusion throughout 
 Europe of the Roman Colleges of Artificers, 
 the establishment of the architectural 
 school of Como, the rise of the gilds, the 
 organizations of the building corporations 
 of Germany, and the company of Free- 
 masons of England, as well as many cus- 
 toms and usages which have descended 
 with more or less modification to the 
 modern Institution. 
 
 Middle Chamber. There were three 
 stories of side chambers built around the 
 Temple on three sides ; what, therefore, is 
 called in the authorized version a middle 
 chamber was really the middle story of those 
 three. The Hebrew word is V¥ y ? yatsang. 
 They are thus described in 1 Kings vi. 5, 
 6, 8. " And against the wall of the house 
 he built chambers round about, against the 
 walls of the house round about, both of the 
 
MILES 
 
 MINUTES 
 
 501 
 
 temple and of the oracle: and he made 
 chambers round about. The nethermost 
 chamber was five cubits broad, and the 
 middle was six cubits broad, and the third 
 was seven cubits broad : for without in the 
 wall of the house he made narrowed rests 
 round about, that the beams should not be 
 fastened in the walls of the house. The 
 door for the middle chamber was in the right 
 side of the house : and they went up with 
 winding stairs into the middle chamber, and 
 out of the middle into the third." 
 
 These chambers, after the Temple was 
 completed, served for the accommodation 
 of the priests when upon duty ; in them 
 they deposited their vestments and the sa- 
 cred vessels. But the knowledge of the 
 purpose to which the middle chamber was 
 appropriated while the Temple was in the 
 course of construction, is only preserved in 
 Masonic tradition. This tradition is, how- 
 ever, altogether mythical and symbolical in 
 its character, and belongs to the symbolism 
 of the Winding Stairs, which see. 
 
 Miles. 1. In pure Latin, miles means 
 a soldier; but in Mediaeval Latin the 
 word was used to designate the military 
 knights whose institution began at that 
 period. Thus a Knight Templar was called 
 Miles Templarius, and a Knight Banneret, 
 Miles Bannerettus. The pure Latin word 
 eques, which signified a knight in Rome, was 
 never used in that sense in the Middle 
 Ages. See Knighthood. 
 
 2. The seventh degree of the Bite of Af- 
 rican Architects. 
 
 Military Lodges. Lodges estab- 
 lished in an army. They are of an early 
 date, having long existed in the British 
 army. In America, the first Lodge of this 
 kind of which we have any record was one 
 the Warrant for which was granted by the 
 Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, in 1738, to 
 Abraham Savage, to be used in the expedi- 
 tion against Canada. A similar one was 
 granted by the same authority, in 1756, to 
 Richard Gridley, for the expedition against 
 Crown Point. In both of these instances 
 the Warrants were of a general character, 
 and might rather be considered as deputa- 
 tions, as they authorized Savage and Grid- 
 ley to congregate Masons into one or more 
 Lodges. In 1779, the Grand Lodge of 
 Pennsylvania granted a Warrant to Col. 
 Proctor, of the artillery, to open a Military 
 Lodge, which in the Warrant is called a 
 " Movable Lodge." In the civil war in 
 the United States between 1861 and 1865, 
 many Military Lodges were established on 
 both sides; but it is questionable whether 
 they had a good effect. They met, cer- 
 tainly, with much opposition in many ju- 
 risdictions. In England, the system of Mil- 
 itary Lodges is regulated by special provi- 
 
 sions of the Grand Lodge Constitution. 
 They are strictly limited to the purposes for 
 which the Warrants were granted, and no 
 new Lodge can be established in a regiment 
 without the concurrence of the command- 
 ing officer. They cannot make Masons of 
 any but military men who have attained 
 some rank in the army above that of a pri- 
 vate soldier, although the latter may by 
 dispensation be admitted as Serving Breth- 
 ren ; and they are strictly enjoined not to 
 interfere with the Masonic jurisdiction of 
 any country in which they may be stationed. 
 Military Lodges also exist on the continent 
 of Europe. We find one at Berlin, in 
 Prussia, as far back as 1775, under the 
 name of the " Military Lodge of the Blaz- 
 ing Star," of which Wadzeck, the Masonic 
 writer, was the orator. 
 
 Militia. In Mediaeval Latin, this word 
 signifies chivalry or the body of knight- 
 hood. Hence Militia Templi, a title some- 
 times given to Knights Templars, does not 
 signify, as it has sometimes been improperly 
 translated, the army of the Temple, but the 
 chivalry of the Temple. 
 
 Minerval. The third degree of the 
 111 uni inati of Bavaria. 
 
 Minister of State. An officer in the 
 Supreme Councils, Grand Consistories, and 
 some of the high degrees of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 Minnesota. Masonry was introduced 
 into this State in 1849 by the constitution in 
 the city of St. Paul of a Lodge under a 
 Warrant issued by the Grand Lodge of 
 Ohio. Two other Lodges were subse- 
 quently constituted by the Grand Lodges 
 of Wisconsin and Illinois. A convention 
 of delegates from these Lodges was held at 
 St. Paul, and a Grand Lodge organ- 
 ized on Feb. 12, 1853. A. E. Ames was 
 elected Grand Master. The Grand Chap- 
 ter was organized Dec. 17, 1859, and the 
 Grand Commandery was organized in 
 1866. 
 
 Minor. The fifth degree of the Ger- 
 man Rose Croix. 
 
 Minor, Illuminate. {Muminatw 
 Minor.) The fourth degree of the Illumi- 
 nati of Bavaria. 
 
 Minute Book. The records of a 
 Lodge are kept by the Secretary in a 
 journal, which is called the Minute Book. 
 The French call it Planche trace'e, and the 
 Minutes a Morceau d' Architecture. 
 
 Minutes. The records of a Lodge are 
 called its minutes. The minutes of the pro- 
 ceedings of the Lodge should always be 
 read just before closing, that any altera- 
 tions or amendments may be proposed by 
 the brethren ; and again immediately after 
 opening at the next communication, that 
 they may be confirmed. But the minutes 
 
502 
 
 MISCONDUCT 
 
 MITHRAS 
 
 of a regular communication are not to be read 
 at a succeeding extra one. because, as the 
 proceedings ot a regular communication 
 cannot be discussed at an extra, it would 
 be unnecessary to read them, for, if incor- 
 rect, they could not be amended until the 
 next regular communication. 
 
 Misconduct. The Constitution of 
 the Grand Lodge of England provides that 
 " if any brother behave in such a manner 
 as to disturb the harmony of the Lodge, he 
 shall be thrice formally admonished by the 
 Master ; and if he persist in his irregular 
 conduct, he shall be punished according to 
 the by-laws of that particular Lodge, or 
 the case may be reported to higher Ma- 
 sonic authority." A similar rule prevails 
 wherever Masonry exists. Every Lodge 
 , may exercise instant discipline over any 
 member or visitor who violates the rules 
 of order and propriety, or disturbs the 
 harmony of the Lodge, by extrusion from 
 the room. 
 
 Miserable Scald Masons. See 
 Scald Miserable*. 
 
 Mishna. See Talmud. 
 
 Mississippi. Masonry was intro- 
 duced into this State at least as far back 
 as 1801, in which year the Grand Lodge 
 of Kentucky chartered a Lodge at Natchez, 
 which became extinct in 1814. The Grand 
 Lodge of Kentucky subsequently granted 
 charters to two other Lodges in 1812 and 
 1815. Two Lodges were also constituted 
 by the Grand Lodge of Tennessee. The 
 delegates of three of these Lodges met in 
 convention at the city of Natchez in July 
 and August, 1818, and on the 25th of the 
 latter month organized the Grand Lodge 
 of Mississippi, Henry Tooley being elected 
 Grand Master. The Grand Chapter was 
 organized at Vicksburg, May 18, 1846 ; the 
 Grand Council of R. and S. Master Jan. 
 19, 1856; and the Grand Commandery Jan. 
 22, 1857. Scottish Masonry was introduced 
 into the State in 1815 by the establishment 
 of a Grand Council of Princes of Jerusalem 
 under the obedience of the Southern Su- 
 preme Council. 
 
 Missouri. Masonry was introduced 
 into this State in 1807 by the constitution 
 of a Lodge in the town of St. Genevieve, 
 under a charter granted by the Grand Lodge 
 of Pennsylvania, which body granted a 
 charter for another Lodge in 1809. Sev- 
 eral charters were subsequently granted by 
 the Grand Lodge of Tennessee. In 1821 
 there appear to have been but three 
 Lodges in the State. Delegates from these 
 organized, April 23, 1821, a Grand Lodge 
 at St. Louis and elected Thomas F. Rid- 
 dick Grand Master. The Grand Chapter 
 was organized May 18, 1846, and the 
 Grand Commandery May 22, 1860. 
 
 Mistletoe. A sacred plant among the 
 Druids. It was to them a symbol of im- 
 mortality, and hence an analogue of the 
 Masonic Acacia. "The mistletoe," says 
 Vallancey, in his Grammar of the Irish 
 Language, " was sacred to the Druids, be- 
 cause not only its berries but its leaves also 
 grow in clusters of three united to one 
 stock. The Christian Irish hold the sham- 
 rock (clover, trefoil) sacred, in like man- 
 ner, because of the three leaves united to 
 one stalk." 
 
 Mithras, Mysteries of. There are 
 none of the Ancient Mysteries which afford 
 a more interesting subject of investigation 
 to the Masonic scholar than those of the 
 Persian god Mithras. Instituted, as it is 
 supposed, by Zeradusht or Zoroaster, as an 
 initiation into the principles of the religion 
 which he had founded among the ancient 
 Persians, they in time extended into 
 Europe, and lasted so long that traces of 
 them have been found in the fourth century. 
 "With their penances," says Mr. King, 
 (Gnostics, p. 47,) "and tests of the courage 
 of the candidate for admission, -they have 
 been maintained by a constant tradition 
 through the secret societies of the Middle 
 Ages and the Rosicrucians down to the 
 modern faint reflex of the latter — the Free- 
 masons." 
 
 Of the identity of Mithras with other 
 deities there have been various opinions. 
 Herodotus says he was the Assyrian Venus 
 and the Arabian Alitta ; Porphyry calls 
 him the Demiurgos, and Lord of Genera- 
 tion; the Greeks identified him with Phoe- 
 bus ; and Higgins supposed that he was 
 generally considered the same as Osiris. 
 But to the Persians, who first practised his 
 mysteries, he was a sun god, and worshipped 
 as the god of Light. He was represented 
 as a young man covered with a Phrygian 
 turban, and clothed in a mantle and tunic. 
 He presses with his knee upon a bull, one 
 of whose horns he holds in his right hand, 
 while with the right he plunges a dagger 
 into his neck, while a dog standing near 
 laps up the dripping blood. 
 
 This symbol has been thus interpreted. 
 His piercing the throat with his dagger 
 signifies the penetration of the solar rays 
 into the bosom of the earth, by which 
 action all nature is nourished ; the last idea 
 being expressed by the dog licking up the 
 blood as it flows from the wound. But it 
 will be seen hereafter that this last symbol 
 admits of another interpretation. 
 
 The mysteries of Mithras were always 
 celebrated in caves. They were divided 
 into seven stages or degrees, (Suidas says 
 twelve,) and consisted of the most rigorous 
 proofs of fortitude and courage. Nonnus 
 the Greek poet says, in his Dionysiaca, that 
 
MITHRAS 
 
 MITHRAS 
 
 503 
 
 theae proofs were eighty in number, gradu- 
 ally increasing in severity. No one, says 
 Gregory Nazianzen, could be initiated into 
 the mysteries of Mithras unless he had 
 
 Eassed through all the trials, and proved 
 imself passionless and pure. The aspi- 
 rant at first underwent the purifications by 
 water, by fire, and by fasting ; after which 
 he was introduced into a cavern represent- 
 ing the world, on whose walls and roof 
 were inscribed the celestial signs. Here 
 he submitted to a. species of baptism, and 
 received a mark on his forehead. He was 
 presented with a crown on the point of a 
 sword, which he was to refuse, declaring 
 at the same time, "Mithras alone is my 
 crown." He was prepared, by anointing 
 him with oil, crowning him with olive, and 
 clothing him in enchanted armor, for the 
 seven stages of initiation through which 
 he was about to pass. These commenced 
 in the following manner : In the first cavern 
 he heard the howling of wild beasts, and 
 was enveloped in total darkness, except 
 when the cave was illuminated by the fitful 
 glare of terrific flashes of lightning. He 
 was hurried to the spot whence the sounds 
 proceeded, and was suddenly thrust by his 
 silent guide through a door into a den of 
 wild beasts, where he was attacked by the 
 initiated in the disguise of lions, tigers, 
 hyenas, and other ravenous beasts. Hurried 
 through this apartment, in the second 
 cavern he was again shrouded in darkness, 
 and for a time in fearful silence, until it 
 was broken by awful peals of thunder, 
 whose repeated reverberations shook the 
 very walls of the cavern, and could not 
 fail to inspire the aspirant with terror. He 
 was conducted through four other caverns, 
 in which the methods of exciting astonish- 
 ment and fear were ingeniously varied. 
 He was made to swim over a raging flood ; 
 was subjected to a rigorous fast ; exposed 
 to all the horrors of a dreary desert ; and 
 finally, if we may trust the authority of 
 Nicaetas, after being severely beaten with 
 rods, was buried for many days up to the 
 neck in snow. In the seventh cavern or 
 Sacellum, the darkness was changed to 
 light, and the candidate was introduced 
 into the presence ©f the Archimagus, or 
 chief priest, seated on a splendid throne, 
 and surrounded by the assistant dispensers 
 of the mysteries. Here the obligation 
 of secrecy was administered, and he was 
 made acquainted with the sacred words. 
 He received also the appropriate investi- 
 ture, which, says Maurice, (Ind. Antiq., V., 
 ch. i.,) consisted of the Kara or conical cap, 
 and candys or loose tunic of Mithras, on 
 which was depicted the celestial constella- 
 tions, the zone, or belt, containing a repre- 
 sentation of the figures of the zodiac, the 
 
 pastoral staff or crozier, alluding to the in- 
 fluence of the sun in the labors of agricul- 
 ture, and the golden serpent, which was 
 placed in his bosom as an emblem of his 
 having been regenerated and made a dis- 
 ciple of Mithras, because the serpent, by 
 casting its skin annually, was considered in 
 these mysteries as a symbol of regeneration. 
 
 He was instructed in the secret doctrines 
 of the rites of Mithras, of which the his- 
 tory of the creation, already recited, formed 
 a part. The mysteries of Mithras passed 
 from Persia into Europe, and were intro- 
 duced into Rome in the time of Pompey. 
 Here they flourished, with various success, 
 until the year 378, when they were pro- 
 scribed by a decree of the Senate, and the 
 sacred cave, in which they had been cele- 
 brated, was destroyed by the Praetorian 
 prefect. 
 
 The Mithraic monuments that are still 
 extant in the museums of Europe evidently 
 show that the immortality of the soul was 
 one of the doctrines taught in the Mithraic 
 initiation. The candidate was at one time 
 made to personate a corpse, whose restora- 
 tion to life dramatically represented the 
 resurrection. Figures of this corpse are 
 found in several of the monuments and 
 talismans. There is circumstantial evi- 
 dence that there was a Mithraic death in 
 the initiation, just as there was a Carbiric 
 death in the mysteries of Samothrace, and 
 a Dionysiac in those of Eleusis. Commo- 
 dus, the Roman emperor, had been initiated 
 into the Mithraic mysteries at Rome, and 
 is said to have taken great pleasure in the 
 ceremonies. Lampridius, in his Lives of 
 the Emperors, records, as one of the mad 
 freaks of Commodus, that during the Mi- 
 thraic ceremonies, where " a certain thing 
 was to be done for the sake of inspiring 
 terror, he polluted the rites by a real mur- 
 der ;" an expression which evidently shows 
 that a scenic representation of a fictitious 
 murder formed a part of the ceremony of 
 initiation. The dog swallowing the blood 
 of the bull was also considered as a symbol 
 of the resurrection. 
 
 It is in the still existing talismans and 
 gems that we find the most interesting me- 
 morials of the old Mithraic initiation. One 
 of these is thus described by Mr. C. W. 
 King, in his valuable work on the Gnostics 
 and their Remains, (London, 1864:) 
 
 " There is a talisman which, from its fre- 
 quent repetition, would seem to be a badge 
 of some particular degree amongst the ini- 
 tiated, perhaps of the first admission. A 
 man blindfolded, with hands tied behind 
 his back, is bound to a pillar, on which 
 stands a gryphon holding a wheel ; the lat- 
 ter a most ancient emblem of the sun. 
 Probably it was in this manner that the 
 
504 
 
 MITRE 
 
 MIZRAIM 
 
 candidate was tested by the appearance of 
 imminent death when the bandage was sud- 
 denly removed from his eyes." 
 
 As Mithras was considered as synony- 
 mous with the sun, a great deal of solar 
 symbolism clustered around his name, 
 his doctrines, and his initiation. Thus, 
 MEI9PA2 was found, by the numerical 
 value of the letters in the Greek alphabet, 
 to be equal to 365, the number of days in a 
 solar year; and the decrease of tbe solar 
 influence in the winter, and its revivifica- 
 tion in the summer, was made a symbol of 
 the resurrection from death to life. 
 
 Mitre. The head covering of the high 
 priest of the Jews was called Jlfij^'D* 
 metznephet, which, coming from the verb 
 NAPHAT, to roll around, signified some- 
 thing rolled around the head, a turban ; and 
 this was really the form of the Jewish mi- 
 tre. It is described by 
 <jfr, ^^^ Leusden, in his Philolo- 
 i ' gus Hebroso-Mixtus, as be- 
 ing made of dark linen 
 twisted in many folds 
 around the head. Many 
 writers contend that the 
 mitre was peculiar to the high priest ; but 
 Josephus and the Mishna assert that it was 
 worn by all the priests, that of the high 
 priest being distinguished from the rest by 
 the golden band, or holy crown, which was 
 attached to its lower rim and fastened 
 around the forehead, and on which was 
 inscribed the words mrrS W*p, KADOSH 
 L'YEHOVAH, Holiness to Jehovah, or, as 
 it is commonly translated, Holiness to the 
 Lord. The mitre is worn by the High 
 Priest of a Royal Arch Chapter, because he 
 represents the Jewish high priest ; but the 
 form is inaccurate. The vestment, as usu- 
 ally made, is a representation rather of the 
 modern Episcopal than of the Jewish mitre. 
 The modern mitre — which is but an imi- 
 tation of the Phrygian cap, and peculiar to 
 bishops of the Christian Church, and which 
 should therefore be worn by the 
 Prelate of a Commandery of 
 Knights Templars, who is sup- 
 posed to hold Episcopal rank — 
 differs in form from the Jewish 
 vestment. It is a conical cap, 
 divided in the middle so as to 
 come to two points or horns, 
 one in front and one behind, 
 which, Durandus says, are 
 symbolic of the two laws of the Old and 
 New Testament. 
 
 Mizraim. Often by Masonic writers 
 improperly spelled Misraim. It is the an- 
 cient Hebrew name of Egypt, and was 
 adopted as the name of a Rite to indicate 
 the hypothesis that it was derived from 
 the old Egyptian initiation. 
 
 Mizraim, Rite of. This Rite origi- 
 nated, says Clavel, at Milan, in the year 
 1805, in consequence of several brethren 
 having been refused admission into the Su- 
 preme Council of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite, which had just been established in 
 that city. One Lechangeur has the credit 
 of organizing the Rite and selecting the 
 statutes by which it was to be governed. 
 It consisted at first of only eighty-seven de- 
 grees, to which three others were subse- 
 quently added. Sixty-six of the ninety de- 
 grees thus formed are said to have been 
 taken from the Ancient and Accepted Rite, 
 while the remaining twenty-four were either 
 borrowed from other systems or were the 
 invention of Lechangeur and his colleagues, 
 Joly and Bedarride. The system of Miz- 
 raim spread over Italy, and in 1814 was in- 
 troduced into France. Dissensions in the 
 Rite soon took place, and an attempt was 
 unsuccessfully made to obtain the recogni- 
 tion of the Grand Orient of France. This 
 having been refused, the Supreme Council 
 was dissolved in 1817 ; but the Lodges of the 
 Rite still continued to confer the degrees, 
 although, according to the constitution of 
 French Masonry, their non-recognition by 
 the Grand Orient had the effect of making 
 them illegal. But eventually the Rite 
 ceased altogether to exist as an active and 
 independent system, and its place in Ma- 
 sonic history seems only to be preserved by 
 two massive volumes on the subject, writ- 
 ten by Mark Bedarride, the most intelli- 
 gent and indefatigable of its founders, who 
 published at Paris, in 1835, a history of the 
 Rite, under the title of "De l'Ordre de 
 Misraim." 
 
 The Rite of Mizraim consisted of 90 de- 
 grees, divided into 4 series and 17 classes. 
 Some of these degrees are entirely original, 
 but many of them are borrowed from the 
 Scottish Rite. 
 
 For the gratification of the curious in- 
 spector, the following list of these degrees 
 is subjoined. The titles are translated as 
 literally as possible from the French. 
 
 I. Sekies — Symbolic. 
 
 1st Class : 1, Apprentice ; 2, Fellow Craft ; 
 3, Master. 2d Class: 4, Secret Master; 5, 
 Perfect Master; 6, Master through Curios- 
 ity ; 7, Provost and Judge or Irish Master ; 
 8, English Master. Sd Class: 9, Elect of 
 Nine ; 10, Elect of the Unknown ; 11, Elect 
 of Fifteen ; 12, Perfect Elect; 13, Illustrious 
 Elect. 4th. Class: 14, Scottish Trinitarian; 
 15, Scottish Fellow Craft ; 16, Scottish Mas- 
 ter; 17, Scottish panisiere; 18, Master 
 Ecossais; 19, Ecossais of the three J. J. J. ; 
 20, Ecossais of the Sacred Vault of James 
 VI. ; 21, Ecossais of St. Andrew. 5th Class : 
 22, Little Architect; 23, Grand Architect; 
 
MIZRAIM 
 
 MOLART 
 
 505 
 
 24, Architecture; 25, Apprentice Perfect 
 Architect ; 26, Fellow Craft Perfect Archi- 
 tect ; 27, Master Perfect Architect ; 28, Per- 
 fect Architect; 29, Sublime Ecossais; 30, 
 Sublime Ecossais of Heroden. 6th Class : 
 31, Grand Royal Arch ; 32, Grand Axe ; 33, 
 Sublime Knight of Election, chief of the 
 first symbolic series. 
 
 II. Series — Philosophic. 
 
 1th Class: 34, Knight of the Sublime 
 Election ; 35, Prussian Knight ; 36, Knight 
 of the Temple; 37, Knight of the Eagle; 
 38, Knight of the Black Eagle; 39, Knight 
 of the Red Eagle ; 40, White Knight of the 
 East ; 41, Knight of the East. 8th Class : 
 42, Commander of the East; 43, Grand 
 Commander of the East ; 44, Architecture 
 of the Sovereign Commanders of the Tem- 
 ple ; 45, Prince of Jerusalem. 9th Class : 
 46, Sovereign Prince Rose Croix of Kilwin- 
 ning and Heroden ; 47, Knight of the West ; 
 48, Sublime Philosopher; 49, Chaoa, the 
 first, discreet; 50, Chaos the second, wise; 
 51, Knight of the Sun. 10th Class : 52, Su- 
 
 f>reme Commander of the Stars ; 53, Sub- 
 ime Philosopher ; 54, First degree of the 
 Key of Masonry, Minor ; 55, Second degree, 
 Washer; 56, Third degree, Bellows-blower; 
 57, Fourth degree, Caster; 58, True Mason 
 Adept ; 59, Sovereign Elect ; 60, Sovereign 
 of Sovereigns; 61, Grand Master of Sym- 
 bolic Lodges ; 62, Most High and Most 
 Powerful Grand Priest Sacrificec; 63, 
 Knight of Palestine; 64, Grand Knight of 
 the White and Black Eagle; 65, Grand 
 Elect Knight Kadosh ; 66, Grand Inquiring 
 Commander, Chief of the Second Series. 
 
 III. Series — Mystical. 
 
 11th Class: 67, Benevolent Knight; 68, 
 Knight of the Rainbow ; 69, Knight Cha- 
 nuka, called Hynaroth ; 70, Most Wise Is- 
 raelitish Prince. 12th Class : 71, Sovereign 
 Princes Talmudim ; 72, Sovereign Prince 
 Zadkim ; 73, Grand Haram. 13th Class : 
 74, Sovereign Princes Haram ; 75, Sovereign 
 Princes Hasidim ; 77, Grand Inspector In- 
 tendant, Regulator General of the Order, 
 Chief of the Third Series. 
 
 IV. Series — Kabbalistic. 
 
 15/A and 16th Classes : 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 
 83, 84, 85, 86, degrees whose names are con- 
 cealed from all but the possessors. 17th 
 Class : 87, Sovereign Grand Princes, con- 
 stituted Grand Masters, and legitimate 
 representatives of the order for the First 
 Series ; 88, Ditto for the Second Series ; 89, 
 Ditto for the Third Series; 90, Absolute 
 Sovereign Grand Master, Supreme Power 
 of the Order, and Chief of the Fourth 
 Series. 
 
 30 
 
 The chiefs of this Rite demanded the 
 privilege — which, of course, was never con- 
 ceded to them — of directing and controlling 
 all the other Rites of Freemasonry, as 
 their common source. Its friends claimed 
 for it an eminently philosophical character. 
 The organization of the Rite is, however, 
 too complicated and diffuse to have ever 
 been practically convenient. Many of its 
 degrees were founded upon, or borrowed 
 from, the Egyptian rites, and its ritual is 
 a very close imitation of the ancient system 
 of initiation. 
 
 The legend of the third degree in this 
 Rite is abolished. HAB is said to have re- 
 turned to his family, after the completion 
 of the Temple, and to have passed the re- 
 mainder of his days in peace and opulence. 
 The legend, substituted by the Rite of Miz- 
 raim for that admitted by all the other 
 rites, is carried back to the days of La- 
 mech, whose son Jubal, under the name of 
 Hario-Jubal-Abi, is reported to have been 
 slain by three traitors Hagava, Hakina, 
 and Haremda. 
 
 Lenning calls the Rite of Mizraim " one 
 of the latest of the monstrous visionary 
 schemes introduced into Freemasonry ; " and 
 Ragon characterizes it as a " fantastical con- 
 nection of various rites and degrees." 
 
 Moabon. This word is found in some 
 of the high degrees according to the French 
 ritual, where it is explained as expressing 
 " the satisfaction we feel in seeing the crime 
 and the criminal punished." There is no 
 such word in Hebrew, and the explanation 
 is a fanciful one. The word is undoubtedly 
 a Gallic corruption, first in sound and then 
 in letters, of the Master's Word. 
 
 Mock Masons. A name given, says 
 Noorthouck, to the unfaithful brethren and 
 profanes who, in 1747, got up a procession 
 in ridicule of that made at the Grand Feast. 
 See Scald Miserable. 
 
 Modern Bite. (Rite Moderne.) See 
 French Rite. 
 
 Moderns. The Masons who seceded 
 in 1738 from the legal Grand Lodge of 
 England, which had been organized in 
 1717, called the Masons who remained 
 faithful in their allegiance to that body 
 Moderns, while for themselves they assumed 
 the title of Ancients. See Ancients. 
 
 Molart, William. In Preston's R- 
 luslrations (p. 151) is the following state- 
 ment: "The Latin Register of William 
 Molart, prior of Canterbury, in manuscript, 
 p. 88, entitled Liberatio generalis Domini 
 Oulielmi Prioris Ecclesioz Christi Cantu- 
 ariensis, erga Festum Natalis Domini 1429, 
 informs us that in the year 1429, during 
 the minority of this prince, [Henry VI.,] 
 a respectable Lodge was held at Canterbury, 
 under the patronage of Henry Chicheley, 
 
506 
 
 MOLAY 
 
 MONTANA 
 
 the archbishop; at which were present 
 Thomas Stapylton, the Master ; John Mor- 
 ris, with fifteen fellow-crafts, and three en- 
 tered apprentices ; all of whom are partic- 
 ularly named." 
 
 The fact of the existence of such a Reg- 
 ister rests entirely upon the testimony of 
 Preston. If authentic, it supplies an im- 
 portant point of Masonic history in refer- 
 ence to the organization of the Craft at 
 that period. 
 
 Molay, James de. The twenty-sec- 
 ond and last Grand Master of the Templars 
 at the destruction of the Order in the four- 
 teenth century. He was born about the 
 year 1240, at Besan<jon, in Burgundy, being 
 descended from a noble family. He was 
 received into the Order of Knights Tem- 
 plars in 1265, by Imbert de Peraudo, Pre- 
 ceptor of France, in the Chapel of the Tem- 
 ple at Beaune. He immediately proceeded 
 to Palestine, and greatly distinguished him- 
 self in the wars against the infidels, under 
 the Grand Mastership of William de Beau- 
 jeu. In 1298, while absent from the Holy 
 Land, he was unanimously elected Grand 
 Master upon the death of Theobald Gaudi- 
 nius. In 1305, he was summoned to France 
 by Pope Clement V., upon the pretence 
 of a desire, on the part of the Pontiff, to 
 effect a coalition between the Templars and 
 the Hospitallers. He was received by 
 Philip the Fair, the treacherous King of 
 France, with the most distinguished honors, 
 and even selected by him as the god-father 
 of one of his children. In April, 1307, he 
 repaired, accompanied by three of his 
 knights, to Poitiers, where the Pope was 
 then residing, and as he supposed satisfac- 
 torily exculpated the Order from the charges 
 which had been preferred against it. But 
 both pope and king were guilty of the most 
 infamous deceit. 
 
 On the 12th of September, 1307, the 
 order was issued for the arrest of the Tem- 
 plars, and De Molay endured an imprison- 
 ment for five years and a half, during which 
 period he was subjected to the utmost in- 
 dignities and sufferings for the purpose of 
 extorting from him a confession of the 
 guilt of his Order. But he was firm and 
 loyal, and on the 11th of March, 1314, he 
 was publicly burnt in front of the Cathe- 
 dral of N5tre Dame, in Paris. When 
 about to die, he solemnly affirmed the in- 
 nocence of the Order, and, it is said, sum- 
 moned Pope Clement to appear before the 
 judgment-seat of God in forty days and 
 the King of France within a year, and 
 both, it is well known, died within the 
 periods specified. 
 
 Monad. The monad in the Pythago- 
 rean system of numbers was unity or the 
 number one. See Numbers and One. 
 
 Monitor. Those manuals published 
 for the convenience of Lodges, and con- 
 taining the charges, general regulations, 
 emblems, and account of the public cere- 
 monies of the Order, are called Monitors. 
 The amount of ritualistic information con- 
 tained in these works has gradually in- 
 creased: thus the monitorial instructions 
 in Preston's Illustrations, the earliest Moni- 
 tor in the English language, are far more 
 scanty than those contained in Monitors of 
 the present day. As a general rule, it may 
 be said that American works of this class 
 give more instruction than English ones, 
 but that the French and German manuals 
 are more communicative than either. 
 
 Of the English and American manuals 
 published for monitorial instruction, the 
 first was by Preston, in 1772. This has 
 been succeeded by the following authors: 
 Webb, 1797; Dalcho, 1807; Cole, 1817; 
 Hardie, 1818; Cross, 1819; Tannehill, 
 1824; Parmele, 1825; Charles W. Moore, 
 184fr; Cornelius Moore, 1846 ; Dove, 1847 ; 
 Davis, 1849; Stewart, 1851; Mack ey, 1852; 
 Macoy, 1853 ; Sickels, 1866. 
 
 Monitorial Instruction. The in- 
 struction contained in Monitors is called 
 monitorial, to distinguish it from esoteric 
 instruction, which is not permitted to be 
 written, and can be obtained only in the 
 precincts of the Lodge. 
 
 Monitorial Sign. A sign given in 
 the English system, but not recognized in 
 this country. Oliver says of it that it "re- 
 minds us of the weakness of human nature, 
 unable of itself to resist the power of Dark- 
 ness, unless aided by that Light which is 
 from above." 
 
 Monitor, Secret. See Secret Monitor. 
 
 Monogram. An abbreviation of a 
 name by means of a cipher composed of 
 _^ two or more letters intertwined 
 J with each other. The Constan- 
 ^J^f tinian monogram of Christ is 
 ^1^ often used by Knights Templars. 
 ^T^ The Triple Tau, or Royal Arch 
 badge, is also a monogram; al- 
 though there is a difference of opinion as 
 to its real meaning, some suppos- 
 
 Ring that it is a monogram of 
 Templum Hierosolymae or the 
 Temple of Jerusalem, others of 
 Hiram of Tyre, and others, again, 
 bestowing on it different significations. 
 
 Montana. April 27, 1863, the Grand 
 Lodge of Nebraska granted a Warrant for 
 a Lodge at Bannack, in Montana; but in 
 consequence of the removal of the petition- 
 ers, the Lodge was never organized. Three 
 other Lodges were subsequently established 
 by Warrants from the Grand Lodges of 
 Kansas and Colorado. On January 24, 
 1866, three Lodges met in convention at 
 
MONTFAUgON 
 
 MOON 
 
 507 
 
 Virginia City, and organized the Grand 
 Lodge of Montana, John J. Hull being 
 elected Grand Master. 
 
 Royal Arch Masonry and Templarism 
 were introduced, the one by the General 
 Grand Chapter, and the other by the Grand 
 Encampment of the United States. 
 
 Montfaucon, Prior of. One of 
 the two traitors on whose false accusations 
 was based the persecution of the Templars. 
 See Squin de Flexian. 
 
 Months, Hebrew. Masons of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite use in 
 their documents the Hebrew months of the 
 civil year. Hebrew months commence with 
 the full moon ; and as the civil year began 
 about the time of the autumnal equinox, 
 the first Hebrew month must have begun 
 with the new moon in September, which is 
 also used by Scottish Masons as the begin- 
 ning of their year. Annexed is a table of 
 the Hebrew months, and their correspond- 
 ence with our own calendar. 
 
 JDU 
 fVD 
 
 nan 
 
 Wit 
 
 Tisri, Sept. and Oct. 
 
 Khesvan, Oct. and Nov. 
 
 Kisleu, 
 
 Tebeth, 
 
 Schebet, 
 
 Adar, 
 
 Nisan, 
 
 Ijar, 
 Sivan, 
 
 Tamuz, 
 
 Ab, 
 
 Elul, 
 
 Nov. and Dec. 
 Dec. and Jan. 
 Jan. and Feb. 
 Feb. and March. 
 March and April. 
 
 April and May. 
 May and June. 
 
 June and July. 
 
 July and Aug. 
 
 August and Sept. 
 
 As the Jews computed time by the ap- 
 pearance of the moon, it is evident that 
 there soon would be a confusion as to the 
 keeping of these feasts, if some method 
 had not been taken to correct it ; since the 
 lunar year is only 354 days, 8 hours, and 48 
 minutes, and the solar year is 365 days, 6 
 hours, 15 minutes, and 20 seconds. Ac- 
 cordingly, they intercalated a month after 
 their 12th month, Adar, whenever they 
 found that the 15th day of the following 
 month, Abib, would fall before the vernal 
 equinox. This intercalated month was 
 named "1*1X1, Ve-adar, or "the second 
 Adar," and was inserted every second or 
 third year, as they saw occasion; so that 
 the difference between the lunar and solar 
 year could never, in this way, be more 
 than a month. 
 
 Months, Masonic. In the French 
 Rite the old calendar is retained, and the 
 year begins with the month of March, the 
 months being designated numerically and 
 not by their usual names. Thus we find in 
 
 French Masonic documents such dates as 
 this: "Le lOme jour du 3me mois Ma- 
 connique," that is, the 10th day of the 3d 
 Masonic month, or the 10th of May. 
 
 Montpellier, Hermetic Rite of. 
 The Hermetic Rite of Pernetty, which had 
 been established at Avignon in 1770, was 
 in 1778 transported to Montpellier, in 
 France, by a Past Master, and some of the 
 members of the Lodge of Persecuted Virtue 
 in the former place, who laid the founda- 
 tions of the Academy of True Masons, 
 (which see.) Hence the degrees given in 
 that Academy constituted what is known 
 as the Hermetic Rite of Montpellier. 
 
 Monument. It is impossible to say 
 exactly at what period the idea of a monu- 
 ment in the third degree was first intro- 
 duced into the symbolism of Freemasonry. 
 The early expositions of the eighteenth 
 century, although they refer to a funeral, 
 make no allusion to a monument. The 
 monument adopted in the American sys- 
 tem, and for which we are indebted, it is 
 said, to the inventive genius of Cross, con- 
 sists of a weeping virgin, holding in one 
 hand a sprig of acacia and in the other an 
 urn; before her is a broken column, on 
 which rests a copy of the Book of Consti- 
 tutions, while Time behind her is attempt- 
 ing to disentangle the ringlets of her hair. 
 The explanation of these symbols will be 
 found in their proper places in this work. 
 Oliver, in his Landmarks, (ii. 146,) cites 
 this monument without any reference to 
 its American origin. Early in the last 
 century the Master's monument was intro- 
 duced into the French system, but its form 
 was entirely different from the one adopted 
 in this cou ntry. It is described as an obelisk, 
 on which is inscribed a golden triangle, in 
 the centre of which the Tetragrammaton is 
 engraved. On the top of the obelisk is 
 sometimes seen an urn pierced by a sword. 
 In the Scottish Rite an entire degree has 
 been consecrated to the subject of the Hi- 
 ramic monument. Altogether, the monu- 
 ment is simply the symbolic expression of 
 the idea that veneration should always be 
 paid to the memory of departed worth. 
 
 Moon. The adoption of the moon in 
 the Masonic system as a symbol is analo- 
 gous to, but could hardly be derived from, 
 the employment of the same symbol in the 
 ancient religions. In Egypt, Osiris was 
 the sun, and Isis the moon ; in Syria, 
 Adonis was the sun, and Ashtoroth the 
 moon; the Greeks adored her as Diana, 
 and Hecate; in the mysteries of Ceres, 
 while the hierophant or chief priest repre- 
 sented the Creator, and the torch-bearer 
 the sun, the ho epi bomos, or officer nearest 
 the altar, represented the moon. In short, 
 moon-worship was as widely disseminated 
 
508 
 
 MOORE 
 
 MORIAH 
 
 as sun-worship. Masons retain her image 
 in their Rites, because the Lodge is a 
 representation of the universe, where, as 
 the sun rules over the day, the moon pre- 
 sides over the night; as the one regulates 
 the year, so does the other the months, and 
 as the former is the king of the starry hosts 
 of heaven, so is the latter their queen ; but 
 both deriving their heat, and light, and 
 power from him, who, as the third and the 
 greatest light, the master of heaven and 
 earth, controls them both. 
 
 Moore, James. He was, in 1808, 
 the Senior Grand Warden of the Grand 
 Lodge of Kentucky, and in conjunction 
 with Carey L. Clarke compiled, by order 
 of that body, the Masonic Constitutions or 
 I/lustrations of Masonry, Lexington, 1808, 
 pp. 191, 12mo. This was the first Masonic 
 work published in the Western States. 
 With the exception of the Constitution of 
 the Grand Lodge, it is little more than a 
 compilation taken from Anderson, Preston, 
 and Webb. It was adopted by the Grand 
 Lodge of Kentucky as its official Book of 
 Constitutions. 
 
 Mopses. In 1736 Pope Clement XII. 
 issued a bull, condemning and forbidding 
 the practice of the rites of Freemasonry. 
 Several brethren in the Catholic States of 
 Germany, unwilling to renounce the Or- 
 der, and yet fearful of offending the eccle- 
 siastical authority, formed at Vienna, Sep- 
 tember 22, 1738, under the name of Mopses, 
 what was pretended to be a new associa- 
 tion, but which was in truth nothing else 
 than an imitation of Freemasonry under a 
 less offensive appellation. It was patron- 
 ized by the most illustrious persons of Ger- 
 many, and many Princes of the Empire 
 were its Grand Masters ; the Duke of Bava- 
 ria especially took it under his protection. 
 The title is derived from the German word 
 mops, signifying a young mastiff, and was 
 indicative of the mutual fidelity and at- 
 tachment of the brethren, these virtues 
 being characteristic of that noble animal. 
 The alarm made for entrance was to imi- 
 tate the barking of a dog. 
 
 In 1776, the Mopses became an andro- 
 gynous Order, and admitted females to all 
 the offices, except that of Grand Master, 
 which was held for life. There was, how- 
 ever, a Grand Mistress, and the male and 
 female heads of the Order alternately as- 
 sumed, for six months each, the supreme 
 authority. With the revival of the spirit 
 of Masonry, which had been in some de- 
 gree paralyzed by the attacks of the church, 
 the society of Mopses ceased to exist. 
 
 Morality. In the American system it 
 is one of the three precious jewels of a 
 Master Mason. 
 
 Morality of Freemasonry. No 
 
 one who reads our ancient Charges can fail 
 to see that Freemasonry is a strictly moral 
 Institution, and that the principles which 
 it inculcates inevitably tend to make the 
 brother who obeys their dictates a more 
 virtuous man. Hence the English lectures 
 very properly define Freemasonry to be "a 
 science of morality." 
 
 Moral Law. "A Mason," say the 
 old Charges of 1722, " is obliged by his 
 tenure to obey the moral law." Now, this 
 moral law is not to be considered as con- 
 fined to the decalogue of Moses, within 
 which narrow limits the ecclesiastical 
 writers technically restrain it, but rather as 
 alluding to what is called the lex naturae, 
 or the law of nature. This law of nature 
 has been defined, by an able but not recent 
 writer on this subject, to be "the will of 
 God, relating to human actions, grounded 
 on the moral differences of things ; and be- 
 cause discoverable by natural light, obli- 
 gatory upon all mankind." (Grove : Sys- 
 tem of Moral Philosophy, vol. ii., p. 122. 
 London, 1749.) This is the " moral law," 
 to which the old Charge already cited refers, 
 and which it declares to be the law of 
 Masonry. And this was wisely done, for 
 it is evident that no law less universal 
 could have been appropriately selected for 
 the government of an Institution whose 
 prominent characteristic is its universality. 
 
 Moravian Brethren. The reli- 
 gious sect of Moravian Brethren, which was 
 founded in Upper Lusatia, about 1722, by 
 Count Zinzendorf, is said at one time to 
 have formed a society of religious Free- 
 masons. For an account of which, see 
 Mustard Seed, Order of. 
 
 Morgan, William. Born in Cul- 
 pepper County, in Virginia, in 1775. He 
 published in 1826 a pretended Exposition 
 of Masonry, which attracted at the time 
 more attention than it deserved. Morgan 
 soon after disappeared, and the Masons 
 were charged by some enemies of the Order 
 with having removed him by foul means. 
 What was the real fate of Morgan has 
 never been ascertained. There are various 
 myths of his disappearance, and subsequent 
 residence in other countries. They may or 
 may not be true, but it is certain that there 
 is no evidence of his death that would be 
 admitted in a Court of Probate. He was 
 a man of questionable character and disso- 
 lute habits, and his enmity to Masonry is 
 said to have originated from the refusal of 
 the Masons of Le Roy to admit him to 
 membership in their Lodge and Chapter. 
 
 Moriah, Mount. An eminence sit- 
 uated in the south-eastern part of Jerusa- 
 lem. In the time of David it must have 
 been cultivated, for it is called " the thresh- 
 ing-floor of Oman the Jebusite," from whom 
 
MORIN 
 
 MORTALITY 
 
 509 
 
 that monarch purchased it for the purpose 
 of placing there an altar. Solomon subse- 
 quently erected there his magnificent Tem- 
 ple. Mount Moriah was always profoundly 
 venerated by the Jews, among whom there 
 is an early tradition that on it Abraham 
 was directed to offer up his son. The truth 
 of this tradition has, it is true, been recent- 
 ly denied by some Biblical writers, but it 
 has been as strenuously maintained by 
 others. The Masons, however, have always 
 accepted it, and to them, a3 the site of the 
 Temple, it is especially sacred, and, com- 
 bining with this the Abrahamic legend, 
 they have given to Mount Moriah the ap- 
 pellation of the ground-floor of the Lodge, 
 and assign it as the place where what are 
 called '°the three grand offerings were 
 made." 
 
 Mori u, Stephen. The founder of 
 the Scottish Kite in America. On the 27th 
 of August, 1761, the " Deputies General of 
 the Royal Art, Grand Wardens, and officers 
 of the Grand and Sovereign Lodge of St. 
 John of Jerusalem established at Paris," 
 (so reads the document itself) granted a 
 Patent to Stephen Morin, by which he was 
 empowered " to multiply the sublime de- 
 grees of High Perfection, and to create In- 
 spectors in all places where the sublime 
 degrees are not established." This Patent 
 was granted, Thory, Ragon, Clavel, and 
 Lenning say, by the Grand Council of Em- 
 perors of the East and West. Others say by 
 the Grand Lodge. Dalcho says by the 
 Grand Consistory of Princes of the Royal 
 Secret at Paris. Brother Albert Pike, who 
 has very elaborately investigated the ques- 
 tion says that the authority of Morin was 
 " a joint authority " of the two then con- 
 tending Grand Lodges of France and the 
 Grand Council, which is, I suppose, what 
 Dalcho and the Supreme Council of Charles- 
 ton call the Grand Consistory. From the 
 Grand Lodge he received the power to 
 establish a symbolic Lodge, and from the 
 Grand Council or Consistory the power to 
 confer the higher degrees. 
 
 Not long after receiving these powers, 
 Morin sailed for America, and established 
 Bodies of the Scottish Rite in St. Do- 
 mingo and Jamaica. He also appointed 
 M. M. Hayes a Deputy Inspector General 
 for North America. Hayes, subsequently, 
 appointed Isaac da Costa a Deputy for 
 South Carolina, and through him the Sub- 
 lime degrees were disseminated among the 
 Masons of the United States. (See Scottish 
 Rite.) After appointing several Deputies 
 and establishing some Bodies in the West 
 India Islands, Morin is lost sight of. We 
 know not anything of his subsequent his- 
 tory, or of the time or place of his death. 
 Ragon, Thory, and Clavel say that Morin 
 
 was a Jew ; but as these writers have juda- 
 ized all the founders of the Scottish Rite in 
 America, we have no right to place any 
 confidence in their statements. The name 
 of Morin has been borne by many French 
 Christians of literary reputation, from 
 Peter Morin, a learned ecclesiastical writer 
 of the sixteenth century, to Stephen Morin, 
 an antiquary and Protestant clergyman, 
 who died in 1700, and his son Henry, who 
 became a Catholic, and died in 1728. 
 
 Moritz, Carl Philipp. A Privy 
 Councillor, Professor, and Member of the 
 Academy of Sciences in Berlin, was born 
 at Hameln on the 15th of September, 1757, 
 and died 26th of June, 1793. Gadicke says 
 that he was one of the most celebrated au- 
 thors of his age, and distinguished by his 
 works on the German language. He was 
 the author of several Masonic works, among 
 which are his Contributions to the Philosophy 
 of Life and the Diary of a Freemason, Berlin, 
 1793, and a Book of Masonic Songs. 
 
 Morphey. The name of one of the 
 twelve Inspectors in the eleventh degree of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 This name, like the others in the same cata- 
 logue, bids defiance to any Hebraic deriva- 
 tion. They are all either French corrup- 
 tions, worse even than Jakinai for Shekinah, 
 or they have some allusion to names or 
 events connected with the political intrigues 
 of the exiled house of Stuart, which had, 
 it is known, a connection with some of the 
 higher degrees sprung up at Arras, and 
 other places where Masonry was patron- 
 ized by the Pretender. This word Mor- 
 Shey may, for instance, be a corruption of 
 [urray. James Murray, the second son 
 of Lord Stormont, escaped to the court of 
 the Stuarts in 1715. He was a devoted ad- 
 herent of the exiled family, and became the 
 governor of the young prince and the chief 
 minister of his father, who conferred upon 
 him the empty title of Earl of Dunbar. 
 He died at Avignon in 1770. But almost 
 every etymology of this kind must be en- 
 tirely conjectural. 
 
 Mortality, Symbol of. The ancient 
 Egyptians introduced a skeleton at their 
 feasts, to impress the idea of the evanes- 
 cence of all earthly enjoyments; but the 
 skeletons or deaths' heads did not make 
 their appearance in Grecian art, as symbols 
 of mortality, until later times, and on 
 monuments of no artistic importance. In 
 the earliest periods of ancient art, the 
 Greeks and Romans employed more pleas- 
 ing representations, such as the flower 
 plucked from its stem, or the inverted 
 torch. The moderns have, however, had 
 recourse to more offensive symbolization. 
 In their hatchments or funeral achieve- 
 ments the heralds employ a death's head and 
 
510 
 
 MORTAR 
 
 MOSAIC 
 
 crossed bones, to denote that the deceased 
 person is the last of his family. The Ma- 
 sons have adopted the same symbol, and in 
 all the degrees where it is necessary to im- 
 press the idea of mortality, a skull, or a 
 skull and crossed bones, are used for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Mortar, Untempered. See Un- 
 tempered Mortar. 
 
 Mosaic Pavement. Mosaic work 
 consists properly of many little stones of 
 different colors united together in patterns 
 to imitate a painting. It was much prac- 
 tised among the Romans, who called it 
 musivum opus, whence the Italians get their 
 musaico, the French their mosaique, and 
 we our mosaic. The idea that the work is 
 derived from the fact that Moses used a 
 pavement of colored stones in the taber- 
 nacle has been long since exploded by ety- 
 mologists. The Masonic tradition is that 
 the floor of the Temple of Solomon was 
 decorated with a Mosaic pavement of 
 black and white stones. There is no his- 
 torical evidence to substantiate this state- 
 ment. Samuel Lee, however, in his dia- 
 gram of the Temple, represents not only 
 the floors of the building, but of all the 
 outer courts, as covered with such a pave- 
 ment. The Masonic idea was perhaps first 
 suggested by this passage in the Gospel of 
 St. John, (xix. 13,) " when Pilate, there- 
 fore, heard that saying, he brought Jesus 
 forth, and sat him down in the judgment- 
 seat in a place that is called the Pavement, 
 but in the Hebrew, Gabbatha." The word 
 here translated Pavement is in the original 
 lAthostroton, the very word used by Pliny 
 to denote a Mosaic pavement. The Greek 
 word, as well as its Latin equivalent, is 
 used to denote a pavement formed of orna- 
 mental stones of various colors, precisely 
 what is meant by a Mosaic pavement. 
 
 There was, therefore, a part of the Tem- 
 ple which was decorated with a Mosaic 
 pavement. The Talmud informs us that 
 there was such a pavement in the conclave 
 where the Grand Sanhedri m held its sessions. 
 
 By a little torsion of historical accuracy, 
 the Masons have asserted that the ground- 
 floor of the Temple was a Mosaic pavement, 
 and hence, as the Lodge is a representation 
 of the Temple, that the floor of the Lodge 
 should also be of the same pattern. 
 
 The Mosaic pavement is an old symbol 
 of the Order. It is met with in the earliest 
 rituals of the last century. It is classed 
 among the ornaments of the Lodge in com- 
 bination with the indented tessel and the 
 blazing star. Its party-colored stones of 
 black and white have been readily and ap- 
 propriately interpreted as symbols of the 
 evil and good of human life. 
 
 Mosaic Symbolism. In the reli- 
 
 gion of Moses, more than in any other 
 which preceded or followed it, is symbolism 
 the predominating idea. From the taber- 
 nacle, which may be considered as the cen- 
 tral point of the whole system, down to the 
 vestments which clothed the servants at 
 the altar, there will be found an underlying 
 principle of symbolism. Long before the 
 days of Pythagoras the mystical nature of 
 numbers had been inculcated by the Jew- 
 ish lawgiver, and the very name of God 
 was constructed in a symbolical form, to 
 indicate his eternal nature. Much of the 
 Jewish ritual of worship, delineated in the 
 Pentateuch with so much precision as to 
 its minutest details, would almost seem 
 puerile were it not for the symbolic idea 
 that is conveyed. So the fringes of the 
 garments are patiently described, not as 
 decorations, but that by them the people, 
 in looking upon the fringe, might " remem- 
 ber all the commandments of the Lord and 
 do them." Well, therefore, has a modern 
 writer remarked, that in the symbolism of 
 the Mosaic worship it is only ignorance 
 that can find the details trifling or the pre- 
 scriptions minute; for if we recognize the 
 worth and beauty of symbolism, we shall 
 in vain seek in the Mosaic symbols for one 
 superfluous enactment or one superstitious 
 idea. To the Mason the Mosaic symbolism 
 is very significant, because from it Freema- 
 sonry has derived and transmitted for its 
 own uses many of the most precious treas- 
 ures of its own symbolical art. Indeed, 
 except in some of the higher, and therefore 
 more modern degrees, the symbolism of 
 Freemasonry is almost entirely deduced 
 from the symbolism of Mosaism. Thus the 
 symbol of the Temple, which persistently 
 pervades the whole of the ancient Masonic 
 system, comes to us directly from the sym- 
 bolism of the Jewish tabernacle. If Solo- 
 mon is revered by the Masons as their tra- 
 ditional Grand Master, it is because the 
 Temple constructed by him was the symbol 
 of the divine life to be cultivated in every 
 heart. And this symbol was borrowed from 
 the Mosaic tabernacle ; and the Jewish 
 thought, that every Hebrew was to be a 
 tabernacle of the Lord, has been trans- 
 mitted to the Masonic system, which teaches 
 that every Mason is to be a temple of the 
 Grand Architect. The Papal Church, from 
 which we get all ecclesiastical symbolism, 
 borrowed its symbology from the ancient 
 Romans. Hence most of the high degrees 
 of Masonry which partake of a Christian 
 character are marked by Roman symbol- 
 ism transmuted into Christian. But Craft 
 Masonry, more ancient and more universal, 
 finds its symbolic teachings almost exclu- 
 sively in the Mosaic symbolism instituted 
 in the wilderness. 
 
MOSES 
 
 MOTHER 
 
 511 
 
 If we inquire whence the Jewish law- 
 giver derived the symbolic system which 
 he introduced into his religion, the history 
 of his life will readily answer the question. 
 Philo-Judaeus says that "Moses was in- 
 structed by the Egyptian priests in the 
 philosophy of symbols and hieroglyphics 
 as well as in the mysteries of the sacred 
 animals." The sacred historian tells us 
 that he was " learned in all the wisdom of 
 the Egyptians;" and Manetho and other 
 traditionary writers tell us that he was 
 educated at Heliopolis as a priest, under 
 his Egyptian name of Osarsiph, and that 
 there he was taught the whole range of 
 literature and science, which it was cus- 
 tomary to impart to the priesthood of 
 Egypt. When, then, at the head of his 
 people, he passed away from the servitude 
 of Egyptian taskmasters, and began in the 
 wilderness to establish his new religion, it 
 is not strange that he should have given a 
 holy use to the symbols whose meaning he 
 had learned in his ecclesiastical education 
 on the banks of the Nile. 
 
 Thus is it that we find in the Mosaic 
 symbolism so many identities with the 
 Egyptian ritual. Thus the Ark of the 
 Covenant, the Breast-plate of the High 
 Priest, the Mitre, and many other of the 
 Jewish symbols, will find their analogies 
 in the ritualistic ceremonies of the Egyp- 
 tians. Reghellini, who has written an 
 elaborate work on " Masonry considered as 
 the result of the Egyptian, Jewish, and 
 Christian Religions," says on the subject : 
 "Moses, in his mysteries, and after him 
 Solomon, adopted a great part of the Egyp- 
 tian symbols, which, after them, we Ma- 
 sons have preserved in our own." 
 
 Moses, ni&D, which means drawn 
 out; but the true derivation is from two 
 Egyptian words, /xo, mo, and ovke, oushes, sig- 
 nifying saved from the water. The lawgiver 
 of the Jews, and referred to in some of the 
 higher degrees, especially in the twenty- 
 fifth degree, or Knight of the Brazen Ser- 
 pent in the Scottish Rite, where he is repre- 
 sented as the presiding officer. He plays 
 also an important part in the Royal Arch 
 of the York and American Rites, all of 
 whose ritual is framed on the Mosaic sym- 
 bolism. 
 
 Mossdorf, Friedrich. An eminent 
 German Mason, who was born March 2, 
 1757, at Eckartsberge, and died about 
 1830. He resided in Dresden, and took 
 an active part in the affairs of Masonry. 
 He was a warm supporter of Fessler's Ma- 
 sonic reforms, and made several contribu- 
 tions to the Freyberg Freimaurerischen 
 Taschenbuche in defence of Fessler's sys- 
 tem. He became intimately connected with 
 the learned Krause, the author of The 
 
 Three Most Ancient Records of the Masonic 
 Fraternity, and wrote and published in 
 1809 a critical review of the work, in con- 
 sequence of which the Grand Lodge com- 
 manded him to absent himself for an in- 
 definite period from the Lodge. Mossdorf 
 then withdrew from any further connec- 
 tion with the Fraternity. His most valua- 
 ble contributions to Masonic literature are 
 his additions and emendations to Lenning's 
 Encyclopadie der Freimaurerei. He is the 
 author also of several other works of great 
 value. 
 
 Most Excellent. The title given to 
 a Royal Arch Chapter, and to its presiding 
 officer, the High Priest; also to the presid- 
 ing officer of a Lodge of Most Excellent 
 Masters. 
 
 Most Excellent Master. The 
 sixth degree in the York Rite. Its history 
 refers to the dedication of the Temple by 
 King Solomon, who is represented by its 
 presiding officer under the title of Most 
 Excellent. Its officers are the same as those 
 in a symbolic Lodge. I have, however, 
 seen some rituals in which the Junior 
 Warden is omitted. This degree is pecu- 
 liarly American, it being practised in no 
 other country. It was the invention of 
 Webb, who organized the capitular system 
 of Masonry as it exists in this country, and 
 established the system of lectures which 
 is the foundation of all subsequent sys- 
 tems taught in America. 
 
 Most Puissant. The title of the 
 presiding officer of a Grand Council of 
 Royal and Select Masters. 
 
 Most Worshipful. The title given 
 to a Grand Lodge and to its presiding 
 officer the Grand Master. 
 
 Mot de Seniestre. Half yearly 
 word. Every six months the Grand Orient 
 of France sends to each of the Lodges of 
 its obedience a password, to be used by its 
 members as an additional means of gain- 
 ing admission into a Lodge. Each Mason 
 obtains this word only from the Venerable 
 of his own Lodge. It was instituted Oc- 
 tober 28th, 1773, when the Duke of Char- 
 tres was elected Grand Master. 
 
 Mother Council. The Supreme 
 Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite for the Southern Jurisdiction of 
 the United States of America, which was 
 organized in 1801, at Charleston, is called 
 the "Mother Council of the World," be- 
 cause from it have issued directly or in- 
 directly all the other Supreme Councils of 
 the Rite which are now in existence, or 
 have existed since its organization. 
 
 Mother Lodge. In the last century 
 certain Lodges in France and Germany as- 
 sumed an independent position, and issued 
 Charters for the constitution of Daughter 
 
512 
 
 MOTION 
 
 MUNKHOUSE 
 
 Lodges claiming the prerogatives of Grand 
 Lodges. Thus we find the Mother Lodge 
 of Marseilles, in France, which constituted 
 many Lodges. In Scotland the Lodge of 
 Kilwinning took the title of Mother Lodge, 
 and issued Charters until it was merged in 
 the Grand Lodge of Scotland. The system 
 is altogether irregular, and has no sanction 
 in the present laws of the Fraternity. 
 
 Motion. A motion when made by a 
 member cannot be brought before the 
 Lodge for deliberation unless it is seconded 
 by another member. Motions are of two 
 kinds, principal and subsidiary; a principal 
 motion is one that presents an indepen- 
 dent proposition for discussion. Subsidiary 
 motions are those which are intended to af- 
 fect the principal motion — such as to amend 
 it, to lay it on the table, to postpone it defi- 
 nitely or indefinitely, or to reconsider it, all 
 of which are governed by the parliament- 
 ary law under certain modifications to suit 
 the spirit and genius of the Masonic or- 
 ganization. See the author's Treatise on 
 Parliamentary Law as applied to Masonic 
 Bodies. 
 
 Motto. In imitation of the senteuces 
 appended to the coats of arms and seals of 
 the gilds and other societies, the Masons 
 have for the different branches of their 
 Order mottoes, which are placed on their 
 banners or put at the head of their docu- 
 ments, which are expressive of the character 
 and design, either of the whole Order or 
 of the particular branch to which the 
 motto belongs. Thus, in Ancient Craft 
 Masonry we have as mottoes the sentences, 
 Ordo ab Ghao, and Lux e tenebris; in Capit- 
 ular Masonry, Holiness to the Lord; in 
 Templar Masonry, In hoc signo vinces ; in 
 Scottish Masonry, Ne plus ultra is the 
 motto of the thirtieth degree, and Spes meo 
 in deo est of the thirty-second ; while the 
 thirty-third has for its motto Deus meum- 
 que Jus. All of these will be found with 
 their signification and origin in their ap- 
 propriate places. 
 
 Mould. This word is very common in 
 the Old Constitutions, where it is forbidden 
 that a Freemason should give a mould to 
 a rough Mason, whereby, of course, he would 
 be imparting to him the secrets of the Craft. 
 Thus, in the Harleian MS. : " Alsoe that no 
 Mason shall make any mould, square, or 
 rule to any Kough Mason ; alsoe that no 
 Mason, within the Lodge or without, sett 
 or lay any mould stones without moulds of 
 his own making." We find the word in 
 Piers Ploughman's Vision : 
 
 " If eny Mason there do makede a molde 
 With alle here wyse castes." 
 
 Parker ( Gloss. Architect., p. 313,) thus de- 
 fines it: "The model or pattern used by 
 
 workmen, especially by Masons, as a guide 
 in working mouldings and ornaments. It 
 consists of a thin board or plate of metal, 
 cut to represent the exact section of the 
 mouldings to be worked from it." In the 
 Cooke MS. the word maters is used, which 
 is evidently a corruption of the lj&tinmatrix. 
 
 Mould Stone. In the quotation frcm 
 the Harleian MS. in the preceding article, 
 the expression mould stones occurs, as it 
 does in other Constitutions and in many 
 old contracts. It means, probably, large 
 and peaked stones for those parts of the 
 building which were to have mouldings cut 
 upon them, as window and door-jambs. 
 
 Mount Calvary. See Calvary. 
 
 Mount Moriah. See Moriah. 
 
 Mount Sinai. See Sinai. 
 
 Mourning. The mourning color has 
 been various in different times and coun- 
 tries. Thus, the Chinese mourn in white ; 
 the Turks in blue or in violet ; the Egyptians 
 in yellow; .the Ethiopians in gray. In all 
 the degrees and rites of Masonry, with a 
 single exception, black is the symbol of 
 grief, and therefore the mourning color. 
 But in the highest degrees of the Scottish 
 Kite the mourning color, like that used by 
 the former kings of France, is violet. 
 
 Mouth to Ear. The Mason is taught, 
 by an expressive symbol, to whisper good 
 counsel in his brother's ear, and to warn 
 him of approaching danger. " It is a rare 
 thing," says Bacon, " except it be from a 
 perfect and entire friend, to have counsel 
 given that is not bowed and crooked to 
 some ends which he hath that giveth it." 
 And hence it is an admirable lesson, which 
 Masonry here teaches us, to use the lips 
 and the tongue only in the service of a 
 brother. 
 
 Movable Jewels. See Jewels of a 
 Lodge. 
 
 Muenter, Friederieh. Born in 
 1761, and died in 1830. He was Professor 
 of Theology in the University of Copen- 
 hagen, and afterwards Bishop of Seeland. 
 He was the author of a treatise On the Sym- 
 bols and Art Representations of the Early 
 Christians. In 1794 he published his Stat- 
 ute Book of the Order of Knights Templars, 
 " Statutenbuch des Ordens der Temple- 
 herren ; " a work which is one of the most 
 valuable contributions that we have to the 
 history of Templarism. 
 
 Munkhouse, I>. D., Rev. Rich- 
 ard. The author of A Discourse in Praise 
 of Freemasonry, 8vo, Lond., 1805 ; An Exhor- 
 tation to the Practice of those Specific Virtues 
 which ought to prevail in the Masonic Char- 
 acter, with Historical Notes, 8vo, Lond., 1805 ; 
 and Occasional Discourses on Various Sub- 
 jects, with Copious Annotations, 3 vols., 8vo, 
 Lond., 1805. This last work contains many 
 
MURR 
 
 MYSTERIES 
 
 513 
 
 discourses on Masonic subjects. Dr. Munk- 
 house was an ardent admirer and defender 
 of Freemasonry, into which he was initi- 
 ated in the Phoenix Lodge of Sunderland. 
 On his removal to Wakefield, where he was 
 rector of St. John the Baptist's Church, he 
 united with the Lodge of Unanimity, under 
 the Mastership of Richard Linnecar, to 
 whose virtues and Masonic knowledge he 
 has paid a high tribute. Dr. Munkhouse 
 died in the early part of this century. 
 
 Mnrr, Christoph Gottlieb Ton. 
 A distinguished historical and archaeologi- 
 cal writer, who was born at Nuremberg, in 
 1733, and died April 8, 1811. In 1760 he 
 published an Essay on the History of the 
 Cheek Tragic Poets; in 1777-82, six volumes 
 of Antiquities of Herculanamm, and several 
 other historical works. In 1803 he pub- 
 lished an essay On the Trite Origin of the 
 Orders of Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry, 
 with an Appendix on the History of the Or- 
 der of Templars. In this work, Murr at- 
 tempts to trace Freemasonry to the times 
 of Oliver Cromwell, and maintains that it 
 and Rosicrucianism had an identical origin, 
 and the same history until the year 1633, 
 when they separated. 
 
 Muscus Domus. In the early rit- 
 uals of the last century, the tradition is 
 given, that certain Fellow Crafts, while 
 pursuing their search, discovered a grave 
 covered with green moss and turf, when 
 they exclaimed, Muscus Domus, Deo gratias, 
 which was interpreted, " Thanks be to 
 God, our Master has a mossy house." 
 Whence a Mason's grave came to be called 
 Muscus Domus. But both the tradition 
 and its application have become obsolete 
 in the modern rituals. 
 
 Music. One of the seven liberal arts 
 and sciences, whose beauties are inculcated 
 in the Fellow Craft's degree. Music is 
 recommended to the attention of Masons, 
 because as the " concord of sweet sounds " 
 elevates the generous sentiments of the 
 soul, so should the concord of good feeling 
 reign among the brethren, that by the 
 union of friendship and brotherly love the 
 boisterous passions may be lulled, and 
 harmony exist throughout the Craft. 
 
 Mustard Seed, Order of. (Der 
 Orden vom iSenfkorn.) This association, 
 whose members also called themselves 
 " The Fraternity of Moravian Brothers of 
 the Order of Religious Freemasons," was 
 one of the first innovations introduced into 
 German Freemasonry. It was instituted in 
 the year 1739. Its mysteries were founded 
 on that passage in the fourth chapter of 
 St. Mark's Gospel in which Christ com- 
 pares the kingdom of heaven to a mustard 
 seed. The brethren wore a ring, on which 
 was inscribed Keiner von uns lebt ihm sel- 
 
 3 P 
 
 33 
 
 her, i. e., "No one of us lives for himself." 
 The jewel of the Order was a cross of gold 
 surmounted by a mustard plant in full 
 bloom, with the motto, Quod fuit ante 
 nihil, i. e., "What was before nothing." 
 It was suspended from a green ribbon. 
 The professed object of the association 
 was, through the instrumentality of Free- 
 masonry, to extend the kingdom of Christ 
 over the world. It has long been obsolete. 
 
 Myrtle. The sacred plant of the Eleu- 
 sinian mysteries, and analogous in its sym- 
 bolism to the acacia of the Masons. 
 
 Mystagogue. The one who presided 
 at the Ancient Mysteries, and explained 
 the sacred things to the candidate. He 
 was also called the hierophant. The word, 
 which is Greek, signifies literally one who 
 makes or conducts an initiate. 
 
 Mysteries, Ancient. Each of the 
 Pagan gods, says Warburton, (Div. Leg., 
 I., ii. 4,) had, besides the public and open, a 
 secret worship paid to him, to which none 
 were admitted but those who had been 
 selected by preparatory ceremonies called 
 Initiation. This secret worship was termed 
 the Mysteries. And this is supported by 
 Strabo, (lib. x., cap. 3,) who says that it 
 was common, both to the Greeks and the 
 Barbarians, to perform their religious cere- 
 monies with the observance of a festival, 
 and that they are sometimes celebrated 
 publicly and sometimes in mysterious pri- 
 vacy. Noel (Diet, de la Fable) thus defines 
 them : Secret ceremonies which were prac- 
 tised in honor of certain gods, and whose 
 secret was known to the initiates alone, 
 who were admitted only after long and 
 painful trials, which it was more than their 
 life was worth to reveal. 
 
 As to their origin, Warburton is proba- 
 bly not wrong in his statement that the 
 first of which we have any account are 
 those of Isis and Osiris in Egypt; for 
 although those of Mithras came into Eu- 
 rope from Persia, they were, it is supposed, 
 carried from Egypt by Zoroaster. 
 
 The most important of these mysteries 
 were the Osiric in Egypt, the Mithraic in 
 Persia, the Cabiric in Thrace, the Adoni- 
 sian in Syria, the Dionysiac and Eleu- 
 sinian in Greece, the Scandinavian among 
 the Gothic nations, and the Druidical 
 among the Celts. 
 
 In all these mysteries we find a singular 
 unity of design, clearly indicating a com- 
 mon origin, and a purity of doctrine as 
 evidently proving that this common origin 
 was not to be sought for in the popular 
 theology of the Pagan world. The cere- 
 monies of initiation were all funereal in 
 their character. They celebrated the death 
 and the resurrection of some cherished be- 
 ing, either the object of esteem as a hero, 
 
514 
 
 MYSTERIES 
 
 MYSTERIES 
 
 or of devotion as a god. Subordination of 
 degrees was instituted, and the candidate 
 was subjected to probations varying in 
 their character and severity; the rites 
 were practised in the darkness of night, 
 and often amid the gloom of impenetrable 
 forests or subterranean caverns; and the 
 full fruition of knowledge, for which so 
 much labor was endured, and so much 
 danger incurred, was not attained until the 
 aspirant, well tried and thoroughly puri- 
 fied, had reached the place of wisdom and 
 of light. 
 
 These mysteries undoubtedly owed their 
 origin to the desire to establish esoteric 
 philosophy, in which should be withheld 
 from popular approach those sublime truths 
 which it was supposed could only be intrusted 
 to those who had been previously prepared 
 for their reception. Whence these doc- 
 trines were originally derived it would be 
 impossible to say ; but I am disposed to ac- 
 cept Creuzer's hypothesis of an ancient and 
 highly instructed body of priests, having 
 their origin either in Egypt or in the East, 
 from whom was derived religious, physical, 
 and historical knowledge, under the veil of 
 symbols. 
 
 By this confinement of these doctrines to 
 a system of secret knowledge, guarded by 
 the most rigid rites, could they only expect 
 to preserve them from the superstitions, in- 
 novations, and corruptions of the world as 
 it then existed. " The distinguished few," 
 says Oliver, (Hist. Inii., p. 2,) "who re- 
 tained their fidelity, uncontaminated by 
 the contagion of evil example, would soon 
 be able to estimate the superior benefits of 
 an isolated institution, which afforded the 
 advantage of a select society, and kept at 
 an unapproachable distance the profane 
 scoffer, whose presence might pollute their 
 pure devotions and social converse, by con- 
 tumelious language or unholy mirth." And 
 doubtless the prevention of this intrusion, 
 and the preservation of these sublime truths, 
 was the original object of the institution 
 of the ceremonies of initiation, and the 
 adoption of other means by which the ini- 
 tiated could be recognized, and the unini- 
 tiated excluded. Such was the opinion of 
 Warburton, who says that " the mysteries 
 were at first the retreats of sense and virtue, 
 till time corrupted them in most of the 
 gods." 
 
 The Abbe Robin in a learned work on 
 this subject entitled Richerches sur les Ini- 
 tiations Anciens et Modernes, (Paris, 1870,) 
 places the origin of the initiations at that 
 remote period when crimes first began to 
 appear upon earth. The vicious, he re- 
 marks, were urged by the terror of guilt to 
 seek among the virtuous for intercessors 
 with the deity. The latter, retiring into 
 
 solitude to avoid the contagion of growing 
 corruption, devoted themselves to a lite 
 of contemplation and the cultivation of 
 several of the useful sciences. The period- 
 ical return of the seasons, the revolution 
 of the stars, the productions of the earth, 
 and the various phenomena of nature, 
 studied with attention, rendered them use- 
 ful guides to men, both in their pursuits of 
 industry and in their social duties. These 
 recluse students invented certain signs to 
 recall to the remembrance of the people 
 the times of their festivals and of their 
 rural labors, and hence the origin of the 
 symbols and hieroglyphics that were in use 
 among the priests of all nations. Having 
 now become guides and leaders of the peo- 
 ple, these sages, in order to select as asso- 
 ciates of their learned labors and sacred 
 functions only such as had sufficient merit 
 and capacity, appointed strict courses of 
 trial and examination, and this, our author 
 thinks, must have been the source of the 
 initiations of antiquity. The Magi, Brah- 
 mans, Gymnosophists, Druids, and priests 
 of Egypt, lived thus in sequestered habita- 
 tions and subterranean caves, and obtained 
 great reputation by their discoveries in as- 
 tronomy, chemistry, and mechanics, by 
 their purity of morals, and by their knowl- 
 edge of the science of legislation. It was 
 in these schools, says M. Robin, that the 
 first sages and legislators of antiquity were 
 formed, and in them he supposes the doc- 
 trines taught to have been the unity of God 
 and the immortality of the soul; and it 
 was from these mysteries, and their symbols 
 and hieroglyphics, that the exuberant fancy 
 of the Greeks drew much of their my- 
 thology. 
 
 Warburton deduces from the ancient 
 writers — from Cicero and Porphyry, from 
 Origen and Celsus, and from others — what 
 was the true object of the mysteries. They 
 taught the dogma of the unity of God in 
 opposition to the polytheistic notions of the 
 people, and in connection with this the 
 doctrine of a future life, and that the ini- 
 tiated should be happier in that state than 
 all other mortals ; that while the souls of 
 the profane, at their leaving the body, 
 stuck fast in mire and filth and remained 
 in darkness, the souls of the initiated winged 
 their flight directly to the happy islands 
 and the nabitations of the gods. "Thrice 
 happy they," says Sophocles, "who de- 
 scended to the shades below after having 
 beheld these rites ; for they alone have life 
 in Hades, while all others suffer there every 
 kind of evil." And Isocrates declares that 
 " those who have been initiated in the mys- 
 teries, entertain better hopes both as to the 
 end of life and the whole of futurity." 
 
 Others of the ancients have given us the 
 
MYSTERIES 
 
 MYSTERIES 
 
 515 
 
 same testimony as to their esoteric char- 
 acter." "All the mysteries," says Plu- 
 tarch, "refer to a future life and to the 
 state of the soul after death." In another 
 
 Elace, addressing his wife, he says, "We 
 ave been instructed, in the religious rites 
 of Dionysus, that the soul is immortal, and 
 that there is a future state of existence." 
 Cicero tells us that, in the mysteries of 
 Ceres at Eleusis, the initiated were taught 
 to live happily and to die in the hope of a 
 blessed futurity. And, finally, Plato in- 
 forms us that the hymns of Musseus, which 
 were sung in the mysteries, celebrated the 
 rewards and pleasures of the virtuous in 
 another life, and the punishments which 
 awaited the wicked. 
 
 These sentiments, so different from the 
 debased polytheism which prevailed among 
 the uninitiated, are the most certain evi- 
 dence that the mysteries arose from a purer 
 source than that which gave birth to the 
 religion of the vulgar. 
 
 I must not pass unnoticed Faber's notion 
 of their arkite origin. Finding, as he did, 
 a prototype for every ancient cultus in the 
 ark of Noah, it is not surprising that he 
 should apply his theory to the mysteries. 
 "The initiations," he says, (Orig. Pag. 
 Idol., II., iv. 5,) "into the mysteries sceni- 
 cally represented the mythic descent into 
 Hades and the return from thence to the 
 light of day, by which was meant the en- 
 trance into the ark and the subsequent lib- 
 eration from its dark enclosure. They all 
 equally related to the allegorical disappear- 
 ance, or death, or descent of the great 
 father, at their commencement; and his 
 invention, or revival, or return from Hades, 
 at their conclusion." 
 
 Dollinger (Gent, and Jew., i. 126,) says, 
 speaking of the mysteries, " the whole was 
 a drama, the prelude to which consisted in 
 purifications, sacrifices, and injunctions 
 with regard to the behavior to be observed. 
 The adventures of certain deities, their 
 sufferings and joys, their appearance on 
 earth, and relations to mankind, their 
 death, or descent to the nether world, their 
 return, or their rising again — all these, as 
 symbolizing the life of nature, were repre- 
 sented in a connected series of theatrical 
 scenes. These representations, tacked on 
 to a nocturnal solemnity, brilliantly got up, 
 particularly at Athens, with all the re- 
 sources of art and sensual beauty, and ac- 
 companied with dancing and song, were 
 eminently calculated to take a powerful 
 hold on the imagination and the heart, 
 and to excite in the spectators alter- 
 nately conflicting sentiments of terror, 
 and calm, sorrow, and fear, and hope. 
 They worked upon them, now by agitating, 
 now by soothing, and meanwhile had a 
 
 strong bearing upon susceptibilities and 
 capacities of individuals, according as their 
 several dispositions inclined them more to 
 reflection and observation, or to a resigned 
 credulity." 
 
 Bunsen ( God in History, II., B. iv., ch. 6,) 
 gives the most recent and the most philo- 
 sophic idea of the character of the mysteries. 
 They did, he says, " indeed exhibit to the ini- 
 tiated coarse physical symbols of the gene- 
 rative powers of Nature, and of the univer- 
 sal Nature herself, eternally, self-sustaining 
 through all transformations ; but the reli- 
 gious element of the mysteries consisted in 
 the relations of the universe to the soul, 
 more especially after death. Thus, even 
 without philosophic proof, we are justified 
 in assuming that the Nature symbolism re- 
 ferring to the Zodiac formed a mere frame- 
 work for the doctrines relating to the soul 
 and to the ethical theory of the universe. 
 So, likewise, in the Samothracian worship 
 of the Kabiri, the contest waged by the 
 orb of day was represented by the story 
 of the three brothers (the seasons of the 
 year), one of whom is continually slain by 
 the other two, but ever and anon arises to 
 life again. But here, too, the beginning 
 and end of the worship were ethical. A 
 sort of confession was demanded of the 
 candidates before admission, and at the 
 close of the service the victorious God 
 (Dionysus) was displayed as the Lord of 
 the spirit. Still less, however, did theo- 
 rems of natural philosophy form the sub- 
 ject-matter of the Eleusinian mysteries, of 
 which, on the contrary, psychical concep- 
 tions were the beginning and the end. The 
 predominating idea of these conceptions 
 was that of the soul as a divine, vital force, 
 held captive here on earth and sorely tired; 
 but the initiated were further taught to 
 look forward to a final redemption and 
 blessedness for the good and pious, and 
 eternal torments after death for the wicked 
 and unjust." 
 
 The esoteric character of the mysteries was 
 preserved by the most powerful sanctions. 
 An oath of secrecy was administered in the 
 most solemn form to the initiate, and to 
 violate it was considered a sacrilegious 
 crime, the prescribed punishment for which 
 was immediate death, and we have at least 
 one instance in Livy of the infliction of 
 the penalty. The ancient writers were there- 
 fore extremely reluctant to approach the 
 subject, and Lobeck gives in hisAglaophamw 
 (vol. i., app. 131, 151 ; ii. 12, 87,) several 
 examples of the cautious manner in which 
 they shrunk from divulging or discussing 
 any explanation of a symbol which had 
 been interpreted to them in the course of 
 initiation. I would forbid, says Horace, 
 (L. iii., Od. 2,) that man who would divulge 
 
516 
 
 MYSTERIES 
 
 MYSTERIES 
 
 the sacred rites of mysterious Ceres from 
 being under the same roof with me, or 
 from setting sail with me in the same pre- 
 carious bark. 
 
 On the subject of their relation to the 
 rites of Freemasonry, to which they bear 
 in many respects so remarkable a resem- 
 blance, that some connection seems neces- 
 sarily implied, there are five principal the- 
 ories. The first is that embraced and 
 taught by Dr. Oliver, namely, that they are 
 but deviations from that common source, 
 both of them and of Freemasonry, the 
 patriarchal mode of worship established 
 by God himself. With this pure system of 
 truth, he supposes the science of Freema- 
 sonry to have been coeval and identified. 
 But the truths thus revealed by divinity 
 came at length to be doubted or rejected 
 through the imperfection of human reason, 
 and though the visible symbols were re- 
 tained in the mysteries of the Pagan world, 
 their true interpretation was lost. 
 
 There is a second theory which, leaving 
 the origin of the mysteries to be sought in 
 the patriarchal doctrines, where Oliver has 
 placed it, finds the connection between 
 them and Freemasonry commencing at the 
 building of King Solomon's Temple. Over 
 the construction of this building, Hiram, 
 the Architect of Tyre, presided. At Tyre 
 the mysteries of Bacchus had been intro- 
 duced by the Dionysian Artificers, and into 
 their fraternity Hiram, in all probability, 
 had, it is necessarily suggested, been ad- 
 mitted. Freemasonry, whose tenets had 
 always existed in purity among the imme- 
 diate descendants of the patriarchs, added 
 now to its doctrines the guard of secrecy, 
 which, as Dr. Oliver himself remarks, was 
 necessary to preserve them from perversion 
 or pollution. 
 
 A third theory has been advanced by the 
 Abb£ Robin, in which he connects Free- 
 masonry indirectly with the mysteries, 
 through the intervention of the Crusaders. 
 In the work already cited, he attempts to 
 deduce, from the ancient initiations, the 
 orders of chivalry, whose branches, he 
 says, produced the institution of Freema- 
 sonry. 
 
 A fourth theory, and this has been re- 
 cently advanced by the Rev. Mr. King in 
 his treatise On the Gnostics, is that as some 
 of them, especially those of Mithras, were 
 extended beyond the advent of Christianity, 
 and even to the very commencement of the 
 Middle Ages, they were seized upon by the 
 secret societies of that period as a model 
 for their organization, and that through 
 these latter they are to be traced to Free- 
 masonry. 
 
 But perhaps, after all, the truest theory 
 is that which would discard all successive 
 
 links in a supposed chain of descent from 
 the mysteries to Freemasonry, and would 
 attribute their close resemblance to a nat- 
 ural coincidence of human thought. The 
 legend of the third degree, and the legends 
 of the Eleusinian, the Cabiric, the Diony- 
 sian, the Adonic, and all the other mys- 
 teries, are identical in their object to teach 
 the reality of a future life ; and this lesson 
 is taught in all by the use of the same sym- 
 bolism, and, substantially, the same scenic 
 representation. And this is not because 
 the Masonic rites are a lineal succession 
 from the Ancient Mysteries, but because 
 there has been at all times a proneness of 
 the human heart to nourish this belief in a 
 future life, and the proneness of the human 
 mind to clothe this belief in a symbolic 
 dress. And if there is any other more 
 direct connection between them it must be 
 sought for in the Roman Colleges of Artifi- 
 cers, who did, most probably, exercise some 
 influence over the rising Freemasons of 
 the early ages, and who, as the contempo- 
 raries of the mysteries, were, we may well 
 suppose, imbued with something of their 
 organization. 
 
 I conclude with a notice of their ultimate 
 fate. They continued to flourish until long 
 after the Christian era ; but they at length 
 degenerated. In the fourth century, Chris- 
 tianity had begun to triumph. The Pagans, 
 desirous of making converts, threw open 
 the hitherto inaccessible portals of their 
 mysterious rites. The strict scrutiny of 
 the candidate's past life, and the demand 
 for proofs of irreproachable conduct, were 
 no longer deemed indispensable. The vile 
 and the vicious were indiscriminately, and 
 even with avidity, admitted to participate 
 in privileges which were once granted only 
 to the noble and the virtuous. The sun of 
 Paganism was setting, and its rites had be- 
 come contemptible and corrupt. Their 
 character was entirely changed, and the 
 initiations were indiscriminately sold by 
 peddling priests, who wandered through 
 the country, to every applicant who was 
 willing to pay a trifling fee for that which 
 had once been refused to the entreaties of 
 a monarch. At length these abominations 
 attracted the attention of the emperors, and 
 Constantine and Gratian forbade their cel- 
 ebration by night, excepting, however, from 
 these edicts, the initiations at Eleusis. But 
 finally Theodosius, by a general edict of 
 proscription, ordered the whole of the Pagan 
 mysteries to be abolished, in the four hun- 
 dred and thirty-eighth year of the Chris- 
 tian era, and eighteen hundred years after 
 their first establishment in Greece. 
 
 Clavel, however, says that they did not 
 entirely cease until the era of the restora- 
 tion of learning, and that during a part of 
 
MYSTERY 
 
 MYTH 
 
 517 
 
 the Middle Ages the mysteries of Diana, 
 under the name of the " Courses of Diana," 
 and those of Pan, under that of the " Sab- 
 bats," were practised in country places. 
 But these were really only certain super- 
 stitious rites connected with the belief in 
 witchcraft. The mysteries of Mithras, 
 which, continually attacked by the Fathers 
 of the Church, lived until the beginning of 
 the fifth century, were, I think, the last of 
 the old mysteries which had once exercised 
 so much influence over the Pagan world 
 and the Pagan religions. 
 
 Mystery. From the Greek fivorypiov, 
 a secret, something to be concealed. The 
 gilds or companies of the Middle Ages, out 
 of which we trace the Masonic organiza- 
 tion, were called mysteries, because they had 
 trade-secrets, the preservation of which was 
 a primary ordination of these fraternities. 
 " Mystery " and " Craft " came thus to be 
 synonymous words. In this secondary sense 
 we speak of the " Mystery of the Stonema- 
 sons " as equivalent to the " Craft of the 
 Stonemasons." But the Mystery of Free- 
 masonry refers rather to the primary mean- 
 ing of the word as immediately derived 
 from the Greek. 
 
 Mystes. (From the Greek fivu, to shut 
 the eyes. ) One who had been initiated into 
 the Lesser Mysteries of Paganism. He was 
 now blind ; but when he was initiated into 
 the Greater Mysteries, he was called an 
 Epopt, or one who saw. 
 
 The Mystes was permitted to proceed no 
 farther than the vestibule or porch of the 
 temple. To the Epopts only was accorded 
 the privilege of admission to the adytum or 
 sanctuary. A female initiate was called a 
 Mystis. 
 
 Mystical. A word applied to any lan- 
 guage, symbol, or ritual which is under- 
 stood only by the initiated. The word was 
 first used by the priests to describe their 
 mysterious rites, and then borrowed by the 
 philosophers to be applied to the inner, 
 esoteric doctrines of their schools. In this 
 sense we speak of the mystical doctrines 
 of Speculative Masonry. Suidas derives 
 the word from the Greek pw, to close, and 
 especially to close the lips. Hence the mys- 
 tical is that about which the mouth should 
 be closed. 
 
 Mysticism. A word applied in reli- 
 gious phraseology to any views or tenden- 
 cies which aspire to more direct communi- 
 cation between God and man by the in- 
 ward perception of the mind than can be 
 obtained through revelation. " Mysticism," 
 says Vaughan, (Hours with the Mystics, i. 
 19,) "presents itself in all its phases as 
 more or less the religion of internal as op- 
 posed to external revelation — of heated 
 feeling, sickly sentiment, or lawless imagi- 
 
 nation, as opposed to that reasonable belief 
 in which the intellect and the heart, the 
 inward witness and the outward, are alike 
 engaged." The Pantheism of some of the 
 ancient philosophers and of the modern 
 Spinozaists, the Speculations of the Neo- 
 platonists, the Anabaptism of Munster, the 
 system of Jacob Behmen, the Quietism of 
 Madame Guyon, the doctrines of the Ba- 
 varian Illuminati, and the reveries of Swe- 
 denborg, all partake more or less of the 
 spirit of mysticism. The Germans have 
 two words, mystik and mysticismus, — the 
 former of which they use in a favorable, the 
 latter in an unfavorable sense. Mysticism 
 is with them only another word for Pan- 
 theism, between which and Atheism there 
 is but little difference. Hence a belief in 
 mysticism is with the German Freemasons 
 a disqualification for initiation into the 
 Masonic rites. Thus the second article of 
 the Statutes of the Grand Lodge of Hano- 
 ver prescribes that " ein Freimaurer muss 
 vom Mysticismus und Atheismus gleich 
 weit entfernt stehen," i. e., "a Freemason 
 must be equally distant from Mysticism 
 and Atheism." Gadicke (Freimaurer- Lexi- 
 con) thus expresses the German sentiment: 
 " Etwas mystisch sollte wohl jeder Mensch 
 seyn, aber man hlite sich vor grobem Mys- 
 ticismus," i. e., " Every man ought to be 
 somewhat mt/sfo'ea/, but should guard against 
 coarse mysticism." 
 
 Mystic Tie. That sacred and invio- 
 lable bond which unites men of the most 
 discordant opinions into one band of 
 brothers, which gives but one language to 
 men of all nations and one altar to men 
 of all religions, is properly, from the mys- 
 terious influence it exerts, denominated the 
 mystic tie ; and Freemasons, because they 
 alone are under its influence, or enjoy its 
 benefits, are called " Brethren of the mystic 
 tie." 
 
 Myth. The word myth, from the Greek 
 uvdog, a story, in its original acceptation, 
 signified simply a statement or narrative 
 of an event, without any necessary implica- 
 tion of truth or falsehood ; but, as the word 
 is now used, it conveys the idea of a per- 
 sonal narrative of remote date, which, al- 
 though not necessarily untrue, is certified 
 only by the internal evidence of the tradi- 
 tion itself. This definition, which is sub- 
 stantially derived from Mr. Grote, (Hi<it. of 
 Greece, vol. i., ch. xvi., p. 479,) may be ap- 
 plied without modification to the myths of 
 Freemasonry, although intended by the 
 author only for the myths of the ancient 
 Greek religion. 
 
 The myth, then, is a narrative of remote 
 date, not necessarily true or false, but whose 
 truth can only be certified by internal evi- 
 dence. The word was first applied to those 
 
518 
 
 MYTH 
 
 MYTH 
 
 fables of the Pagan gods which have de- 
 scended from the remotest antiquity, and 
 in all of which there prevails a symbolic 
 idea, not always, however, capable of a 
 positive interpretation. As applied to Free- 
 masonry, the words myth and legend are 
 synonymous. 
 
 From this definition it will appear that 
 the myth is really only the interpretation 
 of an idea. But how we are to read these 
 myths will best appear from these noble 
 words of Max Muller, [Science of Lang., 2d 
 Ser., p. 578 :) "Everything is true, natural, 
 significant, if we enter with a reverent 
 spirit into the meaning of ancient art and 
 ancient language. Everything becomes 
 false, miraculous, and unmeaning, if we 
 interpret the deep and mighty words of 
 the seers of old in the shallow and feeble 
 sense of modern chroniclers." 
 
 A fertile source of instruction in Masonry 
 is to be found in its traditions and mythi- 
 cal legends ; not only those which are in- 
 corporated into its ritual and are exempli- 
 fied in its ceremonies, but those also which, 
 although forming no part of the Lodge lec- 
 tures, have been orally transmitted as por- 
 tions of its history, and which, only within 
 a comparatively recent period, have been 
 committed to writing: But for the proper 
 appreciation of these traditions some pre- 
 paratory knowledge of the general charac- 
 ter of Masonic myths is necessary. If all 
 the details of these traditions be considered 
 as asserted historical facts, seeking to con- 
 vey nothing more nor less than historical 
 information, then the improbabilities and 
 anachronisms, and other violations of his- 
 torical truth which distinguish many of 
 them, must cause them to be rejected by 
 the scholar as absurd impostures. But 
 there is another and a more advantageous 
 view in which these traditions are to be 
 considered. Freemasonry is a symbolic in- 
 stitution — everything in and about it is 
 symbolic — and nothing more eminently so 
 than its traditions. Although some of 
 them — as, for instance, the legend of the 
 third degree — have in all probability a 
 deep substratum of truth lying beneath, 
 over this there is superposed a beautiful 
 structure of symbolism. History has, per- 
 haps, first suggested the tradition ; but then 
 
 the legend, like the myths of the ancient 
 poets, becomes a symbol, which is to enun- 
 ciate some sublime philosophical or reli- 
 gious truth. Read in this way, and in this 
 way only, the myths or legends and tradi- 
 tions of Freemasonry will become interest- 
 ing and instructive. See Legend. 
 
 Myth, Historical. A historical 
 myth is a myth that has a known and re- 
 cognized foundation in historical truth, but 
 with the admixture of a preponderating 
 amount of fiction in the introduction of 
 personages and circumstances. Between 
 the historical myth and the mythical his- 
 tory, the distinction cannot always be pre- 
 served, because we are not always able to 
 determine whether there is a preponderance 
 of truth or of fiction in the legend or nar- 
 rative under examination. 
 
 Mythical History. A myth or le- 
 gend, in which the historical and truthful 
 greatly preponderate over the inventions 
 of fiction, may be called a mythical history. 
 Certain portions of the legend of the third 
 degree have such a foundation in fact that 
 they constitute a mythical history, while 
 other portions, added evidently for the pur- 
 poses of symbolism, are simply a historical 
 myth. 
 
 Mythology. Literally, the science of 
 myths ; and this is a very appropriate defi- 
 nition, for mythology is the science which 
 treats of the religion of the ancient Pagans, 
 which was almost altogether founded on 
 myths, or popular traditions and legendary 
 tales; and hence Keightly (Mythol. of An- 
 cient Greece and Italy, p. 2,) says that "my- 
 thology may be regarded as the repository 
 of the early religion of the people." Its 
 interest to a Masonic student arises from 
 the constant antagonism that existed be- 
 tween its doctrines and those of the Primi- 
 tive Freemasonry of antiquity and the light 
 that the mythological mysteries throw upon 
 the ancient organization of Speculative 
 Masonry. 
 
 Myth Philosophical. This is a 
 myth or legend that is almost wholly un- 
 historical, and which has been invented 
 only for the purpose of enunciating and il- 
 lustrating a particular thought or dogma. 
 The legend of Euclid is clearly a philo- 
 sophical myth. 
 
NAAMAH 
 
 NAME 
 
 519 
 
 N. 
 
 Naainah. The daughter of Lamech. 
 To her the "Legend of the Craft" attri- 
 butes the invention of the art of weaving, 
 and she is united with her three brothers, 
 by the same legend, in the task of inscrib- 
 ing the several sciences on two pillars, that 
 the knowledge of them might be preserved 
 after the flood. 
 
 Nabaiin. See Schools of the Prophets. 
 
 Naked. In Scriptural symbology, 
 nakedness denoted sin, and clothing, protec- 
 tion. But the symbolism of Masonry on 
 this subject is different. There, to be 
 " neither naked nor clothed " is to make no 
 claim through worldly wealth or honors to 
 preferment in Masonry, where nothing but 
 internal merit, which is unaffected by the 
 outward appearance of the body, is received 
 as a recommendation for admission. 
 
 Name of* God. A reverential allu- 
 sion to the name of God, in some especial 
 and peculiar form, is to be found in the 
 doctrines and ceremonies of almost all na- 
 tions. This unutterable name was respected 
 by the Jews under the sacred form of the word 
 Jehovah. Among the Druids, the three let- 
 ters I. O. W. constituted the name of Deity. 
 They were never pronounced, says Giraldus 
 Cambrensis, but another and less sacred 
 name was substituted for them. Each 
 letter was a name in itself. The first is 
 the Word, at the utterance of which in the 
 beginning the world burst into existence ; 
 the second is the Word, whose sound still 
 continues, and by which all things remain 
 in existence ; the third is the Word, by the 
 utterance of which all things will be con- 
 summated in happiness, forever approach- 
 ing to the immediate presence of the 
 Deity. The analogy between this and the 
 past, present, and future significations con- 
 tained in the Jewish Tetragrammaton, will 
 be evident. 
 
 Among the Mohammedans there is a 
 science called ISM ALLAH, or the science 
 of the name of God. "They pretend," 
 says Niebuhr, " that God is the lock of this 
 science, and Mohammed the key; that, 
 consequently, none but Mohammedans can 
 attain it ; that it discovers what passes in 
 different countries; that it familiarizes the 
 possessors with the genii, who are at the 
 command of the initiated, and who in- 
 struct them ; that it places the winds and 
 the seasons at their disposal, and heals the 
 bites of serpents, the lame, the maimed, 
 and the blind." 
 
 In the chapter of the Koran entitled 
 Araaf, it is written : " God has many ex- 
 cellent names. Invoke him by these names, 
 and separate yourselves from them who 
 
 give him false names." The Mohamme- 
 dans believe that God has ninety -nine 
 names, which, with that of Allah, make 
 one hundred ; and, therefore, their chaplets 
 or rosaries are composed of one hundred 
 beads, at each of which they invoke one of 
 these names ; and there is a tradition, that 
 whoever frequently makes this invocation 
 will find the gates of Paradise open to 
 him. With them ALLAH is the Ism al 
 adhem, the Great Name, and they bestow 
 upon it all the miraculous virtues which 
 the Jews give to the Tetragrammaton. 
 This, they say, is the name that was en- 
 graven on the stone which Japheth gave to 
 his children to bring down rain from 
 heaven ; and it was by virtue of this name 
 that Noah made the ark float on the waters, 
 and governed it at will, without the aid of 
 oars or rudder. 
 
 Among the Hindus there was the same 
 veneration of the name of God, as is evinced 
 in their treatment of the mystical name 
 AUM. The " Institutes of Menu " con- 
 tinually refer to the peculiar efficacy of 
 this word, of which it is said, " All rites 
 ordained in the Veda, oblations to fire, and 
 solemn sacrifices pass away; but that which 
 passes not away is the syllable AUM, thence 
 called aishara, since it is a symbol of God, 
 the Lord of created beings." 
 
 There was in every ancient nation a 
 sacred name given to the highest god of its 
 religious faith, besides the epithets of the 
 other and subordinate deities. The old 
 Aryans, the founders of our race, called 
 their chief god DYAUS, and in the Vedas 
 we have the invocation to Dyaus Pitar, 
 which is the same as the Greek lev narrip, 
 and the Latin, Jupiter, all meaning the 
 Heaven-Father, and at once reminding us 
 of the Christian invocation to " Our Fa- 
 ther which art in heaven." 
 
 There is one incident in the Hindu my- 
 thology which shows how much the old 
 Indian heart yearned after this expression 
 of the nature of Deity by a name. There 
 was a nameless god, to whom, as the "source 
 of golden light," there was a worship. 
 This is expressed in one of the Veda 
 hymns, where the invocation in every 
 stanza closes with the exclamation, " Who 
 is the god to whom we shall offer our sac- 
 rifice?" Now, says Bunsen, {God in His- 
 tory, i. 302,) "the Brahmanic expositors 
 must needs find in every hymn the name 
 of a god who is invoked in it, and so, in this 
 case, they have actually invented a gram- 
 matical divinity, the god Who." What 
 more pregnant testimony could we have of 
 the tendency of man to seek a knowledge 
 
520 
 
 NAME 
 
 NAME 
 
 of the Divine nature in the expression of a 
 name? 
 
 The Assyrians worshipped Assur, or Asa- 
 rac, as their chief god. On an obelisk, 
 taken from the palace of Nimrod, we find 
 the inscription, "to Asarac, the Great 
 Lord, the King of all the great gods." 
 
 Of the veneration of the Egyptians for 
 the name of their supreme god, we have a 
 striking evidence in the writings of Herod- 
 otus, the Father of History, as he has 
 been called, who during a visit to Egypt 
 was initiated into the Osirian mysteries. 
 Speaking of these initiations, he says, (B. 
 ii., c. 171,) "the Egyptians represent by 
 night his sufferings, whose name I refrain 
 from mentioning." It was no more lawful 
 among the Egyptians than it was among 
 the Jews, to give utterance aloud to that 
 Holy Name. 
 
 At Byblos the Phoenicians worshipped 
 Eliun, the Most High God. From him 
 was descended El, whom Philo identifies 
 with Saturn, and to whom he traces the 
 Hebrew Elohim. Of this EL, Max Muller 
 says that there was undeniably a primitive 
 religion of the whole Semitic race, and that 
 the Strong One in Heaven was invoked 
 under this name by the ancestors of the 
 Semitic races, before there were Babyloni- 
 ans in Babylonia, Phoenicians in Sidon and 
 Tyre, or Jews in Mesopotamia and Jeru- 
 salem. If so, then the Mosaic adoption 
 of Jehovah, with its more precise teaching 
 of the Divine essence, was a step in the 
 progress to the knowledge of the Divine 
 Truth. 
 
 In China there is an infinite variety of 
 names of elemental powers, and even of 
 ancestral spirits, who are worshipped as 
 subordinate deities; but the ineffable name 
 is TIEN, compounded of the two signs for 
 great and one, and which the Imperial Dic- 
 tionary tells us signifies "the Great One — 
 He that dwells on high, and regulates all 
 below." 
 
 Drummond ( Origines) says that ABAUR 
 was the name of the Supreme Deity among 
 the ancient Chaldeans. It is evidently 
 the Hebrew nitf 3K, and signifies " The 
 Father of Light." 
 
 The Scandinavians had twelve subordin- 
 ate gods, but their chief or supreme deity 
 was Al-Fathr, or the All Father. 
 
 Even among the red men of America 
 we find the idea of an invisible deity, 
 whose name was to be venerated. Garcil- 
 asso de la Vega tells us that while the 
 Peruvians paid public worship to the sun, 
 it was but as a symbol of the Supreme 
 Being, whom they called Pachacamac, a 
 word meaning " the soul of the world," and 
 which was so sacred that it was spoken 
 only with extreme dread. 
 
 The Jews had, besides the Tetragramma- 
 ton or four-lettered name, two others : one 
 consisting of twelve and the other of forty- 
 two letters. But Maimonides, in his More 
 Nevochim, (p. i., clxii.,) remarks that it is 
 impossible to suppose that either of these 
 constituted a single name, but that each 
 must have been composed of several words, 
 which must, however, have been significant 
 in making man approximate to a knowl- 
 edge of the true essence of God. The Kab- 
 balistical book called the Sohar confirms 
 this when it tells us that there are ten 
 names of God mentioned in the Bible, and 
 that when these ten names are combined 
 into one word, the number of the letters 
 amounts to forty- two. But the Talmudists, 
 although they did not throw around the 
 forty-two-lettered name the sanctity of the 
 Tetragrammaton, prescribed that it should 
 be communicated only to men of middle 
 age and of virtuous habits, and that its 
 knowledge would confirm them as heirs of 
 the future as well as the present life. The 
 twelve-lettered name, although once com- 
 mon, became afterwards occult; and when, 
 on the death of Simon the First, the priests 
 ceased to use the Tetragrammaton, they 
 were accustomed to bless the people with 
 the name of twelve letters. Maimonides 
 very wisely rejects the idea, that any power 
 was derived from these letters or their pro- 
 nunciation, and claims that the only virtue 
 of the names consisted in the holy ideas 
 expressed by the words of which they were 
 composed. 
 
 The following are the ten Kabbalistic 
 names of God, corresponding to the ten 
 Sephiroth: 1. Eheyeh; 2. Jah; 3. Jeho- 
 vah; 4. El; 5. Eloah; 6. Elohim; 7. Je- 
 hovah Sabaoth; 8. Elohim Sabaoth; 9. 
 Elhi; 10. Adonai. 
 
 Lanzi extends his list of divine names to 
 twenty-six, which, with their signification, 
 are as follows : 
 
 1. At. The Aleph and Tau, that is, 
 Alpha and Omega. A name figurative of 
 the Tetragrammaton. 
 
 2. Ihoh. The eternal, absolute principle 
 of creation, and 
 
 3. Hohi, destruction, the male and fe- 
 male principle, the author and regulator 
 of time and motion. 
 
 4. Jah. The Lord and Remunerator. 
 
 5. Oh. The severe and punisher. 
 
 6. Jao. The author of life. 
 
 7. Azazel. The author of death. 
 
 8. Jao-Sabaoth. God of the co-ordina- 
 tions of loves and hatreds. Lord of the 
 solstices and the equinoxes. 
 
 9. Ehie. The Being ; the Ens. 
 
 10. El. The first cause. The principle 
 or beginning of all things. 
 
 11. Elo-hi. The good principle. 
 
NAMES 
 
 NAMES 
 
 521 
 
 12. Elo-ho. The evil principle. 
 
 13. El-raccum. The succoring principle. 
 
 14. El-cannum. The abhorring principle. 
 
 15. Ell, The most luminous. 
 
 16. II. The omnipotent. 
 
 17. Ellohim. The omnipotent and benefi- 
 cent. 
 
 18. Elohim. The most beneficent. 
 
 19. Elo. The Sovereign, the Excelsus. 
 
 20. Adon. The Lord, the dominator. 
 
 21. Eloi. The illuminator, the most ef- 
 fulgent. 
 
 22. Adonai. The most firm, the strongest. 
 
 23. Elton. The most high. 
 
 24. Shaddai. The most victorious. 
 
 25. Yeshurun. The most generous. 
 
 26. Noil. The most sublime. 
 
 Like the Mohammedan Ism Allah, Free- 
 masonry presents us as its most important 
 feature with this science of the names of 
 God. But here it elevates itself above Tal- 
 mudical and Rabbinical reveries, and be- 
 comes a symbol of Divine Truth. The 
 names of God were undoubtedly intended 
 originally to be a means of communicating 
 the knowledge of God himself. The name 
 was, from its construction and its literal 
 powers, used to give some idea, however 
 scanty, in early times, of the true nature 
 and essence of the Deity. The ineffable 
 name was the symbol of the unutterable 
 sublimity and perfection of truth which 
 emanate from the Supreme God, while the 
 subordinate names were symbols of the 
 subordinate manifestations of truth. Free- 
 masonry has availed itself of this system, 
 and, in its reverence for the Divine Name, 
 indicates its desire to attain to that truth 
 as the ultimate object of all its labor. The 
 significant words of the Masonic system, 
 which describe the names of God wherever 
 they are found, are not intended merely as 
 words of recognition, but as indices, point- 
 ing — like the symbolic ladder of Jacob of 
 the first degree, or the winding stairs of 
 the second, or the three gates of the third 
 — the way of progress from darkness to 
 light, from ignorance to knowledge, from 
 the lowest to the highest conceptions of Di- 
 vine Truth. And this is, after all, the real 
 object of all Masonic science. 
 
 Names of Lodges. The precedency 
 of Lodges does not depend on their names, 
 but on their numbers. The rule declaring 
 that " the precedency of Lodges is grounded 
 on the seniority of their Constitution" was 
 adopted on the 27th of December, 1727. 
 The number of the Lodge, therefore, by 
 which its precedency is established, is al- 
 ways to be given by the Grand Lodge. 
 
 In England, Lodges do not appear to have 
 
 received distinctive names before the latter 
 
 part of the last century. Up to that period 
 
 the Lodges were distinguished simply by 
 
 3Q 
 
 their numbers. Thus, in the first edition 
 of the Book of Constitutions, published in 
 1723, we find a list of twenty Lodges, reg- 
 istered by their numbers, from " No. 1 " to 
 "No. 20," inclusive. Subsequently, they 
 were further designated by the name 
 of the tavern at which they held their 
 meetings. Thus, in the second edition of 
 the same work, published in 1738, we meet 
 with a list of one hundred and six Lodges, 
 designated sometimes, singularly enough, 
 as Lodge No. 6, at the Rummer Tavern, in 
 Queen Street ; No. 84, at the Black Dog, in 
 Castle Street; or No. 98, at the Bacchus 
 Tavern, in Little Bush Lane. With such 
 names and localities, we are not to wonder 
 that the " three small glasses of punch," of 
 which Dr. Oliver so feelingly speaks in his 
 Book of the Lodge, were duly appreciated ; 
 nor, as he admits, that " there were some 
 brethren who displayed an anxiety to have 
 the allowance increased." 
 
 In 1766 we read of four Lodges that were 
 erased from the Register, under the similar 
 designations of the Globe, Fleet Street ; 
 the lied Gross Inn, Southwark ; No. 85, at 
 the George, Ironmongers' Lane; and the 
 Mercers' Arms, Mercers' Street. To only 
 one of these, it will be perceived, was a 
 number annexed. The name and locality 
 of the tavern was presumed to be a suffi- 
 cient distinction. It was not until about 
 the close of the eighteenth century, as has 
 been already observed, that we find dis- 
 tinctive names beginning to be given to the 
 Lodges ; for in 1793 we hear of the Shak- 
 speare Lodge, at Stratford-on-Avon ; the 
 Royal Brunswick, at Sheffield ; and the 
 Lodge of Apollo, at Alcester. From that 
 time it became a usage among our English 
 brethren, from which they have never since 
 departed. 
 
 But a better taste began to prevail at a 
 much earlier period in Scotland, as well as 
 in the continental and colonial Lodges. In 
 Scotland, especially, distinctive names ap- 
 pear to have been used from a very early 
 period, for in the very old charter granting 
 the office of Hereditary Grand Masters to 
 the Barons of Rosslyn, and whose date can- 
 not be more recent than 1600, we find 
 among the signatures the names of the 
 officers of the Lodge of Dunfermline and the 
 Lodge of St. Andrew's. Among the names 
 in the list of the Scotch Lodges in 1736 
 are those of St. Mary's Chapel, Kilwinning, 
 Aberdeen, etc. These names were undoubt- 
 edly borrowed from localities ; but in 1763, 
 while the English Lodges were still content 
 with their numerical arrangement only, 
 we find in Edinburgh such designations 
 as St. Luke's, Saint Giles's, and St. David's 
 Lodges. 
 
 The Lodges on the continent, it is true, 
 
522 
 
 NAMES 
 
 NAMES 
 
 at first adopted the English method of 
 borrowing a tavern sign for their appella- 
 tion ; whence we find the Lodge at the 
 Golden Lion, in Holland, in 1734, and be- 
 fore that the Lodge at Hure's Tavern, in 
 Paris, in 1725. But they soon abandoned 
 this inefficient and inelegant mode of no- 
 menclature; and accordingly, in 1739, a 
 Lodge was organized in Switzerland under 
 the appropriate name of Stranger's Perfect 
 Union. Tasteful names, more or less sig- 
 nificant, began thenceforth to be adopted 
 by the continental Lodges. Among them 
 we may meet with the Lodge of the Three 
 Globes, at Berlin, in 1740; the Minerva 
 Lodge, at Leipsic, in 1741 ; Absalom Lodge, 
 at Hamburg, in 1742; St. George's Lodge, 
 at the same place, in 1743 ; the Lodge of 
 the Crowned Column, at Brunswick, in 
 1745 ; and an abundance of others, all with 
 distinctive names, selected sometimes with 
 much and sometimes with but little taste. 
 But the worst of them was undoubtedly 
 better than the Lodge at the Goose and Grid- 
 iron, which met in London in 1717. 
 
 In America, from the very introduction 
 of Masonry into the continent, significant 
 names were selected for the Lodges ; and 
 hence we have, in 1734, St. John's Lodge, at 
 Boston ; a Solomon's Lodge, in 1735, at both 
 Charleston and Savannah ; and a Union Kil- 
 winning, in 1754, at the former place. 
 
 This brief historical digression will serve 
 as an examination of the rules which should 
 govern all founders in the choice of Lodge 
 names. The first and most important rule 
 is that the name of a Lodge should be 
 technically significant ; that is, it must al- 
 lude to some Masonic fact or characteristic ; 
 in other words, there must be something 
 Masonic about it. Under this rule, all 
 names derived from obscure or unmasonic 
 localities should be rejected as unmeaning 
 and inappropriate. Dr. Oliver, it is true, 
 thinks otherwise, and says that " the name 
 of a hundred, or wahpentake, in which the 
 Lodge is situated, or of a navigable river, 
 which confers wealth and dignity on the 
 town, are proper titles for a Lodge." But 
 a name should always convey an idea, and 
 there can be conceived no idea worth treas- 
 uring in a Mason's mind to be deduced 
 from bestowing such names as New York, 
 Philadelphia, or Baltimore, on a Lodge. 
 The selection of such a name shows but 
 little originality in the chooser; and, be- 
 sides, if there be two Lodges in a town, 
 each is equally entitled to the appellation ; 
 and if there be but one, the appropriation 
 of it would seem to indicate an intention 
 to have no competition in the future. 
 
 Yet, barren of Masonic meaning as are 
 such geographical names, the adoption of 
 them is one of the most common faults in 
 
 American Masonic nomenclature. The ex- 
 amination of a very few Registers, taken at 
 random, will readily evince this fact. Thus, 
 eighty-eight, out of one hundred and sixty 
 Lodges in Wisconsin, are named after towns 
 or counties; of four hundred and thirty- 
 seven Lodges in Indiana, two hundred and 
 fifty-one have names derived from the 
 same source ; geographical names are found 
 in one hundred and eighty-one out of four 
 hundred and three Lodges in Ohio, and in 
 twenty out of thirty-eight in Oregon. But, 
 to compensate for this, we have seventy-one 
 Lodges in New Hampshire, and only two 
 local geographical appellations in the list. 
 
 There are, however, some geographical 
 names which are admissible, and, indeed, 
 highly appropriate. These are the names 
 of places celebrated in Masonic history. 
 Such titles for Lodges as Jerusalem, Tyre, 
 Lebanon, and Joppa are unexceptionable. 
 Patmos, which is the name of a Lodge in 
 Maryland, seems, as the long residence of 
 one of the patrons of the Order, to be un- 
 objectionable. So, too, Bethel, because it 
 signifies " the house of God ; " Mount Mo- 
 riah, the site of the ancient Temple ; Cal- 
 vary, the small hill on which the sprig of 
 acacia was found ; Mount Ararat, where the 
 ark of our father Noah rested ; Ophir, 
 whence Solomon brought the gold and pre- 
 cious stones with which he adorned the 
 Temple; Tadmor, because it was a city 
 built by King Solomon; and Salem and 
 Jebus, because they are synonyms of Jeru- 
 salem, and because the latter is especially 
 concerned with Oman the Jebusite, on 
 whose "threshing-floor" the Temple was 
 subsequently built, — are all excellent and 
 appropriate names for Lodges. But all 
 Scriptural names are not equally admissi- 
 ble. Cabul, for instance, must be rejected, 
 because it was the subject of contention 
 between Solomon and Hiram of Tyre ; and 
 Babylon, because it was the place where 
 " language was confounded and Masonry 
 lost," and the scene of the subsequent cap- 
 tivity of our ancient brethren ; Jericho, be- 
 cause it was under a curse ; and Misgab and 
 Tophet, because they were places of idol 
 worship. In short, it may be adopted as a 
 rule, that no name should be adopted whose 
 antecedents are in opposition to the prin- 
 ciples of Masonry. 
 
 The ancient patrons and worthies of 
 Freemasonry furnish a very fertile source 
 of Masonic nomenclature, and have been 
 very liberally used in the selection of 
 names of Lodges. Among the most im- 
 portant may be mentioned St. John, Solo- 
 mon, Hiram, King David, Adoniram, Enoch, 
 Archimedes, and Pythagoras. The Widow's 
 Son Lodge, of which there are several in- 
 stances in the United States, is an affecting 
 
NAMES 
 
 and significant title, which can hardly be 
 too often used. 
 
 Recourse is also to be had to the names 
 of modern distinguished men who have 
 honored the Institution by their adherence 
 to it, or who, by their learning in Masonry, 
 and by their services to the Order, have 
 merited some marks of approbation. And 
 hence we meet, in England, as the names 
 of Lodges, with Sussex, Moira, Frederick, 
 Zetland, and Robert Burns; and in this 
 country with Washington, Lafayette, Clin- 
 ton, Franklin, and Clay. Care must, how- 
 ever, be taken that no name be selected 
 except of one who was both a Mason and 
 had distinguished himself, either by ser- 
 vices to his country, to the world, or to the 
 Order. Oliver says that ft the most appro- 
 priate titles are those which are assumed 
 from the name of some ancient benefactor 
 or meritorious individual who was a native 
 of the place where the Lodge is held ; as, in 
 a city, the builder of the cathedral church." 
 In this country we are, it is true, precluded 
 from a selection from such a source ; but 
 there are to be found some of those old ben- 
 efactors of Freemasonry, who, like Shak- 
 speare and Milton, or Homer and Virgil, 
 have ceased to belong to any particular 
 country, and have now become the common 
 property of the world-wide Craft. There 
 are, for instance, Carausius, the first royal 
 patron of Masonry in England; and St. 
 Alban, the first Grand Master ; and Athel- 
 stan and Prince Edwin, both active encour- 
 agers of the art in the same kingdom. 
 There are Wykeham, Ghindulph, Giffard, 
 Lang ham, Yevele, (called, in the old records, 
 the King's Freemason,) and Chicheley, Jer- 
 myn, and Wren, all illustrious Grand Mas- 
 ters of England, each of whom would be 
 well entitled to the honor of giving name 
 to a Lodge, and any one of whom would be 
 better, more euphonious, and more spirit- 
 stirring than the unmeaning, and often- 
 times crabbed, name of some obscure vil- 
 lage or post-office, from which too many 
 of our Lodges derive their titles. 
 
 And then, again, among the great bene- 
 factors to Masonic literature and laborers 
 in Masonic science there are such names as 
 Anderson, Dunckerley, Preston, Hutchinson, 
 Town, Webb, and a host of others, who, 
 though dead, still live by their writings in 
 our memories. 
 
 The virtues and tenets — the inculcation 
 and practice of which constitute an import- 
 ant part of the Masonic system — form 
 very excellent and appropriate names for 
 Lodges, and have always been popular 
 among correct Masonic nomenclators. 
 Thus we everywhere find such names as 
 Charity, Concord, Equality, Faith, Fellow- 
 ship, Harmony, Hope, Humility, Mystic Tie, 
 
 NAMES 
 
 523 
 
 Relief, Truth, Union, and Virtue. Fre- 
 quently, by a transposition of the word 
 " Lodge " and the distinctive appellation, 
 with the interposition of the preposition 
 " of," a more sonorous and emphatic name 
 is given by our English and European 
 brethren, although the custom is but rarely 
 followed in this country. Thus we have 
 by this method the Lodge of Regularity, the 
 Lodge of Fidelity, the Lodge of Industry, and 
 the Lodge of Prudent Brethren, in England ; 
 and in France, the Lodge of Benevolent 
 Friends, the Lodge of Perfect Union, the 
 Lodge of the Friends of Peace, and the cele- 
 brated Lodge of the Nine Sisters. 
 
 As the names of illustrious men will 
 sometimes stimulate the members of the 
 Lodges which bear them to an emulation 
 of their characters, so the names of the Ma- 
 sonic virtues may serve to incite the breth- 
 ren to their practice, lest the inconsistency 
 of their names and their conduct should 
 excite the ridicule of the world. 
 
 Another fertile and appropriate source 
 of names for Lodges is to be found in the 
 symbols and implements of the Order. 
 Hence, we frequently meet with such titles 
 as Level, Trowel, Rising Star, Rising Sun, 
 Olive Branch, Evergreen, Doric, Corinthian, 
 Delta, and Comer-Stone Lodges. Acacia is 
 one of the most common, and at the same 
 time one of the most beautiful, of these sym- 
 bolic names; but, unfortunately, through 
 gross ignorance, it is often corrupted into 
 Cassia — an insignificant plant, which has 
 no Masonic or symbolic meaning. 
 
 An important rule in the nomenclature 
 of Lodges, and one which must at once 
 recommend itself to every person of taste, 
 is that the name should be euphonious. 
 This principle of euphony has been too lit- 
 tle attended to in the selection of even geo- 
 graphical names in this country, where 
 names with impracticable sounds, or with 
 ludicrous associations, are often affixed to 
 our towns and rivers. Speaking of a cer- 
 tain island, with the unpronounceable name 
 of " Srh," Lieber says, " If Homer himself 
 were born on such an island, it could not 
 become immortal, for the best -disposed 
 scholar would be unable to remember the 
 name ; " and he thinks that it was no tri- 
 fling obstacle to the fame of many Polish 
 heroes in the revolution of that country, 
 that they had names which left upon the 
 mind of foreigners no effect but that of ut- 
 ter confusion. An error like this must al- 
 ways be avoided in bestowing a name upon 
 a Lodge. The word selected should be soft, 
 vocal — not too long nor too short — and, 
 above all, be accompanied in its sound or 
 meaning by no low, indecorous, or ludi- 
 crous association. For this reason such 
 names of Lodges should be rejected as She- 
 
524 
 
 NAMES 
 
 NAMES 
 
 boygan and Oconomowoc from the registry 
 of Wisconsin, because of the uncouthness 
 of the sound ;• and Bough and Beady and 
 Indian Diggings from that of California, on 
 account of the ludicrous associations which 
 these names convey. Again, Pythagoras 
 Lodge is preferable to Pythagorean, and 
 Archimedes is better than Archimedean, be- 
 cause the noun is more euphonious and 
 more easily pronounced than the adjective. 
 But this rule is difficult to illustrate or en- 
 force; for, after all, this thing of euphony 
 is a mere matter of taste, and we all know 
 the adage, " de gustibus." 
 
 A few negative rules, which are, however, 
 easily deduced from the affirmative ones 
 already given, will complete the topic. 
 
 No name of a Lodge should be adopted 
 which is not, in some reputable way, con- 
 nected with Masonry. Everybody will ac- 
 knowledge that Morgan Lodge would be an 
 anomaly, and that Cowan Lodge would, if 
 possible, be worse. But there are some 
 names which, although not quite as bad as 
 these, are on principle equally as objection- 
 able. Why should any of our Lodges, for 
 instance, assume, as many of them have, 
 the names of Madison, Jefferson, or Taylor, 
 since none of these distinguished men were 
 Masons or patrons of the Craft ? 
 
 The indiscriminate use of the names of 
 saints unconnected with Masonry is for a 
 similar reason objectionable. Besides our 
 patrons St. John the Baptist and St. John 
 the Evangelist, but three other saints can 
 lay any claims to Masonic honors, and these 
 are St. Alban, who introduced, or is said to 
 have introduced, the Order into England, 
 and has been liberally complimented in the 
 nomenclature of Lodges ; and St. Swithin, 
 who was at the head of the Craft in the 
 reign of Ethelwolf ; and St. Benedict, who 
 was the founder of the Masonic fraternity 
 of Bridge Builders. But St. Mark, St. 
 Luke, St. Andrew, all of whom have given 
 names to numerous Lodges, can have no 
 pretensions to assist as sponsors in these 
 Masonic baptisms, since they were not at 
 all connected with the Craft. 
 
 To the Indian names of Lodges there is 
 a radical objection. It is true that their 
 names are often very euphonious and al- 
 ways significant, for the red men of our 
 continent are tasteful and ingenious in their 
 selection of names — much more so, indeed, 
 than the whites, who borrow from them; 
 but their significance has nothing to do 
 with Masonry. "The Father of the 
 Waters" is a profoundly poetic name in 
 the original Indian tongue, now represented 
 by the word " Mississippi," and beautifully 
 expresses the name of that majestic river, 
 which pursues its long course of three 
 thousand miles from beyond the lakes to 
 
 the Gulf, receiving in its stately progress, 
 all its mighty children to its bosom ; but 
 the same name has no significance what- 
 ever when applied to a Lodge. Mississippi, 
 as the name of a river, has a meaning, and 
 an appropriate one, too ; as the name of a 
 Lodge it has none, or a wholly inappropri- 
 ate one. Such names, therefore, as Tula- 
 homa, Tohepeka, Tuscarawas, or Keozanqua, 
 mellifluous as some of them are in sound, 
 should be rejected, because, if they have an 
 appropriate meaning, scarcely any one 
 knows what it is; and it is much more 
 probable that they have no appropriate 
 meaning at all. The Indian names of 
 rivers, mountains, and towns should be 
 preserved, because they are the memorials 
 of the original owners of the soil ; but the 
 Indians have no such claims upon Masonry. 
 
 There is, in the jurisdiction of New York, 
 a Manhattan Lodge ; now it is said that, 
 in the aboriginal language, Manhattan 
 means " the place where we all got drunk," 
 and the island was so called because it was 
 there that the savages first met the white 
 men, and tasted to excess their " fire water." 
 It is not difficult to decide whether a name 
 with such a meaning is appropriate for a 
 Lodge, one of whose cardinal principles is 
 temperance — a principle which I have not 
 the least doubt that the worthy members 
 of Manhattan Lodge duly observe. There 
 is, besides all this, an incongruity in borrow- 
 ing the appellations of a great religious 
 and scientific association from the language 
 of savage and idolatrous tribes. 
 
 The same incongruity forbids the name 
 of the heathen deities. The authors of the 
 "Helvetian Code" condemn the use of 
 such names as the Apollo, the Minerva, or 
 the Vesta, " as being heathen, and furnish- 
 ing ideas of idolatry and superstition." 
 From this rule should, however, be excepted 
 a few names of Pagan divinities, which 
 have in'philosophical language become the 
 symbols of ideas appropriate to the Ma- 
 sonic system. Thus Hermes, as the symbol 
 of science, or Vesta, as denoting the fire of 
 Masonry, which burns undimmed upon its 
 altars, may be tolerated ; but such titles as 
 Venus and Mars, both of which are to be 
 found in old lists of Russian Lodges, are 
 clearly inadmissible. 
 
 These rules and the principles on which 
 they are founded are by no means unim* 
 portant. If the old Latin adage be true — 
 bonum nomen, bonum omen " — if, in 
 every circumstance of life, a good name is 
 found to be more propitious than a bad 
 one, then it is essential that a new Lodge, 
 making choice of a name by which it shall 
 forever thereafter be known, should rather 
 select one that is appropriate, euphonious, 
 and expressive, than one that is unfitting, 
 
NAMUR 
 
 NAYMUS 
 
 525 
 
 uncouth, and meaningless. And it is use- 
 ful that some rules should be established 
 by which the members may be enabled 
 without difficulty to make this selection. 
 It is not meant to exaggerate the impor- 
 tance of names; but, while it is admitted 
 that a good Lodge with a bad name is 
 better than a bad Lodge with a good one, 
 it is certain that a good Lodge with a good 
 name is better than either. 
 
 What has been said of Lodges may with 
 equal propriety be said, mutatis mutandis, 
 oi Chapters, Councils, and Commanderies. 
 
 Xa in iir. A city of Belgium, where the 
 Primitive Scottish Rite was first established ; 
 hence sometimes called the Rite of Namur. 
 
 Naphtall. The territory of the tribe 
 of Naphtali adjoined, on its western border, 
 to Phoenicia, and there must, therefore, 
 have been frequent and easy communication 
 between the Phoenicians and the Naphtal- 
 ites, resulting sometimes in intermarriage. 
 This will explain the fact that Hiram the 
 Builder was the son of a widow of Naphtali 
 and a man of Tyre. 
 
 Naples. Freemasonry must have been 
 practised in Naples before 1751, for in that 
 year King Charles issued an edict forbid- 
 ding it in his dominions. The author of 
 Anti-Saint Nicaise says that there was a 
 Grand Lodge at Naples, in 1756, which was 
 in correspondence with the Lodges of Ger- 
 many. But its meetings were suspended 
 by a royal edict in Sept., 1775. In 1777 
 this edict was repealed at the instigation 
 of the Queen, and Masonry was again toler- 
 ated. This toleration lasted, however, only 
 for a brief period. In 1781 Ferdinand IV. 
 renewed the edict of suppression, and from 
 that time until the end of the century 
 Freemasonry was subjected in Italy to the 
 combined persecutions of the Church and 
 State, and the Masons of Naples met only 
 in secret. In 1793, after the French Revo- 
 lution, many Lodges were openly organized. 
 A Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite 
 was established on the 11th of June, 1809, 
 of which King Joachim was elected Grand 
 Master, and the Grand Orient of Naples on 
 the 24th of the same month. The fact that 
 the Grand Orient worked according to the 
 French Rite, and the Supreme Council ac- 
 cording to the Scottish, caused dissensions 
 between the two bodies, which, however, 
 were finally healed. And on the 23d of 
 May, 1811, a Concordat was established 
 between the Supreme Council and the 
 Grand Orient, by which the latter took the 
 supervision of the degrees up to the eigh- 
 teenth, and the former of those from the 
 eighteenth to the thirty-third. In October, 
 1812, King Joachim accepted the presi- 
 dency of the Supreme Council as its Grand 
 Commander. Both bodies became extinct 
 
 in 18l5, on the accession of the Bour- 
 bons. 
 
 Napoleonic Masonry. An Order 
 under this name, called also the French 
 Order of Noachites, was established at 
 Paris, in 1816, by some of the adherents of 
 the Emperor Napoleon. It was divided 
 into three degrees: 1. Knight; 2. Com- 
 mander ; 3. Grand Elect. The last degree 
 was subdivided into three points : i. Secret 
 Judge ; ii. Perfect Initiate ; iii. Knight of 
 the Crown of Oak. The mystical ladder 
 in this Rite consisted of eight steps or 
 stages, whose names were Adam, Eve, 
 Noah, Lamech, Naamah, Peleg, Oubal, 
 and Orient. The initials of these words, 
 properly transposed, compose the word Na- 
 poleon, and this is enough to show the 
 character of the system. General Ber- 
 trand was elected Grand Master, but, as he 
 was then in the island of St. Helena, the 
 Order was directed by a Supreme Com- 
 mander and two Lieutenants. It was Ma- 
 sonic in form only, and lasted but for a few 
 years. 
 
 National Grand Lodge of Ger- 
 many. The Royal Mother Lodge of the 
 Three Globes, which had been established 
 at Berlin in 1740, and recognized as a 
 Grand Lodge by Frederick the Great in 
 1744, renounced the Rite of Strict Observ- 
 ance in 1771, and, declaring itself free and 
 independent, assumed the title of "The 
 Grand National Mother Lodge of the Three 
 Globes," by which appellation it is still 
 known. 
 
 The Grand Orient of France, among its 
 first acts, established, as an integral part 
 of itself, a National Grand Lodge of France, 
 which was to take the place of the old Grand 
 Lodge, which, it declared, had ceased to 
 exist. But the year after, in 1773, the Na- 
 tional Grand Lodge was suppressed by the 
 power which had given it birth ; and no such 
 power is now recognized in French Masonry. 
 
 Naymus Grecus. The Sloane MS. 
 contains the following passage : " Y' befell 
 that their was a curious Masson that height 
 [was called] Naymus Grecus that had byn 
 at the making of Sallomon's Temple, and 
 he came into France, and there he taught 
 the science of Massonrey to men of France." 
 Who was this "Naymus Grecus"? The 
 writers of these old records of Masonry are 
 notorious for the way in which they mangle 
 all names and words that are in a foreign 
 tongue. Hence it is impossible to say who 
 or what is meant by this word. It is dif- 
 ferently spelled in the various manuscripts : 
 JVamas Grecious in the Landsdowne, Naymus 
 Grcecus in the Sloane, Grecus alone in the 
 Edinburgh-Kilwinning, and Maynus Grecuz 
 in the Dowland. Anderson, in the second 
 edition of his Constitutions, (1738,) calls 
 
526 
 
 NAZARETH 
 
 NEGRO 
 
 him Mimus Orecm. Now, it would not be 
 an altogether wild conjecture to suppose 
 that some confused idea of Magna Graecia 
 was floating in the minds of these unlettered 
 Masons, especially since the Leland Manu- 
 script records that in Magna Graecia Pythag- 
 oras established his school, and then sent 
 Masons into France. Between Magna Grce- 
 cia and Maynus Grecus the bridge is a short 
 one, not greater than between Tubal -coin 
 and Wackan, which we find in a German 
 Middle Age document. The one being the 
 name of a place and the other of a person 
 would be no obstacle to these accommodat- 
 ing record writers; nor must we flinch 
 at the anachronism of placing one of the 
 disciples of Pythagoras at the building of 
 the Solomonic Temple, when we remember 
 that the same writers make Euclid and 
 Abraham contemporaries. 
 
 Nazareth. A city of Galilee, in which 
 our Saviour spent his childhood and much 
 of his life, and whence he is often called, 
 in the New Testament, the Nazarene, or 
 Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus Nazarenus was a 
 portion of the inscription on the cross. 
 (See /. N. R. I.) In the Rose Croix, Naz- 
 areth is a significant word, and Jesus is 
 designated as " our Master of Nazareth," 
 to indicate the origin and nature of the new 
 dogmas on which the Order of the Rosy 
 Cross was instituted. 
 
 Nebraska. Masonry was introduced 
 into Nebraska in Oct., 1855, by a' Charter 
 from the Grand Lodge of Illinois to Ne- 
 braska Lodge. Two other Lodges were sub- 
 sequently chartered by the Grand Lodges 
 of Missouri and Iowa. In Sept., 1857, the 
 Grand Lodge of Nebraska was organized 
 by a convention of delegates from these 
 three Lodges, and R. C. Jordan was elected 
 Grand Master. The Grand Chapter was 
 organized March 19, 1867. The Grand 
 Commandery of Nebraska was instituted 
 at Omaha, December 28, 1871. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar. About 630 years 
 B. c. the empire and city of Babylon were 
 conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, the king of 
 the Chaldeans, a nomadic race, who, de- 
 scending from their homes in the Cauca- 
 sian mountains, had overwhelmed the 
 countries of Southern Asia. Nebuchad- 
 nezzar was engaged during his whole reign 
 in wars of conquest. Among other nations 
 who fell beneath his victorious arms was 
 Judea, whose king, Jehoiakim, was slain 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, and his son, Jehoia- 
 chin, ascended the Jewish throne. After 
 a reign of three years, he was deposed by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, and his kingdom given 
 to his uncle, Zedekiah, a monarch distin- 
 guished for his vices. Having repeatedly 
 rebelled against the Babylonian king, Nebu- 
 chadnezzar repaired to Jerusalem, and, after 
 
 a siege of eighteen months, reduced it. 
 The city was levelled with the ground, the 
 Temple pillaged and burned, and the in- 
 habitants carried captive to Babylon. These 
 events are commemorated in the first section 
 of the English and American Royal Arch 
 system. 
 
 Nebuzaradan. A captain, or, as we 
 would now call him, a general of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, who commanded the Chaldean 
 army at the siege of Jerusalem, and who 
 executed the orders of his sovereign by 
 the destruction of the city and Temple, and 
 by carrying the inhabitants, except a few 
 husbandmen, as captives to Babylon. 
 
 Negro Lodges. The subject of 
 Lodges of colored persons, commonly called 
 " Negro Lodges," was for many years a 
 source of agitation in the United States, 
 not on account, generally, of the color of 
 the members of these Lodgos, but on ac- 
 count of the supposed illegality of their 
 charters. The history of their organization 
 was thoroughly investigated, many years 
 ago, by Bro. Philip S. Tucker, of Vermont, 
 and Charles W. Moore, of Massachusetts, 
 and the result is here given, with the addi- 
 tion of certain facts derived from a state- 
 ment made by the officers of the Lodge in 
 1827. 
 
 On the 20th of Sept., 1784, a Charter for 
 a Master's Lodge was granted, although not 
 received until 1787, to Prince Hall and 
 others, all colored men, under the authority 
 of the Grand Lodge of England. The 
 Lodge bore the name of " African Lodge, 
 No. 429," and was situated in the city of 
 Boston. This Lodge ceased its connection 
 with the Grand Lodge of England for many 
 years, and about the beginning of the pres- 
 ent century its registration was stricken 
 from the rolls of that Grand Lodge, its legal 
 existence, in the meantime, never having 
 been recognized by the Grand Lodge of 
 Massachusetts, to which body it had always 
 refused to acknowledge allegiance. 
 
 After the death of Hall and his col- 
 leagues, to whom the Charter had been 
 granted, the Lodge, for want of some one 
 to conduct its affairs, fell into abeyance, or, 
 to use the technical phrase, became dor- 
 mant. After some years it was revived, but 
 by whom, or under what process of Ma- 
 sonic law, is not stated, and information of 
 the revival given to the Grand Lodge of 
 England, but no reply or recognition was 
 received from that body. After some hesi- 
 tation as to what would be the proper 
 course to pursue, they came to the conclu- 
 sion, as they have themselves stated, " that, 
 with what knowledge they possessed of Ma- 
 sonry, and as people of color by themselves, 
 they were, and ought by rights to be, free 
 and independent of other Lodges." Ac- 
 
NEIGHBOR 
 
 NETHERLANDS 
 
 527 
 
 cordingly, on the 18th of June, 1827, they 
 issued a protocol, in which they said : " We 
 publicly declare ourselves free and inde- 
 pendent of any Lodge from this day, and 
 we will not be tributary or governed by any 
 Lodge but that of our own." They soon 
 after assumed the name of the "Prince 
 Hall Grand Lodge," and issued charters 
 for the constitution of subordinates, and 
 from it have proceeded all the Lodges of 
 colored persons now existing in the United 
 States. 
 
 Admitting even the legality of the Eng- 
 lish charter of 1784, — which, however, is 
 questionable, as there was already a Ma- 
 sonic authority in Massachusetts upon 
 whose prerogatives of jurisdiction such 
 charter was an invasion, — it cannot be de- 
 nied that the unrecognized self-revival of 
 1827, and the subsequent assumption of 
 Grand Lodge powers, were illegal, and ren- 
 dered both the Prince Hall Grand Lodge 
 and all the Lodges which emanated from 
 it clandestine. And this has been the 
 unanimous opinion of all Masonic jurists in 
 this country. 
 
 Neighbor. All the Old Constitutions 
 have the charge that " every Mason shall 
 keep true counsel of Lodge and Chamber," 
 (Sloane MS.) This is enlarged in the An- 
 dersonian Charges of 1722 thus : " You are 
 not to let your family, friends, and neighbors 
 know the concerns of the Lodge." How- 
 ever loquacious a Mason may be in the 
 natural confidence of neighborhood inter- 
 course, he must be reserved in all that re- 
 lates to the esoteric concerns of Masonry. 
 
 Nekain. DpJ. But properly, accord- 
 ing to the Masoretic pointing, NAKAM. A 
 Hebrew word signifying Vengeance, and a 
 significant word in the nigh degrees. See 
 Vengeance. 
 
 Nekamah. nDpJ. Hebrew, signify- 
 ing Vengeance, and, like Nakam, a signifi- 
 cant word in the high degrees. 
 
 Nembroth. A corruption of Nimrod, 
 frequently used in the Old Records. 
 
 Neophyte. Greek, ve<xj>vtos, newly 
 planted. In the primitive church, it signi- 
 fied one who had recently abandoned Juda- 
 ism or Paganism and embraced Christian- 
 ity; and in the Roman Church those re- 
 cently admitted into its communion are 
 still so called. Hence it has also been ap- 
 plied to the young disciple of any art or 
 science. Thus Ben Jonson calls a young 
 actor, at his first entrance " on the boards," 
 a neophyte player. In Freemasonry the 
 newly initiated and uninstructed candidate 
 is sometimes so designated. 
 
 Neoplatonisni. A philosophical 
 school, founded at Alexandria in Egypt, 
 which added to the theosophic theories of 
 Plato many mystical doctrines borrowed 
 
 from the East. The principal disciples of 
 this school were Philo, Judseus, Plotinus, 
 Porphyry, Jamblichus, Proclus, and Julian 
 the Apostate. Much of the symbolic teach- 
 ing of the higher degrees of Masonry has 
 been derived from the school of the Neo- 
 
 Slatonists, especially from the writings of 
 amblichus and Philo Judseus. 
 Ne pins ultra. Latin. Nothing more 
 beyond. The motto adopted for the degree 
 of Kadosh by its founders, when it was 
 supposed to be the summit of Masonry, be- 
 yond which there was nothing more to be 
 sought. And, although higher degrees 
 have been since added, the motto is still 
 retained. 
 
 Netherlands. Speculative Masonry 
 was first introduced in the Netherlands by 
 the opening at the Hague, in 1731, of an occa- 
 sional Lodge under a Deputation granted by 
 Lord LoveT, G. M. of England, of which Dr. 
 Desaguliers was Master, for the purpose of 
 conferring thefirstand second degrees on the 
 Duke of Lorraine, afterwards the Emperor 
 Francis I. He received the third degree 
 subsequently in England. But it was not 
 until September 80th, 1734, that a regular 
 Lodge was opened by Brother Vincent de 
 la Chapelle, as Grand Master of the United 
 Provinces, who may therefore be regarded 
 as the originator of Masonry in the Nether- 
 lands. In 1735, this Lodge received a 
 Patent or Deputation from the Grand Lodge 
 of England, John Cornelius Rademaker, 
 being appointed Provincial Grand Master, 
 and several daughter Lodges were es- 
 tablished by it. In the same year the 
 States General prohibited all Masonic 
 meetings by an edict issued Nov. 30th, 1735. 
 The Roman clergy actively persecuted the 
 Masons, which seems to have produced a re- 
 action, for in 1737 the magistrates repealed 
 the edict of suppression, and forbade the 
 clergy from any interference with the 
 Order, after which Masonry flourished in 
 the United Provinces. The Masonic inno- 
 vations and controversies that had affected 
 the rest of the continent never successfully 
 obtruded on the Dutch Masons, who prac- 
 tised with great fidelity the simple rite of 
 the Grand Lodge of England, although 
 an attempt had been made in 1757 to in- 
 troduce them. In 1798, the Grand Lodge 
 adopted a Book of Statutes, by which it ac- 
 cepted the three symbolic degrees, and re- 
 ferred the four high degrees of the French 
 Rite to a Grand Chapter. In 1816, Prince 
 Frederick attempted a reform in the de- 
 grees, which was, however, only partially 
 successful. The Grand Lodge of the 
 Netherlands, whose Orient is at the Hague, 
 tolerates the high degrees without actually 
 recognizing them. Most of the Lodges 
 confine themselves to the symbolic degrees 
 
528 
 
 NET-WORK 
 
 NICOLAI 
 
 of St. John's Masonry, while a few prac- 
 tise the reformed system of Prince Fred- 
 erick. 
 
 Net- Work. One of the decorations 
 of the pillars at the porch of the Temple. 
 See Pillars of the Porch. 
 
 Nevada. Nevada was originally a 
 part of California, and when separated 
 from it in 1865, there were eight Lodges 
 in it working under Charters from the 
 Grand Lodge of California. These Lodges 
 in that year held a convention at Virginia, 
 and organized the Grand Lodge of Nevada. 
 
 Ne Varietur. Latin. Lest it should 
 be chanyed. These words refer to the Ma- 
 sonic usage of requiring a brother, when he 
 receives a certificate from a Lodge, to affix 
 his name, in his own handwriting, in the 
 margin, as a precautionary measure, which 
 enables distant brethren, by a comparison 
 of the handwriting, to recognize the true 
 and original owner of the certificate, and 
 to detect any impostor who may surrepti- 
 tiously have obtained one. 
 
 Jfew Brunswick.. Freemasonry was 
 introduced into this province about the 
 middle of the last century by both the 
 Grand Lodges of Scotland and England, 
 and afterwards by that of Ireland. The 
 former two bodies appointed, at a later 
 period, Provincial Grand Masters, and in 
 1844 the Provincial Grand Lodge of Nova 
 Scotia and New Brunswick was organized 
 on the registry of Scotland. The province 
 of New Brunswick becoming an indepen- 
 dent portion of the Dominion of Canada, a 
 Grand Lodge was established in Septem- 
 ber, 1867, by a majority of the Lodges of 
 the territory, and B. Lester Peters was 
 elected Grand Master. Capitular, Cryptic, 
 and Templar Masonry each have bodies in 
 the province. 
 
 New Hampshire. Freemasonry 
 was introduced into New Hampshire in 
 June, 1734, by the constitution of St. 
 John's Lodge at Portsmouth, under a 
 Charter from the Grand Lodge of Massa- 
 chusetts. Several other Lodges were sub- 
 sequently constituted by the same au- 
 thority. In 1789 a convention of these 
 Lodges was held at Dartmouth, and the 
 Grand Lodge of New Hampshire organ- 
 ized, and John Sullivan, the President of 
 the State, was elected Grand Master. A 
 Grand Chapter was organized in 1819, and a 
 Grand Commandery in 1860. 
 
 New Jersey. We do not know at 
 what precise period Freemasonry was in- 
 troduced into New Jersey. Preston says 
 that in 1729, during the Grand Mastership 
 of the Duke of Norfolk, Mr. Daniel Coxe 
 was appointed Provincial Grand Master 
 for New Jersey. I have not been able to 
 obtain any evidence that he exercised his 
 
 prerogative by the establishment of Lodges 
 in that province, but presume that he did. 
 On Dec. 18, 1786, a convention was held 
 at New Brunswick, and a Grand Lodge or- 
 ganized, the Hon. David Brearley, Chief 
 Justice of the State, being elected Grand 
 Master. The Grand Chapter was organ- 
 ized at Burlington, Dec. 30, 1856; the 
 Grand Council, Nov. 26, 1860; and the 
 Grand Commandery, Feb. 14, 1860. 
 
 New York. If we exclude the Depu- 
 tation of David Coxe for New Jersey, 
 which included New York and several 
 other provinces, the first Deputation for 
 New York was that granted in 1737, dur- 
 ing the Grand Mastership of the Earl of 
 Darnley, to Richard Riggs as Provincial 
 Grand Master; but there is no record of 
 his having established any Lodges. In 
 1747 another Deputation was issued, during 
 the Grand Mastership of Lord Byron, to 
 Francis Goulet. In 1753, Lord Carysfort 
 being Grand Master of England, a Deputa- 
 tion was issued to George Harrison. As 
 Provincial Grand Master, he organized 
 several Lodges. In 1760, Sir John John- 
 son was appointed Provincial Grand Mas- 
 ter, and he held the office until the com- 
 mencement of the Revolutionary War. 
 During that war most, if not all, of the 
 Lodges suspended labor. On Sept. 5, 1781, 
 a Warrant was obtained from the Athol 
 Grand Lodge, and a Provincial Grand 
 Lodge was opened in the city of New 
 York. After the close of the war, this 
 body abandoned its provincial character, and 
 assumed the title of the " Grand Lodge of 
 Free and Accepted Masons of the State of 
 New York," and under that title it con- 
 tinues to exist. Dissensions and schisms 
 have, from time to time, arisen, but for 
 many years past there has been uninter- 
 rupted harmony and union. The Grand 
 Chapter was organized March 4, 1798 ; the 
 Grand Council of Royal and Select Mas- 
 ters in 1807 ; and the Grand Commandery, 
 June 18, 1814. The Scottish Rite was first 
 legally introduced as a governing body in 
 1813, by the formation, in the city of New 
 York, of a Supreme Council for the North- 
 ern Jurisdiction by the Mother Council at 
 Charleston. A Lodge of Perfection had, 
 however, long before existed at Albany. 
 
 Nicolai, Ckristopk Friedrich. 
 Christopher Frederick Nicolai, author of 
 a very interesting essay on the origin of 
 the Society of Freemasons, was a book- 
 seller of Berlin, and one of the most dis- 
 tinguished of the German savans of that 
 Augustan age of German literature in which 
 he lived. He was born at Berlin on the 
 18th of March, 1733, and died in the same 
 city on the 8th of January, 1811. He was the 
 editor of, and an industrious contributor to, 
 
NICOLAI 
 
 NIGHT 
 
 529 
 
 two German periodicals of high literary char- 
 acter, a learned writer on various subjects 
 of science and philosophy, and the intimate 
 friend of Lessing, whose works he edited, 
 and of the illustrious Mendelssohn. 
 
 In 1782-3, he published a work with the 
 following title: Versuch iiber die Besschuldi- 
 gungen welcke dem Tempelherrnorden gemacht 
 worden und iiber dessen Geheimniss ; nebst 
 einem Anhange iiber das Enstehen der Frei- 
 maurergesellschaft ; i. e., " An Essay on the 
 accusations made against the Order of 
 Knights Templars and their mystery; with 
 an Appendix on the origin of the Frater- 
 nity of Freemasons." In this work Nicolai 
 advanced his peculiar theory on the origin 
 of Freemasonry, which is substantially as 
 follows : 
 
 Lord Bacon, taking certain hints from 
 the writings of Andrea, the founder of 
 Rosicrucianism and his English disciple, 
 Fludd, on the subject of the regeneration 
 of the world, proposed to accomplish the 
 same object, but by a different and entirely 
 opposite method. For, whereas, they ex- 
 plained everything esoterically, Bacon's 
 plan was to abolish all distinction between 
 the esoteric and the exoteric, and to de- 
 monstrate everything by proofs from na- 
 ture. This idea he first promulgated in his 
 Instauratio Magna, but afterwards more 
 fully developed in his New Atlantis. In 
 this latter work, he introduced his beauti- 
 ful apologue, abounding in Masonic ideas, 
 in which he described the unknown island 
 of Bensalem, where a king had built a 
 large edifice, called after himself, Solomon's 
 House. Charles I., it is said, had been 
 much attracted by this idea, and had in- 
 tended to found something of the kind 
 upon the plan of Solomon's Temple, but 
 the occurrence of the civil war prevented 
 the execution of the project. 
 
 The idea lay for some time dormant, but 
 was subsequently revived, in 1646, by Wal- 
 lis, Wilkins, and several other learned men, 
 who established the Royal Society for the 
 purpose of carrying out Bacon's plan of 
 communicating to the world scientific and 
 philosophical truths. About the same time 
 another society was formed by other learned 
 men, who sought to arrive at truth by the in- 
 vestigations of alchemy and astrology. To 
 this society such men as Ashmole and 
 Lily were attached, and they resolved to 
 construct a House of Solomon in the island 
 of Bensalem, where they might communi- 
 cate their instructions by means of secret 
 symbols. To cover their mysterious de- 
 signs, they got themselves admitted into 
 the Mason's Company, and held their meet- 
 ings at Masons' Hall, in Masons' Alley, 
 Basinghall Street. As freemen of London, 
 they took the name of Freemasons, and 
 3 R 84 
 
 naturally adopted the Masonic implements 
 as symbols. Although this association, like 
 the Royal Society, sought, but by a different 
 method, to inculcate the principles of natu- 
 ral science and philosophy, it subsequently 
 took a political direction. Most of its 
 members were strongly opposed to the 
 puritanism of the dominant party and were 
 in favor of the royal cause, and hence their 
 meetings, ostensibly held for the purpose 
 of scientific investigation, were really used 
 to conceal their secret political efforts to 
 restore the exiled house of Stuart. From 
 this society, which subsequently underwent 
 a decadence, sprang out the revival in 
 1717, which culminated in the establish- 
 ment of the Grand Lodge of England. 
 
 Such was the theory of Nicolai. Few 
 will be found at the present day to concur 
 in all his views, yet none can refuse to 
 award to him the praise of independence of 
 opinion, originality of thought, and an en- 
 tire avoidance of the beaten paths of hear- 
 say testimony and unsupported tradition. 
 His results may be rejected, but his method 
 of attaining them must be commended. 
 
 Wight. Lodges, all over the world, 
 meet, except on special occasions, at night. 
 In this selection of the hours of night and 
 darkness for initiation, the usual coinci- 
 dence will be found between the ceremonies 
 of Freemasonry and those of the Ancient 
 Mysteries, showing their evident derivation 
 from a common origin. Justin says that 
 at Eleusis, Triptolemus invented the art of 
 sowing corn, and that, in honor of this in- 
 vention, the nights were consecrated to 
 initiation. The application is, however, 
 rather abstruse. 
 
 In the Bacckxs of Euripides, that au- 
 thor introduces the god Bacchus, the sup- 
 posed inventor of the Dionysian mysteries, 
 as replying to the question of King Pen- 
 theus in the following words : 
 
 IIEN. Ta i'lcpd vimtp, f) pcP $pipav rtXti? ; 
 A 01, Hvktup ra noXld at^varnr' 8xu bkoto(. 
 Eurip. Bacch. Act II., 1. 485. 
 
 " Pentheus. — By night or day, these sacred rites 
 perform'st thou ? 
 Bacchus. — Mostly by night, for venerable is 
 darkness ; " 
 
 and in all the other mysteries the same reason 
 was assigned for nocturnal celebrations, since 
 night and darkness have something solemn 
 and august in them which is disposed to fill 
 the mind with sacred awe. And hence 
 black, as an emblem of darkness and night, 
 was considered as the color appropriate to 
 the mysteries. 
 
 In the mysteries of Hindustan, the can- 
 didate for initiation, having been duly pre- 
 pared by previous purifications, was led at 
 
530 
 
 NILE 
 
 NINE 
 
 the dead of night to the gloomy cavern, in 
 which the mystic rites were performed. 
 
 The same period of darkness was adopted 
 for the celebration of the mysteries of Mi- 
 thras, in Persia. Among the Druids of 
 Britain and Gaul, the principal annual ini- 
 tiation commenced at " low twelve," or 
 midnight of the eve of May- day. In short, 
 it is indisputable that the initiations in all 
 the Ancient Mysteries were nocturnal in 
 their character. 
 
 The reason given by the ancients for this 
 selection of night as the time for initiation, 
 is equally applicable to the system of Free- 
 masonry. " Darkness," says Oliver, " was 
 an emblem of death, and death was a pre- 
 lude to resurrection. It will be at once 
 seen, therefore, in what manner the doctrine 
 of the resurrection was inculcated and ex- 
 emplified in these remarkable institutions." 
 
 Death and the resurrection were the doc- 
 trines taught in the Ancient Mysteries ; and 
 night and darkness were necessary to add to 
 the sacred awe and reverence which these 
 doctrines ought always to inspire in the ra- 
 tional and contemplative mind. The same 
 doctrines form the very groundwork of 
 Freemasonry ; and as the Master Mason, to 
 use the language of Hutchinson, " repre- 
 sents a man saved from the grave of iniquity 
 and raised to the faith of salvation," dark- 
 ness and night are the appropriate accom- 
 paniments to the solemn ceremonies which 
 demonstrate this profession. 
 
 Nile. There is a tradition in the old 
 Masonic Records that the inundations of 
 the river Nile, in Egypt, continually destroy- 
 ing the perishable landmarks by which one 
 man could distinguish his possessions from 
 those of another, Euclid instructed the 
 people in the art of geometry, by which 
 they might measure their lands ; and then 
 taught them to bound them with walls and 
 ditches, so that after an inundation each 
 man could identify his own boundaries. 
 
 The tradition is given in the Cooke MS. 
 thus : " Euclyde was one of the first founders 
 of Geometry, and he gave hit name, for in 
 his tyme there was a water in that lond of 
 Egypt that is called Nilo, and hit flowid so 
 ferre into the londe that men myght not 
 dwelle therein. Then this worthi clerke 
 Enclide taught hem to make grete wallys 
 and diches to holde owt the watyr, and he 
 by Gemetria mesured the londe and de- 
 partyd hit in divers partys, and made every 
 man to close his owne parte with walles 
 and diches." This legend of the origin of 
 the art of geometry was borrowed by the 
 old Operative Masons from the Origines of 
 St. Isidore of Seville, where a similar story 
 is told. 
 
 Nil nisi olaviH. Latin. Nothing 
 but the key is wanting. A motto or device 
 
 often attached to the double triangle of 
 Royal Arch Masonry. It is inscribed on 
 the Royal Arch badge or jewel of the 
 Grand Chapter of Scotland, the other de- 
 vices being a double triangle and a triple 
 tau. 
 
 Nimrod. The legend of the Craft in 
 the Old Constitutions refers to Nimrod as 
 one of the founders of Masonry. Thus in 
 the York Manuscript we read: "At y* 
 makeing of y e Toure of Babell there was 
 Masonrie first much esteemed of, and the 
 King of Babilon y* was called Nimrod was 
 A mason himselfe and loved well Masons." 
 And the Cooke Manuscript thus repeats the 
 story: "And this same Nembroth began 
 the towre of babilon and he taught to his 
 werkemen the craft of Masonrie, and he 
 had with him many Masons more than 
 forty thousand. And he loved and cherished 
 them well." The idea no doubt sprang out 
 of the Scriptural teaching that Nimrod 
 was the architect of many cities ; a state- 
 ment not so well expressed in the author- 
 ized version, as it is in the improved one 
 of Bochart, which says : " From that land 
 Nimrod went forth to Asshur, and builded 
 Nineveh, and Rehoboth city, and Calah, 
 and Resen between Nineveh and Calah, that 
 is the great city." 
 
 Nine. If the number three was cele- 
 brated among the ancient sages, that of 
 three times three had no less celebrity ; be- 
 cause, according to them, each of the three 
 elements which constitute our bodies is 
 ternary: the water containing earth and 
 fire ; the earth containing igneous and aque- 
 ous particles ; and the fire being tempered 
 by globules of water and terrestrial corpus- 
 cles which serve to feed it. No one of the 
 three elements being entirely separated 
 from the others, all material beings com- 
 posed of these three elements, whereof each 
 is triple, may be designated by the figura- 
 tive number of three times three, which has 
 become the symbol of all formations of 
 bodies. Hence the name of ninth envelop 
 given to matter. Every materi al extension, 
 every circular line, has for its representative 
 sign the number nine among the Pythag- 
 oreans, who had observed the property 
 which this number possesses of reproducing 
 itself incessantly and entire in every mul- 
 tiplication ; thus offering to the mind a very 
 striking emblem of matter, which is inces- 
 santly composed before our eyes, after hav- 
 ing undergone a thousand decompositions. 
 
 The number nine was consecrated to the 
 Spheres and the Muses. It is the sign of 
 every circumference; because a circle or 
 360 degrees is equal to 9, that is to say, 3 -f- 
 6 + = 9. Nevertheless, the ancients re- 
 garded this number with a sort of terror : 
 they considered it a bad presage; as the 
 
NINEVEH 
 
 NOACHITE 
 
 531 
 
 symbol of versatility, of change, and the 
 emblem of the frailty of human affairs. 
 Wherefore they avoided all numbers where 
 nine appears, and chiefly 81, the produce 
 of 9 multiplied by itself, and the addition 
 whereof, 8+1, again presents the number 9. 
 
 As the figure of the number 6 was the 
 symbol of the terrestrial globe, animated 
 by a divine spirit, the figure of the number 
 9 symbolized the earth, under the influence 
 of the Evil Principle; and thence the 
 terror it inspired. Nevertheless, according 
 to the Kabbalists, the cipher 9 symbolizes 
 the generative egg, or the image of a little 
 globular being, from whose lower side seems 
 to flow its spirit of life. 
 
 The Ennead, signifying an aggregate of 
 nine things or persons, is the first square of 
 unequal numbers. 
 
 Every one is aware of the singular prop- 
 erties of the number 9, which, multiplied 
 by itself or any other number whatever, 
 gives a result whose final sum is always 9, 
 or always divisible by 9. 
 
 9, multiplied by each of the ordinary 
 numbers, produces an arithmetical pro- 
 gression, each member whereof, composed 
 of two figures, presents a remarkable fact ; 
 for example : 
 
 1. 2. 3. 4 . 5. 6. 7.8. 9. 10 
 9 . 18 . 27 . 36 . 45 . 54 . 63 . 72 . 81 . 90 
 
 The first line of figures gives the regular 
 series, from 1 to 10. 
 
 The second reproduces this line doubly ; 
 first ascending from the first figure of 18, 
 and then returning from the second figure 
 of 81. 
 
 In Freemasonry, 9 derives its value from 
 its being the product of 3 multiplied into 
 itself, and consequently in Masonic lan- 
 guage the number 9 is always denoted by 
 the expression 3 times 3. For a similar 
 reason, 27, which is 3 times 9, and 81, which 
 is 9 times 9, are esteemed as sacred numbers 
 in the higher degrees. 
 
 WineYeh. The capital of the ancient 
 kingdom of Assyria, and built by Nimrod. 
 The traditions of its greatness and the mag- 
 nificence of its buildings were familiar to 
 the Arabs, the Greeks, and the Romans. 
 The modern discoveries of Rich, of Botta, 
 and other explorers, have thrown much 
 light upon its ancient condition, and have 
 shown that it was the seat of much archi- 
 tectural splendor and of a profoundly sym- 
 bolical religion, which had something of 
 the characteristics of the Mithraic worship. 
 In the mythical relations of the Old Con- 
 stitutions, which make up the legend of 
 the Craft, it is spoken of as the ancient 
 birthplace of Masonry, where Nimrod, who 
 was its builder, and " was a Mason and 
 
 loved well the Craft," employed 60,000 Ma- 
 sons to build it, and gave them a charge 
 " that they should be true," and this, says 
 the Harleian Manuscript, was the first time 
 that any Mason had any charge of Craft. 
 
 ]Visan. JD'O. The seventh month of 
 the Hebrew civil year, and corresponding 
 to the months of March and April, com- 
 mencing with the new moon of the former. 
 
 Noachidre. The descendants of Noah. 
 A term applied to Freemasons on the the- 
 ory, derived from the " legend of the Craft," 
 that Noah was the father and founder of 
 the Masonic system of theology. And 
 hence the Freemasons claim to be his de- 
 scendants, because in times past they pre- 
 served the pure principles of his religion 
 amid the corruptions of surrounding faiths. 
 
 Dr. Anderson first used the word in this 
 sense in the second edition of the Book of 
 Constitutions : " A Mason is obliged by his 
 tenure to observe the moral law as a true 
 Noachida." But he was not the inventor 
 of the term, which, as indicating a Mason, 
 was derived by Anderson, most probably, 
 from the Chevalier Ramsay. 
 
 Noacnite, or Prussian Knight. 
 (Noachite ou Chevalier Prussian.) 1. The 
 twenty-first degree of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite. The history as well 
 as the character of this degree is a very sin- 
 gular one. It is totally unconnected with 
 the series of Masonic degrees which are 
 founded upon the Temple of Solomon, and 
 is traced to the tower of" Babel. Hence the 
 Prussian Knights call themselves Noachites, 
 or Disciples of Noah, while they designate 
 all other Masons as Hiramites, or Disciples 
 of Hiram. The early French rituals state 
 that the degree was translated in 1757 from 
 the German by M. de Beraye, Knight of 
 Eloquence in the Lodge of the Count St. 
 Gelaire, Inspector General of Prussian 
 Lodges in France. Lenning gives no credit 
 to this statement, but admits that the ori- 
 gin of the degree must be attributed to the 
 year above named. The destruction of the 
 tower of Babel constitutes the legend of the 
 degree, whose mythical founder is said to 
 have been Peleg, the chief builder of that 
 edifice. A singular regulation is that there 
 shall be no artificial light in the Lodge 
 room, and that the meetings shall be held 
 on the night of the full moon of each month. 
 
 The degree was adopted by the Council 
 of Emperors of the East and West, and in 
 that way became subsequently a part of the 
 system of the Scottish Rite. But it is mis- 
 placed in any series of degrees supposed to 
 emanate from the Solomonic Temple. It 
 is, as an unfitting link, an unsightly inter- 
 ruption of the chain of legendary symbol- 
 ism substituting Noah for Solomon, and 
 Peleg for Hiram Abif. The Supreme 
 
532 
 
 NOACHITES 
 
 NOAH 
 
 Council for the Southern Jurisdiction has 
 abandoned the original ritual and made 
 the degree a representation of the Vehmge- 
 richt or Westphalian Franc Judges. But 
 this by no means relieves the degree of the 
 objection of Masonic incompatibility. That 
 it was ever adopted into the Masonic sys- 
 tem is only to be attributed to the passion 
 for high degrees which prevailed in France 
 in the middle of the last century. 
 
 In the modern ritual the meetings are 
 called Grand Chapters. The officers are a 
 Lieutenant Commander, two Wardens, au 
 Orator, Treasurer, Secretary, Master of 
 Ceremonies, Warder, and Standard Bearer. 
 The apron is yellow, inscribed with an arm 
 holding a sword and the Egyptian figure 
 of silence. The order is black, and the 
 jewel a full moon or a triangle traversed 
 by an arrow. In the original ritual there 
 is a coat of arms belonging to the degree, 
 which is thus emblazoned : Party per less ; 
 in chief, azure, sem6 of stars, or a full moon, 
 argent ; in base, sable, an equilateral trian- 
 gle, having an arrow suspended from its 
 upper point, barb downwards, or. 
 
 The legend of the degree describes the 
 travels of Peleg from Babel to the north 
 of Europe, and ends with the following 
 narrative : " In trenching the rubbish of the 
 salt-mines of Prussia was found in A. d. 
 553, at a depth of fifteen cubits, the appear- 
 ance of a triangular building in which was 
 a column of white marble, on which was 
 written in Hebrew the whole history of 
 the Noachites. At the side of this column 
 was a tomb of freestone on which was a 
 piece of agate inscribed with the following 
 epitaph : Here rest the ashes of Peleg, our 
 Grand Architect of the tower of Babel. 
 The Almighty had pity on him because he 
 became humble." 
 
 This legend, although wholly untenable 
 on historic grounds, is not absolutely pue- 
 rile. The .dispersion of the human race 
 in the time of Peleg had always been a 
 topic of discussion among the learned. 
 Long dissertations had been written to 
 show that all the nations of the world, 
 even America, had been peopled by the 
 three sons of Noah and their descendants. 
 The object of the legend seems, then, to have 
 been to impress the idea of the thorough 
 dispersion. The fundamental idea of the 
 degree is, under the symbol of Peleg, to 
 teach the crime of assumption and the vir- 
 tue of humility. 
 
 2. The degree was also adopted into the 
 Rite of Mizraim, where it is the thirty-fifth. 
 
 Xoaohites. The same as Noachidoz, 
 which see. 
 
 Noachite, Sovereign. {Noachite 
 Souverain.) A degree contained in the no- 
 menclature of Fustier. 
 
 \oali. In all the old Masonic manu- 
 script Constitutions that are extant, Noah 
 and the flood play an important part of 
 the " Legend of the Craft." Hence, as the 
 Masonic system became developed, the 
 Patriarch was looked upon as what was 
 called a patron of Masonry. And this con- 
 nection of Noah with the mythic history 
 of the Order was rendered still closer by 
 the influence of many symbols borrowed 
 from the Arkite worship, one of the most 
 predominant of the ancient faiths. So in- 
 timately were incorporated the legends of 
 Noah with the legends of Masonry that 
 Freemasons began, at length, to be called, 
 and are still called, "Noachidse," or the 
 descendants of Noah, a term first applied 
 by Anderson, and very frequently used at 
 the present day. 
 
 It is necessary, therefore, that every 
 scholar who desires to investigate the le- 
 gendary symbolism of Freemasonry should 
 make himself acquainted with the Noachic 
 myths upon which much of it is founded. 
 Dr. Oliver, it is true, accepted them all with 
 a child-like faith; but it is not likely that 
 the sceptical inquirers of the present day 
 will attribute to them any character of au- 
 thenticity. Yet they are interesting, be- 
 cause they show us the growth of legends 
 out of symbols, and they are instructive 
 because they are for the most part sym- 
 bolic. 
 
 The " Legend of the Craft" tells us that 
 the three sons of Lamech and his daughter, 
 Naamah, " did know that God would take 
 vengeance for sin, either by fire or water ; 
 wherefore they wrote these sciences which 
 they had found in two pillars of stone, that 
 they might be found after the flood." Sub- 
 sequently, this legend took a different form, 
 and to Enoch was attributed the precaution 
 of burying the stone of foundation in the 
 bosom of Mount Moriah, and of erecting 
 the two pillars above it. 
 
 The first Masonic myth referring to Noah 
 that presents itself is one which tells us 
 that, while he was piously engaged in the 
 task of exhorting his contemporaries to 
 repentance, his attention had often been 
 directed to the pillars which Enoch had 
 erected on Mount Moriah. By diligent 
 search he at length detected the entrance 
 to the subterranean vault, and, on pursuing 
 his inquiries, discovered the stone of foun- 
 dation, although he was unable to compre- 
 hend the mystical characters there depos- 
 ited, Leaving these, therefore, where he 
 had found them, he simply took away the 
 stone of foundation on which they had 
 been deposited, and placed it in the ark as 
 a convenient altar. 
 
 Another myth, preserved in one of the 
 ineffable degrees, informs us that the ark 
 
NOAH 
 
 NOAH 
 
 533 
 
 was built of cedars which grew upon 
 Mount Lebanon, and that Noah employed 
 the Sidonians to cut them down, under the 
 superintendence of Japheth. The succes- 
 sors of these Sidonians, in after times, 
 according to the same tradition, were em- 
 ployed by King Solomon to fell and pre- 
 pare cedars on the same mountain for his 
 stupendous Temple. 
 
 The record of Genesis lays the founda- 
 tion for another series of symbolic myths 
 connected with the dove, which has thus 
 been introduced into Masonry. 
 
 After forty days, when Noah opened the 
 window of the ark that he might learn if 
 the waters had subsided, he despatched a 
 raven, which, returning, gave him no sat- 
 isfactory information. He then sent forth 
 a dove three several times, at an interval 
 of seven days between each excursion. The 
 first time, the dove, finding no resting-place, 
 quickly returned; the second time she came 
 back in the evening, bringing in her mouth 
 an olive-leaf, which showed that the waters 
 must have sufficiently abated to have ex- 
 posed the tops of the trees; but on the 
 third departure, the dry land being entirely 
 uncovered, she returned no more. 
 
 In the Arkite rites, which arose after 
 the dispersion of Babel, the dove was al- 
 ways considered as a sacred bird, in com- 
 memoration of its having been the first 
 discoverer of land. Its name, which in 
 Hebrew is ionah, was given to one of the 
 earliest nations of the earth ; and, as the 
 emblem of peace and good fortune, it be- 
 came the bird of Venus. Modern Masons 
 have commemorated the messenger of 
 Noah in the honorary degree of " Ark and 
 Dove," which is sometimes conferred on 
 Royal Arch Masons. 
 
 On the 27th day of the second month, 
 equivalent to the 12th of November, in the 
 year of the world 1657, Noah, with his 
 family, left the ark. It was exactly one 
 year of 365 days, or just one revolution of 
 the sun, that the patriarch was enclosed in 
 the ark. This was not unobserved by the 
 descendants of Noah, and hence, in conse- 
 quence of Enoch's life of 365 days, and 
 Noah's residence in the ark for the same 
 apparently mystic period, the Noachites 
 confounded the worship of the solar orb 
 with the idolatrous adoration which they 
 paid to the patriarchs who were saved 
 from the deluge. They were led to this, 
 too, from an additional reason, that Noah, 
 as the restorer of the human race, seemed, 
 in some sort, to be a type of the regenerat- 
 ing powers of the sun. 
 
 So important an event as the deluge, 
 must have produced a most impressive 
 effect upon the religious dogmas and rites 
 of the nations which succeeded it. Conse- 
 
 quently, we shall find some allusion to it 
 in the annals of every people and some 
 memorial of the principal circumstances 
 connected with it, in their religious observ- 
 ances. At first, it is to be supposed that a 
 veneration for the character of the second 
 
 {>arent of the human race must have been 
 ong preserved by his descendants. Nor 
 would they have been unmindful of the 
 proper reverence due to that sacred vessel 
 — sacred in their eyes — which had pre- 
 served their great progenitor from the fury 
 of the waters. "They would long cher- 
 ish," says Alwood, (Lit. Antiq. of Greece, p. 
 182,) "the memory of those worthies who 
 were rescued from the common lot of utter 
 ruin; they would call to mind, with an 
 extravagance of admiration, the means 
 adopted for their preservation ; they would 
 adore the wisdom which contrived, and the 
 goodness which prompted to, the execution 
 of such a plan." So pious a feeling would 
 exist, and be circumscribed within its 
 proper limits of reverential gratitude, while 
 the legends of the deluge continued to be 
 preserved in their purity, and while the 
 divine preserver of Noah was remembered 
 as the one god of his posterity. But when, 
 by the confusion and dispersion at Babel, 
 the true teachings of Enoch and Noah 
 were lost, and idolatry or polytheism was 
 substituted for the ancient faith, then 
 Noah became a god, worshipped under 
 different names in different countries, and 
 the ark was transformed into the temple 
 of the Deity. Hence arose those peculiar 
 systems of initiations which, known under 
 the name of the " Arkite rites," formed a 
 part of the worship of the ancient world, 
 and traces of which are to be found in 
 almost all the old systems of religion. 
 
 It was in the six hundredth year of his 
 age, that Noah, with his family, was re- 
 leased from the ark. Grateful for his 
 preservation, he erected an altar and pre- 
 
 Eared a sacrifice of thank-offerings to the 
 >eity. A Masonic tradition says, that for 
 this purpose he made use of that stone of 
 foundation which he had discovered in the 
 subterranean vault of Enoch, and which 
 he had carried with him into the ark. It 
 was at this time that God made his cove- 
 nant with Noah, and promised him that 
 the earth should never again be destroyed 
 by a flood. Here, too, he received those 
 commandments for the government of 
 himself and his posterity which have 
 been called "the seven precepts of the 
 Noachidse." 
 
 It is to be supposed that Noah and his 
 immediate descendants continued to live 
 for many years in the neighborhood of the 
 mountain upon which the ark had been 
 thrown by the subsidence of the waters. 
 
534 
 
 NOAH 
 
 NOMINATION 
 
 There is indeed no evidence that the patri- 
 arch ever removed from it. In the nine 
 hundred and fiftieth year of his age he 
 died, and, according to the tradition of the 
 Orientalists, was buried in the land of 
 Mesopotamia. During that period of his 
 life which was subsequent to the deluge, 
 he continued to instruct his children in the 
 great truths of religion. Hence, Masons 
 are sometimes called Noachidae, or the sons 
 of Noah, to designate them, in a peculiar 
 manner, as the preservers of the sacred 
 deposit of Masonic truth bequeathed to 
 them by their great ancestor; and cir- 
 cumstances intimately connected with the 
 transactions of the immediate descendants 
 of the patriarch are recorded in a degree 
 which has been adopted by the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite under the 
 name of " Patriarch Noachite." 
 
 The primitive teachings of the patriarch, 
 which were simple but comprehensive, con- 
 tinued to be preserved in the line of the 
 patriarchs ana the prophets to the days of 
 Solomon, but were soon lost to the other 
 descendants of Noah, by a circumstance to 
 which we must now refer. After the death of 
 Noah, his sons removed from the region of 
 Mount Ararat, where, until then, they had 
 resided, and "travelling from the East, 
 found a plain in the land of Shinar, and 
 dwelt there." Here they commenced the 
 building of a lofty tower. This act seems 
 to have been displeasing to God, for in 
 consequence of it, he confounded their 
 language, so that one could not understand 
 what another said ; the result of which was 
 that they separated and dispersed over the 
 face of the earth in search of different 
 dwelling-places. With the loss of the 
 original language, the great truths which 
 that language had conveyed, disappeared 
 from their minds. The worship of the one 
 true God was abandoned. A multitude of 
 deities began to be adored. Idolatry took 
 the place of pure theism. And then arose 
 the Arkite rites, or the worship of Noah 
 and the Ark, Sabaism, or the adoration of 
 the stars, and other superstitious observ- 
 ances, in all of which, however, the priest- 
 hood, by their mysteries or initiations into 
 a kind of Spurious Freemasonry, preserved, 
 among a multitude of errors, some faint 
 allusions to the truth, and retained just so 
 much light as to make their "darkness 
 visible." 
 
 Such are the Noachic traditions of Ma- 
 sonry, which, though if considered as ma- 
 terials of history, would be worth but little, 
 yet have furnished valuable sources of sym- 
 bolism, and in that way are full of wise 
 instruction. 
 
 Noah, Precepts of. The precepts 
 of the patriarch Noah, which were pre- 
 
 served as the Constitutions of our ancient 
 brethren, are seven in number, and are as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Renounce all idols. 
 
 2. Worship the only true God. 
 
 3. Commit no murder. 
 
 4. Be not defiled by incest. 
 
 5. Do not steal. 
 
 6. Be just. 
 
 7. Eat no flesh with blood in it. 
 
 The "proselytes of the gate," as the 
 Jews termed those who lived among them 
 without undergoing circumcision or ob- 
 serving the ceremonial law, were boirnd to 
 obey the seven precepts of Noah. The 
 Talmud says that the first six of these pre- 
 cepts were given originally by God to 
 Adam, and the seventh afterwards to Noah. 
 These precepts were designed to be obliga- 
 tory on all the Noachidae, or descendants of 
 Noah, and consequently, from the time of 
 Moses, the Jews would not suffer a stranger 
 to live among them unless he observed 
 these precepts, and never gave quarter in 
 battle to an enemy who was ignorant of 
 them. 
 
 Xoflodei. The name of this person is 
 differently spelled by different writers. Vil- 
 lani, and after him Burnes, call him Noffo 
 Dei, Reghellini Neffodei, and Addison Nosso 
 de Florentin; but the more usual spelling is 
 Noffodei. He and Squin de Flexian were 
 the first to make those false accusations 
 against the Knights Templars which led to 
 the downfall of the Order. Naffodei, who 
 was a Florentine, is asserted by some writers 
 to have been an apostate Templar, who 
 had been condemned by the Preceptor and 
 Chapter of France to perpetual imprison- 
 ment for impiety and crime. But Dupui 
 denies this, and says that he never was a 
 Templar, but that, having been banished 
 from his native country, he had been con- 
 demned to rigorous penalties by the Pre- 
 vost of Paris for his crimes. For a history 
 of his treachery to the Templars, see Squin 
 de Flexian. 
 
 Nomenclature. There are several 
 Masonic works, printed or in manuscript, 
 which contain lists of the names of degrees 
 in Masonry. Such a list is called by the 
 French writers a nomenclature. The most 
 important of these nomenclatures are those 
 of Peuvret, Fustier, Pyron, and Lemanceau. 
 Ragon has a nomenclature of degrees in his 
 Tuileur Generate. And Thory has an ex- 
 haustive and descriptive one in his Acta 
 Latomorum. Oliver also gives a nomencla- 
 ture, but an imperfect one, of one hundred 
 and fifty degrees in his Historical Land- 
 marks. 
 
 Nomination. It is the custom in 
 some Grand Lodges and Lodges to nomi- 
 nate candidates for election to office, and in 
 
NON-AFFILIATION 
 
 NORTH 
 
 535 
 
 others this custom is not adopted. But the 
 practice of nomination has the sanction of 
 ancient usage. Thus the records of the 
 Grand Lodge of England, under date of 
 June 24, 1717, tell us that " before dinner 
 the oldest Master Mason ... in the chair 
 proposed a list of candidates, and the breth- 
 ren, by a majority of hands, elected Mr. 
 Anthony Sayre, Gent., Grand Master of 
 Masons." And the present Constitution 
 of the Grand Lodge of England requires 
 that the Grand Master shall be nominated 
 in December, but that the election shall not 
 take place until the following March. 
 Nominations appear, therefore, to be the 
 correct Masonic practice ; yet, if a member 
 be elected to any office to which he had not 
 previously been nominated, the election will 
 be valid, for a nomination is not essential. 
 
 Non- Affiliation. The state of being 
 unconnected by membership with a Lodge. 
 See Unaffiliated Masons. 
 
 Nonesynches. In the Old Constitu- 
 tions known as the Dowland MS. is found 
 the following passage: "St. Albann loved 
 well Masons and cherished them much. 
 And he made their paie right good, .... 
 for he gave them ijs. a weeke, and iijd. to 
 their nonesynches." This word, which can- 
 not, in this precise form, be found in any 
 archaic dictionary, evidently means food or 
 refreshment, for in the parallel passage iu 
 other Constitutions the word used is cheer, 
 which has the same meaning. The old 
 English word from which we get our 
 luncheon is noonshun, which is defined to be 
 the refreshment taken at noon, when labor- 
 ers desist from work to shwi the heat. Of 
 this nonesynches is a corrupt form. St. Al- 
 ban gave his Masons two shillings a week, 
 and three pence for their noonshuns or food. 
 
 Non nobis. It is prescribed that the 
 motto beneath the Passion Cross on the 
 Grand Standard of a Commandery of 
 Knights Templars shall be "Non nobis 
 Domine! non nobis, sed nomini tuo da 
 Gloriam." That is, Not unto us, Lord J 
 not unto us, but unto Thy name give Glory. 
 It is the commencement of the 115th Psalm, 
 which is sung in the Christian Church on 
 occasions of thanksgiving. It was the an- 
 cient Templar's shout of victory. 
 
 Non-resident. The members of a 
 Lodge who do not reside in the locality of 
 a Lodge, but live at a great distance from 
 it in another State, or, perhaps, country, 
 but still continue members of it, and con- 
 tribute to its support by the payment of 
 Lodge dues, are called " non-resident mem- 
 bers." Many Lodges, in view of the fact 
 that such members enjoy none of the local 
 privileges of their Lodges, require from 
 them a less amount of annual arrears than 
 they do from their resident members. 
 
 Noorthouck, John. The editor of 
 the fifth, and by far the best, edition of 
 the Book of Constitutions, which was pub- 
 lished in 1784. He was the son of Her- 
 man Noorthouck, a bookseller, and was 
 born in London in 1745. Oliver describes 
 him as " a clever and intelligent man, and 
 an expert Mason." His literary pretensions 
 were, however, greater than this modest 
 encomium would indicate. He was pat- 
 ronized by the celebrated printer, Wm. 
 Strahan, and passed nearly the whole of 
 his life in the occupations of an author, 
 an index maker, and a corrector of the 
 press. He was, besides his edition of the 
 Book of Constitutions, the writer of a His- 
 tory of London, 4to, published in 1775, and 
 a Historical and Classical Dictionary, 2 vols., 
 8vo, published in 1776. To him also, as 
 well as to some others, has been attributed 
 the authorship of a once popular book en- 
 titled, The Man after God's own Heart. In 
 1852, J. E. Smith, a bookseller of London, 
 advertised for sale " the original autograph 
 manuscript of the life of John Noorthouck." 
 He calls this "a very interesting piece of 
 autobiography, containing many curious 
 literary anecdotes of the last century, and 
 deserving to be printed." I think it never 
 has been. Noorthouck died in 1816, aged 
 70 years. 
 
 North. The north is Masonically 
 called a place of darkness. The sun in his 
 progress through the ecliptic never reaches 
 farther than 23° 28' north of the equator. A 
 wall being erected on any part of the earth 
 farther north than that, will therefore, at 
 meridian, receive the rays of the sun only 
 on its south side, while the north will be 
 entirely in shadow at the hour of meridian. 
 The use of the north as a symbol of dark- 
 ness is found, with the present interpreta- 
 tion, in the early rituals of the last century. 
 It is a portion of the old sun worship, of 
 which we find so many relics in Gnosti- 
 cism, in Hermetic philosophy, and in Free- 
 masonry. The east was the place of the 
 sun's daily birth, and hence highly revered; 
 the north the place of his annual death, to 
 which he approached only to lose his vivi- 
 fic heat, and to clothe the earth in the 
 darkness of long nights and the dreariness 
 of winter. 
 
 North Carolina. The early history 
 of Masonry in no State is more uncertain 
 than in that of North Carolina, in conse- 
 quence of the carelessness of the authorities 
 who have attempted to write its early an- 
 nals. Thus, Bobert Williams, the Grand 
 Secretary, in a letter written to the Grand 
 Lodge of Kentucky in 1808, said that " the 
 Grand Lodge of North Carolina was con- 
 stituted by Charter issued from the Grand 
 Lodge of Scotland in the year 1761, signed 
 
536 
 
 NORTH 
 
 NOVA 
 
 by Henry Somerset, Duke of Beaufort . . . 
 as Grand Master ; and attested by George 
 JohnSpencer, Earl of Spencer . . . as Grand 
 Secretary." Now this statement contains 
 on its face the evidences of flagrant error. 
 1. The Duke of Beaufort never was Grand 
 Master of Scotland. 2. The Grand Master 
 of Scotland in 1761 was the Earl of Elgin. 
 3. The Earl of Spencer never was Grand 
 Secretary either of England or Scotland, 
 but Samuel Spencer was Grand Secretary 
 of the Grand Lodge of England from 1757 
 to 1767, and died in 1768. 4. The Duke of 
 Beaufort was not Grand Master of England 
 in 1761, but held that office from 1767 to 
 1771. There is no mention in the printed 
 records of the Grand Lodge of England of 
 a Charter at any time granted for a Pro- 
 vincial Grand Lodge in North Carolina. 
 But in two lists of Lodges chartered by 
 that body, I find that on August 21st, 1767, 
 a Warrant was granted for the establish- 
 ment of " Royal White Hart Lodge," at 
 Halifax in North Carolina. I am inclined 
 to believe that this is the true date of the 
 introduction of Masonry into that State. 
 A record in the transactions of the St. 
 John's Grand Lodge of Massachusetts says 
 that on October 2d, 1767, that body grant- 
 ed a deputation to Thomas Cooper, Master 
 of Pitt County Lodge, as Deputy Grand 
 Master of the province; but there is no evi- 
 dence that he ever exercised the preroga- 
 tives of the office. Judge Martin, in a dis- 
 course delivered on June 24th, 1789, says 
 that Joseph Montford was appointed, to- 
 wards the year 1769, as Provincial Grand 
 Master by the Duke of Beaufort, and that 
 in 1771 he constituted St. John's Lodge at 
 Newbern. This was probably the true date 
 of the Provincial Grand Lodge of North 
 Carolina, for in 1787 we find nine Lodges 
 in the territory, five of which, at least, 
 had the provincial numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 
 8, while the Royal Hart Lodge retained its 
 number on the English Register as 403, a 
 number which agrees with that of the Eng- 
 lish lists in my possession. On December 
 9th, 1787, a convention of Lodges met at 
 Tarborough and organized the " Grand 
 Lodgeof the Stateof North Carolina," elect- 
 ing Hon. Samuel Johnston Grand Master. 
 
 There was a Grand Chapter in North 
 Carolina at an early period in the present 
 century, which ceased to exist about the 
 year 1827 ; but Royal Arch Masonry was 
 cultivated by four Chapters instituted by 
 the General Grand Chapter. On June 28, 
 1847, the Grand Chapter was reorganized. 
 
 The Grand Council was organized in 
 June, 1860, by Councils which had been es- 
 tablished by the author of this work, under 
 the authority of the Supreme Council of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 North-east Corner. In the "Insti- 
 tutes of Menu," the sacred book of the 
 Brahmans, it is said : " If any one has an 
 incurable disease, let him advance in a 
 straight path towards the invincible north- 
 east point, feeding on water and air till his 
 mortal frame totally decays, and his soul 
 becomes united with the supreme." 
 
 It is at the same north-east point that 
 those first instructions begin in Masonry 
 which enable the true Mason to commence 
 the erection of that spiritual temple in 
 which, after the decay of his mortal frame, 
 "his soul becomes united with the su- 
 preme." 
 
 In the important ceremony which refers 
 to the north-east corner of the Lodge, the 
 candidate becomes as one who is, to all 
 outward appearance, a perfect and upright 
 man and Mason, the representative of a 
 spiritual corner-stone, on which he is to 
 erect his future moral and Masonic edifice. 
 
 This symbolic reference of the corner- 
 stone of a material edifice to a Mason 
 when, at his first initiation, he commences 
 the moral and intellectual task of erecting 
 a spiritual temple in his heart, is beauti- 
 fully sustained when we look at all the 
 qualities that are required to constitute a 
 "well-tried, true, and trusty" corner-stone. 
 The squareness of its surface, emblematic 
 of morality — its cubical form, emblematic 
 of firmness and stability of character — and 
 the peculiar finish and fineness of the ma- 
 terial, emblematic of virtue and holiness — 
 show that the ceremony of the north-east 
 corner of the Lodge was undoubtedly in- 
 tended to portray, in the consecrated lan- 
 guage of symbolism, the necessity of integ- 
 rity and stability of conduct, of truthfulness 
 and uprightness of character, and of purity 
 and holiness of life, which, just at that 
 time and in that place, the candidate is 
 most impressively charged to maintain. 
 
 Xoluma. A significant word in some 
 of the high degrees of the Templar system. 
 It is the anagram of Aumont, who is said 
 to have been the first Grand Master of the 
 Templars in Scotland, and the restorer of 
 the Order after the death of De Molay. 
 
 NoYa Scotia. Freemasonry was in- 
 troduced into Nova Scotia, at the middle 
 of the last century, by the constitution of a 
 Lodge at Halifax, in 1749, under the regis- 
 try of England. For the next hundred 
 years, Lodges were instituted and Provin- 
 cial Masters appointed by England and 
 Scotland, and Lodges alone without su- 
 
 Serior provincial authority by Ireland. In 
 une, 1866, an independent Grand Lodge 
 was instituted and recognized by most of 
 the Masonic powers of the United States. 
 But as none of the Lodges holding War- 
 rants from the Grand Lodge of Scotland 
 
NOVICE 
 
 NUMBERS 
 
 537 
 
 would recognize it, a subsequent and more 
 satisfactory arrangement took place, and 
 June 24, 1869, a Grand Lodge was organ- 
 ized by the union of all the subordinate 
 Lodges, and Alexander Keith was elected 
 Grand Master. 
 
 Novice. 1. The second degree of the 
 Illuminati of Bavaria. 2. The fifth degree 
 of the Rite of Strict Observance. 
 
 Novice Macon ne. That is to say, 
 a female Mason who is a Novice. It is 
 the first degree of the Moral Order of the 
 Dames of Mount Tabor. 
 
 Novice, Mythological. {Novice 
 Mythologique.) The first degree of the 
 Historical Order of the Dames of Mount 
 Tabor. 
 
 Novice, Scottish. {Novice JEcos- 
 saise.) The first degree of initiation in the 
 Order of Mount Tabor. 
 
 Numbers. The symbolism which is 
 derived from numbers was common to the 
 Pythagoreans, the Kabbalists, the Gnostics, 
 and all mystical associations. Of all su- 
 perstitions, it is the oldest and the most 
 generally diffused. Allusions are to be 
 found to it in all systems of religion ; the 
 Jewish Scriptures, for instance, abound in 
 it, and the Christian show a share of its 
 influence. It is not, therefore, surprising 
 that the most predominant of all symbol- 
 ism in Freemasonry is that of numbers. 
 
 The doctrine of numbers as symbols is 
 most familiar to us because it formed the 
 fundamental idea of the philosophy of 
 Pythagoras. Yet it was not original with 
 him, since he brought his theories from 
 Egypt and the East, where this numerical 
 symbolism had always prevailed. Jambli- 
 chus tells us ( Vit. Pyth., c. 28,) that Pythag- 
 oras himself admitted that he had received 
 the doctrine of numbers from Orpheus, 
 who taught that numbers were the most 
 provident beginning of all things in heav- 
 en, earth, and the intermediate space, and 
 the root of the perpetuity of divine beings, 
 of the gods and of demons. From the 
 disciples of Pythagoras we learn (for he 
 himself taught only orally, and left no 
 writings,) that his theory was that num- 
 bers contain the elements of all things, and 
 even of the sciences. Numbers are the in- 
 visible covering of beings as the body is the 
 visible one. They are the primary causes 
 upon which the whole system of the uni- 
 verse rests ; and he who knows these num- 
 bers knows at the same time the laws 
 through which nature exists. The Pythag- 
 oreans, said Aristotle, (Metaph., xii. 8,) 
 make all things proceed from numbers. 
 Dacier, ( Vie de Pyth.,) it is true, denies that 
 this was the doctrine of Pythagoras, and 
 contends that it was only a corruption of 
 his disciples. It is an immaterial point. 
 3S 
 
 We know that the symbolism of numbers 
 was the basis of what is called the Pythag- 
 orean philosophy. But it would be wrong 
 to suppose that from it the Masons derived 
 their system, since the two are in some 
 points antagonistic; the Masons, for in- 
 stance, revere the nine as a sacred number 
 of peculiar significance, while the Pythago- 
 reans looked upon it with detestation. In 
 the system of the Pythagoreans, ten was, of 
 all numbers, the most perfect, because it 
 symbolizes the completion of things ; but in 
 Masonic symbolism the number ten is un- 
 known. Four is not, in Masonry, a num- 
 ber of much representative importance; but 
 it was sacredly revered by the Pythago- 
 reans as the tetractys, or figure derived 
 from the Jewish Tetragrammaton, by which 
 they swore. 
 
 Plato also indulged in a theory of sym- 
 bolic numbers, and calls him happy who 
 understands spiritual numbers and per- 
 ceives their mighty influences. Numbers, 
 according to him, are the cause of univer- 
 sal harmony, and of the production of all 
 things. The Neoplatonists extended and 
 developed this theory, and from them it 
 passed over to the Gnostics; from them 
 probably to the Rosicrucians, to the Her- 
 metic philosophers, and to the Freemasons. 
 
 Cornelius Agrippa has descanted at great 
 length, in his Occult Philosophy, on the sub- 
 ject of numbers. "That there lies," he 
 says, "wonderful efficacy and virtue in 
 numbers, as well for good as for evil, not 
 only the most eminent philosophers teach, 
 but also the Catholic Doctors." And he 
 quotes St. Hilary as saying that the seventy 
 Elders brought the Psalms into order by the 
 efficacy of numbers. 
 
 Of the prevalence of what are called 
 representative numbers in the Old and 
 New Testament, there is abundant evi- 
 dence. " However we may explain it," says 
 Dr. Mahan, (Palmoni, p. 67,) certain nu- 
 merals in the Scriptures occur so often in 
 connection with certain classes of ideas, that 
 we are naturally led to associate the one 
 with the other. This is more or less ad- 
 mitted with regard to the numbers Seven, 
 Twelve, Forty, Seventy, and it may be a few 
 more. The Fathers were disposed to admit 
 it with regard to many others, and to see in 
 it the marks of a supernatural design." 
 
 Among the Greeks and the Romans there 
 was a superstitious veneration for certain 
 numbers. The same practice is found among 
 all the Eastern nations ; it entered more or 
 less into all the ancient systems of philoso- 
 phy ; constituted a part of all the old reli- 
 gions ; was accepted to a great extent by 
 the early Christian Fathers ; constituted an 
 important part of the Kabbala ; was adopted 
 by the Gnostics, the Rosicrucians, and all 
 
538 
 
 NUMERATION 
 
 OATH 
 
 the mystical societies of the Middle Ages ; 
 and finally has carried its influence into 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 The respect paid by Freemasons to certain 
 numbers, all of which are odd, is founded 
 not on the belief of any magical virtue, 
 but because they are assumed to be the 
 types or representatives of certain ideas. 
 That is to say, a number is in Masonry a 
 symbol, and no more. It is venerated, not 
 because it has any supernatural efficacy, as 
 thought the Pythagoreans and others, but 
 because it has concealed within some allu- 
 sion to a sacred object or holy thought, 
 which it symbolizes. The number three, 
 for instance, like the triangle, is a symbol ; 
 the number nine, like the triple triangle, 
 another. The Masonic doctrine of sacred 
 numbers must not, therefore, be confounded 
 with the doctrine of numbers which pre- 
 vailed in other systems. 
 
 The most important symbolic or sacred 
 numbers in Masonry are three, five, seven, 
 nine, twenty-seven, and eighty-one. Their 
 interpretation will be found under their 
 respective titles. 
 
 Numeration by Letters. There 
 is a Kabbalistical process especially used in 
 the Hebrew language, but sometimes ap- 
 plied to other languages, for instance, to the 
 Greek, by which a mystical meaning of a 
 word is deduced from the numerical value 
 of the words of which it is composed, each 
 letter of the alphabet being equivalent to a 
 number. Thus in Hebrew the name of 
 God, j-f*> JAH, is equivalent to 15, because 
 ♦ = 10 and p| = 5, and 15 thus becomes a 
 sacred number. In Greek, the Kabbalistic 
 word Abraxas, or aftpaZag, is made to sym- 
 
 bolize the solar year of 365 days, because the 
 sum of the value of the letters of the word 
 is 365 ; thus, a = 1, p = 2, p = 100, a = 1, 
 fa 60, a =1, and c = 200. To facilitate these 
 Kabbalistic operations, which are sometimes 
 used in the high and especially the hermet- 
 ical Masonry, the numerical value of the 
 Hebrew and Greek letters is here given. 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 N 
 
 i 
 
 A, o 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 B,/J 
 
 2 
 
 } 
 
 3 
 
 r,y 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 A,d 
 
 4 
 
 n 
 
 5 
 
 E, e 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 6 
 
 z, ? 
 
 6 
 
 r 
 
 7 
 
 U, V 
 
 8 
 
 n 
 
 8 
 
 e,6 
 
 9 
 
 B 
 
 9 
 
 h* 
 
 10 
 
 ♦ 
 
 10 
 
 K, K 
 
 20 
 
 D 
 
 20 
 
 A, A 
 
 30 
 
 S 
 
 30 
 
 M if i 
 
 40 
 
 D,D 
 
 40 
 
 N, v 
 
 50 
 
 *l 
 
 50 
 
 *,f 
 
 60 
 
 D 
 
 60 
 
 0, o 
 
 70 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
 n, 7T 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 p,p 
 
 100 
 
 s 
 
 90 
 
 s > a , f» 
 
 200 
 
 p 
 
 100 
 
 T,r 
 
 300 
 
 H 
 
 200 
 
 T.v 
 
 400 
 
 V 
 
 300 
 
 *,t 
 
 500 
 
 n 
 
 400 
 
 x,x 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 ■%i 
 
 700 
 
 
 
 Q, o) 
 
 800 
 
 Nursery. The first of the three classes 
 into which Weishaupt divided his Order 
 of Illuminati, coinprising three degrees. 
 See Illuminati. 
 
 o. 
 
 Oath. In the year 1738, Clement XII., 
 at that time Pope of Rome, issued a bull 
 of excommunication against the Free- 
 masons, and assigned, as the reason of his 
 condemnation, that the Institution confed- 
 erated persons of all religions and sects in 
 a mysterious bond of union, and compelled 
 them to secrecy by an oath taken on the 
 Bible, accompanied by certain ceremonies, 
 and the imprecation of heavy punishments. 
 
 This persecution of the Freemasons, on 
 account of their having an obligatory 
 promise of secrecy among their ceremo- 
 nies, has not been confined to the Papal see. 
 We shall find it existing in a sect which 
 
 we should suppose, of all others, the least 
 likely to follow in the footsteps of a Ro- 
 man pontiff. In 1757, the Associate Synod 
 of Seceders of Scotland adopted an act, 
 concerning what they called "the Mason 
 oath," in which it is declared that all 
 persons who shall refuse to make such rev- 
 elations as the Kirk Sessions may require, 
 and to promise to abstain from all future 
 connection with the Order, "shall be re- 
 puted under scandal and incapable of ad- 
 mission to sealing ordinances," or, as Pope 
 Clement expressed it, be "ipso facto ex- 
 communicated." 
 In the preamble to the act, the Synod 
 
OATH 
 
 OATH 
 
 539 
 
 assign the reasons for their objections to 
 this oath, and for their ecclesiastical censure 
 of all who contract it. These reasons are : 
 " That there were very strong presumptions, 
 that, among Masons, an oath of secrecy 
 is administered to entrants into their so- 
 ciety, even under a capital penalty, and 
 before any of those things, which they 
 swear to keep secret, be revealed to them ; 
 and that they pretend to take some of these 
 secrets from the Bible ; besides other things 
 which are ground of scruple in the manner 
 of swearing the said oath." 
 
 These have, from that day to this, consti- 
 tuted the sum and substance of the objec- 
 tions to the obligation of Masonic secrecy, 
 and, for the purpose of brief examination, 
 they may be classed under the following 
 heads : 
 
 First. It is an oath. 
 
 Secondly. It is administered before the 
 secrets are communicated. 
 
 Thirdly. It is accompanied by certain 
 superstitious ceremonies. 
 
 Fourthly. It is attended by a penalty. 
 
 Fifthly. It is considered, by Masons, as 
 paramount to the obligations of the laws 
 of the land. 
 
 In replying to these statements, it is evi- 
 dent that the conscientious Freemason 
 labors under great disadvantage. He is at 
 every step restrained by his honor from 
 either the denial or admission of his adver- 
 saries in relation to the mysteries of the 
 Craft. But it may be granted, for the sake 
 of argument, that every one of the first 
 four charges is true, and then the inquiry 
 will be in what respect they are offensive or 
 immoral. 
 
 First. The oath or promise cannot, in 
 itself, be sinful, unless- there is something 
 immoral in the obligation it imposes. Sim- 
 ply to promise secrecy, or the performance 
 of any good action, and to strengthen this 
 promise by the solemnity of an oath, is 
 not, in itself, forbidden by any divine or 
 human law. Indeed, the infirmity of hu- 
 man nature demands, in many instances, 
 the sacred sanction of such an attestation ; 
 and it is continually exacted in the transac- 
 tions of man with man, without any notion 
 of sinfulness. Where the time, and place, 
 and circumstances are unconnected with 
 levity, or profanity, or crime, the adminis- 
 tration of an obligation binding to secrecy, 
 or obedience, or veracity, or any other vir- 
 tue, and the invocation of Deity to wit- 
 ness, and to strengthen that obligation, or 
 to punish its violation, is incapable, by any 
 perversion of Scripture, of being considered 
 a criminal act. 
 
 Secondly. The objection that the oath 
 is administered before the secrets are made 
 known, is sufficiently absurd to provoke a 
 
 smile. The purposes of such an oath would 
 be completely frustrated, by revealing the 
 thing to be concealed before the promise 
 of concealment was made. In that case, it 
 would be optional with the candidate to 
 give the obligation, or to withhold it, as 
 best suited his inclinations. If it be con- 
 ceded that the exaction of a solemn promise 
 of secrecy is not, in itself, improper, then 
 certainly the time of exacting it is before 
 and not after the revelation. 
 
 Dr. Harris (Masonic Discourses, Disc. 
 IX., p. 184,) has met this objection in the 
 following language : 
 
 " What the ignorant call ' the oath,' is 
 simply an obligation, covenant, and prom- 
 ise, exacted previously to the divulging of 
 the specialties of the Order, and our means 
 of recognizing each other ; that they shall 
 be kept from the knowledge of the world, 
 lest their original intent should be thwarted, 
 and their benevolent purport prevented. 
 Now, pray, what harm is there in this ? Do 
 you not all, when you have anything of a 
 private nature which you are willing to 
 confide in a particular friend, before you tell 
 him what it is, demand a solemn promise of 
 secrecy. And is there not the utmost pro- 
 priety in knowing whether your friend is de- 
 termined to conceal your secret, before you 
 presume to reveal it? Your • answer con- 
 futes your cavil." 
 
 Thirdly. The objection that the oath is 
 accompanied by certain superstitious cere- 
 monies does not seem to be entitled to much 
 weight. Oaths, in all countries and at all 
 times, have been accompanied by peculiar 
 rites, intended to increase the solemnity 
 and reverence of the act. The ancient 
 Hebrews, when they took an oath, placed 
 the hand beneath the thigh of the person 
 to whom they swore. Sometimes the an- 
 cients took hold of the horns of the altar, 
 and touched the sacrificial fire, as in the 
 league between Latinus and iEneas, where 
 the ceremony is thus described by Virgil : 
 
 "Tango aras; mediosque ignes, et numina, 
 tester." 
 
 Sometimes they extended the right hand to 
 heaven, and swore by earth, sea, and stars. 
 Sometimes, as among the Romans in pri- 
 vate contracts, the person swearing laid his 
 hand upon the hand of the party to whom 
 he swore. In all solemn covenants the oath 
 was accompanied by a sacrifice ; and some 
 of the hair being cut from the victim's 
 head, a part of it was given to all present, 
 that each one might take a share in the 
 oath, and be subject to the imputation. 
 Other ceremonies were practised at various 
 times and in different countries, for the 
 purpose of throwing around the act of at- 
 testation an increased amount of awe and 
 
540 
 
 OATH 
 
 OATH 
 
 respect. The oath is equally obligatory 
 without them ; but they have their signifi- 
 cance, and there can be no reason why the 
 Freemasons should not be allowed to adopt 
 the mode most pleasing to themselves of 
 exacting their promises or confirming their 
 covenants. 
 
 Fourthly. It is objected that the oath is 
 attended with a penalty of a serious or 
 capital nature. If this be the case, it does 
 not appear that the expression of a penalty 
 of any nature whatever can affect the pur- 
 port or augment the solemnity of an oath, 
 which is, in fact, an attestation of God to 
 the truth of a declaration, as a witness and 
 avenger ; and hence every oath includes in 
 itself, and as its very essence, the covenant 
 of God's wrath, the heaviest of all penal- 
 ties, as the necessary consequence of its vio- 
 lation. A writer, in reply to the Synod of 
 Scotland, (Scot's Mag., Oct. 1757,) quotes the 
 opinion of an eminent jurist to this effect: 
 " It seems to be certain that every prom- 
 issory oath, in whatever form it may be 
 conceived, whether explicitly or implicitly, 
 virtually contains both an attestation and 
 an obsecration ; for in an oath the execra- 
 tion supposes an attestation as a precedent, 
 and the attestation infers an execration as 
 a necessary consequence. 
 
 " Hence, then, to the believer in a super- 
 intending Providence, every oath is an 
 affirmation, negation, or promise, corrobo- 
 rated by the attestation of the Divine Be- 
 ing." This attestation includes an obse- 
 cration of divine punishment in case of a 
 violation, and it is, therefore, a matter of 
 no moment whether this obsecration or 
 penalty be expressed in words or only im- 
 plied ; its presence or absence does not, in 
 any degree, alter the nature of the obliga- 
 tion. If in any promise or vow made by 
 Masons, such a penalty is inserted, it may 
 probably be supposed that it is used only 
 with a metaphorical and paraph rastical 
 signification, and for the purpose of sym- 
 bolic or historical allusion. Any other in- 
 terpretation but this would be entirely at 
 variance with the opinions of the most in- 
 telligent Masons, who, it is to be presumed, 
 best know the intent and meaning of their 
 own ceremonies. 
 
 Fifthly. The last, and, indeed, the most 
 important objection urged is, that these 
 oaths are construed by Masons as being of 
 higher obligation than the law of the land. 
 It is vain that this charge has been repeat- 
 edly and indignantly denied; it is in vain 
 that Masons point to the integrity of char- 
 acter of thousands of eminent men who 
 have been members of the Fraternity ; it 
 is in vain that they recapitulate the order- 
 loving and law-fearing regulations of the 
 Institution; the charge is renewed with 
 
 untiring pertinacity, and believed with a 
 credulity that owes its birth to rancorous 
 prejudice alone. To repeat the denial is 
 but to provoke a repetition of the charge. 
 The answer is, however, made by one who, 
 once a Mason, was afterwards an opponent 
 and an avowed enemy of the Institution, 
 W. L. Stone (Letters on Masonry and Anti- 
 Masonry, Let. VII., p. 69,) uses the follow- 
 ing language : 
 
 Is it, then, to be believed that men of 
 acknowledged talents and worth in public 
 stations, and of virtuous and, frequently, 
 religious habits, in the walks of private 
 life, with the Holy Bible in their hands, — 
 which they are solemnly pledged to re- 
 ceive as the rule and guide of their faith 
 and practice, — and under the grave and 
 positive charge from the officer administer- 
 ing the obligation, that it is to be taken in 
 strict subordination to the civil laws, — can 
 understand that obligation, whatever may 
 be the peculiarities of its phraseology, as 
 requiring them to countenance vice and 
 criminality even by silence ? Can it for a 
 moment be supposed that the hundreds of 
 eminent men, whose patriotism is unques- 
 tioned, and the exercise of whose talents 
 and virtues has shed a lustre upon the 
 church history of our country, and who, by 
 their walk and conversation, have, in their 
 own lives, illustrated the beauty of holi- 
 ness? Is it to be credited that the tens of 
 thousands of those persons, ranking among 
 the most intelligent and virtuous citizens 
 of the most moral and enlightened people 
 on earth, — is it, I ask, possible that any 
 portion of this community can, on calm 
 reflection, believe that such men have oaths 
 upon their consciences binding them to 
 eternal silence in regard to the guilt of any 
 man because he happens to be a Freema- 
 son, no matter what be the grade of offence, 
 whether it be the picking of a pocket or 
 the shedding of blood? It does really seem 
 to me impossible that such an opinion 
 could, at any moment, have prevailed, to 
 any considerable extent, amongst reflecting 
 and intelligent citizens." 
 
 Oath, Corporal. The modern form 
 of taking an oath is by placing the hands 
 on the Gospels or on the Bible. The cor- 
 porate, or corporal cloth, is the name of the 
 linen cloth on which, in the Roman Cath- 
 olic Church, the sacred elements conse- 
 crated as "the body of our Lord" are 
 placed. Hence the expression corporal oath 
 originated in the ancient custom of swear- 
 ing while touching the corporal cloth. 
 Relics were sometimes made use of. The 
 laws of the Allemanni (cap. 657) direct 
 that he who swears shall place his hand 
 upon the coffer containing the relics. The 
 idea being that something sacred must be 
 
OATH 
 
 OBEDIENCE 
 
 541 
 
 touched by the hand of the jurator to give 
 validity to the oath, in time the custom was 
 adopted of substituting the holy Gospels for 
 the corporal cloth or the relics, though the 
 same title was retained. Haydn {Diet, of 
 Dates) says that the practice of swearing 
 on the Gospels prevailed in England so 
 early as A. D. 528. The laws of the Lom- 
 bards repeatedly mention the custom of 
 swearing on the Gospels. The sanction of 
 the church was given at an early period to 
 the usage. Thus, in the history of the 
 Council of Constantinople, (Anno 381,) it 
 is stated that "George, the well-beloved 
 of God, a deacon and keeper of the records, 
 having touched the Holy Gospels of God, 
 swore in this manner," etc. And a similar 
 
 Sractice was adopted at the Council of 
 fice, fifty-six years before. The custom 
 of swearing on the book, thereby meaning 
 the Gospels, was adopted by the mediaeval 
 gild of Freemasons, and allusions to it are 
 found in all the Old Constitutions. Thus 
 in the York Manuscript, about the year 
 1600, it is said, "These charges . . . you 
 shall well and truly keep to your power ; so 
 help you God and the contents of that 
 book." And in the Grand Lodge Manu- 
 script in 1632 we find this : " These charges 
 ye shall keepe, so healpe you God, and your 
 haly dome and by this booke in your hands." 
 The form of the ceremony required that the 
 corporal oath should be taken with both 
 hands on the book, or with one hand, and 
 then always the right hand. 
 
 Oath of the Gild. The oath that was 
 administered in the English Freemasons' 
 gild of the Middle Ages is first met with 
 in the Harleian Manuscript, written about 
 the year 1676. The 31st article prescribes : 
 " That noe person shall bee accepted a Free 
 Mason, or know the secrets of the said 
 Society, until hee hath first taken the oath 
 of secrecy hereafter following : 
 
 " I, A. B. Doe, in the presence of Al- 
 mighty God and my Fellowes and Brethren 
 here present, promise and declare that I 
 will not at any time hereafter, by any act 
 or circumstance whatsoever, directly or in- 
 directly, publish, discover, reveale, or make 
 knowne any of the secrets, priviledges or 
 counsells of the Fraternity or fellowship of 
 Free Masonry, which at this time, or any 
 time hereafter, shall be made knowne unto 
 mee; soe helpe mee God and the holy con- 
 tents of this booke." In the Roberts' Con- 
 stitutions, published in 1722, this oath, 
 substantially in the same words, is for the 
 first time printed with the amendment of 
 " privities " for " priviledges." 
 
 Oath, Tiler's. Before any strange 
 and unknown visitor can gain admission 
 into a Masonic Lodge, he is required to 
 take the following oath : 
 
 "I, A. B., do hereby and hereon solemn- 
 ly and sincerely swear that I have been 
 regularly initiated, passed, and raised to 
 the sublime degree of a Master Mason in 
 a just and legally constituted Lodge of such ; 
 that I do not now stand suspended or ex- 
 pelled; and know of no reason why I 
 should not hold Masonic communication 
 with my brethren." 
 
 It is called the " Tiler's oath," because it 
 is usually taken in the Tiler's room, and 
 was formerly administered by that offi- 
 cer, whose duty it is to protect the Lodge 
 from the approach of unauthorized visitors. 
 It is now administered by the committee 
 of examination, and not only he to whom 
 it is administered, but he who administers 
 it, and all who are present, must take it at 
 the same time. It is a process of purga- 
 tion, and each one present, the visitor as 
 well as the members of the Lodge, is enti- 
 tled to know that all the others are legally 
 qualified to be present at the esoteric ex- 
 amination which is about to take place. 
 
 OB. A Masonic abbreviation of the 
 word Obligation, sometimes written O. B. 
 
 Obedience. The doctrine of obe- 
 dience to constituted authority is strongly 
 inculcated in all the Old Constitutions as 
 necessary to the preservation of the associ- 
 ation. In them it is directed that " every 
 Mason shall prefer his elder and put him 
 to worship." Thus the Master Mason obeys 
 the order of his Lodge, the Lodge obeys 
 the mandates of the Grand Lodge, and the 
 Grand Lodge submits to the landmarks and 
 the old regulations. The doctrine of pas- 
 sive obedience and non-resistance in poli- 
 tics, however much it may be supposed to 
 be inimical to the progress of free institu- 
 tions, constitutes undoubtedly the great 
 principle of Masonic government. Such a 
 principle would undoubtedly lead to an un- 
 bearable despotism, were it not admirably 
 modified and controlled by the compensa- 
 ting principle of appeal. The first duty of 
 every Mason is to obey the mandate of the 
 Master. But if that mandate should have 
 been unlawful or oppressive, he will find 
 his redress in the Grand Lodge, which will 
 review the case and render justice. This 
 spirit of instant obedience and submission 
 to authority constitutes the great safe- 
 guard of the Institution. Freemasonry 
 more resembles a military than a political 
 organization. The order must at once be 
 obeyed ; its character and its consequences 
 may be matters of subsequent inquiry. The 
 Masonic rule of obedience is like the nau- 
 tical, imperative: "Obey orders, even if 
 you break owners." 
 
 Obedience of a Grand Body. 
 Obedience, used in the sense of being under 
 the jurisdiction, is a technicality borrowed 
 
642 
 
 OBELISK 
 
 OBVERSE 
 
 only recently by Masonic authorities from 
 the French, where it has always been 
 regularly used. Thus " the Grand Lodge 
 has addressed a letter to all the Lodges of 
 its obedience " means " to all the Lodges 
 under its jurisdiction." In French, " a 
 toutes les Loges de sou obedience." It 
 comes originally from the usage of the Mid- 
 dle Ages, in the low Latin of which obedi- 
 entia meant the homage which a vassal 
 owed to his lord. In the ecclesiastical lan- 
 
 fuage of the same period, the word signi- 
 ed the duty or office of a monk towards 
 his superior. 
 
 Obelisk. The obelisk is a quadrangu- 
 lar, monolithic column, diminishing up- 
 wards, with the sides gently inclined, but 
 not so as to terminate in a pointed apex, 
 but to form at the top a flattish, pyramidal 
 figure, by which the whole is finished off 
 and brought to a point. It was the most com- 
 mon species of monument in ancient Egypt, 
 where they are still to be found in great 
 numbers, the sides being covered with hiero- 
 glyphic inscriptions. Obelisks were, it is 
 supposed, originally erected in honor of the 
 sun god. Pliny says (Holland's trans.), 
 " The kings of Egypt in times past made 
 of this stone certain long beams, which they 
 called obelisks, and consecrated them unto 
 the sun, whom they honored as a god ; and, 
 indeed, some resemblance they carry of sun- 
 beams." In continental Masonry the mon- 
 ument in the Master's degree is often made 
 in the form of an obelisk, with the letters 
 M. B. inscribed upon it. And this form 
 is appropriate, because in Masonic, as in 
 Christian, iconography the obelisk is a 
 symbol of the resurrection. 
 
 Objections to Freemasonry. The 
 principal objections that have been urged 
 by its opponents to the institution of Free- 
 masonry may be arranged under six heads. 
 1. Its secrecy; 2. The exclusiveness of its char- 
 ity ; 3. Its admission of unworthy members ; 
 4. Its claim to be a religion ; 5. Its admin- 
 istration of unlawful oaths; and 6. Its 
 puerility as a system of instruction. Each 
 of these objections is replied to in this 
 work under the respective heads of the 
 words which are italicized above. 
 
 Obligated. To be obligated, in Ma- 
 sonic language, is to be admitted into the 
 covenant of Masonry. " An obligated Ma- 
 son " is tautological, because there can be 
 no Mason who is not an obligated one. 
 
 Obligation. The solemn promise 
 made by a Mason on his admission into 
 any degree is technically called his obliga- 
 tion. In a legal sense, obligation is sy- 
 nonymous with duty. Its derivation shows 
 its true meaning, for the Latin word obli- 
 gatio literally signifies a tying or binding. 
 The obligation is that which binds a man 
 
 to do some act, the doing of which thus 
 becomes his duty. By his obligation, a 
 Mason is bound or tied to his Order. 
 Hence the Romans called the military 
 oath which was taken by the soldier his 
 obligation, and hence, too, it is said that it is 
 the obligation that makes the Mason. Be- 
 fore that ceremony, there is no tie that 
 binds the candidate to the Order so as to 
 make him a part of it ; after the ceremony, 
 the tie has been completed, and the candi- 
 date becomes at once a Mason, entitled to 
 all the rights and privileges and subject to 
 all the duties and responsibilities that en- 
 ure in that character. The jurists have 
 divided obligations into imperfect and per- 
 fect, or natural and civil. In Masonry 
 there is no such distinction. The Ma- 
 sonic obligation is that moral one which, 
 although it cannot be enforced by the 
 courts of law, is binding on the party who 
 makes it, in conscience and according to 
 moral justice. It varies in each degree, 
 but in each is perfect. Its different clauses, 
 in which different duties are prescribed, 
 are called its points, which are either af- 
 firmative or negative, a division like that 
 of the precepts of the Jewish law. The 
 affirmative points are those which require 
 certain acts to be performed ; the negative 
 points are those which forbid certain other 
 acts to be done. The whole of them is 
 preceded by a general point of secrecy, 
 common to all the degrees, and this point 
 is called the tie. 
 
 Oblong Square. A parallelogram, 
 or four-sided figure, all of whose angles are 
 equal, but two of whose sides are longer 
 than the others. 
 
 This is the symbolic form of a Masonic 
 Lodge, and it finds its prototype in many 
 of the structures of our ancient brethren. 
 The ark of Noah, the camp of the Israel- 
 ites, the ark of the Covenant, the Taber- 
 nacle, and, lastly, the Temple of Solomon, 
 were all oblong squares. See Ground- 
 Floor of the Lodge. 
 
 Observance, Clerks of Strict. 
 See Clerks of Strict Observance. 
 
 Observance, Lax. See Lax Observ- 
 ance. 
 
 Observance, Relaxed. [Observ- 
 ance Relachee.) This is the term by which 
 Ragon translates the lata observantia or 
 lax observance applied by the disciples 
 of Von Hund to the other Lodges of Ger- 
 many. Ragon (Orth. Macon., p. 236,) calls 
 it incorrectly a Rite, and confounds it with 
 the Clerks of Strict Observance. See Lax 
 Observance. 
 
 Observance, Strict. See Strict Ob- 
 servance. 
 
 Obverse. In numismatics that side 
 of a coin or medal which contains the 
 
OCCASIONAL 
 
 OHIO 
 
 543 
 
 principal figure, generally a face in profile 
 or a full or half-length figure, is called the 
 obverse. 
 
 Occasional Lodge. A temporary 
 Lodge convoked by a Grand Master for 
 the purpose of making Masons, after which 
 the Lodge is dissolved. The phrase was 
 first used by Anderson in the second edition 
 of the Book of Constitutions, and is repeated 
 by subsequent editors. To make a Mason 
 in an Occasional Lodge is equivalent to 
 making him " at sight." But any Lodge, 
 called temporarily by the Grand Master 
 for a specific purpose and immediately after- 
 wards dissolved, is an Occasional Lodge. 
 Its organization as to officers, and its regu- 
 lations as to ritual, must be the same as in 
 a permanent and properly warranted Lodge. 
 See Sight, Making Masons at. 
 
 Occult Masonry. Ragon, in his Or- 
 thodoxie Maconnique, proposes the estab- 
 lishment of a Masonic system, which he 
 calls "Occult Masonry." It consists of 
 three degrees, which are the same as those 
 of Ancient Craft Masonry, only that all the 
 symbols are interpreted after alchemical 
 principles. It is, in fact, the application 
 of Masonic symbolism to hermetic symbol- 
 ism — two things that never did, according 
 to Hitchcock, materially differ. 
 
 Occult Sciences. This name is given 
 to the sciences of alchemy, magic, and as- 
 trology, which existed in the Middle Ages. 
 Many of the speculations of these so-called 
 sciences were in the eighteenth century 
 made use of in the construction of the high 
 degrees. We have even a " Hermetic Rite" 
 which is based on the dogmas of alchemy. 
 Occupied Territory. A state or 
 kingdom where there is a Grand Lodge or- 
 ganization and subordinate Lodges work- 
 ing under it is said to be occupied territory, 
 and, by the American and English law, all 
 other Grand Lodges are precluded from en- 
 tering in it and exercising jurisdiction. 
 See Jurisdiction of a Grand Lodge. 
 
 Octagon. The regular octagon is a 
 geometrical figure of eight equal sides and 
 angles. It is a favorite form in Christian 
 ecclesiology, and most of the Chapter- 
 Houses of the cathedrals in England are 
 eight sided. It is sometimes used in rituals 
 of Knights of Malta, and then, like the 
 eight-pointed cross of the same Order, is 
 referred symbolically to the eight beatitudes 
 of our Saviour. 
 
 Odd \ u in Iters. In the numerical 
 philosophy of the Pythagoreans, odd num- 
 bers were male and even numbers female. 
 It is wrong, however, to say, as Oliver and 
 some others after him have, that odd num- 
 bers were perfect and even numbers imper- 
 fect. The combination of two odd num- 
 bers would make an even number, which 
 
 was the most perfect. Hence, in the Py- 
 thagorean system, 4, made by the combina- 
 tion of 1 and 3, and 10, by the combination 
 of 3 and 7, are the most perfect of all 
 numbers. Herein the Pythagorean differs 
 from the Masonic system of numerals. In 
 this latter all the sacred numbers are odd, 
 such as 3, 5, 7, 9, 27, and 81. Thus it is 
 evident that the Masonic theory of sacred 
 numbers was derived, not, as it has been 
 supposed, from the school of Pythagoras, 
 but from a much older system. 
 
 Offences, Masonic. See Crimes, 
 Masonic. 
 
 Offerings, The Three Grand. 
 See Ground-Floor of the Lodge. 
 
 Officers. The officers of a Grand 
 Lodge, Grand Chapter, or other Supreme 
 body in Masonry, are divided into Grand 
 and Subordinate ; the former, who are the 
 Grand and Deputy Grand Master, the 
 Grand Wardens and Grand Treasurer, Sec- 
 retary, and Chaplain, are also sometimes 
 called the Dignitaries. The officers of a 
 Lodge or Chapter are divided into the 
 Elected and the Appointed, the former in 
 this country being the Master, Wardens, 
 Treasurer, and Secretary. 
 
 Officers' Jewels. See Jewels, Offi- 
 cial. 
 
 Office, Tenure of. In Masonry the 
 tenure of every office is not only for the 
 time for which the incumbent was elected 
 or appointed, but extends to the day on 
 which his successor is installed. During 
 the period which elapses from the election 
 of that successor until his installation, the 
 old officer is technically said to " hold 
 over." 
 
 Oheh Eloah. mSx 2HX. Love of God. 
 This and Oheb Karobo, Love of our 
 Neighbor, are the names of the two supports 
 of the Ladder of Kadosh. Collectively, they 
 allude to that divine passage, " Thou shalt 
 love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, 
 and with all thy soul, and with all thy 
 mind. This is the first and great com- 
 mandment. And the second is like unto 
 it, Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. 
 On these two commandments hang all the 
 law and the prophets." Hence the Ladder 
 of Kadosh is supported by these two Chris- 
 tian commandments. 
 Oheb Karobo. See Oheb Eloah. 
 Ohio. Freemasonry was introduced 
 into Ohio early in the present century. 
 On January 4, 1808, a convention of dele- 
 gates from the five Lodges then in the 
 State met at Chillicothe, and on January 
 7 organized a Grand Lodge, electing Ru- 
 fus Putnam first Grand Master. The 
 Grand Chapter of Ohio was organized in 
 1816, the Grand Council in 1829, and the 
 Grand Commandery in 1843. 
 
544 
 
 OIL 
 
 OLIVER 
 
 Oil. The Hebrews anointed their kings, 
 prophets, and high priests with oil mingled 
 with the richest spices. They also anointed 
 themselves with oil on all festive occasions, 
 whence the expression in Psalm xlv. 7, 
 "God hath anointed thee with the oil of 
 gladness." See Corn. 
 
 Old Man. Old men in their dotage 
 are by the laws of Masonry disqualified for 
 initiation. For the reason of this law, see 
 Dotage. 
 
 Old Regulations. The regulations 
 for the government of the Craft, which were 
 first compiled by Grand Master Payne in 
 
 1720, and approved by the Grand Lodge in 
 
 1721, were published by Anderson in 1723, 
 in the first edition of the Book of Constitu- 
 tions, under the name of General Regula- 
 tions. In 1738 Anderson published a second 
 edition of the Book of Constitutions, and 
 inserted these regulations under the name 
 of Old Regulations, placing in an opposite 
 column the alterations which had been made 
 in them by the Grand Lodge at different 
 times between 1723 and 1737, and called 
 these New Regulations. When Dermott pub- 
 lished his Ahiman Rezon, or Book of Con- 
 stitutions of the schismatic Grand Lodge, 
 he adopted Anderson's plan, publishing in 
 two columns the Old and the New Regula- 
 tions. But he made some important changes 
 in the latter to accommodate the policy of 
 his own Grand Lodge. The Old Regula- 
 tions, more properly known as the " General 
 Regulations of 1722," are recognized as the 
 better authority in questions of Masonic 
 law. 
 
 OliTe. In a secondary sense, the olive 
 plant is a symbol of peace and victory ; but 
 in its primary sense, like all the other sa- 
 cred plants of antiquity, it was a symbol of 
 resurrection and immortality. Hence in 
 the Ancient Mysteries it was the analogue 
 of the Acacia of" Freemasonry. 
 
 OI i ve- Branch in the East, Bro- 
 therhood of the. A new Order, which 
 was proposed at Bombay, in 1845, by Dr. 
 James Burnes, the author of a History of the 
 Knights Templars, who was then the Pro- 
 vincial Grand Master of England for Scot- 
 land. It was intended to provide a sub- 
 stitute to native Masons for the chivalric 
 degrees, from which, on account of their 
 religious faith, they were excluded. It 
 consisted of three classes, Novice, Com- 
 panion, and Officer. For the first, it was 
 requisite that the candidate should have 
 been initiated into Masonry ; for the second, 
 that he should be a Master Mason ; and for 
 the third it was recommended, but not im- 
 peratively required, that he should have 
 attained the Royal Arch degree. The 
 badge of the Order was a dove descending 
 with a green olive-branch in its mouth. 
 
 The new Order was received with much 
 enthusiasm by the most distinguished Ma- 
 sons of India, but it did not secure a per- 
 manent existence. 
 
 Oliver, George. The Rev. George 
 Oliver, D.D., one of the most distinguished 
 and learned of English Masons, was de- 
 scended from an ancient Scottish family of 
 that name, some of whom came into Eng- 
 land in the time of James I., and settled 
 at Clipstone Park, Nottinghamshire. He 
 was the eldest son of the Rev. Samuel 
 Oliver, rector of Lambley, Nottingham- 
 shire, and Elizabeth, daughter of George 
 Whitehead, Esq. He was born at Pepple- 
 wick, November 5th, 1782, and received a 
 liberal education at Nottingham. In 1803, 
 when but twenty-one years of age, he was 
 elected second master of the grammar- 
 school at Caiston, Lincoln. In 1809 he 
 was appointed to the head-mastership of 
 King Edward's Grammar-School at Great 
 Grimsby. In 1813 he entered holy orders 
 in the Church of England, and was ordained 
 a deacon. The subsequent year he was 
 made a priest. In the spring of 1815, 
 Bishop Tomline collated him to the living 
 of Clee, his name being at the time placed 
 on the boards of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, as a ten-year man by Dr. Bayley, 
 Sub-dean of Lincoln and examining Chap- 
 lain to the Bishop. In the same year he 
 was admitted as Surrogate and a Steward 
 of the Clerical Fund. In 1831, Bishop 
 Kaye gave him the living of Scopwick, 
 which he held to the time of his death. 
 He graduated as Doctor of Divinity in 
 1836, being then rector of Wolverhampton, 
 and a prebendary of the collegiate church 
 at that place, both of which positions had 
 been presented to him by Dr. Hobart, Dean 
 of Westminster. In 1846, the Lord Chan- 
 cellor conferred on him the rectory of 
 South Hykeham, which vacated the incum- 
 bency of Wolverhampton. At the age of 
 seventy-two Dr. Oliver's physical powers 
 began to fail, and he was obliged to confine 
 the charge of his parishes to the care of 
 curates, and he passed the remaining years 
 of his life in retirement at Lincoln. In 
 1805 he had married Mary Ann, the 
 youngest daughter of Thomas Beverley, 
 Esq., by whom he left five children. He 
 died March 3d, 1867, at Eastgate, Lincoln. 
 
 To the literary world Dr. Oliver was 
 well known as a laborious antiquary, and 
 his works on ecclesiastical antiquities dur- 
 ing fifty.years of his life, from 1811 to 1866, 
 earned for him a high reputation. Of 
 these works the most important were, 
 " History and Antiquities of the Collegiate 
 Church of Beverley," "History and An- 
 tiquities of the Collegiate Church of Wol- 
 verhampton," " History of the Conventual 
 
OLIVER 
 
 OLIVER 
 
 545 
 
 Church of Grimsby," " Monumental Anti- 
 quities of Grimsby," " History of the Gild 
 of the Holy Trinity, Sleaford," " Letters 
 on the Druidical Remains near Lincoln," 
 " Guide to the Druidical Temple at Not- 
 tingham," and " Remains of Ancient Brit- 
 ons between Lincoln and Sleaford." 
 
 But it is as the most learned Mason and 
 the most indefatigable and copious Masonic 
 author of his age that Dr. Oliver princi- 
 
 Eally claims our attention. He had in- 
 erited a love of Freemasonry from his 
 father, the Rev. Samuel Oliver, who was an 
 expert Master of the work, the Chaplain of 
 his Lodge, and contributed during a whole 
 year, from 1797 to 1798, an original Masonic 
 song to be sung on every Lodge night. His 
 son has repeatedly acknowledged his in- 
 debtedness to him for valuable information 
 in relation to Masonic usages. 
 
 Dr. Oliver was initiated by his father, in 
 the year 1801, in St. Peter's Lodge, in the 
 city of Peterborough. He was at that time 
 but nineteen years of age, and was admitted 
 by dispensation during his minority, ac- 
 cording to the practice then prevailing, as 
 a lewis, or the son of a Mason. 
 
 Under the tuition of his father, he made 
 much progress in the rites and ceremonies 
 then in use among the Lodges. He read 
 with great attention every Masonic book 
 within his reach, and began to collect that 
 store of knowledge which he afterwards 
 used with so much advantage to the Craft. 
 
 Soon after his appointment as head mas- 
 ter of King Edward's Grammar-School at 
 Grimsby, he established a Lodge in the 
 borough, the chair of which he occupied 
 for fourteen years. So strenuous were his 
 exertions for the advancement of Masonry, 
 that in 1812 he was enabled to lay the first 
 stone of a Masonic hall in the town, where, 
 three years before, there had been scarcely 
 a Mason residing. 
 
 About this time he was exalted as a 
 Royal Arch Mason in the Chapter attached 
 to the Rodney Lodge at Kingston-on-Hull. 
 In Chapters and Consistories connected 
 with the same Lodge he also received the 
 high degrees and those of Masonic Knight- 
 hood. In 1813, he was appointed a 
 Provincial Grand Steward; in 1816, Pro- 
 vincial Grand Chaplain ; and in 1832, 
 Provincial Deputy Grand Master of the 
 Province of Lincolnshire. These are all 
 the official honors that he received, except 
 that of Past Deputy Grand Master, con- 
 ferred, as an honorary title, by the Grand 
 Lodge of Massachusetts. In the year 1840, 
 Dr. Crucefix had undeservedly incurred 
 the displeasure of the Grand Master, the 
 Duke of Sussex. Dr. Oliver, between whom 
 and Dr. Crucefix there had always been a 
 warm personal friendship, assisted in a pub- 
 3 T 35 
 
 lie demonstration of the Fraternity in honor 
 of his friend and brother. This involved 
 him in the odium, and caused the Provin- 
 cial Grand Master of Lincolnshire, Brother 
 Charles Tennyson D'Eyncourt, to request 
 the resignation of Dr. Oliver as his Deputy. 
 He complied with the resignation, and 
 after that time withdrew from all active 
 participation in the labors of the Lodge. 
 The transaction was not considered by any 
 means as creditable to the independence 
 of character or sense of justice of the Pro- 
 vincial Grand Master, and the Craft very 
 generally expressed their indignation of 
 the course which he had pursued, and their 
 warm appreciation of the Masonic services 
 of Dr. Oliver. In 1844, this appreciation 
 was marked by the presentation of an offer- 
 ing of plate, which had been very generally 
 subscribed for by the Craft throughout the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Dr. Oliver's first contribution to the lit- 
 erature of Freemasonry, except a few Ma- 
 sonic sermons, was a work entitled " The 
 Antiquities of Freemasonry, comprising 
 illustrations of the five Grand Periods of 
 Masonry, from the Creation of the Worfd 
 to the Dedication of King Solomon's Tem- 
 ple," which was published in 1823. His 
 next production was a little work entitled 
 " The Star in the East," intended to show, 
 from the testimony of Masonic writers, the 
 connection between Freemasonry and reli- 
 gion. In 1841 he published twelve lectures 
 on the "Signs and Symbols" of Freema- 
 sonry, in which he went into a learned detail 
 of the history and signification of all the 
 recognized symbols ofthe Order. His next 
 important contribution to Freemasonry was 
 " The History of Initiation, in twelve lec- 
 tures ; comprising a detailed account of 
 the Rites and Ceremonies, Doctrines and 
 Discipline, of all the Secret and Mysterious 
 Institutions of the Ancient World," pub- 
 lished in 1840. The professed object of the 
 author was to show the resemblances be- 
 tween these ancient systems of initiation 
 and the Masonic, and to trace them to a 
 common origin ; a theory which, under 
 some modification, has been very generally 
 accepted by Masonic scholars. 
 
 Following this was " The Theocratic Phil- 
 osophy of Freemasonry," a highly interest- 
 ing work, in which he discusses the specula- 
 tive character ofthe Institution. "A History 
 of Freemasonry from 1829 to 1840" has 
 proved a valuable appendix to the work of 
 Preston, an edition of which he had edited 
 in the former year. His next and his 
 most important, most interesting, and most 
 learned production was his "Historical 
 Landmarks and other Evidences of Freema- 
 sonry Explained." No work with such an 
 amount of facts in reference to the Masonic 
 
546 
 
 OLIVER 
 
 ON 
 
 system had ever before been published by 
 any author. It will forever remain as a 
 monument of his vast research and his ex- 
 tensive reading. But it would be no brief 
 task to enumerate merely the titles of the 
 many works which he produced for the in- 
 struction of the Craft. A few of them must 
 suffice. These are the "Revelations of a 
 Square," a sort of Masonic romance, detail- 
 ing, in a fictitious form, many of the usages 
 of the last centuries, with anecdotes of the 
 principal Masons of that period; "The 
 Golden Remains of the Early Masonic 
 Writers," in 5 volumes, each of which con- 
 tains an interesting introduction by the 
 editor; "The Book of the Lodge," a useful 
 manual, intended as a guide to the ceremo- 
 nies of the Order ; " The Symbol of Glory," 
 intended to show the object and end of 
 Freemasonry ; "A Mirror for the Johannite 
 Masons," in which he discusses the ques- 
 tion of the dedication of Lodges to the 
 two Saints John; " The Origin and Insig- 
 nia of the Royal Arch Degree," a title 
 which explains itself; "A Dictionary of 
 Symbolic Masonry," by no means the best 
 of his works. Almost his last contribution 
 to Masonry was his " Institutes of Masonic 
 Jurisprudence," a book in which he ex- 
 pressed views of law that did not meet with 
 the universal concurrence of his English 
 readers. Besides these elaborate works, Dr. 
 Oliver was a constant contributor to the 
 early volumes of the London Freemasons 1 
 Quarterly Review, and published a valu- 
 able article, " On the Gothic Constitutions," 
 in the American Quarterly Review of Free- 
 masonry. 
 
 The great error of Dr. Oliver, as a Ma- 
 sonic teacher, was a too easy credulity or a 
 too great warmth of imagination, which 
 led him to accept without hesitation the 
 crude theories of previous writers, and to 
 recognize documents and legends as un- 
 questionably authentic whose truthfulness 
 subsequent researches have led most Ma- 
 sonic scholars to doubt or to deny. His 
 statements, therefore, as to the origin or 
 the history of the Order, have to be received 
 with many grains of allowance. Yet it must 
 be acknowledged that no writer in the Eng- 
 lish language has ever done so much to ele- 
 vate the scientific character of Freemasonry. 
 
 Dr. Oliver was in fact the founder of 
 what may be called the literary school of 
 Masonry. Bringing to the study of the 
 Institution an amount of archaeological 
 learning but seldom surpassed, an inex- 
 haustible fund of multifarious reading, 
 and all the laborious researches of a genu- 
 ine scholar, he gave to Freemasonry a lit- 
 erary and philosophic character which has 
 induced many succeeding scholars to de- 
 vote themselves to those studies which he 
 
 had made so attractive. While his errone- 
 ous theories and his fanciful speculations 
 will be rejected, the form and direction that 
 he has given to Masonic speculations will 
 remain, and to him must be accredited the 
 enviable title of the Father of Anglo-Saxon 
 Masonic literature. 
 
 In reference to the personal character 
 of Dr. Oliver, a contemporary journalist 
 {Stanford Mercury) has said that he was 
 of a kind and genial disposition, charita- 
 ble in the highest sense of the word, cour- 
 teous, affable, self-denying, and beneficent; 
 humble, unassuming, and unaffected ; ever 
 ready to oblige, easy of approach, and 
 amiable, yet firm in the right. 
 
 Dr. Oliver's theory of the system of 
 Freemasonry may be briefly stated in these 
 words. He believed that the Order was to 
 be found in the earliest periods of recorded 
 history. It was taught by Seth to his de- 
 scendants, and practised by them under the 
 name of Primitive or Pure Freemasonry. 
 It passed over to Noah, and at the disper- 
 sion of mankind suffered a division into 
 Pure and Spurious. Pure Freemasonry 
 descended through the Patriarchs to Sol- 
 omon, and thence on to the present day. 
 The Pagans, although they had slight 
 glimmerings of the Masonic truths which 
 had been taught by Noah, greatly corrupted 
 them, and presented in their mysteries a 
 system of initiation to which he gave the 
 name of the Spurious Freemasonry of An- 
 tiquity. These views he had developed 
 and enlarged and adorned out of the simi- 
 lar but less definitely expressed teachings 
 of Hutchinson. Like that writer also, 
 while freely admitting the principle of reli- 
 gious tolerance, he contended for the strictly 
 Christian character of the Institution, and 
 that, too, in the narrowest sectarian view, 
 since he believed that the earliest symbols 
 taught the dogma of the Trinity, and that 
 Christ was meant by the Masonic refer- 
 ence to the Deity under the title of Grand 
 Architect of the Universe. 
 
 Omega. See Alpha and Omega. 
 
 Omnific Word. The Tetragramma- 
 ton is so called because of the omnific 
 powers attributed by the Kabbalists to its 
 possession and true pronunciation. (See 
 Tetragrammaton.) The term is also applied 
 to the most significant word in the Royal 
 Arch system. 
 
 On. This is a significant word in 
 Royal Arch Masonry, and has been gener- 
 ally explained as being the name by which 
 Jehovah was worshipped among the Egyp- 
 tians. As this has been recently denied, 
 and the word asserted to be only the name 
 of a city in Egypt, it is proper that some 
 inquiry should be made into the authorities 
 on the subject. The first mention of On in 
 
ON 
 
 OPENING 
 
 547 
 
 the Bible is in the history of Joseph, to 
 whom Pharaoh gave " to wife Asenath, the 
 daughter of Poti-pherah, priest of On." 
 The city of On was in Lower Egypt, be- 
 tween the Nile and the Red Sea, and 
 " adorned," says Philippson, " by a gorgeous 
 temple of the sun, in which a numerous 
 priesthood officiated." 
 
 The investigations of modern Egyptolo- 
 gists have shown that this is an error. On 
 was the name of a city where the sun-god 
 was worshipped, but On was not the name 
 of that god. 
 
 Champollion, in his Dictionnaire Egyp- 
 tien, gives the phonetic char- 
 acters, with the figurative sym- 
 bols of a serpent and disk, and 
 a seated figure, as the name of the sun-god. 
 Now, of these two characters, the upper one 
 has the power of R, and the lower of A, 
 and hence the name of the god is Ra. And 
 this is the concurrent testimony of Bunsen, 
 Lepsius, Gliddon, and all recent authorities. 
 
 But although On was really the name of 
 a city, the founders of the Royal Arch had, 
 with the lights then before them, assumed 
 that it was the name of a god, and had so 
 incorporated it with their system. With 
 better light than theirs, we can no longer 
 accept their definition ; yet the word may 
 still be retained as a symbol of the Egyp- 
 tian god. I know not who has power to 
 reject it ; and if scholars preserve, outside 
 of the symbolism, the true interpretation, 
 no harm will be done. It is not the only 
 significant word in Masonry whose old 
 and received meaning has been shown to 
 be incorrect, and sometimes even absurd. 
 And yet the word is still retained as the 
 expression of an old idea. 
 
 Wilkinson says of it : " This city was in 
 all ages a sort of ecclesiastical metropolis 
 of Lower Egypt — the prime seat of the 
 sacred mysteries and higher science of the 
 country, and was, as such, the fountain 
 from which the Greek philosophers and 
 historians were allowed to draw the scanty 
 information which they have transmitted 
 to us." The sun, which was there wor- 
 shipped, was in the Egyptian, as in other 
 idolatrous systems, one of the chief deities. 
 In another place in the Bible, (Jer. xliii. 
 13,) the city of On is called Bethshemesh, 
 the city of the sun ; and the Greeks called 
 it Heliopolis, which had precisely the same 
 meaning. Now, what was actually the 
 signification of the word ON ? In the lan- 
 guage of the hieroglyphics, the sun, it is 
 true, is called RA ; but St. Cyril, who, as 
 Bishop of Alexandria, should have known 
 something of this subject, says that On sig- 
 nified, among the Egyptians, the sun, ("Qv M 
 eari /car* avrolg 6 rj^ioq.) Higgins {Celt. 
 Druids, 171,) quotes an Irish commentator 
 
 as showing that the name AIN or ON was 
 the name of a triad of gods in the Irish 
 language. "All etymologists," Higgins 
 continues, " have supposed the word On to 
 mean the sun ; but how the name arose has 
 not before been explained." In another 
 work, (Anacalypsis, vol. i., p. 109,) Higgins 
 makes the following important remarks: 
 " Various definitions are given of the word 
 ON ; but they are all unsatisfactory. It is 
 written in the Old Testament in two ways, 
 jlft, aun, and y$, an. It is usually 
 rendered in English by the word On. This 
 word is supposed to mean the sun, and the 
 Greeks translated it by the word tjltoq, or 
 Sol. But I think it only stood for the sun, 
 as the emblem of the procreative power of 
 nature." Bryan says, {Ant. Mythol., i. 19,) 
 when speaking of this word: " On, Eon or 
 Aon, was another title of the sun among 
 the Amonians. The Seventy, where the 
 word occurs in the Scriptures, interpret it the 
 sun, and call the city of On, Heliopolis ; and 
 the Coptic Pentateuch renders the city On 
 by the city of the sun." Plato, in his 
 Timceus, says : " Tell me of the god ON, 
 which is, and never knew beginning." 
 And although Plato may have been here 
 thinking of the Greek word ON, which 
 means Being, it is not improbable that he 
 may have referred to the god worshipped 
 at On, or Heliopolis, as it was thence that 
 the Greeks derived so much of their learn- 
 ing. It would be vain to attempt to make 
 an analogy between the Hindu sacred word 
 AUM and the Egyptian ON. The fact 
 that the M in the former word is the initial 
 of some secret word, renders the conver- 
 sion of it into M impossible, because it 
 would thereby lose its signification. 
 
 The old Masons, misled by the authority 
 of St. Cyril, and by the translation of the 
 name of the city into " City of the Sun " 
 by the Hebrews and the Greeks, very 
 naturally supposed that On was the Egyp- 
 tian sun-god, their supreme deity, as the 
 sun always was, wherever he was wor- 
 shipped. Hence, they appropriated that 
 name as a sacred word explanatory of the 
 Jewish Tetragrammaton. 
 
 Onyx, Ont^- (Shohem.) The second 
 stone in the fourth row of the high priest's 
 breastplate. It is of a bluish-black color, 
 and represented the tribe of Joseph. 
 
 Opening of the Lodge. The ne- 
 cessity of some preparatory ceremonies, of 
 a more or less formal character, before pro- 
 ceeding to the despatch of the ordinary 
 business of any association, has always 
 been recognized. Decorum and the dig- 
 nity of the meeting alike suggest, even in 
 popular assemblies called only for a tem- 
 porary purpose, that a presiding officer 
 shall, with some formality, be inducted 
 
548 
 
 OPENING 
 
 OPENING 
 
 into the chair, and he then, to use the or- 
 dinary phrase, " opens " the meeting with 
 the appointment of his necessary assistants, 
 and with the announcement, in an address 
 to the audience, explanatory of the objects 
 that have called them together. 
 
 If secular associations have found it ex- 
 pedient, by the adoption of some prepara- 
 tory forms, to avoid the appearance of an 
 unseeming abruptness in proceeding to 
 business, it may well be supposed that re- 
 ligious societies have been still more ob- 
 servant of the custom, and that, as their 
 pursuits are more elevated, the ceremonies 
 of their preparation for the object of their 
 meeting should be still more impressive. 
 
 In the Ancient Mysteries, (those sacred 
 rites which have furnished so many models 
 for Masonic symbolism,) the opening cere- 
 monies were of the most solemn character. 
 The sacred herald commenced the cere- 
 monies of opening the greater initiations 
 by the solemn formula of " Depart hence, 
 ye profane I " to which was added a proc- 
 lamation which forbade the use of any 
 language which might be deemed of un- 
 favorable augury to the approaching rites. 
 
 In like manner a Lodge of Masons is 
 opened with the employment of certain 
 ceremonies in which, that attention may 
 be given to their symbolic as well as prac- 
 tical importance, every member present is 
 expected to take a part. 
 
 These ceremonies, which slightly differ 
 in each of the degrees — but differ so 
 slightly as not to affect their general char- 
 acter — may be considered, in reference to 
 the several purposes which they are de- 
 signed to effect, to be divided into eight 
 successive steps or parts. 
 
 1. The Master having signified his in- 
 tention to proceed to the labors of the 
 Lodge, every brother is expected to assume 
 his necessary Masonic clothing and, if an 
 ofiicer, the insignia of his office, and si- 
 lently and decorously to repair to his ap- 
 propriate station. 
 
 2. The next step in the ceremony is, 
 with the usual precautions, to ascertain 
 the right of each one to be present. It is 
 scarcely necessary to say that, in the per- 
 formance of this duty, the officers who are 
 charged with it should allow no one to 
 remain who is not either well known to 
 themselves or properly vouched for by 
 some discreet and experienced brother. 
 
 3. Attention is next directed to the ex- 
 ternal avenues of the Lodge, and the officers 
 within and without who are intrusted with 
 the performance of this important duty, are 
 expected to execute it with care and fidel- 
 ity. 
 
 4. By a wise provision, it is no sooner in- 
 timated to the Master that he may safely 
 
 proceed, than he directs his attention to an 
 inquiry into the knowledge possessed by 
 his officers of the duties that they will be 
 respectively called upon to perform. 
 
 5. Satisfied upon this point, the Master 
 then announces, by formal proclamation, 
 his intention to proceed to business; and, 
 mindful of the peaceful character of our 
 Institution, he strictly forbids all immoral 
 or unmasonic conduct whereby the har- 
 mony of the Lodge may be impeded, 
 under no less a penalty than the by-laws 
 may impose, or a majority of the brethren 
 present may see fit to inflict. Nor, after 
 this, is any brother permitted to leave the 
 Lodge during Lodge hours (that is, from 
 the time of opening to that of closing,) 
 without having first obtained the Worship- 
 ful Master's permission. 
 
 6. Certain mystic rites, which can here 
 be only alluded to, are then employed, by 
 which each brother present signifies his 
 concurrence in the ceremonies which have 
 beeu performed, and his knowledge of the 
 degree in which the Lodge is about to be 
 opened. 
 
 7. It is a lesson which every Mason is 
 taught, as one of the earliest points of his 
 initiation, that he should commence no im- 
 portant undertaking without first invoking 
 the blessing of Deity. Hence the next step 
 in the progress of the opening ceremonies 
 is to address a prayer to the Supreme Ar- 
 chitect of the Universe. This prayer, al- 
 though offered by the Master, is to be par- 
 ticipated in by every brother, and, at its 
 conclusion, the audible response of "So 
 mote it be : Amen," should be made by all 
 present. 
 
 •8. The Lodge is then declared, in the 
 name of God and the Holy Saints John, to 
 be opened in due form on the first, second, 
 or third degree of Masonry, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 A Lodge is said to be opened in the name 
 of God and the Holy Saints John, as a dec- 
 laration of the sacred and religious pur- 
 poses of the meeting, of profound reverence 
 for that Divine Being whose name and 
 attributes should be the constant themes 
 of contemplation, and of respect for those 
 ancient patrons whom the traditions of 
 Masonry have so intimately connected with 
 the history of the Institution. 
 
 It is said to be opened in due form, to in- 
 timate that all that is necessary, appropri- 
 ate, and usual in the ceremonies, all that 
 the law requires or ancient usage renders 
 indispensable, have been observed. 
 
 And it is-said to be opened on, and not in, 
 a certain degree (which latter expression is 
 often incorrectly used), in reference rather 
 to the speculative than to the legal char- 
 acter of the meeting, to indicate, not that 
 
OPERATIVE 
 
 ORAL 
 
 549 
 
 the members are to be circumscribed in the 
 limits of a particular degree, but that they 
 are met together to unite in contemplation 
 on the symbolic teachings and divine les- 
 sons, to inculcate which is the peculiar ob- 
 ject of that degree. 
 
 The manner of opening in each degree 
 slightly varies. In the English system, the 
 Lodge is opened in the first degree " in the 
 name of God and Universal Benevolence ;" 
 in the second, " on the square, in the name 
 of the Great Geometrician of the Universe ; " 
 and in the third, " on the centre, in the 
 name of the Most High." 
 
 It is prescribed as a ritual regulation that 
 the Master shall never open or close his 
 Lodge without a lecture or part of a 
 lecture. Hence, in each of the degrees a 
 portion of a part of the lecture of that de- 
 gree is incorporated into the opening and 
 closing ceremonies. 
 
 There is in every degree of Masonry, 
 from the lowest to the highest, an opening 
 ceremony peculiar to the degree. This 
 ceremony has always more or less reference 
 to the symbolic lesson which it is the 
 design of the degree to teach, and hence 
 the varieties of openings are as many as the 
 degrees themselves. 
 
 Operative Art. Masonry is divided 
 by Masonic writers into two branches, an 
 operative art and a speculative science. 
 The operative art is that which was prac- 
 tised by the Free Stonemasons of the Mid- 
 dle Ages. The speculative science is that 
 which is practised by the Freemasons of 
 the present day. The technicalities and 
 usages of the former have been incorpo- 
 rated into and modified by the latter. 
 Hence, Freemasonry is sometimes defined 
 as a speculative science founded on an 
 operative art. 
 
 Operative Masonry. Freemason- 
 ry, in its character as an operative art, is 
 familiar to every one. As such, it is en- 
 gaged in the application of the rules and 
 principles of architecture to the construc- 
 tion of edifices for private and public use, 
 houses for the dwelling-place of man, and 
 temples for the worship of the Deity. It 
 abounds, like every other art, in the use of 
 technical terms, and employs, in practice, 
 an abundance of implements and materials 
 which are peculiar to itself. 
 
 This operative art has been the founda- 
 tion on which has been built the specula- 
 tive science of Freemasonry. See Specu- 
 lative Masonry. 
 
 Operative Masons. Workers in 
 stone, who construct material edifices, in 
 contradistinction to Speculative Masons, 
 who construct only spiritual edifices. 
 
 Option. When a Masonic obligation 
 leaves to the person who assumes it the 
 
 option to perform or omit any part of it, it is 
 not to be supposed that such option is to 
 be only his arbitrary will or unreasonable 
 choice. On the contrary, in exercising it, 
 he must be governed and restrained by the 
 principles of right and duty, and be con- 
 trolled by the circumstances which sur- 
 round the case, so that this option, which 
 at first would seem to be a favor, really in- 
 volves a great and responsible duty, that 
 of exercising a just judgment in the prem- 
 ises. That which at one time would be 
 proper to perform, at another time and in 
 different circumstances it would be equally 
 proper to omit. 
 
 Oral Instruction. Much of the 
 instruction which is communicated in 
 Freemasonry, and, indeed, all that is eso- 
 teric, is given orally ; and there is a law of 
 the Institution that forbids such instruction 
 to be written. There is in this usage and 
 regulation a striking analogy to what pre- 
 vailed on the same subject in all the secret 
 institutions of antiquity. 
 
 In all the ancient mysteries, the same 
 reluctance to commit the esoteric instruc- 
 tions of the hierophants to writing is appa- 
 rent; and hence the secret knowledge 
 taught in their initiations was preserved in 
 symbols, the true meaning of which was 
 closely concealed from the profane. 
 
 The Druids had a similar regulation ; 
 and Caesar informs us that, although they 
 made use of the letters of the Greek alpha- 
 bet to record their ordinary or public trans- 
 actions, yet it was not considered lawful to 
 intrust their sacred verses to writing, but 
 these were always committed to memory by 
 their disciples. 
 
 The secret doctrine of the Kabbala, or 
 the mystical philosophy of the Hebrews, 
 was also communicated in an oral form, 
 and could be revealed only through the 
 medium of allegory and similitude. The 
 Kabbalistic knowledge, traditionally re- 
 ceived, was, says Maurice, (Ind. Antiq., iv. 
 548,) "transmitted verbally down to all the 
 great characters celebrated in Jewish an- 
 tiquity, among whom both David and Sol- 
 omon were deeply conversant in its most 
 hidden mysteries. Nobody, however, had 
 ventured to commit anything of this kind 
 to paper." 
 
 The Christian Church also, in the age 
 immediately succeeding the apostolic, ob- 
 served the same custom of oral instruction. 
 The early Fathers were eminently cautious 
 not to commit certain of the mysterious 
 dogmas of their religion to writing, lest 
 the surrounding Pagans should be made 
 acquainted with what they could neither 
 understand nor appreciate. St. Basil, (De 
 Spiritu Sancto,) treating of this subject in 
 the fourth century, says : " We receive the 
 
550 
 
 ORAL 
 
 ORAL 
 
 dogmas transmitted to us by writing, and 
 those which have descended to us from the 
 apostles, beneath the mystery of oral tra- 
 dition ; for several things have been handed 
 to us without writing, lest the vulgar, too 
 familiar with our dogmas, should lose a 
 due respect for them." And he further 
 asks, " How should it ever be becoming to 
 write and circulate among the people an 
 account of those things which the uniniti- 
 ated are not permitted to contemplate?" 
 
 A custom, so ancient as this, of keeping 
 the landmarks unwritten, and one so in- 
 variably observed by the Masonic fraternity, 
 it may very naturally be presumed, must 
 have been originally established with the 
 wisest intentions; and, as the usage was 
 adopted by many other institutions whose 
 organization was similar to that of Free- 
 masonry, it may also be supposed that it 
 was connected, in some way, with the char- 
 acter of an esoteric instruction. 
 
 Two reasons, it seems to me, may be as- 
 signed for the adoption of the usage among 
 Freemasons. 
 
 In the first place, by confining our secret 
 doctrines and landmarks to the care of 
 tradition, all danger of controversies and 
 schisms among Masons and in Lodges is 
 effectually avoided. Of these traditions, 
 the Grand Lodge in each jurisdiction is the 
 interpreter, and to its authoritative inter- 
 pretation every Mason and every Lodge in 
 the jurisdiction is bound to submit. There 
 is no book, to which every brother may 
 refer, whose language each one may inter- 
 pret according to his own views, and whose 
 expressions — sometimes, perhaps, equivo- 
 cal, and sometimes obscure — might afford 
 ample sources of wordy contest and verbal 
 criticism. The doctrines themselves, as 
 well as their interpretation, are contained 
 in the memories of the Craft; and the 
 Grand Lodges, as the lawful representatives 
 of the Fraternity, are alone competent to 
 decide whether the tradition has been cor- 
 rectly preserved, and what is its true inter- 
 pretation. And hence it is that there is no 
 institution in which there have been so few 
 and such unimportantcontroversies with re- 
 spect to essential and fundamental doctrines. 
 
 In illustration of this argument, Dr. Oli- 
 ver, while speaking of what he calls the 
 antediluvian system of Freemasonry, — a 
 part of which must necessarily have been 
 traditional, and transmitted from father to 
 son, and a part intrusted to symbols, — 
 makes the following observations : 
 
 " Such of the legends as were communi- 
 cated orally would be entitled to the great- 
 est degree of credence, while those that 
 were committed to the custody of symbols, 
 which, it is probable, many of the collat- 
 eral legends would be, were in great danger 
 
 of perversion, because the truth could only 
 be ascertained by those persons who were 
 intrusted with the secret of their interpre- 
 tation. And if the symbols were of doubt- 
 ful character, and carried a double mean- 
 ing, as many of the Egyptian hieroglyphics 
 of a subsequent age actually did, the legends 
 which they embodied might sustain very 
 considerable alteration in sixteen or sev- 
 enteen hundred years, although passing 
 through very few hands." 
 
 Maimonides [More Nevochim c. lxxi.) as- 
 signs a similar reason for the unwritten 
 preservation of the Oral Law. "This," he 
 says, " was the perfection of wisdom in our 
 law, that by this means those evils were 
 avoided into which it fell in succeeding 
 times, namely, the variety and perplexity 
 of sentiments and opinions, and the doubts 
 which so commonly arise from written doc- 
 trines contained in books, besides the errors 
 which are easily committed by writers and 
 copyists, whence, afterwards, spring up con- 
 troversies, schisms, and confusion of par- 
 ties." 
 
 A second reason that may be assigned for 
 the unwritten ritual of Masonry is, that by 
 compelling the craftsman who desires to 
 make any progress in his profession, to 
 commit its doctrines to memory, there is a 
 greater probability of their being thoroughly 
 studied and understood. In confirmation 
 of this opinion, it will, I think, be readily 
 acknowledged by any one whose experi- 
 ence is at all extensive, that, as a general 
 rule, those skilful brethren who are techni- 
 cally called "bright Masons," are better 
 acquainted with the esoteric and unwritten 
 portion of the lectures, which they were 
 compelled to acquire under a competent 
 instructor, and by oral information, than 
 with that which is published in the Moni- 
 tors, and, therefore, always at hand to be read. 
 
 Caesar (Bell. Gall., vi. 14,) thought that 
 this was the cause of the custom among 
 the Druids, for, after mentioning that they 
 did not suffer their doctrines to be com- 
 mitted to writing, he adds : " They seem to 
 me to have adopted this method for two 
 reasons: that their mysteries might be 
 hidden from the common people, and to 
 exercise the memory of their disciples, 
 which would be neglected if they had 
 books on which they might rely, as, we 
 find, is often the case." 
 
 A third reason for this unwritten doc- 
 trine of Masonry, and one, perhaps, most 
 familiar to the Craft, is also alluded to by 
 Csesar in the case of the Druids, " because 
 they did not wish their doctrines to be di- 
 vulged to the common people." Maimo- 
 nides, in the conclusion of the passage 
 which we have already quoted, makes a 
 similar remark with respect to the oral law 
 
ORAL 
 
 ORDER 
 
 551 
 
 of the Jews. " But if," says he, " so much 
 care was exercised that the oral law should 
 not be written in a book and laid open to 
 all persons, lest, peradventure, it should 
 become corrupted and depraved, how much 
 more caution was required that the secret 
 interpretations of that law should not be 
 divulged to every person, and pearls be 
 thus thrown to swine." " Wherefore," he 
 adds, " they were intrusted to certain pri- 
 vate persons, and by them were transmitted 
 to other educated men of excellent and ex- 
 traordinary gifts." And for this regula- 
 tion he quotes the Rabbins, who say that 
 the secrets of the law are not delivered to 
 any person except a man of prudence and 
 wisdom. 
 
 It is, then, for these excellent reasons, — 
 to avoid idle controversies and endless dis- 
 putes ; to preserve the secrets of our Order 
 from decay; and, by increasing the diffi- 
 culties by which they are to be obtained, 
 to diminish the probability of their being 
 forgotten ; and, finally, to secure them from 
 the unhallowed gaze of the profane, — that 
 the oral instruction of Masonry was first 
 instituted, and still continues to be reli- 
 giously observed. Its secret doctrines are 
 the precious jewels of the Order, and the 
 memories of Masons are the well-guarded 
 caskets in which those jewels are to be pre- 
 served with unsullied purity. And hence 
 it is appropriately said in our ritual, that 
 " the attentive ear receives the sound from 
 the instructive tongue, and the secrets of 
 Freemasonry are safely lodged in the de- 
 positary of faithful breasts." 
 
 Oral L.SIW. The Oral Law is the name 
 given by the Jews to the interpretation of 
 the written code, and which is said to have 
 been delivered to Moses at the same time, 
 accompanied by the Divine command: 
 " Thou shalt not divulge the words which 
 I have said to thee out of my mouth." The 
 Oral Law was, therefore, never intrusted to 
 books ; but, being preserved in the memo- 
 ries of the judges, prophets, priests, and 
 other wise men, was handed down, from 
 one to the other, through a long succession 
 of ages. 
 
 Maimonides has described, according to 
 the Rabbinical traditions, the mode adopted 
 by Moses to impress the principles of this 
 Oral Law upon the people. As an example 
 of perseverance in the acquirement of in- 
 formation by oral instruction, it may be 
 worthy of the consideration and imitation 
 of all those Masons who wish to perfect 
 themselves in the esoteric lessons of their 
 Institution. 
 
 When Moses had descended from Mount 
 Sinai, and had spoken to the people, he re- 
 tired to his tent. Here he was visited by 
 Aaron, to whom, sitting at his feet, he re- 
 
 cited the law and its explanation, as he 
 had received it from God. Aaron then 
 rose and seated himself on the right hand 
 of Moses. Eleazar and Ithamar, the sons 
 of Aaron, now entered the tent, and Moses 
 repeated to them all that he had communi- 
 cated to their father ; after which, they 
 seated themselves, one on the left hand of 
 Moses and the other on the right hand of 
 Aaron. Then went in the seventy elders, 
 and Moses taught them, in the same 
 manner as he had taught Aaron and his 
 sons. Afterwards, all of the congregation 
 who desired to know the Divine will came 
 in ; and to them, also, Moses recited the 
 law and its interpretation, in the same 
 manner as before. The law, thus orally 
 delivered by Moses, had now been heard 
 four times by Aaron, three times by his 
 sons, twice by the seventy elders, and once 
 by the rest of the people. After this, 
 Moses withdrawing, Aaron repeated all 
 that he had heard from Moses, and retired; 
 then Eleazar and Ithamar repeated it, and 
 also withdrew ; and, finally, the same thing 
 was done by the seventy elders ; so that each 
 of them having heard the law repeated 
 four times, it was thus, finally, fixed in 
 their memories. 
 
 The written law, divided by the Jewish 
 lawgivers into 613 precepts, is contained in 
 the Pentateuch. But the Oral law, trans- 
 mitted by Moses to Joshua, by him to the 
 elders, and from them conveyed by tradi- 
 tionary relation to the time of Judah the 
 Holy, was by him, to preserve it from being 
 forgotten and lost, committed to writing 
 in the work known as the Mishna. And 
 now, no longer an Oral Law, its pre- 
 cepts are to be found in that book, with 
 the subsidiary aid of the Constitutions of 
 the prophets and wise men, the Decrees of 
 the Sanhedrim, the decisions of the Judges, 
 and the Expositions of the Doctors. 
 
 Orator. An officer in a Lodge whose 
 duty it is to explain to a candidate after 
 his initiation the mysteries of the degree 
 into which he has just been admitted. The 
 office is therefore, in many respects, simi- 
 lar to that of a lecturer. The office was 
 created in the French Lodges early in the 
 eighteenth century, soon after the intro- 
 duction of Masonry into France. A writer 
 in the London Freemasons' Magazine for 
 1859 attributes its origin to the constitu- 
 tional deficiency of the French in readi- 
 ness of public speaking. From the French 
 it passed to the other continental Lodges, 
 and was adopted by the Scottish Rite. The 
 office is not recognized in the English and 
 American system, where its duties are per- 
 formed by the Worshipful Master. 
 
 Order. An Order may be defined to 
 be a brotherhood, fellowship, or associa- 
 
552 
 
 ORDER 
 
 ORDER 
 
 tion of certain persons, united by laws and 
 statutes peculiar to the society, engaged in a 
 common object or design, and distinguished 
 by particular habits, ensigns, badges or 
 symbols. 
 
 Johnson's definition is that an Order is 
 " a regular government, a society of digni- 
 fied persons distinguished by marks of 
 honor, and a religious fraternity." In all 
 of these senses Freemasonry may be styled 
 an Order. Its government is of the most 
 regular and systematic character ; men the 
 most eminent for dignity and reputation 
 have been its members; and if it does not 
 constitute a religion in itself, it is at least 
 religion's handmaid. 
 
 The ecclesiastical writers define an Order 
 to be a congregation or society of religious 
 persons, governed by particular rules, liv- 
 ing under the same superior, in the same 
 manner, and wearing the same habit; a 
 definition equally applicable to the society 
 of Freemasons. These ecclesiastical Orders 
 are divided into three classes : 1. Monastic, 
 such as the Benedictines and the Augus- 
 tinians. 2. The Mendicant, as the Domin- 
 icans and the Franciscans. 3. The Mil- 
 itary, as the Hospitallers, the Templars, 
 and the Teutonic Knights. Only the first 
 and the third have any connection with Free- 
 masonry ; the first because it was by them 
 that architecture was fostered, and the Ma- 
 sonic gilds patronized in the Middle Ages ; 
 and the third because it was in the bosom 
 of Freemasonry that the Templars found a 
 refuge after the dissolution of their Order. 
 
 Order Name. The name or designa- 
 tion assumed by the Illuminati, the mem- 
 bers of the Rite of Strict Observance, and 
 of the Royal Order of Scotland, was called 
 the Order Name, or the Characteristic 
 Name. See Eques. 
 
 The Illuminati selected classical names, 
 of which the following are specimens : 
 
 "Weishaupt 
 
 Knigge 
 
 Bode 
 
 Nicolai 
 
 Westenreider 
 
 Constanza 
 
 Zwack 
 
 Count Savioli 
 
 Busche 
 
 Ecker 
 
 i Spartacus. 
 Philo. 
 Amelius. 
 Lucian. 
 Pythagoras. 
 Diomedes. 
 Cato. 
 Brutus. 
 Bayard. 
 Saladin. 
 
 The members of the Strict Observance 
 formed their Order Names in a different 
 way. Following the custom of the com- 
 batants in the old tournaments, each called 
 himself an eques, or knight of some particu- 
 lar object; as, Knight of the Sword, Knight 
 of the Star, etc. Where one belonged both 
 to this Rite and to that of Illuminism, his 
 
 Order Name in each was different. Thus 
 Bode, as an Illuminatus, was, we have seen, 
 called " Amelius," but as a Strict Observ- 
 ant, he was known as " Eques a lilio con- 
 vallium," or Knight of the Lily of the 
 Valleys. The following examples may 
 suffice. A full list will be found in Thory's 
 Acta Latomorum. 
 Hund was Eques ab ense = Knight of the 
 
 Sword. 
 Jacobi was Eques a stelia = Knight of the 
 
 Star. 
 Count Bruhl was Eques a gladio ancipiti = 
 
 Knight of the Double-edged Sword. 
 Bode was Eques a lilio convallium = Knight 
 
 of the Lily of the Valleys. 
 Beyerle was Eques a fascia = Knight of the 
 
 Girdle. 
 Berend was Eques a septem stellis = Knight 
 
 of the Seven Stars. 
 Decker was Eques a plagula = Knight of 
 
 the Curtain. 
 Lavaterwas Eques ab iEsculapio = Knight 
 
 of Esculapius. 
 Seckendorf was Eques a capricorno = 
 
 Knight of Capricorn. 
 Prince Charles Edward was Eques a sole 
 
 aureo = Knight of the Golden Sun. 
 Zinnendorf was Eques a lapide nigro = 
 
 Knight of the Black Stone. 
 
 Order of Business. In every Ma- 
 sonic body, the by-laws should prescribe 
 an " Order of Business," and in proportion 
 as that order is rigorously observed will be 
 the harmony and celerity with which the 
 business of the Lodge will be despatched. 
 
 In Lodges whose by-laws have prescribed 
 no settled order, the arrangement of business 
 is left to the discretion of the presiding 
 officer, who, however, must be governed, 
 to some extent, by certain general rules 
 founded on the principles of parliamentary 
 law, or on the suggestions of common sense. 
 
 The order of business may, for conven- 
 ience of reference, be placed in the following 
 tabular form : 
 
 1. Opening of the Lodge. 
 
 2. Reading and confirmation of the 
 minutes. 
 
 3. Reports on petitions. 
 
 4. Balloting for candidates. 
 
 5. Reports of special committees. 
 
 6. Reports of standing committees. 
 
 7. Consideration of motions made at a 
 former meeting, if called up by a member. 
 
 8. New business. 
 
 9. Initiations. 
 
 10. Reading of the minutes for informa- 
 tion and correction. 
 
 11. Closing of the Lodge. 
 
 Order of Christ. See Christ, Order 
 of. 
 
 Order of the Temple. See Tem- 
 ple, Order of the. 
 
ORDER 
 
 ORDERS 
 
 553 
 
 Order, Rules of. Every permanent 
 deliberative body adopts a code of rules of 
 order to suit itself; but there are certain 
 rules derived from what may be called the 
 common law of Parliament, the wisdom of 
 which having been proven by long experi- 
 ence, that have been deemed of force at all 
 times and places, and are, with a few neces- 
 sary exceptions, as applicable to Lodges as 
 to other societies. 
 
 The rules of order, sanctioned by unin- 
 terrupted usage and approved by all au- 
 thorities, may be enumerated under the 
 following distinct heads, as applied to a 
 Masonic body: 
 
 1. Two independent original propositions 
 cannot be presented at the same time to 
 the meeting. 
 
 2. A subsidiary motion cannot be offered 
 out of its rank of precedence. 
 
 3. When a brother intends to speak, he 
 is required to stand up in his place, and 
 to address himself always to the presiding 
 officer. 
 
 4. When two or more brethren rise 
 nearly at the same time, the presiding 
 officer will indicate, by mentioning his 
 name, the one who, in his opinion, is en- 
 titled to the floor. 
 
 5. A brother is not to be interrupted by 
 any other member, except for the purpose 
 of calling him to order. 
 
 6. No brother can speak oftener than the 
 rules permit; but this rule may be dis- 
 pensed with by the Master. 
 
 7. No one is to disturb the speaker by 
 hissing, unnecessary coughing, loud whis- 
 
 Eering, or other unseemly noise, nor should 
 e pass between the speaker and the pre- 
 siding officer. 
 
 8. No personality, abusive remarks, or 
 other improper language should be used by 
 any brother in debate. 
 
 9. If the presiding officer rises to speak 
 while a brother is on the floor, that brother 
 should immediately sit down, that the pre- 
 siding officer may be heard. 
 
 10. Every one who speaks should speak 
 to the question. 
 
 11. As a sequence to this, it follows that 
 there can be no speaking unless there be 
 a question before the Lodge. There must 
 always be a motion of some kind to au- 
 thorize a debate. 
 
 Orders of Architecture. An order 
 in architecture is a system or assemblage 
 of parts subject to certain uniform estab- 
 lished proportions regulated by the office 
 which such part has to perform, so that the 
 disposition, in a peculiar form, of the mem- 
 bers and ornaments, and the proportion of 
 the columns and pilasters, is called an order. 
 There are five orders of architecture, the 
 Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Oom- 
 3U 
 
 posite — the first three being of Greek and 
 the last two of Italian origin. See each 
 under its respective title. 
 
 Considering that the orders of architec- 
 ture must have constituted one of the most 
 important subjects of contemplation to the 
 Operative Masons of the Middle Ages, and 
 that they afforded a fertile source for their 
 symbolism, it is strange that so little allu- 
 sion is made to them in the primitive lec- 
 tures and in the earliest catechisms of the 
 last century. In the earliest catechism ex- 
 tant, they are simply enumerated, and said 
 to answer " to the base, perpendicular, di- 
 ameter, circumference, and square; " but no 
 explanation is given of this reference. Nor 
 are they referred to in the " Legend of the 
 Craft," or in any of the Old Constitutions. 
 Preston, however, introduced them into his 
 system of lectures, and designated the three 
 most ancient orders — the Ionic, Doric, and 
 Corinthian — as symbols of wisdom, strength, 
 and beauty, and referred them to the three 
 original Grand Masters. This symbolism 
 has ever since been retained ; and, notwith- 
 standing the reticence of the earlier ritual- 
 ists, there is abundant evidence, in the 
 architectural remains of the Middle Ages, 
 that it was known to the old Operative Free- 
 masons. 
 
 Orders of Architecture, Egyp- 
 tian. The Egyptians had a system of 
 architecture peculiar to themselves, which, 
 says Barlow, (Essays on Symbolism, p. 30,) 
 "would indicate a people of grand ideas, 
 and of confirmed religious convictions." It 
 was massive, and without the airy propor- 
 tions of the Greek orders. It was, too, emi- 
 nently symbolic, and among its ornaments 
 the lotus leaf and plant predominated as a 
 symbol of regeneration. Among the pecu- 
 liar forms of the Egyptian architecture 
 were the fluted column, which suggested the 
 Ionic order to the Greeks, and the basket 
 capital adorned with the lotus, which after- 
 wards became the Corinthian. To the Ma- 
 sonic student, the Egyptian style of archi- 
 tecture becomes interesting, because it was 
 undoubtedly followed by King Solomon in 
 his construction of the Temple. The great 
 similarity between the pillars of the porch 
 and the columns in front of Egyptian 
 temples is very apparent. Our translators 
 have, however, unfortunately substituted 
 the lily for the lotus in their version. 
 
 Orders of Knighthood. An order 
 of knighthood is a confraternity of knights 
 bound by the same rules. Of these there 
 are many in every kingdom of Europe, be- 
 stowed by sovereigns on their subjects as 
 marks of honor and rewards of merit. Such, 
 for instance, are in England the Knights 
 of the Garter; in Scotland the Knights of 
 Saint Andrew ; and in Ireland the Knights 
 
554 
 
 ORDERS 
 
 ORIENT 
 
 of Saint Patrick. But the only Orders of 
 Knighthood that have had any historical 
 relation to Masonry, except the Order of 
 Charles XII. in Sweden, are the three great 
 religious and military Orders which were 
 established in the Middle Ages. These are 
 the Knights Templars, the Knights Hospi- 
 tallers or Knights of Malta, and the Teu- 
 tonic Knights, each of which may be seen 
 under its respective title. Of these three, 
 the Masons can really claim a connection 
 only with the Templars. They alone 
 had a secret initiation, and with them 
 there is at least traditional evidence of a 
 fusion. The Knights of Malta and the 
 Teutonic Knights have always held them- 
 selves aloof from the Masonic Order. 
 They never had a secret form of initiation ; 
 their reception was open and public ; and 
 the former Order, indeed, during the latter 
 part of the eighteenth century, became the 
 willing instruments of the Church in the 
 persecution of the Masons who were at 
 that time in the island of Malta. There 
 is, indeed, a Masonic degree called Knight 
 of Malta, but the existing remnant of the 
 historical order has always repudiated it. 
 "With the Teutonic Knights, the Free- 
 masons have no other connection than this, 
 that in some of the high degrees their 
 peculiar cross has been adopted. An at- 
 tempt has been made, but I think without 
 reason, to identify the Teutonic Knights 
 with the Prussian Knights, or Noachites. 
 
 Orders of the Day. In parliamen- 
 tary law, propositions which are appointed 
 for consideration at a particular hour and 
 day are called the orders of the day. 
 When the day arrives for their discussion, 
 they take precedence of all other matters, 
 unless passed over by mutual consent or 
 postponed to another day. The same rules 
 in reference to these orders prevail in Ma- 
 sonic as in other assemblies. The parlia- 
 mentary law is here applicable without 
 modification to Masonic bodies. 
 
 Ordinaeio. The Old Constitutions 
 known as the Halliwell MS. (14th cent.) 
 speak of an ordinaeio in the sense of a law. 
 " Alia ordinaeio artes geometric." It is bor- 
 rowed from the Roman law, where ordinatio 
 signified an imperial edict. In the Middle 
 Ages, the word was used in the sense of a 
 statute, or the decision of a judge. 
 
 Ordination. At the close of the re- 
 ception of a neophyte into the order of 
 Elect Cohens, the Master, while communi- 
 cating to him the mysterious words, touched 
 him with the thumb, index, and middle 
 fingers (the other two being closed) on the 
 forehead, heart, and side of the head, thus 
 making the figure of a triangle. This 
 ceremony was called the ordination. 
 
 Ordo ab Chao. Order out of Chaos: 
 
 A motto of the 33d degree, and having the 
 same allusion as lux e tenebris, which see. 
 The invention of this motto is to be at- 
 tributed to the Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite at 
 Charleston, and it is first met with in the 
 Patent of Count de Grasse, dated February 
 1, 1802. When De Grasse afterwards carried 
 the Rite over to France and established a 
 Supreme Council there, he changed the 
 motto, and, according to Lenning, Ordo ab 
 hoc was used by him and his Council in all 
 the documents issued by them. If so, it 
 was simply a blunder. 
 
 Oregon. The first Lodges instituted 
 in Oregon were under Warrants from the 
 Grand Lodge of California, in the year 
 1849. On August 16th, 1851, a convention 
 of three Lodges was held in Oregon City, 
 and the Grand Lodge of Oregon was there 
 organized, Berryman Jennings being elected 
 Grand Master. The Grand Chapter was 
 organized at Salem, September 18th, 1860. 
 Templarism was introduced by the organ- 
 ization of Oregon Commandery, No. 1, at 
 Oregon City, on July 24th, 1860. 
 
 Organist, Grand. An officer in the 
 Grand Lodge of England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland whose duty it is to superintend the 
 musical exercises on private and public 
 occasions. He must be a Master Mason, 
 and is required to attend the Quarterly 
 and other communications of the Grand 
 Lodge. His jewel is an antique lyre. 
 Grand Lodges in this country do not recog- 
 nize such an officer. But an organist has 
 been recently employed since the introduc- 
 tion of musical services into Lodge cere- 
 monies by some Lodges. 
 
 Organization of Grand Lodges. 
 See Grand Lodge. 
 
 Orient. The East. The place where 
 a Lodge is situated is sometimes called its 
 " Orient," but more properly its " East." 
 The seat of a Grand Lodge has also some- 
 times been called its "Grand Orient;" but 
 here "Grand East" would, I think, be 
 better. The term " Grand Orient " has been 
 used to designate certain of the Supreme 
 Bodies on the continent of Europe, and 
 also in South America; as, the Grand Orient 
 of France, the Grand Orient of Portugal, 
 the Grand Orient of Brazil, the Grand 
 Orient of New Grenada, etc. The title 
 always has reference to the East as the 
 place of honor in Masonry. See East, 
 Grand. 
 
 Orient, Grand. See Grand Orient. 
 
 Orient, Grand Commander of 
 the. {Grand Commandeur d' Orient.) 
 The forty-third degree of the Rite of 
 Mizraim. 
 
 Orient, Interior. A name some- 
 times used in Germany to designate a 
 
ORIENT 
 
 ORIGINAL 
 
 555 
 
 Grand Chapter or superintending body of 
 the higher degrees. 
 Orient of France, Grand. See 
 
 France. 
 
 Orient, Order of the. (Ordre 
 d' Orient.) An Order founded, says Thory, 
 [Act. Lot., i. 330,) at Paris, in 1806, on the 
 system of the Templars, to whom it traced 
 its origin. 
 
 Oriental Chair of Solomon. The 
 seat of the Master in a symbolic Lodge, 
 and so called because the Master is sup- 
 posed symbolically to fill the place over the 
 Craft once occupied by King Solomon. For 
 the same reason, the seat of the Grand 
 Master in the Grand Lodge receives the 
 same appellation. In England it is called 
 the throne. 
 
 Oriental Philosophy. A peculiar 
 system of doctrines concerning the Divine 
 Nature which is said to have originated in 
 Persia, its founder being Zoroaster, whence 
 it passed through Syria, Asia Minor, and 
 Egypt, and was finally introduced among 
 the Greeks, whose philosophical systems 
 it at time9 modified. Pliny calls it "a 
 magical philosophy," and says that Democ- 
 ritus, having travelled into the East for 
 the purpose of learning it, and returning 
 home, taught it in his mysteries. It gave 
 birth to the sect of Gnostics, and most of 
 it being adopted by the school of Alexan- 
 dria, it was taught by Philo, Jamblichus, 
 and other disciples of that school. Its es- 
 sential feature was the theory of emana- 
 tions, (which see.) It is evident from his 
 Travels of Gyrus, that the Chevalier Ram- 
 say was not only well acquainted with 
 this philosophy, but held it in high esteem ; 
 and it is not wonderful, therefore, that it 
 influenced him in the high degrees of Ma- 
 sonry which he established, and from which 
 all the other higher Masonry has been di- 
 rectly or indirectly derived. And so it 
 happens that the Oriental Philosophy per- 
 meates, sometimes to a very palpable ex- 
 tent, Ineffable, Philosophic, and Hermetic 
 Masonry, being mixed up and intertwined 
 with the Jewish and Kabbalistic Philoso- 
 phy. A knowledge of the Oriental Philos- 
 ophy is therefore essential to the proper 
 understanding of these high degrees. 
 
 Oriental Rite. The title first as- 
 sumed by the Rite of Memphis. 
 
 Orientation. The orientation of a 
 Lodge is its situation due east and west. 
 The word is derived from the technical 
 language of architecture, where it is ap- 
 plied, in the expression "orientation of 
 churches," to designate a similar direction 
 in building. Although Masonic Lodges 
 are still, when circumstances will permit, 
 built in an east and west direction, the ex- 
 planation of the usage, contained in the 
 
 old lectures of the last century, that it 
 was " because all chapels and churches are, 
 or ought to be so," has become obsolete, 
 and other symbolic reasons are assigned. 
 Yet there can be no doubt that such was 
 really the origin of the usage. The orien- 
 tation of churches was a principle of ec- 
 clesiastical architecture very generally ob- 
 served by builders, in accordance with 
 ecclesiastical law from the earliest times 
 after the apostolic age. Thus in the Apos- 
 tolic Constitutions, which, although falsely 
 attributed to St. Clement, are yet of great 
 antiquity, we find the express direction, 
 " sit sedes oblonga ad orientem versus," — 
 let the church be of an oblong form, directed 
 to the east, — a direction which would be 
 strictly applicable in the building of a 
 Lodge room. St. Charles Borromeo, in his 
 Instructiones Fabrics Ecclesiastical, is still 
 more precise, and directs that the rear or 
 altar part of the church shall look directly 
 to the east, " in orientem versus recta spec- 
 tat," and that it shall be not " ad solstiti- 
 alem sed ad sequinoctialem orientem," — 
 not to the solstitial east, which varies by 
 the deflection of the sun's rising, but to the 
 equinoctial east, where the sun rises at the 
 equinoxes, that is to say, due east. But, as 
 Bingham (Antiq., B. viii., c. iii.,) admits, 
 although the usage was very general to 
 erect churches towards the east, yet " it 
 admitted of exceptions, as necessity or ex- 
 pediency;" and the same exception pre- 
 vails in the construction of Lodges, which, 
 although always erected due east and west, 
 where circumstances will permit, are some- 
 times from necessity built in a different 
 direction. But whatever may be externally 
 the situation of the Lodge with reference 
 to the points of the compass, it is always 
 considered internally that the Master's 
 seat is in the east, and therefore that the 
 Lodge is " situated due east and west." 
 
 As to the original interpretation of the 
 usage, there is no doubt that the Masonic 
 was derived from the ecclesiastical, that is, 
 that Lodges were at first built east and 
 west because churches were; nor can we 
 help believing that the church borrowed 
 and Christianized its symbol from the Pa- 
 gan reverence for the place of sunrising. 
 The admitted reverence in Masonry for the 
 east as the place of light, gives to the usage 
 the modern Masonic interpretation of the 
 symbol of orientation. 
 
 Original Points. The old lectures 
 of the last century, which are now obsolete, 
 contained the following instruction : " There 
 are in Freemasonry twelve original points, 
 which form the basis of the system and 
 comprehend the whole ceremony of initia- 
 tion. Without the existence of these points, 
 no man ever was, or can be, legally and 
 
556 
 
 ORIGIN 
 
 ORPHAN 
 
 essentially received into the Order. Every 
 person who is made a Mason must go 
 through all these twelve forms and cere- 
 monies, not only in the first degree, but in 
 every subsequent one." 
 
 Origin of Freemasonry. The 
 origin and source whence first sprang the 
 institution of Freemasonry, such as we 
 now have it, has given rise to more differ- 
 ence of opinion and discussion among Ma- 
 sonic scholars than any other topic in the 
 literature of the Institution. Writers on 
 the history of Freemasonry have, at differ- 
 ent times, attributed its origin to the fol- 
 lowing sources. 1. To the Patriarchal 
 religion. 2. To the Ancient Pagan Mys- 
 teries. 3. To the Temple of King Solo- 
 mon. 4. To the Crusaders. 5. To the 
 Knights Templars. 6. To the Roman Col- 
 leges of Artificers. 7. To the Operative 
 Masons of the Middle Ages. 8. To the 
 Rosicrucians of the sixteenth century. 9. 
 To Oliver Cromwell, for the advancement 
 of his political schemes. 10. To the Pre- 
 tender, for the restoration of the House of 
 Stuart to the British throne. 11. To Sir 
 Christopher Wren at the building of St. 
 Paul's Cathedral. 12. To Dr. Desaguliers 
 and his associates in the year 1717. Each 
 of these twelve theories has been from 
 time to time, and the twelfth within a re- 
 cent period, sustained with much zeal, if 
 not always with much judgment, by their 
 advocates. A few of them, however, have 
 long since been abandoned, but the others 
 still attract attention and find defenders. 
 My own views on the subject are expressed 
 in the article Antiquity of Freemasonry, to 
 which the reader is referred. 
 
 Orleans, Duke of. Louis Philippe 
 Joseph, Duke of Orleans, better known in 
 history by his revolutionary name of Ega- 
 lite, was the fifth Grand Master of the Ma- 
 sonic Order in France. As Duke of Char- 
 tres, the title which he held during the life 
 of his father, he was elected Grand Master 
 in the year 1771, upon the death of the 
 Count de Clermont. Having appointed 
 the Duke of Luxemburg his Substitute, 
 he did not attend a meeting of the Grand 
 Lodge until 1777, but had in the meantime 
 paid much attention to the interests of Ma- 
 sonry, visiting many of the Lodges, and 
 laying the foundation-stone of a Masonic 
 Hall at Bordeaux. 
 
 His abandonment of his family and his 
 adhesion to the Jacobins during the revo- 
 lution, when he repudiated his hereditary 
 title of Duke of Orleans and assumed the 
 republican one of Egalite, forms a part of 
 the history of the times. On the 22d Feb- 
 ruary, 1793, he wrote a letter to Milsent, 
 the editor, over the signature of " Citoyen 
 Egalite," which was published in the Jour- 
 
 nal de Paris, and which contains the fol- 
 lowing passages ; 
 
 "This is my Masonic history. At one 
 time, when certainly no one could have 
 foreseen our revolution, I was in favor of 
 Freemasonry, which presented to me a sort 
 of image of equality, as I was in favor of 
 the parliament, which presented a sort of 
 image of liberty. I have since quitted the phan- 
 tom for the reality. In the month of De- 
 cember last, the secretary of the Grand 
 Orient having addressed himself to the 
 person who discharged the functions, near 
 me, of secretary of the Grand Master, to 
 obtain my opinion on a question re- 
 lating to the affairs of that society, I re- 
 plied to him on the 5th of January as 
 follows : 'As I do not know how the 
 Grand Orient is composed, and as, besides, 
 I think that there should be no mystery 
 nor secret assembly in a republic, especially 
 at the commencement of its establishment, 
 I desire no longer to mingle in the affairs 
 of the Grand Orient, nor in the meetings 
 of the Freemasons.' " 
 
 In consequence of the publication of 
 this letter, the Grand Orient on May 13th, 
 1793, declared the Grand Mastership va- 
 cant, thus virtually deposing their recreant 
 chief. He soon reaped the reward of his 
 treachery and political debasement. On 
 the 6th of November in the same year he 
 suffered death on the guillotine. 
 
 Ormus or Ormesius. See Rose 
 Croix, Golden. 
 
 Ormuzd and Ahriman. Ormuzd 
 was the principle of good and the symbol 
 of light, and Ahriman the principle of evil 
 and the symbol of darkness, in the old Per- 
 sian religion. See Zoroaster. 
 
 Ornaments of a Lodge. The lec- 
 tures describe the ornaments of a Lodge as 
 consisting of the Mosaic Pavement, the In- 
 dented Tessel, and the Blazing Star. They 
 are called ornaments because they are really 
 the decorations with which a' properly fur- 
 nished Lodge is adorned. See these re- 
 spective words. 
 
 Oman the Jebusite. He was an in- 
 habitant of Jerusalem, at the time that that 
 city was called Jebus, from the son of Ca- 
 naan, whose descendants peopled it. He 
 was the owner of the threshing-floor situ- 
 ated on Mount Moriah, in the same spot 
 on which the Temple was afterwards built. 
 This threshing-floor David bought to erect 
 on it an altar to God. (2 Chron. xxi. 18- 
 25.) On the same spot Solomon afterwards 
 built the Temple. Hence, in Masonic lan- 
 guage; the Temple of Solomon is sometimes 
 spoken of as "the threshing-floor of Oman 
 the Jeuasite." See Threshing-Floor. 
 
 Orphan. The obligation that Masons 
 should care for the children of their de- 
 
-Jv 
 
 
 ORPHEUS 
 
 of 
 
 CALIFOJ 
 
 OSIRIS 
 
 557 
 
 ceased brethren has been well observed in 
 the Institution by many Grand Lodges, 
 independent associations of Masons, and 
 of asylums for the support and educa- 
 tion of Masonic orphans. Among these, 
 perhaps one of the most noteworthy, is 
 the orphan asylum founded at Stock- 
 holm, in 1753, by the contributions of 
 the Swedish Masons, and which, by subse- 
 quent bequests and endowments, has be- 
 come one of the richest private institutions 
 of the kind in the world. 
 
 Orpheus. There are no less than four 
 persons to whom the ancients gave the 
 name of Orpheus, but of these only one is 
 worthy of notice as the inventor of the 
 mysteries, or, at least, as the introducer of 
 them into Greece. The genuine Orpheus 
 is said to have been a Thracian, and a dis- 
 ciple of Linus, who nourished when the 
 kingdom of the Athenians was dissolved. 
 From him the Thracian or Orphic myste- 
 ries derived their name, because he first in- 
 troduced the sacred rites of initiation and 
 mystical doctrines into Greece. He was, 
 according to fabulous tradition, torn to 
 pieces by Ciconian women, and after his 
 death he was deified by the Greeks. The 
 story, that by the power of his harmony he 
 drew wild beasts and trees to him, has 
 been symbolically interpreted, that by his 
 sacred doctrines he tamed men of rustic and 
 savage disposition. An abundance of fa- 
 bles has clustered around the name of Or- 
 pheus ; but it is at least generally admitted 
 by the learned, that he was the founder of 
 the system of initiation into the sacred 
 mysteries as practised in Greece. The 
 Grecian theology, says Thomas Taylor, — 
 himself the most Grecian of all moderns, — 
 originated from Orpheus, and was promul- 
 gated by him, by Pythagoras, and by Plato ; 
 by the first, mystically and symbolically ; 
 by the second, enigmatically and through 
 images ; and by the last, scientifically. The 
 mysticism of Orpheus should certainly have 
 given him as high a place in the esteem of 
 the founders of the present system of Spec- 
 ulative Masonry as has been bestowed upon 
 Pythagoras. But it is strange that, while 
 they delighted to call Pythagoras an " an- 
 cient friend and brother," they have been 
 utterly silent as to Orpheus. 
 
 Orphic Mysteries. These rites 
 were practised in Greece, and were a modi- 
 fication of the mysteries of Bacchus or 
 Dionysus, and they were so called because 
 their institution was falsely attributed to 
 Orpheus. They were, however, established 
 at a much later period than his era. In- 
 deed, M. Freret, who has investigated this 
 subject with much learning in the Memoires 
 de I'Academie des Inscriptions, (torn, xxiii.,) 
 regards the Orphics as a degenerate branch 
 
 of the school of Pythagoras, formed, after 
 the destruction of that school, by some of 
 its disciples, who, seeking to establish a re- 
 ligious association, devoted themselves to 
 the worship of Bacchus, with which they 
 mingled certain Egyptian practices, and 
 out of this mixture made up a species of 
 life which they called the Orphic life, and 
 the origin of which, to secure greater con- 
 sideration, they attributed to Orpheus, pub- 
 lishing under his name many apocryphal 
 works. 
 
 The Orphic rites differed from the other 
 Pagan rites, in not being connected with 
 the priesthood, but in being practised by a 
 fraternity who did not possess the sacer- 
 dotal functions. The initiated commemo- 
 rated in their ceremonies, which were per- 
 formed at night, the murder of Bacchus by 
 the Titans, and his final restoration to the 
 supreme government of the universe, under 
 the name of Phanes. 
 
 Demosthenes, while reproaching Eschi- 
 nes for having engaged with his mother 
 in these mysteries, gives us some notion of 
 their nature. 
 
 In the day, the initiates were crowned 
 with fennel and poplar, and carried ser- 
 pents in their hands, or twined them 
 around their heads, crying with a loud 
 voice, enos, sabos, and danced to the sound 
 of the mystic words, hyes, attes, attes, hyes. 
 At night the mystes was bathed in the lus- 
 tral water, and having been rubbed over 
 with clay and bran, he was clothed in the 
 skin of a fawn, and having risen from the 
 bath, he exclaimed, " I have departed from 
 evil and have found the good." 
 
 The Orphic poems made Bacchus identi- 
 cal with Osiris, and celebrated the mutila- 
 tion and palingenesis of that deity as a 
 symbol teaching the resurrection to eternal 
 life, so that their design was similar to that 
 of the other Pagan mysteries. 
 
 The Orphic initiation, because it was not 
 sacerdotal in its character, was not so cele- 
 brated among the ancients as the other 
 mysteries. Plato, even, calls its disciples 
 charlatans. It nevertheless existed until 
 the first ages of the Christian religion, be- 
 ing at that time adopted by the philoso- 
 phers as a means of opposing the progress 
 of the new revelation. It fell, however, at 
 last, with the other rites of paganism, a 
 victim to the rapid and triumphant pro- 
 gress of the gospel. 
 
 Osiris. He was the chief god of the 
 old Egyptian mythology, the husband of 
 Isis, and the father of Horus. Jabloniski 
 says that Osiris represented the sun only ; 
 but Plutarch, whose opportunity of know- 
 ing was better, asserts that, while generally 
 considered as a symbol of the solar orb, 
 some of the Egyptian philosophers regarded 
 
558 
 
 OSIRIS 
 
 OZEE 
 
 him as a river god, and called him Nilus. 
 But the truth is, that Osiris represented the 
 male, active or generative, powers of nature ; 
 while Isis represented its female, passive 
 or prolific, powers. Thus, when Osiris was 
 the sun, Isis was the earth, to be vivified 
 by his rays ; when he was the Nile, Isis was 
 the land of Egypt, fertilized by his over- 
 flow. Such is the mythological or mystical 
 sense in which Osiris was received. 
 
 Historically, he is said to have been a 
 great and powerful king, who, leaving 
 Egypt, traversed the world, leading a host 
 of fauns or satyrs, and other fabulous be- 
 ings in his train, actually an army of fol- 
 lowers. He civilized the whole earth, and 
 taught mankind to fertilize the soil and to 
 
 Eerform the works of agriculture. We see 
 ere the idea which was subsequently ex- 
 pressed by the Greeks in their travels of 
 I)ionysus, and the wanderings of Ceres; and 
 it is not improbable that the old Masons 
 had some dim perception of this story, 
 which they have incorporated, under the 
 figure of Euclid, in their " Legend of the 
 Craft." 
 
 Osiris, Mysteries of. The Osirian 
 mysteries consisted in a scenic representa- 
 tion of the murder of Osiris by Typhon, 
 the subsequent recovery of his mutilated 
 body by Isis, and his deification, or resto- 
 ration to immortal life. Julius Firmicus, 
 in his treatise On the Falsity of the Pagan 
 Religions, thus describes the object of the 
 Osirian mysteries : " But in those funerals 
 and lamentations which are annually cele- 
 brated in honor of Osiris, the defenders 
 of the Pagan rites pretend a physical 
 reason. They call the seeds of fruit, Osi- 
 ris ; the earth, Isis ; the natural heat, Ty- 
 phon; and because the fruits are ripened 
 by the natural heat and collected for the 
 life of man, and are separated from their 
 natural tie to the earth, and are sown again 
 when winter approaches, this they consider 
 is the death of Osiris ; but when the fruits, 
 by the genial fostering of the earth, be- 
 gin again to be generated by a new procre- 
 ation, this is the finding of Osiris." This 
 explanation does not essentially differ from 
 that already given in the article Egyptian 
 Mysteries. The symbolism is indeed precisely 
 the same — that of a restoration or resur- 
 rection from death to life. See Egyptian 
 Mysteries. 
 
 Oterfnt. The name of the assassin at 
 the west gate in the legend of the third de- 
 
 free, according to some of the high degrees, 
 have vainly sought the true meaning or 
 
 derivation of this word, which is most 
 probably an anagram of a name. It was, 
 I think, invented by the Stuart Masons, and 
 refers to some person who was inimical to 
 that party. 
 
 Otreb. The pseudonyme of the cele- 
 brated Rosicrucian Michel Mayer, under 
 which he wrote his book on Death and the 
 Resurrection. See Mayer. 
 
 Out of the Lodge. The charges of 
 a Freemason, compiled by Anderson from 
 the Ancient Records, contain the regula- 
 tions for the behavior of Masons out of the 
 Lodge under several heads; as, behavior 
 after the Lodge is over, when brethren 
 meet without strangers, in the presence of 
 strangers, at home, and towards a strange 
 brother. Gadicke gives the same directions 
 in the following words : 
 
 "A brother Freemason shall not only 
 conduct himself in the Lodge, but also out 
 of the Lodge, as a brother towards his 
 brethren ; and happy are they who are 
 convinced that they have in this respect 
 ever obeyed the laws of the Order." 
 
 Oval Temples. The temple in the 
 Druidical mysteries was often of an oval 
 form. As the oblong temple was a represen- 
 tation of the inhabited world, whence is de- 
 rived the form of the Lodge; so the oval 
 temple was a representation of the mun- 
 dane egg, which was also a symbol of the 
 world. The symbolic idea in both was the 
 same. 
 
 Overseer. The title of three officers 
 in a Mark Lodge, who are distinguished as 
 the Master, Senior, and Junior Overseer. 
 The jewel of their office is a square. In 
 Mark Lodges attached to Chapters, the 
 duties of these officers are performed by 
 the three Grand Masters of the Veils. 
 
 Ox. The ox was the device on the 
 banner of the tribe of Ephraim. The ox 
 on a scarlet field is one of the Royal Arch 
 banners, and is borne by the Grand Mas- 
 ter of the Third Veil. 
 
 Oyres de Ornellas, Pracao. A 
 Portuguese gentleman, who was arrested 
 as a Freemason, at Lisbon, in 1776, and 
 thrown into a dungeon, where he remained 
 fourteen months. See Alincourt. 
 
 Ozee. Sometimes Osee. The accla- 
 mation of the Scottish Rite is so spelled in 
 many French Cahiers. Properly Hoschea, 
 which Delaunay (Thuileur, p. 141,) derives 
 from the Hebrew }?&)?}, hossheah, deliver- 
 ance, safety, or, as he says, a saviour. But 
 see Hoschea, where another derivation is 
 suggested. 
 
PAGANIS 
 
 PALLADIUM 
 
 559 
 
 P. 
 
 Paganis, Hugo de. The Latinized 
 form of the name of Hugh de Payens, the 
 first Grand Master of the Templars. See 
 Payens. 
 
 Paganism. A general appellation 
 for the religious worship of the whole 
 human race, except of that portion which 
 has embraced Christianity, Judaism, or 
 Mohammedanism. Its interest to the Ma- 
 sonic student arises from the fact that its 
 principal development was the ancient my- 
 thology, in whose traditions and mysteries 
 are to be found many interesting analogies 
 with the Masonic system. See Dispensa- 
 tions of Religion and Mythology. 
 
 Paine, Thomas. A political writer 
 of eminence during the Revolutionary 
 War in America. He greatly injured his 
 reputation by his attacks on the Christian 
 religion. He was not a Mason, but wrote 
 An Essay on the Origin of Freemasonry, 
 with no other knowledge of the Institution 
 than that derived from the writings of Smith 
 and Dodd, and the very questionable au- 
 thority of Prichard's Masonry Dissected. He 
 sought to trace Freemasonry to the Celtic 
 Druids. For one so little acquainted with 
 his subject, he has treated it with consider- 
 able ingenuity. Paine was born in Eng- 
 land, 1737, and died in New York, in 1809. 
 
 Palestine, called also the Holy 
 Land on account of the sacred character of 
 the events that have occurred there, is situ- 
 ated on the coast of the Mediterranean, 
 stretching from Lebanon south to the 
 borders of Egypt, and from the thirty- 
 fourth to the thirty-ninth degrees of lon- 
 gitude. It was conquered from the Canaan- 
 ites by the Hebrews under Joshua 1450 
 years B. c. They divided it into twelve 
 confederate states according to the tribes. 
 Saul united it into one kingdom, and 
 David enlarged its territories. In 975 B. c. 
 it was divided into the two kingdoms 
 of Israel and Judea, the latter consisting 
 of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, and 
 the former of the rest of the tribes. About 
 740 B. c, both kingdoms were subdued by 
 the Persians and Babylonians, and after 
 the captivity only the two tribes of Judah 
 and Benjamin returned to rebuild the 
 Temple. With Palestine, or the Holy 
 Land, the mythical, if not the authentic, 
 history of Freemasonry has been closely 
 connected. There stood, at one time, the 
 Temple of Solomon, to which some writers 
 have traced the origin of the Masonic 
 Order ; there fought the Crusaders, among 
 whom other writers have sought, with 
 equal boldness, to find the cradle of the 
 Fraternity ; there certainly the Order of 
 
 the Templars was instituted, whose subse- 
 quent history has been closely mingled 
 with that of Freemasonry ; and there oc- 
 curred nearly all the events of sacred his- 
 tory that, with the places where they were 
 enacted, have been adopted as important 
 Masonic symbols. 
 
 Palestine, Explorations in. The 
 desire to obtain an accurate knowledge of 
 the archseology of Palestine, gave rise in 
 
 1866 to an association, which was perma- 
 nently organized in London, as the " Pales- 
 tine Exploration Fund," with the Queen 
 as the chief patron, and a long list of the 
 nobility and the most distinguished gentle- 
 men in the kingdom, added to which fol- 
 lowed the Grand Lodge of England and 
 forty-two subordinate and provincial Grand 
 Lodges and Chapters. Early in the year 
 
 1867 the committee began the work of ex- 
 amination, by mining in and about the va- 
 rious points which had been determined 
 upon by a former survey as essential to a 
 proper understanding of the ancient city, 
 which had been covered up by debris from 
 age to age, so that the present profiles of 
 the ground, in every direction, were totally 
 different from what they were in the days 
 of David and Solomon, or even the time 
 of Christ. 
 
 Lieutenant Charles Warren, R. E., was 
 sent out with authority to act as circum- 
 stances might demand, and as the delicacy 
 and the importance of the enterprise re- 
 quired. He arrived in Jerusalem February 
 17th, 1867, and continued his labors in ex- 
 cavating in many parts of the city, with 
 some interruptions, until 1871, when he re- 
 turned to England. During his operations, 
 he kept the society in London constantly 
 informed of the progress of the work in 
 which he and his associates were so zealous- 
 ly engaged, in a majority of cases at the 
 imminent risk of their lives and always 
 that of their health. The result of these 
 labors has been a vast accumulation of facts 
 in relation to the topography of the holy 
 city which throw much light on its archse- 
 ology. A branch of the society has been 
 established in this country, and it is still 
 in successful operation. 
 
 Palestine, Knight of. See Knight 
 of Palestine. 
 
 Palestine, Knight of St. John 
 Of. See Knight of St. John of Palestine. 
 
 Palladie Masonry. The title given 
 to the Order of the Seven Sages and the 
 Order of the Palladium. See Palladium, 
 Order of the. 
 
 Palladium, Order of the. An 
 androgynous society of Masonic adoption, 
 
560 
 
 PALMER 
 
 PARIS 
 
 established, says Kagon, at Paris in 1737. 
 It made great pretensions to high antiquity, 
 claiming that it had its origin in the in- 
 structions brought by Pythagoras from 
 Egypt into Greece, and having fallen into 
 decay after the decline of the Roman Em- 
 peror, it was revived in 1637 by Fenelon, 
 Archbishop of Canbray; all of which is al- 
 together mythical. Fenelon was not born 
 until 1651. It was a very moral society, 
 consisting of two degrees : 1. Adelph ; 2. 
 Companion of Ulysses. When a female 
 took the second degree, she was called a 
 Companion of Penelope. 
 
 Palmer. From the Latin, palmifer, a 
 palm-bearer. A name given in the time of 
 the Crusades to a pilgrim, who, coming back 
 from the holy war after having accom- 
 plished his vow of pilgrimage, exhibited 
 upon his return home a branch of palm 
 bound round his staff in token of it. 
 
 Pantacle. The pentalpha of Pythag- 
 oras is so called in the symbolism of High 
 Magic and the Hermetic Philosophy. See 
 Pentalpha. 
 
 Papworth Manuscript. A man- 
 uscript in the possession of Mr. Wyatt 
 Papworth, of London, who purchased it 
 from a bookseller of that city in 1860. As 
 some of the water-marks of the paper on 
 which it is written bear the initials G. P., 
 with a crown as a water-mark, it is evident 
 that the manuscript cannot be older than 
 1714, that being the year in which the first 
 of the Georges ascended the throne. It is 
 most probably of a still more recent date, 
 perhaps 1715 or 1716. The Rev. A. F. A. 
 Woodford has thus described its appear- 
 ance: "The scroll was written originally 
 on pages of foolscap size, which were then 
 joined into a continuous roll, and after- 
 wards, probably for greater convenience, 
 the pages were again separated by cutting 
 them, and it now forms a book, containing 
 twenty-four folios, sewed together in a 
 light-brown paper cover. The text is of a 
 bold character, but written so irregularly 
 that there are few consecutive pages which 
 have the same number of lines, the aver- 
 age being about seventeen to the page." 
 The manuscript is not complete, three or 
 four of the concluding charges being omit- 
 ted, although some one has written, in a 
 hand different from that of the text, the 
 word Finis at the bottom of the last page. 
 The manuscript appears to have been simply 
 a copy, in a little less antiquated language, of 
 some older Constitution. It has been pub- 
 lished by Bro. Hughan in his Old Charges 
 of the British Freemasons. 
 
 Paracelsus. Philippus Aureolus 
 Theophrastus Bombastus Paracelsus de 
 Hohenheim, as he styled himself, was born 
 in Germany in 1493, and died in 1541. He 
 
 devoted his youth to the study and prac- 
 tice of astrology, alchemy, and magic, and 
 passed many years of his life in travelling 
 over Europe and acquiring information in 
 medicine, of which he proclaimed himself 
 to be the monarch. He was, perhaps, the 
 most distinguished charlatan whoever made 
 a figure in the world. The followers of his 
 school were called Paracelsists, and they 
 continued for more than a century after the 
 death of their master to influence the 
 schools of Germany. Much of the Kabba- 
 listic and mystical science of Paracelsus 
 was incorporated into Hermetic Masonry 
 by the founders of the high degrees. 
 
 Paracelsus, Sublime. A degree to 
 be found in the manuscript collections of 
 Peuvret. 
 
 Parallel Lines. In every well- 
 regulated Lodge there is found a point 
 within a circle, which circle is imbordered 
 by two perpendicular parallel lines. These 
 lines are representatives of St. John the 
 Baptist and St. John the Evangelist, the 
 two great patrons of Masonry to whom our 
 Lodges are dedicated, and who are said to 
 have been "perfect parallels in Christianity 
 as well as Masonry." In those English 
 Lodges which have adopted the "Union 
 System " established by the Grand Lodge of 
 England in 1813, and where the dedication 
 is "to God and his service," the lines 
 parallel represent Moses and Solomon. As 
 a symbol, the parallel lines are not to be 
 found in the earlier rituals of Masonry. 
 Although Oliver defines the symbol on the 
 authority of what he calls the " Old Lec- 
 tures," I have been unable to find it in any 
 anterior to Preston, and even he only re- 
 fers to the parallelism of the two Sts. John. 
 The fact is, that the symbol of the parallel 
 lines, with that of the point within a circle, 
 was first introduced by Dunckerley in the 
 last quarter of the eighteenth century. See 
 Dedication. 
 
 Paris, Congresses of. Three im- 
 portant Masonic Congresses have been held 
 in the city of Paris. The first was con- 
 vened by the Rite of Philalethes in 1785, 
 that by a concourse of intelligent Masons 
 of all rites and countries, and by a com- 
 parison of oral and written traditions, light 
 might be educed on the most essential sub- 
 jects of Masonic science, and on the nature, 
 origin, and historic application as well as 
 the actual state of the Institution. Sava- 
 lette de Lauges was elected President. It 
 closed after a protracted session of three 
 months, without producing any practical 
 result. The second was called in 1787, as 
 a continuation of the former, and closed 
 with precisely the same negative result. 
 The third was assembled in 1855, by Prince 
 Murat, for the purpose of effecting various 
 
PARLIAMENTARY 
 
 PASCHALIS 
 
 561 
 
 reforms in the Masonic system. At this 
 Congress, ten propositions, some of them 
 highly important, were introduced, and 
 their adoption recommended to the Grand 
 Lodges of the world. But the influence of 
 this Congress has not been more successful 
 than that of its predecessors. 
 
 Parliamentary Law. Parliamen- 
 tary Law, or the Lex Parliamentaria, is that 
 code originally framed for the government 
 of the Parliament of Great Britain in the 
 transaction of its business, and subse- 
 quently adopted, with necessary modifica- 
 tions, by the Congress of the United States. 
 
 But what was found requisite for the 
 regulation of public bodies, that order 
 might be secured and the rights of all be 
 respected, has been found equally necessary 
 in private societies. Indeed, no associa- 
 tion of men could meet together for the 
 discussion of any subject, with the slightest 
 probability of ever coming to a conclusion, 
 unless its debates were regulated by certain 
 and acknowledged rules. 
 
 The rules thus adopted for its govern- 
 ment are called its parliamentary law, 
 and they are selected from the parliamen- 
 tary law of the national assembly, because 
 that code has been instituted by the wis- 
 dom of past ages, and modified and per- 
 fected by the experience of subsequent 
 ones, so that it is now universally acknowl- 
 edged that there is no better system of 
 government for deliberative societies than 
 the code which has so long been in opera- 
 tion under the name of parliamentary law. 
 
 Not only, then, is a thorough knowledge 
 of parliamentary law necessary for the 
 presiding officer of a Masonic body, if he 
 would discharge the duties of the chair 
 with credit to himself and comfort to the 
 members, but he must be possessed of the 
 additional information as to what parts of 
 that law are applicable to Masonry, and 
 what parts are not ; as to where and when 
 he must refer to it for the decision of a 
 question, and where and when he must lay 
 it aside, and rely for his government upon 
 the organic law and the ancient usages of 
 the Institution. 
 
 Parrot Masons. One who commits 
 to memory the questions and answers of 
 the catechetical lectures, and the formulas 
 of the ritual, but pays no attention to the 
 history and philosophy of the Institution, 
 is commonly called a Parrot Mason, be- 
 cause he is supposed to repeat what he has 
 learned without any conception of its true 
 meaning. In former times, such super- 
 ficial Masons were held by many in high 
 repute, because of the facility with which 
 they passed through the ceremonies of a 
 reception, and they were generally desig- 
 nated as " Bright Masons." But the pro- 
 3 V 36 
 
 gress of Masonry as a science now requires 
 something more than a mere knowledge 
 of the lectures to constitute a Masonic 
 scholar. 
 
 Parsees. The descendants of the ori- 
 ginal fire-worshippers of Persia, or the dis- 
 ciples of Zoroaster, who emigrated to India 
 about the end of the eighth century. There 
 they now constitute a body very little short 
 of a million of industrious and moral citi- 
 zens, adhering with great tenacity to the 
 principles and practices of their ancient re- 
 ligion. Many of the higher classes have 
 become worthy members of the Masonic 
 fraternity, and it was for their sake prin- 
 cipally that Dr. Burnes attempted some 
 years ago to institute his new Order, enti- 
 tled the Brotherhood of the Olive-Branch, 
 as a substitute for the Christian degrees of 
 Knighthood, from which, by reason of their 
 religion, they were excluded. 
 
 Particular Lodges. In the Regu- 
 lations of 1721, it is said that the Grand 
 Lodge consists of the representatives of all 
 the particular Lodges on record. In the 
 modern Constitutions of England, the term 
 used is private Lodges. In America, they 
 are called subordinate Lodges. 
 
 Parts. In the old obligations, which 
 may be still used in some portions of the 
 country, there was a provision which for- 
 bade the revelation of any of the arts, parts, 
 or points of Masonry. Oliver explains the 
 meaning of the word parts by telling us 
 that it was " an old word for degrees or 
 lectures." See Points. 
 
 Parvis. In the French system, the 
 room immediately preceding a Masonic 
 Lodge is so called. It is equivalent to the 
 Preparation Room of the American and 
 English systems. 
 
 Paschal Feast. Celebrated by the 
 Jews in commemoration of the Passover, 
 by the Christians in commemoration of the 
 resurrection of our Lord. The Paschal 
 Feast, called also the Mystic Banquet, is kept 
 by all Princes of the Rose Croix. Where 
 two are together on Maundy Thursday, it is 
 of obligation that they should partake of a 
 portion of roasted lamb. This banquet is 
 symbolic of the doctrine of the resurrection. 
 
 Paschal is, Martinez. The founder 
 of a new Rite or modification of Masonry, 
 called by him the Rite of Elected Cohens or 
 Priests. It was divided into two classes, in 
 the first of which was represented the fall 
 of man from virtue and happiness, and in 
 the second, his final restoration. It con- 
 sisted of nine degrees, namely: 1. Appren- 
 tice ; 2. Fellow Craft ; 3. Master ; 4. Grand 
 Elect; 5. Apprentice Cohen; 6. Fellow 
 Craft Cohen ; 7. Master Cohen ; 8. Grand 
 Architect; 9. Knight Commander. Pas- 
 chalis first introduced this Rite into some 
 
562 
 
 PASCHAL 
 
 PAST 
 
 of the Lodges of Marseilles, Toulouse, and 
 Bordeaux, and afterwards, in 1767, he ex- 
 tended it to Paris, where, for a short time, 
 it was rather popular, ranking some of the 
 Parisian literati among its disciples. It 
 has now ceased to exist. 
 
 Paschalis was a German, born about the 
 year 1700, of poor but respectable parentage. 
 At the age of sixteen he acquired a knowl- 
 edge of Greek and Latin. He then trav- 
 elled through Turkey, Arabia, and Palestine, 
 where he made himself acquainted with the 
 Kabbalistic learning of the Jews. He sub- 
 sequently repaired to Paris, where he es- 
 tablished his Kite. 
 
 Paschalis was the Master of St. Martin, 
 who afterwards reformed his Rite. After 
 living for some years at Paris, he went to 
 St. Domingo, where he died in 1779. 
 Thory, in his Histoire de la Fondation du 
 Grand Orient de France, (pp. 239-253,) has 
 given very full details of this Rite and of 
 its receptions. 
 
 Paschal Lamb. See Lamb, Paschal. 
 
 Pas perdus. The French call the 
 room appropriated to visitors the Salle des 
 pas perdus. It is the same as the Tiler's 
 Room in the English and American Lodges. 
 
 Passages of the Jordan. See 
 Fords of the Jordan. 
 
 Passed. A candidate, on receiving 
 the second degree, is said to be " passed as 
 a Fellow Craft." It alludes to his having 
 passed through the porch to the middle 
 chamber of the Temple, the place in which 
 Fellow Crafts received their wages. In 
 this country " crafted" is often improperly 
 used in its stead. 
 
 Passing of Cony ng. That is, sur- 
 passing in skill. The expression occurs in 
 the Cooke MS., (line 676,) '^The forsayde 
 Maister Euglet ordeynet thei were passing 
 of conyng schold be passing honoured;" 
 i. e., The aforesaid Master, Euclid, ordained 
 that they that were surpassing in skill 
 should be exceedingly honored. It is a 
 fundamental principle of Masonry to pay 
 all honor to knowledge. 
 
 Password. A word intended, like 
 the military countersign, to prove the 
 friendly nature of him who gives it, and is 
 a test of his right to pass or be admitted 
 into a certain place. Between a Word and 
 a Password there seems to me to be this 
 difference : the former is given for instruc- 
 tion, as it always contains a symbolic 
 meaning ; the latter, for recognition only. 
 Thus, the author of the life of the celebrat- 
 ed Elias Ashmole says, "Freemasons are 
 known to one another all over the world by 
 certain passwords known to them alone; 
 they have Lodges in different countries, 
 where they are relieved by the brotherhood 
 if they are in distress." See Sign. 
 
 Past. An epithet applied in Masonry 
 to an officer who has held an office for the 
 prescribed period for which he was elected, 
 and has then retired. Thus, a Past Master 
 is one who has presided for twelve months 
 over a Lodge, and the Past High Priest 
 one who, for the same period, has presided 
 over a Chapter. The French use the word 
 passe in the same sense, but they have also 
 the word ancien, with a similar meaning. 
 Thus, while they would employ Maitre 
 passe to designate the degree of Past Mas- 
 ter, they would call the official Past Master, 
 who had retired from the chair at the ex- 
 piration of his term of service, an Ancien 
 Venerable, or Ancien Maitre. 
 
 Past Master. An honorary degree 
 conferred on the Master of a Lodge at his 
 installation into office. In this degree the 
 necessary instructions are conferred re- 
 specting the various ceremonies of the 
 Order, such as installations, processions, 
 the laying of corner-stones, etc. 
 
 When a brother, who has never before 
 presided, has been elected the Master of 
 a Lodge, an emergent Lodge of Past Mas- 
 ters, consisting of not less than three, is 
 convened, and all but Past Masters retir- 
 ing, the degree is conferred upon the newly 
 elected officer. 
 
 Some form of ceremony at the installa- 
 tion of a new Master seems to have been 
 adopted at an early period after the re- 
 vival. In the "manner of constituting a 
 new Lodge," as practised by the Duke of 
 Wharton, who was Grand Master in 1723, 
 the language used by the Grand Master 
 when placing the candidate in the chair is 
 given, and he is said to use " some other 
 expressions that are proper and usual on 
 that occasion, but not proper to be written." 
 Whence we conclude that there was an eso- 
 teric ceremony. Often the rituals tell us 
 that this ceremony consisted only in the 
 outgoing Master communicating certain 
 modes of recognition to his successor. And 
 this actually, even at this day, constitutes 
 the essential ingredient of the Past Mas- 
 ter's degree. 
 
 The degree is also conferred in Royal 
 Arch Chapters, where, it succeeds the Mark 
 Master's degree. The conferring of this 
 degree, which has no historical connection 
 with the rest of the degrees, in a Chapter, 
 arises from the following circumstance. 
 Originally, when Chapters of Royal Arch 
 Masonry were under the government of 
 Lodges in which the degree was then al- 
 ways conferred, it was a part of the regula- 
 tions that no one could receive the Royal 
 Arch degree unless he had previously pre- 
 sided in the Lodge as Master. When the 
 Chapters became independent, the regula- 
 tion could not be abolished, for that would 
 
PASTOPHORI 
 
 PATRIARCHAL 
 
 563 
 
 have been an innovation; the difficulty 
 has, therefore, been obviated, by making 
 every candidate for the degree of Royal 
 Arch a Past Master before his exaltation. 
 
 Some extraneous ceremonies, by no 
 means creditable to their inventor, were 
 at an early period introduced into this 
 country. In 1856, the General Grand 
 Chapter, by a unanimous vote, ordered these 
 ceremonies to be discontinued, and the 
 simpler mode of investiture to be used ; but 
 the order has only been partially obeyed, 
 and many Chapters still continue what one 
 can scarcely help calling the indecorous 
 form of initiation into the degree. 
 
 For several years past the question has 
 been agitated in some of the Grand Lodges 
 of the United States, whether this degree 
 is within the jurisdiction of Symbolic or of 
 Royal Arch Masonry. The explanation of 
 its introduction into Chapters, just given, 
 manifestly demonstrates that the jurisdic- 
 tion over it by Chapters is altogether an 
 assumed one. The Past Master of a Chap- 
 ter is only a quasi Past Master; the true 
 and legitimate Past Master is the one who 
 has presided over a symbolic Lodge. 
 
 Past Masters are admitted to membership 
 in many Grand Lodges, and by some the 
 inherent right has been claimed to sit in 
 those bodies. But the most eminent Ma- 
 sonic authorities have made a contrary de- 
 cision, and the general, and, indeed, almost 
 universal opinion now is that Past Masters 
 obtain their seats in Grand Lodges by 
 courtesy, and in consequence of local regu- 
 lations, and not by inherent right. 
 
 The jewel of a Past Master in the United 
 States is a pair of compasses extended to 
 sixty degrees on the fourth part of a circle, 
 with a sun in the centre. In England it 
 was formerly the square on a quadrant, but 
 is at present the square with the forty- 
 seventh problem of Euclid engraved on 
 a silver plate suspended within it. 
 
 The French have two titles to express 
 this degree. They apply Maltre passe to 
 the Past Master of the English and Amer- 
 ican system, and they call in their own 
 system one who has formerly presided over 
 a Lodge an Ancien Maltre, The indiscrim- 
 inate use of these titles sometimes leads to 
 confusion in the translation of their rituals 
 and treatises. 
 
 Pastophori. Couch or shrine bear- 
 ers. The company of Pastophori consti- 
 tuted a sacred college of priests in Egypt, 
 whose duty it was to carry in processions 
 the image of the god. Their chief, accord- 
 ing to Apuleius, {Met. xi.,) was called a 
 Scribe. Besides acting as mendicants in 
 soliciting charitable donations from the 
 populace, they took an important part in 
 the mysteries. 
 
 Past os. (Greek, naarog, a couch.) The 
 pastos was a chest or close cell, in the 
 Pagan mysteries, (among the Druids, an 
 excavated stone,) in which the aspirant 
 was for some time placed, to commemorate 
 the mystical death of the god. This con- 
 stituted the symbolic death which was 
 common to all the mysteries. In the Ark- 
 ite rites, the pastos represented the ark in 
 which Noah was confined. It is represented 
 among Masonic symbols by the coffin. 
 
 Patents. Diplomas or certificates of 
 the higher degrees in the Scottish Rite are 
 called Patents. The term is also sometimes 
 applied to commissions granted for the ex- 
 ercise of high Masonic authority. Litercepat- 
 entes or apertas, that is, letters patent or open 
 letters, was a term used in the Middle Ages 
 in contradistinction to literae clausce, or closed 
 letters, to designate those documents which 
 were spread out on the whole length of the 
 parchment, and sealed with the public seal 
 of the sovereign ; while the secret or pri- 
 vate seal only was attached to the closed 
 patents. The former were sealed with green 
 wax, the latter with white. There was also 
 a difference in their heading; letters patent 
 were directed " universis turn praesentibus 
 quara futuris," i. e., to all present or to come; 
 while closed letters were directed " univer- 
 sis praesentibus literas inspecturis," i. e., to 
 all present who shall inspect these letters. 
 Masonic diplomas are therefore properly 
 called letters patent, or, more briefly, patents. 
 
 Patience. In the ritual of the third 
 degree according to the American Rite, it 
 is said that " time, patience, and persever- 
 ance will enable us to accomplish all things, 
 and perhaps at last to find the true Master's 
 Word." The idea is similar to one express- 
 ed by the Hermetic philosophers. Thus 
 Pernetty tells us (Diet. Mythol. Herm.) that 
 the alchemists said : " The work of the phi- 
 losopher's stone is a work of patience, on 
 account of the length of time and of labor 
 that is required to conduct it to perfection ; 
 and Geber says that many adepts have 
 abandoned it in weariness, and others, wish- 
 ing to precipitate it, have never succeeded." 
 With the alchemists, in their esoteric teach- 
 ing, the philosopher's stone had the same 
 symbolism as the WORD has in Free- 
 masonry. 
 
 Patriarchal Masonry. The the- 
 ory of Dr. Oliver on this subject has, I 
 think, been misinterpreted. He does not 
 maintain, as has been falsely supposed, that 
 the Freemasonry of the present day is but 
 a continuation of that which was practised 
 by the patriarchs, but simply that, in the 
 simplicity of the patriarchal worship, un- 
 incumbered as it was with dogmatic creeds, 
 we may find the true model after which the 
 religious system of Speculative Masonry 
 
564 
 
 PATRIARCH 
 
 PEACE 
 
 has been constructed. Thus he 
 " Nor does it (Freemasonry) exclude a sur 
 vey of the patriarchal mode of devotion, 
 which indeed forms the primitive model 
 of Freemasonry. The events that occurred 
 in these ages of simplicity of manners and 
 purity of faith, when it pleased God to 
 communicate with his favored creatures, 
 necessarily, therefore, form subjects of in- 
 teresting illustration in our Lodges, and 
 constitute legitimate topics on which the 
 Master in the chair may expatiate and ex- 
 emplify, for the edification of the brethren 
 and their improvement in morality and the 
 love and fear of God." (Hist. Landm., i. 
 207.) I see here no attempt to trace a his- 
 torical connection, but simply to claim an 
 identity of purpose and character in the 
 two religious systems, the Patriarchal and 
 the Masonic. 
 
 Patriarch, Grand. The twentieth 
 degree of the Council of Emperors of the 
 East and West. The same as the twentieth 
 degree, or Noachite, of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite. 
 
 Patriarch of the Crusades. One 
 of the names formerly given to the de- 
 gree of Grand Scottish Knight of St. An- 
 drew, the twenty-ninth of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite. The legend of 
 that degree connects it with the Crusades, 
 and hence the name; which, however, is 
 never used officially, and is retained by reg- 
 ular Supreme Councils only as a synonym. 
 
 Patriarch of the Grand Lumi- 
 nary. A degree contained in the nomen- 
 clature of Le Page. 
 
 Patron. In the year 1812, the Prince 
 of Wales, becoming Regent of the king- 
 dom, was constrained by reasons of state 
 to resign the Grand Mastership of Eng- 
 land, but immediately afterwards accepted 
 the title of Grand Patron of the Order in 
 England, and this was the first time that 
 the title was officially recognized. George 
 IV. held it during his life, and on his 
 death, William IV., in 1830, officially ac- 
 cepted the title of " Patron of the United 
 Grand Lodge." On the accession of Vic- 
 toria, the title fell into abeyance, because it 
 was understood that it could only be as- 
 sumed by a sovereign who was a member 
 of the Craft. The office is not known in 
 other countries. 
 
 Patrons of Masonry. St. John 
 the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist. 
 At an early period we find that the Chris- 
 tian church adopted the usage of selecting 
 for every trade and occupation its own 
 patron saint, who is supposed to have taken 
 it under his especial charge. And the se- 
 lection was generally made in reference to 
 some circumstance in the life of the saint, 
 which traditionally connected him with the 
 
 profession of which he was appointed the 
 patron. Thus St. Crispin, because he was 
 a shoemaker, is the patron saint of the 
 "gentle craft," and St. Dunstan, who was 
 a blacksmith, is the patron of blacksmiths. 
 The reason why the two Saints John were 
 selected as the patron saints of Freema- 
 sonry will be seen under the head of Dedi- 
 cation of Lodges. 
 
 Paul, Confraternity of Saint. 
 In the time of the Emperor Charles V. 
 there was a secret community at Trapani, 
 in Sicily, which called itself La Conjrater- 
 nitd di San Paolo. These people, when 
 assembled, passed sentence on their fellow- 
 citizens; and if any one was condemned, 
 the waylaying and putting him to death 
 was allotted to one of the members, which 
 office he was obliged, without murmuring, 
 to execute, (Stolberg's Travels, vol. iii., p. 
 472.) In the travels of Brocquire to and 
 from Palestine in 1432, (p. 328,) an in- 
 stance is given of the power of the associa- 
 tion over its members. In the German 
 romance of Hermann of Unna, of which 
 there are an English and French transla- 
 tion, this tribunal plays an important part. 
 
 Paul I. This emperor of Russia was 
 induced by the machinations of the Jesuits, 
 whom he had recalled from banishment, to 
 prohibit in his domains all secret socie- 
 ties, and especially the Freemasons. This 
 prohibition lasted from 1797 to 1803, when 
 it was repealed by his successor. Paul had 
 always expressed himself an enthusiastic 
 admirer of the Knights of Malta; in 1797, 
 had assumed the title of Protector of the 
 Order, and in 1798 accepted the Grand 
 Mastership. This is another evidence, if 
 one was needed, that there was no sympa- 
 thy between the Order of Malta and the 
 Freemasons. 
 
 Pavement, Mosaic. See Mosaic 
 Pavement. 
 
 Payens, Hugh de. In Latin, 
 Hugo de Paganis. The founder and the 
 first Grand Master of the Order of Knights 
 Templars. He was born at Troyes, in the' 
 kingdom of Naples. Having, with eight 
 others, established the Order at Jerusalem, 
 in 1118 he visited Europe, where, through his 
 representations, its reputation and wealth 
 and the number of its followers were greatly 
 increased. In 1129 he returned to Jerusa- 
 lem, where he was received with great dis- 
 tinction, but shortly afterwards died, and 
 was succeeded in the Grand Mastership by 
 Robert de Craon, surnamed the Burgundian. 
 
 P. D. E. P. Letters placed on the 
 ring of profession of the Order of the Tem- 
 ple, being the initials of the Latin sen- 
 tence, Pro Deo et Patria, i. e., For God and 
 my country. 
 
 Peace. The spirit of Freemasonry is 
 
PECTORAL 
 
 PELICAN 
 
 565 
 
 antagonistic to war. Its tendency is to 
 unite all men in one brotherhood, whose 
 ties must necessarily be weakened by all 
 dissension. Hence, as Brother Albert Pike 
 says, " Masonry is the great peace society 
 of the world. Wherever it exists, it strug- 
 gles to prevent international difficulties 
 and disputes, and to bind republics, king- 
 doms, and empires together in one great 
 band of peace and amity." 
 
 Pectoral. Belonging to the breast; 
 from the Latin pectus, the breast. The 
 heart has always been considered the seat 
 of fortitude and courage, and hence by this 
 word is suggested to the Mason certain 
 symbolic instructions in relation to the 
 virtue of fortitude. In the earliest lectures 
 of the last century it was called one of the 
 "principal signs," and had this hiero- 
 glyphic, X ; but in the modern rituals the 
 hieroglyphic has become obsolete, and the 
 word is appropriated to one of the perfect 
 points of entrance. 
 
 Pectoral of the High Priest. 
 The breastplate worn by the high priest of 
 the Jews was so called frompectus, the breast, 
 upon which it rested. See Breastplate. 
 
 Pedal. Belonging to the feet, from 
 the Latin pedes, the feet. The just man is 
 he who, firmly planting his feet on the 
 principles of right, is as immovable as a 
 rock, and can be thrust from his upright 
 position neither by the allurements of 
 flattery, nor the frowns of arbitrary power. 
 And hence by this word is suggested to the 
 Mason certain symbolic instructions in re- 
 lation to the virtue of justice. Like " Pec- 
 toral," this word was assigned, in the oldest 
 rituals, to the principal signs of a Mason, 
 having < for its hieroglyphic; but in the 
 modern lectures it is one of the perfect 
 points of entrance, and the hieroglyphic is 
 no longer used. 
 
 Pedestal. The pedestal is the lowest 
 part or base of a column on which the 
 shaft is placed. In a Lodge, there are sup- 
 posed to be three columns, the column of 
 Wisdom in the east, the column of Strength 
 in the west, and the column of Beauty 
 in the south. These columns are not gen- 
 erally erected in the Lodge, but their ped- 
 estals always are, and at each pedestal sits 
 one of the three superior officers of the 
 Lodge. Hence we often hear such expres- 
 sions as these, advancing to the pedestal, or 
 standing before the pedestal, to signify ad- 
 vancing to or standing before the seat of 
 the Worshipful Master. The custom in 
 some Lodges of placing tables or desks be- 
 fore the three principal officers is, of course, 
 incorrect. They should, for the reason 
 above assigned, be representations of the 
 pedestals of columns, and should be painted 
 to represent marble or stone. 
 
 Pedum. Literally, a shepherd's crook, 
 and hence sometimes used in ecclesiology 
 for the bishop's crozier. In the statutes of the 
 Order of the Temple at Paris, it is prescribed 
 that the Grand Master shall carry a "pedum 
 magistrate seu patriarchale." But the better 
 word for the staff" of the Grand Master of 
 the Templars is baculus, which see. 
 
 Pelasgian Religion. The Pelas- 
 gians were the oldest, if not the aboriginal, 
 inhabitants of Greece. Their religion dif- 
 fered from that of the Hellenes, who suc- 
 ceeded them, in being less poetical, less 
 mythical, and more abstract. We know 
 little of their religious worship except by 
 conjecture; but we may suppose it re- 
 sembled in some respects the doctrines of 
 what Dr. Oliver calls the Primitive Free- 
 masonry. Creuzer thinks that the Pelas- 
 gians were either a nation of priests or a 
 nation ruled by priests. 
 
 Peleg. £12, Division. AsonofEber. 
 In his day the world was divided. A sig- 
 nificant word in the high degrees. In the 
 Noachite, or twentieth degree of the Scot- 
 tish Rite, there is a singular legend of Peleg, 
 which of course is altogether mythical, in 
 which he is represented as the architect of 
 the Tower of Babel. 
 
 Pelican. The pelican feeding her 
 young with her blood is a prominent symbol 
 of the eighteenth or Rose Croix degree of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 
 and was adopted as such from the fact that 
 the pelican, in ancient Christian art, was 
 considered as an emblem of the Saviour. 
 Now this symbolism of the pelican, as a 
 representative of the Saviour, is almost 
 universally supposed to be derived from the 
 common belief that the pelican feeds her 
 young with her blood, as the Saviour shed 
 his blood for mankind ; and hence the bird 
 is always represented as sitting on her nest, 
 and surrounded by her brood of young ones, 
 who are dipping their bills into a wound in 
 their mother's breast. But this is not the 
 exact idea of the symbolism, which really 
 refers to the resurrection, and is, in this 
 point of view, more applicable to our Lord, 
 as well as to the Masonic degree of which 
 the resurrection is a doctrine. 
 
 In an ancient Bestiarium, or Natural 
 History, in the Royal Library at Brussels, 
 cited by Larwood and Hotten in a recent 
 work on The History of Sign- Boards, this 
 statement is made: "The pelican is very 
 fond of his young ones, and when they are 
 born and begin to grow, they rebel in their 
 nest against their parent, and strike him 
 with their wings, flying about him, and 
 beat him so much till they wound him in 
 his eyes. Then the father strikes and kills 
 them. And the mother is of such a nature 
 that she comes back to the nest on the third 
 
566 
 
 PELICAN 
 
 PENALTY 
 
 day, and sits down upon her dead young 
 ones, and opens her side with her bill and 
 pours her blood over them, and so resusci- 
 tates them from death ; for the young ones, 
 by their instinct, receive the blood as soon 
 as it comes out of the mother, and drink it." 
 The Ortus Vocabulorum, compiled early 
 in the fifteenth century, gives the fable 
 more briefly : " It is said, if it be true, that 
 the pelican kills its young, and grieves for 
 them for three days. Then she wounds 
 herself, and with the aspersione of her blood 
 resuscitates her children." And the writer 
 cites, in explanation, the verses, 
 
 " Ut pelicanus fit matris sanguine sanus, 
 Sic Sancti sumus nos omnes sanguine nati." 
 
 i. e., " As the Pelican is restored bv the blood 
 of its mother, so are we all born by the blood of 
 the Holy One," that is, of Christ. 
 
 St. Jerome gives the same story, as an 
 illustration of the destruction of man by the 
 old serpent, and his salvation by the blood 
 of Christ. And Shelton, in an old work en- 
 titled the Arrnorie of Birds, expresses the 
 same sentiment in the following words : 
 
 " Then said the pelican, 
 When my birds be slain, 
 With my blood I them revive ; 
 
 Scripture doth record 
 
 The same did our Lord, 
 And rose from death to life." 
 
 This romantic story was religiously be- 
 lieved as a fact of natural history in the 
 earliest ages of the church. Hence the 
 pelican was very naturally adopted as a 
 symbol of the resurrection and, by conse- 
 quence, of him whose resurrection is, as 
 Cruden terms it, " the cause, pattern, and 
 argument of ours." 
 
 But in the course of time the original 
 legend was, to some extent, corrupted, and 
 a simpler one was adopted, namely, that 
 the pelican fed her young with her own 
 blood merely as a means of sustenance, and 
 the act of maternal love was then referred 
 to Christ as shedding his blood for the sins 
 of the world. In this view of the symbol- 
 ism, Pugin has said that the pelican is 
 " an emblem of our Blessed Lord shedding 
 his blood for mankind, and therefore a 
 most appropriate symbol to be introduced 
 on all vessels or ornaments connected with 
 the Blessed Sacrament." And in the An- 
 tiquities of Durham Abbey, we learn that 
 "over the high altar of Durham Abbey 
 hung a rich and most sumptuous canopy 
 for the Blessed Sacrament to hang within 
 it, whereon stood a pelican, all of silver, 
 upon the height of the said canopy, very 
 finely gilt, giving her blood to her young 
 ones, in token that Christ gave his blood 
 for the sins of the world." 
 
 But I think the true theory of the peli- 
 can is, that by restoring her young ones to 
 life by her blood, she symbolizes the resur- 
 rection. The old symbologists said, after 
 Jerome, that the male pelican, who de- 
 stroyed his young, represents the serpent, or 
 evil principle, which brought death into 
 the world ; while the mother, who resusci- 
 tates them, is the representative of that 
 Son of Man of whom it is declared, " ex- 
 cept ye drink of his blood, ye have no life 
 in you." 
 
 And hence the pelican is very appropri- 
 ately assumed as a symbol in Masonry, 
 whose great object is to teach by symbol- 
 ism the doctrine of the resurrection, and 
 especially in that sublime degree of the 
 Scottish Bite wherein, the old Temple be- 
 ing destroyed and the old Word being lost, 
 a new temple and a new word spring forth 
 — all of which is but the great allegory of 
 the destruction by death and the resurrec- 
 tion to eternal life. 
 
 Pellegrini, Marquis of. One of 
 the pseudonyms assumed by Joseph Bal- 
 sam o, better known as Count Cagliostro. 
 
 Penal Sign. That which refers to a 
 penalty. 
 
 Penalty. The adversaries of Free- 
 masonry have found, or rather invented, 
 abundant reasons for denouncing the Insti- 
 tution ; but on nothing have they more 
 strenuously and fondly lingered than on 
 the accusation that it makes, by horrid and 
 impious ceremonies, all its members the 
 willing or unwilling executioners of those 
 who prove recreant to their vows and vio- 
 late the laws which they are stringently 
 bound to observe. Even a few timid and 
 uninstructed Masons have been found who 
 were disposed to believe that there was 
 some weight in this objection. The fate of 
 Morgan, apocryphal as it undoubtedly was, 
 has been quoted as an instance of Masonic 
 punishment inflicted by the regulations of 
 the Order; and, notwithstanding the solemn 
 asseverations of the most intelligent Ma- 
 sons to the contrary, men have been found, 
 and still are to be found, who seriously en- 
 tertain the opinion that every member of 
 the Fraternity becomes, by the ceremonies 
 of his initiation and by the nature of the 
 vows which he has taken, an active Neme- 
 sis of the Order, bound by some unholy 
 promise to avenge the Institution upon 
 any treacherous or unfaithful brother. All 
 of this arises from a total misapprehension, 
 in the minds of those who are thus led 
 astray, of the true character and design of 
 vows or oaths which are accompanied by 
 an imprecation. It is well, therefore, for 
 the information both of our adversaries — 
 who may thus be deprived of any further 
 excuse for slander, and of our friends — who 
 
PENALTY 
 
 PENALTY 
 
 567 
 
 will be relieved of any continued burden 
 on their consciences, that we should show 
 that, however solemn may be the promises 
 of secrecy, of obedience, and of charity 
 which are required from our initiates, and 
 however they may be guarded by the sanc- 
 tions of punishment upon their offenders, 
 they never were intended to impose upon 
 any brother the painful and — so far as the 
 laws of the country are concerned — the 
 illegal task of vindicating the outrage com- 
 mitted by the violator. The only Masonic 
 penalty inflicted by the Order upon a 
 traitor, is the scorn and detestation of the 
 Craft whom he has sought to betray. 
 
 But that this subject may be thoroughly 
 understood, it is necessary that some con- 
 sideration should be given to oaths gener- 
 ally, and to tbe character of the impreca- 
 tions by which they are accompanied 
 
 The obsecration, or imprecation, is that 
 part of every oath which, constitutes its 
 sanction, and which consists in calling 
 some superior power to witness the decla- 
 ration or promise made, and invoking his 
 protection for or anger against the person 
 making it, according as the said declaration 
 or promise is observed or violated. This 
 obsecration has, from the earliest times, 
 constituted a part of the oath — and an 
 important part, too — among every people, 
 varying, of course, according to the varie- 
 ties of religious beliefs and modes of adora- 
 tion. Thus, among the Jews, we find such 
 obsecrations as these : Co yagnasheh li Elo- 
 him, "So may God do to me." A very 
 common obsecration among the Greeks 
 was, isto Zeus or theon marturomai, " May 
 Jove stand by me," or " I call God to wit- 
 ness." And the Romans, among an abun- 
 dance of other obsecrations, often said, dii 
 me perdant, " May tbe gods destroy me," or 
 ne vivan, " May I die." 
 
 These modes of obsecration were ac- 
 companied, to make them more solemn and 
 sacred, by certain symbolic forms. Thus the 
 Jews caused the person who swore to hold 
 up his right hand towards heaven, by which 
 action he was supposed to signify that he 
 appealed to God to witness the truth of 
 what he had averred or the sincerity of his 
 intention to fulfil the promise that he had 
 made. So Abraham said to the king of 
 Sodom, " I have lift up my hand unto the 
 Lord, . . . that I will not take anything 
 that is thine." Sometimes, in taking an 
 oath of fealty, the inferior placed his hand 
 under the thigh of his lord, as in the case 
 of Eliezer and Abraham, related in the 
 24th chapter of Genesis. Among the 
 Greeks and Romans, the person swearing 
 placed his hands, or sometimes only the 
 right hand, upon the altar, or upon the 
 victims when, as was not unusual, the oath 
 
 was accompanied by a sacrifice, or upon 
 some other sacred thing. In the military 
 oath, for instance, the soldiers placed their 
 hands upon the signa, or standards. 
 
 The obsecration, with an accompanying 
 form of solemnity, was indeed essential to 
 the oath among the ancients, because the 
 crime of perjury was not generally looked 
 upon by them in the same light in which it 
 is viewed by the moderns. It was, it is 
 true, considered as a heinous crime, but a 
 crime not so much against society as against 
 the gods, and its punishment was supposed 
 to be left to the deity whose sanctity had 
 been violated by the adjuration of his name 
 to a false oath or broken vow. Hence, 
 Cicero says that "death was the divine 
 punishment of perjury, but only dishonor 
 was its human penalty." And therefore 
 the crime of giving false testimony under 
 oath was not punished in any higher de- 
 gree than it would have been had it been 
 given without the solemnity of an oath. 
 Swearing was entirely a matter of con- 
 science, and the person who was guilty of 
 false swearing, where his testimony did not 
 affect the rights or interests of others, was 
 considered as responsible to the deity alone 
 for his perjury. 
 
 The explicit invocation of God as a wit- 
 ness to the truth of the thing said, or, in 
 promissory oaths, to the faithful observance 
 of the act promised, the obsecration of di- 
 vine punishment upon the jurator if what 
 he swore to be true should prove to be false, 
 or if the vow made should be thereafter 
 violated, and the solemn form of lifting up 
 the hand to heaven or placing it upon the 
 altar or the sacred victims, must necessarily 
 have given confidence to the truth of the 
 attestation, and must have been required 
 by the hearers as some sort of safeguard 
 or security for the confidence they were 
 called upon to exercise. This seems to 
 have been the true reason for the ancient 
 practice of solemn obsecration in the ad- 
 ministration of oaths. 
 
 Among modern nations, the practice has 
 been continued, and from the ancient usage 
 of invoking the names of the gods and of 
 placing the hands of the person swearing 
 upon their altars, we derive the present 
 method of sanctifying every oath by the 
 attestation contained in the phrase " So 
 help me God," and the concluding form of 
 kissing the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 And now the question naturally occurs 
 as to what is the true intent of this obse- 
 cration, and what practical operation is ex- 
 pected to result from it. In other words, 
 what is the nature of a penalty attached to 
 an oath, and how is it to be enforced ? 
 When the ancient Roman, in attesting with 
 the solemnity of an oath to the truth of 
 
568 
 
 PENCIL 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 what he had just said or was about to say, 
 concluded with the formula, " May the 
 gods destroy me," it is evident that he 
 simply meant to say that he was so con- 
 vinced of the truth of what he had said 
 that he was entirely willing that his de- 
 struction by the gods whom he had invoked 
 should be the condition consequent upon 
 his falsehood. He had no notion that he 
 was to become outlawed among his fellow- 
 creatures, and that it should be not only the 
 right, but the duty, of any man to destroy 
 him. His crime would have been one 
 against the divine law, and subject only to 
 a divine punishment. 
 
 In modern times, perjury is made a pe- 
 nal offence against human laws, and its 
 punishment is inflicted by human tribunals. 
 But here the punishment of the crime is 
 entirely different from that inferred by the 
 obsecration which terminates the oath. 
 The words " So help me God," refer ex- 
 clusively to the withdrawal of divine aid 
 and assistance from the jurator in the case 
 of his proving false, and not to the human 
 punishment which society would inflict. 
 
 In like manner, we may say of what are 
 called Masonic penalties, that they refer in 
 no case to any kind of human punishment; 
 that is to say, to any kind of punishment 
 which is to be inflicted by human hand or 
 instrumentality. The true punishments of 
 Masonry affect neither life nor limb. They 
 are expulsion and suspension only. But 
 those persons are wrong, be they mistaken 
 friends or malignant enemies, who suppose 
 or assert that there is any other sort of 
 penalty which a Mason recreant to his 
 vows is subjected to by the laws of the 
 Order, or that it is either the right or duty 
 of any Mason to inflict such penalty on an 
 offending brother. The obsecration of a 
 Mason simply means that if he violates his 
 vows or betrays his trust he is worthy of 
 such penalty, and that if such penalty were 
 inflicted on him it would be but just and 
 proper. " May I die," said the ancient, 
 
 if this be not true, or if I keep not this 
 vow." Not may any man put me to death, 
 nor is any man required to put me to death, 
 but only, if I so act, then would I be 
 worthy of death. The ritual penalties of 
 Masonry, supposing such to be, are in the 
 hands not of man, but of God, and are to 
 be inflicted by God, and not by man. 
 
 Pencil. In the English system this is 
 one of the working-tools of a Master Ma- 
 son, and is intended symbolically to re- 
 mind us that our words and actions are 
 observed and recorded by the Almighty 
 Architect, to whom we must give an ac- 
 count of our conduct through life. In the 
 American system the pencil is not specifi- 
 cally recognized. The other English work- 
 
 ing-tools of a Master Mason are the skirrit 
 and compasses. 
 
 In the French Rite " to hold the pencil," 
 tener le crayon, is to discharge the functions 
 of a secretary during the communication 
 of a Lodge. 
 
 Penitential Sign. Called also the 
 Supplicatory Sign. It is the third sign in 
 the English Royal Arch system. It de- 
 notes that frame of heart and mind without 
 which our prayers and oblations will not 
 obtain acceptance ; in other words, it is a 
 symbol of humility. 
 
 Pennsylvania. The first Lodge in 
 Pennsylvania was established in Philadel- 
 phia in 1734, by a Warrant from the Pro- 
 vincial Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, and 
 of this Lodge Benjamin Franklin waB the 
 first Master. A second was established in 
 1758, by the Athol Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land, which also granted a Warrant for a 
 Provincial Grand Lodge in 1766, under the 
 Provincial Grand Mastership of William 
 Ball. This Grand Lodge continued in 
 operation until the commencement of the 
 Revolutionary War, when it was temporarily 
 suspended, but was revived in 1779. On 
 September 26, 1786, the Provincial Grand 
 Lodge was abolished, and the present 
 Grand Lodge organized by the delegates 
 of thirteen Lodges in a Convention held at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 The Grand Chapter of Pennsylvania was 
 established in 1795, being the first Grand 
 Chapter instituted in the United States, 
 and two years before the organization of 
 the Grand Chapter of the six New England 
 States, which afterwards became the Gen- 
 eral Grand Chapter. The Grand Chapter 
 was at first only an integral part of the 
 Grand Lodge, but in 1824 it became an 
 independent body, except so far as that 
 members of the Grand Lodge, who were 
 Royal Arch Masons, were declared to be 
 members of the Grand Chapter. 
 
 The Royal and Select degrees were for- 
 merly conferred in Pennsylvania by the 
 Chapters, but on October 16, 1847, a Grand 
 Council was organized. 
 
 A Grand Encampment, independent of 
 the General Grand Encampment of the 
 United States, was organized on February 
 16, 1814. On April 14, 1854, a Grand 
 Commandery was organized under the au- 
 thority of the Grand Encampment of the 
 United States, and in February, 1857, both 
 of these bodies united to form the present 
 Grand Commandery of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Pennsylvania Work. The method 
 of Entering, Passing, and Raising candi- 
 dates in the Lodges of Pennsylvania dif- 
 fers so materially from that practised in the 
 other States of the Union, that it cannot be 
 considered as a part of the American Rite 
 
PENNY 
 
 PENTALPHA 
 
 569 
 
 as first taught by Webb, but rather as an 
 independent, Pennsylvania modification of 
 the York Rite of England. Indeed, the 
 Pennsylvania system of work much more 
 resembles the English than the American. 
 Its ritual is simple and didactic, like the 
 former, and is almost entirely without the 
 impressive dramatization of the latter. Bro. 
 Vaux, a Past Grand Master of Pennsylva- 
 nia, thus speaks of the Masonic work of 
 his State with pardonable, although not 
 with impartial, commendations: "The 
 Pennsylvania work is sublime from its sim- 
 plicity. That it is the ancient work is 
 best shown conclusively, however, from 
 this single fact, it is so simple, so free from 
 those displays of modern inventions to at- 
 tract the attention, without enlightening, 
 improving, or cultivating the mind. In 
 this work every word has its significance. 
 Its types and symbols are but the language 
 in which truth is conveyed. These are to 
 be studied to be understood. In the spoken 
 language no synonyms are permitted. In 
 the ceremonial no innovations are toler- 
 ated. In the ritual no modern verbiage 
 is allowed. " 
 
 Penny. In the parable read in the 
 Mark degree a penny is the amount given 
 to each of the laborers in the vineyard for 
 his day's labor. Hence, in the ritual, a 
 
 Senny a day is said to be the wages of a 
 [ark Master. In several passages of the 
 authorized version of the New Testament, 
 penny occu rs as a translation of the Greek, 
 tirrvapiov, which was intended as the equiva- 
 lent of the Roman denarius. This was the 
 chief silver coin of the Romans from the 
 beginning of the coinage of the city to the 
 early part of the third century. Indeed, 
 the name continued to be employed in the 
 coinage of the continental States, who 
 imitated that of the Byzantine empire, and 
 was adopted by the Anglo-Saxons. The 
 specific value of each of so many coins, 
 going under the same name, cannot be as- 
 certained with any precision. In its Ma- 
 sonic use, the penny is simply a symbol of 
 the reward of faithful labor. The small- 
 ness of the sum, whatever may have been 
 its exact value, to our modern impressions 
 is apt to give a false idea of the liberality 
 of the owner. Dr. Lightfoot, in his essay 
 on a Fresh Revision of the Nev> Testament, 
 remarks : " It is unnecessary to ask what 
 impression the mention of this sum will 
 leave on the minds of an uneducated peas- 
 ant or shopkeeper of the present day. 
 Even at the time when our version was 
 made, and when wages were lower, it must 
 have seemed wholly inadequate." How- 
 ever improper the translation is, it can 
 have no importance in the Masonic appli- 
 3W 
 
 cation of the parable, where the "penny" 
 is, as has already been said, only a symbol, 
 meaning any reward or compensation. 
 
 Pentagon. A geometrical figure of 
 five sides and five angles. It is the third 
 figure from the exterior, in the camp of the 
 Sublime Princes of the Royal Secret, or 
 thirty-second degree of the Scottish Rite. 
 In the Egyptian Rite of Cagliostro, he 
 constructed, with much formality, an im- 
 plement called the " sacred pentagon," and 
 which, being distributed to his disciples, 
 gave, as he affirmed, to each one the power 
 of holding spiritual intercourse. 
 
 Pentagram. From the Greek pente, 
 five, and gramma, a letter. In the science 
 of magic the pentalpha is called the holy 
 and mysterious pentagram. Eliphas Levi 
 says {Dog. et Rituel de la Haute Magie, ii. 
 55,) that the pentagram is the star of the 
 Magians ; it is the sign of the word made 
 flesh ; and according to the direction of its 
 rays, that is, as it points upwards with one 
 point or with two, it represents the good or 
 the evil principle, order or disorder; the 
 blessed lamb of Ormuzd and of St. John, 
 or the accursed god of Mendes ; initiation 
 or profanation ; Lucifer or Vesper ; the 
 morning or the evening star; Mary or 
 Lilith ; victory or death ; light or darkness. 
 See Pentalpha. 
 
 Pentalpha. The triple triangle, or 
 the pentalpha of Pythagoras, is so called 
 from the Greek nevTe,pente, five, and ak<pa, 
 alpha, the letter A, because in ite con- 
 figuration it presents the form 
 of that letter in five different 
 positions. It was a doctrine of 
 Pythagoras, that all things pro- 
 ceeded from numbers, and the 
 number five, as being formed by the union 
 of the first odd and the first even, was deemed 
 of peculiar value; and hence Cornelius 
 Agnppa says (Philos. Occult.) of this figure, 
 that, " by virtue of the number five, it has 
 great command over evil spirits because of 
 its five double triangles and its five acute 
 angles within and its five obtuse angles 
 without, so that this interior pen tangle 
 contains in it many great mysteries." The 
 disciples of Pythagoras, who were indeed 
 its real inventors, placed within each of its 
 interior angles one of the letters of the 
 Greek word TrEIA, or the Latin one 
 SALUS, both of which signify health; and 
 thus it was made the talisman of health. 
 They placed it at the beginning of their 
 epistles as a greeting to invoke a secure 
 health to their correspondent. But its use 
 was not confined to the disciples of Pythag- 
 oras. As a talisman, it was employed all 
 over the East as a charm to resist evil 
 spirits. Mone says that it has been found 
 
570 
 
 PERAU 
 
 PERFECTION 
 
 in Egypt on the statue of the god Anubis. 
 Lord Brougham says, in his Italy, that it 
 was used by Antiochus Epiphanes, and a 
 writer in Notes and Queries (3 Ser., ix., 511,) 
 says that he has found it on the coins of 
 Lysimmachus. On old British and Gaul- 
 ish coins it is often seen beneath the feet 
 of the sacred aud mythical horse, which 
 was the ensign of the ancient Saxons. The 
 Druids wore it on their sandals as a sym- 
 bol of Deity, and hence the Germans call 
 the figure " Druttenfuss," a word originally 
 signifying Druid's foot, but which, in the 
 gradual corruptions of language, is now 
 made to mean Witche's foot Even at the 
 present day it retains its hold upon the 
 minds of the common people of Germany, 
 and is drawn on or affixed to cradles, 
 thresholds of houses, and stable-doors, to 
 keep off witches and elves. 
 
 The early Christians referred it to the 
 five wounds of the Saviour, because, when 
 properly inscribed upon the representation 
 of a human body, the five points will re- 
 spectively extend to and touch the side, 
 the two hands, and the two feet. 
 
 The Mediaeval Masons considered it a 
 symbol of deep wisdom, and it is found 
 among the architectural ornaments of most 
 of the ecclesiastical edifices of the Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 But as a Masonic symbol it peculiarly 
 claims attention from the fact that it forms 
 the outlines of the five-pointed star, which 
 is typical of the bond of brotherly love 
 that unites the whole Fraternity. It is in 
 this view that the pentalpha or triple tri- 
 angle is referred to in Masonic symbolism 
 as representing the intimate union which 
 existed between our three ancient Grand 
 Masters, and which is commemorated by 
 the living pentalpha at the closing of every 
 Royal Arch Chapter. 
 
 Many writers have confounded the pen- 
 talpha with the seal of Solomon, or shield 
 of David. This error is almost inexcusa- 
 ble in Oliver, who constantly commits it, 
 because his Masonic and archaeological re- 
 searches should have taught him the differ- 
 ence, Solomon's seal being a double, inter- 
 laced triangle, whose form gives the outline 
 of a star of six points. 
 
 Perau, Gabriel Louis Calabre. 
 A man of letters, an Abbe, and a member 
 of the Society of the Sorbonne. He was 
 born at Semur, in Auxois, in 1700, and died 
 at Paris, March 31st, 1767. De Feller 
 (Biog. Univ.) speaks of his uprightness 
 and probity, his frankness, and sweetness 
 of disposition which endeared many friends 
 to him. Certainly, the only work which 
 gives him a place in Masonic history in- 
 dicates a gentleness and moderation of 
 character with which we can find no fault. 
 
 In general literature, he was distinguished 
 as the continuator of d'Avrigny's Vies des 
 Hommes illustres de la France; which, how- 
 ever, a loss of sight prevented him from 
 completing. In 1742, he published at Gen- 
 eva a work entitled Les Secret des Franc- 
 Macons. This work at its first appearance 
 attracted much attention and went through 
 many editions, the title being sometimes 
 changed to a more attractive one by book- 
 sellers. The Abb6 Larudan attempted to 
 palm off his libellous and malignant work 
 on the Abb6 Perau, but without success; 
 for while the work of Larudan is marked 
 with the bitterest malignity to the Order 
 of Freemasonry, that of Perau is simply a 
 detail of the ceremonies and ritual of Ma- 
 sonry as then practised, under the guise, 
 which, I think, was not simulated, of friend- 
 ship. 
 
 Perfect Ashlar. See Ashlar. 
 
 Perfect Initiates, Rite of. A 
 name given to the Egyptian Rite when 
 first established at Lyons by Cagliostro. 
 
 Perfection. The ninth and last de- 
 gree of Fessler's Rite. See Fessler's Bite. 
 
 Perfectionists. The name by which 
 Weishaupt first designated the Order which 
 he founded in Bavaria, and which he sub- 
 sequently changed for that of the Illumi- 
 nati. 
 
 Perfection, Lodge of. The Lodge 
 in which the fourteenth degree of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite is con- 
 ferred. In England and America this de- 
 gree is called Grand Elect Perfect and Sub- 
 lime Mason, but the French designate it 
 Grand Scottish Mason of the Sacred Vault 
 of James VI., or Grand Zcossais de la Voute 
 Sacree du Jacques VI. This is one of the 
 evidences — and a very pregnant one — of 
 the influence exercised by the exiled Stuarts 
 and their adherents on the Masonry of that 
 time in making it an instrument for the 
 restoration of James II., and then of his 
 son, to the throne of England. 
 
 This degree, as concluding all reference 
 to the first Temple, has been called the ul- 
 timate degree of ancient Masonry. It is 
 the last of what is technically styled the In- 
 effable degrees, because their instructions 
 relate to the Ineffable word. 
 
 Its place of meeting is called the Sacred 
 Vault. Its principal officers are a Thrice 
 Puissant Grand Master, two Grand War- 
 dens, a Grand Treasurer, and Grand Secre- 
 tary. In the first organization of the Rite 
 in this country, the Lodges of Perfection 
 were called " Sublime Grand Lodges," and, 
 hence, the word " Grand " is still affixed to 
 the title of the officers. 
 
 The following mythical history is con- 
 nected with and related in this degree. 
 
 When the Temple was finished, the Masons 
 
PERFECTION 
 
 PERFECTION 
 
 571 
 
 who had heen employed in constructing it 
 acquired immortal honor. Their Order be- 
 came more uniformly established and regu- 
 lated than it had been before. Their cau- 
 tion and reserve in admitting new members 
 produced respect, and merit alone was re- 
 quired of the candidate. With these 
 principles instilled into their minds, many 
 of the Grand Elect left the Temple after 
 its dedication, and, dispersing themselves 
 among the neighboring nations, instructed 
 all who applied and were found worthy in 
 the sublime degrees of Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 The Temple was completed in the year 
 of the world 3000. Thus far, the wise 
 King of Israel had behaved worthy of him- 
 self, and gained universal admiration; but 
 in process of time, when he had advanced 
 in years, his understanding became im- 
 paired ; he grew deaf to the voice of the 
 Lord, and was strangely irregular in his 
 conduct. Proud of having erected an edi- 
 fice to his Maker, and intoxicated with his 
 great power, he plunged into all manner 
 of licentiousness and debauchery, and pro- 
 faned the Temple, by offering to the idol 
 Moloch that incense which should have 
 been offered only to the living God. 
 
 The Grand Elect and Perfect Masons 
 saw this, and were sorely grieved, afraid 
 that his apostasy would end in some dread- 
 ful consequences, and bring upon them 
 those enemies whom Solomon had vain- 
 gloriously and wantonly defied. The people, 
 copying the vices and follies of their king, 
 became proud and idolatrous, and neglected 
 the worship of the true God for that of 
 idols. 
 
 As an adequate punishment for this de- 
 fection, God inspired the heart of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, King of Babylon, to take ven- 
 geance on the kingdom of Israel. This 
 prince sent an army with Nebuzaradan, 
 Captain of the Guards, who entered Judah 
 with fire and sword, took and sacked the 
 city of Jerusalem, razed its walls, and de- 
 stroyed the Temple. The people were car- 
 ried captive to Babylon, and the conquerors 
 took with them all the vessels of silver and 
 gold. This happened four hundred and 
 seventy years, six months, and ten days 
 after its dedication. 
 
 When, in after times, the princes of 
 Christendom entered into a league to free 
 the Holy Land from the oppression of the 
 infidels, the good and virtuous Masons, 
 anxious for the success of so pious an un- 
 dertaking, voluntarily offered their services 
 to the confederates, on condition that they 
 should be permitted a chief of their own 
 election, which was granted ; they accord- 
 ingly rallied under their standard and de- 
 parted. 
 
 The valor and fortitude of these elected 
 knights was such, that they wereadmired by, 
 and took the lead of, all the princes of Jeru- 
 salem, who, believing that their mysteries 
 inspired them with courage and fidelity in 
 the cause of virtue and religion, became 
 desirous of being initiated. Upon being 
 found worthy, their desires were compiled 
 with ; and thus the royal art, meeting the 
 approbation of great and good men, be- 
 came popular and honorable, was diffused 
 through their various dominions, and has 
 continued to spread through a succession 
 of ages to the present day. 
 
 The symbolic order of this degree is red 
 — emblematic of fervor, constancy, and assi- 
 duity. Hence, the Masonry of this degree 
 was formerly called red Masonry on the 
 continent of Europe. 
 
 The jewel of the degree is a pair of com- 
 passes extended on an arc of ninety degrees, 
 surmounted by a crown, and with a sun in 
 the centre. In the Southern Jurisdiction 
 the sun is on one side and a five-pointed 
 star on the other. 
 
 The apron is white with red flames, 
 bordered with blue, and having the jewel 
 painted on the centre and the stone of 
 foundation on the flap. 
 
 Perfection, Rite of. In 1754, the 
 Chevalier de Bonneville established a Chap- 
 ter of the high degrees at Paris, in the Col- 
 lege of Jesuits of Clermont, hence called 
 the Chapter of Clermont. The system of 
 Masonry he there practised received the 
 name of the Rite of Perfection, or Rite of 
 Heredom. The College of Clermont was, 
 says Rebold, {Hist, de 3 O. L., 46,) the 
 asylum of the adherents of the house of 
 Stuart, and hence the Rite is to some ex- 
 tent tinctured with Stuart Masonry. It 
 consisted of twenty-five degrees, as follows : 
 1. Apprentice; 2. Fellow Craft; 3. Master; 
 4. Secret Master ; 5. Perfect Master ; 6. In- 
 timate Secretary; 7. Intendant of the 
 Building; 8. Provost and Judge; 9. Elect 
 of nine ; 10. Elect of fifteen ; 11. Illustrious 
 elect, Chief of the twelve tribes ; 12. Grand 
 Master Architect ; 13. Royal Arch ; 14. 
 Grand, Elect, Ancient, Perfect Master ; 15. 
 Knight of the Sword ; 16. Prince of Jeru- 
 salem ; 17. Knight of the East and West ; 
 18. Rose Croix Knight ; 19. Grand Pontiff; 
 20. Grand Patriarch ; 21. Grand Master of 
 the Key of Masonry ; 22. Prince of Liba- 
 nus; 23. Sovereign Prince Adept Chief 
 of the Grand Consistory; 24. Illustrious 
 Knight, Commander of the Black and 
 White Eagle ; 25. Most Illustrious Sover- 
 eign Prince of Masonry, Grand Knight, 
 Sublime Commander of the Royal Secret. 
 It will be seen that the degrees of this Rite 
 are the same as those of the Council of 
 Emperors of the East and West, which was 
 
572 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 PERJURY 
 
 established four years later, and to which 
 the Chapter of Clermont gave way. Of 
 course, they are therefore the same, so far 
 as they go, as those of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite, which succeeded the 
 Council of Emperors. 
 
 The distinguishing principle of this Rite 
 is, that Freemasonry was derived from 
 Templarism, and that consequently every 
 Freemason was a Knight Templar. It was 
 there that the Baron Von Hund was ini- 
 tiated, and from it, through him, proceeded 
 the Rite of Strict Observance; although he 
 discarded the degrees and retained only the 
 Templar theory. 
 
 Perfect Irish Master. {Par/ait 
 Maltre Irlandais.) One of the degrees given 
 in the Irish Colleges instituted by Ramsay. 
 
 Perfect Lodge. See Just Lodge. 
 
 Perfect Master. (Maltre Par/ait.) 
 The fifth degree in the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite. The ceremonies of 
 this degree were originally established as 
 a grateful tribute of respect to a worthy 
 departed brother. The officers of the Lodge 
 are a Master, who represents Adoniram, 
 the Inspector of the works at Mount Leba- 
 non, and one Warden. The symbolic color 
 of the degree is green, to remind the 
 Perfect Master that, being dead in vice, he 
 must hope to revive in virtue. His jewel 
 is a compass extended sixty degrees, to 
 teach him that he should act within meas- 
 ure, and ever pay due regard to justice and 
 equity. 
 
 The apron is white, with a green flap ; 
 and in the middle of the apron must be em- 
 broidered or painted, within three circles, a 
 cubical stone, in the centre of which the 
 letter J is inscribed, according to the old 
 rituals ; but the Samaritan yod and he, 
 according to the ritual of the Southern 
 Jurisdiction. 
 
 Delaunay, in his Tliuileur de T Ecossisme, 
 gives the Tetragrammaton in this degree, 
 and says the degree should more properly 
 be called Past Master, Ancien Maltre, be- 
 cause the Tetragrammaton makes itin some 
 sort the complement of the Master's degree. 
 But the Tetragrammaton is not found in 
 any of the approved rituals, and Delaunay's 
 theory falls therefore to the ground. But 
 besides, to complete the Master's with this 
 degree would be to confuse all the symbol- 
 ism of the Ineffable degrees, which really 
 conclude with the fourteenth. 
 
 Perfect Prussian. [Par/ait Prus- 
 sien. ) A degree invented at Geneva, in 1770, 
 as a second part of the Order of Noachites. 
 
 Perfect Union, Lodge of. A 
 Lodge at Ren nes, in France, where the Rite 
 of Elect of Truth was instituted. See 
 Elect of Truth. 
 
 Perignan. When the Elu degrees 
 
 were first invented, the legend referred to 
 an unknown person, a tiller of the soil, to 
 whom King Solomon was indebted for the 
 information which led to the discovery of 
 the craftsmen who had committed the 
 crime recorded in the third degree. This 
 unknown person, at first designated as 
 " l'inconnu," afterwards received the name 
 of Perignan, and a degree between the elu 
 of nine and the elu of fifteen was instituted, 
 which was called the " Elu of Perignan," 
 and which became the sixth degree of the 
 Adonhiramite Rite. I am utterly at a loss 
 as to the derivation or radical meaning 
 of the word, but am inclined to the theory 
 which gives to this, as well as to many 
 other words in the high degrees, a refer- 
 ence to the adherents, or to the enemies, of 
 the exiled house of Stuart, for whose sake 
 several of these degrees were established. 
 See Elect of Perignan. 
 
 Periods of the Grand Archi- 
 tect. See Six Periods. 
 
 Perjury. In the municipal law per- 
 jury is defined to be a wilful false swear- 
 ing to a material matter, when an oath has 
 been administered by lawful authority. 
 The violation of vows or promissory oaths 
 taken before one who is not legally author- 
 ized to administer them, that is to say, one 
 who is not a magistrate, does not in law 
 involve the crime of perjury. Such is the 
 technical definition of the law; but the 
 moral sense of mankind does not assent to 
 such a doctrine, and considers perjury, as 
 the root of the word indicates, the doing 
 of that which one has sworn not to do, or 
 the omitting to do that which he has sworn 
 to do. The old Romans seem to have 
 taken a sensible view of the crime of per- 
 jury. Among them oaths were not often 
 administered, and, in general, a promise 
 made under oath had no more binding 
 
 Eower in a court of justice than it would 
 ave had without the oath. False swear- 
 ing was with them a matter of conscience, 
 and the person who was guilty of it was 
 responsible to the Deity alone. The viola- 
 tion of a promise under oath and of one 
 not under such a form was considered 
 alike, and neither was more liable to hu- 
 man punishment than the other. But 
 perjury was not deemed to be without any 
 kind of punishment. Cicero expressed the 
 Roman sentiment when he said " perjurii 
 poena divina exitium ; humana dedecus — 
 the divine punishment of perjury is destruc- 
 tion/ the human, infamy." Hence every 
 oath was accompanied by an execration, or 
 an appeal to God to punish the swearer 
 should he falsify his oath. " In the case 
 of other sins," says Archbishop Sharp, 
 " there may be an appeal made to God's 
 mercy, yet in the case of perjury there is 
 
PERNETTY 
 
 PERSECUTIONS 
 
 573 
 
 none; for he that is perjured hath pre- 
 cluded himself of this benefit, because he 
 hath braved God Almighty, and hath in 
 effect told him to his face that if he was 
 foresworn he should desire no mercy." 
 
 It is not right thus to seek to restrict 
 God's mercy, but there can be no doubt 
 that the settlement of the crime lies more 
 with him than with man. Freemasons 
 look in this light on what is called the 
 penalty ; it is an invocation of God's ven- 
 geance on him who takes the vow, should 
 he ever violate it ; men's vengeance is con- 
 fined to the contempt and infamy which 
 the foreswearer incurs. 
 
 Pernetty, Antoine Joseph. Born 
 at Roanne, in France, in 1716. At an early 
 age he joined the Benedictines, but in 1765 
 applied, with twenty-eight others, for a 
 dispensation of his vows. A short time 
 after, becoming disgusted with the Order, 
 he repaired to Berlin, where Frederick the 
 Great made him his librarian. In a short 
 time he returned to Paris, where the arch- 
 bishop strove in vain to induce him to re- 
 enter his monastery. The parliament sup- 
 ported him in his refusal, and Pernetty 
 continued in the world. Not long after, Per- 
 netty became infected with the mystical 
 theories of Swedenborg, and published a 
 translation of his Wonders of Heaven and 
 Hell. He then repaired to Avignon, where, 
 under the influence of his Swedenborgian 
 views, he established an academy of Illu- 
 minati, based on the three primitive grades 
 of Masonry, to which he added a mystical 
 one, which he called the True Mason. This 
 Rite was subsequently transferred to Mont- 
 pellier by some of his disciples, and modi- 
 fied in form under the name of the " Acad- 
 emy of True Masons." Pernetty, besides 
 his Masonic labors at Avignon, invented 
 several other Masonic degrees, and to him 
 is attributed the authorship of the degree 
 of Knight of the Sun, now occupying the 
 twenty-eighth place in the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite. He was a very learned 
 man and a voluminous writer of versatile 
 talents, and published numerous works on 
 mythology, the fine arts, theology, geogra- 
 phy, philosophy, and the mathematical sci- 
 ences, besides some translations from the 
 Latin. He died at Valence, in Dauphiny, 
 in the year 1800. 
 
 Perpendicular. In a geometrical 
 sense, that which is upright and erect, 
 leaning neither one way nor another. In 
 a figurative and symbolic sense, it conveys 
 the signification of Justice, Fortitude, 
 Prudence, and Temperance. Justice, that 
 leans to no side but that of Truth ; Forti- 
 tude, that yields to no adverse attack; 
 Prudence, that ever pursues the straight 
 path of integrity; and Temperance, that 
 swerves not for appetite nor passion. 
 
 Persecutions. Freemasonry, like 
 every other good and true thing, has been 
 subjected at times to suspicion, to mis- 
 interpretation, and to actual persecution. 
 Like the church, it has had its martyrs, 
 who, by their devotion and their suffer- 
 ings, have vindicated its truth and its 
 purity. 
 
 With the exception of the United States, 
 where the attacks on the Institution can 
 hardly be called persecutions, — not because 
 there was not the will, but because the 
 power to persecute was wanting, — all the 
 persecutions of Freemasonry have, for the 
 most part, originated with the Roman 
 Church. "Notwithstanding," says a writer 
 in the Freemasons' Quarterly Magazine, 
 (1851, p. 141,) "the greatest architectural 
 monuments of antiquity were reared by the 
 labors of Masonic gilds, and the Church of 
 Rome owes the structure of her magnificent 
 cathedrals, her exquisite shrines, and her 
 most splendid palaces, to the skill of the 
 wise master-builders of former ages, she 
 has been for four centuries in antago- 
 nism to the principles inculcated by the 
 Craft." 
 
 Leaving unnoticed the struggles of the 
 corporations of Freemasons in the fifteenth, 
 sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, we 
 may begin the record with the persecutions 
 to which the Order has been subjected since 
 the revival in 1717. 
 
 One of the first persecutions to which 
 Masonry, in its present organization, was 
 subjected, occurred in the year 1735, in 
 Holland. On the 16th of October of that 
 year, a crowd of ignorant fanatics, whose 
 zeal had been enkindled by the denuncia- 
 tions of some of the clergy, broke into a 
 house in Amsterdam, where a Lodge was 
 accustomed to be held, and destroyed all 
 the furniture and ornaments of the Lodge. 
 The States General, yielding to the popular 
 excitement, or rather desirous of giving no 
 occasion for its action, prohibited the future 
 meetings of the Lodges. One, however, 
 continuing, regardless of the edict, to meet 
 at a private house, the members were ar- 
 rested and brought before the Court of Jus- 
 tice. Here, in the presence of the whole 
 city, the Masters and Wardens defended 
 themselves with great dexterity ; and while 
 acknowledging their inability to prove the 
 innocence of their Institution by a public 
 exposure of their secret doctrines, they 
 freely offered to receive and initiate any 
 person in the confidence of the magistrates, 
 and who could then give them information 
 upon which they might depend, relative to 
 the true designs of the Institution. The 
 proposal was acceded to, and the town 
 clerk was chosen. He was immediately ini- 
 tiated, and his report so pleased his supe- 
 riors, that all the magistrates and principal 
 
574 
 
 PERSECUTIONS 
 
 PERSECUTIONS 
 
 persons of the city became members and 
 zealous patrons of the Order. 
 
 In France, the fear of the authorities 
 that the Freemasons concealed, within the 
 recesses of their Lodges, designs hostile to 
 the government, gave occasion to an attempt, 
 in 1737, on the part of the police, to pro- 
 hibit the meeting of the Lodges. But this 
 unfavorable disposition did not long con- 
 tinue, and the last instance of the inter- 
 ference of the government with the pro- 
 ceedings of the Masonic body was in June, 
 1745, when the members of a Lodge, meet- 
 ing at the Hotel de Soissons, were dispersed, 
 their furniture and jewels seized, and the 
 landlord amerced in a penalty of three thou- 
 sand livres. 
 
 The persecutions in Germany were owing 
 to a singular cause. The malice of a few 
 females had been excited by their disap- 
 pointed curiosity. A portion of this dis- 
 position they succeeded in communicating 
 to the Empress, Maria Theresa, who issued 
 an order for apprehending all the Masons 
 in Vienna, when assembled in their Lodges. 
 The measure was, however, frustrated by 
 the good sense of the Emperor, Joseph I., 
 who was himself a Mason, and exerted his 
 power in protecting his brethren. 
 
 The persecutions of the church in Italy, 
 and other Catholic countries, have been 
 the most extensive and most permanent. 
 On the 28th of April, 1738, Pope Clement 
 XII. issued the famous bull against Free- 
 masons whose authority is still in exist- 
 ence. In this bull, the Roman Pontiff says, 
 " We have learned, and public rumor does 
 not permit us to doubt the truth of the re- 
 port, that a certain society has been formed, 
 under the name of Freemasons, into which 
 persons of all religions and all sects are in- 
 discriminately admitted, and whose mem- 
 bers have established certain laws which 
 bind themselves to each other, and which, 
 in particular, compel their members, under 
 the severest penalties, by virtue of an oath 
 taken on the Holy Scriptures, to preserve 
 an inviolable secrecy in relation to every 
 thing that passes in their meetings." The 
 bull goes on to declare, that these societies 
 have become suspected by the faithful, and 
 that they are hurtful to the tranquillity of 
 the state and to the safety of the soul ; and 
 after making use of the now threadbare 
 argument, that if the actions of Free- 
 masons were irreproachable, they would 
 not so carefully conceal them from the 
 light, it proceeds to enjoin all bishops, su- 
 periors, and ordinaries to punish the Free- 
 masons " with the penalties which they de- 
 serve, as people greatly suspected of heresy, 
 having recourse, if necessary, to the secular 
 arm.'-' 
 
 What this delivery to the secular arm 
 
 means, we are at no loss to discover, from 
 the interpretation given to the bull by Car- 
 dinal Firrao in his edict of publication in 
 the beginning of the following year, name- 
 ly, " that no person shall dare to assemble 
 at any Lodge of the said society, nor be 
 present at any of their meetings, under pain 
 of death and confiscation of goods, the said 
 penalty to be without hope of pardon." 
 
 The bull of Clement met in France with 
 no congenial spirits to obey it. On the 
 contrary, it was the subject of universal 
 condemnation as arbitrary and unjust, and 
 the parliament of Paris positively refused 
 to enroll it. But in other Catholic coun- 
 tries it was better respected. In Tuscany 
 the persecutions were unremitting. A man 
 named Crudeli was arrested at Florence, 
 thrown into the dungeons of the Inquisi- 
 tion, subjected to torture, and finally sen- 
 tenced to a long imprisonment, on the 
 charge of having furnished an asylum to a 
 Masonic Lodge. The Grand Lodge of 
 England, upon learning the circumstances, 
 obtained his enlargement, and sent him pe- 
 cuniary assistance. Francis de Lorraine, 
 who had been initiated at the Hague in 
 1731, soon after ascended the grand ducal 
 throne, and one of the first acts of his 
 reign was to liberate all the Masons who 
 had been incarcerated by the Inquisition ; 
 and still further to evince his respect for 
 the Order, he personally assisted in the con- 
 stitution of several Lodges at Florence, and 
 in other cities of his dominions. 
 
 The other sovereigns of Italy were, how- 
 ever, more obedient to the behests of the 
 holy father, and persecutions continued to 
 rage throughout the peninsula. Neverthe- 
 less, Masonry continued to flourish, and in 
 1751, thirteen years after the emission of 
 the bull of prohibition, Lodges were open- 
 ly in existence in Tuscany, at Naples, and 
 even in the " eternal city " itself. 
 
 The priesthood, whose vigilance had 
 abated under the influence of time, became 
 once more alarmed, and an edict was issued 
 in 1751 by Benedict XIV., who then occu- 
 pied the papal chair, renewing and enforc- 
 ing the bull which had been fulminated by 
 Clement. 
 
 This, of course, renewed the spirit of 
 persecution. In Spain, one Tournon, a 
 Frenchman, was convicted of practising 
 the rites of Masonry, and after a tedious 
 confinement in the dungeons of the Inqui- 
 sition, he was finally banished from the 
 kingdom. 
 
 In Portugal, at Lisbon, John Coustos, 
 a native of Switzerland, was still more 
 severely treated. He was subjected to the 
 torture, and suffered so much that he was 
 unable to move his limbs for three months. 
 Coustos, with two companions of his re- 
 
PERSEVERANCE 
 
 PERSIA 
 
 575 
 
 Euted crime, was sentenced to the galleys, 
 ut was finally released by the interposi- 
 tion of the English ambassador. 
 
 In 1745, the Council of Berne, in Swit- 
 zerland, issued a decree prohibiting, under 
 the severest penalties, the assemblages of 
 Freemasons. In 1757, in Scotland, the 
 Synod of Sterling adopted a resolution de- 
 barring all adhering Freemasons from the 
 ordinances of religion. And, as if to prove 
 that fanaticism is everywhere the same, in 
 1748 the Divan at Constantinople caused a 
 Masonic Lodge to be demolished, its jewels 
 and furniture seized, and its members ar- 
 rested. They were discharged upon the 
 interposition of the English minister; but 
 the government prohibited the introduction 
 of the Order into Turkey. 
 
 Our own country has not been free from 
 the blighting influence of this demon of 
 fanaticism. But the exciting scenes of 
 anti-Masonry are too recent to be treated 
 by the historian with coolness or imparti- 
 ality. The political party to which this 
 spirit of persecution gave birth was the 
 most abject in its principles, and the most 
 unsuccessful in its efforts, of any that our 
 times have seen. It has passed away ; the 
 clouds of anti-Masonry have been, we trust, 
 forever dispersed, and the bright sun of 
 Masonry, once more emerging from its 
 temporary eclipse, is beginning to bless 
 our land with the invigorating heat and 
 light of its meridian rays. 
 
 Perseverance. A virtue inculcated, 
 by a peculiar symbol in the third degree, 
 in reference to the acquisition of knowledge, 
 and especially the knowledge of the True 
 Word. See Patience. 
 
 Perseverance, Order of. An 
 Adoptive Order established at Paris, in 
 1771, by several nobles and ladies. It had 
 but little of the Masonic character about it; 
 and, although at the time of its creation it 
 excited considerable sensation, it existed 
 but for a brief period. It was instituted 
 for the purpose of rendering services to 
 humanity. Ragon says (Tuileur Gen., p. 
 92,) that there was kept in the archives of 
 the Order a quarto volume of four hundred 
 leaves, in which was registered all the good 
 deeds of the brethren and sisters. This 
 volume is entitled Livre d' Honneur de V Ordre 
 de la Perseverance. Ragon intimates that 
 this document is still in existence. Thory 
 (Fondation O. 0., p. 383,) says that there 
 was much mystification about the establish- 
 ment of the Order in Paris. Its institutors 
 contended that it originated from time im- 
 memorial in Poland, a pretension to which 
 the King of Poland lent his sanction. 
 Many persons of distinction, and among 
 them Madame de Genlis, were deceived and 
 became its members. 
 
 Persia. Neither the Grand Lodge of 
 England, nor any other of the European 
 Powers, seem ever to have organized 
 Lodges in the kingdom of Persia; yet very 
 strange and somewhat incomprehensible 
 stories are told by credible authorities of 
 the existence either of the Masonic insti- 
 tution, or something very much like it, in 
 that country. In 1808, on November 24, 
 Askeri Khan, the Ambassador of Persia 
 near the court of France, was received into 
 the Order at Paris by the Mother Lodge of 
 the Philosophic Scottish Rite, on which 
 occasion the distinguished neophyte pre- 
 sented his sword, a pure Damascus blade, 
 to the Lodge, with these remarks: "I 
 promise you, gentlemen, friendship, fidel- 
 ity, and esteem. I have been tola, and I 
 cannot doubt it, that Freemasons were vir- 
 tuous, charitable, and full of love and at- 
 tachment for their sovereigns. Permit me 
 to make you a present worthy of true 
 Frenchmen. Receive this sabre, which has 
 served me in twenty-seven battles. May 
 this act of homage convince you of the sen- 
 timents with which you have inspired me, 
 and of the gratification that I feel in be- 
 longing to your Order." The Ambassador 
 subsequently seems to have taken a great 
 interest in Freemasonry while he remained 
 in France, and consulted with the Venera- 
 ble of the Lodge on the subject of estab- 
 lishing a Lodge at Ispahan. This is the 
 first account that we have of the connection 
 of any inhabitant of Persia with the Order. 
 Thory, who gives this account, (Act. Lot., 
 i. 237,) does not tell us whether the project 
 of an Ispahan Lodge was ever executed. 
 But it is probable that on his return home 
 the Ambassador introduced among his 
 friends some knowledge of the Institution, 
 aud impressed them with a favorable opin- 
 ion of it. At all events, the Persians in 
 later times do not seem to have been igno- 
 rant of its existence. 
 
 Mr. Holmes, in his Sketches on the Shores 
 of the Caspian, gives the following as the 
 Persian idea of Freemasonry : 
 
 " In the morning we received a visit 
 from the Governor, who seemed rather a 
 dull person, though very polite and civil. 
 He asked a great many questions regarding 
 the Feramoosh Khoneh, as they called the 
 Freemasons' Hall in London ; which is a 
 complete mystery to all the Persians who 
 have heard of it. Very often, the first 
 question we have been asked is, ' What do 
 they do at the Feramoosh Khoneh ? What 
 is it?' They generally believe it to be a 
 most wonderful place, where a man may 
 acquire in one day the wisdom of a thousand 
 years of study ; but every one has his own 
 peculiar conjectures concerning it. Some 
 of the Persians who went to England be- 
 
576 
 
 PERSIAN 
 
 PETITION 
 
 came Freemasons ; and their friends com- 
 plain that they will not tell what they saw 
 at the Hall, and cannot conceive why they 
 should all be so uncommunicative." 
 
 And now we have, from the London Free- 
 mason, (June 28, 1873,) this further account; 
 but the conjecture as to the time of the in- 
 troduction of the Order unfortunately wants 
 confirmation : 
 
 " Of the Persian officers who are present 
 in Berlin pursuing military studies and 
 making themselves acquainted with Prus- 
 sian military organization and arrange- 
 ments, one belongs to the Masonic Order. 
 He is a Mussulman. He seems to have 
 spontaneously sought recognition as a 
 member of the Craft at a Berlin Lodge, and 
 his claim was allowed only after such an 
 examination as satisfied the brethren that 
 he was one of the brethren. From the 
 statement of this Persian Mason it appears 
 that nearly all the members of the Persian 
 Court belong to the mystic Order, even as 
 German Masonry enjoys the honor of 
 counting the emperor and crown prince 
 among its adherents. The appearance of 
 this Mohammedan Mason in Berlin seems 
 to have excited a little surprise among 
 some of the brethren there, and the sur- 
 prise would be natural enough to persons 
 not aware of the extent to which Masonry 
 has been diffused over the earth. Account 
 for it as one may, the truth is certain that 
 the mysterious Order was established in 
 the Orient many ages ago. Nearly all of 
 the old Mohammedan buildings in India, 
 such as tombs, mosques, etc., are marked 
 with the Masonic symbols, and many of 
 these structures, still perfect, were built in 
 the time of the Mogul Emperor Akbar, 
 who died in 1605. Thus Masonry must 
 have been introduced into India from Mid- 
 dle Asia by the Mohammedans hundreds 
 of years ago." 
 
 Since then there was an initiation of a 
 Persian in the Lodge Clemente Amitie at 
 Paris. There is a Lodge at Teheran, of 
 which many native Persians are members. 
 
 Persian Philosophical Rite. 
 A Rite which its founders asserted was 
 established in 1818, at Erzerum, in Persia, 
 and which was introduced into France in 
 the year 1819. It consisted of seven de- 
 grees, as follows : 1. Listening Apprentice ; 
 2. Fellow Craft, Adept, Esquire of Benevo- 
 lence; 3. Master, Knight of the Sun; 4. 
 Architect of all Rites, Knight of the Phil- 
 osophy of the Heart ; 5. Knight of Eclecti- 
 cism and of Truth ; 6. Master Good Shep- 
 herd ; 7. Venerable Grand Elect. This 
 Rite never contained many members, and 
 has been long extinct. 
 
 Personal Merit. All preferment 
 among Masons is grounded upon real 
 
 worth and personal merit only, that so the 
 Lords may be well served, the Brethren not 
 put to shame, nor the Royal Craft despised. 
 Therefore no Master or Warden is chosen 
 by seniority, but for his merit. Charqes of 
 1723. 
 
 Pern. Freemasonry was first intro- 
 duced into Peru about the year 1807, dur- 
 ing the French invasion, and several 
 Lodges worked until the resumption of the 
 Spanish authority and the Papal influence, 
 in 1813, when their existence terminated. 
 In 1825, when the independence of the re- 
 public, declared some years before, was 
 completely achieved, several Scottish Rite 
 Lodges were established, first at Lima and 
 then at other points, by the Grand Orient 
 of Colombia. A Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Rite was instituted 
 in 1830. In 1831 an independent Grand 
 Lodge, afterwards styled the Grand Orient 
 of Peru, was organized by the symbolic 
 Lodges in the republic. Political agita- 
 tions have, from time to time, occasioned 
 a cessation of Masonic labor, but both the 
 Supreme Council and the Grand Orient are 
 now in successful operation. The Royal 
 Arch degree was introduced in 1852 by the 
 establishment of a Royal Arch Chapter at 
 Callao, under a Warrant granted by the 
 Supreme Chapter of Scotland. 
 
 Petition for a Charter. The next 
 step in the process of organizing a Lodge, 
 after the Dispensation has been granted by 
 the Grand Master, is an application for a 
 Charter or Warrant of Constitution. The 
 application may be, but not necessarily, 
 in the form of a petition. On the report 
 of the Grand Master, that he had granted 
 a Dispensation, the Grand Lodge, if the 
 new Lodge is recommended by some other, 
 generally the nearest Lodge, will confirm 
 the Grand Master's action and grant a 
 Charter; although it may refuse to do so, 
 and then the Lodge will cease to exist. 
 Charters or Warrants for Lodges are 
 granted only by the Grand Lodge in 
 America, Ireland, and Scotland. In Eng- 
 land this great power is vested in the 
 Grand Master. The Constitutions of the 
 Grand Lodge of England say that "every 
 application for a Warrant to hold a new 
 Lodge must be, by petition to the Grand 
 Master, signed by at least seven regularly 
 registered Masons." Although, in the 
 United States, it is the general usage that 
 a Warrant must be preceded by a Dispen- 
 sation. I know of no general law which 
 would forbid the Grand Lodge to issue a 
 Charter in the first place, no Dispensation 
 having been previously granted. 
 
 The rule for issuing Charters to Lodges 
 prevails, with no modification in relation to 
 granting them by Grand Chapters, Grand 
 
PETITION 
 
 PHALLIC 
 
 577 
 
 Councils, or Grand Commanderies for the 
 bodies subordinate to them. 
 Petition for a Dispensation. 
 
 When it is desired to establish a new 
 Lodge, application by petition must be 
 made to the Grand Master. This petition 
 ought to be signed by at least seven Master 
 Masons, and be recommended by the near- 
 est Lodge; and it should contain the pro- 
 posed name of the Lodge and the names of 
 the three principal officers. This is the 
 usage of this country ; but it must be re- 
 membered that the Grand Master's pre- 
 rogative of granting Dispensations cannot 
 be rightfully restricted by any law. Only, 
 should the Grand Master grant a Dispen- 
 sation for a Lodge which, in its petition, 
 had not complied with these prerequisites, 
 it is not probable that, on subsequent appli- 
 cation to the Grand Lodge, a Warrant of 
 Constitution would be issued. 
 
 Petition for Initiation. Any per- 
 son who is desirous of initiation into the 
 mysteries of Masonry must apply to the 
 Lodge nearest to his place of residence, by 
 means of a petition signed by himself, and 
 recommended by at least two members of 
 the Lodge to which he applies. The ap- 
 plication of a Mason to a Chapter, Council, 
 or Commandery for advancement to higher 
 degrees, or of an unaffiliated Mason for 
 membership in a Lodge, is also called a pe- 
 tition. For the rules that govern the dis- 
 position of these petitions, see the author's 
 Text Book of Masonic Jurisprudence, Book 
 L, ch. ii. 
 
 Peuvret, Jean Eustache. An 
 usher of the parliament of Paris, and Past 
 Master of the Lodge of St. Pierre in Mar- 
 tinico, and afterwards a dignitary of the 
 Grand Orient at France. Peuvret was de- 
 voted to Hermetic Masonry, and acquired 
 some reputation by numerous compila- 
 tions on Masonic subjects. During his life 
 he amassed a valuable library of mystical, 
 alchemical, and Masonic books, and a man- 
 uscript collection of eighty-one degrees of 
 Hermetic Masonry in six quarto volumes. 
 He asserts in this work that the degrees 
 were brought from England and Scotland ; 
 but this Thory [Act. Lat., i. 205,) denies, and 
 says that they were manufactured in Paris. 
 Peuvret's exceeding zeal without knowl- 
 edge made him the victim of every char- 
 latan who approached him. He died at 
 Paris in 1800. 
 
 Phai'noteletian Society. (Soci- 
 ete Phainote'lete.) A society founded at 
 Paris, in 1840, by Louis Theodore Juge, the 
 editor of the Globe, composed of members 
 of all rites and degrees, for the investiga- 
 tion of all non-political secret associations 
 of ancient and modern times. The title is 
 taken from the Greek, and signifies literally 
 3X 37 
 
 the society of the explainers of the mys- 
 teries of initiation. 
 
 Phallic Worship. The Phallus was 
 a sculptured representation of the mem- 
 brum virile, or male organ of generation ; 
 and the worship of it is said to have origi- 
 nated in Egypt, where, after the murder of 
 Osiris by Typhon, which is symbolically to 
 be explained as the destruction or depriva- 
 tion of the sun's light by night, Isis, his 
 wife, or the symbol of nature, in the search 
 for his mutilated body, is said to have found 
 all the parts except the organs of genera- 
 tion, which myth is simply symbolic of the 
 fact that the sun having set, its fecunda- 
 ting and invigorating power had ceased. 
 The Phallus, therefore, as the symbol of 
 the male generative principle, was very 
 universally venerated among the ancients, 
 and that too as a religious rite, without the 
 slightest reference to any impure or lasciv- 
 ious application. 
 
 As a symbol of the generative principle 
 of nature, the worship of the Phallus ap- 
 pears to have been very nearly universal. 
 In the mysteries it was carried in solemn 
 procession. • The Jews, in their numerous 
 deflections into idolatry, fell readily into 
 that of this symbol. And they did this at 
 a very early period of their history, for we 
 are told that even in the time of the Judges 
 (Jud. iii. 7,) they "served Baalim and the 
 groves." Now the word translated, here 
 and elsewhere, as groves, is in the original 
 Asherah, and is by all modern interpreters 
 supposed to mean a species of Phallus. 
 Thus Movers (Phoniz., p. 56,) says that 
 Asherah is a sort of Phallus erected to the 
 telluric goddess Baaltes, and the learned 
 Holloway (Originals, i. 18,) had long be- 
 fore come to the same conclusion. 
 
 But the Phallus, or, as it was called 
 among the Orientalists, the Lingam, was a 
 representation of the male principle only. 
 To perfect the circle of generation, it is nec- 
 essary to advance one step farther. Ac- 
 cordingly we find in the Cteis of the Greeks, 
 and the Yoni of the Indians, a symbol of 
 the female generative principle of co-ex- 
 tensive prevalence with the Phallus. The 
 Cteis was a circular and concave pedestal, 
 or receptacle, on which the Phallus or col- 
 umn rested, and from the centre of which 
 it sprang. 
 
 The union of these two, as the generative 
 and the producing principles of nature, in 
 one compound figure, was the most usual 
 mode of representation. And here, I think, 
 we undoubtedly find the remote origin of 
 the point within a circle, an ancient symbol 
 which was first adopted by the old sun 
 worshippers, and then by the ancient as- 
 tronomers, as a symbol of the sun sur- 
 rounded by the earth or the universe, — the 
 
578 
 
 PHALLUS 
 
 PHILALETHES 
 
 sun as the generator and the earth as the 
 producer, — and afterwards modified in its 
 signification and incorporated into the sym- 
 bolism of Freemasonry. See Point within 
 a Circle. 
 
 Phallus. Donegan says from an Egyp- 
 tian or Indian root. See Phallic Worship. 
 
 Pharaxal. A significant word in the 
 high degrees, and there said, in the old 
 rituals, to signify " we shall all be united." 
 Delaunay gives it as pharos hoi, and says 
 it means " all is explained." If it is de- 
 rived from £^H£, and the adverbial 7p, kol, 
 " altogether," it certainly means not to be 
 united, but to be separated, and has the 
 same meaning as its cognate polkal. This 
 incongruity in the words and their accepted 
 explanation has led Bro. Pike to reject 
 them both from the degree in which they 
 are originally found. And it is certain 
 that the radical pal and phar both have 
 everywhere in Hebrew the idea of separa- 
 tion. But my reading of the old rituals 
 compels me to believe that the degree in 
 which these words are found always con- 
 tained an idea of separation and subsequent 
 reunion. It is evident that the»e was either 
 a blunder in the original adoption of the 
 word pharaxal, or more probably a corrup- 
 tion by subsequent copyists. I am satis- 
 fied that the ideas of division, disunion, or 
 separation, and of subsequent reunion, are 
 correct ; but I am equally satisfied that the 
 Hebrew form of this word is wrong. 
 
 Pharisees. A school among the 
 Jews at the time of Christ, so called from 
 the Aramaic Perushim, Separated, because 
 they held themselves apart from the rest of 
 the nation. They claimed to have a mys- 
 terious knowledge unknown to the mass of 
 the people, and pretended to the exclusive 
 possession of the true meaning of the 
 Scriptures, by virtue of the oral law and 
 the secret traditions which, having been 
 received by Moses on Mount Sinai, had 
 been transmitted to successive generations 
 of initiates. They are supposed to have 
 been essentially the same as the Assideans 
 or Chasidim. The character of their organ- 
 ization is interesting to the Masonic stu- 
 dent. They held a secret doctrine, of 
 which the dogma of the resurrection was 
 an important feature ; they met in sodali- 
 ties or societies, the members of which 
 called themselves chabirim, fellows or asso- 
 iates ; and they styled all who were out- 
 side of their mystical association, yom ha- 
 harelz, or people of the land. 
 
 Phenieia. The Latinized form of the 
 Greek Phoinikia, from <poivi^, a palm, be- 
 cause of the number of palms anciently, 
 but not now, found in the country. A 
 tract of country on the north of Palestine, 
 along the shores of the Mediterranean, of 
 
 which Tyre and Sidon were the principal 
 cities. The researches of Gesenius and 
 other modern philologers have confirmed 
 the assertions of Jerome and Augustine, 
 that the language spoken by the Jews and 
 the Phenicians was almost identical ; a 
 statement interesting to the Masonic stu- 
 dent as giving another reason for the bond 
 which existed between Solomon and Hi- 
 ram, and between the Jewish workmen and 
 their fellow-laborers of Tyre, in the con- 
 struction of the Temple. See Tyre. 
 
 Philadelphia. Placed on the im- 
 print of some Masonic works of the last 
 century as a pseudonym of Paris. 
 
 Philadelphians, Rite of the. 
 See Primitive Rite. 
 
 Philadelphes, Lodge of the. The 
 name of a Lodge at Narbonne, in France, 
 in which the Primitive Rite was first insti- 
 tuted; whence it is sometimes called the 
 " Rite of the Philadelphians." See Primi- 
 tive Rite. 
 
 Philalethes, Rite of the. Called 
 also the Seekers of Truth, although the 
 word literally means Friends of Truth. It 
 was a Rite founded in 1773 at Paris, in the 
 Lodge of Amis R6unis, by Savalette de 
 Langes, keeper of the Royal Treasury, 
 with whom were associated the Vicomte 
 de Tavannes, Court de Gebelin, M. de 
 Sainte-Jamos, the President d' Hericourt, 
 and the Prince of Hesse. The Rite, which 
 was principally founded on the system of 
 Martinism, did not confine itself to any 
 particular mode of instruction, but in its re- 
 unions, called " convents," the members de- 
 voted themselves to the study of all kinds 
 of knowledge that were connected with the 
 occult sciences, and thus they welcomed to 
 their association all who had made them- 
 selves remarkable by the singularity or the 
 novelty of their opinions, such as Caglios- 
 tro, Mesmer, and Saint Martin. It was 
 divided into twelve classes or chambers of 
 instruction. The names of these classes or 
 degrees were as follows: 1. Apprentice; 
 2. Fellow Craft; 3. Master; 4. Elect; 5. 
 Scottish Master ; 6. Knight of the East ; 7. 
 Rose Croix ; 8. Knight of the Temple ; 9. 
 Unknown Philosopher ; 10. Sublime Phil- 
 osopher; 11. Initiate; 12. Philalethes, or 
 Searcher after Truth. The first six de- 
 grees were called Petty, and the last Bix 
 High Masonry. The Rite did not in- 
 crease very rapidly; nine years after its 
 institution, it counted only twenty Lodges 
 in France and in foreign countries which 
 were of its obedience. In 1785 it attempted 
 a radical reform in Masonry, and for this 
 
 Surpose invited the most distinguished 
 [asons of all countries to a congress at 
 Paris. But the project failed, and Savalette 
 de Langes dying in 1788, the Rite, of which 
 
PHILIP 
 
 PHILOSOPHIC 
 
 579 
 
 he alone was the soul, ceased to exist, and 
 the Lodge of Amis Reunis was dissolved. 
 
 Philip IV. Surnamed " le Bel," or 
 " the Fair," who ascended the throne of 
 France in 1285. He is principally dis- 
 tinguished in history on account of his 
 persecution of the Knights Templars. With 
 the aid of his willing instrument, Pope 
 Clement V., he succeeded in accomplishing 
 the overthrow of the Order. He died in 
 1314, execrated by his subjects, whose 
 hearts he had alienated by the cruelty, 
 avarice, and despotism of his administra- 
 tion. 
 
 Philippian Order. Finch gives 
 this as the name of a secret Order insti- 
 tuted by King Philip " for the use only of 
 his first nobility and principal officers, who 
 thus formed a select and secret council in 
 which he could implicitly confide." It has 
 attracted the attention of no other Masonic 
 writer, and was probably no more than a 
 coinage of a charlatan's brain. 
 
 Philocoreites, Order of. An an- 
 drogynous secret society established in the 
 French army in Spain, in 1808. The mem- 
 bers were called Knights and Ladies Philo- 
 coreites, or Lovers of Pleasure. It was not 
 Masonic in character. But Thory has thought 
 it worth a long description in his History of 
 the Foundation of the Grand Orient of France. 
 
 Pliilo Juckeus. A Jewish philoso- 
 pher of the school of Alexandria, who was 
 born about thirty years before Christ. 
 Philo adopted to their full extent the mys- 
 tical doctrines of his school, and taught 
 that the Hebrew Scriptures contained, in a 
 system of allegories, the real source of all 
 religious and philosophical knowledge, the 
 true meaning of which was to be excluded 
 from the vulgar, to whom the literal signifi- 
 cation alone was to be made known. Who- 
 ever, says he, has meditated on philosophy, 
 has purified himself by virtue, and elevated 
 himself by a contemplative life to God and 
 the intellectual world, receiving their in- 
 spiration, thus pierces the gross envelop 
 of the letter, and is initiated into mysteries 
 of which the literal instruction is but a 
 faint image. A fact, a figure, a word, a 
 rite or custom, veils the profoundest truths, 
 to be interpreted only by him who has the 
 true key of science. Such symbolic views 
 were eagerly seized by the early inventors 
 of the high, philosophical degrees of Ma- 
 sonry, who have made frequent use of the 
 esoteric philosophy of Philo in the con- 
 struction of their Masonic system. 
 
 Philosopher. Christian. (Phi- 
 losophe Chre'tien.) The fourth degree of the 
 Order of African Architects. 
 
 Philosopher, Grand and Sub- 
 lime Her in e tie. (Grand et Sublime 
 Fhilosophe Hermetique.) A degree in the 
 
 manuscript collection of Peuvret. Twelve 
 other degrees of Philosopher were con- 
 tained in the same collection, namely, Grand 
 Neapolitan Philosopher, Grand Practical 
 Philosopher, Kabbalistic Philosopher, Kab- 
 balistic Philosopher to the Number 5, Per- 
 fect Mason Philosopher, Perfect Master 
 Philosopher, Petty Neapolitan Philoso- 
 pher, Petty Practical Philosopher, Sub- 
 lime Philosopher, Sublime Philosopher to 
 the Number 9, and Sublime Practical Phil- 
 osopher. They are probably all Kabba- 
 listic or Hermetic degrees. 
 
 Philosopher of Hermes. (Fhi- 
 losophe d' Hermes.) A degree contained in 
 the Archives of the Lodge of Saint Louis 
 des Amis Reunis at Calais. 
 
 Philosopher, Sublime. (Sublime 
 Fhilosophe.) 1. The fifty-third degree of 
 the Rite of Mizraim. 2. The tenth class 
 of the Rite of the Philalethes. 
 
 Philosopher, Sublime Un- 
 known. {Sublime Fhilosophe Inconnu.) 
 The seventy-ninth degree of the Metropol- 
 itan Chapter of France. 
 
 Philosopher, the Little. (Le pe- 
 tit Philosophy.) A degree in the collection 
 of Pyron. 
 
 Philosopher, Unknown. (Philo- 
 sophe Inconnu.) The ninth class of the Rite 
 of the Philalethes. It was so called in 
 reference to St. Martin, who had adopted 
 that title as his pseudonym, and was uni- 
 versally known by it among his disciples. 
 
 Philosopher's Stone. It was the 
 doctrine of the alchemists, that there was a 
 certain mineral, the discovery of which was 
 the object of their art, because, being mixed 
 with the baser metals, it would transmute 
 these into gold. This mineral, known only 
 to the adepts, they called lapis philosophorum, 
 or the philosopher's stone. Hitchcock, who 
 wrote a book in 1857, (Alchemy and the Al- 
 chemists,) to maintain the proposition that 
 alchemy was a symbolic science, that its 
 subject was Man, and its object the per- 
 fection of men, asserts that the philos- 
 opher's stone was a symbol of man. He 
 quotes the old Hermetic philosopher, Isaac 
 Holland, as saying that " though a man be 
 
 f>oor, yet may he very well attain unto it 
 the work of perfection,] and may be em- 
 ployed in making the philosopher's stone." 
 And Hitchcock, (p. 76,) in commenting on 
 this, says: "That is, every man, no matter 
 how humble his vocation, may do the best 
 he can in his place — may ' love mercy, do 
 justly, and walk humbly with God ; ' and 
 what more doth God require of any man?" 
 If this interpretation be correct, then the 
 philosopher's stone of the alchemists, and 
 the spiritual temple of the Freemasons are 
 identical symbols. 
 Philosophic Degrees. All the de- 
 
580 
 
 PHILOSOPHIC 
 
 PHYSICAL 
 
 grees of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite above the eighteenth and below the 
 thirty-third, are called philosophical de- 
 grees, because, abandoning the symbolism 
 based on the Temple, they seek to develop a 
 system of pure theosophy. Some writers 
 have contended that the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth degrees should be classed with 
 the philosophic degrees. But I cannot agree 
 with them, since both of those degrees have 
 preserved the idea of the Temple system. 
 They ought rather to be called apocalyptic 
 degrees, the seventeenth especially, because 
 they do not teach the ancient philosophies, 
 but are connected in their symbolism with 
 the spiritual temple of the New Jerusalem. 
 
 Philosophic Scottish Rite. This 
 Rite consists of twelve degrees, as follows : 
 1. 2. 3. Knight of the Black Eagle or 
 Rose Croix of Heredom, divided into three 
 parts; 4. Knight of the Phoenix ; 5. Knight 
 of the Sun ; 6. Knight of the Rainbow ; 
 7. True Mason; 8. Knight of the Argo- 
 naut; 9. Knight of the Golden Fleece; 10. 
 Perfectly Initiated Grand Inspector; 11. 
 Grand Scottish Inspector; 12. Sublime 
 Master of the Luminous Ring. 1, 
 
 The three degrees of Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry form the necessary basis of this sys- 
 tem, although they do not constitute a part 
 of the Rite. In its formation it expressly 
 renounced the power to constitute symbolic 
 Lodges, but reserved the faculty of affi Hat- 
 ing regularly constituted Lodges into its 
 high degrees. Thory (Fond, du G. 0., p. 
 162,) seems desirous of tracing the origin 
 of the Rite to the Rosicrucians of the 
 fourteenth century. But the reasons which 
 he assigns for this belief are by no means 
 satisfactory. The truth is, that the Rite was 
 founded in 1775, in the celebrated Lodge 
 of the Social Contract, (Contrat Social,) and 
 that its principal founder was M. Boileau, 
 a physician of Paris, and who had been 
 a disciple of Pernetty, the originator of the 
 Hermetic Rite at Avignon, whose Hermetic 
 principles he introduced into the Philo- 
 sophic Scottish Rite. Some notion may be 
 formed of the nature of the system which 
 was taught in this Rite, from the name of 
 the degree which is at its summit. The 
 Luminous Ring is a Pythagorean degree. 
 In 1780, an Academy of the Sublime Mas- 
 ters of the Luminous Ring was established 
 in France, in which the doctrine was 
 taught that Freemasonry was originally 
 founded by Pythagoras, and in which the 
 most important portion of the lectures was 
 engaged in an explanation of the peculiar 
 dogmas of the sage of Samos. 
 
 The chief seat of the Rite had always 
 been in the Lodge of Social Contract until 
 1792, when, in common with all the other 
 Masonic bodies of France, it suspended its 
 
 labors. It was resuscitated at the termi- 
 nation of the Revolution, and in 1805 the 
 Lodge of the Social Contract, and that of 
 St. Alexander of Scotland, assumed the 
 title of the " Mother Lodge of the Phil- 
 osophic Scottish Rite in France." This 
 body was eminently literary in its char- 
 acter, and in 1811 and 1812 possessed a 
 mass of valuable archives, among which 
 were a number of old charters, manuscript 
 rituals, and Masonic works of great interest, 
 in all languages. 
 
 Philosophy Sublime. [Philoso- 
 phic Sublime.) The forty-eighth degree of 
 the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Phoenix. The old mythological le- 
 gend of the phoenix is a familiar one. The 
 bird was described as of the size of an eagle, 
 with a head finely crested, a body covered 
 with beautiful plumage, and eyes sparkling 
 like stars. She was said to live six hundred 
 years in the wilderness, when she built for 
 herself a funereal pile of aromatic woods, 
 which she ignited with the fanning of her 
 wings, and emerged from the flames with a 
 new life. Hence the phoenix has been 
 adopted universally as a symbol of im- 
 mortality. Higgins (Anacalypsis, ii. 441,) 
 says that the phoenix is the symbol of an 
 ever-revolving solar cycle of six hundred 
 and eight years, and refers to the Pheni- 
 cian word phen, which signifies a cycle. 
 Aumont, the first Grand Master of the 
 Templars after the martyrdom of De Mo- 
 lay, and called the " Restorer of the Order," 
 took, it is said, for his seal, a phoenix brood- 
 ing on the flames, with the motto, " Ardet 
 ut vivat" — She burns that she may live. 
 The phoenix was adopted at a very early 
 period as a Christian symbol, and several 
 representations of it have been found in the 
 catacombs. Its ancient legend, doubtless, 
 caused it to be accepted as a symbol of the 
 resurrection. 
 
 Physical Qualifications. The 
 physical qualifications of a candidate for 
 initiation into Masonry may be considered 
 under the three heads of Sex, Age, and 
 Bodily Conformation. 1. As to Sex. It 
 is a landmark that the candidate shall be 
 a man. This, of course, prohibits the ini- 
 tiation of a woman. 2. As to Age. The 
 candidate must, say the Old Regulations, be 
 of " mature and discreet age." The ritual 
 forbids the initiation of an " old man in his 
 dotage, or a young man under age." The 
 man who has lost his faculties by an accu- 
 mulation of years, or not yet acquired them 
 in their full extent by immaturity of age, 
 is equally incapable of initiation. (See 
 Dotage and Mature Age.) 3. As to Bodily 
 Conformation. The Gothic Constitutions 
 of 926, or what is accepted as that docu- 
 ment, prescribe that the candidate " must 
 
PICART'S 
 
 PILGRIM 
 
 581 
 
 be without blemish, and have the full and 
 proper use of his limbs ;" and the Charges 
 of 1722 say " that he must have no maim 
 or defect in his body that may render him 
 incapable of learning the art, of serving his 
 Master's lord, and being made a brother." 
 And although a few jurists have been dis- 
 posed to interpret this law with unauthor- 
 ized laxity, the general spirit of the Insti- 
 tution, and of all its authorities, is to ob- 
 serve it rigidly. See the subject fully dis- 
 cussed in the author's Text Book of Ma- 
 sonic Jurisprudence, pp. 100-113. 
 
 Picart's Ceremonies. Bernard 
 Picart was a celebrated engraver of Am- 
 sterdam, and the author of a voluminous 
 work, which was begun in 1723, and con- 
 tinued after his death, until 1737, by J. F. 
 Bernard, entitled Ceremonies Religieuses de 
 tous les peuple du monde. A second edition 
 was published at Paris, in 1741, by the 
 Abbes Banier and Le Mascrier, who entire- 
 ly remodelled the work; and a third in 
 1783 by a set of free-thinkers, who dis- 
 figured, and still further altered the text 
 to suit their own views. Editions, profess- 
 ing to be reprints of the original one, have 
 been subsequently published in 1807-9 and 
 1816. The book has been recently deemed 
 of some importance by the investigators 
 of the Masonic history of the last century, 
 because it contains an engraved list in two 
 pages of the English Lodges which were in 
 existence in 1735. The plate is, however, 
 of no value as an original authority, since 
 it is merely a copy of the Engraved List of 
 Lodges, published by J. Pine in 1735. 
 
 Pickaxe. An instrument used to 
 loosen the soil and prepare it for digging. 
 It is one of the working-tools of a Royal 
 Arch Mason, and symbolically teaches him 
 to loosen from his heart the hold of evil 
 habits. 
 
 Piece of Architecture. ( Morceau 
 d Architecture.) The French so call a dis- 
 course, poem, or other production on the 
 subject of Freemasonry. The definition 
 previously given in this work under the 
 title Architecture, in being confined to the 
 minutes of the Lodge, is not sufficiently 
 comprehensive. 
 
 Pilgrim. A pilgrim (from the Italian 
 pelegrino, and that from the Latin peregri- 
 nus, signifying a traveller,) denotes one 
 who visits holy places from a principle 
 of devotion. Dante ( Vita Nuova) distin- 
 guishes pilgrims from palmers thus : palm- 
 ers were those who went beyond the sea to 
 the East, and often brought back staves of 
 palm-wood ; while pilgrims went only to 
 the shrine of St. Jago, in Spain. But Sir 
 Walter Scott says that the palmers were 
 in the habit of passing from shrine to 
 shrine, living on charity; but pilgrims 
 
 made the journey to any shrine only once ; 
 and this is the more usually accepted dis- 
 tinction of the two classes. 
 
 In the Middle Ages, Europe was filled 
 with pilgrims repairing to Palestine to pay 
 their veneration to the numerous spots con- 
 secrated in the annals of Holy Writ, more 
 especially to the sepulchre of our Lord. 
 
 "It is natural," says Robertson, {Hist. 
 ch. v., i. 19,) " to the human mind, to view 
 those places which have been distinguished 
 by being the residence of any illustrious 
 personage, or the scene of any great trans- 
 action, with some degree of delight and 
 veneration. From this principle flowed the 
 superstitious devotion with which Chris- 
 tians, from the earliest ages of the church, 
 were accustomed to visit that country 
 which the Almighty had selected as the in- 
 heritance of his favorite people, and in 
 which the Son of God had accomplished 
 the redemption of mankind. As this dis- 
 tant pilgrimage could not be performed 
 without considerable expense, fatigue, and 
 danger, it appeared the more meritorious, 
 and came to be considered as an expiation 
 for almost every crime." 
 
 Hence, by a pilgrimage to the Holy 
 Land or to the shrine of some blessed 
 martyr, the thunders of the church, and 
 the more quiet, but not less alarming, re- 
 proaches of conscience were often averted. 
 And as this was an act of penance, some- 
 times voluntarily assumed, but oftener im- 
 posed by the command of a religious su- 
 perior, the person performing it was called a 
 " Pilgrim Penitent." 
 
 While the Caliphs of the East, a race of 
 monarchs equally tolerant and sagacious, 
 retained the sovereignty of Palestine, the 
 penitents were undisturbed in the perform- 
 ance of their pious pilgrimages. In fact, 
 their visits to Jerusalem were rather en- 
 couraged by these sovereigns as a commerce 
 which, in the language of the author al- 
 ready quoted, "brought into their domin- 
 ions gold and silver, and carried nothing 
 out of them but relics and consecrated trin- 
 kets." 
 
 But in the eleventh century, the Turks, 
 whose bigoted devotion to their own creed 
 was only equalled by their hatred of every 
 other form of faith, but more especially of 
 Christianity, having obtained possession of 
 Syria, the pilgrim no longer found safety 
 or protection in his pious journey. He 
 who would then visit the sepulchre of his 
 Lord must be prepared to encounter the 
 hostile attacks of ferocious Saracens, and 
 the " Pilgrim Penitent," laying aside his 
 peaceful garb, his staff and russet cloak, 
 was compelled to assume the sword and 
 coat of mail and become a " Pilgrim War- 
 rior." 
 
582 
 
 PILGRIM 
 
 PILLAR 
 
 Having at length, through all the perils 
 of a distant journey, accomplished the 
 great object of his pilgrimage, and partly 
 begged his way amid poor or inhospitable 
 regions, where a crust of bread and a draught 
 of water were often the only alms that he 
 received, and partly fought it amid the 
 gleaming scimitars of warlike Turks, the 
 Pilgrim Penitent and Pilgrim Warrior 
 was enabled to kneel at the sepulchre of 
 Christ, and offer up his devotions on that 
 sacred spot consecrated in his pious mind 
 by so many religious associations. 
 
 But the experience which he had so 
 dearly bought was productive of a noble 
 and agenerous result. The Order of Knights 
 Templars was established by some of those 
 devoted heroes, who were determined to 
 protect the pilgrims who followed them 
 from the dangers and difficulties through 
 which they themselves had passed, at times 
 with such remote prospects of success. 
 Many of the pilgrims having performed 
 their vow of visiting the holy shrine, re- 
 turned home, to live upon the capital of 
 Eiety which their penitential pilgrimage 
 ad gained for them ; but others, imitating 
 the example of the defenders of the sepul- 
 chre, doffed their pilgrim's garb and united 
 themselves with the knights who were 
 contending with their infidel foes, and thus 
 the Pilgrim Penitent, having by force of 
 necessity become a Pilgrim Warrior, ended 
 his warlike pilgrimage by assuming the 
 vows of a Knight Templar. 
 
 In this brief synopsis, the modern and 
 Masonic Knight Templar will find a 
 rational explanation of the ceremonies of 
 that degree. 
 
 Pilgrim Penitent. A term in the 
 ritual of Masonic Templarism. It refers to 
 the pilgrimage, made as a penance for sin, 
 to thesepulchre of the Lord ; for the church 
 promised the remission of sins and various 
 spiritual advantages as the reward of the 
 pious and faithful pilgrim. See Pilgrim. 
 
 Pilgrim's Shell. See Scallop Shell. 
 
 Pilgrim's Weeds. The costume of 
 a pilgrim was thus called. It may be de- 
 scribed as follows : In the first place, he 
 wore a sclavina, or long gown, made of the 
 darkest colors and the coarsest materials, 
 bound by a leathern girdle, as an emblem 
 of his humility and an evidence of his 
 poverty ; a bourdon, or staff, in the form of 
 a long walking stick, with two knobs at the 
 top, supported his weary steps ; the rosary 
 and cross, suspended from his neck, denoted 
 the religious character he had assumed ; a 
 scrip, or bag, held his scanty supply of pro- 
 visions ; a pair of sandals on his feet, and 
 a coarse round hat turned before, in the 
 front of which was fastened a scallop shell, 
 completed the rude toilet of the pilgrim of 
 
 the Middle Ages. Spenser's description, 
 in the Fairie Queen, (B. I., c. vi., st. 35,) of a 
 pilgrim's weeds, does not much differ from 
 this: 
 
 " A silly man in simple weeds foreworn, 
 
 And soiled with oust of the long dried way; 
 His sandals were with toilsome travel tome, 
 And face all tann'd with scorching sunny 
 ray; 
 As he had travell'd many a summer's day, 
 
 Through boiling sands of Araby and Inde ; 
 And in his hand a Jacob's staff to stay 
 His weary limbs upon ; and eke behind 
 His scrip did hang, in which his needments 
 he did bind." 
 
 Pilgrim Templar. The part of the 
 pilgrim represented in the ritual of the 
 Masonic Knights Templars' degree is a 
 symbolic reference to the career of the pil- 
 grim of the Middle Ages in his journey to 
 the sepulchre in the Holy Land. See Pil- 
 grim. 
 
 Pilgrim Warrior. A term in the 
 ritual of Masonic Templarism. It refers 
 to the pilgrimage of the knights to secure 
 possession of the holy places. This was 
 considered a pious duty. " Whoever goes 
 to Jerusalem," says one of the canons of 
 the Council of Clermont, " for the libera- 
 tion of the Church of God, in a spirit of 
 devotion only, and not for the sake of glory 
 or of gain, that journey shall be esteemed 
 a substitute for every kind of penance." 
 The difference between the pilgrim peni- 
 tent and the pilgrim warrior was this : 
 that the former bore only his staff, but the 
 latter wielded his sword. 
 
 Pilier. The title given to each of the 
 conventual bailiffs or heads of the eight 
 languages of the Order of Malta, and by 
 which they were designated in all official 
 records. It signifies a pillar or support of 
 an edifice, and was metaphorically applied 
 to these dignitaries as if they were the 
 supports of the Order. 
 
 Pillar. In the earliest times it was cus- 
 tomary to perpetuate remarkable events, or 
 exhibit gratitude for providential favors, 
 by the erection of pillars, which by the 
 idolatrous races were dedicated to their 
 spurious gods. Thus Sanconiatho tells us 
 that Hypsourianos and Ousous, who lived 
 before the flood, dedicated two pillars to 
 the elements fire and air. Among the 
 Egyptians the pillars were, in general, in 
 the form of obelisks from fifty to one hun- 
 dred feet high, and exceedingly slender in 
 proportion. Upon their four sides hiero- 
 glyphics were often engraved. According 
 to Herodotus, they were first raised in 
 honor of the sun, and their pointed form 
 was intended to represent his rays. Many 
 of these monuments still remain. 
 
 In the antediluvian ages, the posterity of 
 
PILLAR 
 
 PILLARS 
 
 583 
 
 Seth erected pillars ; " for," says the Jewish 
 historian, " that their inventions might not 
 be lost before they were sufficiently known, 
 upon Adam's prediction, that the world 
 was to be destroyed at one time by the force 
 of fire, and at another time by the violence 
 of water, they made two pillars, the one of 
 brick, the other of stone; they inscribed 
 their discoveries on them both, that in case 
 the pillar of brick should be destroyed by 
 the flood, the pillar of stone might remain, 
 and exhibit those discoveries to mankind, 
 and also inform them that there was another 
 pillar of brick erected by them." Jacob 
 erected a pillar at Bethel, to commemorate 
 his remarkable vision of the ladder, and 
 afterwards another one at Galeed as a me- 
 morial of his alliance with Laban. Joshua 
 erected one at Gilgal to perpetuate the re- 
 membrance of his miraculous crossing of 
 the Jordan. Samuel set up a pillar be- 
 tween Mizpeh and Shen, on account of a 
 defeat of the Philistines, and Absalom 
 erected another in honor of himself. 
 
 The doctrine of gravitation was unknown 
 to the people of the primitive ages, and 
 they were unable to refer the support of 
 the earth in its place to this principle. 
 Hence they looked to some other cause, 
 and none appeared to their simple and un- 
 philosophic minds more plausible than that 
 it was sustained by pillars. The Old Tes- 
 tament abounds with reference to this idea. 
 Hannah, in her song of thanksgiving, ex- 
 claims: "The pillars of the earth are the 
 Lord's, and he hath set the world . upon 
 them." (1 Sam. ii. 8.) The Psalmist sig- 
 nifles the same doctrine in the following 
 text: "The earth and all the inhabitants 
 thereof are dissolved; I bear up the 
 pillars of it." (Ps. lxxv. 3.) And Job 
 says : " He shaketh the earth out of her 
 places, and the pillars thereof tremble." 
 (xxvi. 7.) All the old religions taught the 
 same doctrine; and hence pillars being re- 
 garded as the supporters of the earth, they 
 were adopted as the symbol of strength and 
 firmness. To this, Dudley (Naology, 123,) 
 attributes the origin of pillar worship, 
 which prevailed so extensively among the 
 idolatrous nations of antiquity. " The rev- 
 erence," says he, "shown to columns, as 
 symbols of the power of the Deity, was 
 readily converted into worship paid to 
 them as idols of the real presence." But 
 here I think he has fallen into a mistake. 
 The double pillars or columns, acting as 
 an architectural support, were, it is true, 
 symbols derived from a natural cause of 
 strength and permanent firmness. But 
 there was another more prevailing sym- 
 bology. The monolith, or circular piilar, 
 standing alone, was, to the ancient mind, a 
 representation of the Phallus, the symbol 
 
 of the creative and generative energy of 
 Deity, and it is in these Phallic pillars 
 that we are to find the true origin of pillar 
 worship, which was only one form of 
 Phallic worship, the most predominant of 
 all the cults to which the ancients were 
 addicted. 
 
 Pillars of Cloud and Fire. The 
 pillar of cloud that went before the Israel- 
 ites by day, and the pillar of fire that pre- 
 ceded them by night, in their journey 
 through the wilderness, are supposed to be 
 alluded to by the pillars of Jachin and 
 Boaz at the porch of Solomon's Temple. 
 We find this symbolism at a very early 
 period in the last century, having been in- 
 corporated into the lecture of the second 
 degree, where it still remains. " The pillar 
 on the right hand," says Caleott. (Cand. 
 Disq., 66,) "represented the pillar of the 
 cloud, and that on the left the pillar of fire." 
 If this symbolism be correct, the pillars 
 of the porch, like those of the wilderness, 
 would refer to the superintending and pro- 
 tecting power of Deity. 
 
 Pillars of Enoch. Two pillars 
 erected by Enoch, for the preservation of 
 the antediluvian inventions, and which are 
 repeatedly referred to in the " Legend of the 
 Craft," contained in the Old Constitutions, 
 and in the high degrees of modern times. 
 See Enoch. 
 
 Pillars of the Poreh. The pillars 
 most remarkable in Scripture history were 
 the two erected by Solomon at the porch of 
 the Temple, and which Josephus (Antiq., 
 lib. i., cap. ii.,) thus describes : "Moreover, 
 this Hiram made two hollow pillars, whose 
 outsides were of brass, and the thickness 
 of the brass was four fingers' breadth, and 
 the height of the pillars was eighteen 
 cubits, (27 feet,) and the circumference 
 twelve cubits, (18 feet;) but there was cast 
 with each of their chapiters lily-work, that 
 stood upon the pillar, and it was elevated 
 five cubits, (7£ feet,) round about which 
 there was net-work interwoven with small 
 palms made of brass, and covered the lily- 
 work. To this also were hung two hundred 
 pomegranates, in two rows. The one of 
 these pillars he set at the entrance of the 
 porch on the right hand, (or south,) and 
 called it Jachin, and the other at the left 
 hand, [or north,) and called it Boaz." 
 
 It has been supposed that Solomon, in 
 erecting these pillars, had reference to the 
 pillar of cloud and the pillar of fire which 
 went before the Israelites in the wilderness, 
 and that the right hand or south pillar rep- 
 resented the pillar of cloud, and the left 
 hand or north pillar represented that of 
 fire. Solomon did not simply erect them 
 as ornaments to the Temple, but as me- 
 morials of God's repeated promises of sup- 
 
584 
 
 PILLARS 
 
 PILLARS 
 
 port to his people of Israel. For the pillar 
 yy (Jachin), derived from the words |"J* 
 (Jah), " Jehovah," and |\Dn (achin), " to es- 
 tablish," signifies that "God will establish 
 his house of Israel ; " while the pillar jy^ 
 (Boaz), compounded of *J (b), "in" and 
 ty {oaz), "strength," signifies that "in 
 strength shall it be established." And thus 
 were the Jews, in passing through the 
 porch to the Temple, daily reminded of 
 the abundant promises of God, and in- 
 spired with confidence in his protection 
 and gratitude for his many acts of kind- 
 ness to his chosen people. 
 
 The construction of these pillars. — There 
 is no part of the architecture of the ancient 
 Temple which is so difficult to be under- 
 stood in its details as the scriptural ac- 
 count of these memorable pillars. Free- 
 masons, in general, intimately as their 
 symbolical signification is connected with 
 some of the most beautiful portions of their 
 ritual, appear to have but a confused no- 
 tion of their construction and of the true 
 disposition of the various parts of which 
 they are composed. Mr. Ferguson says 
 {Smith, Diet. Bib.,) that there are no fea- 
 tures connected with the Temple which 
 have given rise to so much controversy, or 
 been so difficult to explain, as the form of 
 these two pillars. 
 
 Their situation, according to Lightfoot, 
 was within the porch, at its very entrance, 
 and on each side of the gate. They were 
 therefore seen, one on the right and the 
 other on the left, as soon as the visitor 
 stepped within the porch. And this, it 
 will be remembered, in confirmation, is the 
 very spot in which Ezekiel (xi. 49,) places 
 the pillars that he saw in his vision of the 
 Temple. " The length of the porch was 
 twenty cubits, and the breadth eleven cubits ; 
 and he brought me by the steps whereby 
 they went up to it, and there were pillars 
 by the posts, one on this side, and another 
 on that side." The assertion made by 
 some writers, that they were not columns 
 intended to support the roof, but simply 
 obelisks for ornament, is not sustained by 
 sufficient authority ; and as Ferguson very 
 justly says, not only would the high roof 
 look painfully weak, but it would have 
 been impossible to construct it, with the 
 imperfect science of those days, without 
 some such Support. 
 
 These pillars, we are told, were of brass, 
 as well as the chapiters that surmounted 
 them, and were cast hollow. The thickness 
 of the brass of each pillar was " four fingers, 
 or a hand's breadth," which is equal to 
 three inches. According to the accounts 
 in 1 Kings viii. 15, and in Jeremiah lii. 21, 
 the circumference of each pillar was twelve 
 cubits. Now, according to the Jewish 
 
 computation, the cubit used in the meas- 
 urement of the Temple buildings was six 
 hands' breadth, or eighteen inches. Accord- 
 ing to the tables of Bishop Cumberland, 
 the cubit was rather more, he making it 
 about twenty-two inches ; but I adhere to 
 the measure laid down by the Jewish wri- 
 ters as probably more correct, and certain- 
 ly more simple for calculation. The cir- 
 cumference of each pillar, reduced by this 
 scale to English measure, would be eighteen 
 feet, and its diameter about six. 
 
 The reader of the scriptural accounts of 
 these pillars will be not a little puzzled 
 with the apparent discrepancies that are 
 found in the estimates of their height as 
 given in the Books of Kings and Chron- 
 icles. In the former book, it is said that 
 their height was eighteen cubits, and in 
 the latter it was thirty-five, which latter 
 height Whiston observes would be contrary 
 to all the rules of architecture. But the 
 discrepancy is easily reconciled by suppos- 
 ing — which, indeed, must have been the 
 case — that in the Book of Kings the pillars 
 are spoken of separately, and that in 
 Chronicles their aggregate height is cal- 
 culated ; and the reason why, in this latter 
 book, their united height is placed at thirty- 
 five cubits instead of thirty-six, which 
 would be the double of eighteen, is because 
 they are there measured as they appeared 
 with the chapiters upon them. Now half 
 a cubit of each pillar was concealed in 
 what Lightfoot calls "the whole of the 
 chapiter," that is, half a cubit's depth of 
 the lower edge of the chapiter covered the 
 top of the pillar, making each pillar, ap- 
 parently, only seventeen and a half cubits' 
 high, or the two thirty-five cubits as laid 
 down in the Book of Chronicles. 
 
 This is a much better method of recon- 
 ciling the discrepancy than that adopted 
 by Calcott, who supposes that the pedestals 
 of the pillars were seventeen cubits high — 
 a violation of every rule of architectural 
 proportion with which we would be reluc- 
 tant to charge the memory of so "cunning 
 a workman " as Hiram the Builder. The 
 account in Jeremiah agrees with that in the 
 Book of Kings. The height, therefore, of 
 each of these pillars was, in English meas- 
 ure, twenty-seven feet. The chapiter or 
 pomel was five cubits, or seven and a half 
 feet more ; but as half a cubit, or nine 
 inches, was common to both pillar and 
 chapiter, the whole height from the ground 
 to the top of the chapiter was twenty-two 
 cubits and a half, or thirty-three feet and 
 nine inches. 
 
 Mr. Ferguson has come to a different 
 conclusion. He says in the article Temple, 
 in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, that " ac- 
 cording to 1 Kings vii. 15, the pillars were 
 
PILLARS 
 
 PILLARS 
 
 585 
 
 eighteen cubits high and twelve in circum- 
 ference, with capitals five cubits in height. 
 Above this was (ver. 19) another member, 
 called also chapiter of lily-work, four cubits 
 in height, but which, from the second men- 
 tion of it in ver. 22, seems more probably 
 to have been an entablature, which is ne- 
 cessary to complete the order. As these 
 members make out twenty-seven cubits, 
 leaving three cubits, or 4J feet, for the slope 
 of the roof, the whole design seems reason- 
 able and proper." He calculates, of course, 
 on the authority of the Book of Kings, 
 that the height of the roof of the porch 
 was thirty cubits, and assumes that these 
 pillars were columns by which it was sup- 
 
 {>orted, and connected with it by an entab- 
 ature. 
 
 Each of these pillars was surmounted by 
 a chapiter, which was five cubits, or seven 
 and a half feet in height. The shape and 
 construction of this chapiter require some 
 consideration. The Hebrew word which 
 is used in this place is niHIDi (koteret.) 
 Its root is to be found in the word "irO> 
 (keter,) which signified M a crown," and is 
 so used in Esther vi. 8, to designate the 
 royal diadem of the king of Persia. The 
 Chaldaic version expressly calls the chapi- 
 ter " a crown ;" but Rabbi Solomon, in his 
 commentary, uses the word S'Dlfl, {pomel,) 
 signifying "a globe or spherical body," 
 and Rabbi Gershom describes it as "like 
 two crowns joined together." Lightfoot 
 says, "it was a huge, great oval, five cubits 
 high, and did not only sit upon the head 
 of the pillars, but also flowered or spread 
 them, being larger about, a great deal, than 
 the pillars themselves." The Jewish com- 
 mentators say that the two lower cubits of 
 its surface were entirely plain, but that 
 the three upper were richly ornamented. 
 To this ornamental part we now come. 
 
 In the First Book of Kings, ch. vii., verses 
 17, 20, 22, the ornaments of the chapiters 
 are thus described : 
 
 " And nets of checker- work and wreaths 
 of chain-work, for the chapiters which 
 were upon the tops of the pillars ; seven 
 for the one chapiter, and seven for the 
 other chapiter. 
 
 "And he made the pillars, and two rows 
 round about upon the one net-work, to 
 cover the chapiters that were upon the top, 
 with pomegranates ; and so did he for the 
 other chapiter. 
 
 " And the chapiters that were upon the 
 top of the pillars were of lily-work in the 
 porch, four cubits. 
 
 "And the chapiters upon the two pillars 
 had pomegranates also above, over against 
 the belly, which was by the net-work ; and 
 the pomegranates were two hundred in 
 rows, round about upon the other chapiter. 
 3Y 
 
 " And upon the top of the pillars was 
 lily-work ; so was the work of the pillars 
 finished." 
 
 Let us endeavor to render this descrip- 
 tion, which appears somewhat confused 
 and unintelligible, plainer and more com- 
 prehensible. 
 
 The " nets of checker-work" is the first 
 ornament mentioned. The words thus 
 translated are in the original DODtT 
 PODC HC^E* which Lightfoot prefers 
 rendering " thickets of branch work ; " and 
 he thinks that the true meaning of the 
 passage is, that " the chapiters were curi- 
 ously wrought with branch work, seven 
 goodly branches standing up from the 
 belly of the oval, and their boughs and 
 leaves curiously and lovelily intermingled 
 and interwoven one with another." He 
 derives his reason for this version from 
 the fact that the same word, rODK'j * 3 
 translated, "thicket" in the passage in 
 Genesis (xxii. 13,) where the ram is de- 
 scribed as being " caught in a thicket by 
 his horns ;" and in various other passages 
 the word is to be similarly translated. 
 But, on the other hand, we find it used in 
 the Book of Job, where it evidently signi- 
 fies a net made of meshes: " For he is cast 
 into a net by his own feet and he walketh 
 upon a snare." (Job xvii. 8.) In 2 Kings 
 i. 2, the same word is used, where our 
 translators have rendered it a lattice; 
 " Ahaziah fell down through a lattice in 
 his upper chamber." I am, therefore, not 
 inclined to adopt the emendation of Light- 
 foot, but rather coincide with the received 
 version, as well as the Masonic tradition, 
 that this ornament was a simple net-work 
 or fabric consisting of reticulated lines — 
 in other words, a lattice-work. 
 
 The " wreaths of chain-work " that are 
 next spoken of are less difficult to be 
 understood. The word here translated 
 " wreath " is O'VlJ, and is to be found in 
 Deuteronomy xxii. 12, where it distinctly 
 means fringes : " Thou shalt make thee 
 fringes upon the four quarters of thy ves- 
 ture." Fringes it should also be translated 
 here. " The fringes of chain-work," I sup- 
 pose, were therefore attached to, and hung 
 down from, the net-work spoken of above, 
 and were probably in this case, as when 
 used upon the garments of the Jewish high 
 priest, intended as a "memorial of the 
 law." 
 
 The "lily-work" is the last ornament 
 that demands our attention. And here the 
 description of Lightfoot is so clear and evi- 
 dently correct, that I shall not hesitate to 
 quote it at length. " At the head of the 
 pillar, even at the setting on of the chapi- 
 ter, there was a curious and a large border 
 or circle of lily-work, which stood out four 
 
586 
 
 PILLARS 
 
 PILLARS 
 
 cubits under the chapiter, and then turned 
 down, every lily or long tongue of brass, 
 with a neat bending, and so seemed as a 
 flowered crown to the head of the pillar, 
 and as a curious garland whereon the 
 chapiter had its seat." 
 
 There is a very common error among 
 Masons, which has been fostered by the 
 plates in our Monitors, that there were 
 on the pillars chapiters, and that these 
 chapiters were again surmounted by globes. 
 The truth, however, is that the chapiters 
 themselves were " the pomels or globes," 
 to which our lecture, in the Fellow Craft's 
 degree, alludes. This is evident from what 
 has already been said in the first part of 
 the preceding description. The lily here 
 spoken of is not at all related, as might be 
 supposed, to the common lily — that one 
 spoken of in the New Testament. It was 
 a species of the lotus, the Nymphsea lotos, 
 or lotus of the Nile. This was among the 
 Egyptians a sacred plant, found every- 
 where on their monuments, and used in 
 their architectural decorations. It is evi- 
 dent, from their description in Kings, that 
 the pillars of the porch of King Solomon's 
 Temple were copied from the pillars of the 
 Egyptian temples. The maps of the earth 
 and the charts of the celestial constella- 
 tions which are sometimes said to have 
 been engraved upon these globes, must be 
 referred to the pillars, where, according to 
 Oliver, a Masonic tradition places them — 
 an ancient custom, instances of which we 
 find in profane history. This is, however, 
 by no means of any importance, as the 
 symbolic allusion is perfectly well pre- 
 served in the shapes of the chapiters, with- 
 out the necessity of any such geographical 
 or astronomical engraving upon them. 
 For being globular, or nearly so, they may 
 be justly said to have represented the celes- 
 tial and terrestrial spheres. 
 
 The true description, then, of these 
 memorable pillars, is simply this. Imme- 
 diately within the porch of the Temple, 
 and on each side of the door, were placed 
 two hollow brazen pillars. The height of 
 each was twenty-seven feet, the diameter 
 about six feet, and the thickness of the 
 brass three inches. Above the pillar, and 
 covering its upper part to the depth of 
 nine inches, was an oval body or chapiter 
 seven feet and a half in height. Springing 
 out from the pillar, at the junction of the 
 chapiter with it, was a row of lotus petals, 
 which, first spreading around the chapiter, 
 afterwards gently curved downwards to- 
 wards the pillar, something like the Acan- 
 thus leaves on the capital of a Corinthian 
 column. About two-fifths of the distance 
 from the bottom of the chapiter, or just 
 below its most bulging part, a tissue of 
 
 net-work was carved, which extended over 
 its whole upper surface. To the bottom of 
 this net-work was suspended a series of 
 fringes, and on these again were carved two 
 rows of pomegranates, one hundred being 
 in each row. 
 
 This description, it seems to me, is the 
 only one that can be reconciled with the 
 various passages in the Books of Kings, 
 Chronicles, and Josephus, which relate to 
 these pillars, and the only one that can 
 give the Masonic student a correct concep- 
 tion of the architecture of these important 
 symbols. 
 
 And now as to the Masonic symbolism 
 of these two pillars. As symbols they 
 have been very universally diffused and are 
 to be found in all rites. Nor are they of a 
 very recent date, for they are depicted on 
 the earliest tracing-boards, and are alluded 
 to in the catechisms before the middle of 
 the last century. Nor is this surprising; 
 for as the symbolism of Freemasonry is 
 founded on the Temple of Solomon, it was 
 to be expected that these important parts 
 of the Temple would be naturally included 
 in the system. But at first the pillars ap- 
 pear to have been introduced into the lec- 
 tures rather as parts of a historical detail 
 than as significant symbols — an idea which 
 seems gradually to have grown up. The 
 catechism of 1731 describes their name, 
 their size, and their material, but says 
 nothing of their symbolic import. Yet 
 this had been alluded to in the scriptural 
 account of them, which says that the names 
 bestowed upon them were significant. 
 
 What was the original or scriptural sym- 
 bolism of the pillars has been very well ex- 
 plained by Dudley, in his Naology. He 
 says, (p. 121,) that " the pillars represented 
 the sustaining power of the great God. 
 The flower of the lotus or water-lily rises 
 from a root growing at the bottom of the 
 water, and maintains its position on the 
 surface by its columnar stalk, which be- 
 comes more or less straight as occasion re- 
 quires ; it is therefore aptly symbolical of 
 the power of the Almighty constantly em- 
 ployed to secure the safety of all the world. 
 The chapiter is the body or mass of the 
 earth ; the pomegranates, fruits remark- 
 able for the number of their seeds, are 
 symbols of fertility; the wreaths, drawn 
 variously over the surface of the chapiter 
 or globe, indicate the courses of the heav- 
 enly bodies in the heavens around the 
 earth, and the variety of the seasons. The 
 pillars were properly placed in the porch 
 or portico of the Temple, for they suggested 
 just ideas of the power of the Almighty, of 
 the entire dependence of man upon him, 
 the Creator ; and doing this, they exhorted 
 all to fear, to love, and obey him." 
 
PINCEAU 
 
 
 PLOT 
 
 587 
 
 It was, however, Hutchinson who first 
 introduced the symbolic idea of the pillars 
 into the Masonic system. He says : " The 
 pillars erected at the porch of the Temple 
 were not only ornamental, but also carried 
 with them an emblematical import in their 
 names : Boaz being, in its literal translation, 
 in thee is strength ; and Jachin, it shall be es- 
 tablished, which, by a very natural transpo- 
 sition, may be put thus : O Lord, thou art 
 mighty, and thy power is established from 
 everlasting to everlasting." 
 
 Preston subsequently introduced the 
 symbolism, considerably enlarged, into his 
 system of lectures. He adopted the refer- 
 ence to the pillars of fire and cloud, which 
 is still retained. 
 
 The Masonic symbolism of the two pil- 
 lars may be considered, without going into 
 minute details, as being twofold. First, 
 in reference to the names of the pillars, 
 they are symbols of the strength and sta- 
 bility of the Institution ; and then in refer- 
 ence to the ancient pillars of fire and cloud, 
 they are symbolic of our dependence on the 
 superintending guidance of the Grand 
 Architect of the Universe, by which alone 
 that strength and stability are secured. 
 
 Pinceau. French, a pencil/ but in 
 the technical language of French Masonry 
 it is a pen. Hence, in the minutes of 
 French Lodges, tenir le pinceau means to act 
 as Secretary. 
 
 Pine Cone. The tops or points of the 
 rods of deacons are often surmounted by a 
 pine cone or pineapple. This is in imita- 
 tion of the Thyrsus, or sacred staff of Bac- 
 chus, which was a lance or rod enveloped 
 in leaves of ivy, and having on the top 
 a cone or apple of the pine. To it sur- 
 prising virtues were attributed, and it was 
 introduced into the Dionysiac mysteries as 
 a sacred symbol. 
 
 Pirlet. The name of a tailor of Paris, 
 who, in 1762, organized a body called 
 " Council of Knights of the East," in op- 
 position to the Council of Emperors of the 
 East and West. 
 
 Pins VII. On the 13th August, 1814, 
 Pope Pius VII. issued an edict forbidding 
 the meetings of all secret societies, and es- 
 pecially the Freemasons and Carbonari, 
 under heavy corporal penalties, to which 
 were to be added, according to the malig- 
 nity of the cases, partial or entire confisca- 
 tion of goods, or a pecuniary fine. The 
 edict also renewed the bull of Clement XII., 
 by which the punishment of death was 
 incurred by those who obstinately per- 
 sisted in attending the meetings of Free- 
 masons. 
 
 Place. In strict Masonic ritualism 
 the positions occupied by the Master and 
 Wardens are called stations ; those of the 
 
 other officers, places. This distinction is 
 not observed in the higher degrees. See 
 Stations. 
 
 Planche Tracee. The name by 
 which the minutes are designated in French 
 Lodges. Literally, planche is a board, and 
 tracee, delineated. The planche tracee is 
 therefore the board on which the plans of 
 the Lodge have been delineated. 
 
 Plans and Designs. The plans 
 and designs on the Trestle-Board of the 
 Master, by which the building is erected, 
 are, in Speculative Masonry, symbolically 
 referred to the moral plans and designs of 
 life by which we are to construct our spirit- 
 ual temple, and in the direction of which 
 we are to be instructed by some recognized 
 Divine authority. See Trestle-Board. 
 
 Platonic Academy. See Academy, 
 Platonic. 
 
 Plenty. The ear of corn, or sheaf of 
 wheat, is, in the Masonic system, the sym- 
 bol of plenty. In ancient iconography, 
 the goddess Plenty was represented by a 
 young nymph crowned with flowers, and 
 holding in the right hand the horn of 
 Amalthea, the goat that suckled Jupiter, 
 and in her left a bundle of sheaves of 
 wheat, from which the ripe grain is falling 
 profusely to the ground. There have been 
 some differences in the representation of 
 the goddess on various medals; but, as 
 Montfaucon shows, the ears of corn are an 
 indispensable part of the symbolism. See 
 Shibboleth. 
 
 Plot Manuscript. Dr. Plot, in his 
 History of Staffordshire, speaks of " a scrole 
 or parchment volume," in the possession 
 of the Masons of the seventeenth century, 
 in which it is stated that the " charges and 
 manners were after perused and approved 
 by King Henry VI." Dr. Oliver {Golden 
 Remains, iii. 35,) thinks that Plot here re- 
 ferred to what is known as the Leland MS., 
 which, if true, would be a proof of the au- 
 thenticity of that document. But Oliver 
 gives no evidence of the correctness of his 
 assumption. It is more probable that the 
 manuscript which Dr. Plot loosely quotes 
 has not yet been recovered. 
 
 Plot. M.D., Robert. Born in 1651, 
 and died in 1696. He was a Professor of 
 Chemistry at Oxford, and Keeper of the 
 Ashmolean Museum, to which position he 
 had been appointed by Elias Ashmole, to 
 whom, however, he showed but little grat- 
 itude. Dr. Plot published, in 1686, The 
 Natural History of Staffordshire, a work 
 in which he went out of his way to attack 
 the Masonic institution. An able defence 
 against this attack will be found in the 
 third volume of Oliver's Golden Remains 
 of the Early Masonic Writers. The work 
 of Dr. Plot is both interesting and valu- 
 
588 
 
 PLOT 
 
 PLUMB 
 
 able to the Masonic student, as it exhibits 
 the condition of Freemasonry in the latter 
 part of the seventeenth century, certainly, 
 if not at a somewhat earlier period, and 
 is an anticipated answer to the assertions 
 of the iconoclasts who would give Freema- 
 sonry its birth in 1717. For this purpose, 
 I insert so much of his account as refers to 
 the customs of the society in 1686. 
 
 " They have a custom in Staffordshire, 
 of admitting men into the Society of Free- 
 masons, that in the Morelands of this 
 country seems to be of greater request 
 than anywhere else, though I find that the 
 custom spread more or less all over the 
 nation ; for here I found persons of the 
 most eminent quality that did not disdain 
 to be of this fellowship ; nor, indeed, need 
 they, were it of that antiquity and honor, 
 that is pretended in a large parchment 
 volume they have amongst them, contain- 
 ing the history and rules of the Craft of 
 Masonry, which is there deduced not only 
 from sacred writ, but profane story ; par- 
 ticularly that it was brought into England 
 by St. Amphibalus, and first communi- 
 cated to St. Alban, who set down the 
 charges of Masonry, and was made pay- 
 master and governor of the king's works, 
 and gave them charges and manners as St. 
 Amphibalus had taught him, which were 
 after confirmed by King Athelstan, whose 
 youngest son Edwyn loved well Masonry, 
 took upon him the charges, and learned the 
 manners, and obtained for them of his 
 father a free charter. Whereupon he 
 caused them to assemble at York, and to 
 bring all the old books of their Craft, and 
 out of them ordained such charges and 
 manners as they then thought fit ; which 
 charges in the said scrole, or parchment 
 volume, are in part declared ; and thus was 
 the Craft of Masonry grounded and con- 
 firmed in England. It is also there de- 
 clared that these charges and manners 
 were after perused and approved by King 
 Henry VI. and his council, both as to 
 Masters and fellows of this Right Wor- 
 shipful Craft. 
 
 "Into which Society, when they are ad- 
 mitted, they call a meeting (or Lodge, as 
 they term it in some places), which must 
 consist at least of five or six of the ancients 
 of the Order, whom the candidates present 
 with gloves, and so likewise to their wives, 
 and entertain with a collation, according 
 to the custom of the place : this ended, they 
 proceed to the admission of them, which 
 chiefly consists in the communication of 
 certain secret signs, whereby they are 
 known to one another all over the nation, 
 by which means they have maintenance 
 whither ever they travel, for if any man 
 appear, though altogether unknown, that 
 
 can show any of these signs to a fellow of 
 the Society, whom they otherwise call an 
 Accepted Mason, he is obliged presently to 
 come to him, from what company or place 
 soever he be in ; nay, though from the top 
 of a steeple, what hazard or inconvenience 
 soever he run, to know his pleasure and 
 assist him ; viz., if he want work, he is 
 bound to find him some ; or if he cannot 
 do that, to give him money, or otherwise 
 support him till work can be had, which is 
 one of their articles ; and it is another, that 
 they advise the masters they work for ac- 
 cording to the best of their skill, acquaint- 
 ing them with the goodness or badness of 
 their materials, and if they be any way 
 out in the contrivance of the buildings, 
 modestly rectify them in it, that Masonry 
 be not dishonored; and many such like 
 that are commonly known ; but some others 
 they have (to which they are sworn after 
 their fashion) that none know but them- 
 selves." (Nat. Hist, of Staffordshire, ch. viii., 
 p. 316.) 
 
 Plumb. An instrument used by Oper- 
 ative Masons to erect perpendicular lines, 
 and adopted in Speculative Masonry as 
 one of the working-tools of a Fellow Craft. 
 It is a symbol of rectitude of conduct, and 
 inculcates that integrity of life and unde- 
 viating course of moral uprightness which 
 can alone distinguish the good and just 
 man. As the operative workman erects his 
 temporal building with strict observance 
 of that plumb-line, which will not permit 
 him to deviate a hair's breadth to the right 
 or to the left, so the speculative Mason, 
 guided by the unerring principles of right 
 and truth inculcated in the symbolic teach- 
 ings of the same implement, is steadfast in 
 the pursuit of truth, neither bending be- 
 neath the frowns of adversity nor yielding 
 to the seductions of prosperity. 
 
 To the man thus just and upright, the 
 Scriptures attribute, as necessary parts of 
 his character, kindness and liberality, tem- 
 perance and moderation, truth and wisdom; 
 and the Pagan poet Horace (lib. iii., od. 3,) 
 pays, in one of his most admired odes, an 
 eloquent tribute to the stern immutability 
 of the man who is upright and tenacious 
 of purpose. 
 
 It is worthy of notice that, in most lan- 
 guages, the word which is used in a direct 
 sense to indicate straightness of course or 
 perpendicularity of position, is also em- 
 ployed in a figurative sense to express up- 
 rightness of conduct. Such are the Latin 
 "rectum," which signifies at the same time 
 a right line and honesty or integrity; the 
 Greek bp-96<; , which means straight, standing 
 upright, and also equitable, just, true ; and 
 the Hebrew tscdek, which in a physical 
 sense denotes Tightness, straightness, and in 
 
PLUMB-LINE 
 
 POINTS 
 
 589 
 
 a moral, what is right and just. Our own 
 word RIGHT partakes of this peculiar- 
 ity, right being not wrong, as well as not 
 crooked. 
 
 As to the name, it may be remarked that 
 plumb is the word used in Speculative 
 Masonry. Webster says that as a noun 
 the word is seldom used except in compo- 
 sition. Its constant use, therefore, in Ma- 
 sonry, is a peculiarity. 
 
 Plumb-Line. A line to which a 
 piece of lead is attached so as to make 
 it hang perpendicularly. The plumb-line, 
 sometimes called simply the line, is one of 
 the working-tools of the Past Mas- 
 ter. According to Preston, it was 
 one of the instruments of Masonry 
 which was presented to the Master 
 of a Lodge at his installation, and 
 he defines its symbolism as follows: 
 " The line teaches the criterion of 
 rectitude, to avoid dissimulation in 
 conversation and action, and to di- 
 rect our steps in the path which 
 leads to immortality." This idea 
 of the immortal life was always 
 connected in symbology with that of the 
 perpendicular — something that rose di- 
 rectly upwards. Thus in the primitive 
 church, the worshipping Christians stood up 
 at prayer on Sunday, as a reference to the 
 Lord's resurrection on that day. This sym- 
 bolism is not, however, preserved in the 
 verse of the prophet Amos, (vii. 7,) which 
 is read in this country as the Scripture 
 passage of the second degree, where it 
 seems rather to refer to the strict justice 
 which God will apply to the people of Is- 
 rael. It there coincides with the first 
 Masonic definition that the line 
 teaches the criterion of moral recti- 
 tude. 
 
 Plumb-Rule. A narrow board, 
 having a plumb-line suspended from 
 its top and a perpendicular mark 
 through its middle. It is one of the || 
 working-tools of a Fellow Craft, but 
 in Masonic language is called the 
 Plumb, which see. 
 
 Plurality of Totes. See Majority. 
 
 Poetry of Masonry. Although 
 Freemasonry has been distinguished more 
 than any other single institution for the 
 number of verses to which it has given 
 birth, it has not produced any poetry of a 
 very high order, except a few lyrical effu- 
 sions. Rhyme, although not always of 
 transcendent merit, has been a favorite 
 form of conveying its instructions. The 
 oldest of the Constitutions, that known 
 as the Halliwell MS., is written in verse ; 
 and almost all the early catechisms of the 
 degrees were in the form of rhyme, which, 
 although often doggerel in character, served 
 
 as a convenient method of assisting the 
 memory. But the imagination, which might 
 have been occupied in the higher walks of 
 poetry, seems in Freemasonry to have been 
 expended in the construction of its sym- 
 bolism, which may, however, be considered 
 often as the results of true poetic genius. 
 There are, besides the songs, of which the 
 number in all languages is very great, an 
 abundance of prologues and epilogues, 
 of odes and anthems, some of which are not 
 discreditable to their authors or to the In- 
 stitution. But I know of very few poems 
 on Masonic subjects of any length. The 
 French have indulged more than any other 
 nation in this sort of composition, and the 
 earliest Masonic poem with which I am ac- 
 quainted is one published at Frankfort, 
 1756, with the title of Noblesse des Franc- 
 Macons ou Institution de leur Soeiete avant le 
 deluge universel et de son renouvellement apres 
 le Deluge. 
 
 It was printed anonymously, but the au- 
 thorship of it is attributed to M. Jartigue. 
 It is a transfer to verse of all the Masonic 
 myths contained in the " Legend of the 
 Craft" and the traditional history of Ander- 
 son. Neither the material nor the execution 
 exempt the author from Horace's denuncia- 
 tion of poetic mediocrity. 
 
 Points. In the Old Constitutions 
 known as the Halliwell MS., there are fif- 
 teen regulations which are called points. 
 The fifteen articles which precede are said 
 to have been in existence before the meet- 
 ing at York, and then only collected after 
 search, while the fifteen points were then 
 enacted. Thus we are told — 
 
 Fifteen artyculus they there sougton, {sought, 
 
 found out,) 
 And fifteen poyntys there they wrogton, 
 
 (wrought, enacted.) 
 
 The points referred to in the ritualistic 
 phrase, " arts, parts, and points of the hid- 
 den mysteries of Masonry," are the rules 
 and regulations of the Institution. Phillips' 
 New World of Words (edit. 1706) defines 
 point as " an head or chief matter." It is 
 in this sense that we speak of the "points 
 of Masonry." 
 
 Points of Entrance, Perfect. 
 In the earliest lectures of the last century 
 these were called " Principal Points." The 
 designation of them as "Perfect Points of 
 Entrance " was of a later date. They are 
 described both in the English and the 
 American systems. Their specific names, 
 and their allusion to the four cardinal vir- 
 tues, are the same in both ; but the verbal 
 explanations differ, although not substan- 
 tially. They are so called because they refer 
 to four important points of the initiation. 
 The Guttural refers to the entrance upon 
 
590 
 
 POINTS 
 
 POINT 
 
 the penal responsibilities ; the Pectoral, to 
 the entrance into the Lodge ; the Manual, 
 to the entrance on the covenant ; and the 
 Pedal, to the entrance on the instructions 
 in the north-east. 
 
 Points of Fellowship, Five. 
 There are duties owing by every Mason to 
 his brethren, and which, from their sym- 
 bolic allusion to certain points of the body, 
 and from the lesson of brotherly love which 
 they teach, are called the " Five Points of 
 Fellowship." They are symbolically illus- 
 trated in the third degree, and have been 
 summed up by Oliver as "assisting a 
 brother in his distress, supporting him in 
 his virtuous undertakings, praying for his 
 welfare, keeping inviolate his secrets, and 
 vindicating his reputation as well in his ab- 
 sence as in his presence." (Landm., i. 185.) 
 
 Cole, in the Freemasons' Library, (p. 
 190,) gives the same ideas in diffuser lan- 
 guage, as follows : 
 
 "First. When the necessities of a 
 brother call for my aid and support, I will 
 be ever ready to lend him such assistance, 
 to save him from sinking, as may not be 
 detrimental to myself or connections, if I 
 find him worthy thereof. 
 
 " Second. Indolence shall not cause my 
 footsteps to halt, nor wrath turn them aside ; 
 but forgetting every selfish consideration, I 
 will be ever swift of foot to serve, help, and 
 execute benevolence to a fellow-creature in 
 distress, and more particularly to a brother 
 Mason. 
 
 " Third. When I offer up my ejaculations 
 to Almighty God, a brother's welfare I will 
 remember as my own ; for as the voices of 
 babes and sucklings ascend to the Throne of 
 Grace, so most assuredly will the breath- 
 ings of a fervent heart arise to the man- 
 sions of bliss, as our prayers are certainly 
 required of each other. 
 
 " Fourth. A brother's secrets, delivered 
 to me as such, I will keep as I would my 
 own ; as betraying that trust might be 
 doing him the greatest injury he could sus- 
 tain in this mortal life ; nay, it would be 
 like the villany of an assassin, who lurks 
 in darkness to stab his adversary, when 
 unarmed and least prepared to meet an 
 enemy. 
 
 " Fifth. A brother's character I will sup- 
 port in his absence as I would in his pres- 
 ence: I will not wrongfully revile him 
 myself, nor will I suffer it to be done by 
 others, if in my power to prevent it." 
 
 The enumeration of these Points by some 
 other more recent authorities differs from 
 Cole's, apparently, only in the order in 
 which the Points are placed. The latter 
 order is given as follows in Mackey's Lexi- 
 con of Freemasonry : 
 
 " First. Indolence should not cause our 
 
 footsteps to halt, or wrath turn them aside ; 
 but with eager alacrity and swiftness of 
 foot, we should press forward in the exer- 
 cise of charity and kindness to a distressed 
 fellow-creature. 
 
 " Secondly. In our devotions to Almighty 
 God, we should remember a brother's wel- 
 fare as our own ; for the prayers of a fer- 
 vent and sincere heart will find no less 
 favor in the sight of Heaven, because the 
 petition for self is mingled with aspirations 
 of benevolence for a friend. 
 
 "Thirdly. When a brother intrusts to 
 our keeping the secret thoughts of his 
 bosom, prudence and fidelity should place 
 a sacred seal upon our lips, lest, in an un- 
 guarded moment, we betray the solemn 
 trust confided to our honor. 
 
 "Fourthly. When adversity has visited 
 our brother, and his calamities call for our 
 aid, we should cheerfully and liberally 
 stretch forth the hand of kindness, to save 
 him from sinking, and to relieve his neces- 
 sities. 
 
 " Fifthly. While with candor and kind- 
 ness we should admonish a brother of his 
 faults, we should never revile his character 
 behind his back, but rather, when attacked 
 by others, support and defend it." 
 
 I have said that the difference here is ap- 
 parently only in the order of enumeration, 
 but really there is an important difference 
 in the symbols on which the instructions 
 are founded. In the old system, the sym- 
 bols are the hand, the foot, the knee, the 
 breast, and the back. In the new system, 
 the first symbol or the hand is omitted, and 
 the mouth and the ear substituted. I have 
 no doubt that this omission of the first and 
 insertion of the last are innovations, which 
 sprung up in 1842 at the Baltimore Con- 
 vention, and the enumeration given by 
 Cole is the old and genuine one, which was 
 originally taught in England by Preston, 
 and in this country by Webb. 
 
 Points, Twelve Grand. See Twelve 
 Grand Points. 
 
 Point within a Circle. This is a 
 symbol of great interest and importance, 
 and brings us into close connection with 
 the early symbolism of the solar orb and 
 the universe, which was predominant in 
 the ancient sun-worship. The lectures of 
 Freemasonry give what modern Monitors 
 have made an exoteric explanation of the 
 symbol, in telling us that the point repre- 
 sents an individual brother, the circle the 
 boundary line of his duty to God and man, 
 and the two perpendicular parallel lines 
 the patron saints of the Order — St. John 
 the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist. 
 
 But that this was not always its symbolic 
 signification, we may collect from the true 
 history of its connection with the phallus 
 
POINT 
 
 POLAND 
 
 591 
 
 of the Ancient Mysteries. The phallus, as 
 I have already shown under the word, was 
 among the Egyptians the symbol of fecun- 
 dity, expressed by the male generative 
 principle. It was communicated from the 
 rites of Osiris to the religious festivals 
 of Greece. Among the Asiatics the same 
 emblem, under the name of lingam, was, in 
 connection with the female principle, wor- 
 shipped as the symbols of the Great Father 
 and Mother, or producing causes of the hu- 
 man race, after their destruction by the 
 deluge. On this subject, Captain Wilford 
 (Asiat. Res.,) remarks " that it was believed 
 in India, that, at the general deluge, every- 
 thing was involved in the common destruc- 
 tion except the male and female principles, 
 or organs of generation, which were des- 
 tined to produce a new race, and to repeo- 
 ple the earth when the waters had subsided 
 from its surface. The female principle, 
 symbolized by the moon, assumed the form 
 of a lunette or crescent; while the male 
 principle, symbolized by the sun, assuming 
 the form of the lingam, placed himself erect 
 in the centre of the lunette, like the mast 
 of a ship. The two principles, in this 
 united form, floated on the surface of the 
 waters during the period of their prevalence 
 on the earth ; and thus became the pro- 
 genitors of a new race of men." Here, then, 
 was the first outline of the point within a 
 circle, representing the principle of fecun- 
 dity, and doubtless the symbol, connected 
 with a different history, that, namely, of 
 Osiris, was transmitted by the Indian phil- 
 osophers to Egypt, and to the other na- 
 tions, who derived, as I have elsewhere 
 shown, all their rites from the East. 
 
 It was in deference to this symbolism 
 that, as Higgins remarks (Anacal., ii. 306,) 
 circular temples were in the very earliest 
 ages universally erected in cyclar numbers 
 to do honor to the Deity. 
 
 In India, stone circles, or rather their 
 ruins, are everywhere found; among the 
 oldest of which, according to Moore, (Panih. 
 242,) is that of Dipaldiana, and whose exe- 
 cution will compete with that of the Greeks. 
 In the oldest monuments of the Druids we 
 find, as at Stonehenge and Abury, the cir- 
 cle of stones. In fact, all the temples of 
 the Druids were circular, with a single 
 stone erected in the centre. A Druidical 
 monument in Pembrokeshire, called Y 
 Cromlech, is described as consisting of 
 several rude stones pitched on end in a cir- 
 cular order, and in the midst of the circle a 
 vast stone placed on several pillars. Near 
 Keswick, in Cumberland, says Oliver, {Signs 
 and Symbols, 174,) is another specimen of 
 this Druidical symbol. On a hill stands a 
 circle of forty stones placed perpendicularly, 
 of about five feet and a half in height, and 
 
 one stone in the centre of greater alti- 
 tude. 
 
 Among the Scandinavians, the hall of 
 Odin contained twelve seats, disposed in 
 the form of a circle, for the principal gods, 
 with an elevated seat in the centre for Odin. 
 Scandinavian monuments of this form are 
 still to be found in Scania, Zealand, and 
 Jutland. 
 
 But it is useless to multiply examples of 
 the prevalence of this symbol among the 
 ancients. And now let us apply this knowl- 
 edge to the Masonic symbol. 
 
 We have seen that the phallus and the 
 point within a circle come from the same 
 source, and must have been identical in 
 signification. But the phallus was the 
 symbol of fecundity, or the male generative 
 principle, which by the ancients was sup- 
 posed to be the sun, (they looking to the 
 creature and not to the Creator,) because by 
 the sun's heat and light the earth is made 
 prolific, and its productions are brought to 
 maturity. The point within the circle was 
 then originally the symbol of the sun; and 
 as the lingam of India stood in the centre 
 of the lunette, so it stands within the centre 
 of the Universe, typified by the circle, im- 
 pregnating and vivifying it with its heat. 
 And thus the astronomers have been led to 
 adopt the same figure O as their symbol 
 of the sun. 
 
 Now it is admitted that the Lodge repre- 
 sents the world or the universe, and the 
 Master and Wardens within it represent 
 the sun in three positions. Thus we arrive 
 at the true interpretation of the Masonic 
 symbolism of the point within the circle. 
 It is the same thing, but under a different 
 form, as the Master and Wardens of a 
 Lodge. The Master and Wardens are sym- 
 bols of the sun, the Lodge of the universe, 
 or world, just as the point is the symbol of 
 the same sun, and the surrounding circle 
 of the universe. 
 
 Poland. Freemasonry was introduced 
 into Poland, in 1736, by the Grand Lodge of 
 England ; but in 1739 the Lodges were closed 
 in consequence of the edict of King Augus- 
 tus II., who enforced the bull of Pope 
 Clement XII. From 1742 to 1749 Masonry 
 was revived and several Lodges erected, 
 which flourished for a time, but afterwards 
 fell into decay. In 1766 Count Mosrynski 
 sought to put it on a better footing, and in 
 1769 a Grand Lodge was formed, of which 
 he was chosen Grand Master. The Grand 
 Lodge of England recognized this body as 
 a Provincial Grand Lodge. On the first 
 division of Poland, the labors of the Grand 
 Lodge were suspended ; but they were re- 
 vived in 1773 by Count Bruhl, who intro- 
 duced the ritual of the Strict Observance, 
 established several new Lodges, and ac- 
 
592 
 
 POLITICS 
 
 POMEGRANATE 
 
 knowledged the supremacy of the United 
 Lodges of Germany. There was a Lodge 
 in Warsaw, working in the French Rite, 
 under the authority of the Grand Orient 
 of France, and another under the English 
 system. These differences of Rites created 
 many dissensions, but in August, 1781, the 
 Lodge Catherine of the North Star received 
 a Warrant as a Provincial Grand Lodge, 
 and on December 27 of the same year the 
 body was organized, and Ignatius Pococki 
 elected Grand Master of all Polish and 
 Lithuanian Lodges, the English system 
 being provisionally adopted. In 1794, with 
 the dissolution of the kingdom, the Lodges 
 in the Russian and Austrian portions of 
 the partition were suppressed, and those 
 only in Prussian Poland continued their 
 existence. Upon the creation, by Napoleon, 
 of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, a Grand 
 Orient of Poland was immediately estab- 
 lished. This body continued in operation 
 until 1823, with more than forty Lodges 
 under its obedience. In November of that 
 year the Order was interdicted in conse- 
 quence of the ukase of the Emperor Alex- 
 ander prohibiting all secret societies, and 
 all the Lodges were thereon closed. Dur- 
 ing the revolt of 1830 a few Lodges arose, 
 but they lasted only until the insurrection 
 was suppressed. 
 
 Politics. There is no charge more 
 frequently made against Freemasonry than 
 that of its tendency to revolution, and 
 conspiracy, and to political organizations 
 which may affect the peace of society or 
 interfere with the rights of governments. 
 It was the substance of all Barruel's and 
 Robison's accusations, that the Jacobinism 
 of France and Germany was nurtured in 
 the Lodges of those countries ; it was the 
 theme of all the denunciations of the anti- 
 Masons of our own land, that the Order 
 was seeking a political ascendancy and an 
 undue influence over the government ; it 
 has been the unjust accusation of every 
 enemy of the Institution in all times past, 
 that its object and aim is the possession of 
 
 ?ower and control in the affairs of state, 
 t is in vain that history records no in- 
 stance of this unlawful connection between 
 Freemasonry and politics; it is in vain 
 that the libeller is directed to the Ancient 
 Constitutions of the Order, which expressly 
 forbid such connection; the libel is still 
 written, and Masonry is again and again 
 condemned as a political club. 
 
 Polkal. A significant word in the 
 high degrees, which means altogether sepa- 
 rated, in allusion to the disunited condition 
 of the Masonic Order at the time, divided 
 as it was into various and conflicting rites. 
 The word is corrupted from palcol, and is 
 derived from the radical bs,pal, which, as 
 
 Gesenius says, everywhere implies separa- 
 tion, and the adverbial bj, kol, wholly, 
 altogether. 
 
 Polycronicon. Ranulf Higden, a 
 monk of Chester, who died in 1560, wrote 
 under this title a Latin chronicle, which 
 was afterwards translated into English by 
 John Trevisa, and published by William 
 Caxton, in 1482, as The Polycronicon; 
 " conteynyng the Berynges and Dedes of 
 many Tymes." Another edition was pub- 
 lished (though, perhaps, it was the same 
 book with a new title) by Wynkyn de 
 Woorde, in 1485, as Policronicon, in which 
 booke ben comprysed bryefly many wonderful 
 hystoryes, Englished by one Trevisa, vicarye 
 of Barkley, etc., a copy of which sold in 
 1857 for £37. There was another trans- 
 lation in the same century by an unknown 
 author. The two translations made the 
 book familiar to the English public, with 
 whom it was at one time a favorite work. 
 It was much used by the compiler or com- 
 pilers of the Old Constitutions now known 
 as the Cooke Manuscript. Indeed, I have 
 very little doubt that the writers of the old 
 Masonic records borrowed from the Poly- 
 cronicon many of their early legends of 
 Masonry. In 1865 there was published at 
 London, under the authority of' the Master 
 of the Rolls, an edition of the original Latin 
 chronicle, with both the English transla- 
 tions, that of Trevisa and that of the un- 
 known writer. 
 
 Pomegranate. The pomegranate, 
 as a symbol, was known to and highly es- 
 teemed by the nations of antiquity. In 
 the description of the pillars which stood 
 at the porch of the Temple, (see 1 Kings 
 vii. 15,) it is said that the artificer "made 
 two chapiters of molten brass to set upon 
 the tops of the pillars." Now the Hebrew 
 word caphtorim, which has been translated 
 " chapiters," and for which, in Amos ix. 1, 
 the word " lintel " has been incorrectly sub- 
 stituted, (though the marginal reading cor- 
 rects the error,) signifies an artificial large 
 pomegranate, or globe. The original mean- 
 ing is not preserved in the Septuagint, 
 which has o<patpur?/p, nor in the Vulgate, 
 which uses "sphserula," both meaning 
 simply " a round ball." But Josephus, in 
 his Antiquities, has kept to the literal He- 
 brew. It was customary to place such 
 ornaments upon the tops or heads of 
 columns, ana in other situations. The 
 skirt of Aaron's robe was ordered to be 
 decorated with golden bells and pome- 
 granates, and they were among the orna- 
 ments fixed upon the golden candelabra. 
 There seems, therefore, to have been at- 
 tached to this fruit some mystic significa- 
 tion, to which it is indebted for the veuera- 
 tion thus paid to it. If so, this mystic 
 
POMEGRANATE 
 
 PONTIFF 
 
 593 
 
 meaning should be traced into spurious 
 Freemasonry; for there, after all, if there 
 be any antiquity in our Order, we shall find 
 the parallel of all its rites and ceremonies. 
 The Syrians at Damascus worshipped an 
 idol which they called Rimmon. This was 
 the same idol that was worshipped by Naa- 
 man before his conversion, as recorded in 
 the Second Book of Kings. The learned 
 have not been able to agree as to the nature 
 of this idol, whether he was a representa- 
 tion of Helios or the Sun, the god of the 
 Phenicians, or of Venus, or according to 
 Grotius, in his commentary on the passage 
 in Kings, of Saturn, or what, according to 
 Statius, seems more probable, of Jupiter 
 Cassius. But it is sufficient for the present 
 
 Eurpose to know that Rimmon is the He- 
 rew and Syriac for pomegranate. 
 Cumberland, the learned Bishop of 
 Peterborough, (Orig. Gent. Ant., p. 60,) 
 quotes Achilles Statius, a converted Pagan, 
 and Bishop of Alexandria, as saying that 
 on Mount Cassius (which Bochart places 
 between Canaan and Egypt) there was a 
 temple wherein Jupiter's image held a 
 pomegranate in his hand, which Statius 
 goes on to say, " had a mystical meaning." 
 Sanconiathon thinks this temple was built 
 by the descendants of the Cabiri. Cum- 
 berland attempts to explain this mystery 
 thus : " Agreeably hereunto I guess that 
 the pomegranate in the hand of Jupiter or 
 Juno, (because, when it is opened, it dis- 
 closes a great number of seeds,) signified 
 only, that those deities were, being long- 
 lived, the parents of a great many children, 
 and families that soon grew into nations, 
 which they planted in large possessions, 
 when the world was newly begun to be 
 peopled, by giving them laws and other use- 
 ful inventions to make their lives com- 
 fortable." 
 
 Pausanias (Oorinthiaca, p. 59,) says he 
 saw, not far from the ruins of Mycenae, an 
 image of Juno holding in one hand a scep- 
 tre, and in the other a pomegranate; but 
 he likewise declines assigning any explana- 
 tion of the emblem, merely declaring that 
 it was anopprjTOTepoq Koyog — "a forbidden 
 mystery." That is, one which was forbid- 
 den by the Cabiri to be divulged. 
 
 In the festival of the Thesmophoria, ob- 
 served in honor of the goddess Ceres, it was 
 held unlawful for the celebrants (who were 
 women) to eat the pomegranate. Clemens 
 Alexandrinus assigns as a reason, that it 
 was supposed that this fruit sprang from 
 the blood of Bacchus. 
 
 Bryant (Anc. Myth., iii. 237,) says that 
 the Ark was looked upon as the mother 
 of mankind, and on this account it was 
 figured under the semblance of a pome- 
 granate ; for as this fruit abounds with seeds, 
 3Z 38 
 
 it was thought no improper emblem of the 
 Ark, which contained the rudiments of the 
 future world. In fact, few plants had among 
 the ancients a more mythical history than 
 the pomegranate. 
 
 From the Hebrews, who used it mysti- 
 cally at the Temple, it passed over to the 
 Masons, who adopted it as the symbol of 
 plenty, for which it is well adapted by its 
 swelling and seed-abounding fruit. 
 
 Pommel. A round knob ; a term ap- 
 plied to the globes or balls on the top of 
 the pillars which stood at the porch of Solo- 
 mon's Temple. It was introduced into the 
 Masonic lectures from scriptural language. 
 The two pommels of the chapiters is in 2 
 Chron. iv. 13. It is, however, an architec- 
 tural term, thus defined by Parker, ( Gloss. 
 Arch., p. 365:) "Pommel denotes gener- 
 ally any ornament of a globular form." 
 
 Pontiles Freres. See Bridge Build- 
 ers. 
 
 Pontifex. See Bridge Builders. 
 
 Pontiff. In addition to what has been 
 said of this word in the article on the 
 " Bridge Builders of the Middle Ages," the 
 following from Athanase Coquerel, fils, in 
 a recent essay entitled The Rise and Decline 
 of the Romish Church, will be interest- 
 ing. 
 
 "What is the meaning of 'pontiff'? 
 ' Pontiff' means bridge maker, bridge 
 builder. Why are they called in that way ? 
 Here is the explanation of the fact : In the 
 very first years of the existence of Rome, 
 at a time of which we have a very fabulous 
 history and but few existing monuments, 
 the little town of Rome, not built on seven 
 hills, as is generally supposed — there are 
 eleven of them now ; then there were with- 
 in the town less than seven, even — that 
 little town had a great deal to fear from an 
 enemy which should take one of the hills 
 that were out of town — the Janiculum — 
 because the Janiculum is higher than the 
 others, and from that hill an enemy could 
 very easily throw stones, fire, or any means 
 of destruction into the town. The Janic- 
 ulum was separated from the town by the 
 Tiber. Then the first necessity for the de- 
 fence of that little town of Rome was to 
 have a bridge. They had built a wooden 
 bridge over the Tiber, and a great point of 
 interest to the town was, that this bridge 
 should be kept always in good order, so 
 that at any moment troops could pass over. 
 Then, with the special genius of the Ro- 
 mans, of which we have other instances, 
 they ordained, curiously enough, that the 
 men, who were a corporation, to take care 
 of that bridge should be sacred ; that their 
 function, necessary to the defence of the 
 town, should be considered holy ; that they 
 should be priests ; and the highest of them 
 
594 
 
 PONTIFF 
 
 PKAYER 
 
 was called 'the high bridge maker.' So 
 it happened that there was in Rome a cor- 
 poration of bridge makers — pontifices — 
 of whom the head was the most sacred of 
 all Romans ; because in those days his life 
 and the life of his companions was deemed 
 necessary to the safety of the town." 
 
 And thus it is that the title of Pontifex 
 Maximus, assumed by the Pope of Rome, 
 literally means the Grand Bridge Builder. 
 
 Pontiff, Grand. See Grand Pontiff. 
 
 Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Jesus 
 Christ. (Pauperes commilitones Jesu 
 Christi.) This was the title first assumed 
 by the Knights Templars. 
 
 Poppy. In the mysteries of the an- 
 cients, the poppy was the symbol of regen- 
 eration. The somniferous qualities of the 
 plant expressed the idea of quiescence; 
 but the seeds of a new existence which it 
 contained were thought to show that nature, 
 though her powers were suspended, yet 
 possessed the capability of being called 
 into a renewed existence. Thus the poppy 
 planted near a grave symbolized the idea 
 of a resurrection. Hence, it conveyed the 
 same symbolism as the evergreen or sprig 
 of acacia does in the Masonic mysteries. 
 
 Porch of the Temple. See Temple 
 of Solomon. 
 
 Porta, Gamhattista. A physicist 
 of Naples, who was born in 1545 and died 
 in 1615. He was the founder of the Se- 
 greti, or " Academy of Secrets," (which 
 see.) He devoted himself to the study of 
 the occult sciences, was the inventor of the 
 camera obscura, and the author of several 
 treatises on Magic, Physiognomy, and 
 Secret Writing. De Feller (Piog. Univ.) 
 classes him with Cornelius Agrippa, Car- 
 dan, Paracelsus, and other disciples of oc- 
 cult philosophy. 
 
 Portugal. Freemasonry was intro- 
 duced into Portugal in 1736, when a Lodge 
 was instituted at Lisbon, under a Deputa- 
 tion to George Gordon from Lord Wey- 
 mouth, Grand Master of England. An at- 
 tempt was made by John Coustos to estab- 
 lish a second in 1743, but he and his com- 
 panions were arrested by the Inquisition, 
 and the Lodge suppressed. Freemasonry 
 must, however, have continued to exist, 
 although secretly practised, for in 1776 
 other arrests of Freemasons were made by 
 the Holy Office. But through the whole 
 of the eighteenth century the history of 
 Masonry in Portugal was the history of an 
 uninterrupted persecution by the Church 
 and the State. In 1805 a Grand Lodge 
 was established at Lisbon, and Egaz-Moritz 
 was elected Grand Master. John VI., 
 during his exile, issued from Santa Cruz, 
 in 1818, a decree against the Masons, which 
 declared that every Mason who should be 
 
 arrested should suffer death, and his prop- 
 erty be confiscated to the State ; and this law 
 was extended to foreigners residing in Por- 
 tugal, as well as to natives. This bigoted 
 sovereign, on his restoration to the throne, 
 promulgated in 1823 another decree against 
 the Order, and Freemasonry fell into abey- 
 ance; but in 1834 the Lodges were again 
 revived. But dissensions in reference to 
 Masonic authority unfortunately arose 
 among the Fraternity of Portugal, which 
 involved the history of the Order in that 
 country in much confusion. There were 
 in a few years no less than four bodies 
 claiming Masonic jurisdiction, namely, a 
 Grande Oriente Lusitano, which had existed 
 for more than a quarter of a century, and 
 which, in 1846, received Letters-Patent 
 from the Supreme Council of Brazil for 
 the establishment of a Supreme Council ; a 
 Provincial Grand Lodge, under the juris- 
 diction of the Grand Lodge of Ireland, 
 with a Chapter of Rose Croix working 
 under the authority of the Grand Council 
 of Rites of Ireland; and two Grand Orients 
 working under contending Grand Masters. 
 Many attempts were made to reconcile these 
 opposing bodies, but without success ; and, 
 to add to the difficulty, we find, about 1862, 
 another body calling itself the Orient of 
 the Masonic Confederation. But all em- 
 barrassments were at length removed by 
 the alliance, in 1871, of the United Grand 
 Orient with the Supreme Council, and the 
 Masonic interests of Portugal are now pros- 
 perously conducted by the " Grande Oriente 
 Lusitano Unido, Supremo Conselho de 
 Maeonaria Portugueza." 
 
 Postulant. The title given to the 
 candidate in the degree of Knight Kadosh. 
 From the Latin postulans, asking for, wish- 
 ing to have. 
 
 Pot of Incense. As a symbol of 
 the sacrifice which should be offered up to 
 Deity, it has been adopted in the third 
 degree. See Incense. 
 
 Pot of Manna. See Manna, Pot of. 
 
 Poursuivant. More correctly, Pur- 
 suivant, which see. 
 
 Practicns. The third degree of the 
 German Rose Croix. ^/ 
 
 Prayer. Freemasonry is a religious 
 institution, and hence its regulations incul- 
 cate the use of prayer "as a proper tribute 
 of gratitude," to borrow the language of 
 Preston, " to the beneficent Author of Life." 
 Hence it is of indispensable obligation 
 that a Lodge, a Chapter, or any other Ma- 
 sonic body, should be both opened and 
 closed with prayer; and in the Lodges 
 working in the English and American sys- 
 tems the obligation is strictly observed. 
 The prayers used at opening and closing 
 in this country differ in language from the 
 
PRAYER 
 
 PREFERMENT 
 
 595 
 
 early formulas found in the second edition 
 of Preston, and for the alterations we are 
 prohably indebted to Webb. The prayers 
 used in the middle and perhaps the begin- 
 ing of the eighteenth century are to be 
 found in Preston (ed. 1775,) and are as 
 follows : 
 
 At Opening. — " May the favor of 
 Heaven be upon this our happy meeting ; 
 may it be begun, carried on, and ended in 
 order, harmony, and brotherly love : Amen." 
 
 At Closing. — " May the blessing of 
 Heaven be with us and all regular Masons, 
 to beautify and cement us with every 
 moral and social virtue : Amen." 
 
 There is also a prayer at the initiation of 
 a candidate, which has, at the present day, 
 been very slightly varied from the original 
 form. This prayer, but in a very different 
 form, is much older than Preston, who 
 changed and altered the much longer for- 
 mula which had been used previous to his 
 day. It was asserted by Dermott that the 
 prayer at initiation was a ceremony only 
 in use among the "Ancients" or Athol 
 Masons, and that it was omitted by the 
 " Moderns." But this cannot be so, as is 
 proved by the insertion of it in the earliest 
 editions of Preston. We have moreover a 
 form of prayer "to be used at the admis- 
 sion of a brother," contained in the 
 Pocket Companion, published in 1754, by 
 John Scott, an adherent of the " Mod- 
 erns," which proves that they as well as 
 the "Ancients" observed the usage of 
 prayer at an initiation. There is a still 
 more ancient formula of " Prayer to be 
 used of Christian Masons at the empoint- 
 ing of a brother," said to have been used 
 in the reign of Edward IV., from 1461 to 
 1483, and which is as follows : 
 
 "The might of God, the Father of 
 Heaven, with the wisdom of his glorious 
 Son through the goodness of the Holy 
 Ghost, that hath been three persons in one 
 Godhead, be with us at our beginning, give 
 us grace to govern in our living here, that 
 we may only come to his bliss that shall 
 never have an end." 
 
 The custom of commencing and ending 
 labor with prayer was adopted at an early 
 
 f>eriod by the Operative Freemasons of Eng- 
 and. Findel says {Hist., p. 78,) that " their 
 Lodges were opened at sunrise, the Master 
 taking his station in the East and the 
 brethren forming a half circle around him.' 
 After prayer, each craftsman had his daily 
 work pointed out to him, and received his 
 instructions. At sunset they again as- 
 sembled after labor, prayer was offered, and 
 their wages paid to them." We cannot 
 doubt that the German Stonemasons, who 
 were even more religiously demonstrative 
 
 than their English brethren, must have ob- 
 served the same custom. 
 
 As to the posture to be observed in Ma- 
 sonic prayer, it may be remarked that in 
 the lower degrees the usual posture is 
 standing. At an initiation the candidate 
 kneels, but the brethren stand. In the 
 higher degrees the usual posture is to kneel 
 on the right knee. These are at least the 
 usages which are generally practised in 
 this country. 
 
 Preadamite. A degree contained 
 in the Archives of the Mother Lodge of 
 the Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Precaution. In opening and closing 
 the Lodge, in the admission of visitors, in 
 conversation with or in the presence of 
 strangers, the Mason is charged to use the 
 necessary precaution, lest that should be 
 communicated to the profane which should 
 only be known to the initiated. 
 
 Precedency of Lodge*. The pre- 
 cedency of Lodges is always derived from 
 the date of their Warrants of Constitution, 
 the oldest Lodge ranking as No. 1. As 
 this precedency confers certain privileges, 
 the number of the Lodge is always deter- 
 mined by the Grand Lodge, while the name 
 is left to the selection of the members. 
 
 Preceptor. Grand Preceptor, or 
 Grand Prior, or Preceptor, or Prior, was 
 the title indifferently given by the Knights 
 Templars to the officer who presided over 
 a province or kingdom, as the Grand Prior 
 or Grand Preceptor of England, who was 
 called in the East the Prior or Preceptor 
 of England. The principal of these Grand 
 Preceptors were those of Jerusalem, Tripo- 
 lis, and Antioch. 
 
 Preeeptory. The houses or resi- 
 dences of the Knights Templars were called 
 Preceptories, and the superior of such a 
 residence was called the Preceptor. Some 
 of the residences were also called Command- 
 eries. The latter name has been adopted 
 by the Masonic Templars of this country. 
 An attempt was made in 1856, at the adop- 
 tion of a new Constitution by the Grand 
 Encampment of the United States, which 
 met at Hartford, to abolish the title " Com- 
 manderies," and adopt that of " Precepto- 
 ries," for the Templar organizations; a 
 change which would undoubtedly have 
 been more in accordance with history, but 
 unfortunately the effort to effect the change 
 was not successful. 
 
 Precious Jewels. See Jewels, Pre- 
 cious. 
 
 Preferment. In all the Old Consti- 
 tutions we find a reference made to ability 
 and skill as the only claims for preferment 
 or promotion. Thus in one of them, the 
 Landsdowne Manuscript, whose date is 
 
596 
 
 PKELATE 
 
 PREPARING 
 
 about 1560, it is said that Nimrod gave a 
 charge to the Masons that "they should 
 ordaine the most wise and cunninge man 
 to be Master of the King or Lord's worke 
 that was amongs them, and neither for love, 
 riches, nor favor, to sett another that had 
 little cunninge to be Master of that worke, 
 whereby the Lord should bee ill served and 
 the science ill defamed." And again, in 
 another part of the same Manuscript, it is 
 ordered, " that noe Mason take on him noe 
 Lord's worke nor other man's but if he 
 know himselfe well able to performe the 
 worke, so that the Craft have noe slander." 
 Charges to the same effect, almost, indeed, 
 in the same words, are to be found in all 
 the Old Constitutions. So Anderson, when 
 he compiled The Charges of a Freemason, 
 which he says were "extracted from the 
 ancient records," and which he published 
 in 1723, in the first edition of the Book of 
 Constitutions, lays down the rule of prefer- 
 ment in the same spirit, and in these 
 words : 
 
 "All preferment among Masons is 
 grounded upon real worth and personal 
 merit only; that so the Lords may be well 
 served, the brethren not put to shame, nor 
 the royal Craft despised ; therefore no Mas- 
 ter or Warden is chosen by seniority, but 
 for his merit." 
 
 And then he goes on to show how the 
 skilful and qualified Apprentice may in due 
 time become a Fellow Craft, and, "when 
 otherwise qualified, arrive to the honor of 
 being the Warden, and then the Master of 
 the Lodge, the Grand Warden, and at length 
 the Grand Master of all the Lodges, according 
 to his merit." This ought to be now, as it 
 has always been, the true law of Masonry ; 
 and when ambitious men are seen grasping 
 for offices, and seeking for positions whose 
 duties they are not qualified to discharge, 
 one is inclined to regret that the Old 
 Charges are not more strictly obeyed. 
 
 Prelate. The fourth officer in a Com- 
 mandery of Knights Templars and in a 
 Council of Red Cross Knights. His duties 
 are to conduct the religious ceremonies of 
 the organization. His jewel is a triple tri- 
 angle, the symbol of Deity, and within each 
 of the triangles is suspended a cross, in allu- 
 sion to the Christian character of the chiv- 
 alric institution of which he is an officer. 
 The corresponding officer in a Grand Com- 
 mandery and in the Grand Encampment 
 is called a Grand Prelate. 
 
 Prelate of Lebanon. {Pr'elat du 
 IAban.) A mystical degree in the collection 
 of Pyron. 
 
 Prentice. An archaism, or rather a 
 vulgarism for Apprentice, constantly found 
 in the Old Records. It is now never used. 
 
 Prentice Pillar. In the southeast 
 
 part of the chapel of Roslyn Castle, in 
 Scotland, is the celebrated column which 
 goes by this name, and with which a Ma- 
 sonic legend is connected. The pillar is a 
 plain fluted shaft, having a floral garland 
 twined around it, all carved out of the 
 solid stone. The legend is, that when the 
 plans of the chapel were sent from Rome, 
 the master builder did not clearly under- 
 stand about this pillar, or, as another ac- 
 count states, had lost this particular portion 
 of the plans, and, in consequence, had to go 
 to Rome for further instructions or to procure 
 a fresh copy. During his absence, a clever 
 apprentice, the only son of a widow, either 
 from memory or from his own invention, 
 carved and completed the beautiful pillar. 
 When the master returned and found the 
 work completed, furious with jealous rage, 
 he killed the apprentice, by striking him a 
 frightful blow on the forehead with a 
 heavy setting-maul. In testimony of the 
 truth of the legend, the visitor is shown 
 three heads in the west part of the chapel — 
 the master's, the apprentice's, (with the 
 gash on his forehead,) and the widow's. 
 There can be but little doubt that this le- 
 gend referred to that of the third degree, 
 which is thus shown to have existed, at 
 least substantially, at that early period. 
 
 Preparation of the Candidate. 
 Great care was taken of the personal con- 
 dition of every Israelite who entered the 
 Temple for divine worship. The Talmudic 
 treatise entitled Baracoth, which contains 
 instructions as to the ritual worship among 
 the Jews, lays down the following rules for 
 the preparation of all who visit the Tem- 
 ple : " No man shall go into the Temple 
 with his staff", nor with shoes on his feet, 
 nor with his outer garment, nor with 
 money tied up in his purse." There are 
 certain ceremonial usages in Freemasonry 
 which furnish what may be called at least 
 very remarkable coincidences with this old 
 Jewish custom. 
 
 The preparation of the candidate for in- 
 itiation in Masonry is entirely symbolic. 
 It varies in the different degrees, and there- 
 fore the symbolism varies with it. Not 
 being arbitrary and unmeaning, but, on the 
 contrary, conventional and full of significa- 
 tion, it cannot be altered, abridged, or 
 added to in any of its details, without af- 
 fecting its esoteric design. To it, in its 
 fullest extent, every candidate must, with- 
 out exception, submit. 
 
 Preparing Brother. The brother 
 who prepares the candidate for initiation. 
 In English, he has no distinctive title. In 
 French Lodges he is called "Frere terrible," 
 and in German he is called " Vorbereiten- 
 der Bruder," or " Furchterlicher Bruder." 
 His duties require him to have a compe- 
 
PRESIDENT 
 
 PRESTON 
 
 597 
 
 tent knowledge of the ritual of reception, 
 and therefore an experienced member of 
 the Lodge is generally selected to discharge 
 the functions of this office. 
 
 President. The presiding officer in 
 a convention of High Priests, according to 
 the American system, is so called. The 
 second officer is styled Vice President. On 
 September 6th, 1871, the Grand Orient 
 of France, in violation of the landmarks, 
 abolished the office of Grand Master, and 
 conferred his powers on a Council of the 
 Order. The President of the Council is 
 now the official representative of the Grand 
 Orient and the Craft, and exercises several 
 of the prerogatives hitherto administered 
 by the Grand Master. 
 
 Presiding Officer. Whoever acts, 
 although temporarily and pro hoc vice, as 
 the presiding officer of a MasOnic body, as- 
 sumes for the time all the powers and func- 
 tions of the officer whom he represents. 
 Thus, in the absence of the Worshipful 
 Master, the Senior Warden presides over 
 the Lodge, and for the time is invested with 
 all the prerogatives that pertain to the 
 Master of a Lodge, and can, while he is 
 in the chair, perform any act that it would 
 be competent for the Master to perform 
 were he present. 
 
 Prestonian Lecture. In 1819, 
 Bro. Preston, the author of the Illustrations 
 of Masonry, bequeathed £300 in the con- 
 sols, the interest of which was to provide 
 for the annual delivery of a lecture accord- 
 ing to the system which he had elaborated. 
 The appointment of the Lecturer was left 
 to the Grand Master for the time being. 
 Stephen Jones, a Past Master of the Lodge 
 of Antiquity, and an intimate friend of 
 Preston, received the first appointment; 
 and it was subsequently given to Bro. Lau- 
 rence Thompson, the only surviving pupil 
 of Preston. He held it until his death, 
 after which no appointment of a Lecturer 
 was made until 1857. Since that time the 
 lecture has been regularly delivered in 
 London before some one of the Lodges. 
 In the delivery of this lecture, which is in- 
 tended to keep in remembrance the sys- 
 tem which was taught by Preston, great 
 care has been taken to observe not only 
 the Prestonian arrangement, but the very 
 words, so far as they can be ascertained. 
 The original form of question and answer 
 is not, however, maintained ; but the lecture 
 being uninterrupted by interrogations, the 
 prescribed answers are turned into a con- 
 tinuous course. 
 
 Prestonian lectures. About the 
 year 1772, Preston submitted his course of 
 lectures on the first three degrees to the 
 Craft of England. These lectures were a 
 revision of those which had been practised, 
 
 with various modifications, since the re- 
 vival of 1717, and were intended to confer 
 a higher literary character on the Masonic 
 ritual. Preston had devoted much time 
 and labor to the compilation of these lec- 
 tures, a syllabus of which will be found in 
 his Illustrations. They were adopted eagerly 
 by the English Fraternity, and continued to 
 be the authoritative system of the Grand 
 Lodge of England until the union in 1813, 
 when, for the sake of securing uniformity, 
 the new and inferior system of Dr. Hem- 
 ming was adopted. But the Prestonian 
 lectures and ritual are still used by many 
 Lodges in England. In America they 
 were greatly altered by Webb, and are no 
 longer practised here. 
 
 Preston, William. This distin- 
 guished Mason was born at Edinburgh on 
 the 7th August, 1742. The usual state- 
 ment, that he was born on the 28th July, 
 refers to Old Style, and requires therefore to 
 be amended. He was the son of William 
 Preston, Esq., a writer of the Signet, and 
 Helena Cumming. The elder Preston was 
 a man of much intellectual culture and 
 abilities, and in easy circumstances, and 
 took therefore pains to bestow upon his son 
 an adequate education. He was sent to 
 school at a very early age, and having 
 completed his preliminary education in 
 English under the tuition of Mr. Stirling, 
 a celebrated teacher in Edinburgh, he en- 
 tered the High School before he was six 
 years old, and made considerable progress 
 in the Latin tongue. From the High 
 School he went to college, where he ac- 
 quired a knowledge of the rudiments of 
 Greek. 
 
 After the death of his father he retired 
 from college, and became the amanuensis 
 of that celebrated linguist, Thomas Buddi- 
 man, to whose friendship his father had 
 consigned him. Mr.. Buddiman having 
 greatly impaired and finally lost his sight 
 by his intense application to his classical 
 studies, Preston remained with him as his 
 secretary until his decease. His patron 
 had, however, previously bound young 
 Preston to his brother, Walter Buddiman, 
 a printer, but on the increasing failure of 
 his sight, Mr. Thomas Buddiman withdrew 
 Preston from the printing-office, and occu- 
 pied him in reading to him and translating 
 such of his works as were not completed, 
 and in correcting the proofs of those that 
 were in the press. Subsequently Preston 
 compiled a catalogue of Buddiman's books, 
 under the title of Bibliotheca Huddimana, 
 which is said to have exhibited much lite- 
 rary ability. 
 
 After the death of Mr. Buddiman, Pres- 
 ton returned to the printing-office, where he 
 remained for about a year; but his inclina- 
 
598 
 
 PRESTON 
 
 PRESTON 
 
 tions leading him to literary pursuits, he, 
 with the consent of his master, repaired to 
 London in 1760, having been furnished with 
 several letters of introduction by his friends 
 in Scotland. Among them was one to Wil- 
 liam Strahan, the king's printer, in whose 
 service, and that of his son and successor, 
 he remained for the best years of his life 
 as a corrector of the press, devoting him- 
 self, at the same time, to other literary 
 vocations, editing for many years the Lon- 
 don Chronicle, and furnishing materials for 
 various periodical publications. 
 
 Mr. Preston's critical skill as a corrector 
 of the press led the literary men of that 
 day to submit to his suggestions as to style 
 and language ; and many of the most dis- 
 tinguished authors who were contemporary 
 with him honored him with their friend- 
 ship. As an evidence of this, there were 
 found in his library, at his death, presenta- 
 tion copies of their works, with their auto- 
 graphs, from Gibbon, Hume, Robertson, 
 Blair, and many others. 
 
 It is, however, as a distinguished teacher 
 of the Masonic ritual, and as the founder 
 of a system of lectures which still retain 
 their influence, that William Preston more 
 especially claims our attention. 
 
 Stephen Jones, the disciple and intimate 
 friend of Preston, published in 1795, in the 
 Freemasons' Magazine, a sketch of Pres- 
 ton's life and labors ; and as there can be 
 no doubt, from the relations of the author 
 and the subject, of the authenticity of the 
 facts related, I shall not hesitate to use the 
 language of this contemporary sketch, in- 
 terpolating such explanatory remarks as I 
 may deem necessary. 
 
 Soon after Preston's arrival in London, 
 a number of brethren from Edinburgh re- 
 solved to institute a Freemason's Lodge in 
 that city, under the sanction of a Constitu- 
 tion from Scotland; but not having suc- 
 ceeded in their application, they were re- 
 commended by the Grand Lodge of Scot- 
 land to the ancient Lodge in London, who 
 immediately granted them a Dispensation 
 to form a Lodge and to make Masons. 
 They accordingly met at the White Hart in 
 the Strand, and Mr. Preston was the second 
 person initiated under that Dispensation. 
 This was in 1762. Lawrie records the ap- 
 plication as having been in that year to the 
 Grand Lodge of Scotland. It thus appears 
 that Preston was made a Mason under the 
 Dermott system. It will be seen, however, 
 that he subsequently went over to the legiti- 
 mate Grand Lodge. 
 
 The Lodge was soon after regularly con- 
 stituted by the officers of the ancient Grand 
 Lodge in person. Having increased con- 
 siderably in numbers, it was found neces- 
 sary to remove to the Horn Tavern in Fleet 
 
 Street, where it continued some time, till, 
 that house being unable to furnish proper 
 accommodations, it was removed to Scots' 
 Hall, Blackfriars. Here it continued to 
 flourish about two years, when the decayed 
 state of that building obliged it to remove 
 to the Half Moon Tavern, Cheapside, 
 where it continued to meet for a consider- 
 able time. 
 
 At length Mr. Preston and some others 
 of the members having joined the Lodge, 
 under the regular English Constitution, at 
 the Talbot Inn, in the Strand, they pre- 
 vailed on the rest of the Lodge at the Half 
 Moon Tavern to petition for a Constitution. 
 Lord Blaney, at that time Grand Master, 
 readily acquiesced with the desire of the 
 brethren, and the Lodge was soon after 
 constituted a second time, in ample form, 
 by the name of " The Caledonian Lodge." 
 The ceremonies observed, and the numer- 
 ous assembly of respectable brethren who 
 attended the Grand officers on that occa- 
 sion, were long remembered to the honor 
 of the Lodge. 
 
 This circumstance, added to the absence 
 of a very skilful Mason, to whom Mr. Pres- 
 ton was attached, and who had departed for 
 Scotland on account of his health, induced 
 him to turn his attention to the Masonic 
 lectures ; and to arrive at the depths of the 
 science, short of which he did not mean to 
 stop, he spared neither pains nor expense. 
 
 Preston's own remarks on this subject, in 
 the introduction to his Illustrations of Ma- 
 sonry, are well worth the perusal of every 
 brother who intends to take office. "When," 
 says he, "I first had the honor to be elected 
 Master of a Lodge, I thought it proper to 
 inform myself fully of the general rules of 
 the society, that I might be able to fulfil 
 my own duty, and officially enforce obedi- 
 ence in others. The methods which I 
 adopted, with this view, excited in some of 
 superficial knowledge an absolute dislike 
 of what they considered as innovations ; 
 and in others, who were better informed, a 
 jealousy of pre-eminence, which the prin- 
 ciples of Masonry ought to have checked. 
 Notwithstanding these discouragements, 
 however, I persevered in my intention of 
 supporting the dignity of the society, and 
 of discharging with fidelity the trust re- 
 posed in me." Masonry has not changed. 
 We still too often find the same mistaking 
 of research for innovation, and the same 
 ungenerous jealousy of pre-eminence of 
 which Preston complains. 
 
 Wherever instruction could be acquired, 
 thither Preston directed his course ; and 
 with the advantage of a retentive memory, 
 and an extensive Masonic connection, added 
 to a diligent literary research, he so far suc- 
 ceeded in his purpose as to become a com- 
 
PRESTON 
 
 PRESTON 
 
 599 
 
 petent master of the subject. To increase 
 the knowledge he had acquired, he solicited 
 the company and conversation of the most 
 experienced Masons from foreign countries ; 
 and, in the course of a literary correspond- 
 ence with the Fraternity at home andabroad, 
 made such progress in the mysteries of the 
 art as to become very useful in the connec- 
 tions he had formed. He was frequently 
 heard to say, that in the ardor of his 
 inquiries he had explored the abodes of 
 poverty and wretchedness, and, where it 
 might have been least expected, acquired 
 very valuable scraps of information. The 
 poor brother in return, we are assured, had 
 no cause to think his time or talents ill be- 
 stowed. He was also accustomed to con- 
 vene his friends once or twice a week, in 
 order to illustrate the lectures ; on which 
 occasion objections were started, and ex- 
 planations given, for the purpose of mutual 
 improvement. At last, with the assistance 
 of some zealous friends, he was enabled to 
 arrange and digest the whole of the first 
 lecture. To establish its validity, he re- 
 solved to submit to the society at large the 
 progress he had made ; and for that pur- 
 pose he instituted, at a very considerable ex- 
 pense, a grand gala at the Crown and An- 
 chor Tavern, in the Strand, on Thursday, 
 May 21, 1772, which was honored with the 
 presence of the then Grand officers, and 
 many other eminent and respectable breth- 
 ren. On this occasion he delivered an ora- 
 tion on the Institution, which, having met 
 with general approbation, was afterwards 
 printed in the first edition of the Illustra- 
 tions of Masonry, published by him the 
 same year. 
 
 Having thus far succeeded in his design, 
 Mr. Preston determined to prosecute the 
 plan he had formed, and to complete the 
 lectures. He employed, therefore, a num- 
 ber of skilful brethren, at his own expense, 
 to visit different town and country Lodges, 
 for the purpose of gaining information ; 
 and these brethren communicated the re- 
 sult of their visits at a weekly meeting. 
 
 When by study and application he had 
 arranged his system, he issued proposals 
 for a regular course of lectures on all the 
 degrees of Masonry, and these were publicly 
 delivered by him at the Mitre Tavern, in 
 Fleet Street, in 1774. 
 
 For some years afterwards, Mr. Preston 
 indulged his friends by attending several 
 schools of instruction, and other stated 
 meetings, to propagate the knowledge of 
 the science, which had spread far beyond 
 his expectations, and considerably enhanced 
 the reputation of the society. Having ob- 
 tained the sanction of the Grand Lodge, 
 he continued to be a zealous encourager 
 and supporter of all the measures of that 
 
 assembly which tended to add dignity to 
 the Craft, and in all the Lodges in which 
 his name was enrolled, which were very 
 numerous, he enforced a due obedience to 
 the laws and regulations of that body. By 
 these means the subscriptions to the charity 
 became much more considerable ; and daily 
 acquisitions to the society were made of 
 some of the most eminent and distinguished 
 characters. At last he was invited by his 
 friends to visit the Lodge of Antiquity, 
 No. 1, then held at the Mitre Tavern, in 
 Fleet Street, when the brethren of that 
 Lodge were pleased to admit him a mem- 
 ber, and, what was very unusual, elected 
 him at the same meeting. 
 
 He had been Master of the Philanthropic 
 Lodge at the Queen's Head, Gray's-inn- 
 gate, Holborn, above six years, and of 
 several other Lodges before that time. But 
 he was now taught to consider the impor- 
 tance of the first Master under the English 
 Constitution ; and he seemed to regret that 
 some eminent character in the walks of 
 life had not been selected to support so 
 distinguished a station. Indeed, this too 
 small consideration of his own importance 
 pervaded his conduct on all occasions; 
 and he was frequently seen voluntarily 
 to assume the subordinate offices of an as- 
 sembly, over which he had long presided, 
 on occasions where, from the absence of the 
 proper persons, he had conceived that his 
 services would promote the purposes of the 
 meeting. 
 
 To the Lodge of Antiquity he now began 
 chiefly to confine his attention, and during 
 his Mastership, which continued for some 
 years, the Lodge increased in numbers and 
 improved in its finances. 
 
 That he might obtain a complete knowl- 
 edge of the state of the society under the 
 English Constitution, he became an active 
 member of the Grand Lodge, was admit- 
 ted a member of the hall committee, and 
 during the secretaryship of Mr. Thomas 
 French, under the auspices of the Duke of 
 Beaufort, then Grand Master, had become 
 a useful assistant in arranging the general 
 regulations of the society, and reviving the 
 foreign and country correspondence. Hav- 
 ing been appointed to the office of Deputy 
 Grand Secretary under James Heseltiue, 
 Esq., he compiled, for the benefit of the 
 charity, the History of Remarkable Occur- 
 rences, inserted in the first two publications 
 of the Freemasons' Calendar; prepared for 
 the press an Appendix to the Book of Con- 
 stitutions, and attended so much to the cor- 
 respondence with the different Lodges as to 
 merit the approbation of his patron. This 
 enabled him, from the various memoranda 
 he had made, to form the History of Ma- 
 sonry, which was afterwards printed in his 
 
600 
 
 PRESTON 
 
 PRESTON 
 
 Illustrations. The office of Deputy Grand 
 Secretary he afterwards resigned. 
 
 An unfortunate dispute having arisen in 
 the society in 1779, between the Grand 
 Lodge and the Lodge of Antiquity, in which 
 Mr. Preston took the part of the Lodge and 
 his private friends, his name was ordered 
 to be erased from the hall committee ; and 
 he was afterwards, with a number of gen- 
 tlemen, members of that Lodge, expelled. 
 
 The treatment he and his friends received 
 at that time was circumstantially narrated 
 in a well-written pamphlet, printed by 
 Mr. Preston at his own expense, and cir- 
 culated among his friends, but never pub- 
 lished, and the leading circumstances were 
 recorded in some of the later editions of 
 the Illustrations of Masonry. Ten years 
 afterwards, however, on a reinvestigation 
 of the subject in dispute, the Grand Lodge 
 was pleased to reinstate Mr. Preston, with 
 all the other members of the Lodge of An- 
 tiquity, and that in the most handsome 
 manner, at the grand feast in 1790, to the 
 general satisfaction of the Fraternity. 
 
 During Mr. Preston's exclusion, he sel- 
 dom or never attended any of the Lodges, 
 though he was actually an enrolled mem- 
 ber of a great many Lodges at home and 
 abroad, all of which he politely resigned 
 at the time of his suspension, and di- 
 rected his attention to his other literary 
 pursuits, which may fairly be supposed to 
 have contributed more to the advantage of 
 his fortune. 
 
 So much of the life of Preston we get 
 from the interesting sketch of Stephen 
 Jones. To other sources we must look for 
 a further elucidation of some of the circum- 
 stances which he has so concisely related. 
 
 The expulsion of such a man as Preston 
 from the Order was a disgrace to the Grand 
 Lodge which inflicted it. It was, to use 
 the language of Oliver, who himself, in 
 aftertimes, had undergone a similar act 
 of injustice, " a very ungrateful and inade- 
 quate return for his services." 
 
 The story was briefly this : It had been 
 determined by the brethren of the Lodge of 
 Antiquity, held on December 17, 1777, that 
 at the annual festival on St. John's day, a 
 procession should be formed to St. Dun- 
 stan's Church, a few steps only from the 
 tavern where the Lodge was held ; a protest 
 of a few of the members was entered against 
 it on the day of the festival. In conse- 
 quence of this only ten members attended, 
 who, having clothed themselves as Masons 
 in the vestry room, sat in the same pew and 
 heard a sermon, after which they crossed 
 the street in their gloves and aprons to re- 
 turn to the Lodge room. At the next meet- 
 ing of the Lodge, a motion was made to re- 
 pudiate this act; and while speaking against 
 
 it, Mr. Preston asserted the inherent privi- 
 leges of the Lodge of Antiquity, which, not 
 working under a Warrant of the Grand 
 Lodge, was, in his opinion, not subject in 
 the matter of processions to the regulations 
 of the Grand Lodge. It was for maintain- 
 ing this opinion, which, whether right or 
 wrong, was after all only an opinion, Pres- 
 ton was, under circumstances which exhib- 
 ited neither magnanimity nor dignity on 
 the part of the Grand Lodge, expelled from 
 the Order. One of the unhappy results of 
 this act of oppression was that the Lodge 
 of Antiquity severed itself from the Grand 
 Lodge, and united with the Grand Lodge 
 at York, and Preston withdrew from all 
 share in the concerns of Masonry. 
 
 But ten years afterwards, in 1787, the 
 Grand Lodge saw the error it had com- 
 mitted, and Preston was restored with all 
 his honors and dignities. And now, while 
 the name of Preston is known and revered 
 by all who value Masonic learning, the 
 names of all his bitter enemies, with the 
 exception of Noorthouck, have sunk into a 
 well-deserved oblivion. 
 
 Preston had no sooner been restored to 
 his Masonic rights than he resumed his la- 
 bors for the advancement of the Order. In 
 1787 he organized the Order of Harodim, a 
 society in which it was intended to thor- 
 oughly teach the lectures which he had pre- 
 pared. Of this Order some of the most dis- 
 tinguished Masons of the day became mem- 
 bers, and it is said to have produced great 
 benefits by its well-devised plan of Masonic 
 instruction. 
 
 But William Preston is best known to 
 us by his invaluable work entitled Illustra- 
 tions of Masonry. The first edition of this 
 work was published in 1772. Although it 
 is spoken of in some resolutions of a Lodge, 
 published in the second edition, as "a very 
 ingenious and elegant pamphlet," it was 
 really a work of some size, consisting, in its 
 introduction and text, of 288 pages. It con- 
 tained an account of the " grand gala," or 
 banquet, given by the author to the Frater- 
 nity in May, 1772, when he first proposed 
 his system of lectures. This account was 
 omitted in the second and all subsequent 
 editions "to make room for more useful 
 matter." The second edition, enlarged to 
 324 pages, was published in 1775, and this 
 was followed by others 1776, 1781, 1788, 1792, 
 1799, 1801, and 1812. There must have been 
 three other editions, of which I can find no 
 account in the bibliographies, for Wilkie 
 calls his 1801 edition the tenth, and the 
 edition of 1812, the last published by the 
 author, is called the twelfth. The thirteenth 
 and fourteenth editions were published after 
 the author's death, with additions — the 
 former by Stephen Jones in 1821, and the 
 
PRETENDER 
 
 PRICE 
 
 601 
 
 latter by Dr. Oliver in 1829. Other Eng- 
 lish editions have been subsequently pub- 
 lished. The work was translated into Ger- 
 man, and two editions published, one in 
 1776 and the other in 1780. In America, 
 two editions were published in 1804, one at 
 Alexandria, in Virginia, and the other, 
 with numerous important additions, by 
 George Richards, at Portsmouth, New 
 Hampshire. Both claim, on the title-page, 
 to be the "first American edition;" and it 
 is probable that both works were pub- 
 lished by their respective editors about 
 the same time, and while neither had any 
 knowledge of the existence of a rival copy. 
 
 Preston died, after a long illness, in Dean 
 Street, Fetter Lane, London, on April 1st, 
 1818, at the age of seventy-six, and was 
 buried in St. Paul's Cathedral. In the 
 latter years of his life he seems to have taken 
 no active public part in Masonry, for in 
 the very full account of the proceedings at 
 the union in 1813 of the two Grand Lodges, 
 his name does not appear as one of the 
 actors, and his system was then ruthlessly 
 surrendered to the newer but not better 
 one of Dr. Hemming. But he had not lost 
 his interest in the Institution which he had 
 served so well and so long, and by which 
 he had been so illy requited. For he be- 
 queathed at his death £300 in the consols, 
 the interest of which was to provide for 
 the annual delivery of a lecture according 
 to his system. He also left £500 to the 
 Royal Freemasons' Charity, for female 
 children, and a like sum to the General 
 Charity Fund of the Grand Lodge. He 
 was never married, and left behind him 
 only his name as a great Masonic teacher 
 and the memory of his services to the 
 Craft. Jones' edition of his Illustrations 
 contains an excellently engraved likeness 
 of him by Ridley, from an original portrait 
 said to be by S. Drummond, Royal Acade- 
 mician. There is an earlier engraved like- 
 ness of him in the Freemasons' Magazine 
 for 1795, from a painting known to be by 
 Drummond, and taken in 1794. They pre- 
 sent the differences of features which may 
 naturally be ascribed to a lapse of twenty- 
 six years. The latter print is said, by 
 those who personally knew him, to be an 
 excellent likeness. 
 
 Pretender. James Stuart, the son 
 of James II., who abdicated the throne of 
 Great Britain, and Charles Edward, his 
 son, are known in history as the Old and the 
 Young Pretender. Their intrigues with 
 Masonry, which they are accused of at- 
 tempting to use as an instrument to aid in 
 a restoration to the throne, constitute a 
 very interesting episode in the histqry of 
 the Order. See Stuart Masonry. 
 
 Previous Question. A parliamen- 
 4A 
 
 tary motion intended to suppress debate. 
 It is utterly unknown in the parliamentary 
 law of Masonry, and it would be always 
 out of order to move it in a Masonic body. 
 
 Priehard, Samuel. " An unprin- 
 cipled and needy brother," as Oliver calls 
 him, who published at London, in 1730, a 
 book with the folllowing title : " Masonry 
 Dissected; being a Universal and Genuine 
 Description of all its Branches, from the 
 Original to this Present Time : as it is deliv- 
 ered in the constituted, regular Lodges, 
 both in City and Country, according to the 
 several Degrees of Admission ; giving an 
 impartial account of their regular Proceed- 
 ings in initiating their New Members in 
 the whole Three Degrees of Masonry, viz., 
 I. Entered Prentice; II. Fellow Craft; III. 
 Master. To which is added, The Author's 
 Vindication of Himself, by Samuel Priehard, 
 Late Member of a constituted Lodge." This 
 work, which contained a great deal of plau- 
 sible matter, mingled with some truth as 
 well as falsehood, passed through a great 
 many editions, was translated into the 
 French, German, and Dutch languages, and 
 became the basis or model on which all the 
 subsequent so-called expositions, such as 
 Tubal- Cain, Jachin and Boaz, etc., were 
 framed. In the same year of the appear- 
 ance of Prichard's book, Dr. Anderson pub- 
 lished a Defence of Masonry, as a reply 
 to the Masonry Dissected. This pamphlet 
 was the first work of any value that had ap- 
 peared from the Masonic press, and does 
 infinitely more credit to Anderson's genius 
 and learning than the Constitutions, which 
 he had published seven years before. It 
 is not, however, a reply to Priehard, but 
 rather an attempt to interpret the ceremo- 
 nies which are described in the Masonry Dis- 
 sected in their symbolic import, and this it 
 is that gives to the Defence a value which 
 ought to have made it a more popular work 
 among the Fraternity than it is. Priehard 
 died, as I suppose he had lived, in ob- 
 scurity ; but the Abb6 Larudan, in his Franc- 
 Macons ecrases, (p. 135), has manufactured 
 a wild tale about his death ; stating that he 
 was carried by force at night into the 
 Grand Lodge at London, put to death, his 
 body burned to ashes, and all the Lodges 
 in the world informed of the execution. 
 The Abb6 is satisfied of the truth of this 
 wondrous narrative because he had heard 
 it told in Holland and in Germany, all of 
 which only proves that the French calum- 
 niator of Masonry abounded either in an 
 inventive faculty or in a trusting faith. 
 
 Price, Henry. He received a Depu- 
 tation as Provincial Grand Master of New 
 England, which was issued on April 30, 
 1733, by Viscount Montague, Grand Master 
 of England. On the 30th of the following 
 
602 
 
 PRIEST 
 
 PRIMITIVE 
 
 July, Price organized a Provincial Grand 
 Lodge ; and he may thus be considered as 
 the founder of Masonry in New England. 
 He was born in England about the year 
 1697, and died in Massachusetts in 1780. 
 A very able memoir of Price, by Bro. Wil- 
 liam Sewell Gardner, will be found in the 
 Proceedings of the Grand Lodge of Massa- 
 chusetts for the year 1871. 
 
 Priest. In the primitive ages of the 
 world every father was the priest of his 
 family, and offered prayer and sacrifice for 
 his household. So, too, the patriarchs ex- 
 ercised the same function. Melchizedek 
 is called "the priest of the most high 
 God;" and everywhere in Scripture we find 
 the patriarchs performing the duties of 
 prayer and sacrifice. But when political 
 society was organized, a necessity was 
 found, in the religious wants of the people, 
 for a separate class, who should become, as 
 they have been described, the mediators 
 between men and God, and the interpreters 
 of the will of the gods to men. Hence 
 arose the sacerdotal class — the cohen among 
 the Hebrews, the hiereus among the Greeks, 
 and the sacerdos among the Romans. There- 
 after prayer and sacrifice were intrusted to 
 these, and the people paid them reverence 
 for the sake of the deities whom they 
 served. Ever since, in all countries, the 
 distinction has existed between the priest 
 and the layman, as representatives of two 
 distinct classes. 
 
 But Masonry has preserved in its reli- 
 gious ceremonies, as in many of its other 
 usages, the patriarchal spirit. Hence the 
 Master of the Lodge, like the father of a 
 primitive family, on all occasions offers 
 up prayer and serves at the altar. A chap- 
 lain is sometimes, through courtesy, invited 
 to perform the former duty, but the Master 
 is really the priest of the Lodge. 
 
 Having then such solemn duties to dis- 
 charge, and sometimes, as on funereal occa- 
 sions, in public, it becomes every Master 
 so to conduct his life and conversation as 
 not, by contrast, to make his ministration 
 of a sacred office repulsive to those who see 
 and hear him, and especially to profanes. 
 It is not absolutely required that he should 
 be a religious man, resembling the clergy- 
 man in seriousness of deportment ; but in 
 his behavior he should be an example of 
 respect for religion. He who at one time 
 drinks to intoxication, or indulges in pro- 
 fane swearing, or obscene and vulgar lan- 
 guage, is unfit at any other time to conduct 
 the religious services of a society. Such a 
 Master could inspire the members of his 
 Lodge with no respect for the ceremonies 
 he was conducting; and if the occasion 
 was a public one, as at the burial of a 
 brother, the circumstance would subject the 
 
 Order which could tolerate such an incon- 
 gruous exhibition to contempt and ridi- 
 cule. 
 
 Priest, Grand High. See Grand 
 High Priest. 
 
 Priest, High. See High Priest. 
 
 Priesthood, Order of High. See 
 High Priesthood, Order of. 
 
 Priestly Order. A Rite which Bro. 
 John Yarker, of Manchester, says (Myst. of 
 Antiq., p. 126,) was formerly practised in 
 Ireland, and formed the system of the York 
 Grand Lodge. It consisted of seven de- 
 grees, as follows : 1. 2. 3. Symbolic degrees ; 
 4. Past Master; 5. Royal Arch ; 6. Knight 
 Templar; 7. Knight Templar Priest, or 
 Holy Wisdom. The last degree was called 
 a Tabernacle, and was governed by seven 
 " Pillars." Bro. Hughan {Hist, of Freem. 
 in York, p. 32,) doubts the York origin of 
 the Priestly Order, as well as the claim it 
 made to have been revived in 1786. It is 
 now obsolete. 
 
 Priest, Royal. The fifth degree of 
 the Initiated Brothers of Asia. 
 
 Priest Theosophist. Thory says 
 that it is the sixth degree of the Kabbalistic 
 Rite. 
 
 Primitive Freemasonry. The 
 Primitive Freemasonry of the antedilu- 
 vians is a term for which we are indebted 
 to Oliver, although the theory was broached 
 by earlier writers, and among them by the 
 Chevalier Ramsay. The theory is, that 
 the principles and doctrines of" Freema- 
 sonry existed in the earliest ages of the 
 world, and were believed and practised by 
 a primitive people, or priesthood, under 
 the name of Pure or Primitive Freema- 
 sonry ; and that this Freemasonry, that is to 
 say, the religious doctrine inculcated by it, 
 was, after the flood, corrupted by the Pagan 
 philosophers and priests, and, receiving the 
 title of Spurious Freemasonry, was exhibited 
 in the Ancient Mysteries. The Noachidae, 
 however, preserved the principles of the 
 Primitive Freemasonry, and transmitted 
 them to succeeding ages, when at length 
 they assumed the name of Speculative Ma- 
 sonry. The Primitive Freemasonry was 
 probably without ritual or symbolism, and 
 consisted only of a series of abstract proposi- 
 tions derived from antediluvian traditions. 
 Its dogmas were the unity of God and the 
 immortality of the soul. Dr. Oliver, who 
 gave this system its name, describes it 
 (Hist. Landm., i., p. 61,) in the following 
 language. " It included a code of simple 
 morals. It assured men that they who 
 did well would be approved of God ; and 
 if they followed evil courses, sin would be 
 imputed to them, and they would thus be- 
 come subject to punishment. It detailed 
 the reasons why the seventh day was con- 
 
PRIMITIVE 
 
 PRIMITIVE 
 
 603 
 
 secrated and set apart as a Sabbath, or day 
 of rest ; and showed why the bitter conse- 
 quences of sin were visited upon our first 
 parents, as a practical lesson that it ought 
 to be avoided. But the great object of this 
 Primitive Freemasonry was to preserve 
 and cherish the promise of a Redeemer, 
 who should provide a remedy for the evil 
 that their transgression had introduced 
 into the world, when the appointed time 
 should come." 
 
 In his History of Initiation he makes the 
 supposition that the ceremonies of this 
 Primitive Freemasonry would be few and 
 unostentatious, and consist, perhaps, like 
 that of admission into Christianity, of a 
 simple lustration, conferred alike on all, in 
 the hope that they would practise the 
 social duties of benevolence and good-will 
 to man, and unsophisticated devotion to 
 God. 
 
 He does not, however, admit that the 
 system of Primitive Freemasonry consisted 
 only of those tenets which are to be found 
 in the first chapters of Genesis, or that he 
 intends, in his definition of this science, to 
 embrace so general and indefinite a scope 
 of all the principles of truth and light, as 
 Preston has done in his declaration, that 
 "from the commencement of the world, we 
 may trace the foundation of Masonry." 
 On the contrary, Oliver supposes that this 
 Primitive Freemasonry included a partic- 
 ular and definite system, made up of le- 
 gends and symbols, and confined to those 
 who were initiated into its mysteries. The 
 knowledge of these mysteries was of course 
 communicated by God himself to Adam, 
 and from him traditionally received by his 
 descendants, throughout the patriarchal line. 
 
 This view of Oliver is substantiated by 
 the remarks of Rosenberg, a learned French 
 Mason, in an article in the Freemasons' 
 Quarterly Review, on the Book of Raziel, an 
 ancient Kabbalistic work, whose subject is 
 these divine mysteries. " This book," says 
 Rosenberg, " informs us that Adam was the 
 first to receive these mysteries. Afterwards, 
 when driven out of Paradise, he communi- 
 cated them to his son Seth ; Seth communi- 
 cated them to Enoch ; Enoch to Methuselah; 
 Methuselah to Lamech ; Lamech to Noah ; 
 Noah to Shem ; Shem to Abraham ; Abra- 
 ham to Isaac ; Isaac to Jacob ; Jacob to 
 Levi ; Levi to Kelhoth ; Kelhoth to Amram ; 
 Amram to Moses ; Moses to Joshua ; Joshua 
 to the Elders ; the Elders to the Prophets ; 
 the Prophets to the Wise Men ; and then 
 from one to another down to Solomon." 
 
 Such, then, was the Pure or Primitive 
 Freemasonry, the first system of mysteries 
 which, according to modern Masonic writ- 
 ers of the school of Oliver, has descended, 
 of course with various modifications, from 
 
 age to age, in a direct and uninterrupted 
 line, to the Freemasons of the present day. 
 
 The theory is an attractive one, and may 
 be qualifiediy adopted, if we may accept 
 what appears to have been the doctrine of 
 Anderson, of Hutchinson, of Preston, and 
 of Oliver, that the purer theosophic tenets 
 of "the chosen people of God" were simi- 
 lar to those subsequently inculcated in Ma- 
 sonry, and distinguished from the corrupted 
 teaching of the Pagan religions as devel- 
 oped in the mysteries. But if we attempt 
 to contend that there was among the Pa- 
 triarchs any esoteric organization at all re- 
 sembling the modern system of Freema- 
 sonry, we shall find no historical data on 
 which we may rely for support. 
 
 Primitive Rite. This Rite was 
 founded at Narbonne, in France, on April 
 19, 1780, by the pretended " Superiors of 
 the Order of Free and Accepted Masons." 
 It was attached to the Lodge of the Phila- 
 delphes, under the title of the " First Lodge 
 of St. John united to the Primitive Rite 
 for the country of France." Hence it is 
 sometimes called the Primitive Rite of Nar- 
 bonne, and sometimes the Rite of the Phila- 
 delphes. It was divided into three classes, 
 which comprised ten degrees of instruction. 
 These were not, in the usual sense, degrees, 
 but rather collections of grades, out of 
 which it was sought to develop all the in- 
 structions of which they were capable. 
 These classes and degrees were as follows : 
 
 First Class. 1. Apprentice. 2. Fellow 
 Craft. 3. Master Mason. These were con- 
 formable to the same degrees in all the 
 other Rites. 
 
 Second Class. 4th degree, comprising 
 Perfect Master, Elu, and Architect. 5th 
 degree, comprising the Sublime Ecossais. 
 6th degree, comprising the Knight of the 
 Sword, Knight of the East, and Prince of 
 i^nisjil pin 
 
 Third Class. 7. The First Chapter of 
 Rose Croix, comprising ritual instructions. 
 8. The Second Chapter of Rose Croix. It 
 is the depository of historical documents 
 of rare value. 9. The Third Chapter of 
 Rose Croix, comprising physical and philo- 
 sophical instructions. 10. The Fourth and 
 last Chapter of Rose Croix, or Rose Croix 
 Brethren of the Grand Rosary, engaged in 
 researches into the occult sciences, the ob- 
 ject being the rehabilitation and reintegra- 
 tion of man in his primitive rank and pre- 
 rogatives. The Primitive Rite was united 
 to the Grand Orient in 1786, although some 
 of its Lodges, objecting to the union, main- 
 tained their independence. It secured, at 
 one time, a high consideration among 
 French Masons, not only on account of the 
 objects in which it was engaged, but on ac- 
 count also of the talents and position of 
 
604 
 
 PRIMITIVE 
 
 PRINCE 
 
 many of its members. But it is no longer 
 practised. 
 
 Primitive Scottish Rite. This 
 Rite claims to have been established in 
 1770, at Namur, in Belgium, by a body 
 called the Metropolitan Grand Lodge of 
 Edinburgh. But the truth, according to 
 Clavel, {Hist. Pitt., p. 220,) is that it was 
 the invention of one Marchot, an advocate 
 of Nivelles, who organized it in 1818, at 
 Namur, beyond which city, and the Lodge 
 of "Bonne Amitie," it scarcely ever ex- 
 tended. It consists of thirty-three degrees, 
 as follows: 1. Apprentice; 2. Fellow Craft; 
 3. Master ; 4. Perfect Master ; 5. Irish Mas- 
 ter ; 6. Elect of Nine ; 7. Elect of the Un- 
 known; 8. Elect of Fifteen; 9. Illustrious 
 Master; 10. Perfect Elect; 11. Minor Archi- 
 tect; 12. Grand Architect; 13. Sublime 
 Architect ; 14. Master in Perfect Architec- 
 ture ; 15. Royal Arch ; 16. Prussian Knight ; 
 17. Knight of the East; 18. Prince of Jeru- 
 salem ; 19. Master of All Lodges ; 20. Knight 
 of the West; 21. Knight of Palestine ; 22. 
 Sovereign Prince of Rose Croix; 23. Sub- 
 lime Scottish Mason; 24. Knight of the 
 Sun ; 25. Grand Scottish Mason of St. An- 
 drew ; 26. Master of the Secret ; 27. Knight 
 
 of the Black Eagle ; 28. Knight of K H ; 
 
 29. Grand Elect of Truth ; 30. Novice of the 
 Interior; 31. Knight of the Interior; 32. 
 Prefect of the Interior ; 33. Commander of 
 the Interior. The Primitive Scottish Rite 
 appears to have been founded upon the 
 Rite of Perfection, with an intermixture 
 of the Strict Observance of Hund, the 
 Adonhiramite, and some other Rites. 
 
 Prince. The word Prince is not at- 
 tached as a title to any Masonic office, but 
 is prefixed as a part of the name to several 
 degrees, as Prince of the Royal Secret, 
 Prince of Rose Croix, and Prince of Jeru- 
 salem. In all of these instances it seems 
 to convey some idea of sovereignty inher- 
 ent in the character of the degree. Thus 
 the Prince of the Royal Secret was the ul- 
 timate, and, of course, controlling degree 
 of the Rite of Perfection, whence, shorn, 
 however, of its sovereignty, it has been 
 transferred to the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. The Prince of Rose Croix, al- 
 though holding in some Rites a subordinate 
 position, was originally an independent de- 
 gree, and the representative of Rosicrucian 
 Masonry. It is still at the head of the 
 French Rite. The Princes of Jerusalem, 
 according to the Old Constitutions of the 
 Rite of Perfection, were invested with 
 power of jurisdiction over all degrees below 
 the sixteenth, a prerogative which they ex- 
 ercised long after the promulgation of the 
 Constitutions of 1786 ; and even now they 
 are called, in the ritual of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite, "Chiefs in Masonry," a 
 
 term borrowed from the Constitutions of 
 1762. But there are several other Prince 
 degrees which do not seem, at least now, to 
 claim any character of sovereignty — such 
 are the Prince of Lebanon, Prince of the 
 Tabernacle, and Prince of Mercy, all of 
 which are now subordinate degrees in the 
 Scottish Rite. 
 
 Prince Adept. See Adept, Prince. 
 
 Prince Depositor, Grand. 
 (Grand Prince Depositaire.) A degree in 
 the collection of Pyron. 
 
 Prince Mason. A term applied in 
 the Old Scottish Rite Constitutions to the 
 possessors of the high degrees above the 
 fourteenth. It was first assumed by the 
 Council of the Emperors of the East and 
 West. 
 
 Prince of Jerusalem. (Prince de 
 Jerusalem.) This was the sixteenth degree 
 of the Rite of Perfection, whence it was 
 transferred to the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite, where it occupies the same 
 numerical position. Its legend is founded 
 on certain incidents which took place dur- 
 ing the rebuilding of the second Temple, 
 when the Jews were so much incommoded 
 by the attacks of the Samaritans and other 
 neighboring nations, that an embassy was 
 sent to King Darius to implore his favor 
 and protection, which was accordingly ob- 
 tained. This legend, as developed in the 
 degree, is contained neither in Ezra nor in 
 the apocryphal books of Esdras. It is 
 found only in the Antiquities of Josephus, 
 (lib. xi., cap. iv., sec. 9,) and thence there 
 is the strongest internal evidence to show 
 that it was derived by the inventor of the 
 degree. Who that inventor was we can 
 only conjecture. But as we have the state- 
 ments of both Ragon and Kloss that the 
 Baron de Tschoudy composed the degree 
 of Knight of the East, and as that degree 
 is the first section of the system of which 
 the Prince of Jerusalem is the second, we 
 may reasonably suppose that the latter was 
 also composed by him. The degree being 
 one of those adopted by the Emperors of 
 the East and West in their system, which 
 Stephen Morin was authorized to propa- 
 gate in America, it was introduced into 
 America long before the establishment of 
 the Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite. 
 A Council was established by Henry A. 
 Francken, about 1767, at Albany, in the 
 State of New York, and a Grand Council 
 organized by Myers, in 1788, in Charleston, 
 South Carolina. This body exercised sov- 
 ereign powers even after the establishment 
 of the Supreme Council, which was May 
 31, 1801, for, in 1802, it granted a Warrant 
 for the establishment of a Mark Lodge in 
 Charleston, and another in the same year, 
 for a Lodge of Perfection, in Savannah, 
 
PRINCE 
 
 PRINCE 
 
 605 
 
 Georgia. But under the present regula- 
 tions of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite, this prerogative has been abolished, 
 and Grand Councils of Princes of Jerusa- 
 lem no longer exist. The old regulation, 
 that the Master of a Lodge of Perfection 
 must be at least a Prince of Jerusalem, 
 which was contained in the Constitution 
 of the Grand Council, has also been re- 
 pealed, together with most of the privileges 
 which formerly appertained to the degree. 
 A decision of the Supreme Council, in 1870, 
 has even obliterated Councils of the Princes 
 of Jerusalem as a separate organization, 
 authorized to confer the preliminary degree 
 of Knights of the East, and placed such 
 Councils within the bosom of Rose Croix 
 Chapters, a provision of which, as a mani- 
 fest innovation on the ancient system, the 
 expediency, or at least the propriety, may 
 be greatly doubted. 
 
 Bodies of this degree are called Councils. 
 According to the old rituals, the officers 
 were a Most Equitable, a Senior and Junior 
 Most Enlightened, a Grand Treasurer, and 
 Grand Secretary. The more recent ritual 
 of the Southern Jurisdiction of the United 
 States has substituted for these a Most 
 Illustrious Tarshatha, a Most Venerable 
 High Priest, a Most Excellent Scribe, two 
 Most Enlightened Wardens, and other 
 officers. Yellow is the symbolic color of 
 the degree, and the apron is crimson, (for- 
 merly white,) lined and bordered with yel- 
 low. The jewel is a medal of gold, on one 
 side of which is inscribed a hand holding 
 an equally poised balance, and on the other 
 a double-edged, cross-hilted sword erect, 
 between three stars around the point, and 
 the letters D and Z on each side. 
 
 The Prince of Jerusalem is also the fifty- 
 third degree of the Metropolitan Chapter 
 of France, and the forty-fifth of the Rite 
 of Mizraim. 
 
 Prince of Lebanon. See Knight 
 of the Royal Axe. 
 
 Prince of Libanus. Another title 
 for Prince of Lebanon. 
 
 Prince of Mercy. {Prince du Merci.) 
 The twenty-sixth degree of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite, called also 
 Scottish Trinitarian or Ecossais Trinitaire. It 
 is one of the eight degrees which were 
 added on the organization of the Scottish 
 Rite to the original twenty-five of the Rite 
 of Perfection. 
 
 It is a Christian degree in its construc- 
 tion, and treats of the triple covenant of 
 mercy which God made with man; first 
 with Abraham by circumcision ; next, 
 with the Israelites in the wilderness, by 
 the intermediation of Moses; and lastly, 
 with all mankind, by the death and suffer- 
 ings of Jesus Christ. It is in allusion to 
 
 these three acts of mercy, that the degree de- 
 rives its two names of Scottish Trinitarian 
 and Prince of Mercy, and not, as Ragon 
 supposes, from any reference to the Fathers 
 of Mercy, a religious society formerly en- 
 gaged in the ransoming of Christian cap- 
 tives at Algiers. Chemin Dupontes {Mem. 
 Sur VEco8S, p. 373,) says that the Scottish 
 rituals of the degree are too full of the 
 Hermetic philosophy, an error from which 
 the French Cahiers are exempt; and he con- 
 demns much of its doctrines as " hyper- 
 bolique plaisanterie." But the modern 
 rituals as now practised are obnoxious to 
 no such objection. The symbolic develop- 
 ment of the number three of course consti- 
 tutes a large part of its lecture ; but the real 
 dogma of the degree is the importance of 
 Truth, and to this all its ceremonies are 
 directed. 
 
 Bodies of the degree are called Chapters. 
 The presiding officer is called Most Excel- 
 lent Chief Prince, the Wardens are styled 
 Excellent. In the old rituals these officers 
 represented Moses, Aaron, and Eleazar; 
 but the abandonment of these personations 
 in the modern rituals is, I think, an im- 
 provement. The apron is red bordered 
 with white, and the jewel, an equilateral 
 triangle, within which is a heart. This 
 was formerly inscribed with the Hebrew 
 letter tau, now with the letters I. H. S. ; 
 and, to add to the Christianization which 
 these letters give to the degree, the Ameri- 
 can Councils have adopted a tessera in the 
 form of a small fish of ivory or mother of 
 pearl, in allusion to the well-known usage 
 of the primitive Christians. 
 
 Prince of Rose Croix. See Rose 
 Croix, Prince of. 
 
 Prince of tbe Captivity. Ac- 
 cording to the Talmudists, the Jews, while 
 in captivity at Babylon, kept a genealogi- 
 cal table of the line of their kings, and he 
 who was the rightful heir of the throne of 
 Israel was called the Head or Prince of the 
 Captivity. At the time of the restoration, 
 Zerubbabel, being the lineal descendant of 
 Solomon, was the Prince of the Captivity. 
 
 Prince of tbe East, Grand. 
 {Grand Prince d' Orient.) A degree in the 
 collection of Le Page. 
 
 Prince of the ]Levites. {Prince 
 des Levites.) A degree in the collection of 
 the Lodge of Saint Louis des Amis Reunis 
 at Calais. 
 
 Prince of tbe Royal Secret. 
 See Sublime Prince of the Royal Secret. 
 
 Prince of tbe Seven Planets, 
 Illustrious Grand. {Illustre Grand 
 Prince des sept Planetes.) A degree in the 
 manuscript collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Prince of tbe Tabernacle. 
 ( Prince du Tabernacle. ) The twenty-fourth 
 
606 
 
 PRINCESS 
 
 PRINTED 
 
 degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite. In the old rituals the degree 
 was intended to illustrate the directions 
 given for the building of the tabernacle, 
 the particulars of which are recorded in 
 the twenty- fifth chapter of Exodus. The 
 Lodge is called a Hierarchy, and its officers 
 are a Most Powerful Chief Prince, repre- 
 senting Moses, and three Wardens, whose 
 style is Powerful, and who respectively rep- 
 resent Aaron, Bezaleel, and Aholiab. In 
 the modern rituals of the United States, 
 the three principal officers are called the 
 Leader, the High Priest, and the Priest, 
 and respectively represent Moses, Aaron, 
 and Ithamar, his son. The ritual is greatly 
 enlarged ; and while the main idea of the 
 degree is retained, the ceremonies represent 
 the initiation into the mysteries of the 
 Mosaic tabernacle. 
 
 The jewel is the letter A, in gold, sus- 
 pended from a broad crimson ribbon. The 
 apron is white, lined with scarlet and bor- 
 dered with green. The flap is sky-blue. 
 On the apron is depicted a representation 
 of the tabernacle. 
 
 This degree appears to be peculiar to the 
 Scottish Rite and its modifications. I 
 have not met with it in any of the other 
 Rites. 
 
 Princess of the Crown. (Prin- 
 cesse de la Couronne.) The tenth and last 
 degree of the Masonry of Adoption accord- 
 ing to the French regime. The degree, 
 which is said to have been composed in 
 Saxony, in 1770, represents the reception 
 of the Queen of Sheba by King Solomon. 
 The Grand Master and Grand Mistress per- 
 sonate Solomon and his wife, (which one, 
 the Cahier does not say,) and the recipien- 
 dary plays the part of the Queen of Sheba. 
 The degree, says Ragon, ( Tail. Gen., p. 78,) 
 is not initiatory, but simply honorary. 
 
 Principal Officers. The number 
 three, as a sacred number in the Masonic 
 system, is, among many other ways, devel- 
 oped in the fact that in all Masonic bodies 
 there, are three principal officers. 
 
 Principals. The three presiding offi- 
 cers in a Chapter of Royal Arch Masons, 
 according to the system practised in Eng- 
 land, are called the Three Principals, or 
 King, Prophet, and Priest, and, under the 
 titles of Z., H., and J., represent Zerubba- 
 bel, Haggai, and Joshua. No person is 
 eligible to the First Principal's chair unless 
 he has served twelve months in each of 
 the others; and he must also be the Master 
 or Past Master of a Lodge, and have served 
 in the Chapter the office of Scribe, So- 
 journer, or Assistant Sojourner. At his 
 installation, each of the Principals receives 
 an installing degree like that of the Master 
 of a Blue Lodge. There is, however, no 
 
 resemblance between any of these degrees 
 and the order of High Priesthood which 
 is conferred in this country. 
 
 The presiding officers of the Grand Chap- 
 ter are called Grand Principals, and repre- 
 sent the same personages. 
 
 The official jewel of Z is a crown ; of H, 
 an All -seeing eye ; and of J, a book, each 
 surrounded by a nimbus, or rays of glory, 
 and placed within an equilateral triangle. 
 
 Principal Sojourner. The He- 
 brew word *"|J, ger, which we translate " a 
 sojourner," signifies a man living out of his 
 own country, and is used in this sense 
 throughout the Old Testament. The chil- 
 dren of Israel were, therefore, during the 
 captivity, sojourners in Babylon, and the 
 person who is represented by this officer, 
 performed, as the incidents of the degree 
 relate, an important part in the restoration 
 of the Israelites to Jerusalem. He was 
 the spokesman and leader of a party of 
 three sojourners, and is, therefore, emphat- 
 ically called the chief, or principal so- 
 journer. 
 
 In the English Royal Arch system there 
 are three officers called Sojourners. But in 
 the American system the three historical 
 sojourners are represented by the candi- 
 dates, while only the supposed chief of 
 them is represented by an officer called the 
 Principal Sojourner. His duties are those 
 of a conductor, and resemble, in some re- 
 spects, those of a Senior Deacon in a Sym- 
 bolic Lodge; which office, indeed, he occu- 
 pies when the Chapter is open on any of 
 the preliminary degrees. 
 
 Printed Proceedings. In 1741, 
 the Grand Lodge of England adopted a 
 regulation, which Entick (Const., p. 236,) 
 is careful to tell us, "was unanimously 
 agreed to," forbidding any brother "to 
 print, or cause to be printed, the proceed- 
 ings of any Lodge or any part thereof, or 
 the names of the persons present at such 
 Lodge, but by the direction of the Grand 
 Master or his deputy, under pain of being 
 disowned for a brother, and not to be ad- 
 mitted into any Quarterly Communication 
 or Grand Lodge, or any Lodge whatsoever, 
 and of being rendered incapable of bearing 
 any office in the Craft." The law has 
 never been repealed, but, on the contrary, 
 its unfortunate spirit of unnecessary reti- 
 cence has been extended, so that the Grand 
 Lodge of England never publishes any rec- 
 ord of its transactions ; and the Craft would 
 be left in ignorance of everything in which 
 it is so much interested, as the legislation 
 of the Order, and the discussions in its 
 parliament, were it not for the enterprise 
 of unofficial reporters. The Grand Lodges 
 of Scotland and Ireland have followed the 
 same course. A different one is jpursued 
 
PRIOR 
 
 PROCESSIONS 
 
 607 
 
 by most of the Grand Lodges of the world. 
 Bulletins are published at stated intervals 
 by the Grand Orients of France, Italy, and 
 Portugal, and by nearly all those of South 
 America. In the United States, every 
 Grand Lodge publishes annually the jour- 
 nal of its proceedings, and many subordi- 
 nate Lodges print the account of any 
 special meeting held on an important or 
 interesting occasion. 
 
 Prior. 1. The superiors of the differ- 
 ent nations or provinces into which the 
 Order of the Templar was divided, were 
 at first called Priors or Grand Priors, and 
 afterwards Preceptors or Grand Preceptors. 
 
 2. Each of the languages of the Order 
 of Malta was divided into Grand Priories, 
 of which there were twenty-six, over which 
 a Grand Prior presided. Under him were 
 several Commanderies. 
 
 3. The second officer in a Council of Ka- 
 dosh, under the Supreme Council for the 
 Southern Jurisdiction of the United States. 
 
 4. The Grand Prior is the third officer 
 in the Supreme Council of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite for the Southern 
 Jurisdiction of the United States. 
 
 Prior, Grand. See Grand Prior. 
 
 Priory. The jurisdiction of a Grand 
 Prior in the Order of Malta or St. John of 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Prison. A Lodge having been held 
 in 1782, in the King's Bench prison, Lon- 
 don, the Grand Lodge of England passed 
 a resolution declaring that " it is incon- 
 sistent with the principles of Masonry 
 for any Freemason's Lodge to be held for 
 the purposes of making, passing, or raising 
 Masons in any prison or place of confine- 
 ment." The resolution is founded on the 
 principle that there must be perfect freedom 
 of action in all that relates to the admis- 
 sion of candidates, and that this freedom 
 is not consistent with the necessary re- 
 straints of a prison. 
 
 Private Committee. See Commit- 
 tee, Private. 
 
 Privileged Questions. In parlia- 
 mentary law, privileged questions are de- 
 fined to be those to which precedence is 
 given over all other questions. They are 
 of four kinds: 1. Those which relate to the 
 rights and privileges of the assembly or any 
 of its members. 2. Motions for adjourn- 
 ment. 3. Motions for reconsideration. 4. 
 Special orders of the day. The first, third, 
 and fourth only are applicable to Masonic 
 parliamentary law. 
 
 Privilege, Questions of. In all 
 parliamentary or legislative bodies, there 
 occur certain questions which relate to 
 matters affecting the dignity of the assem- 
 bly or the rights and privileges of some of 
 its members, and these are hence called 
 
 " questions of privilege; " such, for instance, 
 are motions arising out of or having rela- 
 tion to a quarrel between two of the mem- 
 bers, an assault upon any member, charges 
 affecting the integrity of the assembly or 
 any of its members, or any other matters 
 of a similar character. Questions referring 
 to any of these matters take precedence of 
 all other business, and hence are always in 
 order. These questions of privilege are 
 not to be confounded with privileged ques- 
 tions ; for, although all questions of privi- 
 lege are privileged questions, all privileged 
 questions are not questions of privilege. 
 Strictly speaking, questions of privilege re- 
 late to the house or its members, and 
 Erivileged questions relate to matters of 
 usiness. See the author's Parliamentary 
 Law, as applied to the Government of Ma- 
 sonic Bodies, ch. xxiv., xxv. 
 
 Probation. The interval between the 
 reception of one degree and the succeed- 
 ing one is called the probation of the can- 
 didate, because it is during this period that 
 he is to prove his qualification for advance- 
 ment. In England and in this country the 
 time of probation between the reception of 
 degrees is four weeks, to which is generally 
 added the further safeguard of an open 
 examination in the preceding degree. In 
 France and Germany the probation is ex- 
 tended to one year. The time is greatly 
 extended in the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. The statutes of the Southern 
 Supreme Council require an interval of two 
 years to be passed between the reception of 
 the fourteenth and the thirty-second de- 
 grees. An extraordinary rule prevailed 
 in the Constitutions of 1762, by which the 
 Rite of Perfection was governed. Accord- 
 ing to this rule, a candidate was required 
 to pass a probation, from the time of his 
 application as an Entered Apprentice until 
 his reception of the twenty-fifth or ulti- 
 mate degree of the Rite, of no less than six 
 years and nine months. But as all the 
 separate times of probation depended on 
 symbolic numbers, it is not to be presumed 
 that this regulation was ever practically 
 enforced. 
 
 Problem, Forty - Seventh. See 
 Forty-Seventh Problem. 
 
 Processions. Public processions of 
 the Order, although not as popular as they 
 were some years ago, still have the warrant 
 of early and long usage. The first proces- 
 sion, after the revival, of which we nave a 
 record, took place June 24, 1721, when, as 
 Anderson tells us, (2d ed., p. 112,) " Payne, 
 the Grand Master, with his Wardens, the 
 former Grand officers, and the Masters and 
 Wardens of twelve Lodges, met the Grand 
 Master elect in a Grand Lodge at the 
 King's Arms Tavern, St. Paul's Church- 
 
608 
 
 PROCESSIONS 
 
 PROCLAMATION 
 
 yard, in the morning, .... and from 
 thence they marched on foot to the Hall in 
 proper clothing and due form." Anderson 
 and Entick continue to record the annual 
 processions of the Grand Lodge and the 
 Craft on the feast day, with a few excep- 
 tions, for the next twenty -five years ; but 
 after this first pedestrian procession all the 
 subsequent ones were made in carriages, the 
 unvaried record being, "a procession of 
 march was made in coaches and carriages." 
 But ridicule being thrown by the enemies 
 of the Order upon these processions, by a 
 mock one in 1747, (see Scald Miserables,) 
 in that vear the Grand Lodge unanimously 
 resolved to discontinue them, nor have they 
 since been renewed. 
 
 In this country, public processions of the 
 Craft were some years ago very common, 
 nor have they yet been altogether aban- 
 doned ; although now practised with greater 
 discretion and less frequently, being in 
 general restricted to special occasions of 
 importance, such as funerals, the laying of 
 corner-stones, or the dedication of public 
 edifices. 
 
 The question has been often mooted, 
 whether public processions, with the open 
 exhibition of its regalia and furniture, are 
 or are not of advantage to the Order. In 
 1747 it was thought not to be so, at least in 
 London, but the custom was continued, to 
 a great extent, in the provinces. Dr. Oli- 
 ver was in favor of what he calls {Symb. of 
 Glory,) "the good old custom, so strongly 
 recommended and assiduously practised by 
 the Masonic worthies of the last century, 
 and imitated by many other public bodies 
 of men, of assembling the brethren of a 
 province annually under their own banner, 
 and marching in solemn procession to the 
 house of God, to offer up their thanksgiving 
 in the public congregation for the blessings 
 of the preceding year ; to pray for mercies 
 in prospect, and to hear from the pulpit a 
 disquisition on the moral and religious pur- 
 poses of the Order." 
 
 I confess that I should share the regrets 
 of the venerated Oliver, were public pro- 
 cessions of the Order in this country to be 
 discontinued. I have heard no arguments 
 against them which outweigh the advan- 
 tages to be derived from the impression 
 made on the minds of the spectators, and the 
 wholesome influence exerted on the mem- 
 bers of the brotherhood who thus assemble 
 to pay honor to their Order. 
 
 Processions are not peculiar to the Ma- 
 sonic fraternity. The custom comes to us 
 from remote antiquity. In the initiations 
 at Eleusis, the celebration of the Mysteries 
 was accompanied each day by a solemn 
 procession of the initiates from Athens to 
 the temple of initiation. Apuleius describes 
 
 the same custom as prevailing in the cele- 
 bration of the Mysteries of Isis. Among 
 the early Romans, it was the custom, in 
 times of public triumph or distress, to have 
 solemn processions to the temples, either to 
 thank the gods for their favor or to invoke 
 their protection. The Jews also went in 
 procession to the Temple to offer up their 
 prayers. So, too, the primitive Christians 
 walked in procession to the tombs of the 
 martyrs. Ecclesiastical processions were 
 first introduced in the fourth century. 
 They are now used in the Catholic Church 
 on various occasions, and the Pontificate 
 Romanum supplies the necessary ritual for 
 their observance. In the Middle Ages 
 these processions were often carried to an 
 absurd extent. Polydore describes them as 
 consisting of " ridiculous contrivances, of a 
 figure with a great gaping mouth, and other 
 pieces of merriment." But these displays 
 were abandoned with the increasing refine- 
 ment of the age. At this day, processions 
 are common in all countries, not only of 
 religious confraternities, but of political 
 and social societies. 
 
 There are processions also in Masonry 
 which are confined to the internal concerns 
 of the Order, and are not therefore of a 
 public nature. The procession " round the 
 Hall," at the installation of the Grand 
 Master, is first mentioned in 1721. Pre- 
 vious to that year there is no allusion to 
 any such ceremony. From 1717 to 1720 
 we are simply told that the new Grand 
 Master " was saluted," and that he was 
 " homaged," or that " his health was drunk 
 in due form." But in 1721 a processional 
 ceremony seems to have been composed, for 
 in that year we are informed ( Const. 1738, 
 p. 113,) that "Brother Payne, the old 
 Grand Master, made the first procession 
 round the Hall, and when returned, he pro- 
 claimed aloud the most noble prince and 
 our brother." This procession was not 
 abolished with the public processions in 
 1747, but continued for many years after- 
 wards; although I think not now used in 
 the Grand Lodge of England. In this 
 country it gave rise to the procession at the 
 installation of Masters, which, although 
 provided for by the ritual, and practised by 
 most Lodges until very recently, has been 
 too often neglected by many. The form 
 of the procession, as adopted in 1724, is 
 given by Anderson, (second edition, p. 
 117,) and is almost precisely the same as 
 that used in all Masonic processions at the 
 present day, except funeral ones. The rule 
 was then adopted, which has ever since pre- 
 vailed, that in all processions the juniors 
 in degree and in office shall go first, so that 
 the place of honor shall be the rear. 
 
 Proclamation. At the installation 
 
PROCLAMATION 
 
 PROFICIENCY 
 
 609 
 
 of the officers of a Lodge, or any other Ma- 
 sonic body, and especially a Grand Lodge 
 or Grand Chapter, proclamation is made in 
 a Lodge or Chapter by the installing officer, 
 and in a Grand Lodge or Grand Chapter 
 by the Grand Marshal. Proclamation is 
 also made on some other occasions, and on 
 such occasions the Grand Marshal per- 
 forms the duty. 
 
 Proclamation of Cyrus. A cere- 
 mony in the American Royal Arch. We 
 learn from Scripture that in the first year 
 of Cyrus, the king of Persia, the captivity 
 of the Jews was terminated. Cyrus, from 
 his conversations with Daniel and the 
 other Jewish captives of learning and piety, 
 as well as from his perusal of their sacred ' 
 books, more especially tho prophecies of 
 Isaiah, had become imbued with a knowl- 
 edge of true religion, and hence had even 
 publicly announced to his subjects his be- 
 lief in the God " which the nation of the 
 Israelites worshipped." He was conse- 
 quently impressed with an earnest desire 
 to fulfil the prophetic declarations of 
 which he was the subject, and to rebuild 
 the Temple of Jerusalem. Accordingly, he 
 issued a proclamation, which we find in 
 Ezra, as follows : 
 
 " Thus saith Cyrus, King of Persia, The 
 Lord God of heaven hath given me all the 
 kingdoms of the earth ; and he hath charged 
 me to build him a house at Jerusalem, 
 which is in Judea. Who is there among 
 you of all his people ? his God be with him, 
 and let him go up to Jerusalem, which is 
 in Judea, and build the house of the Lord 
 God of Israel, (he is the God,) which is in 
 Jerusalem." 
 
 With the publication of this proclama- 
 tion of Cyrus commences what may be 
 called the second part of the Royal Arch 
 degree. 
 
 Profane. There is no word whose 
 technical and proper meaning diners more 
 than this. In its ordinary use profane sig- 
 nifies one who is irreligious and irreverent, 
 but in its technical adaptation it is applied 
 to one who is ignorant of sacred rites. The 
 word is compounded of the two Latin words 
 pro and fanum, and literally means before 
 or outside of the temple ; and hence a pro- 
 fanus among the ancients was one who was 
 not allowed to enter the temple and be- 
 hold the mysteries. " Those," says Vos- 
 sius, " were called profane who were not 
 initiated in the sacred rites, but to whom 
 it was allowed only to stand before the 
 temple — profano — not to enter it and 
 take part in the solemnities." The Greek 
 equivalent, BiffyXof, had a similar reference; 
 for its root is found in BqMg, a threshold, 
 as if it denoted one who was not permitted 
 to pass the threshold of the temple. In 
 4 B 39 
 
 the celebrated hymn of Orpheus, which it 
 is said was sung at the Mysteries of Eleusis, 
 we meet with this phrase, ^dey^o/iai olg Qe/uig 
 earl Qv/mg d'tru Qeaffe Beflq/Mtg, " I speak to 
 those to whom it is lawful, but let the doors 
 be closed against the profane." When the 
 mysteries were about to begin, the Greeks 
 used the solemn formula, kdf, snag, iart Be- 
 fir/M ; and the Romans, " Procul, O procul 
 este profani," both meaning, " Depart, de- 
 part, ye profane ! " Hence the original 
 and inoffensive signification of profane is 
 that of being uninitiated ; and it is in this 
 sense that it is used in Masonry, simply to 
 designate one who has not been initiated 
 as a Mason. The word profane is not re- 
 cognized as a noun substantive, in the gen- 
 eral usage of the language, but it has been 
 adopted as a technical term in the dialect 
 of Freemasonry, in the same relative sense 
 in which the word layman is used in the 
 professions of law and divinity. 
 
 Proficiency. The necessity that any 
 one who devotes himself to the acquisition 
 of a science should become a proficient in 
 its elementary instructions before he can 
 expect to grasp and comprehend its higher 
 branches, is so almost self-evident as to 
 need no argument. But as Speculative 
 Masonry is a science, it is equally necessary 
 that a requisite qualification for admission 
 to a higher degree should be a suitable pro- 
 ficiency in the preceding one. It is true, 
 that we do not find in express words in the 
 Old Constitutions any regulations requir- 
 ing proficiency as preliminary to advance- 
 ment, but their whole spirit is evidently to 
 that effect; and hence we find it prescribed 
 in the Old Constitutions, that no Master 
 shall take an apprentice for less than seven 
 years, because it was expected that he 
 should acquire a competent knowledge of 
 the mystery before he could be admitted as 
 a Fellow. The modern Constitution of the 
 Grand Lodge of England provides that no 
 Lodge shall confer a higher degree on any 
 brother until he has passed an examination 
 in open Lodge on the preceding degrees, 
 and many, perhaps most, of the Grand 
 Lodges of this country have adopted a sim- 
 ilar regulation. The ritual of all the sym- 
 bolic degrees, and, indeed, of the higher 
 degrees, and that too in all rites, makes 
 the imperative demand of every candidate 
 whether he has made suitable proficiency 
 in the preceding degree, an affirmative an- 
 swer to which is required before the rites 
 of initiation can be proceeded with. This 
 answer is, according to the ritual, that " he 
 has ; " but some Masons have sought to 
 evade the consequence of an acknowledg- 
 ment of ignorance and want of proficiency 
 by a change of the language of the ritual 
 into "such as time and circumstances 
 
610 
 
 PRO 
 
 PROGRESSIVE 
 
 would permit." But this is an innovation, 
 unsanctioned by any authority, and should 
 be repudiated. If the candidate has not 
 made proper proficiency, the ritual, outside 
 of all statutory regulations, refuses him 
 advancement. 
 
 Anderson, in the second edition of his 
 Constitutions, (p. 71,) cites what he calls 
 "an old record," which says that in the 
 reign of Edward the Third of England it 
 was ordained " that such as were to be ad- 
 mitted Master Masons, or Masters of work, 
 should be examined whether they be able 
 of cunning to serve their respective Lords, 
 as well the lowest as the highest, to the 
 honor and worship of the aforesaid art, and 
 to the profiW)f their Lords." 
 
 Here, then, we may see the origin of that 
 usage, which is still practised in every well 
 governed Lodge, not only of demanding a 
 proper degree of proficiency in the candi- 
 date, but also of testing that proficiency by 
 an examination. 
 
 This cautious and honest fear of the Fra- 
 ternity lest any brother should assume the 
 duties of a position which he could not 
 faithfully discharge, and which is, in our 
 time, tantamount to a candidate's advanc- 
 ing to a degree for which he is not pre- 
 pared, is again exhibited in all the Old 
 Constitutions. Thus in the Landsdowne 
 Manuscript, whose date is referred to the 
 middle of the sixteenth century, it is 
 charged " that no Mason take on him no 
 Lord's work, nor other man's, but if [un- 
 less] he know himself well able to perform 
 the work, so that the Craft have no slander." 
 The same regulation, and almost in the 
 same language, is to be found in all the 
 subsequent manuscripts. 
 
 In the Charges of 1722, it is directed 
 that " a younger brother shall be instructed 
 in working, to prevent spoiling the mate- 
 rials for want of judgment, and for improv- 
 ing and continuing of brotherly love." It 
 was, with the same view, that all of the 
 Old Constitutions made it imperative that 
 no Master should take an apprentice for 
 less than seven years, because it was ex- 
 pected that he should acquire a competent 
 knowledge of the mystery of the Craft be- 
 fore he could be admitted as a Fellow. 
 
 Notwithstanding these charges had a 
 more particular reference to the operative 
 part of the art, they clearly show the great 
 stress that was placed by our ancient breth- 
 ren upon the necessity of skill and pro- 
 ficiency ; and they have furnished the pre- 
 cedents upon which are based all the simi- 
 lar regulations that have been subsequently 
 applied to Speculative Masonry. 
 
 Pro Grand Master. An officer 
 known only to the English system, and 
 adopted for the first time in 1782, when, on 
 
 the election of the Duke of Cambridge to 
 the office of Grand Master, a regulation 
 was adopted by the Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land, that whenever a prince of the blood 
 accepted the office of Grand Master, he 
 should be at liberty to nominate any peer 
 of the realm to be the Acting Grand Mas- 
 ter, and to this officer is given the title of 
 Pro Grand Master. He must be a noble- 
 man and a Past Master. His collar, jewel, 
 and authority are the same as those of a 
 Grand Master, and in the case of a vacancy 
 he actually assumes the office until the 
 next annual election. There has been no 
 Pro Grand Master in England since the 
 death of the Duke of Sussex, in 1843, when 
 the Earl of Zetland, who was then the 
 Pro Grand Master, assumed the chair, and 
 at the next annual election was chosen 
 Grand Master. 
 
 Progressive Masonry. Freema- 
 sonry is undoubtedly a progressive science, 
 and yet the fundamental principles of Free- 
 masonry are the same now as they were at 
 the very beginning of the Institution. Its 
 landmarks are unchangeable. In these 
 there can be no alteration, no diminution, 
 nor addition. When, therefore, we say 
 that Freemasonry is progressive in its 
 character, we of course do not mean to 
 allude to this unalterable part of its con- 
 stitution. But there is a progress which 
 every science must undergo, and which 
 many of them have already undergone, to 
 which the science of Freemasonry is sub- 
 ject. Thus we say of chemistry that it is 
 a progressive science. Two hundred years 
 ago, all its principles, so far as they were 
 known, were directed to such futile in- 
 quiries as the philosopher's stone and the 
 elixir of immortality. Now these princi- 
 ples have become more thoroughly under- 
 stood, and more definitely established, and 
 the object of their application is more 
 noble and philosophic. The writings 
 of the chemists of the former and the 
 present period sufficiently indicate this 
 progress of the science. And yet the ele- 
 mentary principles of chemistry are un- 
 changeable. Its truths were the same then 
 as they are now. Some of them were at 
 that time unknown, because no mind of 
 sufficient research had discovered them ; 
 but they existed as truths, from the very 
 creation of matter; and now they have 
 only been developed, not invented. 
 
 So it is with Freemasonry. It too has 
 had its progress. Masons are now expected 
 to be more learned than formerly in all 
 that relates to the science of the Order. 
 Its origin, its history, its objects, are now 
 considered worthy of the attentive con- 
 sideration of its disciples. The rational 
 explanation of its ceremonies and symbols, 
 
PROMISE 
 
 PROOFS 
 
 611 
 
 and their connection with ancient systems 
 of religion and philosophy, are now con- 
 sidered as necessary topics of inquiry for all 
 who desire to distinguish themselves as pro- 
 ficients in Masonic science. 
 
 In all these things we see a great differ- 
 ence between the Masons of the present 
 and of former days. In Europe, a century 
 ago, such inquiries were considered as 
 legitimate subjects of Masonic study. 
 Hutchinson published in 1760, in England, 
 his admirable work entitled The Spirit of 
 Freemasonry, in which the deep philosophy 
 of the Institution was fairly developed with 
 much learning and ingenuity. Preston's 
 Illustrations of Masonry, printed at a not 
 much later period, also exhibit the system 
 treated, in many places, in a philosophical 
 manner. Lawrie's History of Freemasonry, 
 published in Scotland about the end of 
 the last century, is a work containing much 
 profound historical and antiquarian re- 
 search. And in the present century, the 
 works of Oliver alone would be sufficient 
 to demonstrate to the most cursory ob- 
 server that Freemasonry has a claim to be 
 ranked among the learned institutions of 
 the day. In Germany and France, the 
 press has been borne down with the weight 
 of abstruse works on our Order, written by 
 men of the highest literary pretensions. 
 
 In this country, notwithstanding the 
 really excellent work of Salem Town on 
 Speculative Masonry, published in 1818, 
 and the learned Discourses of Dr. T. M. 
 Harris, published in 1801, it is only within 
 a few years that Masonry has begun to as- 
 sume the exalted position of a literary in- 
 stitution, in which the labors of our trans- 
 atlantic brethren had long ago placed it. 
 
 Promise. In entering into the cov- 
 enant of Masonry, the candidate makes a 
 promise to the Order ; for his covenant is 
 simply a promise where he voluntarily 
 places himself under a moral obligation to 
 act within certain conditions in a particu- 
 lar way. The law of promise is, therefore, 
 strictly applicable to this covenant, and by 
 that law the validity and obligation of the 
 promises of every candidate must be deter- 
 mined. In every promise there are two 
 things to be considered: the intention and 
 the obligation. As to the intention: of all 
 casuists, the Jesuits alone have contended 
 that the intention may be concealed within 
 the bosom of the promiser. Every Chris- 
 tian and Pagan writer agree on the prin- 
 ciple that the words expressed must convey 
 their ordinary meaning to the promisee. 
 If I promise to do a certain thing to-mor- 
 row, I cannot, when the morrow comes, 
 refuse to do it on the ground that I only 
 promised to do it if it suited me when the 
 time of performance had arrived. The 
 
 obligation of every promiser is, then, to 
 fulfil the promise that he has made, not in 
 any way that he may have secretly in- 
 tended, but in the way in which lie sup- 
 poses that the one to whom he made it 
 understood it at the time that it was made. 
 Hence all Masonic promises are accompa- 
 nied by the declaration that they are given 
 without equivocation or mental reservation 
 of any kind whatsoever. 
 
 All voluntary promises are binding, un- 
 less there be some paramount consideration 
 which will release the obligation of per- 
 formance. -It is worth while, then, to in- 
 quire if there be any such considerations 
 which can impair the validity of Masonic 
 promises. Dr. Way laud (Elem. of Mor. Sci- 
 ence, p. 285,) lays down five conditions in 
 which promises are not binding: 1. Where 
 the performance is impossible; 2. Where 
 the promise is unlawful ; 3. Where no ex- 
 pectation is voluntarily excited by the 
 promiser; 4. Where they proceed upon a 
 condition which the promiser subsequently 
 finds does not exist ; and, 5. Where either 
 of the parties is not a moral agent. 
 
 It is evident that no one of these condi- 
 tions will apply to Masonic promises, for, 
 1. Every promise made at the altar of 
 Masonry is possible to be performed ; 2. 
 No promise is exacted that is unlawful in 
 its nature; for the candidate is expresslv 
 told that no promise exacted from him will 
 interfere with the duty which he owes to 
 God and to his country ; 3. An expectation 
 is voluntarily excited by the promiser, and 
 that expectation is that he will faithfully 
 fulfil his part of the covenant; 4. No false 
 condition of things is placed before the 
 candidate, either as to the character of the 
 Institution or the nature of the duties 
 which would be required of him ; and, 5. 
 Both parties to the promise, the candidate 
 who makes it and the Craft to whom it is 
 made, are moral agents, fully capable of 
 entering into a contract or covenant. 
 
 This, then, is the proper answer to those 
 adversaries of Freemasonry who contend 
 for the invalidity of Masonic promises on 
 the very grounds of Wayland and other 
 moralists. Their conclusions would be cor- 
 rect, were it not that every one of their 
 premises is false. 
 
 Promotion. Promotion in Masonry 
 should not be governed, as in other socie- 
 ties, by succession of office. The fact that 
 one has filled a lower office gives him no 
 claim to a higher, unless he is fitted, by 
 skill and capacity, to discharge its duties 
 faithfully. This alone should be the true 
 basis of promotion. See Preferment. 
 
 Proofs. What the German Masons call 
 "proben und prlifungen," trials and proofs, 
 and the French, " epreuves Maconniques," 
 
612 
 
 PROPERTY 
 
 PROSELYTISM 
 
 or Masonic proofs, are defined by Bazot 
 (Manuel, p. 141,) to be "mysterious methods 
 of discovering the character and disposi- 
 tion of a recipiendary." They are, in fact, 
 those ritualistic ceremonies of initiation 
 which are intended to test the fortitude and 
 fidelity of the candidate. They seem to be 
 confined to continental Masonry, for they 
 are not known to any extent in the English 
 or American systems, where all the ceremo- 
 nies are purely symbolic. Krause (Kunst- 
 urkund., i. 152, n. 37,) admits that no trace 
 of them, at least in the perilous and fearful 
 forms which they assume in the continen- 
 tal rituals, are to be found in the oldest 
 English catechisms ; and he admits that, as 
 appealing to the sentiments of fear and 
 hope, and adopting a dramatic form, they 
 are contrary to the spirit of Masonry, and 
 greatly interfere with its symbolism and 
 with the pure and peaceful sentiments 
 which it is intended to impress upon the 
 mind of the neophyte. 
 
 Property of a Lodge. As a Lodge 
 owes its existence, and all the rights and 
 
 Ererogatives that it exercises, to the Grand 
 lodge from which it derives its Charter or 
 Warrant of Constitution, it has been de- 
 cided, as a principle of Masonic law, that 
 when such Lodge ceases to exist, either by 
 a withdrawal or a surrender of its Warrant, 
 all the property which it possessed at the 
 time of its dissolution reverts to the Grand 
 Lodge. But should the Lodge be restored 
 by a revival of its Warrant, its property 
 should be restored, because the Grand 
 Lodge held it only as the general trustee 
 or guardian of the Craft. 
 
 Prophet. Haggai, who in the Amer- 
 ican system of the Royal Arch is called 
 the scribe, in the English system receives 
 the title of prophet, and hence in the order 
 of precedence he is placed above the high 
 priest. 
 
 Prophets, Schools of the. See 
 Schools of the Prophets. 
 
 Proponent! a. The matters contained 
 in the • notices of motions," which are re- 
 quired by the Grand Lodge of England to 
 be submitted to the members previous to 
 the Quarterly Communication when they 
 are to be discussed, are sometimes called 
 the proponenda, or subjects to be proposed. 
 
 Proposing Candidates. The only 
 method recognized in this country of pro- 
 posing candidates for initiation or member- 
 ship is by the written petition of the ap- 
 plicant, who must at the same time be re- 
 commended by two members of the Lodge. 
 In England, the applicant for initiation 
 must previously sign the declaration, which 
 in America is only made after his election. 
 He is then proposed by one brother, and, 
 the proposition being seconded by another, 
 
 he is ballotted for at the next regular 
 Lodge. Applicants for membership are 
 also proposed without petition, but the cer- 
 tificate of the former Lodge must be pro- 
 duced, as in the United States the demit 
 is required. Nor can any candidate for 
 affiliation be ballotted for unless previous 
 notice of the application be given to all 
 the members of the Lodge. 
 
 Proscription. The German Masons 
 employ this word in the same sense in 
 which we do expulsion, as the highest Ma- 
 sonic punishment that can be inflicted. 
 They also use the word verbannung, banish- 
 ment, for the same purpose. 
 
 Proselyte of Jerusalem. (Prose- 
 lyte de Jerusalem.) The sixty-eighth de- 
 gree of the Metropolitan Chapter of France. 
 
 Proselytism. Brahmanism is, per- 
 haps, the only religion which is opposed to 
 proselytism. The Brahman seeks no con- 
 vert to his faith, but is content with that 
 extension of his worship which is derived 
 from the natural increase only of its mem- 
 bers. The Jewish Church, perhaps one of 
 the most exclusive, and which has always 
 seemed indifferent to progress, yet provided 
 a special form of baptism for the initiation 
 of its proselytes into the Mosaic rites. 
 
 Buddhism, the great religion of the East- 
 ern world, which, notwithstanding the op- 
 position of the leading Brahmaus, spread 
 with amazing rapidity over the Oriental 
 nations, so that now it seems the most 
 popular religion of the world, owes its ex- 
 traordinary growth to the energetic prop- 
 agandise of Sakya-muni, its founder, and 
 to the same proselyting spirit which he in- 
 culcated upon his disciples. 
 
 The Christian Church, mindful of the 
 precepts of its divine founder, " Go ye into 
 all the world, and preach the Gospel to 
 every creature," has always considered the 
 work of missions as one of the most im- 
 portant duties of the Church, and owes its 
 rapid increase, in its earlier years, to the 
 proselyting spirit of Paul, and Thomas, 
 and the other apostles. 
 
 Mohammedanism, springing up and lin- 
 gering for a long time in a single family, 
 at length acquired rapid growth among the 
 Oriental nations, through the energetic 
 proselytism of the Prophet and his adhe- 
 rents. But the proselytism of the religion 
 of the New Testament and that of the Ko- 
 ran differed much iu character. The Chris- 
 tian made his converts by persuasive accents 
 and eloquent appeals ; the Mussulman con- 
 verted his penitents by the sharp power of 
 the sword. Christianity was a religion of 
 peace, Mohammedanism of war ; yet each, 
 though pursuing a different method, was 
 equally energetic in securing converts. 
 
 In respect to this doctrine of proselytism, 
 
PROSELYTISM 
 
 PROSELYTISM 
 
 613 
 
 Freemasonry resembles more the exclusive 
 faith of Brahma than the inviting one of 
 Moses, of Buddha, of Christ, or of Mo- 
 hammed. 
 
 In plain words, Freemasonry is rigor- 
 ously opposed to all proselytism. While 
 its members do not hesitate, at all proper 
 times and on all fitting occasions, to defend 
 the Institution from all attacks of its en- 
 emies, it never seeks, by voluntary lauda- 
 tion of its virtues, to make new accessions 
 of friends, or to add to the number of its 
 disciples. 
 
 Nay, it boasts, as a peculiar beauty of its 
 system, that it is a voluntary Institution. 
 Not only does it forbid its members to use 
 any efforts to obtain initiates, but actually 
 requires every candidate for admission into 
 its sacred rites to seriously declare, as a pre- 
 
 Earatory step, that in this voluntary offer of 
 imself he has been unbiased by theimproper 
 solicitations of friends. Without this decla- 
 ration, the candidate would be unsuccessful 
 in his application. Although it is required 
 that he should be prompted to solicit the 
 
 Erivilege by the favorable opinion which 
 e had conceived of the Institution, yet no 
 provision is made by which that opinion 
 can be inculcated in the minds of the pro- 
 fane ; for were a Mason, by any praises of 
 the Order, or any exhibitions of its advan- 
 tages, to induce any one under such repre- 
 sentations to seek admission, he would not 
 only himself commit a grievous fault, but 
 would subject the candidate to serious em- 
 barrassment at the very entrance of the 
 Lodge. 
 
 This Brahmanical spirit of anti-prosely- 
 tism, in which Masonry differs from every 
 other association, has imprinted upon the 
 Institution certain peculiar features. In 
 the first place, Freemasonry thus becomes, 
 in the most positive form, a voluntary as- 
 sociation. Whoever comes within its mys- 
 tic circle, comes there of his " own free will 
 and accord, and unbiased by the influence 
 of friends." These are the terms on which 
 he is received, and to all the legitimate 
 consequences of this voluntary connection 
 he must submit. Hence comes the axiom, 
 " once a Mason, always a Mason ; " that is 
 to say, no man, having once been initiated 
 into its sacred rites, can, at his own pleas- 
 ure or caprice, divest himself of the obli- 
 gations and duties which, as a Mason, he 
 has assumed. Coming to us freely and wil- 
 lingly, he can urge no claim for retirement 
 on the plea that he was unduly persuaded, 
 or that the character of the Institution had 
 been falsely represented. To do so, would 
 be to convict himself of fraud and false- 
 hood, in the declarations made by him 
 preliminary to his admission. And if these 
 declarations were indeed false, he at least 
 cannot, under the legal maxim, take ad- 
 
 vantage of his own wrong. The knot 
 which binds him to the Fraternity has 
 been tied by himself, and is indissoluble. 
 The renouncing Mason may, indeed, with- 
 draw from his connection with a Lodge, 
 but he cannot release himself from his ob- 
 ligations to the regulation, which requires 
 every Mason to be a member of one. He 
 may abstain from all communication with 
 his brethren, and cease to take any interest 
 in the concerns of the Fraternity ; but he 
 is not thus absolved from the performance 
 of any of the duties imposed upon him by 
 his original admission into the brother- 
 hood. A proselyte, persuaded against his 
 will, might claim his right to withdraw ; 
 but the voluntary seeker must take and 
 hold what he finds. 
 
 Another result of this anti-proselyting 
 spirit of the Institution is, to relieve its 
 members from all undue anxiety to in- 
 crease its members. It is not to be sup- 
 posed that Masons have not the very 
 natural desire to see the growth of their 
 Order. Towards this end, they are ever 
 ready to defend its character when at- 
 tacked, to extol its virtues, and to main- 
 tain its claims to the confidence and ap- 
 proval of the wise and good. But the 
 growth they wish is not that abnormal one, 
 derived from sudden revivals or ephemeral 
 enthusiasm, where passion too often takes 
 the place of judgment ; but that slow and 
 steady, and therefore healthy, growth 
 which comes from the adhesion of wise 
 and virtuous and thoughtful men, who are 
 willing to join the brotherhood, that they 
 may the better labor for the good of their 
 fellow-men. 
 
 Thus it is that we find the addresses of 
 our Grand Masters, the reports of our com- 
 mittees on foreign correspondence, and the 
 speeches of our anniversary orators, annu- 
 ally denouncing the too rapid increase of 
 the Order, as something calculated to affect 
 its stability and usefulness. 
 
 And hence, too, the black ball, that an- 
 tagonist of proselytism, has been long and 
 familiarly called the bulwark of Masonry. 
 Its faithful use is ever being inculcated by 
 the fathers of the Order upon its younger 
 members; and the unanimous ballot is 
 universally admitted to be the most effect- 
 ual means of preserving the purity of the 
 Institution. 
 
 And so, this spirit of anti-proselytism, 
 impressed upon every Mason from his 
 earliest initiation, although not itself a 
 landmark, has come to be invested with all 
 the sacredness of such a law, and Freema- 
 sonry stands out alone, distinct from every 
 other human association, and proudly pro- 
 claims, " Our portals are open to all the 
 good and true, but we ask no man to 
 enter." 
 
614 
 
 PROTECTOR 
 
 PRUDENCE 
 
 Protector of Innocence. (Pro- 
 tecteur de I' Innocence.) A degree in the 
 nomenclature of Fustier, cited by him from 
 the collection of Viany. 
 
 Protocol. In French, the formulae 
 or technical words of legal instruments ; in 
 Germany, the rough draught of an instru- 
 ment or transaction ; in diplomacy, the 
 original copy of a treaty. Gadicke says 
 that, in Masonic language, the protocol is 
 the rough minutes of a Lodge. The word 
 is used in this sense in Germany only. 
 
 Prototype. The same as archetype, 
 which see. 
 
 Provincial Grand Lodge. In 
 each of the counties of England is a Grand 
 Lodge composed of the various Lodges 
 within that district, with the Provincial 
 Grand Master at their head, and this body 
 is called a Provincial Grand Lodge. It 
 derives its existence, not from a Warrant, 
 but from the Patent granted to the Provin- 
 cial Grand Master by the Grand Master, 
 and at his death, resignation, or removal, it 
 becomes extinct, unless the Provincial 
 Grand Registrar keeps up its existence by 
 presiding over the province until the ap- 
 
 S ointment of another Provincial Grand 
 [aster. Its authority is confined to the 
 framing of by-laws, making regulations, 
 hearing disputes, etc., but no absolute sen- 
 tence can be promulgated by its authority 
 without a reference to the Grand Lodge. 
 Hence Oliver (Jurisprud., 272,) says that a 
 Provincial Grand Lodge " has a shadow of 
 power, but very little substance. It may 
 talk, but it cannot act." The system does 
 not exist in the United States. In Eng- 
 land and Ireland the Provincial Grand 
 Master is appointed by the Grand Master, 
 but in Scotland his commission emanates 
 from the Grand Lodge. 
 Provincial Grand Master. The 
 
 £ residing officer of a Provincial Grand 
 lodge. He is appointed by the Grand 
 Master, during whose pleasure he holds his 
 office. An appeal lies from his decisions to 
 the Grand Lodge. 
 
 Provincial Grand Officers. The 
 officers of a Provincial Grand Lodge cor- 
 respond in title to those of the Grand 
 Lodge. The Provincial Grand Treasurer is 
 elected, but the other officers are nominated 
 by the Provincial Grand Master. They 
 are not by such appointment members of 
 the Grand Lodge, nor do they take any rank 
 out of their province. They must all be 
 residents of the province and subscribing 
 members to some Lodge therein. Provin- 
 cial Grand Wardens must be Masters or 
 Past Masters of a Lodge, and Provincial 
 Grand Deacons, Wardens, or Past Wardens. 
 Provincial Master of the Red 
 Cross. The sixth degree of the Rite of 
 Clerks of Strict Observance. 
 
 Provost and Judge. {Prevot et 
 Juge.) The seventh degree of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite. The history 
 of the degree relates that it was founded 
 by Solomon, King of Israel, for the purpose 
 of strengthening his means of preserving 
 order among the vast number of craftsmen 
 engaged in the construction of the Temple. 
 Tito, Prince Harodim, Adoniram, and Abda 
 his father, were first created Provosts and 
 Judges, who were afterwards directed by 
 Solomon to initiate his favorite and inti- 
 mate secretary, Joabert, and to give him 
 the keys of all the building. In the old 
 rituals, the Master of a Lodge of Provosts 
 and Judges represents Tito, Prince Haro- 
 dim, the first Grand Warden and Inspector 
 of the three hundred architects. The num- 
 ber of lights is six, and the symbolic color 
 is red. In the more recent ritual of the 
 Southern Jurisdiction of the United States 
 there has been a slight change. The legend 
 is substantially preserved, but the presiding 
 officer represents Azarias, the son of Na- 
 than. 
 
 The jewel is a golden key, having the 
 letter A within a triangle engraved on the 
 ward. The collar is red. The apron is 
 white, lined with red, and is furnished with 
 a pocket. 
 
 This was one of Ramsay's degrees, and 
 was originally called Maitre Irlandais, or 
 Irish Master. 
 
 Proxy Installation. The Regula- 
 tions of 1721 provide that, if the new Grand 
 Master be absent from the Grand Feast, he 
 may be proclaimed if proper assurance be 
 given that he will serve, in which case the 
 old Grand Master shall act as his proxy 
 and receive the usual homage. This has 
 led to a custom, once very common in this 
 country, but now getting into disuse, of 
 installing an absent officer by proxy. Such 
 installations are called proxy installations. 
 Their propriety is very questionable. 
 
 Proxy Master. In the Grand Lodge 
 of Scotland, a Lodge is permitted to elect 
 any Master Mason who holds a diploma of 
 the Grand Lodge, although he may not be 
 a member of the Lodge, as its Proxy Mas- 
 ter. He nominates two Proxy Wardens, 
 and the three then become members of the 
 Grand Lodge and representatives of the 
 Lodge. Great opposition has recently been 
 made to this system, because by it a Lodge 
 is often represented by brethren who are in 
 no way connected with it, who never were 
 present at any of its meetings, and who are 
 personally unknown to any of its members. 
 A similar system prevailed in the Grand 
 Lodge of South Carolina, but was, after a 
 hard struggle, abolished in 1860, at the 
 adoption of a new Constitution. 
 
 Prudence. This is one of the four 
 cardinal virtues, the practice of which is 
 
PRUSSIA 
 
 PUBLICATIONS 
 
 615 
 
 inculcated upon the Entered Apprentice. 
 Preston first introduced it into the degree 
 as referring to what was then, and long be- 
 fore had been called the four principal 
 signs, but which are now known as the per- 
 fect points of entrance. Preston's eulo- 
 gium on prudence differs from that used in 
 the lectures of this country, which was com- 
 posed by Webb. It is in these words: 
 " Prudence is the true guide to human un- 
 derstanding, and consists in judging and 
 determining with propriety what is to be 
 said or done upon all our occasions, what 
 dangers we should endeavor to avoid, and 
 how to act in all our difficulties." Webb's 
 definition, which is much better, may be 
 found in all the Monitors. The Masonic 
 reference of prudence to the manual point 
 reminds us of the classic method of repre- 
 senting her statues with a rule or measure 
 in her hand. 
 
 Prussia. Frederick William I. of 
 Prussia was so great an enemy of the Ma- 
 sonic institution, that until lm death it was 
 scarcely known in his dominions, and the 
 initiation, in 1738, of his son, the Crown 
 Prince, was necessarily kept a secret from his 
 father. But in 1740 Frederick II. ascended 
 the throne, and Masonry soon felt the ad- 
 vantages of a royal patron. The Baron de 
 Bielefeld says [Lettres, i. 157,) that in that 
 year the king himself opened a Lodge at 
 Charlottenburg, and initiated his brother, 
 Prince William, the Margrave of Branden- 
 burg, and the Duke of Holstein-Beck. 
 Bielefeld and the Counsellor Jordan, in 
 1740, established the Lodge of the Three 
 Globes at Berlin, which soon afterwards 
 assumed the rank of a Grand Lodge. 
 There are now in Prussia three Grand 
 Lodges, the seats of all of them being at 
 Berlin. These are the Grand Lodge of the 
 Three Globes, established in 1740; the 
 Grand Lodge Royal York of Friendship, 
 established in 1752; and the National 
 Grand Lodge of Germany, established in 
 1770. There is no country in the world 
 where Freemasonry is more profoundly 
 studied as a science than in Prussia, and 
 much of the abstruse learning of the Order, 
 for which Germany has been distinguished, 
 is to be found among the members of the 
 Prussian Lodges. Unfortunately, they have, 
 for a long time, been marked with an in- 
 tolerant spirit towards the Jews, whose ini- 
 tiation was strictly forbidden until very re- 
 cently, when that stain was removed, and 
 the tolerant principles of the Order were 
 recognized by the abrogation of the offen- 
 sive laws. 
 
 Prussian Knight. See Noachite. 
 
 Pseudonym. A false or fictitious 
 name. Continental writers on Freema- 
 sonry in the last century often assumed 
 4C 
 
 fictitious names, sometimes from affectation, 
 and sometimes because the subjects they 
 treated were unpopular with the govern- 
 ment or the church. Thus, Carl Rbssler 
 wrote under the pseudonym of Acerrellas, 
 Arthuseus under that of Irenseus Agnos- 
 tus, Guillemain de St. Victor under that 
 of De Gaminville or Querard, Louis Tra- 
 venol under that of Leonard Gabanon, etc. 
 
 The Illuminati also introduced the cus- 
 tom of giving pseudonyms to the kingdoms 
 and cities of Europe ; thus, with them, Aus- 
 tria was Achaia; Munich, Athens; Vienna, 
 Rome ; Ingolstadt, Eleusis, etc. But this 
 practice was not confined to the Illuminati, 
 for we find many books published at Paris, 
 Berlin, etc., with the fictitious imprint of 
 Jerusalem, Cosmopolis, Latomopolis, Phila- 
 delphia, Edessa, etc. This practice has 
 long since been abandoned. 
 
 Publications, Masonic. The fact 
 that, within the past few years, Freema- 
 sonry has taken its place — and an imposing 
 one, too — in the literature of the times; 
 that men of genius and learning have de- 
 voted themselves to its investigation ; that 
 its principles and its system have become 
 matters of study and research ; and that the 
 results of this labor of inquiry have been 
 given, and still continue to be given, to the 
 world at large, in the form of treatises on 
 Masonic science, have at length introduced 
 the new question among the Fraternity, 
 whether Masonic books are of good or of 
 evil tendency to the Institution. Many 
 well-meaning but timid members of the 
 Fraternity object to the freedom with which 
 Masonic topics are discussed in printed 
 works. They think that the veil is too 
 much withdrawn by modern Masonic 
 writers, and that all doctrine and instruc- 
 tion should be confined to oral teaching, 
 within the limits of the Lodge room. 
 Hence, to them, the art of printing be- 
 comes useless for the diffusion of Masonic 
 knowledge ; and thus, whatever may be the 
 attainments of a Masonic scholar, the fruits 
 of his study and experience would be con- 
 fined to the narrow limits of his personal 
 presence. Such objectors draw no distinc- 
 tion between the ritual and the philosophy 
 of Masonry. Like the old priests of 
 Egypt, they would have everything con- 
 cealed under hieroglyphics, and would as 
 soon think of opening a Lodge in public as 
 they would of discussing, in a printed book, 
 the principles and design of the Institution. 
 
 The Grand Lodge of England, some 
 years ago, adopted a regulation which de- 
 clared it penal to print or publish any part 
 of the proceedings of a Lodge, or the names 
 of the persons present at such a Lodge, 
 without the permission of the Grand Mas- 
 ter. The rule, however, evidently referred 
 
616 
 
 PUBLICATIONS 
 
 PUBLICATIONS 
 
 to local proceedings only, and had no rela- 
 tion whatever to the publication of Masonic 
 authors and editors ; for the English Ma- 
 sonic press, since the days of Hutchinson, 
 in the middle of the last century, has been 
 distinguished for the freedom, as well as 
 learning, with which the most abstruse 
 principles of our Order have been dis- 
 cussed. 
 
 Fourteen years ago the Committee of 
 Foreign Correspondence of a prominent 
 Grand Lodge affirmed that Masonic litera- 
 ture was doing more " harm than good to 
 the Institution." About the same time the 
 committee of another equally prominent 
 Grand Lodge were not ashamed to express 
 their regret that so much prominence of 
 notice is, " in several Grand Lodge proceed- 
 ings, given to Masonic publications. Ma- 
 sonry existed and nourished, was harmo- 
 nious and happy, in their absence." 
 
 When one reads such diatribes against 
 Masonic literature and Masonic progress- 
 such blind efforts to hide under the bushel 
 the light that should be on the hill-top — 
 he is incontinently reminded of a similar 
 iconoclast, who, more than four centuries 
 age, made a like onslaught on the perni- 
 cious effects of learning. 
 
 The immortal Jack Cade, in condemning 
 Lord Say to death as a patron of learning, 
 gave vent to words of which the language 
 of these enemies of Masonic literature 
 seems to be but the echo : 
 
 " Thou hast most traitorously corrupted 
 the youth of the realm, in erecting a gram- 
 mar-school ; and whereas, before, our fore- 
 fathers had no other books but the score 
 and the tally, thou hast caused printing to 
 be used ; and contrary to the king, his 
 crown, and dignity, thou hast built a paper- 
 mill. It will be proved to thy face that 
 thou hast men about thee that usually talk 
 of a noun and a verb, and such abominable 
 words as no Christian ear can endure to 
 hear." 
 
 I belong to no such school. On the 
 contrary, I believe that too much cannot 
 be written and printed and read about the 
 philosophy and history, the science and 
 symbolism, of Freemasonry ; provided al- 
 ways the writing is confided to those who 
 rightly understand their art. In Masonry, 
 as in astronomy, in geology, or in any other 
 of the arts and sciences, a new book by an 
 expert must always be esteemed a valuable 
 contribution. The productions of silly and 
 untutored minds will fall of themselves 
 into oblivion without the aid of official 
 persecution ; but that which is really valu- 
 able — which presents new facts, or fur- 
 nishes suggestive thoughts — will, in spite 
 of the denunciations of the Jack Cades of 
 
 Masonry, live to instruct the brethren, and 
 to elevate the tone and standing of the In- 
 stitution. 
 
 Dr. Oliver, who has written more on Ma- 
 sonry than any other author, says on this 
 subject : " I conceive it to be an error in 
 judgment to discountenance the publica- 
 tion of philosophical disquisitions on the 
 subject of Freemasonry, because such a 
 proceeding would not only induce the 
 world to think that our pretensions are in- 
 capable of enduring the test of inquiry, but 
 would also have a tendency to restore the 
 dark ages of superstition, when even the 
 sacred writings were prohibited, under an 
 apprehension that their contents might 
 be misunderstood or perverted to the prop- 
 agation of unsound doctrines and per- 
 nicious practices ; and thus would igno- 
 rance be transmitted, as a legacy, from one 
 generation to another." 
 
 Still further pursuing this theme, and 
 passing from the unfavorable influence 
 which must be exerted upon the world by 
 our silence, to the injury that must accrue 
 to the Craft, the same learned writer goes 
 on to say, that " no hypothesis can be more 
 untenable than that which forebodes evil to 
 the Masonic institution from the publica- 
 tion of Masonic treatises illustrative of its 
 philosophical and moral tendency." And 
 in view of the meagre and unsatisfactory 
 nature of the lectures, in the form in which 
 they are delivered in the Lodges, he wisely 
 suggests that " if strictures on the science 
 and philosophy of the Order were placed 
 within every brother's reach, a system of 
 examination and research would soon be 
 substituted for the dull and uninteresting 
 routine which, in so many instances, char- 
 acterizes our private meetings. The breth- 
 ren would become excited by the inquiry, 
 and a rich series of new beauties and ex- 
 cellences would be their reward." 
 
 Of such a result I have no doubt. In 
 consequence of the increase of Masonic 
 publications in this country within a few 
 years, Masonry has already been elevated 
 to a high position. If there be any who 
 still deem it a merely social institution, 
 without a philosophy or literature; if there 
 be any who speak of it with less admira- 
 tion than it justly deserves, we may be as- 
 sured that such men have read as little as 
 they have thought on the subject of its 
 science and its history. A few moments of 
 conversation with a Mason will show 
 whether he is one of those contracted crafts- 
 men who suppose that Masonic " brightness" 
 consists merely in a knowledge of the cor- 
 rect mode of working one's way into a 
 Lodge, or whether he is one who has read 
 and properly appreciated the various trea- 
 
PUBLICATIONS 
 
 PUBLIC 
 
 617 
 
 tises on the "royal art," in which men of 
 genius and learning have developed the 
 true spirit and design of the Order. 
 
 Such is the effect of Masonic publications 
 upon the Fraternity; and the result of all nay 
 experience is, that enough has not been pub- 
 lished. Cheap books on all Masonic sub- 
 jects, easily accessible to the masses of the 
 Order, are necessaries essential to the ele- 
 vation and extension of the Institution. 
 Too many of them confine their acquire- 
 ments to a knowledge of the signs and the 
 ceremonies of initiation. There they cease 
 their researches. They make no study of 
 the philosophy and the antiquities of the 
 Order. They do not seem to know that 
 the modes of recognition are simply in- 
 tended as means of security against imposi- 
 tion, and that the ceremonial rites are 
 worth nothing without the symbolism of 
 which they are only the external expo- 
 nents. Masonry for them is nerveless — 
 senseless — lifeless; it is an empty voice 
 without meaning — a tree of splendid foli- 
 age, but without a single fruit. 
 
 The monitorial instructions of the Order, 
 as they are technically called, contain 
 many things which probably, at one time, 
 it would have been deemed improper to 
 print ; and there are some Masons, even at 
 this day, who think that Webb and Cross 
 were too free in their publications. And 
 yet we have never heard of any evil effects 
 arising from the reading of our Monitors, 
 even upon those who have not been initi- 
 ated. On the contrary, meagre as are the 
 explanations given in those works, and un- 
 satisfactory as they must be to one seeking 
 for the full light of Masonry, they have 
 been the means, in many instances, of in- 
 ducing the profane, who have read them, 
 to admire our Institution, and to knock at 
 the " door of Masonry " for admission — 
 while we regret to say that they sometimes 
 comprise the whole instruction that a can- 
 didate gets from an ignorant Master. 
 Without these published Monitors, even 
 that little beam of light would be wanting 
 to illuminate his path. 
 
 But if the publication and general dif- 
 fusion of our elementary text-books have 
 been of acknowledged advantage to the 
 character of the Institution, and have, by 
 the information, little as it is, which they 
 communicate, been of essential benefit to 
 the Fraternity, we cannot see why a more 
 extensive system of instruction on the 
 legends, traditions, and symbols of the 
 Order should not be productive of still 
 greater good. 
 
 Years ago, we uttered on this subject 
 sentiments which we now take occasion to 
 repeat. 
 
 Without an adequate course of reading, 
 
 no Mason can now take a position of any 
 distinction in the ranks of the Fraternity. 
 Without extending his studies beyond 
 what is taught in the brief lectures of the 
 Lodge, he can never properly appreciate 
 the end and nature of Freemasonry as a 
 speculative science. The lectures consti- 
 tute but the skeleton of Masonic science. 
 The muscles and nerves and blood-vessels, 
 which are to give vitality, and beauty, and 
 health, and vigor to that lifeless skeleton, 
 must be found in the commentaries on 
 them which the learning and research of 
 Masonic writers have given to the Masonic 
 student. 
 
 The objections to treatises and disquisi- 
 tions on Masonic subjects, that there is 
 danger, through them, of giving too much 
 light to the world without, has not the 
 slightest support from experience. In 
 England, in France, and in Germany, 
 scarcely any restriction has been observed 
 by Masonic writers, except as to what is 
 emphatically esoteric ; and yet we do not 
 believe that the profane world is wiser in 
 those countries than in our own in respect 
 to the secrets of Freemasonry. In the face 
 of these publications, the world without 
 has remained as ignorant of the aporrheta 
 of our art, as if no work had ever been 
 written on the subject; while the world 
 within — the Craft themselves — have been 
 enlightened and instructed, and their views 
 of Masonry (not as a social or charitable 
 society, but as a philosophy, a science, a 
 religion) have been elevated and enlarged. 
 
 The truth is, that men who are not Masons 
 never read authentic Masonic works. They 
 have no interest in the topics discussed, 
 and could not understand them, from a 
 want of the preparatory education which 
 the Lodge alone can supply. Therefore, 
 were a writer even to trench a little on 
 what may be considered as being really the 
 arcana of Masonry, there is no danger of 
 his thus making an improper revelation to 
 improper persons. 
 
 Public Ceremonies. Most of the 
 ceremonies of Masonry are strictly private, 
 and can be conducted only in the presence 
 of the initiated. But some of them, from 
 their nature, are necessarily performed in 
 public. Such are the burials of deceased 
 brethren, the laying of corner-stones of 
 public edifices, and the dedications of Ma- 
 sonic halls. The installation of the officers 
 of a Lodge, or Grand Lodge, are also some- 
 times conducted in public in this country. 
 But the ceremonies in this case differ 
 slightly from those of a private installation 
 in the Lodge room, portions of the cere- 
 mony having to be omitted. The reputa- 
 tion of the Order requires that these cere- 
 monies should be conducted with the ut- 
 
618 
 
 PUERILITY 
 
 PUERILITY 
 
 most propriety, and the Manuals and Moni- 
 tors furnish the fullest details of the order 
 of exercises. Preston, in his Illustrations, 
 was the first writer who gave a printed ac- 
 count of the mode of conducting these pub- 
 lic ceremonies, and to him we are most 
 probably indebted for their ritual. Ander- 
 son, however, gave in the first edition of 
 the Constitutions the prescribed form for 
 constituting new Lodges, and installing 
 their officers, which is the model upon 
 which Preston, and other writers, have 
 subsequently framed their more enlarged 
 formula?. 
 
 Puerility of Freemasonry. " The 
 absurdities and puerilities of Freemasonry 
 are fit only for children, and are unwortby 
 of the time or attention of wise men." 
 Such is the language of its adversaries, and 
 the apothegm is delivered with all that self- 
 sufficiency which shows that the speaker is 
 well satisfied with his own wisdom, and is 
 very ready to place himself in the category 
 of those wise men whose opinion he invokes. 
 This charge of a puerility of design and 
 object of Freemasonry is worth examina- 
 tion. 
 
 Is it then possible, that those scholars of 
 unquestioned strength of intellect and depth 
 of science, who have devoted themselves to 
 the study of Masonry, and who have in 
 thousands of volumes given the result of 
 their researches, have been altogether mis- 
 taken in the direction of their labors, and 
 have been seeking to develop, not the prin- 
 ciples of a philosophy, but the mechanism 
 of a toy? Or is the assertion that such is 
 the fact a mere sophism, such as ignorance 
 is every day uttering, and a conclusion to 
 which men are most likely to arrive when 
 they talk of that of which they know noth- 
 ing, like the critic who reviews a book that 
 he has never read, or the sceptic who at- 
 tacks a creed that he does not comprehend? 
 - Such claims to an inspired infallibility are 
 not uncommon among men of unsound 
 judgment. Thus, when Gall and Spurz- 
 heim first gave to the world their wonder- 
 ful discoveries in reference to the organiza- 
 tion and the functions of the brain — dis- 
 coveries which have since wrought a 
 marked revolution in the sciences of anat- 
 omy, physiology, and ethics — the Edin- 
 burgh reviewers attempted to demolish these 
 philosophers and their new system, but suc- 
 ceeded only in exposing their own igno- 
 rance of the science they were discussing. 
 Time, which is continually evolving truth 
 out of every intellectual conflict, has long 
 since shown that the German philosophers 
 were right and that their Scottish critics 
 were wrong. How common is it, even at 
 this day, to hear men deriding Alchemy as 
 a system of folly and imposture, cultivated 
 
 only by madmen and knaves, when the re- 
 searches of those who have investigated the 
 subject without prejudice, but with patient 
 learning, have shown, without any possibil- 
 ity of doubt, that these old alchemists, so 
 long the objects of derision to the ignorant, 
 were religious philosophers, and that their 
 science had really nothing to do with the 
 discovery of an elixir of life or the trans- 
 mutation of the baser metals into gold, but 
 that they, like the Freemasons, with whom 
 they have a strong affinity, concealed under 
 profound symbols, intelligible only to them- 
 selves, the search after Divine Truth and 
 the doctrine of immortal life. Truth was 
 the gold which they eliminated from all 
 mundane things, and the immortality of the 
 soul was the elixir of everlasting life which 
 perpetually renewed youth, and took away 
 the power of death. 
 
 So it is with Freemasonry. Those who 
 abuse it know nothing of its inner spirit, 
 of its profound philosophy, of the pure re- 
 ligious life that it inculcates. 
 
 To one who is at all acquainted with its 
 organization, Freemasonry presents itself 
 under two different aspects. 
 
 First, as a secret society distinguished by 
 a peculiar ritual : 
 
 And secondly, as a society having a phi- 
 losophy on which it is founded, and which 
 it proposes to teach to its disciples. 
 
 These by way of distinction may be called 
 the ritualistic and the philosophical elements 
 of Freemasonry. 
 
 The ritualistic element of Freemasonry is 
 that which relates to the due performance 
 of the rites and ceremonies of the Order. 
 Like the rubrics of the church, which indi- 
 cate when the priest and congregation shall 
 kneel and when they shall stand, it refers 
 to questions such as these: What words 
 shall be used in such a place, and what 
 ceremony shall be observed on such an oc- 
 casion? It belongs entirely to the inner 
 organization of the Institution, or to the 
 manner in which its services shall be con- 
 ducted, and is interesting or important only 
 to its own members. The language of its 
 ritual or the form of its ceremonies has 
 nothing more to do with the philosophic 
 designs of Freemasonry than the rubrics of 
 a church have to do with the religious 
 creed professed by that church. It might 
 at any time be changed in its most material 
 points, without in the slightest degree af- 
 fecting the essential character of the Insti- 
 tution. 
 
 Of course, this ritualistic element is in 
 one sense important to the members of the 
 society, because, by a due, observance of the 
 ritual, a general uniformity is preserved. 
 But beyond this, the Masonic ritual makes 
 no claim to the consideration of scholars, 
 
PUERILITY 
 
 PUERILITY 
 
 619 
 
 and never has been made, and, indeed, 
 from the very nature of its secret character, 
 never can be made, a topic of discussion 
 with those who are outside of the Frater- 
 nity. 
 
 But the other, the philosophical element 
 of Freemasonry, is one of much importance. 
 For it, and through it, I do make the 
 plea that the Institution is entitled to the 
 respect, and even veneration, of all good 
 men, and is well worth the careful consid- 
 eration of scholars. 
 
 A great many theories have been ad- 
 vanced by Masonic writers as to the real 
 origin of the Institution, as to the time 
 when and the place where it first took its 
 birth. It has been traced to the mysteries 
 of the ancient Pagan world, to the Temple 
 of King Solomon, to the Roman Colleges of 
 Artificers, to the Crusades for the recovery 
 of the Holy Land, to the Gilds of the Mid- 
 dle Ages, to the Stonemasons of Strasburg 
 and Cologne, and even to the revolutionary 
 struggle in England in the time of the 
 commonwealth, and to the secret efforts of 
 the adherents of the house of Stuart to re- 
 cover the throne. But whatever theory 
 may be selected, and wheresoever and 
 whensoever it may be supposed to have 
 received its birth, one thing is certain, 
 namely, that for generations past, and yet 
 within the records of history, it has, unlike 
 other mundane things, presented to the 
 world an unchanged organization. Take, 
 for instance, the theory which traces it 
 back to one of the most recent periods, 
 that, namely, which places the organiza- 
 tion of the Order of Freemasons at the 
 building of the Cathedral of Strasburg, in 
 the year 1275. During all the time that 
 has since elapsed, full six hundred years, how 
 has Freemasonry presented itself? Why, 
 as a brotherhood organized and controlled 
 by a secret discipline, engaged in impor- 
 tant architectural labors, and combining 
 with its operative tasks speculations of 
 great religious import. If we see any change, 
 it is simply this, that when the necessity 
 no longer existed, the operative element 
 was laid aside, and the speculative only 
 was retained, but with a scrupulous pre- 
 servation (as if it were for purposes of iden- 
 tification) of the technical language, the 
 rules and regulations, the working-tools, 
 and the discipline of the operative art. The 
 material only on which they wrought was 
 changed. The disciples and followers of 
 Erwin of Steinbach, the Master Builder of 
 Strasburg, were engaged, under the influ- 
 ence of a profoundly religious sentiment, 
 in the construction of a material edifice to 
 the glory of God. The more modern work- 
 ers in Freemasonry are under the same re- 
 ligious influence, engaged in the construc- 
 
 tion of a spiritual temple. Does not this 
 long continuance of a brotherhood em- 
 ployed in the same pursuit, or changing 
 it only from a material to a spiritual char- 
 acter, but retaining its identity of organiza- 
 tion, demand for itself some respect, and, 
 if for nothing else, at least for its antiquity, 
 some share of veneration ? 
 
 But this is not all. This society or 
 brotherhood, or confraternity as it might 
 more appropriately be called, is distin- 
 guished from all other associations by the 
 possession of certain symbols, myths, and, 
 above all else, a Golden Legend, all of 
 which are directed to the purification of 
 the heart, to the elevation of the mind, to 
 the development of the great doctrine of 
 immortality. 
 
 Now the question where and when these 
 symbols, myths, and legends arose is one 
 that is well worth the investigation of 
 scholars, because it is intimately connected 
 with the history of the human intellect. 
 Did the Stonemasons and building cor- 
 porations of the Middle Ages invent them? 
 Certainly not, for they are found in organ- 
 izations that existed ages previously. The 
 Greeks at Eleusis taught the same dogma 
 of immortal life in the same symbolic 
 mode, and their legend, if it differed from 
 the Masonic in its accidents, was precisely 
 identical in its substance. For Hiram 
 there was Dionysus, for the acacia the 
 myrtle, but there were the same mourning, 
 the same discovery, the same rejoicing, be- 
 cause what had been lost was found, and 
 then the same ineffable light, and the same 
 sacred teaching of the name of God and 
 the soul's immortality. And so an ancient 
 orator, who had passed through one of 
 these old Greek Lodges, — for such, without 
 much violence of language, they may well 
 be called, — declared that those who have en- 
 dured the initiation into the mysteries en- 
 tertain better hopes both of the end of life 
 and of the eternal future. Is not this the 
 very object and design of the legend of the 
 Master's degree ? And this same peculiar 
 form of symbolic initiation is to be found 
 among the old Egyptians and in the island 
 of Samothracia, thousands of years before 
 the light of Christianity dawned upon the 
 world to give the seal of its Master and 
 Founder to the divine truth of the resur- 
 rection. 
 
 This will not, it is true, prove the de- 
 scent of Freemasonry, as now organized, 
 from the religious mysteries of antiquity ; 
 although this is one of the theories of its 
 origin entertained and defended by scholars 
 of no mean pretension. But it will prove 
 an identity of design in the moral and in- 
 tellectual organization of all these institu- 
 tions, and it will give the Masonic student 
 
620 
 
 PUERILITY 
 
 PURCHASE 
 
 subjects for profound study when he asks 
 the interesting questions — Whence came 
 these symbols, myths, and legends ? Who 
 invented them? How and why have they 
 been preserved? Looking back into the 
 remotest days of recorded history, we find a 
 priesthood in an island of Greece and an- 
 other on the banks of the Nile, teaching 
 the existence in a future life by symbols 
 and legends, which convey the lesson in a 
 peculiar mode. And now, after thousands 
 of years have elapsed, we find the same 
 symbolic and legendary method of instruc- 
 tion, for the same purpose, preserved in 
 the depository of what is comparatively a 
 modern institution. And between these 
 two extremes of the long past and the 
 present now, we find the intervening period 
 occupied by similar associations, succeeding 
 each other from time to time, and spreading 
 over different countries, but all engaged in 
 the same symbolic instruction, with sub- 
 stantially the same symbols and the same 
 mythical history. 
 
 Does not all this present a problem in 
 moral and intellectual philosophy, and in 
 the archaeology of ethics, which is well 
 worthy of an attempted solution? How 
 unutterably puerile seem the objections and 
 the objurgations of a few contracted minds, 
 guided only by prejudice, when we con- 
 sider the vast questions of deep interest 
 that are connected with Freemasonry as a 
 part of those great brotherhoods that have 
 filled the world for so many ages, so far 
 back, indeed, that some philosophic his- 
 torians have supposed that they must 
 have derived their knowledge of the doc- 
 trines which they taught in their mystic 
 assemblies from direct revelation through 
 an ancient priesthood that gives no other 
 evidence of its former existence but the re- 
 sults which it produced. 
 
 Man needs something more than the 
 gratification of his animal wants. The 
 mind requires food as well as the body, 
 and nothing can better give that mental 
 nutriment than the investigation of sub- 
 jects which relate to the progress of the 
 intellect and the growth of the religious 
 sentiment. 
 
 Again, man was not made for himself 
 alone. The old Stoic lived only for and 
 within himself. But modern philosophy 
 and modern religion teach no such selfish 
 doctrine. Man is but part of the great 
 brotherhood of man, and each one must be 
 ready to exclaim with the old poet, " Homo 
 sum; humani nihil a me alienum puto," 
 I am a man, and I deem nothing relating to 
 mankind to be foreign to my feelings. Men 
 study ancient history simply that they may 
 learn what their brother men have done in 
 former times, and they read the philoso- 
 
 phers and poets of Greece and Rome that 
 they may know what were the speculations 
 of those old thinkers, and they strive to meas- 
 ure the intellect of man as it was then and 
 as it is now, because the study of the 
 growth of intellectual philosophy and the 
 investigation of the mental and moral 
 powers come home to us all as subjects of 
 common interest. 
 
 Looking, then, upon Freemasonry as one 
 of those associations which furnish the evi- 
 dence and the example of the progress of 
 man in intellectual, moral, and religious 
 development, it may be well claimed for it 
 that its design, its history, and its philoso- 
 phy, so far from being puerile, are well en- 
 titled to the respect of the world, and are 
 worth the careful research of scholars. 
 
 Puissant. A title given to the presid- 
 ing officer in several of the high degrees. 
 
 Puissant Irish Master. The 
 eighth degree of Ramsay's Irish Colleges. 
 
 Pu Isanti Operietur. Latin. To 
 him who knocks it shall be opened. An 
 inscription sometimes placed over the 
 front door of Masonic temples or Lodge 
 rooms. 
 
 Punishments, Masonic. Punish- 
 ment in Masonry is inflicted that the char- 
 acter of the Institution may remain unsul- 
 lied, and that the unpunished crimes of its 
 members may not injuriously reflect upon 
 the reputation of the whole society. The 
 nature of the punishment to be inflicted is 
 restricted by the peculiar character of the 
 Institution, which is averse to some forms 
 of penalty, and by the laws of the land, 
 which do not give to private corporations 
 the right to impose certain species of pun- 
 ishment. 
 
 The infliction of fines or pecuniary pen- 
 alties has, in modern times at least, been 
 considered as contrary to the genius of Ma- 
 sonry, because the sanctions of Masonic 
 law are of a higher nature than any that 
 could be furnished by a pecuniary penalty. 
 
 Imprisonment and corporal punishment 
 are equally adverse to the spirit of the In- 
 stitution, and are also prohibited by the 
 laws of the land, which reserve the inflic- 
 tion of such penalties for their own tribu- 
 nals. 
 
 Masonic punishments are therefore re- 
 stricted to an expression of disapprobation 
 or the deprivation of Masonic rights, and are 
 1. Censure; 2. Reprimand; 3. Exclusion; 
 
 4. Suspension, Definite or Indefinite ; and 
 
 5. Expulsion — all of which see under their 
 respective titles. 
 
 Purchase. Iu the Cooke MS. (line 
 630) it is said that the son of Athelstan 
 " purchased a free patent of the kyng that 
 they [the Masons] shulde make a sembly." 
 This does not mean that he bought the pat- 
 
PURE 
 
 PYRON 
 
 621 
 
 ent, but that he obtained or procured it. 
 Such was the use of purchase in old Eng- 
 lish. The booty of a thief was called his 
 purchase, because he had acquired it. 
 Colloquially, the word is still used to desig- 
 nate the getting a hold on anything. 
 
 Pure Freemasonry. See Primitive 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 Purification. As the aspirant in 
 the Ancient Mysteries was not permitted to 
 pass through any of the forms of initiation, 
 or to enter the sacred vestibule of the tem- 
 ple, until, by water or fire, he had been 
 symbolically purified from the corruptions 
 of the world which he was about to leave 
 behind, so in Masonry there is in the 
 first degree a symbolical purification by the 
 presentation to the candidate of the com- 
 mon gavel, an implement whose emblema- 
 tic use teaches a purification of the heart. 
 See Lustration. 
 
 Purity. In the Ancient Mysteries 
 purity of heart and life was an essential 
 prerequisite to initiation, because by initia- 
 tion tne aspirant was brought to a knowl- 
 edge of God, to know whom was not per- 
 mitted to the impure. For, says Origen, 
 (Gont. Oel., vi.,) " a defiled heart cannot see 
 God, but he must be pure who desires to 
 obtain a proper view of a pure Being." 
 And in the same spirit the Divine Master 
 says : " Blessed are the pure in heart, for 
 they shall see God." But " to see God " is 
 a Hebraism, signifying to possess him, to be 
 spiritually in communion with him, to 
 know his true character. Now to acquire 
 this knowledge of God, symbolized by the 
 knowledge of his Name, is the great object 
 of Masonic, as it was of all ancient initia- 
 tion ; and hence the candidate in Masonry 
 is required to be pure, for " he only can 
 stand in the holy place who hath clean 
 hands and a pure heart." See White. 
 
 Purity, Brothers of. An associa- 
 tion of Arabic philosophers, founded at 
 Bosra, in Syria, in the tenth century. Many 
 of their writings, which were much studied 
 by the Jews of Spain in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, were mystical. Steinschneider (Jew. 
 Lit, 174, 295,) calls them " the Freemasons 
 of Bosra," and says that they were " a cele- 
 brated society of a kind of Freemasons." 
 
 Purple. Purple is the appropriate 
 color of those degrees which, in the Ameri- 
 can Rite, have been interpolated between 
 the Boyal Arch and Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry, namely, the Mark, Past, and Most 
 Excellent Masters. It is in Masonry a 
 symbol of fraternal union, because, being 
 compounded of blue, the color of the An- 
 cient Craft, and red, which is that of the 
 Royal Arch, it is intended to signify the 
 close connection and harmony which 
 should ever exist between those two por- 
 
 tions of the Masonic system. It may be 
 observed that this allusion to the union and 
 harmony between blue and red Masonry is 
 singularly carried out in the Hebrew word 
 which signifies purple. This word, which 
 is JOJ1X, argaman, is derived from CDJ"), 
 ragam or regem, one of whose significations 
 is "a friend." But Portal (Coul. Symb., 
 230,) says that purple, in the profane lan- 
 guage of colors, signifies constancy in spirit- 
 ual combats, because blue denotes fidelity, 
 and red, war. 
 
 In the religious services of the Jews we 
 find purple employed on various occasions. 
 It was one of the colors of the curtains of 
 the tabernacle, where, Josephus says, it was 
 symbolic of the element of water, of the 
 veils, and of the curtain over the great en- 
 trance ; it was also used in the construction 
 of the ephod and girdle of the high priest, 
 and the cloths for divine service. 
 
 Among the Gentile nations of antiquity 
 purple was considered rather as a color of 
 dignity than of veneration, and was deemed 
 an emblem of exalted office. Hence Homer 
 mentions it as peculiarly appropriated to 
 royalty, and Virgil speaks of purpura re- 
 gum, or "the purple of kings." Pliny says 
 it was the color of the vestments worn by 
 the early kings of Rome ; and it has ever 
 since, even to the present time, been con- 
 sidered as the becoming insignia of regal 
 or supreme authority. 
 
 In American Masonry, the purple color 
 seems to be confined to the intermediate 
 degrees between the Master and the Royal 
 Arch, except that it is sometimes employed 
 in the vestments of officers representing 
 either kings or men of eminent authority, 
 — such, for instance, as the Scribe in a 
 Chapter of Royal Arch Masons. 
 
 In the Grand Lodge of England, Grand 
 Officers and Provincial Grand Officers wear 
 purple collars and aprons. As the symbolic 
 color of the Past Master's degree, to which 
 all Grand Officers should have attained, it 
 is also considered in this country as the 
 appropriate color for the collars of officers 
 of a Grand Lodge. 
 
 Purple Brethren. In English Ma- 
 sonry, the Grand Officers of the Grand 
 Lodge and the Past Grand and Deputy 
 Grand Masters and Past and Present Pro- 
 vincial Grand Masters are called "purple 
 brethren," because of the color of their 
 decorations, and at meetings of the Grand 
 Lodge are privileged to sit on the dais. 
 
 Purple Lodges. Grand and Pro- 
 vincial Grand Lodges are thus designated 
 by Dr. Oliver in his Institutes of Masonic 
 Jurisprudence. The term is not used in this 
 country. 
 
 Pyron, Jean Baptiste Pierre 
 Julien. A distinguished French Mason 
 
622 
 
 PYTHAGORAS 
 
 PYTHAGORAS 
 
 of the latter part of the last and beginning 
 of the present century, who died at Paris 
 in September, 1821. He was the author 
 of many Masonic discourses, but his most 
 important work was a profound and ex- 
 haustive History of the Organization of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Rite in France, pub- 
 lished in 1814. He was one of the founders 
 of the Grand Orient, and having received 
 the thirty-third degree from the Count de 
 Grasse Tilly, he afterwards assisted in the 
 organization of the Supreme Council of 
 Italy, at Milan, and the Supreme Council 
 of France. In 1805, his name was struck 
 from the register of the Grand Orient in 
 consequence of his opposition to that body, 
 but he remained the Secretary-General of 
 the Supreme Council until his death. Ra- 
 gon calls him an intriguer and bold inno- 
 vator, but Thory speaks more highly of his 
 Masonic character. He was undoubtedly 
 a man of talent, learning, and Masonic re- 
 search. He made a manuscript collection 
 of many curious degrees, which Thory has 
 liberally used in his Nomenclature of Rites 
 and Degrees. 
 
 Pythagoras. One of the most cele- 
 brated of the Grecian philosophers, and the 
 founder of what has been called the Italic 
 school, was born at Samos about 586 years 
 B. c. Educated as an athlete, he subse- 
 quently abandoned that profession and de- 
 voted himself to the study of philosophy. 
 He travelled through Egypt, Chaldea, and 
 Asia Minor, and is said to have submitted 
 to the initiations in those countries for the 
 purpose of acquiring knowledge. On his 
 return to Europe, he established his cele- 
 brated school at Crotona, much resembling 
 that subsequently adopted by the Freema- 
 sons. His school soon acquired such a repu- 
 tation that disciples nocked to him from all 
 parts of Greece and Italy. Pythagoras taught 
 as the principal dogma of his philosophy the 
 system of metempsychosis, or the transmi- 
 gration of souls. He taught the mystical 
 power of numbers, and much of the symbol- 
 ism on that subject which we now possess 
 is derived from what has been left to us by 
 his disciples ; for of his own writings there 
 is nothing extant. He was also a geome- 
 trician, and is regarded as having been the 
 inventor of several problems, the most im- 
 portant of which is that now known as the 
 forty-seventh problem of Euclid. He was 
 also a proficient in music, and is said to 
 have demonstrated the mathematical rela- 
 tions of musical intervals, and to have in- 
 vented a number of musical instruments. 
 Disdaining the vanity and dogmatism of 
 the ancient sages, he contented himself with 
 proclaiming that he was simply a seeker 
 after knowledge, not its possessor, and to 
 him is attributed the introduction of the 
 
 word philosopher, or lover of wisdom, as the 
 only title which he would assume. After 
 the lawless destruction of his school at Cro- 
 tona, he fled to the Locrians, who refused to 
 receive him, when he repaired to Metapon- 
 tum, and soughtan asylum from his enemies 
 in the temple of the Muses, where tradition 
 says that he died of starvation 506 years 
 B. c, when eighty years old. 
 
 Pythagoras, School of. The 
 schools established by Pythagoras at Cro- 
 tona, and other cities, have been considered 
 by many writers as the models after which 
 Masonic Lodges were subsequently con- 
 structed. They undoubtedly served the 
 Christian ascetics of the first century as a 
 pattern for their monastic institutions, with 
 which institutions the Freemasonry of the 
 Middle Ages, in its operative character, was 
 intimately connected. A brief description 
 of the school of Crotona will not therefore 
 be inappropriate. The disciples of this 
 school wore the simplest kind of clothing, 
 and having on their entrance surrendered 
 all their possessions to the common fund, 
 they submitted for three years to voluntary 
 poverty, during which time they were also 
 compelled to a rigorous silence. The doctrines 
 of Pythagoras were always delivered as in- 
 fallible propositions which admitted of no 
 argument, and hence the expression avidg 
 tyr), lie said it, was considered as a sufficient 
 answer to any one who demanded a reason. 
 The scholars were divided into Exoterics 
 and Esoterics. This distinction was bor- 
 rowed by Pythagoras from the Egyptian 
 priests, who practised a similar mode of 
 instruction. The exoteric scholars were 
 those who attended the public assemblies, 
 where general ethical instructions were de- 
 livered by the sage. But only the esoterics 
 constituted the true school, and these alone 
 Pythagoras called, says Jamblichus, his 
 companions and friends. Before admission 
 to the privileges of this school, the previous 
 life and character of the candidate were 
 rigidly scrutinized, and in the preparatory 
 initiation secrecy was enjoined by an oath, 
 and he was made to submit to the severest 
 trials of his fortitude and self-command. 
 He who after his admission was alarmed 
 at the obstacles he had to encounter, was 
 permitted to return to the world, and the 
 disciples, considering him as dead, per- 
 formed his funeral obsequies, and erected a 
 monument to his memory. 
 
 The mode of living in the school of Cro- 
 tona was like that of the modern commu- 
 nists. The brethren, about six hundred in 
 number, with their wives and children, re- 
 sided in one large building. Every morn- 
 ing the business and duties of the day were 
 arranged, and at night an account was ren- 
 dered of the day's transactions. They 
 
PYTHAGORAS 
 
 QUALIFICATIONS 623 
 
 arose before day to pay their devotions to 
 the sun, and recited verses from Homer, 
 Hesiod, or some other poet. Several hours 
 were spent in study, after which there was 
 an interval before dinner, which was occu- 
 pied in walking and in gymnastic exercises. 
 The meals consisted principally of bread, 
 honey, and water, for though the table was 
 often covered with delicacies, no one was 
 permitted to partake of them. It was in 
 this secret school that Pythagoras gave his 
 instructions on his interior doctrine, and 
 explained the hidden meaning of his sym- 
 bols. There were three degrees : the first, 
 or Mathematici, being engaged in the study 
 of the exact sciences ; and the second, or 
 Theoretici, in the knowledge of God, and 
 the future state of man ; but the third, or 
 highest degree, was communicated only to 
 a few whose intellects were capable of 
 grasping the full fruition of the Pythago- 
 rean philosophy. This school, after exist- 
 ing for thirty years, was finally dissolved 
 through the machinations of Kylo, a 
 wealthy inhabitant of Crotona, who, having 
 been refused admission, in revenge excited 
 the citizens against it, when a lawless mob 
 attacked the scholars while assembled in 
 the house of Milo, set fire to the building 
 and dispersed the disciples, forty of them 
 being burned to death. The school was 
 never resumed, but after the death of the 
 philosopher summaries of his doctrines 
 were made by some of his disciples. Still 
 many of his symbols and his esoteric teach- 
 ings have to this day remained uninter- 
 preted and unexplained. 
 After this account of the Pythagorean 
 
 school, the Mason will find no difficulty in 
 understanding that part of the so-called 
 Leland Manuscript which is said so much 
 to have puzzled the great metaphysician 
 John Locke. 
 
 This manuscript — the question of its 
 authenticity is not here entered upon — 
 has the following paragraphs : 
 
 "How comede ytt [Freemasonry] yn 
 Engelonde ? 
 
 " Peter Gower, a Grecian, journeyeded 
 for kunnynge yn Egypte and in Syria, and 
 yn everyche londe whereat the Venetians 
 hadde plauntedde Maconrye, and wyn- 
 nynge entraunce yn al Lodges of Ma- 
 connes, he lerned muche, and retournedde 
 and worked yn Grecia Magna wachsynge 
 and becommynge a myghtye wysacre and 
 gratelyche renowned, and here he framed 
 a grate Lodge at Groton, and maked many 
 Maconnes, some whereoffe dyd journeye yn 
 Fraunce, and maked manye Maconnes 
 wherefromme, yn process of tyme, the arte 
 passed yn Engelonde." 
 
 Locke confesses that he was at first puz- 
 zled with those strange names, Peter Gower, 
 Groton, and the Venetians; but a little 
 thinking taught him that they were only 
 corruptions of Pythagoras, Crotona, and the 
 Phoenicians. 
 
 It is not singular that the old Masons 
 should have called Pythagoras their " an- 
 cient friend and brother," and should have 
 dedicated to him one of their geometrical 
 symbols, the forty-seventh problem of Eu- 
 clid ; an epithet and a custom that have, 
 by the force of habit, been retained in all 
 the modern rituals. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Qualifications of Candidates. 
 
 Every candidate for initiation into the 
 mysteries of Freemasonry must be qualified 
 by certain essential conditions. These 
 qualifications are of two kinds, Internal and 
 External. The internal qualifications are 
 those which lie within his own bosom, the 
 external are those which refer to his out- 
 ward and apparent fitness. The external 
 qualifications are again divided into Moral, 
 Religious, Physical, Mental, and Political. 
 I. The Internal Qualifications are : 
 1. That the applicant must come of his 
 own free will and accord. His application 
 must be purely voluntary, to which he has 
 not been induced by persuasion of friends. 
 
 2. That he must not be influenced by 
 mercenary motives. 
 
 3. That he must be prompted to make 
 the application in consequence of a favora- 
 ble opinion that he entertains of the In- 
 stitution. 
 
 4. That he must be resolved to conform 
 with cheerfulness to the established usages 
 and customs of the Fraternity. 
 
 II. The External Qualifications are, 
 as has already been said, divided into four 
 kinds. 
 
 1. The Moral. That candidate only is 
 qualified for initiation who faithfully ob- 
 serves the precepts of the moral law, and 
 leads a virtuous life, so conducting himself 
 
624 
 
 QUADRIVIUM 
 
 QUARRIES 
 
 as to receive the reward of his own con- 
 science as well as the respect and approba- 
 tion of the world. 
 
 2. The Religious. Freemasonry is ex- 
 ceedingly tolerant in respect to creeds, but 
 it does require that every candidate for ini- 
 tiation shall believe in the existence of God as 
 a superintending and protecting power, and 
 in a future life. No inquiry will be made 
 into modifications of religious belief, pro- 
 vided it includes these two tenets. 
 
 3. The Physical. These refer to sex, 
 age, and bodily conformation. The candi- 
 date must be a man, not a woman ; of ma- 
 ture age, that is, having arrived at his 
 majority, and not so old as to have sunk 
 into dotage ; and he must be in possession 
 of all his limbs, not maimed or dismem- 
 bered, but, to use the language of one of 
 the old Charges, " have his right limbs as a 
 man ought to have." 
 
 4. The Mental. This division excludes 
 all men who are not intellectually qualified 
 to comprehend the character of the Insti- 
 tution, and to partake of its responsibili- 
 ties. Hence fools or idiots and madmen 
 are excluded. Although the landmarks do 
 not make illiteracy a disqualification, and 
 although it- is undeniable that a large por- 
 tion of the Craft in olden time was unedu- 
 cated ; yet there seems to be a general opin- 
 ion that an incapacity to read and write 
 will, in this day, disqualify a candidate. 
 
 5. The Political. These relate to the 
 condition of the candidate in society. The 
 old rule required that none but those who 
 were free born could be initiated, which, 
 of course, excluded slaves and those born 
 in servituda ; and although the Grand 
 Lodge of England substituted free man for 
 free born, it is undeniable that that action 
 was a violation of a landmark ; and the old 
 rule still exists, at least in this country. 
 
 Quadrivium. In classical Latin the 
 word quadrivium meant a place where four 
 roads met, and trivium, a place where three 
 roads met. The scholastics of the Middle 
 Ages, looking to the metaphorical meaning 
 of the phrase, the paths of learning, di- 
 vided what were called the seven liberal 
 arts and sciences, but which comprised the 
 whole cycle of instruction in those days, 
 into two classes, calling grammar, rhetoric, 
 and logic the trivium, and arithmetic, ge- 
 ometry, music, and astronomy the quadri- 
 vium. These two roads to the temple of 
 wisdom, including seven distinct sciences, 
 were, in the Middle Ages, supposed to in- 
 clude universal knowledge. See Liberal 
 Arts and Sciences. 
 
 Quakers. The question of the admis- 
 sibility of a Quaker's affirmation in Masonry 
 is discussed under the word Affirmation, 
 which see. 
 
 Quarrels. Contention or quarrelling 
 in the Lodge, as well as without, is dis- 
 countenanced by the spirit of all the Old 
 Constitutions of Masonry. In the Charges 
 compiled from them, approved by the 
 Grand Lodge of England in 1722, and pub- 
 lished by Dr. Anderson, it is said, "No 
 private piques or quarrels must be brought 
 within the door of the Lodge, far less any 
 quarrels about religion, or nations, or State 
 policy." (vi. 2.) 
 
 Quarries. It is an error to speak, as 
 Oliver does, misguided by some Masonic 
 traditions, of the quarries of Tyre in con- 
 nection with the Temple of Solomon. 
 Modern researches have shown without 
 question that the stones used in the con- 
 struction of the Temple were taken out of 
 quarries in the immediate vicinity ; and the 
 best traditions, as well as Scripture, claim 
 only that the wood from the forests of 
 Lebanon was supplied by King Hiram. 
 The great quarries of Jerusalem are situ- 
 ated in the north-east portion of the city, 
 near the Damascus gate. The entrance to 
 them was first discovered by Barclay. A 
 writer, quoted by Barclay, thus describes 
 them, (City of the Great King, p. 466:) 
 " Here were blocks of stones but half quar- 
 ried, and still attached by one side to the 
 rock. The work of quarrying was appa- 
 rently effected by an instrument resembling 
 a pickaxe, with a broad chisel-shaped end, 
 as the spaces between the blocks were not 
 more than four inches wide, in which it 
 would be impossible for a man to work 
 with a chisel and mallet. The spaces were, 
 many of them, four feet deep and ten feet in 
 height, and the distance between them was 
 about four feet. After being cut away at 
 each side and at the bottom, a lever was in- 
 serted, and the combined force of three or 
 four men could easily pry the block away 
 from the rock behind. The stone was ex- 
 tremely soft and friable, nearly white, and 
 very easily worked, but, like the stone of 
 Malta and Paris, hardening by exposure. 
 The marks of the cutting instrument were 
 as plain and well-defined as if the workman 
 had just ceased from his labor. The heaps 
 of chippings which were found in these 
 quarries showed that the stone had been 
 dressed there, and confirm the Bible state- 
 ment that the stone of which the Tem- 
 ple was built was made ready before it 
 was brought thither." Barclay remarks, 
 [lb., p. 118,) that "those extra Cyclopean 
 stones in the south-east and south-west 
 corners of the Temple wall were doubtless 
 taken from this great quarry, and carried 
 to their present position down the gently 
 inclined plain on rollers — a conjecture 
 which at once solves the mystery that has 
 greatly puzzled travellers in relation to the 
 
QUARTERLY 
 
 QUORUM 
 
 625 
 
 difficulty of transporting and handling such 
 immense masses of rock, and enables us to 
 understand why they were called 'stones 
 of rolling' by Ezra." Mr. Prime also 
 visited these quarries, and in his Tent Life 
 in the Holy Land, (p. 114,) speaks of them 
 thus : "One thing to me is very manifest: 
 there has been solid stone taken from the 
 excavation sufficient to build the walls of 
 Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon. 
 The size of many of the stones taken from 
 here appears to be very great. I know of 
 no place to which the stone can have been 
 carried but to these works, and I know no 
 other quarries in the neighborhood from 
 which the great stone of the walls would 
 seem to have come. These two connected 
 ideas compelled me strongly toward the be- 
 lief that this was the ancient quarry whence 
 the city was built ; and when the magnitude 
 of the excavation between the two oppos- 
 ing hills and of this cavern is considered, 
 it is, to say the least of it, a difficult ques- 
 tion to answer, what has become of the 
 stone once here, on any other theory than 
 that I have suggested." And he adds: 
 " Who can say that the cavern which we 
 explored was not the place where the ham- 
 mers rang on the stone which were forbid- 
 den to sound in the silent growth of the 
 great Temple of Solomon?" 
 
 The researches of subsequent travellers, 
 and especially the labors of the "Palestine 
 Exploration Fund," have substantiated 
 these statements, and confirmed the fact that 
 the quarries where the workmen labored at 
 the buildingof the Solomonic Temple were 
 notinthedominionsoftheKingofTyre,but 
 in the immediate vicinity of the Temple. 
 In 1868, Rob. Morris held what he calls a 
 "Moot Lodge" in these quarries, which 
 event he describes in his Freemasonry in 
 the Holy Land, a work of great interest to 
 Masonic scholars. 
 
 Quarterly Communication. The 
 Old Records of the Institution state that the 
 Fraternity met annually in their General 
 Assembly. The Halliwell Manuscript, 
 commonly known as the York Constitu- 
 tions, says it is true that the Assembly may 
 be held triennially, "Eche year or third 
 year it should be hold;" but wherever 
 spoken of in subsequent records, it is al- 
 ways as an Annual Meeting. It is not until 
 1717 that we find anything said of quar- 
 terly communications; and the first allu- 
 sion to these subordinate meetings in any 
 printed work to which we now have access 
 is in 1738, in the edition of the Constitu- 
 tions published in that year. The expres- 
 sion there used is that the quarterly com- 
 munications were "forthwith revived." 
 This of course implies that they had pre- 
 4D 40 
 
 viously existed ; but as no mention is made 
 of them in the Regulations of 1663, which, 
 on the contrary, speak expressly only of an 
 "Annual General Assembly," I feel author- 
 ized to infer that quarterly communications 
 must have been first introduced into the 
 Masonic system after the middle of the sev- 
 enteenth century. They have not the au- 
 thority of antiquity, and have been very 
 wisely discarded by nearly all the Grand 
 Lodges in this country. They are still re- 
 tained by the Grand Lodges of England and 
 Scotland, but in the United States only by 
 those of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. 
 
 Quaternion. From the Latin quater, 
 the number Four, which see. Oliver calls 
 it the quaternary, but quaternion is the bet- 
 ter usage. 
 
 Quebec. The Grand Lodge of Quebec 
 was established in 1869, by a withdrawal of 
 most of the Lodges of the Province from 
 the Grand Lodge of Canada, on the Ameri- 
 can principle of Masonic law, that the 
 jurisdiction of a Grand Lodge was cotermi- 
 nous with the geographical limits of the 
 political State. The Grand Lodge of Can- 
 ada has opposed the act as infringing on its 
 territorial rights ; but the validity and legal- 
 ity of the Constitution of the Grand Lodge 
 of Quebec have been recognized by nearly 
 all the Grand Lodges of America. 
 
 Questions of Henry VI. Ques- 
 tions said to have been proposed by King 
 Henry VI. of England to the Masons of 
 the kingdom, which, with their answers, 
 are contained in the manuscript known as 
 the Leland Manuscript, which see. 
 
 Quorum. The parliamentary law pro- 
 vides that a deliberative body shall not pro- 
 ceed to business until a quorum of its mem- 
 bers is present. And this law is applicable 
 to Masonry, except that, in constituting a 
 quorum for opening and working a Lodge, 
 it is not necessary that the quorum shall be 
 made up of actual members of the Lodge ; 
 for the proper officers of the Lodge being 
 present, the quorum may be completed by 
 any brethren of the Craft. As to the num- 
 ber of brethren necessary to make a quo- 
 rum for the transaction of business, the Old 
 Constitutions and Regulations are silent, 
 and the authorities consequently differ. In 
 reply to an inquiry directed to him in 1857, 
 the editor of the London Freemasons' Maga- 
 zine affirmed that five Masons are sufficient 
 to open a Lodge and carry on business other 
 than initiation ; for which latter purpose 
 seven are necessary. This opinion appears 
 be the general English one, and is acqui- 
 esced in by Dr. Oliver ; but there is no au- 
 thority of law for it. And when, in the 
 year 1818, the suggestion was made that 
 some regulation was necessary relative to 
 
626 
 
 QUORUM 
 
 RAGON 
 
 the number of brethren requisite to consti- 
 tute a legal Lodge, with competent powers 
 to perform the rite of initiation, and trans- 
 act all other business, the Board of General 
 Purposes of the Grand Lodge of England, 
 to whom the suggestion had been referred, 
 replied, with something like Dogberrian 
 astuteness, " that it is a matter of so much 
 delicacy and difficulty, that it is thought 
 advisable not to depart from the silence on 
 the subject which had been observed in all 
 the Books of Constitutions." 
 
 In the absence, then, of all written laws 
 upon the subject, and without any constitu- 
 tional provision to guide us, we are com- 
 ?elled to recur to the ritual for authority, 
 here the answer to the question in each 
 degree, "How many compose a Lodge?" 
 will supply us with the rule by which we 
 are to establish the quorum in that degree. 
 For whatever number composes a Lodge, 
 that is the number which will authorize 
 
 the Lodge to proceed to business. The 
 ritual has thus established the number 
 which constitutes a " perfect Lodge," and 
 without which number a Lodge could not 
 be legally opened, and therefore, neces- 
 sarily, could not proceed to work or busi- 
 ness; for there is no distinction, in respect 
 to a quorum, between a Lodge when at 
 work or when engaged in business. 
 
 According to the ritualistic rule referred 
 to, seven constitute a quorum, for work or 
 business, in an Entered Apprentice's Lodge, 
 five in a Fellow Craft's, and three in a Mas- 
 ter Mason's. Without this requisite num- 
 ber no Lodge can be opened in either of 
 these degrees. In a Chapter of Royal Arch 
 Masons nine Companions constitute a 
 quorum, and in a Commandery of Knights 
 Templars eleven Knights ; although, under 
 certain circumstances well known to the 
 Order, three Knights are competent to 
 transact business. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabbanaim. p * JO ^'D^V Rabbini- 
 cal Hebrew, and signifying " the chief of 
 the architects." A significant word in the 
 high degrees. 
 
 Rabbinism. The system of philos- 
 ophy taught by the Jewish Rabbis subse- 
 quent to the dispersion, and which is en- 
 gaged in mystical explanations of the oral 
 law. With the reveries of the Jewish 
 teachers was mingled the Egyptian, the 
 Arabic, and the Grecian doctrines. From 
 the Egyptians, especially, Rabbinism de- 
 rived its allegorical and symbolic mode of 
 instruction. Out of it sprung the Thera- 
 peutists and the Essenians; and it gave rise 
 to the composition of the Talmud, many 
 of whose legends have been incorporated 
 into the mythical philosophy of Speculative 
 Masonry. And this it is that makes Rab- 
 binism an interesting subject of research to 
 the Masonic student. 
 
 Rabboni. ^"QT Literally, my Master, 
 equivalent to the pure Hebrew, Adoni. As 
 a significant word in the higher degrees, it 
 has been translated " a most excellent Master" 
 and its usage by the later Jews will justify 
 that interpretation. Buxtorf [Lex. Talmud.) 
 tells us that about the time of Christ this 
 title arose in the school of Hillel, and was 
 given to only seven of their wise men who 
 were pre-eminent for their learning. Jahn 
 [Arch. Bib., § 106,) says that Gamaliel, the 
 
 preceptor of St. Paul, was one of these. They 
 styled themselves the children of wisdom, 
 which is an expression very nearly corres- 
 ponding to the Greek <pi?vooo(poi. The word 
 occurs once, as applied to Christ, in the New 
 Testament, (John xx. 16.) "Jesus said unto 
 her, Mary. She turned herself, and saith 
 unto him, Rabboni, which is to say, Master." 
 The Masonic myth in the " Most Excellent 
 Master's degree," that it was the title ad- 
 dressed by the Queen of Sheba to King 
 Solomon on beholding the magnificence 
 and splendor of the Temple, wants the 
 element of plausibility, inasmuch as the 
 word. was not in use in the time of Solomon. 
 Raeon, J. ME. One of the most dis- 
 tinguished Masonic writers of France. His 
 contemporaries did not hesitate to call him 
 " the most learned Mason of the nineteenth 
 century." He was born in the last quarter 
 of the eighteenth century, most probably 
 at Bruges, in Belgium, where in 1803 he 
 was initiated in the Loge Reunion des 
 Amis du Nord, and subsequently assisted 
 in the foundation of the Lodge and Chapter 
 of Vrais Amis in the same city. On his 
 removal to Paris he continued his devotion 
 to Freemasonry, and was the founder in 
 1805 of the celebrated Lodge of Les Trino- 
 sophes. In that Lodge he delivered, in 
 1818, a course of lectures on ancient and 
 modern initiations, which twenty years 
 
RAGOTZKY 
 
 RAMSAY 
 
 627 
 
 afterwards were repeated at the request of 
 the Lodge, and published in 1841, under 
 the title of (fours Philosophique et Inter- 
 pratif des Initiations Anciennes et Modernes. 
 This work was printed with the express per- 
 mission of the Grand Orient of France, but 
 three years after that body denounced its 
 second edition for containing some ad- 
 ditional matter. Heboid charges this act to 
 the petty passions of the day, and twenty- 
 five years after the Grand Orient made 
 ample reparation in the honor that it paid 
 to the memory of Ragon. In 1818 and 
 1819, he was editor in chief of the period- 
 ical published during those years under the 
 title of Hermes, ou Archives Maconniques. 
 In 1853, he published Orthodoxie Maqon- 
 nique, a work abounding in historical infor- 
 mation, although some of his statements 
 are inaccurate. In 1861, he published the 
 Tuileur Qen&ral de la Franc- Maconnerie, ou 
 Manuel de Vlnitie'; a book not merely con- 
 fined to the details of degrees, but which 
 is enriched with many valuable and inter- 
 esting notes. Ragon died at Paris about 
 the year 1866. In the preface to his Ortho- 
 doxie, he had announced his intention to 
 crown his Masonic labors by writing a 
 work to be entitled Les Fastes Initiatiques, 
 in which he proposed to give an exhaustive 
 view of the Ancient Mysteries, of the Ro- 
 man Colleges of Architects and their suc- 
 cessors, the building corporations of the 
 Middle Ages, and of the institution of 
 Modern or Philosophic Masonry at the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth century. This 
 was to constitute the first volume. The 
 three following volumes were to embrace a 
 history of the Order and of all its Rites in 
 every country. The fifth volume was to be 
 appropriated to the investigation of other 
 secret associations, more or less connected 
 with Freemasonry; and the sixth and last 
 volume was to contain a General Tiler or 
 manual of all the known rites and degrees. 
 Such a work would have been an inesti- 
 mable boon to the Masonic student, but 
 Ragon unfortunately began it too late in 
 life. He did not live to complete it, and 
 in 1868 the unfinished manuscript was pur- 
 chased, by the Grand Orient of France, 
 from his heirs for a thousand francs. It 
 was destined to be quietly deposited in the 
 archives of that body, because, as it was 
 confessed, no Mason could be found in 
 France who had ability enough to supply 
 its lacunae and prepare it for the press. 
 
 Ragon's theory of the origin of Masonry 
 was that its primitive idea is to be found 
 in the initiations of the Ancient Mysteries, 
 but that for its present form it is indebted 
 to Elias Ashmole, who fabricated it in the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 Ragotzky, Carl August. A Ger- 
 
 man who was distinguished for his labors 
 in Masonry, and for the production of seve- 
 ral works of high character, the principal 
 of which were Der Freidenker in der Mau- 
 rerei oder Freimuthige Brie/e iiber wiehtige 
 Gegenstdnde in der Frei- Maurerei, i. e., 
 The Freethinker in Masonry, or Candid 
 Letters on important subjects in Free- 
 masonry, published at Berlin, in 1793, in 
 an octavo volume of three hundred and 
 eleven pages, of which a second edition ap- 
 peared in 1811 ; and a smaller work en- 
 titled Ueber Maurerische Freiheit,fur eingei- 
 veihte und uncingeweihte, i. e., An Essay on 
 Masonic Liberty, for initiated and unini- 
 tiated readers, published in 1792. He died 
 Jan. 5, 1823. 
 
 Rains. It was a custom among the 
 English Masons of the middle of the last 
 century, when conversing together on Ma- 
 sonry, to announce the appearance of a 
 profane by the warning expression " it 
 rains." The custom was adopted by the 
 German and French Masons, with the 
 equivalent expression, es regnet and ilpluie, 
 Baron Tschoudy, who condemns the usage, 
 says that the latter refined upon it by de- 
 signating the approach of a female by il 
 neige, it snows. Dr. Oliver says (.Rev. Sq., 
 97,) that the phrase " it rains," to indicate 
 that a cowan is present and the proceed- 
 ings must be suspended, is derived from the 
 ancient punishment of an eavesdropper, 
 which was to place him under the eaves of a 
 house in rainy weather, and to retain him 
 there till the droppings of water ran in at 
 the collar of his coat and out at his shoes. 
 
 Raised. When a candidate has re- 
 ceived the third degree, he is said to have 
 been "raised" to the sublime degree of a 
 Master Mason. The expression refers, 
 materially, to a portion of the ceremony of 
 initiation, but symbolically, to the resurrec- 
 tion, which it is the object of the degree to 
 exemplify. 
 
 Ranisay , Andrew Michael. 
 Commonly called the Chevalier Ramsay. 
 He was born at Ayr, in Scotland, June 9, 
 1668. His father was a baker, but being a 
 possessor of considerable property was en- 
 abled to give his son a liberal education. 
 He was accordingly sent to school in his 
 native burgh, and afterwards to the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, where he was distin- 
 guished for his abilities and diligence. In 
 1709 he was intrusted with the education 
 of the two sons of the Earl of Wemyss. 
 Subsequently, becoming unsettled in his 
 religious opinions, he resigned that em- 
 ployment and went to Holland, residing for 
 some time at Leyden. There he became 
 acquainted with Pierre Poiret, one of the 
 most celebrated teachers of the mystic 
 theology which then prevailed on the con- 
 
628 
 
 RAMSAY 
 
 RAMSAY 
 
 tinent. From him Ramsay learned the 
 principal tenets of that system ; and it is 
 not unreasonable to suppose that he was 
 thus indoctrinated with that love of mysti- 
 cal speculation which he subsequently de- 
 veloped as the inventor of Masonic degrees, 
 and as the founder of a Masonic Rite. In 
 1710 he visited the celebrated Fenelon, 
 Archbishop of Cambray, of whose mystical 
 tendencies he had heard, and met with a 
 cordial reception. The archbishop invited 
 Ramsay to become his guest, and in six 
 months he was converted to the Catholic 
 faith. Fenelon procured for him the pre- 
 ceptorship of the Due de Chateau-Thierry 
 and the Prince de Turenne. As a reward 
 for his services in that capacity, he was 
 made a knight of the Order of St. Lazarus, 
 whence he received the title of " Chevalier " 
 by which he was usually known. He was 
 subsequently selected by James III., the 
 Pretender, as the tutor of his two sons, 
 Charles Edward and Henry, the former of 
 whom became afterwards the Young Pre- 
 tender, and the latter the Cardinal York. 
 For this purpose he repaired, in 1724, to 
 Rome. But the political and religious in- 
 trigues of that court became distasteful to 
 him, and in a short time he obtained per- 
 mission to return to France. In 1728 he 
 visited England, and became an inmate of 
 the family of the Duke of Argyle. Cham- 
 bers says [Biog. Diet.) that while there he 
 wrote his Principles of Natural and Revealed 
 Religion, and his Travels of Cyrus. This 
 statement is evidently incorrect. The for- 
 mer did not appear until after his death, 
 and was probably one of the last produc- 
 tions of his pen. The latter had already 
 been published at Paris in 1727. But he 
 had already acquired so great a literary 
 reputation, that the University of Oxford 
 conferred on him the degree of Doctor of 
 Laws. He then returned to France, and 
 resided for many years at Pointoise, a seat 
 of the Prince of Turenne, where he wrote 
 his Life of Fenelon, and a History of the 
 Viscount Turenne. During the remainder 
 of his life he resided as Inteudant in the 
 Prince's family, and died May 6, 1743, in 
 the fifty-seventh year of his age. 
 
 No one played a more important part in 
 the history of Freemasonry in the eigh- 
 teenth century than the Chevalier Ramsay, 
 and the influence of his opinions and teach- 
 ings is still felt in the high degrees which 
 have been adopted by the various Rites 
 into which Masonry is now divided. 
 
 Ramsay, although born of humble pa- 
 rentage, was by subsequent association an 
 aristocrat in disposition. Hence, in pro- 
 posing his theory of the origin of Freema- 
 sonry, he repudiated its connection with an 
 operative art, and sought to find its birth- 
 
 place in Palestine, among those kings and 
 knights who had gone forth to battle as 
 Crusaders for the conquest of Jerusalem. 
 In 1740, Ramsay, as Grand Orator, pro- 
 nounced a discourse before the Grand 
 Lodge of France, in which he set forth his 
 theory in explicit terms. That the reader 
 may be put in possession of that theory in 
 Ramsay's own words, I have translated 
 from the discourse the following passage: 
 
 " During the time of the holy wars in 
 Palestine, several principal lords and citi- 
 zens associated themselves together, and 
 entered into a vow to re-establish the tem- 
 ples of the Christians in the Holy Land ; and 
 engaged themselves by an oath to employ 
 their talents and their fortunes in restoring 
 architecture to its primitive institution. 
 They adopted several ancient signs and 
 symbolic words drawn from religion, by 
 which they might distinguish themselves 
 from the infidels and recognize each other 
 in the midst of the Saracens. They com- 
 municated these signs and words only to 
 those who had solemnly sworn, often at 
 the foot of the altar, never to reveal them. 
 This was not an oath of execration, but a 
 bond uniting men of all nations into the 
 same confraternity. Some time after our 
 Order was united with the Knights of St. 
 John of Jerusalem. Hence our Lodges 
 are in all countries called Lodges of St. 
 John. This union was made in imitation 
 of the Israelites when they rebuilt the sec- 
 ond Temple, during which time with one 
 hand they managed the trowel and mor- 
 tar, and in the other held the sword and 
 buckler. 
 
 " Our Order must not, therefore, be re- 
 garded as a renewal of the Bacchanals and 
 a source of senseless dissipation, of un- 
 bridled libertinism and of scandalous in- 
 temperance, but as a moral Order, insti- 
 tuted by our ancestors in the Holy Land 
 to recall the recollection of the most sub- 
 lime truths in the midst of the innocent 
 pleasures of society. 
 
 "The kings, princes, and nobles, when 
 they returned from Palestine into their 
 native dominions, established Lodges there. 
 At the time of the last Crusade several 
 Lodges had already been erected in Ger- 
 many, Italy, Spain, France, and, from the 
 last, in Scotland, on account of the intimate 
 alliance which then existed between those 
 two nations. 
 
 " James, Lord Steward of Scotland, was 
 the Grand Master of a Lodge established 
 at Kilwinning, in the west of Scotland, in 
 the year 1236, a short time after the death 
 of Alexander III., king of Scotland, and 
 a year before John Baliol ascended the 
 throne. This Scottish lord received the 
 Earls of Gloucester and Ulster, English 
 
RAMSAY 
 
 RAMSAY 
 
 629 
 
 and Irish noblemen, as Masons in his 
 Lodge. 
 
 " By degrees our Lodges, our festivals, 
 and our solemnities were neglected in most 
 of the countries where they had been estab- 
 lished. Hence the silence of the historians 
 of all nations, except Great Britain, on the 
 subject of the Order. It was preserved, 
 however, in all its splendor by the Scotch, 
 to whom for several centuries the kings of 
 France had intrusted the guardianship of 
 their sacred persons. 
 
 " After the lamentable reverses of the 
 Crusades, the destruction of the Christian 
 armies, and the triumph of Bendocdar, 
 Sultan of Egypt, in 1263, duringthe eighth 
 and ninth Crusades, the great rrince Ed- 
 ward, son of Henry III., King of England, 
 seeing that there would be no security for 
 the brethren in the Holy Land when the 
 Christian troops should retire, led them 
 away, and thus this colony of the Frater- 
 nity was established in England. As this 
 prince was endowed with all the qualities 
 of mind and heart which constitute the 
 hero, he loved the fine arts, and declared 
 himself the protector of our Order. He 
 granted it several privileges and franchises, 
 and ever since the members of the con- 
 fraternity have assumed the name of Free- 
 masons. From this time Great Britain 
 became the seat of our sciences, the con- 
 servatrix of our laws, and the depository 
 of our secrets. The religious dissensions 
 which so fatally pervaded and rent all Eu- 
 rope during the sixteenth century, caused 
 our Order to degenerate from the grandeur 
 and nobility of its origin. Several of our 
 rites and usages, which were opposed to the 
 prejudices of the times, were changed, dis- 
 guised, or retrenched. Thus it is that sev- 
 eral of our brethren have, like the ancient 
 Jews, forgotten the spirit of our laws, and 
 preserved only the letter and the outer cov- 
 ering. But from the British isles the an- 
 cient science is now beginning to pass again 
 into France." 
 
 Such was the peculiar theory of Bamsay, 
 which, long before the delivery of this dis- 
 course, he had developed in his Rite of six 
 degrees. Rejecting all reference to the 
 Travelling Architects from Como, to the 
 Stonemasons of Germany, and the Opera- 
 tive Freemasons of England, he had 
 sought a noble and chivalric origin for 
 Freemasonry, which with him was not a 
 confraternity founded on a system of archi- 
 tecture, but solely on the military prowess 
 and religious enthusiasm of knighthood. 
 The theory was as clearly the result of his 
 own inventive genius as was his fable of 
 the travels of Cyrus. He offered no docu- 
 mentary or historical authority to support 
 his assertions, but gave them as if they were 
 
 already admitted facts. The theory was, 
 however, readily accepted by the rich, the 
 fashionable, and the noble, because it ele- 
 vated the origin and the social position of 
 the Order, and to it we are to attribute the 
 sudden rise of so many high degrees, which 
 speedily overshadowed the humbler pre- 
 tensions of primitive Craft Masonry. The 
 Kadosh, one of the most important and 
 most extensively diffused of all the high 
 degrees, owes its invention or its composi- 
 tion to Ramsay. 
 
 But this was not the only influence that 
 he exerted on the Masonic system. Ar- 
 dently attached to the exiled house of 
 Stuart, of two of whose princes he had been 
 the tutor, he eagerly met the advances of 
 those who had already begun to give a 
 political importance to the Order and to 
 enlist it in the Pretender's cause, making it 
 an instrument for effecting his restoration 
 to the throne of England. (See Stuart Ma- 
 sonry.) Ramsay incorporated these views 
 into his system, and hence, in many of the 
 high degrees which remain at this day, al- 
 though all that political feeling has long 
 been dead, we still find traces of a Stuart 
 Masonry. 
 
 To Ramsay is also attributed the inven- 
 tion of that system now known as the Royal 
 Arch. This, too, exerted its influence, for 
 from the degree of Ramsay both Dermott 
 and Dunckerley derived many of their ideas 
 used in constructing the two Royal Arch 
 systems which were respectively adopted 
 by the Ancient and the Modern Masons. 
 Oliver, although in his essay on the Origin 
 of the English Royal Arch (p. 24) he ad- 
 mits the influence of Ramsay's degree, 
 speaks in his Historical Landmarks (p. 34, 
 note,) in more doubtful language. "It is 
 said that Ramsay invented the Royal Arch " 
 is the equivocal phrase that he uses. He 
 adds that " it cannot have been any of the 
 three which are usually so styled, viz., the 
 R. A. of Enoch, of Josiah, or of Zerubbabel. 
 Whatever it might be, it is now obsolete." 
 But this is an error • the Royal Arch of 
 Enoch is precisely the degree which was in- 
 vented by Ramsay ; and it is not obsolete, 
 for it is found in almost all the continental 
 Rites under various names. It was adopted 
 from Ramsay by the Council of Emperors 
 of the East and West, when that body was 
 organized in 1754, and subsequently passed 
 over to the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite, where it still remains as the thirteenth 
 degree. That it was a Stuart degree is evi- 
 dent, among other reasons, from the fact 
 that the fourteenth degree, which is its 
 complement, and without which it is in- 
 complete, originally received the title of 
 "Grand Scottish Knight of the Sacred 
 Vault of James VI." 
 
630 
 
 RAMSAY 
 
 RAWLINSON 
 
 When the Chevalier Ramsay went to Eng- 
 land in 1728, he carried with him his Ma- 
 sonic system, and sought to secure its adop- 
 tion by the English Lodges. But in this 
 he was altogether unsuccessful. Yet he left 
 a latent influence behind him when he re- 
 turned to the continent, which was subse- 
 quently felt by those who organized the 
 Grand Lodge of Ancients. To that influ- 
 ence, presented in the example of his high 
 degrees, are we, I think, to attribute the 
 disseverance of the Master's Word from 
 the third degree, and the consequent inven- 
 tion of the Royal Arch. Both Dermott and 
 Dunckerley, as I have already said, derived 
 some fruit from Ramsay's superior intellect. 
 All writers concur in giving the most 
 favorable opinions of Ramsay's character. 
 Chambers asserts that he was generous and 
 kind to his relatives, and that on his tem- 
 porary return to Great Britain, although he 
 did not visit them in Scotland, he sent them 
 liberal offers of money, which, however, in- 
 censed at his apostasy from the national 
 religion, they indignantly refused to accept. 
 Clavel (Hist. Pittor., p. 165,) describes him 
 as " a man endowed with an ardent imagi- 
 nation, and a large amount of learning, wit, 
 and urbanity." And Robison (Proofs of a 
 Consp., p. 39,) says he was " as eminent for 
 his piety as he was for his enthusiasm," and 
 speaks of his " eminent learning, his elegant 
 talents, and his amiable character." 
 
 His general literary reputation is secured 
 by his Life of Fenelon, his Travels of Cyrus, 
 and the elaborate work, published after his 
 death, entitled The Philosophical Principles 
 of Natural and Revealed Religion, Unfolded 
 in a Geometrical Order, In Masonry he 
 wrote but little save the rituals of the 
 degrees which he had invented. He was, 
 however, the author of an Apologetic and 
 Historical Relation of the Society of Freema- 
 sonry, which was published in 1738, and 
 had the honor to be burnt the next year 
 at Rome by the public executioner, on the 
 sentence of the Sacred Congregation of the 
 Inquisition. 
 
 As to the effect of Ramsay's labors on 
 Freemasonry, I think there can hardly be 
 two opinions in candid minds. He came 
 to the study of the Masonic science with all 
 the advantages of a thoroughly classical 
 education. He was indeed by far the most 
 learned man who, up to that time, had 
 taken any interest in the Order. Thus his 
 influence was directed to elevate the tone of 
 the Institution, and to show to the world 
 that it was worthy of the investigation of 
 cultivated minds. With Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry he scarcely interfered, save to assign 
 to it an origin and a history different from 
 those which had been commonly received. 
 But on that fundamental system, as his 
 
 basis, he erected a superstructure of high 
 degrees, in which he sought to develop a 
 system of mystical philosophy which has 
 added much to the attractions of Masonic 
 study. That his high degrees were after- 
 wards expanded to a disproportionate ex- 
 tent, and often by inferior minds, was not 
 his fault. And although, if we look at his 
 system in a historical point of view, we 
 may feel bound to reject it as the mere re- 
 sult of a fertile invention, yet, viewed sym- 
 bolically, it becomes of vast importance. 
 For in that system he had planted the 
 germs of a science of Masonic symbolism 
 which had been previously unknown, but 
 which has grown, and budded, and blos- 
 somed, and given the ripeness of its fruit 
 to succeeding generations. The mine of 
 symbolism which he first opened has been 
 effectively worked by those who have suc- 
 ceeded him. 
 
 Ramsay, Rite of. This Rite, long 
 since exploded, was attempted to be intro- 
 duced in London, in 1728, by the Cheva- 
 lier Ramsay, who sought to found it on his 
 peculiar system of the Templar origin of 
 Freemasonry. It consisted of six degrees, 
 as follows : 1. Apprentice ; 2. Fellow Craft ; 
 3. Master ; 4. Scottish Master ; 5. Novice ; 
 6. Knight of the Temple, or Templar. It 
 was rejected by the Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land, but was received in France, where its 
 degrees were afterwards incorporated into 
 other Rites. See Ramsay. 
 
 Ratisbon. A city of Bavaria, in 
 which two Masonic Congresses have been 
 held. The first was convoked in 1459, by 
 Jost Dotzinger, the master of the works of 
 the Strasburg cathedral. It established 
 some new laws for the government of the 
 Fraternity in Germany, The second was 
 called in 1464, by the Grand Lodge of 
 Strasburg, principally to define the relative 
 rights of, and to settle existing difficulties 
 between, the Grand Lodges of Strasburg, 
 Cologne, Vienna, and Bern. 
 
 Rawlinson Manuscript. In 1855, 
 the Rev. J. S. Sidebotham, of New Col- 
 lege, Oxford, published in the Freemasons' 
 Monthly Magazine a series of interesting 
 extracts from a manuscript volume which 
 he stated was in the Bodleian Library, and 
 which he described as seeming "to be a 
 kind of Masonic album, or commonplace 
 book, belonging to Brother Richard Raw- 
 linson, LL.D. and F. R. S., of the follow- 
 ing Lodges: Sash and Cocoa-tree, Moor- 
 fields, 37 ; St. Paul's Head, Ludgate Street 
 40; Rose Tavern, Cheapside and Oxford 
 Arms, Ludgate Street, 94 ; in which he in- 
 serted anything that struck him either as 
 useful or particularly amusing. It is partly 
 in manuscript, partly in print, and com- 
 prises some ancient Masonic Charges, Con- 
 
EECEIVED 
 
 RECOGNITION 
 
 631 
 
 stitutions, forms of summons, a list of all 
 the Lodges of his time under the Grand 
 Lodge of England, whether in London, the 
 country, or abroad ; together with some ex- 
 tracts from the Grab Street Journal, the 
 General Evening Post, and other journals 
 of the day. The date ranges from 1724 to 
 1740." 
 
 Among the materials thus collected is 
 one which bears the following title: The 
 Freemasons' Constitutions, Copied from an 
 Old MS. in the possession of Dr. Rawlin- 
 son. This copy of the Old Constitutions 
 does not differ materially in its contents 
 from the other old manuscripts, but its 
 more modern spelling and phraseology 
 would seem to give it a later date, which 
 Hughan thinks is about 1700. In a note 
 to the statement that King Athelstan 
 " caused a roll or book to be made, which 
 declared how this science was first invented, 
 afterwards preserved and augmented, with 
 the utility and true intent thereof, which 
 roll or book he commanded to be read and 
 plainly recited when a man was to be made 
 a Freemason," Dr. Rawlinson says : " One 
 of these rolls I have seen in the possession 
 of Mr. Baker, a carpenter in Moorfields." 
 The title of the manuscript in the scrap- 
 book of Rawlinson is The Freemasons' Con- 
 stitution, Copied from an Old MS. in the pos- 
 session of Dr. Eawlinson. Recent researches 
 in the Bodleian Library have not, however, 
 discovered the original manuscript from 
 which the copy was made. It has most 
 probably been mislaid, for its existence 
 cannot be doubted. 
 
 Richard Rawlinson, LL.D., was a cele- 
 brated antiquary, who was born in London 
 about 1690, and died April 6, 1755. He 
 was the author of a Life of Anthony Wood, 
 published in 1711, and of The English To- 
 
 fiographer, published in 1720. Dr. Raw- 
 iuson was consecrated a bishop of the 
 non-juring communion of the Church of 
 England, March 25, 1728. He was an as- 
 siduous collector of old manuscripts, inva- 
 riably purchasing, sometimes at high prices, 
 all that were offered him for sale. In his 
 will, dated June 2, 1752, he bequeathed the 
 whole collection to the University of Ox- 
 ford. The manuscripts were placed in the 
 Bodleian Library, and still remain there ; 
 but unfortunately no adequate catalogue 
 of them has ever been made. 
 
 Received and Acknowledged. 
 A term applied to the initiation of a candi- 
 date into the sixth or Most Excellent Mas- 
 ter's degree of the American Rite. See 
 A cknov>ledged. 
 
 Reception. The ceremony of initia- 
 tion into a degree of Masonry is called a 
 reception. 
 
 Recipient. The French call the 
 
 candidate in any degree of Masonry the 
 Eecipiendaire, or Recipient. 
 
 Recognition, Modes of. Smith 
 says ( Use and Abuse, p. 46,) that at the in- 
 stitution of the Order, in each of the de- 
 grees, " a particular distinguishing test was 
 adopted, which test, together with the ex- 
 plication, was accordingly settled and com- 
 municated to the Fraternity previous to 
 their dispersion, under a necessary and 
 solemn injunction to secrecy; and they 
 have been most cautiously preserved and 
 transmitted down to posterity by faithful 
 brethren ever since their emigration." 
 
 Hence, of all the landmarks, the modes 
 of recognition are the most legitimate and 
 unquestioned. They should admit of no 
 variation, for in their universality consist 
 their excellence and advantage. And yet 
 such variations have unfortunately been 
 admitted, the principal of which origi- 
 nated about the middle of the last century, 
 and were intimately connected with the 
 schism which at that time took place in 
 the Grand Lodge of England, and which 
 divided the Fraternity in that country into 
 the two conflicting societies of the " An- 
 cients " and the " Moderns ;" and although 
 by the reconciliation in 1813 uniformity 
 was restored in the United Grand Lodge 
 which was then formed, that uniformity did 
 not extend to the subordinate bodies in 
 other countries which had derived their 
 existence and their different modes of 
 recognition from the two separated Grand 
 Lodges; and this was, of course, equally 
 applicable to the high degrees which 
 sprang out of them. Thus, while the 
 modes of recognition in the York and 
 Scottish Rites are substantially the same, 
 those of the French or Modern Rite differ 
 in almost everything. In this there is a 
 P. W. in the first degree unrecognized by 
 the two other Rites, and all afterwards are 
 different. 
 
 Again, there are important differences in 
 the York and American Rites, although 
 there is sufficient similarity to' relieve 
 American and English Masons from any 
 embarrassment in mutual recognition. Al- 
 though nearly all the Lodges in the United 
 States, before the Revolution of 1776, 
 derived their existence from the Grand 
 Lodges of England, the American Masons 
 do not use the multitude of signs that pre- 
 vail in the English system, while they 
 have introduced, I think, through the 
 teachings of Webb, the D. G., which is 
 totally unknown to English Masonry. 
 Looking to these differences, the Masonic 
 Congress of Paris, held in 1856, recom- 
 mended, in the seventh proposition, that 
 " Masters of Lodges, in conferring the de- 
 gree of Master Mason, should invest tho 
 
632 
 
 KECOGNITIOtf 
 
 KECOMMENDATION 
 
 candidate with the words, signs, and grips 
 of the Scottish and Modern Rites." This 
 proposition, if it had been adopted, would 
 have mitigated, if it did not abolish, the 
 evil ; but, unfortunately, it did not receive 
 the general concurrence of the Craft. 
 
 As to the antiquity of modes of recogni- 
 tion in general, it may be said that, from 
 the very nature of things, there was always 
 a necessity for the members of every secret 
 society to have some means for recognizing 
 a brother that should escape the detec- 
 tion of the uninitiated. We find evidence 
 in several of the classic writings showing 
 that such a custom prevailed among the 
 initiated in the Pagan mysteries. Livy 
 tells us (xxxi. 14) of two Acarnanian 
 youths who accidentally entered the tem- 
 ple of Ceres during the celebration of the 
 mysteries, and, not having been initiated, 
 were speedily detected as intruders, and 
 put to death by the managers of the tem- 
 ple. They must, of course, have owed 
 their detection to the fact that they were 
 not in possession of those modes of recog- 
 nition which were known only to the initi- 
 ated. 
 
 That they existed in the Dionysiac rites 
 of Bacchus we learn from Plautus, who, in 
 his Miles Gloriosus, (Act IV., Sc. ii.,) makes 
 Misphidippa say to Pyrgopolonices, " Cedo 
 signum si harunc Baccharum es," Give 
 the sign, if you are one of these Bacchoe. 
 
 Jamblichus ( Vit. Pyth.) tells the story 
 of a disciple of Pythagoras, who, having 
 been taken sick, on a long journey, at an 
 inn, and having exhausted his funds, gave, 
 before he died, to the landlord, who had 
 been very kind to him, a paper, on which 
 he had written the account of his distress, 
 and signed it with a symbol of Pythagoras. 
 This the landlord affixed to the gate of a 
 neighboring temple. Months afterwards 
 another Pythagorean, passing that way, 
 recognized the secret symbol, and, inquir- 
 ing into the tale, reimbursed the landlord 
 for all his trouble and expenses. 
 
 Apuleius, who was initiated into the 
 Osirian and Isiac mysteries, says, in his 
 Defensio, " if any one is present who has 
 been initiated into the same secret rites as 
 myself, if he will give me the sign, he 
 shall then be at liberty to hear what it is 
 that I keep with such care." But in an- 
 other place he is less cautious, and even 
 gives an inkling of what was one of the 
 signs of the Osirian initiation. For in his 
 Golden Ass (lib. xi.) he says that in a dream 
 he beheld one of the disciples of Osiris, 
 "who walked gently, with a hesitating 
 step, the ankle of his left foot being 
 slightly bent, in order, no doubt, that he 
 might afford me some sign by which I 
 could recognize him." The Osirian initi- 
 
 ates had then, it seems, like the Freema- 
 sons, mystical steps. 
 
 That the Gnostics had modes of recogni- 
 tion we learn from St. Epiphanius, himself 
 at one time in early life a Gnostic, who 
 says in his Panarium, written against the 
 Gnostics and other heretics, that " on the 
 arrival of any stranger belonging to the 
 same belief, they have a sign given by one 
 to another. In holding out the hand, 
 under pretence of saluting each other, they 
 feel and tickle it in a peculiar manner 
 underneath the palm, and so discover if 
 the new-comer belongs to the same sect. 
 Thereupon, however poor they may be, 
 they serve up to him a sumptuous feast, 
 with abundance of meats and wine." 
 
 I do not refer to the fanciful theories of 
 Dr. Oliver, — the first one most probably a 
 joke, and therefore out of place in his Sym- 
 bolical Dictionary, — founded on passages 
 of Homer and Quintus Curtius, that Achil- 
 les and Alexander of Macedon recognized 
 the one Priam and the other the High 
 Priest by a sign. But there are abundant 
 evidences of an authentic nature that a sys- 
 tem of recognition by signs, and words, 
 and grips has existed in the earliest times, 
 and, therefore, that they were not invented 
 by the Masons, who borrowed them, as 
 they did much more of their mystical sys- 
 tem, from antiquity. 
 
 Recommendation. The petition 
 of a candidate for initiation must be recom- 
 mended by at least two members of the 
 Lodge. Preston requires the signature to 
 be witnessed by one person, (he does not 
 say whether he must be a member of the 
 Lodge or not,) and that the candidate must 
 be proposed in open Lodge by a member. 
 Webb says that " the candidate must be 
 proposed in form, by a member of the 
 Lodge, and the proposition seconded by 
 another member." Cross says that the 
 recommendation " is to be signed by two 
 members of the Lodge," and he dispenses 
 with the formal proposition. These grad- 
 ual changes, none of them, however, sub- 
 stantially affecting the principle, have at 
 last resulted in the present simpler usage, 
 which is, for two members of the Lodge to 
 affix their names to the petition, as recom- 
 menders of the applicant. 
 
 The petition for a Dispensation for a new 
 Lodge, as preliminary to the application for 
 a Warrant of Constitution, must be recom- 
 mended by the nearest Lodge. Preston 
 says that it must be recommended " by the 
 Masters of three regular Lodges adjacent to 
 the place where the new Lodge is to be 
 held." This is also the language of the 
 Constitution of the Grand Lodge of Ire- 
 land. The Grand Lodge of Scotland re- 
 quires the recommendation to be signed 
 
RECONCILIATION 
 
 v Of tmi 
 VKIVER8ITY 
 
 or w 
 
 JZaufq*^ 
 
 RECORDS 
 
 633 
 
 " by the Masters and officers of two of the 
 nearest Lodges." The modern Constitu- 
 tion of the Grand Lodge of England re- 
 quires a recommendation " by the officers 
 of some regular Lodge," without saying 
 anything of its vicinity to the new Lodge. 
 The rule now universally adopted is, that 
 it must be recommended by the nearest 
 Lodge. 
 
 Reconciliation, Lodge of. When 
 the two contending Grand Lodges of Eng- 
 land, known as the "Ancients" and the 
 " Moderns," resolved, in 1813, under the 
 respective Grand Masterships of the Dukes 
 of Kent and Sussex, to put an end to all 
 differences, and to form a United Grand 
 Lodge, it was provided, in the fifth article 
 of union, that each of the two Grand 
 Masters should appoint nine Master Ma- 
 sons to meet at some convenient place ; and 
 each party having opened a just and per- 
 fect Lodge in a separate apartment, they 
 should give and receive mutually and re- 
 ciprocally the obligations of both Fraterni- 
 ties; and being thus duly and equally en- 
 lightened in both forms, they should be 
 empowered and directed to hold a Lodge, 
 under the Warrant or Dispensation to be 
 intrusted to them, and to be entitled " The 
 Lodge of Reconciliation." The duty of 
 this Lodge was to visit the several Lodges 
 under both Grand Lodges, and to instruct 
 the officers and members of the same in 
 the forms of initiation, obligation, etc., in 
 both, so that uniformity of working might 
 be established. The Lodge of Reconciliation 
 was constituted on the 27th December, 
 1813, the day on which the union was per- 
 fected. This Lodge was only a temporary 
 one, and the duties for which it had been 
 organized having been performed, it ceased 
 to exist by its own limitation. 
 
 Reconsideration, Motion for. 
 A motion for reconsideration can only be 
 made in a Grand Lodge, Grand Chapter, or 
 other Grand Body, on the same day or the 
 day after the adoption of the motion which 
 it is proposed to reconsider. In a Lodge 
 or other subordinate body, it can only be 
 made at the same meeting. It cannot be 
 moved by one who has voted in the minor- 
 ity. It cannot be made when the matter 
 to be reconsidered has passed out of the 
 control of the body, as when the original 
 motion was for an appropriation which 
 has been expended since the motion for it 
 was passed. A motion for reconsideration 
 is not debatable if the question proposed 
 to be reconsidered is not. It cannot always 
 be adopted by a simple majority vote. It 
 may be postponed or laid upon the table. 
 If postponed to a time definite, and when 
 that time arrives is not acted upon, it can- 
 not be renewed. If laid upon the table, it 
 4E 
 
 cannot be taken up out of-its order, and no 
 second motion for reconsideration can be 
 offered while it lies upon the table, hence 
 to lay a motion for reconsideration on the 
 table is considered as equivalent to reject- 
 ing it. When a motion for reconsideration 
 is adopted, the original motion comes up 
 immediately for consideration, as if it had 
 been for the first time brought before the 
 body, in the form which it presented when 
 it was adopted. 
 
 Reconsideration of the Rallot. 
 When the petition of a candidate for ini- 
 tiation has been rejected, it is not permis- 
 sible for any member to move for a recon- 
 sideration of the ballot. The following 
 four principles set forth in a summary way 
 the doctrine of Masonic parliamentary law 
 on this subject : 
 
 1. It is never in order for a member to 
 move for the reconsideration of a ballot on 
 the petition of a candidate, nor for a pre- 
 siding officer to entertain such a motion. 2. 
 The Master or presiding officer alone can, 
 for reasons satisfactory to himself, order 
 such a reconsideration. 3. The presiding 
 officer cannot order a reconsideration on 
 any subsequent night, nor on the same 
 night, after any member who was present 
 and voted has departed. 4. The Grand 
 Master cannot grant a Dispensation for a 
 reconsideration, nor in any other way in- 
 terfere with the ballot. The same restric- 
 tion applies to the Grand Lodge. 
 
 Recorder. In some of the high de- 
 grees, as in a Council of Select Masters and 
 a Commandery of Knights Templars, the 
 title of Recorder is given to the Secretary. 
 The recording officer of the Grand Encamp- 
 ment of Knights Templars of the United 
 States, of State Grand Commanderies, and 
 of Grand Councils of Royal and Select Mas- 
 ters, is styled a Grand Recorder. 
 
 Records, Old. The early history of 
 Masonry, as written by Anderson, Preston, 
 Smith, Calcott, and writers of that genera- 
 tion, was little more than a collection of 
 fables, so absurd as to excite the smile of 
 every reader, or bare statements of inci- 
 dents, without any authority to substantiate 
 their genuineness. 
 
 The recent writers on the same subject 
 have treated it in a very different manner, 
 and one that gives to the investigation of 
 the early annals of Freemasonry a respecta- 
 ble position in the circle of historic studies. 
 Much of the increased value that is given 
 in the present day to Masonic history is 
 derivable from the fact that, ceasing to re- 
 peat the gratuitous statements of the older 
 writers, some of whom have not hesitated 
 to make Adam a Grand Master, and Eden 
 the site of a Lodge, our students of this day 
 are drawing their conclusions from, and es- 
 
634 
 
 RECORDS 
 
 RED 
 
 tablishing their theories on, the old records, 
 which Masonic archaeology is in this gen- 
 eration bringing to light. Hence, one of 
 these students (Bro. Woodford, of England,) 
 has said that, when we begin to investigate 
 the real facts of Masonic history, " not only 
 have we to discard at once much that we 
 have held tenaciously and taught habit- 
 ually, simply resting on the reiterated as- 
 sertions of others, but we shall also find 
 that we have to get rid of what, I fear, we 
 must call ' accumulated rubbish,' before we 
 can see clearly how the great edifice of Ma- 
 sonic history, raised at last on sure and 
 good foundations, stands out clearer to the 
 sight, and even more honorable to the 
 builders, from those needful, if preparatory, 
 labors." 
 
 Anderson tells us that in the year 1719, 
 at some of the private Lodges, "several 
 very valuable manuscripts concerning the 
 Fraternity, their Lodges, Regulations, 
 Charges, Secrets, and Usages, were too 
 hastily burnt by some scrupulous brothers, 
 that those papers might not fall into strange 
 hands." 
 
 In the last quarter of a century the ar- 
 chaeologists of Masonry have labored very 
 diligently and successfully to disinter from 
 the old Lodges, libraries, and museums 
 many of these ancient manuscripts, and 
 much light has thus been thrown upon the 
 early history of Freemasonry. 
 
 The following is a list of the most im- 
 portant of these old records which the 
 industry of Masonic antiquaries has brought 
 to light. They are generally called " Manu- 
 scripts," because their originals, for the 
 most part, exist in manuscript rolls, or 
 there is competent evidence that the origi- 
 nal manuscripts, although now lost, once 
 existed. There are, however, a few in- 
 stances in which this evidence is wanting, 
 and the authenticity of the manuscript rests 
 only on probability. Each of them is noted 
 in this work under its respective title. 
 
 1. Halliwell Manuscript. 
 
 2. Book of the Fraternity of Stonema- 
 sons. 
 
 3. Paris Regulations. 
 
 4. Strasburg Constitutions. 
 
 5. Cooke's Manuscript. 
 
 6. Landsdowne Manuscript. 
 
 7. Schaw Manuscript. 
 
 8. St. Clair Charters. 
 
 9. Eglinton Manuscript. 
 
 10. York Manuscripts, (six in number.) 
 
 11. Grand Lodge Manuscript. 
 
 12. Sloane Manuscripts, (two in number.) 
 
 13. Aitche8on-Haven Manuscript. 
 
 14. Kilwinning Manuscript. 
 
 15. Harleian Manuscript. 
 
 16. Hope Manuscript. 
 
 17. Alnwick Manuscript. 
 
 18. Papworth Manuscript. 
 
 19. Roberts' Manuscript. 
 
 20. Edward III. Manuscript. 
 
 21. St. Albans' Regulations. 
 
 22. Anderson Manuscript. 
 
 23. Stone Manuscripts. 
 
 24. Constitutions of Strasburg. 
 
 25. Constitutions of Torgan. 
 
 26. Dowland Manuscript. 
 
 27. Wilson Manuscript. 
 
 28. Spencer Manuscript. 
 
 29. Cole Manuscript. 
 
 30. Plott Manuscript. 
 
 31. Dowland Manuscript. 
 
 32. Rawlinson Manuscript. 
 
 33. Woodford Manuscript. 
 
 34. Krause Manuscript. 
 
 35. Antiquity Manuscript. 
 
 36. Leland Manuscript, sometimes called 
 the Locke Manuscript. 
 
 37. Charter of Cologne. 
 
 There may be some other manuscript 
 records, especially in France and Germany, 
 not here noticed, but the list above contains 
 the most important of those now known to 
 the Fraternity. Many of them have never 
 yet been published, and the collection 
 forms a mass of material absolutely neces- 
 sary for the proper investigation of Masonic 
 history. Every Mason who desires to 
 know the true condition of the Fraternity 
 during the last three or four centuries, and 
 who would learn the connection between 
 the Stonemasons of the Middle Ages and 
 the Free and Accepted Masons of the pres- 
 ent day, so as perfectly to understand the 
 process by which the Institution became 
 changed from an operative art to a specu- 
 lative science, should attentively read and 
 thoroughly digest these ancient records of 
 the Brotherhood. 
 
 Rectification. The German Masons 
 use this word to designate that process 
 of removing an irregularity of initiation 
 which, in English Masonry, is called heal- 
 ing, which see. 
 
 Rectified Rite. {Rite Rectifii.) See 
 Martinism. 
 
 Rectified Rose Croix, Rite of. 
 See Hose Qroix, Rectified. 
 
 Recusant. A term applied in Eng- 
 lish history to one who refused to acknowl- 
 edge the supremacy of the king as head of 
 the church. In Masonic law, the word is 
 sometimes used to designate a Lodge or 
 a Mason that refuses to obey an edict of the 
 Grand Lodge. The arrest of the Charter, 
 or the suspension or expulsion of the of- 
 fender, would be the necessary punishment 
 of such an offence. 
 
 Red. Red, scarlet, or crimson, for it is 
 indifferently called by each of these names, 
 is the appropriate color of the Royal Arch 
 degree, and is said symbolically to repre- 
 
RED 
 
 RED 
 
 635 
 
 aent the ardor and zeal which should actu- 
 ate all who are in possession of that sub- 
 lime portion of Masonry. Portal (Couleurs 
 Symb., p. 116,) refers the color red to fire, 
 which was the symbol of the regeneration 
 and purification of souls. Hence there 
 seems to be a congruity in adopting it as 
 the color of the Royal Arch, which refers 
 historically to the regeneration or rebuild- 
 ing of the Temple, and symbolically to the 
 regeneration of life. 
 
 In the religious services of the Hebrews, 
 red, or scarlet, was used as one of the colors 
 of the veils of the tabernacle, in which, ac- 
 cording to Josephus, it was an emblem of 
 the element of fire; it was also used in the 
 ephod of the high priest, in the girdle, and 
 in the breastplate. Red was, among the 
 Jews, a color of dignity, appropriated to the 
 most opulent or honorable, and hence the 
 prophet Jeremiah, in describing the rich 
 men of his country, speaks of them as those 
 who " were brought up in scarlet." 
 
 In the Middle Ages, those knights who 
 engaged in the wars of the Crusades, and 
 especially the Templars, wore a red cross, 
 as a symbol of their willingness to undergo 
 martyrdom for the sake of religion ; and the 
 priests of the Roman Church still wear red 
 vestments when they officiate on the festi- 
 vals of those saints who were martyred. 
 
 Red is in the higher degrees of Masonry 
 as predominating a color as blue is in the 
 lower. Its symbolic significations differ, 
 but they may generally be considered as 
 alluding either to the virtue of fervency 
 when the symbolism is moral, or to the 
 shedding of blood when it is historical. 
 Thus in the degree of Provost and Judge, 
 it is historically emblematic of the violent 
 death of one of the founders of the Institu- 
 tion; while in the degree of Perfection it is 
 said to be a moral symbol of zeal for the 
 glory of God, and for our own advancement 
 towards perfection in Masonry and virtue. 
 
 In the degree of Rose Croix, red is the 
 predominating color, and symbolizes the 
 ardent zeal which should inspire all who 
 are in search of that which is lost. 
 
 Where red is not used historically, and 
 adopted as a memento of certain tragical 
 circumstances in the history of Masonry, 
 it is always, under some modification, a 
 symbol of zeal and fervency. 
 
 These three colors, blue, purple, and red, 
 were called in the former English lectures 
 " the old colors of Masonry," and were said 
 to have been selected " because they are 
 royal, and such as the ancient kings and 
 princes used to wear; and sacred history 
 informs us that the veil of the Temple was 
 composed of these colors." 
 
 Red Cross Knight. When, in the 
 tenth century, Pope Urban II., won by the 
 
 enthusiasm of Peter the Hermit, addressed 
 the people who had assembled at the city 
 of Clermont during the sitting of the 
 Council, and exhorted them to join in the 
 expedition to conquer the Holy Land, he 
 said, in reply to their cry that God wills it, 
 Dieux el volt, " it is indeed the will of God ; 
 let this memorable word, the inspiration, 
 surely, of our Holy Spirit, be forever adopt- 
 ed as your cry of battle, to animate the de- 
 votion and courage of the champions of 
 Christ. His cross is the symbol of your 
 salvation ; wear it, a red, a bloody cross, as 
 an external mark on your breasts or shoul- 
 ders, as a pledge of your sacred and irrevo- 
 cable engagement." The proposal was 
 eagerly accepted, and the Bishop of Puy 
 was the first who solicited the Pope to affix 
 the cross in red cloth on his shoulder. The 
 example was at once followed, and thence- 
 forth the red cross on the breast was recog- 
 nized as the sign of him who was engaged 
 in the Holy Wars, and Crusader and Red 
 Cross Knight became convertible terms. 
 Spenser, in the Fairie Queen, (Cant. I.,) thus 
 describes one of these knights : 
 
 " And on his breast a bloody cross he bore, 
 
 The dear remembrance of his dying Lord, 
 For whose sweet sake that glorious badge he 
 wore, 
 And dead, as living, ever him ador'd : 
 Upon his shield the like was also scor'd." 
 
 The application of this title, as is some- 
 times done in the ritual of the degree, to a 
 Masonic degree of Knight of the Red Cross, 
 is altogether wrong. A Red Cross Knight 
 and a Knight of the Red Cross are two en- 
 tirely different things. 
 
 Red Cross, Knight of the. See 
 Knight of the Red Cross. 
 
 Red Cross Legend. The embassy 
 of Zerubbabel to the court of Darius con- 
 stitutes what has been called the Legend of 
 the Red Cross degree. See Embassy. 
 
 Red Cross of Babylon. See Baby- 
 lonish Pass. 
 
 Red Cross of Rome and Con- 
 stantine. A degree founded on the cir- 
 cumstance of the vision of a cross, with the 
 inscription EN TO NIKA, which appeared 
 in the heavens to the Emperor Coustantine. 
 It formed originally a part of the Rosaic 
 Rite, and is now practised in England, 
 Ireland, Scotland, and some of the English 
 colonies, as a distinct Order ; the meetings 
 being called " Conclaves," and the presiding 
 officer of the Grand Imperial Council of 
 the whole Order, " Grand Sovereign." Its 
 existence in England as a Masonic degree 
 has been traced, according to Bro. R. W. 
 Little, (Freemas. Mag.,) to the year 1780, 
 when it was given by Bro. Charles Shirreff. 
 It was reorganized in 1804 by Walter Rod- 
 
636 
 
 RED 
 
 REFRESHMENT 
 
 well Wright, who supplied its present 
 ritual. The ritual of the Order contains 
 the following legend : 
 
 "After the memorable battle fought at 
 Saxa Rubra, on the 28th October, A. D. 
 312, the emperor sent for the chiefs of the 
 Christian legion, and — we now quote the 
 words of an old ritual — ' in presence of his 
 other officers constituted them into an 
 Order of Knighthood, and appointed them 
 to wear the form of the Cross he had seen 
 in the heavens upon their shields, with 
 the motto In hoc signo vinces round it, sur- 
 rounded with clouds ; and peace being soon 
 after made, he became the Sovereign Patron 
 of the Christian Order of the Red Cross.' 
 It is also said that this Cross, together with 
 a device called the Labarum, was ordered 
 to be embroidered upon all the imperial 
 standards. The Christian warriors were 
 selected to compose the body-guard of Con- 
 stantine, and the command of these privi- 
 leged soldiers was confided to Eusebius, 
 Bishop of Nicomedia, who was thus con- 
 sidered the second officer of the Order." 
 
 Red Cross Sword of Babylon. 
 A degree worked in the Royal Arch Chap- 
 ters of Scotland, and also in some parts of 
 England. It is very similar to the Knight 
 of the Red Cross conferred in the United 
 States. 
 
 Red tetters. In the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite, edicts, summonses 
 or other documents, written or printed in 
 red letters, are supposed to be of more 
 binding obligation, and to require more 
 implicit obedience, than any others. Hence, 
 in the same Rite, to publish the name of 
 one who has been expelled in red letters is 
 considered an especial mark of disgrace. 
 It is derived from the custom of the Mid- 
 dle Ages, when, as Muratori shows, {Antiq. 
 Ital. Med.,) red letters were used to give 
 greater weight to documents; and he quotes 
 an old Charter of 1020, which is said to be 
 confirmed " per literas rubeas," or by red 
 letters. 
 
 Reflection, Chamber of. See 
 Chamber of Reflection. 
 
 Reformed Helvetic Rite. The 
 Reformed Rite of Wilhelrasbad was intro- 
 duced into Poland, in 1784, by Brother 
 Glayre, of Lausanne, the minister of King 
 Stanislaus, and who was also the Provin- 
 cial Grand Master of this Rite in the 
 French part of Switzerland. But, in intro- 
 ducing it into Poland, he subjected it to 
 several modifications, and called it the Re- 
 formed Helvetic Rite. The system was 
 adopted by the Grand Orient of Poland. 
 
 Reformed Rite. This Rite was 
 established, in 1872, by a Congress of Free- 
 masons assembled at Wilhelmsbad, in Ger- 
 many, over whose deliberations Ferdinand, 
 
 Duke of Brunswick, presided as Grand Mas- 
 ter. It was at this Convention that the 
 Reformed Rite was first established, its 
 members assuming the title of the "Benefi- 
 cent Knights of the Holy City," because 
 they derived their system from "the French 
 Rite of that name. It was called the Re- 
 formed Rite, because it professed to be a 
 reformation of a Rite which had been es- 
 tablished in Germany about a quarter of 
 a century before under the name of the 
 " Rite of Strict Observance." This latter 
 Rite had advanced an hypothesis in rela- 
 tion to the connection between Freemasonry 
 and the Order of Knights Templars, tracing 
 the origin of our Institution to those 
 Knights at the Crusades. This hypothesis 
 the Convention at Wilhelmsbad rejected 
 as unfounded in history or correct tradi- 
 tion. By the adoption of this Rite, the 
 Congress gave a death-blow to the Rite of 
 Strict Observance. 
 
 The Reformed Rite is exceedingly sim- 
 ple in its organization, consisting only of 
 five degrees, namely : 
 
 1. Entered Apprentice; 2. Fellow Craft; 
 3. Master Mason ; 4. Scottish Master ; 5. 
 Knight of the Holy City. 
 
 The last degree is, however, divided into 
 three sections, those of Novice, Professed 
 Brother, and Knight, which really gives 
 seven degrees to the Rite 
 
 Refreshment. In Masonic language, 
 refreshment is opposed in a peculiar sense 
 to labor. While a Lodge is in activity it 
 must be either at labor or at refreshment. 
 If a Lodge is permanently closed until its 
 next communication, the intervening pe- 
 riod is one of abeyance, its activity for Ma- 
 sonic duty having for the time been sus- 
 pended ; although its powers and privileges 
 as a Lodge still exist, and may be at any 
 time resumed. But where it is only tem- 
 porarily closed, with the intention of soon 
 again resuming labor, the intermediate 
 period is called a time of refreshment, and 
 the Lodge is said not to be closed, but to 
 be called from labor to refreshment. The 
 phrase is an old one, and is found in the 
 earliest rituals of the last century. Calling 
 from labor to refreshment differs from 
 closing in this, that the ceremony is a very 
 brief one, and that the Junior Warden 
 then assumes the control of the Craft, in 
 token of which he erects his column on his 
 stand or pedestal, while the Senior War- 
 den lays his down. This is reversed in 
 ^ calling on, in which the ceremony is equally 
 brief. 
 
 The word refreshment no longer bears the 
 meaning among Masons that it formerly 
 did. It signifies not necessarily eating and 
 drinking, but simply cessation from labor. 
 A Lodge at refreshment may thus be com- 
 
REGALIA 
 
 REGHELLINI 
 
 637 
 
 pared to any other society when in a re- 
 cess. During the whole of the last century, 
 and a part of the present, a different mean- 
 ing was given to the word, arising from a 
 now obsolete usage, which Dr. Oliver 
 (Mas. Juris., p. 210,) thus describes: 
 
 " The Lodges in ancient times were not 
 arranged according to the practice in use 
 amongst ourselves at the present day. The 
 Worshipful Master, indeed, stood in the 
 east, but both the Wardens were placed in 
 the west. The south was occupied by the 
 senior Entered Apprentice, whose business 
 it was to obey the instructions of the Mas- 
 ter, and to welcome the visiting brethren, 
 after having duly ascertained that they 
 were Masons. The junior Entered Ap- 
 prentice was placed in the north, to pre- 
 vent the intrusion of cowans and eaves- 
 droppers ; and a long table, and sometimes 
 two, where the Lodge was numerous, were 
 extended in parallel lines from the pedes- 
 tal to the place where the Wardens sat, on 
 which appeared not only the emblems of 
 Masonry, but also materials for refresh- 
 ment ; — for in those days every section of 
 the lecture had its peculiar toast or senti- 
 ment; — and at its conclusion the Lodge was 
 called from labor to refreshment by certain 
 ceremonies, and a toast, technically called 
 1 the charge,' was drunk in a bumper, with 
 the honors, and not unfrequently accom- 
 panied by an appropriate song. After 
 which the Lodge was called from refresh- 
 ment to labor, and another section was de- 
 livered with the like result." 
 
 At the present day, the banquets of 
 Lodges, when they take place, are always 
 held after the Lodge is closed; although 
 they are still supposed to be under the 
 charge of the Junior Warden. When 
 modern Lodges are called to refreshment, 
 it is either as a part of the ceremony of 
 the third degree, or for a brief period; some- 
 times extending to more than a day, when 
 labor, which had not been finished, is to be 
 resumed and concluded. 
 
 The mythical history of Masonry tells us 
 that high twelve or noon was the hour at 
 Solomon's Temple when the Craft were 
 permitted to suspend their labor, which 
 was resumed an hour after. In reference 
 to this myth, a Lodge is at all times sup- 
 posed to be called from labor to refresh- 
 ment at " high twelve," and to be called on 
 again "one hour after high twelve." 
 
 Regalia. Strictly speaking, the word 
 regalia, from the Latin, regalia, royal 
 things, signifies the ornaments of a king or 
 queen, and is applied to the apparatus used 
 at a coronation, such as the crown, scep- 
 tre, cross, mound, etc. But it has in 
 modern times been loosely employed to sig- 
 nify almost any kind of ornaments. Hence 
 
 the collar and jewel, and sometimes even 
 the apron, are called by many Masons the 
 regalia. The word has the early authority 
 of Preston. In the second edition of his 
 Illustrations, (1775,) when on the subject 
 of funerals, he uses the expression, "the 
 body, with the regalia placed thereon, and 
 two swords crossed." And at the end of 
 the service he directs that " the regalia 
 and ornaments of the deceased, if an officer 
 of a Lodge, are returned to the Master in 
 due form, and with the usual ceremonies." 
 Regalia cannot here mean the Bible and 
 Book of Constitutions, for there is a place 
 in another part of the procession appro- 
 priated to them. I should have supposed 
 that, by regalia, Preston referred to some 
 particular decorations of the Lodge, had 
 not his subsequent editors, Jones and Oliver, 
 both interpolated the word "other" before 
 ornaments, so as to make the sentence 
 read " regalia and other ornaments," thus 
 clearly indicating that they deemed the 
 regalia a part of the ornaments of the de- 
 ceased. The word is thus used in one of 
 the chapters of the modern Constitutions 
 of the Grand Lodge of England. But in 
 the text the more correct words " clothing 
 and jewels " are employed. There is, how- 
 ever, so great an error in the use of the 
 word regalia to denote Masonic clothing, 
 that it would be better to avoid it. 
 
 Regeneration. In the Ancient Mys- 
 teries the doctrine of regeneration was 
 taught by symbols : not the theological 
 dogma of regeneration peculiar to the 
 Christian church, but the philosophical 
 dogma as a change from death to life — a 
 new birth to immortal existence. Hence 
 the last day of the Eleusinian mysteries, 
 when the initiation was completed, was 
 called, says Court de Gebelin, [M. P., iv. 
 322,) the day of regeneration. This is the 
 doctrine in the Masonic mysteries, and 
 more especially in the symbolism of the 
 third degree. We must not say that the 
 Mason is regenerated when he is initiated, 
 but that he has been indoctrinated into the 
 philosophy of the regeneration, or the new 
 birth of all things — of light out of dark- 
 ness, or life out of death, of eternal life out 
 of temporal death. 
 
 Regent. The fourth degree of the 
 Lesser Mysteries of the Illuminati. 
 
 Reghellini, M. A learned Masonic 
 writer, who was born of Venetian parents 
 on the island of Scio, whence he was usually 
 styled Reghellini de Scio. The date of 
 1750, at which his birth has been placed, is 
 certainly an error. Michaud supposes that it 
 is twenty or thirty years too soon . The date of 
 the publication of his earliest works would 
 indicate that he could not have been born 
 much before 1780. After receiving a good 
 
638 
 
 REGIMENTAL 
 
 REGULAR 
 
 education, and becoming especially a profi- 
 cient in mathematics and chemistry, he set- 
 tled at Brussels, where he appears to have 
 spent the remaining years of his life, and 
 wrote various works, which indicate exten- 
 sive research and a lively and, perhaps, a 
 rather ill-directed imagination. In 1834 he 
 published a work entitled Examen du Mosa- 
 isme el du Chrislianisme, whose bold opin- 
 ions were not considered as very orthodox. 
 He had previously become attached to the 
 study of Masonic antiquities, and in 1826 
 published a work in one volume, entitled 
 Esprit du doc/me de la Franc- Maconnerie : 
 recherches sur son origine et celle de ses differ- 
 ent* rites. He subsequently still further de- 
 veloped his ideas on this subject, and pub- 
 lished at Paris, in 1833, a much larger 
 work, in three volumes, entitled, La Macon- 
 nerie, considered comme le resultat des Reli- 
 gions Egyptienne, Juive et Chretienne. In 
 this work he seeks to trace both Freema- 
 sonry and the Mosaic religion to the worship 
 that was practised on the banks of the Nile 
 in the time of the Pharaohs. Whatever 
 may be thought of his theory, it must be 
 confessed that he has collected a mass of 
 learned and interesting facts that must be 
 attractive to the Masonic scholar. From 
 1822 to 1829 Reghellini devoted his labors 
 to editing the Annates Chronologiques, Lit- 
 teraires et Historiques de la Maconnerie des 
 Pays-Bas, a work that contains much valu- 
 able information. 
 
 Outside of Masonry, the life of Reghel- 
 lini is not well known. It is said that in 
 1848 he became complicated with the polit- 
 ical troubles which broke out that year in 
 Vienna, and, in consequence, experienced 
 some trouble. His great age at the time 
 precluded the likelihood that the statement 
 is true. In his latter days he was reduced 
 to great penury, and in August, 1855, was 
 compelled to take refuge in the House of 
 Mendicity at Brussels, where he shortly 
 afterwards died. 
 
 Regimental Lodge. An expres- 
 sion used by Dr. Oliver, in his Jurispru- 
 dence, to designate a Lodge attached to 
 a regiment in the British army. The title 
 is not recognized in the English Constitu- 
 tions, where such a Lodge is always styled 
 a Military Lodge, which see. 
 
 Register. A list of the officers and 
 members of a Grand or subordinate 
 Lodge. The registers of Grand Lodges 
 are generally published in this country an- 
 nually attached to their Proceedings. The 
 custom of publishing annual registers of 
 subordinate Lodges is almost exclusively 
 confined to the Masonry of the continent 
 of Europe. Sometimes it is called a Regis- 
 try. 
 
 Registrar, Grand. 1. An officer of 
 
 the Grand Lodge of England, whose prin- 
 cipal duty it is to take charge of the seal, 
 and attach it, or cause it to be attached by 
 the Grand Secretary, to documents issued 
 by the Grand Lodge or Grand Master. 2. 
 An officer in a Grand Consistory of the 
 Scottish Rite, whose duties are those of 
 Grand Secretary. 
 
 Registration. The modern Consti- 
 tutions of the Grand Lodge of England re- 
 quire that every Lodge must be particu- 
 larly careful in registering the names of 
 the brethren initiated therein, and also in 
 making the returns of its members; as no 
 person is entitled to partake of the general 
 charity, unless his name be duly registered, 
 and he shall have been at least two years a 
 contributing member of a Lodge, except 
 in the following cases, to which the limita- 
 tion of two years is not meant to extend, 
 viz., shipwreck, or capture at sea, loss by 
 fire, or breaking or dislocating a limb, fully 
 attested and proved. To prevent injury to 
 individuals, by their being excluded the 
 privileges of Masonry through the neglect 
 of their Lodges in not registering their 
 names, any brother so circumstanced, on 
 producing sufficient proof that he has paid 
 the full fees to his Lodge, including the 
 register fee, shall be capable of enjoying 
 the privileges of the Craft. But the offend- 
 ing Lodge shall be reported to the Board 
 of General Purposes, and rigorously pro- 
 ceeded against for detaining moneys which 
 are the property of the Grand Lodge. 
 
 An unregistered member in England is 
 therefore equivalent, so far as the exercise 
 of his rights is concerned, to an unaffiliated 
 Mason. In this country the same rule ex- 
 ists of registration in the Lodge books and 
 an annual return of the same to the Grand 
 Lodge, but the penalties for neglect or dis- 
 obedience are neither so severe nor so well 
 defined. 
 
 Registry. The roll or list of Lodges 
 and their members under the obedienceof 
 a Grand Lodge. Such registries are in 
 general published annually by the Grand 
 Lodges of the United States at the end of 
 their printed Proceedings. 
 
 Regular. A Lodge working under 
 the legal authority of a Warrant of Consti- 
 tution is said to be regular. The word was 
 first used in 1723, in the first edition of 
 Anderson's Constitutions. In the eighth 
 General Regulation published in that work 
 it is said : " If any set or number of Ma- 
 sons shall take upon themselves to form a 
 Lodge without the Grand Master's War- 
 rant, the regular Lodges are not to counte- 
 nance them." Ragon says (Orthod. Mac., 
 72,) that the word was first heard of in 
 French Masonry in 1773, when an edict 
 of the Grand Orient thus defined it : "A 
 
EEGULATIONS 
 
 RELIGION 
 
 regular Lodge is a Lodge attached to the 
 Grand Orient, and a regular Mason is a 
 member of a regular Lodge." 
 
 Regulations. See Old Regulations. 
 
 Itch uni. Called by Ezra the chan- 
 cellor. He was probably a lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor of the province of Judea, who, with 
 Shimshai the scribe, wrote to Artaxerxes 
 to prevail upon him to stop the building 
 of the second Temple. His name is intro- 
 duced into some of the high degrees that 
 are connected in their ritual with the sec- 
 ond Temple. 
 
 Reinhold, Karl Iieonhard. A 
 German philosopher, who was born at Vi- 
 enna in 1758, and died in 1823. He was 
 associated with Wieland, whose daughter 
 he married, in the editorship of the Deutch- 
 schen Mercur. He afterwards became a 
 
 f»rofessor of philosophy at Kiel, and pub- 
 ished Letters on the Philosophy of Kant. 
 He was much interested in the study of 
 Freemasonry, and published, under the 
 pseudonym of Decius, at Leipsic, in 1788, 
 two lectures entitled Die Hebraischen 
 Mysterien oder die alteste religiose Freimau- 
 rerei, i. e., The Hebrew Mysteries, or the 
 Oldest religious Freemasonry. The funda- 
 mental idea of this work is, that Moses de- 
 rived his system from the Egyptian priest- 
 hood. Eichhorn attacked his theory in his 
 Universal Repository of Biblical Literature. 
 Reinhold delivered and published, in 1809, 
 An Address on the Design of Freemasonry, 
 and another in 1820, on the occasion of the 
 reopening of a Lodge at Kiel. This was 
 probably his last Masonic labor, as he died 
 in 1823, at the age of sixty-five years. In 
 1828 a Life of him was published by his 
 son, a professor of philosophy at Jena. 
 
 Reinstatement. See Restoration. 
 
 Rejection. One black ball will re- 
 ject a candidate for initiation. If a candi- 
 date be rejected, he can apply in no other 
 Lodge for admission. If admitted at all, it 
 must be in the Lodge where he first ap- 
 plied. But the time when a new applica- 
 tion may be made never having been de- 
 termined by the general or common law of 
 Masonry, the rule has been left to the spe- 
 cial enactment of Grand Lodges, some of 
 which have placed it at six months, and 
 some at from one to two years. Where the 
 Constitution of a Grand Lodge is silent on 
 the subject, it is held that a new applica- 
 tion has never been specified, so that it is 
 held that a rejected candidate may apply 
 for a reconsideration of his case at any 
 time. The unfavorable report of the com- 
 mittee to whom the letter was referred, or 
 the withdrawal of the letter by the candi- 
 date or his friends, is considered equivalent 
 to a rejection. See Unanimity. 
 
 Rejoicing. The initiation of the An- 
 
 cient Mysteries, like that of the third de- 
 gree of Masonry, began in sorrow and ter- 
 minated in rejoicing. The sorrow was for 
 the death of the hero-god, which was repre- 
 sented in the sacred rites, and the rejoicing 
 was for his resuscitation to eternal life. 
 "Thrice happy," says Sophocles, "are 
 those who descend to the shades below 
 when they have beheld these rites of initia- 
 tion." The lesson there taught was, says 
 Pindar, the divine origin of lite, and hence 
 the rejoicing at the discovery of this eternal 
 truth. 
 
 Relief. One of the three principal 
 tenets of a Mason's profession, and thus 
 defined in the lecture of the first degree. 
 
 To relieve the distressed is a duty incum- 
 bent on all men, but particularly on Ma- 
 sons, who are linked together by an indis- 
 soluble chain of sincere affection. To 
 soothe the unhappy, to sympathize with 
 their misfortunes, to compassionate their 
 miseries, and to restore peace to their 
 troubled minds, is the great aim we have 
 in view. On this basis we form our friend- 
 ships and establish our connections. 
 
 Of the three tenets of a Mason's profes- 
 sion, which are Brotherly Love, Relief, and 
 Truth , it may be said that Truth is the column 
 of wisdom, whose rays penetrate and en- 
 lighten the inmost recesses of our Lodge; 
 Brotherly Love, the column of strength, 
 which binds us as one family in the indis- 
 soluble bond of fraternal affection ; and 
 Relief, the column of beauty, whose orna- 
 ments, more precious than the lilies and 
 pomegranates that adorned the pillars of 
 the porch, are the widow's tear of joy and 
 the orphan's prayer of gratitude. 
 
 Relief, Hoard of. The liability to 
 imposition on the charity of the Order, by 
 the applications of impostors, has led to the 
 establishment in our larger cities of Boards 
 of Relief. These consist of representatives 
 of all the Lodges, to whom all applications 
 for temporary relief are referred. The 
 members of the Board, by frequent consul- 
 tations, are better enabled to distinguish the 
 worthy from the unworthy, and to detect 
 attempts at imposition. A similar organ- 
 ization, but under a different name, was 
 long ago established by the Grand Lodge 
 of England, for the distribution of the fund 
 of benevolence. (See Fund of Benevolence.) 
 In New Orleans, Louisiana, the Board of 
 Relief, after twenty-five years of successful 
 operation, was chartered in July, 1854, by 
 the Grand Lodge as " Relief Lodge No. 1," 
 to be composed of the Masters and Wardens 
 of all the Lodges who were united in the 
 objects of the Board. 
 
 Religion of Masonry. There has 
 been a needless expenditure of ingenuity 
 and talent, by a large number of Masonic 
 
640 
 
 RELIGION 
 
 RELIGION 
 
 orators and essayists, in the endeavor to 
 
 Erove that Masonry is not religion. This 
 as undoubtedly arisen from a well in- 
 tended but erroneous view that has been 
 taken of the connection between religion 
 and Masonry, and from a fear that if 
 the complete disseverance of the two was 
 not made manifest, the opponents of Ma- 
 sonry would be enabled successfully to es- 
 tablish a theory which they have been fond 
 of advancing, that the Masons were dis- 
 posed to substitute the teachings of their 
 Order for the truths of Christianity. Now 
 I have never for a moment believed that 
 any such unwarrantable assumption, as 
 that Masonry is intended to be a substitute 
 for Christianity, could ever obtain admis- 
 sion into any well regulated mind, and, 
 therefore, I am not disposed to yield, on 
 the subject of the religious character of 
 Masonry, quite so much as has been yielded 
 by more timid brethren. On the contrary, 
 I contend, without any sort of hesitation, 
 that Masonry is, in every sense of the word, 
 except one, and that its least philosophical, 
 an eminently religious institution — that it 
 is indebted solely to the religious element 
 which it contains for its origin and for its 
 continued existence, and that without this 
 religious element it would scarcely be 
 worthy of cultivation by the wise and good. 
 But, that I may be truly understood, it 
 will be well first to agree upon the true def- 
 inition of religion. There is nothing more 
 illogical than to reason upon undefined 
 terms. Webster has given four distinct 
 definitions of religion : 
 
 1. Religion, in a comprehensive sense, 
 includes, he says, a belief in the being and 
 perfections of God — in the revelation of 
 his will to man — in man's obligation to 
 obey his commands — in a state of reward 
 and punishment, and in man's accountable- 
 ness to God ; and also true godliness or piety 
 of life, with the practice of all moral duties. 
 
 2. His second definition is, that religion, 
 as distinct from theology, is godliness or 
 real piety in practice, consisting in the per- 
 formance of all known duties to God and 
 our fellow-men, in obedience to divine com- 
 mand, or from love to God and his law. 
 
 3. Again, he says that religion, as dis- 
 tinct from virtue or morality, consists in 
 the performance of the duties we owe di- 
 rectly to God, from a principle of obedi- 
 ence to his will. 
 
 4. And lastly, he defines religion to be 
 any system of faith or worship ; and in this 
 sense, he says, religion comprehends the 
 belief and worship of Pagans and Moham- 
 medans as well as of Christians — any re- 
 ligion consisting in the belief of a superior 
 power, or powers, governing the world, and 
 in the worship of such power or powers. 
 
 And it is in this sense that we speak of the 
 Turkish religion, or the Jewish religion, as 
 well as of the Christian. 
 
 Now, it is plain that, in either of the first 
 three senses in which we may take the word 
 religion (and they do not very materially 
 differ from each other), Masonry may right- 
 fully claim to be called a religious institu- 
 tion. Closely and accurately examined, it 
 will be found to answer to any one of the 
 requirements of either of these three defi- 
 nitions. So much does it " include a belief 
 in the being and perfections of God," that 
 the public profession of such a faith is es- 
 sentially necessary to gain admission into 
 the Order. No disbeliever in the existence 
 of a God can be made a Mason. The " reve- 
 lation of his will to man" is technically 
 called the " spiritual, moral, and Masonic 
 trestle-board " of every Mason, according 
 to the rules and designs of which he is to 
 erect the spiritual edifice of his eternal life. 
 A " state of reward and punishment " is 
 necessarily included in the very idea of an 
 obligation, which, without the belief in 
 such a state, could be of no binding force 
 or efficacy. And " true godliness or piety of 
 life " is inculcated as the invariable duty 
 of every Mason, from the inception of the 
 first to the end of the very last degree that 
 he takes. So, again, in reference to the 
 second and third definitions, all this prac- 
 tical piety and performance of the duties 
 we owe to God and to our fellow-men arise 
 from and are founded on a principle of 
 obedience to the divine will. Whence else, 
 or from what other will, could they have 
 arisen ? It is the voice of the G. A. O. T. 
 U. symbolized to us in every ceremony of 
 our ritual and from every portion of the 
 furniture of our Lodge, that speaks to the 
 true Mason, commanding him to fear God 
 and to love the brethren. It is idle to say 
 that the Mason does good simply in obedi- 
 ence to the statutes of the Order. These 
 very statutes owe their sanction to the Ma- 
 sonic idea of the nature and perfections of 
 God, which idea has come down to us 
 from the earliest history of the Institution, 
 and the promulgation of which idea was 
 the very object and design of its origin. 
 
 But it must be confessed that the fourth 
 definition does not appear to be strictly ap- 
 plicable to Masonry. It has no pretension 
 to assume a place among the religions of 
 the world as a sectarian " system of faith 
 and worship," in the sense in which we dis- 
 tinguish Christianity from Judaism, or Ju- 
 daism from Mohammedanism. In this 
 meaning of the word we do not and can- 
 not speak of the Masonic religion, nor say 
 of a man that he is not a Christian, but 
 a Mason. Here it is that the opponents 
 of Freemasonry have assumed mistaken 
 
RELIGIOUS 
 
 RENOUNCING 
 
 641 
 
 v 
 
 y 
 
 f;round, in confounding the idea of a re- 
 igious institution with that of the Christian 
 religion as a peculiar form of worship, and 
 in supposing, because Masonry teaches re- 
 ligious truth, that it is offered as a substi- 
 tute for Christian truth and Christian obli- 
 gation. Its warmest and most enlightened 
 friends have never advanced nor supported 
 such a claim. Freemasonry is not Christi- 
 anity, nor a substitute for it. It is not in- 
 tended to supersede it nor any other form 
 of worship or system of faith. It does not 
 meddle with sectarian creeds or doctrines, 
 but teaches fundamental religious truth — 
 not enough to do away with the necessity 
 of the Christian scheme of salvation, but 
 more than enough to show, to demonstra- 
 tion, that it is, in every philosophical sense 
 of the word, a religious institution, and 
 one, too, in which the true Christian Mason 
 will find, if he earnestly seeks for them, 
 abundant types and shadows of his own 
 exalted and divinely inspired faith. 
 
 The tendency of all true Masonry is to- 
 wards religion. If it make any progress, its 
 progress is to that holy end. Look at its 
 ancient landmarks, its sublime ceremonies, 
 its profound symbols and allegories, — all 
 inculcating religious doctrine, commanding 
 religious observance, and teaching religious 
 truth, and who can deny that it is emi- 
 nently a religious institution? 
 
 But, besides, Masonry is, in all its forms, 
 thoroughly tinctured with a true devotional 
 spirit. We open and close our Lodges with 
 
 Srayer ; we invoke the blessing of the Most 
 [igh upon all our labors; we demand of 
 our neophytes a profession of trusting be- 
 lief in the existence and the superintending 
 care of God; and we teach them to bow 
 with humility and reverence at his awful 
 name, while his holy law is widely opened 
 upon our altars. Freemasonry is thus iden- 
 tified with religion ; and although a man 
 may be eminently religious without being 
 a Mason, it is impossible that a Mason can 
 be " true and trusty " to his Order unless 
 he is a respecter of religion and an ob- 
 server of religious principle. 
 
 But the religion of Masonry is not sec- 
 tarian. It admits men of every creed within 
 its hospitable bosom, rejecting none and 
 approving none for his peculiar faith. It 
 is not Judaism, though there is nothing in 
 it to offend a Jew ; it is not Christianity, 
 but there is nothing in it repugnant to the 
 faith of a Christian. Its religion is that 
 general one of nature and primitive reve- 
 lation, — handed down to us from some 
 ancient and patriarchal priesthood, — in 
 which all men may agree and in which no 
 men can differ. It inculcates the practice 
 of virtue, but it supplies no scheme of re- 
 demption for sin. It points its disciples to 
 4F 41 
 
 the path of righteousness, but it does not 
 claim to be " the way, the truth, and the 
 life." In so far, therefore, it cannot become 
 a substitute for Christianity, but its ten- 
 dency is thitherward; and, as the hand- 
 maid of religion, it may, and often does, 
 act as the porch that introduces its votaries 
 into the temple of divine truth. 
 
 Masonry, then, is, indeed, a religious 
 institution ; and on this ground mainly, if 
 not alone, should the religious Mason de- 
 fend it. 
 
 Religions Qualifications. See 
 Qualifications. 
 
 Removal of Lodges. On Janu- 
 ary, 25, 1738, the Grand Lodge of England 
 adopted a regulation that no Lodge should 
 be removed without the Master's knowl- 
 edge; that no motion for removing it should 
 be made in his absence ; and that if he was 
 opposed to the removal, it should not be 
 removed unless two-thirds of the members 
 present voted in the affirmative. But as 
 this rule was adopted subsequent to the 
 General Regulations of 1722, it is not ob- 
 ligatory as a law of Masonry at present. 
 The Grand Lodges of England and of New 
 York have substantially the same rule. 
 But unless there be a local regulation in 
 the Constitution of any particular Grand 
 Lodge to that effect, I know of no princi- 
 
 Ele of Masonic law set forth in the Ancient 
 landmarks or Regulations which forbids a 
 Lodge, upon the mere vote of the majority, 
 from removing from one house to another 
 in the same town or city ; and unless the 
 Grand Lodge of any particular jurisdiction 
 has adopted a regulation forbidding the 
 removal of a Lodge from one house to an- 
 other without its consent, I know of no law 
 in Masonry of universal force which would 
 prohibit such a removal at the mere option 
 of the Lodge. 
 
 This refers, of course, only to the removal 
 from one house to another; but as the town 
 or village in which the Lodge is situated is 
 designated in its Warrant of Constitution, 
 no such removal can be made except with 
 the consent of the Grand Lodge, or, during 
 the recess of that body, by the Dispensation 
 of the Grand Master, to be subsequently 
 confirmed by the Grand Lodge. 
 
 Renouncing Masons. During the 
 anti-Masonic excitement in the United 
 States, which began in 1828, and lasted for 
 a few years, many Masons left the Order, 
 actuated by various motives, (seldom good 
 ones,) and attached themselves to the anti- 
 Masonic party. It is not singular that these 
 deserters, who called themselves "Renounc- 
 ing Masons," were the bitterest in their 
 hatred and the loudest in their vitupera- 
 tions of the Order. But, as may be seen 
 in the article Indelibility, a renunciation of 
 
642 
 
 KEPEAL 
 
 REPRIMAND 
 
 the name cannot absolve any one from the 
 obligations of a Mason. 
 
 Repeal. As a Lodge cannot enact a 
 new by-law without the consent of the 
 Grand Lodge, neither can it repeal an old 
 one without the same consent; nor can any- 
 thing done at a stated meeting be repealed 
 at a subsequent extra or emergent one. 
 
 Report of a Committee. When 
 a committee, to which a subject had been 
 referred, has completed its investigation 
 and come to an opinion, it directs its chair- 
 man, or some other member, to prepare an 
 expression of its views, to be submitted to 
 the Lodge. The paper containing this ex- 
 pression of views is called its report, which 
 may be framed in three different forms : It 
 may contain only an expression of opinion 
 on the subject which had been referred ; or 
 it may contain, in addition to this, an ex- 
 press resolution or series of resolutions, the 
 adoption of which by the assembly is re- 
 commended ; or, lastly, it may contain one 
 or more resolutions, without any prelimi- 
 nary expression of opinion. 
 
 The report, when prepared, is read to 
 the members of the committee, and, if it 
 meets with their final sanction, the chair- 
 man, or one of the members, is directed to 
 present it to the Lodge. 
 
 The reading of the report is its recep- 
 tion, and the next question will be on its 
 adoption. If it contains a recommenda- 
 tion of resolutions, the adoption of the re- 
 port will be equivalent to an adoption of 
 the resolutions, but the report may, on the 
 question of adoption, be otherwise disposed 
 of by being laid on the table, postponed, or 
 recommitted. See the subject fully dis- 
 cussed in the author's treatise on Parlia- 
 mentary Law as applied to the Government of 
 Masonic Bodies, ch. xxxi. 
 
 Reportorial Corps. A name re- 
 cently given in the United States to that 
 useful and intelligent body of Masons who 
 write, in their respective Grand Lodges, 
 the reports on Foreign Correspondence. 
 Through the exertions of Dr. Corson, the 
 chairman of the Committee of Foreign Cor- 
 respondence of New Jersey, a convention 
 of this body was held at Baltimore in 1871, 
 during the session of the General Grand 
 Chapter, and measures were then taken to 
 establish a triennial convention. Such a 
 convention would assume no legislative 
 powers, but would simply meet for the in- 
 tercommunication of ideas and the inter- 
 change of fraternal greetings. 
 
 Representative of a Grand 
 Lodge. A brother appointed by one 
 Grand Lodge to represent its interests in 
 another. The representative is generally, 
 although not necessarily, a member of the 
 Grand Lodge to whom he is accredited, 
 
 and receives his appointment on its nomi- 
 nation, but he wears the clothing of the 
 Grand Lodge which he represents. He 
 is required to attend the meetings of the 
 Grand Lodge to which he is accredited, 
 and to communicate to his constituents an 
 abstract of the proceedings, and other mat- 
 ters of Masonic interest. But it is doubt- 
 ful whether these duties are generally per- 
 formed. The office of representative ap- 
 pears to be rather one of honor than of 
 service. In the French system, a repre- 
 sentative is called a " gage d'amitie." 
 
 Representatives of Lodges. The 
 twelfth landmark prescribes that every 
 Mason has a right to be present at the 
 General Assembly of the Craft, which was 
 annually held. And even as late as 1717, 
 on the reorganization of the Grand Lodge 
 of England, we are informed by Preston 
 that the Grand Master summoned all the 
 brethren to meet him and his Wardens in 
 the quarterly communications. But soon 
 after, it being found, I presume, that a 
 continuance of such attendance would ren- 
 der the Grand Lodge an unwieldy body ; 
 and the rights of the Fraternity having 
 been securely guarded by the adoption of 
 the thirty-nine Regulations, it was deter- 
 mined to limit the appearance of the breth- 
 ren of each Lodge, at the quarterly com- 
 munications, to its Master and Wardens ; 
 so that the Grand Lodge became thence- 
 forth a strictly representative body, com- 
 posed of the first three officers of the 
 subordinate Lodges. The inherent right 
 and the positive duty of every Mason to be 
 
 E resent at the General Assembly or Grand 
 .odge was relinquished, and a representa- 
 tion by Masters and Wardens was substi- 
 tuted in its place. A few modern Grand 
 Lodges have disfranchised the Wardens 
 also, and confined the representation to the 
 Masters only. But this is evidently an in- 
 novation, having no color of authority in 
 the Old Regulations. 
 
 Representative System. The 
 system of appointing representatives of 
 Grand Lodges originated some years ago 
 with the Grand Lodge of New York. It at 
 first met with much opposition,but has grad- 
 ually gained favor, and there are now but 
 few Grand Lodges in Europe or America 
 that have not adopted it. Although the orig- 
 inal plan intended by the founders of the 
 system does not appear to have been effect- 
 ually carried out in all its details, it has at 
 least been successful as a means of more 
 closely cementing the bonds of union be- 
 tween the bodies mutually represented. 
 
 Reprimand. A reproof formally 
 communicated to the offender for some fault 
 committed, and the lowest grade, above 
 censure, of Masonic punishment. It can be 
 
REPUTATION 
 
 RESTORATION 
 
 643 
 
 inflicted only on charges made, and by a 
 majority vote of the Lodge. It may be 
 private or public. Private reprimand is 
 generally communicated to the offender 
 by a letter from the Master. Public repri- 
 mand is given orally in the Lodge and in 
 the presence of the brethren. A reprimand 
 does not affect the Masonic standing of the 
 person reprimanded. 
 
 Reputation. In the technical lan- 
 guage of Masonry, a man of good reputation 
 is said to be one who is " under the tongue 
 of good report ; " and this constitutes one of 
 the indispensable qualifications of a candi- 
 date for initiation. 
 
 Residence. It is the general usage 
 in this country, and may be considered as 
 the Masonic law of custom, that the appli- 
 cation of a candidate for initiation must be 
 made to the Lodge nearest his place of 
 residence. There is, however, no express 
 law upon this subject either in the ancient 
 landmarks or the Old Constitutions, and 
 its positive sanction as a law in any juris- 
 diction must be found in the local enact- 
 ments of the Grand Lodge of that jurisdic- 
 tion. Still there can be no doubt that ex- 
 pediency and justice to the Order make 
 such a regulation necessary, and accordingly 
 many Grand Lodges have incorporated 
 such a regulation in their Constitutions ; 
 and of course, whenever this has been done, 
 it becomes a positive law in that jurisdic- 
 tion. 
 
 It has also been contended by some 
 American Masonic jurists that a non-resi- 
 dent of a State is not entitled, on a tempo- 
 rary visit to that State, to apply for initia- 
 tion. There is, however, no landmark nor 
 written law in the ancient Constitutions 
 which forbids the initiation of non-resi- 
 dents. Still, as there can be no question 
 that the conferring of the degrees of Ma- 
 sonry on a stranger is always inexpedient, 
 and frequently productive of injury and in- 
 justice, by foisting on the Lodges near the 
 candidate's residence unworthy and unac- 
 ceptable persons, there has been a very 
 general disposition among the Grand 
 Lodges of this country to discountenance 
 the initiation of non-residents. Many of 
 them have adopted a specific regulation to 
 this effect, and in all jurisdictions where 
 this has been done, the law becomes im- 
 perative ; for, as the landmarks are entirely 
 silent on the subject, the local regulation is 
 left to the discretion of each jurisdiction. 
 But no such rule has ever existed among 
 European Lodges. 
 
 Resignation of Membership. 
 The spirit of the law of Masonry does not 
 recognize the right of any member of a 
 Lodge to resign his membership, unless it 
 be for the purpose of uniting with another 
 
 Lodge. This mode of resignation is called 
 a demission. See Demit. 
 
 Resignation of Office. Every of- 
 ficer of a Lodge, or rather Masonic organi- 
 zation, being required at the time of his in- 
 stallation into office to enter into an obliga- 
 tion that he will perform the duties of that 
 office for a specified time and until his suc- 
 cessor is installed, it has been repeatedly 
 held by the Masonic jurists of this country 
 that an officer once elected and installed 
 cannot resign his office ; and this may be 
 considered as a well-established law of 
 American Masonry. 
 
 Resolution. In parliamentary law, 
 a proposition, when first presented, is called 
 a motion ; if adopted, it becomes a resolu- 
 tion. Many Grand Lodges adopt, from 
 time to time, in addition to the provisions 
 of their Constitution, certain resolutions on 
 important subjects, which, giving them an 
 apparently greater weight of authority 
 than ordinary enactments, are frequently 
 appended to their Constitution, or their 
 transaction, under the imposing title of 
 "Standing Regulations." But this weight 
 of authority is only apparent. These stand- 
 ing resolutions having been adopted, like 
 all other resolutions, by a mere majority 
 vote, are subject, like them, to be repealed 
 or rescinded by the same vote. 
 
 Respectable. A title given by the 
 French, as Worshipful is by the English, to 
 a Lodge. Thus, Im Respectable Loge de la 
 Candeur is equivalent to "The Worship- 
 ful Lodge of Candor." It is generally ab- 
 breviated as R.\ L.\ or R.\ I ].'. 
 
 Response. In the liturgical services 
 of the church an answer made by the peo- 
 ple speaking alternately with the clergy- 
 man. In the ceremonial observances of 
 Freemasonry there are many responses, 
 the Master and the brethren taking alter- 
 nate parts, especially in the funeral service 
 as laid down first by Preston, and now very 
 generally adopted. In all Masonic prayers 
 the proper response, never to be omitted, is, 
 " So mote it be." 
 
 Restoration. The restoration, or, as 
 it is also called, the reinstatement of a Ma- 
 son who had been excluded, suspended, or 
 expelled, may be the voluntary act of the 
 Lodge, or that of the Grand Lodge on ap- 
 peal, when the sentence of the Lodge has 
 been reversed on account of illegality in the 
 trial, or injustice, or undue severity in the 
 sentence. It may also, as in the instance 
 of definite suspension, be the result of the 
 termination of the period of suspension, 
 when the suspended member is, ipso facto, 
 restored without any further action of the 
 Lodge. 
 
 The restoration from indefinite suspen- 
 sion must be equivalent to a reinstatement 
 
644 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 REVEREND 
 
 in membership, because the suspension be- 
 ing removed, the offender is at once in- 
 vested with the rights and privileges of 
 which he had never been divested, but only 
 temporarily deprived. 
 
 But restoration from expulsion may be 
 either to membership in the Lodge or sim- 
 ply to the privileges of the Order. 
 
 It may also be ex gratia, or an act of 
 mercy, the past offence being condoned ; or 
 ex debito jmtitice, by a reversal of the sen- 
 tence for illegality of trial or injustice in 
 the verdict. 
 
 The restoration ex gratia may be either 
 by the Lodge or the Grand Lodge on ap- 
 peal. If by the Lodge, it may be to mem- 
 bership, or only to good standing in the 
 Order. But if by the Grand Lodge, the 
 restoration can only be to the rights and 
 privileges of the Order. The Mason hav- 
 ing been justly and legally expelled from 
 the Lodge, the Grand Lodge possesses no 
 
 Ererogative by which it could enforce a 
 lodge to admit one legally expelled any 
 more than it could a profane who had 
 never been initiated. 
 
 But if the restoration be ex debito justitiw, 
 as an act of justice, because the trial or 
 verdict had been illegal, then the brother, 
 never having been lawfully expelled from 
 the Lodge or the Order, but being at the 
 very time of his appeal a member of the 
 Lodge, unjustly or illegally deprived of his 
 rights, the restoration in this case by the 
 Grand Lodge must be to membership in the 
 Lodge. Any other course, such as to restore 
 him to the Order but not to membership, 
 would be manifestly unjust. The Grand 
 Lodge having reversed the trial and sen- 
 tence of the subordinate Lodge, that trial 
 and sentence become null and void, and the 
 Mason who had been unjustly expelled is 
 at once restored to his original status. See 
 this subject fully discussed in the author's 
 Text Book of Masonic Jurisprudence, Book 
 VI., chap. iii. 
 
 Resurrection. The doctrine of a 
 resurrection to a future and eternal life 
 constitutes an indispensable portion of the 
 religious faith of Masonry. It is not au- 
 thoritatively inculcated as a point of dog- 
 matic creed, but is impressively taught by 
 the symbolism of the third degree. This 
 dogma has existed among almost all na- 
 tions from a very early period. The Egyp- 
 tians, in their mysteries, taught a final 
 resurrection of the soul. Although the 
 Jews, in escaping from their Egyptian 
 thraldom, did not carry this doctrine with 
 them into the desert, — for it formed no part 
 of the Mosaic theology, — yet they subse- 
 quently, after the captivity, borrowed it 
 from the Zoroastrians. The Brahmans and 
 Buddhists of the East, the Etruscans of the 
 
 South, and the Druids and the Scandinavian 
 Skalds of the West, nursed the faith of a 
 resurrection to future life. The Greeks and 
 the Romans subscribed to it; and it was 
 one of the great objects of their mysteries 
 to teach it. It is, as we all know, an es- 
 sential part of the Christian faith, and was 
 exemplified, in his own resurrection, by 
 Christ to his followers. In Freemasonry, a 
 particular degree, the Master's, has been 
 appropriated to teach it by an impressive 
 symbolism. "Thus," says Hutchinson, 
 (p. 101,) "our Order is a positive contra- 
 diction to Judaic blindness and infidelity, 
 and testifies our faith concerning the resur- 
 rection of the body." 
 
 We may deny that there has been a regu- 
 lar descent of Freemasonry, as a secret or- 
 ganization, from the mystical association of 
 the Eleusinians, the Samothracians, or the 
 Dionysians. No one, however, who care- 
 fully examines the mode in which the 
 resurrection or restoration to life was 
 taught by a symbol and a ceremony in the 
 Ancient Mysteries, and how the same 
 dogma is now taught in the Masonic initia- 
 tion, can, without absolutely rejecting the 
 evident concatenation of circumstances 
 which lies patent before him, refuse his as- 
 sent to the proposition that the latter was 
 derived from the former. The resemblance 
 between the Dionysiac legend, for instance, 
 and the Hiramic, cannot have been purely 
 accidental. The chain that connects them 
 is easily found in the fact that the Pagan 
 mysteries lasted until the fourth century of 
 the Christian era, and, as the fathers of the 
 church lamented, exercised an influence 
 over the secret societies of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Returns of Lodges. Every sub- 
 ordinate Lodge is required to make an- 
 nually to the Grand Lodge a statement of 
 the names of its members, and the number 
 of admissions, demissions, and expulsions 
 or rejections that have taken place within 
 the year. This statement is called a return. 
 A neglect to make the annual return 
 causes a forfeiture of the right of repre- 
 sentation in the Grand Lodge. The sum 
 due by the Lodge is based on the return, 
 as a tax is levied for each member and each 
 initiation. The Grand Lodge is also, by 
 this means, made acquainted with the state 
 of its subordinates and the condition of the 
 Order in its jurisdiction. 
 
 Reuben. The eldest son of Jacob. 
 Among the Royal Arch banners, that of 
 Reuben is purple, and bears a man as the 
 device. It is appropriated to the Grand 
 Master of the Second Veil. 
 
 Revelations of Masonry. See 
 Expositions. 
 
 Reverend. A title sometimes given 
 to the chaplain of a Masonic body. 
 
REVERENTIAL 
 
 REVIVAL 
 
 645 
 
 Reverential Sign. The second sign 
 in the English Royal Arch system, and 
 thus explained. We are taught hy the 
 reverential sign to bend with submission 
 and resignation beneath the chastening 
 hand of the Almighty, and at the same 
 time to engraft his law in our hearts. This 
 expressive form, in which the Father of 
 the human race first presented himself be- 
 fore the face of the Most High, to receive 
 the denunciation and terrible judgment, 
 was adopted by our Grand Master Moses, 
 who, when the Lord appeared to him in 
 the burning bush on Mount Horeb, covered 
 his face from the brightness of the divine 
 presence. 
 
 Revival. The occurrences which took 
 place in the city of London, in the year 
 1717, when that important body, which 
 has since been known as the Grand Lodge 
 of England, was organized, has been al- 
 ways known in Masonic history as the 
 " Revival of Masonry." Anderson, in the 
 first edition of the " Constitutions," pub- 
 lished in 1723, speaks of the brethren hav- 
 ing revived the drooping Lodges of Lon- 
 don ; but he makes no other reference to 
 the transaction. In his second edition, 
 published in 1738, he is more diffuse, and 
 the account there given is the only au- 
 thority we possess of the organization made 
 in 1717 : Preston and all subsequent writers 
 have of course derived their authority 
 from Anderson. The transactions are thus 
 detailed by Preston, (Elu&t., p. 191,) whose 
 account is preferred, as containing in a 
 more succinct form all that Anderson has 
 more profusely detailed. 
 
 " On the accession of George I., the Ma- 
 sons in London and its environs, finding 
 themselves deprived of Sir Christopher 
 Wren and their annual meetings discon- 
 tinued, resolved to cement themselves 
 under a new Grand Master, and to revive 
 the communications and annual festivals 
 of the Society. With this view, the Lodges 
 at the Goose and Gridiron, in St. Paul's 
 Church-Yard ; the Crown, in Parker's Lane, 
 near Drury Lane ; the Apple-Tree Tavern, 
 in Charles Street, Covent Garden ; and the 
 Rummer and Grapes Tavern, in Channel 
 Row, Westminster, the only four Lodges 
 in being in the South of England at that 
 time, with some other old brethren, met 
 at the Apple-Tree Tavern, above mentioned, 
 in February, 1717; and, having voted the 
 oldest Master Mason then present into 
 the chair, constituted themselves a Grand 
 Lodge, pro tempore, in due form. At this 
 meeting it was resolved to hold Quarterly 
 Communications of the Fraternity, and to 
 hold the next annual assembly and feast on 
 the 24th of June at the Goose and Gridiron, 
 in St. Paul's Church- Yard, (in compliment 
 to the oldest Lodge, which then met there,) 
 
 for the purpose of electing a Grand Master 
 among themselves, till they should have the 
 honor of a noble brother at their head. Ac- 
 cordingly, on St. John the Baptist's day, 
 1717, in the third year of the reign of King 
 George I., the assembly and feast were held 
 at the said house ; when the oldest Master 
 Mason and the Master of a Lodge having 
 taken the chair, a list of proper candidates 
 for the office of Grand Master was pro- 
 duced; and the names being separately 
 proposed, the brethren, by a great majority 
 of hands, elected Mr. Anthony Sayer 
 Grand Master of Masons for the ensuing 
 year ; who was forthwith invested by the 
 said oldest Master, installed by the Master 
 of the oldest Lodge, and duly congratulated 
 by the assembly, who paid him homage. 
 The Grand Master then entered on the du- 
 ties of his office, appointed his Wardens, and 
 commanded the brethren of the four Lodges 
 to meet him and his Wardens quarterly in 
 communication; enjoining them at the same 
 time to recommend to all the Fraternity a 
 punctual attendance on the next annual 
 assembly and feast." 
 
 Recently, this claim, that Masonry was 
 not for the first time organized, but only 
 revived in 1717, has been attacked by some 
 of those modern iconoclasts who refuse 
 credence to anything traditional, or even 
 to any record which is not supported by 
 other contemporary authority. Chief among 
 these is Bro. W. P. Buchan, of England, 
 who, in his numerous articles in the Lon- 
 don Freemason, (1871 and 1872,) has at- 
 tacked the antiquity of Freemasonry, and 
 refuses to give it an existence anterior to 
 the year 1717. His exact theory is that 
 " our system of degrees, words, grips, signs, 
 etc., was not in existence until about A. D. 
 1717." He admits, however, that certain 
 of the " elements or groundwork " of the 
 degrees existed before that year, but not 
 confined to the Masons, being common to 
 all the gilds. He thinks that the pres- 
 ent system was indebted to the inventive 
 genius of Anderson and Desaguliers. And 
 he supposes that it was simply " a recon- 
 struction of an ancient society, viz., of some 
 form of old Pagan philosophy." Hence, he 
 contends that it was not a " revival," but 
 only a " renaissance," and he explains his 
 meaning in the following language : 
 
 " Before the eighteenth century we had 
 a renaissance of Pagan architecture ; then, 
 to follow suit, in the eighteenth century we 
 had a renaissance in a new dress of Pagan 
 mysticism ; but for neither are we indebted 
 to the Operative Masons, although the 
 Operative Masons were made use of in 
 both cases." {London Freemason, Septem- 
 ber 23, 1871.) 
 
 Buchan's theory has been attacked by 
 Bros. William J. Hughan and Chalmers I. 
 
646 
 
 REVOKE 
 
 RIGHT 
 
 Patton. That he is right in his theory, 
 that the three degrees of Master, Fellow 
 Craft, and Apprentice were unknown to 
 the Masons of the seventeenth centnry, and 
 that these classes existed only as grada- 
 tions of rank, will be very generally ad- 
 mitted. But there is unquestionable evi- 
 dence that the modes of recognition, the 
 method of government, the legends, and 
 much of the ceremonial of initiation, were 
 in existence among the Operative Masons 
 of the Middle Ages, and were transmitted 
 to the Speculative Masons of the eigh- 
 teenth century. The work of Anderson, 
 of Desaguliers, and their contemporaries, 
 was to improve and to enlarge, but not to 
 invent. The Masonic system of the pres- 
 ent day has been the result of a slow but 
 steady growth. Just as the lectures of 
 Anderson, known to us from their publica- 
 tion in 1725, were subsequently modified 
 and enlarged by the successive labors of 
 Clare, of Dunckerley, of Preston, and of 
 Hemming, did he and Desaguliers submit 
 the simple ceremonial, which they found 
 at the reorganization of the Grand Lodge 
 in 1717, to a similar modification and en- 
 largement. 
 
 Revoke. When a Dispensation is is- 
 sued by a Grand Master for the organiza- 
 tion of a Lodge, it is granted " to continue 
 of force until the Grand Lodge shall grant 
 a Warrant, or until the Dispensation is re- 
 voked by the Grand Master or the Grand 
 Lodge." A Dispensation may therefore 
 be revoked at any time by the authority 
 which issued it, or by a higher authority. 
 Charters are arrested, forfeited, or declared 
 null and void; Dispensations are revoked. 
 
 Rhetoric. The art of embellishing 
 language with the ornaments of construc- 
 tion, so as to enable the speaker to persuade 
 or affect his hearers. It supposes and re- 
 quires a proper acquaintance with the rest 
 of the liberal arts ; for the first step towards 
 adorning a discourse is for the speaker to 
 become thoroughly acquainted with its sub- 
 ject, and hence the ancient rule that the 
 orator should be acquainted with all the 
 arts and sciences. Its importance as a 
 branch of liberal education is recommended 
 to the Mason in the Fellow Craft's degree. 
 It is one of the seven liberal arts and sci- 
 ences, the second in order, and is described 
 in the ancient Constitutions as " retoricke 
 that teacheth a man to speake fine and in 
 subtill terme." — Harleian MS. 
 
 Rhode Island. Masonry was intro- 
 duced into Rhode Island in 1750 by the 
 establishment of a Lodge at Newport, the 
 Charter for which had been granted by the 
 St. John's Grand Lodge of Boston on Dec. 
 27, 1749. The same Grand Lodge estab- 
 lished a second Lodge at Providence on 
 
 Jan. 18, 1757. On April 6, 1791, these two 
 Lodges organized a Grand Lodge at Prov- 
 idence, Christopher Champlin being elected 
 the first Grand Master. This is the first 
 instance known in Masonic history of the 
 organization of a Grand Lodge by only two 
 subordinates. The act was irregular, and 
 the precedent has never subsequently been 
 followed. It was not until 1799 that the 
 new Grand Lodge granted its first Charter 
 for the establishment of a third Lodge at 
 Warren. The Grand Chapter was organ- 
 ized in March, 1798, and the Grand Coun- 
 cil in Oct., 1860. The Grand Commandery 
 forms a part of a common body known as 
 the Grand Commandery of Massachusetts 
 and Rhode Island. It was formed in 1805, 
 and the celebrated Thomas Smith Webb 
 was its first presiding officer. 
 
 Rhodes. An island in the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, which, although, nominally 
 under the government of the Emperor of 
 Constantinople, was in 1308 in the pos- 
 session of Saracen pirates. In that year, 
 Fulke de Villaret, Grand Master of the 
 Knights Hospitallers, having landed with 
 a large force, drove out the Saracens and 
 took possession of the island, which became 
 the seat of the Order, who removed to it 
 from Cyprus and continued to occupy it 
 until it was retaken by the Saracens in 1522, 
 when the knights were transferred to the 
 island of Malta. Their residence for over 
 two hundred years at Rhodes caused them 
 sometimes to receive the title of the Knights 
 of Rhodes. 
 
 Rhodes, Knight of. See Knight 
 of liliodes. 
 
 Ribbon. The use of a ribbon, with 
 the official jewel suspended and attached to 
 a button-hole instead of the collar, recently 
 adopted by a few American Lodges, is a 
 violation of the ancient customs of the 
 Order. The collar cut in a triangular shape, 
 with the jewel suspended from the apex, 
 dates from the earliest time of the revival, 
 and is perhaps as old as the apron itself. 
 See Collar. 
 
 Ridel, Cornelius Johann Ru- 
 dolph. Born at Hamburg, May 25, 1759, 
 and died at Weimar, January 16, 1821. He 
 was an active and learned Mason, and for 
 many years the Master of the Lodge Ama- 
 lia at Weimar. In 1817, he published in 
 four volumes an elaborate and valuable 
 work entitled Versuch eines Alphabetischen 
 Verzeichnisses, u. s. w., i. e., "An essay to- 
 wards an Alphabetical Catalogue of im- 
 portant events, for the knowledge and his- 
 tory of Freemasonry, and especially for a 
 critical examination of the origin and 
 growth of the various rituals and systems 
 from 1717 to 1817." 
 
 Right Angle. A right angle is the 
 
RIGHT 
 
 RIGHT 
 
 647 
 
 meeting of two lines in an angle of ninety 
 degrees, or the fourth part of a circle. 
 Each of its lines is perpendicular to the 
 other ; and as the perpendicular line is 
 a symbol of uprightness of conduct, the 
 right angle has been adopted by Masons as 
 an emblem of virtue, ouch was also its 
 signification among the Pythagoreans. The 
 right angle is represented in the Lodges by 
 the square, as the horizontal is by the level, 
 and the perpendicular by the plumb. 
 
 Right Eminent. An epithet pre- 
 fixed to the title of the Deputy Grand 
 Master of the Grand Encampment of 
 Knights Templars of the United States, 
 and to that of the Grand Commander of a 
 State Grand Commandery. 
 
 Bight Excellent. The epithet pre- 
 fixed to the title of all superior officers 
 of a Grand Chapter of Royal Arch Ma- 
 sonry below the dignity of a Grand High 
 Priest. 
 
 Right Hand. The right hand has 
 in all ages been deemed an important sym- 
 bol to represent the virtue of fidelity. 
 Among the ancients, the right hand and 
 fidelity to an obligation were almost deemed 
 synonymous terms. Thus, among the Ro- 
 mans, the expression " fallere dextram," 
 to betray the right hand, also signified to vio- 
 late faith; and "jungere dextras," to join 
 right hands, meant to give a mutual pledge. 
 Among the Hebrews, {'0% iamin, the right 
 hand, was derived from }DX, aman, to be 
 faithful. ' 
 
 The practice of the ancients was con- 
 formable to these peculiarities of idiom. 
 Among the Jews, to give the right hand 
 was considered as a mark of friendship and 
 fidelity. Thus St. Paul says, " when James, 
 Cephas, and John, who seemed to be pillars, 
 perceived the grace that was given unto 
 me, they gave to me and Barnabas the right 
 hand of fellowship, that we should go unto 
 the heathen, and they unto the circum- 
 cision." (Gal. ii. 6.) The same expression, 
 also, occurs in Maccabees. We meet, in- 
 deed, continually in the Scriptures with 
 allusions to the right hand as an emblem of 
 truth and fidelity. Thus in Psalm cxliv. 
 it is said, " their right hand is a right hand 
 of falsehood," that is to say, they lift up 
 their right hand to swear to what is not 
 true. This lifting up of the right hand 
 was, in fact, the universal mode adopted 
 among both Jews and Pagans in taking an 
 oath. The custom is certainly as old as the 
 days of Abraham, who said to the King of 
 Salem, " I have lifted up my hand unto 
 the Lord, the most high God, the possessor 
 of heaven and earth, that I will not take 
 any thing that is thine." ■ Sometimes 
 among the Gentile nations, the right hand, 
 in taking an oath, was laid upon the horns 
 
 of the altar, and sometimes upon the hand 
 of the person administering the obligation. 
 But in all cases it was deemed necessary, to 
 the validity and solemnity of the attesta- 
 tion, that the right hand should be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Since the introduction of Christianity, 
 the use of the right hand in contracting 
 an oath has been continued, but instead of 
 extending it to heaven, or seizing with it a 
 horn of the altar, it is now directed to be 
 placed upon the Holy Scriptures, which is 
 the universal mode at this day in all Chris- 
 tian countries. The antiquity of this usage 
 may be learned from the fact, that in the 
 code of the Emperor Theodosius, adopted 
 about the year 438, the placing of the right 
 hand on the Gospels is alluded to; and in 
 the code of Justinian, (lib. ii., tit. 53, lex. 
 i.,) whose date is the year 529, the cere- 
 mony is distinctly laid down as a necessary 
 part of the formality of the oath, in the 
 words " tactis sacrosanctis Evangeliis," — 
 the Holy Gospels being touched. 
 
 This constant use of the right hand in 
 the most sacred attestations and solemn 
 compacts, was either the cause or the con- 
 sequence of its being deemed an emblem 
 of fidelity. Dr. Potter [Arch. Qrcec, p. 
 229,) thinks it was the cause, and he sup- 
 poses that the right hand was naturally 
 used instead of the left, because it was 
 more honorable, as being the instrument 
 by which superiors give commands to those 
 below them. Be this as it may, it is well 
 known that the custom existed universally, 
 and that there are abundant allusions in 
 the most ancient writers to the junction of 
 right hands in making compacts. 
 
 The Romans had a goddess whose name 
 was Fides, or Fidelity, whose temple was 
 first consecrated by Noma. Her symbol 
 was two right hands joined, or sometimes 
 two human figures holding each other 
 by the right hands, whence, in all agree- 
 ments among the Greeks and Romans, it 
 was usual for the parties to take each other 
 by the right hand, in token of their inten- 
 tion to adhere to the compact. 
 
 By a strange error for so learned a man, 
 Oliver mistakes the name of this goddess, 
 and calls her Faith. " The spurious Free- 
 masonry," he remarks, " had a goddess 
 called Faith." No such thing. Fides, or, 
 as Horace calls her, " incorrupta Fides," 
 incorruptible Fidelity, is very different 
 from the theological virtue of faith. 
 
 The joining of the right hands was es- 
 teemed among the Persians and Parthians 
 as conveying a most inviolable obligation 
 of fidelity. Hence, when King Artabanus 
 desired to hold a conference with his re- 
 volted subject, Asineus, who was in arms 
 against him, he despatched a messenger to 
 
648 
 
 RIGHT 
 
 RING 
 
 him with the request, who said to Asineus, 
 " the king hath sent me to give you his 
 right hand and security," that is, a prom- 
 ise of safety in going and coming. And 
 when Asineus sent his brother Asileus to 
 the proposed conference, the king met him 
 and gave him his right hand, upon which 
 Josephus (Ant. Jud., lib. xviii., cap. ix.,) 
 remarks : This is of the greatest force there 
 with all these barbarians, and affords a firm 
 security to those who hold intercourse with 
 them; for none of them will deceive, when 
 once they have given you their right hands, 
 nor will any one doubt of their fidelity, 
 when that is once given, even though they 
 were before suspected of injustice." 
 
 Stephens ( Travels in Yucatan, vol. ii., p. 
 474,) gives the following account of the use 
 of the right hand as a symbol among the 
 Indian tribes. 
 
 " In the course of many years' residence 
 on the frontiers, including various journey- 
 ings among the tribes, I have had frequent 
 occasion to remark the use of the right 
 hand as a symbol ; and it is frequently ap- 
 plied to the naked body after its prepara- 
 tion and decoration for sacred or festive 
 dances. And the fact deserves further con- 
 sideration from these preparations being 
 generally made in the arcanum of the se- 
 cret Lodge, or some other private place, and 
 with all the skill of the adept's art. The 
 mode of applying it in these cases is by 
 smearing the hand of the operator with 
 white or colored clay, and impressing it on 
 the breast, the shoulder, or other part of the 
 body. The idea is thus conveyed that a 
 secret influence, a charm, a mystical power 
 is given, arising from his sanctity, or his 
 proficiency in the occult arts. This use of 
 the hand is not confined to a single tribe or 
 people. I have noticed it alike among the 
 Dacotahs, the Winnebagoes, and other 
 Western tribes, as among the numerous 
 branches of the red race still located east 
 of the Mississippi River, above the latitude 
 of 42 degrees, who speak dialects of the Al- 
 gonquin language." 
 
 It is thus apparent that the use of the 
 right hand as a token of sincerity and a 
 pledge of fidelity, is as ancient as it is uni- 
 versal ; a fact which will account for the im- 
 portant station which it occupies among 
 the symbols of Freemasonry. 
 
 Right Side. Among the Hebrews, 
 as well as the Greeks and Romans, the 
 right side was considered superior to the 
 left ; and as the right was the side of good, 
 so was the left of bad omen. Dexter, or 
 right, signified also propitious, and sinister, 
 or left, unlucky. In the Scriptures we find 
 frequent allusions to this superiority of the 
 right. Jacob, for instance, called his young- 
 est and favorite child, Ben-jamin, the son 
 
 of his right hand, and Bathsheba, as the 
 king's mother, was placed at the right hand 
 of Solomon. See Left Side. 
 
 Right Worshipful. An epithet ap- 
 plied in most jurisdictions of the United 
 States to all Grand officers below the dig- 
 nity of a Grand Master. 
 
 Ring, Luminous. See Academy of 
 Sublime Masters of the Luminous Ring. 
 
 Ring. Masonic. The ring, as a sym- 
 bol of the covenant entered into with the 
 Order, as the wedding ring is the symbol 
 of the covenant of marriage, is worn in 
 some of the high degrees of Masonry. It is 
 not used in Ancient Craft Masonry. In 
 the Order of the Temple the " ring of pro- 
 fession," as it is called, is of gold, having on 
 it the cross of the Order and the letters P. 
 D. E. P., being the initials of " Pro Deo et 
 Patria." It is worn on the index finger 
 of the right hand. The Inspectors-General 
 of the thirty-third degree of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Rite wear a ring on the little 
 finger of the right hand. Inside is the 
 motto of the Order, "Deus meum que 
 JU8." In the fourteenth degree of the 
 same Rite a ring is worn, which is de- 
 scribed as " a plain gold ring," having in- 
 side the motto, " Virtus junxit, mors ?ion se- 
 parabit." It is worn in the Northern Juris- 
 diction on the fourth or ring finger of the 
 left hand. In the Southern Jurisdiction 
 it is worn on the same finger of the right 
 hand. 
 
 The use of the ring as a symbol of a cov- 
 enant may be traced very far back into an- 
 tiquity. The Romans had a marriage ring, 
 but according to Swinburne, the great can- 
 onist, it was of iron, with a jewel of ada- 
 mant, " to signify the durance and perpetu- 
 ity of the contract." 
 
 In reference to the rings worn in the high 
 degrees of Masonry, it may be said that 
 they partake of the double symbolism of 
 
 Eower and affection. The ring, as a sym- 
 ol of power and dignity, was worn in an- 
 cient times by kings and men of elevated 
 rank and office. Thus Pharaoh bestowed 
 a ring upon Joseph as a mark or token of 
 the power he had conferred upon him, for 
 which reason the people bowed the knee to 
 him. It is in this light that the ring is 
 worn by the Inspectors of Scottish Ma- 
 sonry as representing the sovereigns of the 
 Rite. But those who receive only the four- 
 teenth degree, in the same Rite, wear the 
 ring as a symbol of the covenant of affec- 
 tion and fidelity into which they have en- 
 tered. 
 
 While on the subject of the ring as a sym- 
 bol of Masonic meaning, it will not be ir- 
 relevant to .refer to the magic ring of King 
 Solomon, of which both the Jews and the 
 Mohammedans have abundant traditions. 
 
RISING 
 
 RITE 
 
 649 
 
 The latter, indeed, have a book on magic 
 rings, entitled Scalcuthal, in which they 
 trace the ring of Solomon from Jared, the 
 father of Enoch. It was by means of this 
 ring, as a talisman of wisdom and power, 
 that Solomon was, they say, enabled to per- 
 form those wonderful acts and accomplish 
 those vast enterprises that have made his 
 name so celebrated as the wisest monarch 
 of the earth. 
 
 Rising Sun. The rising sun is repre- 
 sented by the Master, because as the sun 
 by his rising opens and governs the day, so 
 the Master is taught to open and govern 
 his Lodge with equal regularity and pre- 
 cision. 
 
 Rite. The Latin word ritus, whence we 
 get the English rite, signifies an approved 
 usage or custom, or an external observance. 
 Vossius derives it by metathesis from the 
 Greek Tpifieiv, whence literally it signifies a 
 trodden path, and, metaphorically, a long- 
 followed custom. As a Masonic term its 
 application is therefore apparent. It signi- 
 fies a method of conferring Masonic light 
 by a collection and distribution of degrees. 
 It is, in other words, the method and order 
 observed in the government of a Masonic 
 system. 
 
 The original system of Speculative Ma- 
 sonry consisted of only the three symbolic 
 degrees, called, therefore, Ancient Craft 
 Masonry. Such was the condition of Free- 
 masonry at the time of what is called the 
 revival in 1717. Hence, this was the origi- 
 nal Rite or approved usage, and so it con- 
 tinued in England until the year 1813, when 
 at the union of the two Grand Lodges the 
 " Holy Royal Arch " was declared to be a 
 part of the system; and thus the English, 
 or, as it is more commonly called, the York 
 Rite was made legitimately to consist of 
 four degrees. 
 
 But on the continent of Europe, the 
 organization of new systems began at a 
 much earlier period, and by the invention 
 of what are known as the high degrees a 
 multitude of Rites was established. All of 
 these agreed in one important essential. 
 They were built upon the three symbolic 
 degrees, which, in every instance, consti- 
 tuted the fundamental basis upon which 
 they were erected. They were intended as 
 an expansion and development of the Ma- 
 sonic ideas contained in these degrees. 
 The Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and Master's 
 degrees were the porch through which 
 every initiate was required to pass before 
 he could gain entrance into the inner tem- 
 ple which had been erected by the founders 
 of the Rite. They were the text, and the 
 high degrees the commentary. 1 
 
 Hence arises the law, that whatever may 
 be the constitution and teachings of any 
 4G 
 
 Rite as to the higher degrees peculiar to it, 
 the three symbolic degrees being common 
 to all the Rites, a Master Mason, in any 
 one of the Rites, may visit and labor in a 
 Master's Lodge of every other Rite. It is 
 only after that degree is passed that the 
 exclusiveness of each Rite begins to ope- 
 rate. 
 
 I have said that there has been a multi- 
 tude of these Rites. Some of them have 
 lived only with their authors, and died 
 when their parental energy in fostering 
 them ceased to exert itself. Others have 
 had a more permanent existence, and still 
 continue to divide the Masonic family, 
 furnishing, however, only diverse methods 
 of attaining to the same great end, the ac- 
 quisition of Divine Truth by Masonic light. 
 Ragon, in his Tuilier General, supplies us 
 with the names of a hundred and eight, 
 under the different titles of Rites, Orders, 
 and Academies. But many of these are 
 unmasonic, being merely of a political, so- 
 cial, or literary character. The following 
 catalogue embraces the most important of 
 those which have hitherto or still continue 
 to arrest the attention of the Masonic stu- 
 dent. 
 
 1. York Rite. 
 
 2. Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 3. French or Modern Rite. 
 
 4. American Rite. 
 
 5. Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 6. Primitive Scottish Rite. 
 
 7. Reformed Rite. 
 
 8. Reformed Helvetic Rite. 
 
 9. Fessler's Rite. 
 
 10. Schroder's Rite. 
 
 11. Rite of the Grand Lodge of the Three 
 Globes. 
 
 12. Rite of the Elect of Truth. 
 
 13. Rite of the Vielle Bru. 
 
 14. Rite of the Chapter of Clermont. 
 
 15. Pernetty's Rite. 
 
 16. Rite of the Blazing Star. 
 
 17. Chastanier's Rite. 
 
 18. Rite of the Philalethes. 
 
 19. Primitive Rite of the Philadelphians. 
 
 20. Rite of Martinism. 
 
 21. Rite of Brother Henoch. 
 
 22. RiteofMizraim. 
 
 23. Rite of Memphis. 
 
 24. Rite of Strict Observance. 
 
 25. Rite of Lax Observance. 
 
 26. Rite of African Architects. 
 
 27. Rite of Brothers of Asia. 
 
 28. Rite of Perfection. 
 
 29. Rite of Elected Cohens. 
 
 30. Rite of the Emperors of the East and 
 West. 
 
 31. Primitive Rite of Narbonne. 
 
 32. Rite of the Order of the Temple. 
 
 33. Swedish Rite. 
 
 34. Rite of Swedenborg. 
 
650 
 
 HITTER 
 
 ROBERTS 
 
 35. Rite of Zinnendorf. 
 
 36. Egyptian Rite of Cagliostro. 
 
 37. Rite of the Beneficent Knights of the 
 Holy City. 
 
 These Rites are not here given in either 
 the order of date or of importance. The 
 distinct history of each will oe found under 
 its appropriate title. 
 
 Hitter. German for knight, as " Der 
 Preussische Ritter," the Prussian Knight. 
 The word is not, however, applied to a 
 Knight Templar, who is more usually 
 called " Tempelherr ;" although, when 
 spoken of as a Knight of the Temple, he 
 would be styled Ritter vom Tempel. 
 
 Ritual. The mode of opening and 
 closing a Lodge, of conferring the degrees, 
 of installation, and other duties, constitute 
 a system of ceremonies which are called 
 the Ritual. Much of this ritual is eso- 
 teric, and, not being permitted to be com- 
 mitted to writing, is communicated only 
 by oral instruction. In each Masonic juris- 
 diction it is required, by the superintending 
 authority, that the ritual shall be the same ; 
 but it more or less differs in the different 
 Rites and jurisdictions. But this does not 
 affect the universality of Masonry. The 
 ritual is only the external and extrinsic 
 form. The doctrine of Freemasonry is 
 everywhere the same. It is the body 
 which is unchangeable — remaining always 
 and everywhere the same. The ritual is 
 but the outer garment which covers this 
 body, which is subject to continual varia- 
 tion. It is right and desirable that the 
 ritual should be made perfect, and every- 
 where alike. But if this be impossible, as 
 it is, this at least will console us, that 
 while the ceremonies, or ritual, have varied 
 at different periods, and still vary in differ- 
 ent countries, the science and philosophy, 
 the symbolism and the religion, of Freema- 
 sonry continue, and will continue, to be the 
 same wherever true Masonry is practised. 
 
 Robelot. Formerly an advocate of 
 the parliament of Dijon, a distinguished 
 French Mason, and the author of several 
 Masonic discourses, especially of one de- 
 livered before the Mother Lodge of the 
 Philosophic Scottish Rite, of which he was 
 Grand Orator, December 8, 1808, at the re- 
 ception of Askeri Khan, the Persian Am- 
 bassador, as a Master Mason. This address 
 gave so much satisfaction to the Lodge, 
 that it decreed a medal to M. Robelot, on 
 one side of which was a bust of the Grand 
 Master, and on the other an inscription 
 which recounted the valuable services ren- 
 dered to the society by M. Robelot as its 
 Orator, and as a Masonic author. Robelot 
 held the theory that Freemasonry owed its 
 origin to the East, and was the invention of 
 Zoroaster. 
 
 Robert I. Commonly called Robert 
 Bruce. He was crowned King of Scotland 
 in 1306, and died in 1329. After the tur- 
 bulence of the early years of his reign had 
 ceased, and peace had been restored, he de- 
 voted himself to the encouragement of 
 architecture in his kingdom. His con- 
 nection with Masonry, and especially 
 with the high degrees, is thus given by 
 Dr. Oliver, [Landm., ii. 12.) "The only 
 high degree to which an early date can be 
 safely assigned is the Royal Order of H. R. 
 D. M., founded by Robert Bruce in 1314. 
 Its history in brief refers to the dissolution 
 of the Order of the Temple. Some of those 
 
 {>ersecuted individuals took refuge in Scot- 
 and, and placed themselves under the pro- 
 tection of Robert Bruce, and assisted him 
 at the battle of Bannockburn, which was 
 fought on St. John's day, 1314. After 
 this battle the Royal Order was founded ; 
 and from the fact of the Templars having 
 contributed to the victory, and the subse- 
 quent grants to their Order by King Robert, 
 for which they were formally excommuni- 
 cated by the church, it has, by some persons, 
 been identified with that ancient military 
 Order. But there are sound reasons for 
 believing that the two systems were uncon- 
 nected with each other." Thory, [Act. Lot, 
 i. 6,) quoting from a manuscript ritual in 
 the library ot the Mother Lodge of the Philo- 
 sophic Rite, gives the following statement : 
 " Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, under 
 the name of Robert ]., created on the 24th 
 June, after the battle of Bannockburn, the 
 Order of St. Andrew of the Thistle, to 
 which he afterwards united that of H. R. 
 D., for the sake of the Scottish Masons who 
 made a part of the thirty thousand men 
 with whom he had fought an army of one 
 hundred thousand English. He reserved 
 forever to himself and his successors the 
 title of Grand Master. He founded the 
 Grand Lodge of the Royal Order of H. R. 
 D. at Kilwinning, and "died, covered with 
 glory and honor, on the 9th July, 1329." 
 Both of these statements or legends require 
 for all their details authentication. See 
 Royal Order of Scotland. 
 
 Roberto Manuscript. This is the 
 first of those manuscripts the originals of 
 which have not yet been recovered, and 
 which are known to us only in a printed 
 copy. The Roberts Manuscript,so called from 
 the name of the printer, J. Roberts, was pub- 
 lished by him at London, in 1722, under 
 the title of " The Old Constitutions belong- 
 ing to the Ancient and Honorable Society 
 of Free and Accepted Masons. Taken from 
 a Manuscript wrote above five hundred 
 years since." Of this work, which had 
 passed out of the notice and knowledge of 
 I the Masonic world, Richard Spencer, of 
 
ROBES 
 
 ROBISON 
 
 651 
 
 London, being in possession of a copy, pub- 
 lished a second edition in 1870. On a col- 
 lation of this work with the Harleian MS., 
 it is evident that either both were derived 
 from one and the same older manuscript, 
 or that one of them has been copied from 
 the other; although, if this be the case, there 
 has been much carelessness on the part of 
 the transcriber. If the one was transcribed 
 from the other, there is internal evidence 
 that the Harleian is the older examplar. 
 The statement on the title-page of Roberts' 
 book, that it was "taken from a manuscript 
 wrote over five hundred years since," i3 
 contradicted by the simple fact that, like 
 the Harleian MS., it contains the regula- 
 tions adopted at the General Assembly held 
 in 1663. 
 
 Robes. A proposition was made in 
 the Grand Lodge of England, on April 8, 
 1778, that the Grand Master and his offi- 
 cers should be distinguished in future at 
 all public meetings by robes. This meas- 
 ure, Preston says, was at first favorably 
 received ; but it was, on investigation, found 
 to be so diametrically opposed to the orig- 
 inal plan of the Institution, that it was very 
 properly laid aside. In no jurisdiction are 
 robes used in Symbolic Masonry. In many 
 of the high degrees, however, they are em- 
 ployed. In the United States they consti- 
 tute an important part of the paraphernalia 
 of a Royal Arch Chapter. See Royal Arch 
 Robes. 
 
 Robins, Abbe Claude. A French 
 litterateur, and curate of St. Pierre d'Angers. 
 In 1776 he advanced his views on the ori- 
 gin of Freemasonry in a lecture before the 
 Lodge of Nine Sisters at Paris. This he 
 subsequently enlarged, and his interesting 
 work was published at Paris and Amster- 
 dam, in 1779, under the title of Recherches 
 sur les Initiations Anciennes et Modernes. A 
 German translation of it appeared in 1782, 
 and an exhaustive review, or, rather, an 
 extensive synopsis of it, was made by Che- 
 min des Pontes in the first volume of his 
 Encyclopedic Maconnique. In this work the 
 Abbe' deduces from the ancient initiations 
 in the Pagan Mysteries the orders of 
 chivalry, whose branches, he says, pro- 
 duced the initiation of Freemasonry. 
 
 Robison, John. He was Professor 
 of Natural Philosophy in the University 
 of Edinburgh, and Secretary of the Royal 
 Society in that city. He was born at Bog- 
 hall, in Scotland, in 1739, and died in 1805. 
 He was the author of a Treatise on Me- 
 chanical Philosophy, which possessed some 
 merit; but he is better known in Masonic 
 literature by his anti-Masonic labors. He 
 published in 1797, at Edinburgh and Lon- 
 don, a work entitled Proofs of a Conspiracy 
 against all the Religions and Governments of 
 
 Europe, carried on in the Secret Meetings of 
 the Freemasons, Illuminati, and Reading 
 Societies, collected from Good Authorities. 
 In consequence of the anti-Jacobin senti- 
 ment of the people of Great Britain at that 
 time, the work on its first appearance pro- 
 duced a great sensation. It was not, how- 
 ever, popular with all readers. A contem- 
 porary critic {Month. Rev., xxv. 315,) said 
 of it, in a very unfavorable review : " On 
 the present occasion, we acknowledge that 
 we have felt something like regret that a 
 lecturer on natural philosophy, of whom 
 his country is so justly proud, should pro- 
 duce any work of literature by which his 
 high character for knowledge and for judg- 
 ment is liable to be at all depreciated." It 
 was intended for a heavy blow against Ma- 
 sonry ; the more heavy because the author 
 himself was a Mason, having been initiated 
 at Liege in early life, and for some time a 
 working Mason. The work is chiefly de- 
 voted to a history of the introduction of 
 Masonry on the continent, and of its cor- 
 ruptions, and chiefly to a violent attack on 
 the Illuminati. But while recommending 
 that the Lodges in England should be sus- 
 pended, he makes no charge of corruption 
 against them, but admits the charities of the 
 Order, and its respectability of character. 
 There is much in the work on the history of 
 Masonry on the continent that is interest- 
 ing, but many of his statements are untrue 
 and his arguments illogical, nor was his 
 crusade against the Institution followed by 
 any practical results. The Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica, to which Robison had contrib- 
 uted many valuable articles on science, 
 says of his Proofs of a Conspiracy that " it 
 betrays a degree of credulity extremely re- 
 markable in a person used to calm reason- 
 ing and philosophical demonstration," giv- 
 ing as an example his belief in the story 
 of an anonymous German writer, that the 
 minister Turgot was the protector of a so- 
 ciety that met at Baron d'Holbach's for the 
 purpose of examining living children in 
 order to discover the principle of vitality. 
 What Robison has said of Masonry in the 
 531 pages of his book may be summed up in 
 the following lines (p. 522) near its close. 
 "While the Freemasonry of the continent 
 was tricked up with all the frippery of stars 
 and ribands, or was perverted to the most 
 profligate and impious purposes, and the 
 Lodges became seminaries of foppery, of se- 
 dition, and impiety, it has retained in Britain 
 its original form, simple and unadorned, and 
 the Lodges have remained the scenes of in- 
 nocent merriment or meetings of charity 
 and beneficence." So that, after all, his 
 charges are not against Freemasonry in its 
 original constitution, but against its corrup- 
 tion in a time of great political excitement. 
 
652 
 
 ROCKWELL 
 
 ROD 
 
 Rockwell, William Spencer. A 
 
 distinguished Mason of the United States, 
 who was born at Albany, in New York, in 
 1804, and died in Maryland in 1865. He 
 had been Grand Master of the Grand 
 Lodge of Georgia, and at the time of his 
 death was Lieutenant Grand Commander 
 of the Supreme Council of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite for the Southern Jurisdic- 
 tion of the United States. He was a man 
 of great learning, having a familiar ac- 
 quaintance with many languages, both an- 
 cient and modern, and was well versed in 
 the sciences. He was an able lawyer, and 
 occupied a high position at the bar of 
 Georgia, his adopted State. Archaeology 
 was his favorite study. In 1848 he was in- 
 duced by the great Egyptologist, George R. 
 Gliddon, to direct his attention particularly 
 to the study of Egyptian antiquities. Al- 
 ready well acquainted with the philosophy 
 and science of Masonry, he applied his 
 Egyptian studies to the interpretation of 
 the Masonic symbols to an extent that led 
 him to the formation of erroneous views. 
 His investigations, however, and their re- 
 sults, were often interesting, if not always 
 correct. Mr. Rockwell was the author of 
 an Ahiman Rezon for the Grand Lodge of 
 Georgia, published in 1859, which displays 
 abundant evidences of his learning and 
 research. He also contributed many valu- 
 able articles to various Masonic periodicals, 
 and was one of the colaborators of Mackey's 
 Quarterly Review of Freemasonry. Before his 
 death he had translated Portal's Treatise on 
 Hebrew and Egyptian Symbols, and had writ- 
 ten an Exposition of the Pillars of the Porch, 
 and an Essay on the Fellow Graft's Degree. 
 The manuscripts of these works, in a com- 
 pleted form, are in the hands of his friends, 
 but have never been published. 
 
 Rod. The rod or staff is an emblem of 
 power either inherent, as with a king, where 
 it is called a sceptre, or with an inferior 
 officer, where it becomes a rod, verge, or 
 staff. The Deacons, Stewards, and Mar- 
 shal of a Lodge carry rods. The rods of 
 the Deacons, who are the messengers of the 
 Master and Wardens, as Mercury was of 
 the gods, may be supposed to be derived 
 from the caduceus, which was the insignia 
 of that deity, and hence the Deacon's rod 
 is often surmounted by a pine cone. The 
 Steward's rod is in imitation of the white 
 staff borne by the Lord High Steward of 
 the king's household. The Grand Treas- 
 urer also formerly bore a white staff like 
 that of the Lord High Treasurer. The 
 Marshal's baton is only an abbreviated or 
 short rod. It is in matters of state the en- 
 sign of a Marshal of the army. The Duke 
 of Norfolk, as hereditary Earl Marshal of 
 England, bears two batons crossed in his 
 arms. Mr. Thynne, the antiquary, says 
 
 (Antiq. Disc, ii. 113,) that the rod "did in 
 all ages, and yet doth amongst all nations 
 and amongst all officers, signify correction 
 and peace ; for by correction follows peace, 
 wherefore the verge or rod was the ensign 
 of him which had authority to reform evil 
 in war and in peace, and to see quiet and 
 order observed amongst the people; for 
 therefore beareth the king his sceptre. 
 The church hath her pastoral staff; and 
 other magistrates which have the adminis- 
 tration of justice or correction, as have the 
 judges of the law and the great officers of 
 the prince's house, have also a verge or 
 staff assigned to them." We thus readily 
 see the origin of the official rods or staves 
 used in Masonry. 
 
 Rod, Deacon's. The proper badge 
 or ensign of office of a Deacon, which he 
 should always carry when in the discharge 
 of the duties of his office, is a blue rod 
 surmounted by a pine cone, in imitation 
 of the caduceus, or rod of Mercury, who 
 was the messenger of the gods as is the 
 Deacon of the superior officers of the Lodge. 
 In the beginning of this century columns 
 were prescribed as the proper badges of 
 these officers, and we find the fact so stated 
 in Webb's Monitor, which was published 
 in 1797, and in an edition of Preston's Il- 
 lustrations, published at Portsmouth, N. H, 
 in the year 1804. In the installation of 
 the Deacons, it is said " these columns, as 
 badges of your office, I intrust to your care." 
 A short time afterwards, however, the col- 
 umns were transferred to the Wardens as 
 their appropriate badges, and then we find 
 that in the hands of the Deacon they were 
 replaced by the rods. Thus in Dalcho's 
 Ahiman Rezon, the first edition of which 
 was printed in 1807, the words of the 
 charge are altered to "those staves the 
 badges of your office." In the Mason's 
 Manual, published in 1822, by the Lodge 
 at Easton, Pennsylvania, the badges are 
 said to be " wands," and in Cole's Library 
 they are said to carry "rods." All the 
 subsequent Monitors agree in assigning the 
 rods to the Deacons as insignia of their 
 office, while the columns are appropriated 
 to the Wardens. 
 
 In Pennsylvania, however, as far back 
 as 1778, " the proper pillars " were carried 
 in procession by the Wardens, and " wands 
 tipped with gold " were borne by the Dea- 
 cons. This appears from the account of a 
 procession in that year, which is appended 
 to Smith's edition of the Ahiman Rezon of 
 Pennsylvania. The rod is now universally 
 recognized in this country as the Deacon's 
 badge of office. It does not appear to have 
 been adopted in the English system. 
 
 Rod, Marshal's. See Baton. 
 
 Rod of Iron. The Master is charged 
 in the ritual not to rule his Lodge with " a 
 
ROD 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 653 
 
 rod of iron," that is to say, not with cruelty 
 or oppression. The expression is scriptural. 
 Thus in Psalm ii. 9, "Thou shalt break 
 them with a rod of iron," and in Revela- 
 tion ii. 27, " He shall rule them with a 
 rod of iron." 
 
 Rod, Steward's. The badge or en- 
 sign of office of the Stewards of a Lodge, or 
 of the Grand Stewards of a Grand Lodge, 
 is a white rod or staff It is an old custom. 
 In the first formal account of a procession 
 in the Book of Constitutions, on June 24, 
 1724, the Stewards are described as walking 
 " two and two abreast with white rods." 
 This use of a white rod comes from the po- 
 litical usages of England, where the Stew- 
 ard of the king's household was appointed 
 by the delivery of a staff, the breaking of 
 which dissolved the office. Thus an old 
 book quoted by Thynne says that in the 
 reign of Edward IV., the creation of the 
 Steward of the household " only consisteth 
 by the king's delivering to him the house- 
 hold staffe, with these words, Seneschall, tenez 
 le bastone de notre Maison." When the 
 Lord High Steward presides over the 
 House of Lords at the trial of a Peer, at 
 the conclusion of the trial he breaks the 
 white staff, which thus terminates his 
 office. 
 
 Rod, Treasurer's. See Staff, Treas- 
 urer's. 
 
 Roessler, Carl. A German Masonic 
 writer, who translated from French into 
 German the work of Reghellini on Ma- 
 sonry in its relations to the Egyptian, Jew- 
 ish, and Christian religions, and published 
 it at Leipsic in 1834 and 1835, under the 
 assumed name of R. S. Acerrolles. He 
 was the author of some other less impor- 
 tant Masonic works. 
 
 Roll. In the Prestonian ritual of 
 the funeral service, it is directed that the 
 Master, while the brethren are standing 
 around the coffin, shall take "the sacred 
 roll" in his hand, and, after an invocation, 
 shall " put the roll into the coffin." In 
 the subsequent part of the ceremony, a 
 procession being formed, consisting of the 
 members of visiting Lodges and of the 
 Lodge to which the deceased belonged, it 
 is stated that all the Secretaries of the 
 former Lodges carry rolls, while the Secre- 
 tary of the latter has none, because, of 
 course, it had been deposited by the Master 
 in the coffin. From the use of the words 
 "sacred roll," we presume that the rolls 
 borne by the Secretaries in funeral proces- 
 sions are intended to represent the roll of 
 the law, that being the form still used by the 
 Jews for inscribing the Sacred Books. 
 
 Roman Colleges of Artificers. 
 It was the German writers on the history 
 of the Institution, such as Krause, Held- 
 
 mann, and some others of less repute, who 
 first discovered, or at least first announced 
 to the world, the connection that existed 
 between the Roman Colleges of Architects 
 and the Society of Freemasons. 
 
 The theory of Krause on this subject is 
 to be found principally in his well-known 
 work entitled Die drei altesten Kunsterkun- 
 den. He there advances the doctrine that 
 Freemasonry as it now exists is indebted 
 for all its characteristics, religious and 
 social, political and professional, its interior 
 organization, its modes of thought and 
 action, and its very design and object, to 
 the Collegia Artificum of the Romans, pass- 
 ing with but little characteristic changes 
 through the Gorporationen von Baukunstlern, 
 or "Architectural Gilds," of the Middle 
 Ages up to the English organization of the 
 year 1717; so that he claims an almost ab- 
 solute identity between the Roman Colleges 
 of Nuraa, seven hundred years before Christ, 
 and the Lodges of the nineteenth century. 
 We need not, according to his view, go 
 any farther back in history, nor look to 
 any other series of events, nor trouble our- 
 selves with any other influences for the 
 origin and the character of Freemasonry. 
 
 This theory, which is perhaps the most 
 popular one on the subject, requires careful 
 examination; and in the prosecution of 
 such an inquiry the first thing to be done 
 will be to investigate, so far as authentic 
 history affords us the means, the true char- 
 acter and condition of these Roman Col- 
 leges. 
 
 It is to Numa, the second king of Rome, 
 that historians, following after Plutarch, 
 ascribe the first organization of the Roman 
 Colleges; although, as Newman reasonably 
 conjectures, it is probable that similar or- 
 ganizations previously existed among the 
 Alban population, and embraced the resi- 
 dent Tuscan artificers. But it is admitted 
 that Numa gave to them that form which 
 they always subsequently maintained. 
 
 Numa, on ascending the throne, found 
 the citizens divided into various nationali- 
 ties, derived from the Romans, the Sabines 
 and the inhabitants of neighboring smaller 
 and weaker towns, who, by choice or by 
 compulsion, had removed their residence to 
 the banks of the Tiber. Hence resulted a 
 disseverance of sentiment and feeling, and 
 a constant tendency to disunion. Now the 
 object of Numa was to obliterate these 
 contending elements and to establish a per- 
 fect identity of national feeling, so that, to 
 use the language of Plutarch, " the distri- 
 bution of the people might become a har- 
 monious mingling of all with all." 
 
 For this purpose he established one 
 common religion, and divided the citizens 
 into curias and tribes, each curia and tribe 
 
654 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 being composed of an admixture indiffer- 
 ently of Romans, Sabines, and tbe other 
 denizens of Rome. 
 
 Directed by the same political sagacity, 
 he distributed the artisans into various 
 gilds or corporations, under the name of 
 Collegia, or " Colleges." To each collegium 
 was assigned the artisans of a particular 
 profession, and each had its own regula- 
 tions, both secular and religious. These 
 colleges grew with the growth of the re- 
 public; and although Numa had originally 
 established but nine, namely, the College 
 of Musicians, of Goldsmiths, of Carpenters, 
 of Dyers, of Shoemakers, of Tanners, of 
 Smiths, of Potters, and a ninth composed 
 of all artisans not embraced under either 
 of the preceding heads, they were subse- 
 quently greatly increased in number. 
 Eighty years before the Christian era they 
 were, it is true, abolished, or sought to be 
 abolished, by a decree of the Senate, who 
 looked with jealousy on their political in- 
 fluence, but twenty years afterwards they 
 were revived, and new ones established by a 
 law of the tribune Clodius, which repealed 
 the Senatus Consultum. They continued 
 to exist under the empire, were extended 
 into the provinces, and even outlasted the 
 decline and fall of the Roman power. 
 
 And now let us inquire into the form 
 and organization of these Colleges, and, in 
 so doing, trace the analogy between them 
 and the Masonic Lodges, if any such anal- 
 ogy exists. 
 
 The first regulation, which was an indis- 
 pensable one, was that no College could 
 consist of less than three members. So in- 
 dispensable was this rule that the expres- 
 sion tres faciunt collegium, " three make a 
 college," became a maxim of the civil law. 
 So rigid too was the application of this 
 rule, that the body of Consuls, although 
 calling each other " colleagues," and pos- 
 sessing and exercising all collegiate rights, 
 were, because they consisted only of two 
 members, never legally recognized as a Col- 
 lege. The reader will very readily be 
 struck with the identity of this regulation 
 of the Colleges and that of Freemasonry, 
 which with equal rigor requires three 
 Masons to constitute a Lodge. The College 
 and the Lodge each demanded three mem- 
 bers to make it legal. A greater number 
 might give it more efficiency, but it could 
 not render it more legitimate. This, then, 
 is the first analogy between the Lodges of 
 Freemasons and the Roman Colleges. 
 
 These Colleges had their appropriate 
 officers, who very singularly were assimi- 
 lated in stations and duties to the officers 
 of a Masonic Lodge. Each College was 
 presided over by a chief or president, 
 whose title of Magister is exactly translated 
 
 by the English word " Master." The next 
 officers were the Decuriones. They were 
 analogous to the Masonic " Wardens," for 
 each Decurio presided over a section or di- 
 vision of the College, just as in the most 
 ancient English and in the present conti- 
 nental ritual we find the Lodge divided 
 into two sections or " columns," over each 
 of which one of the Wardens presided, 
 through whom the commands of the Master 
 were extended to " the brethren of his col- 
 umn." There was also in the Colleges 
 a Scriba, or "secretary," who recorded its 
 proceedings ; a Thesaurensis, or " treasurer," 
 who had charge of the common chest; a 
 Tabulariux, or keeper of the archives, equiv- 
 alent to the modern "Archivist;" and 
 lastly, as these Colleges combined a peculiar 
 religious worship with their operative la- 
 bors, there was in each of them a sacerdos, 
 or priest, who conducted the religious cere- 
 monies, and was thus exactly equivalent to 
 the " chaplain " of a Masonic Lodge. In 
 all this we find another analogy between 
 these ancient institutions and our Masonic 
 bodies. 
 
 Another analogy will be found in the 
 distribution or division of classes in the 
 Roman Colleges. As the Masonic Lodges 
 have their Master Masons, their Fellow 
 Crafts, and their Apprentices, so the Col- 
 leges had their Seniores, " Elders," or chief 
 men of the trade, and their journeymen 
 and apprentices. The members did not, it 
 is true, like the Freemasons, call themselves 
 " Brothers " because this term, first adopted 
 in the gilds or corporations of the Middle 
 Ages, is the offspring of a Christian senti- 
 ment; but, as Krause remarks, these Col- 
 leges were, in general, conducted after the 
 pattern or model of a family ; and hence 
 the appellation of brother would now and 
 then be found among the family appella- 
 tions. 
 
 The partly religious character of the 
 Roman Colleges of Artificers constitutes a 
 very peculiar analogy between them and 
 the'Masonic Lodges. The history of these 
 Colleges shows that an ecclesiastical char- 
 acter was bestowed upon them at the very 
 time of their organization by Numa. Many 
 of the workshops of these artificers were 
 erected in the vicinity of temples, and their 
 curia, or place of meeting, was generally 
 in some way connected with a temple. The 
 deity to whom such temple was consecrated 
 was peculiarly worshipped by the members 
 of the adjacent College, and becamethe 
 patron god of their trade or art. In time, 
 when the Pagan religion was abolished and 
 the religious character of these Colleges 
 was changed, the Pagan gods gave way, 
 through the influences of the new religion, 
 to Christian saints, one of whom was always 
 
ROMAN 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 655 
 
 adopted as the patron of the modern gilds, 
 which, in the Middle Ages, took the place 
 of the Roman Colleges; and hence the 
 Freemasons derive the dedication of their 
 Lodges to Saint John from a similar custom 
 among the Corporations of Builders. 
 
 These Colleges held secret meetings, in 
 which the business transacted consisted of 
 the initiations of neophytes into their fra- 
 ternity, and of mystical and esoteric in- 
 structions to their apprentices and journey- 
 men. They were, in this respect, secret 
 societies like the Masonic Lodges. 
 
 There were monthly or other periodical 
 contributions by the members for the sup- 
 port of the College, by which means a 
 common fund was accumulated for the 
 maintenance of indigent members or the 
 relief of destitute strangers belonging to 
 the same society. 
 
 They were permitted by the government 
 to frame a constitution and to enact laws 
 and regulations for their own government. 
 These privileges were gradually enlarged 
 and their provisions extended, so that in 
 the latter days of the empire the Colleges 
 of Architects especially were invested with 
 extraordinary powers in reference to the 
 control of builders. Even the distinction 
 so well known in Masonic jurisprudence 
 between " legally constituted " and "clan- 
 destine Lodges," seems to find a similitude 
 or analogy here; for the Colleges which 
 had been established by lawful authority, 
 and were, therefore, entitled to the enjoy- 
 ment of the privileges accorded to those 
 institutions, were said to be collegia licita, 
 or " lawful colleges," while those which 
 were voluntary associations, not authorized 
 by the express decree of the senate or the 
 emperor, were called collegia illicita, or "un- 
 lawful colleges." The terms licita and 
 illicita were exactly equivalent in their 
 import to the legally constituted and the 
 clandestine Lodges of Freemasonry. 
 
 In the Colleges the candidates for admis- 
 sion were elected, as in the Masonic Lodges, 
 by the voice of the members. In connection 
 with this subject, the Latin word which 
 was used to express the art of admission 
 or reception is worthy of consideration. 
 When a person was admitted into the fra- 
 ternity of a College, he was said to be 
 cooptatus in collegium. Now, the verb coop- 
 tare, almost exclusively employed by the 
 Romans to signify an election into a Col- 
 lege, comes from the Greek optomai, "to 
 see, to behold." This same word gives 
 origin, in Greek, to epoptes, a spectator or 
 beholder, one who has attained to the last 
 degree in the Eleusinian mysteries; in other 
 words, an initiate. So that, without much 
 stretch of etymological ingenuity, we might 
 say that cooptatus in collegium meant " to be 
 
 initiated into a College." This is, at least, 
 singular. But the more general interpre- 
 tation of cooptatus is " admitted or accepted 
 in a fraternity," and so " made free of all 
 the privileges of the gild or corporation." 
 And hence the idea is the same as that 
 conveyed among the Masons by the title 
 "Free and Accepted." 
 
 Finally, it is said by Krause that these 
 Colleges of workmen made a symbolic use 
 of the implements of their art or profes- 
 sion, in other words, that they cultivated 
 the science of symbolism ; and in this re- 
 spect, therefore, more than in any other, 
 is there a striking analogy between the 
 Collegiate and the Masonic institutions. 
 The statement cannot be doubted ; for as 
 the organization of the Colleges partook, 
 as has already been shown, of a religious 
 character, and, as it is admitted, that all 
 the religion of Paganism was eminently 
 and almost entirely symbolic, it must fol- 
 low that any association which was based 
 upon or cultivated the religious or mytho- 
 logical sentiment, must cultivate also the 
 principle of symbolism. 
 
 I have thus briefly but succinctly shown 
 that in the form, the organization, the mode 
 of government, and the usages of the Ro- 
 man Colleges, there is an analogy between 
 them and the modern Masonic Lodges 
 which is evidently more than accidental. 
 It may be that long after the dissolution 
 of the Colleges, Freemasonry, in the estab- 
 lishment of its Lodges, designedly adopted 
 the collegiate organization as a model after 
 which to frame its own system, or it may be 
 that the resemblance has been the result of a 
 slow but inevitable growth of a succession of 
 associations arising out of each other, at 
 the head of which stands the Roman Col- 
 leges. 
 
 This problem can only be determined by 
 an investigation of the history of these 
 Colleges, and of the other similar institu- 
 tions which finally succeeded them in the 
 progress of architecture in Europe. We 
 shall then be prepared to investigate with 
 understanding the theory of Krause, and 
 to determine whether the Lodges are in- 
 debted to the Colleges for their form alone, 
 or for both form and substance. 
 
 We have already seen that in the time 
 of Numa the Roman Colleges amounted to 
 only nine. In the subsequent years of the 
 Republic the number was gradually aug- 
 mented, so that almost every trade or pro- 
 fession had its peculiar College. With the 
 advance of the empire, their numbers were 
 still further increased and their privileges 
 greatly extended, so that they became an 
 important element in the body politic. 
 Leaving untouched the other Colleges, I 
 shall confine myself to the Collegii Artifi- 
 
656 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 cum, " the Colleges of Architects," as the 
 only one whose condition and history are 
 relevant to the subject under considera- 
 tion. 
 
 The Romans were early distinguished 
 for a spirit of colonization. Their victo- 
 rious arms had scarcely subdued a peo- 
 ple, before a portion of the army was de- 
 Euted to form a colony. Here the bar- 
 arism and ignorance of the native popu- 
 lation were replaced by the civilization 
 and the refinement of their Roman con- 
 querors. 
 
 The Colleges of Architects, occupied in 
 the construction of secular and religious 
 edifices, spread from the great city to mu- 
 nicipalities and the provinces. Whenever 
 a new city, a temple, or a palace was to be 
 built, the members of these corporations 
 were convoked by the Emperor from the 
 most distant points, that with a community 
 of labor they might engage in the construc- 
 tion. Laborers might be employed, like 
 the "bearers of burdens" of the Jewish 
 Temple, in the humbler and coarser tasks, 
 but the conduct and the direction of the 
 works were intrusted only to the " accept- 
 ed members" — the cooptati — of the Col- 
 leges. 
 
 The colonizations of the Roman Empire 
 were conducted through the legionary 
 soldiers of the army. Now, to each le- 
 gion there was attached a College or cor- 
 poration of artificers, which was organized 
 with the legion at Rome, and passed with 
 it through all its campaigns, encamped 
 with it where it encamped, marched with 
 it where it marched, and when it coloniz- 
 ed, remained in the colony to plant the 
 seeds of Roman civilization, and to teach 
 the principles of Roman art. The mem- 
 bers of the College erected fortifications 
 for the legion in times of war, and in times 
 of peace, or when the legion became sta- 
 tionary, constructed temples and dwelling- 
 houses. 
 
 When England was subdued by the Ro- 
 man arms, the legions which went there to 
 secure and to extend the conquest, carried 
 with them, of course, their Colleges of 
 Architects. One of these legions, for in- 
 stance, under Julius Caesar, advancing into 
 the northern limits of the country, estab- 
 lished a colony, which, under the name of 
 Eboracum, gave birth to the city of York, 
 afterwards so celebrated in the history of 
 Masonry. Existing inscriptions and archi- 
 tectural remains attest how much was done 
 in the island of Britain by these associa- 
 tions of builders. 
 
 Druidism was at that time the prevailing 
 religion of the ancient Britons. But the 
 toleration of Paganism soon led to an har- 
 
 monious admixture of the religious ideas 
 of the Roman builders with those of the 
 Druid priests. Long anterior to this 
 Christianity had dawned upon the British 
 islands ; for, to use the emphatic language 
 of Tertullian, " Britain, inaccessible to the 
 Romans, was subdued by Christ." The 
 influences of the new faith were not long 
 in being felt by the Colleges, and the next 
 phase in their history is the record of their 
 assumption of the Christian life and doc- 
 trine. 
 
 But the incursions of the northern bar- 
 barians into Italy demanded the entire force 
 of the Roman armies to defend the integ- 
 rity of the Empire at home. Britain was 
 abandoned, and the natives, with the Ro- 
 man colonists who had settled among them, 
 were left to defend themselves. These 
 were soon driven, first by the Picts, their 
 savage neighbors, and then by the Saxon 
 sea robbers, whom the English had incau- 
 tiously summoned to their aid, into the 
 mountains of Wales and the islands of the 
 Irish Sea. The architects who were con- 
 verted to Christianity, and who had re- 
 mained when the legions left the country, 
 went with them, and having lost their con- 
 nection with the mother institution, they 
 became thenceforth simply corporations or 
 societies of builders, the organization which 
 had always worked so well being still re- 
 tained. 
 
 Subsequently, when the whole of Eng- 
 land was taken possession of by the Saxon 
 invaders, the Britons, headed by the monks 
 and priests, and accompanied by their archi- 
 tects, fled into Ireland and Scotland, which 
 countries they civilized and converted, and 
 whose inhabitants were instructed in the 
 art of building by the corporations of archi- 
 tects. 
 
 Whenever we read of the extension in 
 barbarous or Pagan countries of Chris- 
 tianity, and the conversion of their inhabi- 
 tants to the true faith, we also hear of the 
 propagation of the art of building in the 
 same places by the corporations of archi- 
 tects, the immediate successors of the 
 legionary Colleges, for the new religion re- 
 quired churches, and in time cathedrals and 
 monasteries, and the ecclesiastical archi- 
 tecture speedily suggested improvements in 
 the civil. 
 
 In time all the religious knowledge and 
 all the architectural skill of the northern 
 part of Europe were concentrated in the 
 remote regions of Ireland and Scotland, 
 whence missionaries were sent back to 
 England to convert the Pagan Saxons. 
 Thus the venerable Bede tells us (Eccl. 
 Hist., lib. iii., cap. 4, 7,) that West Saxony 
 was converted by Agilbert, an Irish 
 
ROMAN 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 657 
 
 bishop, and East Anglia, by Fursey, a 
 Scotch missionary. From England these 
 energetic missionaries, accompanied by their 
 pious architects, passed over into Europe, 
 and effectually labored for the conversion 
 of the Scandinavian nations, introducing 
 into Germany, Sweden, Norway, and even 
 Ireland, the blessings of Christianity and 
 the refinements of civilized life. 
 
 It is worthy of note that in all the early 
 records the word Scotland is very gener- 
 ally used as a generic term to indicate both 
 Scotland and Ireland. This error arose 
 most probably from the very intimate geo- 
 
 §raphical and social connections of the 
 cotch and the northern Irish, and per- 
 haps, also, from the general inaccuracy of 
 the historians of that period. Thus has 
 arisen the very common opinion, that Scot- 
 land was the germ whence sprang all the 
 Christianity of the northern nations, and 
 that the same country was the cradle of 
 ecclesiastical architecture and Operative 
 Masonry. 
 
 This historical error, by which the glory 
 of Ireland has been merged in that of her 
 sister country, Scotland, has been preserved 
 in much of the language and many of the 
 traditions of modern Freemasonry. Hence 
 the story of the Abbey of Kilwinning as 
 the birthplace of Masonry, a story which is 
 still the favorite of the Freemasons of Scot- 
 land. Hence the tradition of the apocry- 
 phal mountain of Heroden, situated in the 
 north-west of Scotland, where the first or 
 metropolitan Lodge of Europe was held; 
 hence the high degrees of Ecossais, or Scot- 
 tish Master, which play so important a part 
 in modern philosophical Masonry; and 
 hence the title of " Scottish Masonry," ap- 
 plied to one of the leading Rites of Freema- 
 sonry, which has, however, no other con- 
 nection with Scotland than that historical 
 one, through the corporations of builders, 
 which is common to the whole Institution. 
 It is not worth while to trace the reli- 
 gious contests between the original Chris- 
 tians of Britain and the Papal power, 
 which after years of controversy terminated 
 in the submission of the British Bishops to 
 the Pope. As soon as the Papal authority 
 was firmly established over Europe, the Ro- 
 man Catholic hierarchy secured the ser- 
 vices of the builders' corporations, and 
 these, under the patronage of the Pope and 
 the Bishops, were everywhere engaged as 
 "travelling freemasons," in the construc- 
 tion of ecclesiastical and regal edifices. 
 
 Henceforth we find these corporations of 
 builders exercising their art in all coun- 
 tries, everywhere proving, as Mr. Hope 
 says, by the identity of their designs, that 
 they were controlled by universally ac- 
 cepted principles, and showing in every 
 411 42 
 
 other way the characteristics of a corpora- 
 tion or gild. So far the chain of con- 
 nection between them and the Collegia Ar- 
 tificum at Rome has not been broken. 
 
 In the year 926 a general assembly of 
 these builders was held at the city of York, 
 in England. 
 
 Four years after, in 930, according to Re- 
 bold, Henry the Fowler broughtthese build- 
 ers, now called Masons, from England into 
 Germany, and employed them in the con- 
 struction of various edifices, such as the 
 cathedrals of Magdeburg, Meissen, and 
 Merseburg. But Krause, who is better 
 and more accurate as a historian than Re- 
 bold, says that, as respects Germany, the 
 first account that we find of these corpora- 
 tions of builders is at the epoch when, 
 under the direction of Edwin of Steinbach, 
 the most distinguished architects had con- 
 gregated from all parts at Strasburg for the 
 construction of the cathedral of that city. 
 There they held their general assembly, 
 like that of their English brethren at York, 
 enacted Constitutions, and established, at 
 length, a Grand Lodge, to whose decisions 
 numerous Lodges or hulten, subsequently 
 organized in Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, 
 France, and other countries, yielded obedi- 
 ence. George Kloss, in his exhaustive 
 work entitled Die Freimaurerei in ihrer 
 wahren Bedeutung, has supplied us with a 
 full collation of the statutes and regula- 
 tions adopted by these Strasburg Masons. 
 
 We have now reached recent historical 
 ground, and can readily trace these asso- 
 ciations of builders to the establishment of 
 the Grand Lodge of England at London, 
 in 1717, when the Lodges abandoned their 
 operative charters and became exclusively 
 speculative. The record of the continued 
 existence of Lodges of Free and Accepted 
 Masons from that day to this, in every 
 civilized country of the world, is in the 
 hands of every Masonic student. To repeat 
 it would be a tedious work of supereroga- 
 tion. 
 
 Such is the history, and now what is 
 the necessary deduction. It cannot be 
 doubted that Krause is correct in his 
 theory that the incunabula — the cradle 
 or birthplace — of the modern Masonic 
 Lodges is to be found in the Roman Col- 
 leges of Architects. That theory is cor- 
 rect, if we look only to the outward form 
 and mode of working of the Lodges. To 
 the Colleges are they indebted for every- 
 thing that distinguished them as a gild or 
 corporation, and especially are they in- 
 debted to the architectural character of 
 these Colleges for the fact, so singular in 
 Freemasonry, that its religious symbolism 
 — that by which it is distinguished from 
 all other institutions — is founded on the 
 
658 
 
 ROMVEL 
 
 ROSE 
 
 elements, the working-tools, and the tech- 
 nical language of the stonemasons' art. 
 
 But when we view Freemasonry in a 
 higher aspect, when we look at it as a 
 science of symbolism, the whole of which 
 symbolism is directed to but one point, 
 namely, the elucidation of the great doc- 
 trine of the immortality of the soul, and 
 the teaching of the two lives, the present 
 and the future, we must go beyond the 
 Colleges of Rome, which were only opera- 
 tive associations, to that older type to be 
 found in the Ancient Mysteries, where pre- 
 cisely the same doctrine was taught pre- 
 cisely in the same manner. Krause does 
 not, it is true, altogether omit a reference to 
 the priests of Greece, who, he thinks, were 
 in some way the original whence the Ro- 
 man Colleges derived their existence ; but 
 he has not pressed the point with the per- 
 tinacity which its importance requires. 
 He gives in his theory a pre-eminence to 
 the Colleges to which they are not in truth 
 entitled. 
 
 Bomvel. In the Hiramic legend of 
 some of the high degrees, this is the name 
 given to one of the assassins of the third 
 degree. This is, I think, clearly an in- 
 stance of the working of Stuart Masonry, 
 in giving names of infamy in the legends 
 of the Order to the enemies of the house 
 of Stuart. For I cannot doubt the correct- 
 ness of Bro. Albert Pike's suggestion, that 
 this is a manifest corruption of Cromwell. 
 If with them Hiram was but a symbol of 
 Charles I., then the assassin of Hiram was 
 properly symbolized by Cromwell. 
 
 Rosaic System. The system of Ma- 
 sonry taught by Rosa in the Lodges which 
 he established in Germany and Holland, 
 and which were hence sometimes called 
 " Rosaic Lodges." Although he professed 
 that it was the system of the Clermont 
 Chapter, for the propagation of which he had 
 been appointed by the Baron Von Printzen, 
 he had mixed with that system many al- 
 chemical and theosophic notions of his 
 own. The system was at first popular, but 
 it finally succumbed to the greater attrac- 
 tions of the Rite of Strict Observance, 
 which had been introduced into Germany 
 by the Baron Von Hund. 
 
 Rosa, Phllipp Samuel. Born at 
 "Ysenberg; at one time a Lutheran clergy- 
 man, and in 1757 rector of the Cathedral 
 of St. James at Berlin. He was initiated 
 into Masonry in the Lodge of the Three 
 Globes, and Von Printzen having estab- 
 lished a Chapter of the high degrees at 
 Berlin on the system of the French Chap- 
 ter of Clermont, Rosa was appointed his 
 deputy, and sent by him to propagate the 
 system. He visited various places in Ger- 
 many, Holland, Denmark, and Sweden. 
 
 In Denmark and Sweden, although well 
 received personally on account of his pleas- 
 ing manners, he made no progress in the 
 establishment of the Rite; but his success 
 was far better in Germany and Holland, 
 where he organized many Lodges of the 
 high degrees, engrafting them on the Eng- 
 lish system, which alone had been there- 
 tofore known in those countries. Rosa was 
 a mystic and a pretended alchemist, and as 
 a Masonic charlatan accumulated large 
 sums of money by the sale of degrees and 
 decorations. Lenning does not speak well 
 of his moral conduct, but some contempo- 
 rary writers describe him as a man of very 
 attractive manners, to which indeed may 
 be ascribed his popularity as a Masonic 
 leader. While residing at Halle, he, in 
 1765, issued a protestation against the pro- 
 ceedings of the Congress of Jena, which 
 had been convoked in that year by the im- 
 postor Johnson. But it met with no suc- 
 cess, and thenceforth Rosa faded away from 
 the knowledge of the Masonic world. We 
 can learn nothing of his subsequent life, 
 nor of the time or place of his death. 
 
 Rose. The symbolism of the rose 
 among the ancients was twofold. First, as 
 it was dedicated to Venus as the goddess 
 of love, it became the symbol of secrecy, 
 and hence came the expression " under the 
 rose," to indicate that which was spoken in 
 confidence. Again, as it was dedicated to 
 Venus as the personification of the genera- 
 tive energy of nature, it became the symbol 
 of immortality. In this latter and more 
 recondite sense it was, in Christian sym- 
 bology, transferred to Christ, through whom 
 " life and immortality were brought to 
 light." The "rose of Sharon" of the 
 Book of Canticles is always applied to 
 Christ, and hence Fuller {Pisgah Sight of 
 Palestine) calls him " that prime rose and 
 lily." Thus we see the significance of the 
 rose on the cross as a part of the jewel of 
 the Rose Croix degree. Reghellini, (vol. i., 
 p. 358,) after showing that anciently the 
 rose was the symbol of secrecy, and the 
 cross of immortality, says that the two 
 united symbols of a rose resting on a cross 
 always indicate the secret of immortality. 
 Ragon agrees with him in opinion, and says 
 that it is the simplest mode of writing that 
 dogma. But he subsequently gives a dif- 
 ferent explanation, namely, that as the 
 rose was the emblem of the female princi- 
 ple, and the cross or triple phallus of the 
 male, the two together, like the Indian 
 lingam, symbolized universal generation. 
 But Ragon, who has adopted the theory 
 of the astronomical origin of Freemasonry, 
 like all theorists, often carries his specula- 
 tions on this subject to an extreme point. 
 A simpler allusion will better suit the 
 
ROSE 
 
 ROSE 
 
 659 
 
 character and teachings of the degree in 
 its modern organization. The rose is the 
 symbol of Christ, and the cross, the symbol 
 of his death, — the two united, the rose sus- 
 pended on the cross, — signify his death on 
 the cross, whereby the secret of immortality 
 was taught to the world. In a word, the 
 rose on the cross is Christ crucified. 
 
 Rose and Triple Cross. A de- 
 gree contained in the Archives of the Lodge 
 of Saint Louis des Amis Reunis at Calais. 
 
 Rose Croix. French. Literally, 
 Rose Cross. 1. The seventh degree of the 
 French Rite; 2. The seventh degree of 
 the Philalethes ; 3. The eighth degree of 
 the Mother Lodge of the Philosophic Scot- 
 tish Rite; 4. The twelfth degree of the 
 Elect of Truth ; 5. The eighteenth degree 
 of the Mother Scottish Lodge of Marseilles ; 
 6. The eighteenth degree of the Rite of 
 Heredom, or of Perfection. 
 
 Rose Croix, Brethren of the. 
 Thory says {Fondat. du G. Or., p. 163,) 
 that the Archives of the Mother Lodge of 
 the Philosophic Scottish Rite at Paris con- 
 tain the manuscripts and books of a secret 
 society which existed at the Hague in 1622, 
 where it was known under the title of the 
 Freres de la Rose Croix, which pretended 
 to have emanated from the original Rosi- 
 crucian organization of Christian Rosen- 
 kruz. Hence Thory thinks that the Philo- 
 sophic Rite was only a continuation of 
 this society of the Brethren of the Rose 
 Croix. 
 
 Rose Croix, Jaeobite. The origi- 
 nal Rose Croix conferred in the Chapter 
 of Arras, whose Charter was granted by 
 the Pretender, was so called with a politi- 
 cal allusion to King James III., whose ad- 
 herents were known as Jacobites. 
 
 Rose Croix, Knight. {Chevalier 
 Rose Croix.) The eighteenth degree of the 
 Rite of Perfection. It is the same as the 
 Prince of Rose Croix of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite. 
 
 Rose Croix, Magnetic. The 
 thirty-eighth degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Rose Croix of Germany. A 
 hermetic degree, which Ragon says belongs 
 rather to the class of Elus than to that of 
 Rose Croix. 
 
 Rose Croix of Gold, Rretbren 
 of the. {FrZres de la Rose Croix d' Or.) An 
 alchemical and hermetic society, which was 
 founded in Germany in 1777. It promised 
 to its disciples the secret of the transmuta- 
 tion of metals, and the panacea or art of 
 prolonging life. The Baron Gleichen, who 
 was Secretary for the German language of 
 the Philalethan Congress at Paris in 1785, 
 gives the following history of the organiza- 
 tion of this society : 
 
 H The members of the Rose Croix affirm 
 
 that they are the legitimate authors and 
 superiors of Freemasonry, to all of whose 
 symbols they give a hermetical interpreta- 
 tion. The Masons, they say, came into 
 England under King Arthur. Raymond 
 Lully initiated Henry IV. The Grand 
 Masters were formerly designated, as now, 
 by the titles of John I., II., III., IV., etc. 
 
 " Their jewel is a golden compass at- 
 tached to a blue ribbon, the symbol of 
 purity and wisdom. The principal em- 
 blems on the ancient tracing-board were 
 the sun, the moon, and the double triangle, 
 having in its centre the first letter of the 
 Hebrew alphabet. The brethren wore a 
 silver ring, on which were the letters I. A. 
 A. T., the initials of Ignis, Aer, Aqua, Terra. 
 
 "The Ancient Rose Croix recognized 
 only three degrees ; the third degree, as we 
 now know it, has been substituted for 
 another more significant one." 
 
 The Baron de Westerode, in a letter 
 dated 1784, and quoted by Thory, (Act. 
 Lot., i. 336,) gives another mythical ac- 
 count. He says : 
 
 " The disciples of the Rose Croix came, 
 in 1188, from the East into Europe, for 
 the propagation of Christianity after the 
 troubles in Palestine. Three of them 
 founded in Scotland the Order of the 
 Masons of the East, (Knights of the East,) 
 to serve as a seminary for instruction in 
 the most sublime sciences. This Order was 
 in existence in 1196. Edward, the son of 
 Henry III., was received into the society 
 of the Rose Croix by Raymond Lully. At 
 that time only learned men and persons of 
 high rank were admitted. 
 
 " Their founder was a seraphic priest of 
 Alexandria, a magus of Egypt named Or- 
 mesius, or Ormus, who with six of his com- 
 panions was converted in the year 96 by St. 
 Mark. He purified the doctrine of the 
 Egyptians according to the precepts of 
 Christianity, and founded the society of 
 Ormus, that is to say, the Sages of Light, 
 to the members of which he gave a red 
 cross as a decoration. About the same 
 time the Essenes and other Jews founded a 
 school of Solomonic wisdom, to which the 
 disciples of Ormus united themselves. 
 Then the society was divided into various 
 Orders known as the Conservators of Mo- 
 saic Secrets, of Hermetic Secrets, etc. 
 
 " Several members of the association 
 having yielded to the temptations of pride, 
 seven Masters united, effected a reform, 
 adopted a modern constitution, and col- 
 lected together on their tracing-board all 
 the allegories of the hermetic work." 
 
 In this almost altogether fabulous narra- 
 tive we find an inextricable confusion of 
 the Rose Croix Masons and the Rosicru- 
 cian philosophers. 
 
660 
 
 ROSE 
 
 ROSE 
 
 Rose Croix of Heredom. The 
 
 first degree of the Royal Order of Scotland, 
 the eighteenth of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite, the eighteenth of the Rite of Perfec- 
 tion, the ninetieth of the Rite of Mizraim, 
 and some others affix to the title of Rose 
 Croix that of Heredom, for the signification 
 of which see the word. 
 
 Rose Croix of the Dames. {Rose 
 Oroix des Dames.) This degree, called also 
 the Ladies of Beneficence, ( Chevalieres de la 
 Bienfaisance,) is the sixth capitular or ninth 
 degree of the French Rite of Adoption. It 
 is not only Christian, but Roman Catholic 
 in its character, and is derived from the 
 ancient Jesuitical system as first promul- 
 gated in the Rose Croix Chapter of Arras. 
 
 Rose Croix of the Grand Ro- 
 sary. [Rose Croix du Grand Rosaire.) The 
 fourth and highest Rose Croix Chapter of 
 the Primitive Rite. 
 
 Rose Croix, Philosophic. A Ger- 
 man hermetic degree found in the collec- 
 tion of M. Pyron, and in the Archives of 
 the Philosophic Scottish Rite. It is prob- 
 ably the same as the Brethren of the Rose 
 Croix, of whom Thory thinks that that Rite 
 is only a continuation. 
 
 Rose Croix, Prince of. French, 
 Souverain Prince Rose Oroix. German, 
 Prim vom Rosenkruz. This important de- 
 gree is, of all the high grades, the most 
 widely diffused, being found in numerous 
 Rites. It is the eighteenth of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite, the seventh 
 of the French or Modern, the eighteenth 
 of the Council of Emperors of the East 
 and West, the third of the Royal Order of 
 Scotland, the twelfth of the Elect of Truth, 
 and the seventh of the Philalethes. It was 
 also given, formerly, in some Encampments 
 of Knights Templars, and was the sixth of 
 the degrees conferred by the Encampment 
 of Baldwyn at Bristol, in England. It 
 must not, however, be confounded with the 
 Rosicrucians, who, however, similar in 
 •name, were only a hermetic and mystical 
 Order. 
 
 The degree is known by various names : 
 sometimes its possessors are called " Sov- 
 ereign Princes of Rose Croix," sometimes 
 " Princes of Rose Croix de Heroden," and 
 sometimes " Knights of the Eagle and Pel- 
 ican." In relation to its origin, Masonic 
 writers have made many conflicting state- 
 ments, some giving it a much higher an- 
 tiquity than others; but all agreeing in 
 supposing it to be one of the earliest of the 
 higher degrees. The name has, undoubt- 
 edly, been the cause of much of this confu- 
 sion in relation to its history; and the 
 Masonic degree of Rose Croix has, perhaps, 
 often been confounded with the kabbalistical 
 and alchemical sect of " Rosicrucians," or 
 
 " Brothers of the Rosy Cross," among whose 
 adepts the names of such men as Roger 
 Bacon, Paracelsus, and Elias Ashmole the 
 celebrated antiquary, are to be found. Not- 
 withstanding the invidious attempts of 
 Barruel and other foes of Masonry to con- 
 found the two Orders, there is a great dis- 
 tinction between them. Even their names, 
 although somewhat similar in sound, are 
 totally different in signification. The Rosi- 
 crucians, who were alchemists, did not 
 derive their name, like the Rose Croix 
 Masons, from the emblems of the rose and 
 cross, — for they had nothing to do with the 
 rose, — but from the Latin ros, signifying 
 dew, which was supposed to be of all natu- 
 ral bodies the most powerful solvent of 
 gold, and crux, the cross, a chemical hiero- 
 glyphic of light. 
 
 Baron Westerode, who wrote in 1784, in 
 the Acta Latomorum gives the earliest ori- 
 gin of any Masonic writer to the degree of 
 Rose Croix. He supposes that it was insti- 
 tuted among the Knights Templars in Pal- 
 estine, in the year 1188, and he adds that 
 Prince Edward, the son of Henry III. of 
 England, was admitted into the Order by 
 Raymond Lully in 1196. Westerode names 
 Ormesius, an Egyptian priest, who had been 
 converted to Christianity, as its founder. 
 
 Some have sought to find its origin in 
 the labors of Valentine Andrea, the reputed 
 founder of the Rosicrucian fraternity. But 
 the Rose Croix of Masonry and the her- 
 metic Rosicrucianism of Andrea were two 
 entirely different things ; and it would be 
 difficult to trace any connection between 
 them, at least any such connection as would 
 make one the legitimate successor of the 
 other. J. G. Buhle, in a work, published 
 in Gbttingen in 1804, under the title of 
 Ueber den Ursprung und die vornehmsten 
 Schicfcsale der Orden der Rosenkreutzer und 
 Freimaurer, reverses this theory, and sup- 
 poses the Rosicrucians to be a branch of 
 the Freemasons ; and Higgins, in his Ana- 
 calypsis, (ii. 388,) thinks that the "modern 
 Templars, the Rosicrucians, and the Masons 
 are little more than different Lodges of one 
 Order," all of which is only a confusion of 
 history in consequence of a confounding 
 of names. It is thus that Inge has written 
 an elaborate essay on the Origine de la Rose 
 Croix; {Globe, vol. iii., ) but as he has, with 
 true Gallic insousiance of names, spoken 
 indifferently of the Rose Croix Masons and 
 the Rosicrucians Adepts, his statements 
 supply no facts available for history. 
 
 The Baron de Gleichen, who was, in 
 1785, the German secretary of the Philale- 
 than Congress at Paris, says that the Rose 
 Croix and the Masons were united in Eng- 
 land under King Arthur. But he has, un- 
 doubtedly, mixed up Rosicrucianism with 
 
ROSE 
 
 ROSE 
 
 661 
 
 the Masonic legends of the Knights of the 
 Round Table, and his assertions must go 
 for nothing. 
 
 Others, again, have looked for the origin 
 of the Rose Croix degree, or, at least, of 
 its emblems, in the Symbola divina et hu- 
 rnana pontificum, imperatorum, regum of 
 James Typot, or Typotius, the historiogra- 
 pher of the Emperor Rudolph II., a work 
 which was published in 1601 ; and it is 
 particularly in that part of it which is de- 
 voted to the "symbol of the holy cross" 
 that the allusions are supposed to be found 
 which would seem to indicate the author's 
 knowledge of this degree. But Ragon re- 
 futes the idea of any connection between 
 the symbols of Typotius and those of the 
 Rose Croix. Robison {Proofs, p. 72,) also 
 charges Von Hund with borrowing his 
 symbols from the same work, in which, 
 however, he declares " there is not the least 
 trace of Masonry or Templars." 
 
 Clavel, with his usual boldness of asser- 
 tion, which is too often independent of 
 facts, declares that the degree was invented 
 by the Jesuits for tbe purpose of counter- 
 mining the insidious attacks of the free- 
 thinkers upon the Roman Catholic religion, 
 but that the philosophers parried the at- 
 tempt by seizing upon the degree and giving 
 to all its symbols an astronomical significa- 
 tion. Clavel's opinion is probably derived 
 from one of those sweeping charges of Pro- 
 fessor Robison, in which that systematic 
 enemy of our Institution declares that, 
 about the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, the Jesuits interfered considerably 
 with Masonry, " insinuating themselves 
 into the Lodges, and contributing to in- 
 crease that religious mysticism that is to be 
 observed in all the ceremonies of the Order." 
 But there is no better evidence than these 
 mere vague assertions of the connection 
 of the Jesuits with the Rose Croix degree. 
 
 Oliver [Landm., ii. 81,) says that the ear- 
 liest notice that he finds of this degree is 
 in a publication of 1613, entitled La Re- 
 formation universelle du monde entier avec la 
 fama fralernitatis de P Ordre respectable de 
 la Rose Croix. But he adds, that " it was 
 known much sooner, although not probably 
 as a degree in Masonry ; for it existed as a 
 kabbalistic science from the earliest times 
 in Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as well as 
 amongst the Jews and Moors in times more 
 recent." 
 
 Oliver, however, undoubtedly, in the lat- 
 ter part of this paragraph, confounds the 
 Masonic Rose Croix with the alchemical 
 Rosicrucians ; and the former is singularly 
 inconsistent with the details that he gives 
 in reference to the Rosy Cross of the Royal 
 Order of Scotland. 
 
 There is a tradition, into whose authen- 
 
 ticity I shall not stop to inquire, that after 
 the dissolution of the Order, many of the 
 knights repaired to Scotland and placed 
 themselves under the protection of Robert 
 Bruce; and that after the battle of Bannock- 
 burn, which took place on St. John the 
 Baptist's day, in the year 1314, this mon- 
 arch instituted the Royal Order of Here- 
 dom and Knight of the Rosy Cross, and 
 established the chief seat of the Order at 
 Kilwinning. From that Order, it seems to 
 us by no means improbable that the pres- 
 ent degree of Rose Croix de Heroden may 
 have taken its origin. In two respects, at 
 least, there seems to be a very close con- 
 nection between the two systems: they 
 both claim the kingdom of Scotland and 
 the Abbey of Kilwinning as having been 
 at one time their chief seat of government, 
 and they both seem to have been instituted 
 to give a Christian explanation to Ancient 
 Craft Masonry. There is, besides, a simi- 
 larity in the names of the degrees of "Rose 
 Croix de Heroden," and " Heredom and 
 Rosy Cross," amounting almost to an iden- 
 tity, which appears to indicate a very inti- 
 mate relation of one to the other. 
 
 The subject, however, is in a state of in- 
 extricable confusion, and I confess that, 
 after all my researches, I am still unable 
 distinctly to point to the period when, and 
 to the place where, the present degree of 
 Rose Croix received its organization as a 
 Masonic grade. 
 
 We have this much of history to guide 
 us. In the year 1747, the Pretender, 
 Prince Charles Edward, established a Chap- 
 ter in the town of Arras, in France, with 
 the title of the " Chapitre Primordial de 
 Rose Croix." The Charter of this body is 
 now extant in an authenticated copy de- 
 posited in the departmental archives of 
 Arras. In it the Pretender styles himself 
 " King of England, France, Scotland, and 
 Ireland, and, by virtue of this, Sovereign 
 Grand Master of the Chapter of H. known 
 under the title of the Eagle and Pelican, 
 and, since our sorrows and misfortunes, 
 under that of Rose Croix." From this we 
 may infer that the title of "Rose Croix" was 
 first known in 1747 ; that the degree had 
 been formerly known as " Knight of the 
 Eagle and Pelican," a title which it still 
 retains; that it was at that date introduced 
 into France by the Pretender, who bor- 
 rowed it from the Rosy Cross of the Royal 
 Order of Scotland, of which, because as 
 the King of Scotland is the Hereditary 
 Grand Master, he, by virtue of his claim to 
 the throne, assumed the Grand Mastership. 
 Hence it is probable that the Rose Croix 
 degree has been borrowed from the Rosy 
 Cross of the Scottish Royal Order of Here- 
 dom, but in passing from Scotland to 
 
662 
 
 ROSE 
 
 ROSE 
 
 France it greatly changed its form and 
 organization, as it resembles in no respect 
 its archetype, except that both are eminent- 
 ly Christian in their design. But in its 
 adoption by the Ancient and Accepted 
 Eite, its organization has been so changed 
 that, by a more liberal interpretation of its 
 symbolism, it has been rendered less sec- 
 tarian and more tolerant in its design. 
 For while the Christian reference is pre- 
 served, no peculiar theological dogma is 
 retained, and the degree is made cosmopolite 
 in its character. 
 
 It was, indeed, on its first inception, an 
 attempt to Christianize Freemasonry; to 
 apply the rites, and symbols, and traditions 
 of Ancient Craft Masonry to the last and 
 greatest dispensation ; to add to the first 
 Temple of Solomon and the second of Ze- 
 rubbabel a third, that to which Christ al- 
 luded when he said, " Destroy this temple, 
 and in three days will I raise it up." The 
 great discovery which was made in the 
 Royal Arch ceases to be of value in this 
 degree; for it another is substituted of 
 more Christian application ; the Wisdom, 
 Strength, and Beauty which supported the 
 ancient Temple are replaced by the Chris- 
 tian pillars of Faith, Hope and Charity ; 
 the great lights, of course, remain, because 
 they are of the very essence of Masonry ; 
 but the three lesser give way to the thirty- 
 three, which allude to the years of the 
 Messiah's sojourning on earth. Everything, 
 in short, about the degree, is Christian ; but, 
 as I have already said, the Christian teach- 
 ings of the degree have been applied to the 
 sublime principles of a universal system, 
 and an interpretation and illustration of 
 the doctrines of the "Master of Nazareth," 
 so adapted to the Masonic dogma of toler- 
 ance, that men of every faith may embrace 
 and respect them. It thus performs a 
 noble mission. It obliterates, alike, the 
 intolerance of those Christians who sought 
 to erect an impassable barrier around the 
 sheepfold, and the equal intolerance of 
 those of other religions who would be 
 ready to exclaim "Can any good thing 
 come out of Nazareth ? " 
 
 In the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite, whence the Rose Croix Masons of the 
 United States have received the degree, it is 
 placed as the eighteenth on the list. It is 
 conferred in a body called a "Chapter," 
 which derives its authority immediately 
 from the Supreme Council of the Thirty- 
 third, and which confers with it only one 
 other and inferior degree, that of " Knights 
 of the East and West." Its principal offi- 
 cers are a Most Wise Master and two 
 Wardens. Maundy Thursday and Easter 
 Sunday are two obligatory days of meeting. 
 
 The aspirant for the degree makes the 
 
 usual application duly recommended; and 
 if accepted, is required, before initiation, to 
 make certain declarations which shall show 
 his competency for the honor which he 
 seeks, and at the same time prove the high 
 estimation entertained of the degree by 
 those who already possess it. 
 
 The jewel of the Rose Croix is a golden 
 compass, extended on an arc to the six- 
 teenth part of a circle, or twenty-two and a 
 half degrees. The head of the compass is 
 surmounted by a triple crown, consisting 
 of three series of points arranged by three, 
 five, and seven. Between the legs of the 
 compass is a cross resting on the arc; its 
 centre is occupied by a full-blown rose, 
 whose stem twines around the lower limb 
 of the cross ; at the foot of the cross, on 
 the same side on which the rose is exhib- 
 ited, is the figure of a pelican wounding its 
 breast to feed its young which are in a nest 
 surrounding it, while on the other side of 
 the jewel is the figure of an eagle with 
 wings displayed. On the arc of the circle, 
 the P.". W.\ of the degree is engraved in 
 the cipher of the Order. 
 
 In this jewel are included the most im- 
 portant symbols of the degree. The Oross, 
 the Rose, the Pelican, and the Eagle are all 
 important symbols, the explanations of 
 which will go far to a comprehension of 
 what is the true design of the Rose Croix 
 Order. They may be seen in this work 
 under their respective titles. 
 
 Rose Croix, Rectified. The name 
 given by F. J. W. Schroder to his Rite of 
 seven magical, theosophical, and alchemi- 
 cal degrees. See Schroeder, Friederich Joseph 
 Wilhelm. 
 
 Rose Croix, SoTereign Prince 
 of. Because of its great importance in the 
 Masonic system, and of the many privileges 
 possessed by its possessors, the epithet of 
 "Sovereign" has been almost universally 
 bestowed upon the degree of Prince of Rose 
 Croix. Recently, however, the Mother 
 Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite at Charleston has discarded this 
 title, and directed that the word "Sovereign" 
 shall only be applied to the thirty-third 
 degree of the Rite; and this is now the 
 usage in the Southern Jurisdiction of the 
 United States. 
 
 Rose, Knights and !Ladies of 
 the. See Knight of the Rose. 
 
 Rose, Order of the. A Masonic 
 adventurer, Franz Rudolph Van Grossing, 
 but whose proper name, Wadzeck says, 
 was Franz Matthaus Grossinger, estab- 
 lished, as a financial speculation, at Berlin, 
 in 1778, an androgynous society, which he 
 called Rosen-Order, or the Order of the 
 Rose. It consisted of two degrees : 1. Fe- 
 male Friends, and 2. Confidants ; and the 
 
ROSENKREUZ 
 
 ROSICRUCIANISM 
 
 663 
 
 meetings of the society were designated as 
 " holding the rose." The society had but 
 a brief duration, and the life and adven- 
 tures of the founder and the secrets of the 
 Order were published in 1789, by Friederich 
 Wadzeck, in a work entitled Leben und 
 Schicksale des beruchtigten F. R. Von Gross- 
 ing. 
 
 Rosenkreuz, Christian. An as- 
 sumed name, invented, it is supposed, by 
 John Valentine Andrea, and by which he 
 designated a fictitious person, to whom he 
 has attributed the invention of Rosicru- 
 cianism. See this word. 
 
 Itosi< -riH'iniiisin. Many writers 
 have sought to discover a close connection 
 between the Rosicrucians and the Freema- 
 sons, and some, indeed, have advanced the 
 theory that the latter are only the succes- 
 sors of the former. Whether this opinion 
 be correct or not, there are sufficient coin- 
 cidences of character between the two to 
 render the history of Rosicrucianism highly 
 interesting to the Masonic student. 
 
 There appeared at Cassel, in the year 
 1614, a work bearing the title of Allge- 
 meine und General- Reformation der ganzen 
 weiten Welt. Beneben der Fama Fraternita- 
 tis des Ldblichen Ordens des Rosenzreuzes an 
 alle GelehrteundJffdupter Europdgeschrieben. 
 A second edition appeared in 1615, and 
 several subsequent ones ; and in 1652 it was 
 introduced to the English public in a trans- 
 lation by the celebrated adept, Thomas 
 Vaughan, under the title of Fame and Con- 
 fession of Rosie- Cross. 
 
 This work has been attributed, although 
 not without question, to the philosopher 
 and theologian, John Valentine Andrea, 
 who is reported, on the authority of the 
 preacher, M. C. Hirschen, to have confessed 
 that he, with thirty others in Wurtemberg, 
 had sent forth the Fama Fraternitatis ; that 
 under this veil they might discover who 
 were the true lovers of wisdom, and induce 
 them to come forward. 
 
 In this work Andrea gives an account of 
 the life and adventures of Christian Rosen- 
 kreuz, a fictitious personage, whom he 
 makes the founder of the pretended Society 
 of Rosicrucians. 
 
 According to Andrea's tale, Rosenkreuz 
 was of good birth, but, being poor, was 
 compelled to enter a monastery at a very 
 early period of his life. At the age of six- 
 teen, he started with one of the monks on a 
 pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre. On 
 their arrival at the island ot Cyprus, the 
 monk was taken sick and died, but Rosen- 
 kreuz proceeded on his journey. At Da- 
 mascus he remained for three years, de- 
 voting himself to the study of the occult 
 sciences, taught by the sages of that city. 
 He then sailed for Egypt, where he con- 
 
 tinued his studies; and, having traversed 
 the Mediterranean, he at length arrived at 
 Fez, in Morocco, as he had been directed 
 by his masters of Damascus. He passed 
 two years in acquiring further information 
 from the philosophers of Africa, and then 
 crossed over into Spain. There, however, 
 he met with an unfavorable reception, and 
 then determined to return to Germany, and 
 give to his own countrymen the benefit of 
 his studies and researches, and to establish 
 there a society for the cultivation of the 
 sciences which he had acquired during his 
 travels. Accordingly, he selected three of 
 the monks of the old. convent in which he 
 was educated. To them he imparted his 
 knowledge, under a solemn vow of secrecy. 
 He imposed on them the duty of commit- 
 ting his instructions to writing, and form- 
 ing a magic vocabulary for the benefit of 
 future students. They were also taught 
 the science of medicine, and prescribed 
 gratuitously for all the sick who applied to 
 them. But the number of their patients 
 soon materially interfering witn their 
 other labors, and the new edifice, the 
 House of the Holy Spirit, being now 
 finished, Father Christian, as he was called, 
 resolved to enlarge his society by the ini- 
 tiation of four new members. 
 
 The eight brethren being now thoroughly 
 instructed in the mysteries, they agreed to 
 separate — two to remain with Father 
 Christian, and the others to travel, but to 
 return at the end of each year, and mu- 
 tually to communicate the results of their 
 experience. The two who had remained 
 at home were then relieved by two of the 
 others, and they again separated for another 
 year. 
 
 The society thus formed was governed 
 by a code of laws, by which they agreed 
 that they would devote themselves to no 
 occupation except that of physic, which 
 they were to practise without pecuniary 
 reward; that they would not distinguish 
 themselves from the rest of the world by 
 any peculiar costume ; that each one should 
 annually present himself at the House of 
 the Holy Spirit, or send an excuse for his 
 absence; that each one should, during his 
 life, appoint somebody to succeed him at 
 his death ; that the letters R. C. were to be 
 their title and watchword; and that the 
 brotherhood should be kept a secret for one 
 hundred years. 
 
 At the age of one hundred years Father 
 Christian Rosenkreuz died, and was buried 
 by the two brethren who had remained 
 with him; but the place of his burial re- 
 mained a secret to all of the rest — the two 
 carrying the mystery with them to the 
 grave. The society, however, continued, 
 notwithstanding the death of the founder, 
 
664 
 
 ROSICRUCIANISM 
 
 ROSICRUCIANISM 
 
 to exist, but unknown to the world, always 
 consisting of eight members. There was a 
 tradition among them, that at the end of 
 one hundred and twenty years the grave of 
 Father Rosenkreuz was to be discovered, 
 and the brotherhood no longer remain a 
 secret. About that time the brethren began 
 to make some alterations in their building, 
 and attempted to remove to a more fitting 
 situation the memorial table on which 
 was inscribed the names of those who had 
 been members of the fraternity. The plate 
 was of brass, and was affixed to the wall 
 by a nail driven through its centre ; but so 
 firmly was it attached, that in tearing it 
 away, a portion of the plaster came off and 
 exposed a secret door. Upon removing the 
 incrustation on the door, there appeared 
 written in large letters, " Post cxx, An- 
 NOS Patebo " — after one hundred and twenty 
 years I will appear. Returning the next 
 morning to renew their researches, they 
 opened the door and discovered a heptag- 
 onal vault, each of its seven sides being 
 five feet wide, and in height eight feet. 
 The light was received from an artificial 
 sun in the roof, and in the middle of the 
 floor there stood, instead of a tomb, a circu- 
 lar altar, on which was an inscription, im- 
 porting that this apartment, as a compen- 
 dium of the universe, had been erected by 
 Christian Rosenkreuz. Other later in- 
 scriptions about the apartment — such as 
 Jesus mihi omnia ; Legis jugum ; Libertas 
 Evangelii : Jesus is my all ; the yoke of the 
 law; the liberty of the Gospel — indicated 
 the Christian character of the builder. In 
 each of the sides was a door opening into 
 a closet, and in these closets they found 
 many rare and valuable articles, such as 
 the life of the founder, the vocabulary of 
 Paracelsus, and the secrets of the Order, 
 together with bells, mirrors, burning lamps, 
 and other curious articles. On removing 
 the altar and a brass plate beneath it, they 
 came upon the body of Rosenkreuz in a 
 perfect state of preservation. 
 
 Such is the sketch of the history of the 
 Rosicrucians given by Andrea in his Fama 
 Fraternitatis. It is evidently a romance; 
 and scholars now generally assent to the 
 theory advanced by Nicolai, that Andrea, 
 who, at the time of the appearance of his 
 book, was a young man full of excitement, 
 seeing the defects of the sciences, the the- 
 ology, and the manners of his time, sought 
 to purify them ; and, to accomplish this 
 design, imagined the union into one body 
 of all those who, like himself, were the 
 admirers of true virtue; in other words, 
 that he wrote this account of the rise and 
 progress of Rosicrucianism for the purpose 
 of advancing, by a poetical fiction, his pecu- 
 liar views of morals and religion. 
 
 But the fiction was readily accepted as a 
 truth by most people, and the invisible 
 society of Rosenkreuz was sought for with 
 avidity by many who wished to unite with 
 it. The sensation produced in Germany 
 by the appearance of Andrea's book was 
 great ; letters poured in all sides from those 
 who desired to become members of the 
 Order, and who, as proofs of their qualifi- 
 cations, presented their claims to skill in 
 Alchemy and Kabbalism. No answers, of 
 course, having been received to these peti- 
 tions for initiation, most of the applicants 
 were discouraged and retired; but some 
 were bold, became impostors, and pro- 
 claimed that they had been admitted into 
 the society, and exercised their fraud upon 
 those who were credulous enough to be- 
 lieve them. There are records that some 
 of these charlatans, who extorted money 
 from their dupes, were punished for their 
 offence by the magistrates of Nuremberg, 
 Augsburg, and some other German cities. 
 There was, too, in Holland, in the year 
 1722, a Society of Alchemists, who called 
 themselves Rosicrucians, and who claimed 
 that Christian Rosenkreuz was their 
 founder, and that they had affiliated soci- 
 eties in many of the German cities. But 
 it is not to be doubted that this was a self- 
 created society, and that it had nothing in 
 common, except the name, with the imag- 
 inary brotherhood invented by Andrea. 
 Des Cartes, indeed, says that he sought in 
 vain for a Rosicrucian Lodge in Germany. 
 
 But although the brotherhood of Rosen- 
 kreuz, as described by Andrea in his Fama 
 Fraternitatis, his Chemical Nuptuals, and 
 other works, never had a real tangible ex- 
 istence as an organized society, the opinions 
 advanced by Andrea took root, and gave 
 rise to the philosophic sect of the Rosicru- 
 cians, many of whom were to be found, 
 during the seventeenth century, in Ger- 
 many, in France, and in England. Among 
 these were such men as Michael Maier, 
 Richard Fludd, and Elias Ashmole. Nico- 
 lai even thinks that he has found some 
 evidence that the Fama Fraternitatis sug- 
 gested to Lord Bacon the notion of his 
 Instauratio Magna. But, as Vaughan says, 
 (Hours toith the Mystics, ii. 104,) the name 
 Rosicrucian became by degrees a generic 
 term, embracing every species of doubt, 
 pretension, arcana, elexirs, the philoso- 
 pher's stone, theurgic ritual, symbols, or 
 initiations. 
 
 Higgins, Sloane, Vaughan, and several 
 other writers have asserted that Freema- 
 sonry sprang out of Rosicrucianism But 
 this is a great error. Between the two 
 there is no similarity of origin, of design, 
 or of organization. The symbolism of 
 Rosicrucianism is derived from a hermetic 
 
ROSICRUCIANISM 
 
 ROSICRUCIANISM 
 
 665 
 
 philosophy ; that of Freemasonry from an 
 operative art. The latter had its cradle in 
 the Stonemasons of Strasburg and the 
 Masters of Como long before the former 
 had its birth in the inventive brain of John 
 Valentine Andreii. 
 
 It is true, that about the middle of the 
 eighteenth century, a period fertile in the 
 invention of high degrees, a Masonic Rite 
 was established which assumed the name 
 of Rose Croix Masonry, and adopted the 
 symbol of the Rose and Cross. But this 
 was a coincidence, and not a consequence. 
 There was nothing in common between 
 them and the Rosicrucians, except the 
 name, the symbol, and the Christian char- 
 acter. Doubtless the symbol was suggested 
 to the Masonic Order from the use of it by 
 the philosophic sect ; but the Masons modi- 
 fied the interpretation, and the symbol, of 
 course, gave rise to the name. But here 
 the connection ends. A -Rose Croix Ma- 
 son and a Rosicrucian are two entirely dif- 
 ferent persons. 
 
 The Rosicrucians had a large number of 
 symbols, some of which were in common 
 with those of the Freemasons, and some 
 peculiar to themselves. The principal of 
 these were the globe, the circle, the com- 
 passes, the square, (both the working-tool 
 and the geometrical figure,) the triangle, 
 the level, and the plummet. These are, 
 however, interpreted, not like the Masonic, 
 as symbols of the moral virtues, but of 
 the properties of the philosopher's stone. 
 Thus, the twenty-first emblem of Michael 
 Maier's Atlanta Fugiens gives the fol- 
 lowing collection of the most important 
 symbols : A philosopher is measuring with 
 a pair of compasses a circle which sur- 
 mounts a triangle. The triangle encloses 
 a square, within which is another circle, and 
 inside of the circle a nude man and woman, 
 representing, it may be supposed, the first 
 step of the experiment. Over all is this epi- 
 graph : " Fac ex mare et femina circulum, 
 indequadrangulum,hinctriangulum,faccir- 
 culum et habebis lapidem Philosophorum." 
 That is, " Make of man and woman a cir- 
 cle; thence a square; thence a triangle; 
 form a circle, and you will have the Phil- 
 osopher's stone." But it must be remem- 
 bered that Hitchcock, and some other 
 recent writers, have very satisfactorily 
 proved that the labors of the real hermetic 
 philosophers (outside of the charlatans) 
 were rather of a spiritual than a material 
 character; and that their "great work" 
 symbolized not the acquisition of inex- 
 haustible wealth and the infinite prolonga- 
 tion of life, but the regeneration of man 
 and the immortality of the soul. 
 
 As to the etymology of the word Bosicru- 
 cian, several derivations have been given. 
 4 I 
 
 Peter Gassendi (Exam. Phil. Fludd, sect. 
 15,) first, and then Mosheim, (Hist. Eccles., 
 iv., i.,) deduce it from the two words ros, 
 dew, and crux, a cross, and thus define it : 
 Dew, according to the Alchemists, was the 
 most powerful of all substances to dissolve 
 gold; and the cross, in the language of the 
 same philosophers, was identical with light, 
 or LVX, because the figure of a cross ex- 
 hibits the three letters of that word. But 
 the word lux was referred to the seed or 
 menstruum of the Red Dragon, which was 
 that crude and material light which, being 
 properly concocted and digested, produces 
 gold. Hence, says Mosheim, a Rosicru- 
 cian is a philosopher, who by means of dew 
 seeks for light, that is, for the substance 
 of the philosopher's stone. But notwith- 
 standing the high authority for this ety- 
 mology, I think it untenable, and alto- 
 gether at variance with the history of the 
 origin of the Order, as will be presently 
 seen. 
 
 Another and more reasonable derivation 
 is from rose and cross. This was undoubt- 
 edly in accordance with the notions of An- 
 drea, who was the founder of the Order, 
 and gave it its name, for in his writings 
 he constantly calls it the " Fraternitas 
 Rosea? Crucis," or " the Fraternity of the 
 Rosy Cross." If the idea of dew had been 
 in the mind of Andrea in giving a name to 
 the society, he would have called it the 
 " Fraternity of the Dewy Cross," not that 
 of the " Rosy Cross." "Fraternitas Roscidae 
 Crucis," not " Roseae Crucis." This ought 
 to settle the question. The man who in- 
 vents a thing has the best right to give it a 
 name. 
 
 The origin and interpretation of the sym- 
 bol have been variously given. Some have 
 supposed that it was derived from the 
 Christian symbolism of the rose and the 
 cross. This is the interpretation that has 
 been assumed by the Rose Croix Order of 
 the Masonic system ; but it does not thence 
 follow that the same interpretation was 
 adopted by the Rosicrucians. Others say 
 that the rose meant the generative princi- 
 ple of nature, a symbolism borrowed from 
 the Pagan mythologers, and not likely to 
 have been appropriated by Andrea. Others, 
 again, contend that he derived the symbol 
 from his own arms, which were a St. An- 
 drew's cross between four roses, and that he 
 alluded to Luther's well-known lines : 
 
 "Des Christen Herz auf Rosen geht, - 
 Wenn's mitten unter'n Kreutze stent," 
 
 i. e., " The heart of the Christian goes upon 
 roses when it stands close beneath the 
 cross." But whatever may have been the 
 effect of Luther's lines in begetting an idea, 
 
666 
 
 ROSICRUCIAN 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 the suggestion of Andrea's arms must be 
 rejected. The symbol of the Rosicrucians 
 was a single rose upon a passion cross, very 
 different from four roses surrounding a St. 
 Andrew's cross. 
 
 Another derivation may be suggested, 
 namely : That, the rose being a symbol of 
 secrecy, and the cross of light, the rose and 
 cross were intended to symbolize the secret 
 of the true light, or the true knowledge, 
 which the Rosicrucian brotherhood were to 
 give to the world at the end of the hundred 
 years of their silence, and for which pur- 
 pose of moral and religious reform Andrea 
 wrote his books and sought to establish his 
 sect. But the whole subject of Rosicrucian 
 etymology is involved in confusion. 
 
 Rosicrucian Society of Eng- 
 land. A society whose objects are of a 
 purely literary character, and connected 
 with the sect of the Rosicrucians of the 
 Middle Ages. It is secret, but not Masonic, 
 in its organization ; although many of the 
 most distinguished Masons of England take 
 great interest in it, and are active members 
 of the society. 
 
 Rosy Cross. One of the degrees con- 
 ferred in the Royal Order of Scotland, which 
 see. 
 
 Rough Ashlar. See Ashlar. 
 
 Round Table, King Arthur's. 
 The old English legends, derived from the 
 celebrated chronicle of the twelfth century 
 known as the Brut of England, say that the 
 mythical King Arthur, who died in 542, of 
 a wound received in battle, instituted a 
 company of twenty-four (or, according to 
 some, twelve,) of his principal knights, 
 bound to appear at his court on certain sol- 
 emn days, and meet around a circular ta- 
 ble, whence they were called " Knights of 
 the Round Table." Arthur is said to have 
 been the institutor of those military and re- 
 ligious orders of chivalry which afterwards 
 became so common in the Middle Ages. 
 Into the Order which he established none 
 were admitted but those who had given 
 proofs of their valor; and the knights were 
 bound to defend widows, maidens, and 
 children ; to relieve the distressed, maintain 
 the Christian religion, contribute to the 
 support of the church, protect pilgrims, 
 advance honor, and suppress vice. They 
 were to administer to the care of soldiers 
 wounded in the service of their country, 
 and bury those who died, to ransom cap- 
 tives, deliver prisoners, and record all no- 
 ble enterprises for the honor and renown 
 of the noble Order. King Arthur and his 
 knights have been very generally consid- 
 ered by scholars as mythical ; notwithstand- 
 ing that, many years ago Whittaker, in his 
 History of Manchester, attempted to estab- 
 
 lish the fact of his existence, and to sepa- 
 rate the true from the fabulous in his his- 
 tory. The legend has been used by some 
 of the fabricators of irregular degrees in 
 Masonry. 
 
 Round Towers of Ireland. Edi- 
 fices, sixty-two in number, varying in 
 height from 80 to 120 feet, which are found 
 in various parts of Ireland. They are 
 cylindrical in shape, with a single door 
 eight or ten feet from the ground, and a 
 small aperture near the top. The question 
 of their origin and design has been a source 
 of much perplexity to antiquaries. They 
 have been supposed by Montmorency to 
 have been intended as beacons; by Val- 
 lancey, as receptacles of the sacred fire; 
 by O'Brien, as temples for the worship of 
 the sun and moon ; and more recently, by 
 Petrie, simply as bell-towers, and of very 
 modern date. This last theory has been 
 adopted by many ; while the more probable 
 supposition is still maintained by others, 
 that, whatever was their later appropria- 
 tion, they were, in their origin, of a phallic 
 character, in common with the towers of 
 similar construction in the East. O'Brien's 
 work On the Mound Towers of Ireland, which 
 was somewhat extravagant in its arguments 
 and hypotheses, led some Masons to adopt, 
 forty years ago, the opinion that they were 
 originally the places of a primitive Ma- 
 sonic initiation. But this theory is no 
 longer maintained as tenable. 
 
 Rowers. See Knight Bower. 
 
 Royal and Select Masters. See 
 Council of Boyal and Select Masters. 
 
 Royal Arch, Ancient. See Knight 
 of the Ninth Arch. 
 
 Royal Arch Apron. At the trien- 
 nial meeting of the General Grand Chap- 
 ter of the United States at Chicago, in 
 1859, a Royal Arch apron was prescribed, 
 consisting of a lamb-skin, (silk or satin 
 being strictly prohibited,) to be lined and 
 bound with scarlet, on the flap of which 
 should be placed a triple tau cross within a 
 triangle, and all within a circle. 
 
 Royal Arch Radge. The triple 
 tau, consisting of three tau crosses con- 
 joined at their feet, constitutes the Royal 
 Arch badge. The English Masons call it 
 
ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 667 
 
 the "emblem of all emblems," and the 
 " grand emblem of Royal Arch Masonry." 
 The English Royal Arch lecture 
 thus defines it : " The triple tau i a 
 
 forms two right angles on each II I 
 of the exterior lines, and another | 
 at the centre, by their union ; for 
 the three angles of each triangle are equal 
 to two right angles. This, being triplined, 
 illustrates the jewel worn by the compan- 
 ions of the Royal Arch, which, by its inter- 
 section, forms' a given number of angles 
 that may be taken in five several combina- 
 tions." It is used in the Royal Arch Ma- 
 sonry of Scotland, and has, for the last ten 
 or fifteen years, been adopted officially in 
 the United States. 
 
 Royal Arch Banners. See Ban- 
 ners, Royal Arch. 
 
 Royal Arch Captain. The sixth 
 officer in a Royal Arch Chapter according 
 to the American system. He represents 
 the sar hatabahim, or Captain of the King's 
 Guards. He sits in front of the Council 
 and at the entrance to the fourth veil, to 
 guard the approaches to which is his duty. 
 He wears a white robe and cap, is armed 
 with a sword, and bears a white banner on 
 which is inscribed a lion, the emblem of 
 the tribe of Judah. His jewel is a triangu- 
 lar plate of gold inscribed with a sword. 
 In the preliminary Lodges of the Chapter 
 he acts as Junior Deacon. 
 
 Royal Arch Clothing. The cloth- 
 ing or regalia of a Royal Arch Mason in 
 the American system consists of an apron, 
 (already described,) a scarf of scarlet vel- 
 vet or silk, on which is embroidered or 
 painted, on a blue ground, the words, 
 " Holiness to the Lord;" and if an officer, 
 a scarlet collar, to which is attached the 
 jewel of his office. The scarf, once uni- 
 versally used, has, within a few years past, 
 been very much abandoned. Every Royal 
 Arch Mason should also wear at his button- 
 hole, attached by a scarlet ribbon, the jewel 
 of the Order. 
 
 Royal Arch Colors. The peculiar 
 color of the Royal Arch degree is red or 
 scarlet, which is symbolic of fervency and 
 zeal, the characteristics of the degree. The 
 colors also used symbolically in the deco- 
 rations of a Chapter are blue, purple, scar- 
 let, and white, each of which has a symbolic 
 meaning. See Veils of the Tabernacle. 
 
 Royal Arch Degree. If we except 
 the Master's, there is no other degree in 
 Masonry that has been so extensively dif- 
 fused, or is as important in its historical 
 and symbolical import, as the Royal Arch, 
 or, as it has been called, on account of its 
 sublime significance, the " Holy Royal 
 Arch." Dermott calls it " the root, heart, 
 and marrow of Masonry," and Oliver says 
 
 that it is "indescribably more august, 
 sublime,, and important than any which 
 precede it, and is, in fact, the summit and 
 perfection of ancient Masonry." It is 
 found, in fact, in every Rite, in some modi- 
 fied form, and sometimes under a different 
 name, but always preserving those same 
 symbolic relations to the Lost Word which 
 constitute its essential character. 
 
 Whoever carefully studies the Master's 
 degree in its symbolic signification will be 
 convinced that it is in a mutilated condi- 
 tion, that is, that it is imperfect and unfin- 
 ished in its history, and that, terminating 
 abruptly in its symbolism, it leaves the 
 mind still waiting for something that is 
 necessary to its completeness. This defi- 
 ciency is supplied by the Royal Arch de- 
 gree. Hence, when the union took place 
 in England, in 1813, between the two rival 
 Grand Lodges, while there was a strong 
 and hereditary disposition on the part of 
 the English Masons to preserve the sim- 
 plicity of the Old York Rite by confining 
 Freemasonry to the three symbolical de- 
 grees, it was found necessary to define An- 
 cient Craft Masonry as consisting of three 
 degrees, " including the Holy Royal Arch." 
 
 There was a time, undoubtedly, when the 
 Royal Arch did not exist as an independent 
 degree, but was a complementary part of 
 the Master's degree, to which it gave a 
 necessary completion. Ramsay introduced 
 it into the high degrees on the continent ; 
 Dermott fabricated it for the use of his 
 Grand Lodge; and Dunckerley is said to 
 have dissevered it from the third degree in 
 the legal Grand Lodge of England. The 
 precise method and time of its disseverance 
 from the third establishment, as an inde- 
 pendent degree in England and America, 
 constitutes an important and interesting 
 part of the history of Masonry. 
 
 It is evident that the existence of the 
 Royal Arch as an independent and distinct 
 degree dates at a comparatively modern 
 period. In none of the old manuscript 
 records of Masonry is there the slightest 
 allusion to it, and Anderson does not make 
 any reference to it in his history of the 
 Order. The true word, which constitutes 
 the essential character of the Royal Arch 
 degree, was found by Dr. Oliver in an old 
 Master Mason's tracing-board of the date 
 of about 1725; and hence he concludes 
 (Or. of the Eng. R. A., p. 20,) "that the 
 word, at that time, had not been severed 
 from the third degree and transferred to 
 another," — in other words, that the Royal 
 Arch degree had not then been fabricated. 
 The earliest mention of it in England that 
 he could find was in the year 1740, just two 
 years after the schism which separated the 
 Ancient from the Modern Grand Lodge, — 
 
668 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 I use the usually accepted titles, without 
 any reference to their propriety, — and he 
 attributes its fabrication to the former 
 body. Stone, (Letters on Masonry, p. 50,) 
 with a very imperfect knowledge of Ma- 
 sonic history, attributes its origin to the 
 Primordial Chapter of Arras. But that body 
 was established by the young Pretender 
 in 1747, and Oliver, as is seen, recognized 
 the existence of the degree in England 
 seven years before. The truth, however, 
 is, that Ramsay had long before incorpo- 
 rated a Royal Arch degree under a different 
 title in his high degrees, and there is no 
 doubt that Dermott, who was really the 
 inventor of the English system, was in- 
 debted to him for many of his ideas, as 
 Dunckerley subsequently was when he 
 composed the Royal Arch for the legal 
 Grand Lodge ; but the system of Ramsay 
 was very different in its main details from 
 that of either. Ramsay, about the time of 
 Dermott's innovation, had visited England, 
 and attempted to introduce his high de- 
 grees, which were rejected by the legal 
 Grand Lodge ; and there is every reason to 
 believe that he communicated to seceding 
 Masons a portion of the inventions which 
 he had engrafted upon the Masonry of the 
 continent. 
 
 Oliver says of the Royal Arch that was 
 invented by the seceders that, " although it 
 contained elements of the greatest sublim- 
 ity, it was imperfect in its construction 
 and unsatisfactory in its result ; which will 
 tend to show, from the crude and imperfect 
 state in which it then appeared, that the 
 degree was in its infancy. The anachro- 
 nisms with which it abounded, and the 
 loose manner in which its parts were fitted 
 into each other, betrayed its recent origin. 
 In fact, it was evidently an attempt to com- 
 bine several of the continental degrees of 
 sublime Masonry into one, without regard 
 to the order of time, propriety of arrange- 
 ment, or any other consistent principle ; 
 and therefore we find in the degree, as it 
 wasoriginally constructed, jumbled together 
 in a state of inextricable confusion, the 
 events commemorated in Ramsay's Royal 
 Arch, the Knights of the Ninth Arch, of 
 the Burning Bush, of the East or Sword, 
 of the Red Cross, the Scotch Fellow Craft, 
 the Select Master, the Red Cross Sword of 
 Babylon, the Rose Croix, etc." 
 
 As late as the year 1758, the Constitu- 
 tional Grand Lodge had no Royal Arch 
 degree, for in that year the Grand Secretary 
 declared that " our society is neither Arch, 
 Royal Arch, nor Ancient ; " and in the lecture 
 ofthe third degree prepared byAnderson and 
 Desaguliers it is said " that which was lost 
 is now found," meaning, says Oliver, that 
 the Master Mason's word was delivered to 
 
 the newly raised Master in the latter cere- 
 monies of the third degree, which would 
 preclude the necessity for a Royal Arch 
 degree. 
 
 But about the year 1770, Thomas Dunck- 
 erley, who had been authorized by the Con- 
 stitutional Grand Lodge, or the "Moderns," 
 to inaugurate a new system of lectures, 
 commenced his modifications of the old 
 system, which had been hitherto practised 
 by dissevering the Master's word from the 
 third degree. This involved the necessity 
 of anew degree; and Dunckerley, borrowing 
 from Ramsay, from Dermott, and from his 
 own invention, fabricated the degree of 
 Royal Arch for the Modern Masons ; a vio- 
 lent innovation, for the success of which he 
 was indebted only to his own great popu- 
 larity among the Craft and the influence of 
 the Grand Master. Oliver thinks, for good 
 reasons, that the introduction of the Royal 
 Arch degree into the Modern system could 
 not have been earlier than the dedication 
 of Freemasons' Hall in 1776. Ten years 
 after the regulations of the degree were first 
 established, and at the union of the two 
 Grand Lodges in 1813, the Holy Royal 
 Arch was formally and officially recognized 
 as a part of Ancient Craft Masonry, and 
 so it has ever since remained. 
 
 The result of our investigations, in which 
 we have mainly relied on the authority of 
 the learned Oliver, is that, until the year 
 1740, the essential element of the Royal 
 Arch constituted a component part of the 
 Master's degree, and was of course its con- 
 cluding portion ; that as a degree it was 
 not at all recognized, being but the com- 
 plement of one ; that about that time it 
 was dissevered from its original connection 
 and elevated to the position and invested 
 with the form of a distinct degree by the 
 body which called itself " the Grand Lodge 
 of England according to the Old Constitu- 
 tions," but which is more familiarly known 
 as the Dermott or the Athol Grand Lodge, 
 and frequently as " the Ancients ;" that in 
 1776 a similar degree, fabricated by Dunck- 
 erley, was adopted by the Constitutional 
 Grand Lodge, or the " Moderns," and 
 that in 1813 it was formally recognized as 
 a part of the York Rite by the United 
 Grand Lodge of England. 
 
 In America, the history of the degree 
 followed that of the English system. As 
 most ofthe American Lodges derived their 
 Warrants from the Athol Grand Lodge, 
 the Royal Arch must have been introduced 
 at the time of their constitution. The 
 government of the degree was for a long 
 time under the Master's Lodges, and many 
 years elapsed before it was taken thence 
 and placed under the control of distinct 
 bodies called Grand Chapters. In America, 
 
ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 669 
 
 it was not until 1798 that a Grand Chapter 
 was formed, and many Lodges persisted for 
 some years after in conferring the Royal 
 Arch degree under the authority of their 
 Warrants from Grand Lodges. 
 
 Maintaining everywhere an identity in 
 its symbolic signification, the Royal Arch 
 varies in different countries in its historical 
 details. 
 
 Ramsay's degree, from which all the con- 
 tinental systems originated, is entirely dif- 
 ferent from that practised in Great Britain, 
 in Ireland, and in the United States. Its 
 type may be found in the thirteenth degree, 
 or Knight of the Ninth Arch of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 In England, Scotland, and the United 
 States, the circumstance on which the de- 
 gree is founded, or, in technical language, 
 the legend, is the same; but the preliminary 
 organization is different in each country. 
 
 In England, in 1834, considerable changes 
 were made in the ceremonies of exaltation, 
 but the general outline of the system was 
 preserved. The degree is the fourth in the 
 Masonic series, and a Master Mason who 
 has been so for twelve months is eligible 
 for exaltation. The principal officers of 
 an English Chapter are : three Principals, 
 Zerubbabel, Haggai, and Joshua; three 
 Sojourners and two Scribes, Ezra and Ne- 
 hemiah ; a Treasurer and a Janitor. 
 
 In Scotland, the preliminary degrees are : 
 Mark, Past, Excellent, and Super-Excel- 
 lent Master, and the principal officers are 
 the same as in England. 
 
 In Ireland, the legend was formerly dif- 
 ferent from that of England, and founded 
 on events recorded in the Second Book of 
 Chronicles, (xxxiv. 14,) where Hilkiah is 
 said to have " found a book of the law of 
 the Lord given by Moses." The date of 
 this degree was, therefore, 624 B. c, or ninety 
 years after ours. The preliminary or qual- 
 ifying degrees were: Past, Excellent, and 
 Super- Excellent. But the Irish system was 
 changed some years ago, and a new ritual, 
 somewhat resembling the American, was 
 adopted. The officers do not materially 
 differ from those of English and Scottish 
 Chapters. 
 
 In America, the legend is the same as the 
 English, but varying in some of its details. 
 The preliminary degrees are : Mark, Past, 
 and Most Excellent Master ; and the prin- 
 cipal officers are : High Priest, King, Scribe, 
 Captain of the Host, Principal Sojourner, 
 Royal Arch Captain, and three Grand 
 Masters of the Veils. 
 
 I have said that, however the legend or 
 historical basis might vary in the different 
 Rites, in all of them the symbolical signifi- 
 cation of the Royal Arch was identical. 
 Hence, the building of a second Temple, so 
 
 prominent a symbol in the English and 
 American systems, and so entirely unknown 
 in the continental, cannot be considered as 
 an essential point in the symbolism of the 
 degree. It is important in the systems in 
 which it occurs, but it is not essential. 
 The true symbolism of the Royal Arch 
 system is founded on the discovery of the 
 Lost Word. 
 
 It can never be too often repeated that 
 the WORD is, in Masonry, the symbol of 
 TRUTH. This truth is the great object 
 of pursuit in Masonry — the scope and ten- 
 dency of all its investigations — the prom- 
 ised reward of all Masonic labor. Sought 
 for diligently in every degree, and con- 
 stantly approached, but never thoroughly 
 and intimately embraced, at length, in the 
 Royal Arch, the veils which concealed the 
 object of search from our view are with- 
 drawn, and the inestimable prize is re- 
 vealed. 
 
 This truth, which Masonry makes the 
 great object of its investigations, is not the 
 mere truth of science, or the truth of his- 
 tory, but is the more important truth which 
 is synonymous with the knowledge of the 
 nature of God, — that truth which is em- 
 braced in the sacred Tetragrammaton, or 
 omnific name, including in its signification 
 his eternal, present, past, and future exist- 
 ence, and to which he himself alluded when 
 he declared to Moses, " I appeared unto 
 Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob by 
 the name of God Almighty; but by my 
 name Jehovah was I not known unto 
 them." 
 
 The discovery of this truth is, then, the 
 essential symbolism of the Royal Arch 
 degree. Wherever it is practised, — and 
 under some peculiar name the degree is 
 found in every Rite of Masonry, — this 
 symbolism is preserved. However the le- 
 gend may vary, however the ceremonies 
 of reception and the preliminary steps of 
 initiation may differ, the consummation 
 is always the same — the great discovery 
 which represents the attainment of Truth. 
 
 Royal Arch, Grand. The thirty- 
 first degree of the Rite of Mizraim. It 
 is nearly the same as the thirteenth de- 
 gree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite. 
 
 Royal Arch Jewel. The jewel 
 which every Royal Arch Mason is per- 
 mitted to wear as a token of his connection 
 with the Order. It is usually suspended 
 by a scarlet ribbon to the button. It is of 
 gold, and consists of a triple tau cross 
 within a triangle, the whole circumscribed 
 by a circle. This jewel is eminently sym- 
 bolic. The tau being the mark mentioned 
 by Ezekiel (ix. 4,) by which those were dis- 
 tinguished who were to be saved from the 
 
670 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 wicked who were to be slain ; the triple tau 
 is symbolic of the peculiar and more emi- 
 nent separation of Royal Arch Masons 
 from the profane ; the triangle, or delta, is a 
 symbol of the sacred name of God, known 
 
 only to those who are thus separated ; and 
 the circle is a symbol of the eternal life, 
 which is the great dogma taught by Royal 
 Arch Masonry. Hence, by this jewel, the 
 Royal Arch Mason makes the profession 
 of his separation from the unholy and pro- 
 fane, his reverence for God, and his belief 
 in the future and eternal life. 
 
 Royal Arch Masonry. That di- 
 vision of Speculative Masonry which is en- 
 gaged in the investigation of the mysteries 
 connected with the Royal Arch, no matter 
 under what name or in what Rite. Thus 
 the mysteries of the Knight of the Ninth 
 Arch constitute the Royal Arch Masonry 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 just as much as those of the Royal Arch of 
 Zerubbabel do the Royal Arch of the York 
 and American Rites. 
 
 Royal Arch of Enoch. The Royal 
 Arch system which is founded upon the le- 
 gend of Enoch. It is said to have been 
 the basis of Ramsay's Royal Arch. See 
 Enoch. 
 
 Royal Arch of Ramsay. The 
 system of Royal Arch Masonry invented 
 early in the last century by the Chevalier 
 Ramsay. It was the first fabrication of the 
 Royal Arch degree in an independent form, 
 and, although rejected by the English Ma- 
 sons, has been adopted as the basis of the 
 system in many of the continental Rites. 
 The thirteenth degree of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite is probably a very 
 fair representation of it, at least substanti- 
 ally. It exercised some influence also 
 upon Dermott and Dunckerley in their 
 composition of their Royal Arch systems. 
 
 Royal Arch of Solomon. One of 
 the names of the degree of Knight of the 
 Ninth Arch, or thirteenth degree of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 Royal Arch of Zcriibbahel. The 
 Royal Arch degree of the York and Ameri- 
 
 can Rites is so called to distinguish it from 
 the Royal Arch of Solomon in the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 Royal Arch Robes. In the work- 
 ing of a Royal Arch Chapter in the United 
 States great attention is paid to the robes 
 of the several officers. The High Priest 
 wears, in imitation of the high priest of 
 the Jews, a robe of blue, purple, scarlet, 
 and white linen, and is decorated with the 
 breastplate and mitre. The King wears a 
 scarlet robe, and has a crown and sceptre. 
 The Scribe wears a purple robe and turban. 
 The Captain of the Host wears a white 
 robe and cap, and is armed with a sword. 
 The Principal Sojourner wears a dark robe, 
 with tessellated border, a slouched hat, and 
 pilgrim's staff. The Royal Arch Captain 
 wears a white robe and cap, and is armed 
 with a sword. The three Grand Masters 
 of the Veils wear, respectively, the Grand 
 Master of the third veil a scarlet robe and 
 cap, of the second veil a purple robe and 
 cap, of the first veil a blue robe and cap. 
 Each is armed with a sword. The Treas- 
 urer, Secretary, and Sentinel wear no robes 
 nor peculiar dress. All of these robes 
 have either a historical or symbolical allu- 
 sion. 
 
 Royal Arch Tracing-Board. 
 The oldest Royal Arch tracing-board ex- 
 tant is one which was formerly the prop- 
 erty of a Chapter in the city of Chester, and 
 which Dr. Oliver thinks was " used only a 
 very few years after the degree was admit- 
 ted into the system of constitutional Ma- 
 sonry." He has given a copy of it in his 
 work On the Origin of the English Royal 
 Arch. The symbols which it displays are, 
 in the centre of the top an arch scroll, with 
 the words in Greek, EN APXH HN A0r02, 
 i. e., In the beginning was the Word; beneath, 
 the word JEHOVAH written in kabbalis- 
 tic letters; on the right side an arch and 
 keystone, a rope falling in it, and a sun 
 darting its rays obliquely ; on the left a 
 pot of incense beneath a rainbow ; in the 
 centre of the tracing-board, two interlaced 
 triangles and a sun in the centre, all sur- 
 rounded by a circle; on the right and left 
 of this the seven-branched candlestick and 
 the table of show- bread. Beneath all, on 
 three scrolls, are the words, "Solomon, 
 King of Israel; Hiram, King of Tyre; 
 Hiram, the Widow's Son," in Hebrew and 
 Latin. Dr. Oliver finds in these emblems 
 a proof that the Royal Arch was originally 
 taken from the Master's degree, because 
 they properly belong to that degree, accord- 
 ing to the English lecture, and were after- 
 wards restored to it. But the American 
 Mason will find in this board how little his 
 system has varied from the primitive one 
 practised at Chester, since all the emblems, 
 
ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 671 
 
 with the exception of the last three, are 
 still recognized as Royal Arch symbols ac- 
 cording to the American system. 
 
 Royal Arch Word. See Tetragram- 
 maton. 
 
 Royal Arch Working-Tools. 
 See Working- Tools. 
 
 Royal Ark Mariners. A side de- 
 gree in England and Scotland which is 
 conferred on Royal Arch Masons, and 
 worked under the authority of the Supreme 
 Grand Chapter of Scotland, which body 
 recognizes its Lodges in its General Regula- 
 tions, (p. 20.) The language of the Order 
 is peculiar. The Supreme body is called a 
 "Grand Ark;" subordinate Lodges are 
 "vessels;" organizing a Lodge is "launch- 
 ing a vessel ; " to open a Lodge is " to float 
 an ark ; " to close the Lodge is " to moor." 
 All its references are nautical, and allude 
 to the deluge and the ark of Noah. The 
 degree is useless for any light that it sheds on 
 Masonry. The degree seems to have been 
 invented in England about the end of the 
 last century. A correspondent of the Lon- 
 don Monthly Magazine for December, 1798, 
 (vol. vi., p. 424, ) calls it " one of the new 
 degrees in Freemasonry," and thus de- 
 scribes the organization : 
 
 " They profess to be followers of Noah, 
 and therefore calls themselves Noachidae, or 
 Sons of Noah. Hence their President, 
 who at present is Thomas Boothby Par- 
 kins, Lord RanclifFe, is dignified with the 
 venerable title of Grand Noah, and the 
 Lodge where they assemble is called the 
 Royal Ark Vessel. 
 
 "These brother mariners wear in Lodge 
 time a broad sash ribbon, representing a 
 rainbow, with an apron fancifully embel- 
 lished with an ark, dove, etc. 
 
 " Among other rules of this society is 
 one that no brother shall be permitted to 
 enter as a mariner on board a Royal Ark 
 vessel for any less sum than ten shillings 
 and sixpence, of which sum sixpence shall 
 be paid to the Grand and Royal Ark vessel 
 for his registry, and the residue be disposed of 
 at the discretion of the officers of the vessel." 
 
 Their principal place of meeting in Lon- 
 don was at the Surry Tavern, Surry Street, 
 in the Strand. 
 
 The writer gives the following verse from 
 one of their songs written by Dr. Ebenezer 
 Sibley, which does not speak much for 
 the poetical taste of the Mariners or their 
 laureate : 
 " They entered safe — lo ! the deluge came 
 
 And none were protected but Masons and 
 wives; 
 The crafty and knavish came floating along, 
 The rich and the beggar of profligate lives : 
 It was now in woe, 
 
 For mercy they call 
 To old Father Noah, 
 And loudly did bawl, 
 
 But Heaven shut the door and the ark "was 
 
 afloat, 
 To perish they must, for they were found out." 
 
 Royal Art. The earliest writers speak 
 of Freemasonry as a" Royal Art." An- 
 derson used the expression in 1723, and in 
 such a way as to show that it was even 
 then no new epithet. The term has be- 
 come common in all languages as an ap- 
 pellative of the Institution, and yet but 
 few perhaps have taken occasion to ex- 
 amine into its real signification or have 
 asked what would seem to be questions 
 readily suggested, "Why is Freemasonry 
 called an artf" and next, " Why is it said 
 to be a Royal Artf" 
 
 The answer which is generally supposed 
 to be a sufficient one for the latter inquiry, 
 is that it is so called because many mon- 
 archs have been its disciples and its pa- 
 trons, and some writers have gone so far 
 as to particularize, and to say that Freema- 
 sonry was first called a " Royal Art "in 
 1693, when William III., of England, was 
 initiated into its rites ; and G'adicke, in his 
 Freimaurer Lexicon, states that some have 
 derived the title from the fact that in the 
 times of the English Commonwealth, the 
 members of the English Lodges had joined 
 the party of the exiled Stuarts, and labored 
 for the restoration of Charles II. to the 
 throne. He himself, however, seems to 
 think that Freemasonry is called a Royal 
 Art because its object is to erect stately 
 edifices, and especially palaces, the resi- 
 dences of kings. 
 
 Such an answer may serve for the pro- 
 fane, who can have no appreciation of a 
 better reason, but it will hardly meet the 
 demands of the intelligent initiate, who 
 wants some more philosophic explanation 
 — something more consistent with the 
 moral and intellectual character of the In- 
 stitution. 
 
 Let us endeavor to solve the problem, 
 and to determine why Freemasonry is 
 called an art at all ; and why, above all 
 others, it is dignified with the appellation 
 of a Royal Art. Our first business will be 
 to find a reply to the former question. 
 
 An art is distinguished from a handi- 
 craft in this, that the former consists of 
 and supplies the principles which govern 
 and direct the latter. The stonemason, 
 for instance, is guided in his construction 
 of the building on which he is engaged by 
 the principles which are furnished to him 
 by the architect. Hence stonemasonry is 
 a trade, a handicraft, or, as the German 
 significantly expresses it, a handwerk, some- 
 thing which only requires the skill and 
 labor of the hands to accomplish. But 
 architecture is an art, because it is engaged 
 in the establishment of principles and 
 scientific tenets which the "handwork" 
 
672 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 of the Mason is to carry into practical 
 effect. 
 
 The handicraftsman, the handworker, of 
 course is employed in manual labor. It 
 is the work of his hands that accomplishes 
 the purpose of his trade. But the artist 
 uses no such means. He deals only in 
 principles, and his work is of the head. He 
 prepares his designs according to the prin- 
 ciples of his art, and the workman obeys 
 and executes them, often without under- 
 standing their ulterior object. 
 
 Now, let us apply this distinction to Free- 
 masonry. Eighteen hundred years ago 
 many thousand men were engaged in the 
 construction of a Temple in the city of 
 Jerusalem. They felled and prepared the 
 timbers in the forests of Lebanon, and they 
 hewed and cut and squared the stones in 
 the quarries of Judea ; and then they put 
 them together under the direction of a 
 skilful architect, and formed a goodly edi- 
 fice, worthy to be called, as the Rabbins 
 named it, the chosen house of the Lord." 
 For there, according to the Jewish ritual, 
 in preference to all other places, was the 
 God of Hosts to be worshipped in oriental 
 splendor. Something like this has been 
 done thousands of times since. But the 
 men who wrought with the stone-hammer 
 and trowel at the Temple of Solomon, and 
 the men who afterwards wrought at the 
 temples and cathedrals of Europe and 
 Asia, were no artists. They were simply 
 handicraftsmen, — men raising an edifice 
 by the labor of their hands, — men who, in 
 doing their work, were instructed by others 
 skilful in art, but which art looked only 
 to the totality, and had nothing to do with 
 the operative details. The Giblemites, or 
 stone-squarers, gave form to the stones and 
 laid them in their proper places. But in 
 what form they should be cut, and in what 
 spots they should be laid so that the build- 
 ing might assume a proposed appearance, 
 were matters left entirely to the superin- 
 tending architect, the artist, who, in giving 
 his instructions, was guided by the princi- 
 ples of his art. 
 
 Hence Operative Masonry is not an art. 
 But after these handicraftsmen came other 
 men, who, simulating, or, rather, symbol- 
 izing, their labors, converted the operative 
 pursuit into a speculative system, and thus 
 made of a handicraft an art. And it was 
 in this wise that the change was accom- 
 plished. 
 
 The building of a temple is the result of 
 a religious sentiment. Now, the Freema- 
 sons intended to organize a religious insti- 
 tution. I am not going into any discus- 
 sion, at this time, of its history. When 
 Freemasonry was founded is immaterial to 
 the theory, provided that the foundation is 
 
 made posterior to the time of the building 
 of King Solomon's Temple. It is sufficient 
 that it be admitted that in its foundation 
 as an esoteric institution the religious idea 
 prevailed, and that the development of this 
 idea was the predominating object of its 
 first organizers. 
 
 Borrowing, then, the name of their Insti- 
 tution from the operative masons who con- 
 structed the Temple at Jerusalem, by a very 
 natural process they borrowed also the 
 technical language and implements of the 
 same handicraftsmen. But these they did 
 not use for any manual purpose. They 
 did not erect with them temples of stone, 
 but were occupied solely in developing the 
 religious idea which the construction of 
 the material temple had first suggested; 
 they symbolized this language and these 
 implements, and thus established an art 
 whose province and object it was to elicit 
 religious thought, and to teach religious 
 truth by a system of symbolism. And this 
 symbolism — just as peculiar to Freema- 
 sonry as the doctrine of lines and surfaces 
 is to geometry, or of numbers is to arith- 
 metic — constitutes the art of Freemasonry. 
 
 If I were to define Freemasonry as an 
 art, I should say that it was an art which 
 taught the construction of a spiritual tem- 
 ple, just as the art of architecture teaches 
 the construction of a material temple. And 
 I should illustrate the train of ideas by 
 which the Freemasons were led to symbol- 
 ize the Temple of Solomon as a spiritual 
 temple of man's nature, by borrowing the 
 language of St. Peter, who says to his 
 Christian initiates: "Ye also, as lively 
 stones, are built up a spiritual house." 
 And with greater emphasis, and as still 
 more illustrative, would I cite the language 
 of the Apostle of the Gentiles, — that Apos- 
 tle who, of all others, most delighted in 
 symbolism, and who says : " Know ye not 
 that ye are the temple of God, and that 
 the spirit of God dwelleth in you ? " 
 
 And this is the reason why Freemasonry 
 is called an art. 
 
 Having thus determined the conditions 
 under which Freemasonry becomes an art, 
 the next inquiry will be why it has been 
 distinguished from all other arts in being 
 designated, par excellence, the Royal Art. 
 And here we must abandon all thought 
 that this title comes in any way from the 
 connection of Freemasonry with earthly 
 monarchs — from the patronage or the 
 membership of kings. Freemasonry ob- 
 tains no addition to its intrinsic value from 
 a connection with the political heads of 
 states. Kings, when they enter within its 
 sacred portals, are no longer kings, but 
 brethren. In the Lodge all men are on an 
 equality, and there can be no distinction 
 
ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 673 
 
 or preference, except that which is derived 
 from virtue and intelligence. Although a 
 great king once said that Freemasons made 
 the best and truest subjects, yet in the 
 Lodge is there no subjection save to the 
 law of love, — that law which, for its excel- 
 lence above all other laws, has been called 
 by an Apostle the "royal law," just as 
 Freemasonry, for its excellence above all 
 other arts, has been called the "Royal 
 Art." 
 
 St. James says, in his general Epistle: 
 " If ye fulfil the royal law according to the 
 Scripture, Thou shalt love thy neighbor as 
 thyself, ye do well." Dr. Adam Clarke, 
 in his commentary on this passage, — which 
 is so appropriate to the subject we are in- 
 vestigating, and so thoroughly explanatory 
 of this expression in its application to 
 Freemasonry, that it is well worth a cita- 
 tion, — uses the following language: 
 
 Speaking of the expression of St. James, 
 nomon basilicon, " the royal law," he says : 
 " This epithet, of all the New Testament 
 writers, is peculiar to James; but it is fre- 
 quent among the Greek writers in the sense 
 in which it appears St. James uses it. Basili- 
 kos, royal, is used to signify anything that 
 is of general concern, is suitable to all, and 
 necessary for all, as brotherly love is. This 
 commandment, Thou shalt love thy neighbor 
 as thyself, is a royal law ; not only because 
 it is ordained of God, proceeds from his 
 kingly authority over men, but because it is 
 so useful, suitable, and necessary to the 
 present state of man ; and as it was given 
 us particularly by Christ himself, who is 
 our king, as well as prophet and priest, it 
 should ever put us in mind of his authority 
 over us, and our subjection to him. As the re- 
 gal state is the most excellent for secular 
 dignity and civil utility that exists among 
 men, hence we give the epithet royal to 
 whatever is excellent, noble, grand, or 
 useful." 
 
 How beautifully and appropriately does 
 all this definition apply to Freemasonry as 
 a Royal Art It has already been shown 
 how the art of Freemasonry consisted in 
 a symbolization of the technical language 
 and implements and labors of an operative 
 society to a moral and spiritual purpose. 
 The Temple which was constructed by the 
 builders at Jerusalem was taken as the 
 groundwork. Out of this the Freemasons 
 have developed an admirable science of 
 symbolism, which on account of its design, 
 and on account of the means by which that 
 design is accomplished, is well entitled, for 
 its " excellence, nobility, grandeur, and util- 
 ity," to be called the " Royal Art." 
 
 The stonemasons at Jerusalem were en- 
 gaged in the construction of a material 
 temple. But the Freemasons who succeed- 
 4K 43 
 
 ed them are occupied in the construction 
 of a moral and spiritual temple, man being 
 considered, through the process of the act 
 of symbolism, that holy house. And in 
 this symbolism the Freemasons have only 
 developed the same idea that was present 
 to St. Paul when he said to the Corinthians 
 that they were " God's building," of which 
 building he, " as a wise master-builder, had 
 laid the foundation ; " and when, still fur- 
 ther extending the metaphor, he told the 
 Ephesians that they were " built upon the 
 foundation of the apostles and prophets, 
 Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner- 
 stone, in whom all the building fitly framed 
 together, groweth unto a holy temple in 
 the Lord ; in whom also ye are builded 
 together for a habitation of God through 
 the spirit." 
 
 This, then, is the true art of Freemason- 
 ry. It is an art which teaches the right 
 method of symbolizing the technical lan- 
 guage and the material labors of a handi- 
 craft, so as to build up in man a holy house 
 for the habitation of God's spirit ; to give 
 perfection to man's nature ; to give purity 
 to humanity, and to unite mankind in one 
 common bond. 
 
 It is singular, and well worthy of notice, 
 how this symbolism of building up man's 
 body into a holy temple, so common with 
 the New Testament writers, and even with 
 Christ himself, — for he speaks of man as a 
 temple which, being destroyed, he could 
 raise up in three days; in which, as St. 
 John says, " he spake of the temple of his 
 body,"— gave rise to a new word or to a word 
 with a new meaning in all the languages 
 over which Christianity exercises any influ- 
 ence. The old Greeks had from the two 
 words oikos, " a house," and domein, " to 
 build," constructed the word oikodomein, 
 which of course signified "to build a 
 house." In this plain and exclusive sense 
 it is used by the Attic writers. In like man- 
 ner, the Romans, out of the two words 
 cedes, " a house," and facere, " to make," 
 constructed their word mdificare, which al- 
 ways meant simply "to build a house," 
 and in this plain sense it is used by Horace, 
 Cicero, and all the old writers. But when 
 the New Testament writers began to sym- 
 bolize man as a temple or holy house for 
 the habitation of the Lord, and when they 
 spoke of building up this symbolic house, 
 although it was a moral and spiritual 
 growth to which they alluded, they used 
 the Greek word oikodomein, and their first 
 translators, the Latin word cedificare in a 
 new sense, meaning "to build up morally," 
 that is, to educate, to instruct. And as 
 modern nations learned the faith of Chris- 
 tianity, they imbibed this symbolic idea of 
 a moral building, and adapted for its ex- 
 
674 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 EOYAL 
 
 pression a new word or gave to an old word 
 a new meaning, so that it has come to pass 
 that in French edifier, in Italian edificare, 
 in Spanish edificar, in German erbauen, and 
 in English edify, each of which literally 
 and etymologically means "to build a 
 house," has also the other signification, " to 
 instruct, to improve, to educate." And 
 thus we speak of a marble building as a 
 magnificent edifice, and of a wholesome 
 doctrine as something that will edify its 
 hearers. But there are but few who, when 
 using the word in this latter sense, think 
 of that grand science of symbolism which 
 gave birth to this new meaning, and which 
 constitutes the very essence of the Royal 
 Art of Freemasonry. 
 
 For when this temple is built up, it is to 
 be held together only by the cement of love. 
 Brotherly love, the love of our neighbor as 
 ourself — that love which suffereth long and 
 is kind, which is not easily provoked, and 
 thinketh no evil — that love pervades the 
 whole system of Freemasonry, not only 
 binding all the moral parts of man's na- 
 ture into one harmonious whole, the build- 
 ing being thus, in the language of St. Paul, 
 "fitly framed together," but binding man 
 to man, and man to God. 
 
 And hence Freemasonry is called a 
 " Royal Art," because it is of all arts the 
 most noble ; the art which teaches man how 
 to perfect his temple of virtue by pursuing 
 the " royal law " of universal love, and not 
 because kings have been its patrons and 
 encouragers. 
 
 A similar idea is advanced in a Catechism 
 published by the celebrated Lodge " Wah- 
 reit und Einigkeit," at Prague, in the year 
 1800, where the following questions and 
 answers occur : 
 
 Q. " What do Freemasons build ? 
 
 A. "An invisible temple, of which King 
 Solomon's Temple is the symbol. 
 
 Q. " By what name is* the instruction 
 how to erect this mystic building called ? 
 
 A. " The Royal Art ; because it teaches 
 man how to govern himself." 
 
 Appositely may these thoughts be closed 
 with a fine expression of Ludwig Bech- 
 stein, a German writer, in the Astrcea. 
 
 " Every king will be a Freemason, even 
 though he wears no Mason's apron, if he 
 shall be God-fearing, sincere, good, and 
 kind ; if he shall be true and fearless, obe- 
 dient to the law, his heart abounding in 
 reverence for religion and full of love for 
 mankind ; if he shall be a ruler of himself, 
 and if his kingdom be founded on justice. 
 And every Freemason is a king, in whatso- 
 ever condition God may have placed him 
 here, with rank equal to that of a king and 
 with sentiments that become a king, for his 
 kingdom is love, the love of his fellow- 
 
 man, a love which is long-suffering and 
 kind, which beareth all things, believeth 
 all things, hopeth all things, endureth all 
 things." 
 
 And this is why Freemasonry is an art, 
 and of all arts, being the most noble, is well 
 called the " Royal Art." 
 
 Royal Axe. See Knight of the Royal 
 Axe. 
 
 Royal Lodge. The Royal Arch lec- 
 tures in the English system say that the 
 Royal Lodge was held in the* city of Jeru- 
 salem, on the return of the Babylonish 
 captives, in the first year in the reign of 
 Cyrus; over it presided Zerubbabel the 
 prince of the Jews, Hiram the prophet, 
 and Joshua the high priest. 
 
 Royal Master. The eighth degree 
 of the American Rite, and the first of the 
 degrees conferred in a Council of Royal 
 and Select Masters. Its officers are a 
 Thrice Illustrious Grand Master, represent- 
 ing King Solomon ; Illustrious Hiram of 
 Tyre, Principal Conductor of the Works, 
 representing Hiram Abif; Master of the 
 Exchequer, Master of Finances, Captain 
 of the Guards, Conductor of the Council 
 and Steward. The place of meeting is called 
 the " Couucil Chamber," and represents 
 the private apartment of King Solomon, 
 in which he is said to have met for consul- 
 tation with his two colleagues during the 
 construction of the Temple. Candidates 
 who receive this degree are said to be 
 " honored with the degree of Royal Master." 
 Its symbolic colors are black and red — the 
 former significant of grief, and the latter 
 of martyrdom, and both referring to the 
 chief builder of the Temple. 
 
 The events recorded in this degree, look- 
 ing at them in a legendary point of view, 
 must have occurred at the building of the 
 first Temple, and during that brief period 
 of time after the death of the builder which 
 is embraced between the discovery of his 
 body and its " Masonic interment." In all 
 the initiations into the mysteries of the 
 ancient world, there was, as it is well known 
 to scholars, a legend of the violent death 
 of some distinguished personage, to whose 
 memory the particular mystery was conse- 
 crated, of the concealment of the body, and 
 of its subsequent discovery. That part of 
 the initiation which referred to the con- 
 cealment of the body was called the Apha- 
 nism, from a Greek verb which signifies " to 
 conceal," and that part which referred to 
 the subsequent finding was called the cure- 
 sis, from another Greek verb which signi- 
 fies " to discover." It is impossible to avoid 
 seeing the coincidences between the system 
 of initiation and that practised in the Ma- 
 sonry of the third degree. But the ancient 
 initiation was not terminated by the euresis 
 
ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 675 
 
 or discovery. Up to that point, the cere- 
 monies had been funereal and lugubrious 
 in their character. But now they were 
 changed from wailing to rejoicing. Other 
 ceremonies were performed by which the 
 restoration of the personage to life, or his 
 apotheosis or change to immortality, was 
 represented, and then came the autopsy or 
 illumination of the neophyte, when he was 
 invested with a full knowledge of all the 
 religious doctrines which it was the object 
 of the ancient mysteries to teach — when, 
 in a word, he was instructed in divine 
 truth. 
 
 Now, a similar course is pursued in Ma- 
 sonry. Here also there is an illumination, 
 a symbolic teaching, or, as we call it, an in- 
 vestiture with that which is the representa- 
 tive of divine truth. The communication 
 to the candidate, in the Master's degree, of 
 that which is admitted to be merely a rep- 
 resentation of or a substitution for that sym- 
 bol of divine truth, (the search for which, 
 under the name of the true word, makes 
 so important a part of the degree,) how im- 
 perfect it may be in comparison with that 
 more thorough knowledge which only future 
 researches can enable the Master Mason to 
 attain, constitutes the autopsy of the third 
 degree. Now, the principal event recorded 
 in the legend of the Royal Master, the in- 
 terview between Adoniram and his two 
 Royal Masters, is to be placed precisely at 
 that juncture of time which is between the 
 euresis or discovery in the Master Mason's 
 degree and the autopsy, or investiture with 
 the great secret. It occurred between the 
 discovery by means of the sprig of acacia 
 and the final interment. It was at the 
 time when Solomon and his colleague, Hi- 
 ram of Tyre, were in profound consultation 
 as to the mode of repairing the loss which 
 they then supposed had befallen them. 
 
 We must come to this conclusion, be- 
 cause there is abundant reference, both in 
 the organized form of the Council and in 
 the ritual of the degree, to the death as 
 an event that had already occurred ; and, 
 on the other hand, while it is evident that 
 Solomon had been made acquainted with 
 the failure to recover, on the person of the 
 builder, that which had been lost, there is 
 no reference whatever to the well-known 
 substitution which was made at the time of 
 the interment. 
 
 If, therefore, as is admitted by all Ma- 
 sonic ritualists, the substitution was prece- 
 dent and preliminary to the establishment 
 of the Master Mason's degree, it is evident 
 that at the time that the degree of Royal 
 Master is said to have been founded in the 
 ancient Temple, by our " first Most Excel- 
 lent Grand Master," all persons present, 
 except the first and second officers, must 
 
 have been merely Fellow Craft Masons. 
 In compliance with this tradition, therefore, 
 a Royal Master is, at this day, supposed to 
 represent a Fellow Craft in the search, and 
 making his demand for that reward which 
 was to elevate him to the rank of a Master 
 Mason. 
 
 If from the legendary history we pro- 
 ceed to the symbolism of the degree, we 
 shall find that, brief and simple as are the 
 ceremonies, they present the great Masonic 
 idea of the laborer seeking for his reward. 
 Throughout all the symbolism of Masonry, 
 from the first to the last degree, the search 
 for the WORD has been considered but as 
 a symbolic expression for the search after 
 TRUTH. The attainment of this truth 
 has always been acknowledged to be the 
 great object and design of all Masonic labor. 
 Divine truth — the knowledge of God — 
 concealed in the old Kabbahstic doctrine, 
 under the symbol of his ineffable name — 
 and typified in the Masonic system under 
 the mystical expression of the True Word, 
 is the reward proposed to every Mason who 
 has faithfully wrought his task. It is, in 
 short, the " Master's wages." 
 
 Now, all this is beautifully symbolized 
 in the degree of Royal Master. The re- 
 ward had been promised, and the time had 
 now come, as Adoniram thought, when the 
 promise was to be redeemed, and the true 
 word — divine truth — was to be imparted. 
 Hence, in the person of Adoniram, or the 
 Royal Master, we see symbolized the Specu- 
 lative Mason, who, having labored to com- 
 plete his spiritual temple, comes to the 
 Divine Master that he may receive his re- 
 ward, and that his labor may be consum- 
 mated by the acquisition of truth. But the 
 temple that he had been building is the tem- 
 ple of this life ; that first temple which must 
 be destroyed by death that the second tem- 
 ple of the future life may be built on its 
 foundations. And in this first temple the 
 truth cannot be found. We must be con- 
 tented with its substitute. 
 
 Royal Order of Scotland. This 
 is an Order of Freemasonry confined ex- 
 clusively to the kingdom of Scotland, and 
 which, formerly conferred on Master Ma- 
 sons, is now restricted to those who have 
 been exalted to the Royal Arch de- 
 gree. It consists of two degrees, namely, 
 that of H. R. D. M. and R. S. Y. C. S., or, 
 in full, Heredom and Rosy Cross. The first 
 may be briefly described as a Christianized 
 form of the third degree, purified from 
 the dross of Paganism, and even of Ju- 
 daism, by the Culdees, who introduced 
 Christianity into Scotland in the early cen- 
 turies of the church. The second degree 
 is an Order of civil knighthood, supposed 
 to have been founded by Robert Bruce 
 
676 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 after the battle of Bannockburn, and con- 
 ferred by him upon certain Masons who had 
 assisted him on that memorable occasion. 
 He, so the tradition goes, gave power to 
 the Grand Master of the Order for the 
 time being to confer this honor, which is 
 not inherent in the general body itself, but 
 is specially given by the Grand Master and 
 his Deputy, and can be conferred only by 
 them, or Provincial Grand Masters ap- 
 pointed by them. The number of knights 
 is limited, and formerly only sixty-three 
 could be appointed, and they Scotchmen ; 
 now, however, that number has been much 
 increased, and distinguished Masons of 
 all countries are admitted to its ranks. In 
 1747 Prince Charles Edward Stuart, in his 
 celebrated Charter to Arras, claimed to be 
 the Sovereign Grand Master of the Royal 
 Order, "Nous Charles Edouard Stewart, 
 Roi d'Angleterre, de France, de l'Ecosse, 
 et d'Irlande, et en cette quality, S. G. M. 
 du Chapitre de H." Prince Charles goes 
 on to say that H. O. or H. R. M. is known 
 as the "Pelican and Eagle." "Connu 
 sous le titre de Chevalier de l'Aigle et de 
 Pelican, et depuis nos malheurs et nos in- 
 fortunes, sous celui de Rose Croix." Now, 
 there is not the shadow of a proof that the 
 Rose Croix, says Bro. Reitam, was ever 
 known in England till twenty years after 
 1747 ; and in Ireland it was introduced by 
 a French chevalier, M. L'Aurent, about 
 1782 or 1783. The Chapter at Arras was 
 the first constituted in France — " Chapitre 
 primordial de Rose Croix ; " and from 
 other circumstances (the very name Rose 
 Croix being a translation of R. S. Y. C. S.) 
 some writers have been led to the conclu- 
 sion that the degree chartered by Prince 
 Charles Edward Stuart was, if not the ac- 
 tual Royal Order in both points, a Masonic 
 ceremony founded on and pirated from that 
 most ancient and venerable Order. 
 
 This, however, is an error ; because, ex- 
 cept in name, there does not appear to be 
 the slightest connection between the Rose 
 Croix and the Royal Order of Scotland. In 
 the first place, the whole ceremonial is dif- 
 ferent, and different in essentials. Most 
 of the language used in the Royal Order 
 is couched in quaint old rhyme, modernized, 
 no doubt, to make it " understanded of the 
 vulgar," but still retaining sufficient about 
 it to stamp its genuine antiquity. The 
 Rose Croix degree is most probably the 
 genuine descendant of the old Rosicru- 
 cians, and no doubt it has always had a 
 more or less close connection with the 
 Templars. 
 
 Clavel says that the Royal Order of 
 Heredom of Kilwinning is a Rosicrucian 
 degree, having many different gradations 
 in the ceremony of consecration. The 
 
 kings of England are de jure, if not de facto, 
 Grand Masters; each member has a name 
 given him, denoting some moral attribute. 
 In the initiation the sacrifice of the Messiah 
 is had in remembrance, who shed his blood 
 for the sins of the world, and the neo- 
 phyte is in a figure sent forth to seek the 
 lost word. The ritual states that the 
 Order was first established at Icomkill, and 
 afterwards at Kilwinning, where the King 
 of Scotland, Robert Bruce, took the chair 
 in person ; and oral tradition affirms that, 
 in 1314, this monarch again reinstated the 
 Order, admitting into it the Knights Tem- 
 plars who were still left. The Royal 
 Order, according to this ritual, which* is 
 written in Anglo-Saxon verse, boasts of 
 great antiquity. 
 
 Findel disbelieves in the Royal Order, 
 as he does in all the Christian degrees. He 
 remarks that the Grand Lodge of Scot- 
 land formerly knew nothing at all about 
 the existence of this Order of Heredom, as 
 a proof of which he adduces the fact that 
 Laurie, in the first edition of his History 
 of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, has not 
 mentioned it. Oliver, however, as it will 
 be seen, had a high opinion of the Order, 
 and expressed no doubt of its antiquity. 
 
 As to the origin of the Order, we have 
 abundant authority both mythical and his- 
 torical. 
 
 Thory (Act. Lat.) thus traces its estab- 
 lishment. 
 
 "On the 24th of June, 1314, Robert 
 Bruce, king of Scotland, instituted, after 
 the battle of Bannockburn, the Order of 
 St. Andrew of the Thistle, to which was 
 afterward united that of H. D. M., for the 
 sake of the Scottish Masons who had com- 
 posed a part of the thirty thousand men 
 with whom he had fought the English 
 army, consisting of one hundred thousand. 
 He formed the Royal Grand Lodge of the 
 Order of H. D. M. at Kilwinning, reserv- 
 ing to himself and his successors forever 
 the title of Grand Masters." 
 
 Oliver, in his Historical Landmarks, de- 
 fines the Order more precisely, thus : 
 
 "The Royal Order of H. R. D. M. had 
 formerly its chief seat at Kilwinning, and 
 there is every reason to think that it and 
 St. John's Masonry were then governed by 
 the same Grand Lodge. But during the 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Ma- 
 sonry was at a very low ebb in Scotland, 
 and it was with the greatest difficulty that 
 St. John's Masonry was preserved. The 
 Grand Chapter of H. R. D. M. resumed its 
 functions about the middle of the last cen- 
 tury at Edinburgh ; and, in order to pre- 
 serve a marked distinction between the 
 Royal Order and Craft Masonry, — which 
 had formed a Grand Lodge there in 1736, 
 
ROYAL 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 677 
 
 — the former confined itself solely to the 
 two degrees of H. R. D. M. and R. S. Y. C. S." 
 
 Again, in the history of the Royal Order, 
 officially printed in Scotland, the following 
 details are found : 
 
 " It is composed of two parts, H. R. M. 
 and R. 8. Y. C. S. The former took its 
 rise in the reign of David I., king of Scot- 
 land, and the latter in that of King Robert 
 the Bruce. The last is believed to have 
 been originally the same as the most an- 
 cient Order of the Thistle, and to contain 
 the ceremonial of admission formerly prac- 
 tised in it. 
 
 " The Order of H. R. M. had formerly 
 its seat at Kilwinning, and there is reason 
 to suppose that it and the Grand Lodge of 
 St. John's Masonry were governed by the 
 same Grand Master. The introduction of 
 this Order into Kilwinning appears to have 
 taken place about the same time, or nearly 
 the same period, as the introduction of 
 Freemasonry into Scotland. The Chal- 
 dees, as is well known, introduced Chris- 
 tianity into Scotland ; aud, from their 
 known habits, there are good grounds for 
 believing that they preserved among them 
 a knowledge of the ceremonies and precau- 
 tions adopted for their protection in Judea. 
 In establishing the degree in Scotland, it 
 is more than probable that it was done with 
 the view to explain, in a correct Christian 
 manner, the symbols and rites employed by 
 the Christian architects and builders; and 
 this will also explain how the Royal Order 
 is purely catholic, — not Roman Catholic, — 
 but adapted to all who acknowledge the 
 great truths of Christianity, in the same 
 way that Craft or Symbolic Masonry is 
 intended for all, whether Jew or Gentile, 
 who acknowledge a supreme God. The 
 second part, or R. S. Y. C. S., is an Order 
 of Knighthood, and, perhaps, the only gen- 
 uine one in connection with Masonry, there 
 being in it an intimate connection between 
 the trowel and the sword, which others try 
 to show. The lecture consists of a figura- 
 tive description of the ceremonial, both of 
 H. R. M. and R. S. Y. C. S., in simple 
 rhyme, modernized, of course, by oral tra- 
 dition, and breathing the purest spirit of 
 Christianity. Those two degrees consti- 
 tute, as has already been said, the Royal 
 Order of Scotland, the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland. Lodges or Chapters cannot le- 
 gally meet elsewhere, unless possessed of a 
 Charter from it or the Grand Master, or his 
 deputy. The office of Grand Master is 
 vested, in- the person of the king of Scot- 
 land, (now of Great Britain,) and one seat 
 is invariably kept vacant for him in what- 
 ever country a Chapter is opened, and can- 
 not be occupied by any other member. 
 Those who are in possession of this degree, 
 
 and the so-called higher degrees, cannot 
 fail to perceive that the greater part of 
 them have been concocted from the Royal 
 Order, to satisfy the morbid craving for 
 distinction which was so characteristic of 
 the continent during the latter half of the 
 last century. 
 
 " There is a tradition among the Masons 
 of Scotland that, after the dissolution of 
 the Templars, many of the Knights re- 
 paired to Scotland and placed themselves 
 under the protection of Robert Bruce, and 
 that, after the battle of Bannockburn, 
 which took place on St. John the Baptist's 
 day, 1314, this monarch instituted the 
 Royal Order of H. R. M. and Knights of 
 the R. S. Y. C. S., and established the 
 chief seat at Kilwinning. From that Or- 
 der it seems by no means improbable that 
 the present degree of Rose Croix de Here- 
 dom may have taken its origin. In two 
 respects, at least, there seems to be a very 
 close connection between the two systems. 
 They both claim the kingdom of Scotland 
 and the Abbey of Kilwinning as having 
 been at one time the chief seat of govern- 
 ment, and they both seem to have been in- 
 stituted to give a Christian explanation to 
 Ancient Craft Masonry. There is, besides, 
 a similarity in the name of the degrees of 
 Rose Croix de Heredom and H. R. M. and 
 R. S. Y. C. S. amounting almost to an 
 identity, which appears to indicate a very 
 intimate relation of one to the other." 
 
 And now recently there comes Bro. Ran- 
 dolph Hay, of Glasgow, who, in a late 
 number of the London Freemason, gives us 
 this legend, which he is pleased to call " the 
 real history of the Royal Order," and which 
 he, at least, religiously believes to be true : 
 
 " Among the many precious things which 
 were carefully preserved in a sacred vault 
 of King Solomon's Temple was a portrait 
 of the monarch, painted by Adoniram, the 
 son of Elkanah, priest of the second court. 
 This vault remained undiscovered till the 
 time of Herod, although the secret of its 
 existence and a description of its locality 
 were retained by the descendants of El- 
 kanah. During the war of the Maccabees, 
 certain Jews, fleeing from their native 
 country, took refuge, first in Spain and 
 afterwards in Britain, and amongst them 
 was one Aholiab, the then possessor of the 
 document necessary to find the hidden 
 treasure. As is well known, buildings 
 were then in progress in Edinburgh, or 
 Dun Edwin, as the city was then called, 
 and thither Aholiab wended his way to 
 find employment. His skill in architec- 
 ture speedily raised him to a prominent 
 position in the Craft, but his premature 
 death prevented his realizing the dream of 
 his life, which was to fetch the portrait 
 
678 
 
 ROYAL 
 
 RUFFIANS 
 
 from Jerusalem and bestow it in the cus- 
 tody of the Craft. However, prior to his 
 dissolution, he confided the secret to cer- 
 tain of the Fraternity under the bond of 
 secrecy, and these formed a class known as 
 'The Order of the King,' or 'The Royal 
 Order.' Time sped on; the Romans in- 
 vaded Britain ; and, previous to the cruci- 
 fixion, certain members of the old town 
 guard of Edinburgh, among whom were 
 several of the Royal Order, proceeded to 
 Rome to enter into negotiations with the 
 sovereign. From thence they proceeded to 
 Jerusalem, and were present at the dread- 
 ful scene of the crucifixion. They suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining the portrait, and also 
 the blue veil of the Temple rent upon the 
 terrible occasion. I may dismiss these two 
 venerable relics in a few words. Wilson, 
 in his Memorials of Edinburgh, (2 vols., 
 published by Hugh Patton,) in a note to 
 Masonic Lodges, writes that this portrait 
 was then in the possession of the brethren 
 of the Lodge St. David. This is an error, 
 and arose from the fact of the Royal Order 
 then meeting in the Lodge St. David's 
 room in Hindford's Close. The blue veil 
 was converted into a standard for the 
 trades of Edinburgh, and became cele- 
 brated on many a battle-field, notably in 
 the First Crusade as ' The Blue Blanket.' 
 From the presence of certain of their num- 
 ber in Jerusalem on the occasion in ques- 
 tion, the Edinburgh City Guard were often 
 called Pontius Pilate's Praetorians. Now, 
 these are facts well known to many Edin- 
 burghers still alive. Let ' X. Y. Z.' go to 
 Edinburgh and inquire for himself. 
 
 " The brethren, in addition, brought with 
 them the teachings of the Christians, and 
 in their meetings they celebrated the death 
 of the Captain and Builder of our Salva- 
 tion. The oath of the Order seals my lips 
 further as to the peculiar mysteries of the 
 brethren. I may, however, state that the 
 Ritual, in verse, as in present use, was 
 composed by the venerable Abbot of In- 
 chafFray, the same who, with a crucifix in 
 his hand, passed along the Scots' line, bless- 
 ing the soldiers and the cause in which 
 they were engaged, previous to the battle 
 of Bannockburn. Thus the Order states 
 justly that it was revived, that is, a pro- 
 iounder spirit of devotion infused into it, 
 by King Robert, by whose directions the 
 Abbot reorganized it." 
 
 In this account, it is scarcely necessary 
 to say that there is far more of myth than 
 of legitimate history. 
 
 The King of Scotland is hereditary Grand 
 Master of the Order, and at all assemblies 
 a chair is kept vacant for him. 
 
 Provincial Grand Lodges are held at 
 Glasgow, Rouen in France, in Sardinia, 
 
 Spam, the Netherlands, Calcutta, Bombay, 
 China, and New Brunswick. The provin- 
 cial Grand Lodge of London was estab- 
 lished in July, 1872, and there the mem- 
 bership is confined to those who have pre- 
 viously taken the Rose Croix, or eighteenth 
 degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite. 
 
 Royal Priest. The fifth degree of 
 the Initiated Brothers of Asia, also called 
 the True Rose Croix. 
 
 Royal Secret, Sublime Prince 
 of the. See Sublime Prince of the Royal 
 Secret. 
 
 R. S. Y. C. S. An abbreviation of 
 Rosy Cross in the Royal Order of Scotland. 
 
 Ruffians. The traitors of the third 
 degree are called Assassins in continental 
 Masonry and in the high degrees. The 
 English and American Masons have adopt- 
 ed in their ritual the more homely appel- 
 lation of Ruffians. The fabricators of the 
 high degrees adopted a variety of names for 
 these Assassins, (see Assassins of the third 
 Degree,) but the original names are pre- 
 served in the rituals of the York and Amer- 
 ican Rites. There is no question that has 
 so much perplexed Masonic antiquaries as 
 the true derivation and meaning of these 
 three names. In their present form, they 
 are confessedly uncouth and without appa- 
 rent signification. Yet it is certain that 
 we can trace them in that form to the ear- 
 liest appearance of the legend of the third 
 degree, and it is equally certain that at the 
 time of their adoption some meaning must 
 have been attached to them. I am con- 
 vinced that this must have been a very 
 simple one, and one that would have been 
 easily comprehended by the whole of the 
 Craft, who were in the constant use of them. 
 Attempts, it is true, have been made to find 
 the root of these three names in some recon- 
 dite reference to the Hebrew names of God. 
 But there is, I think, no valid authority for 
 any such derivation. In the first place, the 
 character and conduct of the supposed pos- 
 sessors of these names preclude the idea of 
 any congruity and appropriateness between 
 them and any of the divine names. And 
 again, the literary condition of the Craft at 
 the time of the invention of the names 
 equally preclude the probability that any 
 names would have been fabricated of a re- 
 condite signification, and which could not 
 have been readily understood and appre- 
 ciated by the ordinary class of Masons who 
 were to use them. The names must natu- 
 rally have been of a construction that would 
 convey a familiar idea, would be suitable 
 to the incidents in which they were to be 
 employed, and would be congruous with 
 the character of the individuals upon whom 
 they were to be bestowed. Now all these 
 
RUFFIANS 
 
 RULE 
 
 679 
 
 requisites meet in a word which was entirely 
 familiar to the Craft at the time when 
 these names were probably invented. The 
 Ohiblim are spoken of by Anderson, mean- 
 ing Qiblim, as stone-cutters or Masons ; and 
 the early rituals show us very clearly that 
 the Fraternity in that day considered Qib- 
 lim as the name of a Mason ; not only of a 
 Mason generally, but especially of that 
 class of Masons who, as Drummond says, 
 "put the finishing hand to King Solo- 
 mon's Temple," — that is to say, the Fellow 
 Crafts. Anderson also places the Ohiblim 
 among the Fellow Crafts ; and so, very natu- 
 rally, the early Freemasons, not imbued 
 with any amount of Hebrew learning, and 
 not making a distinction between the sin- 
 gular and plural forms of that language, 
 soon got to calling a Fellow Craft a Giblim. 
 The steps of corruption between Qiblim and 
 Jubelum were not very gradual ; nor can any 
 one doubt that such corruptions of spelling 
 and pronunciations were common among 
 these illiterate Masons, when he reads the 
 Old Manuscripts, and finds such verbal dis- 
 tortions as Nembroch for Nimrod, Euglet for 
 Euclid, and Aymon for Hiram. Thus, the 
 first corruption was from Qiblim to Gibalim, 
 which brought the word to three syllables, 
 making it thus nearer to its eventual 
 change. Then we find in the early rituals 
 another transformation into Chibbelum. 
 The French Masons also took the work of 
 corruption in hand, and from Qiblim they 
 manufactured Jiblime and Jibulum and 
 Jabulum. Some of these French corrup- 
 tions came back to English Masonry about 
 the time of the fabrication of the high de- 
 grees, and even the French words were dis- 
 torted. Thus in the Leland Manuscript, 
 the English Masons made out of Pytagore, 
 the French for Pythagoras, the unknown 
 name Peter Gower, which is said so much 
 to have puzzled Mr. Locke. And so we 
 may through these mingled English and 
 French corruptions trace the genealogy of 
 the word Jubelum; thus, Ghiblim, Gib- 
 lim, Gibalim, Chibbelum, Jiblime, Jibe- 
 lum, Jabelum, and, finally, Jubelum. It 
 meant simply a Fellow Craft, and was ap- 
 propriately given as a common name to 
 a particular Fellow Craft who was distin- 
 guished for his treachery. In other words, 
 he was designated, not by a special and dis- 
 tinctive name, but by the title of his condi- 
 tion and rank at the Temple. He was the 
 Fellow Graft, who was at the head of a con- 
 spiracy. As for the names of the other two 
 Ruffians, they were readily constructed out 
 of that of the greatest one by a simple 
 change of the termination of the word from 
 um to a in one, and from um to o in the 
 other, thus preserving, by a similarity of 
 names, the idea of their relationship, for 
 
 the old rituals said that they were brothers 
 who had come together out of Tyre. This 
 derivation seems to me to be easy, natural, 
 and comprehensible. The change from 
 Giblim, or rather from Gibalim to Jubelum, 
 is one that is far less extraordinary than 
 that which one-half of the Masonic words 
 have undergone in their transformation 
 from their original to their present form. 
 
 Rule. An instrument with which 
 straight lines are drawn, and therefore used 
 in the Past Master's degree as an em- 
 blem admonishing the Master punctually 
 to observe his duty, to press forward in the 
 path of virtue, and, neither inclining to the 
 right nor the left, in all his actions to have 
 eternity in view. The twenty-four inch 
 gauge is often used in giving the instruc- 
 tion as a substitute for this working-tool. 
 But they are entirely different ; the twenty- 
 four inch gauge is one of the working-tools 
 of an Entered Apprentice, and requires to 
 have the twenty-four inches marked upon 
 its surface ; the rule is one of the working- 
 tools of a Past Master, and is without the 
 twenty-four divisions. The rule is appro- 
 priated to the Past or Present Master, be- 
 cause, by its assistance, he is enabled to lay 
 down on the trestle-board the designs for 
 the Craft to work by. 
 
 Rule of the Templars. The code 
 of regulations for the government of the 
 Knights Templars, called their "Rule," 
 was drawn up by St. Bernard, and by him 
 submitted to Pope Honorius II. and the 
 Council of Troyes, by both of whom it was 
 approved. It is still in existence, and con- 
 sists of seventy -two articles, partly monas- 
 tic and partly military in character, the 
 former being formed upon the Rule of the 
 Benedictines. The first articles of the Rule 
 are ecclesiastical in design, and require 
 from the Knighta a strict adherence to their 
 religious duties. Article twenty defines the 
 costume to be worn by the brotherhood. 
 The professed soldiers were to wear a white 
 costume, and the serving brethren were 
 prohibited from wearing anything but a 
 black or brown cassock. The Rule is very 
 particular iu reference to the fit and shape 
 of the dress of the Knights, so as to secure 
 uniformity. The brethren are forbidden to 
 receive and open letters from their friends 
 without first submitting them to the in- 
 spection of their superiors. The pastime 
 of hawking is prohibited, but the nobler 
 sport of lion-hunting is permitted, because 
 the lion, like the devil, goes about contin- 
 ually roaring, seeking whom he may devour. 
 Article fifty-five relates to the reception of 
 married members, who are required to be- 
 queath the greater portion of their property 
 to the Order. The fifty-eighth article regu- 
 lates the reception of aspirants, or secular 
 
680 
 
 RULERS 
 
 SABBATH 
 
 persons, who are not to be received imme- 
 diately on their application into the society, 
 but are required first to submit to an ex- 
 amination as to sincerity and fitness. The 
 seventy-second and concluding article re- 
 fers to the intercourse of the Knights with 
 females. No brother was allowed to kiss 
 a woman, though she were his mother or 
 sister. " Let the soldier of the cross," says 
 St. Bernard, "shun all ladies' lips." At 
 first this rule was rigidly enforced, but in 
 time it was greatly relaxed, and the picture 
 of the interior of a house of the Temple, as 
 portrayed by the Abbot of Clairvaulx, would 
 scarcely have been appropriate a century 
 or two later. 
 
 Rulers. Obedience to constituted au- 
 thority has always been inculcated by the 
 laws of Masonry. Thus, in the installa- 
 tion charges as printed by Preston, the 
 incoming Master is required to promise " to 
 hold in veneration the original rulers and 
 patrons of the Order of Masonry, and their 
 regular :successors, supreme and subordi- 
 nate." 
 
 Russia. Freemasonry was introduced 
 into Russia, in 1731, by the Grand Lodge 
 of England, Lord Lovel having appointed 
 Captain John Philips Provincial Grand 
 Master of Russia. It is said that there 
 was a Lodge in St. Petersburg as early as 
 1732; but its meetings must have been 
 private, as the first notice that we have of 
 a Lodge openly assembling in the empire 
 is that of Silence," established at St. Pe- 
 tersburg, and the "North Star" at Riga, 
 both in the year 1750. Thory says that 
 Masonry made but little progress in Rus- 
 sia until 1763, when the Empress Cather- 
 ine II. declared herself the Protectress of 
 the Order. 
 
 In 1765 the Rite of Melesino, a Rite un- 
 known in any other country, was intro- 
 duced by a Greek of that name; and there 
 were at the same time the York, Swedish, 
 and Strict Observance Rites practised by 
 
 other Lodges. In 1783 twelve of these 
 Lodges united and formed the National 
 Grand Lodge, which, rejecting the other 
 Rites, adopted the Swedish system. For a 
 time Masonry flourished with unalloyed 
 prosperity and popularity. But about the 
 year 1794, the Empress, becoming alarmed 
 at the political condition of France, and 
 being persuaded that the members of some 
 of the Lodges were in opposition to the 
 government, withdrew her protection from 
 the Order. She did not, however, direct 
 the Lodges to be closed, but most of them, 
 in deference to the wishes of the sovereign, 
 ceased to meet. The few that continued to 
 work were placed under the surveillance 
 of the police, and soon languished, holding 
 their communications only at distant inter- 
 vals. In 1797, Paul I., instigated by the 
 Jesuits, whom he had recalled, interdicted 
 the meetings of all secret societies, and es- 
 pecially the Masonic Lodges. Alexander 
 succeeded Paul in 1801, and renewed the 
 interdict of his predecessor. In 1803, M. 
 Boeber, counsellor of state and director 
 of the school of cadets at St. Petersburg, 
 obtained an audience of the Emperor, 
 and succeeded in removing his prejudices 
 against Freemasonry. In that year the 
 edict was revoked, the Emperor himself was 
 initiated in one of the revived Lodges, and 
 the Grand Orient of all the Russias was 
 established, of which M. Boeber was de- 
 servedly elected Grand Master. Freema- 
 sonry now again flourished, although in 
 1817 there were two Grand Lodges, that of 
 Astrea, which worked on the system of 
 tolerating all Rites, and a Provincial Lodge, 
 which practised the Swedish system. 
 
 But suddenly, on the 12th August, 1822, 
 the Emperor Alexander, instigated, it is 
 said, by the political condition of Poland, 
 issued a decree ordering all the Lodges to 
 be closed, and forbidding the erection of 
 any new ones. The order was quietly 
 obeyed by the Freemasons of Russia. 
 
 s. 
 
 Sabaism. The worship of the sun, 
 moon, and stars, the D^Ot^H tO¥> 
 Tsaba Hashmaim, " the host of heaven." 
 It was practised in Persia, Chaldea, India, 
 and other Oriental countries, at an early 
 period of the world's history, See Blazing 
 Star and Sun Worship, 
 
 Sabaoth. m$Oy HUT, Jehovah 
 
 Tsabaoth, Jehovah of Hosts, a very usual 
 appellation for the Most High in the pro- 
 phetical books, especially in Isaiah, Jere- 
 miah, Zechariah, and Malachi, but not 
 found in the Pentateuch. 
 
 Sabbath. In the lecture of the second 
 or Fellow Craft's degree, it is said, In six 
 days God created the heavens and the 
 
SABIANISM 
 
 SAINT 
 
 681 
 
 earth, and rested upon the seventh day; 
 the seventh, therefore, our ancient brethren 
 consecrated as a day of rest from their 
 labors, thereby enjoying frequent opportu- 
 nities to contemplate the glorious works of 
 creation, and .to adore their great Creator. 
 
 Sabianism. See Sabaism. 
 
 Sackcloth. In the Rose Croix ritual, 
 sackcloth is a symbol of grief and humilia- 
 tion for the loss of that which it is the ob- 
 ject of the degree to recover. 
 
 Sacred Asylum of High Ma- 
 sonry. In the Institutes, Statutes, and 
 Regulations, signed by Adington, Chancel- 
 lor, and which are given in the Recueil des 
 Acles du Supreme Conseil du France, as a 
 sequence to the Constitutions of 1762, this 
 title is given to anv subordinate body of 
 the Scottish Rite. Thus in Article XVI. : 
 "At the time of the installation of a Sa- 
 cred Asylum of High Masonry, the mem- 
 bers composing it shall all make and sign 
 their pledge of obedience to the Institutes, 
 Statutes, and General Regulations of High 
 Masonry." In this document the Rite is 
 always called " High Masonry," and any 
 body, whether a Lodge of Perfection, a 
 Chapter of Rose Croix, or a Council of 
 Kadosh, is styled a " Sacred Asylum." 
 
 Sacred Lodge. In the lectures ac- 
 cording to the English system, we find this 
 definition of the "Sacred Lodge." The 
 symbol has not been preserved in the 
 American ritual. Over the Sacred Lodge 
 presided Solomon, the greatest of kings, 
 and the wisest of men; Hiram, the great 
 and learned king of Tyre; and Hiram 
 Abif, the widow's son, of the tribe of Naph- 
 tali. It was held in the bowels of the 
 sacred Mount Moriah, under the part 
 whereon was erected the Holy of Holies. 
 On this mount it was where Abraham con- 
 firmed his faith by his readiness to offer up 
 his only son, Isaac. Here it was where 
 David offered that acceptable sacrifice on 
 the threshing-floor of Araunah by which 
 the anger of the Lord was appeased, and 
 the plague stayed from his people. Here 
 it was where the Lord delivered to David, 
 in a dream, the plan of the glorious Tem- 
 ple, afterwards erected by our noble Grand 
 Master, King Solomon. And lastly, here 
 it was where he declared he would establish 
 his sacred name and word, which should 
 never pass away ; and for these reasons 
 this was justly styled the Sacred Lodge. 
 
 Sacriflcant. (Sacrifiant.) A degree 
 in the Archives of the Lodge of Saint Louis 
 des Amis Reunis at Calais. 
 
 Sacrifice, Altar of. See Altar. 
 
 Sacrificer. {Sacrificateur.) 1. A de- 
 
 free in the Archives of the Lodge of Saint 
 /ouis des Amis Reunis at Calais. 2. A de- 
 gree in the collection of Pyron. 
 4L 
 
 Saint Adhahell. Introduced into 
 the Cooke MS., where the allusion evi- 
 dently is to St. Amphibalus, which see. 
 
 Saint Alban. St. Alban, or Albanus, 
 the proto-martyr of England, was born in 
 the third century, at Verulam, now St. 
 Albans, in Hertfordshire. In his youth he 
 visited Rome, and served seven years as a 
 soldier under the Emperor Diocletian. 
 On his return to Britain he embraced 
 Christianity, and was the first who suffered 
 martyrdom in the great persecution which 
 raged during the reign of that emperor. 
 The Freemasons of England have claimed 
 St. Alban as being intimately connected 
 with the early history of the Fraternity in 
 that island. Preston, in his Illustrations, 
 quotes the following statement from an old 
 manuscript which, he says, had been in 
 the possession of Nicholas Stone, a curious 
 sculptor under the celebrated architect, 
 Inigo Jones : 
 
 " St. Alban loved Masons well and cher- 
 ished them much, and made their pay 
 right good ; for he gave them two shillings 
 per week and four pence to their cheer; 
 whereas before that time, in all the land, a 
 Mason had but a penny a day and his 
 meat, until St. Alban mended it. And he 
 got them a charter from the king and his 
 council for to hold a general council, and 
 gave it to name Assembly. Thereat he 
 was himself, and did help to make Masons 
 and gave them good charges." 
 
 We have another tradition on the same 
 subject; for in a little work published in 
 1760-5, at London, under the title of Multa 
 Paucis for the Lovers of Secrets, we find the 
 following statement in reference to the 
 Masonic character and position of St. Al- 
 ban : 
 
 "In the following (the third) century, 
 Gordian sent many architects over [into 
 England], who constituted themselves into 
 Lodges, and instructed the Craftsmen in 
 the true principles of Freemasonry; and a 
 few years later, Carausius was made empe- 
 ror of the British Isles, and, being a great 
 lover of art and science, appointed Albanus 
 Grand Master of Masons, who employed 
 the Fraternity in building the palace of 
 Verulam, or St. Albans." 
 
 Both of these statements are simply 
 legends, or traditions of the not unusual 
 character, in which historical facts are 
 destroyed by legendary additions. The 
 fact that St. Alban lived at Verulam may 
 be true — most probably is so. It is another 
 fact that a splendid Episcopal palace was 
 built there, whether in the time of St. Al- 
 ban or not is not so certain ; but the affirm- 
 ative has been assumed; and hence it easily 
 followed that, if built in his time, he must 
 have superintended the building of the 
 
682 
 
 SAINT 
 
 SAINT 
 
 edifice. He would, of course, employ the 
 workmen, give them his patronage, and, to 
 some extent, by his superior abilities, direct 
 their labors. Nothing was easier, then, 
 than to make him, after all this, a Grand 
 Master. The assumption that St. Alban 
 built the palace at Verulam was very nat- 
 ural, because when the true builder's name 
 was lost, — supposing it to have been so, — 
 St. Alban was there ready to take his place, 
 Verulam having been his birthplace. 
 
 The increase of pay for labor, and the 
 annual congregation of the Masons in a 
 General Assembly, having been subsequent 
 events, the exact date of whose first occur- 
 rence had been lost, by a process common 
 in the development of traditions, they were 
 readily transferred to the same era as the 
 building of the palace at Verulam. It is 
 not even necessary to suppose, by way of 
 explanation, as Preston does, that St. Alban 
 was a celebrated architect, and a real encour- 
 ager of able workmen. The whole of the 
 tradition is worked out of these simple 
 facts : that architecture began to be encour- 
 aged in England about the third century ; 
 that St. Alban lived at that time at Veru- 
 lam ; that a palace was erected then, or at 
 some subsequent period, in the same place ; 
 and in the lapse of time, Verulam, St. 
 Alban, and the Freemasons became min- 
 gled together in one tradition. The in- 
 quiring student of history will neither assert 
 nor deny that St. Alban built the palace of 
 Verulam. He will be content with taking 
 him as the representative of tbat builder, 
 if he was not the builder himself; and he 
 will thus recognize the proto-martyr as the 
 type of what is supposed to have been the 
 Masonry of his age, or, perhaps, only of 
 the age in which the tradition received its 
 form. 
 
 Saint Albans, Karl of. Anderson 
 
 i2d edition, 101,) says, and, after him, 
 'reston, that a General Assembly of the 
 Craft was held on Dec. 27, 1663, at which 
 Henry Jermyn, Earl of St. Albans, was 
 elected Grand Master, who appointed Sir 
 John Denham his Deputy, and Christopher 
 Wren and John Webb his Wardens. Sev- 
 eral useful regulations were made at this 
 assembly, known as the " Regulations of 
 1663." These regulations are given by 
 Anderson and by Preston, and also in the 
 Roberts MS., with the addition of the oath 
 of secrecy. The Roberts MS. says that the 
 assembly was held on the 8th of December. 
 Saint Amphibalus. The ecclesias- 
 tical legend is that St. Amphibalus came 
 to England, and converted St. Alban, who 
 was the great patron of Masonry. The 
 Old Constitutions do not speak of him, ex- 
 cept the Cooke MS., which has the follow- 
 ing passage: "And sone after that came 
 
 Seynt Adhabell into Englond, and he con- 
 vertyd Seynt Albon to Cristendome ; " 
 where, evidently, St. Adhabell is meant 
 for St. Amphibalus. But amphibolus is the 
 Latin name of a cloak worn by priests over 
 their other garments ; and Higgins ( Celtic 
 Druids, p. 201,) has shown that there was 
 no such saint, but that the " Sanctus Am- 
 phibolus" was merely the holy cloak 
 brought by St. Augustine to England. 
 His connection with the history of the 
 origin of Masonry in England is, there- 
 fore, altogether apocryphal. 
 
 Saint Andrew, Knight of. See 
 Knight of St. Andrew. 
 
 Saint Andrew's Day. The 30th 
 of November, adopted by the Grand Lodge 
 of Scotland as the day of its Annual Com- 
 munication. 
 
 Saint Augustine. St. Augustine, or 
 St. Austin, was sent with forty monks into 
 England, about the end of the sixth cen- 
 tury, to evangelize the country. Lenning 
 says that, according to a tradition, he placed 
 himself at the head of the corporations of 
 builders, and was recognized as their Grand 
 Master. I can find no such tradition, nor, 
 indeed, even the name of St. Augustine, in 
 any of the Old Constitutions which con- 
 tain the " Legend of the Craft." 
 
 Saint Bernard. Saint Bernard of 
 Clairvaulx was one of the most eminent 
 names of the church in the Middle Ages. 
 In 1128, he was present at the Council of 
 Troyes, where, through his influence, the 
 Order of Knights Templars was confirmed ; 
 and he himself is said to have composed 
 the Rule or constitution by which they 
 were afterwards governed. Throughout 
 his life he was distinguished for his warm 
 attachment to the Templars, and " rarely," 
 says Burnes, [Sketch of K. T., p. 12), " wrote 
 a letter to the Holy Land, in which he did 
 not praise them, and recommend them to 
 the favor and protection of the great." To 
 his influence, untiringly exerted in their 
 behalf, has always been attributed the rapid 
 increase of the Order in wealth and popu- 
 larity. 
 
 Saint Domingo. One of the prin- 
 cipal islands of the West Indies. Free- 
 masonry was introduced there at an early 
 period in the last century. Rebold says in 
 1746. It must certainly have been in an 
 active condition there at a time not long 
 after, for in 1761 Stephen Morin, who had 
 been deputed by the Council of Emperors 
 of the East and West to propagate the 
 high degrees, selected St. Domingo for the 
 seat of his Grand East, and thence dissem- 
 inated the system, which resulted in the es- 
 tablishment of the Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite at 
 Charleston, South Carolina. The French 
 

 SAINTE 
 
 or „k. 
 
 2) 
 
 SAINT 
 
 683 
 
 revolution, and the insurrection of the slaves 
 at about the same period, was for a time 
 fatal to the progress of Masonry in St. Do- 
 mingo. Subsequently, the island was di- 
 vided into two independent governments 
 — that of Dominica, inhabited by whites, 
 and that of Hayti, inhabited by blacks. In 
 each of these a Masonic obedience has been 
 organized. The Grand Lodge of Hayti has 
 been charged with irregularity in its for- 
 mation, and has not been recognized by the 
 Grand Lodges of the United States. It has 
 been, however, by those of Europe generally, 
 and a representative from it was accredited 
 at the Congress of Paris, held in 1855. 
 Masonry was revived in Dominica, Rebold 
 says, in 1822 ; other authorities say in 1855. 
 A Grand Lodge was organized at the city 
 of St. Domingo, December 11, 1858. At 
 the present time Dominican Masonry is 
 established under the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite, and the National Grand 
 Orient of the Dominican Republic is di- 
 vided into four sections, namely, a Grand 
 Lodge, Grand Chapter General, Grand 
 Consistory General and Supreme Council. 
 The last body has not been recognized by 
 the Mother Council at Charleston, since its 
 establishment is in violation of the Scot- 
 tish Constitutions, which prescribe one Su- 
 preme Council only for all the West India 
 Islands. 
 
 Saint*' Croix, Emanuel Joseph 
 Guilhem de Clermont - Lodeve 
 de. A French antiquary, and member of 
 the Institute, who was born at Mormoiron, 
 in 1746, and died in 1809. His work pub- 
 lished in two volumes in 1784, and entitled, 
 Recherches Historiques et Critiques sur les 
 Mysteres du Pagamsme, is one of the most 
 valuable and instructive essays that we 
 have in any language on the ancient mys- 
 teries, — those religious associations whose 
 history aud design so closely connect them 
 with Freemasonry. The later editions were 
 enriched by the valuable notes of Silvestre 
 de Tracy. 
 
 Saint George's Day. The twenty- 
 third of April. Being the patron saint of 
 England, his festival is celebrated by the 
 Grand Lodge. The Constitution requires 
 that " there shall be a Masonic festival next 
 following St. George's Day, which shall be 
 dedicated to brotherly love and refresh- 
 ment." It is the occasion of the " Grand 
 Feast." 
 
 Saint Germain. A town in France, 
 about ten miles from Paris, where James 
 II. established his court after his expulsion 
 from England, and where he died. Oliver 
 says, (Landm., ii. 28,) and the statement has 
 been repeatedly made by others, that the 
 followers of the dethroned monarch who 
 accompanied him in his exile, carried Free- 
 
 masonry into France, and laid the founda- 
 tion of that system of innovation which 
 subsequently threw the Order into confu- 
 sion by the establishment of a new degree, 
 which they called the Chevalier Macon 
 Ecossais, and which they worked in the 
 Lodge of St. Germain. But Oliver has 
 here antedated history. James II. died in 
 1701, and Freemasonry was not introduced 
 into France from England until 1725. The 
 exiled house of Stuart undoubtedly made 
 use of Masonry as an instrument to aid in 
 their attempted restoration ; but their con- 
 nection with the Institution must have been 
 after the time of James II., and most proba- 
 bly under the auspices of his grandson, the 
 Young Pretender, Charles Edward. 
 
 Saint John, Favorite Brother 
 of. The eighth degree of the Swedish 
 Rite. 
 
 Saint John, Lodge of. See Lodge 
 0/ St. John. 
 
 St. John of Jerusalem, Knight 
 of. See Knight of St. John of Jerusalem. 
 
 Saint John's Masonry. The Con- 
 stitution of the Grand Lodge of Scotland 
 (chap, ii.) declares that that body "prac- 
 tises and recognizes no degrees of Masonry 
 but those of Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and 
 Master Mason, denominated St. Joh?i's Ma- 
 sonry." 
 
 Saint John's Order. In a system 
 of Masonry which Oliver says (Mirror for 
 the Johannites, p. 58,) was "used, as it is 
 confidently affirmed, in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury," (but I doubt if it could be traced 
 farther back than the early part of the 
 seventeenth,) this appellation occurs in the 
 obligation : 
 
 " That you will always keep, guard, and conceal, 
 And from this time you never will reveal, 
 Either to M. M., F. C, or Apprentice, 
 Of St. John's OKDEK,what our grand intent is." 
 
 The same title of "Joannis Ordo" is 
 given in the document of uncertain date 
 known as the " Charter of Cologne." 
 
 St. John the Almoner. The son of 
 
 the King of Cyprus, and born in that island 
 in the sixth century. He was elected Pa- 
 triarch of Alexandria, and has been can- 
 onized by both the Greek and Roman 
 Churches, his festival among the former 
 occurring on the 11th of November, and 
 among the latter on the 23d of January. 
 Bazot (Man. du Franc- Macon., p. 144,) thinks 
 that it is this saint, and not St. John the 
 Evangelist or St. John the Baptist, who is 
 meant as the true patron of our Order. 
 " He quitted his country and the hope of a 
 throne," says this author, " to go to Jeru- 
 salem, that he might generously aid and 
 assist the knights and pilgrims. He 
 founded a hospital, and organized a frater- 
 
684 
 
 SAINT 
 
 SAINT 
 
 nity to attend upon sick and wounded 
 Christians, and to bestow pecuniary aid 
 upon the pilgrims who visited the Holy 
 Sepulchre. St. John, who was worthy to 
 become the patron of a society whose only 
 object is charity, exposed his life a thou- 
 sand times in the cause of virtue. Neither 
 war, nor pestilence, nor the fury of the in- 
 fidels, could deter him from pursuits of 
 benevolence. But death, at length, arrested 
 him in the midst of his labors. Yet he left 
 the example of his virtues to the brethren, 
 who have made it their duty to endeavor 
 to imitate them. Rome canonized him un- 
 der the name of St. John the Almoner, 
 or St. John of Jerusalem ; and the Masons 
 — whose temples, overthrown by the barba- 
 rians, he had caused to be rebuilt — selected 
 him with one accord as their patron." Oli- 
 ver, however, {Mirror for the Johannite Ma- 
 sons, p. 39,) very properly shows the error 
 of appropriating the patronage of Masonry 
 to this saint, since the festivals of the Ord«r 
 are June 24 and December 27, while those 
 of St. John the Almoner are January 23 
 and November 11. He has, however, been 
 selected as the patron of the Masonic Order 
 of the Templars, and their Commanderies 
 are dedicated to his honor on account of 
 his charity to the poor, whom he called his 
 " Masters," because he owed them all ser- 
 vice, and on account of his establishment 
 of hospitals for the succor of pilgrims in 
 the East. 
 
 Saint John the Baptist. One of 
 the patron saints of Freemasonry, and at 
 one time, indeed, the only one, the name 
 of St. John the Evangelist having been in- 
 troduced subsequent to the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. His festival occurs on the 24th of 
 June, and is very generally celebrated by the 
 Masonic fraternity. Dalcho (Ahim Rez., 
 
 g. 150,) says that "the stern integrity of 
 t. John the Baptist, which induced him 
 to forego every minor consideration in dis- 
 charging the obligations he owed to God ; 
 the unshaken firmness with which he met 
 martyrdom rather than betray his duty to 
 his Master ; his steady reproval of vice, and 
 continued preaching of repentance and 
 virtue, make him a fit patron of the Ma- 
 sonic institution." 
 
 The Charter of Cologne says : " We cel- 
 ebrate, annually, the memory of St. John, 
 the Forerunner of Christ and the Patron 
 of our Community." The Knights Hos- 
 pitallers also dedicated their Order to him ; 
 and the ancient expression of our ritual, 
 which speaks of a " Lodge of the Holy St. 
 John of Jerusalem," probably refers to the 
 same saint. 
 
 Krause, in his Kunsturhunden, (p. 295- 
 305,) gives abundant historical proofs that 
 the earliest Masons adopted St. John the 
 
 Baptist, and not St. John the Evangelist, 
 as their patron. It is worthy of note that 
 the Grand Lodge of England was revived 
 on St. John the Baptist's day, 1717, and 
 that the annual feast was kept on that day 
 until 1727, when it was held for the first 
 time on the festival of the Evangelist. 
 Lawrie says that the Scottish Masons al- 
 ways kept the festival of the Baptist until 
 1737, when the Grand Lodge changed the 
 time of the annual election to St. Andrew's 
 day. 
 
 Saint John the Evangelist. One 
 of the patron saints of Freemasonry, whose 
 festival is celebrated on the 27th of Decem- 
 ber. His constant admonition, in his Epis- 
 tles, to the cultivation of brotherly love, 
 and the mystical nature of his Apocalyptic 
 visions, have been, perhaps, the principal 
 reasons for the veneration paid to him by 
 the Craft. Notwithstanding a well-known 
 tradition, all documentary evidence shows 
 that the connection of the name of the 
 Evangelist with the Masonic Order is to be 
 dated long after the sixteenth century, be- 
 fore which time St John the Baptist was 
 exclusively the patron saint of Masonry. 
 The two are, however, now always united, 
 for reasons set forth in the article on the 
 Dedication of Lodges, which see. 
 
 Saint !Leger. See A Idworth, Mrs. 
 
 Saint Martin, Louis Claude. A 
 mystical writer and Masonic leader of con- 
 siderable reputation in the last century, 
 and the founder of the Rite of Martinism. 
 He was born at Amboise, in France, on 
 January 18, 1743, being descended from a 
 family distinguished in the military ser- 
 vice of the kingdom. Saint Martin when 
 a youth made great progress in his studies, 
 and became the master of several ancient 
 and modern languages. After leaving 
 school, he entered the army, in accordance 
 with the custom of his family, becoming a 
 member of the regiment of Foix. But after 
 six years of service, he retired from a pro- 
 fession which he found uncongenial with 
 his fondness for metaphysical pursuits. 
 He then travelled in Switzerland, Germany, 
 England, and Italy, and finally retired to 
 Lyons, where he remained for three years 
 in a state of almost absolute seclusion, 
 known to but few persons, and pursuing 
 his philosophic studies. He then repaired 
 to Paris, where, notwithstanding the tu- 
 multuous scenes of the revolution which 
 was working around, he remained unmoved 
 by the terrible events of the day, and intent 
 only on the prosecution of his theosophic 
 studies. Attracted by the mystical systems 
 of Boehme and Swedenborg, he became 
 himself a mystic of no mean pretensions, 
 and attracted around him a crowd of dis- 
 ciples, who were content, as they said, to 
 
SAINT 
 
 SAINTS 
 
 685 
 
 hear, without understanding, the teachings 
 of their leader. In 1775 appeared his first 
 and most important work, entitled Des 
 Erreurs et de la Verite, ou les Hommes rap- 
 peles au principe universal de la Science. 
 This work, which contained an exposition of 
 the ideology of Saint Martin, acquired for its 
 author, by its unintelligible transcendental- 
 ism, the title of the " Kant of Germany." 
 Saint Martin had published this work under 
 the pseudonym of the "Unknown Philoso- 
 pher," (le Philosophe inconnu;) whence he 
 was subsequently known by this name,which 
 was also assumed by some of his Masonic 
 adherents; and even a degree bearing that 
 title was invented and inserted in the Rite 
 of Philalethes. The treatise Des Erreurs 
 et de la Verite was in fact made a sort of 
 text-book by the Philalethans, and highly 
 recommended by the Order of the Initiated 
 Knights and Brothers of Asia, whose sys- 
 tem was in fact a compound of theosophy 
 and mysticism. It was so popular, that 
 between 1775 and 1784 it had been through 
 five editions. 
 
 Saint Martin, in the commencement of 
 his Masonic career, attached himself to 
 Martinez Paschalis, of whom he was one 
 of the most prominent disciples. But he 
 subsequently attempted a reform of the sys- 
 tem of Paschalis, and established what he 
 called a Rectified Rite, but which is better 
 known as the Rite or system of Martinism, 
 which consisted of ten degrees. It was itself 
 subsequently reformed, and, being reduced 
 to seven degrees, was introduced into some 
 of the Lodges of Germany under the name 
 of the Reformed Eccossism of Saint Martin. 
 
 The theosophic doctrines of Saint Martin 
 were introduced into the Masonic Lodges 
 of Russia by Count Gabrianko and Admi- 
 ral PleshcheyefF, and soon became popular. 
 Under them the Martinist Lodges of Rus- 
 sia became distinguished not only for their 
 Masonic and religious spirit, — although too 
 much tinged with the mysticism of Jacob 
 Boehme and their founder, — but for an 
 active zeal in practical works of charity of 
 both a private and public character. 
 
 The character of Saint Martin has, I 
 think, been much mistaken, especially by 
 Masonic writers. Those who, like Voltaire, 
 have derided his metaphysical theories, 
 seem to have forgotten the excellence of 
 his private character, his kindness of heart, 
 his amiable manners, and his varied and 
 extensive erudition. Nor should it be for- 
 gotten that the true object of all his Ma- 
 sonic labors was to introduce into the 
 Lodges of France a spirit of pure religion. 
 His theory of the origin of Freemasonry 
 was not, however, based on any historical 
 research, and is of no value, for he believed 
 that it was an emanation of the Divinity, 
 
 and was to be traced to the very beginning 
 of the world. 
 
 Saint Nieaise. A considerable sen- 
 sation was produced in Masonic circles by 
 the appearance at Frankfort, in 1755, of a 
 work entitled Saint Nicaise, odereine Samm- 
 lung merkwurdiger Maurerischer Brief e, fur 
 Freimaurer und die es nicht. A second 
 edition was issued in 1786. Its title-page 
 asserts it to be a translation from the 
 French, but it was really written by Dr. 
 Starck. It professes to contain the letters 
 of a French Freemason who was travelling 
 on account of Freemasonry, and having 
 learned the mode of work in England and 
 Germany, had become dissatisfied with 
 both, and had retired into a cloister in 
 France. It was really intended, although 
 Starck had abandoned Masonry, to defend 
 his system of Spiritual Templarism, in 
 opposition to that of the Baron Von 
 Hund. Accordingly, it was answered in 
 1786 by Von Sprengseisen, who was an 
 ardent friend and admirer of Von Hund, in 
 a work entitled Anti Saint Nicaise, which was 
 immediately followed by two other essays 
 by the same author, entitled Archimedes, 
 and Scala Algebraica (Economica. These 
 three works have become exceedingly rare. 
 
 Saint Paul's Church. As St. 
 Paul's, the Cathedral Church of London, 
 was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren, — who 
 is called, in the Book of Constitutions, the 
 Grand Master of Masons, — some writers 
 have advanced the theory that Freema- 
 sonry took its origin at the construction of 
 that edifice. In the fourth degree of Fess- 
 ler's Rite, — which is occupied in the crit- 
 ical examination of the various theories on 
 the origin of Freemasonry, — among the 
 seven sources that are considered, the build- 
 ing of St. Paul's Church is one. Nicolai 
 does not positively assert the theory ; but 
 he thinks it not an improbable one, and 
 believes that a new system of symbols was 
 at that time invented. It is said that there 
 was, before the revival in 1717, an old 
 Lodge of St. Paul's ; and it is reasonable 
 to suppose that the Operative Masons en- 
 gaged upon the building were united with 
 the architects and men of other professions 
 in the formation of a Lodge, under the 
 regulation which no longer restricted the 
 Institution to Operative Masonry. But 
 there is no authentic historical evidence 
 that Freemasonry first took its rise at the 
 building of St. Paul's Church. 
 
 Saints John. The "Holy Saints 
 John," so frequently mentioned in the 
 ritual of Symbolic Masonry, are St. John 
 the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist, 
 (which see.) The original dedication of 
 Lodges was to the " Holy St. John," mean- 
 ing the Baptist. 
 
686 
 
 SAINTS 
 
 SALUTE 
 
 Saints John, Festivals of. See 
 
 Festivals. 
 Saint Victor. Louis Onillemain 
 
 de. A French Masonic writer, who pub- 
 lished, in 1781, a work in Adonhiramite 
 Masonry, entitled Receuil Precieux de la 
 Maconnerie Adonhiramite. This volume 
 contained the ritual of the first four de- 
 grees, and was followed, in 1787, by an- 
 other, which contained the higher degrees 
 of the Rite. If St. Victor was not the 
 inventor of this Rite, he at least modified 
 and established it as a working system, 
 and, by his writings and his labors, gave to 
 it whatever popularity it at one time pos- 
 sessed. Subsequent to the publication of 
 his Receuil Precieux, he wrote his Origitie 
 de la Maconnerie Adonhiramite, a learned 
 and interesting work, in which he seeks to 
 trace the source of the Masonic initiation 
 to the mysteries of the Egyptian priest- 
 hood. 
 
 Sal fi. Francesco. An Italian phil- 
 osopher and litterateur, who was born at 
 Cozenza, in Calabria, Jan. 1, 1759, and 
 died at Passy, near Paris, Sept. 1832. He 
 was at one time professor of history and 
 philosophy at Milan. He was a prolific 
 writer, and the author of many works on 
 history and political economy. He pub- 
 lished, also, several poems and dramas, and 
 received, in 1811, the prize given by the 
 Lodge at Leghorn for a Masonic essay, en- 
 titled, Delia utiltd della Franca- Massoneria 
 sotto il rapporto filantropico e morale. 
 
 Salix. A significant word in the high 
 degrees, invented, most probably, at first 
 for the system of the Council of Emperors 
 of the East and West, and transferred to 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 It is derived, say the old French rituals, 
 from the initials of a part of a sentence, 
 and has, therefore, no other meaning. 
 
 Salle des Pas Perdue. ( The Hall 
 of the Lost Steps.) The French thus call 
 the anteroom in which visitors are placed 
 before their admission into the Lodge. 
 The Germans call it the fore-court ( Vor- 
 hof), and sometimes, like the French, der 
 Saal der verlornen Schritte. Lenning says 
 that it derives its name from the fact that 
 every step taken before entrance into the 
 Fraternity, or not made in accordance with 
 the precepts of the Order, is considered as 
 lost. 
 
 Salomonis Sanetiflcatus Illumi- 
 natus. Magnus Jehova. The title 
 of the reigning Master or third class of the 
 Illuminated Chapter according to the Swed- 
 ish system. 
 
 Salsette. An island in the Bay of Bom- 
 bay, celebrated for stupendous caverns exca- 
 vated artificially out of the solid rock, with 
 a labor which must, says Mr. Grose, have 
 
 been equal to that of erecting the Pyramids, 
 and which were appropriated to the initia- 
 tions in the Ancient Mysteries of India. 
 
 Salt. In the Helvetian ritual salt is 
 added to corn, wine, and oil as one of the 
 elements of consecration, because it is a 
 symbol of the wisdom and learning which 
 should characterize a Mason's Lodge. When 
 the foundation-stone of a Lodge is laid, the 
 Helvetian ritual directs that it shall be 
 sprinkled with salt, and this formula be 
 used: "May this undertaking, contrived 
 by wisdom, be executed in strength and 
 adorned with beauty, so that it may be a 
 house where peace, harmony, and broth- 
 erly love shall perpetually reign." 
 
 Salutation. Lenning says, that in 
 accordance with the usage of the Operative 
 Masons, it was formerly the custom for a 
 strange brother, when he visited a Lodge, 
 to bring to it such a salutation as this: 
 "From the Right Worshipful Brethren 
 and Fellows of a Right Worshipful and 
 Holy Lodge of St. John." The English 
 salutation, at the middle of the last cen- 
 tury, was : " From the Right Worshipful 
 Brothers and Fellows of the Right Wor- 
 shipful and Holy Lodge of St. John, from 
 whence I come and greet you thrice heartily 
 well." The custom has become obsolete, 
 although there is an allusion to it in the an- 
 swer to the question, "Whence come you?" 
 in the modern catechism of the Entered 
 Apprentice's degree. But Lenning is incor- 
 rect in saying that the salutation went out 
 of use after the introduction of certificates. 
 The salutation was, as has been seen, in use 
 in the eighteenth century, and certificates 
 were required as far back at least as the 
 year 1683. 
 
 Sal lit cm. {Lot. Health.) When the 
 Romans wrote friendly letters, they pre- 
 fixed the letter S as the initial of Salutem, 
 or health, and thus the writer expressed a 
 wish for the health of his correspondent. 
 At the head of Masonic documents we 
 often find this initial letter thrice repeated, 
 thus: S.\ S.\ S.\, with the same significa- 
 tion of Health, Health, Health. It is 
 equivalent to the English expression, 
 " Thrice Greeting." 
 
 Salute Mason. Among the Stone- 
 masons of Germany, in the Middle Ages, 
 and most probably introduced by them into 
 England, a distinction was made between 
 the Grussmaurer or Wortmaurer, the Salute 
 Mason or Word Mason, and the Schrift- 
 maurer or Letter Mason. The Salute Ma- 
 sons had signs, words, and other modes of 
 recognition by which they could make 
 themselves known to each other ; while the 
 Letter Masons, who were also called Brief- 
 tracer or Letter Bearers, had no mode, 
 when they visited strange Lodges, of prov- 
 
SAMARIA 
 
 SAN 
 
 687 
 
 ing themselves, except by the certificates 
 or written testimonials which they brought 
 with them. Thus, in the " examination of 
 a German Stonemason," which has been 
 published in Fallow's Myster'ien der Frei- 
 maurerei, (p. 25,) and copied thence by 
 Findel, we find these questions proposed to 
 a visiting brother, and the answers thereto : 
 
 " Warden. Stranger, are you a Letter 
 Mason or a Salute Mason ? 
 
 " Stranger. I am a Salute Mason. 
 
 " Warden. How shall I know you to be 
 such? 
 
 " Stranger. By my salute and words of 
 my mouth." 
 
 Samaria. A city situated near the 
 centre of Palestine, and built by Omri, 
 king of Israel, about 925 B. c. It was the 
 metropolis of the kingdom of Israel, or of 
 the ten tribes, and was, during the exile, 
 peopled by many Pagan foreigners sent to 
 supply the place of the deportated inhabi- 
 tants. Hence it became a seat of idolatry, 
 and was frequently denounced by the 
 prophets. See Samaritans. 
 
 Samaritan, Good. See Good Sama- 
 ritan. 
 
 Samaritans. The Samaritans were 
 originally the descendants of the ten revolt- 
 ed tribes who had chosen Samaria for their 
 metropolis. Subsequently, the Samaritans 
 were conquered by the Assyrians under Shal- 
 maneser, who carried the greater part of 
 the inhabitants into captivity, ana intro- 
 duced colonies in their place from Babylon, 
 Cultah, Ava, Hamath, and Sepharvaim. 
 These colonists, who assumed the name of 
 Samaritans, brought with them of course 
 the idolatrous creed and practices of the re- 
 gion from which they emigrated. The Sa- 
 maritans, therefore, at the time of the re- 
 building of the second Temple, were an 
 idolatrous race, and as such abhorrent to 
 the Jews. Hence, when they asked per- 
 mission to assist in the pious work of re- 
 building the Temple, Zerubbabel, with the 
 rest of the leaders, replied, "Ye have nothing 
 to do with us to build a house unto our 
 God ; but we ourselves together will build 
 unto the Lord God of Israel, as King Cy- 
 rus, the king of Persia, has commanded us." 
 
 Hence it was that, to avoid the possi- 
 bility of these idolatrous Samaritans pol- 
 luting the holy work by their co-operation, 
 Zerubbabel found it necessary to demand of 
 every one who offered himself as an assistant 
 in the undertaking that he should give an 
 accurate account of his lineage, and prove 
 himself to have been a descendant (which 
 no Samaritan could be) of those faithful 
 Giblemites who worked at the building of 
 the first Temple. 
 
 There were many points of religious dif- 
 ference between the Jews and the Samari- 
 
 tans. One was, that they denied the au- 
 thority of any of the Scriptures except the 
 Pentateuch ; another was that they asserted 
 that it was on Mount Gerizim, and not 
 on Mount Moriah, that Melchizedek met 
 Abraham when returning from the slaugh- 
 ter of the kings, and that here also he came 
 to sacrifice Isaac, whence they paid no 
 reverence to Moriah as the site of the 
 " Holy House of the Lord." A few of the 
 sect still remain at Nabulus. They do not 
 exceed one hundred and fifty. They have 
 a high priest, and observe all the feasts of 
 the ancient Jews, and especially that of the 
 Passover, which they keep on Mount Geri- 
 zim with all the formalities of the ancient 
 rites. 
 
 Samothracian Mysteries. The 
 Mysteries of the Cabiri are sometimes so 
 called because the principal seat of their 
 celebration was in the island of Samothrace. 
 "I ask," says Voltaire, (Diet. Phil.,) "who 
 were these Hierophants, these sacred Free- 
 masons, who celebrated their Ancient Mys- 
 teries of Samothracia, and whence came 
 they and their gods Cabiri ?" See Cabiri, 
 Mysteries of. 
 
 Sanctuary. The Holy of Holies in 
 the Temple of Solomon. See Holy of Holies. 
 
 Sanctum Sanctorum. Latin for 
 Holy of Holies, which see. 
 
 Sandwich Islands. Freemasonry 
 was first introduced into those far islands 
 of the Pacific by the Grand Orient of 
 France, which issued a Dispensation for the 
 establishment of a Lodge about 1848, or 
 perhaps earlier ; but it was not prosperous, 
 and soon became dormant. In 1852, the 
 Grand Lodge of California granted a War- 
 rant to Hawaiian Lodge, No. 21, on its 
 register at Honolulu. Royal Arch and 
 Templar Masonry have both been since in- 
 troduced. Honolulu Chapter was estab- 
 lished in 1859, and Honolulu Commandery 
 in 1871. 
 
 San Graal. Derived, probably, from 
 the old French, sang real, the true blood; 
 although other etymologies have been pro- 
 posed. The San Graal is represented, in le- 
 gendary history, as being an emerald dish 
 in which our Lord had partaken of the last 
 supper. Joseph of Arimathea, having fur- 
 ther sanctified it by receiving into it the 
 blood issuing from the five wounds, after- 
 wards carried it to England. Subsequently 
 it disappeared in consequence of the sins of 
 the land, and was long lost sight of. When 
 Merlin established the Knights of the Bound 
 Table, he told them that the San Graal 
 should be discovered by one of them, but 
 that he only could see it who was without 
 sin. One day, when Arthur was holding a 
 high feast with his Knights of the Round 
 Table, the San Graal suddenly appeared to 
 
633 
 
 SANHEDRIM 
 
 SASH 
 
 him and to all his chivalry, and then as 
 suddenly disappeared. The consequence 
 was that all the knights took upon them 
 a solemn vow to seek the Holy Dish. " The 
 quest of the San Graal " became one of the 
 most prominent myths of what has been 
 called the Arthuric cycle. The old French 
 romance of the Morte d' Arthur, which was 
 published by Caxton in 1485, contains the 
 adventures of Sir Galahad in search of the 
 San Graal. There are several other ro- 
 mances of which this wonderful vessel, in- 
 vested with the most marvellous properties, 
 is the subject. The quest of the San Graal 
 very forcibly reminds us of the search for 
 the Lost Word. The symbolism is precisely 
 the same, — the loss and the recovery being 
 but the lesson of death and eternal life, — 
 so that the San Graal in the Arthurian 
 myth, and the Lost Word in the Masonic 
 legend, seem to be identical in object and 
 design. Hence it is not surprising that a 
 French writer, M. de Caumont, should have 
 said {Bulletin Monument, p. 129,) that " the 
 poets of the twelfth and fourteenth centu- 
 ries, who composed the romances of the 
 Bound Table, made Joseph of Arimathea 
 the chief of a military and religious Free- 
 masonry." 
 
 Sanhedrim. The highest judicial 
 tribunal among the Jews. It consisted of 
 seventy-two persons beside the high priest. 
 It is supposed to have originated with Mo- 
 ses, who instituted a council of seventy on 
 the occasion of a rebellion of the Israelites 
 in the wilderness. The room in which the 
 Sanhedrim met was a rotunda, half of which 
 was built without the Temple and half 
 within, the latter part being that in which 
 the judges sat. The Nasi, or prince, who 
 was generally the high priest, sat on a 
 throne at the end of the hall ; his deputy, 
 called Ab-beth-din, at his right hand ; and 
 the sub-deputy, or Chacan, at his left ; 
 the other senators being ranged in order on 
 each side. Most of the members of this 
 council were priests or Levites, though men 
 in private stations of life were not excluded. 
 
 According to the English system of the 
 Koyal Arch, a Chapter of Eoyal Arch Ma- 
 sons represents the Sanhedrim, and there- 
 fore it is a rule that it shall never consist 
 of more than seventy-two members, al- 
 though a smaller number is competent to 
 transact any business. This theory is an 
 erroneous one, for in the time of Zerub- 
 babel there was no Sanhedrim, that tribu- 
 nal having been first established after the 
 Macedonian conquest. The place in the 
 Temple where the Sanhedrim met was 
 called " Gabbatha," or the " Pavement ; " it 
 was a room whose floor was formed of 
 ornamental square stones, and it is from 
 this that the Masonic idea has probably 
 
 arisen that the floor of the Lodge is a tes- 
 sellated or Mosaic pavement. 
 
 Sapicole, The. Thory says that a 
 degree by this name is cited in the nomen- 
 clature of Fustier, and is also found in the 
 collection of Viany. 
 
 Sapphire. Hebrew, "VQD- The sec- 
 ond stone in the second row of the high 
 priest's breastplate, and was appropriated 
 to the tribe of Naphtali. The chief priest 
 of the Egyptians wore round his neck an 
 image of truth and justice made of sapphire. 
 
 Saracens. Although originally only 
 an Arab tribe, the word Saracens was after- 
 wards applied to all the Arabs who em- 
 braced the tenets of Mohammed. The 
 Crusaders especially designated as Sara- 
 cens those Mohammedans who had in- 
 vaded Europe, and whose possession of the 
 Holy Land gave rise not only to the Cru- 
 sades, but to the organization of the mili- 
 tary and religious orders of Templars and 
 Hospitallers, whose continual wars with the 
 Saracens constitute the most important 
 chapters of the history of those times. 
 
 Sardins. Hebrew, OTN, Odem. The 
 first stone in the first row of the high 
 priest's breastplate. It is a species of cor- 
 nelian of a blood-red color, and was appro- 
 priated to the tribe of Reuben. 
 
 Sarsena. A pretended exposition of 
 Freemasonry, published at Baumberg, Ger- 
 many, in 1816, under the title of " Sarsena, 
 or the Perfect Architect," created a great 
 sensation at the time among the initiated 
 and the profane. It professed to contain 
 the history of the origin of the Order, and 
 the various opinions upon what it should 
 be, " faithfully described by a true and per- 
 fect brother, and extracted from the papers 
 which he left behind him." Like all other 
 expositions, it contained, as G'adicke re- 
 marks, very little that was true, and of that 
 which was true nothing that had not been 
 said before. 
 
 Sash. The old regulation on the sub- 
 ject of wearing sashes in a procession is in 
 the following words: "None but officers, 
 who must always be Master Masons, are 
 permitted to wear sashes ; and this decora- 
 tion is only for particular officers." In 
 this country the wearing of the sash ap- 
 pears, very properly, to be confined to the 
 W.\ Master, as a distinctive badge of his 
 office. 
 
 The sash is worn by all the companions 
 of the Royal Arch degree, and is of a scarlet 
 color, with the words " Holiness to the Lord " 
 inscribed upon it. These were the words 
 placed upon the mitre of the high priest 
 of the Jews. 
 
 In the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite, the white sash is a decoration of the 
 thirty-third degree. A recent decree of the 
 
SATRAP 
 
 SCALD 
 
 689 
 
 Supreme Council of the Southern Juris- 
 diction confines its use to honorary mem- 
 bers, while active members only wear the 
 collar. 
 
 The sash, or scarf, is analogous to the 
 Zennar, or sacred cord, placed upon the 
 candidate in the initiation into the mys- 
 teries of India, and which every Brahman 
 was compelled to wear. This cord was 
 woven with great solemnity, and being put 
 upon the left shoulder, passed over to the 
 right side and hung down as low as the 
 fingers could reach. 
 
 Satrap. The title given by the Greek 
 writers to the Persian governors of prov- 
 inces before Alexander's conquest. It is 
 from the Persian word satrab. The author- 
 ized version calls them the " king's lieu- 
 tenants ; " the Hebrew, achashdarpenim, 
 which is doubtless a Persian word Hebra- 
 ized. It was these satraps who gave the 
 Jews so much trouble in the rebuilding of 
 the Temple. They are alluded to in the 
 congeneric degrees of Knight of the Red 
 Cross and Prince of Jerusalem. 
 
 Savalette de Langes. Founder of 
 the Rite of Philalethes at Paris, in 1773. 
 He was also the President and moving 
 spirit of the Masonic Congress at Paris, 
 which met in 1785 and 1787 for the pur- 
 pose of discussing many important points 
 in reference to Freemasonry. The zeal and 
 energy of Savalette de Langes had suc- 
 ceeded in collecting for the Lodge of the 
 Philalethes a valuable cabinet of natural 
 history and a library containing many 
 manuscripts and documents of great im- 
 portance. His death, which occurred soon 
 after the beginning of the French revolu- 
 tion, and the political troubles that ensued, 
 caused the dispersion of the members and 
 the loss of a great part of the collection. The 
 remnant subsequently came into the pos- 
 session of the Lodges of St. Alexander of 
 Scotland, and of the Social Contrat, which 
 constituted the Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Sayers, Anthony. At the revival 
 in 1717, " Mr. Anthony Sayers, gentle- 
 man," was elected Grand Master. He was 
 succeeded in the next year by George Payne, 
 Esq. In 1719, he was appointed Senior 
 Grand Warden by Grand Master Desagu- 
 liers. He is last mentioned as being pres- 
 ent in the Grand Lodge in 1730, when he 
 appeared in the procession as the oldest 
 Past Grand Master. It is to be regretted 
 that no records of this proto-Grand Master 
 of the revived Grand Lodge of England 
 have been preserved. A portrait of him by 
 Highmore, the celebrated painter, is in 
 existence, mezzotinto copies of which are 
 not uncommon. 
 
 Scald 1 Miserable^. A name given 
 to a set of persons who, in 1741, formed a 
 4 M 44 
 
 mock procession in derision of the Freema- 
 sons. Sir John Hawkins, speaking, in his 
 Life of Johnson, (p. 336,) of Paul White- 
 head, says : " In concert with one Carey, a 
 surgeon, he planned and exhibited a pro- 
 cession along the Strand of persons on foot 
 and on horseback, dressed for the occasion, 
 carrying mock ensigns and the symbols of 
 Freemasonry ; the design of which was to 
 expose to laughter the insignia and cere- 
 monies of that mysterious institution ; and 
 it was not until thirty years afterwards that 
 the Fraternity recovered from the disgrace 
 which so ludicrous a representation had 
 brought on it." The incorrectness of this 
 last statement will be evident to all who 
 are acquainted with the successful progress 
 made by Freemasonry between the years 
 1741 and 1771, during which time Sir John 
 Hawkins thinks that it was languishing 
 under the blow dealt by the mock proces- 
 sion of the Scald Miserables. 
 
 A better and fuller account is contained 
 in the London Daily Post of March 20, 
 1741. " Yesterday, some mock Freemasons 
 marched through Pall Mall and the Strand 
 as far as Temple Bar in procession ; first 
 went fellows on jackasses, with cows' horns 
 in their hands ; then a kettle-drummer on 
 a jackass, having two butter firkins for 
 kettle-drums ; then followed two carts 
 drawn by jackasses, having in them the 
 stewards with several badges of their 
 order; then came a mourning-coach drawn 
 by six horses, each of a different color and 
 size, in which were the Grand Master and 
 Wardens ; the whole attended by a vast 
 mob. They stayed without Temple Bar 
 till the Masons came by, and paid their 
 compliments to them, who returned the 
 same with an agreeable humor that possi- 
 bly disappointed the witty contriver of 
 this mock scene, whose misfortune is that, 
 though he has some wit, his subjects are gen- 
 erally so ill chosen that he loses by it as 
 many friends as other people of more 
 judgment gain." 
 
 April 27th, being the day of the annual 
 feast, " a number of shoe-cleaners, chim- 
 ney-sweepers, etc., on foot and in carts, 
 with ridiculous pageants carried before 
 them, went in procession to Temple Bar, by 
 way of jest on the Freemasons." A few 
 days afterwards, says the same journal, 
 " several of the Mock Masons were taken 
 up by the constable empowered to impress 
 men for his Majesty's service, and con- 
 fined until they can be examined by the 
 justices." 
 
 It was, as Hone remarks, (Anc. Myst., p. 
 242,) very common to indulge in satirical 
 pageants, which were accommodated to the 
 amusement of the vulgar, and he mentions 
 this procession as one of the kind. A plate 
 
690 
 
 SCALD 
 
 SCALLOP-SHELL 
 
 of the mock procession was engraved by 
 A. Benoist, a drawing-master, under the 
 title of " A Geometrical View of the Grand 
 Procession of the Scald Miserable Masons, 
 designed as they were drawn up over 
 against Somerset House in the Strand, on 
 the 27th day of April, Anno 1742." Of 
 this plate there is a copy in Clavel's His- 
 toire Pittoresque. With the original plate 
 Benoist published a key, as follows, which 
 perfectly agrees with the copy of the plate 
 in Clavel : 
 
 " No. 1. The grand Sword-Bearer, or Ty- 
 ler, carrying the Swoard of State, (a pres- 
 ent of Ishmael Abiff to old Hyram, King 
 of the Saracens,) to his Grace of Wattin, 
 Grand Master of the Holy Lodge of St. 
 John of Jerusalem in Clerkenwell. # 2. 
 Tylers or Guarders. 3. Grand Chorus of 
 Instruments. 4. The Stewards, in three 
 Gutt-carts drawn by Asses. 5. Two famous 
 Pillars. 6. Three great Lights : the Sun, 
 Hieroglyphical, to rule the Day ; the Moon, 
 Emblematical, to rule the Night ; a Master 
 Mason, Political, to rule his Lodge. 7. 
 The Entered Prentice's Token. 8. The let- 
 ter G, famous in Masonry for differencing 
 the Fellow Craft's Lodge from that of 
 Prentices. 9. The Funeral of a Grand Mas- 
 ter according to the Rites of the Order, with 
 the Fifteen loving Brethren. 10. A Master 
 Mason's Lodge. 11. Grand Band of Mu- 
 sick. 12. Two Trophies ; one being that of 
 a Black-shoe Boy and a Sink Boy, the 
 other that of a Chimney-S weeper. 13. The 
 Equipage of the Grand Master, all the At- 
 tendants wearing Mystical Jewells." 
 
 The historical mock procession of the 
 Scald Miserables was, it thus appears, that 
 which occurred on April 27, and not the 
 preceding one of March 20, which may have 
 been only a feeler, and having been well re- 
 ceived by the populace there might have 
 been an encouragement for its repetition. 
 But it was not so popular with the higher 
 classes, who felt a respect for Freemasonry, 
 and were unwilling to see an indignity put 
 upon it. A writer in the London Freema- 
 sons' Magazine (1858, I., 875,) says: "The 
 contrivers of the mock procession were at 
 that time said to be Paul Whitehead, Esq., 
 and his intimate friend (whose real Chris- 
 tian name was Esquire) Carey, of Pall 
 Mall, surgeon to Frederick, Prince of 
 Wales. The city officers did not suffer this 
 procession to go through Temple Bar, the 
 common report then being that its real 
 interest was to affront the annual proces- 
 sion of the Freemasons. The Prince was 
 so much offended at this piece of ridicule, 
 that he immediately removed Carey from 
 the office he held under him." 
 
 Smith ( Use and Abuse of Freemas., p. 78,) 
 says that "about this time (1742) an order 
 
 was issued to discontinue all public proces- 
 sions on feast days, on account of a mock 
 procession which had been planned, at a 
 considerable expense, by some prejudiced 
 persons, with a view to ridicule these pub- 
 lic cavalcades." Smith is not altogether 
 accurate. There is no doubt that the ulti- 
 mate effect of the mock procession was to 
 put an end to what was called " the march 
 of procession " on the feast day, but that 
 effect did not show itself until 1757, in 
 which year it was resolved that it should in 
 future be discontinued. 
 
 Scales, Pair of. " Let me be weighed 
 in an even balance," said Job, "that 
 God may know mine integrity ;" and Solo- 
 mon says that " a false balance is abomina- 
 tion to the Lord, but a just weight is his 
 delight." So we find that among the an- 
 cients a balance, or pair of scales, was a 
 well-known recognized symbol of a strict 
 observation of justice and fair dealing. 
 This symbolism is also recognized in Ma- 
 sonry, and hence in the degree of Princes 
 of Jerusalem, the duty of which is to ad- 
 minister justice in the inferior degrees, a 
 pair of scales is the most important symbol. 
 
 Scallop - Shell. The scallop-shell, 
 the staff, and sandals form a part of the cos- 
 tume of a Masonic Knight Templar in his 
 character as a Pilgrim Penitent. Shake- 
 speare makes Ophelia sing, — 
 
 "And how shall I my true love know 
 From any other one? 
 O, by his scallop-shell and staff, 
 And by his sandal shoon ! " 
 
 The scallop-shell was in the Middle 
 Ages the recognized badge of a pilgrim ; so 
 much so, that Dr. Clarke (Travels, ii. 538,) 
 has been led to say : " It is not easy to ac- 
 count for the origin of the shell as a badge 
 worn by the pilgrims, but it decidedly re- 
 fers to much earlier Oriental customs than 
 the journeys of Christians to the Holy 
 Land, and its history will probably be 
 found in the mythology of eastern na- 
 tions." He is right as to the question of 
 antiquity, for the shell was an ancient sym- 
 bol of the Syrian goddess Astarte, Venus 
 Pelagia, or Venus rising from the sea. But 
 it is doubtful whether its use by pilgrims is 
 to be traced to so old or so Pagan an au- 
 thority. Strictly, the scallop-shell was the 
 badge of pilgrims visiting the shrine of St. 
 James of Compostella, and hence it is called 
 by naturalists the pecten Jacoboeus — the 
 comb shell of St. James. Fuller (Ch. Hist., 
 ii., 228,) says: "All pilgrims that visit St. 
 James of Compostella in Spain returned 
 thence obsiti conchis, ' all beshelled about ' 
 on their clothes, as a religious donative 
 there bestowed upon them." Pilgrims were, 
 in fact, in mediaeval times distinguished by 
 
SCANDINAVIAN 
 
 SCHAW 
 
 691 
 
 the peculiar badge which they wore, as 
 designating the shrine which they had 
 visited. Thus pilgrims from Rome wore 
 the keys, those from St. James the scallop- 
 shell, and those from the Holy Land palm 
 branches, whence such a pilgrim was some- 
 times called a, palmer. But this distinction 
 was not always rigidly adhered to, and pil- 
 grims from Palestine frequently wore the 
 shell. At first the shell was sewn on the 
 cloak, but afterwards transferred to the 
 hat; and while, in the beginning, the badge 
 was not assumed until the pilgrimage was 
 accomplished, eventually pilgrims began to 
 wear it as soon as they had taken their vow 
 of pilgrimage, and before they had com- 
 menced their journey. 
 
 Both of these changes have been advo- 
 cated in the Templar ritual. The pilgrim, 
 although symbolically making his pil- 
 grimage to the Holy Sepulchre in Pales- 
 tine, adopts the shell more properly belong- 
 ing to the pilgrimage to Compostella; and 
 adopts it, too, not after his visit to the 
 shrine, but as soon as he has assumed the 
 character of a pilgrim, which, it will be seen 
 from what has been said, is historically cor- 
 rect, and in accordance with the later prac- 
 tice of mediaeval pilgrims. 
 
 Scandinavian Mysteries. See 
 Gothic Mysteries. 
 
 Scarlet. See Bed. 
 
 Scenic Representations. In the 
 Ancient Mysteries scenic representations 
 were employed to illustrate the doctrines of 
 the resurrection, which it was their object 
 to inculcate. Thus the allegory of the ini- 
 tiation was more deeply impressed, by be- 
 ing brought vividly to the sight as well as 
 to the mind of the aspirant. Thus, too, in 
 the religious mysteries of the Middle Ages, 
 the moral lessons of Scripture were drama- 
 tized for the benefit of the people who be- 
 held them. The Christian virtues and 
 graces often assumed the form of personages 
 in these religious plays, and fortitude, pru- 
 dence, temperance, and justice appeared 
 before the spectators as living and acting 
 beings, inculcating by their actions and by 
 the plot of the drama those lessons which 
 would not have been so well received or 
 so thoroughly understood, if given merely 
 in a didactic form. The advantage of these 
 scenic representations, consecrated by an- 
 tiquity and tested by long experience, is 
 well exemplified in the ritual of the third 
 degree of Masonry, where the dramatiza- 
 tion of the great legend gives to the initia- 
 tion a singular force and beauty. It is sur- 
 prising, therefore, that the English system 
 never adopted, or, if adopted, speedily dis- 
 carded, the drama of the third degree, but 
 gives only in the form of a narrative what 
 the American system more wisely and more 
 
 usefully presents by living action. Through- 
 out America, in every State excepting 
 Pennsylvania, the initiation into the third 
 degree constitutes a scenic representation. 
 The latter State alone preserves the less 
 impressive didactic method of the English 
 system. The rituals of the continent of 
 Europe pursue the same scenic form of ini- 
 tiation, and it is therefore most probable 
 that this was the ancient usage, and that 
 the present English ritual is of compara- 
 tively recent date. 
 
 Sceptre. An ensign of sovereign au- 
 thority, and hence carried in several of the 
 high degrees by officers who represent 
 kings. 
 
 Schaw Manuscript. This is a code 
 of laws for the government of the Oper- 
 ative Masons of Scotland, drawn up by 
 William Schaw, the Master of the Work 
 to James VI. It bears the following title : 
 "The Statutis and Ordinanceis to be ob- 
 seruit be all the Maister-Maissounis within 
 this realme sett down be Williame Schaw, 
 Maister of Wark to his Maieste and gen- 
 erall Wardene of the said Craft, with the 
 consent of the Maisteris efter specifeit." 
 As will be perceived by this title, it is in 
 the Scottish dialect. It is written on pa- 
 per, and dated XXVIII December, 1598. 
 Although containing substantially the gen- 
 eral regulations which are to be found in 
 the English manuscripts, it diners mate- 
 rially from them in many particulars. 
 Masters, Fellow Crafts, and Apprentices 
 are spoken of, but simply as gradations of 
 rank, not as degrees, and the word " Ludge " 
 or Lodge is constantly used to define the 
 
 Elace of meeting. The government of the 
 odge was vested in the Warden, Deacons, 
 and Masters, and these the Fellow Crafts 
 and Apprentices were to obey. The high- 
 est officer of the Craft is called the General 
 Warden. The Manuscript is in possession 
 of the Lodge of Edinburgh, but has sev- 
 eral times been published — first in the 
 Laws and Constitutions of the Grand Lodge 
 of Scotland, in 1848 ; then in the American 
 edition of that work, published by Dr. 
 Robert Morris, in the ninth volume of the 
 Universal Masonic Library; afterwards by 
 W.' A. Laurie, in 1859, in his History of 
 Freemasonry and the Grand Lodge of Scot- 
 land; and lastly, by W. J. Hughan, in his 
 Unpublished Records of the Craft. 
 
 Schaw, William. A name which is 
 intimately connected with the history of 
 Freemasonry in Scotland. For the partic- 
 ulars of his life, I am principally indebted 
 to the writer of " Appendix Q. 2," in the 
 Constitutions of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. 
 William Schaw was born in the year 
 1550, and was probably a son of Schaw of 
 Sauchie, in the shire of Clackmannon. He 
 
692 
 
 SCHAW 
 
 SCHISMS 
 
 appears from an early period of life to 
 have been connected with the royal house- 
 hold. In proof of this we may refer to his 
 signature attached to the original parch- 
 ment deed of the National Covenant, which 
 was signed by King James VI. and his 
 household at the Palace of Holyrood, 28th 
 January, 1580-1. In 1584, Schaw became 
 successor to Sir Robert Drummond, of Car- 
 nock, as Master of Works. This high offi- 
 cial appointment placed under his superin- 
 tendence all the royal buildings and palaces 
 in Scotland; and in the Treasurer's ac- 
 counts of a subsequent period various sums 
 are entered as having been paid to him in 
 connection with these buildings for im- 
 provements, repairs, and additions. Thus, 
 in September, 1585, the sum of £315 was 
 paid " to William Schaw, his Majestie's 
 Maister of Wark, for the reparation and 
 mending of the Castell of Striueling," and 
 in May, 1590, £400, by his Majesty's 
 precept, was " delyverit to William Schaw, 
 the Maister of Wark, for reparation of the 
 hous of Dumfermling, befoir the Queen's 
 Majestie passing thairto." 
 
 Sir James Melville, in his Memoirs, men- 
 tions that, being appointed to receive the 
 three Danish Ambassadors who came to 
 Scotland in 1585, (with overtures for an 
 alliance with one of the daughters of Fred- 
 erick II.,) he requested the king that two 
 other persons might be joined with him, 
 and for this purpose he named Schaw and 
 James Meldrum, of Seggie, one of the Lords 
 of Session. It further appears that Schaw 
 had been employed in various missions to 
 France. He accompanied James VI. to 
 Denmark in the winter of 1589, previous 
 to the king's marriage with the Princess 
 Anna of Denmark, which was celebrated at 
 Upslo, in Norway, on the 23d of November. 
 The king and his attendants remained dur- 
 ing the winter season in Denmark, but Schaw 
 returned to Scotland on the 16th of March, 
 1589-90, for the purpose of making the 
 necessary arrangements for the reception 
 of the wedding party. Schaw brought 
 with him a paper subscribed by the king, 
 containing the "Ordour set down be his 
 Majestie to be effectuate be his Heines 
 Secreit Counsall, and preparit agane his 
 Majestie's returne in Scotland," dated in 
 February, 1589-90. The king and his 
 royal bride arrived in Leith on the 1st of 
 May, and remained there six days, in a 
 building called "The King's Work," until 
 the Palace of Holyrood was prepared for 
 their reception. Extensive alterations had 
 evidently been made at this time at Holy- 
 rood, as a warrant was issued by the Pro- 
 vost and Council of Edinburgh to deliver 
 to William Schaw, Maister of Wark, the 
 sum of £1000, " restand of the last taxa- 
 
 tion of £20,000" granted by the Royal 
 Buroughs in Scotland, the sum to be ex- 
 pended " in biggin and repairing of his 
 Hienes Palice of Halyrud-house," 14th 
 March, 1589-90. Subsequent payments to 
 Schaw occur in the Treasurer's accounts for 
 broad scarlet cloth and other stuff for 
 " burde claythes and coverings to forms and 
 windows bayth in the Kirk and Palace of 
 Halyrud-house." On this occasion various 
 sums were also paid by a precept from the 
 king for dresses, etc., to the ministers and 
 others connected with the royal household. 
 On this occasion William Schaw, Maister 
 of Wark, received £133 6a. 8d. The queen 
 was crowned on the 17th May, and two 
 days following she made her first public 
 entrance into Edinburgh. The inscription 
 on Schaw's monument states that he was, 
 in addition to his office of Master of the 
 Works, "Sacris ceremoniis propositus" 
 and " Reginae Quaestor," which Monteith 
 has translated "Sacrist and Queen's Cham- 
 berlain." This appointment of Chamber- 
 lain evinces the high regard in which the 
 queen held him ; but there can be no doubt 
 that the former words relate to his hold- 
 ing the office of General Warden of the cere- 
 monies of the Masonic Craft, an office 
 analogous to that of Substitute Grand Mas- 
 ter as now existing in the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland. 
 
 William Schaw died April 18, 1602, and 
 was buried in the Abbey Church of Dun- 
 fermline, where a monument was erected 
 to his memory by his grateful mistress, the 
 Queen. On this monument is his name 
 and monogram cut in a marble slab, which, 
 tradition says, was executed by his own 
 hand, and containing his Mason's mark, 
 and an inscription in Latin, in which he is 
 described as one imbued with every liberal 
 art and science, most skilful in architec- 
 ture, and in labors and business not only 
 unwearied and indefatigable, but ever as- 
 siduous and energetic. No man appears, 
 from the records, to have lived with more 
 of the commendation, or died with more of 
 the regret of others, than this old Scottish 
 Mason. 
 
 Schismatic. Thory {Hist, de la Fond, 
 du O. 0.) thus calls the brethren who, ex- 
 pelled by the Grand Lodge of France, had 
 formed, in the year 1772, a rival body un- 
 der the name of the National Assembly. 
 Any body of Masons separating from the 
 legal obedience, and establishing a new 
 one not authorized by the laws of Ma- 
 sonry, — such, for instance, as the Grand 
 Lodge of Ancients in England, or the 
 Saint John's Grand Lodge in New York, — 
 is properly schismatic. 
 
 Schisms. This, which was originally 
 an ecclesiastical term, and signifies, as Mil- 
 
SCHISMS 
 
 SCHNEIDER 
 
 693 
 
 ton defines it, " a rent or division in the 
 church when it comes to the separating of 
 congregations," is unfortunately not un- 
 known in Masonic history. It is in Ma- 
 sonic, as in canon law, a withdrawing from 
 recognized authority, and setting up some 
 other authority in its place. The first 
 schism recorded after the revival of 1717, 
 was that of the Duke of Wharton, who, in 
 1722, caused himself to be irregularly nomi- 
 nated and elected Grand Master. His am- 
 bition is assigned in the Book of Constitu- 
 tions as the cause, and his authority was 
 disowned "by all those," says Anderson, 
 "who would not countenance irregulari- 
 ties." But the breach was healed by 
 Grand Master Montague, who, resigning 
 his claim to the chair, caused Wharton to 
 be regularly elected and installed. The 
 second schism in England was of longer 
 duration. It commenced with the with- 
 drawal of several dissatisfied brethren from 
 the legitimate Grand Lodge in 1738, and 
 the subsequent organization of a schis- 
 matic body known as the Grand Lodge of 
 the Ancients. This schism lasted until 
 1813, when it was healed by the reconcilia- 
 tion and union of the two Grand Lodges ; 
 but the effects of so great a separation, both 
 as to the time of its continuance and the ex- 
 tent of country over which it spread, are 
 still felt by the Institution. In France, 
 although irregular Lodges began to be insti- 
 tuted as early as 1756, the first active 
 schism is to be dated from 1761, when the 
 dancing- master Lacorne, whom the re- 
 spectable Masons refused to recognize as 
 the substitute of De Clermont the Grand 
 Master, formed, with his adherents, an in- 
 dependent and rival Grand Lodge; the 
 members of which, however, became recon- 
 ciled to the legal Grand Lodge the next 
 year, and again became schismatic in 1765. 
 In fact, from 1761 until the organization 
 of the Grand Orient in 1772, the history 
 of Masonry in France is but a history of 
 schisms. 
 
 In Germany, in consequence of the Ger- 
 manic principle of Masonic law that two 
 or more controlling bodies may exist at the 
 same time and in the same place with con- 
 current and coextensive jurisdiction, it is 
 legally impossible that there ever should 
 be a schism. A Lodge or any number of 
 Lodges may withdraw from the parent 
 stock and assume the standing and pre- 
 rogatives of a mother Lodge with powers 
 of constitution or an independent Grand 
 Lodge, and its regularity would be indispu- 
 table, according to the German interpreta- 
 tion of the law of territorial jurisdiction. 
 Such an act of withdrawal would be a se- 
 cession, but not a schism. 
 
 In this country there have been several 
 
 instances of Masonic schism. Thus, in 
 Massachusetts, by the establishment in 
 1752 of the St. Andrew's Grand Lodge ; in 
 South Carolina, by the formation of the 
 Grand Lodge of York Masons in 1787 ; in 
 Louisiana, in 1848, by the institution of 
 the Grand Lodge of Ancient York Masons; 
 and in New York, by the establishment 
 in 1823 of the St. John's Grand Lodge; 
 and in 1849 by the formation of the body 
 known as the Philip's Grand Lodge. In 
 all of these instances a reconciliation 
 eventually took place ; nor is it probable 
 that schisms will often occur, because the 
 principle of exclusive territorial jurisdic- 
 tion has been now so well settled and so 
 universally recognized, that no seceding or 
 schismatic body can expect to receive the 
 countenance or support of any of the 
 Grand Lodges of the Union. 
 
 There are these essential points of differ- 
 ence between ecclesiastical and Masonic 
 schism; the former, once occurring, most 
 generally remains perpetual. Reconcilia- 
 tion with a parent church is seldom ef- 
 fected. The schisms of Calvin and Luther 
 at the time of the Reformation led to the 
 formation of the Protestant Churches, who 
 can never be expected to unite with the 
 Roman Church, from which they separated. 
 The Quakers, the Baptists, the Methodists, 
 and other sects which seceded from the 
 Church of England, have formed perma- 
 nent religious organizations, between whom 
 and the parent body from which they 
 separated there is a breach which will 
 probably never be healed. But all Ma- 
 sonic schisms, as experience has shown, 
 have been temporary in their duration, 
 and sometimes very short lived. The 
 spirit of Masonic brotherhood which con- 
 tinues to pervade both parties, always 
 leads, sooner or later, to a reconciliation 
 and a reunion ; concessions are mutually 
 made, and compromises effected, by which 
 the schismatic body is again merged in the 
 parent association from which it had se- 
 ceded. Another difference is this, a reli- 
 gious schismatic body is not necessarily an 
 illegal one, nor does it always profess a 
 system of false doctrine. "A schism," says 
 Milton, " may happen to a true church, as 
 well as to a false." But a Masonic schism 
 is always illegal : it violates the law of ex- 
 clusive jurisdiction ; and a schismatic body 
 cannot be recognized as possessing any of 
 the rights or prerogatives which belong 
 alone to the supreme dogmatic Masonic 
 power of the State. 
 
 Schneider, Johann August. A 
 zealous and learned Mason of Altenburg, 
 in Germany, where he was born May 22, 
 1755, and died August 13, 1816. Besides 
 contributing many valuable articles to va- 
 
694 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 SCHROEDER 
 
 rious Masonic journals, he was the com- 
 piler of the " Constitutions-Buch" of the 
 Lodge " Archimedes zu den drei Reissbret- 
 ten " at Altenburg, in which he had been 
 initiated, and of which he was a member ; 
 an important but scarce work, containing 
 a history of Masonry, and other valuable 
 essays. 
 
 Schools. None of the charities of 
 Freemasonry have been more important 
 or more worthy of approbation than those 
 which have been directed to the establish- 
 ment of schools for the education of the 
 orphan children of Masons; and it is a 
 very proud feature of the Order, that insti- 
 tutions of this kind are to be found in 
 every country where Freemasonry has 
 made a lodgment as an organized society. 
 In England, the Royal Freemasons' Girls' 
 School was established in 1789. In 1798, a 
 similar one for boys was founded. At a very 
 early period charity schools were erected 
 by the Lodges in Germany, Denmark, and 
 Sweden. The Masons of Holland insti- 
 tuted a school for the blind in 1808. In 
 the United States much attention has been 
 
 Eaid to this subject. In 1842, the Grand 
 lodge of Missouri instituted a Masonic 
 college, and the example was followed by 
 several other Grand Lodges. But colleges 
 have been found too unwieldy and compli- 
 cated in their management for a successful 
 experiment, and the scheme has generally 
 been abandoned- But there are numerous 
 schools in the United States which are 
 supported in whole or in part by Masonic 
 Lodges. 
 
 Schools of the Prophets. Oliver 
 (Landm., ii. 374,) speaks of " the secret in- 
 stitution of the Nabiim " as existing in the 
 time of Solomon, and which, he says, were 
 established by Samuel " to counteract the 
 progress of the Spurious Freemasonry 
 which was introduced into Palestine before 
 his time." This claim of a Masonic char- 
 acter for these institutions has been gratui- 
 tously assumed by the venerable author. 
 He referred to the well-known schools of 
 the Prophets, which were first organized 
 by Samuel, which lasted from his time to 
 the closing of the canon of the Old Testa- 
 ment. They were scattered all over Pales- 
 tine, and consisted of scholars who devoted 
 themselves to the study of both the written 
 and the oral law, to the religious rites, and 
 to the interpretation of Scripture. Their 
 teaching of what they had learned was 
 public, not secret, nor did they in any way 
 resemble, as Oliver suggests, the Masonic 
 Lodges of the present day. They were, in 
 their organization, rather like our modern 
 theological colleges, though their range 
 of studies was very different. 
 Nchrepfer, J ohann Georg. The 
 
 keeper of a coffee-house in Leipsic, where, 
 having obtained a quantity of Masonic, 
 Rosicrucian, and magical books, he opened, 
 in 1768, what he called a Scottish Lodge, 
 and pretended that he had been commis- 
 sioned by Masonic superiors to destroy the 
 system of Strict Observance, whose adher- 
 ents he abused and openly insulted. He 
 boasted that he alone possessed the great 
 secret of Freemasonry, and that nearly all 
 the German Masons were utterly ignorant 
 of anything about it except its external 
 forms. He declared that he was an 
 anointed priest, having power over spirits, 
 who were compelled to appear at his will 
 and obey his commands, by which means 
 he became acquainted not only with the 
 past and the present, but even with the fu- 
 ture. It was in thus pretending to evoke 
 spirits that his Masonry principally con- 
 sisted. Many persons became his dupes ; 
 and although they soon discovered the im- 
 posture, shame at being themselves de- 
 ceived prevented them from revealing the 
 truth to others, and thus his initiations 
 continued for a considerable period, and he 
 was enabled to make some money, the only 
 real object of his system. He has himself 
 asserted, in a letter to a Prussian clergy- 
 man, that he was an emissary of the Jesu- 
 its ; but of the truth of this we have only 
 his own unreliable testimony. He left 
 Leipsic at one time and travelled abroad, 
 leaving his Deputy to act for him during 
 his absence. On his return he asserted 
 that he was the natural son of one of the 
 French princes, and assumed the title of 
 Baron Von Steinbach. But at length there 
 was an end to his practices of jugglery. 
 Seeing that he was beginning to be detected, 
 fearing exposure, and embarrassed by debt, 
 he invitee! some of his disciples to accom- 
 pany him to a wood near Leipsic called 
 the Rosenthal, where, on the morning of 
 October 8, 1774, having retired to a little dis- 
 tance from the crowd, he blew out his 
 brains with a pistol. Clavel has thought it 
 worth while to preserve the memory of this 
 incident by inserting an engraving repre- 
 senting the scene in his Histoire Pitto- 
 resque de la Franc- Maconnerie. Schepfer had 
 much low cunning, but was devoid of edu- 
 cation. Lenning sums up his character in 
 saying that he was one of the coarsest and 
 most impudent swindlers who ever chose 
 the Masonic brotherhood for his stage of 
 action. 
 
 Schroeder, Friederlch Joseph 
 W illiclm. A doctor and professor of 
 
 Eharmacology in Marburg; was born at 
 iielefeld, in Prussia, March 19, 1733, and 
 died October 27, 1778. Of an infirm con- 
 stitution from his youth, he still further 
 impaired his bodily health and his mental 
 
SCHROEDER 
 
 SCIENTIFIC 
 
 695 
 
 faculties by his devotion to chemical, al- 
 chemical, and theosophic pursuits. He 
 established at Marburg, in 1766, a Chapter 
 of True and Ancient Rose Croix Masons, 
 and in 1779 he organized in a Lodge of 
 Sarreburg a school or Rite, founded on 
 magic, theosophy, and alchemy, which con- 
 sisted of seven degrees, four high degrees 
 founded on these occult sciences being su- 
 peradded to the original three symbolic de- 
 grees. This Rite, called the "Rectified 
 Rose Croix," was only practised by two 
 Lodges under the Constitution of the Grand 
 Lodge of Hamburg. Clavel calls him 
 the Cagliostro of Germany, because it was 
 in his school that the Italian charlatan 
 learned his first lessons of magic and the- 
 osophy. Oliver, misunderstanding Clavel, 
 styles him an adventurer. But it is perhaps 
 more just that we should attribute to him 
 a diseased imagination and misdirected 
 studies than a bad heart or impure prac- 
 tices. He must not be confounded with 
 Fried. Ludwig Schroeder, who was a man 
 of a very different character. 
 
 Schroeder, Friedrich Ludwig. 
 An actor and a dramatic and Masonic writ- 
 er, born at Schwerin, Nov. 3, 1744, and died 
 near Hamburg, Sept. 3, 1816. He com- 
 menced life as an actor at Vienna, and was 
 so distinguished in his profession that Hoff- 
 mann says " he was incontestably the great- 
 est actor that Germany ever had, and equal- 
 ly eminent in tragedy and comedy." As an 
 active, zealous Mason, he acquired a high 
 character. Bode himself, a well-known 
 Mason, was his intimate friend. Through 
 his influence, he was initiated into Free- 
 masonry, in 1774, in the Lodge Emanuel 
 zur Maienblume. He soon after himself 
 established a new Lodge working in the 
 system of Zinnendorf, but which did not 
 long remain in existence. Schroeder then 
 went to Vienna, where he remained until 
 1785, when he returned to Hamburg. On 
 his return, he was elected by his old friends 
 the Master of the Lodge Emanuel, which 
 office he retained until 1799. In 1794 
 he was elected Deputy Grand Master 
 of the English Provincial Grand Lodge of 
 Lower Saxony, and in 1814, in the seven- 
 tieth year of his life, he was induced to ac- 
 cept the Grand Mastership. It was after 
 his election, in 1787, as Master of the Lodge 
 Emanuel at Hamburg, that he first resolved 
 to devote himself to a thorough reformation 
 of the Masonic system, which had been 
 much corrupted on the continent by the in- 
 vention of almost innumerable high degrees, 
 many of which found their origin in the 
 fantasies of Alchemy, Rosicrucianism, and 
 Hermetic Philosophy. It is to this resolu- 
 tion, thoroughly executed, that we owe the 
 Masonic scheme known as Schroeder's Rite, 
 
 which, whatever may be its defects in the 
 estimation of others, has become very pop- 
 ular among many German Masons. He 
 started out with the theory that, as Free- 
 masonry had proceeded from England to 
 the continent, in the English Book of Con- 
 stitutions and the Primitive English Ritual 
 we must look for the pure unadulterated 
 fountain of Freemasonry. 
 
 He accordingly selected the well-known 
 English Exposition entitled "Jachin and 
 Boaz " as presenting, in his opinion, the 
 best formula of the old initiation. He 
 therefore translated it into the German lan- 
 guage, and, remodelling it, presented it 
 to the Provincial Grand Lodge in 1801, by 
 whom it was accepted and established. It 
 was soon after accepted by many other Ger- 
 man Lodges on account of its simplicity. 
 The system of Schroeder thus adopted con- 
 sisted of the three degrees of Ancient Craft 
 Masonry, all the higher degrees being re- 
 jected. But Schroeder found it necessary 
 to enlarge his system, so as to give to breth- 
 ren who desired it an opportunity of far- 
 ther investigation into the philosophy of 
 Masonry. He, therefore, established an 
 Engbund, or Select Historical Union, which 
 should be composed entirely of Master Ma- 
 sons, who were to be engaged in the study 
 of the different systems and degrees of Free- 
 masonry. The Hamburg Lodges consti- 
 tuted the Mutterbund, or central body, to 
 which all the other Lodges were to be 
 united by correspondence. 
 
 Of this system, the error, I think, is that, 
 by going back to a primitive ritual which 
 recognizes nothing higher than the Master's 
 degree, it rejects all the developments that 
 have resulted from the labors of the philo- 
 sophic minds of a century. Doubtless in 
 the high degrees of the eighteenth century 
 there was an abundance of chaff, but there 
 was also much nourishing wheat. Schroe- 
 der, with the former, has thrown away the 
 latter. He has committed the logical blun- 
 der of arguing from the abuse against the 
 use. His system, however, has some merit, 
 and is still practised by the Grand Lodge 
 of Hamburg. 
 
 Sehroeder's Rite. See Schroeder, 
 Friederich Joseph Wilhelm. 
 
 Seliroeder's System. See Schroe- 
 der, Friedrich Ludwig. 
 
 Sciences, Liberal. See Liberal Arts 
 and Sciences. 
 
 Scientific Masonic Association. 
 (Scientifischer Freimaurer Bund.) A society 
 founded in 1803 by Fessler, Mossdorf, 
 Fischer, and other distinguished Masons, 
 the object being, by the united efforts of its 
 members, to draw up, with the greatest ac- 
 curacy and care, and from the most authen- 
 tic sources, a full and complete history of 
 
SCOTLAND 
 
 SCOTTISH 
 
 Freemasonry, of its origin and objects, from 
 its first formation to the present day, and 
 also of the various systems or methods of 
 working that have been introduced into 
 the Craft ; such history, together with the 
 evidence upon which it was founded, was 
 to be communicated to worthy and zealous 
 brethren. The members had no peculiar 
 ritual, clothing, or ceremonies; neither 
 were they subjected to any fresh obligation ; 
 every just and upright Freemason who had 
 received a liberal education, who was capa- 
 ble of feeling the truth, and desirous of 
 investigating the mysteries of the Order, 
 could become a member of this society, 
 
 Erovided the ballot was unanimous, let 
 im belong to what Grand Lodge he might. 
 But those whose education had not been 
 sufficiently liberal to enable them to assist 
 in those researches were only permitted to 
 attend the meetings as trusty brethren to 
 receive instruction. 
 
 Scotland. The tradition of the 
 Scotch Masons is that Freemasonry was 
 introduced into Scotland by the architects 
 who built the Abbey of Kilwinning ; and 
 the village of that name bears, therefore, 
 the same relation to Scotch Masonry that 
 the city of York does to English. " That 
 Freemasonry was introduced into Scot- 
 land," says Laurie, [Hist, p. 89,) "by those 
 architects who built the Abbey of Kilwin- 
 ning, is manifest not only from those au- 
 thentic documents by which the Kilwin- 
 ning Lodge has been traced back as far as 
 the end of the fifteenth century, but by 
 other collateral arguments which amount 
 almost to a demonstration." In Sir John 
 Sinclair's Statistical Account of Scotland, 
 the same statement is made in the follow- 
 ing words : " A number of Freemasons 
 came from the continent to build a monas- 
 tery there, and with them an architect or 
 Master Mason to superintend and carry on 
 the work. This architect resided at Kil- 
 winning, and being a good and true Mason, 
 intimately acquainted with all the arts and 
 parts of Masonry known on the continent, 
 was chosen Master of the meetings of the 
 brethren all over Scotland. He gave rules 
 for the conduct of the brethren at these 
 meetings, and decided finally in appeals 
 from all the other meetings or Lodges in 
 Scotland." Which statement amounts to 
 about this : that the brethren assembled at 
 Kilwinning elected a Grand Master (as we 
 should now call him) for Scotland, and 
 that the Lodge of Kilwinning became the 
 Mother Lodge, a title which it has always 
 assumed. Manuscripts preserved in the 
 Advocates' Library of Edinburgh, which 
 were first published by Laurie, furnish 
 further records of the early progress of 
 Masonry in Scotland. 
 
 In the reign of James II., the office of 
 Grand Patron of Scotland was granted to 
 William St. Clair, Earl of Orkney and 
 Caithness and Baron of Roslin, " his heirs 
 and successors," by the king's charter. But, 
 in 1736, the St. Clair who then exercised 
 the Grand Mastership, "taking into con- 
 sideration that his holding or claiming any 
 such jurisdiction, right, or privilege might 
 be prejudicial to the Craft and vocation of 
 Masonry," renounced his claims, and em- 
 powered the Freemasons to choose their 
 Grand Master. The consequence of this 
 act of resignation was the immediate or- 
 ganization of the Grand Lodge of Scot- 
 land, over whom, for obvious reasons, the 
 late hereditary Grand Master or Patron 
 was unanimously called to preside. 
 
 Scotland, Royal Order of. See 
 Royal Order of Scotland. 
 
 Scott, Charles. A distinguished 
 Masonic writer of the United States, who 
 
 f r as born at Knoxville, Tennessee, Nov. 12, 
 811, and died at Jackson, Mississippi, 
 June 5, 1861. Bro. Scott was a man of 
 more than ordinary abilities. In the pro- 
 fession of the law he had a high reputation, 
 and was for a long period Chancellor of the 
 State of Mississippi. He was initiated into 
 Freemasonry in Silas Brown Lodge of 
 Jackson, in 1842, and afterwards presided 
 over the Lodge for many years. He was 
 Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Mis- 
 sissippi in 1849 and in 1850, and in 1851 
 he was elected Grand High Priest of the 
 Grand Chapter. He entered the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite at New Or- 
 leans in 1857, and two years afterwards was 
 elevated to the thirty-third degree and to 
 active membership in the Supreme Council 
 for the Southern Jurisdiction of the United 
 States. As a Masonic writer, Bro. Scott did 
 good service to the Craft. Besides numer- 
 ous valuable essays published in various 
 Masonic journals, he was the author of two 
 works of great interest. In 1850 appeared 
 The Analogy of Ancient draft Masonry to 
 Natural and Revealed Religion, and in 1856, 
 The Keystone of the Masonic Arch, a Com- 
 mentary on the Universal Laws and Princi- 
 ples of Ancient Freemasonry. The emi- 
 nently religious spirit which imbued the 
 whole life and character of Bro. Scott has 
 led him to indulge, like the venerable Oli- 
 ver, in the Christianization of Masonry to 
 an extent that has been deemed objection- 
 able by some. But there are in both of these 
 works many passages suggestive of valua- 
 ble Masonic thought. 
 
 Scottish. We use indiscriminately 
 the word Scotch or Scottish to signify some- 
 thing relating to Scotland. Thus we say 
 the Scotch Rite or the Scottish Rite ; the 
 latter is, however, more frequently used by 
 
SCOTTISH 
 
 SCOTTISH 
 
 697 
 
 Masonic writers. This has been objected 
 to by some purists because the final syl- 
 lable ish has in general the signification of 
 diminution or approximation, as in brack- 
 ish, saltish, and similar words. But ish in 
 Scottish is not a sign of diminution, but is 
 derived, as in English, Danish, Swedish, etc., 
 from the German termination ische. The 
 word is used by the best writers. 
 
 Scottish I>egrees. The high degrees 
 invented or adopted by Ramsay, under 
 the name of Irish degrees, were subse- 
 quently called by him Scottish degrees in 
 reference to his theory of the promulga- 
 tion of Masonry from Scotland. See Irish 
 Chapters. 
 
 Scottish Master. See Ecossais. 
 
 Scottish Rite. French writers call this 
 the " Ancient and Accepted Rite," but as 
 the Latin Constitutions of the Order des- 
 ignate it as the " Antiquus Scoticus Ritus 
 Acceptus," or the " Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite," that title has now been very 
 generally adopted as the correct name of 
 the Rite. Although one of the youngest 
 of the Masonic Rites, having been estab- 
 lished not earlier than the year 1801, it is 
 at this day the most popular and the most 
 extensively diffused. Supreme Councils or 
 governing bodies of the Rite are to be 
 found in almost every civilized country of 
 the world, and in many of them it is the 
 only Masonic obedience. The history of 
 its organization is briefly this. In 1758, a 
 body was organized at Paris called the 
 "Council of Emperors of the East and 
 West." This Council organized a Rite 
 called the " Rite of Perfection," which 
 consisted of twenty-five degrees, the highest 
 of which was "Sublime Prince of the 
 Royal Secret." In 1761, this Council 
 granted a Patent or Deputation to Stephen 
 Morin, authorizing him to propagate the 
 Rite in the Western continent, whither he 
 was about to repair. In the same year, 
 Morin arrived at the city of St. Domingo, 
 where he commenced the dissemination of 
 the Rite, and appointed many Inspectors, 
 both for the West Indies and for the United 
 States. Among others, he conferred the 
 degrees on M. Hayes, with a power of ap- 
 pointing others when necessary. Hayes 
 accordingly appointed Isaac Da Costa Dep- 
 uty Inspector-General for South Carolina, 
 who in 1783 introduced the Rite into that 
 State by the establishment of a Grand 
 Lodge of Perfection in Charleston. Other 
 Inspectors were subsequently appointed, 
 and in 1801 a Supreme Council was opened 
 in Charleston by John Mitchell and Fred- 
 erick Dalcho. There is abundant evidence 
 in the Archives of the Supreme Council 
 that up to that time the twenty-five 
 degrees of the Rite of Perfection were 
 4N 
 
 alone recognized. But suddenly, with the 
 organization of the Supreme Council, 
 there arose a new Rite, fabricated by 
 the adoption of eight more of the conti- 
 nental high degrees, so as to make the 
 thirty-third and not the twenty-fifth degree 
 the summit of the Rite. 
 
 The Rite consists of thirty-three degrees, 
 which are divided into seven sections, each 
 section being under an appropriate juris- 
 diction, and are as follows : 
 
 Symbolic Lodge. 
 
 1. Entered Apprentice. 
 
 2. Fellow Craft. 
 
 3. Master Mason. 
 
 These are called blue or symbolic de- 
 grees. They are not conferred in England, 
 Scotland, Ireland, or in the United States, 
 because the Supreme Councils of the Rite 
 have refrained from exercising jurisdiction 
 through respect to the older authority in 
 those countries of the York and American 
 Rite. 
 
 II. 
 
 Lodge of Perfection. 
 
 4. Secret Master. 
 
 5. Perfect Master. 
 
 6. Intimate Secretary. 
 
 7. Provost and Judge. 
 
 8. Intendant of the Building. 
 
 9. Elected Knight of the Nine. 
 
 10. Illustrious Elect of the Fifteen. 
 
 11. Sublime Knights Elect of the Twelve. 
 
 12. Grand Master Architect. 
 
 13. Knight of the Ninth Arch, or Royal 
 Arch of Solomon. 
 
 14. Grand Elect, Perfect and Sublime 
 Mason. 
 
 III. 
 Council of Princes of Jerusalem. 
 
 15. Knight of the East. 
 16 Prince of Jerusalem. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Chapter of Rose Croix. 
 
 17. Knight of the East and West. 
 
 18. Prince Rose Croix. 
 
 Council of Kadosh. 
 
 19. Grand Pontiff. 
 
 20. Grand Master of Symbolic Lodges. 
 
 21. Noachite, or Prussian Knight. 
 
 22. Knight of the Royal Axe, or Prince 
 of Libanus. 
 
698 
 
 SCOTTISH 
 
 SCRIPTURES 
 
 23. Chief of the Tabernacle. 
 
 24. Prince of the Tabernacle. 
 
 25. Knight of the Brazen Serpent. 
 
 26. Prince of Mercy. 
 
 27. Knight Commander of the Temple. 
 
 28. Knight of the Sun, or Prince 
 Adept. 
 
 29. Grand Scottish Knight of St. An- 
 drew. 
 
 30. Knight Kadosh. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Consistory of Sublime Princes of 
 the Royal Secret. 
 
 31. Inspector Inquisitor Commander. 
 
 32. Sublime Prince of the Royal Secret. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Supreme Council. 
 
 33. Sovereign Grand Inspector-General. 
 
 Scottish Templars. See Templars 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Scottish Trinitarians. See Prince 
 of Mercy. 
 
 Scribe. The Scribe is the third officer 
 in a Royal Arch Chapter, according to the 
 American ritual, and is the representative 
 of Haggai. The Sofer, or Scribe in the 
 earlier Scriptures, was a kind of military 
 secretary ; but in the latter he was a learned 
 man, and doctor of the laws, who ex- 
 pounded them to the people. Thus Ar- 
 taxerxes calls Ezra the priest, " a Scribe 
 of the law of the God of heaven." Home 
 says that the Scribe was the King's Secre- 
 tary of State, who registered all acts and 
 decrees. It is in this sense that Haggai is 
 called the Scribe in Royal Arch Masonry. 
 In the English system of Royal Arch Ma- 
 sonry there are two Scribes, who represent 
 Ezra and Nehemiah, and whose position 
 and duties are those of Secretaries. The 
 American Scribe is the Third Principal. 
 The Scribes, according to the English sys- 
 tem, appear to be analogous to the Soferim 
 or Scribes of the later Hebrews from the 
 time of Ezra. These were members of the 
 Great Synod, and were literary men, who 
 occupied themselves in the preservation of 
 the letter of the Scriptures and the devel- 
 opment of its spirit. 
 
 Scriptures, Belief in the. In 
 1820, the Grand Lodge of Ohio resolved 
 that " in the first degrees of Masonry reli- 
 gious tests shall not be a barrier to the ad- 
 mission or advancement of applicants, pro- 
 vided they profess a belief in God and his 
 holy word ;" and in 1854 the same body 
 adopted a resolution declaring that " Ma- 
 sonry, as we have received it from our 
 
 fathers, teaches the divine authenticity of 
 the Holy Scriptures." In 1845, the Grand 
 Lodge of Illinois declared a belief in the 
 authenticity of the Scriptures a necessary 
 qualification for initiation. Although in 
 Christendom very few Masons deny the 
 divine authority of the Scriptures of the 
 Old and New Testaments ; yet to require, 
 as a preliminary to initiation, the declara- 
 tion of such a belief, is directly in opposi- 
 tion to the express regulations of the Order, 
 which demand a belief in God and, by im- 
 plication, in the immortality of the soul as 
 the only religious tests. 
 
 Scriptures, Reading of the. By 
 an ancient usage of the Craft, the Book of 
 the Law is always spread open in the 
 Ix)dge. There is in this, as in everything 
 else that is Masonic, an appropriate sym- 
 bolism. The Book of the Law is the Great 
 Light of Masonry. To close it would be 
 to intercept the rays of divine light which 
 emanate from it, and hence it is spread 
 open, to indicate that the Lodge is not in 
 darkness, but under the influence of its 
 illuminating power. Masons in this re- 
 spect obey the suggestion of the Divine 
 Founder of the Christian religion, "Nei- 
 ther do men light a candle and put it 
 under a bushel, but on a candlestick ; and 
 it giveth light unto all that are in the 
 house." A closed book, a sealed book, in- 
 dicates that its contents are secret ; and a 
 book or roll folded up was the symbol, says 
 Wemyss, of a law abrogated, or of a thing 
 of no further use. Hence, as the reverse 
 of all this, the Book of the Law is opened 
 in our Lodges, to teach us that its contents 
 are to be studied, that the law which it in- 
 culcates is still in force, and is to be " the 
 rule and guide of our conduct." 
 
 But the Book of the Law is not opened 
 at random. In each degree there are ap- 
 propriate passages, whose allusion to the 
 design of the degree, or to some part of its 
 ritual, makes it expedient that the book 
 should be opened upon those passages. 
 
 Masonic usage has not always been con- 
 stant, nor is it now universal in relation to 
 what particular passages shall be unfolded 
 in each degree. The custom in this country, 
 at least since the publication of Webb's 
 Monitor, has been very uniform, and is as 
 follows : 
 
 In the first degree the Bible is opened at 
 Psalm cxxxiii., an eloquent description of 
 the beauty of brotherly love, and hence 
 most appropriate as the illustration of a 
 society whose existence is dependent on 
 that noble principle. In the second degree 
 the passage adopted is Amos vii. 7, 8, in 
 which the allusion is evidently to the 
 plumb-line, an important emblem of that 
 degree. In the third degree the Bible is 
 
SCRIPTURES 
 
 SCRIPTURES 
 
 699 
 
 opened at Ecclesiastes xii. 1-7, in which 
 the description of old age and death is ap- 
 propriately applied to the sacred object of 
 this degree. 
 
 But, as has been said, the choice of these 
 passages has not always been the same. 
 At different periods various passages have 
 been selected, but always with great appro- 
 priateness, as may be seen from the follow- 
 ing brief sketch. 
 
 Formerly, the Book of the Law was 
 opened in the first degree at the 22d chap- 
 ter of Genesis, which gives an account of 
 Abraham's intended sacrifice of Isaac. As 
 this event constituted the first grand offer- 
 ing, commemorated by our ancient breth- 
 ren, by which the ground-floor of the Ap- 
 prentice's Lodge was consecrated, it seems 
 to have been very appropriately selected as 
 the passage for this degree. That part of 
 the 28th chapter of Genesis which records 
 the vision of Jacob's ladder was also, with 
 equal appositeness, selected as the passage 
 for the first degree. 
 
 The following passage from 1 Kings vi. 
 8, was, during one part of the last century, 
 used in the second degree : 
 
 " The door of the middle chamber was in 
 the right side of the house, and they went 
 up with winding stairs into the middle 
 chamber, and out of the middle into the 
 third." 
 
 The appositeness of this passage to the 
 Fellow Craft's degree will hardly be dis- 
 puted. 
 
 At another time the following passage 
 from 2 Chronicles iii. 17, was selected for 
 the second degree ; its appropriateness will 
 be equally evident: 
 
 " And he reared up the pillars before the 
 temple, one on the right hand, and the 
 other on the left ; and he called the name 
 of that on the right hand Jachin, and the 
 name of that on the left Boaz." 
 
 The words of Amos v. 25, 26, were some- 
 times adopted as the passage for the third 
 degree : 
 
 " Have ye offered unto me sacrifices and 
 offerings in the wilderness forty years, O 
 house of Israel? But ye have borne the 
 tabernacle of your Moloch and Chiun your 
 images, the star of your god, which ye 
 made to yourselves." 
 
 The allusions in this paragraph are not 
 so evident as the others. They refer to 
 historical matters, which were once em- 
 bodied in the ancient lectures of Freema- 
 sonry. In them the sacrifices of the Israel- 
 ites to Moloch were fully described, and a 
 tradition, belonging to the third degree, in- 
 forms us that Hiram Abif did much to 
 extirpate this idolatrous worship from the 
 religious system of Tyre. 
 
 The 6th chapter of 2 Chronicles, which 
 
 contains the prayer of King Solomon at 
 the dedication of the Temple, was also used 
 at one time for the third degree. Perhaps, 
 however, this was with less fitness than 
 any other of the passages quoted, since the 
 events commemorated in the third degree 
 took place at a somewhat earlier period 
 than the dedication. Such a passage might 
 more appropriately be annexed to the cere- 
 monies of the Most Excellent Master as 
 practised in this country. 
 
 At present the usage in England differs 
 in respect to the choice of passages from 
 that adopted in this country. 
 
 There the Bible is opened, in the first 
 degree, at Ruth iv. 7 : 
 
 " Now this was the manner in former time 
 in Israel concerning redeeming and con- 
 cerning changing, for to confirm all things; 
 a man plucked off his shoe, and gave it to 
 his neighbor: and this was a testimony in 
 Israel." 
 
 In the second degree the passage is 
 opened at Judges xii. 6 : 
 
 "Then said they unto him, Say now 
 Shibboleth: and he said Sibboleth; for he 
 could not frame to pronounce it right. 
 Then they took him, and slew him at the 
 passages of Jordan. And there fell at that 
 time of the Ephraimites forty and two 
 thousand." 
 
 In the third degree the passage is opened 
 at 1 Kings vii. 13, 14 : 
 
 "And king Solomon sent and fetched 
 Hiram out of Tyre. He was a widow's son 
 of the tribe of Naphtali, and his father was 
 a man of Tyre, a worker in brass : and he 
 was filled with wisdom, and understanding, 
 and cunning to work all works in brass. 
 And he came to king Solomon, and 
 wrought all his work." 
 
 While from the force of habit, as well 
 as from the extrinsic excellence of the pas- 
 sages themselves, the American Mason 
 will, perhaps, prefer the selections made in 
 our own Lodges, especially for the first and 
 third degrees, he at the same time will not 
 fail to admire the taste and ingenuity of 
 our English brethren in the selections that 
 they have made. In the second degree the 
 passage from Judges is undoubtedly prefer- 
 able to our own. 
 
 In conclusion it may be observed, that to 
 give these passages their due Masonic im- 
 portance it is essential that they should be 
 covered by the square and compasses. The 
 Bible, square, and compasses are significant 
 symbols of Freemasonry. They are said to 
 allude to the peculiar characteristics of our 
 ancient Grand Masters. The Bible is em- 
 blematic of the wisdom of King Solomon ; 
 the square, of the power of Hiram ; and the 
 compasses, of the skill of the Chief Builder. 
 Some Masonic writers have still further 
 
700 
 
 SCYTHE 
 
 SEAL 
 
 spiritualized these symbols by supposing 
 them to symbolize the wisdom, truth, and 
 justice of the Grand Architect of the Uni- 
 verse. In any view they become instruc- 
 tive and inseparably connected portions of 
 the true Masonic ritual, which, to be under- 
 stood, must be studied together. 
 
 Scythe. In the classic mythology, the 
 scythe was one of the attributes of Saturn, 
 the god of time, because that deity is said 
 to have taught men the use of the imple- 
 ment in agriculture. But Saturn was also 
 the god of time; and in modern icono- 
 graphy Time is allegorized under the fig- 
 ure of an old man, with white hair and 
 beard, two large wings at his back, an hour- 
 glass in one hand and a scythe in the other. 
 It is in its cutting and destructive quality 
 that the scythe is here referred to. Time 
 is thus the great mower who reaps his har- 
 vest of men. Masonry has adopted this 
 symbolism, and in the third degree the 
 scythe is described as an emblem of time, 
 which cuts the brittle thread of life and 
 makes havoc among the human race. 
 
 Seal. A stamp on which letters and a 
 device are carved for the purpose of making 
 an impression, and also the wax or paper 
 on which the impression is made. Lord 
 Coke defines a seal to be an impression on 
 wax, "sigillum est cera impressa," and wax 
 was originally the legal material of a seal. 
 Many old Masonic diplomas and charters 
 are still in existence, where the seal con- 
 sists of a circular tin box filled with wax, 
 on which the seal is impressed, the box be- 
 ing attached by a ribbon to the parchment. 
 But now the seal is placed generally on a 
 piece of circular paper. The form of" a seal 
 is circular ; oval seals were formerly appro- 
 
 {>riated to ecclesiastical dignitaries and re- 
 igious houses, and the shape alluded to 
 the old Christian symbol of the Vesica 
 Piscis. 
 
 No Masonic document is valid unless it 
 has appended to it the seal of the Lodge 
 or Grand Lodge. Foreign Grand Lodges 
 never recognize the transactions of subor- 
 dinate Lodges out of their jurisdictions, if 
 the standing of the Lodges is not guaran- 
 teed by the seal of the Grand Lodge and 
 the signatures of the proper officers. 
 
 Seal of Solomon. The Seal of Solo- 
 mon or the Shield of David, for under both 
 names the same thing was denoted, is a 
 hexagonal figure consist- 
 ing of two interlaced tri- 
 angles, thus forming the 
 outlines of a six-pointed 
 star. Upon it was in- 
 scribed one of the sacred 
 names of God, from which 
 inscription it was sup- 
 posed principally to derive its talismanic 
 powers. These powers were very extensive, 
 
 for it was believed that it would extinguish 
 fire, prevent wounds in a conflict, and per- 
 form many other wonders. The Jews called 
 it the Shield of David in reference to the 
 
 Erotection which it gave to its possessors, 
 iut to the other Orientalists it was more 
 familiarly known as the Seal of Solomon. 
 Among these imaginative people, there was 
 a very prevalent belief in the magical char- 
 acter of the King of Israel. He was es- 
 teemed rather as a great magician than as 
 a great monarch, and by the signet which 
 he wore, on which this talismanic seal was 
 engraved, he is supposed to have accom- 
 
 Elished the most extraordinary actions, and 
 y it to have enlisted in his service the la- 
 bors of the genii for the construction of his 
 celebrated Temple. 
 
 Robinson Crusoe and the Thousand and 
 One Nights are two books which every 
 child has read, and which no man or wo- 
 man ever forgets. In the latter are many 
 allusions to Solomon's seal. Especially is 
 there a story of an unlucky fisherman who 
 fished up in his net a bottle secured by a 
 leaden stopper, on which this seal was im- 
 pressed. On opening it, a fierce Afrite, or 
 evil genius, came forth, who gave this ac- 
 count of the cause of his imprisonment. 
 "Solomon," said he, "the son of David, 
 exhorted me to embrace the faith and sub- 
 mit to his authority ; but I refused ; upon 
 which he called for this bottle, and confined 
 me in it, and closed it upon me with the 
 leaden stopper and stamped upon it his 
 seal, with the great name of God engraved 
 upon it. Then he gave the vessel to one 
 of the genii, who submitted to him, with 
 orders to cast me into the sea." 
 
 Of all talismans, I know of none, ex- 
 cept, perhaps, the cross, which was so gen- 
 erally prevalent among the ancients as this 
 Seal of Solomon or Shield of David. It 
 has been found in the cave of Elephanta, 
 in India, accompanying the image of the 
 Deity, and many other places celebrated in 
 the Brahmanical and the Buddhist religions. 
 Mr. Hay, in an exploration into western 
 Barbary, found it in the harem of a Moor, 
 and in a Jewish synagogue, where it was 
 suspended in front of the recess in which 
 the sacred rolls were deposited. In fact, 
 the interlaced triangles or Seal of Solomon 
 may be considered as par excellence the 
 great Oriental talisman. 
 
 In time, with the progress of the new re- 
 ligion, it ceased to be invested with a mag- 
 ical reputation, although the hermetic phi- 
 losophers of the Middle Ages did employ 
 it as one of their mystical symbols ; but 
 true to the theory that superstitious may 
 be repudiated, but never will be forgotten, 
 it was adopted by the Christians as one of 
 the emblems of their faith, but with vary- 
 ing interpretations. The two triangles 
 
SEALS 
 
 SECRECY 
 
 701 
 
 were said sometimes to be symbols of fire 
 and water, sometimes of prayer and remis- 
 sion, sometimes of creation and redemption, 
 or of life and death, or of resurrection and 
 judgment. But at length the ecclesiologists 
 seem to have settled on the idea that the 
 figure should be considered as representing 
 the two natures of our Lord — his divine 
 and his human. And thus we find it dis- 
 persed all over Europe, in medallions, made 
 at a very early period, on the breasts of the 
 recumbent effigies of the dead as they lie 
 in their tombs, and more especially in 
 churches, where it is presented to us either 
 carved on the walls or painted in the 
 windows. Everywhere in Europe, and 
 now in this country, where ecclesiastical 
 architecture is beginning at length to find 
 a development of taste, is this old Eastern 
 talisman to be found doing its work as a 
 Christian emblem. The spirit of the old 
 talismanic faith is gone, but the form re- 
 mains, to be nourished by us as the natural 
 homage of the present to the past. 
 
 Among the old Kabbalistic Hebrews, the 
 Seal of Solomon was, as a talisman, of course 
 deemed to be a sure preventive against the 
 danger of fire. The more modern Jews, 
 still believing in its talismanic virtues, 
 placed it as a safeguard on their houses and 
 on their breweries, because they were es- 
 pecially liable to the danger of fire. The 
 common people, seeing this figure affixed 
 always to Jewish brew-houses, mistook it 
 for a sign, and in time, in Upper Germany, 
 the hexagon,' or Seal of Solomon, was 
 adopted by German innkeepers as the sign 
 of a beer-house, just as the chequers has 
 been adopted in England, though with a 
 different history, as the sign of a tavern. 
 
 Seals, Book of the Seven. " And 
 I saw," says St. John in the Apocalypse, 
 (v. 1,) "in the right hand of him that sat 
 on the throne a book written within and 
 on the back side, sealed with seven seals." 
 The seal denotes that which is secret, and 
 seven is the number of perfection ; hence 
 the Book of the Seven Seals is a symbol of 
 that knowledge which is profoundly se- 
 cured from all unhallowed search. In ref- 
 erence to the passage quoted, the Book 
 of the Seven Seals is adopted as a symbol 
 in the Apocalyptic degree of the Knights 
 of the East and West, the seventeenth of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Rite. 
 
 Seals, Keeper of the. An officer 
 who has charge of the seal or seals of the 
 Lodge. It is found in some of the high 
 degrees and in continental Lodges, but not 
 recognized in the York or American Rites. 
 In German Lodges he is called Siegelbe- 
 wahrer, and in French, Garde des Sceaux. 
 _ Search for Truth. This is the ob- 
 ject of all Freemasonry, and it is pursued 
 
 from the first to the last step of initiation. 
 The Apprentice begins it seeking for the 
 light which is symbolized by the Word, 
 itself only a symbol of Truth. As a Fel- 
 low Craft he continues the search, still ask- 
 ing for more light. And the Master Mason, 
 thinking that he has reached it, obtains 
 only its substitute ; for the True Word, 
 Divine Truth, dwells not in the first tem- 
 ple of our earthly life, but can be found 
 only in the second temple of the eternal 
 life. 
 
 There is a beautiful allegory of the great 
 Milton, who thus describes the search after 
 truth : " Truth came into the world with 
 her Divine Master, and was a perfect shape 
 and glorious to look upon. But when he 
 ascended, and his apostles after him were 
 laid asleep, there straight arose a wicked 
 race of deceivers, who, as the story goes of 
 the Egyptian Typhon, with his conspira- 
 tors, how they dealt with the good Osiris, 
 took the virgin Truth, hewed her lovely 
 frame into a thousand pieces, and scattered 
 them to the four winds of heaven. Ever 
 since that time the friends of Truth, such 
 as durst appear, imitating the careful search 
 that Isis made for the mangled body of 
 Osiris, went up and down, gathering up 
 limb by limb still as they could find them." 
 
 Seceders. During the anti-Masonic 
 excitement in this country, which gave rise 
 to the anti-Masonic party, many Masons, 
 fearing the loss of popularity, or governed 
 by an erroneous view of the character of 
 Freemasonry, withdrew from the Order, 
 and took a part in the political and reli- 
 gious opposition to it. These men called 
 themselves, and were recognized by the 
 title of, "seceders" or "seceding Masons." 
 
 Second Temple. See Temple of 
 Zerubbabel. 
 
 Secrecy and Silence. These vir- 
 tues constitute the very essence of all Ma- 
 sonic character; they are the safeguard of 
 the Institution, giving to it all its security 
 and perpetuity, and are enforced by fre- 
 quent admonitions in all the degrees, from 
 the lowest to the highest. The Entered Ap- 
 prentice begins his Masonic career by learn- 
 ing the duty of secrecy and silence. Hence 
 it is appropriate that in that degree which 
 is the consummation of initiation, in which 
 the whole cycle of Masonic science is com- 
 pleted, the abstruse machinery of symbol- 
 ism should be employed to impress the same 
 important virtues on the mind of the neo- 
 phyte. 
 
 The same principles of secrecy and si- 
 lence existed in all the ancient mysteries 
 and systems of worship. When Aristotle 
 was asked what thing appeared to him to 
 be most difficult of performance, he replied, 
 " To be secret and silent." 
 
702 
 
 SECRETARY 
 
 SECRET 
 
 " If we turn our eyes back to antiquity," 
 says Calcott, " we shall find that the old 
 Egyptians had so great a regard for silence 
 and secrecy in the mysteries of their reli- 
 gion, that they set up the god Harpocrates, 
 to whom they paid peculiar honor and ven- 
 eration, who was represented with the right 
 hand placed near the heart, and the left 
 down by his side, covered with a skin before, 
 full of eyes." 
 
 Apuleius, who was an initiate in the 
 mysteries of Isis, says : " By no peril will I 
 ever be compelled to disclose to the unini- 
 tiated the things that I have had intrusted 
 to me on condition of silence." 
 
 Lobeck, in his Aglaophamus, has col- 
 lected several examples of the reluctance 
 with which the ancients approached a mys- 
 tical subject, and the manner in which they 
 shrank from divulging any explanation or 
 fable which had been related to them at 
 the mysteries, under the seal of secrecy and 
 silence. 
 
 And, lastly, in the school of Pythagoras, 
 these lessons were taught by the sage to his 
 disciples. A novitiate of five years was 
 imposed upon each pupil, which period was 
 to be passed in total silence, and in reli- 
 gious and philosophical contemplation. 
 And at length, when he was admitted to 
 full fellowship in the society, an oath of 
 secrecy was administered to him on the sa- 
 cred tetractys, which was equivalent to the 
 Jewish Tetragrammaton. 
 
 Silence and secrecy are called " the car- 
 dinal virtues of a Select Master," in the 
 ninth or Select Master's degree of the 
 American Rite. 
 
 Among the Egyptians the sign of silence 
 was made by pressing the index finger of 
 the right hand on the lips. It was thus 
 that they represented Harpocrates, the god 
 of silence, whose statue was placed at the 
 entrance of all temples of Isis and Serapis, 
 to indicate that silence and secrecy were to 
 be preserved as to all that occurred within. 
 
 Secretary. The recording and corre- 
 sponding officer of a Lodge. It is his duty 
 to keep a just and true record of all things 
 proper to be written, to receive all moneys 
 that are due the Lodge, and to pay them 
 over to the Treasurer. The jewel of his 
 office is a pen, and his position in the 
 Lodge is on the left of the Worshipful 
 Master in front. 
 
 Secretary-General of the Holy 
 Empire. The title given to the Secre- 
 tary of the Supreme Council of the An- 
 cient and Accepted Rite. 
 
 Secretary, Grand. See Grand Sec- 
 retary. 
 
 Secret Doctrine. The secret doctrine 
 of the Jews was, according to Steinschnei- 
 der, nothing else than a system of meta- 
 
 physics founded on the commentaries on 
 the law and the legends of the Talmudists. 
 Of this secret doctrine, Maimonides says: 
 " Beware that you take not these words of 
 the wise men in their literal signification, 
 for this would be to degrade and sometimes 
 to contradict the sacred doctrine. Search 
 rather for the hidden sense ; and if you can- 
 not find the kernel, let the shell alone, and 
 confess that you cannot understand it." 
 All mystical societies, and even liberal 
 philosophers, were, to a comparatively re- 
 cent period, accustomed to veil the true 
 meaning of their instructions in inten- 
 tional obscurity, lest the unlearned and 
 uninitiated should be offended. The An- 
 cient Mysteries had their secret doctrine ; 
 so had the school of Pythagoras, and the 
 sect of the Gnostics. The Alchemists, as 
 Hitchcock has clearly shown, gave a secret 
 and spiritual meaning to their jargon 
 about the transmutation of metals, the 
 elixir of life, and the philosopher's stone. 
 Freemasonry alone has no secret doctrine. 
 Its philosophy is open to the world. Its 
 modes of recognition by which it secures 
 identification, and its rites and ceremonies 
 which are its method of instruction, alone 
 are secret. All men may know the tenets 
 of the Masonic creed. 
 
 Secret Master. The fourth degree 
 in the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 
 and the first of what are called the " In- 
 effable Degrees." It refers to those cir- 
 cumstances which occurred at the Temple 
 when Solomon repaired to the building 
 for the purpose of supplying the loss of its 
 illustrious builder by the appointment of 
 seven experts, among whom were to be 
 divided the labors which heretofore had 
 been intrusted to one gigantic mind. The 
 lecture elaborately explains the mystic 
 meaning of the sacred things which were 
 contained in the Sanctum Sanctorum, or 
 Holy of Holies. 
 
 The Lodge is hung with black curtains 
 strewed with tears, symbolic of grief. 
 There should be eighty-one lights, dis- 
 tributed by nine times nine ; but this num- 
 ber is often dispensed with, and three times 
 three substituted. Later rituals reduce 
 them to eight. 
 
 There are but two presiding officers — 
 a Master, styled " Puissant," and repre- 
 senting King Solomon, and an Inspector, 
 representing Adoniram, the son of Abda, 
 who had the inspection of the workmen on 
 Mount Lebanon, and who is said to have 
 been the first Secret Master. 
 
 Solomon is seated in the east, clothed in 
 mourning robes lined with ermine, hold- 
 ing a sceptre in his hand, and decorated 
 with a blue sash from the right shoulder to 
 the left hip, from which is suspended a 
 
SECRET 
 
 SECRET 
 
 703 
 
 triangle of gold. Before him is placed a 
 triangular altar, on which is deposited a 
 wreath of laurel and olive leaves. 
 
 Adoniram, called " Venerable Inspector," 
 is seated in the west, but without any im- 
 plement of office, in commemoration of 
 the fact that the works were suspended 
 at the time of the institution of this de- 
 gree. He is decorated with a triangular 
 white collar, bordered with black, from 
 which is suspended an ivory key, with the 
 letter Z engraved thereon, which constitute 
 the collar, and jewel of the degree. These 
 decorations are worn by all the brethren. 
 
 The apron is white edged with black and 
 with black strings ; the flap blue, with an 
 open eye thereon embroidered in gold. The 
 modern ritual prescribes that two branches 
 of olive and laurel crossing each other 
 shall be on the middle of the apron. 
 
 Secret Monitor. An honorary or 
 side degree very commonly conferred in 
 the United States. The communication of 
 it is not accompanied, it is true, with any 
 impressive ceremonies, but it inculcates a 
 lesson of unfaltering friendship which the 
 prospect of danger could not appall, and 
 the hour of adversity could not betray. 
 It is, in fact, devoted to the practical eluci- 
 dation of the Masonic virtue of Brotherly 
 Love. In conferring it, those passages of 
 Scripture which are contained in the twen- 
 tieth chapter of the First Book of Samuel, 
 from the sixteenth to the twenty-third, and 
 from the thirty-fifth to the forty-second 
 verses inclusive, are usually considered as ap- 
 propriate. It may be conferred on a worthy 
 Master Mason by any brother who is in 
 possession of its ritual. There was in Hol- 
 land, in 1778, a secret Masonic society 
 called the Order of Jonathan and David, 
 which was probably much the same as this 
 American degreee. Kloss in his Catalogue 
 (1910") gives the title of a book published 
 in that year at Amsterdam which gives its 
 statutes and formulary of reception. 
 
 Secret of the Secrets, Tbe. A 
 degree cited in the nomenclature of Fustier. 
 
 Secret Societies. Secret societies 
 may be divided into two classes : First, 
 those whose secrecy consists in nothing 
 more than methods by which the members 
 are enabled to recognize each other ; and 
 in certain doctrines, symbols, or instructions 
 which can be obtained only after a process 
 of initiation, and under the promise that 
 they shall be made known to none who 
 have not submitted to the same initiation ; 
 but which, with the exception of these 
 particulars, have no reservations from the 
 public. And secondly, of those societies 
 which, in addition to their secret modes of 
 recognition and secret doctrine, add an 
 entire secrecy as to the object of their asso- 
 
 ciation, the times and places of their meet- 
 ing, and even the very names of their 
 members. To the first of these classes be- 
 long all those moral or religious secret associ- 
 ations which have existed from the earliest 
 times. Such were the Ancient Mysteries, 
 whose object was, by their initiations, to 
 cultivate a purer worship than the popular 
 one ; such, too, the schools of the old phi- 
 losophers, like Pythagoras and Plato, who 
 in their esoteric instructions taught a 
 higher doctrine than that which they com- 
 municated to their exoteric scholars. Such, 
 too, are the modern secret societies which 
 have adopted an exclusive form only that 
 they may restrict the social enjoyment 
 which it is their object to cultivate, or the 
 system of benevolence for which they are 
 organized, to the persons who are united 
 with them by the tie of a common covenant, 
 and the possession of a common knowledge; 
 such, lastly, is Freemasonry, which is a 
 secret society only as respects its signs, a 
 few of its legends and traditions, and its 
 method of inculcating its mystical philos- 
 ophy, but which, as to everything else — its 
 design, its object, its moral and religious 
 tenets, and the great doctrine which it 
 teaches — is as open a society as if it met on 
 the highways beneath the sun of day, and 
 not within the well-guarded portals of a 
 Lodge. To the second class of secret so- 
 cieties belong those which sprung up first 
 in the Middle Ages, like the Vehm Uericht 
 of Westphalia, formed for the secret but 
 certain punishment of criminals ; and in the 
 eighteenth century those political societies 
 like the Carbonari, which have been or- 
 ganized at revolutionary periods to resist 
 the oppression or overthrow the despo- 
 tism of tyrannical governments. It is evi- 
 dent that these two classes of secret socie- 
 ties are entirely different in character ; but 
 it has been the great error of writers like 
 Barruel and Bobison, who have attacked 
 Freemasonry on the ground of its being a 
 secret association, that they utterly con- 
 founded the two classes. 
 
 An interesting discussion on this subject 
 took place in 1848, in the National Assem- 
 bly of France, during the consideration of 
 those articles of the law by which secret 
 societies were prohibited. A part of this 
 discussion is worth preserving, and is in 
 the following words : 
 
 M. Volette: I should like to have one de- 
 fine what is meant by a secret society ? 
 
 M. Coquerel: Those are secret societies 
 which have made none of the declarations 
 prescribed by law. 
 
 M. Paulin Qillon : I would ask if Free- 
 masonry is also to be suppressed? 
 
 M. Floqon : I begin by declaring that, 
 under a republican government, every se- 
 
704 
 
 SECRET 
 
 SELECT 
 
 cret society having for its object a change 
 of the form of such government ought to 
 be severely dealt with. Secret societies 
 may be directed against the sovereignty of 
 the people; and this is the reason why I 
 ask for their suppression; but, from the 
 want of a precise definition, I would not de- 
 sire to strike, as secret societies, assemblies that 
 are perfectly innocent. All my life, until 
 the 24th of February, have I lived in se- 
 cret societies. Now I desire them no 
 more. Yes, we have spent our life in con- 
 spiracies, and we had the right to do so ; 
 for we lived under a government which did 
 not derive its sanctions from the people. 
 To-day I declare that under a republican 
 government, and with universal suffrage, 
 it is a crime to belong to such an associa- 
 tion. 
 
 M. Coquerel: As to Freemasonry, your 
 committee has decided that it is not a secret 
 society. A society may have a secret, and 
 yet not be a secret society. I have not the 
 honor of being a Freemason. 
 
 The President : The thirteenth article has 
 been amended, and decided that a secret so- 
 ciety is one which seeks to conceal its existence 
 and its objects. 
 
 Secret Vault. See Vault, Secret. 
 
 Sectarianism. Masonry repudiates 
 all sectarianism, and recognizes the tenets 
 of no sect as preferable to those of any 
 other, requiring in its followers assent only 
 to those dogmas of a universal religion 
 which teach the existence of God and the 
 resurrection to eternal life. See Toleration. 
 
 Secular Lodges. The epithet secu- 
 lar has sometimes, but very incorrectly, 
 been applied to subordinate Lodges to dis- 
 tinguish them from Grand Lodges. In 
 such a connection the word is unmeaning, 
 or, what is worse, is a term bearing a mean- 
 ing entirely different from that which was 
 intended by the writer. "Secular," says 
 Richardson, " is used as distinguished from 
 eternal, and equivalent to temporal; per- 
 taining to temporal things, things of this 
 world; worldly; also opposed to spiritual, 
 to holy." And every other orthoepist 
 gives substantially the same definition. It 
 is then evident, from this definition, that 
 the word secular may be applied to all Ma- 
 sonic bodies, but not to one class of them 
 in contradistinction to another. All Ma- 
 sonic Lodges are secular, because they are 
 worldly, and not spiritual or holy institu- 
 tions. But a subordinate Lodge is no more 
 secular than a Grand Lodge. 
 
 Sedition Act. On July 12, 1798, the 
 British Parliament, alarmed at the progress 
 of revolutionary principles, enacted a law, 
 commonly known as the Sedition Act, for 
 the suppression of secret societies ; but the 
 true principles of Freemasonry were so 
 
 well understood by the legislators of Great 
 Britain, many of whom were members of 
 the Order, that the following clause was in- 
 serted in the Act : 
 
 " And whereas, certain societies have 
 been long accustomed to be holden in this 
 kingdom, under the denomination of Lodges 
 of Freemasons, the meetings whereof have 
 been in a great measure directed to chari- 
 table purposes, be it therefore enacted, that 
 nothing in this Act shall extend to the 
 meetings of any such society or Lodge 
 which shall, before the passing of this Act, 
 have been usually holden under the said 
 denomination, and in conformity to the 
 rules prevailing among the said societies 
 of Freemasons." 
 
 Seeing. One of the five human senses, 
 whose importance is treated of in the Fel- 
 low Craft's degree. By sight, things at a 
 distance are, as it were, brought near, and 
 obstacles of space overcome. So in Free- 
 masonry, by a judicious use of this sense, 
 in modes which none but Masons compre- 
 hend, men distant from each other in lan- 
 guage, in religion, and in politics, are 
 brought near, and the impediments of 
 birth and prejudice are overthrown. But, 
 in the natural world, sight cannot be exer- 
 cised without the necessary assistance of 
 light, for in darkness we are unable to see. 
 So in Masonry, the peculiar advantages 
 of Masonic sight require, for their enjoy- 
 ment, the blessing of Masonic light. Illu- 
 minated by its divine rays, the Mason sees 
 where others are blind ; and that which to 
 the profane is but the darkness of igno- 
 rance, is to the initiated filled with the 
 light of knowledge and understanding. 
 
 Seekers. (Chercheurs.) The first de- 
 gree of the Order of Initiated Knights and 
 Brothers of Asia. 
 
 Select Master. The ninth degree in 
 the American Rite, and the last of the two 
 conferred in a Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters. Its officers are a Thrice Illus- 
 trious Grand Master, Illustrious Hiram of 
 Tyre, Principal Conductor of the Works, 
 Treasurer, Recorder, Captain of the Guards, 
 Conductor of the Council, and Steward. 
 The first three represent the three Grand 
 Masters at the building of Solomon's Tem- 
 ple. The symbolic colors are black and 
 red, the former significant of secrecy, si- 
 lence, and darkness ; the latter of fervency 
 and zeal. A Council is supposed to consist 
 of neither more nor less than twenty-seven ; 
 but a smaller number, if not less than nine, 
 is competent to proceed to work or busi- 
 ness. The candidate, when initiated, is 
 said to be " chosen as a Select Master." The 
 historical object of the degree is to com- 
 memorate the deposit of an important se- 
 cret or treasure which, after the prelimi- 
 
SELECT 
 
 SENESCHAL 
 
 705 
 
 nary preparations, is said to have been 
 made by Hiram Abif. The place of meet- 
 ing represents a secret vault beneath the 
 Temple. 
 
 A controversy has sometimes arisen 
 among ritualists as to whether the degree 
 of Select Master should precede or follow 
 that of Royal Master in the order of con- 
 ferring. But the arrangement now exist- 
 ing, by which the Royal Master is made 
 the first and the Select Master the second 
 degree of Cryptic Masonry, has been very 
 generally accepted, and this for the best of 
 reasons. It is true that the circumstances 
 referred to in the degree of Royal Master 
 occurred during a period of time which lies 
 between the death of the Chief Builder of 
 the Temple and the completion of the edi- 
 fice, while those referred to in the degree 
 of Select Master occurred anterior to the 
 builder's death. Hence, in the order of 
 time, the events commemorated in the Se- 
 lect Master's degree took place anterior to 
 those which are related in the degree of 
 Royal Master; although in Masonic se- 
 quence the latter degree is conferred before 
 the former. This apparent anachronism 
 is, however, reconciled by the explanation 
 that the secrets of the Select Master's de- 
 gree were not brought to light until long 
 after the existence of the Royal Master's 
 degree had been known and recognized. 
 
 In other words, to speak only from the 
 traditional point of view, Select Masters 
 had been designated, had performed the 
 task for which they had been selected, and 
 had closed their labors, without ever being 
 openly recognized as a class in the Temple 
 of Solomon. The business in which they 
 were engaged was a secret one. Their oc- 
 cupation and their very existence, accord- 
 ing to the legend, were unknown to the 
 great body of the Craft in the first Temple. 
 The Royal Master's degree, on the contrary, 
 as there was no reason for concealment, was 
 publicly conferred and acknowledged dur- 
 ing the latter part of the construction of 
 the Temple of Solomon; whereas the degree 
 of Select Master, and the important inci- 
 dents on which it was founded, are not sup- 
 posed to have been revealed to the Craft 
 until the building of the temple of Zerub- 
 babel. Hence the Royal Master's degree 
 should always be conferred anterior to that 
 of the Select Master. 
 
 The proper jurisdiction under which 
 these degrees should be placed, whether 
 under Chapters and to be conferred pre- 
 paratory to the Royal Arch degree, or 
 under Councils and to be conferred after it, 
 has excited discussion. The former usage 
 prevails in Maryland and Virginia, but the 
 latter in all the other States. There is no 
 doubt that these degrees belonged origi- 
 4 45 
 
 nally to the Ancient and Accepted Rite, 
 and were conferred as honorary degrees by 
 the Inspectors of that Rite. This authority 
 and jurisdiction the Supreme Council for 
 the Southern Jurisdiction of the Rite con- 
 tinued to claim until the year 1870; al- 
 though, through negligence, the Councils 
 of Royal and Select Masters in some of 
 the States had been placed under the con- 
 trol of independent jurisdictions called 
 Grand Councils. Like all usurped author- 
 ity, however, this claim of the State Grand 
 Councils does not seem to have ever been 
 universally admitted or to have been very 
 firmly established. Repeated attempts have- 
 been made to take the degrees out of the 
 hands of the Councils and to place them 
 in the Chapters, there to be conferred as 
 preparatory to the Royal Arch. The Gen- 
 eral Grand Chapter, in the triennial ses- 
 sion of 1847, adopted a resolution granting 
 this permission to all Chapters in States 
 where no Grand Councils exist. But, see- 
 ing the manifest injustice and inexpediency 
 of such a measure, at the following session 
 of 1850 it refused to take any action on 
 the subject of these degrees. In 1853 it 
 disclaimed all control over them, and for- 
 bade the Chapters under its jurisdiction to 
 confer them. As far as regards the inter- 
 ference of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite, that question was set at rest in 
 1870 by the Mother Council, which, at its 
 session at Baltimore, formally relinquished 
 all further control over them. 
 
 So in est re. The mot de semestre, or 
 semi-annual word, is used only in France. 
 Every six months a secret word is commu- 
 nicated by the Grand Orient to all the 
 Lodges under its jurisdiction. This cus- 
 tom was introduced October 28, 1773, dur- 
 ing the Grand Mastership of the Duke of 
 Chartres, to enable him the better to con- 
 trol the Lodges, and to afford the members 
 a means whereby they could recognize the 
 members who were not constant in their 
 attendance, and also those Masons who 
 either belonged to an unrecognized Rite, 
 or who were not affiliated with any Lodge. 
 The Chapters of the higher degrees receive 
 a word annually from the Grand Orient 
 for the same purpose. This, with the pass- 
 word, is given to the Tiler on entering the 
 Temple. 
 
 Senatorial Chamber. When the 
 Supreme Council of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Rite meets in the thirty -third degree, 
 it is said to meet in its senatorial chamber. 
 
 Seneschal. An officer found in some 
 of the high degrees, as in the thirty-second 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Rite, where 
 his duties are similar to those of a Warden 
 of a Lodge, he acting as the deputy of the 
 presiding officer. The title is derived from 
 
706 
 
 SENIOR 
 
 SERMONS 
 
 the old German senne, house, and schalTc, 
 servant. The seneschals in the Middle 
 Ages were the lieutenants of the dukes 
 and other great feudatories, and took charge 
 of the castles of their masters during their 
 absence. 
 
 Senior Deacon. See Deacons. 
 
 Senior Entered Apprentice. In 
 the ritual of the early part of the last cen- 
 tury the Senior and Junior Entered Ap- 
 prentices acted in the place of the Deacons, 
 which offices were then unknown. The 
 Senior Entered Apprentice was placed in 
 the south, and his duty was " to hear and 
 receive instructions, and to welcome strange 
 Brethren." See Junior Entered Apprentice. 
 
 Senior Warden. The second officer 
 in a Symbolic Lodge. He presides over 
 the Craft during the hours of labor, as the 
 Junior does during the hours of refresh- 
 ment, and in the absence of the Master he 
 performs his duty. See Wardens. 
 
 Senses, FiTC See Five Senses. 
 
 Sentinel. An officer in a Royal Arch 
 Chapter, in a Council of Knights of the 
 Red Cross, and in a Commandery of 
 Knights Templars, whose duties are simi- 
 lar to those of a Tiler in a Symbolic Lodge. 
 In some bodies the word Janitor has been 
 substituted for Sentinel, but the change is 
 hardly a good one. Janitor has been more 
 generally appropriated to the porter of a 
 collegiate institution, and has no old Ma- 
 sonic authority for its use. 
 
 Sephiroth. (Hebrew, HWfijDO Jt 
 is a plural noun, the singular being Se- 
 phira. Buxtorf {Lex. Talm.) says the word 
 means numerations, from SAPHAR, to 
 number; but the Kabbalistic writers gen- 
 erally give it the signification of splendors, 
 from SAPHIRI, splendid. The account of 
 the creation and arrangement of the Sephi- 
 roth forms the most important portion of 
 the secret doctrine of the Kabbalists, and 
 has been adopted and referred to in many 
 of the high philosophic degrees of Masonry. 
 Some acquaintance with it, therefore, 
 seems to be necessary to the Mason who 
 desires to penetrate into the more abstruse 
 arcana of his Order. See Kabbala. 
 
 Septenary. The number seven, which 
 see. 
 
 Sepulchre. The spirit of gratitude 
 has from the earliest period led men to 
 venerate the tombs in which have been de- 
 posited the remains of their benefactors. 
 In all of the ancient religions there were 
 sacred tombs to which worship was paid. 
 The tombs of the prophets, preserved by 
 the Israelites, gave testimony to their rever- 
 ence for the memory of these holy person- 
 ages. After the advent of Christianity, the 
 same sentiment of devotion led the pil- 
 grims to visit the Holy Land, that they 
 
 might kneel at what was believed to be the 
 sepulchre of their Lord. In many of the 
 churches of the Middle Ages there was a 
 particular place near the altar called the 
 sepulchre, which was used at Easter for the 
 performance of solemn rites commemora- 
 tive of the Saviour's resurrection. This 
 custom still prevails in some of the 
 churches on the continent. In Templar 
 Masonry, which is professedly a Christian 
 system, the sepulchre forms a part of the 
 arrangements of a Commandery. In Eng- 
 land, the sepulchre is within the Asylum, 
 and in front of the Eminent Commander. 
 In this country it is placed without; and 
 the scenic representation observed in every 
 well-regulated and properly arranged Com- 
 mandery furnishes a most impressive and 
 pathetic ceremony. 
 
 Sepulchre, Knight of the Holy. 
 See Knight of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 Serapis, Mysteries of. See Egyp- 
 tian Mysteries. 
 
 Sermons, Masonic. Sermons on 
 Masonic subjects, and delivered in churches 
 before Masonic bodies or on Masonic festi- 
 vals, are peculiar to the British and Amer- 
 ican Freemasons. Neither the French nor 
 German, nor, indeed, any continental lit- 
 erature of Masonry, supplies us with any 
 examples. The first Masonic sermon of 
 which we have any knowledge, from its 
 publication, was " A General Charge to 
 Masons, delivered at Christ Church, in 
 Boston, [Massachusetts,] on the 27th of 
 December, 1749, by the Rev. Charles Brock- 
 well, A.M., published at the request of the 
 Grand Officers and Brethren there." It 
 was, however, not printed at Boston, but 
 was first published in the Freemasons' 
 Pocket Companion for 1754. Brockwell was 
 chaplain of the English troops stationed 
 at Boston. But in America, at least, the 
 custom of delivering sermons on St. John's 
 day prevailed many years before. In the 
 author's History of Freemasonry in South 
 Carolina, (pp. 15-20,) will be found the 
 authentic evidence that the Lodges in 
 Charleston attended divine service on De- 
 cember 27, 1738, and for several years after, 
 on each of which occasions it is to be pre- 
 sumed that a sermon was preached. In 
 1742 it is distinctly stated, from a contem- 
 porary gazette, that " both Lodges pro- 
 ceeded regularly, with the ensigns of their 
 Order and music before them, to church, 
 where they heard a very learned sermon 
 from their brother, the Rev. Mr. Durand." 
 Brock well's, however, is the first of these 
 early sermons which has had the good for- 
 tune to be embalmed in type. But though 
 first delivered, it was not the first printed. 
 In 1750, John Entick, afterwards the editor 
 of an edition of Anderson's " Constitutions," 
 
SERPENT 
 
 SERPENT 
 
 707 
 
 delivered a sermon at Welbrook, England, 
 entitled, "The Free and Accepted Mason 
 Described." The text on this occasion was 
 from Acts xxviii. 22, and had some signifi- 
 cance in reference to the popular character of 
 the Order. " But we desire to hear of thee 
 what thou thinkest ; for as concerning this 
 sect, we know that everywhere it is spoken 
 against." Entick preached several other 
 sermons, which were printed. From that 
 time, both in England and America, the 
 sermon became a very usual part of the 
 public celebration of a Masonic festival. 
 One preached at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in 
 1775, is in its very title a sermon of itself: 
 " The Basis of Freemasonry displayed ; or, 
 &n Attempt to show that the general Prin- 
 ciples of true Religion, genuine Virtue, 
 and sound Morality are the noble Founda- 
 tions on which this renowned Society is 
 established: Being a Sermon preached in 
 Newcastle, on the Festival of St. John the 
 Evangelist, 1775, by Bro. Robert Green." 
 
 In 1799, the Rev. Jetbro Inwood pub- 
 lished a volume of "Sermons, in which are 
 expressed and enforced the religious, moral, 
 and political virtues of Freemasonry, 
 preached upon several occasions before 
 the Provincial Grand Officers and other 
 Brethren in the Counties of Kent, Essex, 
 etc." In 1849 Spencer published an edi- 
 tion of this work, enriched by the valuable 
 notes of Dr. Oliver. In 1801 the Rev. 
 Thaddeus Mason Harris, Grand Chaplain 
 of the Grand Lodge and Grand Chapter of 
 Massachusetts, published at Charlestown, 
 Massachusetts, a volume of " Discourses 
 delivered on Public Occasions, illustrating 
 the Principles, displaying the Tendency, 
 and vindicating the Design of Freema- 
 sonry." This work has also been anno- 
 tated in a new edition by Dr. Oliver, and 
 republished in his Golden Remains of Early 
 Masonic Writers. During this century there 
 has been an abundance of single sermons 
 
 f (reached and published, but no other col- 
 ected volume of any by one and the same 
 author has been given to the public since 
 those of Dr. Harris. Yet the fact that 
 annually in Great Britain and America 
 hundreds of sermons in praise or in de- 
 fence of Freemasonry are delivered from 
 Christian pulpits, is a valuable testimony 
 given by the clergy to the purity of the 
 Institution. 
 
 Serpent. As a symbol, the serpent 
 obtained a prominent place in all the an- 
 cient initiations and religions. Among the 
 Egyptians it was the symbol of Divine 
 Wisdom when extended at length, and the 
 serpent with his tail in his mouth was an 
 emblem of eternity. The winged globe and 
 serpent symbolized their triune deity. In 
 the ritual of Zoroaster, the serpent was a 
 
 symbol of the universe. In China, the 
 ring between two serpents was the symbol 
 of the world governed by the power and 
 wisdom of the Creator. The same device 
 is several times repeated on the Isiac table. 
 Higgins (Anacol., i. 521,) says that, from 
 the faculty which the serpent possessed of 
 renewing itself, without the process of gen- 
 eration as to outward appearance, by an- 
 nually casting its skin, it became, like the 
 Phoenix, the emblem of eternity ; but he 
 denies that it ever represented, even in 
 Genesis, the evil principle. Faber's the- 
 ory of the symbolism of the serpent, as set 
 forth in his work on the Origin of Pagan 
 Idolatry, is ingenious. He says that the 
 ancients in part derived their idea of the 
 serpent from the first tempter, and hence 
 it was a hieroglyphic of the evil principle. 
 But as the deluge was thought to have 
 emanated from the evil principle, the ser- 
 pent became a symbol of the deluge. He 
 also represented the good principle; the 
 idea being borrowed from the winged sera- 
 phim which was blended with the cheru- 
 bim who guarded the tree of life, — the 
 seraphim and cherubim being sometimes 
 considered as identical ; and besides, in 
 Hebrew, *ptP means both a seraph and a 
 serpent. But as the good principle was 
 always male and female, the male serpent 
 represented the Great Father, Adam or 
 Noah, and the female serpent represented 
 the ark or world, the microcosm and the 
 macrocosm. Hence the serpent represented 
 the perpetually renovated worla, and as 
 such was used in all the mysteries. Dr. 
 Oliver brings his peculiar views to the in- 
 terpretation, and says that in Christian 
 Masonry the serpent is an emblem of the 
 fall and the subsequent redemption of man. 
 In Ancient Craft Masonry, however, the 
 serpent does not occur as a symbol. In 
 the Templar and in the Philosophic de- 
 grees, — such as the Knight of the Brazen 
 Serpent, where the serpent is combined 
 with the cross, — it is evidently a symbol 
 of Christ; and thus the symbolism of these 
 degrees is closely connected with that of the 
 Rose Croix. 
 
 Serpent and Cross. A symbol used 
 in the degrees of Knight Templar and 
 Knight of the Brazen Serpent. The cross 
 is a tau cross T, and the serpent is twined 
 around. Its origin is found in Numbers 
 xxi. 9, where it is said, " Moses made a 
 serpent of brass, and put it upon a pole." 
 The word jD, Nes, here translated "a pole," 
 literally means a standard, or something 
 elevated on high as a signal, and may be 
 represented by a cross as well as by a pole. 
 Indeed, Justin Martyr calls it a cross. 
 
 Serpent, Knight of the Brazen. 
 See Knight of the Brazen Serpent. 
 
708 
 
 SERPENT 
 
 SEVEN 
 
 Serpent Worship. In ancient times, 
 the serpent was an object of adoration in 
 almost all nations. It was, in fact, one of 
 the earliest deviations from the true system, 
 and in almost all the ancient rites we find 
 some allusion to the serpent. It was wor- 
 shipped in India, Egypt, Phoenicia, Babylo- 
 nia, Greece, and Italy. Indeed, so widely was 
 this worship distributed, presenting every- 
 where so many similar features, that it is 
 not surprising that it has been regarded by 
 some writers as the primitive religion of 
 man. And so long did it continue, that 
 in the sect of Ophites it became one of the 
 earliest heresies of the church. In some 
 nations, as the Egyptians, the serpent was 
 the representative of the good principle ; 
 but in most of them it was the emblem of 
 the evil principle. 
 
 Serving Brethren. Masons whose 
 duty it is to serve the Lodge as Tilers, 
 waiters at the Lodge table, and to perform 
 other menial services, are called in Euro- 
 pean Lodges "serving brethren." They 
 are not known in this country, but were 
 long recognized as a distinct class in Eng- 
 land and on the continent. In 1753 the 
 Grand Lodge of England adopted a regu- 
 lation for their initiation, which, slightly 
 modified, is still in force. By it every 
 Lodge is empowered to initiate without 
 charge "serving brethren," who cannot, 
 however, become members of the Lodge, 
 although they may join another. In mili- 
 tary Lodges private soldiers may be re- 
 ceived as serving brethren. On the conti- 
 nent, at one time, a separate and prelimi- 
 nary form of reception, with peculiar signs, 
 etc., was appropriated to those who were 
 initiated as serving brethren, and they 
 were not permitted to advance beyond the 
 first degree; which, however, worked no 
 inconvenience, as all the business and 
 refreshment of the Lodges were done at 
 that time in the Entered Apprentice's 
 degree. The regulation for admitting serv- 
 ing brethren arose from the custom of 
 Lodges meeting at taverns; and as at that 
 period labor and refreshment were inter- 
 mixed, the waiters for the tavern were 
 sometimes required to enter the room while 
 the Lodge was in session, and hence it 
 became necessary to qualify them for such 
 service by making them Masons. In 
 France they are called Freres Servants; in 
 Germany, Dienenden Br'dder. 
 
 The Knights Templars had a class called 
 serving brothers, who were not, however, 
 introduced into the Order until it had 
 
 5reatly increased in wealth and numbers, 
 'he form of their reception varied very 
 slightly from that of the Knights; but their 
 habit was different, being black. They 
 were designated for the performance of 
 
 various services inside or outside of the 
 Order. Many rich and well-born men 
 belonged to this class. They were permit- 
 ted to take part in the election of a Grand 
 Master. The treasurer of the Order was 
 always a serving brother. Of these serving 
 brothers there were two kinds : servants at 
 arms and artificers. The former were the 
 most highly esteemed ; the latter being con- 
 sidered a very inferior class, except the 
 armorers, who were held, on account of the 
 importance of their occupation, in higher 
 estimation. 
 
 Seth. It is a theory of some Masonic 
 writers that the principles of the Pure or 
 Primitive Freemasonry were preserved in 
 the race of Seth, which had always kept 
 separate from that of Cain, but that after 
 the flood they became corrupted by a se- 
 cession of a portion of the Sethites, who 
 established the Spurious Freemasonry of 
 the Gentiles. This theory has been very 
 extensively advanced by Dr. Oliver in all 
 his works. The pillars erected by Seth to 
 preserve the principles of the arts and 
 sciences are mentioned by Josephus. But 
 although the Old Constitutions speak of 
 Seth, they ascribe the erection of these 
 pillars to the children of Lamech. But in 
 the high degrees of Masonry the erection 
 is attributed to Enoch. See Enoch. 
 
 Sethos. In 1731, the Abbe Terrasson 
 published at Paris a work entitled Sethos 
 histoire ou vie tiree ties monumens anecdotes 
 de Vancienne Egypte. It has passed through 
 a great many editions and been translated 
 into German and English. Under the 
 form of fiction it contains an admirable 
 description of the initiation into the ancient 
 Egyptian mysteries. The labors and re- 
 searches of Terrasson have been very freely 
 used by Lenoir, Clavel, Oliver, and other 
 writers on the ancient initiations. 
 
 Setting Sun. It was the duty of the 
 Senior Warden to pay and dismiss the 
 Craft at the close of day, when the sun 
 sinks in the West; so now the Senior War- 
 den is said in the Lodge to represent the 
 setting sun. 
 
 Seven. In every system of antiquity 
 there is a frequent reference to this num- 
 ber, showing that the veneration for it pro- 
 ceeded from some common cause. It is 
 equally a sacred number in the Gentile as 
 in the Christian religion. Oliver says that 
 this can scarcely be ascribed to any event, 
 except it be the institution of the Sabbath. 
 Higgins thinks that the peculiar circum- 
 stance, perhaps accidental, of the number 
 of the days of the week coinciding exactly 
 with the number of the planetary bodies 
 probably procured for it its character of 
 sanctity. The Pythagoreans called it a 
 perfect number, because it was made up of 
 
SEVEN 
 
 SHAMIR 
 
 709 
 
 3 and 4, the triangle and the square, which 
 are the two perfect figures. They called it 
 also a virgin number, and without mother, 
 comparing it to Minerva, who was a moth- 
 erless virgin, because it cannot by multi- 
 plication produce any number within ten, 
 as twice two does four, and three times 
 three does nine ; nor can any two numbers, 
 by their multiplication, produce it. 
 
 It is singular to observe the important 
 part occupied by the number seven in all 
 the ancient systems. There were, for in- 
 stance, seven ancient planets, seven Pleiades, 
 and seven Hyades ; seven altars burned con- 
 tinually before the god Mithras; the Ara- 
 bians had seven holy temples ; the Hindus 
 supposed the world to be enclosed within 
 the compass of seven peninsulas ; the Goths 
 had seven deities, viz., the Sun, the Moon, 
 Tuisco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Seatur, 
 from whose names are derived our days of 
 the week; in the Persian mysteries were 
 seven spacious caverns, through which the 
 aspirant had to pass ; in the Gothic myste- 
 ries, the candidate met with seven obstruc- 
 tions, which were called the " road of the 
 seven stages ; " and, finally, sacrifices were 
 always considered as most eflicacious when 
 the victims were seven in number. 
 
 Much of the Jewish ritual was governed 
 by this number, and the etymology of the 
 word shows its sacred import, for the radical 
 meaning of J^3£^> shabang, is, says Park- 
 hurst, sufficiency or fulness. The Hebrew 
 idea, therefore, like the Pythagorean, is that 
 of perfection. To both the seven was a per- 
 fect number. Again : ^^£^> means to swear, 
 because oaths were confirmed either by 
 seven witnesses, or by seven victims offered 
 in sacrifice, as we read in the covenant of 
 Abraham and Abimelech. (Gen. xxi. 28.) 
 Hence, there is a frequent recurrence to this 
 number in the scriptural history. The Sab- 
 bath was the seventh day ; Noah received 
 seven days' notice of the commencement of 
 the deluge, and was commanded to select 
 clean beasts and fowls by sevens ; seven per- 
 sons accompanied him into the ark; the 
 ark rested on Mount Ararat in the seventh 
 month ; the intervals between despatching 
 the dove were, each time, seven days ; the 
 walls of Jericho were encompassed seven 
 days by seven priests, bearing seven rams' 
 horns; Solomon was seven years building 
 the Temple, which was dedicated in the 
 seventh month, and the festival lasted seven 
 days ; the candlestick in the tabernacle 
 consisted of seven branches; and, finally, the 
 tower of Babel was said to have been ele- 
 vated seven stories before the dispersion. 
 
 Seven is a sacred number in Masonic 
 symbolism. It has always been so. In the 
 earliest rituals of the last century it was 
 said that a Lodge required seven to make 
 
 it perfect ; but the only explanation that I 
 can find in any of those rituals of the sa- 
 credness of the number is the seven liberal 
 arts and sciences, which, according to the 
 old "Legend of the Craft," were the founda- 
 tion of Masonry. In modern ritualism the 
 symbolism of seven has been transferred 
 from the first to the second degree, and 
 there it is made to refer only to the seven 
 steps of the Winding Stairs ; but the sym- 
 bolic seven is to be found diffused in a 
 hundred ways over the whole Masonic sys- 
 tem. 
 
 Seven Stars. In the Tracing-Board 
 of the seventeenth degree, or Knight of the 
 East and West, is the representation of a 
 man clothed in a white robe, with a golden 
 girdle round his waist, his right hand ex- 
 tended, and surrounded with seven stars. 
 The seventeenth is an apocalyptic degree $ 
 this symbol is taken from the passage in 
 Kevelation i. 16, " and he had in his right 
 hand seven stars." It is a symbol of the 
 seven churches of Asia. 
 
 Seventy Years of Captivity. 
 This period must be computed from the 
 defeat of the Egyptians at Carchemish, in 
 the same year that the prophecy was given, 
 when Nebuchadnezzar reduced the neigh- 
 boring nations of Syria and Palestine, as 
 well as Jerusalem, under his subjection. 
 At the end of seventy years, on the acces- 
 sion of Cyrus, an end was put to the Baby- 
 lonish monarchy. 
 
 Shaddai. One of the names of God. 
 In Exodus vi. 13, the word translated 
 God Almighty is, in the original, Shaddai, 
 *"1G^» it is therefore the name by which he 
 was known to the Israelites before he com- 
 municated to Moses the Tetragrammaton. 
 The word is apluralis majestatis, and signi- 
 fies all-powerful, omnipotent. 
 
 Shamir. King Solomon is said, in a 
 rabbinical legend, to have used the worm 
 Shamir as an instrument for building the 
 Temple. The legend is that Moses en- 
 graved the names of the twelve tribes on 
 the stones of the breastplate by means of 
 the blood of the worm shamir, whose sol- 
 vent power was so great that it could cor- 
 rode the hardest substances. When Solo- 
 mon was about to build the Temple of 
 stones without the use of any metallic im- 
 plement, he was desirous of obtaining this 
 potent blood ; but the knowledge of the 
 source whence Moses had derived it had 
 been lost by the lapse of time. Solomon 
 enclosed the chick of a bird, either an os- 
 trich or a hoopoe, in a crystal vessel, and 
 E laced a sentinel to watch it. The parent 
 ird, finding it impossible to break the 
 vessel with her bill so as to gain access to 
 the young one, flew to the desert, and re- 
 turned with the miraculous worm, which, 
 
710 
 
 SHARP 
 
 SHEM 
 
 by means of its blood, soon penetrated the 
 prison of glass, and liberated the chick. 
 By a repetition of the process, the King of 
 Israel at length acquired a sufficiency of 
 the dissolving blood to enable him to work 
 upon the stones of the Temple. 
 
 It is supposed that the legend is based on 
 a corruption of the word Smiris, the Greek 
 for emery, which was used by the antique 
 engravers in their works and medallions, 
 and that the name Shamir is merely the 
 Hebrew form of the Greek word. 
 
 Sharp Instrument. The emblem- 
 atic use of a " sharp instrument," as indi- 
 cated in the ritual of the first degree, is in- 
 tended to be represented by a warlike 
 weapon, (the old rituals call it " a warlike 
 instrument,") such as a dagger or sword. 
 The use of the point of a pair of compasses, 
 as is sometimes improperly done, is an er- 
 roueous application of the symbol, which 
 should not be tolerated in a properly con- 
 ducted Lodge. The compasses are, besides, 
 a symbol peculiar to the third degree. 
 
 Shastras. The sacred book of the 
 Hindus, which contains the dogmas of their 
 religion and the ceremonies of their wor- 
 ship. It is a commentary on the Vedas, 
 and consists of three parts : the moral law, 
 the rites and ceremonies of the religion, and 
 the distribution of the people into tribes. 
 To the Hindu Mason it would be the 
 Greater Light and his Book of the Law, as 
 the Bible is to his Christian brother. 
 
 Sheba, Queen of. In the Books of 
 Kings and Chronicles we are told that 
 " when the Queen of Sheba heard of the 
 fame of Solomon concerning the name of 
 the Lord, she came to prove him with hard 
 questions." Sheba, or Saba, is supposed to 
 have been a province of Arabia Felix, sit- 
 uated to the south of Jerusalem. The 
 queen, whose visit is thus described, is 
 spoken of nowhere else in Scripture. But 
 the Jews and the Arabs, who gave her the 
 name of Balkis, recite many traditions con- 
 cerning her. The Masonic one will be 
 found under the words Admiration, Sign of, 
 which see. 
 
 Shekel. In the fourth or Mark Mas- 
 ter's degree, it is said that the value of a 
 mark is " a Jewish half-shekel of silver, or 
 twenty-five cents in the currency of this 
 country." The shekel of silver was a 
 weight of great antiquity among the Jews, 
 its value being about a half-dollar. In the 
 time of Solomon, as well as long before and 
 long after, until the Babylonish exile, the 
 Hebrews had no regularly stamped money, 
 but generally used in traffic a currency 
 which consisted of uncoined shekels, which 
 they weighed out to one another. The 
 earliest specimens of the coined shekel 
 which we know are of the coinage of Simon 
 
 Maccabeus, issued about the year 144 B. c. 
 Of these, we generally find on the obverse 
 the sacred pot of manna, with the inscrip- 
 tion, " Shekel Israel," in the old Samaritan 
 character ; on the reverse, the rod of Aaron, 
 
 having three buds, with the inscription, 
 " Ierushalem Kadoshah," or Jerusalem the 
 Holy, in a similar character. 
 
 Shekinah. Heb., ni'3C, derived 
 from SHAKAN, to dwell. A term applied 
 by the Jews, especially in the Targums, to 
 the divine glory which dwelt in the taber- 
 nacle and the Temple, and which was 
 manifested by a visible cloud resting over 
 the mercy-seat in the Holy of Holies. It 
 first appeared over the ark when Moses 
 consecrated the tabernacle ; and was after- 
 wards, upon the consecration of the Tem- 
 ple by Solomon, translated thither, where 
 it remained until the destruction of that 
 building. 
 
 The Shekinah disappeared after the de- 
 struction of the first Temple, and was not 
 present in the second. Mr. Christie, in his 
 learned treatise on the Worship of t he Ele- 
 ments, says that " the loss of the Shekinah, 
 that visible sign of the presence of the 
 Deity, induced an early respect for solar 
 light as its substitute." Now there is much 
 that is significative of Masonic history in 
 this brief sentence. The sun still remains 
 as a prominent symbol in the Masonic 
 system. It has been derived by the Masons 
 from those old sun worshippers. But the 
 idea of Masonic light is very different from 
 their idea of solar light. The Shekinah 
 was the symbol of the divine glory ; but 
 the True glory of divinity is Truth, and 
 Divine Truth is therefore the Shekinah of 
 Masonry. This is symbolized by light, 
 which is no longer used by us as a " substi- 
 tute " for the Shekinah, or the divine glory, 
 but as its symbol — the physical expression 
 of its essence. 
 
 Mi em. Bttf. The Name. The Jews 
 in their sacred rites often designated God 
 by the word Name, but they applied it only 
 to him in his most exalted character as ex- 
 pressed by the Tetragrammaton, JEHO- 
 VAH. To none of the other titles of God, 
 such as El, Eheyeh, or Adonai, do they ap- 
 ply the word. Thus, Shemchah Kadosh, 
 Thy name is holy, means Thy name Jeho- 
 vah is holy. To the Name thus exalted, in 
 
SHEM 
 
 SHIELD 
 
 711 
 
 its reference to the Tetragrammaton, the}' 
 applied many epithets, among which are 
 the following used by the Talmudists, Dt5* 
 *71P W*tX, Shem shal arbang, the name of 
 four, i. e., four letters ; *1 JVDH DK', Shem ham- 
 jukad, the appropriated name, i. e., appro- 
 priately solely to God. bnJH 0&, Shem 
 haggadol, the great name, and t^nrsn D!f, 
 Shem hakkadosh, the holy name. To the Jew, 
 as to the Mason, this great and holy name 
 was the symbol of all divine truth. The 
 Name was the true name, and therefore it 
 symbolized and represented the true God. 
 
 Shem, Ham, Japheth. The three 
 sons of Noah, who assisted him in the con- 
 struction of the ark of safety, and hence 
 they became significant words in the Royal 
 Arch degree according to the American 
 system. The interpolation of Adoniram in 
 the place of one 01 these names, which is 
 sometimes met with, is a blunder of some 
 modern, ignorant ritual maker. 
 
 Shem Ifamphoraseh. eniflDn Dtp, 
 the separated name. The Tetragramma- 
 ton is so called because, as Maimonides 
 (More Nevoch.) says, all the names of God 
 are derived from his works except the 
 Tetragrammaton, which is called the sepa- 
 rated name, because it is derived from the 
 substance of the Creator, in which there is 
 no participation of any other thing. That 
 is to say, this name indicates the self-exist- 
 ent essence of God, which is something al- 
 together within himself, and separate from 
 his works. 
 
 Sheriff*. According to Preston, the 
 sheriff of a county possessed, before the 
 revival of 1717, a power now confined to 
 Grand Masters. He says (Must., p. 182,) 
 that " A sufficient number of Masons met 
 together within a certain district, with the 
 consent of the Sheriff or chief magistrate of 
 the place, were empowered, at this time, to 
 make Masons, and practise the rites of Ma- 
 sonry without a Warrant of Constitution." 
 This is confirmed by the following passage 
 in the Cooke MS., (Lines 901-912:) * When 
 the masters and fellows be forewarned, and 
 are come to such congregations, if need be, 
 the Sheriff of the Country, or the Mayor of 
 the City, or Aldermen of the Town in which 
 such Congregation is holden, shall be fellow 
 and sociate to the master of the congrega- 
 tion in help of him against rebels and [for 
 the] upbearing the right of the realm." 
 
 Shetharhoznai. See Tatnai. 
 
 Shewbread. The twelve loaves 
 which were placed upon a table in the 
 sanctuary of the Temple, and which were 
 called the shewbread or bread of the pres- 
 ence, are represented among the parapher- 
 nalia of a Lodge of Perfection in the 
 Ancient and Accepted Rite. B'ahr (Sym- 
 bolik) says that the shewbread was a 
 
 symbol of the bread of life — of the eter- 
 nal life by which we are brought into the 
 presence of God and know him ; an inter- 
 pretation that is equally applicable to the 
 Masonic symbolism. 
 
 Shibboleth. (Heb. rhw.) The word 
 which the Gileadites under Jephthah made 
 use of as a test at the passages of the river 
 Jordan after a victory over the Ephraimites. 
 The word has two meanings in Hebrew : 
 1st, an ear of corn ; and, 2dly, a stream 
 of water. As the Ephraimites were desir- 
 ous of crossing the river, it is probable 
 that this second meaning suggested it to 
 the Gileadites as an appropriate test word 
 en the occasion. The proper sound of the 
 first letter of this word is sh, a harsh breath- 
 ing which is exceedingly difficult to be pro- 
 nounced by persons whose vocal organs 
 have not been accustomed to it. Such was 
 the case with the Ephraimites, who substi- 
 tuted for the aspiration the hissing sound 
 of 8. Their organs of voice were incapa- 
 ble of the aspiration, and therefore, as the 
 record has it, they "could not frame to 
 pronounce it right." The learned Burder 
 remarks ( Orient. Oust., ii. 782,) that in 
 Arabia the difference of pronunciation 
 among persons of various districts is much 
 greater than in most other places, and such 
 as easily accounts for the circumstance men- 
 tioned in the passage of Judges. Hutchin- 
 son, (*S^>. of Mas., p. 113,) speaking of this 
 word, rather fancifully derives it from the 
 Greek oi$u, I revere, and Xidog, a stone, and, 
 therefore, he says " "Zijiolidov, Sibbolithon, 
 Colo Lapidem, implies that they (the Ma- 
 sons) retain and keep inviolate their obli- 
 gations, as the Juramentum per Jovem La- 
 pidem, the most obligatory oath held among 
 the heathen." 
 
 It may be remarked that in the ritual 
 of the Fellow Craft's degree, where the 
 story of the Ephraimites is introduced, and 
 where Shibboleth is symbolically interpret- 
 ed as meaning plenty, the word water ford is 
 sometimes used incorrectly, instead of wa- 
 terfall. Shibboleth means a flood of water, 
 a rapid stream, not a. ford. In Psalm lxix. 
 3 the word is used in this exact sense. 
 *Jn3£3tJ' n*73iy» Shibboleth shetafalni, the flood 
 has overwhelmed me. And, besides, a wa- 
 terfall is an emblem of plenty, because it 
 indicates an abundance of water; while a 
 water ford, for the converse reason, is, if 
 any symbol at all, a symbol of scarcity. 
 
 Shield. The shape of the shield worn 
 by the knight in the Middle Ages varied 
 according to the caprice of the wearer, but 
 generally it was large at the top and grad- 
 ually diminished to a point, being made of 
 wood and covered with leather, and on the 
 outside was seen the escutcheon or repre- 
 sentation of the armorial bearings of the 
 
712 
 
 SHIELD 
 
 SHOCK 
 
 owner. The shield, with all the other parts 
 of the armor worn by the knights except 
 the gauntlets, has been discontinued by the 
 modern Masonic knights. Oliver thinks 
 that in some of the military initiations, as 
 in those of the Scandinavian mysteries, 
 the shield was substituted for the apron. 
 An old heraldic writer quoted by Sloane- 
 Evans, ( Oram. Brit. Her., 153,) thus gives 
 the symbolic import of the shield : " Like 
 as the shield served in the battle for a 
 safeguard of the body of soldiers against 
 wounds, even so in time of peace, the same 
 being hanged up, did defend the owner 
 against the malevolent detractions of the 
 envious." 
 
 Shield of I>avi<l. Two interlaced 
 triangles, more commonly known as the 
 Seal of Solomon, and considered by the 
 ancient Jews as a talisman of great effi- 
 cacy. (See Seal of Solomon.) Because the 
 shield was, in battle, a protection, like a 
 talisman, to the person, the Hebrews used 
 the same word, jJD, Magen, to signify both 
 a shield and a talismen. Gaffarel says, in 
 his Ouriositates Inauditoz (Lond. Trans., 
 1650, p. 133,) "The Hebrew word Maghen 
 signifies a scutcheon, or any other thing 
 noted with Hebrew characters, the virtue 
 whereof is like to that of a scutcheon." 
 After showing that the shield was never an 
 image, because the Mosaic law forbade the 
 making of graven images, he adds : " Ma- 
 ghen, therefore, signifies properly any piece 
 of paper or other like matter marked or 
 noted with certain characters drawn from 
 the Tetragrammaton, or Great Name of 
 four letters, or from any other." The most 
 
 usual form of the Shield of David was to 
 place in the centre of the two triangles, and 
 at the intersecting points, the Hebrew word 
 
 X7JX, Agla, which was compounded of 
 the initials of the words of the sentence, 
 "OIX xh^h *OJ nnx, Atah Gibor Lolam Ado- 
 nai, " Thou are strong in the eternal God." 
 Thus constructed, the shield of David was 
 supposed to be a preservative against all 
 sorts of dangers. 
 
 Shook. A striking of hands and feet, 
 so as to produce a sudden noise. There is 
 a ceremony called " the shock," which was 
 in use in the reception of an Apprentice in 
 the beginning of this century, and is still 
 used by some Lodges in what is called 
 " the Shock of Entrance," and by all in 
 "the Shock of Enlightenment." Of the 
 first shock as well as of the second, I have 
 found evident traces in some of the earlier 
 rituals of the last century, and I have no 
 doubt that it was an ancient ceremony, the 
 gradual disuse of which is an innovation. 
 
 Shock of Enlightenment. A 
 ceremony used in all the degrees of Sym- 
 bolic Masonry. By it we seek to sym- 
 bolize the idea of the birth of material 
 light, by the representation of the circum- 
 stances that accompanied it, and their 
 reference to the birth of intellectual or Ma- 
 sonic light. The one is the type of the 
 other; and hence the illumination of the 
 candidate is attended with a ceremony 
 that may be supposed to imitate the primal 
 illumination of the universe — most feebly, 
 it is true, and yet not altogether without 
 impressiveness. 
 
 The Shock of Enlightenment is, then, a 
 symbol of the change which is now taking 
 place in the intellectual condition of the 
 candidate. It is the symbol of the birth of 
 intellectual light and the dispersion of intel- 
 lectual darkness. 
 
 Shock of Entrance. A ceremony 
 formerly used on the admission of an En- 
 tered Apprentice, but now partly becoming 
 obsolete. In the old initiations, the same 
 word signified to die and to be initiated, be- 
 cause, in the initiation, the lesson of death 
 and the resurrection to eternal life was the 
 dogma inculcated. In the initiation of an 
 Apprentice in Masonry the same lesson is 
 begun to be taught, and the initiate, enter- 
 ing upon a new life and new duties, dis- 
 rupting old ties and forming new ones, 
 passes into a new birth. This is, or ought 
 to be, necessarily accompanied by some cere- 
 mony which should symbolically represent 
 this great moral change. He r H;e the impres- 
 sion of this idea is made by the symbolism 
 of the shock at the entrance of the candidate. 
 
 The shock or entrance is then the sym- 
 bol of the disruption of the candidate from 
 the ties of the world, and his introduction 
 into the life of Masonry. It is the symbol 
 of the agonies of the first death and of the 
 throes of the new birth. 
 
SHOE 
 
 SIGHT 
 
 713 
 
 Shoe. Among the ancient Israelites, 
 the shoe was unaae use of in several sig- 
 nificant ways. To put off the shoes, imported 
 reverence, and was done in the presence of 
 God, or on entering the dwelling of a su- 
 perior. To unloose one's shoe and give it to 
 another was the way of confirming a con- 
 tract. Thus we read in the book of Ruth, 
 that Boaz having proposed to the nearest 
 kinsman of Ruth to exercise his legal 
 right by redeeming the land of Naomi, 
 which was offered for sale, and marrying 
 her daughter-in-law, the kinsman, being un- 
 able to do so, resigned his right of purchase 
 to Boaz ; and the narrative goes on to say, 
 (Ruth iv. 7, 8,) " Now this was the manner 
 in former time in Israel concerning redeem- 
 ing and concerning changing, for to con- 
 firm all things ; a man plucked off his shoe, 
 and gave it to his neighbor : and this was a 
 testimony in Israel. Therefore the kins- 
 man said unto Boaz, Buy it for thee. So 
 he drew off his shoe." The reference to 
 the shoe in the first degree is therefore 
 really as a symbol of a covenant to be en- 
 tered into. In the third degree the sym- 
 bolism is altogether different. For an ex- 
 planation of it, see Discalceation. 
 
 Shovel. An instrument used to re- 
 move rubbish. It is one of the working- 
 tools of a Royal Arch Mason, and symboli- 
 cally teaches him to remove the rubbish 
 of passions and prejudices, that he may be 
 fitted, when he thus escapes from the cap- 
 tivity of sin, for the search and the recep- 
 tion of Eternal Truth and Wisdom. 
 
 Shrine. Oliver says that the shrine 
 is the place where the secrets of the Royal 
 Arch are deposited. The word is not so 
 used in this' country, nor does it seem 
 properly applicable according to the legend 
 of the degree. 
 
 Side Degrees. There are certain 
 Masonic degrees, which, not being placed 
 in the regular routine of the acknowledged 
 degrees, are not recognized as a part of 
 Ancient Masonry, but receive the name of 
 " Honorary or Side Degrees." They con- 
 stitute no part of the regular ritual, and are 
 not under the control of either Grand 
 Lodges, Grand Chapters, or any other of 
 the legal, administrative bodies of the In- 
 stitution. Although a few of them are 
 very old, the greater number are of a 
 comparatively modern origin, and are gen- 
 erally supposed to have been indebted for 
 their invention to the ingenuity of either 
 Grand Lecturers, or other distinguished 
 Masons. Their history and ceremonies are 
 often interesting, and so far as we have 
 been made acquainted with them, their 
 tendency, when they are properly confer- 
 red, is always moral. They are not given 
 in Lodges or Chapters, but at private meet- 
 4P 
 
 ings of the brethren or companions posses- 
 sing them, informally and temporarily called 
 ft>r the sole, purpose of conferring them. 
 These temporary assemblies owe no alle- 
 giance to any supreme, controlling body, 
 except so far as they are composed of Mas- 
 ter or Royal Arch Masons, and when the 
 business of conferring the degrees is ac- 
 complished, they are dissolved at once, not 
 to meet again, except under similar cir- 
 cumstances and for a similar purpose. 
 
 Some of them are conferred on Master Ma- 
 sons, some on Royal Arch Masons, and some 
 only on Knights Templars. There is an- 
 other class which females, connected by cer- 
 tain ties of relationship with the Frater- 
 nity, are permitted to receive ; and this fact, 
 in some measure, assimilates these degrees 
 to the Masonry of Adoption, or Female 
 Masonry, which is practised in France and 
 some other European countries, although 
 there are important points of difference be- 
 tween them. These female side degrees 
 have received the name of " androgynous 
 degrees," from two Greek words signifying 
 man and woman, and are thus called to indi- 
 cate the participation in them by both sexes. 
 
 The principal side degrees practised in 
 this country are as follows : 
 
 1. Secret Monitor. 
 
 2. Knight of the Three Kings. 
 
 3. Knight of Constantinople. 
 
 4. Mason's Wife and Daughter. 
 
 5. Ark and Dove. 
 
 6. Mediterranean Pass. 
 
 7. Knight and Heroine of Jericho. 
 
 8. Good Samaritan. 
 
 9. Knight of the Mediterranean Pass. 
 Sight, Making Masons at. The 
 
 prerogative of the Grand Master to make 
 Masons at sight is described as the eighth 
 landmark of the Order. It is a technical 
 term, which may be defined to be the power 
 to initiate, pass, and raise candidates, by the 
 Grand Master, in a Lodge of emergency, 
 or, as it is called in the Book of Consti- 
 tutions, " an occasional Lodge," specially 
 convened by him, and consisting of such 
 Master Masons as he may call together for 
 that purpose only ; the Lodge ceasing to 
 exist as soon as the initiation, passing, or 
 raising has been accomplished, and the 
 brethren have been dismissed by the Grand 
 Master. 
 
 It is but right to say that this doctrine is 
 not universally received as established law 
 by the Craft. I do not think, however, 
 that it was ever disputed until within a 
 comparatively recent period. It is true 
 that Cole, {Freemas., lib. 51,) as far back as 
 1817, remarked that it was " a great stretch 
 of power, not recognized, or at least, he be- 
 lieved, not practised in this country." But 
 the qualifying phrases in this sentence, 
 
714 
 
 SIGHT 
 
 SIGHT 
 
 clearly show that he was by no means cer- 
 tain that he was correct in denying the 
 recognition of the right. Cole, however, 
 would hardly be considered as competent 
 authority on a question of Masonic law, as 
 he was evidently unacquainted with the 
 Book of Constitutions, and does not quote or 
 refer to it throughout his voluminous work. 
 
 In that Book of Constitutions, however, 
 several instances are furnished of the exer- 
 cise of this right by various Grand Masters. 
 
 In 1731, Lord Lovell being Grand Master, 
 he " formed an occasional Lodge at Hough- 
 ton Hall, Sir Robert Walpole's House in 
 Norfolk," and there made the Duke of 
 Lorraine, afterwards Emperor of Germany, 
 and the Duke of Newcastle, Master Masons. 
 
 I do not quote the case of the initiation, 
 passing, and raising of Frederick, Prince 
 of Wales, in 1737, which was done in " an 
 occasional Lodge," over which Dr. Desag- 
 uliers presided, because, as Desaguliers was 
 not the Grand Master, nor even, as has been 
 incorrectly stated by the New York Com- 
 mittee of Correspondence, Deputy Grand 
 Master, but only a Past Grand Master, it 
 cannot be called a making at sight. He 
 most probably acted under the Dispensation 
 of the Grand Master, who at that time was 
 the Earl of Darnley. 
 
 But in 1766, Lord Blaney, who was then 
 Grand Master, convened " an occasional 
 Lodge," and initiated, passed, and raised 
 the Duke of Gloucester. 
 
 Again in 1767, John Salter, the Deputy, 
 then acting as Grand Master, convened 
 "an occasional Lodge," and conferred the 
 three degrees on the Duke of Cumberland. 
 
 In 1787, the Prince of Wales was made 
 a Mason " at an occasional Lodge con- 
 vened," says Preston, " for the purpose at 
 the Star and Garter, Pall Mall, over which 
 the Duke of Cumberland (Grand Master) 
 presided in person." 
 
 It has been said, however, by those who 
 deny the existence of this prerogative, that 
 these " occasional Lodges were only spe- 
 cial communications of the Grand Lodge, 
 and the "makings" are thus supposed to 
 have taken place under the authority of 
 that body, and not of the Grand Master. 
 The facts, however, do not sustain this 
 position. Throughout the Book of Con- 
 stitutions, other meetings, whether regular 
 or special, are distinctly recorded as meet- 
 ings of the Grand Lodge; while these " oc- 
 casional Lodges " appear only to have been 
 convened by the Grand Master for the 
 purpose of making Masons. Besides, in 
 many instances the Lodge was held at a 
 different place from that of the Grand 
 Lodge, and the officers were not, with the 
 exception of the Grand Master, the officers 
 of the Grand Lodge. Thus the occasional 
 
 Lodge which initiated the Duke of Lor- 
 raine was held at the residence of Sir 
 Robert Walpole, in Norfolk, while the 
 Grand Lodge always met in London. In 
 1766, the Grand Lodge held its communi- 
 cations at the Crown and Anchor, but the 
 occasional Lodge, which in the same year 
 conferred the degrees on the Duke of Glou- 
 cester, was convened at the Horn tavern. 
 In the following year, the Lodge which in- 
 itiated the Duke of Cumberland was con- 
 vened at the Thatched House tavern, the 
 Grand Lodge continuing to meet at the 
 Crown and Anchor. 
 
 But I think that a conclusive argument 
 d fortiori may be drawn from the dispen- 
 sing power of the Grand Master, which has 
 never been denied. No one ever has 
 doubted, or can doubt, the inherent right 
 of the Grand Master to constitute Lodges 
 by Dispensation, and in these Lodges, so 
 constituted, Masons may be legally entered, 
 passed, and raised. This is done every day. 
 Seven Master Masons applying to the 
 Grand Master, he grants them a Dispensa- 
 tion, under authority of which they pro- 
 ceed to open and hold a Lodge, and to 
 make Masons. This Lodge is, however, ad- 
 mitted to be the mere creature of the 
 Grand Master, for it is in his power at any 
 time to revoke the Dispensation he had 
 granted, and thus to dissolve the Lodge. 
 
 But if the Grand Master has the power 
 thus to enable others to confer the degrees 
 and make Masons, by his individual au- 
 thority out of his presence, are we not per- 
 mitted to argue d fortiori that he has also 
 the right of congregating seven brethren 
 and causing a Mason to be made in his 
 sight? Can he delegate a power to others 
 which he does not himself possess ? And 
 is his calling together an "occasional 
 Lodge," and making, with the assistance 
 of the brethren thus assembled, a Mason 
 " at sight," that is to say, in his presence, 
 any thing more or less than the exercise 
 of his dispensing power for the establish- 
 ment of a Lodge under dispensation, for a 
 temporary period and for a special pur- 
 pose. The purpose having been effected, 
 and the Mason having been made, he re- 
 vokes his Dispensation, and the Lodge is 
 dismissed. If we assumed any other 
 ground than this, we should be compelled 
 to say that though the Grand Master 
 might authorize others to make Masons 
 when he was absent, he could not do it 
 himself when present. The form of the 
 expression "making Masons at sight" is 
 borrowed from Laurence Dermott, the 
 Grand Secretary of the Athol or Schismatic 
 Grand Lodge ; " making Masons in an oc- 
 casional Lodge " is the phrase used by 
 Anderson and his subsequent editors. Dei- 
 
SIGN 
 
 SIGN 
 
 715 
 
 mott, ( True Ahim. Rez.,) commenting on the 
 thirteenth of the old regulations, which 
 prescribes that Fellow Crafts and Master 
 Masons cannot be made in a private Lodge 
 except by the Dispensation of the Grand 
 Master, says: "This is a very ancient 
 regulation, but seldom put in practice, new 
 Masons being generally made at private 
 Lodges; however, the Right Worshipful 
 Grand Master has full power and authority 
 to make, or caused to be made, in his 
 worship's presence, Free and Accepted 
 Masons at sight, and such making is good. 
 But they cannot be made out of his wor- 
 ship's presence without a written Dispen- 
 sation for that purpose. Nor can his 
 worship oblige any warranted Lodge to re- 
 ceive the person so made, if the members 
 should declare against him or them ; but 
 in such case the Right Worshipful Grand 
 Master may grant them a Warrant and 
 form them into a new Lodge." 
 
 But the fact that Dermott uses the phrase 
 does not militate against the existence of 
 the prerogative, nor weaken the argument 
 in its favor. For, in the first place, he is 
 not quoted as authority ; and secondly, it is 
 very possible that he aid not invent the ex- 
 pression, but found it already existing as 
 a technical phrase generally used by the 
 Craft, although not to be found in the 
 Book of Constitutions. The form there 
 used is " making Masons in an occasional 
 Lodge," which, as I have already said, is of 
 the same signification. 
 
 The mode of exercising the prerogative 
 is this : The Grand Master summons to 
 his assistance not less than six other 
 Masons, convenes a Lodge, and without 
 any previous probation, but on sight of the 
 candidate, confers the degrees upon him, 
 after which he dissolves the Lodge and 
 dismisses the brethren. 
 
 Sign. Signs constitute that universal 
 language of which the commentator on the 
 Leland MS. says that " it is a thing rather 
 to be wished than hoped for." It is evi- 
 dent, however, that such a substitute for a 
 universal language has always existed 
 among mankind. There are certain ex- 
 pressions of ideas which, by an implied 
 common consent, skp familiar even to the 
 most barbarous tribes. An extension for- 
 ward of the open hands will be understood 
 at once by an Australian savage or an 
 American Indian as a gesture betokening 
 peace, while the idea of war or dislike 
 would be as readily conveyed to either of 
 them by a repulsive gesture of the same 
 hands. These are not, however, what con- 
 stitute the signs of Masonry. 
 
 It is evident that every secret society 
 must have some conventional mode of dis- 
 tinguishing strangers from those who are 
 
 its members, and Masonry, in this respect, 
 must have followed the universal custom 
 of adopting such modes of recognition. 
 
 The Abbe Grandidier (Essais Historiques 
 et Topographiques, p. 422,) says that when 
 Josse Dotziuger, as architect of the Cathe- 
 dral of Strasburg, formed, in 1452, all the 
 Master Masons in Germany into one body, 
 "he gave them a word and a particular 
 sign by which they might recognize those 
 who were of their Confraternity." Mar- 
 tene, who wrote a treatise on the ancient rites 
 of the monks, (De Anliquis Monachorum riti- 
 bus,) says that, at the Monastery of Hir- 
 schau, where many Masons were incorpo- 
 rated as lay brethren, one of the officers of 
 the monastery was called the Master of the 
 Works ; and the Masons under him had a 
 sign which he describes as "pugnam super 
 pugnam pone vicissim quasi simules con- 
 structores marum ; " that is, they placed 
 alternately fist upon fist, as if imitating the 
 builders of walls. He also says, and other 
 writers confirm the statement, that in the 
 Middle Ages the monks had a system of 
 signs by which they were enabled to recog- 
 nize the members of their different orders. 
 
 Krause (Kunsturkunden, iv. 420,) thinks 
 that the Masons derived their custom of 
 having signs of recognition from this rule 
 of the old monks. But we can trace the 
 existence of signs to remote antiquity. In 
 the Ancient Mysteries, the initiates were al- 
 ways instructed in a sign. 
 
 Thus, when a wreath was presented to an 
 initiate of the mysteries of Mithras by an- 
 other, instead of receiving it, he cast it upon 
 the ground, and this gesture of casting down 
 was accepted as a sign of recognition. 
 
 So, too, Apuleius (Metamorph.) describes 
 the action of one of the devotees of the mys- 
 teries of Isis, and says : " He walked gently, 
 with a hesitating step, the ancle of the left 
 foot being slightly bent, in order, no doubt, 
 that he might afford me some sign by which 
 I might recognize him." And in another 
 work (Apologia) he says : " If any one hap- 
 pens to be present who has been initiated 
 into the same rites as myself, if he will give 
 me the sign, he shall then be at liberty to hear 
 what it is that I kqep with so much care." 
 
 Plautus, too, alludes to this custom in 
 one of his plays (Miles Gloriosus, iv. 2,) 
 when he says : 
 
 " Cedo signum, si harunc Baccharum est," 
 
 i. e., "Give me the sign, if you are one of 
 these Bacchantes." 
 
 Signs, in fact, belong to all secret asso- 
 ciations, and are no more peculiar to Ma- 
 sonry than is a system of initiation. The 
 forms differ, but the principle has always 
 existed. 
 
716 
 
 SIGNATURE 
 
 SIGN 
 
 Signature. Every Mason who re- 
 ceives a certificate or diploma from a Grand 
 Lodge is required to aflix his signature in 
 the margin, for a reason which is given un- 
 der the words Ne Varietur, which see. 
 
 Signet. A ring on which there is an 
 impression of a device is called a signet. 
 They were far more common among the 
 ancients than they are among the moderns, 
 although they are still used by many per- 
 sons. Formerly, as is the custom at this 
 day in the East, letters were never signed 
 by the persons who sent them ; and their 
 authenticity depended solely on the im- 
 pression of the signets which were attached 
 to them. So common was their use among 
 the ancients, that Clement of Alexandria, 
 while forbidding the Christians of the sec- 
 ond century to deck their fingers with rings, 
 which would have been a mark of vanity, 
 makes an exception in favor of signet 
 rings. " We must wear," he says, " but one 
 ring, for the use of a signet ; all other rings 
 we must cast aside." Signets were origin- 
 ally engraved altogether upon stone; and 
 Pliny says that metal ones did not come 
 into use until the time of Claudius Caesar. 
 
 Signets are constantly alluded to in 
 Scripture. The Hebrews called them 
 j-| w3D> Sabaoth, and they appear to have 
 been used among them from an early period, 
 for we find that when Judah asks Tamar 
 what pledge he shall give her, she replies, 
 "Thy signet, and thy bracelets, and thy 
 staff that is in thine hand." (Gen. xxxviii. 
 18.) They were worn on the finger, gen- 
 erally the index finger, and always on the 
 right hand, as being the most honorable ; 
 thus in Jeremiah xxii. 24, we read: "As I 
 live, saith the Lord, though Coniah, the 
 son of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, were the 
 signet upon my right hand, yet would I 
 pluck thee thence." The signets of the an- 
 cients were generally sculptured with reli- 
 gious symbols or the heads of their deities. 
 The sphinx and the sacred beetle were fa- 
 vorite signets among the Egyptians. The 
 former was adopted from that people by the 
 Roman Emperor Augustus. The Babylo- 
 nians followed the same custom, and many 
 of their signets, remaining to this day, ex- 
 hibit beautifully sculptured images of Baal- 
 Berith and other Chaldean deities. 
 
 The impression from the signet-ring of a 
 king gave the authority of a royal decree 
 to any document to which it was affixed ; 
 and hence the delivery or transfer of the 
 signet to any one made him, for the time, 
 the representative of the king, and gave 
 him the power of using the royal name. 
 
 Signet of Truth. The signet of 
 Zerubbabel, used in the ritual of the Royal 
 Arch degree, is also there called the Signet 
 of Truth, to indicate that the neophyte who 
 
 brings it to the Grand Council is in search 
 of Divine Truth, and to give to him the 
 promise that he will by its power speedily 
 obtain his reward in the possession of that 
 for which he is seeking. The Signet of 
 Truth is presented to the aspirant to assure 
 him that he is advancing in his progress to 
 the attainment of truth, and that he is thus 
 invested with the power to pursue the 
 search. 
 
 Signet of Zerubbabel. This is 
 used in the American ritual of the Royal 
 Arch degree. It refers to a passage of 
 Haggai, (ii. 23,) where God has promised 
 that he will make Zerubbabel his signet. 
 It has the same symbolic meaning as is 
 given to its synonym the "Signet of 
 Truth," because Zerubbabel, as the head of 
 the second Temple, was the symbol of the 
 searcher after truth. But something may 
 be said of the incorrect form in which it 
 is found in many Chapters. At least from 
 the time when Cross presented an engrav- 
 ing of this signet in his Hieroglyphic 
 Chart, and perhaps from a much earlier 
 period, for he may possibly have only per- 
 petuated the blunder, it has been represent- 
 ed in most Chapters by a triangular plate 
 of metal. Now, an unattached plate of 
 metal, in any shape whatsoever, is about 
 as correct a representation of a signet as a 
 walking-cane is of a piece of money. The 
 signet is and always has been a finger- 
 ring, and so it should 
 be represented in the 
 ceremonies of the Chap- 
 ter. What the peculiar 
 device of this signet 
 was, — for every signet 
 must have a device, — 
 we are unable to show, but we may suppose 
 that it was the Tetragrammaton, perhaps 
 in its well-known abbreviated form of a 
 yod within a triangle. Whether this was so 
 or not, such a device would be most appro- 
 priate to the symbolism of the Royal Arch 
 ritual. 
 
 Significant Word. Significant is 
 making a sign. A significant word is a 
 sign-making word, or a word that is equiv- 
 alent to a sign ; so the secret words used in 
 the different degrees of Masonry, and the 
 knowledge of which becomes a sign of the 
 possession of the degree, are called signifi- 
 cant words. Such a word Lenning calls 
 " ein bedeutendes Wort," which has the 
 same meaning. 
 
 Sign of Distress. This is probably 
 one of the original modes of recognition 
 adopted at the revival period, if not Defore. 
 It is to be found in the earliest rituals ex- 
 tant of the last century, and its connection 
 with the legend of the third degree makes 
 it evident that it probably belongs to that 
 
SILENCE 
 
 SIROC 
 
 717 
 
 degree. The Craft in the last century 
 called it sometimes "the Master's Clap," 
 and sometimes " the Grand Sign," which 
 latter name has been adopted by the Ma- 
 sons of the present century, who call it the 
 " Grand Hailing Sign," to indicate its use 
 in hailing or calling a brother whose assist- 
 ance may be needed. The true form of 
 the sign has unfortunately been changed 
 by carelessness or ignorance from the an- 
 cient one, which is still preserved in Great 
 Britain and on the continent of Europe. 
 It is impossible to be explicit; but it may 
 be remarked, that looking to its traditional 
 origin, the sign is a defensive one, first 
 made in an hour of attack, to give protec- 
 tion to the person. This is perfectly repre- 
 sented by the European and English form, 
 but utterly misrepresented by the Ameri- 
 can. The German Rite of Schroeder at- 
 tempted some years ago to induce the Craft 
 to transfer this sign from the third to the 
 first degree. As this would have been an 
 evident innovation, and would have con- 
 tradicted the ritual history of its origin 
 and meaning, the attempt was not success- 
 ful. 
 
 Silence. See Secrecy and Silence. 
 
 Silver and Gold. When St. Peter 
 healed the lame man whom he met at the 
 gate Beautiful of the Temple, he said to 
 him, "Silver and gold have I none; but 
 such as I have give I thee ; " and he be- 
 stowed on him the gift of health. When 
 the pious pilgrim begged his way, through 
 all the perils of a distant journey, to kneel 
 at the Holy Sepulchre, in his passage 
 through poor and inhospitable regions, a 
 crust of bread and a draught of water were 
 often the only alms that he received. This 
 has been symbolized in the ritual of recep- 
 tion of a Knight Templar, and in it the 
 words of St. Peter have been preserved, to 
 be applied to the allegorical pilgrimage 
 there represented. 
 
 Silver Cord. In the beautiful and 
 affecting description of the body of man 
 suffering under the infirmities of old age 
 given in the twelfth chapter of Ecclesiastes, 
 we find the expression or ever the silver 
 cord be loosed, or the golden bowl be broken, 
 or the pitcher be broken at the fountain, or 
 the wheel broken at the cistern : then shall 
 the dust return to the earth as it was, and 
 the spirit shall return to God who gave it." 
 Dr. Clarke thus explains these beautiful 
 metaphors. The silver cord is the spinal 
 marrow; its loosening is the cessation of 
 all nervous sensibility ; the golden bowl is 
 the brain, which is rendered unfit to per- 
 form its functions by the approach of death; 
 the pitcher means the great vein which 
 carries the blood to the right ventricle of 
 the heart, here called the fountain ; by the 
 
 wheel is meant the great artery which re- 
 ceives the blood from the left ventricle of 
 the heart, here designated as the cistern. 
 This collection of metaphors is a part of 
 the Scripture reading in the third degree, 
 and forms an appropriate introduction to 
 those sublime ceremonies whose object is 
 to teach symbolically the resurrection and 
 life eternal. 
 
 Sinai. A mountain of Arabia between 
 the horns of the Bed Sea. It is the place 
 where Moses received the Law from Jeho- 
 vah, and where he was directed to construct 
 the tabernacle. Hence, says Lenning, the 
 Scottish Masons make Mt. Sinai a symbol 
 of truth. Of the high degrees, the twenty- 
 third and twenty-fourth of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite, or the Chief and the Prince 
 of the Tabernacle, refer in their rituals 
 to this mountain and the Tabernacle there 
 constructed. 
 
 Sintooism. The ancient religion of 
 Japan, and founded on the worship of an- 
 cestors. It acknowledges a Supreme Cre- 
 ator and many subordinate gods called 
 Kami, many of whom are the apotheoses 
 of emperors and great men. It believes in 
 the immortality of the soul, and in its ritual 
 uses symbols, such as the mirror, — which is 
 the symbol of an unsoiled life, — and lus- 
 trations symbolic of moral purification. 
 Like the early Grecian mythology, Sintoo- 
 ism has deified natural objects, such as the 
 sun, the air, earth, fire, water, lightning, 
 thunder, etc. It is a system much mixed 
 up with the philosophy of Confucius and 
 with myths and legends. 
 
 Sir. This is the distinctive title given 
 to the possessors of the degrees of Masonic 
 knighthood, and is borrowed from the her- 
 aldic usage. The word " knight " is some-' 
 times interposed between the title and the 
 personal name, as, for example, "Sir Knight 
 John Smith." English knights are in the 
 habit of using the word /rater, or brother, 
 a usage which to some extent is being 
 adopted in this country. English Knights 
 Templars have been led to the abandon- 
 ment of the title Sir because legal enact- 
 ments made the use of titles not granted 
 by the crown unlawful. But there is no 
 such law in this country. The addition of 
 Sir to the names of all Knights is accounted, 
 says Ashmole, " parcel of their style." The 
 use of it is as old, certainly, as the time of 
 Edward I., and it is supposed to be a con- 
 traction of the old French Sire, meaning 
 Seigneur, or Lord. 
 
 Si roc. yiV- A significant word, for- 
 merly used in the Order of High Priest- 
 hood in this country. It signifies a shoe- 
 latchet, and refers to the declaration of 
 Abraham to Melchizedek, that of the goods 
 which had been captured he would "no* 
 
718 
 
 SISTER 
 
 SIX 
 
 take from a thread even to a shoe-latchet," 
 that is, nothing even of the slightest value. 
 The introduction of this word into some of 
 the lower capitular degrees is a recent error 
 of ignorant ritualists. 
 
 Sister Lodges. Lodges are so called 
 which are in the same Masonic jurisdic- 
 tion, and owe obedience to the same Grand 
 Lodge. 
 
 Sisters by Adoption . In the Lodges 
 of the French Adoptive Rite this is the 
 title by which the female members are 
 designated. The female members of all 
 androgynous degrees are sisters, as the male 
 members are brethren. 
 
 Sisters of the Gild. The attempt 
 of a few writers to maintain that women 
 were admitted into the mediaeval confra- 
 ternities of Masons fails to be substantiated 
 for want of sufficient proof. The entire 
 spirit of the Old Constitutions indicates 
 that none but men, under the titles of 
 "brethren" and "fellows," were admitted 
 into these Masonic gilds ; and the first 
 code of charges adopted at the revival in 
 1717, declares that " the persons admitted 
 members of a Lodge must be good and true 
 men. ... no women, etc." The opinion 
 that women were originally admitted into 
 the Masonic gild, as it is asserted that 
 they were into some of the others, is based 
 upon the fact that, in what is called the 
 " York MS., No. 4," whose date as affixed 
 to the roll is 1693, we find the following 
 words : " Then one of the elders takeing the 
 Booke, and that hee or shee that is to be 
 made mason shall lay their hands thereon, 
 and the charge shall be given." But in 
 the " Alnwick MS.," which is inserted as 
 a Preface to the Records of the Lodge at 
 Alnwick, beginning Sept. 29, 1701, and 
 which manuscript was therefore probably 
 at least contemporary with that of York, we 
 find the corresponding passage in the fol- 
 lowing words : " Then shall one of the most 
 ancient of them all hold a book that he or 
 they may lay his or their hands upon the 
 said Book," etc. Again, in the " Harleian 
 MS.," whose date is supposed to be 1650, 
 we meet with the regulation in Latin thus: 
 " Tunc unus ex senioribus teneat librum et 
 illi vel ille teneat librum." This was no 
 doubt the original form of which the writer 
 of the York MS. gives a translation, and 
 either through ignorance or clerical care- 
 lessness, the " illi vel ille," instead of they 
 or he, has been translated he or she. Be- 
 sides, the whole tenor of the charges in the 
 York MS. clearly shows that they were in- 
 tended for men only. A woman could 
 scarcely have been required to swear that 
 she " would not take her fellow's wife in 
 villainy," nor make any one a Mason un- 
 less " he has his right limbs as a man ought 
 
 to have." I cannot for a moment admit, 
 on the authority of a mistranslation of a 
 single letter, by which an a was taken for 
 an e, thus changing ille into ilia, or he into 
 she, that the Masonic gild admitted women 
 into a craft whose labors were to hew heavy 
 stones and to ascend tall scaffolds. Such 
 never could have been the case in Opera- 
 tive Masonry. 
 
 There is, however, abundant evidence 
 that in the other gilds, or livery companies 
 of England, women or sisters were admit- 
 ted to the freedom of the company. Her- 
 bert (Hist. Liv. Comp., xi. 83,) thinks that 
 the custom was borrowed, on the constitution 
 of the Companies, by Edward III. from the 
 ecclesiastical or religious gilds, which were 
 often composed of both sexes. But I do 
 not think that there is any evidence that 
 the usage was extended to the building 
 corporations or Freemasons' gilds. A wo- 
 man might be a female grocer or haber- 
 dasher, but she could hardly perform the 
 duties of a female builder. 
 
 Situation of the Lodge. A Lodge 
 is, or ought to be, always situated due east 
 and west, for reasons which are detailed in 
 the articles East and Orientation, which see. 
 
 Six Lights. The six lights of Sym- 
 bolic Masonry are divided into the Greater 
 and Lesser Lights, (which see.) In the 
 American system of the Royal Arch there 
 is no symbol of the kind, but in the Eng- 
 lish system there are six lights — three lesser 
 and three greater — placed in the form of 
 two interlaced triangles. The three lesser 
 represent the Patriarchal, Mosaic, and 
 Christian dispensations; the three greater 
 the Creative, Preservative and Destructive 
 power of God. The four lesser triangles, 
 formed by the intersection of the two great 
 triangles, are emblematic of the four degrees 
 of Ancient Craft Masonry. 
 
 Six Periods. The Grand Architect's 
 Six Periods constituted a part of the old 
 Prestonian lecture in the Fellow Craft's 
 degree. It referred to the six days of crea- 
 tion, the six periods being the six days. It 
 no longer forms a part of the lecture as 
 modified by Hemming in England, al- 
 though Oliver devotes a chapter in his His- 
 torical Landmarks to this subject. It was 
 most probably at one time taught in this 
 country before Webb modified and abridged 
 the Prestonian lectures, for Hardie gives 
 the "Six Periods" in full in his Monitor, 
 which was published in 1818. The Webb 
 lecture, now practised in this country, com- 
 prehends the whole subject of the Six 
 Periods, which make a closely printed page 
 in Brown's Master Key, in these few words : 
 " In six days God created the heavens and 
 the earth, and rested upon the seventh day ; 
 the seventh, therefore, our ancient brethren 
 
SKELETON 
 
 SLOANE 
 
 719 
 
 consecrated as a day of rest from their la- 
 bors ; thereby enjoying frequent opportuni- 
 ties to contemplate the glorious works of 
 creation, and to adore their great Creator." 
 
 Skeleton. A symbol of death. The 
 ancient Egyptians often introduced a skele- 
 ton in their feasts to remind the revellers of 
 the transitory nature of their enjoyments, 
 and to teach them that in the midst of life we 
 are in death. As such an admonitory sym- 
 bol, it is used in some of the high degrees. 
 
 Skirrit. In the English system the 
 skirrit is one of the working-tools of a 
 Master Mason. It is an implement which 
 acts on a centre-pin, whence a line is drawn, 
 chalked, and struck to mark out the ground 
 for the foundation of the intended struc- 
 ture. Symbolically, it points to us that 
 straight and undeviating line of conduct 
 laid down for our pursuits in the volume 
 of the Sacred Law. The skirrit is not used 
 in the American system. 
 
 Skull. The skull as a symbol is not 
 used in Masonry except in Masonic Tern- 
 plarism, where it is a symbol of mortality. 
 Among the articles of accusation sent by 
 the Pope to the bishops and papal com- 
 missaries upon which to examine the 
 Knights Templars, those from the forty- 
 second to the fifty-seventh refer to the hu- 
 man skull, "cranium humanum," which the 
 Templars were accused of using in their 
 reception, and worshipping as an idol. It 
 is possible that the Old Templars made use 
 of the skull in their ceremony of recep- 
 tion; but Modern Templars will readily 
 acquit their predecessors of the crime of 
 idolatry, and find in their use of a skull a 
 symbolic design. See Bafomet. 
 
 Skull and Cross-bones. They are 
 a symbol of mortality and death, and are 
 so used by heralds in funeral achievements. 
 As the means of inciting the mind to the 
 contemplation of the most solemn subjects, 
 the skull and cross-bones are used in the 
 Chamber of Reflection in the French and 
 Scottish Rites, and in all those degrees where 
 that Chamber constitutes a part of the pre- 
 liminary ceremonies of initiation. 
 
 Slander. Inwood, in his sermon on 
 " Union Amongst Masons," says : " To de- 
 fame our brother, or suffer him to be de- 
 famed, without interesting ourselves for the 
 preservation of his name and character, 
 there is scarcely the shadow of an excuse to 
 be formed. Defamation is always wicked. 
 Slander and evil speaking are the pests of 
 civil society, are the disgrace of every de- 
 gree of religious profession, are the poison- 
 ous bane of all brotherly love." 
 
 Slave. See Free Bom. 
 
 Slip. This technical expression in 
 American Masonry, but mostly confined to 
 the Western States, and not generally used, 
 is of very recent origin ; and both the action 
 
 and the word most probably sprang up, 
 with a few other innovations intended as 
 especial methods of precaution, about the 
 time of the anti-Masonic excitement. 
 
 Sloane Manuscripts. There are 
 three copies of the Old Constitutions which 
 bear this name. All of them were found in 
 the British Museum among the heteroge- 
 neous collection of papers which were once 
 the property of Sir Hans Sloane. The first, 
 which is known in the Museum as No. 
 3848, is one of the most complete of the 
 copies extant of the Old Constitutions. At 
 the end of it, the date is certified by the 
 following subscription : " Finis p. me Ed- 
 uardu Sankey decimo sexto die Octobris 
 Anno Domini 1646." It was published for 
 the first time, from an exact transcript of 
 the original, by Bro. Hughan in his Old 
 Charges of the British Freemasons. The sec- 
 ond Sloane MS. is known in the British 
 Museum as No. 3323. It is in a large folio 
 volume of* three hundred and twenty-eight 
 leaves, on the fly-leaf of which Sir Hans 
 Sloane has written, " Loose papers of mine 
 Concerning Curiosities." There are many 
 Manuscripts by different hands. The Ma- 
 sonic one is subscribed " Hoc scripta fue- 
 runt p. me Thomam Martin, 1659," and 
 this fixes the date. It consists of six leaves 
 of paper five inches by four, is written in 
 a small, neat hand, and endorsed " Free 
 Masonry." It was first published, in 1871, 
 by Bro. Hughan in his Masonic Sketches and 
 Reprints. The Rev. Bro. A. F. A. Wood- 
 ford thinks this an "indifferent copy of 
 the former one." I cannot agree with him. 
 The entire omission of the " Legend of the 
 Craft" from the time of Lamech to the 
 building of the Temple, including the im- 
 portant " Legend of Euclid," all of which is 
 given in full in the MS. No. 3848, together 
 with a great many verbal discrepancies, 
 and a total difference in the eighteenth 
 charge, lead me to suppose that the former 
 MS. never was seen, or at least copied, by 
 the writer of the latter. On the whole, it 
 is, from this very omission, one of the least 
 valuable of the copies of the Old Constitu- 
 tions. 
 
 The third Sloane MS. is really one of the 
 most interesting and valuable of those that 
 have been heretofore discovered. A por- 
 tion of it, a small portion, was inserted by 
 Findel in his History of Freemasonry ; but 
 the whole has been since published in the 
 Voice of Masonry, a periodical printed at 
 Chicago in 1872. The number of the MS. 
 in the British Museum is 3329, and Mr. 
 Hughan places its date at from 1640 to 
 1700; but he says that Messrs. Bond and 
 Sims, of the British Museum, agree in 
 stating that it is " probably of the begin- 
 ning of the eighteenth century." But the 
 Rev. Mr. Woodford mentions a great au- 
 
720 
 
 SMITH 
 
 SMITH 
 
 thority on MSS., who declares it to be " pre- 
 vious to the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury." Findel thinks it originated at the 
 end of the seventeenth century, and " that 
 it was found among the papers which Dr. 
 Plot left behind him on his death, and was 
 one of the sources whence his communica- 
 tions on Freemasonry were derived." It is 
 not a copy of the Old Constitutions, in 
 which respect it differs from all the other 
 Manuscripts, but is a description of the 
 ritual of the society of Free Operative Ma- 
 sons at the period when it was written. 
 This it is that makes it so valuable a con- 
 tribution to the history of Freemasonry, 
 and renders it so important that its precise 
 date should be fixed. 
 
 Smith, George. Captain George 
 Smith was a Mason of some distinction 
 during the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century. Although born in England, he 
 at an early age entered the military ser- 
 vice of Prussia, being connected with noble 
 families of that kingdom. During his 
 residence on the continent it appears that 
 he was initiated in one of the German 
 Lodges. On his return to England he was 
 appointed Inspector of the Royal Military 
 Academy at Woolwich, and published, in 
 1779, a Universal Military Dictionary, and, 
 in 1783, a Bibliotheca Militaris. 
 
 He devoted much attention to Masonic 
 studies, and is said to have been a good 
 workman in the Royal Military Lodge at 
 "Woolwich, of which he was for four 
 years the Master. During his Mastership 
 the Lodge had, on one occasion, been 
 opened in the King's Bench prison, and 
 some persons who were confined there were 
 initiated. For this the Master and breth- 
 ren were censured, and the Grand Lodge 
 declared that " it is inconsistent with the 
 principles of Masonry for any Freemason's 
 Lodge to be held, for the purpose of mak- 
 ing, passing, or raising Masons, in any 
 prison or place of confinement." Smith 
 was appointed by the Duke of Manchester, 
 in 1778, Provincial Grand Master of Kent, 
 and on that occasion delivered his Inaugu- 
 ral Charge before the Lodge of Friendship 
 at Dover. He also drew up a code of laws 
 for the government of the province, which 
 was published in 1781. In 1780 he was ap- 
 pointed Junior Grand Warden of the Grand 
 Lodge; but objections having been made by 
 Heseltine, the Grand Secretary, between 
 whom and himself there was no very kind 
 feeling, on the ground that no one could 
 hold two offices in the Grand Lodge, Smith 
 resigned at the next quarterly communica- 
 tion. As at the time of his appointment 
 there was really no law forbidding the 
 holding of two offices, its impropriety was 
 so manifest, that the Grand Lodge adopted 
 
 a regulation that "it was incompatible 
 with the laws of the society for any brother 
 to hold more than one office at the same 
 time." In 1783, Capt. Smith published a 
 work entitled The Use and Abuse of Freema- 
 sonry : a work of the greatest utility to the 
 Brethren of the Society, to Mankind in gen- 
 eral, and to the Ladies in particular. The 
 interest to the ladies consists in some 
 twenty pages, in which he gives the " An- 
 cient and Modern reasons why the ladies 
 have never been admitted into the Society 
 of Freemasons," a section the omission of 
 which would scarcely have diminished the 
 value of the work or the reputation of the 
 author. 
 
 The work of Smith would not at the 
 present day, in the advanced progress of 
 Masonic knowledge, enhance the reputa- 
 tion of its writer. But at the time when it 
 appeared, there was a great dearth of Ma- 
 sonic literature — Anderson, Calcott, Hutch- 
 inson, and Preston being the only authors 
 of any repute that had as yet written on the 
 subject of Masonry. There was much his- 
 torical information contained within its 
 pages, and some few suggestive thoughts 
 on the symbolism and philosophy of the 
 Order. To the Craft of that day the book 
 was therefore necessary and useful. Noth- 
 ing, indeed, proves the necessity of such a 
 work more than the fact that the Grand 
 Lodge refused its sanction to the publica- 
 tion on the general ground of opposition 
 to Masonic literature. Noorthouck, {Const, 
 p. 347,) in commenting on the refusal of a 
 sanction, says : 
 
 " No particular objection being stated 
 against the above-mentioned work, the 
 natural conclusion is, that a sanction was 
 refused on the general principle that, con- 
 sidering the flourishing state of our Lodges, 
 where regular instruction and suitable ex- 
 ercises are ever ready for all brethren who 
 zealously aspire to improve in masonical 
 knowledge, new publications are unneces- 
 sary on a subject which books cannot teach. 
 Indeed, the temptations to authorship have 
 effected a strange revolution of sentiments 
 since the year 1720, when even ancient 
 manuscripts were destroyed, to prevent 
 their appearance in a printed Book of Con- 
 stitutions ! for the principal materials in 
 this very work, then so much dreaded, 
 have since been retailed in a variety of 
 forms, to give consequence to fanciful pro- 
 ductions that might have been safely with- 
 held, without sensible injury, either to the 
 Fraternity or to the literary reputation of 
 the writers." 
 
 To dispel such darkness almost any sort 
 of book should have been acceptable. The 
 work was published without the sanction, 
 and the Craft being wiser than their repre- 
 
SMITTEN 
 
 SOFISM 
 
 721 
 
 sentatives in the Grand Lodge, the edition 
 was speedily exhausted. 
 
 Dr. Oliver {Rev. of a Sq., 146,) describes 
 Captain Smith as a man " plain in speech 
 and manners, but honorable and upright 
 in his dealings, and an active and zealous 
 Mason." It is probable that he died about 
 the end of the last or the beginning of the 
 present century. 
 
 Smitten Builder. The old lectures 
 used to say: "The veil of the Temple is 
 rent, the builder is smitten, and we are raised 
 from the tomb of transgression." Hutchin- 
 son, and after him Oliver, apply the ex- 
 pression, "The smitten builder," to the 
 crucified Saviour, and define it as a symbol 
 of his divine mediation ; but the general 
 interpretation of the symbol is, that it re- 
 fers to death as the necessary precursor of 
 immortality. In this sense, the smitten 
 builder presents, like every other part of 
 the third degree, the symbolic instruction 
 of Eternal Life. 
 
 Snow, John. A distinguished lec- 
 turer on Masonry, who was principally in- 
 strumental in introducing the system of 
 Webb, of whom he was a pupil, into the 
 Lodges of the Western States. He was 
 also a Grand Master of the Grand Lodge 
 of Ohio, and was the founder and first 
 Grand Commander of the first Grand En- 
 campment of Knights Templars in the 
 same State. He was born in Providence, 
 Rhode Island, February 25, 1780 ; was ini- 
 tiated into Freemasonry in Mount Vernon 
 Lodge, of Providence, in 1809, and died 
 May 16, 1852, at Worthington, Ohio. 
 
 Snows. See Bains. 
 
 Social Character of Freema- 
 sonry. Freemasonry attracts our atten- 
 tion as a great social institution. Laying 
 aside for the time those artificial distinc- 
 tions of rank and wealth, which, however, 
 are necessary in the world to the regular 
 progression of society, its members meet in 
 their Lodges on one common level of 
 brotherhood and equality. There virtue 
 and talent alone claim and receive pre- 
 eminence, and the great object of all is to 
 see who can best work and best agree. 
 There friendship and fraternal affection are 
 strenuously inculcated and assiduously cul- 
 tivated, and that great mystic tie is estab- 
 lished which peculiarly distinguishes the 
 society. Hence is it that Washington has 
 declared that the benevolent purpose of 
 the Masonic institution is to enlarge the 
 sphere of social happiness, and its grand 
 object to promote the happiness of the 
 human race. 
 
 Socins. The sixth degree of the Order 
 of Strict Observance. 
 
 Sodalities. Societies or companies 
 of friends or companions assembled to- 
 4Q 46 
 
 gether for a special purpose. Such con- 
 fraternities, under the name of Sodalitia, 
 were established in Rome, by Cato the Cen- 
 sor, for the mutual protection of the mem- 
 bers. As their proceedings were secret, 
 they gave offence to the government, and 
 were suppressed, 80 B. c, by a decree of the 
 senate, but were afterwards restored by a 
 law of Clodius. 
 
 Soflsm. The Sofis were a mystical 
 sect which greatly prevailed in Eastern 
 countries, and especially in Persia, whose 
 religious faith was supposed by most writers 
 to embody the secret doctrine of Moham- 
 medanism. Sir John Malcolm (Hist. Pers., 
 ch. xx.,) says that they have among them 
 great numbers of the wisest and ablest men 
 of Persia and the East, and since his time 
 the sect has greatly increased. 
 
 The name is most probably derived from 
 the Greek ao<f>ia, wisdom; and Malcolm states 
 that they also bore the name of philosaufs, 
 in which we may readily detect the word 
 philosophers. He says also : " The Mo- 
 hammedan Sofis have endeavored to con- 
 nect their mystic faith with the doctrine of 
 their prophet, who, they assert, was himself 
 an accomplished Soft." The principal Sofi 
 writers are familiar with the opinions of 
 Aristotle and Plato, and their most impor- 
 tant works abound with quotations from 
 the latter. Sir John Malcolm compares 
 the school of Sofism with that of Pythag- 
 oras. It is evident that there is a great 
 similarity between Sofism and Gnosti- 
 cism, and all the features of the Sofic 
 initiation remind us very forcibly of those 
 of the Masonic. The object of the system 
 is the attainment of Truth, and the novice 
 is invited " to embark on the sea of doubt," 
 that is, to commence his investigations, 
 which are to end in its discovery. 
 
 There are four stages or degrees of ini- 
 tiation : the first is merely preliminary, 
 and the initiate is required to observe the 
 ordinary rites and ceremonies of religion 
 for the sake of the vulgar, who do not un- 
 derstand their esoteric meaning. In the 
 second degree he is said to enter the pale 
 of Sofism, and exchanges these external 
 rites for a spiritual worship. The third 
 degree is that of Wisdom, and he who 
 reaches it is supposed to have attained 
 supernatural knowledge, and to be equal 
 to the angels. The fourth and last degree 
 is called Truth, for he has now reached it, 
 and has become completely united with 
 Deity. They have, says Malcolm, secrets 
 and mysteries in every stage or degree 
 which are never revealed to the profane, 
 and to reveal which would be a crime of 
 the deepest turpitude. The tenets of the 
 sect, so far as they are made known to the 
 world, are, according to Sir William Jones, 
 
722 
 
 SOFISM 
 
 SOLOMON 
 
 (Asiat. Researches, ii. 62,) " that nothing 
 exists absolutely but God ; that the human 
 soul is an emanation of his essence, and, 
 though divided for a time from its heavenly 
 source, will be finally reunited with it; 
 that the highest possible happiness will 
 arise from its reunion ; and that the chief 
 good of mankind in this transitory world 
 consists in as perfect a union with the 
 Eternal Spirit as the incumbrances of a 
 mortal frame will allow." It is evident 
 that an investigation of the true system of 
 these Eastern mysteries must be an inter- 
 esting subject of inquiry to the student of 
 Freemasonry; for Higgins is hardly too 
 enthusiastic in supposing them to be the 
 ancient Freemasons of Mohammedanism. 
 His views are thus expressed in the second 
 volume of his Anacalypsis, p. 301 : a won- 
 derful work — wonderful for the vast and 
 varied learning that it exhibits; but still 
 more so for the bold and strange theories 
 which, however untenable, are defended 
 with all the powers of a more than ordi- 
 nary intellect. 
 
 " The circumstances," he says, " of the 
 gradation of ranks, the initiation, and the 
 head of the Order in Persia being called 
 Grand Master, raise a presumption that the 
 Sofis were, in reality, the Order of Ma- 
 sons." 
 
 Without subscribing at once to the theory 
 of Higgins, we may well be surprised at the 
 coincidences existing between the customs 
 and the dogmas of the Sofis and those of 
 the Freemasons, and we would naturally 
 be curious to investigate the causes of the 
 close communication which existed at va- 
 rious times during the Crusades between 
 this Mohammedan sect of philosophers and 
 the Christian Order of Templars. 
 
 Mr. C. W. King, in his learned treatise 
 on the Gnostics, seems to entertain a simi- 
 lar idea of this connection between the 
 Templars and the Sofis. He says that, 
 "inasmuch as these Sofis were composed 
 exclusively of the learned amongst the Per- 
 sians and Syrians, and learning at that 
 time meant little more than a proficiency 
 in medicine and astrology, the two points 
 that brought the Eastern sages into amica- 
 ble contact with their barbarous invaders 
 from the West, it is easy to see how the 
 latter may have imbibed the secret doc- 
 trines simultaneously with the science of 
 those who were their instructors in all mat- 
 ters pertaining to science and art. The Sofi 
 doctrine involved the grand idea of one 
 universal creed, which could be secretly 
 held under any profession of an outward 
 faith : and in fact took virtually the same 
 view of religious systems as that in which 
 the ancient philosophers had regarded such 
 matters." 
 
 So Help Me God. The usual obse- 
 cration or imprecation affixed in modern 
 times to oaths, and meaning, " May God so 
 help me as I keep this vow." 
 
 Sojourner. See Principal Sojourner. 
 
 Soldiers of Christ. Milites Christ* 
 is the title by which St. Bernard addressed 
 his exhortations to the Knights Templars. 
 They are also called in some of the old doc- 
 uments, "Militia Templi Salomonis," The 
 Chivalry of the Temple of Solomon ; but 
 their ancient statutes were entitled "Regula 
 pauperum commilitonum Templi Salomonis," 
 The Rule of the poor fellow-soldiers of the 
 Temple of Solomon ; and this is the title by 
 which they are now most generally desig- 
 nated. 
 
 Solomon. In writing the life of King 
 Solomon from a Masonic point of view, it 
 is impossible to omit a reference to the le- 
 gends which have been preserved in the 
 Masonic system. But the writer, who, with 
 this preliminary notice, embodies them in 
 his sketch of the career of the wise king 
 of Israel, is by no means to be held respon- 
 sible for a belief in their authenticity. It 
 is the business of the Masonic biographer 
 to relate all that has been handed down by 
 tradition in connection with the life of 
 Solomon ; it will be the duty of the severer 
 critic to seek to separate out of all these 
 materials that which is historical from that 
 which is merely mythical, and to assign to 
 the former all that is valuable as fact, and 
 to the latter all that is equally valuable as 
 symbolism. 
 
 Solomon, the king of Israel, the son of 
 David and Bathsheba, ascended the throne 
 of his kingdom 3989 years after the creation 
 of the world, and 1015 years before the 
 Christian era. He was then only twenty 
 years of age, but the youthful monarch is 
 said to have commenced his reign with the 
 decision of a legal question of some diffi- 
 culty, in which he exhibited the first prom- 
 ise of that wise judgment for which he was 
 ever afterwards distinguished. 
 
 One of the great objects of Solomon's life, 
 and the one which most intimately connects 
 him with the history of the Masonic insti- 
 tution, was the erection of a temple to Je- 
 hovah. This, too, had been a favorite de- 
 sign of his father David. For this purpose, 
 that monarch, long before his death, had 
 numbered the workmen whom he found in 
 his kingdom; had appointed the overseers 
 of the work, the hewers of stones, and the 
 bearers of burdens ; had prepared a great 
 quantity of brass, iron, and cedar; and had 
 amassed an immense treasure with which 
 to support the enterprise. But on consult- 
 ing with the prophet Nathan, he learned 
 from that holy man, that although the pious 
 intention was pleasing to God, yet that he 
 
SOLOMON 
 
 SOLOMON 
 
 723 
 
 •would not be permitted to carry it into exe- 
 cution, and the Divine prohibition was pro- 
 claimed in these emphatic words : " Thou 
 hast shed blood abundantly, and hast made 
 great wars; thou shalt not build a house 
 unto my name, because thou hast shed 
 much blood upon the earth in my sight." 
 The task was, therefore, reserved for the 
 more peaceful Solomon, his son and suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 Hence, when David was about to die, he 
 charged Solomon to build the Temple of 
 God as soon as he should have received the 
 kingdom. He also gave him directions in 
 relation to the construction of the edifice, 
 and put into his possession the money, 
 amounting to ten thousand talents of gold 
 and ten times that amount of silver, which 
 he had collected and laid aside for defray- 
 ing the expense. 
 
 Solomon had scarcely ascended the 
 throne of Israel, when he prepared to 
 carry into execution the pious designs of 
 his predecessor. For this purpose, how- 
 ever, he found it necessary to seek the as- 
 sistance of Hiram, king of Tyre, the an- 
 cient friend and ally of his father. The 
 Tyrians and Sidonians, the subjects of 
 Hiram, had long been distinguished for 
 their great architectural skill ; and, in fact, 
 many of them, as the members of a mystic 
 operative society, the fraternity of Diony- 
 sian artificers, had long monopolized the 
 profession of building in Asia Minor. The 
 Jews, on the contrary, were rather more 
 eminent for their military valor than for 
 their knowledge of the arts of peace, and 
 hence King Solomon at once conceived the 
 necessity of invoking the aid of these 
 foreign architects, if he expected to com- 
 plete the edifice he was about to erect, 
 either in a reasonable time or with the 
 splendour and magnificence appropriate to 
 the sacred object for which it was intended. 
 For this purpose he addressed the follow- 
 ing letter to King Hiram : 
 
 " Know thou that my father would have 
 built a temple to God, but was hindered by 
 wars and continual expeditions, for he did 
 not leave off" to overthrow his enemies till 
 he made them all subject to tribute. But 
 I give thanks to God for the peace I, at 
 present, enjoy, and on that account I am 
 at leisure, and design to build a house to 
 God, for God foretold to my father, that 
 such a house should be built by me ; where- 
 fore I desire thee to send some of thy sub- 
 jects with mine to Mount Lebanon, to cut 
 down timber, for the Sidonians are more 
 skilful than our people in cutting of wood. 
 As for wages to the hewers of wood, I will 
 pay whatever price thou shalt determine." 
 
 Hiram, mindful of the former amity and 
 alliance that had existed between himself 
 
 and David, was disposed to extend the 
 friendship he had felt for the father to the 
 son, and replied, therefore, to the letter of 
 Solomon in the following epistle : 
 
 " It is fit to bless God that he hath com- 
 mitted thy father's government to thee, 
 who art a wise man endowed with all 
 virtues. As for myself, I rejoice at the 
 condition thou art in, and will be subser- 
 vient to thee in all that thou sendest to me 
 about; for when, by my subjects, I have 
 cut down many and large trees of cedar and 
 cypress wood, I will send them to sea, and 
 will order my subjects to make floats of 
 them, and to sail to what places soever of 
 thy country thou shalt desire, and leave 
 them there, after which thy subjects may 
 carry them to Jerusalem. But do thou 
 take care to procure us corn for this timber, 
 which we stand in need of, because we in- 
 habit in an island." 
 
 Hiram lost no time in fulfilling the 
 promise of assistance which he had thus 
 given ; and accordingly we are informed 
 that Solomon received thirty- three thou- 
 sand six hundred workmen from Tyre, be- 
 sides a sufficient quantity of timber and 
 stone to construct the edifice which he was 
 about to erect. Hiram sent him, also, a 
 far more important gift than either men or 
 materials, in the person of an able archi- 
 tect, " a curious and cunning workman," 
 whose skill and experience were to be exer- 
 cised in superintending the labors of the 
 craft, and in adorning and beautifying the 
 building. Of this personage, whose name 
 was also Hiram, and who plays so impor- 
 tant a part in the history of Freemasonry, 
 an account will be found in the article 
 Hiram Abif, to which the reader is referred. 
 
 King Solomon commenced the erection 
 of the Temple on Monday, the second day 
 of the Hebrew month Zif, which answers 
 to the twenty-first of April, in the year of 
 the world 2992, and 1012 years before the 
 Christian era. Advised in all the details, 
 as Masonic tradition informs us, by the 
 wise and prudent counsels of Hiram, king 
 of Tyre, and Hiram Abif, who, with him- 
 self, constituted at that time the three 
 Grand Masters of the Craft, Solomon made 
 every arrangement in the disposition and 
 government of the workmen, in the pay- 
 ment of their wages, and in the mainte- 
 nance of concord and harmony which 
 should insure dispatch in the execution and 
 success in the result. 
 
 To Hiram Abif was intrusted the gen- 
 eral superintendence of the building, while 
 subordinate stations were assigned to other 
 eminent artists, whose names and offices 
 have been handed down in the traditions 
 of the Order. 
 
 In short, the utmost perfection of human 
 
724 
 
 SOLOMON 
 
 SOLSTICES 
 
 wisdom was displayed by this enlightened 
 monarch in the disposition of everything 
 that related to the construction of the stu- 
 
 Eendous edifice. Men of the most compre- 
 ensive minds, imbued with the greatest 
 share of zeal and fervency, and inspired 
 with the strongest fidelity to his interests, 
 were employed as masters to instruct and 
 superintend the workmen ; while those who 
 labored in inferior stations were excited to 
 enthusiasm by the promise of promotion 
 and reward. 
 
 The Temple was at length finished in the 
 month Bui, answering to our November, in 
 the year of the world 3000, being a little more 
 than seven years from its commencement. 
 
 As soon as the magnificent edifice was 
 completed, and fit for the sacred purposes 
 for which it was intended, King Solomon 
 determined to celebrate the consummation 
 of his labors in the most solemn manner. 
 For this purpose he directed the ark to be 
 brought from the king's house, where it had 
 been placed by King David, and to be de- 
 
 Eosited with impressive ceremonies in the 
 oly of holies, beneath the expanded wings 
 of the cherubim. This important event is 
 commemorated in the beautiful ritual of 
 the Most Excellent Master's degree. 
 
 Our traditions inform us, that when the 
 Temple was completed, Solomon assembled 
 all the heads of the tribes, the elders and 
 chiefs of Israel to bring the ark up out of 
 Zion, where King David had deposited it 
 in a tabernacle until a more fitting place 
 should have been built for its reception. 
 This duty, therefore, the Levites now per- 
 formed, and delivered the ark of the cove- 
 nant into the hands of the priests, who 
 fixed it in its place in the centre of the 
 holy of holies. 
 
 Here the immediate and personal con- 
 nection of King Solomon with the Craft 
 begins to draw to a conclusion. It is 
 true, that he subsequently employed those 
 worthy Masons, whom the traditions say, 
 at the completion and dedication of the 
 Temple, he had received and acknowledged 
 as Most Excellent Masters, in the erection 
 of a magnificent palace and other edifices, 
 but in process of time he fell into the most 
 grievous errors; abandoned the path of 
 truth ; encouraged the idolatrous rites of 
 spurious Masonry; and, induced by the 
 persuasions of those foreign wives and con- 
 cubines whom he had espoused in his later 
 days, he erected a fane for the celebration 
 of these heathen mysteries, on one of the 
 hills that overlooked the very spot where, 
 in his youth, he had consecrated a temple 
 to the one true God. It is however believed 
 that before his death he deeply repented 
 of this temporary aberration from virtue, 
 and in the emphatic expression, "Vanity 
 
 of vanities ! all is vanity," he is supposed 
 to have acknowledged that in his own ex- 
 perience he had discovered that falsehood 
 and sensuality, however they may give 
 pleasure for a season, will, in the end, produce 
 the bitter fruits of remorse and sorrow. 
 
 That King Solomon was the wisest mon- 
 arch that swayed the sceptre of Israel, has 
 been the unanimous opinion of posterity. 
 So much was he beyond the age in which 
 he flourished, in the attainments of science, 
 that the Jewish and Arabic writers have 
 attributed to him a thorough knowledge of 
 the secrets of magic, by whose incantations 
 they suppose him to have been capable of 
 calling spirits and demons to his assist- 
 ance ; and the Talmudists and Mohamme- 
 dan doctors record many fanciful legends 
 of his exploits in controlling these minis- 
 ters of darkness. As a naturalist, he is 
 said to have written a work on animals of 
 no ordinary character, which has however 
 perished ; while his qualifications as a poet 
 were demonstrated by more than a thou- 
 sand poems which he composed, of which 
 his epithalamium on his marriage with an 
 Egyptian princess and the Book of Ecclesi- 
 astes alone remain. He has given us in his 
 Proverbs an opportunity of forming a fa- 
 vorable opinion of his pretensions to the 
 character of a deep and right-thinking phi- 
 losopher; while the long peace and prosper- 
 ous condition of his empire for the greater 
 portion of his reign, the increase of his 
 kingdom in wealth and refinement, and the 
 encouragement which he gave to architec- 
 ture, the mechanic arts, and commerce, 
 testify his profound abilities as a sovereign 
 and statesman. 
 
 After a reign of forty years he died, and 
 with him expired forever the glory and the 
 power of the Hebrew empire. 
 
 Solomon. House of. Lord Bacon 
 composed, in his New Atlantis, an apologue, 
 in which he describes the island of Bensa- 
 lem, — that is, island of the Sons of Peace, — 
 and on it an edifice called the house of Sol- 
 omon, where there was to be a confraternity 
 of philosophers devoted to the acquisition 
 of knowledge. Nicolai thought that out 
 of this subsequently arose the society of 
 Freemasons, which was, he supposes, estab- 
 lished by Elias Ashmole and his friends. 
 See Nicolai. 
 
 Solomon, Temple of. See Temple 
 of Solomon. 
 
 Solstices. The days on which the sun 
 reaches his greatest northern and southern 
 declination, which are the 21st of June and 
 the 22d of December. Near these days 
 are those in which the Christian Church 
 commemorates St. John the Baptist and 
 St. John the Evangelist, who have been 
 selected as the patron saints of Freema- 
 
SONGS 
 
 V OF TMt 
 
 VWV€R8tTY 
 
 SONGS 
 
 725 
 
 sonry for reasons which are explained in 
 the article on the Dedication of a Lodge, 
 which see. 
 
 Songs of Masonry. The song 
 formed in early times a very striking fea- 
 ture in what may be called the domestic 
 manners of the Masonic institution. Nor 
 has the custom of festive entertainments 
 been yet abandoned. In the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century songs were deemed 
 of so much importance that they were 
 added to the Books of Constitutions in 
 Great Britain and on the continent, a cus- 
 tom which was followed in America, where 
 all our early Monitors contain an abundant 
 supply of lyrical poetry. In the Constitu- 
 tions published in 1723 we find the well- 
 known Entered Apprentice's song, written 
 by Matthew Birkhead, which still retains 
 its popularity among Masons, and has at- 
 tained an elevation to which its intrinsic 
 merits as a lyrical composition would 
 hardly entitle it. Songs appear to have 
 been incorporated into the ceremonies of 
 the Order at the revival of Masonry in 
 1717. At that time, to use the language 
 of the venerable Oliver, " Labor and re- 
 freshment relieved each other like two lov- 
 ing brothers, and the gravity of the former 
 was rendered more engaging by the char- 
 acteristic cheerfulness and jocund gayety 
 of the latter." In those days the word 
 " refreshment " had a practical meaning, 
 and the Lodge was often called from labor 
 that the brethren might indulge in inno- 
 cent gayety, of which the song formed an 
 essential part. This was called harmony, 
 and the brethren who were blessed with 
 talents for vocal music were often invit- 
 ed "to contribute to the harmony of the 
 Lodge." Thus, in the minute-book of a 
 Lodge at Lincoln, in England, in the year 
 1732, which is quoted by Dr. Oliver, the 
 records show that the Master usually " gave 
 an elegant charge, also went through an 
 examination, and the Lodge was closed 
 with song and decent merriment." In 
 this custom of singing there was an estab- 
 lished system. Each officer was furnished 
 with a song appropriate to his office, and 
 each degree had a song for itself. 
 
 Thus, in the first edition of the Book 
 of Constitutions, we have the " Master's 
 Song," which, says Dr. Anderson, the au- 
 thor, is "to be sung with a chorus, — when 
 the Master shall give leave, — either one 
 part only or all together, as he pleases; 
 the "Warden's song," which was "to be 
 sung and played at the Quarterly Commu- 
 nication ; " the " Fellow Craft's song," which 
 was to be sung and played at the grand 
 feast ; and, lastly, the " Entered 'Prentiss' 
 song," which was "to be sung when all 
 grave business is over, and with the Master's 
 
 leave." In the second edition the number 
 was greatly increased, and songs were ap- 
 propriated to the Deputy Grand Master, 
 the Secretary, the Treasurer, and other offi- 
 cers. For all this provision was made in 
 the Old Charges, so that there should be no 
 confusion between the hours of labor and 
 refreshment; for while the brethren were 
 forbidden to behave "ludicrously or jest- 
 ingly while the Lodge is engaged in what 
 is serious or solemn," they were permitted, 
 when work was over, " to enjoy themselves 
 with innocent mirth." 
 
 The custom of singing songs peculiarly 
 appropriate to the Cratt at their Lodge 
 meetings, when the grave business was 
 over, was speedily introduced into France 
 and Germany, in which countries a large 
 number of Masonic songs were written and 
 adopted, to be sung by the German and 
 French Masons at their "Table Lodges," 
 which corresponded to the "refreshment" 
 of their English brethren. The lyrical liter- 
 ature of Masonry has, in consequence of 
 this custom, assumed no inconsiderable 
 magnitude ; as an evidence of which it may 
 be stated that Kloss, in his Bibliography of 
 Freemasonry, gives a catalogue — by no 
 means a perfect one — of two nundred and 
 thirteen Masonic song books published be- 
 tween the years 1734 and 1837, in the Eng- 
 lish, German, French, Danish, and Polish 
 languages. 
 
 The Masons of the present day have not 
 abandoned the usage of singing at their 
 festive meetings after the Lodge is closed; 
 but the old songs of Masonry are passing 
 into oblivion, and we seldom hear any of 
 them, except sometimes the never-to-be- 
 forgotten Apprentice's song of Matthew 
 Birkhead. Modern taste and culture re- 
 ject the rude but hearty stanzas of the old 
 song-makers, and the more artistic and 
 pathetic productions of Mackay, and Cooke, 
 and Morris, and Dibdin, and Wesley, and 
 other writers of that class, are taking their 
 place. 
 
 Some of these songs cannot be strictly 
 called Masonic, yet the covert allusions 
 here and there of their authors, whether 
 intentional or accidental, have caused them 
 to be adopted by the Craft and placed 
 among their minstrelsy. Thus the well- 
 known ballad of "Tubal Cain," by Charles 
 Mackay, always has an inspiring effect 
 when sung at a Lodge banquet, because of 
 the reference to this old worker in metals, 
 whom the Masons fondly consider as one 
 of the mythical founders of their Order; 
 although the song itself has in its words or 
 its ideas no connection whatever with Free- 
 masonry. Burns's " Auld Lang Syne " is 
 another production not strictly Masonic, 
 which has met with the universal favor of 
 
726 
 
 SON 
 
 SOUL 
 
 the Craft, because the warm fraternal spirit 
 that it breathes is in every way Masonic, 
 and hence it has almost become a rule of 
 obligation that every festive party of Free- 
 masons should close with the great Scotch- 
 man's invocation to part in love and kind- 
 ness. 
 
 But Eobert Burns has also supplied the 
 Craft with several purely Masonic songs, 
 and his farewell to the brethren of Tarbol- 
 ton Lodge, beginning, — 
 
 "Adieu ! a heart-warm, fond adieu, 
 Dear brothers of the mystic tie," 
 
 is often sung with pathetic effect at the 
 table Lodges of the Order. 
 
 As already observed, we have many pro- 
 ductions of our Masonic poets which are 
 taking the place of the older and coarser 
 songs of our predecessors. It would be 
 tedious to name all who have successfully 
 invoked the Masonic muse. Masonic songs 
 — that is to say, songs whose themes are 
 Masonic incidents, whose language refers to 
 the technical language of Freemasonry, 
 and whose spirit breathes its spirit and its 
 teachings — are now a well-settled part of 
 the literary curriculum of the Institution. 
 At first they were all festive in character 
 and often coarse in style, with little or no 
 pretension to poetic excellence. Now they 
 are festive, but refined ; or sacred, and used 
 on occasions of public solemnity ; or mythi- 
 cal, and constituting a part of the cere- 
 monies of the different degrees. But they 
 all have a character of poetic art which is 
 far above the mediocrity so emphatically 
 condemned by Horace. 
 
 Son of a Mason. The son of a Ma- 
 son is called a Louveteau, and is entitled 
 to certain privileges, for which see Louve- 
 teau. 
 
 Sons of Light. The science of Free- 
 masonry often has received the title of 
 " Lux," or " Light," to indicate that men- 
 tal and moral illumination is the object of 
 the Institution. Hence Freemasons are 
 often called " Sons of Light." 
 
 Sons of the Prophets. We re- 
 peatedly meet in the Old Testament with 
 references to the Beni Hanabiim, or sons 
 of the prophets. These were the disciples 
 of the prophets, or wise men of Israel, who 
 underwent a course of esoteric instruction 
 in the secret institutions of the Nabiim, or 
 prophets, just as the disciples of the Magi 
 did in Persia, or of Pythagoras in Greece. 
 " These sons of the prophets," says Stehe- 
 lin, (Babbinical Literature, i. 16,) "were 
 their disciples, brought up under their 
 tuition and care, and therefore their mas- 
 ters or instructors were called their fathers." 
 Sons of the Widow. This is a title 
 often given to Freemasons in allusion to 
 
 Hiram the Builder, who was " a widow's 
 son, of the tribe of Naphtali." By the ad- 
 vocates of the theory that Freemasonry 
 originated with the exiled house of Stuart, 
 and was organized as a secret institution 
 for the purpose of re-establishing that house 
 on the throne of Great Britain, the phrase 
 has been applied as if referring to tne ad- 
 herents of Queen Henrietta, the widow 
 of Charles the First. 
 
 Sorbonne. A college of theological 
 professors in Paris, who exercised a great 
 influence over religious opinion in France 
 during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and 
 greater part of the eighteenth centuries. 
 The bigotry and intolerance for which they 
 were remarkable made them the untiring 
 persecutors of Freemasonry. In the year 
 1748 they published a Letter and Consulta- 
 tion on the Society of Freemasons, in which 
 they declared that it was an illegal associa- 
 tion, and that the meetings of its members 
 should be prohibited. This was repub- 
 lished in 1764, at Paris, by the Freemasons, 
 with a reply, in the form of an appendix, 
 by De la Tierce, and again in 1766, at 
 Berlin, with another reply by a writer un- 
 der the assumed name of Jarhetti. 
 
 Sorrow Lodge. It is the custom 
 among Masons on the continent of Europe 
 to hold special Lodges at stated periods, 
 for the purpose of commemorating the vir- 
 tues and deploring the loss of their departed 
 members, and other distinguished worthies 
 of the Fraternity who have died. These 
 are called Funeral or Sorrow Lodges. In 
 Germany they are held annually; in 
 France at longer intervals. In this coun- 
 try the custom has been introduced by the 
 Ancient and Accepted Rite, whose Sorrow 
 Lodge ritual is peculiarly beautiful and 
 impressive, and the usage has been adopted 
 by many Lodges of the American Rite. On 
 these occasions the Lodge is clothed in the 
 habiliments of mourning and decorated 
 with the emblems of death, solemn music 
 is played, funereal dirges are chanted, and 
 eulogies on the life, character, and Masonic 
 virtues of the dead are delivered. 
 
 Soul of Hatnre. A platonic expres- 
 sion, more properly the anima mttndi, that 
 has been adopted into the English Royal 
 Arch system to designate the Sacred Delta, 
 or Triangle, which Dunckerley, in his lec- 
 ture, considered as the symbol ofthe Trinity. 
 "So highly," says the modern lecture, 
 " indeed did the ancients esteem the figure, 
 that it became among them an object of 
 worship as the great principle of animated 
 existence, to which they gave the name of 
 God because it represented the animal, 
 mineral, and vegetable creation. They also 
 distinguished it by an appellation which, in 
 the Egyptian language, signifies the Soul 
 
SOUTH 
 
 SOVEREIGN 
 
 727 
 
 of Nature." Dr. Oliver {Juris., page 446,) 
 warmly protests against the introduction 
 of this expression as an unwarrantable in- 
 novation, borrowed most probably from the 
 Rite of the Philalethes. It has not been 
 introduced into the American system. 
 
 South. When the sun is at his me- 
 ridian height, his invigorating rays are 
 darted from the south. When he rises in 
 the east, we are called to labor ; when he 
 sets in the west, our daily toil is over ; but 
 when he reaches the south, the hour is high 
 twelve, and we are summoned to refresh- 
 ment. In Masonry, the south is represented 
 by the Junior Warden and by the Corin- 
 thian column, because it is said to be the 
 place of beauty. 
 
 South Carolina. Freemasonry was 
 introduced into South Carolina by the or- 
 ganization of Solomon's Lodge, in the city 
 of Charleston, on October 28, 1736, the 
 Warrant for which had been granted in the 
 previous year by Lord Weymouth, Grand 
 Master of England. John Hamilton was, 
 in 1736, appointed Provincial Grand Mas- 
 ter by the Earl of Loudoun. In 1738 a 
 Lodge was established in Charleston by the 
 St. John's Grand Lodge of Boston ; but it 
 does not appear to have long existed. The 
 Provincial Lodge appears after some time 
 to have suspended, for a second Provincial 
 Grand Lodge was established by the Depu- 
 tation of the Marquis of Carnarvan to Chief 
 Justice Leigh in 1754. In 1777 this body 
 assumed independence, and became the 
 " Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted Ma- 
 sons," Barnard Elliott being the first 
 Grand Master. As early as 1783 the 
 Athol or Ancient Masons invaded the juris- 
 diction of South Carolina, and in 1787, 
 there being then five Lodges of the An- 
 cients in the State, they held a Convention, 
 and on the 24th of March organized the 
 " Grand Lodge of Ancient York Masons." 
 Between the Modern and the Ancient 
 Grand Lodge there was always a very hos- 
 tile feeling until the year 1808, when a 
 union was effected; which was, however, 
 but temporary, for a disruption took place 
 in the following year. However, the union 
 was permanently established in 1817, when 
 the two Grand Lodges were merged into 
 one, under the name of the "Grand Lodge 
 of Ancient Freemasons." 
 
 The Grand Royal Arch Chapter was or- 
 ganized on May 29, 1812. 
 
 The Grand Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters was established February, 1860, by 
 eight Councils, who had received their 
 Charters under the authority of the Su- 
 preme Council of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 The Grand Encampment of Knights 
 Templars was instituted in 1826 by three 
 subordinate Encampments, but it enjoyed 
 
 only an ephemeral existence, and is not 
 heard of after the year 1830. There is now 
 but one Commandery in the State, which 
 derives its Warrant from the Grand En- 
 campment of the United States, the date 
 ofwhichisMay 17,1843. 
 
 The Supreme Council of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite was opened on May 31, 1801. 
 This oody is now recognized as the Mother 
 Council of the World. 
 
 Sovereign. An epithet applied to 
 certain degrees which were invested with 
 supreme power over inferior ones ; as, Sov- 
 ereign Prince of Rose Croix, which is the 
 highest degree of the French Rite and of 
 some other Rites, and Sovereign Inspector- 
 General, which is the controlling degree of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Rite. Some de- 
 grees, originally Sovereign in the Rites in 
 which they were first established, in being 
 transferred to other Rites, have lost their sov- 
 ereign character, but still improperly retain 
 the name. Thus the Rose Croix degree of 
 the Scottish Rite, which is there only the 
 eighteenth, and subordinate to the thirty- 
 third or Supreme Council, still retains 
 everywhere, except in the Southern Juris- 
 diction of the United States, the title of 
 Sovereign Prince of Rose Croix. 
 
 Sovereign Commander of the 
 Temple. (Souverain Commandeur du 
 Temple.) Styled in the more recent rituals 
 of the Southern Supreme Council "Knight 
 Commander of the Temple." This is the 
 twenty-seventh degree of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite. The presiding 
 officer is styled " Most Illustrious and Most 
 Valiant," the Wardens are called "Most 
 Sovereign Commanders," and the Knights 
 "Sovereign Commanders." The place of 
 meeting is called a " Court." The apron 
 is flesh - colored, lined and edged with 
 black, with a Teutonic cross encircled by a 
 wreath of laurel and a key beneath, all in- 
 scribed in black upon the flap. The scarf 
 is red bordered with black, banging from 
 the right shoulder to the left hip, and sus- 
 pending a Teutonic cross in enamelled 
 gold. The jewel is a triangle of gold, on 
 which is engraved the Ineffable Name in 
 Hebrew. It is suspended from a white 
 collar bound with red and embroidered with 
 four Teutonic crosses. 
 
 Vassal, Ragon, and Clavel are all wrong 
 in connecting this degree with the Knights 
 Templars, with which Order its own ritual 
 declares that it is not to be confounded. It 
 is without a lecture. Vassal expresses the 
 following opinion of this degree : 
 
 " The twenty-seventh degree does not de- 
 serve to be classed in the Scottish Rite as 
 a degree, since it contains neither symbols 
 nor allegories that connect it with initiation. 
 It deserves still less to be ranked among 
 
728 
 
 SOVEREIGN 
 
 SOVEREIGN 
 
 the philosophic degrees. I imagine that 
 it has been intercalated only to supply 
 an hiatus, and as a memorial of an Order 
 once justly celebrated." 
 
 It is also the forty-fourth degree of the 
 Rite of Mizraim. 
 
 Sovereign Grand Inspector 
 General. The thirty-third and last de- 
 gree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Kite. The Latin Constitutions of 1786 call 
 it " Tertius et trigesimus et sublimissimus 
 gradus," i. e., " the thirty-third and most 
 sublime degree; " and it is styled "the Pro- 
 tector and Conservator of the Order." The 
 same Constitutions, in Articles I. and II., 
 say: 
 
 " The thirty-third degree confers on those 
 Masons who are legitimately invested with 
 it, the quality, title, privilege, and author- 
 ity of Sovereign [Supremorum] Grand In- 
 spectors General of the Order. 
 
 " The peculiar duty of their mission is 
 to teach and enlighten the brethren ; to pre- 
 serve charity, union, and fraternal love 
 among them ; to maintain regularity in the 
 works of each degree, and to take care that 
 it is preserved by others ; to cause the dog- 
 mas, doctrines, institutes, constitutions, 
 statutes, and regulations of the Order to be 
 reverently regarded, and to preserve and 
 defend them on every occasion ; and, finally, 
 everywhere to occupy themselves in works 
 of peace and mercy." 
 
 The body in which the members of this 
 degree assemble is called a Supreme Coun- 
 cil. 
 
 The symbolic color of the degree is white, 
 denoting purity. 
 
 The distinctive insignia are a sash, collar, 
 jewel, Teutonic cross, decoration, and ring. 
 
 The sash is a broad, white- watered ribbon, 
 bordered with gold, bearing on the front a 
 triangle of gold glittering with rays of 
 gold, which has in the centre the numerals 
 33, with a sword of silver, directed from 
 above, on each side of the triangle, point- 
 ing to its centre. The sash, worn from the 
 right shoulder to the left hip, ends in a 
 point, and is fringed with gold, having at 
 the junction a circular band of scarlet and 
 green containing the jewel of the Order. 
 
 The collar is of white- watered ribbon 
 fringed with gold, having the rayed tri- 
 angle at its point and the swords at the 
 sides. By a regulation of the Southern 
 Supreme Council of the United States, the 
 collar is worn by the active, and the sash 
 by the honorary, members of the Council. 
 
 The jewel is a black double-headed eagle, 
 with golden beaks and talons, holding in 
 the latter a sword of gold, and crowned 
 with the golden crown of Prussia. 
 
 The red Teutonic cross is affixed to the 
 left side of the breast. 
 
 The decoration rests upon a Teutonic 
 cross. It is a nine-pointed star, namely, 
 one formed by three triangles of gold one 
 upon the other, and interlaced from the 
 lower part of the left side to the upper part 
 
 of the right a sword extends, and in the 
 opposite direction is a hand of (as it is 
 called) Justice. In the centre is the shield 
 of The Okder, azure charged with an 
 eagle like that on the banner, having on 
 the dexter side a Balance or, and on the 
 sinister side a Compass of the second, 
 united with a Square of the second. Around 
 the whole shield runs a band of the first, 
 with the Latin inscription, of the second, 
 Ordo Ab Chao, which band is enclosed by 
 two circles, formed by two Serpents of the 
 second, each biting his own tail. Of the 
 smaller triangles that are formed by the in- 
 tersection of the greater ones, those nine 
 that are nearest the band are of crimson 
 color, and each of them has one of the 
 letters that compose the word S. A. P. I. 
 E. N. T. I. A. 
 
 The ring is of plain gold one-eighth of 
 an inch wide, and having on the inside 
 a delta surrounding the figures 33, and in- 
 scribed with the wearer's name, the letters 
 S.\ G.\ I.\ G.\ , and the motto of the 
 Order, " Deus meumque Jus." It is worn 
 on the fourth finger of the left hand. 
 
 Until the year 1801, the thirty-third de- 
 gree was unknown. Until then the highest 
 
SOVEREIGN 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 729 
 
 degree of the Rite, introduced into America 
 by Stephen Morin, was the Sublime Prince 
 of the Royal Secret, or the twenty-fifth of 
 the Rite established by the Emperors of the 
 East and West. The administrative heads 
 of the Order were styled Grand Inspectors 
 General and Deputy Inspectors General; 
 but these were titles of official rank and 
 not of degree. Even as late as May 24, 
 1801, John Mitchell signs himself as " Ka- 
 dosh, Prince of the Royal Secret and Dep- 
 uty Inspector General." The document 
 thus signed is a Patent which certifies that 
 Frederick Dalcho is a Kadosh, and Prince 
 of the Royal Secret, and which creates him 
 a Deputy Inspector General. But on May 
 31, 1801, the Supreme Council was created 
 at Charleston, and from that time we hear 
 of a Rite of thirty-three degrees, eight 
 having been added to the twenty-five in- 
 troduced by Morin, and the last being 
 called Sovereign Grand Inspector General. 
 The degree being thus legitimately estab- 
 lished by a body which, in creating a Rite, 
 possessed the prerogative of establishing 
 its classes, its degrees and its nomenclature 
 were accepted unhesitatingly by all subse- 
 quently created Supreme Councils ; and it 
 continues to be recognized as the adminis- 
 trative head of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. 
 
 Sovereign Master. 1. The presid- 
 ing officer in a Council of Knights of the 
 Red Cross. He represents Darius, king of 
 Persia. 2. The sixtieth degree of the Rite 
 of Mizraim. 
 
 Sovereign Prince mason. A title 
 first conferred on its members by the Coun- 
 cil of Emperors of the East ana West. 
 
 Sovereign Prince of Rose 
 Croix. See Rose Croix. 
 
 Spain. Anderson says ( Comtit., 2d ed., p. 
 194,) that a Deputation was granted by Lord 
 Colerane, Grand Master, in 1728, for consti- 
 tuting a Lodge at Madrid ; another in 1731, 
 by Lord Lovell, to Capt. James Cummer- 
 ford, to be Provincial Grand Master of 
 Andalusia; and a third in 1732, by Lord 
 Montagu, for establishing a Lodge at Va- 
 lenciennes. Smith, writing in 1783, says, 
 ( Use and Abuse, p. 203 :) " The first, and, I 
 believe, the only Lodge established in Spain 
 was by a Deputation sent to Madrid to con- 
 stitute a Lodge in that city, under the au- 
 spices of Lord Coleraine, A. d. 1727, which 
 continued under English jurisdiction till 
 the year 1776, when it refused that subor- 
 dination, but still continues to meet under 
 its own authority." From these two differ- 
 ing authorities we derive only this fact, in 
 which they concur : that Masonry was in- 
 troduced into Spain in 1727, more probably 
 1728, by the Grand Lodge of England. 
 Smith's statement that there never was a 
 4R 
 
 second Lodge at Madrid is opposed by that 
 of Gadicke, who says that in 1751 there 
 were two Lodges in Madrid. 
 
 Llorente says {Hist. Inquis., p. 525,) that 
 in 1741 Philip V. issued a royal ordinance 
 against the Masons, and, in consequence, 
 many were arrested and sent to the galleys. 
 The members of the Lodge at Madrid were 
 especially treated by the Inquisition with 
 great severity. All the members were ar- 
 rested, and eight of them sent to the gal- 
 leys. In 1751, Ferdinand VI., instigated 
 by the Inquisitor Joseph Torrubia, pub- 
 lished a decree forbidding the assemblies 
 of Freemasons, and declaring that all vio- 
 lators of it should be treated as persons 
 guilty of high treason. In that year, Pope 
 Benedict XIV. had renewed the bull of 
 Clement XII. In 1793, the Cardinal Vicar 
 caused a decree of death to be promulgated 
 against all Freemasons. Notwithstanding 
 these persecutions of the Church and the 
 State, Freemasonry continued to be culti- 
 vated in Spain; but the meetings of the 
 Lodges were held with great caution and 
 secrecy. 
 
 On the accession of Joseph Napoleon to 
 the throne in 1807, the liberal sentiments 
 that characterized the Napoleonic dynasty 
 prevailed, and all restrictions against the 
 Freemasons were removed. In October, 
 1809, a National Grand Lodge of Spain 
 was established, and, as if to make the 
 victory of tolerance over bigotry complete, 
 its meetings were held in the edifice for- 
 merly occupied by the Inquisition, which 
 body had been recently abolished by an 
 imperial decree. 
 
 But the York Rite, which had been for- 
 merly practised, appears now to have been 
 abandoned, and the National Grand Lodge 
 just alluded to was constituted by three 
 Lodges of the Scottish Rite which, during 
 that year, had been established at Madrid. 
 From that time the Masonry of Spain has 
 been that of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. 
 
 Clavel says [Hist. Pittoresque, p. 252,) that 
 " in 1810, the Marquis de Clermont-Ton- 
 nere, member of the Supreme Council of 
 France, created, near the National Grand 
 Lodge, (of the Scottish Rite in Spain,) a 
 Grand Consistory of the thirty-second de- 
 gree; and, in 1811, the Count de Grasse 
 added to this a Supreme Council of the 
 thirty-third degree, which immediately or- 
 ganized the National Grand Lodge under 
 the title of Grand Orient of Spain and the 
 Indies. The overthrow of French domi- 
 nation dispersed, in 1813, most of the Span- 
 ish Masons, and caused the suspension of 
 Masonic work in that country." 
 
 In 1814, Ferdinand VII., having succeeded 
 to the throne, restored the Inquisition with 
 
730 
 
 SPARTACUS 
 
 SPECULATIVE 
 
 all its oppressive prerogatives, proscribed 
 Freemasonry, and forbade the meetings of 
 the Lodges. It was not until 1820 that 
 the Grand Orient of Spain recovered its 
 activity, and in 1821 we find a Supreme 
 Council in actual existence, the history of 
 whose organization was thus given, in 1870, 
 to Bro. A. G. Goodall, the Representative 
 of the Supreme Council of the Northern 
 Jurisdiction of the United States : 
 
 " The parties now claiming to be a Su- 
 preme Council assert that the Count de 
 Tilly, by authority from his cousin, De 
 Grasse Tilly, constituted a Supreme Coun- 
 cil, Ancient Accepted Rite, at Seville, in 
 1807 ; but in consequence of a revolution, 
 in which Tilly was a prominent actor, the 
 Grand Body was removed to Aranjuez, 
 where, on the 21st of September, 1808, the 
 officers were duly installed; Saavedra as 
 Sov.\ Gr.\ Commander, ad vitam ; Count 
 de Tilly, Lieutenant Grand Commander; 
 Carlos de Rosas, Grand Treasurer; Jovel- 
 lanos, Grand Chancellor ; Quintana, Grand 
 Secretary ; Pelajos, Captain of Guard. 
 On the death or Tilly and Saavedra, Ba- 
 dilla became Sovereign Grand Commander; 
 and under his administration the Supreme 
 Council was united with the Grand Orient 
 of Spain at Granada, in 1817, under the 
 title of Supreme Council, Grand Orient 
 National of Spain." 
 
 On the death of Ferdinand VII. in 1853, 
 the persecutions against the Freemasons 
 ceased, because, in the civil war that en- 
 sued, the priests lost much of their power. 
 Between 1845 and 1849, according to Fin- 
 del, {Hist, p. 584,) several Lodges were 
 founded and a Grand Orient established, 
 which appears to have exercised powers up 
 to at least 1848. But subsequently, during 
 the reign of Queen Isabella, Masonry again 
 fell into decadence. It has now, however, 
 revived, and many Lodges are in existence 
 who, three years ago, were under the juris- 
 diction of the Grand Orient of Portugal. 
 There is at present a Supreme Council of 
 Spain. 
 
 Spartaeus. The characteristic name 
 assumed by Weishaupt, the founder of the 
 Order of the Illuminati. 
 
 Speculative Masonry. The lec- 
 tures of the symbolic degrees instruct the 
 neophyte in the difference between the 
 Operative and the Speculative divisions of 
 Masonry. They tell him that " we work 
 in Speculative Masonry, but our ancient 
 brethren wrought in both Operative and 
 Speculative." The distinction between an 
 Operative art and a Speculative science is, 
 therefore, familiar to all Masons from their 
 early instructions. 
 
 To the Freemason, this Operative art has 
 been symbolized in that intellectual deduc- 
 
 tion from it which has been correctly called 
 Speculative Masonry. At one time each was 
 an integral part of one undivided system. 
 Not that the period ever existed when every 
 Operative Mason was acquainted with, or 
 initiated into, the Speculative science. Even 
 now, there are thousands of skHful artisans 
 who know as little of that as they do of the 
 Hebrew language which was spoken by its 
 founder. But Operative Masonry was, in 
 the inception of our history, and is, in some 
 measure, even now, the skeleton upon 
 which was strung the living muscles and 
 tendons and nerves of the Speculative sys- 
 tem. It was the block of marble, rude and 
 unpolished it may have been, from which 
 was sculptured the life-breathing statue. 
 
 Speculative Masonry (which is but an- 
 other name for Freemasonry in its modern 
 acceptation) may be briefly defined as the 
 scientific application and the religious 
 consecration of the rules and principles, 
 the language, the implements, and mate- 
 rials of Operative Masonry to the venera- 
 tion of God, the purification of the heart, 
 and the inculcation of the dogmas of a re- 
 ligious philosophy. 
 
 Speculative Masonry, or Freemasonry, is 
 then a system of ethics, and must there- 
 fore, like all other ethical systems, have its 
 distinctive doctrines. These may be di- 
 vided into three classes, viz., the Moral, 
 the Religious, and the Philosophical. 
 
 1. The Moral Doctrines. These are de- 
 pendent on, and spring out of, its character 
 as a social institution. Hence among its 
 numerous definitions is one that declares it 
 to be " a science of morality," and morality 
 is said to be, symbolically, one of the pre- 
 cious jewels of a Master Mason. Freema- 
 sonry is, in its most patent and prominent 
 sense, that which most readily and forcibly 
 attracts the attention of the uninitiated ; a 
 fraternity, an association of men bound 
 together by a peculiar tie; and therefore 
 it is essential, to its successful existence, 
 that it should, as it does, inculcate, at the 
 very threshold of its teachings, obligation 
 of kindness, man's duty to his neighbor. 
 "There are three great duties," says the 
 Charge given to an Entered Apprentice, 
 " which, as a Mason, you are charged to 
 inculcate — to God, your neighbor, and 
 yourself." And the duty to our neighbor 
 is said to be that we should act upon the 
 square, and do unto him as we wish that he 
 should do unto ourselves. 
 
 The object, then, of Freemasonry, in this 
 moral point of view, is to carry out to their 
 fullest practical extent those lessons of mu- 
 tual love and mutual aid that are essential 
 to the very idea of a brotherhood. There 
 is a socialism in Freemasonry from which 
 spring all Masonic virtues, — not that mod- 
 
SPECULATIVE 
 
 SPECULATIVE 
 
 731 
 
 era socialism exhibited in a community of 
 goods, which, although it may have been 
 practised by the primitive Christians, is 
 found to be uncongenial with the indepen- 
 dent spirit of the present age — but a com- 
 munity of sentiment, of principle, of design, 
 which gives to Masonry all its social, and 
 hence its moral, character. As the old song 
 tells us : 
 
 "That virtue has not left mankind, 
 Her social maxims prove, 
 For stamp'd upon the Mason's mind 
 Are unity and love." 
 
 Thus the moral design of Freemasonry, 
 based upon its social character, is to make 
 men better to each other; to cultivate 
 brotherly love, and to inculcate the prac- 
 tice of all those virtues which are essential 
 to the perpetuation of a brotherhood. A 
 Mason is bound, say the Old Charges, to 
 obey the moral law, and of this law the 
 very keystone is the divine precept, — the 
 " Golden Rule " of our Lord, — to do unto 
 others as we would that they should do 
 unto us. To relieve the distressed, to give 
 good counsel to the erring, to speak well of 
 the absent, to observe temperance in the in- 
 dulgence of appetite, to bear evil with for- 
 titude, to be prudent in life and conversa- 
 tion, and to dispense justice to all men, are 
 duties that are inculcated on every Mason 
 by the moral doctrines of his Order. 
 
 These doctrines of morality are not of 
 recent origin. They are taught in all the 
 Old Constitutions of the Craft, as the parch- 
 ment records of the fifteenth, sixteenth, 
 and seventeenth centuries show, even when 
 the Institution was operative in its organi- 
 zation, and long before the speculative ele- 
 ment was made its predominating charac- 
 teristic. Thus these Old Charges tell us, 
 almost all of them in the same words, that 
 Masons "shal be true, each one to other, 
 (that is to say,) to every Mason of the 
 science of Masonrye that are Masons al- 
 lowed, ye shal doe to them as ye would 
 that they should doe unto you." 
 
 2. The Religious Doctrines of Freema- 
 sonry are very simple and self-evident. 
 They are darkened by no perplexities of 
 sectarian theology, but stand out in the 
 broad light, intelligible and acceptable by 
 all minds, for they ask only for a belief in 
 God and in the immortality of the soul. 
 He who denies these tenets can be no Ma- 
 son, for the religious doctrines of the Insti- 
 tution significantly impress them in every 
 part of its ritual. The neophyte no sooner 
 crosses the threshold of the Lodge, but he 
 is called upon to recognize, as his first duty, 
 an entire trust in the superintending care 
 and love of the Supreme Being, and the 
 series of initiations into Symbolic Masonry 
 
 terminate by revealing the awful symbol 
 of a life after death and an entrance upon 
 immortality. 
 
 Now this and the former class of doc- 
 trines are intimately connected and mutu- 
 ally dependent. For we must first know 
 and feel the universal fatherhood of God 
 before we can rightly appreciate the uni- 
 versal brotherhood of man. Hence the 
 Old Records already alluded to, which 
 show us what was the condition of the 
 Craft in the Middle Ages, exhibit an emi- 
 nently religious spirit. These ancient Con- 
 stitutions always begin with a pious invo- 
 cation to the Trinity, and sometimes to the 
 saints, and they tell us that " the first charge 
 is that a Mason shall be true to God and 
 holy Church, and use no error nor heresy." 
 And the Charges published in 1723, which 
 professes to be a compilation made from 
 those older records, prescribe that a Mason, 
 while left to his particular opinions, must 
 be of that " religion in which all men 
 agree," that is to say, the religion which 
 teaches the existence of God and an eternal 
 life. 
 
 3. The Philosophical Doctrines of Free- 
 masonry are scarcely less important, al- 
 though they are less generally understood 
 than either of the preceding classes. The 
 object of these philosophical doctrines is 
 very different from that of either the moral 
 or the religious. For the moral and reli- 
 gious doctrines of the Order are intended 
 to make men virtuous, while its philosoph- 
 ical doctrines are designed to make them 
 zealous Masons. He who knows nothing 
 of the philosophy of Freemasonry will be 
 apt to become in time lukewarm and indif- 
 ferent, but he who devotes himself to its 
 contemplation will feel an ever-increasing 
 ardor in the study. Now these philosophi- 
 cal doctrines are developed in that symbol- 
 ism which is the especial characteristic of 
 Masonic teaching, and relate altogether to 
 the lost and recovered word, the search 
 after divine truth, the manner and time of 
 its discovery, and the reward that awaits 
 the faithful and successful searcher. Such 
 a philosophy far surpasses the abstract 
 quiddities of metaphysicians. It brings us 
 into close relation to the profound thought 
 of the ancient world, and makes us familiar 
 with every subject of mental science that 
 lies within the grasp of the human intellect. 
 So that, in conclusion, we find that the 
 moral, religious, and philosophical doc- 
 trines of Freemasonry respectively relate 
 to the social, the eternal, and the intellec- 
 tual progress of man. 
 
 Finally, it must be observed that while 
 the old Operative institution, which was the 
 cradle and forerunner of the Speculative, 
 as we now have it, abundantly taught in its 
 
732 
 
 SPES 
 
 SPIRITUAL 
 
 Constitutions the moral and religious doc- 
 trines of which we have been treating, it 
 makes no reference to the philosophical 
 doctrines. That our Operative predeces- 
 sors were well acquainted with the science 
 of symbolism is evident from the architec- 
 tural ornaments of the buildings which they 
 erected ; but they do not seem to have ap- 
 plied its principles to any great extent to 
 the elucidation of their moral and religious 
 teachings; at least, we find nothing said 
 of this symbolic philosophy in the Old Re- 
 cords that are extant. And whether the 
 Operative Masons were reticent on this 
 subject from choice or from ignorance, we 
 may lay it down as an axiom, not easily 
 to be controverted, that the philosophic 
 doctrines of the Order are altogether a de- 
 velopment of the system for which we are 
 indebted solely to Speculative Freema- 
 sonry. 
 
 Spes mea in Deo est. [My hope is 
 in God.) The motto of the thirty-second 
 degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite. 
 
 Sphinx. The Sphinx was a fabled 
 monster, which was represented by the re- 
 cumbent body of a lion with a human 
 head. There were two Sphinxes among 
 the ancients, the Greek and the Egyptian, 
 neither of which appears to have been 
 borrowed from the other; and they differed 
 in form, the head of the former having the 
 head of a woman, and the latter that of a 
 man. Modern mythologists have sought 
 to find in each a different interpretation. 
 Thus, Cox (Mythol. of the Aryans, ii. 344,) 
 derives the Greek Sphinx from Sphingo, 
 to bind tightly, and says she represented 
 the cloud which imprisoned the rain in 
 hidden dungeons. This, however, is a 
 modern thought, which was unknown to 
 the older mythologists, who always con- 
 nected the Sphinx, both Grecian and 
 Egyptian, with the idea of mystery. But 
 it is with the Egyptian Sphinx that our 
 Masonic symbolism is really connected. 
 Among the Egyptians, Sphinxes were 
 placed at the entrance of the temples to 
 guard the mysteries, by warning those who 
 penetrated within, that they should conceal 
 a knowledge of them from the uninitiated ; 
 and hence Portal derives the word from the 
 Hebrew TSaPHaN, to hide. Champollion 
 says that the Sphinx became successively 
 the symbol of each of the gods, by which 
 Portal suggests that the priests intended to 
 express the idea that all the gods were hid- 
 den from the people, and that the knowl- 
 edge of them, guarded in the sanctuaries, 
 was revealed to the initiates only. As a 
 Masonic emblem, the Sphinx has been 
 adopted in its Egyptian character as a sym- 
 bol of mystery, and as such is often found 
 
 as a decoration sculptured in front of Ma- 
 sonic temples, or engraved at the head of 
 Masonic documents. It cannot, however, 
 be properly called an ancient, recognized 
 symbol of the Order. Its introduction has 
 been of comparatively recent date, and 
 rather as a symbolic decoration than as a 
 symbol that announces any dogma. 
 
 Spire, Congress of. Spire is a city 
 in Bavaria, on the banks of the Rhine, and 
 the seat of a cathedral which was erected 
 in the eleventh century A Masonic Con- 
 gress was convoked there in 1469 by the 
 Grand Lodge of Strasburg, principally to 
 take into consideration the condition of the 
 Fraternity and of the edifices in the course 
 of construction by them, as well as to dis- 
 cuss the rights of the Craft. 
 
 Spiritualizing. In the early lec- 
 tures of the last century, this word was 
 used to express the method of symbolic in- 
 struction applied to the implements of 
 Operative Masonry. In a ritual of 1725, 
 it is said: "As we are not all working 
 Masons, we apply the working-tools to our 
 morals, which we call spiritualizing." Thus 
 too, about the same time, Bunyan wrote 
 his symbolic book which he called Solo' 
 mon's Temple Spiritualized. Phillips, in his 
 New World of Words, 1706, thus defines to 
 spiritualize: "to explain a passage of an 
 author in a spiritual manner, to give it a 
 godly or mystical sense." 
 
 Spiritual Lodge. Hutchinson (Sp. 
 of Masonry, p. 58,) says : " We place the 
 spiritual Lodge in the vale of Jehoshaphat, 
 implying, thereby, that the principles of 
 Masonry are derived from the knowledge 
 of God, and are established in the Judg- 
 ment of the Lord; the literal translation of 
 the word Jehoshaphat, from the Hebrew 
 tongue, being no other than those express 
 words." This refers to the Lodge, which is 
 thus described in the old lectures at the 
 beginning of the last century, and which 
 were in vogue at the time of Hutchinson. 
 
 " Q. Where does the Lodge stand? 
 
 "A. Upon the Holy ground, on the 
 highest hill or lowest vale, or in the vale 
 of Jehoshaphat, or any other sacred place." 
 
 The spiritual Lodge is the imaginary or 
 symbolic Lodge, whose form, magnitude, 
 covering, supports, and other attributes are 
 described in the lectures. 
 
 Spiritual Temple. The French 
 Masons say: " We erect temples for virtue 
 and dungeons for vice ; " thus referring to 
 the great Masonic doctrine of a spiritual 
 temple. There is no symbolism of the 
 Order more sublime than that in which the 
 speculative Mason is supposed to be en- 
 gaged in the construction of a spiritual 
 temple, in allusion to that material one 
 which was erected by his operative prede- 
 
SPOUL^E 
 
 SPURIOUS 
 
 733 
 
 cessors at Jerusalem. Indeed, the differ- 
 ence, in this point of view, between Opera- 
 tive and Speculative Masonry is simply 
 this: that while the former was engaged in 
 the construction, on Mount Moriah, of a 
 material temple of stones and cedar, and 
 gold and precious stones, the latter is occu- 
 pied, from his first to his last initiation, in 
 the construction, the adornment, and the 
 completion of the spiritual temple of his 
 body. The idea of making the temple a 
 symbol of the body is not, it is true, ex- 
 clusively Masonic. It had occurred to the 
 first teachers of Christianity. Christ him- 
 self alluded to it when he said, " Destroy 
 this temple, and in three days I will 
 raise it up;" and St. Paul extends the 
 idea, in one of his Epistles, to the Corin- 
 thians, in the following language : " Know 
 ye not that ye are the temple of God, and 
 that the spirit of God dwelleth in you ? " 
 And again, in a subsequent passage of the 
 same Epistle, he reiterates the idea in a 
 more positive form : " What, know ye not 
 that your body is the temple of the Holy 
 Ghost which is in you, which ye have of 
 God, and ye are not your own ? " 
 
 But the mode of treating this symbolism 
 by a reference to the particular Temple of 
 Solomon, and to the operative art engaged 
 in its construction, is an application of the 
 idea peculiar to Freemasonry. Hitchcock, 
 in his Essay on Swedenborg, thinks that the 
 same idea was also shared by the Hermetic 
 philosophers. He says: "With perhaps 
 the majority of readers, the Temple of 
 Solomon, and also the tabernacle, were 
 mere buildings — very magnificent, indeed, 
 but still mere buildings — for the worship 
 of God. But some are struck with many 
 portions of the account of their erection ad- 
 mitting a moral interpretation ; and while 
 the buildings are allowed to stand (or to 
 have stood, once,) visible objects, these in- 
 terpreters are delighted to meet with indi- 
 cations that Moses and Solomon, in build- 
 ing the Temples, were wise in the knowledge 
 of God and of man ; from which point it 
 is not difficult to pass on to the moral 
 meaning altogether, and affirm that the 
 building, which was erected without ' the 
 noise of a hammer, or axe, or any tool of 
 iron,' (1 Kings vi. 7,) was altogether a 
 moral building — a building of God, not 
 made with hands. In short, many see in 
 the story of Solomon's Temple a symboli- 
 cal representation of Man as the temple 
 of God, with its Holy of Holies deep 
 seated in the centre of the human heart." 
 
 Spoulee, John de. He appears to 
 have presided over the Masons of England 
 in 1350, in the reign of Edward III. Ander- 
 son says he was called Master of the " Ghib- 
 lim." 
 
 Spreading the Ballot. Taking the 
 vote on the application of a candidate for 
 initiation or admission. It is an Ameri- 
 canism, principally used in the Western 
 States. Thus : " The ballot may be spread 
 a second time in almost any case if the har- 
 mony of the Lodge seems to require it." 
 — Swigert, Q.\ M:. of Kentucky. "It is 
 legal to spread the ballot the third time, if 
 for the correction of mistakes, not other- 
 wise." — Bob. Morris. It is a technicality, 
 and scarcely English. 
 
 Sprengseisen, Christian Fried- 
 rich Kessler Yon. An ardent adherent 
 of Von Hund and admirer of his Templar 
 system, in defence of which, and against 
 the Spiritual Templarism of Starck, he 
 wrote, in 1786, the book, now very rare, 
 entitled Anti Saint Nicaise, and other 
 works. He was born at Saalsfield, in 1731, 
 and died Jan. 11, 1809. See Saint Nicaise. 
 
 Sprig of Aeaeia. See Acacia. 
 
 Spurious Freemasonry. For this 
 term, and for the theory connected with it, 
 we are indebted to Dr. Oliver, whose spec- 
 ulations led him to the conclusion that in 
 the earliest ages of the world there were 
 two systems of Freemasonry, the one of 
 which, preserved by the patriarchs and their 
 descendants, he called Primitive or Pure 
 Freemasonry. (See Primitive Freemasonry. ) 
 The other, which was a schism from this 
 system, he designated as the Spurious Free- 
 masonry of Antiquity. To comprehend 
 this system of Oliver, and to understand 
 his doctrine of the declension of the Spu- 
 rious from the Primitive Freemasonry, we 
 must remember that there were two races 
 of men descended from the loins of Adam, 
 whose history is as different as their char- 
 acters were dissimilar. There was the vir- 
 tuous race of Seth and his descendants, and 
 the wicked one of Cain. Seth and his chil- 
 dren, down to Noah, preserved the dogmas 
 and instructions, the legends and symbols, 
 which had been received from their com- 
 mon progenitor, Adam ; but Cain and his 
 descendants, whose vices at length brought 
 on the destruction of the earth, either total- 
 ly forgot or greatly corrupted them. Their 
 Freemasonry was not the same as that of 
 the Sethites. They distorted the truth, and 
 varied the landmarks to suit their own pro- 
 fane purposes. At length the two races 
 became blended together. The descendants 
 of Seth, becoming corrupted by their fre- 
 quent communications with those of Cain, 
 adopted their manners, and soon lost the 
 principles of the Primitive Freemasonry, 
 which at length were confined to Noah and 
 his three sons, who alone, in the destruc- 
 tion of a wicked world, were thought 
 worthy of receiving mercy. 
 
 Noah consequently preserved this sys- 
 
734 
 
 SPURIOUS 
 
 SPURS 
 
 tern, and was the medium of communica- 
 ting it to the post-diluvian world. Hence, 
 immediately after the deluge, Primitive 
 Freemasonry was the only system extant. 
 
 But this happy state of affairs was not to 
 last. Ham, the son of Noah, who had been 
 accursed by his father for his wickedness, 
 had been long familiar with the corruptions 
 of the system of Cain, and with the gradual 
 deviations from truth which, through the 
 influence of evil example, had crept into 
 the system of Seth. After the deluge, he 
 propagated the worst features of both sys- 
 tems among his immediate descendants. 
 Two sects or parties, so to speak, now arose 
 in the world — one which preserved the 
 great truths of religion, and consequently 
 of Masonry, which had been handed down 
 from Adam, Enoch, and Noah — and anoth- 
 er which deviated more and more from this 
 pure, original source. On the dispersion at 
 the tower of Babel, the schism became still 
 wider and more irreconcilable. The le- 
 gends of Primitive Freemasonry were al- 
 tered, and its symbols perverted to a false 
 worship; the mysteries were dedicated to 
 the worship of false gods and the practice 
 of idolatrous rites, and in the place of the 
 Pure or Primitive Freemasonry which con- 
 tinued to be cultivated among the patri- 
 archal descendants of Noah, was established 
 those mysteries of Paganism to which Dr. 
 Oliver has given the name of the " Spurious 
 Freemasonry." 
 
 It is not to Dr. Oliver, nor to any very 
 modern writer, that we are indebted for the 
 idea of a Masonic schism in this early age 
 of the world. The doctrine that Masonry 
 was lost, that is to say, lost in its purity, to 
 the larger portion of mankind, at the tower 
 of Babel, is still preserved in the ritual of 
 Ancient Craft Masonry. And in the de- 
 gree of Noachites, a degree which is at- 
 tached to the Scottish Rite, the fact is 
 plainly adverted to as, indeed, the very 
 foundation of the degree. Two races of 
 Masons are there distinctly named, the 
 Noachites and the Hiramites ; the former 
 were the conservators of the Primitive 
 Freemasonry as the descendants of Noah ; 
 the latter were the descendants of Hiram, 
 who was himself of the race which had fallen 
 into Spurious Freemasonry, but had re- 
 united himself to the true sect at the build- 
 ing of King Solomon's Temple, as we shall 
 hereafter see. But the inventors of the de- 
 gree do not seem to have had any very pre- 
 cise notions in relation to this latter part of 
 the history. 
 
 The mysteries, which constituted what 
 has been thus called Spurious Freemasonry, 
 were all more or less identical in character. 
 Varying in a few unimportant particulars, 
 attributable to the influence of local causes, 
 
 their great similarity in all important points 
 showed their derivation from a common 
 origin. 
 
 In the first place, they were communi- 
 cated through a system of initiation, by 
 which the aspirant was gradually prepared 
 for the reception of their final doctrines; 
 the rites were performed at night, and in 
 the most retired situations, in caverns or 
 amid the deep recesses of groves and for- 
 ests; and the secrets were only communi- 
 cated to the initiated after the administra- 
 tion of an obligation. Thus, Firmicus (As- 
 trol., lib. vii.,) tells us that " when Orpheus 
 explained the ceremonies of his mysteries 
 to candidates, he demanded of them, at the 
 very entrance, an oath, under the solemn 
 sanction of religion, that they would not 
 betray the rites to profane ears." And 
 hence, as Warburton says from Horus 
 Apollo, the Egyptian hieroglyphic for the 
 mysteries was a grasshopper, because that 
 insect was supposed to have no mouth. 
 
 The ceremonies were all of a funereal 
 character. Commencing in representations 
 of a lugubrious description, they celebrated 
 the legend of the death and burial of some 
 mythical being who was the especial ob- 
 ject of their love and adoration. But these 
 rites, thus beginning in lamentation, and 
 typical of death, always ended in joy. The 
 object of their sorrow was restored to life 
 and immortality, and the latter part of the 
 ceremonial was descriptive of his resurrec- 
 tion. Hence, the great doctrines of the 
 mysteries were the immortality of the soul 
 and the existence of a God. 
 
 Such, then, is the theory on the subject 
 of what is called "Spurious Freemasonry," 
 as taught by Oliver and the disciples of his 
 school. Primitive Freemasonry consisted 
 of that traditional knowledge and symbolic 
 instruction which had been handed down 
 from Adam, through Enoch, Noah, and the 
 rest of the patriarchs, to the time of Solo- 
 mon. Spurious Freemasonry consisted of 
 the doctrines and initiations practised at 
 first by the antediluvian descendants of 
 Cain, and, after the dispersion at Babel, by 
 the Pagan priests and philosophers in their 
 " Mysteries." 
 
 Spurs. In the Orders of Chivalry, the 
 spurs had a symbolic meaning as im- 
 portant as their practical use was neces- 
 sary. "To win one's spurs" was a phrase 
 which meant " to win one's right to the 
 dignity of knighthood." Hence, in the in- 
 vestiture of a knight, he was told that the 
 spurs were a symbol of promptitude in 
 military service ; and in the degradation of 
 an unfaithful knight, his spurs were hacked 
 off by the cook, to show his utter unwor- 
 thiness to wear them. Stowe says, (An- 
 nuls, 902,) in describing the ceremony of 
 
SQUARE 
 
 SQUARE 
 
 735 
 
 investing knights : " Evening prayer being 
 ended, there stood at the chapel-door the 
 king's master-cook, with his white apron 
 and sleeves, andchopping-knifeinhis hand, 
 gilded about the edge, and challenged their 
 spurs, which they redeemed with a noble a 
 piece ; and he said to every knight, as they 
 passed by him : ' Sir Knight, look that you 
 be true and loyal to the king, my master, 
 or else I must hew these spurs from your 
 heels.' " In the Masonic Orders of Chival- 
 ry, the symbolism of the spurs has unfortu- 
 nately been omitted. 
 
 Square. This is one of the most im- 
 portant and significant symbols in Free- 
 masonry. As such, it is proper that its true 
 form should be pre- 
 served. The French 
 Masons have almost 
 universally given it 
 with one leg longer 
 than the other, thus 
 making it a carpen- 
 ter's square. The 
 American Masons, 
 following the incor- 
 rect delineations of Jeremy L. Cross, have, 
 while generally preserving the equality of 
 length in the legs, unnecessarily marked its 
 surface with inches ; thus making it an in- 
 strument for measuring length and breadth, 
 which it is not. It is simply the trying 
 square of a stonemason, and has a plain 
 surface; the sides or legs embracing an an- 
 gle of ninety degrees, and is intended only 
 to test the accuracy of the sides of a stone, 
 and to see that its edges subtend the same 
 angle. 
 
 In Freemasonry, it is a symbol of moral- 
 ity. This is its general signification, and 
 is applied in various ways : 1. It presents 
 itself to the neophyte as one of the three 
 great lights ; 2. To the Fellow Craft as one 
 of his working-tools; 3. To the Master 
 Mason as the official emblem of the Master 
 of the Lodge. Everywhere, however, it 
 inculcates the same lesson of morality, of 
 truthfulness, of honesty. So universally 
 accepted is this symbolism, that it has 
 gone outside of the Order, and has been 
 found in colloquial language communi- 
 cating the same idea. Square, says Halli- 
 well, {Diet. Archaisms,) means honest, 
 equitable, as in "square dealing." To 
 play upon the square is proverbial for to play 
 honestly. In this sense the word is found 
 in the old writers. 
 
 As a Masonic symbol, it is of very an- 
 cient date, and was familiar to the Oper- 
 ative Masons. In the year 1830, the 
 architect, in rebuilding a very ancient 
 bridge called Baal bridge, near Limerick, 
 in Ireland, found under the foundation- 
 
 stone an old brass square, much eaten away, 
 containing on its two surfaces the following 
 inscription : I.WILL. STRIUE. TO. LIUE. 
 — WITH. LOUE. & CARE. — UPON. 
 THE. LEUL.— BY. THE. SQUARE., and 
 the date 1517. The modern Speculative 
 Mason will recognize the idea of living on 
 the level and by the square. This discovery 
 proves, if proof were necessary, that the 
 familiar idea was borrowed from our Oper- 
 ative brethren of former days. 
 
 The square, as a symbol in Speculative 
 Masonry, has therefore presented itself 
 from the very beginning of the revival pe- 
 riod. In the very earliest catechism of the 
 last century, of the date of 1725, we find the 
 answer to the question, " How many make 
 a Lodge?" is ''God and the Square, with 
 five or seven right or perfect Masons." 
 God and the Square, religion and moral- 
 ity, must be present in every Lodge as 
 governing principles. Signs at that early 
 period were to be made by squares, and the 
 furniture of the Lodge was declared to be 
 the Bible, Compass, and Square. 
 
 In all rites and in all languages where 
 Masonry has penetrated, the square has 
 preserved its primitive signification as a 
 symbol of morality. 
 
 Square and Compass. These two 
 symbols have been so long and so universally 
 combined, — to teach 
 us, as says an early 
 ritual, " to square our 
 actions and to keep 
 them within due 
 bounds," they are so 
 seldom seen apart, 
 but are so kept to- 
 gether, either as two great lights, or as a 
 jewel worn once by the Master of the 
 Lodge, now by the Past Master, — that 
 they have come at last to be recognized 
 as the proper badge of a Master Mason, 
 just as the triple tau is of a Royal Arch 
 Mason or the passion cross of a Knight 
 Templar. 
 
 So universally has this symbol been 
 recognized, even by the profane world, as 
 the peculiar characteristic of Freemasonry, 
 that it has recently been made in the 
 United States the subject of a legal deci- 
 sion. A manufacturer of flour having 
 made, in 1873, an application to the Patent- 
 Office for permission to adopt the square 
 and compass as a trade-mark, the Commis- 
 sioner of Patents refused the permission 
 on the ground that tli£ mark was a Ma- 
 sonic symbol. 
 
 "If this emblem," said Mr. J. M. 
 Thacher, the Commissioner, " were some- 
 thing other than precisely what it is — 
 either less known, less significant, or fully 
 
736 
 
 SQUARE 
 
 SQUIN 
 
 and universally understood — all this might 
 readily be admitted. But, considering its pe- 
 culiar character and relation to the public, 
 an anomalous question is presented. There 
 can be no doubt that this device, so com- 
 monly worn and employed by Masons, has 
 an established mystic significance, univer- 
 sally recognized as existing ; whether com- 
 prehended by all or not, is not material to 
 this issue. In view of the magnitude and 
 extent of the Masonic organization, it is 
 impossible to divest its symbols, or at least 
 this particular symbol — perhaps the best 
 known of all — of its ordinary significa- 
 tion, wherever displayed, either as an arbi- 
 trary character or otherwise. It will be 
 universally understood, or misunderstood, 
 as having a Masonic significance; and, 
 therefore, as a trade-mark, must constantly 
 work deception. Nothing could be more 
 mischievous than to create as a monopoly, 
 and uphold by the power of law, anything 
 so calculated, as applied to purposes of 
 trade, to be misinterpreted, to mislead all 
 classes, and to constantly foster sugges- 
 tions of mystery in affairs of business." 
 
 In a religious work by John Davies, en- 
 titled Summa Totalis, or All in All and the 
 Same Forever, printed in 1607, we find an 
 allusion to the square and compass by a 
 profane in a really Masonic sense. The 
 author, who proposes to describe mystically 
 the form of the Deity, says in his dedica- 
 tion: 
 
 " Yet I this forme of formelesse Deity, 
 Drewe by the Squire and Compasse of our 
 Creed.'' 
 
 In Masonic symbolism the Square and 
 Compass refer to the Mason's duty to the 
 Craft and to himself; hence it is properly a 
 symbol of brotherhood, and there signifi- 
 cantly adopted as the badge or token of the 
 Fraternity. 
 
 Berage, in his work on the high degrees, 
 (Let plus secrets Mysteres des Hants Grades,)* 
 gives an interpretation to the symbol 
 which I have nowhere else seen. He says : 
 "The square and the compass represent 
 the union of the Old and New Testaments. 
 None of the high degrees recognize this in- 
 terpretation, although their symbolism of 
 the two implements differs somewhat from 
 that of symbolic Masonry. The square is 
 with them peculiarly appropriated to the 
 lower degrees, as founded on the operative 
 art; while the compass, as an implement of 
 higher character and uses, is attributed to 
 the degrees, which claim to have a more 
 elevated and philosophical foundation. 
 Thus they speak of the initiate, when he 
 passes from the blue Lodge to the Lodge 
 of Perfection, as ' passing from the square 
 to the compass,' to indicate a progressive 
 
 elevation in his studies. Yet even in the 
 high degrees, the square and compass com- 
 bined retain their primitive signification 
 as a symbol of brotherhood and as a badge 
 of the Order." 
 
 Squin de Flexian. A recreant 
 Templar, to whom, with Noffodei and, as 
 some say, another unknown person, is at- 
 tributed the invention of the false accusa- 
 tions upon which were based the persecu- 
 tions and the downfall of the Order of 
 Knights Templars. He was a native of 
 the city of Beziers, in the south of France, 
 and having been received as a Knight 
 Templar, had made so much proficiency in 
 the Order as to have been appointed to the 
 head of the Priory of Montfaucon. Reg- 
 hellini states that both Squin de Flexian 
 and Noffodei were Templars, and held the 
 rank of Commanders; but Dupuy (Con- 
 demnation des Templiers) denies that the 
 latter was a Templar. He says : " All his- 
 torians agree that the origin of the ruin of 
 the Templars was the work of the Prior of 
 Montfaucon and of Noffodei, a Florentine, 
 banished from his country, and whom no- 
 body believes to have been a Templar. 
 This Prior, by the sentence of the Grand 
 Master, had been condemned, for heresy 
 and for having led an infamous life, to pass 
 the remainder of his days in a prison. The 
 other is reported to have been condemned 
 to rigorous penalties by the provost of 
 Paris." 
 
 Reghellini's account (La Maconnerie con- 
 sideree, etc., I., p. 451,) is more circumstan- 
 tial. He says: "In 1506, two Knights 
 Templars, Noffodei and Florian, were pun- 
 ished for crimes, and lost their Comman- 
 deries, that of the latter being Montfaucon. 
 They petitioned the Provincial Grand 
 Master of Mount Carmel for a restoration 
 to their offices, but met with a refusal. 
 They then obtained an entrance into the 
 Provincial Grand Master's country-house, 
 near Milan, and having assassinated him, 
 concealed the body in the woods under 
 some thick shrubbery ; after which they 
 fled to Paris. There they obtained access 
 to the king, and thus furnished Philip with 
 an occasion for executing his projects, by 
 denouncing the Order and exposing to him 
 the immense wealth which it possessed. 
 
 " They proposed the abolition of the 
 Order, and promised the king, for a reward, 
 to be its denouncers. The king accepted 
 their proposition, and, assuring them of his 
 protection, pointed out to them the course 
 which they were to pursue. 
 
 " They associated with themselves a third 
 individual, called by historians 'the Un- 
 known,' (rinconnu;) and Noffodei and Flo- 
 rian sent a memorial to Enguerand de Ma- 
 rigni, Superintendent of the Finances, in 
 
SQUIN 
 
 STAFF 
 
 737 
 
 which they proposed, if he would guaran- 
 tee them against the attacks of the Order of 
 Templars, and grant them civil existence 
 and rights, to discover to the king secrets 
 which they deemed of more value than the 
 conquest of an empire. 
 
 " As a sequel to this first declaration, 
 they addressed to the king an accusation, 
 which was the same as he had himself dic- 
 tated to them for the purpose of the turn 
 which he desired to the affair. This accusa- 
 tion contained the following charges : 
 
 "1. That the Order of Templars was the 
 foe of all kings and all sovereign authority ; 
 that it communicated secrets to its initiates 
 under horrible oaths, with the criminal 
 condition of the penalty of death if they 
 divulged them ; and that the secret prac- 
 tices of their initiations were the conse- 
 quences of irreligion, atheism, and rebel- 
 lion. 
 
 " 2. That the Order had betrayed the re- 
 ligion of Christ, by communicating to the 
 Sultan of Babylon all the plans and opera- 
 tions of the Emperor Frederick the Second, 
 whereby the designs of the Crusaders for 
 the recovery of the Holy Land were frus- 
 trated. 
 
 " 3. That the Order prostituted the mys- 
 teries most venerated by Christians, by 
 making a Knight, when he was received, 
 trample upon the Cross, the sign of redemp- 
 tion; and abjured the Christian religion by 
 making the neophyte declare that the true 
 God had never died, and never could die ; 
 that they carried about them and wor- 
 shipped a little idol called Bafomet; and 
 that after his initiation the neophyte was 
 compelled to undergo certain obscene prac- 
 tices. 
 
 "4. That when a Knight was received, 
 the Order bound him by an oath to a com- 
 plete and blind obedience to the Grand 
 Master, which was a proof of rebellion 
 against the legitimate authority. 
 
 " 5. That Good Friday was the day se- 
 lected for the grand orgies of the Order. 
 
 " 6. That they were guilty of unnatural 
 crimes. 
 
 "7. That they burned the children of 
 their concubines, so as to destroy all traces 
 of their debauchery." 
 
 These calumnies formed the basis of the 
 longer catalogue of accusations, afterwards 
 presented by the pope, upon which the 
 Templars were finally tried and condemned. 
 
 In the preliminary examinations of the 
 accused, Squin de Flexian took an active 
 part as one of the commissioners. In the 
 pleadings for their defence presented by 
 the Knights, they declare that " Knights 
 were tortured by Flexian de Beziers, prior 
 of Montfaucon, and by the monk, William 
 Robert, and that already thirty-six had 
 4S 47 
 
 died of the tortures inflicted at Paris, and 
 several others in other places." 
 
 Of the ultimate fate of these traitors 
 nothing is really known. When the in- 
 famous work which they had inaugurated 
 had been consummated by the king and 
 the pope, as their services were no longer 
 needed, they sank into merited oblivion. 
 The author of the Secret Societies of the 
 Middle Ages, (p. 268,) says: "Squin was 
 afterwards hanged, and Noffodei beheaded^ 
 as was said, with little probability, by the 
 Templars." 
 
 Hardly had the Templars, in their pros- 
 trate condition, the power, even if they had 
 the will, to inflict such punishment. It 
 was not Squin, but Marigni, his abettor, 
 who was hanged at Montfaucon, by order 
 of Louis X., the successor of Philip, two 
 years after his persecution of the Templars. 
 The revenge they took was of a symbolic 
 character. In the change of the legend of 
 the third degree into that of the Templar 
 system, when the martyred James de Molay 
 was substituted for Hiram Abif,the three as- 
 sassins were represented by Squin de Flex- 
 ian, Noffodei, and the Unknown. As there 
 is really no reference in the historical rec- 
 ords of the persecution to this third ac- 
 cuser, it is most probable that he is alto- 
 gether a mythical personage, invented 
 merely to complete the triad of assassins, 
 and to preserve the congruity of the Templar 
 with the Masonic legend. 
 
 The name of Squin de Flexian, as well 
 as that of Noffodei, have been differently 
 spelled by various writers, to say nothing 
 of the incomprehensible error found in 
 some of the oldest French Cahiers of the 
 Kadosh, such as that of De la Hogue, where 
 the two traitors are named Gerard Tab6 
 and Benoit Mehui. The Processus contra 
 Templarios calls him Esquius de Flexian 
 de Biteriis; and Raynouard always names 
 him Squin de Florian, in which he is 
 blindly followed by Reghellini, Ragon, and 
 Thory. But the weight of authority is in 
 favor of Squin de Flexian, which I have ac- 
 cordingly adopted as the true name of this 
 Judas of the Templars. 
 
 Staff. A white staff is the proper in- 
 signia of a Treasurer. In the first proces- 
 sion after the appointment of that offi- 
 cer by the Grand Lodge of England, we 
 find " the Grand Treasurer with the Staff." 
 In this country the use of the staff by the 
 Treasurer of a Lodge has been discontinued. 
 It was derived from the old custom for the 
 treasurer of the king's household to carry 
 a staff as the ensign of authority. In the 
 old "Customary Books" we are told that 
 the Steward or Treasurer of the household 
 — for the offices were formerly identical — 
 received the office from the king himself by 
 
738 
 
 STAIRS 
 
 STARCK 
 
 the presentation of a staff in these words : 
 Tennez le boston de nostre maison, " Receive 
 the staff of our house." Hence the Grand 
 Lodge of England decreed, June 24, 1741, 
 that "in the procession in the hall" the 
 Grand Treasurer should appear " with the 
 staff." 
 
 Stairs, Winding. See Winding Stairs. 
 
 (Standard. An ensign in war, being 
 that under which the soldiers stand or to 
 which they rally in the fight. It is some- 
 times used in the higher degrees, in connec- 
 tion with the word Bearer, to denote a 
 particular officer. But the term mostly 
 used to indicate any one of the ensigns of 
 the different degrees of Masonry is Banner. 
 
 The Grand standard of the Order of 
 Knights Templars in the United States is 
 described in the regulations as being " of 
 white woollen or silk stuff, six feet in height 
 and five feet in width, made tripartite at the 
 bottom, fastened at the top to the cross-bar 
 by nine rings ; in the centre of the field a 
 blood-red passion cross, over which the 
 motto, In hoc Signo Vinces, and under, Non 
 Nobis, Domine ! non Nobis sed Nomini tuo da 
 Gforiam ! The cross to be four feet high, 
 and the upright and bar to be seven inches 
 wide. On the top of the staff a gilded 
 globe or ball four inches in diameter, sur- 
 mounted by the patriarchal cross, twelve 
 inches in height. The cross to be crimson, 
 edged with gold." 
 
 The standard of the Order in the An- 
 cient and Accepted Scottish Rite is thus 
 described in the Fundamental Statutes. It 
 is white with a gold fringe, bearing in the 
 centre a black double-headed eagle with 
 wings displayed ; the beaks and thighs are 
 of gold ; it holds in one talon the golden 
 hilt and in the other the silver blade of an 
 antique sword, placed horizontally from 
 right to left; to the sword is suspended the 
 Latin device, in letters of gold, Deus me- 
 umque Jus. The eagle is crowned with a 
 triangle of gold, and holds a purple band 
 fringed with gold and strewn with golden 
 stars. 
 
 There is really no standard of the Order 
 properly belonging to Symbolic or Royal 
 Arch Masonry. Many Grand Chapters, 
 however, and some Grand Lodges in this 
 country, have adopted for a standard the 
 blazonment of the arms of Masonry first 
 made by Dermott for the Athol Grand 
 Lodge of Masons. In the present condi- 
 tion of the ritual, occasioned by the dissev- 
 erance of the Royal Arch degree from the 
 Master's, and its organization as a distinct 
 system, this standard, if adopted at all, 
 would be most appropriate to the Grand 
 Chapters, since its charges consist of sym- 
 bols no longer referred to in the ritual of 
 Symbolic Masonry. 
 
 Standard-Bearer. An officer in a 
 Commandery of Knights Templars, whose 
 duty it is to carry and protect the standard 
 of the Order. A similar officer exists in 
 several of the high degrees. 
 
 Stand to and Abide by. The cov- 
 enant of Masonry requires every Mason 
 " to stand to and abide by " the laws and 
 regulations of the Order, whether expressed 
 in the edicts of the Grand Lodge, the by- 
 laws of his Lodge, or the landmarks of the 
 Institution. The terms are not precisely 
 synonymous, although generally considered 
 to be so. To stand to has a somewhat active 
 meaning, and signifies to maintain and de- 
 fend the laws ; while to abide by is more pas- 
 sive in meaning, and signifies to submit to 
 the award made by such laws. 
 
 Star. In the French and Scottish 
 Rites lighted candles or torches are called 
 stars when used in some of the ceremo- 
 nies, especially in the reception of distin- 
 guished visitors, where the number of 
 lights or stars with which the visitor is 
 received is proportioned to his rank ; but 
 the number is always odd, being 3, 5, 7, 9, 
 or 11. 
 
 Star, Blazing. See Blazing Star. 
 
 Star, Eastern. See Eastern Star. 
 
 Star, Five - Pointed. See Five- 
 Pointed Star. 
 
 Star in tbe East. The Blazing Star 
 is thus called by those who entertain the 
 theory that there is "an intimate and 
 necessary connection between Masonry and 
 Christianity." This doctrine, which Dr. 
 Oliver thinks is "the fairest gem that 
 Masonry can boast," is defended by him in 
 his early work entitled The Star in the Fast. 
 The whole subject is discussed in the 
 article Blazing Star, which see. 
 
 Star of Jerusalem. A degree cited 
 in the nomenclature of Fustier. 
 
 Star of tbe Syrian Knights. 
 (Ftoile des Chevaliers Syriens.) The Order 
 of Syrian Knights of the Star is contained 
 in the collection of Pyron. It is divided 
 into three degrees — Novice, Professed, and 
 Grand Patriarch. 
 
 Starck, Johann August Ton. 
 Von Starck, whose life is closely connected 
 with the history of German Freemasonry, 
 and especially with that of the Rite of 
 Strict Observance, was born at Schwerin, 
 October 29, 1741. He studied at the Uni- 
 versity of Gottingen, and was made in 1761 
 a Freemason in a French Military Lodge. 
 In 1763 he went to St. Petersburg, where 
 he received the appointment of teacher in 
 one of the public schools. There, too, it 
 is supposed that he was adopted into the 
 Rite of Melesino, then flourishing in the 
 Russian capital, and became first acquainted 
 with the Rite of Strict Observance, in which 
 
STARCK 
 
 STARCK 
 
 739 
 
 he afterwards played so important a part. 
 After two years' residence at St. Petersburg, 
 he went for a short time to England, and 
 was in August, 1766, in Paris. In 1767 he 
 was director of the schools at Wismar, 
 where he was Junior Warden of the Lodge 
 of the Three Lions. In 1770 he was called 
 to Konigsberg, to occupy the chair of the- 
 ology, and to fill the post of court chaplain. 
 The following year he resigned both offices, 
 and retired to Mettau, to devote himself 
 to literary and philosophical pursuits. But 
 in 1781 the court at Darmstadt conferred 
 upon him the posts of chief preacher and 
 the first place in the consistory, and there 
 he remained until his death, which occurred 
 March 3, 1816. 
 
 The knowledge that Starck acquired of 
 the Rite of Strict Observance convinced 
 him of its innate weakness, and of the ne- 
 cessity of some reformation. He therefore 
 was led to the idea of reviving the spiritual 
 branch of the Order, a project which he 
 sought to carry into effect, at first quietly 
 and secretly, by gaining over influential 
 Masons to his views. In this he so far suc- 
 ceeded as to be enabled to establish, in 1767, 
 the Tiew system of clerical Knights Tem- 
 plars, as a schism from the Strict Observ- 
 ance, and to which he gave the name of 
 Clerks of Relaxed Observance. It consisted 
 of seven degrees, as follows: 1. Apprentice; 
 2. Fellow; 3. Master; 4. Young Scottish 
 Master; 5. Old Scottish Master, or Knight 
 of St. Andrew ; 6. Provincial Chapter of 
 the Red Cross; 7. Magus, or Knight of 
 Brightness and Light ; which last degree 
 was divided into five classes, of Novice, 
 Levite, and Priest — the summit of the 
 Order being Knight Priest. Thus he em- 
 bodied the idea that Templarism was a 
 hierarchy, and that not only was every Ma- 
 son a Templar, but every true Templar was 
 both a Knight and a Priest. Starck, who was 
 originally a Protestant, had been secretly 
 connected with Romanism while in Paris ; 
 and he attempted surreptitiously to intro- 
 duce Roman Catholicism into his new sys- 
 tem. He professed that the Rite which he 
 was propagating was in possession of secrets 
 not known to the chivalric branch of the 
 Order ; and he demanded, as a prerequisite 
 to admission, that the candidate should be 
 a Roman Catholic, and have previously 
 received the degrees of Strict Observance. 
 
 Starck entered into a correspondence with 
 Von Hund, the head of the Rite of Strict 
 Observance, for the purpose of effecting a 
 fusion of the two branches — the chivalric 
 and the spiritual. But, notwithstanding 
 the willingness of Von Hund to accept any 
 league which promised to give renewed 
 strength to his own decaying system, the 
 fusion was never effected. It is true that 
 
 in 1768 there was a formal union of the two 
 branches at Wismar, but it was neither sin- 
 cere nor permanent. At the Congress of 
 Brunswick, in 1775, the clerical branch se- 
 ceded and formed an independent Order; 
 and, after the death of Von Hund, the 
 Lodges of the Strict Observance abandoned 
 their name, and called themselves the 
 United German Lodges. The spiritual 
 branch, too, soon began to lose favor with 
 the German Freemasons, partly because 
 the Swedish system was getting to be popu- 
 lar in Germany, and partly because Starck 
 was suspected of being in league with the 
 Catholics, for whose sake he had invented 
 his system. Documentary evidence has 
 since proved that this suspicion was well 
 founded. Ragon says that the Order con- 
 tinued in successful existence until the 
 year 1800 ; but I doubt if it lasted so long. 
 
 The German writers have not hesitated 
 to accuse Starck of having been an emissary 
 of the Jesuits, and of having instituted his 
 Rite in the interests of Jesuitism. This, 
 of course, rendered both him and the Rite 
 unpopular, and gave an impetus to its de- 
 cay and fall. Starck himself, even before 
 his appointment as court chaplain at Darm- 
 stadt, in 1781, had, by his own confession, 
 not only abandoned the Rite, but all inter- 
 est in Freemasonry. In 1785 he wrote his 
 Saint Nicaise, which was really anti-Ma- 
 sonic in principle, and in 1787 he published 
 his work Ueber Kripto-Catholicesmus, etc., 
 or A Treatise on Secret Catholicism, on Prose- 
 lyte Making, on Jesuitism, and on Secret So- 
 cieties, which was a controversial work di- 
 rected against Nicolai, Gadicke, and Biester. 
 In this book be says: " It is true that in my 
 youthful days I was a Freemason. It is 
 also true that when the so-called Strict Ob- 
 servance was introduced into Masonry I 
 belonged to it, and was, like others, an 
 Eques, Socius, Armiger, Commendator, Pre- 
 fect, and Sub-Prior; and, having taken 
 some formal cloister-like profession, I have 
 been a Clericus. But I have withdrawn 
 from all that, and all that is called Free- 
 masonry, for more than nine years." 
 
 While an active member or the Masonic 
 Order, whatever may have been his secret 
 motives, he wrote many valuable Masonic 
 works, which produced at the time of their 
 appearance a great sensation in Germany. 
 Such were his Apology for the Order of 
 Freemasonry, Berlin, 1778, which went 
 through many editions ; On the Design of 
 the Order of Freemasonry, Berlin, 1781 ; 
 and On the Ancient and Modern Mysteries, 
 1782. He was distinguished as a man of 
 letters and as a learned theologian, and has 
 left numerous works on general literature 
 and on religion, the latter class showing an 
 evident leaning towards the Roman Catho- 
 
740 
 
 STARE 
 
 STATISTICS 
 
 lie faith, of which he was evidently a par- 
 tisan. ''There is," says Feller, {Biog. 
 Univ.,) "in the life of Starck something 
 singular, that has never been made public." 
 I think the verdict is now well established, 
 that in his labors for the apparent reforma- 
 tion of Freemasonry there was a deplorable 
 want of honesty and sincerity, and that he 
 abandoned the Order finally because his 
 schemes of ambition failed, and the Jesuiti- 
 cal designs with which he entered it were 
 frustrated. 
 
 Stare Super Via* Antiquas. (7b 
 stand on the old paths.) A Latin adage, ap- 
 propriately applied as a Masonic motto to 
 inculcate the duty of adhering to the an- 
 cient landmarks. 
 
 State. The political divisions of the 
 United States are called States and Terri- 
 tories. In every State and in every popu- 
 lous Territory there is a Grand Lodge and 
 a Grand Chapter, each of which exercises 
 exclusive jurisdiction over all the Lodges 
 and Chapters within its political bounda- 
 ries ; nor does it permit the introduction 
 of any other Grand Lodge or Grand Chap- 
 ter within its limits; so that there is, and 
 can be, but one Grand Lodge and one 
 Grand Chapter in each State. In most of 
 the States there are also a Grand Council 
 of Royal and Select Masters, and a Grand 
 Commandery of Knights Templars, which 
 claim the same right of exclusive jurisdic- 
 tion. See Jurisdiction of a Grand Lodge. 
 
 Stations. The positions occupied by 
 the subordinate officers of a Lodge are 
 called places, as " the Junior Deacon's 
 place in the Lodge." But the positions oc- 
 cupied by the Master and Wardens are 
 called stations, as " the Senior Warden's 
 station in the Lodge." This is because 
 these three officers, representing the sun in 
 his three prominent points of rising, cul- 
 minating, and setting, are supposed to be 
 stationary, and therefore remain in the spot 
 appropriated to them by the ritual, while 
 the Deacon and other officers are required 
 to move about from place to place in the 
 Lodge. 
 
 Statistics of Freemasonry. The 
 assertion that " in every land a Mason may 
 find a home, and in every clime a brother," 
 is well sustained by the statistics of the 
 Order, which show that, wherever civilized 
 men have left their footprints, its temples 
 have been established. It is impossible to 
 venture on anything more than a mere 
 approximation to the number of Freema- 
 sons scattered over the world ; but if we 
 are correct in believing that there are more 
 than 400,000 Masons in the United States 
 of America, any estimate that would place 
 the whole number of the Fraternity every- 
 where dispersed at less than a million and 
 
 a half would be a very low estimate. The 
 following is a table of the countries in 
 which Freemasonry is openly practised 
 with the permission of the public authori- 
 ties, omitting the States, now, by the 
 increasing spirit of tolerance, very few, in- 
 deed, where the suspicions of the govern- 
 ment compel the Masons, if they meet at 
 all, to meet in private : 
 
 I. Europe. 
 
 Anhalt-Bernburg, 
 
 Netherlands, 
 
 Anhalt-Dessau, 
 
 Norway, 
 
 Bavaria, 
 
 Portugal, 
 
 Belgium, 
 
 Posen, Duchy of, 
 
 Bremen, 
 
 Prussia, 
 
 Brunswick, 
 
 Prussian Poland, 
 
 Denmark, 
 
 Saxe, 
 
 England, 
 
 Saxe-Coburg, 
 
 France, 
 
 Saxe-Gotha, 
 
 Germany, 
 
 Saxe-Hildburg- 
 
 Greece, 
 
 hausen, 
 
 Hamburg, 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen, 
 
 Hanover, 
 
 Saxe-Weimar, 
 
 Hesse- Darmstadt, 
 
 Saxony, 
 
 Holland, 
 
 Schwarzburg- 
 
 Holstein- Oldenburg, 
 
 Rudolstadt, 
 
 Hungary, 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 Ionian Islands, 
 
 Spain, 
 
 Ireland, 
 
 Sweden, 
 
 Italy, 
 
 Switzerland, 
 
 Malta, 
 
 Wurtemberg. 
 
 Mecklenburg- 
 
 
 Schwerin, 
 
 
 II. Asia. 
 
 Ceylon, 
 
 Persia, 
 
 China, 
 
 Pondicherry, 
 
 India, 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Japan, 
 
 
 III. OCEANTCA. 
 
 New South Wales, 
 
 Java, 
 
 New Zealand, 
 
 Sumatra, 
 Sandwich Islands. 
 
 IV. Africa. 
 
 Algeria, Guinea, 
 
 Bourbon, Isle of, Mauritius, 
 
 Canary Islands, Mozambique, 
 
 Cape of Good Hope Senegarabia, 
 
 Egypt, St. Helena. 
 Goa, 
 
 V. America. 
 
 Antigua, 
 
 Argentine Republic, 
 
 Barbadoes, 
 
 Bermudas, 
 
 Brazil, 
 
 Canada, 
 
 Carthagena, 
 
 Chili, 
 
 Colombia, 
 
 Martinico, 
 
 Mexico, 
 
 New Brunswick, 
 
 New Grenada, 
 
 Nova Scotia, 
 
 Panama, 
 
 Peru, 
 
 Rio de la Plata, 
 
 St. Bartholomew's, 
 
STATUTE 
 
 ST. CLAIR 
 
 741 
 
 St. Christopher's, 
 Curacoa, 
 Dominica, 
 Dutch Guiana, 
 English Guiana, 
 French Guiana, 
 Guadeloupe, 
 Hayti, 
 Jamaica, 
 
 St. Croix, 
 St. Eustatia, 
 St. Martin, 
 St. Thomas, 
 St. Vincent, 
 Trinidad, 
 United States, 
 Uruguay, 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Statute of Henry VI. See La- 
 borers, Statute of. 
 
 Statutes. The permanent rules by 
 which a subordinate Lodge is governed are 
 called its By-Laws; the regulations of a 
 Grand Lodge are called its Constitution; 
 but the laws enacted for the government 
 of a Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite 
 are denominated Statutes. 
 
 St. Clair Charters. In the Advo- 
 cates' Library, of Edinburgh, is a manu- 
 script entitled "Hay's MSS.," which is, 
 says Lawrie, "a collection of several things 
 relating to the historical account of the 
 most famed families of Scotland. Done by 
 Richard Augustine Hay, Canon Regular 
 of Sainte Genevefs of Paris, Prior of Sainte 
 Pierremont, etc., Anno Domini 1706." 
 Among this collection are two manuscripts, 
 supposed to have been copied from the 
 originals by Canon Hay, and which are 
 known to Masonic scholars as the "St. 
 Clair Charters." These copies, which it 
 seems were alone known in the last cen- 
 tury, were first published by Lawrie, in his 
 History of Freemasonry, where they consti- 
 tute Appendixes I. and II. But it appears 
 that the originals have since been dis- 
 covered, and they have been republished 
 by Bro. W. J. Hughan, in his Unpublished 
 Records of the Craft, with the following 
 introductory account of them by Bro. D. 
 Murray Lyon : 
 
 "These MSS. were several years ago 
 accidentally discovered by David Laing, 
 Esq., of the Signet Library, who gave them 
 to the late Bro. Aytoun, Professor of Belles- 
 Lettres in the University of Edinburgh, in 
 exchange for some antique documents he 
 had. The Professor presented them to the 
 Grand Lodge of Scotland, in whose reposi- 
 tories they now are. There can be no 
 doubt of their identity as originals. We 
 have compared several of the signatures 
 with autographs in other MSS. of the time. 
 The charters are in scrolls of paper, — the 
 one 15 by 11$ inches, the other 26 by 11£ 
 inches, — and for their better preservation 
 have been affixed to cloth. The caligraphy 
 is beautiful ; and though the edges of the 
 paper have been frayed, and holes worn in 
 one or two places where the sheets had 
 been folded, there is no difficulty in sup- 
 
 f dying the few words that have been ob- 
 iterated, and making out the whole of the 
 
 text. About three inches in depth at the 
 bottom of No. 1, in the right hand corner, 
 is entirely wanting, which may have con- 
 tained some signatures in addition to those 
 given. The left hand bottom corner of No. 
 2 has been similarly torn away, and the 
 same remark with regard to signatures may 
 apply to it. The first document is a letter 
 of jurisdiction, granted by the Freemen 
 Masons of Scotland to William St. Clair 
 of Roslin, (probable date 1600-1.) The 
 second purports to have been granted by 
 the Freemen Masons and Hammermen of 
 Scotland to Sir William St. Clair of Roslin, 
 (probable date May 1, 1628.) " 
 
 However difficult it may be to decide as 
 to the precise date of these charters, there 
 are no Masonic manuscripts whose claim 
 to authenticity is more indisputable; for 
 the statements which they contain tally 
 not only with the uniformly accepted tra- 
 ditions of Scotch Masonry, but with the 
 written records of the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland, both of which show the intimate 
 connection that existed between the Free- 
 masonry of that kingdom and the once 
 powerful but now extinct family of St. 
 Clair. 
 
 St. Clair, William. The St. Clairs 
 of Roslin, or, as it is often spelled, of Ross- 
 lyn, held for more than three hundred years 
 an intimate connection with the history of 
 Masonry in Scotland. William St. Clair, 
 Earl of Orkney and Caithness, was, in 1441, 
 appointed by King James II. the Patron 
 and Protector of the Masons of Scotland, 
 and the office was made hereditary in his 
 family. Charles Mackie says of him, (Lond. 
 Freem., May, 1851, p. 166,) that "he was 
 considered one of the best and greatest 
 Masons of the age." He planned the con- 
 struction of a most magnificent collegiate 
 church at his palace of Roslin, of which, 
 however, only the chancel and part of the 
 transept were completed. To take part in 
 this design, he invited the most skilful 
 Masons from foreign countries; and in order 
 that they might be conveniently lodged 
 and carry on the work with ease and dis- 
 patch, he ordered them to erect the neigh- 
 boring town of Roslin, and gave to each 
 of the most worthy a house and lands. 
 After his death, which occurred about 
 1480, the office of hereditary Patron was 
 transmitted to his descendants, who, says 
 Lawrie, (Hist., p. 100,) "held their princi- 
 pal annual meetings at Kilwinning." 
 
 The prerogative of nominating the office- 
 bearers of the Craft, which had always 
 been exercised bv the kings of Scotland, 
 appears to have been neglected by James 
 VI. after his accession to the throne of 
 England. Hence the Masons, finding them- 
 selves embarrassed for want of a Protector, 
 
742 
 
 ST. CLAIR 
 
 ST. CLAIR 
 
 about the year 1600, (if that be the real 
 date of the first of the St. Clair Manu- 
 scripts,) appointed William St. Clair of 
 Roslin, for himself and his heirs, their 
 "patrons and judges." After presiding 
 over the Order for many years, says Law- 
 rie, William St. Clair went to Ireland, and 
 in 1630 a second Charter was issued, grant- 
 ing to his son, Sir William St. Clair, the 
 same power with which his father had been 
 invested. This Charter having been signed 
 by the Masters and Wardens of the princi- 
 pal Lodges of Scotland, Sir William St. 
 Clair assumed the active administration of 
 the affairs of the Craft, and appointed his 
 Deputies and Wardens, as had been cus- 
 tomary with his ancestors. For more than 
 a century after this renewal of the compact 
 between the Lairds of Roslin and the Ma- 
 sons of Scotland, the Craft continued to 
 flourish under the successive heads of the 
 family. 
 
 But in the year 1736, William St. Clair, 
 Esq., to whom the Hereditary Protectorship 
 had descended in due course of succession, 
 having no children of his own, became 
 anxious that the office of Grand Master 
 should not become vacant at his death. 
 Accordingly, he assembled the members of 
 the Lodges of Edinburgh and its vicinity, 
 and represented to them the good effects 
 that would accrue to them if they should 
 in future have at their head a Grand Master 
 of their own choice, and declared his inten- 
 tion to resign into the hands of the Craft 
 his hereditary right to the office. It was 
 agreed by the assembly that all the Lodges 
 of Scotland should be summoned to appear 
 by themselves, or proxies, on the approach- 
 ing St. Andrew's day, at Edinburgh, to 
 take the necessary steps for the election of 
 a Grand Master. 
 
 In compliance with the call, the repre- 
 sentatives of thirty-two Lodges met at 
 Edinburgh on the 30th of November, 1736, 
 when William St. Clair tendered the fol- 
 lowing resignation of his hereditary office : 
 
 " I, William St. Clair, Esq., of" Roslin, 
 taking into my consideration that the Ma- 
 sons in Scotland did, by several deeds, con- 
 stitute and appoint William and Sir Wil- 
 liam St. Clairs of Roslin, my ancestors and 
 their heirs, to be their patrons, protectors, 
 judges, or masters ; and that my holding 
 or claiming any such jurisdiction, right, or 
 privilege might be prejudicial to the Craft 
 and vocation of Masonry, whereof I am a 
 member ; and I, being desirous to advance 
 and promote the good and utility of the 
 said Craft of Masonry to the utmost of my 
 power, do therefore hereby, for me and my 
 heirs, renounce, quit-claim, overgive, and 
 discharge all right, claim, or pretence that 
 I, or my heirs, had, have, or any ways may 
 
 have, pretended to, or claim to be, patron, 
 protector, judge, or master of the Masons 
 in Scotland, in virtue of any deed or deeds 
 made and granted by the said Masons, or 
 of any grant or charter made by any of the 
 kings of Scotland to and in favor of the 
 said William and Sir William St. Clairs of 
 Roslin, my predecessors, or any other man- 
 ner or way whatsoever, for now and ever ; 
 and I bind and oblige me and my heirs to 
 warrant this present renunciation and dis- 
 charge at all hands. And I consent to the 
 registration hereof in the books of council 
 and session, or any other judges' books 
 competent therein to remain for preserva- 
 tion." And then follows the usual formal 
 and technical termination of a deed. 
 
 The deed of resignation having been ac- 
 cepted, the Grand Lodge proceeded to the 
 election of its office-bearers, when William 
 St. Clair, as was to be expected, was unan- 
 imously chosen as Grand Master ; an office 
 which, however, he held but for one year, 
 being succeeded in 1737 by the Earl of 
 Cromarty. He lived, however, more than 
 half a century afterwards, and died in 
 January, 1778, in the seventy-eighth year 
 of his age. 
 
 The Grand Lodge of Scotland was not 
 unmindful of his services to the Craft, and 
 on the announcement of his death a funeral 
 Lodge was convened, when four hundred 
 brethren, dressed in deep mourning, being 
 present, Sir William Forbes, who was then 
 the Grand Master, delivered an impressive 
 address, in the course of which he paid the 
 following tribute to the character of St. 
 Clair. After alluding to his voluntary resig- 
 nation of his high office for the good of 
 the Order, he added : " His zeal, however, 
 to promote the welfare of our society was 
 not confined to this single instance ; for he 
 continued almost to the very close of life, 
 on all occasions where his influence or his 
 example could prevail, to extend the spirit 
 of Masonry and to increase the number of 
 the brethren. ... To these more conspicu- 
 ous and public parts of his character I am 
 happy to be able to add, that he possessed 
 in an eminent degree the virtues of a benev- 
 olent and good heart — virtues which ought 
 ever to be the distinguishing marks of a 
 true brother." 
 
 Bro. Charles Mackie, in the London Free- 
 masons' Quarterly Review, (1831, p. 167,) 
 thus describes the last days of this ven- 
 erable patron of the Order. " William St. 
 Clair of Roslin, the last of that noble 
 family, was one of the most remarkable 
 personages of bis time ; although stripped 
 of his paternal title and possessions, he 
 walked abroad respected and reverenced. 
 He moved in the first society; and if he 
 | did not carry the purse, he was stamped 
 
STEINBACH 
 
 STIRLING 
 
 743 
 
 with the impress of nobility. He did not 
 require a cubit to be added to his stature, 
 for he was considered the stateliest man of 
 his age." 
 
 Steinbaeh, Erwin of. See Erwin 
 of Steinbach. 
 
 Steinmetz. German. A stonemason. 
 For an account of the German fraternity of 
 Steinmetzen, see Stonemasons of the Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 Step. The step can hardly be called a 
 mode of recognition, although Apuleius in- 
 forms us that there was a peculiar step in 
 the Osiriac initiation which was deemed a 
 sign. It is in Freemasonry rather an 
 esoteric usage of the ritual. The steps can 
 be traced back as far as to at least the 
 middle of the last century, in the rituals of 
 which they are fully described. The custom 
 of advancing in a peculiar manner and 
 form, to some sacred place or elevated per- 
 sonage, has been preserved in the customs 
 of all countries, especially among the 
 Orientalists, who resort even to prostrations 
 of the body when approaching the throne 
 of the sovereign or the holy part of a reli- 
 gious edifice. The steps of Masonry are 
 symbolic of respect and veneration for the 
 altar, whence Masonic light is to emanate. 
 
 In former times, and in some of the high 
 degrees, a bier or coffin was placed in front 
 of the altar, as a well-known symbol, and 
 in passing over this to reach 
 the altar, those various posi- 
 tions of the feet were neces- 
 sarily taken which constitute 
 the proper mode of advancing. 
 Respect was thus necessarily 
 paid to the memory of a 
 worthy artist as well as to the 
 holy altar. Lenning says of 
 the steps — which the German 
 Masons call die Schritte der 
 Aufzunehmenden, the steps of 
 the recipients, and the French, 
 les pas Mysterieux, the mys- 
 terious steps — that " every degree has a 
 different number, which are made in a dif- 
 ferent way, and have an allegorical mean- 
 ing." Of the "allegorical meaning" of 
 those in the third degree, I have spoken 
 above as explicitly as would be proper. 
 G'adicke says : " The three grand steps 
 symbolically lead from this life to the 
 source of all knowledge." 
 
 It must be evident to every Master Mason, 
 without further explanation, that the three 
 steps are taken from the place of darkness 
 to the place of light, either figuratively or 
 really over a coffin, the symbol of death, to 
 teach symbolically that the passage from 
 the darkness and ignorance of this life is 
 through death to the light and knowledge 
 of the eternal life. And this, from the 
 
 earliest times, was the true symbolism of 
 the step. 
 Steps on the Master's Carpet. 
 
 The three steps delineated on the Master's 
 carpet, as one of the symbols of the third 
 degree, refer to the three steps or stages of 
 human life — youth, manhood, and old age. 
 This symbol is one of the simplest forms 
 or modifications of the mystical ladder, 
 which pervades all the systems of initia- 
 tion ancient and modern. 
 
 Sterkin. One of the three Assassins, 
 according to the Hiramic legend of some 
 of the high degrees. Lenning says the 
 word means vengeance: I know not on what 
 authority. STR are the letters of the Chal- 
 daic verb to strike a blovi, and it may be that 
 the root of the name will be there found ; 
 but the Masonic corruptions of Hebrew 
 words often defy the rules of etymology. I 
 am much inclined to believe that this and 
 some kindred words are mere anagrams, or 
 corruptions introduced into the high de- 
 grees by the adherents of the Pretender, 
 who sought in this way to do honor to the 
 friends of the house of Stuart, or to cast 
 infamy on its enemies. See Romvel. 
 
 Stewards. Officers in a Symbolic 
 Lodge, whose appointment is generally 
 vested in the Junior Warden. Their duties 
 are, to assist in the collection of dues and 
 subscriptions ; to provide the necessary re- 
 freshments, and make a regular report to 
 the Treasurer; and generally to aid the 
 Deacons and other officers in the perform- 
 ance of their duties. They usually carry 
 white rods, and the jewel of their office is a 
 cornucopia, which is a symbol of plenty. 
 
 Stewards, Grand. See Grand 
 Stewards. 
 
 Stewards' Lodge. See Grand 
 Stewards' Lodge. 
 
 Stirling. A city in Scotland which 
 was the seat of a Lodge called the "Stirling 
 Ancient Lodge," which the author of the 
 introduction to the General Regulations of 
 the Supreme Grand Cliapter of Scotland says 
 conferred the degrees of Royal Arch, Red 
 Cross or Ark, the Sepulchre, Knight of 
 Malta, and Knight Templar until about the 
 beginning of the last century, when two 
 Lodges were formed — one for the cultiva- 
 tion of St. John's Masonry, which was the 
 old one, and a new one called the "Royal 
 Arch," for the high degrees; although it, 
 too, soon began to confer the first three 
 degrees. The "Ancient Lodge" joined 
 the Grand Lodge of Scotland at its forma- 
 tion in 1736, but the new Lodge remained 
 independent until 1759. 
 
 The same authority tells us that " in the 
 Stirling Ancient Lodge are still preserved 
 two old, rudely - engraved brass plates : 
 one of these relates to the first two degrees 
 
744 
 
 ST. LEGER 
 
 STONEMASONS 
 
 of Masonry; the other contains on the 
 one side certain emblems belonging to a 
 Master's Lodge, and on the reverse five 
 figures; the one at the top is called the 
 1 Redd Cross or Ark.' At the bottom is a 
 series of concentric arches, which might be 
 mistaken for a rainbow, were there not a 
 keystone on the summit, indicative of an 
 arch. The three other figures are inclosed 
 within a border; the upper is called the 
 * Sepulchre ;' the second, ' Knight of Malta;' 
 and the third, • Knight Templar.' The age 
 of these plates is unknown, but they can 
 scarcely be more modern than the begin- 
 ning or middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury." 
 
 So circumstantial a description, inserted, 
 too, in a book of official authority, would 
 naturally lead to the conclusion that these 
 plates must have been in existence in 1845, 
 when the description was written. If they 
 ever existed, they have now disappeared, nor 
 have any traces of them been discovered. 
 Bro. W. James Hughan, whose indefatiga- 
 ble labors have been rewarded with so 
 many valuable discoveries, has failed, in this 
 search, to find success. He says, (Lond. 
 Freemason,) "I spent some weeks, in odd 
 hours, looking up the question a few years 
 ago, and wrote officials in Edinburgh and 
 at Stirling, and also made special inquiries 
 at Stirling by kind co-operation of Ma- 
 sonic students who also investigated the 
 matter; but all our many attempts only 
 resulted in confirming what I was told at 
 the outset, viz., that ' No one knows aught 
 about them, either in Stirling or elsewhere. 
 The friends at Stirling say the plates were 
 sent to Edinburgh, and never returned, and 
 the Fraternity at Edinburgh declared they 
 were returned, and have since been lost.'" 
 
 St. Iieger. See Aldworth. 
 
 St. Martin. See Saint Martin. 
 
 Stockings. In the last century, when 
 knee-breeches constituted a portion of the 
 costume of gentlemen, Masons were re- 
 quired, by a ritual regulation, to wear white 
 stockings. The fashion having expired, the 
 regulation is no longer in force. 
 
 Stolkin. In the elu degrees this is the 
 name of one of those appointed to search for 
 the criminals commemorated in the legend 
 of the third degree. It is impossible to trace 
 its derivation to any Hebrew root. It may 
 be an anagram of a name, perhaps that of 
 one of the friends of the house of Stuart. 
 
 Stone. The stone, on account of its 
 hardness, has been from the most ancient 
 times a symbol of strength, fortitude, 
 and a firm foundation. The Hebrew word 
 }3X, EBEN, which signifies a stone, is de- 
 rived, by Gesenius, from an obsolete root, 
 ABAN, to build, whence aban, an architect ; 
 and he refers it to AMAN AH, which means 
 
 a column, a covenant, and truth. The stone, 
 therefore, says Portal, {Symb. des Egypt.,) 
 may be considered as the symbol of faith 
 and truth : whence Christ taught the very 
 principle of symbology, when he called 
 Peter, who represented faith, the rock or 
 stone on which he would build his Church. 
 But in Hebrew as well as in Egyptian sym- 
 bology the stone was also sometimes the 
 symbol of falsehood. Thus the name of 
 Typhon, the principle of evil in the Egyp- 
 tian theogony, was always written in the 
 hieroglyphic characters with the determi- 
 native sign for a stone. But the stone of 
 Typhon was a hewn stone, which had the 
 same evil signification in Hebrew. Hence 
 Jehovah says in Exodus, " Thou shalt not 
 build me an altar of hewn stone;" and 
 Joshua built, in Mount Ebal, " an altar of 
 whole stones, over which no man hath lift 
 up any iron." The hewn stone was there- 
 fore a symbol of evil and falsehood; the 
 unhewn stone of good and truth. This must 
 satisfy us that the Masonic symbolism of 
 the stone, which is the converse of this, has 
 not been derived from either the Hebrew 
 or the Egyptian symbology, but sprang 
 from the architectural ideas of the Opera- 
 tive Masons; for in Masonry the rough 
 ashlar, or unhewn stone, is the symbol of 
 man's evil and corrupt condition ; while the 
 
 erfect ashlar, or the hewn stone, is the sym- 
 ol of his improved and perfected nature. 
 
 Stone, Corner. See Corner-Stone. 
 
 Stone, Cubical. See Cubical Stone. 
 
 Stone Manuscript. This Manu- 
 script is no longer in existence, having been 
 one of those which was destroyed, in 1720, 
 by some too scrupulous brethren. Preston 
 (ed. 1755, p. 190,) describes it as " an old 
 manuscript, which was destroyed with 
 many others in 1720, said to have been in 
 the possession of Nicholas Stone, a curious 
 sculptor under Inigo Jones." Preston gives, 
 however, an extract from it, which details 
 the affection borne by St. Alban for the 
 Masons, the wages he gave them, and the 
 charter which he obtained from the king 
 to hold a general assembly. (See Saint 
 Alban.) Anderson, (2d ed., p. 99,) who calls 
 Stone the Warden of Inigo Jones, intimates 
 that he wrote the Manuscript, and gives it 
 as authority for a statement that in 1607 
 Jones held the Quarterly Communications. 
 The extract made by Preston, and the brief 
 reference by Anderson, are all that is left 
 of the Stone Manuscript. 
 
 Stonemasons of the Middle 
 Ages. The history of the origin and pro- 
 gress of the Brotherhood of Stonemasons 
 in Europe, during the Middle Ages, is of 
 great importance, as a study, to the Masonic 
 scholar, because of the intimate connection 
 that existed between that Brotherhood and 
 
 £ 
 
STONEMASONS 
 
 STONEMASONS 
 
 745 
 
 the Fraternity of Freemasons. Indeed, the 
 history of the one is but the introduction 
 to the history of the other. In an histor- 
 ical excursus, we are compelled to take up 
 the speculative science where we find it 
 left by the operative art. Hence, whoever 
 shall undertake to write a history of Free- 
 masonry, must give, for the completion of 
 his labor, a very full consideration to the 
 Brotherhood of Stonemasons. 
 In the year 1820, there issued from the 
 
 Eress of Leipsic, in Germany, a work, by 
 >r. Christian Ludwig Steiglitz, under the 
 title of Von Altdeuhcher Baukumt, that is, 
 " An Essay on the Old German Architec- 
 ture." In this work the author traces, with 
 great exactness, the rise and the progress 
 of the fraternities of Stonemasons from 
 the earliest times, through the Middle 
 Ages, until their final absorption into the 
 associations of Freemasons. From the 
 labors of Dr. Steiglitz, collated with some 
 other authorities in respect to matters upon 
 which he is either silent or erroneous, I 
 have compiled the following sketch. 
 
 It is universally admitted that, in the 
 early ages of Christianity, the clergy alone 
 were the patrons of the arts and sciences. 
 This was because all learning was then al- 
 most exclusively confined to ecclesiastics. 
 Very few of the laity could read or write, 
 and even kings affixed the sign of the cross, 
 in the place of their signatures, to the 
 charters and other documents which they 
 issued, because, as they frankly confessed, 
 of their inability to write their names ; and 
 hence comes the modern expression of sign- 
 ing a paper, as equivalent to subscribing 
 the name. 
 
 From the time of Charlemagne, in the 
 eighth century, to the middle of the twelfth, 
 all knowledge and practice of architecture, 
 painting, and sculpture were exclusively 
 confined to the monks ; and bishops person- 
 ally superintended the erection of the 
 churches and cathedrals in their dioceses, 
 because not only the principles, but the 
 practice of the art of building were secrets 
 scrupulously maintained within the walls 
 of cloisters, and utterly unkuown to lay- 
 men. 
 
 Many of the founders of the Monastic 
 Orders, and especially among these St. 
 Benedict, made it a peculiar duty for the 
 brethren to devote themselves to archi- 
 tecture and church building. The Eng- 
 lish monk Winfrid, better known in ec- 
 clesiastical history as St. Boniface, and 
 who, for his labors in Christianizing that 
 country, has been styled the Apostle 
 of Germany, followed the example of his 
 predecessors in the erection of German 
 monasteries. In the eighth century he 
 organized an especial class of monks for 
 4T 
 
 the practice of building, under the name 
 of Operarii, or Craftsmen, and Magistri 
 Operum, or Masters of the Works. The 
 labors and duties of these monks were di- 
 vided. Some of them designed the plan 
 of the building; others were painters and 
 sculptors ; others were occupied in working 
 in gold and silver and embroidery; and 
 others again, who were called Ccenientarii, 
 or Stonemasons, undertook the practical 
 labors of construction. Sometimes, espe- 
 cially in extensive buildings, where many 
 workmen were required, laymen were also 
 employed, under the direction of the 
 monks. So extensive did these labors be- 
 come, that bishops and abbots often derived 
 a large portion of their revenues from the 
 earnings of the workmen in the monas- 
 teries. 
 
 Among the laymen who were employed 
 in the monasteries as assistants and labor- 
 ers, many were of course possessed of su- 
 perior intelligence. The constant and 
 intimate association of these with the 
 monks in the prosecution of the same de- 
 sign led to this result, that in process of 
 time, gradually and almost unconsciously, 
 the monks imparted to them their art 
 secrets and the esoteric principles of archi- 
 tecture. Then, by degrees, the knowledge 
 of the arts and sciences went from these 
 monkish builders out into the world, and 
 the laymen architects, withdrawing from 
 the ecclesiastical fraternities, organized 
 brotherhoods of their own. Such was the 
 beginning of the Masonic fraternities in 
 Germany, and the same thing occurred in 
 other countries. These brotherhoods of 
 Masons now began to be called upon, as 
 the monks formerly had been, when an im- 
 portant building, and especially a church 
 or a cathedral, was to be erected. Event- 
 ually they entirely superseded their monk- 
 ish teachers in the prosecution of the art 
 of building. To their knowledge of archi- 
 tecture they added that of the other sciences, 
 which they had learned from the monks. 
 Like these, too, they devoted themselves to 
 the higher principles of the art, and em- 
 ployed other laymen to assist their labors 
 as stone-masons. And thus the union of 
 these architects and stone-masons presented, 
 in the midst of an uneducated people, a more 
 elevated and intelligent class, engaged as 
 an exclusive association in building im- 
 portant and especially religious edifices. 
 
 But now a new classification took place. 
 As formerly, the monks, who were the sole 
 depositaries of the secrets of high art, sepa- 
 rated themselves from the laymen, who 
 were intrusted with only the manual labor 
 of building; so now the more intelligent 
 of the laymen, who had received these se- 
 crets from the monks, were distinguished as 
 
746 
 
 STONEMASONS 
 
 STONEMASONS 
 
 architects from the ordinary laborers, or 
 common masons. The latter knew only 
 the use of the trowel and mortar, while the 
 former were occupied in devising plans for 
 building and the construction of ornaments 
 by sculpture and skilful stone-cutting. 
 
 These brotherhoods of high artists soon 
 won great esteem, and many privileges and 
 franchises were conceded to them by the 
 municipal authorities among whom they 
 practised their profession. Their places of 
 assembly were called Hutten, Logen, or 
 Lodges, and the members took the name of 
 Freemasons. Their patron saint was St. 
 John the Baptist, who was honored by them 
 as the mediator between the Old and the 
 New Covenants, and the first martyr of the 
 Christian religion. To what condition of 
 art these Freemasons of the Middle Ages 
 had attained, we may judge from what 
 Hallam says of the edifices they erected — 
 that they united sublimity in general com- 
 position with the beauties of variety and 
 form, skilful or at least fortunate effects of 
 shadow and light, and in some instances 
 extraordinary mechanical science." (Mid. 
 Ages, iv. 280.) And he subsequently adds, 
 as an involuntary confirmation of the truth 
 of the sketch of their origin just given, that 
 the mechanical execution of the buildings 
 was " so far beyond the apparent intellec- 
 tual powers of those times, that some have 
 ascribed the principal ecclesiastical struc- 
 tures to the Fraternity of Freemasons, de- 
 positaries of a concealed and traditionary 
 science. There is probably some ground 
 for this opinion, and the earlier archives 
 of that mysterious association, if they 
 existed, might illustrate the progress of 
 Gothic architecture, and perhaps reveal its 
 origin." (lb., 284.) These archives do 
 exist, or many of them ; and although un- 
 known to Mr. Hallam, because they were 
 out of the course of his usual reading, they 
 have been thoroughly sifted by recent Ma- 
 sonic scholars, especially by our German 
 and English brethren ; and that which the 
 historian of the Middle Ages had only as- 
 sumed as a plausible conjecture has, by 
 their researches, been proved to be a fact. 
 
 The prevalence of Gnostic symbols — such 
 as lions, serpents, and the like — in the 
 decorations of churches of the Middle Ages, 
 have led some writers to conclude that the 
 Knights Templars exercised an influence 
 over the architects, and that by them the 
 Gnostic and Ophite symbols were intro- 
 duced into Europe. But Dr. Steiglitz de- 
 nies the correctness of this conclusion. He 
 ascribes the existence of Gnostic symbols 
 in the church architecture to the fact that, 
 at an early period in ecclesiastical history, 
 many of the Gnostic dogmas passed over 
 into Christendom with the Oriental and 
 
 Platonic philosophy, and he attributes their 
 adoption in architecture to the natural 
 compliance of the architects or Freemasons 
 with the predominant taste in the earlier 
 periods of the Middle Ages for mysticism, 
 and the favor given to grotesque decora- 
 tions, which were admired without any 
 knowledge of their actual import. 
 
 That there ever was any association of 
 the Knights Templars with the Freemasons 
 is still an uncertain and an undetermined 
 point of history. If it did take place, it 
 must have been at a very late period ; and 
 if any community or similarity of symbol- 
 ism is to be detected among the two Orders, 
 it is more reasonable to ascribe it to the cir- 
 cumstance, that the Templars always asso- 
 ciated a body of architects with themselves 
 for the erection of their own churches and 
 other buildings, and that these architects 
 were united in one and the same fraternity 
 with the Freemasons, whose secrets they 
 possessed, and whose architectural opinions 
 they shared. 
 
 Steiglitz also denies any deduction of the 
 Builders' Fraternities, or Masonic Lodges, 
 of the Middle Ages from the Mysteries of 
 the old Indians, Egyptians, and Greeks; 
 although he acknowledges that there is a 
 resemblance between the organizations. 
 This, however, he attributes to the fact, that 
 the Indians and Egyptians preserved all 
 the sciences, as well as the principles of 
 architecture, among their secrets, and be- 
 cause, among the Greeks, the artists were 
 initiated into their mysteries, so that, in the 
 old as well as in the new brotherhoods, 
 there was a purer knowledge of religious 
 truth, which elevated them as distinct asso- 
 ciations above the people. In like manner, 
 he denies the descent of the Masonic frater- 
 nities from the sect of Pythagoreans, which 
 they resembled only in this : that the Sa- 
 mian sage established schools which were 
 secret, and were based upon the principles 
 of geometry. 
 
 But he thinks that those are not mista- 
 ken who trace the associations of Masons 
 of the Middle Ages to the Roman Colleges, 
 the Collegia C&menlariorum, because these 
 colleges appear in every country that was 
 conquered and established as a province or 
 a colony by the Romans, where they erected 
 temples and other public buildings, and pro- 
 moted the civilization of the inhabitants. 
 They continued until a late period. But 
 when Rome began to be convulsed by the 
 wars of its decline, and by the incursions 
 of hordes of barbarians, they found a wel- 
 come reception at Byzantium, or Constan- 
 tinople, whence they subsequently spread 
 into the west of Europe, and were every- 
 where held in great estimation for their 
 skill in the construction of buildings. 
 
STONEMASONS 
 
 STONEMASONS 
 
 747 
 
 In Italy the associations of architects 
 never entirely ceased, as we may conclude 
 from the many buildings erected there dur- 
 ing the domination of the Ostrogoths and 
 the Longobards. Subsequently, when civil 
 order was restored, the Masons of Italy 
 were encouraged and supported by popes, 
 princes, and nobles. And Muraton tells 
 us, in his Historia d? Italia, that under the 
 Lombard kings the inhabitants of Como 
 were so superior as masons and bricklayers, 
 that the appellation of Magistri Comacini, 
 or Masters from Como, became generic to 
 all those of the profession. 
 
 In England, when the Romans took pos- 
 session of it, the corporations, or colleges 
 of builders, also appeared, who were subse- 
 quently continued in the Fraternity of Free- 
 masons, probably established, as Steiglitz 
 thinks, about the middle of the fifth cen- 
 tury, after the Romans had left the island. 
 The English Masons were subjected to 
 many adverse difficulties, from the repeated 
 incursions of Scots, Picts, Danes, and Sax- 
 ons, which impeded their active labors ; yet 
 were they enabled to maintain their exist- 
 ence, until, in the year 926, they held that 
 General Assembly at the city of York 
 which framed the Constitutions that gov- 
 erned the English Craft for eight hundred 
 years, and which is claimed to be the oldest 
 Masonic record now extant. It is but fair 
 to say that the recent researches of Brother 
 Hughan and other English writers have 
 thrown a doubt upon the authenticity of 
 these Constitutions, and that the very exist- 
 ence of this York assembly has been denied. 
 But these are historical problems, the true 
 solution of which must be waited for until 
 the further researches of Masonic archaeolo- 
 gists shall present us with the necessary 
 data for determining them. Until then it 
 is safer to adhere to the traditional theoVy 
 which admits the genuineness of the Con- 
 stitutions and the fact of the assembly. 
 
 In France, as in Germany, the Fraterni- 
 ties of Architects originally sprang out of 
 the connection of lay builders with the 
 monks in the era of Charlemagne. The 
 French Masons continued their fraternities 
 throughout the Middle Ages, and erected 
 many cathedrals and public buildings. 
 
 We have now arrived at the middle of the 
 eleventh century, tracing the progress of the 
 fraternities of Stonemasons from the time 
 of Charlemagne to that period. At that 
 time all the architecture of Europe was in 
 their hands. Under the distinctive name 
 of Travelling Freemasons they passed from 
 nation to nation, constructing churches and 
 cathedrals wherever they were needed. Of 
 their organization and customs, Sir Christo- 
 
 {>her Wren, in his Parentalia, gives the fol- 
 owing account : 
 
 "Their government was regular, and 
 where they fixed near the building in 
 hand, they made a camp of huts. A sur- 
 veyor governed in chief; every tenth man 
 was called a warden, and overlooked each 
 nine." 
 
 Mr. Hope, who, from his peculiar course 
 of studies, was better acquainted than Mr. 
 Hallam with the history of these Travelling 
 Freemasons, thus speaks, in his Essay on 
 Architecture, of their organization at this 
 time, by which they effected an identity of 
 architectural science throughout all Eu- 
 rope: 
 
 " The architects of all the sacred edifices 
 of the Latin Church, wherever such arose, 
 — north, south, east, or west — thus derived 
 their science from the same central school ; 
 obeyed in their designs the dictates of the 
 same hierarchy ; were directed in their con- 
 structions by the same principles of pro- 
 priety and taste ; kept up with each otner, 
 in the most distant parts to which they 
 might be sent, the most constant corre- 
 spondence; and rendered every minute 
 improvement the property of the whole 
 body, and a new conquest of the art." 
 
 Working in this way, the Stonemasons, 
 as corporations of builders, daily increased 
 in numbers and in power. In the thir- 
 teenth century they assumed a new organi- 
 zation, which allied them more closely than 
 ever with that Brotherhood of Speculative 
 Freemasons into which they were finally 
 merged in the eighteenth century. 
 
 The most important event in the cultiva- 
 tion and spread of Masonic art on the con- 
 tinent of Europe was that which occurred 
 at the city of Strasburg, in Germany, when 
 Erwin of Steinbach, the architect of the 
 cathedral, summoned a great number of 
 master-builders out of Germany, England, 
 and Italy, and in the year 1275 established 
 a code of regulations and organized the 
 Fraternity of Freemasons after the mode 
 which had been adopted, as is maintained 
 by many writers, three hundred and fifty 
 years before, by the English Masons at the 
 city of York. Lodges were then estab- 
 lished in many of the cities of Germany, 
 all of which fraternized with each other; 
 but of these the precedence was conceded 
 to the Lodge at Strasburg, because that 
 city had been, as it were, the central point 
 whence German Masonic art had flowed. 
 Erwin of Steinbach was elected their pre- 
 siding officer, or Grand Master. Three 
 grades of workmen were recognized — Mas- 
 ters, Fellow Crafts, and Apprentices ; and 
 words, signs, and grips were created as 
 modes of recognition to be used by the 
 members of the Fraternity, a part of which 
 was borrowed from the English Masons. 
 Finally, ceremonies of initiation were in- 
 
748 
 
 STONEMASONS 
 
 STONEMASONS 
 
 vented, which were of a symbolical charac- 
 ter, and concealed, under their symbolism, 
 profound doctrines of philosophy, religion, 
 and architecture. 
 
 Of these ceremonies of initiation used 
 by the old German Stonemasons of the 
 twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Findel 
 gives the following interesting account: 
 
 "On the day fixed, the candidate went 
 into the house where the assemblies were 
 held, where the master of the chair had 
 had everything prepared in due order in the 
 hall of the Craft. The brethren were then 
 summoned, (of course bearing no weapon 
 of any kind, it being a place dedicated to 
 peace,) and the assembly was opened by the 
 Master, who first acquainted them with the 
 proposed inauguration of the candidate, 
 dispatching a brother to prepare him. The 
 messenger, in imitation of an ancient hea- 
 then custom, suggested to his companion 
 that he should assume the demeanor of a 
 supplicant. He was then stripped of all 
 weapons, and everything of metal taken 
 from him ; he was divested of half his gar- 
 ments, and, with his eyes bound and breast 
 and left foot bare, he stood at the door of 
 the hall, which was opened to him after 
 three distinct knocks. The Junior Warden 
 conducted him to the Master, who made 
 him kneel and repeat a prayer. The can- 
 didate was then led three times around the 
 hall of the Gild, halting at last at the door, 
 and putting his feet together in the form of 
 a right angle, that he might in three up- 
 right square steps place himself in front of 
 the Master. Between the two, lying open 
 on the table, was a New Testament, a pair 
 of compasses, and a mason's square, over 
 which, in pursuance of an ancient custom, 
 he stretched out his right hand, swearing 
 to be faithful to the duties to which he 
 pledged himself, and to keep secret what- 
 ever had been, or might be thereafter, made 
 known to him in that place. The bandage 
 was then removed from his eyes, the three 
 great lights were shown him, a new apron 
 bound round him, a password given him, 
 and his place in the hall of the Gild pointed 
 out to him." {Hist, of Freemasonry, p. 65.) 
 
 These fraternities or associations became 
 at once very popular. Many of the poten- 
 tates of Europe, and among them the Em- 
 peror Rudolf I., conceded to them consid- 
 erable powers of jurisdiction, such as would 
 enable them to preserve the most rigid 
 system in matters pertaining to building, 
 and would facilitate them in bringing mas- 
 ter builders and stone-masons together at 
 any required point. Pope Nicholas III. 
 granted the Brotherhood, in 1278, letters 
 of indulgence, which were renewed by his 
 successors, and finally, in the next century, 
 by Pope Benedict XII. 
 
 The Stonemasons, as a fraternity of Oper- 
 ative Freemasons, distinguished from the 
 ordinary masons and laborers of the craft, 
 acquired at this time great prominence, and 
 were firmly established as an association. 
 In 1452 a general assembly was convened 
 at Strasburg, and a new constitution framed, 
 which embraced many improvements and 
 modifications of the former one. But seven 
 years afterwards, in 1459, Jost Dotzinger, 
 then holding the position of architect of 
 the Cathedral of Strasburg, and, by virtue 
 of his office, presiding over the Craft of 
 Germany, convened a general assembly of 
 the Masters of all the Lodges at the city of 
 Ratisbon. There the code of laws which 
 had been adopted at Strasburg in 1452, 
 under the title of "Statutes and Regula- 
 tions of the Fraternity of Stonemasons of 
 Strasburg," was fully discussed and sanc- 
 tioned. It was then also resolved that 
 there should be established four Grand 
 Lodges, — at Strasburg, at Vienna, at Co- 
 logne, and at Zurich ; and they also deter- 
 mined that the master workman, for the 
 time being, of the Cathedral of Strasburg 
 should be the Grand Master of the Free- 
 masons of Germany. These constitutions 
 or statutes are still extant, and are older 
 than any other existing Masonic record of 
 undoubted authenticity, except the manu- 
 script of Halliwell. They were " kindly 
 and affably agreed upon," according to their 
 preamble, "for the benefit and require- 
 ments of the Masters and Fellows of the 
 whole Craft of Masonry and Masons in 
 Germany." 
 
 General assemblies, at which important 
 business was transacted, were held in 1464 
 at Ratisbon, and in 1469 at Spire, while 
 
 Erovincial assemblies in each of the Grand 
 ,odge jurisdictions were annually con- 
 vened. 
 
 In consequence of a deficiency of em- 
 ployment, from political disturbances and 
 other causes, the Fraternity now for a brief 
 period declined in its activity. But it was 
 speedily revived when, in October, 1498, 
 the Emperor Maximilian I. confirmed its 
 statutes, as they had been adopted at Stras- 
 burg, and recognized its former rights and 
 privileges. This act of confirmation was 
 renewed by the succeeding emperors, 
 Charles V. and Ferdinand I. In 1563 a 
 general assembly of the Masons of Ger- 
 many and Switzerland was convened at the 
 city of Basle by the Grand Lodge of Stras- 
 burg. The Strasburg constitutions were 
 again renewed with amendments, and what 
 was called the Stonemasons' Law (das Stein- 
 werkrecht) was established. The Grand 
 Lodge of Strasburg continued to be recog- 
 nized as possessing supreme appellate juris- 
 diction in all matters relating to the Craft. 
 
STONEMASONS 
 
 STONEMASONS 
 
 749 
 
 Even the senate of that city had acknowl- 
 edged its prerogatives, and had conceded 
 to it the privilege of settling all controver- 
 sies in relation to matters connected with 
 building; a concession which was, however, 
 revoked in 1620, on the charge that the 
 privilege had been misused. 
 
 Thus the Operative Freemasons of Ger- 
 many continued to work and to cultivate 
 the high principles of a religious architec- 
 tural art. But on March 16, 1707, up to 
 which time the Fraternity had uninter- 
 ruptedly existed, a decree of the Imperial 
 Diet at Ratisbon dissolved the connection 
 of the Lodges of Germany with the Grand 
 Lodge of Strasburg, because that city had 
 
 Eassed into the power of the French. The 
 ead being now lost, the subordinate bodies 
 began rapidly to decline. In several of 
 the German cities the Lodges undertook to 
 assume the name and exercise the func- 
 tions of Grand Lodges ; but these were all 
 abolished by an imperial edict in 1731, 
 which at the same time forbade the admin- 
 istration of any oath of secrecy, and trans- 
 ferred to the government alone the adjudi- 
 cation of all disputes among the Craft. 
 From this time we lose sight of any na- 
 tional organization of the Freemasons in 
 Germany until the restoration of the Order, 
 in the eighteenth century, through the 
 English Fraternity. But in many cities — 
 as in Basle, Zurich, Hamburg, Dantzic, 
 and Strasburg — they preserved an inde- 
 pendent existence under the statutes of 
 1559, although they lost much of the pro- 
 found symbolical knowledge of architec- 
 ture which had been possessed by their 
 predecessors. 
 
 Before leaving these German Stonema- 
 sons, it is worth while to say something of 
 the symbolism which they preserved in 
 their secret teachings. They made much 
 use, in their architectural plans, of mysti- 
 cal numbers, and among these five, seven, 
 and nine were especially prominent. Among 
 colors, gold and blue and white possessed 
 symbolic meanings. The foot-rule, the 
 compasses, the square, and the gavel, with 
 some other implements of their art, were 
 consecrated with a spiritual signification. 
 The east was considered as a sacred point ; 
 and many allusions were made to Solo- 
 mon's Temple, especially to the pillars of 
 the porch, representations of which are to 
 be found in several of the cathedrals. 
 
 In France the history of the Free Stone- 
 masons was similar to that of their German 
 brethren. Originating, like them, from 
 the cloisters, and from the employment of 
 laymen by the monkish architects, they 
 associated themselves together as a brother- 
 hood superior to the ordinary stone-masons. 
 The connection between the Masons of 
 
 France and the Roman Colleges of Build- 
 ers was more intimate and direct than that 
 of the Germans, because of the early and 
 very general occupation of Gaul by the 
 Roman legions : but the French organiza- 
 tion did not materially differ from the 
 German. Protected by popes and princes, 
 the Masons were engaged, under ecclesias- 
 tical patronage, in the construction of reli- 
 gious edifices. In France there was also a 
 peculiar association, the Pontifices, or Bridge 
 Builders, closely connected in design and 
 character with the Masonic fraternity, and 
 the memory of which is still preserved in 
 the name of one of the degrees of the 
 Scottish Rite, that of "Grand Pontiff." 
 The principal seat of the French Stonema- 
 sonry was in Lombardy, whence the Lodges 
 were disseminated over the kingdom, a fact 
 which is thus accounted for by Mr. Hope : 
 " Among the arts exercised and improved 
 in Lombardy," he says, " that of building 
 held a pre-eminent rank, and was the more 
 important because the want of those an- 
 cient edifices to which they might recur 
 for materials already wrought, and which 
 Rome afforded in such abundance, made 
 the architects of these more remote regions 
 dependent on their own skill and free to 
 follow their own conceptions." But in the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century, the 
 necessity for their employment in the fur- 
 ther construction of religious edifices hav- 
 ing ceased, the Fraternity began to decline, 
 and the Masonic corporations were all 
 finally dissolved, with those of other work- 
 men, by Francis I., 1539. Then originated 
 that system which the French call Com- 
 pagnonnage, a system of independent Gilds 
 or brotherhoods, retaining a principle of 
 community as to the art which they prac- 
 tised, and with, to some extent, a secret 
 bond, but without elevated notions or gen- 
 eral systematic organizations. The socie- 
 ties of Compagnons were, indeed, but the 
 debris of the Masonic Lodges. Freema- 
 sonry ceased to exist in France as a recog- 
 nized system until its revival in the eigh- 
 teenth century. 
 
 In England, we have already seen that 
 the stone-masons, under the distinctive ap- 
 pellation of Freemasons, held a general as- 
 sembly at the city of York, in the year 
 926, and there adopted those constitutions 
 which have always been looked upon as 
 the fundamental law of English Masonry. 
 Of course, the very calling of this assembly 
 proves that the Freemasons were previously 
 in activity in the kingdom, which is, in 
 fact, otherwise proved by the records of the 
 building at an earlier period, by them, of 
 cathedrals, abbeys, and castles. But we 
 date the York assembly as the first known 
 and acknowledged organization of the Craft 
 
750 
 
 STONEMASONS 
 
 STONE 
 
 in England into a national body, or Grand 
 Lodge. Their history differs but little 
 from that which has already been detailed. 
 Stonemasons, in fact — but in the possession 
 of many professional secrets originally de- 
 rived from their monkish teachers, as well 
 as from the Roman colleges, with which, 
 like the Masons of France, they had an in- 
 timate communication through the legions 
 which had been encamped for so many 
 years in England — they called themselves 
 Freemasons, to be distinguished from the 
 ordinary laborers and common stone-ma- 
 sons, who were generally of a servile con- 
 dition, and had neither the intellectual 
 elevation, nor the devotion to high religious 
 art, which belonged exclusively to the 
 " freeborn " fraternity. 
 
 After the organization at York, annual 
 assemblies, it is said, were regularly held, 
 and the transactions of several of them 
 have been transmitted to us by historical 
 records. The Fraternity experienced, as 
 in other countries, its alternate periods of 
 prosperity and of decay. Finally, about 
 the end of the seventeenth century it had 
 so far declined, that only seven Lodges 
 were to be found in the whole of London 
 and its suburbs. It is to the glory of the Eng- 
 lish Masons that they now adopted that 
 bold and wise policy which alone could 
 have saved the Brotherhood from absolute 
 dissolution. In 1703 a statute was enacted, 
 which entirely changed the objects of the 
 institution. From an operative society, it 
 became wholly speculative in its character. 
 It ceased to build material temples, and 
 devoted itself to the erection of a spiritual 
 one. It retained the working-tools and the 
 technical terms of art of the original oper- 
 ative institution, simply because of the re- 
 ligious symbolism which these conveyed. 
 And its members invited to their assem- 
 blies men of learning and science, who 
 might find in their discussions topics con- 
 genial with their intellectual labors. 
 
 The happiest results speedily followed; 
 and in 1717 the Grand Lodge of England 
 was organized, or rather restored, on the 
 new basis of a speculative societv. The 
 effect was soon seen in other countries ; for, 
 through the instrumentality of the Grand 
 Lodge of England, which became, indeed, 
 the Mother Lodge of the world, Freema- 
 sonry was everywhere revived. Lodges on 
 the English model, which afterwards gave 
 rise to the establishment of Grand Lodges 
 in their respective countries, were organ- 
 ized in France in 1729, in Holland in 1731, 
 in Germany in 1733, and in Italy in 1735. 
 It spread in other countries with more or 
 less activity, and was established in 1733 in 
 America. From that time to the present 
 day the history of Freemasonry has been 
 
 entirely separated from that of Stonema- 
 sonry. 
 
 We see, then, in conclusion, that the 
 Stonemasons — coming partly from the Ro- 
 man Colleges of Architects, as in England, 
 in Italy, and in France, but principally, as 
 in Germany, from the cloistered brother- 
 hoods of monks — devoted themselves to 
 the construction of religious edifices. They 
 consisted mainly of architects and skilful 
 operatives; but — as they were controlled 
 by the highest principles of their art, were 
 in possession of important professional se- 
 crets, were actuated by deep sentiments of 
 religious devotion, and had united with 
 themselves in their labors men of learning, 
 wealth, and influence — they assumed from 
 the very beginning the title of Freemasons, 
 to serve as a proud distinction between 
 themselves and the ordinary laborers and 
 uneducated workmen, many of whom were 
 of servile condition. 
 
 Subsequently, in the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, they threw off the oper- 
 ative element of their institution, and, 
 adopting an entirely speculative character, 
 they became the Freemasons of the present 
 day, and established on an imperishable 
 foundation that sublime Institution which 
 presents over all the habitable earth the 
 most wonderful system of religious and 
 moral symbolism that the world ever saw. 
 
 Stone, Nicholas. See Stone Manu- 
 script. 
 
 Stone of Foundation. The Stone 
 of Foundation constitutes one of the most 
 important and abstruse of all the symbols 
 of Freemasonry. It is referred to in nu- 
 merous legends and traditions not only of 
 the Freemasons, but also of the Jewish 
 Rabbis, the Talmudic writers, and even 
 the Mussulman doctors. Many of these, it 
 must be confessed, are apparently puerile 
 and absurd ; but most of them, and espe- 
 cially the Masonic ones, are deeply interest- 
 ing in their allegorical signification. 
 
 The Stone of Foundation is, properly 
 speaking, a symbol of the higher degrees. 
 It makes its first appearance in the Royal 
 Arch, and forms indeed the most impor- 
 tant symbol of that degree. But it is so 
 intimately connected, in U§ legendary his- 
 tory, with the construction of the Solo- 
 monic Temple, that it must be considered 
 as a part of Ancient Craft Masonry, al- 
 though he who confines the range of his 
 investigations to the first three degrees 
 will have no means, within that narrow 
 limit, of properly appreciating the symbol- 
 ism of the Stone of Foundation. 
 
 As preliminary to the inquiry, it is neces- 
 sary to distinguish the Stone of Founda- 
 tion, both in its symbolism and its legend- 
 ary history, from other stones which play 
 
STONE 
 
 STONE 
 
 751 
 
 an important part in the Masonic ritual, 
 but which are entirely distinct from it. 
 Such are the corner-stone, which was always 
 placed in the north-east corner of the build- 
 ing about to be erected, and to which such 
 a beautiful reference is made in the cere- 
 monies of the first degree; or the keystone, 
 which constitutes an interesting part of the 
 Mark Master's degree ; or, lastly, the cape- 
 stone, upon which all the ritual of the 
 Most Excellent Master's degree is founded. 
 These are all, in their proper places, highly 
 interesting and instructive symbols, but 
 have no connection whatever with the 
 Stone of Foundation, whose symbolism it 
 is our present object to discuss. Nor, al- 
 though the Stone of Foundation is said, 
 for peculiar reasons, to have been of a cubi- 
 cal form, must it be confounded with that 
 stone called by the continental Masons the 
 cubical stone — the pierre cubique of the 
 French and the cubik stein of the German 
 Masons, but which in the English system 
 is known as the perfect ashlar. 
 
 The Stone of Foundation has a legend- 
 ary history and a symbolic signification 
 which are peculiar to itself, and which dif- 
 fer from the history and meaning which 
 belong to these other stones. I propose 
 first to define this Masonic Stone of 
 Foundation, then to collate the legends 
 which refer to it, and afterwards to inves- 
 tigate its significance as a symbol. To the 
 Mason who takes a pleasure in the study 
 of the mysteries of his Institution, the in- 
 vestigation cannot fail to be interesting, if 
 it is conducted with any ability. 
 
 But in the very beginning, as a neces- 
 sary preliminary to any investigation of 
 this kind, it must be distinctly understood 
 that all that is said of this Stone of Foun- 
 dation in Masonry is to be strictly taken 
 in a mythical or allegorical sense. Dr. 
 Oliver, while undoubtedly himself know- 
 ing that it was simply a symbol, has 
 written loosely of it as though it were a 
 substantial reality ; and hence, if the pas- 
 sages in his Historical Landmarks, and in 
 his other works which refer to this cele- 
 brated stone, are accepted by his readers in 
 a literal sense, they will present absurdities 
 and puerilities which would not occur if 
 the Stone of Foundation was received, as 
 it really is, as a myth conveying a most 
 profound and beautiful symbolism. It is 
 as such that it is to be treated here; and, 
 therefore, if a legend is recited or a tradi- 
 tion related, the reader is requested on 
 every occasion to suppose that such legend 
 or tradition is not intended as the recital 
 or relation of what is deemed a fact in Ma- 
 sonic history, but to wait with patience for 
 the development of the symbolism which 
 it conveys. Read in this spirit, as all the 
 
 legends of Masonry should be read, the 
 legend of the Stone of Foundation becomes 
 one of the most important and interesting 
 of all the Masonic symbols. 
 
 The Stone of Foundation is supposed, 
 by the theory which establishes it, to have 
 been a stone placed at one time within the 
 foundations of the Temple of Solomon, 
 and afterwards, during the building of the 
 second Temple, transported to the Holy of 
 Holies. It was in form a perfect cube, and 
 had inscribed upon its upper face, within a 
 delta or triangle, the sacred Tetragramma- 
 ton, or ineffable name of God. Oliver, 
 speaking with the solemnity of a historian, 
 says that Solomon thought that he had 
 rendered the house of God worthy, so far 
 as human adornment could effect, for the 
 dwelling of God, " when he had placed the 
 celebrated Stone of Foundation, on which 
 the sacred name was mystically engraven, 
 with solemn ceremonies, in that sacred de- 
 pository on Mount Moriah, alone with the 
 foundations of Dan and Asher, the centre 
 of the Most Holy Place, where the ark was 
 overshadowed by the shekinah of God." 
 The Hebrew Talmudists, who thought as 
 much of this stone, and had as many le- 
 gends concerning it, as the Masonic Talmu- 
 dists, called it eben shatijah, or "Stone of 
 Foundation," because, as they said, it had 
 been laid by Jehovah as the foundation of 
 the world, and hence the apocryphal book 
 of Enoch speaks of the " stone which sup- 
 ports the corners of the earth." 
 
 This idea of a foundation-stone of the 
 world was most probably derived from that 
 magnificent passage of the book of Job 
 (ch. xxxviii.) in which the Almighty de- 
 mands of Job, — 
 
 " Where wast thou, when I laid the foundation 
 
 of the earth ? 
 Declare, since thou hast such knowledge ! 
 Who fixed its dimensions, since thou knowest ! 
 Or who stretched out the line upon it ? 
 Upon what were its foundations fixed ? 
 And who laid its corner-stone, 
 When the morning stars sang together, 
 And all the sons of God shouted for joy ? " 
 
 Noyes, whose translation I have adopted 
 as not materially differing from the com- 
 mon version, but far more poetical and 
 more in the strain of the original, thus ex- 
 plains the allusions to the foundation- 
 stone : " It was the custom to celebrate the 
 laying of the corner-stone of an important 
 building with music, songs, shouting, etc. 
 Hence the morning stars are represented 
 as celebrating the laying of the corner- 
 stone of the earth." 
 
 Upon this meagre statement has been 
 accumulated more traditions than apper- 
 tain to any other Masonic symbol. The 
 
752 
 
 STONE 
 
 STONE 
 
 Rabbins, as has already been intimated, 
 divide the glory of these apocryphal his- 
 tories with the Masons ; indeed, there is 
 good reason for a suspicion that nearly all 
 the Masonic legends owe their first exist- 
 ence to the imaginative genius of the 
 writers of the Jewish Talmud. But there 
 is this difference between the Hebrew and 
 the Masonic traditions : that the Talmudic 
 scholar recited them as truthful histories, 
 and swallowed, in one gulp of faith, all 
 their impossibilities and anachronisms; 
 while the Masonic scholar has received 
 them as allegories, whose value is not in 
 the facts, but in the sentiments which they 
 convey. 
 
 With this understanding of their mean- 
 ing, let us proceed to a collation of these 
 legends. 
 
 In that blasphemous work, the Toldoth 
 Jeshu, or Life of Jesus, written, it is sup- 
 posed, in the thirteenth or fourteenth cen- 
 tury, we find the following account of this 
 wonderful stone : 
 
 " At that time [the time of Jesus] there 
 was in the House of the Sanctuary [that is, 
 the Temple] a stone of foundation, which 
 is the very stone that our father Jacob 
 anointed with oil, as it is described in the 
 twenty-eighth chapter of the book of Gene- 
 sis. On that stone the letters of the Tetra- 
 grammaton were inscribed, and whosoever 
 of the Israelites should learn that name 
 would be able to master the world. To 
 prevent, therefore, any one from learning 
 these letters, two iron dogs were placed 
 upon two columns in front of the Sanctu- 
 ary. If any person, having acquired the 
 knowledge of these letters, desired to de- 
 part from the Sanctuary, the barking of 
 the dogs, by magical power, inspired so 
 much fear that he suddenly forgot what he 
 had acquired." 
 
 This passage is cited by the learned 
 Buxtorf in his Lexicon Talmudicum ; but in 
 my copy of the Toldoth Jeshu, I find an- 
 other passage, which gives some additional 
 particulars, in the following words : 
 
 " At that time there was in the Temple 
 the ineffable name of God, inscribed upon 
 the Stone of Foundation. For when King 
 David was digging the foundation for the 
 Temple, he found in the depths of the exca- 
 vation a certain stone on which the name 
 of God was inscribed. This stone he re- 
 moved and deposited it in the Holy of 
 Holies." 
 
 The same puerile story of the barking 
 dogs is repeated still more at length. It 
 is not pertinent to the present inquiry, but 
 it may be stated, as a mere matter of curious 
 information, that this scandalous book, 
 which is throughout a blasphemous defa- 
 mation of our Saviour, proceeds to say, that 
 
 he cunningly obtained a knowledge of the 
 Tetragrammaton from the Stone of Foun- 
 dation, and by its mystical influence was 
 enabled to perform his miracles. 
 
 The Masonic legends of the Stone of 
 Foundation, based on these and other rab- 
 binical reveries, are of the most extraor- 
 dinary character, if they are to be viewed 
 as histories, but readily reconcilable with 
 sound sense, if looked at only in the light 
 of allegories. They present an uninter- 
 rupted succession of events, in which the 
 Stone of Foundation takes a prominent 
 part, from Adam to Solomon, and from 
 Solomon to Zerubbabel. 
 
 Thus, the first of these legends, in order 
 of time, relates that the Stone of Founda- 
 tion was possessed by Adam while in the 
 Garden of Eden; that he used it as an 
 altar, and so reverenced it that, on his ex- 
 
 Eulsion from Paradise, he carried it with 
 im into the world in which he and his 
 descendants were afterwards to earn their 
 bread by the sweat of their brow. 
 
 Another legend informs us that from 
 Adam the Stone of Foundation descended 
 to Seth. From Seth it passed by regular 
 succession to Noah, who took it with him 
 into the ark, and after the subsidence of 
 the deluge made on it his first thank-offer- 
 ing. Noah left it on Mount Ararat, where 
 it was subsequently found by Abraham, 
 who removed it, and constantly used it as 
 an altar of sacrifice. His grandson Jacob 
 took it with him when he fled to his uncle 
 Laban in Mesopotamia, and used it as a 
 pillow when, in the vicinity of Luz, he had 
 his celebrated vision. 
 
 Here there is a sudden interruption in the 
 legendary history of the stone, and we have 
 no means of conjecturing how it passed 
 from the possession of Jacob into that of 
 Solomon. Moses, it is true, is said to have 
 taken it with him out of Egypt at the time 
 of the exodus, and thus it may have finally 
 reached Jerusalem. Dr. Adam Clarke re- 
 peats, what he very properly calls " a fool- 
 ish tradition," that the stone on which Ja- 
 cob rested his head was afterwards brought 
 to Jerusalem, thence carried after a long 
 lapse of time to Spain, from Spain to Ire- 
 land, and from Ireland to Scotland, where 
 it was used as a seat on which the kings of 
 Scotland sat to be crowned. Edward I., 
 we know, brought a stone to which this 
 legend is attached from Scotland to West- 
 minster Abbey, where, under the name of 
 Jacob's Pillow, it still remains, and is al- 
 ways placed under the chair upon which 
 the British sovereign sits to be crowned; 
 because there is an old distich which de- 
 clares that wherever this stone is found the 
 Scottish kings shall reign. 
 But this Scottish tradition would take the 
 
STONE 
 
 STONE 
 
 753 
 
 Stone of Foundation away from all its Ma- 
 sonic connections, and therefore it is re- 
 jected as a Masonic legend. 
 
 The legends just related are in many 
 respects contradictory and unsatisfactory, 
 and another series, equally as old, is now 
 very generally adopted by Masonic scholars 
 as much better suited to the symbolism by 
 which all these legends are explained. 
 
 This series of legends commences with 
 the patriarch Enoch, who is supposed to have 
 been the first consecrator of the Stone of 
 Foundation. The legend of Enoch is so 
 interesting and important in this connec- 
 tion as to excuse its repetition in the pres- 
 ent work. 
 
 The legend in full is as follows : Enoch, 
 under the inspiration of the Most High, and 
 in obedience to the instructions which he 
 had received in a vision, built a temple 
 underground on Mount Moriah, and dedi- 
 cated it to God. His son, Methuselah, con- 
 structed the building, although he was not 
 acquainted with his father's motives for the 
 erection. This temple consisted of nine 
 vaults, situated perpendicularly beneath 
 each other, and communicating by aper- 
 tures left in each vault. 
 
 Enoch then caused a triangular plate of 
 gold to be made, each side of which was a 
 cubit long ; he enriched it with the most 
 precious stones, and encrusted the plate 
 upon a stone of agate of the same form. 
 On the plate he engraved the true name of 
 God, or the Tetragrammaton, and placing 
 it on a cubical stone, known thereafter as 
 the Stone of Foundation, he deposited the 
 whole within the lowest arch. 
 
 When this subterranean building was 
 completed, he made a door of stone, and 
 attaching to it a ring of iron, by which it 
 might be occasionally raised, he placed it 
 over the opening of the uppermost arch, 
 and so covered it that the aperture could 
 not be discovered. Enoch, himself, was 
 not permitted to enter it but once a year ; 
 and on the deaths of Enoch, Methuselah, 
 and Lamech, and the destruction of the 
 world by the deluge, all knowledge of the 
 vault or subterranean temple and of the 
 Stone of Foundation, with the sacred and 
 ineffable name inscribed upon it, was lost 
 for ages to the world. 
 
 At the building of the first Temple of 
 Jerusalem, the Stone of Foundation again 
 makes its appearance. Reference has al- 
 ready been made to the Jewish tradition 
 that David, when digging the foundations 
 of the Temple, found in the excavation 
 which he was making a certain stone, on 
 which the ineffable name of God was in- 
 scribed, and which stone he is said to have 
 removed and deposited in the Holy of 
 Holies. That King David laid the founda- 
 4U 48 
 
 tions of the Temple upon which the super- 
 structure was subsequently erected by Sol- 
 omon, is a favorite theory of the legend- 
 mongers of the Talmud. 
 
 The Masonic tradition is substantially 
 the same as the Jewish, but it substitutes 
 Solomon for David, thereby giving a greater 
 air of probability to the narrative, and it 
 supposes that the stone thus discovered by 
 Solomon was the identical one that had 
 been deposited in his secret vault by Enoch. 
 This Stone of Foundation, the tradition 
 states, was subsequently removed by King 
 Solomon and, for wise purposes, deposited 
 in a secret and safer place. 
 
 In this the Masonic tradition again agrees 
 with the Jewish, for we find in the third 
 chapter of the Treatise on the Temple, the 
 following narrative : 
 
 " There was a stone in the Holy of Holies, 
 on its west side, on which was placed the 
 ark of the covenant, and before the pot of 
 manna and Aaron's rod. But when Solo- 
 mon had built the Temple, and foresaw 
 that it was at some future time to be de- 
 stroyed, he constructed a deep and wind- 
 ing vault under ground, for the purpose of 
 concealing the ark, wherein Josiah after- 
 wards, as we learn in the Second Book of 
 Chronicles, xxxv. 3, deposited it with the 
 pot of manna, the rod of Aaron, and the 
 oil of anointing." 
 
 The Talmudical book Yoma gives the 
 same tradition, and says that " the ark of 
 the covenant was placed in the centre of 
 the Holy of Holies, upon a stone rising 
 three fingers' breadth above the floor, to 
 be as it were a pedestal for it." This stone, 
 says Prideaux, in his Old and New Testa- 
 ment Connected, (vol. i., p. 148,) "the Rab- 
 bins call the Stone of Foundation, and give 
 us a great deal of trash about it." 
 
 There is much controversy as to the 
 question of the existence of any ark in the 
 second Temple. Some of the Jewish writers 
 assert that a new one was made; others 
 that the old one was found where it had 
 been concealed by Solomon; and others 
 again contend that there was no ark at all 
 in the temple of Zerubbabel, but that its 
 place was supplied by the Stone of Foun- 
 dation on which it had originally rested. 
 
 Royal Arch Masons well know how all 
 these traditions are sought to be reconciled 
 by the Masonic legend, in which the sub- 
 stitute ark and the Stone of Foundation 
 play so important a part. 
 
 In the thirteenth degree of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Rite, the Stone of Founda- 
 tion is conspicuous as the resting-place of 
 the sacred delta. 
 
 In the Royal Arch and Select Master's 
 degrees of the American Rite, the Stone 
 of Foundation constitutes the most im- 
 
754 
 
 STONE 
 
 STONE 
 
 portant part of the ritual. In both of 
 these it is the receptacle of the ark, on 
 which the ineffable name is inscribed. 
 
 Lee, in his Temple of Solomon, has devoted 
 a chapter to this Stone of Foundation, and 
 thus recapitulates the Talmudic and Rab- 
 binical traditions on the subject : 
 
 " Vain and futilous are the feverish 
 dreams of the ancient Rabbins concerning 
 the Foundation-Stone of the Temple. Some 
 assert that God placed this stone in the 
 centre of the world, for a future basis and 
 settled consistency for the earth to rest 
 upon. Others heid this stone to be the 
 first matter out of which all the beautiful 
 visible beings of the world have been hewn 
 forth and produced to light. Others re- 
 late that this was the very same stone laid 
 by Jacob for a pillow under his head, in 
 that night when he dreamed of an angelic 
 vision at Bethel, and afterwards anointed 
 and consecrated it to God. Which when 
 Solomon had found (no doubt by forged 
 revelation or some tedious search like an- 
 other Rabbi Selemoh) he durst not but lay 
 it sure, as the principal Foundation-Stone 
 of the Temple. Nay, they say further, he 
 caused to be engraved upon it the Tetra- 
 grammaton, or the ineffable name of Je- 
 hovah." 
 
 It will be seen that the Masonic tradi- 
 tions on the subject of the Stone of Foun- 
 dation do not differ very materially from 
 these Rabbinical ones, although they add a 
 few additional circumstances. 
 
 In the Masonic legend, the Foundation- 
 Stone first makes its appearance, as we have 
 already said, in the days of Enoch, who 
 placed it in the bowels of Mount Moriah. 
 There it was subsequently discovered by 
 King Solomon, who deposited it in a crypt 
 of the first Temple, where it remained con- 
 cealed until the foundations of the second 
 Temple were laid, when it was discovered 
 and removed to the Holy of Holies. But 
 the most important point of the legend of 
 the Stone of Foundation is its intimate 
 and constant connection with the Tetra- 
 grammaton or ineffable name. It is this 
 name, inscribed upon it within the sacred 
 and symbolic delta, that gives to the stone 
 all its Masonic value and significance. It 
 is upon this fact, that it was so inscribed, 
 that its whole symbolism depends. 
 
 Looking at these traditions in anything 
 like the light of historical narratives, we 
 are compelled to consider them, to use the 
 plain language of Lee, " but as so many 
 idle and absurd conceits." We must go 
 behind the legend, which we acknowledge 
 at once to be only an allegory, and study 
 its symbolism. 
 
 The following facts can, I think, be read- 
 ily established from history. First, that 
 
 there was a very general prevalence among 
 the earliest nations of antiquity of the wor- 
 ship of stones as the representatives of 
 Deity; secondly, that in almost every an- 
 cient temple there was a legend of a sacred 
 or mystical stone; thirdly, that this le- 
 gend is found in the Masonic system ; and 
 lastly, that the mystical stone there has 
 received the name of the " Stone of Foun- 
 dation." 
 
 Now, as in all the other systems the 
 stone is admitted to be symbolic, and the 
 traditions connected with it mystical, we 
 are compelled to assume the same predi- 
 cates of the Masonic stone. It, too, is 
 symbolic, and its legend a myth or an 
 allegory. 
 
 Of the fable, myth, or allegory, Bailly 
 has said that, " subordinate to history and 
 philosophy, it only deceives that it may the 
 better instruct us. Faithful in preserving 
 the realities which are confided to it, it 
 covers with its seductive envelop the les- 
 sons of the one and the truths of the other." 
 It is from this stand-point that we are to 
 view the allegory of the Stone of Founda- 
 tion, as developed in one of the most in- 
 teresting and important symbols of Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 The fact that the mystical stone in all 
 the ancient religions was a symbol of the 
 Deity, leads us necessarily to the conclu- 
 sion that the Stone of Foundation was also 
 a symbol of Deity. And this symbolic idea 
 is strengthened by the Tetragrammaton, or 
 sacred name of God, that was inscribed 
 upon it. This ineffable name sanctifies the 
 stone upon which it is engraved as the sym- 
 bol of the Grand Architect. It takes from 
 it its heathen signification as an idol, and 
 consecrates it to the worship of the true 
 God. 
 
 The predominant idea of the Deity, in 
 the Masonic system, connects him with his 
 creative and formative power. God is to 
 the Freemason Al Gabil, as the Arabians 
 called him, that is, The Builder ; or, as ex- 
 pressed in his Masonic title, the Grand 
 Architect of the Universe, by common con- 
 sent abbreviated in the formula G A O T U. 
 Now, it is evident that no symbol could so 
 appropriately suit him in this character as 
 the Stone of Foundation, upon which he 
 is allegorically supposed to have erected his 
 world. Such a symbol closely connects the 
 creative work of God, as a pattern and ex- 
 emplar, with the workman's erection of his 
 temporal building on a similar foundation- 
 stone. 
 
 But this Masonic idea is still further to 
 be extended. The great object of all Ma- 
 sonic labor is divi ne truth. The search for 
 the lost word is the search for truth. But 
 divine truth is a term synonymous with 
 
STONE 
 
 STONE 
 
 755 
 
 God. The ineffable name is a symbol of 
 truth, because God, and God alone, is truth. 
 It is properly a scriptural idea. The Book 
 of Psalms abounds with this sentiment. 
 Thus it is said that the truth of the Lord 
 "reacheth unto the clouds," and that "his 
 truth endureth unto all generations." If, 
 then, God is truth, and the Stone of Foun- 
 dation is the Masonic symbol of God, it 
 follows that it must also be the symbol of 
 divine truth. 
 
 When we have arrived at this point in 
 our speculations, we are ready to show how 
 all the myths and legends of the Stone of 
 Foundation may be rationally explained as 
 parts of that beautiful " science of moral- 
 ity, veiled in allegory and illustrated by 
 symbols," which is the acknowledged defi- 
 nition of Freemasonry. 
 
 In the Masonic system there are two tem- 
 ples ; the first temple, in which the degrees 
 of Ancient Craft Masonry are concerned, 
 and the second temple, with which the 
 higher degrees, and especially the Royal 
 Arch, are related. The first temple is sym- 
 bolic of the present life ; the second temple 
 is symbolic of the life to come. The first 
 temple, the present life, must be destroyed ; 
 on its foundations the second temple, the 
 life eternal, must be built. 
 
 But the mystical stone was placed by 
 King Solomon in the foundations of the 
 first Temple. That is to say, the first tem- 
 ple of our present life must be built on the 
 sure foundation of divine truth, " for other 
 foundation can no man lay." 
 
 But although the present life is necessa- 
 rily built upon the foundation of truth, yet 
 we never thoroughly attain it in this sub- 
 lunary sphere. The Foundation-Stone is 
 concealed in the first temple, and the Mas- 
 ter Mason knows it not. He has not the 
 true word. He receives only a substitute. 
 
 But in the second temple of the future life, 
 we have passed from the grave which had 
 been the end of our labors in the first. We 
 have removed the rubbish, and have found 
 that Stone of Foundation which had been 
 hitherto concealed from our eyes. We now 
 throw aside the substitute for truth which 
 had contented us in the former temple, and 
 the brilliant effulgence of theTetragramma- 
 ton and the Stone of Foundation are discov- 
 ered, and thenceforth we are the possessors 
 of the true word — of divine truth. And in 
 this way, the Stone of Foundation, or divine 
 truth, concealed in the first temple, but dis- 
 covered and brought to light in the second, 
 will explain that passage of the Apostle: 
 " For now we see through a glass darkly ; 
 but then, face to face : now I know in part ; 
 but then I shall know face to face." 
 
 And so the result of this inquiry is, that 
 the Masonic Stone of Foundation is a sym- 
 
 bol of divine truth, upon which all specula- 
 tive Masonry is built, and the legends and 
 traditions which refer to it are intended to 
 describe, in an allegorical way, the progress 
 of truth in the soul, the search for which is 
 a Mason's labor, and the discovery of which 
 is his reward. 
 
 Stone Pavement. Oliver says that, 
 in the English system, " the stone pavement 
 is a figurative appendage to a Master Ma- 
 sons' Lodge, and, like that of the Most 
 Holy Place in the Temple, is for the High 
 Priest to walk on." This is not recognized 
 in the American system, where the stone 
 or Mosaic pavement is appropriated to the 
 Entered Apprentice's degree. 
 
 Stone, Rejected. St. Matthew re- 
 cords (xxi. 42) that our Lord said to the 
 chief priests and elders, " Did ye never 
 read in the Scriptures, The stone which the 
 builders rejected, the same is become the 
 head of the corner?" Commenting on 
 this, Dr. Adam Clarke says : " It is an ex- 
 pression borrowed from masons, who, find- 
 ing a stone which, being tried in a partic- 
 ular place, and appearing improper for it, 
 is thrown aside and another taken; how- 
 ever, at last, it may happen that the very 
 stone which had been before rejected may be 
 found the most suitable as the head stone of 
 the corner." This is precisely the symbolism 
 of the Mark Master or fourth degree of the 
 American Rite, where the rejected stone is 
 suggested to the neophyte as a consola- 
 tion under all the frowns of fortune, and as 
 an encouragement to hope for better pros- 
 pects." Bro. G. F. Yates says that the 
 symbolism of the rejected stone in the 
 present Mark degree is not in the original 
 Master Mark Mason's degree, out of which 
 Webb manufactured his ritual, but was 
 introduced by him from some other un- 
 known source. 
 
 Stone-Squarers. See Oiblim. 
 
 Stout-, White. Among the ancient 
 Greeks and Romans, sentence was given in 
 courts of judicature by white and black 
 stones or pebbles. Those who were in favor 
 of acquittal cast a white stone, and those 
 who were for condemning, a black one. 
 So, too, in popular elections a white stone 
 was deposited by those who were favorable 
 to the candidate, and a black one by those 
 who wished to reject him. In this ancient 
 practice we find the origin of white and 
 black balls in the Masonic ballot. Hence, 
 too, the white stone has become the symbol 
 of absolution in judgment, and of the con- 
 ferring of honors and rewards. The white 
 stone with the new name, mentioned in the 
 Mark Master's degree, refers to the key- 
 stone. 
 
 Stone, William Leete. An Amer- 
 ican journalist and writer, who was born in 
 
756 
 
 STONE 
 
 STONE 
 
 the State of New York in 1792, and died 
 in 1844. He was the author of several 
 literary works, generally of a biographical 
 character. But his largest work was "Let- 
 ters on Masonry and anti-Masonry, ad- 
 dressed to the Hon. John Quincy Adams," 
 New York, 1832, 8vo, pp. 566. This was 
 one of the productions which were in- 
 debted for their appearance to the anti- 
 Masonic excitement that prevailed at that 
 time in this country. Although free from 
 the bitterness of tone and abusive language 
 which characterized most of the contem- 
 poraneous writings of the anti-Masons, it 
 is, as an argumentative work, discreditable 
 to the critical acumen of the author. It 
 abounds in statements made without au- 
 thority and unsustained by proofs, while its 
 premises being in most instances false, its 
 deductions are necessarily illogical. 
 
 Stone Worship. This was, perhaps, 
 the earliest form of fetichism. Before the 
 discovery of metals, men were accustomed 
 to worship unhewn stones. From Chna, 
 whom Sanchoniathan calls "the first 
 Phoenician," the Canaanites learned the 
 practice, the influence of which we may 
 trace in the stone pillar erected and con- 
 secrated by Jacob. The account in Gene- 
 sis xxviii. 18, 22, is that " Jacob took the 
 stone that he had put for his pillows and 
 set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon 
 the top of it ; and he called the name of the 
 place Bethel, saying, This stone which I have 
 set for a pillar shall be God's house." The 
 Israelites were repeatedly commanded to 
 destroy the stone idols of the Canaanites, 
 and Moses corrects his own people when 
 falling into this species of idolatry. 
 
 Various theories have been suggested as 
 to the origin of stone worship. Lord 
 Kames supposes that fact by supposing 
 that stones erected as monuments of the 
 dead became the place where posterity paid 
 their veneration to the memory of the de- 
 ceased, and that at length the people, losing 
 sight of the emblematical signification, 
 which was not readily understood, the 
 monumental stones at length became ob- 
 jects of worship. 
 
 Others have sought to find the origin of 
 stone worship in the stone that was set up 
 and anointed by Jacob at Bethel, and the 
 tradition of which had extended into the 
 heathen nations and become corrupted. It 
 is certain that the Phoenicians worshipped 
 sacred stones under the name of Bcetylia, 
 which word is evidently derived from the 
 Hebrew Bethel, and this undoubtedly gives 
 some appearance of probability to the 
 theory. 
 
 But a third theory supposes that the 
 worship of stones was derived from the 
 unskilfulness of the primitive sculptors, 
 
 who, unable to frame, by their meagre 
 principles of plastic art, a true image of 
 the God whom they adored, were content 
 to substitute in its place a rude or scarcely 
 polished stone. Hence the Greeks, accord- 
 ing to Pausanias, originally used unhewn 
 stones to represent their deities, thirty of 
 which, that historian says, he saw in the 
 city of Pharce. These stones were of a 
 cubical form, and, as the greater number 
 of them were dedicated to the god Hermes, 
 or Mercury, they received the generic name 
 of Hermce. Subsequently, with the improve- 
 ment of the plastic art, the head was added. 
 
 So difficult, indeed, was it, in even the 
 most refined era of Grecian civilization, for 
 the people to divest themselves of the in- 
 fluences of this superstition, that Theo- 
 phrastus characterizes " the superstitious 
 man " as one who could not resist the im- 
 pulse to bow to those mysterious stones 
 which served to mark the confluence of the 
 highways. 
 
 One of these consecrated stones was 
 
 E laced before the door of almost every 
 ouse in Athens. They were also placed 
 in front of the temples, in the gymnasia or 
 schools, in libraries, and at the corners of 
 streets, and in the roads. When dedicated 
 to the god Terminus they were used as 
 landmarks, and placed as such upon the 
 concurrent lines of neighboring possessions. 
 
 The Thebans worshipped Bacchus under 
 the form of a rude, square stone. 
 
 Arnobius says that Cybele was repre- 
 sented by a small stone of a black color. 
 Eusebius cites Porphyry as saying that the 
 ancients represented the Deity by a black 
 stone, because his nature is obscure and in- 
 scrutable. The reader will here be re- 
 minded of the black stone, Hadsjar el As- 
 wad, placed in the south-west corner of the 
 Kaaba at Mecca, which was worshipped by 
 the ancient Arabians, and is still treated 
 with religious veneration by the modern 
 Mohammedans. The Mussulman priests, 
 however, say that it was originally white, 
 and of such surprising splendor that it could 
 be seen at the distance of four days' jour- 
 ney, but that it has been blackened by the 
 tears of pilgrims. 
 
 The Druids, it is well known, had no 
 other images of their gods but cubical or 
 sometimes columnar stones, of which To- 
 land gives several instances. 
 
 The Chaldeans had a sacred stone, which 
 they held in great veneration, under the 
 name of Mnizuris, and to which they sacri- 
 ficed for the purpose of evoking the Good 
 Demon. 
 
 Stone worship existed among the early 
 American races. Squier quotes Skinner as 
 asserting that the Peruvians used to set up 
 rough stones in their fields and plantations, 
 
STONE 
 
 STONE 
 
 757 
 
 which were worshipped as protectors of their 
 crops. And Gamasays that in Mexico the 
 presiding god of the spring was often repre- 
 sented without a human body, and in place 
 thereof a pilaster or square column, whose 
 pedestal was covered with various sculp- 
 tures. 
 
 Indeed, so universal was this stone wor- 
 ship, that Higgins, in his Celtic Druids, 
 says that " throughout the world the first 
 object of idolatry seems to have been a 
 plain, unwrought stone, placed in the 
 ground, as an emblem of the generative 
 or procreative powers of nature." And 
 Bryant, in his Analysis of Ancient Mythol- 
 ogy, asserts that " there is in every oracular 
 temple some legend about a stone." 
 
 Without further citations of examples 
 from the religious usages of antiquity, it 
 will, I think, be conceded that the cubical 
 stone formed an important part of the re- 
 ligious worship of primitive nations. But 
 Cudworth, Bryant, Faber, and all other 
 distinguished writers who have treated the 
 subject, have long since established the 
 theory that the Pagan religions were emi- 
 nently symbolic. Thus, to use the lan- 
 guage of Dudley, the pillar or stone " was 
 adopted as a symbol of strength and firm- 
 ness — a symbol, also, of the divine power, 
 and, by a ready inference, a symbol or idol 
 of the Deity himself." And this symbol- 
 ism is confirmed by Phurnutus, whom To- 
 land quotes as saying that the god Hermes 
 was represented without hands or feet, be- 
 ing a cubical stone, because the cubical 
 figure betokened his solidity and stability. 
 
 The influence of this old stone worship, 
 but of course divested of its idolatrous 
 spirit, and developed into the system of 
 symbolic instruction, is to be found in Ma- 
 sonry, where the reference to sacred stones 
 is made in the Foundation-Stone, the Cu- 
 bical Stone, the Corner-Stone, and some 
 other symbols of a similar character. In- 
 deed, the stone supplies Masonic science 
 with a very important and diversified sym- 
 bolism. 
 
 As stone worship was one of the oldest 
 of the deflections from the pure religion, 
 so it was one of the last to be abandoned. 
 A decree of the Council of Aries, which was 
 held in the year 452, declares that " if, in 
 any diocese, any infidel either lighted 
 torches or worshipped trees, fountains, or 
 stones, or neglected to destroy them, he 
 should be found guilty of sacrilege." A 
 similar decree was subsequently issued by 
 the Council of Tours in 567, that of Nantes 
 in 658, aud that of Toledo in 681. Char- 
 lemagne, of France, in the eighth century, 
 and Canute, of England, in the eleventh, 
 found it necessary to execrate and forbid 
 the worship of stones. 
 
 Even in the present day, the worship has 
 not been altogether abandoned, but still 
 exists in some remote districts of Christen- 
 dom. Scheffer, in his Description of Lap- 
 land, (cited by Mr. Tennent, in Notes and 
 Queries, 1st Ser., v. 122,) says, that in 1673 
 the Laplanders worshipped an unhewn 
 stone found upon the banks of lakes and 
 rivers, and which they called " kied hie 
 jubmal, that is, the stone god." Martin, in 
 his Description of the Western Islands, (p. 
 88,) says: "There is a stone set up near a 
 mile to the south of St. Columbus's church, 
 about eight feet high and two broad. It is 
 called by the natives the bowing stone ; for 
 when the inhabitants had the first sight 
 of the church, they set up this, and then 
 bowed, and said the Lord's Prayer." He 
 also describes several other stones in differ- 
 ent parts of the islands which were objects 
 of veneration. Finally, in a work published 
 about twenty years ago by the Earl of 
 Roden, entitled Progress of the Reformation 
 in Ireland, he says, (p. 51,) that at Innis- 
 kea, an island off the coast of Mayo, "a 
 stone carefully wrapped up in flannel is 
 brought out at certain periods to be adored; 
 and when a storm arises, this god is suppli- 
 cated to send a wreck on their coasts." 
 
 Tennent, to whom I am indebted for 
 these citations, adds another from Borlase, 
 who, in his Antiquities of Cornwall, says 
 (b. iii., c. ii., p. 162,) that "after Christi- 
 anity took place, many [in Cornwall] con- 
 tinued to worship these stones; coming 
 thither with lighted torches, and praying 
 for safety and success." 
 
 It is more than probable that in many 
 remote regions of Europe, where the sun 
 of Christianity has only darted its dimmest 
 rays, this old worship of sacred stones still 
 remains. 
 
 Strasburg, Cathedral of. This 
 has always been considered as one of the 
 finest Gothic buildings in Europe, and its 
 spire is the highest in the world, being 466 
 feet. The original cathedral was founded 
 in 504, but in 1007 it was almost com- 
 pletely destroyed by lightning. The pres- 
 ent edifice was begun in 1015 and com- 
 pleted in 1439. The cathedral of Strasburg 
 is very closely connected with the history 
 of Freemasonry. The most important as- 
 sociation of master builders, says Stieglitz, 
 {Von Altdeusch. Bauk.,) for the culture and 
 extension of German art, was that which 
 took place at Strasburg under Erwin von 
 Steinbach. As soon as this architect had 
 undertaken the direction of the works at 
 the Strasburg cathedral, he summoned ma- 
 sons out of Germany, England, and Italy, 
 and formed with them a brotherhood, 
 through which, in 1275, a Freemasonry 
 according to the English system was es- 
 
758 
 
 STRASBURG 
 
 STUART 
 
 tablished. Thence hutten, or Lodges, were 
 scattered over Europe. In 1459, on April 
 25, says Grandidier, the Masters of many 
 of these Lodges assembled at Ratisbon and 
 drew up an Act of Fraternity, which made 
 the master of the works at Strasburg, and 
 his successors, the perpetual Grand Masters 
 of the Fraternity of German Freemasons. 
 This was confirmed by the Emperor Maxi- 
 milian in 1498. By the statutes of this as- 
 sociation, the Haupt-Hutte, Grand or Moth- 
 er Lodge of Strasburg, was invested with 
 a judicature, without appeal, over all the 
 Lodges of Germany. Strasburg thus takes 
 in German Masonry a position equivalent 
 to that of York in the Masonry of England, 
 or Kilwinning in that of Scotland. And 
 although the Haupt-Hutte of Strasburg 
 with all other Haupt-Hutten were abol- 
 ished by an imperial edict on August 16, 
 1731, the Mother Lodge never lost its pres- 
 tige. "This," says Findel, {Hist, 72,) "is 
 the case even now in many places in Ger- 
 many ; the Saxon Stonemasons still regard- 
 ing the Strasburg Lodge as their chief 
 Lodge." See Stonemasons. 
 
 Strasburg, Congress of. Two im- 
 portant Masonic Congresses have been hold- 
 en at Strasburg. 
 
 The first Congress of Strasburg. This was 
 convoked in 1275 by Erwin von Steinbach. 
 The object was the establishment of a 
 brotherhood for the continuation of the la- 
 bors on the cathedral. It was attended by 
 a large concourse of Masons from Germany, 
 England, and Italy. It was at this Con- 
 gress that the German builders and archi- 
 tects, in imitation of their English breth- 
 ren, assumed the name of Freemasons, and 
 established a system of regulations for the 
 government of the Craft. 
 
 The second Congress of Strasburg. This 
 was convoked by the Grand Lodge, or 
 Haupt-Hlitte of Strasburg, in 1564, as a 
 continuation of one which had been held 
 in the same year at Basle. Here several 
 statutes were adopted, by which the Stein- 
 werksrecht, or Stonemasons' law, was 
 brought into a better condition. 
 
 Strength. This is said to be one of 
 the three principal supports of a Lodge, as 
 the representative of the whole Institution, 
 because it is necessary that there should be 
 Strength to support and maintain every 
 great and important undertaking, not less 
 than there should be Wisdom to contrive it, 
 and Beauty to adorn it. Hence, Strength 
 is symbolized in Masonry by the Doric 
 column, because, of all the orders of archi- 
 tecture, it is the most massive; by the 
 Senior Warden, because it is his duty to 
 strengthen and support the authority of the 
 Master ; and by Hiram of Tyre, because of 
 the material assistance that he gave in men 
 
 and materials for the construction of the 
 Temple. 
 Strict Observance, Rite of. The 
 
 Rite of Strict Observance was a modifica- 
 tion of Masonry, based on the Order of 
 Knights Templars, and introduced into Ger- 
 many in 1754 by its founder, the Baron 
 Hund. It was divided into the following 
 seven degrees : 1. Apprentice ; 2. Fellow 
 Craft; 3. Master; 4. Scottish Master; 5. 
 Novice ; 6. Templar ; 7. Professed Knight. 
 
 According to the system of the founder 
 of this Rite, upon the death of Jacques 
 Molay, the Grand Master of the Templars, 
 Pierre d'Aumont, the Provincial Grand 
 Master of Auvergne, with two Commanders 
 and five Knights, retired for purposes of 
 safety into Scotland, which place they 
 reached disguised as Operative Masons, 
 and there finding the Grand Commander, 
 George Harris, and several Knights, they 
 determined to continue the Order. Aumont 
 was nominated Grand Master, at a Chapter 
 held on St. John's day, 1313. To avoid 
 persecution, the Knights became Freema- 
 sons. In 1361, the Grand Master of the 
 Temple removed his seat to Old Aberdeen, 
 and from that time the Order, under the 
 veil of Masonry, spread rapidly through 
 France, Germany, Spain, Portugal, and 
 elsewhere. These events constituted the 
 principal subject of many of the degrees of 
 the Rite of Strict Observance. The others 
 were connected with alchemy, magic, and 
 other superstitious practices. The great 
 doctrine contended for by the followers of 
 the Rite was, " that every true Mason is a 
 Knight Templar." For an account of the 
 rise, the progress, the decay, and the final 
 extinction of this once important Rite, 
 see Hund, Baron Von. 
 
 Striking Off. Striking off a Lodge 
 from the registry of the Grand Lodge is a 
 phrase of English Masonry, equivalent to 
 what in America is called a forfeiture of 
 charter. It is more commonly called 
 "erasing from the list of Lodges." 
 
 Stuart Masonry. This title is given 
 by Masonic historians to that system of 
 Freemasonry which is supposed to have 
 been invented by the adherents of the ex- 
 iled house of Stuart for the purpose of 
 being used as a political means of restoring, 
 first, James II., and afterwards his son and 
 grandson, James and Charles Edward, re- 
 spectively known in history as the Cheva- 
 lier St. George and the Young Pretender. 
 Most of the conclusions to which Masonic 
 writers have arrived on the subject of this 
 connection of the Stuarts with the high 
 degrees of Masonry are based on conjec- 
 ture; but there is sufficient internal evi- 
 dence in the character of some of these 
 degrees, as well as in the known history 
 
STUART 
 
 STUART 
 
 759 
 
 of their organization, to establish the fact 
 that such a connection did actually exist. 
 
 The first efforts to create a Masonic in- 
 fluence in behalf of his family is attributed 
 to James II., who had abdicated the throne 
 of England in 1688. Of him, Noorthouck 
 says, [Const., 192,) that he was not "a 
 Brother Mason," and sneeringly adds, in 
 his index, that " he might have been a bet- 
 ter king had he been a Mason." But Len- 
 ning says that after his flight to France, 
 and during his residence at the Jesuit Col- 
 lege of Clermont, where he remained for 
 some time, his adherents, among whom 
 were the Jesuits, fabricated certain degrees 
 with the ulterior design of carrying out 
 their political views. At a later period 
 these degrees were, he says, incorporated 
 into French Masonry under the name of 
 the Clermont system, in reference to their 
 original construction at that place. G'a- 
 dicke had also said that many Scotchmen 
 followed him, and thus introduced Free- 
 masonry into France. But this opinion 
 is only worthy of citation because it proves 
 that such an opinion was current among 
 the German scholars of the last century. 
 
 On his death, which took place at the 
 palace of St. Germain en Laye in 1701, he 
 was succeeded in his claims to the British 
 throne by his son, who was recognized by 
 Louis XIV., of France, under the title of 
 James III., but who is better known as the 
 Chevalier St. George, or the Old Pretender. 
 He also sought, says Lenning, to find in 
 the high degrees of Masonry a support for 
 bis political views, but, as he remarks, with 
 no better results than those which had at- 
 tended the attempts of his father. 
 
 His son, Prince Charles Edward, who 
 was commonly called by the English the 
 Young Pretender, took a more active part 
 than either his father or grandfather in the 
 pursuits of Masonry ; and there is abundant 
 historical evidence that he was not only a 
 Mason, but that he held high office in the 
 Order, and was for a time zealously engaged 
 in its propagation ; always, however, it is 
 supposed, with political views. 
 
 In 1745 he invaded Scotland, with a view 
 to regain the lost throne of his ancestors, 
 and met for some time with more than par- 
 tial success. On September 24, 1745, he 
 was admitted into the Order of Knights 
 Templars, and was elected Grand Master, an 
 office which it is said that he held until his 
 death. On his return to France after his 
 ill-fated expedition, the Prince established 
 at the city of Arras, on April 15, 1747, a 
 Rose Croix Chapter under the title of 
 Scottish Jacobite Chapter. In the Patent 
 for this Chapter he styles himself " King 
 of England, France, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 and, as such, Substitute Grand Master of the 
 
 Chapter of Herodem, known under the title 
 of Knight of the Eagle and Pelican, and 
 since our misfortunes and disasters under 
 that of Rose Croix." 
 
 In 1748, the Rite of the Veille-Bru, or 
 Faithful Scottish Masons, was created at 
 Toulouse in grateful remembrance of the 
 reception given by the Masons of that 
 Orient to Sir Samuel Lockhart, the aid- 
 de-camp of the Pretender. Ragon says, 
 (Orth. Macon., 122,) in a note to this state- 
 ment, the l< favorites who accompanied this 
 prince into France were in the habit of 
 selling to speculators Charters for Mother 
 Lodges, Patents for Chapters, etc. These 
 titles were their property, and they did not 
 fail to make use of them as a means of 
 livelihood." 
 
 It is admitted that the Chevalier Ramsay 
 fabricated degrees in the interest of the 
 Stuart cause. Ragon says ( Thuil. Gen., 367,) 
 that the degrees of Irish Master, Perfect Irish 
 Master, and Puissant Irish Master were 
 invented in France, in 1747, by the favorites 
 of Charles Edward Stuart, and sold to the 
 partisans of that prince. One degree was 
 openly called the " Scottish Master of the 
 Sacred Vault of James VI.," as if to indi- 
 cate its Stuart character. The degree still 
 exists as the thirteenth of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite, but it has been 
 shorn of its political pretensions and its 
 title changed. Ramsay's interest in be- 
 half of the cause of the house of Stuart is 
 to be attributed to the fact that he was at 
 one time the tutor of the two princes, 
 Charles Edward afterwards the Young 
 Pretender, and Henry afterwards Cardinal 
 York. 
 
 Findel has given in his History of Free- 
 masonry, (Lyon's trans., p. 209,) a very calm 
 and impartial account of the rise of this 
 Stuart Masonry. He says : 
 
 "Ever since the banishment of the 
 Stuarts from England in 1688, secret alli- 
 ances had been kept up between Rome and 
 Scotland ; for to the former place the Pre- 
 tender James Stuart had retired in 1719, 
 and his son Charles Edward was born there 
 in 1720 ; and these communications became 
 the more intimate, the higher the hopes of 
 the Pretender rose. The Jesuits played a 
 very important part in these conferences. 
 Regarding the reinstatement of the Stuarts 
 and the extension of the power of the 
 Roman church as identical, they sought at 
 that time to make the society of Free- 
 masons subservient to their ends. But to 
 make use of the Fraternity to restore the 
 exiled family to the throne could not pos- 
 sibly have been contemplated, as Free- 
 masonry could hardly be said to exist in 
 Scotland then. Perhaps in 1724, when 
 Ramsay was a year in Rome, or in 1728. 
 
760 
 
 STUART 
 
 SUBLIME 
 
 when the Pretender in Parma kept up an 
 intercourse with the restless Duke of Whar- 
 ton, a Past Grand Master, this idea was 
 first entertained; and then, when it was 
 apparent how difficult it would be to cor- 
 rupt the loyalty and fealty of Freemasonry 
 in the Grand Lodge of Scotland, founded 
 in 1736, this scheme was set on foot, of 
 assembling the faithful adherents of the 
 banished royal family in the high degrees ! 
 The soil which was best adapted for this 
 innovation was France, where the low ebb 
 to which Masonry had sunk had paved the 
 way for all kinds of new-fangled notions, 
 and where the Lodges were composed of 
 Scotch conspirators and accomplices of the 
 Jesuits. When the path had thus been 
 smoothed by the agency of these secret 
 propagandists, Ramsay, at that time Grand 
 Orator (an office unknown in England), by 
 his speech completed the preliminaries 
 necessary for the introduction of the high 
 degrees ; their further development was left 
 to the instrumentality of others, whose in- 
 fluence produced a result somewhat different 
 from that originally intended. Their course 
 we can now pursue, assisted by authentic 
 historical information. In 1752, Scottish 
 Masonry, as it was denominated, penetrated 
 into Germany, (Berlin,) prepared from a 
 ritual very similar to one used in Lille in 
 1749 and 1750. In 1743, Thory tells us, the 
 Masons in Lyons, under the name of the 
 "Petit Elu," invented the degree of Ka- 
 dosh, which represents the revenge of the 
 Templars. The Order of Knights Tem- 
 plars had been abolished in 1311, and to 
 that epoch they were obliged to have re- 
 course when, after the banishment of several 
 Knights from Malta in 1720 because they 
 were Freemasons, it was not longer possible 
 to keep up a connection with the Order of 
 St. John or Knights of Malta, then in the 
 plenitude of their power under the sover- 
 eignty of the Pope. A pamphlet entitled 
 Freemasonry Divested of all its Secrets, pub- 
 lished in Strasburg in 1745, contains the 
 first glimpse of the Strict Observance, and 
 demonstrates how much they expected the 
 brotherhood to contribute towards the ex- 
 pedition in favor of the Pretender. 
 
 From what has been said, it is evident 
 that the exiled house of Stuart exercised 
 an important part in the invention and ex- 
 tension of what has been called the High 
 Masonry. The traces of the political sys- 
 tem are seen at the present day in the inter- 
 nal organization of some of the high de- 
 grees—especially in the derivation and 
 meaning of certain significant words. 
 There is, indeed, abundant reason for be- 
 lieving that the substitute word of the 
 third degree was changed by Ramsay, or 
 some other fabricator of degrees, to give it 
 
 a reference to James II. as the " son of the 
 widow," Queen Henrietta Maria. 
 
 Further researches are needed to enable 
 any author to satisfactorily write all the de- 
 tails of this interesting episode in the his- 
 tory of continental Masonry. Documents 
 are still wanting to elucidate certain in- 
 tricate and, at present, apparently contra- 
 dictory points. 
 
 Sublime. The third degree is called 
 " the Sublime Degree of a Master Mason," 
 in reference to the exalted lessons that it 
 teaches of God and of a future life. The 
 epithet is, however, comparatively modern. 
 It is not to be found in any of the rituals 
 of the last century. Neither Hutchinson, 
 nor Smith, nor Preston use it; and it was 
 not, therefore, I presume, in the original 
 Prestonian lecture. Hutchinson speaks 
 of " the most sacred and solemn Order " 
 and of " the exalted," but not of " the sub- 
 lime" degree. Webb, who based his lec- 
 tures on the Prestonian system, applies no 
 epithet to the Master's degree. In an edi- 
 tion of the Constitutions, published at Dub- 
 lin in 1769, the Master's degree is spoken 
 of as "the most respectable;" and forty 
 years ago the epithet " high and honora- 
 ble " was used in some of the rituals of this 
 country. The first book in which we meet 
 with the adjective " sublime" applied to the 
 third degree, is the Masonic Discourses of 
 Dr. T. M. Harris, published at Boston in 
 1801. Cole also used it in 1817, in his 
 Freemasons' Library; and about the same 
 time Jeremy Cross, the well-known lec- 
 turer, introduced it into his teachings, 
 and used it in his Hieroglyphic Chart, 
 which was, for many years, the text- 
 book of American Lodges. The word is 
 now, however, to be found in the modern 
 English lectures, and is of universal use in 
 the rituals of the United States, where the 
 third degree is always called " the sublime 
 degree of a Master Mason." 
 
 The word sublime was the password of the 
 Master's degree in the Adonhiramite Rite, 
 because it was said to have been the sur- 
 name of Hiram, or Adonhiram. On this 
 subject, Guillemain, in his Recueil Pre'cieux, 
 (i., 106,) makes the following singular re- 
 marks : 
 
 " For a long time a great number of Ma- 
 sons were unacquainted with this word, and 
 they erroneously made use of another in its 
 stead which they did not understand, and 
 to which they gave a meaning that was 
 doubtful and improbable. This is proved 
 by the fact that the first knights adopted 
 for the Master's password the Latin word 
 Sublimis, which the French, as soon as 
 they received Masonry, pronounced Sublime, 
 which was so far very well. But some pro- 
 fanes, who were desirous of divulging our 
 
SUBLIME 
 
 SUBLIME 
 
 761 
 
 secrets, but who did not perfectly under- 
 stand this word, wrote it Jiblime, which they 
 said signified excellence. Others, who fol- 
 lowed, surpassed the error of the first by 
 printing it Qiblos, and were bold enough to 
 say that it was the name of the place where 
 the body of Adonhiram was found. As in 
 those days the number of uneducated was 
 considerable, these ridiculous assertions 
 were readily received, and the truth was 
 generally forgotten." 
 
 The whole of this narrative is a mere vis- 
 ionary invention of the founder of the Adon- 
 hiramite system ; but it is barely possible 
 that there is some remote connection be- 
 tween the use of the word sublime in that 
 Rite, as a significant word of the third de- 
 gree, and its modern employment as an 
 epithet of the same degree. However, the 
 ordinary signification of the word, as refer- 
 ring to. things of an exalted character, 
 would alone sufficiently account for the use 
 of the epithet. 
 
 Sublime Degrees. The eleven de- 
 grees of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite, from the fourth to the fourteenth in- 
 clusive, are so called. Thus Dalcho [Report 
 of Com., 1802,) says: "Although many of 
 the Sublime degrees are in fact a continu- 
 ation of the Blue degrees, yet there is no 
 interference between the two bodies." 
 
 Sublime Grand Lodge. A title 
 formerly given in the Ancient and Accepted 
 Rite to what is now simply called a Lodge 
 of Perfection. Thus, in 1801, Dr. Dalcho 
 delivered in Charleston, South Carolina, an 
 address which bears the title of " An ora- 
 tion delivered in the Sublime Grand Lodge." 
 
 Sublime Knight Elected. {Sub- 
 lime Chevalier elu.) Called also Sublime 
 Knight Elected of the Twelve. The elev- 
 enth degree of the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. Its legend is that it was in- 
 stituted by King Solomon after punishment 
 had been inflicted on certain traitors at the 
 Temple, both as a recompense for the zeal 
 and constancy of the Illustrious Elect of 
 Fifteen, who had discovered them, and 
 also to enable him to elevate other deserv- 
 ing brethren from the lower degrees to that 
 which had been vacated by their promotion. 
 Twelve of these fifteen he elected Sublime 
 Knights, and made the selection by ballot, 
 that he might give none offence, putting 
 the names of the whole in an urn. The 
 first twelve that were drawn he formed into 
 a Chapter, and gave them command over 
 the twelve tribes, bestowing on them a 
 name which in Hebrew signifies a true 
 man. 
 
 The meeting of a body of Sublime 
 Knights is called a Chapter. 
 
 The room is hung with black strewed 
 with tears. 
 4 V 
 
 The presiding officer represents King 
 Solomon, and in the old rituals is styled 
 " Most Puissant," but in recent ones " Thrice 
 Illustrious." 
 
 The apron is white, lined and bordered 
 with black, with black strings ; on the flap 
 a flaming heart. 
 
 The sash is black, with a flaming heart 
 on the breast, suspended from the right 
 shoulder to the left hip. 
 
 The jewel is a sword of justice. 
 
 This is the last of the three Elus which 
 are found in the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite. In the French Rite they 
 have been condensed into one, and make 
 the fourth degree of that ritual, but not, as 
 Ragon admits, with the happiest effect. 
 
 The names of the Twelve Illustrious 
 Knights selected to preside over the twelve 
 tribes, as they have been transmitted to us 
 in the ritual of this degree, have undoubt- 
 edly assumed a very corrupted form. The 
 restoration of their correct orthography, 
 and with it their true signification, is 
 worthy the attention of the Masonic stu- 
 dent. 
 
 Sublime Masons. The initiates into 
 the fourteenth degree of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite are so called. Thus Dalcho 
 (Orat. 27) says : " The Sublime Masons view 
 the symbolic system with reverence, as 
 forming a test of the character and capacity 
 of the initiated." This abbreviated form 
 is now seldom used, the fuller one of 
 "Grand, Elect, Perfect, and Sublime Ma- 
 sons " being more generally employed." 
 
 Sublime Prince of the Royal 
 Secret. This is the thirty-second degree 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Rite. There 
 is abundant internal evidence, derived from 
 the ritual and from some historical facts, 
 that the degree of Sublime Prince of 
 the Royal Secret was instituted by the 
 founders of the Council of Emperors of 
 the East and West, which body was estab- 
 lished in the year 1758. It is certain that 
 before that period we hear nothing of such 
 a degree in any of the Rites. The Rite 
 of Heredom or of Perfection, which was 
 that instituted by the Council of Emperors, 
 consisted of twenty-five degrees. Of these 
 the twenty -fifth, and highest, was the Prince 
 of the Royal Secret. It was brought to 
 America by Morin, as the summit of the 
 High Masonry which he introduced, and 
 for the propagation of which he had re- 
 ceived his Patent. In the subsequent ex- 
 tension of the Scottish Rite about the 
 beginning of the present century, by the 
 addition of eight new degrees to the orig- 
 inal twenty-five, the Sublime Prince of the 
 Royal Secret became the thirty-second. 
 
 Bodies of the thirty-second degree are 
 called Consistories, and where there is a 
 
762 
 
 SUBLIME 
 
 SUBSTITUTE 
 
 superintending body erected by the Su- 
 preme Council for the government of the 
 inferior degrees in a State or Province, it 
 is called a Grand Consistory. 
 
 The clothing of a Sublime Prince con- 
 sists of a collar, jewel, and apron. The 
 collar is black edged with white. 
 
 The jewel is a Teutonic cross of gold. 
 
 The apron is white edged with black. 
 On the flap are embroidered six flags, three 
 on each side the staffs in saltier, and the 
 flags blue, red, and yellow. On the centre 
 of the flap, over these, is a Teutonic cross 
 surmounted by an All-seeing Eye, and on the 
 cross a double-headed eagle not crowned. 
 On the body of the apron is the tracing- 
 board of the degree. The most important 
 
 part of the symbolism of the degree is the 
 tracing-board, which is technically called 
 " The Camp." This is a symbol of deep 
 import, and in its true interpretation is 
 found that " royal secret " from which the 
 degree derives its name. This Camp con- 
 stitutes an essential part of the furniture 
 of a Consistory during an initiation, but 
 its explanations are altogether esoteric. It 
 is a singular fact, that notwithstanding the 
 changes which the degree must have under- 
 gone in being transferred from the twenty- 
 fifth of one Rite to the thirty-second of 
 another, no alteration was ever made in 
 the Camp, which retains at the present day 
 the same form and signification that were 
 originally given to it. 
 
 The motto of the degree is " Spes mea in 
 Deo est," i. e., My hope is in God. 
 
 Sublime Solomon. (Salomon Sub- 
 lime.) A degree in the manuscript collec- 
 tion of Peuvret. 
 
 Sublimes, The. [Les Sublimes.) One 
 of the degrees of the Ancient Chapter of 
 Clermont. 
 
 Submission. Submission to the me- 
 diatorial offices of his brethren in the case 
 of a dispute is a virtue recommended to 
 
 the Mason, but not necessarily to be en- 
 forced. In the " Charges of a Freemason," 
 (Anderson, 1st ed., 56,) it is said, (vi. 6:) 
 " With respect to Brothers or Fellows at 
 law, the Master and Brethren should kindly 
 offer their mediation; which ought to be 
 thankfully submitted to by the contending 
 Brethren ; and if that submission is imprac- 
 ticable, they must, however, carry on their 
 process or lawsuit without wrath or ran- 
 cour." 
 
 Subordinate Lodge. So called to 
 indicate its subordination to the Grand 
 Lodge as a supreme, superintending power. 
 See Lodge. 
 
 Subordinate Officers. In a Grand 
 Lodge, all the officers below the Grand Mas- 
 ter, and in a Lodge, all those below the 
 Worshipful Master, are styled Subordinate 
 Officers. So, too, in all the other branches 
 of the Order, the presiding officer is su- 
 preme, the rest subordinate. 
 
 Subordination. Although it is the 
 theory of Freemasonry that all the brethren 
 are on a level of equality ; yet in the practi- 
 cal working of the Institution a subordina- 
 tion of ranks has been always rigorously 
 observed. So the Charges approved in 1722, 
 and which had been collected by Anderson 
 from the Old Constitutions, say: "These 
 rulers and governors, supreme and subor- 
 dinate, of the ancient Lodge, are to be 
 obeyed in their respective stations by all 
 the Brethren, according to the Old Charges 
 and Regulations, with all humility, rever- 
 ence, love, and alacrity." Ch. iv. 
 
 Substitute Ark. See Ark, Substitute. 
 
 Substitute Candidate. An ar- 
 rangement resorted to in the Royal Arch 
 degree of the American system, so as to 
 comply pro forma with the requisitions of 
 the ritual. In the English, Scotch, and 
 Irish systems, there is no regulation requir- 
 ing the presence of three candidates, and, 
 therefore, the practice of employing substi- 
 tutes is unknown in those countries. In 
 the United States the usage has prevailed 
 from a very early period, although opposed 
 at various times by conscientious Compan- 
 ions, who thought that it was an improper 
 evasion of the law. Finally, the question 
 as to the employment of substitutes came 
 before the General Grand Chapter in Sep- 
 tember, 1872, when it was decided, by a 
 vote of ninety-one to thirty, that the use 
 of substitutes is not in violation of the 
 ritual of Royal Arch Masonry or the in- 
 stallation charges delivered to a High 
 Priest. The use of them was therefore 
 authorized, but the Chapters were exhorted 
 not to have recourse to them except in 
 cases of emergency; an unnecessary ex- 
 hortation, it would seem, since it was only 
 in such cases that they had been employed. 
 
SUBSTITUTE 
 
 SUCCESSION 
 
 763 
 
 Substitute Grand Master. The 
 
 third officer in the Grand Lodge of Scot- 
 land. He presides over the Craft in the 
 absence of the Grand and Deputy Grand 
 Masters. The office was created in the 
 year 1738. He is elected by the Grand 
 Lodge, and serves for one year. 
 
 Substitute Word. This is an ex- 
 pression of very significant suggestion to 
 the thoughtful Master Mason. If the Word 
 is, in Masonry, a symbol of Divine Truth ; 
 if the search for the Word is a symbol of 
 the search for that Truth ; if the Lost Word 
 symbolizes the idea that Divine Truth has 
 not been found, then the Substitute Word is 
 a symbol of the unsuccessful search after 
 Divine Truth and the attainment in this 
 life, of which the first Temple is a type, of 
 what is only an approximation to it. The 
 idea of a substitute word and its history is to 
 be found in the oldest rituals of the last cen- 
 tury ; but the phrase itself is of more recent 
 date, being the result of the fuller develop- 
 ment of Masonic science and philosophy. 
 
 The history of the substitute word has 
 been an unfortunate one. Subjected from 
 a very early period to a mutilation of form, 
 it underwent an entire change in some 
 Kites, after the introduction of the high 
 degrees ; most probably through the influ- 
 ence of the Stuart Masons, who sought by an 
 entirely new word to give a reference to the 
 unfortunate representative of that house as 
 the similitude of the stricken builder. (See 
 Macbenac.) And so it has come to pass 
 that there are now two substitutes in use, 
 of entirely different form and meaning ; one 
 used on the continent of Europe, and one in 
 England and this country. 
 
 It is difficult in this case, where almost 
 all the knowledge that we can have of the 
 subject is so scanty, to determine the exact 
 time when or the way in which the new 
 word was introduced. But there is, I think, 
 abundant internal evidence in the words 
 themselves as to their appropriateness and 
 the languages whence they came, (the one 
 being pure Hebrew, and the other, I think, 
 Gaelic,) as well as from the testimony of old 
 rituals, to show that the word in use in the 
 United States is the true word, and was the 
 one in use before the revival. 
 
 Both of these words have, however, un- 
 fortunately been translated by persons 
 ignorant of the languages whence they are 
 derived, so that the most incorrect and even 
 absurd interpretations of their significations 
 have been given. The word in universal 
 use in this country has been translated as 
 "rottenness in the bone," or "the builder 
 is dead," or by several other phrases equally 
 as far from the true meaning. 
 
 The correct word has been mutilated. 
 Properly, it consists of four syllables, for the 
 
 last syllable, as it is now pronounced, 
 should properly be divided into two. These 
 four syllables compose three Hebrew words, 
 which constitute a perfect and grammatical 
 phrase, appropriate to the occasion of their 
 utterance. But to understand them, the 
 scholar must seek the meaning in each syl- 
 lable, and combine the whole. In the lan- 
 guage of Apuleius, I must forbear to en- 
 large upon these holy mysteries. 
 
 Succession to tbe Chair. The 
 regulations adopted in 1721 by the Grand 
 Lodge of England have been generally es- 
 teemed as setting forth the ancient land- 
 marks of the Order. But certain regula- 
 tions, which were adopted on the 25th of 
 November, 1723, as amendments to or ex- 
 planatory of these, being enacted under the 
 same authority, and almost by the same 
 persons, can scarcely be less binding upon 
 the Order than the original regulations. 
 Both these compilations of Masonic law re- 
 fer expressly to the subject of the succession 
 to the chair on the death or removal of the 
 Master. 
 
 The old regulation of 1721, in the second 
 of the thirty-nine articles adopted in that 
 year, is in the following words : 
 
 " In case of death or sickness, or neces- 
 sary absence of the Master, the Senior 
 Warden shall act as Master pro tempore, if 
 no brother is present who has been Master 
 of that Lodge before. For the absent Mas- 
 ter's authority reverts to the last Master 
 present, though he cannot act till the Senior 
 Warden has congregated the Lodge." 
 
 The lines in italics indicate that even at 
 that time the power of calling the brethren 
 together and " setting them to work," which 
 is technically called " congregating the 
 Lodge," was supposed to be vested in the 
 Senior Warden alone during the absence 
 of the Master ; although, perhaps, from a 
 supposition that he had greater experience, 
 the difficult duty of presiding over the com- 
 munication was intrusted to a Past Master. 
 The regulation is, however, contradictory 
 in its provisions. For if the " last Master 
 present" could not act, that is, could not 
 exercise the authority of the Master until 
 the Senior Warden had congregated the 
 Lodge, then it is evident that the author- 
 ity of the Master did not revert to him in 
 an unqualified sense, for that officer required 
 no such concert nor consent on the part 
 of the Warden, but could congregate the 
 Lodge himself. 
 
 This evident contradiction in the lan- 
 guage of the regulation probably caused, 
 in a brief period, a further examination of 
 the ancient usage, and accordingly on the 
 25th of November, 1723, a very little more 
 than two years after, the following regu- 
 lation was adopted: 
 
764 
 
 SUCCESSION 
 
 SUCCESSION 
 
 " If a Master of a particular Lodge is de- 
 posed or demits, the Senior Warden shall 
 forthwith fill the Master's chair till the 
 next time of choosing ; and ever since, in 
 the Master's absence, he fills the chair, even 
 though a former Master be present." 
 
 The present Constitution of the Grand 
 Lodge of England appears, however, to 
 have been formed rather in reference to the 
 regulation of 1721 than to that of 1723. It 
 prescribes that on the death, removal, or 
 incapacity of the Master, the Senior War- 
 den, or in his absence, the Junior Warden, 
 or in his absence, the immediate Past Mas- 
 ter, or in his absence, the Senior Past Mas- 
 ter, "shall act as Master in summoning the 
 Lodge, until the next election of officers." 
 But the English Constitution goes on to 
 direct that, v in the Master's absence, the 
 immediate Past Master, or if he be absent, 
 the Senior Past Master of the Lodge pres- 
 ent shall take the chair. And if no Past 
 Master of the Lodge be present, then the 
 Senior Warden, or in his absence the Ju- 
 nior Warden, shall rule the Lodge." 
 
 Here again we find ourselves involved in 
 the intricacies of a divided sovereignty. 
 The Senior Warden congregates the Lodge, 
 but a Past Master rules it. And if the 
 Warden refuses to perform his part of the 
 duty, then the Past Master will have no 
 Lodge to rule. So that, after all, it appears 
 that of the two the authority of the Senior 
 Warden is the greater. 
 
 But in this country the usage has always 
 conformed to the regulation of 1723, as is 
 apparent from a glance at our rituals and 
 monitorial works. 
 
 Webb, in his Freemasons' Monitor, (edi- 
 tion of 1808,) lays down the rule, that "in 
 the absence of the Master, the Senior 
 Warden is to govern the Lodge;" and 
 that officer receives annually, in every 
 Lodge in the United States, on the night 
 of his installation, a charge to that effect. 
 It must be remembered, too, that we are 
 not indebted to Webb himself for this 
 charge, but that he borrowed it, word for 
 word, from Preston, who wrote long before, 
 and who, in his turn, extracted it from the 
 rituals which were in force at the time of 
 his writing. 
 
 In the United States, accordingly, it has 
 been held, that on the death or removal of 
 the Master, his authority descends to the 
 Senior Warden, who may, however, by 
 courtesy, offer the chair to a Past Master 
 present, after the Lodge has been con- 
 gregated. 
 
 There is some confusion in relation to 
 the question of who is to be the successor 
 of the Master, which arises partly from the 
 contradiction between the regulations of 
 1721 and 1723, and partly from the contra- 
 
 diction in different clauses of the regulation 
 of 1723 itself. But whether the Senior 
 Warden or a Past Master is to succeed, the 
 regulation of 1721 makes no provision for 
 an election, but implies that the vacancy 
 shall be temporarily supplied during the 
 official term, while that of 1723 expressly 
 states that such temporary succession shall 
 continue " till the next time of choosing," 
 or, in the words of the present English Con- 
 stitution, " until the next election of offi- 
 cers." 
 
 But, in addition to the authority of the 
 ancient regulation and general and uniform 
 usage, reason and justice seem to require 
 that the vacancy shall not be supplied per- 
 manently until the regular time of election. 
 By holding the election at an earlier period, 
 the Senior Warden is deprived of his right, 
 as a member, to become a candidate for the 
 vacant office. For the Senior Warden hav- 
 ing been regularly installed, has of course 
 been duly obligated to serve in the office to 
 which he had been elected during the full 
 term. If then an election takes place be- 
 fore the expiration of that term, he must 
 be excluded from the list of candidates, be- 
 cause, if elected, he could not vacate his 
 present office without a violation of his 
 obligation. The same disability would 
 affect the Junior Warden, who by a similar 
 obligation is bound to the faithful discharge 
 of his duties in the South. So that by an- 
 ticipating the election, the two most prom- 
 inent officers of the Lodge, and the two 
 most likely to succeed the Master in due 
 course of rotation, would be excluded from 
 the chance of promotion. A grievous 
 wrong would thus be done to these officers, 
 which no Dispensation of a Grand Master 
 should be permitted to inflict. 
 
 But even if the Wardens were not am- 
 bitious of office, or were not likely, under 
 any circumstances, to be elected to the 
 vacant office, another objection arises to 
 the anticipation of an election for Master 
 which is worthy of consideration. 
 
 The Wardens, having been installed 
 under the solemnity of an obligation to 
 discharge the duties of their respective 
 offices to the best of their ability, and the 
 Senior Warden having been expressly 
 charged that " in the absence of the Master 
 he is to rule the Lodge," a conscientious 
 Senior Warden might very naturally feel 
 that he was neglecting these duties and 
 violating this obligation, by permitting the 
 office which he has sworn to temporarily 
 occupy in the absence of his Master to be 
 permanently filled by any other person. 
 
 On the whole, then, the old regulations, 
 as well as ancient, uninterrupted, and uni- 
 form usage and the principles of reason 
 and justice, seem imperatively to require 
 
T» 
 
 OFTWt 
 
 SUCCOTH 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 SUN 
 
 765 
 
 that, on the death or removal of the Master, 
 the chair shall be occupied temporarily 
 until the regular time of election ; and al- 
 though the law is not equally explicit in 
 relation to the person who shall fill that 
 temporary position, the weight of law and 
 precedent seems to incline towards the 
 
 Srinciple that the authority of the absent 
 [aster shall be placed in the hands of the 
 Senior Warden. 
 
 Suceotli. An ancient city of Palestine, 
 about forty-five miles north-east of Jeru- 
 salem, and the site of which is how occu- 
 pied by the village of Seikoot. It is the 
 place near which Hiram Abif cast the 
 sacred vessels for the Temple. See Clay 
 Grounds. 
 
 Sufferer. {Souffrant.} The second 
 degree of the Order of Initiated Knights 
 and Brothers of Asia. 
 
 Summons. A warning to appear at 
 the meeting of a Lodge or other Masonic 
 body. The custom of summoning the 
 members of a Lodge to every communica- 
 tion, although now often neglected, is of 
 very ancient date, and was generally ob- 
 served up to a very recent period. In the 
 Anderson Charges of 1722, it is said: "In 
 ancient times, no Master or Fellow could 
 be absent from the Lodge, especially when 
 warned to appear at it, without incurring 
 a severe censure." In the Constitutions 
 of the Cooke MS., about 1490, we are told 
 that the Masters and Fellows were to be 
 forewarned to come to the congregations. 
 All the old records, and the testimony of 
 writers since the revival, show that it was 
 always the usage to summon the members 
 to attend the meetings of the General As- 
 sembly or the particular Lodges. 
 
 Sun. Hardly any of the symbols of 
 Masonry are more important in their sig- 
 nification or more extensive in their appli- 
 cation than the sun. As the source of 
 material light, it reminds the Mason of 
 that intellectual light of which he is in 
 constant search. But it is especially as the 
 ruler of the day, giving to it a beginning 
 and end, and a regular course of hours, 
 that the sun is presented as a Masonic 
 symbol. Hence, of the three lesser lights, 
 we are told that one represents or sym- 
 bolizes the sun, one the moon, and one 
 the Master of the Lodge, because, as the 
 sun rules the day and the moon governs 
 the night, so should the Worshipful Master 
 rule and govern his Lodge with equal reg- 
 ularity and precision. And this is in strict 
 analogy with other Masonic symbolisms. 
 For if the Lodge is a symbol of the world, 
 which is thus governed in its changes of 
 times and seasons by the sun, it is evident 
 that the Master who governs the Lodge, 
 controlling its time of opening and closing, 
 
 and the work which it should do, must be 
 symbolized by the sun. The heraldic defi- 
 nition of the sun as a bearing fits most 
 appositely to the symbolism of the sover- 
 eignty of the Master. Thus Gwillim says : 
 " The sun is the symbol of sovereignty, the 
 hieroglyphic of royalty; it doth signify 
 absolute authority." This representation 
 of the sun as a symbol of authority, while 
 it explains the reference to the Master, en- 
 ables us to amplify its meaning, and apply 
 it to the three sources of authority in the 
 Lodge, and accounts for the respective 
 positions of the officers wielding this au- 
 thority. The Master, therefore, in the East 
 is a symbol of the rising sun ; the Junior 
 Warden in the South, of the Meridian Sun ; 
 and the Senior Warden in the West, of the 
 Setting Sun. So in the mysteries of India, 
 the chief officers were placed in the east, 
 the west, and the south, respectively, to 
 represent Brahma, or the rising; Vishnu, 
 or the setting; and Siva, or the meridian 
 sun. And in the Druidical rites, the Arch- 
 druid, seated in the east, was assisted by 
 two other officers, — the one in the west 
 representing the moon, and the other in 
 the south representing the meridian sun. 
 
 This triple division of the government 
 of a Lodge by three officers, representatives 
 of the sun in his three manifestations in 
 the east, south, and west, will remind us 
 of similar ideas in the symbolism of an- 
 tiquity. In the Orphic mysteries, it was 
 taught that the sun generated from an egg, 
 burst forth with power to triplicate himself 
 by his own unassisted energy. Supreme 
 power seems always to have been associ- 
 ated in the ancient mind with a threefold 
 division. Thus the sign of authority was 
 indicated by the three-forked lightning of 
 Jove, the trident of Neptune, and the three- 
 headed Cerberus of Pluto. The govern- 
 ment of the Universe was divided between 
 these three sons of Saturn. The chaste 
 goddess ruled the earth as Diana, the 
 heavens as Luna, and the infernal regions 
 as Hecate, whence her rites were only per- 
 formed in a place where three roads met. 
 
 The sun is then presented to us in Ma- 
 sonry first as a symbol of light, but then 
 more emphatically as a symbol of sover- 
 eign authority. 
 
 But, says Wemyss, (Symb. Lang.,) speak- 
 ing of scriptural symbolism, " the sun may 
 be considered to be an emblem of Divine 
 Truth," because the sun or light, of which 
 it is the source, "is not only manifest in it- 
 self, but makes other things; so one truth 
 detects, reveals, and manifests another, as 
 all truths are dependent on, and connected 
 with, each other more or less." And this 
 again is applicable to the Masonic doctrine 
 which makes the Master the symbol of the 
 
766 
 
 SUN 
 
 SUPER 
 
 sun; for as the sun discloses and makes 
 manifest, by the opening of day, what had 
 been hidden in the darkness of night, so 
 the Master of the Lodge, as the analogue 
 of the ancient hierophant or explainer of 
 the mysteries, makes divine truth manifest 
 to the neophyte, who had been hitherto in 
 intellectual darkness, and reveals the hid- 
 den or esoteric lessons of initiation. 
 
 Sun, Knight of the. See Knight 
 of the Sun. 
 
 Sun, noon, and Stars. The plates 
 prefixed to the Hieroglyphic Chart of Jeremy 
 Cross contain a page on which are deline- 
 ated a sun, moon, seven stars, and a comet, 
 which has been copied into the later illus- 
 trated editions of Webb's Monitor, and is 
 now to be found in all the modern Masters' 
 carpets. In the connection in which they 
 are there placed they have no symbolic 
 meaning, although many have erroneously 
 considered that they have. The sun and 
 moon are not symbols in the third, but only 
 in the first degree; the stars are a symbol 
 in the high degrees, and the comet is no 
 symbol at all. They are simply mnemonic 
 in character, and intended to impress on the 
 memory, by a pictured representation of 
 the object, a passage in the Webb lectures 
 taken from the Prestonian, which is in 
 these words: "The All-seeing Eye, whom 
 the sun, moon, and stars obey, and under 
 whose watchful care even comets perform 
 their stupendous revolutions, pervades the 
 inmost recesses of the human heart, and 
 will reward us according to our merits." 
 It would have been more creditable to 
 the symbolic learning of Cross, if he had 
 omitted these plates from his collection of 
 Masonic symbols. At least the too common 
 error of mistaking them for symbols in the 
 third degree would have been avoided. 
 
 Sun Worship. Sir William Jones 
 has remarked that two of the principal 
 sources of mythology were a wild admira- 
 tion of the heavenly bodies, particularly 
 the sun, and an inordinate respect paid to 
 the memory of powerful, wise, and virtuous 
 ancestors, especially the founders of king- 
 doms, legislators, and warriors. To the 
 latter cause we may attribute the euhemer- 
 ism of the Greeks and the sintooism of 
 the Chinese. But in the former we shall 
 find the origin of sun worship the oldest 
 and by far the most prevalent of all the 
 ancient religions. 
 
 Eusebius says that the Phoenicians and 
 the Egyptians were the first who ascribed 
 divinity to the sun. But long — very long 
 — before these ancient peoples the primeval 
 race of Aryans worshipped the solar orb in 
 his various manifestations as the producer 
 of light. "In the Veda," says a native 
 commentator, " there are only three deities: 
 
 Surya in heaven, Indra in the sky, and 
 Agni on the earth." But Surya, Indra, 
 Agni are but manifestations of God in the 
 sun, the bright sky, and the fire derived 
 from the solar light. In the profoundly 
 poetic ideas of the Vedic hymns we find 
 perpetual allusion to the sun "with his life- 
 bestowing rays. Everywhere in the East, 
 amidst its brilliant skies, the sun claimed, 
 as the glorious manifestation of Deity, the 
 adoration of those primitive peoples. The 
 Persians, the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, — 
 all worshipped the sun. The Greeks, a 
 more intellectual people, gave a poetic 
 form to the grosser idea, and adored Apollo 
 or Dionysus as the sun-god. 
 
 Sun worship was introduced into the 
 mysteries not as a material idolatry, but as 
 the means of expressing an idea of restora- 
 tion to life from death, drawn from the 
 daily reappearance in the east of the solar 
 orb after its nightly disappearance in the 
 west. To the sun, too, as the regenerator 
 or revivifier of all things, is the Phallic 
 worship, which made a prominent part of 
 the mysteries, to be attributed. From the 
 Mithraic initiations, in which sun worship 
 played so important a part, the Gnostics 
 derived many of their symbols. These, 
 again, exercised their influence upon the 
 mediaeval Freemasons. Thus it is that the 
 sun has become so prominent in the Ma- 
 sonic system ; not, of course, as an object 
 of worship, but purely as a symbol, the 
 interpretation of which presents itself in 
 many different ways. See Sun. 
 
 Super Excellent Masons. Dr. 
 Oliver devotes the fifteenth lectureofhis His- 
 torical Landmarks (Vol. I., pp. 401-438,) to 
 an essay " On the number and classification 
 of the Workmen at the building of King 
 Solomon's Temple." His statement, based 
 entirely on old lectures and legends, is that 
 there were nine Masons of supereminent 
 ability who were called Super Excellent 
 Masons, and who presided over as many 
 Lodges of Excellent Masons, while the 
 nine Super Excellent Masons formed also a 
 Lodge over which Tito Zadok, Prince of 
 Harodim, presided. In a note on p. 423, he 
 refers to these Super Excellent Masons as 
 being the same as the Most Excellent Mas- 
 ters who constitute the sixth degree of the 
 American Rite. The theory advanced by 
 Dr. Oliver is not only entirely unauthenti- 
 cated by historical evidence of any kind, 
 but also inconsistent with the ritual of that 
 degree. It is, in fact, merely a myth, and 
 not a well-constructed one. 
 
 Super Excellent Master. A de- 
 gree which was originally an honorary or 
 side degree conferred by the Inspectors 
 General of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite at Charleston. It has since been 
 
SUPER 
 
 SUPPORTS 
 
 767 
 
 introduced into some of the Royal and Se- 
 lect Councils of the United States, and 
 there conferred as an additional degree. 
 This innovation on the regular series of 
 Cryptic degrees, with which it actually has 
 no historical connection, met with great 
 opposition ; so that the convention of Royal 
 and Select Masters, which met at New 
 York in June, 1873, resolved to place it in 
 the category of an honorary degree, which 
 might or might not be conferred at the op- 
 tion of a Council, but not as an integral 
 part of the Rite. Although this body had 
 no dogmatic authority, its decision will 
 doubtless have some influence in settling 
 the question. The degree is simply an en- 
 largement of that part of the ceremonies of 
 the Royal Arch which refer to the Temple 
 destruction. To that place it belongs, if it 
 belongs anywhere, but has no more to do 
 with the ideas inculcated in Cryptic Ma- 
 sonry than have any of the degrees lately 
 invented for modern secret societies. 
 
 Whence the degree originally sprang, it 
 is impossible to tell. It could hardly have 
 had its birth on the continent of Europe ; 
 at least, it does not appear to have been 
 known to European writers. Neither G'a- 
 dicke nor Lenning mention it in their En- 
 cyclopaedias; nor is it found in the catalogue 
 of more than seven hundred degrees given 
 by Thory in his Acta Latomorum; nor does 
 Ragon allude to it in his Tuileur General, 
 although he has there given a list of one 
 hundred and fifty-three degrees or modifi- 
 cations of the Master. Oliver, it is true, 
 speaks of it, but he evidently derived his 
 knowledge from an American source. It 
 may have been manufactured in America, 
 and possibly by some of those engaged in 
 founding the Scottish Rite. The only 
 Cahier that I ever saw of the original ritual, 
 which is still in my possession, is in the 
 handwriting of Alexander McDonald, a 
 very intelligent and enthusiastic Mason, 
 who was at one time the Grand Comman- 
 der of the Supreme Council for the South- 
 ern Jurisdiction. 
 
 The Masonic legend of the degree of Su- 
 per Excellent Master refers to circum- 
 stances which occurred on the last day of 
 the siege of Jerusalem by Nebuzaradan, 
 the captain of the Chaldean army, who had 
 been sent by Nebuchadnezzar to destroy 
 the city and Temple, as a just punishment 
 of the Jewish king Zedekiah for his per- 
 fidy and rebellion. It occupies, therefore, 
 precisely that point of time which is em- 
 braced in that part of the Royal Arch de- 
 gree which represents the destruction of the 
 Temple, and the carrying of the Jews in 
 captivity to Babylon. It is, in fact, an ex- 
 emplification and extension of that part of 
 the Royal Arch degree. 
 
 As to the symbolic design of the degree, 
 it is very evident that its legend and cere- 
 monies are intended to inculcate that im- 
 portant Masonic virtue — fidelity to vows. 
 Zedekiah, the wicked king of Judah, is, by 
 the modern ritualists who have symbolized 
 the degree, adopted very appropriately as 
 the symbol of perfidy; and the severe but 
 well-deserved punishment which was in- 
 flicted on him by the king of Babylon is 
 set forth in the lecture as a great moral les- 
 son, whose object is to warn the recipient 
 of the fatal effects that will ensue from a 
 violation of his sacred obligations. 
 
 Superintendent of the Works, 
 Grand. An officer of the Grand Lodge 
 of England, who is appointed annually by 
 the Grand Master. He should be well 
 skilled in geometry and architecture. His 
 duty is to advise with the Board of General 
 Purposes on all plans of building or edi- 
 fices undertaken by the Grand Lodge, and 
 furnish plans and estimates for the same ; 
 to superintend their construction, and see 
 that they are conformable to the plans ap- 
 proved by the Grand Master, the Grand 
 Lodge, and the Board of General Purposes ; 
 to suggest improvements, and make an an- 
 nual report on the condition of all the 
 Grand Lodge edifices. The office is not 
 known in the Grand Lodges of this country, 
 but where there is a temple or hall belong- 
 ing to a Grand Lodge, the duty of attend- 
 ing to it is referred to a hall committee, 
 which, when necessary, engages the services 
 of a professional architect. 
 
 Superior. The sixth and last de- 
 gree of the German Union of the Twenty- 
 two. 
 
 Superiors, Unknown. See Un- 
 known Superiors. 
 
 Super Mason ic. Ragon ( Orth. Ma- 
 con., p. 73,) calls the high degrees, as being 
 beyond Ancient Craft Masonry, "Grades 
 super Maqonniques." 
 
 Supplanting. All the Old Constitu- 
 tions, without exception, contain a charge 
 against one Fellow supplanting another in 
 his work. Thus, for instance, the third 
 charge in the Harleian MS. says : " Alsoe 
 that noe maister nor fellowe shall subplant 
 others of their worke, that is to say, if they 
 have taken a worke or stand maister of a 
 Lord's work, y" shall not put him out of it 
 if he be able of cuninge to end the worke." 
 From this we derive the modern doctrine 
 that one Lodge cannot interfere with the 
 work of another, and that a candidate be- 
 ginning his initiation in a Lodge must finish 
 it in the same Lodge. 
 
 Supports of the Lodge. The sym- 
 bolism connected with the supports of the 
 Lodge is one of the earliest and most ex- 
 tensively prevalent in the Order. The old- 
 
768 
 
 SUPPORTS 
 
 SUPPORTS 
 
 est Catechism of the last century gives it in 
 these words : 
 
 " Q. What supports your Lodge ? 
 
 " A. Three great Pillars. 
 
 " Q. What are their names? 
 
 "A. Wisdom, Strength, and Beauty. 
 
 " Q. Who doth the Pillar of Wisdom 
 represent? 
 
 " A. The Master in the East. 
 
 " Q. Who doth the Pillar of Strength 
 represent ? 
 
 "A. The Senior Warden in the West. 
 
 " Q. Who doth the Pillar of Beauty rep- 
 resent ? 
 
 "A. The Junior Warden in the South. 
 
 " Q. Why should the Master represent 
 the Pillar of Wisdom? 
 
 " A. Because he gives instructions to the 
 Crafts to carry on their work in a proper 
 manner, with good harmony. 
 
 " Q. Why should the Senior Warden 
 represent the Pillar of Strength ? 
 
 " A. As the Sun sets to finish the day, 
 so the Senior Warden stands in the West 
 to pay the hirelings their wages, which is 
 the strength and support of all business. 
 
 " Q. Why should the Junior Warden 
 represent the Pillar of Beauty ? 
 
 " A. Because he stands in the South at 
 high twelve at noon, which is the beauty 
 of the day, to call the men off from work to 
 refreshment, and to see that they come on 
 again in due time, that the Master may 
 have pleasure and profit therein. 
 
 " Q. Why is it said that your Lodge is 
 supported by these three great Pillars — 
 Wisdom, Strength, and Beauty? 
 
 "A. Because Wisdom, Strength, and 
 Beauty is the finisher of all works, and 
 nothing can be carried on without them. 
 
 "Q. Why so, Brother ? 
 
 "A. Because there is Wisdom to con- 
 trive, Strength to support, and Beauty to 
 adorn." 
 
 Preston repeats substantially (but, of 
 course, with an improvement of the lan- 
 guage,) this lecture; and he adds to it the 
 symbolism of the three orders of architec- 
 ture of which these pillars are said to be 
 composed. These, he says, are the Tuscan, 
 Doric, and Corinthian. The mistake of 
 enumerating the Tuscan among the ancient 
 orders was corrected by subsequent ritual- 
 ists. Preston also referred the supports 
 symbolically to the three Ancient Grand 
 Masters. This symbolism was afterwards 
 transferred by Webb from the first to the 
 third degree. 
 
 Webb, in modifying the lecture of Pres- 
 ton, attributed the supports not to the 
 Lodge, but to the Institution; an unne- 
 cessary alteration, since the Lodge is but 
 the type of the Institution. His language 
 is : " Our Institution is said to be supported 
 
 by wisdom, strength, and beauty ; because 
 it is necessary that there should be wisdom 
 to contrive, strength to support, and beauty 
 to adorn all great and important under- 
 takings." He follows the ancient refer- 
 ence of the pillars to the three officers, and 
 adopts Preston's symbolism of the three 
 orders of architecture, but he very wisely 
 substitutes the Ionic for the Tuscan. Hem- 
 ming, in his lectures adopted by the Grand 
 Lodge of England in 1813, retained the 
 symbolism of the pillars, but gave a change 
 in the language. He said: "A Mason's 
 Lodge is supported by three grand pillars. 
 They are called Wisdom, Strength, and 
 Beauty. Wisdom to contrive, Strength to 
 support, and Beauty to adorn. Wisdom 
 todirecfus in all our undertakings, Strength 
 to support us in all our difficulties, and 
 Beauty to adorn the inward man." 
 
 The French Masons preserve the same 
 symbolism. Bazot (Manuel, p. 225,) says : 
 "Three great pillars sustain the Lodge. 
 The first, the emblem of wisdom, is repre- 
 sented by the Master who sits in the east, 
 whence light and his commands emanate. 
 The second, the emblem of strength, is 
 represented by the Senior Warden, who 
 sits in the west, where the workmen are 
 paid, whose strength and existence are pre- 
 served by the wages which they receive. 
 The third and last pillar is the emblem of 
 beauty ; it is represented by the Junior 
 Warden, who sits in the south, because that 
 part typifies the middle of the day, whose 
 beauty is perfect ; during this time the 
 workmen repose from work ; and it is thence 
 that the Junior Warden sees them return 
 to the Lodge and resume their labors." 
 
 The German Masons have also main- 
 tained these three pillars in their various 
 rituals. Schroder, the author of the most 
 philosophical one, says : " The universal 
 Lodge, as well as every particular one, is 
 supported by three great invisible columns 
 — Wisdom, Strength, and Beauty; for as 
 every building is planned and fashioned 
 by Wisdom, owes its durability and solidity 
 to Strength, and is made symmetrical and 
 harmonious by Beauty, so ought our spirit- 
 ual building to be designed by Wisdom, 
 which gives it the firm foundation of Truth, 
 on which the Strength of conviction may 
 build, and self-knowledge complete the 
 structure, and give it permanence and con- 
 tinuance by means of right, justice, and 
 resolute perseverance; and Beauty will 
 finally adorn the edifice with all the social 
 virtues, with brotherly love and union, 
 with benevolence, kindness, and a com- 
 prehensive philanthropy." 
 
 Steiglitz, in his work On the Old German 
 Architecture, (i. 239,) after complaining that 
 the building principles of the old German 
 
SUPPORTS 
 
 SUPREME 
 
 769 
 
 artists were lost to us, because, considering 
 them as secrets of the brotherhood, they 
 deemed it unlawful to commit them to 
 writing, yet thinks that enough may be 
 found in the old documents of the Frater- 
 nity to sustain the conjecture that these 
 three supports were familiar to the Oper- 
 ative Masons. He says : 
 
 "Wisdom, Strength, and Beauty were hon- 
 ored by them as supporting pillars for the 
 perfect accomplishment of the works ; and 
 thence they considered them symbolically 
 as essential pillars for the support of the 
 Lodge. Wisdom, which, established on 
 science, gives invention to the artist, and 
 the right arrangement and appropriate dis- 
 position .of the whole and of all its parts ; 
 Strength, which, proceeding from the har- 
 monious balance of all the forces, promotes 
 the secure erection of the building; and 
 Beauty, which, manifested in God's crea- 
 tion of the world, adorns the work and 
 makes it perfect." 
 
 I can hardly doubt, from the early ap- 
 pearance of this symbol of the three sup- 
 ports, and from its unchanged form in all 
 countries, that it dates its origin from a 
 period earlier than the revival in 1717, and 
 that it may be traced to the Operative Ma- 
 sons of the Middle Ages, where Stieglitz 
 says it existed. 
 
 One thing is clear, that the symbol is 
 not found among those of the Gnostics, and 
 was not familiar to the Rosicrucians ; and, 
 therefore, out of the three sources of our 
 symbolism, — Gnosticism, Rosicrucianism, 
 and Operative Masonry, — it is most prob- 
 able that it has been derived from the last. 
 
 When the high degrees were fabricated, 
 and Christianity began to furnish its sym- 
 bols and doctrine to the new Masonry, the 
 old Temple of Solomon was by some of 
 them abandoned, and that other temple 
 adopted to which Christ had referred when 
 he said, " Destroy this temple, and in three 
 days I will raise it up." The old supports 
 of wisdom, strength, and beauty, which had 
 sufficed for the Gothic builders, and which 
 they, borrowing them from the results of 
 their labors on the cathedrals, had applied 
 symbolically to their Lodges, were discarded, 
 and more spiritual supports for a more spir- 
 itual temple were to be selected. There had 
 been a new dispensation, and there was to 
 be a new temple. The great doctrine of 
 that new dispensation was to furnish the 
 supporting pillars for the new temple. In 
 these high Christianized degrees we there- 
 fore no longer find the columns of Wisdom, 
 Strength, and Beauty, but the spiritual ones 
 of Faith, Hope, and Charity. 
 
 But the form of the symbolism is un- 
 changed. The East, the West, and the 
 South are still the spots where we find the 
 4W -49 
 
 new, as we did the old, pillars. Thus the 
 triangle is preserved; for the triangle is the 
 Masonic symbol of God, who is, after all, 
 the true support of the Lodge. 
 
 Supreme Authority. The supreme 
 authority in Masonry is that dogmatic power 
 from whose decisions there is no appeal. 
 At the head of every Rite there is a su- 
 preme authority which controls and directs 
 the acts of all subordinate bodies of the 
 Rite. In the United States, and in the 
 American Rite which is there practised, it 
 would, at the first glance, appear that the 
 supreme authority is divided. That of 
 symbolic Lodges is vested in Grand Lodges, 
 of Royal Arch Chapters in Grand Chap- 
 ters, of Royal and Select Councils in Grand 
 Councils, and of Commanderies of Knights 
 Templars in the Grand Encampment. And 
 so far as ritualistic questions and matters 
 of internal arrangement are concerned, the 
 supreme authority is so divided. But the 
 supreme authority of Masonry in each 
 State is actually vested in the Grand Lodge 
 of that State. It is universally recognized 
 as Masonic law that a Mason expelled or 
 suspended by the Grand Lodge, or by a 
 subordinate Lodge with the approval and 
 confirmation of the Grand Lodge, thereby 
 stands expelled or suspended from Royal 
 Arch, from Cryptic, and from Templar 
 Masonry. Nor can he be permitted to 
 visit any of the bodies in either of these 
 divisions of the Rite so long as he remains 
 under the ban of expulsion of the Grand 
 Lodge. So the status or condition of every 
 Mason in the jurisdiction is controlled by the 
 Grand Lodge, from whose action on that 
 subject there is no appeal. The Masonic 
 life and death of every member of the Craft, 
 in every class of the Order, is in its hands, 
 and thus the Grand Lodge becomes the real 
 supreme authority of the jurisdiction. 
 
 Supreme Commander of the 
 Stars. (Suprime Commandeur des Astres.) 
 A degree said to have been invented at 
 Geneva in 1779, and found in the collection 
 of M. A. Viany. 
 
 Supreme Consistory. (Supreme 
 Consistoire.) The title of some of the 
 highest bodies in the Rite of Mizraim. 
 In the original construction of the Rite at 
 Naples the members of the ninetieth de- 
 gree met in a Supreme Consistory. When 
 the Bederides took charge of the Rite they 
 changed the title of the governing body 
 to Supreme Council. 
 
 Supreme Council. The Supreme 
 Masonic authority of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite is called a Supreme 
 Council. A Supreme Council claims to 
 derive the authority for its existence from 
 the Constitutions of 1786. I have no in- 
 tention here of entering into the question 
 
770 
 
 SUPREME 
 
 SUPREME 
 
 of the authenticity of that document. The 
 question is open to the historian, and has 
 been amply discussed, with the natural re- 
 sult of contradictory conclusions. But he 
 who accepts the Ancient and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite as genuine Freemasonry, and 
 owes his obedience as a Mason to its con- 
 stituted authorities, is compelled to recog- 
 nize those Constitutions wherever or when- 
 ever they may have been enacted as the 
 fundamental law — the constitutional rule 
 of his Rite. To their authority all the 
 Supreme Councils owe their legitimate 
 existence. 
 
 Dr. Frederick Dalcho, who, I think, may 
 very properly be considered as the founder 
 in the United States, and therefore in the 
 world, of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite in its present form as the legiti- 
 mate successor of the Rite of Perfection or 
 of Herodem, has given in the Circular 
 written by him, and published December 4, 
 1802, by the Supreme Council at Charles- 
 ton, the following account of the establish- 
 ment of Supreme Councils. 
 
 " On the 1st of May, 1786, the Grand 
 Constitution of the thirty-third degree, 
 called the Supreme Council of Sovereign 
 Grand Inspectors General, was finally rati- 
 fied by his Majesty the King of Prussia, 
 who, as Grand Commander of the Order of 
 Prince of the Royal Secret, possessed the 
 Sovereign Masonic power over all the Craft. 
 In the new Constitution, this high power 
 was conferred on a Supreme Council of 
 nine brethren in each nation, who possess 
 all the Masonic prerogatives, in their own 
 district, that his Majesty individually pos- 
 sessed, and are Sovereigns of Masonry." 
 
 The law for the establishment of a Su- 
 preme Council is found in the following 
 words in the Latin Constitutions of 1786 : 
 " The first degree will be subordinated to 
 the second, that to the third, and so in 
 order to the sublime, thirty -third, and last, 
 which will watch over all the others, will 
 correct their errors and will govern them, 
 and whose congregation or convention will 
 be a dogmatic Supreme Grand Council, the 
 Defender and Conservator of the Order, 
 which it will govern and administer accord- 
 ing to the present Constitutions and those 
 which may hereafter be enacted." 
 1 But the Supreme Council at Charleston 
 derived its authority and its information 
 from what are called the French Constitu- 
 tions ; and it is in them that we find the 
 statement that Frederick invested the Su- 
 preme Council with the same prerogatives 
 that he himself possessed, a provision not 
 contained in the Latin Constitutions. The 
 twelfth article says : " The Supreme Coun- 
 cil will exercise all the Masonic sovereign 
 powers of which his Majesty Frederick II., 
 King of Prussia, was possessed." 
 
 These Constitutions further declare, (Art. 
 5,) that " every Supreme Council is com- 
 posed of nine Inspectors General, five of 
 whom should profess the Christian reli- 
 gion." In the same article it is provided 
 that "there shall be only one Council of 
 this degree in each nation or kingdom in 
 Europe, two in the United States of 
 America as far removed as possible the 
 one from the other, one in the English 
 islands of America, and one likewise in 
 the French islands." 
 
 It was in compliance with these Constitu- 
 tions that the Supreme Council at Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, was instituted. In the 
 Circular, already cited, Dalcho gives this 
 account of its establishment. 
 
 ' ; On the 31st of May, 1801, the Supreme 
 Council of the thirty-third degree for the 
 United States of America was opened, with 
 the high honors of Masonry, by Brothers 
 John Mitchell and Frederick Dalcho, 
 Sovereign Grand Inspectors General; and 
 in the course of the present year, [1802,] 
 the whole number of Grand Inspectors 
 General was completed, agreeably to the 
 Grand Constitutions." 
 
 This was the first Supreme Council of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite ever 
 formed; from it has emanated either di- 
 rectly or indirectly all the other Councils 
 which have been since established in 
 America or Europe; and although it now 
 exercises jurisdiction only over a part of 
 the United States under the title of the 
 Supreme Council for the Southern Juris- 
 diction of the United States, it claims to 
 be and is recognized as " the Mother Coun- 
 cil of the World." 
 
 Under its authority a Supreme Council, 
 the second in date, was established by Count 
 de Grasse in the French West Indies, in 
 1802 ; a third in France, by the same au- 
 thority, in 1804; and a fourth in Italy in 
 1805. In 1813 the Masonic jurisdiction 
 of the United States was divided ; the Mother 
 Council establishing at the city of New 
 York a Supreme Council for the Northern 
 Jurisdiction, and over the States north of 
 the Ohio and east of the Mississippi, re- 
 serving to itself all the remainder of the 
 territory of the United States. The seat 
 of the Northern Council is now at Boston ; 
 and although the offices of the Grand 
 Commander and Secretary-General of the 
 Southern Council are now in the city of 
 Washington, whence its documents emanate, 
 its seat is still constructively at Charleston. 
 
 On their first organization, the Supreme 
 Councils were limited to nine members in 
 each. That rule continued to be enforced 
 in the Mother Council until the year 1859, 
 when the number was increased to thirty- 
 three. Similar enlargements have been 
 made in all the other Supreme Councils 
 
SUSPENSION 
 
 SUSPENSION 
 
 771 
 
 except that of Scotland, which still retains 
 the original number. 
 
 The officers of the original Supreme 
 Council at Charleston were : a Most Puis- 
 sant Sovereign Grand Commander, Most 
 Illustrious Lieutenant Grand Commander, 
 Illustrious Treasurer-General of the Holy 
 Empire, Illustrious Secretary-General of 
 the Holy Empire, Illustrious Grand Mas- 
 ter of Ceremonies, and Illustrious Captain 
 of the Guards. 
 
 In 1859, with the change of numbers in 
 the membership, there was also made a 
 change in the number and titles of the offi- 
 cers. These now in the Mother Council, 
 according to its present Constitution, are : 
 
 I. Sovereign Grand Commander; 2. Lieu- 
 tenant Grand Commander; 3. Secretary- 
 General of the Holy Empire; 4. Grand 
 Prior; 5. Grand Chancellor; 6. Grand 
 Minister of State; 7. Treasurer-General 
 of the Holy Empire; 8. Grand Auditor; 
 9. Grand Almoner ; 10. Grand Constable ; 
 
 II. Grand Chamberlain; 12. First Grand 
 Equerry; 13. Second Grand Equerry; 14. 
 Grand Standard-Bearer ; 15. Grand toword- 
 Bearer ; 18. Grand Herald. The Secretary- 
 General is properly the seventh officer, but 
 by a decree of the Supreme he is made the 
 third officer in rank " while the office con- 
 tinues to be filled by Bro. Albert G. Mackey, 
 the present incumbent, who is the Dean of 
 the Supreme Council." 
 
 The officers somewhat vary in other Su- 
 preme Councils, but the presiding and re- 
 cording officers are everywhere a Sovereign 
 Grand Commander and a Secretary-General 
 of the Holy Empire. 
 
 Suspension. This is a Masonic pun- 
 ishment, which consists of a temporary 
 deprivation of the rights and privileges of 
 Masonry. It is of two kinds, definite and 
 indefinite ; but the effect of the penalty, for 
 the time that it lasts, is the same in both 
 kinds. The mode in which restoration is 
 effected differs in each. 
 
 1. Definite Suspension. — By definite sus- 
 pension is meant a deprivation of the rights 
 and privileges of Masonry for a fixed period 
 of time, which period is always named in 
 the sentence. By the operation of this 
 penalty, a Mason is for the time prohibited 
 from the exercise of all his Masonic privi- 
 leges. His rights are placed in abeyance, 
 and he can neither visit Lodges, hold Ma- 
 sonic communication, nor receive Masonic 
 relief, during the period for which he has 
 been suspended. Yet his Masonic citizen- 
 ship is not lost. In this respect suspension 
 may be compared to the Roman punishment 
 of relegatio," or banishment, which Ovid, 
 who had endured it, describes, (Tristia, v. 
 11,) with technical correctness, as a penalty 
 which " takes away neither life nor prop- 
 
 erty nor rights of citizens, but only drives 
 away from the country." So by suspension 
 the rights and duties of the Mason are not 
 obliterated, but their exercise only inter- 
 dicted for the period limited by the sen- 
 tence, and as soon as this has terminated 
 he at once resumes his former position in 
 the Order, and is reinvested with all his 
 Masonic rights, whether those rights be of 
 a private or of an official nature. 
 
 Thus, if an officer of a Lodge has been 
 suspended for three months from all the 
 rights and privileges of Masonry, a suspen- 
 sion of his official functions also takes 
 place. But a suspension from the discharge 
 of the functions of an office is not a depri- 
 vation of the office ; and therefore, as soon 
 as the three months to which the suspen- 
 sion had been limited have expired, the 
 brother resumes all his rights in the Order 
 and the Lodge, and with them, of course, the 
 office which he had held at the time that 
 the sentence of suspension had been inflicted. 
 
 2. Indefinite Suspension. — This is a sus- 
 
 Eension for a period not determined and 
 xed by the sentence, but to continue dur- 
 ing the pleasure of the Lodge. In this re- 
 spect only does it differ from the preceding 
 punishment. The position of a Mason, 
 under definite or indefinite suspension, is 
 
 Erecisely the same as to the exercise of all 
 is rights and privileges, which in both 
 cases remain in abeyance, and restoration 
 in each brings with it a resumption of all 
 the rights and functions, the exercise of 
 which had been interrupted by the sentence 
 of suspension. 
 
 Neither definite nor indefinite suspension 
 can be inflicted except after due notifica- 
 tion and trial, and then only by a vote of 
 two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Restoration to Masonic rights differs, as 
 I have said, in these two kinds. Restora- 
 tion from definite suspension may take 
 place either by a vote of the Lodge abridg- 
 ing the time, when two-thirds of the mem- 
 bers must concur, or it will terminate by 
 the natural expiration of the period fixed 
 by the sentence, and that without any 
 vote of the Lodge. Thus, if a member is 
 suspended for three months, at the end of 
 the third month his suspension terminates, 
 and he is ipso facto restored to all his rights 
 and privileges. 
 
 In the case of indefinite suspension, the 
 only method of restoration is by a vote of 
 the Lodge at a regular meeting, two-thirds 
 of those present concurring. 
 
 Lastly, it may be observed that, as the 
 suspension of a member suspends his pre- 
 rogatives, it also suspends his dues. He 
 cannot be expected, in justice, to pay for 
 that which he does not receive, and Lodge 
 dues are simply a compensation made by a 
 
772 
 
 SUSSEX 
 
 SWEDEN 
 
 member for the enjoyment of the privileges 
 of membership. 
 
 Sussex, Duke of. The Duke of 
 Sussex is entitled to a place in Masonic bi- 
 ography, not only because, of all the Grand 
 Masters on record, he held the office the 
 longest, — the Duke of Leinster, of Ireland, 
 alone excepted, — but also because of his de- 
 votion to the Institution, and the zeal with 
 which he cultivated and protected its in- 
 terests. Augustus Frederick, ninth child 
 and sixth son of George III., king of Eng- 
 land, was born January 27, 1773. He was 
 initiated in 1798 at a Lodge in Berlin. 
 In 1805, the honorary rank of a Past 
 Grand Master was conferred on him by the 
 Grand Lodge of England. May 13, 1812, 
 he was appointed Deputy Grand Master; 
 and April 13, 1813, the Prince Regent, 
 afterwards George IV., having declined a 
 re-election as Grand Master, the Duke of 
 Sussex was unanimously elected; and in the 
 same year the two rival Grand Lodges of 
 England were united. The Duke was Most 
 Excellent Zerubbabel of the Grand Chap- 
 ter, and Grand Superintendent of the Grand 
 Conclave of Knights Templars. He never, 
 however, took any interest in the orders of 
 knighthood, to which, indeed, he appears to 
 have had some antipathy. During his long 
 career the Grand Conclave never met but 
 once. By annual elections, he retained the 
 office of Grand Master until his death, which 
 took place April 21, 1843, in the seventy- 
 first year of his age, having completed a 
 Masonic administration as head of the Eng- 
 lish Craft of upwards of thirty years. 
 
 During that long period, it was impos- 
 sible that some errors should not have been 
 committed. The Grand Master's conduct 
 in reference to two distinguished Masons, 
 Drs. Crucefix and Oliver, was by no means 
 creditable to his reputation for justice or 
 forbearance. But the general tenor of his 
 life as an upright man and Mason, and his 
 great attachment to the Order, tended to 
 compensate for the few mistakes of his ad- 
 ministration. One who had been most 
 bitterly opposed to his course in reference 
 to Brothers Crucefix and Oliver, and had 
 not been sparing of his condemnation, paid, 
 after his death, this tribute to his Masonic 
 virtues and abilities. 
 
 * As a Freemason," said the Freemasons' 
 Quarterly Review, (1843, p. 120,) " the Duke 
 of Sussex was the most accomplished crafts- 
 man of his day. His knowledge of the 
 mysteries was, as it were, intuitive; his 
 reading on the subject was extensive ; his 
 correspondence equally so; and his desire 
 to be introduced to any brother from whose 
 experience he could derive any information 
 had in it a craving that marked his great 
 devotion to the Order." 
 
 On the occasion of the presentation of an 
 offering by the Fraternity in 1838, the Duke 
 gave the following account of his Masonic 
 life, which embodies sentiments that are 
 highly honorable to him. 
 
 " My duty as your Grand Master is to 
 take care that no political or religious ques- 
 tion intrudes itself; and had I thought 
 that, in presenting this tribute, any politi- 
 cal feeling had influenced the brethren, I 
 can only say that then the Grand Master 
 would not have been gratified. Our object 
 is unanimity, and we can find a centre of 
 unanimity unknown elsewhere. I recollect 
 twenty-five years ago, at a meeting in many 
 respects similar to the present, a magnifi- 
 cent jewel (by voluntary vote) was pre- 
 sented to the Earl Moira previous to his 
 journey to India. I had the honor to pre- 
 side, and I remember the powerful and 
 beautiful appeal which that excellent 
 brother made on the occasion. I am now 
 sixty-six years of age — I say this without 
 regret — the true Mason ought to think that 
 the first day of his birth is but a step on 
 his way to the final close of life. When I 
 tell you that I have completed forty years 
 of a Masonic life — there may be older Ma- 
 sons — but that is a pretty good specimen of 
 my attachment to the Order. 
 
 " In 1798, I entered Masonry in a Lodge 
 at Berlin, and there I served several offices, 
 and as Warden was a representative of the 
 Lodge in the Grand Lodge of England. I 
 afterwards was acknowledged and received 
 with the usual compliment paid to a mem- 
 ber of the Royal Family, by being ap- 
 pointed a Past Grand Warden. I again 
 went abroad for three years, and on my re- 
 turn joined various Lodges, and upon the 
 retirement of the Prince Regent, who be- 
 came Patron of the Order, I was elected 
 Grand Master. An epoch of considerable 
 interest intervened, and I became charged, 
 in 1813-14, with a most important mission 
 — the union of the two London societies. 
 My most excellent brother, the Duke of 
 Kent, accepted the title of Grand Master 
 of the Athol Masons, as they were denomi- 
 nated; I was the Grand Master of those 
 called the Prince of Wales's. In three 
 months we carried the union of the two 
 societies, and I had the happiness of pre- 
 siding over the united Fraternity. This I 
 consider to have been the happiest event 
 of my life. It brought all Masons upon 
 the Level and the Square, and showed the 
 world at large that the differences of com- 
 mon life did not exist in Masonry, and it 
 showed to Masons that by a long pull, a 
 strong pull, and a pull altogether, what 
 great good might be effected." 
 
 Sweden. Freemasonry was introduced 
 into Sweden in the year 1735, when Count 
 
SWEDEN 
 
 SWEDENBORG 
 
 773 
 
 Sparre, who had heen initiated in Paris, 
 established a Lodge at Stockholm. Of this 
 Lodge scarcely anything is known, and it 
 probably soon fell into decay. In 1738, 
 King Frederick I. promulgated a decree 
 which interdicted all Masonic meetings 
 under the penalty of death. At the end of 
 seven years the edict was removed, and 
 Masonry became popular. Lodges were 
 publicly recognized, and in 1746 the Ma- 
 sons of Stockholm struck a medal on the 
 occasion of the birth of the Prince Royal, 
 afterwards Gustavus III. In 1753, the 
 Swedish Masons laid the foundation of 
 an orphan asylum at Stockholm, which 
 was built by the voluntary contributions 
 of the Fraternity, without any assistance 
 from the State. In 1762, King Adolphus 
 Frederick, in a letter to the Grand Master, 
 declared himself the Protector of the 
 Swedish Lodges, and expressed his readi- 
 ness to become the Chief of Freemasonry 
 in his dominions, and to asaist in defraying 
 the expenses of the Order. In 1765, Lord 
 Blayney, Grand Master of England, granted 
 a Deputation to Charles Fullmann, Secre- 
 tary of the English embassy at Stockholm, 
 as Provincial Grand Master, with the au- 
 thority to constitute Lodges in Sweden. 
 At the same time, Schubarb, a member of 
 the Rite of Strict Observance, appeared at 
 Stockholm, and endeavored to establish that 
 Rite. But he had but little success, as 
 the high degrees had been previously in- 
 troduced from France. 
 
 But this admixture of English, French, 
 and German Masonry occasioned great dis- 
 satisfaction, and gave rise, about this time, 
 to the establishment of an independent sys- 
 tem known as the Swedish Rite. In 1770, 
 the Illuminated Grand Chapter was estab- 
 lished, and the Duke of Sudermania ap- 
 pointed the Vicarius Salomonis. In 1780, 
 the Grand Lodge of Sweden, which for 
 some years had been in abeyance, was re- 
 vived, and the same Prince elected Grand 
 Master. This act gave an independent and 
 responsible position to Swedish Masonry, 
 and the progress of the Institution in that 
 kingdom has been ever since regular and 
 uninterrupted. On March 22, 1793, Gus- 
 tavus IV., the king of Sweden, was initi- 
 ated into Masonry in a Lodge at Stock- 
 holm, the Duke of Sudermania, then acting 
 as Regent of the kingdom, presiding as the 
 Grand Master of the Order. 
 
 In 1799, on the application of the Duke 
 of Sudermania, a fraternal alliance was 
 consummated between the Grand Lodges 
 of England and Sweden, and mutual rep- 
 resentatives appointed. 
 
 In 1809, the Duke of Sudermania ascend- 
 ed the throne under the title of Charles 
 XIII. He continued his attachment to the 
 
 Order, and retained the Grand Mastership. 
 As a singular mark of his esteem for Free- 
 masonry, the King instituted, May 27, 1811, 
 a new order of knighthood, known as the 
 Order of Charles XIII., the members of 
 which were to be selected from Freemasons 
 only. In the Patent of institution the 
 King declared that, in founding the Order, 
 his intention " was not only to excite his 
 subjects to the practice of charity, and to 
 perpetuate the memory of the devotion of 
 the Masonic Order to his person while it 
 was under his protection, but also to give 
 further proofs of his royal benevolence to 
 those whom he had so long embraced and 
 cherished under the name of Freemasons." 
 The Order, besides the princes of the royal 
 family, was to consist of twenty-seven lay, 
 and three ecclesiastical knights, all of whom 
 were to hold equal rank. 
 
 The Grand Lodge of Sweden practises 
 the Swedish Rite, and exercises its jurisdic- 
 tion under the title of the National Grand 
 Lodge of Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Swedenborg. Emanuel Swedenborg, 
 a distinguished theologian of his age, and 
 the founder of a sect which still exists, 
 has been always mythically connected with 
 Freemasonry. The eagerness is indeed ex- 
 traordinary with which all Masonic writ- 
 ers, German, French, English, and Ameri- 
 can, have sought to connect the name and 
 labors of the Swedish sage with the Ma- 
 sonic institution, and that, too, without the 
 slightest foundation for such a theory either 
 in his writings, or in any credible memo- 
 rials of his life. 
 
 Findel, {Hist., Lyon's Trans., p. 529,) 
 speaking of the reforms in Swedish Ma- 
 sonry, says: "Most likely Swedenborg, the 
 mystic and visionary, used his influence in 
 bringing about the new system ; at all 
 events, he smoothed the way for it." Len- 
 ning speaks of the influence of his teach- 
 ings upon the Swedish system of Freema- 
 sonry, although he does not absolutely 
 claim him as a Mason. 
 
 Reghellini, in his Esprit du Dogme de la 
 Franche-Matpnnerie, writes thus : " Sweden- 
 borg made many very learned researches on 
 the subject of the Masonic mysteries. He 
 thought that their doctrines were of the 
 highest antiquity, having emanated from 
 the Egyptians, the Persians, the Magi, the 
 Jews, and the Greeks. He also became the 
 head of a new religion in his effort to re- 
 form that of Rome. For this purpose he 
 wrote his Celestial Jerusalem, or his Spi- 
 ritual World : * he mingled with his reform, 
 
 * There is no work written by Swedenborg 
 which bears either of those titles. It is possible 
 that Reghellini alludes either to the Arcana 
 Ccelestia, published in 1749-1753, or to the De 
 Nova Hierosolyma, published in 1758. 
 
74 
 
 SWEDENBORG 
 
 SWEDENBORG 
 
 ideas which were purely Masonic. In this 
 celestial Jerusalem the Word formerly com- 
 municated by God to Moses is found ; this 
 word is Jehovah, lost on earth, but which 
 he invites us to find in Great Tartary, a 
 country still governed, even in our days, 
 by the patriarchs, by which he means alle- 
 gorically to say that this people most nearly 
 approach to the primitive condition of the 
 perfection of innocence." The same writer, 
 in his Maconnerie consideree comme le resultat 
 des religions Egyptienne, Jeuve et Chretienne, 
 (ii. 454,) repeatedly speaks of Swedenborg 
 as a Masonic reformer, and sometimes as a 
 Masonic impostor. Eagon also cites Reg- 
 hellini in his Orthodoxie Maconnique, (p. 
 255,) and recognizes Swedenborg as the 
 founder of a Masonic system. Thory, in 
 his Acta Latomorum, cites " the system of 
 Swedenborg ; " and in fact all the French 
 writers on Masonic ritualism appear to have 
 borrowed their idea of the Swedish theo- 
 sophist from the statement of Reghellini, 
 and have not hesitated to rank him among 
 the principal Masonic teachers of his time. 
 
 Oliver is the earliest of the English Ma- 
 sonic writers of eminence who has referred 
 to Swedenborg. He, too often careless of 
 the weight of his expressions and facile in 
 the acceptance of authority, speaks of the 
 degrees, the system, and the Masonry of 
 Swedenborg just in the same tone as he 
 would of those of Cagliostro, of Hund, or 
 of Tschoudy. 
 
 And, lastly, in America we have a recent 
 writer, Bro. Samuel Beswick, who is evi- 
 dently a man of ability and of considerable 
 research. He has culminated to the zenith 
 in his assumptions of the Masonic character 
 of Swedenborg. He published at New York, 
 in 1870, a volume entitled, The Swedenborg 
 Rite and the Great Masonic Leaders of the 
 Eighteenth Century. In this work, which, 
 outside of its Swedenborgian fancies, con- 
 tains much interesting matter, he traces the 
 Masonic life of Swedenborg from his ini- 
 tiation, the time and place of which he 
 makes in 1706, in a Scottish Lodge in the 
 town of Lund, in Sweden, which is a fair 
 specimen of the value of his historical 
 statements. But after treating the great 
 Swede as a Masonic reformer, as the founder 
 of a Rite, and as evincing during his whole 
 life a deep interest in Freemasonry, he ap- 
 pears to me to surrender the whole question 
 in the following closing words of his work : 
 
 "From the very moment of his initia- 
 tion, Swedenborg appears to have resolved 
 never to allude to his membership or to his 
 knowledge of Freemasonry, either publicly 
 or privately. He appears to have made up 
 his mind to keep it a profound secret, and 
 to regard it as something which had no re- 
 lation to his public life. 
 
 " We have searched his Itinerary, which 
 contains brief references to everything he 
 saw, heard, and read during his travels, for 
 something having relation to his Masonic 
 knowledge, intercourse, correspondence, 
 visits to Lodges, places, or persons; but 
 there is a studied silence, a systematic 
 avoidance of all allusion to it. In his 
 theological works, his Memorable Relations 
 speak of almost every sect in Christendom, 
 and of all sorts of organizations, or of individ- 
 uals belonging thereto. But Masonry is an 
 exception : there is a systematic silence in 
 relation to it." 
 
 It is true that he finds in this reticence 
 of Swedenborg the evidence that he was a 
 Mason and interested in Masonry, but others 
 will most probably form a different conclu- 
 sion. The fact is that Swedenborg never 
 was a Freemason. The reputation of being 
 one, that has been so continuously attribu- 
 ted to him by Masonic writers, is based first 
 upon the assumptions of Reghellini, whose 
 statements in his Esprit du Dogme were 
 never questioned nor their truth investi- 
 gated, as they should have been, but were 
 blindly followed by succeeding writers. 
 Neither Wilkinson, nor Burk, nor White, 
 who wrote his biography, — the last the 
 most exhaustively, — nor anything in his 
 own voluminous writings, lead us to any 
 such conclusion. 
 
 But the second and more important basis 
 on which the theory of a Swedenborgian 
 Masonry has been built is the conduct of 
 some of his own disciples, who, imbued 
 with his religious views, being Masons, 
 carried the spirit of the New Jerusalem 
 doctrines into their Masonic speculations. 
 There was, it is true, a Masonic Rite or 
 System of Swedenborg, but its true history 
 is this : 
 
 The two most important religious works 
 of Swedenborg, the Celestial Arcana and 
 the New Jerusalem, appeared, the former 
 between the years 1749 and 1753, and the 
 latter in 1758. About that period we find 
 Pernetty working out his schemes of Ma- 
 sonic reform. Pernetty was a theosophist, 
 a Hermetic philosopher, a disciple, to some 
 extent, of Jacob Bbhme, that prince of 
 mystics. To such a man, the reveries, the 
 visions, and the spiritual speculations of 
 Swedenborg were peculiarly attractive. He 
 accepted them as an addition to the theo- 
 sophic views which he already had received. 
 About the year 1760 he established at Avig- 
 non his Rite of the Uluminati, in which 
 the reveries of both Bohme and Sweden- 
 borg were introduced. In 1783 this system 
 was reformed by the Marquis de Thome, 
 another Swedenborgian, and out of that 
 reform arose what was called the " Rite of 
 Swedenborg," not because Swedenborg had 
 
SWEDENBORG 
 
 SWEDENBORG 
 
 775 
 
 eatabliahed it, or had anything directly to do 
 with its establishment, but because it was 
 based on his peculiar theological views, and 
 because its symbolism was borrowed from 
 the ideas he had advanced in the highly 
 symbolical works that he had written. A 
 portion of these degrees, or other degrees 
 much like them, have been called apoca- 
 lyptic; not because St. John had, any more 
 than Swedenborg, a connection with them, 
 but because their system of initiation is 
 based on the mystical teachings of the 
 Apocalypse; a work which, not less than 
 the theories of the Swede, furnishes abun- 
 dant food for a system of Masonico-reli- 
 gious symbolism. Benedict Chastanier, also 
 another disciple of Swedenborg, and who 
 was one of the founders of the Avignon 
 Society, carried these views into England, 
 and founded at London a similar Rite, 
 which afterwards was changed into a purely 
 religious association under the name of 
 "The Theosophical Society, instituted for 
 the purpose of promoting the Heavenly 
 Doctrines of the New Jerusalem." 
 
 In one of his visions, Swedenborg thus 
 describes a palace in the spiritual world 
 which he had visited. From passages such 
 as these which abound in his various trea- 
 tises, the theosophic Masons concocted 
 those degrees which have been called the 
 Masonry of Swedenborg. To no reader of 
 the passage annexed can its appropriateness 
 as the basis of a system of symbolism fail to 
 be apparent. 
 
 " I accordingly entered the temple, which 
 was magnificent, and in the midst of which 
 a woman was represented clothed in pur- 
 ple, holding in her right hand a golden 
 crown piece, and in her left a chain of 
 pearls. The statue and the representation 
 were oa\y fantastic representations ; for these 
 infernal spirits, by closing the interior de- 
 gree and opening the exterior only, are 
 able at the pleasure of their imagination to 
 represent magnificent objects. Perceiving 
 that they were illusions, I prayed to the 
 Lord. Immediately the interior of my 
 spirit was opened, and I saw, instead of the 
 superb temple, a tottering house, open to 
 the weather from the top to the bottom. 
 In the place of the woman-statue, an image 
 was suspended, having the head of a dra- 
 gon, the body of a leopard, the feet of a 
 bear, and the mouth of a lion : in short, it 
 was the beast rising out of the sea, as de- 
 scribed in the Apocalypse xiii. 2. In the 
 place of a park, there was a marsh full of 
 frogs, and I was informed that under this 
 marsh there was a great hewn stone, be- 
 neath which the WORD was entirely hid- 
 den. Afterwards I said to the prelate, who 
 was the fabricator of these illusions, ' Is that 
 your temple ? ' ' Yes/ replied he, ' it is.' 
 
 Immediately his interior sight was opened 
 like mine, and he saw what I did. ■ How 
 now, what do I see ? ' cried he. I told him 
 that it was the effect of the celestial light, 
 which discovers the interior quality of every- 
 thing, and which taught him at that very 
 moment what faith separated from good 
 works was. While I was speaking, a wind 
 blowing from the east destroyed the temple 
 and the image, dried up the marsh, and 
 discovered the stone under which the Sacred 
 Word was concealed. A genial warmth, like 
 that of the spring, descended from heaven ; 
 and in the place of that temple we saw a 
 tent, the exterior of which was very plain. 
 I looked into the interior of it, and there I 
 saw the foundation-stone beneath which the 
 Sacred Word was concealed, ornamented 
 with precious stones, the splendor of which, 
 diffusing itself over the walls of the temple, 
 diversified the colors of the paintings, which 
 represented cherubims. The angels, per- 
 ceiving me to be filled with admiration, 
 told me that I should see still greater won- 
 ders than these. They were then permitted 
 to open the third heaven, inhabited by the 
 celestial angels, who dwell in love. All on 
 a sudden the splendor of a light of fire 
 caused the temple to disappear, and left 
 nothing to be seen but the Lord himself, 
 standing upon the foundation-stone — the 
 Lord, who was the Word, such as he showed 
 Himself. (Apocal. i. 13-16.) Holiness im- 
 mediately filled all the interior of the spirit 
 of the angels, upon which they made an 
 effort to prostrate themselves, but the Lord 
 shut the passage to the light from the third 
 heaven, opening the passage to the light of 
 the second, which caused the temple to re- 
 appear, with the tent in the midst." 
 
 Such passages as these might lead one 
 to suppose that Swedenborg was familiar 
 with the system of Masonic ritualism. His 
 complete reticence upon the subject, how- 
 ever, and the whole tenor of his life, his 
 studies, and his habits, assure us that such 
 was not the case; and that if there was 
 really a borrowing of one from the other, 
 and not an accidental coincidence, it was 
 the Freemasons of the high degrees who 
 borrowed from Swedenborg, and not Swe- 
 denborg from them. And if so, we cannot 
 deny that he has unwittingly exercised a 
 powerful influence on Masonry. 
 
 Swedenborg, Rite of. The so- 
 called Rite of Swedenborg, the history of 
 whose foundation has been given in the 
 preceding article, consists of six degrees : 
 1. Apprentice. 2. Fellow Craft. 3. Master 
 Neophyte. 4. Illuminated Theosophite. 
 5. Blue Brother. 6. Red Brother. It is said 
 to be still practised by some of the Swedish 
 Lodges, but is elsewhere extinct. Reghel- 
 lini, in his Esprit du Dogme, gives it as con- 
 
776 
 
 SWEDISH 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 sisting of eight degrees; but he has evidently 
 confounded it with the Rite of Martinism, 
 also a theosophic Bite, and the ritualism of 
 which also partakes of a Swedenborgian 
 
 Swedish Rite. The Swedish Bite 
 was established about the year 1777, and is 
 indebted for its existence to the exertions 
 and influence of King Gustavus III. It 
 is a mixture of the pure Bite of York, the 
 high degrees of the French, the Templarism 
 of the former Strict Observance, and the 
 system of Bosicrucianism. Zinnendorf also 
 bad something to do with the formation of 
 the Bite, although his authority was sub- 
 sequently repudiated by the Swedish Ma- 
 sons. It is a Bite confined exclusively 
 to the kingdom of Sweden, and was really 
 established as a reform or compromise to 
 reconcile the conflicting elements of Eng- 
 lish, German, and French Masonry that 
 about the middle of the last century con- 
 vulsed the Masonic atmosphere of Sweden. 
 It consists of twelve degrees, as follows : 
 
 I, 2, 3. The three Symbolic degrees, con- 
 stituting the St. John's Lodge. 
 
 4, 5. The Scottish Fellow Craft and the 
 Scottish Master of St. Andrew. These 
 constitute the Scottish Lodge. The fifth 
 degree entitles its members to civil rank in 
 the kingdom. 
 
 6. Knight of the East. In this degree, 
 which is apocalyptic, the New Jerusalem 
 and its twelve gates are represented. 
 
 7. Knight of the West, or True Templar, 
 Master of the Key. The jewel of this de- 
 gree, which is a triangle with five red 
 rosettes, refers to the five wounds of the 
 Saviour. 
 
 8. Knight of the South, or Favorite 
 Brother of St. John. This is a Bosicrucian 
 degree, the ceremony of initiation being 
 derived from that of the Mediaeval Alche- 
 mists. 
 
 9. Favorite Brother of St. Andrew. This 
 degree is evidently derived from the Ma- 
 sonry of the Scottish Bite. 
 
 10. Member of the Chapter. 
 
 II. Dignitary of the Chapter. 
 12. Vicar of Solomon. 
 
 The first nine degrees are under the obe- 
 dience of the National Grand Lodge of 
 Sweden and Norway, and essentially com- 
 pose the Bite. The members of the last 
 three are called "Brethren of the Bed 
 Cross," and constitute another Masonic au- 
 thority, styled the " Illuminated Chapter." 
 The twelfth degree is simply one of office, 
 and is only held by the king, who is per- 
 petual Grand Master of the Order. No one 
 is admitted to the eleventh degree unless he 
 can show four quarterings of nobility. 
 
 Switzerland. In 1737 Lord Darnley, 
 Grand Master of England, granted a Depu- 
 
 tation for Geneva, in Switzerland, to George 
 Hamilton, Esq., who, in the same year, es- 
 tablished a Provincial Grand Lodge at 
 Geneva. Warrants were granted by this 
 body to several Lodges in and around the 
 city of Geneva. Two years afterwards, a 
 Lodge, composed principally of English- 
 men, was established at Lausanne, under 
 the name of " La Parfaite Union des 
 Etrangers." Findel, on the authority of 
 Mossdorf's edition of Lenning, says that 
 the Warrant for this Lodge was granted by 
 the Duke of Montagu; a statement also 
 made by Thory. This is an error. The 
 Duke of Montagu was Grand Master of the 
 Grand Lodge of England in 1721, and could 
 not, therefore, have granted a Warrant in 
 1739. The Warrant must have been issued 
 by the Marquis of Carnarvon, who was 
 Grand Master from April, 1738, to May, 
 1739. In an old list of the Begular Lodges 
 on the registry of England, this Lodge is 
 thus described : " Private Boom, Lausanne, 
 in the Canton of Bern, Switzerland, Feb. 
 2, 1739." Soon after, this Lodge assumed 
 a superintending authority with the title 
 of " Helvetic Boman Directory," and insti- 
 tuted many other Lodges in the Pays de 
 Vaud. 
 
 But in Switzerland, as elsewhere, Masonry 
 was at an early period exposed to persecu- 
 tion. In 1738, almost immediately after 
 their institution, the Lodges at Geneva were 
 suppressed by the magistrates. In 1740, so 
 many calumnies had been circulated in the 
 Swiss Cantons against the Order, that the 
 Freemasons published an Apology for the 
 Order in Der Brachmann, a Zurich journal. 
 It had, however, but little effect, for in 
 1743 the magistrates of Bern ordered the 
 closing of all the Lodges. This edict was 
 not obeyed; and therefore, on March 3, 
 1745, another, still more severe, was issued, 
 by which a penalty of one hundred tha- 
 lers, and forfeiture of his situation, was to 
 be inflicted on every officer of the govern- 
 ment who should continue his connec- 
 tion with the Freemasons. To this the 
 Masons replied in a pamphlet entitled Le 
 Franc-Macon dans la Republique, published 
 simultaneously, in 1746, at Frankfort and 
 Leipsic. In this work they ably defended 
 themselves from all the unjust charges that 
 had been made against them. Notwith- 
 standing that the result of this defence was 
 that the magistrates pushed their opposi- 
 tion no farther, the Lodges in the Pays de 
 Vaud remained suspended for nineteen 
 years. But in 1764 the primitive Lodge at 
 Lausanne was revived, and the revival was 
 gradually followed by the other Lodges. 
 This resumption of labor was, however, but 
 of brief duration. In 1770 the magistrates 
 again interdicted the meetings. 
 
SWITZERLAND 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 777 
 
 During all this period the Masons of 
 Geneva, under a more liberal government, 
 were uninterrupted in their labors, and ex- 
 tended their operations into German Swit- 
 zerland. In 1771 Lodges had been erected 
 in Vevay and Zurich, which, working at 
 first according to the French system, soon 
 afterwards adopted the German ritual. 
 
 In 1775 the Lodges of the Pays de Vaud 
 were permitted to resume their labors. 
 Formerly, they had worked according to the 
 system of the Grand Lodge of England, 
 whence they had originally derived their 
 Masonry; but this they now abandoned, 
 and adopted the Rite of Strict Observance. 
 In the same year the high degrees of France 
 were introduced into the Lodge at Basle. 
 Both it and the Lodge at Lausanne now 
 assumed higher rank, and took the title of 
 Scottish Directories. 
 
 In 1777 a Congress was held at the city 
 of Basle, in which there were representa- 
 tives from the Strict Observance Lodges 
 of the Pays de Vaud and the English 
 Lodge of Zurich. It was then determined 
 that the Masonry of Switzerland should be 
 divided under two distinct authorities : the 
 one to be called the German Helvetic Di- 
 rectory, with its seat at Zurich; and the 
 other to be called the Scottish Helvetic Ro- 
 man Directory, whose seat was at Lau- 
 sanne. This word Roman, or more proper- 
 ly Romansh, is the name of one of the four 
 languages spoken in Switzerland. It is a 
 corruption of the Latin, and supposed to 
 have been the colloquial dialect of a large 
 part of the Grisons. 
 
 Still there were great dissensions in the 
 Masonry of Switzerland. A clandestine 
 Lodge had been established in 1777, at 
 Lausanne, by one Sidrac, whose influence 
 it was found difficult to check. The Hel- 
 vetic Roman Directory found it necessary, 
 for this purpose, to enter, in 1779, into a 
 treaty of alliance with the Grand Lodge at 
 Geneva, and the Lodge of Sidrac was then 
 at length dissolved and its members dis- 
 persed. 
 
 In 1778, the Helvetic Roman Directory 
 published its Constitutions. The Rite it 
 
 Eractised was purely philosophic, every 
 ermetic element having been eliminated. 
 The appointment of the Masters of Lodges, 
 who held office for three years, was vested in 
 the Directory, and, in consequence, men of 
 ability and learning were chosen, and the 
 Craft were skilfully governed. 
 
 In November, 1782, the Council of Bern 
 interdicted the meetings of the Lodges and 
 the exercise of Freemasonry. The Helvetic 
 Roman Directory, to give an example of 
 obedience to law, however unjust and op- 
 pressive, dissolved its Lodges and discon- 
 tinued its own meetings. But it provided 
 4X 
 
 for a maintenance of its foreign relations, 
 by the appointment of a committee invested 
 with the power of conducting its corres- 
 
 Eondence and of controlling the foreign 
 rodges under its obedience. 
 In the year 1785 there was a confer- 
 ence of the Swiss Lodges at Zurich to take 
 into consideration certain propositions 
 which had been made by the Congress of 
 Paris, held by the Philalethes ; but the de- 
 sire that a similar Congress should be con- 
 vened at Lausanne met with no favor from 
 the Directorial Committee. The Grand 
 Orient of France began to exert an influ- 
 ence, and many Lodges of Switzerland, 
 among others ten in Geneva, gave their 
 adhesion to that body. The seven other 
 Genevan Lodges which were faithful to the 
 English system organized a Grand Ori- 
 ent of Geneva, and in 1789 formed an alli- 
 ance with the Grand Lodge of England. 
 About the same time, the Lodges of the 
 Pays de Vaud, which had been suppressed 
 in 1782 by the government of Bern, re- 
 sumed their vitality. 
 
 But the political disturbances consequent 
 on the French revolution began to exercise 
 their influences in the Cantons. In 1792, 
 the Helvetic Roman Directory suspended 
 work ; and its example was followed in 1793 
 by the Scottish Directory. From 1793 to 
 1803, Freemasonry was dead in Switzer- 
 land, although a few Lodges in Geneva and 
 a German one in Neuenburg continued a 
 sickly existence. 
 
 In 1803 Masonry revived, with the res- 
 toration of a better order in the political 
 world. A Lodge, Zur Hoffnung or Hope 
 Lodge, allusive in its name to the opening 
 prospect, was established at Bern under a 
 French Constitution. 
 
 With the cession of the Republic of 
 Geneva to France, the Grand Lodge ceased 
 to exist, and all the Lodges were united 
 with the Grand Orient of France. Several 
 Lodges, however, in the Pays de Vaud,whose 
 Constitution had been irregular, united to- 
 gether to form an independent body under 
 the title of the " Grand National Helvetic 
 Orient." Peter Maurice Glaire introduced 
 his modified Scottish Rite of seven degrees, 
 and was at the age of 87 elected its Grand 
 Master for life. Glaire was possessed of 
 
 §reat abilities, and had been the friend of 
 tanislaus, king of Poland, in whose in- 
 terests he had performed several important 
 missions to Russia, Prussia, Austria, and 
 France. He was much attached to Ma- 
 sonry, and while in Poland had elaborated 
 on the Scottish system the Rite which he 
 subsequently bestowed upon the Helvetic 
 Orient. 
 
 It would be tedious and painful to recap- 
 itulate all the dissensions and schisms with 
 
778 
 
 SWORD 
 
 SWORD 
 
 which the Masonry of Switzerland con- 
 tinued for years to be harassed. In 1820 
 there were nineteen Lodges, which worked 
 under four different obediences, the Scottish 
 Directory, the Grand Helvetic Roman Ori- 
 ent, the English Provincial Grand Lodge, 
 and the Grand Orient of France. Besides 
 there were two Lodges of the Rite of Miz- 
 raira, which had been introduced by the 
 Brothers Bedarride. 
 
 The Masons of Switzerland, weary of 
 these divisions, had been long anxious to 
 build a firm foundation of Masonic unity, 
 and to obliterate forever this state of iso- 
 lation, where Lodges were proximate in 
 locality but widely asunder in their Ma- 
 sonic relations. 
 
 Many attempts were made, but the rival- 
 ries of petty authorities and the intolerance 
 of opinion caused them always to be fail- 
 ures. At length a movement, which was 
 finally crowned with success, was inaugu- 
 rated by the Lodge Modestia cum Libertate, 
 of Zurich. Being about to celebrate the 
 twenty-fifth anniversary of its existence in 
 1836, it invited the Swiss Lodges of all 
 Rites to be present at the festival. There 
 a proposition for a National Masonic union 
 was made, which met with a favorable re- 
 sponse from all who were present. The re- 
 union at this festival had given so much 
 satisfaction that similar meetings were held 
 in 1838 at Bern, in 1840 at Basle, and in 
 1842 at Locle. The preliminary means for 
 establishing a Confederacy were discussed 
 at these various biennial conventions, and 
 progress slowly but steadily was made to- 
 wards the accomplishment of that object. 
 In 1842 the task of preparing a draft of a 
 Constitution for a United Grand Lodge 
 was intrusted to Bro. Gysi-Schinz, of Zu- 
 rich, who so successfully completed it that 
 it gave almost universal satisfaction. Final- 
 ly, on June 22, 1844, the new Grand Lodge 
 was inaugurated with the title of the 
 "Grand Lodge Alpina," and Bro. J. J. 
 Hottinger was elected the Grand Master. 
 Masonry has since then been in great ac- 
 tivity in Switzerland. The Grand Lodge 
 administers the government of about thirty 
 daughter Lodges and nearly two thousand 
 constituent members with such satisfaction 
 that uninterrupted peace reigns within its 
 borders. 
 
 Sword. The sword is in chivalry the 
 ensign or symbol of knighthood. Thus 
 Monstrelet says : " The sons of the kings of 
 France are knights at the font of baptism, 
 being regarded as the chiefs of knighthood, 
 and they receive, from the cradle, the 
 sword which is the sign thereof." St. Pal- 
 aye calls the sword "the most honorable 
 badge of chivalry, and a symbol of the labor 
 the knight was to encounter." No man 
 
 was considered a knight until the ceremony 
 of presenting him the sword had been per- 
 formed; and when this weapon was pre- 
 sented, it was accompanied with the decla- 
 ration that the person receiving it was 
 thereby made a knight. "The lord or 
 knight," says St. Palaye, " on the girding 
 on of the sword, pronounced these or simi- 
 lar words : In the name of God, of St. Mi- 
 chael, and St. George, I make thee a 
 knight." • 
 
 So important an ensign of knighthood 
 as the sword must have been accompanied 
 with some symbolic meaning, for in the 
 Middle Ages symbolism was referred to on 
 all occasions. 
 
 Francisco Redi, an Italian poet of the 
 seventeenth century, gives, in his Bacco in 
 Toscano, an account, from a Latin MS., of 
 an investiture with knighthood in the year 
 1260, which describes the symbolic mean- 
 ing of all the insignia used on that occasion. 
 Of the sword it says : " Let him be girded 
 with the sword as a sign of security against 
 the devil ; and the two edges of the blade 
 signify right and law, that the poor are to 
 be defended from the rich and the weak 
 from the strong." 
 
 But there is a still better definition of the 
 symbolism of the sword of knighthood in 
 an old MS. in the library of the London 
 College of Arms to the following effect : 
 
 " Unto a knight, which is the most hon- 
 orable office above all other, is given a 
 sword, which is made like unto a cros3e for 
 the redemption of mankynde in signifying 
 that like as our Lord God died uppon the 
 crosse for the redemption of mankynde, 
 even so a knight ought to defend the crosse 
 and to overcome and destroie the enemies 
 of the same ; and it hath two edges in token- 
 ing that with the sword he ought to niayn- 
 tayne knighthood and justice." 
 
 Hence in Masonic Templarism we find 
 that this symbolism has been preserved, 
 and that the sword with which the mod- 
 ern knight is created is said to be endowed 
 with the qualities of justice, fortitude, and 
 mercy. 
 
 The charge to a Knight Templar, that he 
 should never draw his sword unless con- 
 vinced of the justice of the cause in which 
 he is engagea, nor to sheath it until his 
 enemies were subdued, finds also its origin 
 in the custom of the Middle Ages. Swords 
 were generally manufactured with a legend 
 on the blade. Among the most common 
 of these legends was that used on swords 
 made in Spain, many examples of which 
 are still to be found in modern collections. 
 That legend is : " No me saques sin rason. 
 No me embaines sin honor; i. e., Do not 
 draw me without justice. Do not sheathe me 
 without honor. 
 
SWORD 
 
 SWORD 
 
 779 
 
 So highly was the sword esteemed in the 
 Middle Ages as a part of a knight's equip- 
 ment, that special names were given to 
 those of the most celebrated heroes, which 
 have been transmitted to us in the ballads 
 and romances of that period. Thus we 
 have among the warriors of Scandinavia, 
 Foot-breaath,the sword of ThoralfSkolinson 
 Quern-biter, " King Hako, 
 
 Balmung, " Siegfried, 
 
 Angurvardal, " Frithiof. 
 
 To the first two, Longfellow alludes in 
 the following lines : 
 
 " Quern-biter of Hakom the Good, 
 Wherewith at a stroke he hewed 
 
 The millstone through and through, 
 And Foot-breaath of Thoralf the Strong, 
 Were neither so broad nor so long 
 
 Nor so true." 
 
 And among the knights of chivalry we 
 have 
 
 Durandal, the sword of Orlando, 
 Balisardo, " Ruggiero, 
 
 Colado " the Cid, 
 
 Aroun-dight, " Lancelot du Sac, 
 
 Joyeuse, " Charlemagne, 
 
 Excalibar, " King Arthur. 
 
 Of the last of these, the well-known le- 
 gend is, that it was found imbedded in a 
 stone as its sheath, on which was an in- 
 scription that it could be drawn only by 
 him who was the rightful heir to the throne 
 of Britain. After two hundred and one of 
 the strongest knights had assayed in vain, 
 it was at once drawn forth by Arthur, who 
 was then proclaimed king by acclamation. 
 On his death-bed, he ordered it to be thrown 
 into a neighboring lake ; but as it fell, an 
 arm issued from the waters, and, seizing it 
 by the hilt, waved it thrice, and then it 
 sank never again to appear. There are 
 many other famous swords in these old 
 romances, for the knight invariably gave to 
 his sword, as he did to his horse, a name 
 expressive of its qualities or of the deeds 
 which he expected to accomplish with it. 
 
 In Masonry, the use of the sword as a 
 part of the Masonic clothing is confined to 
 the high degrees and the degrees of chiv- 
 alry, when, of course, it is worn as a part 
 of the insignia of knighthood. In the 
 symbolic degrees its appearance in the 
 Lodge, except as a symbol, is strictly pro- 
 hibited. The Masonic prints engraved in 
 the last century, when the sword, at least as 
 late as 1780, constituted a part of the dress 
 of every gentleman, show that it was dis- 
 carded by the members when they entered 
 the Lodge. The official swords of the Tiler 
 and the Pursuivant or Sword- Bearer are the 
 only exceptions. This rule is carried so 
 far, that military men, when visiting a 
 Lodge, are required to divest themselves of 
 
 their swords, which are to be left in the 
 Tiler's room. 
 
 Sword and Trowel. See Trowel 
 and Sword. 
 
 Sword Bearer. An officer in a Com- 
 mandery of Knights Templars. His station 
 is in the west, on the right of the Standard 
 Bearer, and when the knights are in line, 
 on the right of the second division. His 
 duty is to receive all orders and signals 
 from the Eminent Commander, and see 
 them promptly obeyed. He is, also, to as- 
 sist in the protection of the banners of the 
 order. His jewel is a triangle and cross 
 swords. 
 
 Sword Bearer, Grand. A subor- 
 dinate officer, who is found in most Grand 
 Lodges. Anderson says, in the second edi- 
 tion of the Constitutions, (p. 127,) that in 
 1731 the Duke of Norfolk, being then Grand 
 Master, presented to the Grand Lodge of 
 England " the old trusty sword of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, king of Sweden, that was worn 
 next by his successor in war the brave Ber- 
 nard, Duke of Saxe- Weimar, with both 
 their names on the blade, which the Grand 
 Master had ordered Brother George Moody 
 (the king's sword cutler) to adorn richly 
 with the arms of Norfolk in silver on the 
 scabbard, in order to be the Grand Master's 
 sword of state in future." At the following 
 feast, Bro. Moody was appointed Sword 
 Bearer ; and the office has ever since existed, 
 and is to be found in almost all the Grand 
 Lodges of this country. Anderson further 
 says that, previous to this donation, the 
 Grand Lodge had no sword of state, but 
 used one belonging to a private Lodge. It 
 was borne before the Grand Master by the 
 Master of the Lodge to which it belonged, 
 as appears from the account of the proces- 
 sion in 1730. 
 
 The Grand Sword Bearer should be ap- 
 pointed by the Grand Master, and it is his 
 duty to carry the sword of state immediate- 
 ly in front of that officer in all processions 
 of the Grand Lodge. In Grand Lodges 
 which have not provided for a Grand 
 Sword Bearer, the duties of the office are 
 usually performed by the Grand Pursui- 
 vant. 
 
 Sword of State. Among the ancient 
 Romans, on all public occasions, a lictor 
 carried a bundle of rods, sometimes with 
 an axe inserted among them, before the 
 consul or other magistrate as a token of his 
 authority and his power to punish crimi- 
 nals. Hence, most probably, arose the cus- 
 tom in the Middle Ages of carrying a 
 naked sword before kings or chief magis- 
 trates. Thus at the election of the Empe- 
 ror of Germany, the Elector of Saxony, as 
 Arch-Marshal of the Empire, carried a naked 
 sword before the newly-elected Emperor. 
 
? 80 
 
 SWORD 
 
 SYMBOL 
 
 We find the same practice prevailing in 
 England as early certainly as the reign of 
 Henry III., at whose coronation, in 1236, a 
 sword was carried by the Earl of Chester. 
 It was named Curtana, and, being without 
 a point, was said to be emblematic of the 
 spirit of mercy that should actuate a sov- 
 ereign. This sword is known as the " Sword 
 of State," and the practice prevailing to the 
 present day, it has always been borne in 
 England in public processions before all 
 chief magistrates, from the monarch of the 
 realm to the mayor of a city. The custom 
 was adopted by the Masons; and we learn 
 from Anderson that, from the time of the 
 revival, a sword of state, the property of a 
 private Lodge, was borne by the Master of 
 that Lodge before the Grand Master, until 
 the Grand Lodge acquired one by the liber- 
 ality of the Duke of Norfolk, which has 
 ever since been borne by the Grand Sword 
 Bearer. 
 
 Sword Pointing to the Naked 
 Heart. Webb says that "the sword 
 pointing to the naked heart demonstrates 
 that justice will, sooner or later, overtake 
 us." The symbol is, I think, a modern 
 one; but its adoption was probably suggested 
 by the old ceremony, both in English and 
 in continental Lodges, and which is still 
 preserved in some places, in which the can- 
 didate found himself surrounded by swords 
 pointing at his heart, to indicate that pun- 
 ishment would duly follow his violation of 
 his obligations. 
 
 Sword, Templar's. According to 
 the regulations of the Grand Encampment 
 of the United States, the sword to be worn 
 by Knights Templars must have a helmet 
 head or pommel, a cross handle, and a 
 metal scabbard. The length from the top 
 of the hilt to the end of the scabbard must 
 be from thirty-four to forty inches. 
 Sword, Tiler's. In modern times 
 the implement used by the Tiler 
 is a sword of the ordinary form. 
 This is incorrect. Formerly, and 
 indeed up to a comparatively recent 
 period, the Tiler's sword was wavy 
 in shape, and so made in allusion 
 to the " flaming sword which was 
 placed at the east of the garden 
 of Eden, which turned every way 
 to keep the way of the tree of life." 
 It was, of course, without a scab- 
 bard, because the Tiler's sword 
 should ever be drawn and ready 
 for the defence of his post. 
 Sworn Brothers. {Fratres jurati.) 
 It was the custom in the Middle Ages for 
 soldiers, and especially knights, when going 
 into battle, to engage each other by recip- 
 rocal oaths to share the rewards of victory 
 and to defend each other in the fight. Thus 
 
 Kennet tells us {Paroch. Antia.) that in the 
 commencement of the expedition of Wil- 
 liam of Normandy into England, Robert 
 de Oiley and Roger de Iverio, " fratres 
 jurati, et per fidem et sacramentum con- 
 federati, venerunt ad conquestum Anglise," 
 i. e., they came to the conquest of England, 
 as sworn brothers, bound by their faith and an 
 oath. Consequently, when William allotted 
 them an estate as the reward of their mili- 
 tary service, they divided it into equal por- 
 tions, each taking one. 
 
 Syllable. To pronounce the syllables, 
 or only one of the syllables, of a Sacred 
 Word, such as a name of God, was among 
 the Orientalists considered far more rever- 
 ent than to give to it in all its syllables a 
 full and continuous utterance. Thus the 
 Hebrews reduced the holy name Jehovah 
 to the syllable Jah; and the Brahmans, 
 taking the initial letters of the three words 
 which expressed the three attributes of the 
 Supreme Brahma, as Creator, Preserver, 
 and Destroyer, made of it the syllable 
 AUM, which, on account of its awful and 
 sacred meaning, they hesitated to pro- 
 nounce aloud. To divide a word into syl- 
 lables, and thus to interrupt the sound, 
 either by pausing or by the alternate pro- 
 nunciation by two persons, was deemed a 
 mark of reverence. 
 
 Symbol. A symbol is defined to be a 
 visible sign with which a spiritual feeling, 
 emotion, or idea is connected. It was in 
 this sense that the early Christians gave 
 the name of symbols to all rites, ceremo- 
 nies, and outward forms which bore a reli- 
 gious meaning; such, for instance, as the 
 cross, and other pictures and images, and 
 even the sacraments and the sacramental 
 elements. At a still earlier period, the 
 Egyptians communicated the knowledge of 
 their esoteric philosophy in mystic symbols. 
 In fact, man's earliest instruction was by 
 means of symbols. " The first learning of 
 the world," says Stukely, " consisted chiefly 
 of symbols. The wisdom of the Chaldeans, 
 Phoenicians, Egyptians, Jews, of Zoroaster, 
 Sanchoniathon, Pherecydes, Syrus, Pythag- 
 oras, Socrates, Plato, of all the ancients that 
 is come to our hand, is symbolic." And the 
 learned Faber remarks that " allegory and 
 personification were peculiarly agreeable to 
 the genius of antiquity, and the simplicity 
 of truth was continually sacrificed at the 
 shrine of poetical decoration." 
 
 The word " symbol " is derived from a 
 Greek verb which signifies "to compare 
 one thing with another;" and hence a sym- 
 bol or emblem, for the two words are often 
 used synonymously in Masonrv, is the ex- 
 pression of an idea which is derived from 
 the comparison or contrast of some object 
 with a moral conception or attribute. Thus 
 
SYMBOL 
 
 SYMBOL 
 
 781 
 
 the plumb is a symbol of rectitude ; the 
 level, of equality ; the beehive, of industry. 
 The physical qualities of the plumb are 
 compared or contrasted with the moral con- 
 ception of virtue or rectitude of conduct. 
 The plumb becomes to the Mason, after he 
 has once been taught its symbolic mean- 
 ing, forever afterwards the visible expres- 
 sion of the idea of rectitude, or upright- 
 ness of conduct. To study and compare 
 these visible objects — to elicit from them 
 the moral ideas which they are intended to 
 express — is to make one's self acquainted 
 with the symbolism of Masonry. 
 
 The objective character of a symbol, 
 which presents something material to the 
 sight and touch, as explanatory of an in- 
 ternal idea, is best calculated to be grasped 
 by the infant mind, whether the infancy of 
 that mind be considered nationally or indi- 
 vidually. And hence, in the first ages of 
 the world, in its infancy, all propositions, 
 theological, political, or scientific, were ex- 
 pressed in the form of symbols. Thus the 
 first religions were eminently symbolical, be- 
 cause, as that great philosophical historian, 
 Grote, has remarked, "At a time when lan- 
 guage was yet in its infancy, visible sym- 
 bols were the most vivid means of acting 
 upon the minds of ignorant hearers." 
 
 To the man of mature intellect, each 
 letter of the alphabet is the symbol of a 
 certain sound. When we instruct the child 
 in the form and value of these letters, we 
 make the picture of some familiar object 
 the representation of the letter which aids 
 the infantile memory. Thus, when the 
 teacher says, "A was an Archer," the 
 Archer becomes a symbol of the letter A, 
 just as in after-life the letter becomes the 
 symbol of a sound. 
 
 " Symbolical representations of things 
 sacred," says Dr. Barlow, {Essays on Sym- 
 bolism, I., p. 1,) " were coeval with religion 
 itself as a system of doctrine appealing to 
 sense, and have accompanied its transmis- 
 sion to ourselves from the earliest known 
 period of monumental history. 
 
 " Egyptian tombs and stiles exhibit reli- 
 gious symbols still in use among Christians. 
 Similar forms, with corresponding mean- 
 ings, though under different names, are 
 found among the Indians, and are seen on 
 the monuments of the Assyrians, the Etrus- 
 cans, and the Greeks. 
 
 " The Hebrews borrowed much of their 
 early religious symbolism from the Egyp- 
 tians, their later from the Babylonians, and 
 through them this symbolical imagery, both 
 verbal and objective, has descended to our- 
 selves. 
 
 " The Egyptian priests were great pro- 
 ficients in symbolism, and so were the 
 Chaldeans, and so were Moses and the 
 
 Prophets, and the Jewish doctors generally, 
 — and so were many of the early fathers 
 of the Church, especially the Greek fa- 
 thers. 
 
 " Philo of Alexandria was very learned 
 in symbolism, and the Evangelist St. John 
 has made much use of it. 
 
 "The early Christian architects, sculp- 
 tors, and painters drank deep of symboli- 
 cal lore, and reproduced it in their works." 
 
 Squier gives in his Serpent Symbolism 
 in America (p. 19) a similar view of the an- 
 tiquity and the subsequent growth of the 
 use of symbols. He says: "In the absence 
 of a written language or forms of expres- 
 sion capable of conveying abstract ideas, 
 we can readily comprehend the necessity, 
 among a primitive people, of a symbolic 
 system. That symbolism in a great degree 
 resulted from this necessity is very obvious; 
 and that, associated with man's primitive 
 religious systems, it was afterwards con- 
 tinued, when in the advanced stage of the 
 human mind the previous necessity no 
 longer existed, is equally undoubted.. It 
 thus came to constitute a kind of sacred 
 language, and became invested with an 
 esoteric significance understood only by the 
 few." 
 
 In Freemasonry, all the instructions in 
 its mysteries are communicated in the form 
 of symbols. Founded, as a speculative 
 science, on an operative art, it has taken 
 the working- tools of the profession which 
 it spiritualizes, the terms of architecture, 
 the Temple of Solomon, and everything 
 that is connected with its traditional his- 
 tory, and adopting them as symbols, it 
 teaches its great moral and philosophical 
 lessons by this system of symbolism. But 
 its symbols are not confined to material 
 objects as were the hieroglyphics of the 
 Egyptians. Its myths and legends are 
 also, for the most part, symbolic. Often 
 a legend, unauthenticated by history, dis- 
 torted by anachronisms, and possibly ab- 
 surd in its pretensions if viewed histori- 
 cally or as a narrative of actual occur- 
 rences, when interpreted as a symbol, is 
 found to impress the mind with some great 
 spiritual and philosophical truth. The 
 legends of Masonry are parables, and a 
 parable is only a spoken symbol. By its 
 utterance, says Adam Clarke, "spiritual 
 things are better understood, and make a 
 deeper impression on the attentive mind." 
 
 Symbol, Compound. In my work 
 on the Symbolism of Freemasonry, I have 
 ventured to give this name to a species of 
 symbol that is not unusual in Freemasonry, 
 where the symbol is to be taken in a double 
 sense, meaning in its general application 
 one thing, and then in a special application 
 another. An example of this is seen in the 
 
782 
 
 SYMBOLIC 
 
 SYMBOLIC 
 
 symbolism of Solomon's Temple, where, in 
 a general sense, the Temple is viewed as a 
 symbol of that spiritual temple formed by 
 the aggregation of the whole Order, and in 
 which each Mason is considered as a stone ; 
 and, in an individual or special sense, the 
 same Temple is considered as a type of that 
 spiritual temple which each Mason is di- 
 rected to erect in his heart. 
 
 Symbolic Degrees. The first three 
 degrees of Free Masonry, namely, those of 
 Entered Apprentice, Fellow Craft, and 
 Master Mason, are known, by way of dis- 
 tinction, as the " symbolic degrees." This 
 term is never applied to the degrees of 
 Mark, Past, and Most Excellent Master, 
 and the Royal Arch, which, as being con- 
 ferred in a body called a Chapter, are gen- 
 erally designated as " capitular degrees ; " 
 nor to those of Royal and Select Master, 
 which, conferred in a Council, are, by an ex- 
 cellent modern usage, styled " cryptic de- 
 grees," from the crypt or vault which plays 
 so important a part in their ritual. But 
 the term "symbolic" is exclusively con- 
 fined to the degrees conferred in a Lodge 
 of the three primitive degrees, which Lodge, 
 therefore, whether opened on the first, the 
 second, or the third degree, is always re- 
 ferred to as a " symbolic Lodge." As this 
 distinctive term is of constant and univer- 
 sal use, it may be considered not altogether 
 useless to inquire into its origin and signi- 
 fication. 
 
 The germ and nucleus of all Freemason- 
 ry is to be found in the three primitive de- 
 grees, — the Apprentice, the Fellow Craft, 
 and the Master Mason. They were at one 
 time (under a modification, however, which 
 included the Royal Arch) the only degrees 
 known to or practised by the Craft, and 
 hence they are often called " Ancient Craft 
 Masonry," to distinguish them from those 
 comparatively modern additions which con- 
 stitute what are designated as the "high 
 degrees," or, by the French, "lea hautes 
 grades." The striking peculiarity of these 
 primitive degrees is that their prominent 
 mode of instruction is by symbols. Not 
 that they are without legends. On the 
 contrary, they have each an abundance of 
 legends ; such, for instance, as the details 
 of the building of the Temple; of the pay- 
 ment of wages in the middle chamber, or 
 of the construction of the pillars of the 
 porch. But these legends do not perform 
 any very important part in the constitution 
 of the degree. The lessons which are com- 
 municated to the candidate in these primi- 
 tive degrees are conveyed, principally, 
 through the medium of symbols, while there 
 is (at least in the working of the degrees) 
 but little traditional or legendary teaching, 
 with the exception of the great legend of 
 
 Masonry, the "golden legend" of the 
 Order, to be found in the Master's degree, 
 and which is, itself, a symbol of the most 
 abstruse and solemn signification. But 
 even in this instance, interesting as are the 
 details of the legend, they are only subor- 
 dinate to the symbol. Hiram the Builder 
 is the profound symbol of manhood labor- 
 ing for immortality, and all the different 
 points of the legend are simply clustered 
 around it, only to throw out the symbol in 
 bolder relief. The legend is of itself inert 
 — it is the symbol of the Master Workman 
 that gives it life and true meaning. 
 
 Symbolism is, therefore, the prevailing 
 characteristic of these primitive degrees; 
 and it is because all the science and philos- 
 ophy and religion of Ancient Craft Mason- 
 ry is thus concealed from the profane but 
 unfolded to the initiates in symbols, that 
 the first three degrees which comprise it are 
 said to be symbolic. 
 
 Now, nothing of this kind is to be found 
 in the degrees above and beyond the third, 
 if we except the Royal Arch, which, how- 
 ever, as I have already intimated, was orig- 
 inally a part of Ancient Craft Masonry, and 
 was unnaturally torn from the Master's de- 
 gree, of which it, as every Masonic student 
 knows, constituted the complement and 
 consummation. Take, for example, the in- 
 termediate degrees of the American Chap- 
 ter, such, for instance, as the Mark and 
 Most Excellent Master. Here we find the 
 symbolic feature ceasing to predominate, 
 and the traditional or legendary taking its 
 place. It is true that in these capitular de- 
 grees the use of symbols is not altogether 
 abandoned. This could not well be, for the 
 symbol constitutes the very essence of Free- 
 masonry. The symbolic element is still to 
 be discovered in these degrees, but only in 
 a position subordinate to legendary instruc- 
 tion. As an illustration, let us consider the 
 keystone in the Mark Master's degree. 
 Now, no one will deny that this is strictly 
 speaking a symbol, and a very important 
 and beautiful one, too. It is a symbol of a 
 fraternal covenant between those who are 
 engaged in the common search after divine 
 truth. But, in the role which it plays in 
 the ritual of this degree, the symbol, how- 
 ever beautiful and appropriate it may be, 
 is in a manner lost sight of, and the key- 
 stone derives almost all its importance and 
 interest from the traditional history of its 
 construction, its architectural design, and 
 its fate. It is as the subject of a legend, 
 and not as a symbol, that it attracts atten- 
 tion. Now, iii the third or Master's degree 
 we find the trowel, which is a symbol of 
 almost precisely the same import as the 
 keystone. They both refer to a Masonic 
 covenant. But no legend, no tradition, no 
 
SYMBOLIC 
 
 SYNDICATION 
 
 783 
 
 history, is connected with the trowel. It 
 presents itself simply and exclusively as a 
 symbol. Hence we learn that symbols do 
 not in the capitular, as in the primitive, de- 
 grees of Masonry strike the eye, and inform 
 the mind, and teach the heart, in every 
 part of the Lodge, and in every part 
 of the ceremonial initiation. On the con- 
 trary, the capitular degrees are almost al- 
 together founded on and composed of a 
 series of events in Masonic history. Each 
 of them has attached to it some tradition 
 or legend which it is the design of the de- 
 gree to illustrate, and the memory of which 
 is preserved in its ceremonies and instruc- 
 tions. That most of these legends are 
 themselves of symbolic signification is not 
 denied. But this is their interior sense. 
 In their outward and ostensible meaning, 
 they appear before us simply as legends. 
 To retain these legends in the memory of 
 Masons appears to have been the primary 
 design in the establishment of the higher 
 degrees, and as the information intended to 
 be communicated in these degrees is of a 
 historical character, there can of course be 
 but little room for symbols or for symbolic 
 instruction, the profuse use of which would 
 rather tend to an injury than to a benefit, 
 by complicating the purposes of the ritual 
 and confusing the mind of the aspirant. 
 
 The celebrated French writer, Ragon, 
 objects to this exclusive application of the 
 term " symbolic " to the first three degrees as 
 a sort of unfavorable criticism on the higher 
 degrees, and as if implying that the latter 
 are entirely devoid of the element of sym- 
 bolism. But he has mistaken the true im- 
 port and meaning of the application. It is 
 not because the higher or capitular and 
 cryptic degrees are altogether without sym- 
 bols — for such is not the case — that the 
 term symbolic is withheld from them, but 
 because symbolic instruction does not con- 
 stitute their predominating characteristic, 
 as it does of the first three degrees. 
 
 And hence the Masonry taught in these 
 three primitive degrees is very properly 
 called Symbolic Masonry, and the Lodge in 
 which this Masonry is taught is known as 
 a Symbolic Lodge. 
 
 Symbolic Lectures. The lectures 
 appropriated to the first, second, and third 
 degrees are sometimes called Symbolic lec- 
 tures ; but the term is more properly applied 
 to any lecture which treats of the meaning 
 of Masonic symbols, in contradistinction to 
 one which discusses only the history of the 
 Order, and which would, therefore, be 
 called a Historical Lecture. But the Eng- 
 lish Masons have a lecture called "the 
 symbolical lecture," in which is explained 
 the forms, symbols, and ornaments of Royal 
 Arch Masonry, as well as its rites and cere- 
 monies. 
 
 Symbolic Lodge. A Lodge of Master 
 Masons, with the Fellow Craft and Ap- 
 prentice Lodge worked under its Constitu- 
 tion, is called a Symbolic Lodge, because in 
 it the Symbolic degrees are conferred. See 
 Symbolic Degrees. 
 
 Symbolic Machinery* Machinery 
 is a term employed in epic and dramatic 
 poetry to denote some agency introduced 
 by the poet to serve some purpose or accom- 
 plish some event. Faber, in treating of the 
 Apocalypse, speaks of " a patriarchal scheme 
 of symbolical machinery derived most 
 plainly from the events of the deluge, and 
 borrowed, with the usual perverse misappli- 
 cation, by the contrivers of paganism, but 
 which has since been reclaimed by Christi- 
 anity to its proper use." Dr. Oliver thinks 
 that this " scheme of symbolical machinery " 
 was " the primitive Freemasonry, veiled in 
 allegory and illustrated by symbols." With- 
 out adopting this questionable hypothesis, 
 it must be admitted that Freemasonry, in 
 the scenic representations sometimes used 
 in its initiations, has, like the epic poets, 
 and dramatists, and the old hierophants, 
 availed itself of the use of symbolic ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 Symbolic Masonry. The Masonry 
 that is concerned with the first three de- 
 grees in all the Rites. This is the techni- 
 cal meaning. But in a more general sense, 
 Symbolic Masonry is that Masonry, wher- 
 ever it may be found, whether in the pri- 
 mary or in the high degrees, in which the 
 lessons are communicated by symbols. See 
 Symbolic Degrees. 
 
 Symbolism, the Science of. The 
 science which is engaged in the investiga- 
 tion of the meaning of symbols, and the 
 application of their interpretation to moral, 
 religious, and philosophical instruction. 
 In this sense, Freemasonry is essentially a 
 science of symbolism. The English lec- 
 tures define Freemasonry to be " a science 
 of morality veiled in allegory and illus- 
 trated by symbols." The definition would 
 be more correct were it in these words : 
 Freemasonry is a system of morality devel- 
 oped and inculcated by the science of sym- 
 bolism. 
 
 Symbol of Glory. In the old lec- 
 tures of the last century, the Blazing Star 
 was called " the glory in the centre ; " be- 
 cause it was placed in the centre of the 
 floor-cloth or tracing-board, and represented 
 hieroglyphically the glorious name of God. 
 Hence Dr. Oliver has given to one of his 
 most interesting works, which treats of the 
 symbolism of the Blazing Star, the title of 
 The Symbol of Glory. 
 
 Syndication of Lodges. A term 
 used in France, in 1773, by the Schismatic 
 Grand Orient during its contests with the 
 Grand Lodge, to denote the fusion of sev- 
 
"84 
 
 SYNOD 
 
 TABERNACLE 
 
 eral Lodges into one. The word was never 
 introduced into English Masonry, and has 
 become obsolete in France. 
 
 Synod of Scotland. In 1757, the 
 Associate Synod of Seceders of Scotland 
 adopted an act, concerning what they called 
 " the Mason oath," in which it is declared, 
 that all persons who shall refuse to make 
 such revelations as the Kirk Sessions may 
 require, and to promise to abstain from all 
 future connection with the Order, " shall be 
 reputed under scandal, and incapable of ad- 
 mission to sealing ordinances." In conse- 
 quence of this act, passed more than a cen- 
 tury ago, the sect of Seceders, of which 
 there are a few in this country, continue to 
 be at the present day inveterate enemies of 
 the Masonic institution. 
 
 Syria. A country of Asia Minor lying 
 on the western shores of the Mediterranean. 
 To the Freemason, it is associated with the 
 legendary history of his Order in several 
 interesting points, especially in reference 
 to Mount Lebanon, from whose forests was 
 derived the timber for the construction of 
 the Temple. The modern Templar will 
 view it as the scene of the contests waged 
 during the Crusades by the Christian knights 
 with their Saracen adversaries. In modern 
 Syria, Freemasonry has been slow to find a 
 home. The only Lodges existing in the- 
 country are at the city of Bey rout, which 
 contains two — Palestine Lodge, No. 415, 
 which was instituted by the Grand Lodge 
 of Scotland, March 4, 1861, and the Lodge 
 Le Liban, by the Grand Orient of France, 
 January 4, 1869. Morris says, (Freemasonry 
 
 in the Holy Land, p. 216,) that " the Order 
 of Freemasonry is not iu a condition satis- 
 factory to the members thereof, nor credit- 
 able to the great cause in which the Fra- 
 ternity are engaged." 
 
 System. Lenning defines a system of 
 Freemasonry to be the doctrine of Free- 
 masonry as exhibited in the Lodge govern- 
 ment and Lodge work or ritual. The defi- 
 nition is not, I think, satisfactory. In 
 Freemasonry, a system is a plan or scheme 
 of doctrines intended to develop a partic- 
 ular view as to the origin, the design, and 
 the character of the Institution. The word 
 is often used as synonymous with Rite, but 
 the two words do not always express the 
 same meaning. A system is not always de- 
 veloped into a Rite, or the same system may 
 give birth to two or more different Rites. Dr. 
 Oliver established a system founded on the 
 literal acceptance of almost all the legend- 
 ary traditions, but he never invented a 
 Rite. Ramsay and Hund both held the 
 same system as to the Templar origin of 
 Masonry; but the Rite of Ramsay and the 
 Rite of Strict Observance are very differ- 
 ent. The system of Schroder and that of 
 the Grand Lodge of England do not es- 
 sentially vary, but there is no similarity 
 between the York Rite and the Rite of 
 Schroder. Whoever in Masonry sets forth 
 a connected series of doctrines peculiar to 
 himself invents a system. He may or 
 he may not afterwards fabricate a Rite. 
 But the Rite would be only a conse- 
 quence, and not a necessary one, of the 
 system. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabernacle. Many Masonic students 
 have greatly erred in the way in which they 
 have referred to the Sinaitic tabernacle, as 
 if it were represented by the tabernacle 
 said in the legends to have been erected by 
 Zerubbabel at Jerusalem at the time of the 
 building of the second Temple. The belief 
 that the tabernacle of Zerubbabel was an 
 exact representation of that erected by 
 Moses, arose from the numerous allusions 
 to it in the writings of Oliver, but in this 
 country principally from the teachings of 
 Webb and Cross. It is, however, true, that 
 although the symbols of the ark, the golden 
 candlestick, the altar of incense, and some 
 others were taken, not from the tabernacle, 
 but from the Temple, the symbolism of the 
 
 veils was derived from the latter, but in a 
 form by no means similar to the original 
 disposition. It is therefore necessary that 
 some notice should be taken of the real 
 tabernacle, that we may be enabled to know 
 how far the Masonic is connected with the 
 Sinaitic edifice. 
 
 The word tabernacle means a tent. It is 
 the diminutive of taberna, and was used by 
 the Romans to denote a soldier's tent. It 
 was constructed of planks and covered with 
 skins, and its outward appearance presented 
 the precise form of the Jewish tabernacle. 
 The Jews called it sometimes mishcan, 
 which, like the Latin taberna, meant a 
 dwelling-place, but more commonly ohel, 
 which meant, like tabernaculum, a tent. In 
 
TABERNACLE 
 
 TABERNACLE 
 
 785 
 
 shape it resembled a tent, and is supposed to 
 have derived 
 its form from 
 the tents used 
 by the patri- 
 archs during 
 their nomad- 
 ic life. 
 
 There are 
 three taberna- 
 cles mentioned 
 in Scripture 
 history — the Anti-Sinaitic, the Sinaitic, 
 and the Davidic. 
 
 1. The Anti-Sinaitic tabernacle was the 
 tent used, perhaps from the beginning of 
 the exodus, for the transaction of business, 
 and was situated at some distance from the 
 camp. It was used only provisionally, and 
 was superseded by the tabernacle proper. 
 
 2. The Sinaitic tabernacle. This was con- 
 structed by Aholiab and Bezaleel under the 
 immediate direction of Moses. The costli- 
 ness and splendor of this edifice exceeded, 
 says Kitto, in proportion to the means of 
 the people who constructed it, the magnifi- 
 cence of any cathedral of the present day. 
 It was situated in the very centre of the 
 camp, with its door or entrance facing the 
 east, and was placed towards the western 
 part of an enclosure or outward court, which 
 was one hundred and fifty feet long and 
 fifty feet wide, and surrounded by canvas 
 screens seven and a half feet high, so as to 
 prevent any one on the outside from over- 
 looking the court. 
 
 The tabernacle itself was, according to 
 Josephus, forty-five feet long by fifteen 
 wide ; its greater length being from east to 
 west. The sides were fifteen feet high, and 
 there was a sloping roof. There was no 
 aperture or place of entrance except at the 
 eastern end, which was covered by curtains. 
 Internally, the tabernacle was divided into 
 two apartments by a richly decorated cur- 
 tain. The one at the western end was fif- 
 teen feet long, making, therefore, a perfect 
 cube. This was the Holy of Holies, into 
 which no one entered, not even the bigh 
 priest, except on extraordinary occasions. 
 In it was placed the Ark of the Covenant, 
 against the western wall. The Holy of 
 Holies was separated from the Sanctuary 
 by a curtain embroidered with figures of 
 cherubim, and supported by four golden 
 pillars. The Sanctuary, or eastern apart- 
 ment, was in the form of a double cube, be- 
 ing fifteen feet high, fifteen feet wide, and 
 thirty feet long. In it were placed the table 
 of shewbread on the northern side, the 
 golden candlestick on the southern, and 
 the altar of incense between them. The 
 tabernacle thus constructed was decorated 
 with rich curtains. These were of four 
 
 4Y 
 
 50 
 
 colors — white or fine-twined linen, blue, 
 purple, and red. They were so suspended 
 as to cover the sides and top of the taberna- 
 cle, not being distributed as veils separating 
 it into apartments, as in the Masonic taber- 
 nacle. Josephus, in describing the sym- 
 bolic signification of the tabernacle, says 
 that it was an imitation of the system of 
 the world ; the Holy of Holies, into which 
 not even the priests were admitted, was as 
 it were a heaven peculiar to God; but 
 the Sanctuary, where the people were al- 
 lowed to assemble for worship, represented 
 the sea and land on which men live. But 
 the symbolism of the tabernacle was far 
 more complex than anything that Jose- 
 phus has said upon the subject would lead 
 us to suppose. Its connection would, how- 
 ever, lead us to an inquiry into the religious 
 life of the ancient Hebrews, and into an 
 investigation of the question how much 
 Moses was, in the appointment of ceremo- 
 nies, influenced by his previous Egyptian 
 life; topics whose consideration would 
 throw no light on the subject of the Ma- 
 sonic symbolism of the tabernacle. 
 
 3. The Davidic tabernacle in time took 
 the place of that which had been construct- 
 ed by Moses. The old or Sinaitic taberna- 
 cle accompanied the Israelites in all their 
 wanderings, and was their old temple until 
 David obtained possession of Jerusalem. 
 From that time it remained at Gibeon, and 
 we have no account of its removal thence. 
 But when David removed the ark to Jeru- 
 salem, he erected a tabernacle for its recep- 
 tion. Here the priests performed their 
 daily service, until Solomon erected the 
 Temple, when the ark was deposited in the 
 Holy of Holies, and the Davidic tabernacle 
 put away as a relic. At the subsequent 
 destruction of the Temple it was most prob- 
 ably burned. From the time of Solomon we 
 altogether lose sight of the Sinaitic taberna- 
 cle, which perhaps became a victim to care- 
 lessness and the corroding influence of time. 
 
 The three tabernacles just described 
 are the only ones mentioned in Scripture 
 or in Josephus. Masonic tradition, how- 
 ever, enumerates a fourth, — the tabernacle 
 erected by Zerubbabel on his arrival at Je- 
 rusalem with his countrymen, who had 
 been restored from captivity by Cyrus for 
 the purpose of rebuilding the Temple. 
 Ezra tells us that on their arrival they 
 built the altar of burnt-offerings and offered 
 sacrifice. This would not, however, ne- 
 cessitate the building of a house, because 
 the altar of sacrifices had always been 
 erected in the open court, both of the old 
 tabernacle and Temple. Yet as the priests 
 and Levites were there, and it is said that 
 the religious ordinances of Moses were ob- 
 served, it is not unlikely that some sort of 
 
786 
 
 TABERNACLE 
 
 TABLE 
 
 temporary shelter was erected for the per- 
 formance of divine worship. But of the 
 form and character of such a building we 
 have no account. 
 
 A Masonic legend has, however, for sym- 
 bolical purposes, supplied the deficiency. 
 This legend is, however, peculiar to the 
 American modification of the Royal Arch 
 degree. In the English system a Royal 
 Arch Chapter represents the " ancient 
 Sanhedrim," where Zerubbabel, Haggai, 
 and Joshua administer the law. In the 
 American system a Chapter is said to repre- 
 sent " the tabernacle erected by our ancient 
 brethren near the ruins of King Solomon's 
 Temple." 
 
 Of the erection of this tabernacle, I have 
 said that there is no historical evidence. 
 It is simply a 
 myth, but a myth 
 constructed, of 
 course, for a sym- 
 bolical purpose. 
 In its legendary 
 description, it 
 bears no resem- 
 blance whatso- 
 ever, except in the 
 colors of its cur- 
 tains or veils, to 
 the Sinaitic taber- 
 nacle. In the lat- 
 ter the Holy of 
 Holies was in the 
 western extremity, in the former it is in the 
 eastern ; in that was contained the Ark of the 
 Covenant with the overshadowing cheru- 
 bim and the Shekinah ; in this there are no 
 such articles ; in that the most holy was in- 
 accessible to all persons, even to the priests ; 
 in this it is the seat of the three presiding 
 officers, and is readily accessible by proper 
 means. In that the curtains were attached 
 to the sides of the tent; in this they are 
 suspended across, dividing it into four 
 apartments. The Masonic tabernacle used 
 in the American Royal Arch degree is not, 
 therefore, a representation of the ancient 
 tabernacle erected by Moses in the wilder- 
 ness, but must be supposed to be simply a 
 temporary construction for purposes of 
 shelter, of consultation and of worship. It 
 was, in the strictest sense of the word, a 
 tabernacle, a tent. As a myth, with no his- 
 torical foundation, it would be valueless, 
 were it not that it is used, and was undoubt- 
 edly fabricated, for the purpose of 'develop- 
 ing a symbolism. And this symbolism is 
 found in its veils. There is no harm in 
 calling it a tabernacle any more than there 
 is in calling it a sanhedrim, provided we 
 do not fall into the error of supposing that 
 either was actually its character. As a 
 myth, and only as a myth, must it be 
 
 viewed, and there its symbolic meaning 
 presents, as in all other Masonic myths, a 
 fund of useful instruction. For an inter- 
 pretation of that symbolism, see Veils, Sym- 
 bolism of the. 
 
 In some Chapters a part of the furni- 
 ture is called the tabernacle; in other 
 words, a piece of frame- work is erected in- 
 side of the room, and is called the taberna- 
 cle. This is incorrect. According to the 
 ritual, the whole Chapter room represents 
 the tabernacle, and the veils should be sus- 
 pended from wall to wall. Indeed, I have 
 reasons for believing that this interior tab- 
 ernacle is an innovation of little more than 
 twenty years' standing. The oldest Chap- 
 ter rooms that I have seen are constructed 
 on the correct principle. 
 
 Tabernacle, Chief of the. See 
 Chief of the Tabernacle. 
 
 Tabor 1 1 si Ho. Prince of the. See 
 Prince of the Tabernacle. 
 
 Table Lodge. After the labors of 
 the Lodge have been completed, Masons 
 frequently meet at tables to enjoy a repast 
 in common. In England and America, 
 this repast is generally called a banquet, 
 and the Lodge is said to be, during its con- 
 tinuance, at refreshment. The Master, of 
 course, presides, assisted by the Wardens, 
 and it is considered most proper that no 
 profanes should be present. But with these 
 exceptions, there are no rules specially 
 laid down for the government of Masonic 
 banquets. It will be seen, by an inspection 
 of the article Refreshment in this work, that 
 during the last century, and even at the 
 commencement of the present, refreshments 
 in English Lodges were taken during the ses- 
 sions of the Lodge and in the Lodge-room, 
 and then, of course, rigid rules were in exist- 
 ence for the government of the Fraternity, 
 and for the regulation of the forms in which 
 the refreshments should be partaken. But 
 this system has long grown obsolete, and 
 the Masonic banquets of the present day 
 differ very little from those of other socie- 
 ties, except, perhaps, in a more strict ob- 
 servance of the rules of order, and in the 
 exclusion of all non-Masonic visitors. 
 
 But French Masons have prescribed a 
 very formal system of rules for what they 
 call a " Loge de Table," or Table Lodge. 
 The room in which the banquet takes place 
 is as much protected by its insulation from 
 observation as the Lodge-room itself. Ta- 
 ble Lodges are always held in the Appren- 
 tice's degree, and none but Masons are per- 
 mitted to be present. Even the attendants 
 are taken from the class known as "Serv- 
 ing Brethren," that is to say, waiters who 
 have received the first degree for the special 
 purpose of entitling them to be present on 
 such occasions. 
 
TABLE 
 
 TACITURNITY 
 
 787 
 
 Deacons 
 
 jw: 
 
 The table is in the form of a horseshoe 
 or elongated semi- 1T 
 
 circle. The Master VOl. 
 
 sits at the head, 
 the Senior War- 
 den at the north- , 
 west extremity, # 
 and the Junior 
 Warden at the* 
 south-west. The* 
 Deacons or equiv- 
 alent officers sit * 
 between the two • 
 Wardens. The 
 brethren are • 
 placed around the # 
 exterior margin of 
 the table, facing • 
 each other ; and 
 the void space be- • 
 tween the sides is 
 occupied by the otit- 
 serving brethren • vv • 
 . or attendants. It is probable that the form 
 of the table was really adopted at first from 
 motives of convenience. But M. Hermitte 
 {Bull. G. 0., 1869, p. 83,) assigns for it a 
 symbolism. He says that as the entire cir- 
 cle represents the year, or the complete 
 revolution of the earth around the sun, the 
 semicircle represents the half of that revo- 
 lution, or a period of six months, and 
 therefore refers to each the two solstitial 
 points of summer and winter, or the two 
 great festivals of the Order in June and 
 December, when the most important Table 
 Lodges are held. 
 
 The Table Lodge is formally opened with 
 an invocation to the Grand Architect. 
 During the banquet, seven toasts are 
 given. These are called " santes d'obliga- 
 tion," or obligatory toasts. They are drunk 
 with certain ceremonies, which are pre- 
 scribed by the ritual, and from which no 
 departure is permitted. These toasts are : 
 1. The health of the Sovereign or Chief 
 Magistrate of the State. 2. That of the 
 Grand Master and the Supreme power of 
 the Order, that is, the Grand Orient or the 
 Grand Lodge. 3. That of the Master of 
 the Lodge; this is offered by the Senior 
 Warden. 4. That of the two Wardens. 
 5. That of the Visiting Brethren. 6. That 
 of the other officers of the Lodge, and the 
 new initiates or affiliates if there be any. 
 7. That of all Masons wheresoever spread 
 over the face of the globe. See Toasts. 
 
 Ragon (Tuill. Gen., p. 17,) refers these 
 seven toasts of obligation to the seven liba- 
 tions made by the ancients in their banquets 
 in honor of the seven planets, the Sun, 
 Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and 
 Saturn, and the seven days of the week 
 which are named after them; and he as- 
 
 signs some striking reasons for the refer- 
 ence. But this symbolism, although very 
 beautiful, is evidently very modern. 
 
 The Table Lodge is then closed with the 
 fraternal kiss, which is passed from the 
 Master around the table, and with the 
 usual forms. 
 
 One of the most curious things about 
 these Table Lodges is the vocabulary used. 
 The instant that the Lodge is opened, a 
 change takes place in the names of things, 
 and no person is permitted to call a plate 
 & plate, or a knife a knife, or anything else 
 by the appellation by which it is known in 
 ordinary conversation. Such a custom for- 
 merly prevailed in England, if we may 
 judge from a passage in Dr. Oliver's Reve- 
 lations of a Square, where an instance is 
 given of its use in 1780, when the French 
 vocabulary was employed. I am inclined 
 to believe, from the same authority, that 
 the custom was introduced into England 
 from France by Capt. George Smith, the 
 author of the Use and Abuse of Freemasonry, 
 who was initiated in a continental Lodge. 
 
 The vocabulary of the Table Lodge as 
 used at French Masonic banquets is as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Table-cloth 
 
 they call standard. 
 
 Napkins 
 
 u 
 
 nags. 
 
 Table 
 
 « 
 
 tracing-board. 
 
 Dishes 
 
 «< 
 
 great plates. 
 
 Plates 
 
 « 
 
 tiles. 
 
 Spoons 
 Knives 
 
 « 
 
 trowels. 
 
 M 
 
 swords. 
 
 Forks 
 
 M 
 
 pickaxes. 
 
 Bottles 
 
 « 
 
 casks. 
 
 Glasses 
 
 M 
 
 cannons. 
 
 Lights 
 
 M 
 
 stars. 
 
 Snuffers 
 
 M 
 
 pincers. 
 
 Chairs 
 
 (( 
 
 stalls. 
 
 Meals 
 
 M 
 
 materials. 
 
 Bread 
 
 tc 
 
 rough ashlar. 
 
 Red wine 
 
 M 
 
 strong red powder. 
 
 White wine 
 
 M 
 
 strong white pow- 
 der, 
 weak powder. 
 
 Water 
 
 « 
 
 Beer 
 
 M 
 
 yellow powder. 
 
 Brandy, or liqueurs 
 
 M 
 
 fulminating pow- 
 der, 
 black powder. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 <( 
 
 Salt 
 
 (( 
 
 white sand. 
 
 Pepper 
 
 « 
 
 cement. 
 
 To eat 
 
 ft 
 
 to masticate. 
 
 To drink 
 
 (( 
 
 to fire. 
 
 To carve 
 
 M 
 
 to hew. 
 
 Tablets of II iram Abif. Among 
 the traditions of the Order there is a legend 
 referring to the tablets used by Hiram Abif 
 as a Trestle-Board on which to lay down 
 his designs. This legend, of course, can 
 lay no claim to authenticity, but is intended 
 simply as a symbol inculcating the duty of 
 every man to work in the daily labor of life 
 after a design that will construct in his 
 body a spiritual temple. See Hiram Abif. 
 
 Taciturnity. In the earliest cato- 
 
788 
 
 TACTICS 
 
 TALISMAN 
 
 chisms of the last century it is said that 
 " the three particular points that pertain to 
 a Mason are Fraternity, Fidelity, and Taci- 
 turnity," and that they " represent Love, 
 Relief, and Truth among all Right Ma- 
 sons." The symbol is now obsolete. 
 
 Tactics. The importance that has in 
 the last few years been given to the mili- 
 tary element in the Order of Masonic 
 Knights Templars has made it necessary 
 that special Manuals should be prepared 
 for the instruction of Knights in the ele- 
 mentary principles of military movements. 
 The most popular works of this kind are 
 1. Knights Templars' Tactics and Drill for 
 the use of Commanderies, and the Burial Ser- 
 vice of the Orders of Masonic Knighthood. 
 Prepared by Sir Orrin Welsh, Past Grand 
 Commander, State of Next) York; 2. Knights 
 Templars' Tactics and Drill, with the Working, 
 Text, and Burial Service of the Orders of 
 Knighthood, as adopted by the Grand Com- 
 mandery of the State of Michigan. By Ellery 
 Irving Garfield, E. G. C. G. Grand Com- 
 mandery of Michigan; and 3. Tactics for 
 Knights Templars, and Appendant Orders. 
 Prepared by E. Sir Knight George Wingate 
 Chase, of Massachusetts. These works con- 
 tain the necessary instructions in the 
 "school of the knight," or the proper 
 method of marching, halting, saluting, 
 handling the sword, etc., and the " school 
 of the commandery," or directions for 
 properly performing the evolutions on a 
 public parade. Books of this kind have 
 now become as necessary and as common 
 to the Knight Templar as Monitors are to 
 the Master Mason. 
 
 Talisman. From the Hebrew tselem 
 and the Chaldaic tsalma, an image or idol. 
 A talisman signifies an implement or in- 
 strument, either of wood, or metal, or some 
 precious stone, or even parchment, of various 
 forms, such as a triangle, a cross, a circle, 
 and sometimes a human head or human 
 figure, generally inscribed with characters 
 and constructed with mystical rites and cere- 
 monies. The talisman thus constructed 
 was supposed by the ancients, and even 
 in the Middle Ages, to be invested with 
 supernatural powers and a capacity for pro- 
 tecting its wearer or possessor from evil in- 
 fluences, and for securing to him good for- 
 tune and success in his undertakings. 
 
 The word amulet, from the Latin verb 
 amolior, to baffle or do away with, though 
 sometimes confounded with the \alisman, 
 has a less general signification. For while 
 the talisman served both to procure good 
 and to avert evil, the powers of the amulet 
 were entirely of a protective nature. Fre- 
 
 Siuently, however, the two words are indif- 
 erently used. 
 The use of talismans was introduced in 
 
 the Middle Ages from the Gnostics. Of 
 the Gnostic talismans none were more fre- 
 quent than those which were inscribed with 
 divine names. Of these the most common 
 were IAO and SABAO, although we find 
 also the Tetragrammaton, and Elohim, 
 Elohi, Adonai, and other Hebrew appella- 
 tions of the deity. Sometimes the talis- 
 man contained, not one of the names of 
 God, but that of some mystical person, 
 or the expression of some mystical idea. 
 Thus, on some of the Gnostic talismanic 
 gems, we find the names of the three mythi- 
 cal kings of Cologne, or the sacred Abrax- 
 as. The orthodox Christians of the early 
 days of the church were necessarily influ- 
 enced, by the popular belief in talismans, to 
 adopt many of them ; although, of course, 
 they sought to divest them of their magical 
 signification, and to use them simply as sym- 
 bols. Hence we find among these Chris- 
 tians the Constantinian monogram, com- 
 posed of the letters X and P, or the vesica 
 piscis, as a symbol of Christ, and the image 
 of a little fish as a token of Christian recog- 
 nition, and the anchor as a mark of Chris- 
 tian hope. 
 
 Many of the symbols and symbolic ex- 
 pressions which were in use by the alche- 
 mists, the astrologers, and by the Rosicru- 
 cians, are to be traced to the Gnostic talis- 
 mans. The talisman was, it is true, con- 
 verted from an instrument of incantation 
 into a symbol ; but the symbol was accom- 
 panied with a mystical signification which 
 gave it a sacred character. 
 
 It has been said that in the Gnostic tal- 
 ismans the most important element was 
 some one or more of the sacred names of 
 God, derived either from the Hebrews, the 
 Arabians, or from their own abstruse phi- 
 losophy ; sometimes even in the same talis- 
 man from all these sources combined. Thus 
 there is a Gnostic talisman, said by Mr. 
 King to be still current in Germany as an 
 amulet against plague. It consists of a silver 
 plate, on which are inscribed various names 
 of God surrounding a magic square, whose 
 figures computed every way make the num- 
 ber 34. 
 
 
 *ELOHIM * ELOHI* 
 
 
 
 4 . 14 . 15 . 1 . 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 1— I 
 
 
 W 
 
 < 
 
 9 . 7 . 6 . 12 . 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 
 O 
 
 «1 
 
 5 . 11 . 10 . 8 . 
 
 PQ 
 - 
 
 * 
 
 16 . 2 . 3 . 13 . 
 *ROCYEL * IOSIPHIEL* 
 
 * 
 
TALISMAN 
 
 TALMUD 
 
 789 
 
 In this Gnostic talisman, we will observe 
 the presence not only of sacred names, but 
 also of mystical. And it is to tbe influence 
 of these talismanic forms, developed in the 
 symbols of the secret societies of the Mid- 
 dle Ages, and even in the architectural dec- 
 orations of the builders of the same period, 
 such as the triangle, the pentalpha, the 
 double triangle, etc., that we are to attri- 
 bute the prevalence of sacred names and 
 sacred numbers in the symbolic system of 
 Freemasonry. 
 
 We do not need a better instance of this 
 transmutation of Gnostic talismans into 
 Masonic symbols, by a gradual transmis- 
 sion through alchemy, Rosicrucianism, and 
 mediaeval architecture, than a plate to be 
 found in the Azoth Philosophorum of Basil 
 Valentine, the Hermetic philosopher, who 
 flourished in the seventeenth century. 
 
 This plate, which is hermetic in its de- 
 sign, but is full of Masonic symbolism, 
 represents a winged globe inscribed with a 
 triangle within a square, and on it reposes a 
 dragon. On the latter stands a human fig- 
 ure of two hands and two heads, surrounded 
 by the sun, the moon, and five stars repre- 
 senting the seven planets. One of the 
 heads is that of a male, the other of a fe- 
 male. The hand attached to the male part 
 of the figure holds a compass, that to the 
 female, a square. The square and compass 
 thus distributed seem to me to indicate that 
 originally a phallic meaning was attached 
 to these symbols as there was to the point 
 within the circle, which in this plate also 
 appears in the centre of the globe. The 
 compass held by the male figure would 
 
 represent the male generative principle, and 
 the square held by the female, the female 
 productive principle. The subsequent in- 
 terpretation given to the combined square 
 and compass was the transmutation from 
 the hermetic talisman to the Masonic sym- 
 bol. 
 
 Talmud. Hebrew, "noSa signifying 
 doctrine. The Jews say that Moses received 
 on Mount Sinai not only the written law 
 which is contained in the Pentateuch, but 
 an oral law, which was first communicated 
 by him to Aaron, then by them to the sev- 
 enty elders, and finally by these to the peo- 
 ple, and thus transmitted, by memory, trom 
 generation to generation. This oral law 
 was never committed to writing until about 
 the beginning of the third century, when 
 Rabbi Jehuda the Holy, finding that there 
 was a possibility of its being lost, from the 
 decrease of students of the law, collected all 
 the traditionary laws into one book, which 
 is called the Mishtia, a word signifying 
 repetition, because it is, as it were, a repeti- 
 tion of the written law. 
 
 The Mishna was at once received with 
 great veneration, and many wise men 
 among the Jews devoted themselves to its 
 study. 
 
 Towards the end of the fourth century, 
 these opinions were collected into a book 
 of commentaries, called the Gemara, by the 
 school at Tiberias. This work has been 
 falsely attributed to Rabbi Jochanan ; but 
 he died in 279, a hundred years before its 
 composition. The Mishna and its com- 
 mentary, the Gemara, are, in their collected 
 form, called the Talmud. 
 
 The Jews in Chaldea, not being satisfied 
 with the interpretations in this work, com- 
 posed others, which were collected together 
 by Rabbi Ashe into another Gemara. The 
 former work has since been known as the 
 Jerusalem Talmud, and that of R. Ashe as 
 the Babylonian Talmud, from the places in 
 which they were respectively compiled. 
 In both works the Mishna or law is tbe 
 same ; it is only the Gemara or commen- 
 tary that is different. 
 
 The Jewish scholars place so high a 
 value on the Talmud as to compare the 
 Bible to water, the Mishna to wine, and the 
 Gemara to spiced wine; or the first to salt, 
 the second to pepper, and third to spices. 
 For a long time after its composition it 
 seemed to absorb all the powers of the 
 Jewish intellect, and the labors of Hebrew 
 writers were confined to treatises and spec- 
 ulations on Talmudical opinions. 
 
 The Mishna is divided into six divisions 
 called Sederim, whose subjects are: 1. The 
 productions of the earth ; 2. Festivals ; 3. 
 The rights and duties of women ; 4. Dam- 
 ages and injuries ; 5. Sacrifices ; 6. Purifc- 
 
790 
 
 TAMARISK 
 
 TATNAI 
 
 cations. Each of these Sederim is again 
 divided into Massicoth, or treatises, of which 
 there are altogether sixty-three. 
 
 The Oemara, which differs in the Jerusa- 
 lem and Babylonian redactions, consists of 
 commentaries on these Massicoth, or treatises. 
 
 Of the Talmud, Lightfoot has said that 
 the matters it contains "do everywhere 
 abound with trifles in that manner, as 
 though they had no mind to be read; with 
 obscurities and difficulties, as though they 
 had no mind to be understood ; so that the 
 reader has need of patience all along to en- 
 able him to bear both trifling in sense and 
 roughness in expression." Stehelin concurs 
 in a similar opinion; but Steinschneider, as 
 learned a Hebraist as either, has expressed 
 a more favorable judgment. 
 
 Although the Talmud does indeed con- 
 tain many passages whose conceits are pue- 
 rile, it is, nevertheless, extremely service- 
 able as an elaborate compendium of Jewish 
 customs, and has therefore been much used 
 in the criticism of the Old and New Testa- 
 ments. It furnishes also many curious il- 
 lustrations of the Masonic system ; and 
 several of the traditions and legends, espe- 
 cially of the higher degrees, are either found 
 in or corroborated by the Talmud. The 
 treatise entitled Middoth, for instance, gives 
 us the best description extant of the Temple 
 of Solomon. 
 
 Tamarisk. The sacred tree of the 
 Osirian mysteries, classically called the 
 Erica, which see. 
 
 Tannehill, Wilkins. Born in Ten- 
 nessee, in 1787. He was one of the founders, 
 in 1813, of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee, 
 and was for seven years Grand Master of 
 that body. He was also a contributor to 
 the literature of Masonry, having published 
 in 1845 a Master Mason's Manual; which 
 was, however, little more than a compila- 
 tion from the preceding labors of Preston 
 and Webb. In 1847, he commenced the 
 publication of a Masonic periodical under 
 the title of the Portfolio. This was a work 
 of considerable merit, but he was compelled 
 to discontinue it in 1850, in consequence 
 of an attack of amaurosis. One who knew 
 him well, has paid this just tribute to his 
 character: "Simple in feeling as a child, 
 with a heart warm and tender to the in- 
 firmities of his brethren, generous even to 
 a fault, he passed through the temptations 
 and trying scenes of an eventful life with- 
 out a soil upon the purity of his garments." 
 He died June 2, 1858," aged seventy-one 
 years. 
 
 Tapis. The name given in German 
 Lodges to the carpet or floor-cloth on 
 which formerly the emblems of Masonry 
 were drawn in chalk. It is also sometimes 
 called the Teppich. 
 
 Tarsel. In the earliest catechisms of 
 the eighteenth century, it is said that the 
 furniture of a Lodge consists of a "Mosaic 
 Pavement, Blazing Star, and Indented 
 Tarsel." In more modern catechisms, the 
 expression is "indented tessel," which is 
 incorrectly defined to mean a " tessellated 
 border." Indented Tarsel is evidently a cor- 
 ruption of indented tassel; for a definition 
 of which see Tessellated Border. 
 
 Tarsel-Board. We meet with this 
 expression in some of the old catechisms as 
 a corruption of Trestle- Board. 
 
 Tarshatlia. Used in the degree of 
 Knight of the East in the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite, according to the 
 modern ritual of the Southern Jurisdiction 
 of the United States, for Tirshatha, and ap- 
 plied to the presiding officer of a Council 
 of Princes of Jerusalem. See Tirshatha. 
 
 Tassels. In the English and French 
 tracing-boards of the first degree, there are 
 four tassels, one at each angle, which are at- 
 tached to a cord that surrounds a tracing- 
 board, and which constitutes the true tessella- 
 ted border. These four cords are described as 
 referring to the four principal points, the 
 guttural, pectoral, manual, and pedal, and 
 through them to the four cardinal virtues, 
 temperance, fortitude, prudence, and jus- 
 tice. See Tessellated Border. 
 
 Tasting and Smelling. Of the 
 five senses, hearing, seeing, and feeling 
 only are deemed essential to Masons. Tast- 
 ing and smelling are therefore not referred 
 to in the ritual, except as making up the 
 sacred number five. Preston says: "Smell- 
 ing and Tasting are inseparably connected ; 
 and it is by the unnatural kind of life which 
 men commonly lead in society that these 
 senses are rendered less fit to perform their 
 natural duties." 
 
 Tatnai and Shethar-Boznai. 
 Tatnai was a Persian satrap of the province 
 west of the Euphrates in the time of Da- 
 rius and Zerubbabel ; Shethar-Boznai was 
 an officer under his command. The two 
 united with the Apharsachites in trying to 
 obstruct the building of the second Temple, 
 and in writing a letter to Darius, of which 
 a copy is preserved in Ezra, (ch. v.) In 
 this letter they reported that " the house 
 of thegreat God" in Judea was being builded 
 with great stones, and that the work was 
 going on fast, on the alleged authority of a 
 decree from Cyrus. They requested that 
 search might be made in the rolls' court 
 whether such a decree was ever given, and 
 asked for the king's pleasure in the matter. 
 The decree was found at Ecbatana, and a 
 letter was sent to Tatnai and Shethar- 
 Boznai from Darius, ordering them no 
 more to obstruct, but, on the contrary, to 
 aid the elders of the Jews in rebuilding 
 
TAU 
 
 TEARS 
 
 791 
 
 the Temple by supplying them both with 
 money and with beasts, corn, salt, wine, 
 and oil for the sacrifices. Shethar-Boznai, 
 after the receipt of this decree, offered no 
 further obstruction to the Jews. Their 
 names have been hence introduced into 
 some of the high degrees in Masonry. 
 
 Tan. The last letter of the Hebrew 
 alphabet is called tau, and it has the power 
 of the Roman T. In its present form j"\, 
 in the square character now in use, it has 
 no resemblance to a cross; but in the an- 
 cient Hebrew alphabet, its figure X, or +, 
 was that of a cross. Hence, when it is 
 said, in the vision of Ezekiel, (ix. 4,) "Go 
 through the midst of the city, and set a 
 mark (in the original, *)]")> iau >) u P on tne 
 foreheads of the men that sigh and that 
 cry for all the abominations that be done 
 in the midst thereof," — which mark was to 
 distinguish them as persons to be saved, on 
 account of their sorrow for sin, from those 
 who, as idolaters, were to be slain, — the evi- 
 dent allusion is to a cross. The form of 
 this cross was X or +, a form familiar to 
 the people of that day. But as the Greek 
 letter tau subsequently assumed the form 
 which is still preserved in the Roman T, 
 the tau or tau cross was made also to as- 
 sume the same form ; so that the mark tau is 
 now universally recognized in this form, T. 
 This tau, tau cross, or tau mark, was of very 
 universal use as a sacred symbol among the 
 ancients. From the passage of Ezekiel just 
 cited, it is evident that the Hebrews recog- 
 nized it as a sign of salvation ; according to 
 the Talmudists, the symbol was much older 
 than the time of Ezekiel, for they say that 
 when Moses anointed Aaron as the high 
 priest, he marked his forehead with this 
 sign. Speaking of the use of the tau cross 
 in the Old Testament, Didron says ( Christ. 
 Iconog., p. 370,) that " it saved the youth- 
 ful Isaac from death, redeemed from de- 
 struction an entire people whose houses 
 were marked with that symbol, healed the 
 envenomed bites of those who looked at 
 the serpent raised in the form of a ' tau ' 
 upon a pole, and called back the soul 
 into the dead body of the son of that 
 poor widow who had given bread to the 
 prophet." 
 
 Hence, in Christian iconography, the 
 tau cross, or cross of the Old Testament, is 
 called the anticipatory cross, because it an- 
 ticipated the four-limbed cross of the pas- 
 sion, and the typical cross because it was 
 its type. It is also called the cross of St. 
 Anthony, because on it that saint is sup- 
 posed to have suffered martyrdom. 
 
 Maurice, in his Indian Antiquities, refers 
 to it the tiluk, or mark worn by the dev- 
 otees of Brahma. 
 
 Davies, in his Celtic Researches, says that 
 
 the " Gallicum tau," or the tau of the an- 
 cient Gauls, was among the Druids a sym- 
 bol of their supreme god, or Jupiter. 
 
 Among the Egyptians, the tau, with an 
 oval ring or handle, became the crux an- 
 sata, and was used by them as the con- 
 stant symbol of life. Dr. Clarke says 
 {Travels, v. 311,) that the tau cross was 
 a monogram of Thoth, " the symbolical or 
 mystical name of hidden wisdom among 
 the ancient Egyptians." 
 
 Dupuy, in his History of the Templars, 
 says that the tau was a Templar emblem. 
 Von Hammer, who lets no opportunity of 
 maligning the Order escape him, adduces 
 this as a proof of the idolatrous tendencies 
 of the Knights. He explains the tau, which, 
 he says, was inscribed on the forehead of 
 the Baphomet or Templar idol, as a figure 
 of the phallus; whence he comes to the con- 
 clusion that the Knights Templars were 
 addicted to the obscene worship of that 
 symbol. It is, however, entirely doubtful, 
 notwithstanding the authority of Dupuy, 
 whether the tau was a symbol of the Tem- 
 
 Klars. But if it was, its origin is rather to 
 e looked for in the supposed Hebrew idea 
 as a symbol of preservation. 
 
 It is in this sense, as a symbol of salva- 
 tion from death and of eternal life, that it 
 has been adopted into the Masonic system, 
 and presents itself, especially under its tri- 
 ple combination, as a badge of Royal Arch 
 Masonry. See Triple Tau. 
 
 Tau Cross. A cross of three limbs, 
 so called because it presents the figure of 
 the Greek letter T. See Tau. 
 
 Team. Royal Arch Masons apply this 
 word rather inelegantly to designate the 
 three candidates upon whom the degree is 
 conferred at the same time. The phrase 
 is, I think, exclusively confined to this 
 country. 
 
 Tears. In the Master's degree in some 
 of the continental Rites, and in all the high 
 degrees where the legend of the 
 degree and the ceremony of re- II II 
 
 ception are intended to express A /\ 
 
 grief, the hangings of the Lodge (|| A] 
 are black strewn with tears. The (I 1 ) 
 figures representing tears are in 
 the form depicted in the annexed 
 cut. The symbolism is borrowed 
 from the science of heraldry, 
 where these figures are called 
 guttes, and are defined to be 
 " drops of anything that is by nature liquid 
 or liquefied by art." The heralds have 
 six of these charges, viz., yellow, or drops 
 of liquid gold ; white, or drops of liquid 
 silver; red, or drops of blood; blue, or 
 drops of tears ; black, or drops of pitch ; 
 and green, or drops of oil. In funeral 
 hatchments, a black velvet cloth, sprinkled 
 
792 
 
 TEMPELORDEN 
 
 TEMPLAR 
 
 with these " drops of tears," is placed in 
 front of the house of a deceased nobleman 
 and thrown over his bier ; but there, as in 
 Masonry, the guttes de larmes, or drops of 
 tears, are not painted blue, but white. 
 
 Tempelorden or Tempelher- 
 renorden. The title in German of the 
 Order of Knights Templars. 
 
 Temperance. One of the four car- 
 dinal virtues, the practice of which is in- 
 culcated in the first degree. The Mason 
 who properly appreciates the secrets which 
 he has solemnly promised never to reveal, 
 will not, by yielding to the unrestrained 
 call of appetite, permit reason and judg- 
 ment to lose their seats, and subject him- 
 self, by the indulgence in habits of excess, 
 to discover that which should be concealed, 
 and thus merit and receive the scorn and 
 detestation of his brethren. And lest any 
 brother should forget the danger to which 
 he is exposed in the unguarded hours of 
 dissipation, the virtue of temperance is 
 wisely impressed upon his memory, by its 
 reference to one of the most solemn por- 
 tions of the ceremony of initiation. Some 
 Masons, very properly condemning the vice 
 of intemperance and abhorring its effects, 
 have been unwisely led to confound tem- 
 perance with total abstinence in a Masonic 
 application, and resolutions have some- 
 times been proposed in Grand Lodges 
 which declare the use of stimulating liquors 
 in any quantity a Masonic offence. But 
 the law of Masonry authorizes no such 
 regulation. It leaves to every man the 
 indulgence of his own tastes within due 
 limits, and demands not abstinence, but 
 only moderation and temperance, in any- 
 thing not actually wrong. 
 
 Templar. See Knight Templar. 
 
 Templarius. The Latin title of a 
 Knight Templar. Constantly used in the 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 Templar Land. The Order of 
 Knights Templars was dissolved in Eng- 
 land, by an act of Parliament, in the seven- 
 teenth year of the reign of Edward II., and 
 their possessions transferred to the Order 
 of St. John of Jerusalem, or Knights Hos- 
 pitallers. Subsequently, in the thirty- 
 second year of the reign of Henry VIII., 
 their possessions were transferred to the 
 king. One of the privileges possessed by 
 the English Templars was that their lands 
 should be free of tithes ; and these privi- 
 leges still adhere to these lands, so that a 
 farm being what is termed "Templar 
 land," is still exempt from the imposition 
 of tithes, if it is occupied by the owner; 
 an exemption which ceases when the farm 
 is worked under a lease. 
 
 Templar Origin of Masonry. 
 The theory that Masonry originated in the 
 
 Holy Land during the Crusades, and was 
 instituted by the Knights Templars, was 
 first advanced by the Chevalier Ramsay, 
 for the purpose, it is supposed, of giving 
 an aristocratic character to the association. 
 It was subsequently adopted by the College 
 of Clermont, and was accepted by the 
 Baron von Hund as the basis upon which 
 he erected his Rite of Strict Observance. 
 The legend of the Clermont College is 
 thus detailed by M. Berage in his work 
 entitled Les Plus Secrets Mysteres des Hauls 
 Grades, (Hi. 194.) " The Order of Masonry 
 was instituted, by Godfrey de Bouillon, in 
 Palestine in 1330, after the defeat of the 
 Christian armies, and was communicated 
 only to a few of the French Masons, some- 
 time afterwards, as a reward for the services 
 which they had rendered to the English 
 and Scottish Knights. From these latter 
 true Masonry is derived. Their Mother 
 Lodge is situated on the mountain of Here- 
 dom, where the first Lodge in Europe was 
 held, which still exists in all its splendor. 
 The Council General is always held there, 
 and it is the seat of the Sovereign Grand 
 Master for the time being. This mountain 
 is situated between the west and the north 
 of Scotland, sixty miles from Edinburgh. 
 
 " There are other secrets in Masonry which 
 were never known among the French, and 
 which have no relation to the Apprentice, 
 Fellow Craft, and Master — degrees which 
 were constructed for the general class 
 of Masons. The high degrees, which de- 
 veloped the true design of Masonry and 
 its true secrets, have never been known to 
 them. 
 
 " The Saracens having obtained possession 
 of the holy places in Palestine, where all 
 the mysteries of the Order were practised, 
 made use of them for the most profane pur- 
 poses. The Christians then leagued to- 
 gether to conquer this beautiful country, 
 and to drive these barbarians from the land. 
 They succeeded in obtaining a footing on 
 these shores under the protection of the 
 numerous armies of Crusaders which had 
 been sent there by the Christian princes. 
 The losses which they subsequently expe- 
 rienced put an end to the Christian power, 
 and the Crusaders who remained were sub- 
 jected to the persecutions of the Saracens, 
 who massacred all who publicly proclaimed 
 the Christian faith. This induced Godfrey 
 de Bouillon, towards the end of the third 
 century, to conceal the mysteries of religion 
 under the veil of figures, emblems, and 
 allegories. 
 
 "Hence the Christians selected the Tem- 
 ple of Solomon because it has so close a 
 relation to the Christian Church, of which 
 its holiness and its magnificence make it 
 the true symbol. So the Christians con- 
 
TEMPLARS 
 
 TEMPLARS 
 
 793 
 
 cealed the mystery of the building up of 
 the Church under that of the construction 
 of the Temple, and gave themselves the 
 name of Masons, Architects or Builders, 
 because they were occupied in building the 
 faith. They assembled under the pretext 
 of making plans of architecture to practise 
 the rites of their religion, with all the em- 
 blems and allegories that Masonry could 
 furnish, and thus protect themselves from 
 the cruelty of the Saracens. 
 
 "As the mysteries of Masonry were in 
 their principles, and still are only those of 
 the Christian religion, they were extremely 
 scrupulous to confide this important secret 
 only to those whose discretion had been 
 tried, and who had been found worthy. For 
 this purpose they fabricated degrees as a 
 test of those to whom they wished to con- 
 fide it, and they gave them at first only the 
 symbolic secret of Hiram, on which all the 
 mystery of Blue Masonry is founded, and 
 which is, in fact, the only secret of that 
 Order which has no relation to true Ma- 
 sonry. They explained nothing else to 
 them as they were afraid of being betrayed, 
 and they conferred these degrees as a pro- 
 per means of recognizing each other, sur- 
 rounded as they were by barbarians. To 
 succeed more effectually in this, they made 
 use of different signs and words for each 
 degree, so as not only to distinguish them- 
 selves from the profane Saracens, but to des- 
 ignate the different degrees. These they 
 fixed at the number of seven, in imitation 
 of the Grand Architect, who built the Uni- 
 verse in six days and rested on the seventh ; 
 and also because Solomon was seven years 
 in constructing the Temple, which they had 
 selected as the figurative basis of Masonry. 
 Under the name of Hiram they gave a 
 false application to the Masters, and devel- 
 oped the true secret of Masonry only to 
 the higher degrees." 
 
 Such is the theory of the Templar origin 
 of Masonry, which, mythical as it is, and 
 wholly unsupported by the authority of 
 history, has exercised a vast influence in 
 the fabrication of high degrees and the in- 
 vention of continental Rites. Indeed, of 
 all the systems propounded during the 
 eighteenth century, so fertile in the con- 
 struction of extravagant systems, none has 
 Elayed so important a part as this in the 
 istory of Masonry. Although the theory 
 is no longer maintained, its effects are 
 everywhere seen and felt. 
 
 Templars of England. An im- 
 portant change in the organization of Tem- 
 plarism in England and Ireland took place 
 in 1873. By it a union took place of the 
 Grand Conclave of Masonic Knights Tem- 
 plars of England and the Grand Conclave 
 of High Knights Templars of Ireland into 
 4Z 
 
 one body, under the title of the " Convent 
 General of the United Religious and 
 Military Orders of the Temple and of St. 
 John of Jerusalem, Palestine, Rhodes, and 
 Malta." The following is a summary of 
 the statutes by which the new Order is to 
 be governed, as given by Sir Knight W. J. 
 B. McLeod Moore, Grand Prior, in his 
 circular to the Preceptors of Canada. 
 
 " 1. The existing Grand Masters in the 
 Empire are to be termed Great Priors, and 
 Grand Conclaves or Encampments, Great 
 Priories, under and subordinate to one 
 Grand Master, as in the early days of the 
 Order, and one Supreme Governing Body, 
 the Convent General. 
 
 " 2. The term Great is adopted instead 
 of Grand, the latter being a French word ; 
 and grand in English is not grand in 
 French. Great is the proper translation 
 of ' Magnus ' and ' Magnus Supremus.' 
 
 " 3. The Great Priories of each nation- 
 ality — England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 with their dependencies in the Colonies — 
 retain their internal government and legis- 
 lation, and appoint their Provincial Priors, 
 doing nothing inconsistent with the su- 
 preme statutes of the Convent General. 
 
 " 4. The title Masonic is not continued ; 
 the Order being purely Christian, none but 
 Christians can be admitted ; consequently 
 it cannot be considered strictly as a Ma- 
 sonic body: Masonry, while inculcating 
 the highest reverence for the Supreme Be- 
 ing, and the doctrine of the immortality 
 of the soul, does not teach a belief in one 
 particular creed, or unbelief in any. The 
 connection with Masonry is, however, 
 strengthened still more, as a candidate 
 must now be two years a Master Mason, in 
 addition to his qualification as a Royal 
 Arch Mason. 
 
 "5. The titles Eminent 'Commander' 
 and 'Encampment' have been discon- 
 tinued, and the original name ' Preceptor ' 
 and ' Preceptory ' substituted, as also the 
 titles ' Constable ' and ' Marshal ' for ' First ' 
 and ' Second Captains.' ' Encampment ' is 
 a modern term, adopted probably when, as 
 our traditions inform us, ' at the suppres- 
 sion of the ancient Military Order of the 
 Temple, some of their number sought ref- 
 uge and held conclaves in the Masonic So- 
 ciety, being independent small bodies, 
 without any governing head.' ' Prior ' is 
 the correct and original title for the head 
 of a langue or nationality, and ' Preceptor ' 
 for the subordinate bodies. The Precep- 
 tories were the ancient 'Houses' of the 
 Templar Order; 'Commander' and 'Com- 
 manderies ' was the title used by the Order 
 of St. John, commonly known as Knights 
 of Malta. 
 
 " 6. The title by which the Order is now 
 
794 
 
 TEMPLARS 
 
 TEMPLARS 
 
 known is that of 'The United Religious 
 and Military Orders of the Temple and of 
 St. John of Jerusalem, Palestine, Ehodes, 
 and Malta.' The Order of the Temple 
 originally had no connection with that of 
 Malta or Order of St. John ; but the com- 
 bined title appears to have been adopted in 
 commemoration of the union which took 
 place in Scotland with ' The Temple and 
 Hospital of St. John,' when their lands 
 were in common, at the time of the Refor- 
 mation. But our Order of 'St. John of 
 Jerusalem, Palestine, Rhodes, and Malta,' 
 has no connection with the present Knights 
 of Malta in the Papal States, or of the Pro- 
 testant branches of the Order, the lineal 
 successors of the ancient Knights of St. 
 John, the sixth or English langue of which 
 is still in existence, and presided over, in 
 London, by His Grace the Duke of Man- 
 chester. The Order, when it occupied the 
 Island of Malta as a sovereign body, was 
 totally unconnected with Freemasonry. 
 
 "7. Honorary past rank is abolished, 
 substituting the chivalric dignities of 
 ' Grand Crosses' and ' Commanders,' limited 
 in number, and confined to Preceptors. 
 These honors to be conferred by His Royal 
 Highness the Grand Master, the Fountain 
 of Grace and Dignity; and it is contem- 
 plated to create an Order of Merit, to be 
 conferred in like manner, as a reward to 
 Knights who have served the Order. 
 
 "8. A Preceptor holds a degree as well 
 as rank, and will always retain his rank 
 and privileges as long as he belongs to a 
 Preceptory. 
 
 " 9. The abolition of honorary past rank 
 is not retrospective, as their rank and priv- 
 ileges are reserved to all those who now 
 enjoy them. 
 
 " 10. The number of officers entitled to 
 precedence has been reduced to seven; but 
 others may be appointed at discretion, who 
 do not, however, enjoy any precedence. 
 
 " 11. Equerries, or serving brethren, are 
 not to receive the accolade, or use any but 
 a brown habit, and shall not wear any in- 
 signia or jewel : they are to be addressed as 
 'Frater,' not Sir Knight. In the early 
 days of the Order they were not entitled 
 to the accolade, and, with the esquires and 
 men-at-arms, wore a dark habit, to distin- 
 guish them from the Knights, who wore 
 white, to signify that they were bound by 
 their vows to cast away the works of dark- 
 ness and lead a new life. 
 _ " 12. The apron is altogether discon- 
 tinued, and a few immaterial alterations in 
 the insignia will be duly regulated and pro- 
 mulgated : they do not, however, affect the 
 present, but only apply to future, members 
 of the Order. The apron was of recent in- 
 troduction, to accord with Masonic usage : 
 
 but reflection will at once show that, as an 
 emblem of care and toil, it is entirely in- 
 appropriate to a Military Order, whose 
 badge is the sword. A proposition to con- 
 fine the wearing of the star to the Pre- 
 ceptors was negatived ; the star and ribbon 
 being in fact as much a part of the ritual 
 as of the insignia of the Order. 
 
 " 13. From the number of instances of 
 persons totally unfitted having obtained 
 admission into the Order, the qualification 
 of candidates has been increased. A dec- 
 laration is now required, to be signed by 
 every candidate, that he is of the full age 
 of twenty-one years, and in addition to 
 being a Royal Arch Mason, that he is a 
 Master Mason of two years' standing, pro- 
 fessing the doctrines of the Holy and Un- 
 divided Trinity, and willing to submit to 
 the statutes and ordinances, present and 
 future, of the Order." 
 
 Templars of Scotland. The Stat- 
 utes of the Grand Priory of the Temple of 
 Scotland prescribe for the Order of Knights 
 Templars in that kingdom an organization 
 very different from that which prevails in 
 other countries. 
 
 "The Religious and Military Order of 
 the Temple" in Scotland consists of two 
 classes: 1. Novice and Esquire; 2. Knight 
 Templar. The Knights are again divided 
 into four classes: 1. Knights created by 
 Priories ; 2. Knights elected from the com- 
 panions on memorial to the Grand Master 
 and Council, supported by the recommen- 
 dation of the Priories to which they belong ; 
 3. Knights Commanders; 4. Knights Grand 
 Crosses, to be nominated by the Grand 
 Master. 
 
 The supreme legislative authority of the 
 Order is the Chapter General, which con- 
 sists of the Grand Officers, the Knights 
 Grand Crosses, and the Knights Com- 
 manders. One Chapter is held annually, 
 at which the Grand Master, if present, acts 
 as President. The anniversary of the death 
 of James de Molay, March 11, is selected 
 as the time of this meeting, at which the 
 Grand Officers are elected. 
 
 During the intervals of the meetings of 
 the Chapter General, the affairs of the 
 Order, with the exception of altering the 
 Statutes, is intrusted to the Grand Master's 
 Council, which consists of the Grand Offi- 
 cers, the Grand Priors of Foreign Langues, 
 and the Knights Grand Crosses. 
 
 The Grand Officers, with the exception 
 of the Past Grand Masters, who remain so 
 for life, the Grand Master, who is elected 
 triennially, and the Grand Aides-de-Camp, 
 who are appointed by him and removed at 
 his pleasure, are elected annually. They 
 are as follows : 
 
 Grand Master, 
 
TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 795 
 
 Past Grand Masters, 
 
 Grand Seneschal, 
 
 Preceptor and Grand Prior of Scotland, 
 
 Grand Constable and Mareschal, 
 
 Grand Admiral, 
 
 Grand Almoner or Hospitaller, 
 
 Grand Chancellor, 
 
 Grand Treasurer, 
 
 Grand Registrar, 
 
 Primate or Grand Prelate, 
 
 Grand Provost or Governor- General, 
 
 Grand Standard-Bearer or Beaucennifer, 
 
 Grand Bearer of the Vexillum Belli, 
 
 Grand Chamberlain, 
 
 Grand Steward, 
 
 Two Grand Aides-de-Camp. 
 
 A Grand Priory may be instituted by the 
 Chapter General in any nation, colony, or 
 langue, to be placed under the authority 
 of a Grand Prior, who is elected for life, 
 unless superseded by the Chapter General. 
 
 A Priory, which is equivalent to our 
 Commanderies, consists of the following 
 officers : 
 
 Prior, 
 
 Sub-Prior, 
 
 Mareschal or Master of Ceremonies, 
 
 Hospitaller or Almoner, 
 
 Chancellor, 
 
 Treasurer, 
 
 Secretary, 
 
 Chaplain and Instructor, 
 
 Beaucennifer, or Bearer of the Beau- 
 seant, 
 
 Bearer of the Red Cross Banner, or Vex- 
 illum Belli, 
 
 Chamberlain, 
 
 Two Aides-de-Camp. 
 
 The Chapter General or Grand Priory 
 may unite two or more Priories into a Com- 
 mandery, to be governed by a Provincial 
 Commander, who is elected by the Chapter 
 General. 
 
 The costume of the Knights, with the 
 exception of a few slight variations to des- 
 ignate difference of rank, is the same as the 
 ancient costume. 
 
 Temple. The symbolism of Specula- 
 tive Masonry is so intimately connected 
 with temple building and temple worship, 
 that some notice of these edifices seems ne- 
 cessary. The Hebrews called a temple 
 beth, which literally signifies a house or 
 dwelling, and finds its root in a word which 
 signifies "to remain or pass the night," or 
 hecal, which means a palace, and comes 
 from an obsolete word signifying " magni- 
 ficent." So that they seem to have had 
 two ideas in reference to a temple. When 
 they called it beth Jehovah, or the " house 
 of Jehovah," they referred to the continued 
 presence of God in it; and when they called 
 it hecaljehovah, or the " palace of Jehovah," 
 they referred to the splendor of the edifice 
 
 which was selected as his residence. The He- 
 brew idea was undoubtedly borrowed from 
 the Egyptian, where the same hieroglyphic 
 1 I I signified both a house and a temple. 
 Thus, from an inscription at Philae, Cham- 
 pollion (Diet. Egyptienne) cites the sen- 
 tence, " He has made his devotions in the 
 house of his mother Isis." 
 
 The classical idea was more abstract and 
 philosophical. The Latin word templum 
 comes from a root which signifies " to cut 
 off," thus referring to any space, whether 
 open or occupied by a building, which was 
 cut off, or separated for a sacred purpose, 
 from the surrounding profane ground. 
 The word properly denoted a sacred enclos- 
 ure where the omens were observed by the 
 augurs. Hence Varro (De Ling. Lot., vi. 
 81,) defines a temple to be "a place for au- 
 guries and auspices." As the same prac- 
 tice of worshipping under the 8ky in open 
 places prevailed among the northern na- 
 tions, we might deduce from these facts that 
 the temple of the sky was the Aryan idea, and 
 the temple of the house the Semitic. It is 
 true, that afterwards, the augurs having for 
 their own convenience erected a tent with- 
 in the enclosure where they made their ob- 
 servations, or, literally, their contemplations, 
 this in time gave rise among the Greeks 
 and the Romans to permanent edifices like 
 those of the Egyptians and the Hebrews. 
 
 Masonry has derived its temple symbol- 
 ism, as it has almost all its symbolic ideas, 
 from the Hebrew type, and thus makes the 
 temple the symbol of a Lodge. But of the 
 Roman temple worship it has not been neg- 
 lectful, and has borrowed from it one of 
 the most significant and important words 
 in its vocabulary. The Latin word speculor 
 means to observe, to look around. When 
 the augur, standing within the sacred pre- 
 cincts of his open temple on the Capitoline 
 hill, watched the flight of birds, that from 
 it he might deduce his auspices of good or 
 bad fortune, he was said, speculari, to spec- 
 ulate. Hence the word came at length to 
 denote, like contemplate from templum, an 
 investigation of sacred things, and thus we 
 got into our technical language the title of 
 "Speculative Masonry," as distinguished 
 by its religious design from Operative or 
 Practical Masonry, which is devoted to 
 more material objects. The Egyptian 
 Temple was the real archetype of the Mo- 
 saic tabernacle, as that was of the temple 
 of Jerusalem. The direction of an Egyp- 
 tian temple was usually from east to west, 
 the entrance being at the east. It was a 
 quadrangular building, much longer than 
 its width, and was situated in the western 
 part of a sacred enclosure. The approach 
 through this enclosure to the temple pro- 
 per was frequently by a double row of 
 
796 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 sphinxes. In front of the entrance were 
 a pair of tall obelisks, which will remind 
 the reader of the two pillars at the porch 
 of Solomon's Temple. The temple was di- 
 vided into a spacious hall, the sanctuary 
 where the great body of the worshippers 
 assembled. Beyond it, in the western ex- 
 tremity, was the cell or sekos, equivalent to 
 the Jewish Holy of Holies, into which the 
 priests only entered ; and in the remotest 
 part, behind a curtain, appeared the image 
 of the god seated on his shrine, or the 
 sacred animal which represented him. 
 
 Grecian Temples, like the Egyptian 
 and the Hebrew, were placed within an 
 enclosure, which was separated from the 
 profane land around it, in early times, 
 by ropes, but afterwards by a wall. The 
 temple was usually quadrangular, although 
 some were circular in form. It was divided 
 into two parts, the pronanos, porch or ves- 
 tibule, and the naos, or cell. In this latter 
 part the statue of the god was placed, sur- 
 rounded by a balustrade. In temples con- 
 nected with the mysteries, the cell was 
 called the adytum, and to it only the 
 
 {iriests and the initiates had access ; and we 
 earn from Pausanias that various stories 
 were related of calamities that had befallen 
 persons who had unlawfully ventured to 
 cross the threshold. Vitruvius says that 
 the entrance of Greek temples was al- 
 ways towards the west ; but this statement 
 is contradicted by the appearance of the 
 temples still partly existing in Attica, 
 Ionia, and Sicily. 
 
 Roman Temples, after they emerged 
 from their primitive simplicity, were con- 
 structed much upon the model of the 
 Grecian. There were the same vestibule 
 and cells, or adytum, borrowed, as with 
 the Greeks, from the holy and the most 
 holy place of the Egyptians. Vitruvius 
 says that the entrance of a Roman temple 
 was, if possible, to the west, so that the 
 worshippers, when they offered prayers or 
 sacrifices, might look towards the east ; but 
 this rule was not always observed. 
 
 It thus appears, notwithstanding what 
 Montfaucon {Antiq. ii., 1. ii., ch. 2,) says to 
 the contrary, that the Egyptian form of a 
 temple was the type from which other na- 
 tions borrowed their idea. 
 
 This Egyptian form of a temple was bor- 
 rowed by the Jews, and with some modifi- 
 cations adopted by the Greeks and Romans, 
 whence it passed over into modern Europe. 
 The idea of a separation into a holy and a 
 most holy place has everywhere been pre- 
 served. The same idea is maintained in 
 the construction of Masonic Lodges, which 
 are but imitations, in spirit, of the ancient 
 temples. But there has been a transposi- 
 tion of parts, the most holy place, which 
 
 with the Egyptians and the Jews was in the 
 west, being placed in Lodges in the east. 
 
 Temple, Grand Commander of 
 the. {Grand Commandeur du Temple.) 
 The fifty-eighth degree of the collection of 
 the Metropolitan Chapter of France. It is 
 the name of the Knight Commander of the 
 Temple of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 Temple of Ezekiel. An ideal tem- 
 ple seen by the prophet Ezekiel, in the 
 twenty-fifth year of the captivity, while re- 
 siding in Babylon. It is supposed by Cal- 
 met, that the description given by the pro- 
 phet was that of the Temple of Solomon, 
 which he must have seen before its destruc- 
 tion. But an examination of its admeasure- 
 ments will show that this could not have 
 been the fact, and that the whole area of 
 Jerusalem would not have been sufficient 
 to contain a building of its magnitude. 
 Yet, as Mr. Ferguson observes, {Smith 
 Diet.,) the description, notwithstanding its 
 ideal character, is curious, as showing what 
 were the aspirations of the Jews in that 
 direction, and how different they were from 
 those of other nations ; and also because it 
 influenced Herod to some extent in his 
 restoration of the temple of Zerubbabel. 
 Between the visionary temple of Ezekiel 
 and the symbolic city of the New Jerusa- 
 lem, as described by the Evangelist, there 
 is a striking resemblance, and hence it 
 finds a place among the symbols in the 
 Apocalyptic degrees. But with Symbolic 
 or with Royal Arch Masonry it has no con- 
 nection. 
 
 Temple of Herod. This was not 
 the construction of a third temple, but only 
 a restoration and extensive enlargement of 
 the second, which had been built by Ze- 
 rubbabel. To the Christian Mason it is in- 
 teresting, even more than that of Solomon, 
 because it was the scene of our Lord's 
 ministrations, and was the temple from 
 which the Knights Templars derived their 
 name. It was begun by Herod seven years 
 B. c, finished A. D. 4, and destroyed by the 
 Romans in A. D. 70, having subsisted only 
 seventy-seven years. 
 
 Temple of Solomon. The first 
 Temple of the Jews was called hecal Jeho- 
 vah or beth Jehovah, the palace or the house 
 of Jehovah, to indicate its splendor and 
 magnificence, and that it was intended to 
 be the perpetual dwelling-place of the 
 Lord. It was King David who first pro- 
 posed to substitute for the nomadic taber- 
 nacle a permanent place of worship for his 
 people; but although he had made the 
 necessary arrangements, and even collected 
 many of the materials, he was not per- 
 mitted to commence the undertaking, and 
 the execution of the task was left to his 
 son and successor, Solomon. 
 
TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 797 
 
 Accordingly, that monarch laid the foun- 
 dations of the edifice in the fourth year of 
 his reign, 1012 B. c, and, with the assist- 
 ance of his friend and ally, Hiram, king 
 of Tyre, completed it in about seven years 
 and a half, dedicating it to the service of 
 the Most High in the year 1004 B. c. This 
 was the year of the world 3000, according 
 to the Hebrew chronology ; and although 
 there has been much difference among 
 chronologists in relation to the precise date, 
 this is the one that has been generally ac- 
 cepted, and it is therefore adopted by Ma- 
 sons in thei r calculations of different epochs. 
 
 The Temple stood on Mount Morian, one 
 of the eminences of the ridge which was 
 known as Mount Zion, and which was 
 originally the property of Oman the Jeb- 
 usite, who used it as a threshing-floor, and 
 from whom it was purchased by David for 
 the purpose of erecting an altar on it. 
 
 The Temple retained its original splendor 
 for only thirty-three years. In the year of 
 the world 3033, Shishak, king of Egypt, 
 having made war upon Rehoboam, king of 
 Judah, took Jerusalem, and carried away 
 the choicest treasures. From that time to 
 the period of its final destruction, the his- 
 tory of the Temple is but a history of al- 
 ternate spoliations and repairs, of profa- 
 nations to idolatry and subsequent restora- 
 tions to the purity of worship. One hun- 
 dred and thirteen years after the conquest 
 of Shishak, Joash, king of Judah, collected 
 silver for the repairs of the Temple, and 
 restored it to its former condition in the 
 year of the world 3148. In the year 3264, 
 Ahaz, king of Judah, robbed the Temple 
 of its riches, and gave them to Tiglath- 
 Pileser, king of Assyria, who had united 
 with him in a war against the kings of 
 Israel and Damascus. Ahaz also profaned 
 the Temple by the worship of idols. In 
 3276, Hezekiah, the son and successor of 
 Ahaz, repaired the portions of the Temple 
 which his father had destroyed, and re- 
 stored the pure worship. But fifteen years 
 after he was compelled to give the treasures 
 of the Temple as a ransom to Sennacherib, 
 king of Assyria, who had invaded the land 
 of Judah. But Hezekiah is supposed, after 
 his enemy had retired, to have restored the 
 Temple. 
 
 Manasseh, the son and successor of Hez- 
 ekiah, fell away to the worship of Sabian- 
 ism, and desecrated the Temple in 3306 by 
 setting up altars to the host of heaven. 
 Manasseh was then conquered by the king 
 of Babylon, who in 3328 carried him be- 
 yond the Euphrates. But subsequently 
 repenting of his sins he was released from 
 captivity, and having returned to Jerusalem 
 he destroyed the idols, and restored the 
 altar of burnt-offerings. In 3380, Josiah, 
 
 Holy 
 
 of 
 
 Holies. 
 
 who was then king of Judah, devoted his 
 efforts to the repairs of the Temple, por- 
 tions of which had been demolished or neg- 
 lected by his predecessors, and replaced 
 the ark in the sanctuary. In 3398, in the 
 reign of Jehoiakim, Nebuchadnezzar, king 
 of Chaldea, carried a part of the sacred 
 vessels to Babylon. Seven years afterwards, 
 in the reign of Jechoniah, he took away 
 another portion ; and finally, in 3416, in the 
 eleventh year of the reign of Zedekiah, he 
 took the city of Jerusalem, and entirely de- 
 stroyed the Temple, and carried many of 
 the inhabitants captives to Babylon. 
 
 The Temple was originally built on a 
 very hard rock, encompassed with frightful 
 precipices. The foundations were laid very 
 deep, with immense labor and expense. It 
 was surrounded with a wall of great height, 
 exceeding in the lowest part four hundred 
 and fifty feet, constructed entirely of white 
 marble. 
 
 The body of the Temple was in size 
 much less than many a modern parish 
 church, for its length 
 was but ninety feet, or, 
 including the porch, one 
 hundred and five, and 
 its width but thirty. It 
 was its outer court, its 
 numerous terraces, and 
 the magnificence of its 
 external and internal 
 decorations, together 
 with its elevated posi- 
 tion above the surround- 
 ing dwellings which pro- 
 duced that splendor of 
 appearance that attract- 
 ed the admiration of all 
 who beheld it, and gives 
 a color of probability 
 to the legend that tells 
 us how the Queen of 
 Sheba, when it first 
 broke upon her view, 
 exclaimed in admira- 
 tion, "A most excellent 
 master must have done this ! " 
 
 The Temple itself, which consisted of 
 the porch, the sanctuary, and the Holy of 
 Holies, was but a small part of the edifice 
 on Mount Moriah. It was surrounded with 
 spacious courts, and the whole structure 
 occupied at least half a mile in circumfer- 
 ence. Upon passing through the outer 
 wall, you came to the first court, called the 
 court of the Gentiles, because the Gentiles 
 were admitted into it, but were prohibited 
 from passing farther. It was surrounded 
 by a range of porticos or cloisters, above 
 which were galleries or apartments, sup- 
 ported by pillars of white marble. 
 Passing through the court of the Gentiles, 
 
 Holy 
 Place. 
 
 Porch. 
 
■98 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 you entered the court of the children of 
 Israel, which was separated by a low stone 
 wall, and an ascent of fifteen steps, into 
 two divisions, the outer one being occu- 
 pied by the women, and the inner by the 
 men. Here the Jews were in the habit of 
 resorting daily for the purposes of prayer. 
 
 Within the court of the Israelites, and 
 separated from it by a wall one cubit in 
 height, was the court of the priests. In 
 the centre of this court was the altar of 
 burnt-offerings, to which the people brought 
 their oblations and sacrifices, but none but 
 the priests were permitted to enter it. 
 
 From this court, twelve steps ascended to 
 the Temple, strictly so called, which, as I 
 have already said, was divided into three 
 parts, the porch, the sanctuary, and the 
 Holy of Holies. 
 
 The porch of the Temple was twenty 
 cubits in length, and the same in breadth. 
 At its entrance was a gate made entirely of 
 Corinthian brass, the most precious metal 
 known to the ancients. Beside this gate 
 there were the two pillars Jachin and Boaz, 
 which had been constructed by Hiram 
 Abif, the architect whom the King of Tyre 
 had sent to Solomon. 
 
 From the porch you entered the sanctu- 
 ary by a portal, which, instead of folding- 
 doors, was furnished with a magnificent 
 veil of many colors, which mystically rep- 
 resented the universe. The breadth of the 
 sanctuary was twenty cubits, and its length 
 forty, or just twice that of the porch and 
 Holy of Holies. It occupied, therefore, 
 one-half of the body of the Temple. In 
 the sanctuary were placed the various uten- 
 sils necessary for the daily worship of the 
 Temple, such as the altar of incense, on 
 which incense was daily burnt by the offi- 
 ciating priest; the ten golden candlesticks ; 
 and the ten tables on which the offerings 
 were laid previous to the sacrifice. 
 
 The Holy of Holies, or innermost 
 chamber, was separated from the sanctuary 
 by doors of olive, richly sculptured and in- 
 laid with gold, and covered with veils of blue, 
 purple, scarlet, and the finest linen. The 
 size of the Holy of Holies was the same as 
 that of the porch, namely, twenty cubits 
 square. It contained the ark of the cove- 
 nant, which had been transferred into it 
 from the tabernacle, with its overshadow- 
 ing cherubim and its mercy-seat. Into 
 the most sacred place, the high priest 
 alone could enter, and that only once a 
 year, on the day of atonement. 
 
 The Temple, thus constructed, must have 
 been one of the most magnificent struct- 
 ures of the ancient world. For its erec- 
 tion, David had collected more than four 
 thousand millions of dollars, and one hun- 
 dred and eighty-four thousand six hundred 
 
 men were engaged in building it for more 
 than seven years ; and after its completion 
 it was dedicated by Solomon with solemn 
 prayer and seven days of feasting ; during 
 which a peace-offering of twenty thousand 
 oxen and six times that number of sheep 
 was made, to consume which the holy fire 
 came down from heaven. 
 
 In Masonry, the Temple of Solomon has 
 played a most important part. Time was 
 when every Masonic writer subscribed with 
 unhesitating faith to the theory that Ma- 
 sonry was there first organized; that there 
 Solomon, Hiram of Tyre, and Hiram Abif 
 presided as Grand Masters over the Lodges 
 which they had established ; that there the 
 symbolic degrees were instituted and sys- 
 tems of initiation were invented ; and that 
 from that period to the present Masonry 
 has passed down the stream of Time in un- 
 broken succession and unaltered form. 
 But the modern method of reading Ma- 
 sonic history has swept away this edifice of 
 imagination with as unsparing a hand, and 
 as effectual a power, as those with which 
 the Babylonian king demolished the struct- 
 ure upon which they are founded. No 
 writer who values his reputation as a critical 
 historian would now attempt to defend this 
 theory. Yet it has done its work. During 
 the long period in which the hypothesis 
 was accepted as a fact, its influence was 
 being exerted in moulding the Masonic or- 
 ganizations into a form closely connected 
 with all the events and characteristics of 
 the Solomonic Temple. So that now al- 
 most all the symbolism of Freemasonry 
 rests upon or is derived from the '' House 
 of the Lord" at Jerusalem. So closely are 
 the two connected, that to attempt to sep- 
 arate the one from the other would be fatal 
 to the further existence of Masonry. Each 
 Lodge is and must be a symbol of the Jew- 
 ish Temple; each Master in the chair a 
 representative of the Jewish king; and 
 every Mason a personation of the Jewish 
 workman. 
 
 Thus must it ever be while Masonry en- 
 dures. We must receive the myths and le- 
 gends that connect it with the Temple, not 
 indeed as historic facts, but as allegories ; 
 not as events that have really transpired, 
 but as symbols ; and must accept these al- 
 legories and these symbols for what their 
 inventors really meant that they should be 
 — the foundations of a science of morality. 
 
 Temple of Zerubbabel. For the 
 fifty-two years that succeeded the destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, that 
 city saw nothing but the ruins of its an- 
 cient Temple. But in the year of the world 
 3468 and 536 B. c, Cyrus gave permission 
 to the Jews to return to Jerusalem, and 
 there to rebuild the Temple of the Lord. 
 
TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 799 
 
 Forty-two thousand three hundred and 
 sixty of the liberated captives returned 
 under the guidance of Joshua, the High 
 Priest, Zerubbabel, the Prince or Governor, 
 and Haggai, the Scribe, and one year after 
 they laid the foundations of the second 
 Temple. They were, however, much dis- 
 turbed in their labours by the Samaritans, 
 whose offer to unite with them in the 
 building they had rejected. Artaxerxes, 
 known in profane history as Cambyses, 
 having succeeded Cyrus on the throne of 
 Persia, he forbade the Jews to proceed with 
 the work, and the Temple remained in an 
 unfinished state until the death of Artax- 
 erxes and the succession of Darius to the 
 throne. As in early life there had been a 
 great intimacy between this sovereign and 
 Zerubbabel, the latter proceeded to Baby- 
 lon, and obtained permission from the mon- 
 arch to resume the labor. Zerubbabel re- 
 turned to Jerusalem, and notwithstanding 
 some further delays, consequent upon the 
 enmity of the neighboring nations, the 
 second Temple, or, as it may be called by 
 way of distinction from the first, the Tem- 
 ple of Zerubbabel, was completed in the 
 sixth year of the reign of Darius, 515 years 
 B. c, and just twenty years after its com- 
 mencement. It was then dedicated with 
 all the solemnities that accompanied the 
 dedication of the first. 
 
 The general plan of this second Temple 
 was similar to that of the first. But it ex- 
 ceeded it in almost every dimension by one- 
 third. The decorations of gold and other 
 ornaments in the first Temple must have 
 far surpassed those bestowed upon the 
 second, for we are told by Josephus, (Antiq., 
 xi. 4,) that "the Priests and Levites and 
 Elders of families were disconsolate at see- 
 ing how much more sumptuous the old Tem- 
 ple was than the one which, on account of 
 their poverty, they had just been able to 
 erect." 
 
 The Jews also say that there were five 
 things wanting in the second Temple which 
 had been in the first, namely, the Ark, the 
 Urim and Thummim, the fire from heaven, 
 the divine presence or cloud of glory, and 
 the spirit of prophecy and power of 
 miracles. 
 
 Such are the most important events that 
 relate to the construction of this second 
 Temple. But there is a Masonic legend 
 connected with it which, though it may 
 have no historical foundation, is yet so 
 closely interwoven with the Temple system 
 of Masonry, that it is necessary it should 
 be recounted. It was, says the legend, 
 while the workmen were engaged in mak- 
 ing the necessary excavations for laying 
 the foundation, and while numbers con- 
 tinued to arrive at Jerusalem from Baby- 
 
 lon, that three worn and weary sojourners, 
 after plodding on foot over the rough and 
 devious roads between the two cities, offered 
 themselves to the Grand Council as willing 
 participants in the labor of erection. Who 
 these sojourners were, we have no historical 
 means of discovering; but there is a Ma- 
 sonic tradition (entitled, perhaps, to but 
 little weight) that they were Hananiah, 
 Mishael, and Azariah, three holy men, who 
 are better known to general readers by their 
 Chaldaic names of Shadrach, Meshach, and 
 Abed-nego, as having been miraculously 
 preserved from the fiery furnace of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. 
 
 Their services were accepted, and from 
 their diligent labors resulted that important 
 discovery, the perpetuation and preserva- 
 tion of which constitute the great end and 
 design of the Royal Arch degree. 
 
 As the symbolism of the first or Solomon- 
 ic Temple is connected with and refers 
 entirely to the symbolic degrees, so that of 
 the second, or Temple of Zerubbabel, forms 
 the basis of the Royal Arch in the York 
 and American Rites, and of several high 
 degrees in other Rites. 
 
 Temple, Order of the. When the 
 Knights Templars had, on account of their 
 power and wealth, excited the fears and the 
 cupidity of Pope Clement V., and King 
 Philip the Fair, of France, the Order was 
 soon compelled to succumb to the combined 
 animosity of a spiritual and a temporal 
 sovei - eign, neither of whom was capable of 
 being controlled by a spirit of honor or a 
 dictate of conscience. The melancholy 
 story of the sufferings of the Knights, and 
 of the dissolution of their Order, forms a 
 disgraceful record, with which the history 
 of the fourteenth century begins. 
 
 On the 13th of March, in the year 1314, 
 and in the refined city of Paris, James de 
 Molay, the last of a long and illustrious 
 line of Grand Masters of the Order of 
 Knights Templars, testified at the stake 
 his fidelity to his vows ; and eleven years 
 of service in the cause of religion were ter- 
 minated, not by the sword of a Saracen, 
 but by the iniquitous sentence of a Catholic 
 pope and a Christian king. 
 
 The manufacturers of Masonic legends 
 have found in the death of Molay and the 
 dissolution of the Order of Templars a fer- 
 tile source from which to draw materials 
 for their fanciful theories and surreptitious 
 documents. Among these legends there 
 was, for instance, one which maintained 
 that during his captivity in the Bastile the 
 Grand Master of the Templars established 
 four Chiefs of the Order in the north, the 
 south, the east, and the west of Europe, 
 whose seats of government were respectively 
 at Stockholm, Naples, Paris, and Edin- 
 
800 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 burgh. Another invention of these Ma- 
 sonic speculators was the forgery of that 
 document so well known as the Charter of 
 Larmenius, of which I shall presently 
 take notice. Previously, however, to any 
 consideration of this document, I must ad- 
 vert to the condition of the Templar Order 
 in Portugal, because there is an intimate 
 connection between the society there or- 
 ganized and the Order of the Temple in 
 France, which is more particularly the sub- 
 ject of the present article. 
 
 Surprising as it may appear, it is never- 
 theless true, that the Templars did not re- 
 ceive that check in Portugal to which they 
 were subjected in France, in England, and 
 some other countries of Europe. On the 
 contrary, they were there maintained by 
 King Denis in all their rights and privi- 
 leges ; and although compelled, by a bull 
 of Clement V., to change their names to 
 that of the Knights of Christ, they con- 
 tinued to be governed by the same rules 
 and to wear the same costume as their pre- 
 decessors, excepting the slight addition of 
 placing a white Latin cross in the centre 
 of the usual red one of the ancient Order ; 
 and in the decree of establishment it was 
 expressly declared that the king, in creat- 
 ing this new Order, intended only to effect 
 a reform in that of the Templars. In 1420, 
 John I., of Portugal, gave the Knights of 
 Christ the control of the possessions of 
 Portugal in the Indies, and succeeding 
 monarchs granted them the proprietorship 
 of all countries which they might discover, 
 reserving, of course, the royal prerogative 
 of sovereignty. In process of time the 
 wealth and the power of the Order became 
 so great, that the kings of Portugal found 
 it expedient to reduce their rights to a con- 
 siderable extent ; but the Order itself was 
 permitted to continue in existence, the 
 Grand Mastership, however, being for the 
 future vested in the sovereign. 
 
 We are now prepared to investigate un- 
 derstandingly tne history of the Charter of 
 Larmenius, and of the Order of the Tem- 
 ple at Paris, which was founded on the as- 
 sumed authenticity of that document. The 
 writings of Thory, of Ragon, and of Clavel, 
 with the passing remarks of a few other 
 Masonic writers, will furnish us with 
 abundant materials for this narrative, in- 
 teresting to all Freemasons, but more espe- 
 cially so to Masonic Knights Templars. 
 
 In the year 1682, and in the reign of 
 Louis XIV., a licentious society was estab- 
 lished by several young noblemen, which 
 took the name of " La Petite Resurrection 
 des Templiers," or " The little Resurrection 
 of the Templars." The members wore con- 
 cealed upon their shirts a decoration in the 
 form of a cross, on which was embossed 
 
 the figure of a man trampling on a woman, 
 who lay prostrate at his feet. The em- 
 blematic signification of this symbol was, 
 it is apparent, as unworthy of the character 
 of man as it was derogatory to the condi- 
 tion and claims of woman ; and the king, 
 having been informed of the infamous pro- 
 ceedings which took place at the meetings, 
 dissolved the society, (which it was said was 
 on the eveof initiating the dauphin ; ) caused 
 its leader, a prince of the blood, to be ig- 
 nominiously punished, and banished the 
 members from the court; the heaviest 
 penalty that, in those days of servile sub- 
 mission to the throne, could be inflicted on 
 a courtier. 
 
 In 1705, Philip of Orleans, who was sub- 
 sequently the regent of France during the 
 minority of Louis XV., collected together 
 the remnants of this society, which still se- 
 cretly existed, but had changed its object 
 from a licentious to one of a political char- 
 acter. He caused new statutes to be con- 
 structed; and an Italian Jesuit, by name 
 Father Bonani, who was a learned an- 
 tiquary and an excellent designer, fabri- 
 cated the document now known as the 
 Charter of Larmenius, and thus pretended 
 to attach the new society to the ancient 
 Order of the Templars. 
 
 As this charter is not the least interest- 
 ing of those forged documents with which 
 the history of Freemasonry unfortunately 
 abounds, a full description of it here will 
 not be out of place. 
 
 The theory of the Duke of Orleans and 
 his accomplice Bonani was, (and the theory 
 is still maintained by the Order of the 
 Temple at Paris,) that when James de Mo- 
 lay was about to suffer at the stake, he sent 
 for Larmenius, and in prison, with the con- 
 sent and approbation of such of his knights 
 as were present, appointed him his succes- 
 sor, with the right of making a similar ap- 
 pointment before his death. On the demise 
 of Molay, Larmenius accordingly assumed 
 the office of Grand Master, and ten years 
 after issued this charter, transmitting his 
 authority to Theobaldus Alexandrinus, by 
 whom it was in like manner transmitted 
 through a long line of Grand Masters, un- 
 til in 1705 it reached Philip, Duke of Or- 
 leans. It will be seen hereafter that the 
 list was subsequently continued to a later 
 period. 
 
 The signatures of all these Grand Mas- 
 ters are affixed to the charter, which is 
 beautifully executed on parchment, illumi- 
 nated in the choicest style of mediaeval 
 chirography, and composed in the Latin 
 language, but written in the Templar ci- 
 pher. From the copy of the document 
 given by Thory in his Acta Latomorum, I 
 make the following translation : 
 
TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 801 
 
 " I, Brother John Mark Larmenius, of 
 Jerusalem, by the grace of God and the 
 secret decree of the most venerable and 
 holy martyr, the Grand Master of the Sol- 
 diery of the Temple, (to whom be honor 
 and glory,) confirmed by the common coun- 
 cil of the brethren, being endowed with the 
 Supreme Grand Mastership of the whole 
 Order of the Temple, to every one who 
 shall see these letters decretal thrice greet- 
 ing: 
 
 " Be it known to all, both present and to 
 come, that the failure of my strength, on 
 account of extreme age, my poverty, and 
 the weight of government being well con- 
 sidered, I, the aforesaid humble Master of 
 the Soldiery of the Temple, have deter- 
 mined, for the greater glory of God and 
 the protection and safety of the Order, the 
 brethren, and the statutes, to resign the 
 Grand Mastership into stronger hands. 
 
 " On which account, God helping, and 
 with the consent of a Supreme Convention 
 of Knights, I have conferred, and by this 
 present decree do confer, for life, the au- 
 thority and prerogatives of Grand Master 
 of the Order of the Temple upon the Emi- 
 nent Commander and very dear brother, 
 Francis Thomas Theobald Alexandrinus, 
 with the power, according to time and cir- 
 cumstances, of conferring the Grand Mas- 
 tership of the Order of the Temple and the 
 supreme authority upon another brother, 
 most eminent for the nobility of his educa- 
 tion and talent and decorum of his man- 
 ners : which is done for the purpose of 
 maintaining a perpetual succession of 
 Grand Masters, an uninterrupted series of 
 successors, and the integrity of the statutes. 
 Nevertheless, I command that the Grand 
 Mastership shall not be transmitted with- 
 out the consent of a general convention of 
 the fellow-soldiers of the Temple, as often 
 as that Supreme Convention desires to be 
 convened; and, matters being thus con- 
 ducted, the successor shall be elected at the 
 pleasure of the knights. 
 
 " But, lest the powers of the supreme 
 office should fall into decay, now and for 
 ever let there be four Vicars of the Grand 
 Master, possessing supreme power, emi- 
 nence, and authority over the whole Order, 
 with the reservation of the rights of the 
 Grand Master; which Vicars of the Grand 
 Masters shall be chosen from among the 
 elders, according to the order of their pro- 
 fession. Which is decreed in accordance 
 with the above-mentioned wish, commend- 
 ed to me and to the brethren by our most 
 venerable and most blessed Master, the 
 martyr, to whom be honor and glory. 
 Amen. 
 
 " Finally, in consequence of a decree of 
 a Supreme Convention of the brethren, and 
 5 A 51 
 
 by the supreme authority to me committed, 
 I will, declare, and command that the Scot- 
 tish Templars, as deserters from the Order, 
 are to be accursed, and that they and the 
 brethren of St. John of Jerusalem, (upon 
 whom may God have mercy,) as spoliators 
 of the domains of our soldiery, are now 
 and hereafter to be considered as beyond 
 the pale of the Temple. 
 
 " I have therefore established signs, un- 
 known to our false brethren, and not to be 
 known by them, to be orally communicated 
 to our fellow-soldiers, and in which way I 
 have already been pleased to communicate 
 them in the Supreme Convention. 
 
 " But these signs are only to be made 
 known after due profession and knightly 
 consecration, according to the statutes, 
 rites, and usages of the fellow-soldiery of 
 the Temple, transmitted by me to the above- 
 named Eminent Commander as they were 
 delivered into my hands by the venerable 
 and most holy martyr, our Grand Master, 
 to whom be honor and glory. Let it be 
 done as I have said. So mote it be. Amen. 
 
 "I, John Mark Larmenius, have done 
 this on the thirteenth day of February, 
 1324. 
 
 " I, Francis Thomas Theobaldus Alexan- 
 drinus, God helping, have accepted the 
 Grand Mastership, 1324." 
 
 And then follow the acceptances and sig- 
 natures of twenty-two succeeding Grand 
 Masters — the last, Bernard Raymund Fa- 
 bre, under the date of 1804. 
 
 The society, thus organized by the Duke 
 of Orleans in 1705, under this charter, 
 which purported to contain the signatures 
 manu propria of eighteen Grand Masters 
 in regular succession, commencing with 
 Larmenius and ending with himself, at- 
 tempted to obtain a recognition by the Or- 
 der of Christ, which we have already said 
 was established in Portugal as the legiti- 
 mate successor of the old Templars, and of 
 which King John V. was at that time the 
 Grand Master. For this purpose the Duke 
 of Orleans ordered two of his members to 
 proceed to Lisbon, and there to open nego- 
 tiations with the Order of Christ. The 
 king caused inquiries to be made of Don 
 Luis de Cunha, his ambassador at Paris, 
 upon whose report he gave orders for the 
 arrest of the two French Templars. One 
 of them escaped to Gibraltar; but the other, 
 less fortunate, after an imprisonment of 
 two years, was banished to Angola, in 
 Africa, where he died. 
 
 The society, however, continued secretly 
 to exist for many years in France, and is 
 supposed by some to have been the same 
 which, in 1789, was known by the name of 
 the Societe d 'Aloyau, a title which might be 
 translated into English as the " Society of 
 
802 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 the Sirloin," — a name much more appro- 
 priate to a club of bons vivants than to an 
 association of knights. The members of 
 this society were dispersed at the time of 
 the French Revolution, the Duke of Casse 
 Brissac, who was massacred at Versailles 
 in 1792, being its Grand Master at the pe- 
 riod of its dispersion. Thory says that the 
 members of this association claimed to be 
 the successors of the Templars, and to be 
 in possession of their charters. 
 
 A certain Brother Ledru, one of the sons 
 of the learned Nicholas Philip Ledru, was 
 the physician of Casse Brissac. On the 
 death of that nobleman and the sale of his 
 property, Ledru purchased a piece of fur- 
 niture, probably an escritoire, in which was 
 concealed the celebrated charter of Larme- 
 nius, the manuscript statutes of 1705, and 
 the journal of proceedings of the Order of 
 the Temple. Clavel says that about the 
 year 1804, Ledru showed these articles to 
 two of his friends — de Saintot and Fabr6 
 Palaprat ; the latter of whom had formerly 
 been an ecclesiastic. The sight of these 
 documents suggested to them the idea of 
 reviving the Order of the Temple. They 
 proposed to constitute Ledru the Grand 
 Master, but he refused the offer, and nomi- 
 nated Claudius Matheus Radix de Chevil- 
 lon for the office, who would accept it only 
 under the title of Vicar ; and he is inscribed 
 as such on the list attached to the Charter 
 of Larmenius, his name immediately fol- 
 lowing that of Casse Brissac, who is re- 
 corded as the last Grand Master. 
 
 These four restorers of the Order were of 
 opinion that it would be most expedient to 
 place it under the patronage of some dis- 
 tinguished personage; and while making 
 the effort to carry this design into execu- 
 tion, Chevillon, excusing himself from fur- 
 ther official labor on account of his ad- 
 vanced age, proposed that Fabr6 Palaprat 
 should be elected Grand Master, but for 
 one year only, and with the understanding 
 that he would resign the dignity as soon as 
 some notable person could be found who 
 would be willing to accept it. But Fabre, 
 having once been invested with the Grand 
 Mastership, ever afterwards refused to sur- 
 render the dignity. 
 
 Among the persons who were soon after 
 admitted into the Order were Decourchant, 
 a notary's clerk; Leblond, an official of the 
 imperial library; and Arnal, an ironmonger, 
 all of whom were intrusted with the secret 
 of the fraud, and at once engaged in the 
 construction of what have since been des- 
 ignated the " Relics of the Order." Of these 
 relics, which are preserved in the treasury 
 of the Order of the Temple at Paris, an in- 
 ventory was made on the 18th day of May, 
 1810, being, it is probable, soon after their 
 
 construction. Dr. Burnes, who was a firm 
 believer in the legitimacy of the Parisian 
 Order and in the authenticity of its ar- 
 chives, has given in his Sketch of the His- 
 tory of the Knights Templars, (App., p. xii.,) 
 a copy of this inventory in the original 
 French. Thory gives it also in his Acta 
 Latomorum, (ii. 143.) A brief synopsis of 
 it may not be uninteresting. The relics 
 consist of twelve pieces — " a round dozen " 
 — and are as follows: 
 
 1. The Charter of Larmenius, already 
 described. But to the eighteen signatures 
 of Grand Masters in the charter, which was 
 in 1705 in possession of Philip, Duke of Or- 
 leans, are added six more, carrying the suc- 
 cession on from the last-named to Fabre' 
 Palaprat, who attests as Grand Master in 
 1804. 
 
 2. A volume of twenty -seven paper 
 sheets, in folio, bound in crimson velvet, 
 satin, and gold, containing the statutes 
 of the Order in manuscript, and signed 
 "Philip." 
 
 3. A small copper reliquary, in the shape 
 of a Gothic church, containing four frag- 
 ments of burnt bones, wrapped in a piece 
 of linen. These are said to have been 
 taken from the funeral pile of the martyred 
 Templars. 
 
 4. A sword, said to be one which be- 
 longed to James de Molay. 
 
 5. A helmet, supposed to have been that 
 of Guy, Dauphin of Auvergne. 
 
 6. An old gilt spur. 
 
 7. A bronze patina, in the interior of 
 which is engraved an extended hand, hav- 
 ing the ring and little fingers bent in upon 
 the palm, which is the form of the episco- 
 pal benediction in the Roman Church. 
 
 8. A pax in gilt bronze, containing a 
 representation of St. John, under a Gothic 
 arch. The pax is a small plate of gold, 
 silver, or other rich material, carried round 
 by the priest to communicate the " kiss of 
 peace." 
 
 9. Three Gothic seals. 
 
 10. A tall ivory cross and three mitres, 
 richly ornamented. 
 
 11. The beauseant, in white linen, with 
 the cross of the Order. 
 
 12. The war standard, in white linen, 
 with four black rays. 
 
 Of these " relics," Clavel, who, as being 
 on the spot, may be supposed to know some- 
 thing of the truth, tells us that the copper 
 reliquary, the sword, the ivory cross, and 
 the three mitres were bought by Leblond 
 from an old iron shop in the market of St. 
 Jean, and from a maker of church vest- 
 ments in the suburbs of Paris, while the 
 helmet was taken by Arnal from one of the 
 government armories. 
 
 Francisco Alvaro da Sylva Freyre de 
 
TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 803 
 
 Porto, a knight of the Order of Christ, and 
 a secret agent of John VI., king of Por- 
 tugal, was admitted into the Order in 1805, 
 and continued a member until 1815. He 
 was one of the few, Clavel says, whom 
 Fabre and the other founders admitted into 
 their full confidence, and in 1812 he held 
 the office of Grand Master's Secretary. 
 Fabre" having signified to him his desire to 
 be recognized as the successor of James de 
 Molay by the Grand Master of the Order 
 of Christ, Da Sylva sent a copy of the 
 Charter of Larmenius to John VI., who 
 was then in Brazil ; but the request for re- 
 cognition was refused. 
 
 The Order of the Temple, which had 
 thus been ingeniously organized by Fabre 
 Palaprat and his colleagues, began now to 
 assume high prerogatives as the only rep- 
 resentative of ancient Templarism. The 
 Grand Master was distinguished by the 
 sounding titles of "Most Eminent High- 
 ness, Very Great, Powerful, and Excellent 
 Prince, and Most Serene Lord." The whole 
 world was divided into different jurisdic- 
 tions, under the names of provinces, baili- 
 wicks, priories, and commanderies, all of 
 which were distributed among the mem- 
 bers ; and proofs of nobility were demanded 
 of all candidates ; but if they were not able 
 to give these proofs, they were furnished 
 by the Grand Master with the necessary 
 patents. 
 
 The ceremonies of initiation were divided 
 into three houses, again subdivided into 
 eight degrees, and were as follows : 
 
 I. House of Initiation. 
 
 1. Initiate. This is the Entered Ap- 
 prentice's degree of Freemasonry. 
 
 2. Initiate of the Interior. This is the 
 Fellow Craft. 
 
 3. Adept. This is the Master Mason. 
 
 4. Adept of the East. The Elu of Fifteen 
 of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 5. Grand Adept of the Black Eagle of St. 
 John. The Elu of Nine of the Scottish 
 Rite. 
 
 II. House of Postulance. 
 
 6. Postulant of the Order. The Rose 
 Croix degree. 
 
 III. Council. 
 
 7. Esquire. Merely a preparation for 
 the eighth degree. 
 
 8. Knight, or Levite of the Interior Guard. 
 The Philosophical Kadosh 
 
 At first the members of the Order pro- 
 fessed the Roman Catholic religion, and 
 hence, on various occasions, Protestants 
 and Jews were denied admission. But 
 
 about the year 1814, the Grand Master 
 having obtained possession of a manuscript 
 copy of a spurious Gospel of St. John, 
 which is supposed to have been forged in 
 the fifteenth century, and which contra- 
 dicted in many particulars the canonical 
 Gospel, he caused it to be adopted as the 
 doctrine of the Order ; and thus, as Clavel 
 says, at once transformed an Order which 
 had always been perfectly orthodox into a 
 schismatic sect. Out of this spurious Gos- 
 pel and an introduction and commentary 
 called the " Levitikon," said to have been 
 written by Nicephorus, a Greek monk of 
 Athens, Fabre and his colleagues composed 
 a liturgy, and established a religious sect to 
 which they gave the name of " Johannism." 
 
 The consequence of this change of reli- 
 gious views was a schism in the Order. 
 The orthodox party, however, appears to 
 have been the stronger; and after the others 
 had for a short time exhibited themselves 
 as soi-disant priests in a Johannite church 
 which they erected, and in which they pub- 
 licly chanted the liturgy which they had 
 composed, the church and the liturgy were 
 given up, and they retired once more into 
 the secrecy of the Order. 
 
 Such is a brief history of the rise and 
 progress of the celebrated Order of the 
 Temple, which still exists at Paris, with, 
 however, a much abridged exercise, if not 
 with less assumption of prerogative. It 
 still claims to be the only true depository 
 of the powers and privileges of the ancient 
 Order of Knights Templars, denouncing 
 all other Templars as spurious, and its 
 Grand Master proclaims himself the legal 
 successor of James de Molay ; with how 
 much truth the narrative already given 
 will enable every reader to decide. 
 
 The question of the legality of the " Order 
 of the Temple," as the only true body of 
 Knights Templars in modern days, is to be 
 settled only after three other points have 
 been determined: First, was the Charter 
 of Larmenius, which was brought for the 
 first time to light in 1705 by the Duke of 
 Orleans, an authentic or a forged docu- 
 ment? Next, even if authentic, was the 
 story that Larmenius was invested with 
 the Grand Mastership aud the power of 
 transmission by Molay a fact or a fable? 
 And, lastly, was the power exercised by 
 Ledru, in reorganizing the Order in 1804, 
 assumed by himself or actually derived 
 from Casse Brissac, the previous Grand 
 Master? There are many other questions 
 of subordinate but necessary importance to 
 be examined and settled before we can con- 
 sent to give the Order of the Temple the 
 high and, as regards Templarism, the ex- 
 clusive position that it claims. 
 
 Temple, Second. The Temple built 
 
804 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 by Zerubbabel is so called. See Temple of 
 Zerubbabel. 
 
 Temple, Sovereign Command- 
 er of the. See Sovereign Commander of 
 the Temple. 
 
 Temple, Sovereign of the Sov- 
 ereigns Grand Commander of 
 the. {Souverain des Souverain Grands Com- 
 mandeur du Temple.) A degree in the col- 
 lection of Lemanceau and Le Page. It is 
 said to be a part of the Order of Christ or 
 Portuguese Templarism. 
 
 Temple, Spiritual. See Spiritual 
 Temple. 
 
 Temple, Symbolism of the. Of 
 all the objects which constitute the Masonic 
 science of symbolism, the most important, 
 the most cherished by Masons, and by far 
 the most significant, is the Temple of Jeru- 
 salem. The spiritualizing of the Temple 
 is the first, the most prominent, and the 
 most pervading of all symbols of Free- 
 masonry. It is that which most emphati- 
 cally gives it its religious character. Take 
 from Freemasonry its dependence on the 
 Temple; leave out of its ritual all refer- 
 ence to that sacred edifice, and to the 
 legends and traditions connected with it, 
 and the system itself would at once decay 
 and die, or at best remain only as some 
 fossilized bone, serving merely to show the 
 nature of the once living body to which it 
 had belonged. 
 
 Temple worship is in itself an ancient 
 type of the religious sentiment in its pro- 
 gress towards spiritual elevation. As soon 
 as a nation emerged out of Feticism, or the 
 worship of visible objects, which is the 
 most degraded form of idolatry, its people 
 began to establish a priesthood, and to erect 
 temples. The Goths, the Celts, the Egyp- 
 tians, and the Greeks, however much they 
 may have differed in the ritual, and in the 
 objects of their polytheistic worship, were 
 all in the possession of priests and of tem- 
 ples. The Jews, complying with this law 
 of our religious nature, first constructed 
 their tabernacle, or portable temple, and 
 then, when time and opportunity permitted, 
 transferred their monotheistic worship to 
 that more permanent edifice which tow- 
 ered in all its magnificence above the pin- 
 nacle of Mount Moriah. The mosque of 
 the Mohammedan and the church or chapel 
 of the Christian is but an embodiment of 
 the same idea of temple worship in a 
 simpler form. 
 
 The adaptation, therefore, of the Temple 
 of Jerusalem to a science of symbolism, 
 would be an easy task to the mind of those 
 Jews and Tyrians who were engaged in its 
 construction. Doubtless, at its original 
 conception, the idea of this temple sym- 
 bolism was rude and unembellished. It 
 
 was to be perfected and polished only by 
 future aggregations of succeeding intellects. 
 And yet no biblical nor Masonic scholar 
 will venture to deny that there was, in the 
 mode of building and in all the circum- 
 stances connected with the construction of 
 King Solomon's Temple, an apparent de- 
 sign to establish a foundation for sym- 
 bolism. 
 
 The Freemasons have, at all events, 
 seized with avidity the idea of representing 
 in their symbolic language the interior and 
 spiritual man by a material temple. They 
 have the doctrine of the great Apostle of 
 the Gentiles, who has said, " Know ye are 
 the temple of God, and that the spirit of 
 God dwelleth in you." The great body of 
 the Masonic craft, looking only to this first 
 Temple erected by the wisdom of King 
 Solomon, make it the symbol of life; and 
 as the great object of Masonry is the search 
 after truth, they are directed to build up 
 this temple as a fitting receptacle for truth 
 when found, a place where it may dwell, 
 just as the ancient Jews built up their 
 great Temple as a dwelling-place for Him 
 who is the author of all truth. 
 
 To the Master Mason, this Temple of 
 Solomon is truly the symbol of human life; 
 for, like life, it was to have its end. For 
 four centuries it glittered on the hills of 
 Jerusalem in all its gorgeous magnificence; 
 now, under some pious descendant of the 
 wise king of Israel, the spot from whose 
 altars arose the burnt-offerings to a living 
 God, and now polluted by some recreant 
 monarch of Judah to the service of Baal ; 
 until at length it received the divine pun- 
 ishment through the mighty king of Baby- 
 lon, and, having been despoiled of all its 
 treasures, was burnt to the ground, so that 
 nothing was left of all its splendor but a 
 smouldering heap of ashes. Variable in 
 its purposes, evanescent in its existence, 
 now a gorgeous pile of architectural beauty, 
 and anon a ruin over which the resistless 
 power of fire has passed, it becomes a fit 
 symbol of human life occupied in the 
 search after divine truth, which is nowhere 
 to be found; now sinning and now repent- 
 ant ; now vigorous with health and strength, 
 and anon a senseless and decaying corpse. 
 
 Such is the symbolism of the first Tem- 
 ple, that of Solomon, as familiar to the 
 class of Master Masons. But there is a 
 second and higher class of the Fraternity, 
 the Masons of the Eoyal Arch, by whom 
 this temple symbolism is still further de- 
 veloped. 
 
 This second class, leaving their early 
 symbolism and looking beyond this Tem- 
 ple of Solomon, find in scriptural history 
 another Temple, which, years after the de- 
 struction of the first one, was erected upon 
 
TEMPLE 
 
 TENT 
 
 805 
 
 its ruins; and they have selected the 
 second Temple, the Temple of Zerubbabel, 
 as their prominent symbol. And as the 
 first class of Masons find in their Temple 
 the symbol of mortal life, limited and per- 
 ishable, they, on the contrary, see in this 
 second Temple, built upon the foundations 
 of the first, a symbol of life eternal, where 
 the lost truth shall be found, where new 
 incense shall arise from a new altar, and 
 whose perpetuity their great Master had 
 promised when, in the very spirit of sym- 
 bolism, he exclaimed, " Destroy this tem- 
 ple, and in three days I will raise it up." 
 
 And so to these two classes or Orders of 
 Masons the symbolism of the Temple pre- 
 sents itself in a connected and continuous 
 form. To the Master Mason, the Temple 
 of Solomon is the symbol of this life; to 
 the Royal Arch Mason, the Temple of 
 Zerubbabel is the symbol of the future life. 
 To the former, his Temple is the symbol of 
 the search for truth ; to the latter, his is the 
 symbol of the discovery of truth ; and thus 
 the circle is completed and the system 
 made perfect. 
 
 Temple, Workmen at the. See 
 Workmen at the Temple. 
 
 Templier. The title of a Knight Tem- 
 plar in French. The expression "Cheva- 
 lier Templier " is scarcely ever used by 
 French writers. 
 
 Templum Hierosolymse. Latin 
 for the Temple of Jerusalem. It is supposed 
 by some to be a phrase concealed under the 
 monogram of the Triple Tau, which see. 
 
 Ten. Ten cannot be considered as a 
 sacred number in Masonry. But by the 
 Pythagoreans it was honored as a symbol 
 of the perfection and consummation of all 
 things. It was constituted of the monad 
 and duad, the active and passive principles, 
 the triad or their result, andthequaternioror 
 first square, and hence they referred it to 
 their sacred tetractys. They said that ten 
 contained all the relations of numbers and 
 harmony. See Tetractys. 
 
 Tengn. A significant word in the 
 high degrees of the Scottish Rite. The 
 original old French rituals explain it, and 
 say that it and the two other words that 
 accompany are formed out of the initials 
 of the words of a particular sentence which 
 has reference to the " Sacred treasure " of 
 Masonry. 
 
 Tennessee. Until the end of the 
 year 1813, the State of Tennessee consti- 
 tuted a part of the Masonic jurisdiction 
 of North Carolina, and the Lodges were 
 held under Warrants issuing from the 
 Grand Lodge of "North Carolina and Ten- 
 nessee," with the exception of one Lodge 
 in Davidson County, which derived its 
 Charter from the Grand Lodge of Ken- 
 
 tucky. In December, 1811, a convention 
 was held at Knoxville, when an address 
 was directed to the Grand Lodge of North 
 Carolina, soliciting its assent to the sever- 
 ance of the Masonic jurisdiction and the 
 establishment of an independent Grand 
 Lodge. In October, 1813, this consent was 
 granted, and a convention of the Lodges was 
 ordered by the Grand Master to assemble 
 at Knoxville on December 27, 1813, that 
 the Grand Lodge of Tennessee might be 
 legally constituted. Delegates from eight 
 Lodges accordingly assembled on that day 
 at Knoxville, and a convention was duly 
 organized. A deed of relinquishment from 
 the Grand Lodge of North Carolina was 
 read. By this instrument the Grand Lodge 
 of North Carolina relinquished all author- 
 ity and jurisdiction over the several Lodges 
 in the State of Tennessee, and assented 
 to the erection of an independent Grand 
 Lodge. A Constitution was accordingly 
 adopted and the Grand Lodge of Tennessee 
 organized, Thomas Claiborne being elected 
 Grand Master. 
 
 The first Royal Arch Chapters in Ten- 
 nessee were instituted by the General Grand 
 Chapter, and the Grand Chapter of Ten- 
 nessee was organized in 1826. 
 
 The Grand Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters was established October 13, 1847. 
 
 The Grand Commandery of Tennessee 
 was organized October 12, 1859. 
 
 There are in the State a few bodies of 
 the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 
 which derive their Charters from the Su- 
 premeCouncilfortheSouthern Jurisdiction. 
 
 Tent. The tent, which constitutes a 
 part of the paraphernalia or furniture of a 
 Commandery of Knights Templars, is not 
 only intended for a practical use, but also 
 has a symbolic meaning. The Order of the 
 Templars was instituted for the protection 
 of Christian pilgrims who were visiting 
 the sepulchre of their Lord. The Hospi- 
 tallers might remain in the city and fulfil 
 their vows by attendance on the sick, but 
 the Templar must away to the plains, the 
 hills, and the desert, there, in his lonely 
 tent, to watch the wily Saracen, and to 
 await the toilsome pilgrim, to whom he 
 might offer the crust of bread and the 
 draught of water, and instruct him in his 
 way, and warn him of danger, and give 
 him words of good cheer. Often in the 
 early history of the Order, before luxury 
 and wealth and vice had impaired its 
 purity, must these meetings of the toilsome 
 pilgrim, on his way to the holy shrine, with 
 the valiant Knight who stood by his tent 
 door on the roadside, have occurred. And 
 it is just such events as these that are 
 commemorated in the tent scenes of the 
 Templar ritual. 
 
806 
 
 TENURE 
 
 TERRITORIAL 
 
 Tenure of Office. All offices in the 
 bodies of the York and American Kites 
 are held by annual election. But the 
 holder of an office does not become functus 
 officii by the election of his successor ; he 
 retains the office until that successor has 
 been installed. This is technically called 
 "holding over." It is not election only, 
 but election and installation that give pos- 
 session of an office in Masonry. If a new 
 Master, having been elected, should, after 
 the election and installation of the other 
 officers of the Lodge, refuse to be installed, 
 the old Master would " hold over," or re- 
 tain the office until the next annual elec- 
 tion. The oath of office of every officer is 
 that he will perform the duties of the office 
 for twelve months, and until his successor 
 shall have been installed. In France, in the 
 last century, Warrants of Constitution were 
 granted to certain Masters who held the 
 office for life, and were thence called " Mai- 
 tres inamovibles," or immovable Masters. 
 They considered the Lodges committed to 
 their care as their personal property, and 
 governed them despotically, according to 
 their own caprices. But in i772 this class 
 of Masters had become so unpopular, that 
 the Grand Lodge removed them, and made 
 the tenure of office the same as it was in 
 England. 
 
 In the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite, the officers of a Supreme Council 
 hold their offices, under the Constitutions of 
 1786, for life. In the subordinate bodies 
 of the Rite, the elections are held trien- 
 nially. This is also the rule in the Supreme 
 Council of the Northern Jurisdiction, which 
 has abandoned the law of perpetual tenure. 
 
 Tercy. One of the nine Elus recorded 
 in the high degrees as having been sent 
 out by Solomon to make the search which 
 is referred to in the Master's legend. The 
 name was invented by Ramsay, with some 
 allusion, not now explicable, to the political 
 incidents of Stuart Masons. The name is 
 
 Erobably an anagram or corruption of some 
 lend of the house of Stuart. See Ana- 
 gram. 
 
 Terminus. The god of landmarks, 
 whose worship was introduced among the 
 Romans by Numa. The god was represent- 
 ed by a cubical stone. Of all thegods, Termi- 
 nus was the only one who, when the new 
 Capitol was building, refused to remove his 
 altar. Hence Ovid (Fasti, ii. 673,) addressed 
 him thus : " O Terminus, no inconstancy 
 was permitted thee ; in whatever situation 
 thou hast been placed, there abide, and do 
 not yield one jot to any neighbor asking 
 thee." The Masons pay the same rever- 
 ence to their landmarks that the Romans 
 did to their god Terminus. 
 Terrasson, the Abbe* Jean. The 
 
 Abbe Terrasson was born at Lyons, in 
 France, in 1670. He was educated by the 
 congregation of the Oratory, of which his 
 brother Andre was a priest, but eventually 
 abandoned it, which gave so much offence 
 to his father, that he left him by his will 
 only a very moderate income. The Abbe 
 obtained a chair in the Academy of Sciences 
 in 1707, and a professorship in the Royal 
 College in 1724, which position he occupied 
 until his death in 1750. He was the author 
 of a Critical Dissertation on the Iliad of 
 Homer, a translation of Diodorus Seculus, 
 and several other classical and philosophi- 
 cal works. But his work most interest- 
 ing to the Masonic scholar is his Sethos, 
 histoire ou vie tirie des monumens anecdotes 
 de Fancienne Egypt, published at Paris in 
 1731. This work excited on its appear- 
 ance so much attention in the literary 
 world, that it was translated into the Ger- 
 man and English languages under the 
 respective titles of: 1. Abris der wahren 
 Helden-Tugend, oder Lebensgeschichte des 
 Sethos; translated by Chro. Gli. Wendt, 
 Hamburg, 1732. 2. Geschicte des Konigs 
 Sethos; translated by Matth. Claudius, 
 Breslau, 1777 ; and 3. The Life of Sethos, 
 taken from private Memoirs of the ancient 
 Egyptians; translated from a Greek MS. into 
 French, and now done into English, by M. 
 Lediard, London, 1732. 
 
 In this romance he has given an account 
 of the initiation of his hero, Sethos, an 
 Egyptian prince, into the Egyptian mys- 
 teries. We must not, however, be led into 
 the error, into which Kloss says that the 
 Masonic fraternity fell on its first appear- 
 ance, that this account is a well-proved, 
 historical narrative. Much as we know 
 of the Egyptian mysteries, compared with 
 our knowledge of the Grecian or the Asi- 
 atic, we have no sufficient documents from 
 which to obtain the consecutive and minute 
 detail which the Abb6 Terrasson has con- 
 structed. It is like Ramsay's Travels of 
 Cyrus, to which it has been compared — a 
 romance rather than a history ; but it still 
 contains so many scintillations of truth, so 
 much of the substantial of fact amid the 
 ornaments of fiction, that it cannot but 
 prove instructive as well as amusing. We 
 have in it the outlines of an initiation into 
 the Egyptian mysteries such as the learned 
 Abbe could derive from the documents and 
 monuments to which he was able to apply, 
 with many lacuna which he has filled up 
 from his own inventive and poetic genius. 
 
 Terrible Brother. French, Frere 
 terrible. An officer in the French Rite, 
 who in an initiation conducts the candidate, 
 and in this respect performs the duty of a 
 Senior Deacon in the York Rite. 
 
 Territorial Jurisdiction. It has 
 
TESSELLATED 
 
 TESSELLATED 
 
 807 
 
 now become the settled principle of. at 
 least, American Masonic law, that Masonic 
 and political jurisdiction should be coter- 
 minous, that is, that the boundaries which 
 circumscribe the territorial jurisdiction of 
 a Grand Lodge should be the same as 
 those which define the political limits of 
 the State in which it exists. And so it 
 follows that if a State should change its 
 political boundaries, the Masonic bounda- 
 ries of the Grand Lodge should change 
 with it. Thus, if a State should diminish 
 its extent by the cession of any part of its 
 territory to an adjoining State, the Lodges 
 situated within the ceded territory would 
 pass over to the jurisdiction of the Grand 
 Lodge of the State to which that territory 
 had been ceded. 
 
 Tessellated. From the Latin tessella, 
 a little square stone. Chequered, formed 
 in little squares of Mosaic work. Applied 
 in Masonry to the Mosaic pavement of the 
 Temple, and to the border which surrounds 
 the tracing-board, probably incorrectly in 
 . the latter instance. See Tessellated Border. 
 Tessellated Border. Browne says 
 in his Master Key, which is supposed to 
 present the general form of the Prestonian 
 lectures, that the ornaments of a Lodge 
 are the Mosaic pavement, the Blazing Star, 
 and the Tessellated Border; and he defines 
 the Tessellated Border to be " the skirt-work 
 round the Lodge." Webb, in his lectures, 
 teaches that the ornaments of a Lodge are 
 the Mosaic pavement, the indented tessel, 
 and the blazing star; and he defines the 
 indented tessel to be that " beautifully tes- 
 sellated border or skirting which surrounded 
 the ground-floor of King Solomon's Tem- 
 ple." The French call it " la houpe den- 
 telee," which is literally the indented tessel; 
 and they describe it as "a cord forming 
 true-lovers' knots, which surrounds the 
 tracing-board." The Germans call it "die 
 Schnur von starken Faden," or the cord of 
 strong threads, and define it as a border sur- 
 rounding the tracing-board of an Entered 
 Apprentice, consisting of a cord tied in 
 lovers' knots, with two tassels attached to 
 the ends. 
 
 The idea prevalent in America, and de- 
 rived from a misapprehension of the plate 
 in the Monitor of Cross, that the tessellated 
 border was a decorated part of the Mosaic 
 pavement, and made like it of little square 
 stones, does not seem to be supported by 
 these definitions. They all indicate that 
 the tessellated border was a cord. The in- 
 terpretation of its symbolic meaning still 
 further sustains this idea. Browne says 
 " it alludes to that kind care of Providence 
 which so cheerfully surrounds and keeps 
 us within its protection whilst we justly 
 and uprightly govern our lives and actions 
 
 by the four cardinal virtues in divinity, 
 namely, temperance, fortitude, prudence, 
 and justice." This last allusion is to the 
 four tassels attached to the cord. (See 
 Tassels. ) 
 
 Webb says that it is "emblematic of 
 those blessings and comforts which sur- 
 round us, and which we hope to obtain by 
 a faithful reliance on Divine Providence." 
 
 The French ritual says that it is intended 
 "to teach the Mason that the society of 
 which he constitutes a part surrounds the 
 earth, and that distance, so far from relax- 
 ing the bonds which unite the members to 
 each other, ought to draw them closer." 
 
 Lenning says that it symbolizes the fra- 
 ternal bond by which all Masons are united. 
 
 But Gadicke is more precise. He defines 
 it as " the universal bond by which every 
 Mason ought to be united to his brethren," 
 and he says that "it should consist of sixty 
 threads or yarns, because, according to the 
 ancient statutes, no Lodge was allowed to 
 have above sixty members." 
 
 Oliver (Landm., i. 174,) says " the Tracing- 
 Board is surrounded by an indented or tes- 
 sellated border .... at the four angles ap- 
 pear as many tassels." But in the old 
 English tracing-boards the two lower 
 tassels are often omitted. They are, how- 
 ever, generally found in the French. Len- 
 ning, speaking, I suppose, for the German, 
 assigns to them but two. Four tassels are, 
 however, necessary to complete the sym- 
 bolism, which is said to be that of the four 
 cardinal virtues. The tessellated, more 
 properly, therefore, the tassel lated, border 
 consists of a cord intertwined with knots, 
 to each end of which is appended a tassel. 
 It surrounds the border of the tracing- 
 board, and appears at the top in the follow- 
 ing form: 
 
 There is, however, in these old tracing- 
 boards another border, which surrounds the 
 entire picture with lines, as in the follow- 
 ing figure: 
 
 This indented border, which was made to 
 represent a cord of black and white threads, 
 was, I think, in time mistaken for tessellce, or 
 little stones ; an error probably originating 
 
808 
 
 TESSELLATED 
 
 TESTS 
 
 in confounding it with the tessellated pave- 
 ment, which was another one of the orna- 
 ments of the Lodge. 
 
 We find that we have for this symbol five 
 different names : in English, the indented 
 tarsel, the indented tassel, the indented tes- 
 sel, the tassellated border, and the tessellated 
 border ; in French, the houpe dentelee, or 
 indented tessel ; and in German, the Schnur 
 von starken Faden, or the cord of strong 
 threads. 
 
 The question what is the true tessellated 
 border would not be a difficult one to an- 
 swer, if it were not for the variety of names 
 fiven to it in the English rituals. We 
 now by tradition, and by engravings that 
 have been preserved, that during the cere- 
 monies of initiation in the early part of 
 the last century the symbols of the Order 
 were marked out in chalk on the floor, and 
 that this picture was encircled by a waving 
 cord. This cord was ornamented with 
 tassels, and formerly a border to the trac- 
 ing on the floor was called the indented 
 tassel, the cord and the tufts attached to it 
 being the tassel, which, being by its wavy 
 direction partly in and partly outside of 
 the picture, was said to be indented. This 
 indented tassel was subsequently corrupted 
 by illiterate Masons into indented tarsel, the 
 appellation met with in some of the early 
 catechisms. 
 
 Afterwards, looking to its decoration with 
 tassels and to its position as a border to the 
 tracing-board, it was called the tassellated 
 border. In time the picture on the floor 
 was transferred to a permanent tracing- 
 board, and then the tassels were preserved 
 at the top, and the rest of the cord was rep- 
 resented around the board in the form of 
 white and black angular spaces. These 
 were mistaken for little stones, and the tas- 
 sellated border was called, by a natural cor- 
 ruption, the tessellated border. Many years 
 ago,when I first met with the idea of this cor- 
 ruption from tassellated to tessellated, which 
 was suggested to Dr. Oliver by " a learned 
 Scottish Mason," whose name he does not 
 give, I was inclined to doubt its correct- 
 ness. Subsequent investigations have led 
 me to change that opinion. I think that I 
 can readily trace the gradual steps of cor- 
 ruption and change from the original name 
 indented tassel, which the early French Ma- 
 sons had literally translated by houpe den- 
 telee, to indented tarsel, and sometimes, ac- 
 cording to Oliver, to indented trasel; then to 
 tassellated border, and, finally, to tessellated 
 border, the name which it now bears. 
 
 The form and the meaning of the symbol 
 are now apparent. The tessellated border, 
 as it is called, is a cord, decorated with 
 tassels, which surrounds the tracing-board 
 of an Entered Apprentice, the said tracing- 
 
 board being a representation of the Lodge, 
 and it symbolizes the bond of love — the 
 mystic tie — which binds the Craft whereso- 
 ever dispersed into one band of brother- 
 hood. 
 
 Tessel, Indented, See Tessellated 
 Border. 
 
 Tessera Hospitalis. Latin. Lit- 
 erally, " the token of the guest," or " the 
 hospitable die." It was a custom among 
 the ancients, that when two persons formed 
 an alliance of friendship, they took a small 
 piece of bone, ivory, stone, or even wood, 
 which they divided into two parts, each 
 one inscribing his name upon his half. 
 They then made an exchange of the pieces, 
 each promising to retain the part intrusted 
 to him as a perpetual token of the covenant 
 into which they had entered, of which 
 its production at any future time would be 
 a proof and a reminder. See the subject 
 more fully treated in the article Mark. 
 
 Testimony. In Masonic trials the 
 testimony of witnesses is taken in two 
 ways — that of profanes by affidavit, and 
 that of Masons on their Masonic obliga- 
 tion. 
 
 Tests. Test questions, to which the 
 conventional answers would prove the Ma- 
 sonic character of the person interrogated, 
 were in very common use in the last cen- 
 tury in England. They were not, it is true, 
 enjoined by authority, but were conven- 
 tionally used to such an extent that every 
 Mason was supposed to be acquainted with 
 them. They are now obsolete ; but not a 
 quarter of a century ago I heard such 
 "catch questions "as "Where does the 
 Master hang his hat?" and a few others 
 equally trivial, used in this country. 
 
 Oliver gives ( Golden Remains, iv. 14,) the 
 following as the tests in use in the early 
 part of the last century. They were intro- 
 duced by Desaguliers and Anderson at the 
 revival in 1717. Some of them, however, 
 were of a higher character, being taken 
 from the catechism or lecture then in use 
 as a part of the instructions of the Entered 
 Apprentice. 
 
 What is the place of the Senior Entered 
 Apprentice? 
 
 What are the fixed lights? 
 
 How ought the Master to be served? 
 
 What is the punishment of a cowan? 
 
 What is the bone box ? 
 
 How is it said to be opened only with 
 ivory keys? 
 
 By what is the key suspended ? 
 
 What is the clothing of a Mason? 
 
 What is the brand ? 
 
 How high was the door of the middle 
 chamber? 
 
 What does this stone smell of? 
 
 The name of an Entered Apprentice ? 
 
TESTS 
 
 TEST 
 
 809 
 
 The name of a Fellow Craft? 
 
 The name of Master Mason? 
 
 In the year 1730, Martin Clare having, 
 hy order of the Grand Lodge, remodelled 
 the lectures, he abolished the old tests and 
 introduced the following new ones. 
 
 Whence came you? 
 
 Who brought you here? 
 
 What recommendation do you bring? 
 
 Do you know the secrets of Masonry? 
 
 Where do you keep them? 
 
 Have you the key? 
 
 Where is it deposited? 
 
 When you were made a Mason, what did 
 you consider most desirable? 
 
 What is the name of your Lodge? 
 
 Where is it situated? 
 
 What is its foundation? 
 
 How did you enter the Temple of Solo- 
 mon? 
 
 How many windows did you see there? 
 
 What is the duty of the youngest ap- 
 prentice? 
 
 Have you ever worked as a Mason? 
 
 What did you work with? 
 
 Salute me as a Mason. 
 
 Ten years afterwards Clare's tests were 
 superseded by a new series of " examina- 
 tion questions," which were promulgated 
 by Dr. Manningham, and very generally 
 adopted. They are as follows : 
 
 Where were you made a Mason? 
 
 What did you learn there? 
 
 How do you hope to be rewarded? 
 
 What access have you to that Grand 
 Lodge? 
 
 How many steps? 
 
 What are their names? 
 
 How many qualifications are required in 
 a Mason? 
 
 What is the standard of a Mason's faith? 
 
 What is the standard of his actions? 
 
 Can you name the peculiar characteris- 
 tics of a Mason's Lodge? 
 
 What is the interior composed of? 
 
 Why are we termed Brethren ? 
 
 By what badge is a Mason distinguished? 
 
 To what do the reports refer? 
 
 How many principal points are there in 
 Masonry ? 
 
 To what do they refer ? 
 
 Their names ? 
 
 The allusion ? 
 
 Thomas Dunckerley subsequently made 
 a new arrangement of the lectures, and 
 with them the tests. For the eighteen 
 which composed the series of Manning- 
 ham, he invented ten, but which were more 
 significant and important in their bearing. 
 They were as follows : 
 
 How ought a Mason to be clothed ? 
 
 When were you born ? 
 
 Where were you born ? 
 
 How were you born? 
 5B 
 
 Did you endure the brand with fortitude 
 and patience ? 
 
 The situation of the Lodge ? 
 
 What is its name? 
 
 With what have you worked as a Mason? 
 
 Explain the sprig of Cassia. 
 
 How old are you? 
 
 Preston subsequently, as his first contri- 
 bution to Masonic literature, presented the 
 following system of tests, which were at a 
 later period adopted. 
 
 Whither are you bound? 
 
 Are you a Mason ? 
 
 How do you know that? 
 
 How will you prove it to me? 
 
 Where were you made a Mason ? 
 
 When were you made a Mason ? 
 
 By whom were you made a Mason? 
 
 From whence come you ? 
 
 What recommendation do you bring ? 
 
 Any other recommendation ? 
 
 Where are the secrets of Masonry kept ? 
 
 To whom do you deliver them ? 
 
 How do you deliver them ? 
 
 In what manner do you serve your Mas- 
 ter? 
 
 What is your name? 
 
 What is the name of your son ? 
 
 If a Brother were lost, where should you 
 hope to find him ? 
 
 How should you expect him to be clothed? 
 
 How blows a Mason's wind? 
 
 Why does it thus blow ? 
 
 What time is it? 
 
 These Prestonian tests continued in use 
 until the close of the last century, and Dr. 
 Oliver says that at his initiation, in 1801, 
 he was fully instructed in them. 
 
 Tests of this kind appear to have existed 
 at an early period. The " examination of 
 a Steinmetz," given by Findel in his History 
 of Freemasonry, presents all the character- 
 istics of the English " tests." 
 
 The French Masons have one, "Com- 
 ment Stes vous entre dans le Temple de 
 Salomon?" and in this country, besides the 
 one already mentioned, there are a few 
 others which are sometimes used, but with- 
 out legal authority. A review of these 
 tests will, I think, lead to the conclusion 
 adopted by Oliver, that " they are doubt- 
 less of great utility, but in their selection 
 a pure and discriminating taste has not al- 
 ways been used." 
 
 Test Word. In the year 1829, during 
 the anti-Masonic excitement in this coun- 
 try, the Grand Lodge of New York pro- 
 posed, as a safeguard against " the introduc- 
 tion of impostors among the workmen," a 
 test word to be used in all examinations in 
 addition to the legitimate tests. But as 
 this was deemed an innovation on the 
 landmarks, and as it was impossible that 
 it could ever become universal, the Grand 
 
810 
 
 TETRACTYS 
 
 TETRAGRAMMATON 
 
 Lodges of the United States very properly 
 rejected it, and it was never used. 
 
 TetraCtys. The Greek word TeTpaicrvg 
 
 signifies, literally, the number four, and is 
 
 therefore synony- 
 
 * mous with the 
 
 quaternion ; but it 
 
 ^ has been pecu- 
 
 * liarly applied to a 
 
 symbol of the Py- 
 
 - m _ thagoreans, which 
 
 ' is composed often 
 
 dots arranged in 
 
 I t 9 a triangular form 
 
 of four rows. 
 
 This figure was in itself, as a whole, em- 
 blematic of the Tetragrammaton, or sacred 
 name of four letters, (for tetractys, in Greek, 
 means four,) and was undoubtedly learned 
 by Pythagoras during his visit to Babylon. 
 But the parts of which it is composed were 
 also pregnant symbols. Thus the one point 
 was a symbol of the active principle or 
 creator, the two points of the passive prin- 
 ciple or matter, the three of the world pro- 
 ceeding from their union, and the four of 
 the liberal arts and sciences, which may be 
 said to complete and perfect that worlcl. 
 
 This arrangement of the ten points in a 
 triangular form was called the tetractys or 
 number four, because each of the sides of 
 the triangle consisted of four points, and 
 the whole number of ten was made up by 
 the summation of the first four figures, 1 + 
 2 + 3+4=10. 
 
 Hierocles says, in his Commentaries on the 
 Golden Verses (v. 47) : " But how comes 
 God to be the Tetractys ? This thou mayst 
 learn in the sacred book ascribed to Pythag- 
 oras, in which God is celebrated as the 
 number of numbers. For if all things exist 
 by His eternal decrees, it is evident that in 
 each species of things the number depends 
 on the cause that produces them. . . . Now 
 the power of ten is four ; for before we come 
 to a complete and perfect decade, we discover 
 all the virtue and perfection of the ten in 
 the four. Thus, in assembling all numbers 
 from one to four inclusive, the whole com- 
 position makes ten," etc. 
 
 And Dacier, in his Notes on these Com- 
 mentaries and on this particular passage, 
 remarks that " Pythagoras, having learned 
 in Egypt the name of the true God, the 
 mysterious and ineffable name Jehovah, 
 and finding that in the original tongue it 
 was composed of four letters, translated it 
 into his own language by the word te- 
 tractys, and gave the true explanation of it, 
 saying that it properly signified the source 
 of nature that perpetually rolls along." 
 
 So much did the disciples of Pythagoras 
 venerate the tetractys, that it is said that 
 they took their most solemn oaths, espe- 
 
 cially that of initiation, upon it. The exact 
 words of the oath are given in the Golden 
 Verses, and are referred to by Jamblichus 
 in his Life of Pythagoras : 
 
 Nat fza riv hptnipa *I">X& Tra P a & n 'ta TtTpanriiv 
 llaydv iw&ov Qiatvs, &\\' tp\£v iij' fpyov. 
 
 i. e.y 
 
 "I swear it by him who has transmitted into 
 our soul the sacred tetractys, 
 The source of nature, whose course is eternal." 
 
 Jamblichus gives a different phraseology 
 of the oath, but with substantially the same 
 meaning. In the symbols of Masonry, we 
 will find the sacred delta bearing the near- 
 est analogy to the tetractys of the Pythag- 
 oreans. 
 
 The outline of these points form, it will 
 be perceived, a triangle; and if we draw 
 short lines from point to point, we will 
 have within this great triangle nine smaller 
 ones. Dr. Hemming, in his revision of the 
 English lectures, adopted in 1813, thus ex- 
 plains this symbol : 
 
 " The great triangle is generally denom- 
 inated Pythagorean, because it served as a 
 principal illustration of that philosopher's 
 system. This emblem powerfully elucidates 
 the mystical relation between the numerical 
 and geometri- 
 cal symbols. It 
 is composed of 
 ten points, so 
 arranged as to 
 form one great 
 equilateral tri- 
 angle, and at 
 the same time 
 to divide it in- 
 to nine simi- 
 lar triangles of 
 smaller dimensions. The first of these, 
 representing unity, is called a monad, and 
 answers to what is denominated a point in 
 geometry, each being the principle by the 
 multiplication of which all combinations 
 of form and number are respectively gen- 
 erated. The next two points are denomi- 
 nated a duad, representing the number two, 
 and answers to the geometrical line which, 
 consisting of length without breadth, is 
 bounded oy two extreme points. The three 
 following points are called the triad, repre- 
 senting the number three, and may be con- 
 sidered as having an indissoluble relation 
 to all superficies, which consist of length 
 and breadth, when contemplated as ab- 
 stracted from thickness." 
 
 Dr. Hemming does not appear to have im- 
 proved on the Pythagorean symbolization. 
 Tetragrammaton. In Greek, it sig- 
 nifies a word of four letters. It is the title 
 given by the Talmudists to the name of 
 
TEUTONIC 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 811 
 
 God Jehovah, which in the original Hebrew 
 consists of four letters, nil"!*' See Jeho- 
 vah. 
 
 Teutonic Knights. The origin of 
 this Order was an humble but a pious one. 
 During the Crusades, a wealthy gentleman 
 of Germany, who resided at Jerusalem, 
 commiserating the condition of his country- 
 men who came there as pilgrims, made his 
 house their receptacle, and afterwards built 
 a hospital, to which, by the permission 
 of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, he added 
 an oratory dedicated to the Virgin Mary. 
 Other Germans coming from Lubeck and 
 Bremen contributed to the extension of 
 this charity, and erected at Acre, during 
 the third Crusade, a sumptuous hospital, and 
 assumed the title of Teutonic Knights, or 
 Brethren of the Hospital of our Lady of 
 the Germans of Jerusalem. They elected 
 Henry Walpott their first Master, and 
 adopted for their government a Rule closely 
 approximating to that both of the Tem- 
 plars and the Hospitallers, with an addi- 
 tional one that none but Germans should 
 be admitted into the Order. Their dress 
 consisted of a white mantle, with a black 
 cross embroidered in gold. Clark says 
 (Hist, of Knighthood, ii. 60,) that the original 
 badge, which was as- 
 signed to them by the 
 Emperor Henry VI., 
 was a black cross po- 
 tent ; and that form of 
 cross has ever since 
 been known as a Teu- 
 tonic Cross. John, 
 king of Jerusalem, 
 added the cross double 
 potent gold, that is, a 
 cross potent of gold on the black cross. 
 The Emperor Frederick II. gave them the 
 black double-headed eagle, to be borne in 
 an inescutcheon in the centre of the cross ; 
 and St. Louis, of France, added to it, as an 
 augmentation, a blue chief strewn with 
 fleur-de-lis. 
 
 During the siege of Acre they did good 
 service to the Christian cause ; but on the 
 fall of that city, the main body returned to 
 Europe with Frederick II. For many 
 years they were engaged in crusades against 
 the pagan inhabitants of Prussia and 
 Poland. Ashmole says that in 1340 they 
 built the city of Maryburg, and there es- 
 tablished the residence of their Grand 
 Master. They were for a long time en- 
 gaged in contests with the kings of Poland 
 on account of their invasion of their terri- 
 tory. They were excommunicated by Pope 
 John XXII., but relying on their great 
 strength, and the remoteness of their prov- 
 ince, they bid defiance to ecclesiastical 
 censures, and the contest ended in their re- 
 
 11 
 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 
 HlttlllU 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 ■ 
 
 ceiving Prussia proper as a brief of the 
 kings of Poland. 
 
 In 1511, Albert, Margrave of Branden- 
 burg, was elected their Grand Master. In 
 1525 he abandoned the vows of his Order ; 
 became a Protestant, and exchanged his 
 title of Grand Master for that of Duke of 
 Eastern Prussia; and thus the dominion of 
 the Knights was brought to an end, and 
 the foundation laid of the future kingdom 
 of Prussia. 
 
 The Order, however, still continued its 
 existence, the seat of the Grand Master 
 being at Mergentheim, in Swabia. By the 
 peace of Presburg, in 1805, the Emperor 
 Francis II. obtained the Grand Master- 
 ship, with all its rights and privileges. In 
 1809 Napoleon abolished the Order, but it 
 still has a titular existence in Austria. 
 
 Attempts have been made to incorporate 
 the Teutonic Knights into Masonry, and 
 their cross has been adopted in some of the 
 high degrees. But we fail to find in his- 
 tory the slightest traces of any actual con- 
 nection between the two Orders. 
 
 Texas. Freemasoury was introduced 
 in Texas by the formation of a Lodge at 
 Brazoria, which met for the first time, De- 
 cember 27, 1835. The Dispensation for 
 this Lodge was granted by J. H. Holland, 
 Grand Master of Louisiana, and in his 
 honor the Lodge was called Holland Lodge, 
 No. 36. It continued to meet until Feb- 
 ruary, 1836, when the war with Mexico put 
 an end to its labors for the time. In Oc- 
 tober, 1837, it was reopened at Houston, a 
 Charter having in the interval been issued 
 for it by the Grand Lodge of Louisiana. In 
 the meantime two other Lodges had been 
 chartered by the Grand Lodge of Louisiana, 
 Milam, No. 40, at Nacogdoches, and Mc- 
 Farlane, No. 41, at San Augustine. Dele- 
 gates from these Lodges met at Houston, 
 December 20, 1837, and organized the 
 Grand Lodge of the Republic of Texas, 
 Anson Jones being elected Grand Master. 
 
 The introduction of Royal Arch Ma- 
 sonry into Texas was accompanied with 
 some difficulties. In 1838, the General 
 Grand Chapter of the United States granted 
 a Charter for a Chapter at San Felipe de 
 Austin. The members, finding it impracti- 
 cable to meet at that place, assumed the re- 
 sponsibility of opening it at Galveston, 
 which was done June 2, 1840. This irreg- 
 ular action was, on application, healed 
 by the General Grand Chapter. Subse- 
 
 Juently this body united with two illegal 
 Ihapters in the Republic to form a Grand 
 Chapter. This body was declared illegal 
 by the General Grand Chapter, and Ma- 
 sonic intercourse with it prohibited. The 
 Chapter at Galveston submitted to the 
 decree, and the so-called Grand Chapter of 
 
812 
 
 T.-. G.\ A.-. 0.\ T.\ U. 
 
 THEOSOPHISTS 
 
 Texas was dissolved. Charters were then 
 granted by the General Grand Chapter to 
 seven other Chapters, and in 1850 the Grand 
 Chapter of Texas was duly established. 
 
 The Grand Commandery of Texas was 
 organized January 19, 1855. 
 
 TV. G.\ A.*. 0.\ T.\ U.\ The ini- 
 tials of The Grand Architect of The Universe. 
 Often used in this abbreviated form by Ma- 
 sonic writers. 
 
 Tliammuz. Spelled also Tammuz. 
 A deity worshipped by the apostate Jews 
 in the time of Ezekiel, and supposed by 
 most commentators to be identical with the 
 Syrian god Adonis. See Adonis, Mysteries of. 
 
 Thanks. It is a usage of French Ma- 
 sonry, and in the high degrees of some 
 other Rites, for the candidate, after his ini- 
 tiation and the address of the orator to 
 him, to return thanks to the Lodge for the 
 honor that has been conferred upon him. 
 It is a voluntary and not an obligatory 
 duty, and is not practised in the Lodges of 
 the York and American Rites. 
 
 Theism. Theological writers have de- 
 fined theism as being the belief in the ex- 
 istence of a deity who, having created the 
 world, directs its government by the constant 
 exercise of his beneficent power, in con- 
 tradistinction to atheism, which denies the 
 existence of any such creative and superin- 
 tending being. In this sense, theism is 
 the fundamental religion of Masonry, on 
 which is superimposed the additional and 
 peculiar tenets of each of its disciples. 
 
 Theocratic Philosophy of Free- 
 masonry. This is a term invented by 
 Dr. Oliver to indicate that view of Free- 
 masonry which intimately connects its 
 symbols with the teachings of pure religion, 
 and traces them to the primeval revelations 
 of God to man, so that the philosophy of 
 Masonry shall develop the continual gov- 
 ernment of the Divine Being. Hence he 
 says : " It is the Theocratic Philosophy of 
 Freemasonry that commands our unquali- 
 fied esteem, and seals in our heart that love 
 for the Institution which will produce an 
 active religious faith and practice, and 
 lead in the end to ' a building not made 
 with hands, eternal in the heavens.' " He 
 has developed this system in one of his 
 works entitled, The Theocratic Philosophy 
 of Freemasonry, in twelve lectures on its 
 Speculative, Operative, and Spurious Branches. 
 In this work he enters with great minute- 
 ness into an examination of the specula- 
 tive character of the Institution and of its 
 operative division, which he contends had 
 been practised as an exclusively scientific 
 pursuit from the earliest times in every 
 country of the world. Many of the le- 
 gendary speculations advanced in this work 
 will be rejected at this day as unsound and 
 
 untenable, but his views of the true phil- 
 osophy of Freemasonry are worthy of pro- 
 found study. 
 
 Theological Virtues. Under the 
 name of the Cardinal Virtues, because all 
 the other virtues hinged upon them, the 
 ancient Pagans gave the most prominent 
 place in their system of ethics to Temper- 
 ance, Prudence, Fortitude, and Justice. 
 But the three virtues taught in the theology 
 of St. Paul, Faith, Hope, and Charity, as 
 such were unknown to them. To these, as 
 taking a higher place and being more inti- 
 mately connected with the relations of man 
 to God, Christian writers have given the 
 name of the Theological Virtues. They 
 have been admitted into the system of Ma- 
 sonry, and are symbolized in the Theolog- 
 ical ladder of Jacob. 
 
 Theoricns. The twelfth degree of the 
 German Rose Croix. 
 
 Theosophists. There were many 
 theosopbists — enthusiasts whom Vaughan 
 calls "noble specimens of the mystic" — 
 but those with whom the history of Ma- 
 sonry has most to do were the mystical re- 
 ligious thinkers of the last century, who 
 supposed that they were possessed of a 
 knowledge of the Divinity and his works 
 by supernatural inspiration, or who re- 
 garded the foundation of their mystical 
 tenets as resting on a sort of Divine intui- 
 tion. Such were Swedenborg, who, if not 
 himself a Masonic reformer, has supplied 
 the materials of many degrees ; the Mora- 
 vian brethren, the object of whose associa- 
 tion is said to have been originally the 
 propagation of the Gospel under the Ma- 
 sonic veil ; St. Martin, the founder of the 
 Philalethans ; Pernetty, to whom we owe 
 the Order of Illuminati at Avignon ; and 
 Chastanier, who was the inventor of the 
 Rite of Illuminated Theosophists. The 
 object proposed in all these theosophic de- 
 grees was the regeneration of man, and his 
 reintegration into the primitive innocence 
 from which he had fallen by original sin. 
 Theosophic Masonry was. in fact, nothing 
 else than an application of the speculative 
 ideas of Jacob Bbhme, of Swedenborg, and 
 other mystical philosophers of the same 
 class. Vaughan, in his Hours with the Mys- 
 tics, (ii. 46,) thus describes the earlier the- 
 osophists of the fourteenth century : " They 
 believed devoutly in the genuineness of the 
 Kabbala. They were persuaded that, be- 
 neath all the floods of change, this oral tra- 
 dition had perpetuated its life unharmed 
 from the days of Moses downward — even 
 as Jewish fable taught them that the cedars 
 alone, of all trees, had continued to spread 
 the strength of their invulnerable arms 
 below the waters of the deluge. They re- 
 joiced in the hidden lore of that book as in 
 
THERAPEUT^E 
 
 THORY 
 
 813 
 
 a treasure rich with the germs of all phi- 
 losophy. They maintained that from its 
 marvellous leaves man might learn the an- 
 gelic heraldry of the skies, the mysteries 
 of the Divine nature, the means of converse 
 with the potentates of heaven." 
 
 Add to this an equal reverence for the 
 unfathomable mysteries contained in the 
 prophecies of Daniel and the vision of the 
 Evangelist, with a proneness to give to 
 everything divine a symbolic interpreta- 
 tion, and you have the true character of 
 those later theosophists who labored to in- 
 vent their particular systems of Masonry. 
 For more of this subject, see the article on 
 Saint Martin. 
 
 Nothing now remains of theosophic Ma- 
 sonry except the few traces left through the 
 influence of Zinnendorf in the Swedish sys- 
 tem, and what we find in the Apocalyptic 
 degrees of the Scottish Rite. The systems of 
 Swedenborg, Pernetty, Paschalis, St. Mar- 
 tin, and Chastanier have all become ob- 
 solete. 
 
 Therapeutic. An ascetic sect of Jews 
 in the first century after Christ, whom Mil- 
 man calls the ancestors of the Christian 
 monks and hermits. They resided near 
 Alexandria, in Egypt, and bore a striking 
 resemblance in their doctrines to those of 
 the Essenians. They were, however, much 
 influenced by the mystical school of Alex- 
 andria, and, while they borrowed much 
 from the Kabbala, partook also in their 
 speculations of Pythagorean and Orphic 
 ideas. Their system pervades some of the 
 high degrees of Masonry. The best account 
 of them is given by Philo Judseus. 
 
 Theurgy. From the Greek Theos, God, 
 and ergon, work. The ancients thus called 
 the whole art of magic, because they be- 
 lieved its operations to be the result of an 
 intercourse with the gods. But the mod- 
 erns have appropriated it to that species of 
 magic which operates by celestial means as 
 opposed to natural magic, which is effected 
 by a knowledge of the occult powers of 
 nature, and necromancy or magic effected 
 by the aid of evil spirits. Attempts have 
 been made by some speculative authors to 
 apply this high magic, as it is also called, 
 to an interpretation of Masonic symbolism. 
 The most notorious and the most prolific 
 writer on this subject is Louis Alphouse 
 Constance, who, under the name of Eliphas 
 Levy, has given to the world numerous 
 works on the dogma and ritual, the history 
 and the interpretation, of this theurgic Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 Third Degree. See Master Mason. 
 
 Thirty - Second Degree. See 
 Prince of the Royal Secret. 
 
 Thirty-Six. In the Pythagorean doc- 
 trine of numbers, 36 symbolized the male 
 
 and female powers of nature united, be- 
 cause it is composed of the sum of the four 
 odd numbers, 1 + 3+ 5 + 7 = 16, added to 
 the sum of the four even numbers, 2 -f- 4 + 6 
 + 8 = 20, for 16 + 20 = 36. It has, how- 
 ever, no place among the sacred numbers 
 of Masonry. 
 
 Thirty-Third Degree. See Sover- 
 eign Grand Inspector General. 
 
 Tliory . Claude Antoine. A dis- 
 tinguished French Masonic writer, who was 
 born at Paris, May 26, 1759. He was by 
 profession an advocate, and held the official 
 position of Registrar of the Criminal Court 
 of the Chatelet, and afterwards of first ad- 
 junct of the Mayor of Paris. He was a 
 member of several learned societies, and a 
 naturalist of considerable reputation. He 
 devoted his attention more particularly to 
 botany, and published several valuable 
 works on the genus Rosa, and also one on 
 strawberries, which was published after his 
 death. 
 
 Thory took an important part, both as 
 an actor and a writer, in the Masonic 
 history of France. He was a member of 
 the Lodge "Saint Alexandre d'Ecosse," 
 and of the " Contrat Social," out of whose 
 incorporation into one proceeded the Moth- 
 er Lodge of the Philosophic Scottish Rite, 
 of which Thory may be justly called the 
 founder. He was at its constitution made 
 the presiding officer, and afterwards its 
 treasurer, and keeper of its archives. In 
 this last capacity, he made a collection of rare 
 and valuable manuscripts, books, medals, 
 seals, jewels, bronze figures, and other ob- 
 jects connected with Freemasonry. Under 
 his administration, the library and museum 
 of the Mother Lodge became perhaps the 
 most valuable collection of the kind in 
 France or in any other country. After the 
 Mother Lodge had ceased its labors in 
 1826, this collection passed by a previous 
 stipulation into the possession of the Lodge 
 of Mont Thabor, which was the oldest of 
 the Rite. 
 
 Thory, while making collections for the 
 Lodge, had amassed for himself a fund of 
 the most valuable materials towards the 
 history of Freemasonry, which he used 
 with great effect in his subsequent publica- 
 tions. In 1813 he published the Annates 
 Originis Magni Golliarum Orientis, ou His- 
 toire de la Fondation du Grand Orient de 
 France, in 1 vol., 8vo; and in 1815 his 
 Acta Latomorum, ou Chronologie de VHis- 
 toire de la Franc- Magonnerie, Francaise et 
 etrangere, in 2 vols., 8vo. 
 
 The value of these works, especially of 
 the latter, if not as well-digested histories, 
 certainly as important contributions for 
 Masonic history, cannot be denied. Yet 
 they have been variously appreciated by his 
 
814 
 
 THOUX 
 
 THREE 
 
 contemporaries. Heboid {Hist, des 3 G. L., 
 p. 531,) says of the Annates, that it is one 
 of the best historical productions that 
 French Masonic literature possesses ; while 
 Besuehet (Precis Historique, ii. 275,) charges 
 that he has attempted to discharge the 
 functions of a historian without exacti- 
 tude and without impartiality. These dis- 
 cordant views are to be attributed to the 
 active part that Thory took in the con- 
 tests between the Grand Orient and the 
 Scottish Rite, and the opposition which he 
 offered to the claims of the former to the 
 Supreme Masonic authority. Posterity 
 will form its judgment on the character of 
 Thory as a Masonic historian without ref- 
 erence to the evanescent rivalry of parties. 
 He died in October, 1827. 
 
 Tlioux de Salverte. Founder in 
 1763, at Warsaw, of the Academy of Secrets, 
 which see. 
 
 Thread of Life. In the earliest lec- 
 tures of the last century, we find this cate- 
 chism : 
 
 Q. " Have you the key of the Lodge ? 
 
 A. " Yes, I have. 
 
 Q. "What is its virtue? 
 
 A. "To open and shut, and shut and 
 open. 
 
 Q. " Where do you keep it ? 
 
 A . "In an ivory box, between my tongue 
 and my teeth, or within my heart, where all 
 my secrets are kept. 
 
 Q. " Have you the chain to the key? 
 
 A. " Yes, I have. 
 
 Q. "How long is it? 
 
 A. " As long as from my tongue to my 
 heart." 
 
 In a later lecture, this key is said to 
 " hang by a tow line nine inches or a 
 span." And later still, in the old Presto- 
 nian lecture, it is said to hang by "the 
 thread of life, in the passage of entrance, 
 nine inches or a span long, the supposed 
 distance between guttural and pectoral." 
 All of which is intended simply to symbol- 
 ize the close connection which in every 
 Mason should exist between his tongue and 
 his heart, so that the one may utter nothing 
 that the other does not truly dictate. 
 
 Three. Everywhere among the an- 
 cients the number three was deemed the 
 most sacred of numbers. A reverence for 
 its mystical virtues is to be found even 
 among the Chinese, who say that numbers 
 begin at one and are made perfect at three, 
 and hence they denote the multiplicity of 
 any object by repeating the character which 
 stands for it three times. In the philoso- 
 phy of Plato, it was the' image of the Su- 
 preme Being, because it includes in itself 
 the properties of the two first numbers, and 
 because, as Aristotle says, it contains within 
 itself a beginning, a middle, and an end. 
 
 The Pythagoreans called it perfect har- 
 mony. So sacred was this number deemed 
 by the ancients, that we find it designating 
 some of the attributes of almost all the 
 gods. The thunder-bolt of Jove was three- 
 forked ; the sceptre of Neptune was a tri- 
 dent; Cerberus, the dog of Pluto, was 
 three-headed ; there were three Fates and 
 three Furies; the sun had three names, 
 Apollo, Sol, and Liber; and the moon 
 three also, Diana, Luna, and Hecate. In 
 all incantations, three was a favorite num- 
 ber, for, as Virgil says, "numero Deus im- 
 parl gaudet," God delights in an odd num- 
 ber. A triple cord was used, each cord of 
 three different colors, white, red, and black; 
 and a small image of the subject of the 
 charm was carried thrice around the altar, 
 as we see in Virgil's eighth eclogue : 
 
 " Terna tibi hsec primum, triplici diversa colore, 
 Licia circumdo, terque banc altaria circum 
 Effigiem duco." 
 
 " First I surround thee with these three pieces 
 of list, and I carry thy image three times round 
 the altars." 
 
 The Druids paid no less respect to this 
 sacred number. Throughout their whole 
 system, a reference is constantly made to 
 its influence ; and so far did their venera- 
 tion for it extend, that even their sacred 
 poetry was composed in triads. 
 
 In all the mysteries, from Egypt to Scan- 
 dinavia, we find a sacred regard for the 
 number three. In the rites of Mithras, the 
 Empyrean was said to be supported by 
 three intelligences, Ormuzd, Mithra, and 
 Mithras. In the rites of Hindustan, there 
 was the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and 
 Siva. It was, in short, a general character 
 of the mysteries to have three principal 
 officers and three grades of initiation. 
 
 In Freemasonry, the ternary is the most 
 sacred of all the mystical numbers. Be- 
 ginning with the old axiom of the Roman 
 Artificers, that ires faciunt collegium, or it 
 requires three to make a college, they have 
 established the rule that not less than three 
 shall congregate to form a Lodge. Then 
 in all the Rites, whatever may be the num- 
 ber of superimposed grades, there lie at the 
 basis the three symbolic degrees. There 
 are in all the degrees three principal offi- 
 cers, three supports, three greater and three 
 lesser lights, three movable and three im- 
 movable jewels, three principal tenets, three 
 working-tools of a Fellow Craft, three prin- 
 cipal orders of architecture, three chief 
 human senses, three Ancient Grand Mas- 
 ters. In fact, everywhere in the system the 
 number three is presented as a prominent 
 symbol. So much is this the case, that all 
 
THREE 
 
 TIE 
 
 815 
 
 the other mystical numbers depend upon 
 it, for each is a multiple of three, its square 
 or its cube, or derived from them. Thus, 
 9, 27, 81, are formed by the multiplication 
 of three, as 3x3 = 9, and 3 2 X 3 = 27, 
 and 3 2 X 3 2 = 81. 
 
 But in nothing is the Masonic significa- 
 tion of the ternary made more interesting 
 than in its connection with the sacred delta, 
 the symbol of Deity. See Triangle. 
 
 Three Globes, Rite of the 
 Grand Lodge of the. On September 
 13, 1740, the Lodge of the Three Globes, zu 
 den drei Weltkugeln, was established in the 
 city of Berlin, Prussia. In 1744 it assumed 
 the rank and title of a Grand Mother Lodge. 
 It is now one of the three Prussian Grand 
 Lodges. At first it worked, like all the 
 other Lodges of Germany, in the English 
 system of three degrees, and adopted the 
 English Book of Constitutions as its law. 
 But it subsequently became infected with 
 the high degrees, which were atone time so 
 popular in Germany, and especially with 
 the Strict Observance system of Von Hund, 
 which it accepted in 1766. At the extinc- 
 tion of that system the Grand Lodge 
 adopted one of its own, in doing which it 
 was assisted by the labors of Dr. I. F. 
 Zollner, the Grand Master. Its Rite con- 
 sists of seven high degrees added to the 
 three primitive. The latter are under the 
 control of the Grand Lodge ; but the seven 
 higher ones are governed by an Internal 
 Supreme Orient, whose members are, how- 
 ever, elected by the Grand Lodge. The 
 Rite is practised by about two hundred 
 Lodges in Germany. 
 
 Three Grand Offerings. See 
 Ground-Floor of the Lodge. 
 
 Three Points. Three points in a 
 triangular form (.*.) are placed after letters 
 in a Masonic document to indicate that such 
 letters are the initials of a Masonic title or 
 of a technical word in Masonry, as G.\ M.\ 
 for Grand Master, or G.\ L.\ for Grand 
 Lodge. It is not a symbol, but simply a 
 mark of abbreviation. The attempt, there- 
 fore, to trace it to the Hebrew three yods, 
 a Kabbalistic sign of the Tetragrammaton, 
 or any other ancient symbol, is futile. It 
 is an abbreviation, and nothing more; 
 although it is probable that the idea was 
 suggested by the sacred character of the 
 number three as a Masonic number, and 
 these three dots might refer to the position 
 of the three officers in a French Lodge. 
 Ragon says (Orthod. Macon., p. 71,) that the 
 mark was first used by the Grand Orient of 
 France in a circular issued August 12, 1774, 
 in which we read "G.\ 0.\ de France." 
 The abbreviation is now constantly used in 
 French documents, and, although not ac- 
 cepted by the English Masons, has been 
 
 very generally adopted in other countries. 
 In the United States, the use of this abbre- 
 viation is gradually extending. 
 
 Three Senses. Of the five human 
 senses, the three which are the most im- 
 portant in Masonic symbolism are Seeing, 
 Hearing, and Feeling, because of their re- 
 spective reference to certain modes of recog- 
 nition, and because, by their use, Masons 
 are enabled to practise that universal lan- 
 guage the possession of which is the boast 
 of the Order. 
 
 Three Steps. See Steps on the Mas- 
 ter's Carpet. 
 
 Threshing-Floor. Among the He- 
 brews, circular spots of hard ground were 
 used, as now, for the purpose of threshing 
 corn. After they were properly prepared 
 for the purpose, they became permanent 
 possessions. One of these, the property of 
 Oman the Jebusite, was on Mount Moriah. 
 It was purchased by David, for a place of 
 sacrifice, for six hundred shekels of gold, 
 and on it the Temple was afterwards built. 
 Hence it is sometimes used as a symbolic 
 name for the Temple of Solomon or for a 
 Master's Lodge. Thus it is said in the 
 ritual that the Mason comes "from the 
 lofty tower of Babel, where language was 
 confounded and Masonry lost," and that he 
 is travelling " to the threshing-floor of Oman 
 the Jebusite, where language was restored 
 and Masonry found." The interpretation 
 of this rather abstruse symbolic expression 
 is that on his initiation the Mason comes 
 out of the profane world, where there is 
 ignorance and darkness and confusion as 
 there was at Babel, and that he is approach- 
 ing the Masonic world, where, as at the 
 Temple built on Oman's threshing-floor, 
 there is knowledge and light and order. 
 
 Throne. The seat occupied by the 
 Grand Master in the Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land is called the throne, in allusion, prob- 
 ably, to the throne of Solomon. In Amer- 
 ican Grand Lodges it is styled the Oriental 
 Chair of Solomon, a title which is also given 
 to the seat of the Master of a subordinate 
 Lodge. 
 
 In ecclesiology, the seat in a cathedral 
 occupied by a bishop is called a throne; 
 and in the Middle Ages, according to Du 
 Cange, the same title was not only applied 
 to the seats of bishops, but often also to those 
 of abbots, or even priests who were in pos- 
 session of titles or churches. 
 
 Thunimim. See Urimand Thummim. 
 
 Tie. The first clause in the covenant 
 of Masonry which refers to the preservation 
 of the secrets is technically called the tie. 
 It is substantially the same in the covenant 
 of each degree, from the lowest to the 
 highest. 
 
 Tie, Mystic. See Mystic Tie. 
 
816 
 
 TIERCE 
 
 TITLES 
 
 Tierce, De la. He was the first 
 translator of Anderson's Constitutions into 
 French, the manuscript of which he says 
 that he prepared during his residence in 
 London. He afterwards published it at 
 Frankfort, in 1743, with the title of His- 
 toire, obligations et statute de la tres venera- 
 ble confraternity des Francs- Macons, tirez de 
 leur archives et conformes aux traditions les 
 plus anciennes, etc. De la Tierce is said to 
 have been, while in London, an intimate 
 friend of Anderson, the first edition of 
 whose Constitutions he used when he com- 
 piled his manuscript in 1725. But he im- 
 E roved on Anderson's work by dividing the 
 istory in epochs. This course Anderson 
 pursued in his second edition ; which cir- 
 cumstance has led Schneider, in the Neuen 
 Journale zur Freimaurerei, to suppose that, 
 in writing that second edition, Anderson 
 was aided by the previous labors of De la 
 Tierce, of whose work he was most proba- 
 bly in possession. 
 
 Tile. A Lodge is said to be tiled when 
 the necessary precautions have been taken 
 to prevent the approach of unauthorized 
 persons ; and it is said to be the first duty 
 of every Mason to see that this is done 
 before the Lodge is opened. The word to 
 tile is sometimes used in the same sense as 
 to examine, as when it is said that a visitor 
 has been tiled, that is, has been examined. 
 But the expression is not in general use, 
 nor do I think that it is a correct employ- 
 ment of the term. 
 
 Tiler. An officer of a symbolic Lodge, 
 whose duty is to guard the door of the 
 Lodge, and to permit no one to pass in who 
 is not duly qualified, and who has not the 
 permission of the Master. 
 
 A necessary qualification of a Tiler is, 
 therefore, that he should be a Master Ma- 
 son. Although the Lodge may be opened 
 in an inferior degree, no one who has not 
 advanced to the third degree can legally 
 discharge the functions of Tiler. 
 
 As the Tiler is always compensated for 
 his services, he is considered, in some sense, 
 as the servant of the Lodge. It is, there- 
 fore, his duty to prepare the Lodge for its 
 meetings, to arrange the furniture in its 
 proper place, and to make all other arrange- 
 ments for the convenience of the Lodge. 
 
 The Tiler need not be a member of the 
 Lodge which he tiles; and in fact, in 
 large cities, one brother very often performs 
 the duties of Tiler of several Lodges. 
 
 This is a very important office, and, like 
 that of the Master and Wardens, owes its 
 existence, not to any conventional regula- 
 tions, but to the very landmarks of the 
 Order ; for, from the peculiar nature of our 
 Institution, it is evident that there never 
 could have been a meeting of Masons for 
 
 Masonic purposes, unless a Tiler had been 
 present to guard the Lodge from intrusion. 
 
 The title is derived from the operative 
 art ; for as in Operative Masonry the Tiler, 
 when the edifice is erected, finishes and 
 covers it with the roof (of tiles), so in 
 Speculative Masonry, when the Lodge is 
 duly organized, the Tiler closes the door, 
 and covers the sacred precincts from all in- 
 trusion. 
 
 Tiler's Oath. See Oath, Tiler's. 
 
 Tilly de Grasse. See Grasse, Tilly de. 
 
 Timbre. The French Masons so call 
 a stamp, consisting of the initials or mono- 
 gram of the Lodge, which is impressed in 
 black or red ink upon every official docu- 
 ment emanating from the Lodge. When 
 such a document has the seal also attached, 
 it is said to be " timbree et scellee," i. e., 
 stamped and sealed. The timbre, which 
 differs from the seal, is not used in English 
 or American Lodges. 
 
 Time. The image of Time, under the 
 conventional figure of a winged old man 
 with the customary scythe and hour-glass, 
 has been adopted as one of the modern 
 symbols in the third degree. He is repre- 
 sented as attempting to disentangle the 
 ringlets of a weeping virgin who stands 
 before him. This, which is apparently a 
 never-ending task, but one which Time un- 
 dertakes to perform, is intended to teach 
 the Mason that time, patience, and perse- 
 verance will enable him to accomplish the 
 great object of a Mason's labor, and at last to 
 obtain that true Word which is the symbol 
 of Divine Truth. Time, therefore, is in 
 this connection the symbol of well-directed 
 perseverance in the performance of duty. 
 
 Time and Circumstances. The 
 answer to the question in the ritual of in- 
 itiation, " Has he made suitable profi- 
 ciency?" is sometimes made, "Such as 
 time and circumstances would permit." This 
 is an error, and may be a mischievous one, 
 as leading to a careless preparation of the 
 candidate for qualification to advancement. 
 The true reply is, " He has." See Advance- 
 ment. 
 
 Tirshatha. The title given to the 
 Persian governors of Judea. It was borne 
 by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah. It is sup- 
 posed to be derived from the Persian torsch, 
 austere or severe, and is therefore, says 
 Gesenius, equivalent to "Your Severity." 
 It is in the modern ritual of the Supreme 
 Council for the Southern Jurisdiction of 
 the United States the title of the presiding 
 officer of a Council of Princes of Jerusalem. 
 It is also the title of the presiding officer 
 of the Royal Order of Heredom of Kilwin- 
 ning. 
 
 Titles. The titles conferred in the rituals 
 of Masonry upon various officers are often 
 
TITLES 
 
 TOASTS 
 
 817 
 
 apparently grandiloquent, and have given 
 occasion to some, who have not understood 
 their true meaning, to call them absurd and 
 bombastic. On this subject Brother Albert 
 Pike has, in the following remarks, given a 
 proper significance to Masonic titles : 
 
 "Some of these titles we retain; but they 
 have with us meanings entirely consistent 
 with the spirit of equality, which is the 
 foundation and peremptory law of its being, 
 of all Masonry. The Knight, with us, is he 
 who devotes his hand, his heart, his brain 
 to the service of Masonry, and professes 
 himself the sworn soldier of truth : the 
 Prince is he who aims to be chief [Princeps], 
 first, leader among his equals, in virtue and 
 good deeds : the Sovereign is he who, one 
 of an Order whose members are all sover- 
 eigns, is supreme only because the law and 
 Constitutions are so which he administers, 
 and by which he, like every other brother, 
 is governed. The titles Puissant, Potent, 
 Wise, and Venerable indicate that power 
 of virtue, intelligence, and wisdom which 
 those ought to strive to attain who are 
 placed in high offices by the suffrages of 
 their brethren ; and all our other titles and 
 designations have an esoteric meaning con- 
 sistent with modesty and equality, and 
 which those who receive them should fully 
 understand." 
 
 Titles of Grand Lodges. The 
 title of the Grand Lodge of England is 
 "the United Grand Lodge of Ancient Free 
 and Accepted Masons." That of Ireland, 
 "the Grand Masonic Lodge." Of Scot- 
 land, " the Grand Lodge of the Ancient and 
 Honorable Fraternity of Free and Accepted 
 Masons." That of France is " the Grand 
 Orient." The same title is taken by the 
 Grand Lodges or Supreme Masonic author- 
 ities of Portugal, Belgium, Italy, Spain, 
 and Greece, and also by the Grand Lodges 
 of all the South American States. Of the 
 German Grand Lodges, the only three that 
 have distinctive titles are " the Grand Na- 
 tional Mother Lodge of the Three Globes," 
 " The Grand National Lodge of Germany," 
 and " the Grand Lodge Royal York of 
 Friendship." In Sweden and Denmark 
 they are simply called "Grand Lodges." 
 In the English possessions of North Amer- 
 ica they are also called " Grand Lodges." 
 In the United States the title of the Grand 
 Lodge of Maine, of Massachusetts, of 
 Rhode Island, of Alabama, of Illinois, of 
 Iowa, of Wisconsin, of Minnesota, and of 
 Oregon, is the "Most Worshipful Grand 
 Lodge of Ancient Free and Accepted Ma- 
 sons;" of New Hampshire, of Vermont, 
 of New York, of New Jersey, of Pennsyl- 
 vania, of Arkansas, and of Indiana, is " the 
 Grand Lodge of the Ancient and Honor- 
 able Fraternity of Free and Accepted Ma- 
 6C 62 
 
 sons ; " of Maryland, of the District of 
 Columbia, of Florida, of Michigan, of Mis- 
 souri, and of California, is the "Grand 
 Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons ; " of 
 South Carolina is the " Most Worshipful 
 Grand Lodge of Ancient Free Masons;" 
 of all the other States the title is simply 
 the " Grand Lodge." 
 
 Tito. A significant word in the high 
 degrees. The Scottish Rite rituals give the 
 name of Tito, Prince Harodim, to him whom 
 they say was the first who was' appointed by 
 Solomon a Provost and Judge. This per- 
 son appears to be altogether mythical ; the 
 word is not found in the Hebrew language, 
 nor has any meaning been given to it. He 
 is represented as having been a favorite of 
 the king of Israel. He is said to have pre- 
 sided over the Lodge of Intendants of the 
 Building, and to have been one of the twelve 
 illustrious knights who were set over the 
 twelve tribes, that of Naphtali being placed 
 under his care. The whole of this legend 
 is, of course, connected with the symbolic 
 signification of those degrees. 
 
 Toasts. Anderson says, in his second 
 edition, that in 1719 Dr. Desaguliers, having 
 been installed Grand Master, " forthwith re- 
 vived the old, regular, and peculiar toasts or 
 healths of the Freemasons." If Anderson's 
 statements could be implicitly trusted as 
 historical facts, we should have to conclude 
 that a system of regulated toasts prevailed 
 in the Lodges before the revival. The cus- 
 tom of drinking healths at banquets is a 
 very old one, and can be traced to the days 
 of the ancient Greeks and Romans. From 
 them it was handed down to the moderns, 
 and especially in England we find the " was- 
 hael" of the Saxons, a term used in drink- 
 ing, and equivalent to the modern phrase, 
 " Your health." Steele, in the Tatkr, inti- 
 mates that the word toast began to be ap- 
 plied to the drinking of healths in the 
 early part of the eighteenth century. And 
 although his account of the origin of the 
 word has been contested, it is very evident 
 that the drinking of toasts was a universal 
 custom in the clubs and festive associations 
 which were common in London about the 
 time of the revival of Masonry. It is there- 
 fore to be presumed that the Masonic 
 Lodges did not escape the influences of the 
 convivial spirit of that age, and drinking in 
 the Lodge room during the hours of refresh- 
 ment was a usual custom, but, as Oliver ob- 
 serves, all excess was avoided, and the con- 
 vivialities of Masonry were regulated by 
 the Old Charges, which directed the breth- 
 ren to enjoy themselves with decent mirth, 
 not forcing any brother to eat or drink 
 beyond his inclination, nor hindering him 
 from going home when he pleased. The 
 drinking was conducted by rule, the Master 
 
818 
 
 TOASTS 
 
 TOASTS 
 
 giving the toast, but first inquiring of the 
 Senior Warden, "Are you charged in the 
 West, Brother Senior?" and of the Junior 
 Warden, "Are you charged in the South, 
 Brother Junior?" to which appropriate re- 
 
 Elies being made, the toast was drunk with 
 onors peculiar to the Institution. In an old 
 Masonic song, the following stanza occurs: 
 
 "'Are you charged in the West? are you 
 charged in the South ?' 
 The Worshipful Master cries. 
 ' We are charged in the West, we are charged 
 in the South,' 
 Each Warden prompt replies." 
 
 One of the catechetical works of the last 
 century thus describes the drinking customs 
 of the Masons of that period : " The table 
 being plentifully supplied with wine and 
 
 Eunch, every man has a glass set before 
 im, and fills it with what he chooses. But 
 he must drink his glass in turn, or at least 
 keep the motion with the rest. When, 
 therefore, a public health is given, the 
 Master fills first, and desires the brethren 
 to charge their glasses; and when this is 
 supposed to be done, the Master says, 
 Brethren, are you all cliarged? The Senior 
 and Junior Wardens answer, We are all 
 charged in the South and West. Then they 
 all stand up, and, observing the Masters 
 motions, (like the soldier his right-hand 
 man,) drink their glasses off." Another 
 work of the same period says that the first 
 toast given was " the King and the Craft." 
 But a still older work gives what it calls 
 " A Free-Mason's Health " in the following 
 words : " Here's a health to our society and 
 to every faithful brother that keeps his oath 
 of secrecy. As we are sworn to love each 
 other, the world no Order knows like this 
 our noble and ancient Fraternity. Let them 
 wonder at the Mystery. Here, Brother, I 
 drink to thee." 
 
 In time the toasts improved in their style, 
 and were deemed of so much importance 
 that lists of them, for the benefit of those 
 who were deficient in inventive genius, 
 were published in all the pocket-books, 
 calendars, and song-books of the Order. 
 Thus a large collection is to be found in 
 the Masonic Miscellanies of Stephen Jones. 
 A few of them will show their technical 
 character: "To the secret and silent;" 
 "To the memory of the distinguished 
 Three; " "To all that live within compass 
 and square;" "To the memory of the Tyr- 
 ian artist ;" " To him that first the work 
 began," etc. 
 
 But there was a regular series of toasts 
 which, besides these voluntary ones, were 
 always given at the refreshments of the 
 brethren. Thus, when the reigning sover- 
 eign happened to be a member of the Fra- 
 
 ternity, the first toast given was always 
 " The King and the Craft." 
 
 In the French Lodges the drinking of 
 toasts was, with the word itself, borrowed 
 from England. It was, however, subjected 
 to strict rules, from which there could be 
 no departure. Seven toasts were called 
 "Santes d' obligation," because drinking 
 them was made obligatory, and could not 
 be omitted at the Lodge banquet. They 
 were as follows : 1. The health of the Sov- 
 ereign and his family ; 2. That of the 
 Grand Master and the chiefs of the Order; 
 3. That of the Master of the Lodge; 4. 
 That of the Wardens ; 5. That of the other 
 officers ; 6. That of the visitors ; 7. That 
 of all Masons wheresoever spread over 
 the two hemispheres. In 1872, the Grand 
 Orient, after long discussions, reduced the 
 number of santes cP obligation from seven to 
 four, and changed their character. They 
 are now : 1. To the Grand Orient of France, 
 the Lodges of its correspondence, and for- 
 eign Grand Orients ; 2. To the Master of 
 the Lodge ; 3. To the Wardens, the officers, 
 affiliated Lodges, and visiting brethren; 4. 
 To all Masons existing on each hemisphere. 
 
 The systematized method of drinking 
 toasts, which once prevailed in the Lodges 
 of the English-speaking countries, has been, 
 to a great extent, abandoned; yet a few 
 toasts still remain, which, although not 
 absolutely obligatory, are still never omit- 
 ted. Thus no Masonic Lodge would neglect 
 at its banquet to offer, as its first toast, 
 a sentiment expressive of respect for the 
 Grand Lodge. 
 
 The venerable Oliver was a great admirer 
 of the custom of drinking Masonic toasts, 
 and panegyrizes it in his Book of the Lodge, 
 (p. 147.) He says that at the time of re- 
 freshment in a Masonic Lodge " the song 
 appeared to have more zest than in a pri- 
 vate company ; the toast thrilled more 
 vividly upon the recollection; and the 
 small modicum of punch with which it 
 was honored retained a higher flavor than 
 the same potation if produced at a private 
 board." And he adds, as a specimen, the 
 following " characteristic toast," which he 
 says was always received with a "profound 
 expression of pleasure." 
 
 " To him that all things understood, 
 To him that found the stone and wood, 
 To him that hapless lost his blood, 
 
 In doing of his duty, 
 To that blest age and that blest morn 
 Whereon those three great men were born, 
 Our noble science to adorn 
 
 With Wisdom, Strength, and Beauty." 
 
 It is not surprising that he should after- 
 wards pathetically deplore the discontin- 
 uance of the custom. 
 
TOKEN 
 
 TOMB 
 
 819 
 
 Token. The word token is derived 
 from the Anglo-Saxon tacn, which means a 
 sign, presage, type, or representation, that 
 which points out something; and this is 
 traced to toecati, to teach, show, or instruct, 
 because by a token we show or instruct 
 others as to what we are. Bailey, whose 
 Dictionary was published soon after the re- 
 vival, defines it as " a sign or mark ; " but 
 it is singular that the word is not found in 
 either of the dictionaries of Phillips or 
 Blount, which were the most popular glos- 
 saries in the beginning of the last century. 
 The word was, however, well known to the 
 Fraternity, and was in use at the time of 
 the revival with precisely the same mean- 
 ing that is now given to it as a mode of re- 
 cognition. 
 
 The Hebrew word jlltf* 5f K l& frequently 
 used in Scripture to signify a sign or me- 
 morial of something past, some covenant 
 made or promise given. Thus God says to 
 Noah, of the rainbow, "it shall be for a 
 token of a covenant between me and the 
 earth ; " and to Abraham he says of cir- 
 cumcision, " it shall be a token of the cove- 
 nant betwixt me and you." In Masonry, 
 the grip of recognition is called a token, 
 because it is an outward sign of the cove- 
 nant of friendship and fellowship entered 
 into between the members of the Fraternity, 
 and is to be considered as a memorial of 
 that covenant which was made, when it 
 was first received by the candidate, between 
 him and the Order into which he was then 
 initiated. 
 
 Neither the French nor the German Ma- 
 sons have a word precisely equivalent to 
 token, Krause translates it by merkmale, 
 a sign or representation, but which has no 
 technical Masonic signification. The French 
 have only attouehement, which means the 
 act of touching; and the Germans, griff, 
 which is the same as the English grip. In 
 the technical use of the word token, the 
 English-speaking Masons have an advan- 
 tage not possessed by those of any other 
 country. 
 
 Tolerance Lodge. When the ini- 
 tiation of Jews was forbidden in the Prus- 
 sian Lodges, two brethren of Berlin, Von 
 Hirschfeld and Catter, induced by a spirit 
 of toleration, organized a Lodge in Berlin 
 for the express purpose of initiating Jews, 
 to which they gave the appropriate name 
 of Tolerance Lodge. This Lodge was not 
 recognized by the Masonic authorities. 
 
 Toleration. The grand characteristic 
 of Masonry is its toleration in religion and 
 politics. In respect to the latter, its tolera- 
 tion has no limit. The question of a man's 
 political opinions is not permitted to be 
 broached in the Lodge ; in reference to the 
 former, it requires only that, to use the lan- 
 
 guage of the old charge, Masons shall be 
 of "that religion in which all men agree, 
 leaving their particular opinions to them- 
 selves." The same old Charges say, "No 
 private piques or quarrels must be brought 
 within the door of the Lodge, far less any 
 quarrels about religion, or nations, or state 
 policy, we being only, as Masons, of the 
 Catholic religion above-mentioned ; we are 
 also of all nations, tongues, kindreds, and 
 languages, and are resolved against all 
 politics, as what never yet conduced to the 
 welfare of the Lodge, nor ever will." 
 
 Tomb of Adoniram. Margoliouth, 
 in his HMory of the Jews, tells the legend 
 that at Saguntum, in Spain, a sepulchre 
 was found four hundred years ago, with 
 the following Hebrew inscription: "This 
 is the grave of Adoniram, the servant of 
 King Solomon, who came to collect the trib- 
 ute, and died on the day — " Margoliouth, 
 who believes the mythical story, says that 
 the Jesuit Villepandus, being desirous of 
 ascertaining if the statements concerning 
 the tomb were true, directed the Jesuit 
 students who resided at Murviedro, a small 
 village erected upon the ruins of Saguntum, 
 to make diligent search for the tomb and 
 inscription. After a thorough investiga- 
 tion, the Jesuit students were shown a 
 stone on which appeared a Hebrew in- 
 scription, much defaced and nearly oblit- 
 erated, which the natives stated was " the 
 stone of Solomon's collector." Still unsatis- 
 fied, they made further search, and dis- 
 covered a manuscript written in antique 
 Spanish, and carefully preserved in the 
 citadel, in which the following entry was 
 made : " At Saguntum, in the citadel, in 
 the year of our Lord 1480, a little more or 
 less, was discovered a sepulchre of surpris- 
 ing antiquity. It contained an embalmed 
 corpse, not of the usual stature, but taller 
 than is common. It had and still retains 
 on the front two lines in the Hebrew lan- 
 guage and characters, the sense of which 
 is: 'The sepulchre of Adoniram, the ser- 
 vant of King Solomon, who came hither to 
 collect tribute.' " 
 
 The story has far more the appearance 
 of a Talmudic or a Bosicrucian legend than 
 that of a historical narrative. 
 
 Tomb of Hiram Abif. All that is 
 said of it in Masonry is more properly refer- 
 red to in the article on the Monument in the 
 Third Degree. See Monument. 
 
 Tomb of Hiram of Tyre. Five 
 miles to the east of the city of Tyre is an 
 ancient monument, called by the natives 
 Kabr Hairan, or the tomb of Hiram. The 
 tradition that the king of Tyre was there 
 interred rests only on the authority of the 
 natives. It bears about it, however, the 
 unmistakable marks of extreme antiquity, 
 
820 
 
 TONGUE 
 
 TORRUBIA 
 
 and, as Thompson says, ( The Land and The 
 Book, i. 290,) there is nothing in the mon- 
 ument itself inconsistent with the idea that 
 ft marks the final resting-place of that friend 
 of Solomon. He thus describes it : " The 
 base consists of two tiers of great stones, 
 each three feet thick, thirteen feet long, 
 and eight feet eight inches broad. Above 
 this is one huge stone, a little more than fif- 
 teen feet long, ten broad, and three feet four 
 inches thick. Over this is another, twelve 
 feet three inches long, eight broad, and six 
 high. The top stone is a little smaller every 
 way, and only five feet thick. The entire 
 height is twenty -one feet. There is nothing 
 like it in this country, and it may well have 
 stood, as it now does, ever since the days 
 of Solomon. The large broken sarcophagi 
 scattered around it are assigned by tradition 
 to Hiram's mother, wife, or family." 
 
 Dr. Morris, who visited the spot in 1868, 
 gives a different admeasurement, which 
 is probably more accurate than that of 
 Thompson. According to him, the first 
 tier is 14 ft. long, 8 ft. 8 in. broad, 4 ft. 
 thick. Second tier, 14 ft. long, 8 ft. 8 in. 
 broad, 2 ft. 10 in. thick. Third tier, 15 ft. 
 1 in. long, 9 ft. 11 in. broad, 2 ft. 11 in. 
 thick. Fourth tier, 12 ft. 11 in. long, 7 ft. 
 8 in. broad, 6 ft. 5 in. thick. Fifth tier, 12 
 ft. 11 in. long, 7 ft. 8 in. broad, and 3 ft. 6 
 in. thick. He makes the height of the 
 whole 19 ft. 8 in. 
 
 Travellers have been disposed to give more 
 credit to the tradition which makes this mon- 
 ument the tomb of the king of Tyre than to 
 most of the other legends which refer to an- 
 cient sepulchres in the Holy Land. 
 
 Tongue. In the early rituals of the 
 last century, the tongue is called the key to 
 the secrets of a Mason ; and one of the toasts 
 that was given in the Lodge was in these 
 words : " To that excellent key of a Mason's 
 tongue, which ought always to speak as 
 well in the absence of a brother as in his 
 presence; and when that cannot be done 
 with honor, justice, or propriety, that adopts 
 the virtue of a Mason, which is silence." 
 
 Tongue, Instructive. See Instruc- 
 tive Tongue. 
 
 Tongue of Good Report. Being 
 "under the tongue of good report" is 
 equivalent, in Masonic technical language, 
 to being of good character or reputation. 
 It is required that the candidate for initia- 
 tion should be one of whom no tongue speaks 
 evil. The phrase is an old one, and is found 
 in the earliest rituals of the last century. 
 
 Topaz. In Hebrew, fY]QQ,pitdah. It 
 was the second stone in the first row of the 
 high priest's breastplate, and was referred to 
 Simeon. The ancient topaz, says King, [An- 
 tique Oems, p. 56,) was the present chryso- 
 lite, which was furnished from an island in 
 
 the Red Sea. It is of a bright greenish yel- 
 low, and the softest of all precious stones. 
 
 Torches. The ancients made use of 
 torches both at marriages and funerals. 
 They were also employed in the ceremonies 
 of the Eleusinian mysteries. They have 
 been introduced into the high degrees, 
 especially on the continent, principally as 
 marks of honor in the reception of distin- 
 guished visitors, on which occasion they 
 are technically called " stars." Du Cange 
 mentions their use during the Middle Ages 
 on funeral occasions. 
 
 Torgau, Constitutions of. Tor- 
 gau is a fortified town on the Elbe, in the 
 Prussian province of Saxony. It was there 
 that Luther and his friends wrote the 
 Book of Torgau, which was the foundation 
 of the subsequent Augsburg Confession, and 
 it was there that the Lutherans concluded 
 a league with the Elector Frederick the 
 Wise. The Stonemasons, whose seat was 
 there in the fifteenth century, had, with the 
 other Masons of Saxony, accepted the Con- 
 stitutions enacted in 1459 at Strasburg. 
 But, finding it necessary to make some 
 special regulations for their own internal 
 government, they drew up, in 1462, Consti- 
 tutions in 112 articles, which are known as 
 the " Constitutions of Torgau." A dupli- 
 cate of these Constitutions was deposited, 
 in 1486, in the Stonemason's hutte at Roch- 
 litz. An authenticated copy of this docu- 
 ment was published by C. L. Stieglitz at 
 Leipsic, in 1829, in a work entitled Ueber 
 die Kirche der heiligen Kunigunde zu Roch- 
 litz und die Steinmetzhutte daselbst An ab- 
 stract of these Constitutions, with critical 
 comparisons with other Constitutions, was 
 published by Kloss in his Die Freimaurerei 
 in ihrer wahren Bedeuiung. The Consti- 
 tutions of Torgau are important because, 
 with those of Strasburg, they are the only 
 authentic Constitutions of the German 
 Stonemasons extant. 
 
 Tormina. Joseph. A Franciscan 
 monk, who in 1751 was the censor and re- 
 viser of the Inquisition in Spain. Torrubia, 
 that he might be the better enabled to 
 carry into effect a persecution of the Free- 
 masons, obtained under an assumed name, 
 and in the character of a secular priest, 
 initiation into one of the Lodges, having 
 first received from the Grand Penitentiary 
 a dispensation for the act, and an absolu- 
 tion from the oath of secrecy. Having 
 thus acquired an exact list of the Lodges 
 in Spain, and the names of their members, 
 he caused hundreds of Masons to be 
 arrested and punished, and succeeded in 
 having the Order prohibited by a decree of 
 King Ferdinand VI. Torrubia combined 
 in his character the bigotry of the priest 
 and the villany of the traitor. 
 
TOURNON 
 
 TRADITION 
 
 821 
 
 Tonrnon, M. A Frenchman and 
 Freemason, who had been invited into Spain 
 by the government in order to establish a 
 manufactory of brass buttons, and to in- 
 struct the Spanish workmen. In 1757 he 
 was arrested by the Inquisition on the 
 charge of being a Freemason, and of hav- 
 ing invited his pupils to join the Institu- 
 tion. He was sentenced to imprisonment 
 for one year, after which he was banished 
 from Spain, being conducted under an es- 
 cort to the frontiers of France. Tournon 
 was indebted for this clemency to his want 
 of firmness and fidelity to the Order — he 
 having solemnly abjured it, and promised 
 never again to attend its assemblies. 
 Llorente, in his History of the Inquisition, 
 gives an account of Tournon's trial. 
 
 Tow, Cable. See Cable Tow. 
 
 Tower, I>egree of the. ( Grade de la 
 Tour.) A name sometimes given to the sec- 
 ond degree of the Royal Order of Scotland. 
 
 Tower of Babel. See Babel. 
 
 Town, Salem. The Rev. Salem 
 Town, L.L.D., was born at Belchertown, in 
 the State of Massachusetts, March 5, 1779. 
 He received a classical education, and ob- 
 tained at college the degree of Master of 
 Arts, and later in life that of Doctor of 
 Laws. For some years he was the Principal 
 of an academy, and his writings give the 
 evidence that he was endowed with more 
 than ordinary abilities. He was ardently 
 attached to Freemasonry, and was for many 
 years Grand Chaplain of the Grand Lodge 
 and Grand Chapter, and Grand Prelate of 
 the Grand Commandery of New York. In 
 1818 he published a small work, of two 
 hundred and eighty-three pages, entitled 
 A System of Speculative Masonry. This work 
 is of course tinged with all the legendary 
 ideas of the origin of the Institution which 
 
 Erevailed at that period, and would not now 
 e accepted as authoritative ; but it contains, 
 outside of its historical errors, many valu- 
 able and suggestive thoughts. Brother 
 Town was highly respected for his many 
 virtues, the consistency of his life, and his 
 unwearied devotion to the Masonic Order. 
 He died at Greencastle, Indiana, February 
 24, 1864, at the ripe age of eighty-nine years. 
 Townsbend, Simeon. The puta- 
 tive author of a book entitled Observations 
 and Inquiries relating to the Brotherhood 
 of the Free Masons, which is said to have 
 been printed at London in 1712. Boileau, 
 Levesque, Thory, Oliver, and Kloss, men- 
 tion it by name. None of them, however, 
 appear to have seen it. Kloss calls it a 
 doubtful book. If such a work is in exist- 
 ence, it will be a valuable and much needed 
 contribution to the condition of Masonry 
 in the south of England just before the 
 revival, and may tend to settle some mooted 
 
 questions. Levesque (Apercu, p. 47,) says 
 he has consulted it ; but his manner of refer- 
 ring to it throws suspicion on the statement, 
 and I doubt if he ever saw it. 
 
 Traeing- Board. The same as a 
 Floor- Cloth, which see. 
 
 Trade Gilds. See Gilds. 
 
 Tradition. There are two kinds of 
 traditions in Masonry : First, those which 
 detail events, either historically, authentic 
 in part, or in whole, or consisting altogether 
 of arbitrary fiction, and intended simply to 
 convey an allegorical or symbolic meaning; 
 and secondly, of traditions which refer to 
 customs and usages of the Fraternity, espe- 
 cially in matters of ritual observance. 
 
 The first class has already been discussed 
 in this work in the article on Legends, to 
 which the reader is referred. The second 
 class is now to be considered. 
 
 The traditions which control and direct 
 the usages of the Fraternity constitute its 
 unwritten law, and are almost wholly ap- 
 plicable to its ritual, although they are 
 sometimes of use in the interpretation of 
 doubtful points in its written law. Between 
 the written and the unwritten law, the 
 latter is always paramount. This is evi- 
 dent from the definition of a tradition as 
 it is given by the monk Vincent of Le- 
 rins: "Quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab 
 omnibus traditum est;" i.e., tradition is 
 that which has been handed down at all 
 times, in all places, and by all persons. 
 The law which thus has antiquity, univer- 
 sality, and common consent for its support, 
 must override all subsequent laws wnich 
 are modern, local, and have only partial 
 agreement. 
 
 It is then important that those traditions 
 of Masonry which prescribe its ritual ob- 
 servances and its landmarks should be 
 thoroughly understood, because it is only 
 by attention to them that uniformity in the 
 esoteric instruction and work of the Order 
 can be preserved. 
 
 Cicero has wisely said that a well-consti- 
 tuted commonwealth must be governed not 
 by the written law alone, but also by the 
 unwritten law or tradition and usage; and 
 this is especially the case, because the written 
 law, however perspicuous it may be, can 
 be diverted into various senses, unless the 
 republic is maintained and preserved by 
 its usages and traditions, which, although 
 mute and as it were dead, yet speak with a 
 living voice, and give the true interpreta- 
 tion of that which is written. 
 
 This axiom is not less true in Masonry 
 than it is in a commonwealth. No matter 
 what changes may be made in its statutes 
 and regulations of to-day and its recent 
 customs, there is no danger of losing the 
 identity of its modern with its ancient form 
 
822 
 
 TRAMPING 
 
 TRAVELLING 
 
 and spirit while its traditions are recog- 
 nized and maintained. 
 
 Tramping Masons. Unworthy 
 members of the Order, who, using their 
 privileges for interested purposes, travelling 
 from city to city and from Lodge to Lodge, 
 that they may seek relief by tales of ficti- 
 tious distress, have been called "tramping 
 Masons." The true brother should ever 
 obtain assistance; the tramper should be 
 driven from the door of every Lodge or 
 the house of every Mason where he seeks 
 to intrude his imposture. 
 
 Transfer of Warrant. When a 
 Lodge has, by the misconduct of its mem- 
 bers, rendered itself unworthy of longer 
 possessing a Warrant, the modern Consti- 
 tution of the Grand Lodge of England pre- 
 scribes that the Grand Master may, after 
 the Grand Lodge shall have decided on 
 that fact, transfer such Warrant to other 
 brethren whom he may think deserving, 
 with a new number at the bottom of the 
 Lodges then on record. No such power 
 has been granted to the Grand Masters of 
 this country. They may, indeed, arrest a 
 Warrant — that is, suspend the labors of a 
 Lodge until the next meeting of the Grand 
 Lodge — but the power of forfeiture and 
 transferrence of Warrants is vested only in 
 Grand Lodges. 
 
 Transient Brethren. Masons who 
 do not reside in a particular place, but only 
 temporarily visit it, are called " transient 
 brethren." They are, if worthy, to be cor- 
 dially welcomed, but are never to be ad- 
 mitted into a Lodge until, after the proper 
 precautions, they have been proved to be 
 "true and trusty." This usage of hos- 
 
 Sitality has the authority of all the Old 
 ! onstitutions, which are careful to incul- 
 cate it. Thus the Landsdowne MS. charges, 
 "that every Mason receive or cherish 
 Strange Fellows when they come over the 
 countrey, and sett them on worke if they 
 will worke, as the manner is, (that is to 
 say) if the Mason have any moulde stone 
 in his place, on worke ; and if he have none, 
 the Mason shall refresh him with money 
 unto the next Lodge." 
 
 Although Speculative Masons no longer 
 visit Lodges for the sake of work or wages, 
 the usage of our Operative predecessors has 
 been spiritualized in our symbolic system. 
 Hence visitors are often invited to take a 
 part in the labors of the Lodge, and receive 
 their portion of the light and truth which 
 constitute the symbolic pay of a Specula- 
 tive Mason. 
 
 Transition Period. Findel calls 
 that period in the history of Masonry, when 
 it was gradually changing its character 
 from that of an Operative to that of a Spec- 
 ulative society, "the Transition Period." 
 
 It began in 1600, and terminated in 1717 
 by the establishment of the Grand Lodge 
 of England in London, after which, says 
 Findel, (Hist., Lyon's trans., p. 131,) " mod- 
 ern Freemasonry was to be taught as a spir- 
 itualizing art, and the Fraternity of Opera- 
 tive Masons was exalted to a Brotherhood 
 of symbolic builders, who, in the place of 
 visible, perishable temples, are engaged in 
 the erection of that one, invisible, eternal 
 temple of the heart and mind." 
 
 Transmission, Charter of. A 
 deed said to have been granted by James 
 de Molay, just before his death, to Mark 
 Larmenius, by which he transmitted to him 
 and to his successors the office of Grand 
 Master of the Templars. It is the founda- 
 tion deed of the " Order of the Temple." 
 It is preserved in the treasury of the Order 
 in Paris, and is written in Latin on a large 
 folio sheet of parchment. The outward 
 appearance of the document is of great an- 
 tiquity, but it wants internal evidence of 
 authenticity. It is therefore, by most au- 
 thorities, considered a forgery. See Temple, 
 Order of the. 
 
 Travel. In the symbolic language of 
 Masonry, a Mason always travels from west 
 to east in search of light — he travels from 
 the lofty tower of Babel, where language 
 was confounded and Masonry lost, to the 
 threshing-floor of Oman the Jebusite, where 
 language was restored and Masonry found. 
 The Master Mason also travels into foreign 
 countries in search of wages. All this is 
 pure symbolism, unintelligible in any other 
 sense. For its interpretation, see Foreign 
 Countries and Threshing- Floor. 
 
 Travelling Freemasons. There 
 is no portion of the history of the Order so 
 interesting to the Masonic scholar as that 
 which is embraced by the Middle Ages of 
 Christendom, beginning with about the 
 tenth century, when the whole of civilized 
 Europe was perambulated by those associa- 
 tions of workmen, who passed from country 
 to country and from city to city under the 
 name of "Travelling Freemasons," for the 
 purpose of erecting religious edifices. There 
 is not a country of Europe which does not 
 at this day contain honorable evidences of 
 the skill and industry of our Masonic an- 
 cestors. I therefore propose, in the present 
 article, to give a brief sketch of the origin, 
 the progress, and the character of these 
 travelling architects. 
 
 Mr. George Godwin, in a lecture pub- 
 lished in the Builder, (vol. ix., p. 463,) says: 
 " There are few points in the Middle Ages 
 more pleasing to look back upon than the 
 existence of the associated Masons; they 
 are the bright spot in the general darkness 
 of that period, the patch of verdure when 
 all around is barren." 
 
TRAVELLING 
 
 TRAVELLING 
 
 823 
 
 Clavel, in his Histoire Pittoresgue de la 
 Franc- Maconnerie, has traced the organi- 
 zation of these associations to the "collegia 
 artificum," or colleges of artisans, which 
 were instituted at Rome, by Numa, in the 
 year b. c. 714, and whose members were 
 originally Greeks, imported by this law- 
 giver for the purpose of embellishing the 
 city over which he reigned. They con- 
 tinued to exist as well-established corpora- 
 tions throughout all the succeeding years 
 of the kingdom, the republic, and the em- 
 pire. (See Roman Colleges of Artificers.) 
 
 These " sodalitates," or fraternities, began, 
 upon the invasion of the barbarians, to de- 
 cline in numbers, in respectability, and in 
 power. But on the conversion of the whole 
 empire, they, or others of a similar charac- 
 ter, began again to nourish. The priests 
 of the Christian Church became their pa- 
 trons, and under their guidance they de- 
 voted themselves to the building of churches 
 and monasteries. In the tenth century, 
 they were established as a free gild or cor- 
 poration in Lombardy. For when, after 
 the decline and fall of the empire, the city 
 of Rome was abandoned by its sovereigns 
 for other secondary cities of Italy, such as 
 Milan and Ravenna, and new courts and 
 new capitals were formed, the kingdom of 
 Lombardy sprang into existence as the 
 great centre of all energy in trade and in- 
 dustry, and of refinement in art and litera- 
 ture. It was there, and as a consequence 
 of the great centre of life from Rome, and 
 the development not only of commercial 
 business, but of all sorts of trades and 
 handicrafts, that the corporations known as 
 gilds were first organized. 
 
 Among the arts practised by the Lom- 
 bards, that of building held a pre-eminent 
 rank. And Muratori tells us that the in- 
 habitants of Como, one of the principal 
 cities of Como, had become so superior as 
 masons, that the appellation of Magistri 
 Comacini, or Masters from Como, had be- 
 come generic to all of the profession. 
 
 Mr. Hope, in his Historical Essay on 
 Architecture, has treated this subject almost 
 exhaustively. He says : 
 
 "We cannot then wonder that, at a 
 period when artificers and artists of every 
 class, from those of the most mechanical, 
 to those of the most intellectual nature, 
 formed themselves into exclusive corpora- 
 tions, architects — whose art may be said 
 to offer the most exact medium between 
 those of the most urgent necessity, and 
 those of mere ornament, or, indeed, in its 
 wide span to embrace both — should, above 
 all others, have associated themselves into 
 similar bodies, which, in conformity to the 
 general style of such corporations, assumed 
 that of Free and Accepted Masons, and 
 
 was composed of those members who, after 
 a regular passage through the different 
 fixed stages of apprenticeship, were re- 
 ceived as masters, and entitled to exercise 
 the profession on their own account. 
 
 " In an age, however, in which lay in- 
 dividuals, from the lowest subject to the 
 sovereign himself, seldom built except for 
 mere shelter and safety — seldom sought, 
 nay, rather avoided, in their dwellings an 
 elegance which might lessen their security; 
 in which even the community collectively, 
 in its public and general capacity, divided 
 into component parts less numerous and 
 less varied, required not those numerous 
 public edifices which we possess either for 
 business or pleasure; thus, when neither 
 domestic nor civic architecture of any sort 
 demanded great ability or afforded great 
 employment, churches and monasteries 
 were the only buildings required to com- 
 bine extent and elegance, and sacred archi- 
 tecture alone could furnish an extensive 
 field for the exercise of great skill, Lom- 
 bardy itself, opulent and thriving as it was, 
 compared to other countries, soon became 
 nearly saturated with the requisite edifices, 
 and unable to give these companies of 
 Free and Accepted Masons a longer con- 
 tinuance of sufficient custom, or to render 
 the further maintenance of their exclusive 
 privileges of great benefit to them at home. 
 But if, to the south of the Alps, an earlier 
 civilization had at last caused the number 
 of architects to exceed that of new build- 
 ings wanted, it fared otherwise in the north 
 of Europe, where a gradually spreading 
 Christianity began on every side to produce 
 a want of sacred edifices, of churches and 
 monasteries, to design which architects 
 existed not on the spot. 
 
 " Those Italian corporations of builders, 
 therefore, whose services ceased to be nec- 
 essary in the countries where they had 
 arisen, now began to look abroad towards 
 those northern climes for that employment 
 which they no longer found at home: 
 and a certain number united and formed 
 themselves into a single greater association, 
 or fraternity, which proposed to seek for 
 occupation beyond its native land; and in 
 any ruder foreign region, however remote, 
 where new religious edifices and skilful 
 artists to erect them, were wanted to offer 
 their services, and bend their steps to un- 
 dertake the work." 
 
 From Lombardy they passed beyond the 
 Alps into all the countries where Chris- 
 tianity, but recently established, required 
 the erection of churches. The popes en- 
 couraged their designs, and more than one 
 bull was dispatched, conferring on them 
 privileges of the most extensive character. 
 A monopoly was granted to them for the 
 
824 
 
 TRAVELLING 
 
 TRAVELLING 
 
 erection of all religious edifices ; they were 
 declared independent of the sovereigns in 
 whose dominions they might be temporarily 
 residing, and subject only to their own pri- 
 vate laws ; they were permitted to regulate 
 the amount of their wages; were exempted 
 from all kinds of taxation ; and no Mason, 
 not belonging to their association, was per- 
 mitted to compete with or oppose them in 
 the pursuit of employment. And in one 
 of the papal decrees on the subject of these 
 artisans, the supreme pontiff declares that 
 these regulations have been made "after 
 the example of Hiram, king of Tyre, when 
 he sent artisans to King Solomon for the 
 purpose of building the Temple of Jeru- 
 salem." 
 
 After filling the continent with cathe- 
 drals, parochial churches, and monasteries, 
 and increasing their own numbers by ac- 
 cessions of new members from all the 
 countries in which they had been laboring, 
 they passed over into England, and there 
 introduced their peculiar style of building. 
 Thence they travelled to Scotland, and 
 there have rendered their existence ever 
 memorable by establishing, in the parish of 
 Kilwinning, where they were erecting an 
 abbey, the germ of Scottish Freemasonry, 
 which has regularly descended through the 
 Grand Lodge of Scotland to the present 
 day. 
 
 Mr. Hope accounts for the introduction 
 of non-working or unprofessional members 
 into these associations by a theory which 
 is confirmed by contemporary history. He 
 says: 
 
 " Often obliged, from regions the most 
 distant, singly to seek the common place 
 of rendezvous and departure of the troop, 
 or singly to follow its earlier detachments 
 to places of employment equally distant; 
 and that, at an era when travellers met on 
 the road every obstruction, and no conven- 
 ience, when no inns existed at which to 
 purchase hospitality, but lords dwelt every- 
 where, who only prohibited their tenants 
 from waylaying the traveller because they 
 considered this, like killing game, one of 
 their own exclusive privileges; the mem- 
 bers of these communities contrived to 
 render their journeys more easy and safe, 
 by engaging with each other, and perhaps 
 even, in many places, with individuals not 
 directly participating in their profession, 
 in compacts of mutual assistance, hospi- 
 tality and good services, most valuable to 
 men so circumstanced. They endeavored 
 to compensate for the perils which attended 
 their expeditions, by institutions for their 
 needy or disabled brothers ; but lest such 
 as belonged not to their communities should 
 benefit surreptitiously by these arrange- 
 ments for its advantage, they framed signs 
 
 of mutual recognition, as carefully con- 
 cealed from the knowledge of the uninitia- 
 ted, as the mysteries of their art themselves. 
 Thus supplied with whatever could facili- 
 tate such distant journeys and labors as 
 they contemplated, the members of these 
 corporations were ready to obey any sum- 
 mons with the utmost alacrity, and they 
 soon received the encouragement they an- 
 ticipated. The militia of the church of 
 Rome, which diffused itself all over Europe 
 in the shape of missionaries, to instruct 
 nations, and to establish their allegiance to 
 the Pope, took care not only to make them 
 feel the want of churches and monasteries, 
 but likewise to learn the manner in which 
 the want might be supplied. Indeed, they 
 themselves generally undertook the supply; 
 and it may be asserted, that a new apostle 
 of the Gospel no sooner arrived in the re- 
 motest corner of Europe, either to convert 
 the inhabitants to Christianity, or to intro- 
 duce among them a new religious order, 
 than speedily followed a tribe of itinerant 
 Freemasons to back him, and to provide 
 the inhabitants with the necessary places 
 of worship or reception. 
 
 " Thus ushered in, by their interior ar- 
 rangements assured of assistance and of 
 safety on the road, and, by the bulls of the 
 Pope and the support of his ministers 
 abroad, of every species of immunity and 
 preference at the place of their destination, 
 bodies of Freemasons dispersed themselves 
 in every direction, every day began to ad- 
 vance further, and to proceed from country 
 to country, to the utmost verge of the faith- 
 ful, in order to answer the increasing de- 
 mand for them, or to seek more distant 
 custom." 
 
 The government of these fraternities, 
 wherever they might be for the time lo- 
 cated, was very regular and uniform. When 
 about to commence the erection of a reli- 
 gious edifice, they first built huts, or, as they 
 were termed, lodges, in the vicinity, in 
 which they resided lor the sake of economy 
 as well as convenience. It is from these 
 that the present name of our places of meet- 
 ing is derived. Over every ten men was 
 placed a warden, who paid them wages, and 
 took care that there should be no needless 
 expenditure of materials and no careless 
 loss of implements. Over the whole, a sur- 
 veyor or master, called in their old docu- 
 ments "magister," presided, and directed 
 the general Tabor. 
 
 The Abbe Grandidier, in a letter at the 
 end of the Marquis Luchet's Essai sur les 
 Illumines, has quoted from the ancient 
 register of the Masons at Strasburg the reg- 
 ulations of the association which built the 
 splendid cathedral of that city. Its great 
 rarity renders it difficult to obtain a sight 
 
TRAVELLING 
 
 TRAVELLING 
 
 825 
 
 of the original work, but the Histoire Pit- 
 toresque of Clavel supplies the most promi- 
 nent details of all that Grandidier has pre- 
 served. The cathedral of Strasburg was 
 commenced in the year 1277, under the 
 direction of Erwin of Steinbach. The 
 Masons who, under his directions, were 
 engaged in the construction, of this noblest 
 specimen of the Gothic style of architec- 
 ture, were divided into the separate ranks 
 of Masters, Craftsmen, and Apprentices. 
 The place where they assembled was called 
 a " hutte," a German word equivalent to 
 our English term lodge. They employed 
 the implements of masonry as emblems, 
 and wore them as insignia. They had cer- 
 tain signs and words of recognition, and 
 received their new members with peculiar 
 and secret ceremonies, admitting, as has 
 already been said, many eminent persons, 
 and especially ecclesiastics, who were not 
 Operative Masons, but who gave to them 
 their patronage and protection. 
 
 The fraternity of Strasburg became cele- 
 brated throughout Germany, their supe- 
 riority was acknowledged by the kindred 
 associations, and they in time received the 
 appellation of the " haupt hutte," or Grand 
 Lodge, and exercised supremacy over the 
 hutten of Suabia, Hesse, Bavaria, Franconia, 
 Saxony, Thuringia, and the countries bor- 
 dering on the river Moselle. The Masters 
 of these several Lodges assembled at Ratis- 
 bon in 1459, and on the 25th of April con- 
 tracted an act of union, declaring the chief 
 of the Strasburg Cathedral the only and 
 perpetual Grand Master of the General 
 Fraternity of Freemasons of Germany. 
 This act of union was definitively adopted 
 and promulgated at a meeting held soon 
 afterwards at Strasburg. 
 
 Similar institutions existed in France 
 and in Switzerland, for wherever Chris- 
 tianity had penetrated, there churches and 
 cathedrals were to be built, and the Travel- 
 ing Freemasons hastened to undertake the 
 labor. 
 
 They entered England and Scotland at 
 an early period. Whatever may be thought 
 of the authenticity of the York and Kil- 
 winning legends, there is ample evidence 
 of the existence of organized associations, 
 gilds, or corporations of Operative Masons 
 at an epoch not long after their departure 
 from Lombardy. From that period, the 
 fraternity, with various intermissions, con- 
 tinued to pursue their labors, and con- 
 structed many edifices which still remain 
 as monuments of their skill as workmen 
 and their taste as architects. Kings, in 
 many instances, became their patrons, and 
 their labors were superintended by power- 
 ful noblemen and eminent prelates, who, 
 for this purpose, were admitted as members 
 5D 
 
 of the fraternity. Many of the old Charges 
 for the better government of their Lodges 
 have been preserved, and are still to be 
 found in our Books of Constitutions, every 
 line of which indicates that they were orig- 
 inally drawn up for associations strictly and 
 exclusively operative in their character. 
 
 In glancing over the history of this sin- 
 gular body of architects, we are struck with 
 several important peculiarities. 
 
 In the first place, they were strictly eccle- 
 siastical in their constitution. The Pope, 
 the supreme pontiff of the Church, was 
 their patron and protector. They were 
 supported and encouraged by bishops and 
 abbots, and hence their chief employment 
 appears to have been in the construction 
 of religious edifices. Like their ancestors, 
 who were engaged in the erection of the 
 magnificent Temple of Jerusalem, they de- 
 voted themselves to labor for the " House 
 of the Lord." Masonry was then, as it had 
 been before, and has ever been since, inti- 
 mately connected with religion. 
 
 They were originally all operatives. But 
 the artisans of that period were not edu- 
 cated men, and they were compelled to seek 
 among the clergy, the only men of learn- 
 ing, for those whose wisdom might con- 
 trive, and whose cultivated taste might 
 adorn, the plans which they, by their prac- 
 tical skill, were to carry into effect. Hence 
 the germ of that Speculative Masonry 
 which, once dividing the character of the 
 fraternity with the Operative, now com- 
 pletely occupies it, to the entire exclusion 
 of the latter. 
 
 But lastly, from the circumstance of their 
 union and concert arose a uniformity of 
 design in all the public buildings of that 
 period — a uniformity so remarkable as to 
 find its explanation only in the fact, that 
 their construction was committed through- 
 out the whole of Europe, if not always to 
 the same individuals, at least to members 
 of the same association. The remarks of 
 Mr. Hope on this subject are well worthy 
 of perusal. "The architects of all the 
 sacred edifices of the Latin church, wher- 
 ever such arose, — north, south, east, or 
 west, — thus derived their science from the 
 same central school ; obeyed in their de- 
 signs the same hierarchy ; were directed in 
 their constructions by the same principles 
 of propriety and taste ; kept up with each 
 other, in the most distant parts to which 
 they might be sent, the most constant cor- 
 respondence ; and rendered every minute 
 improvement the property of the whole 
 body and a new conquest of the art. The 
 result of this unanimity was, that at each 
 successive period of the monastic dynasty, 
 on whatever point a new church or new 
 monastery might be erected, it resembled 
 
826 
 
 TRAVELLING 
 
 TRESTLE-BOARD 
 
 all those raised at the same period in every 
 other place, however distant from it, as if 
 both had been built in the same place by 
 the same artist. For instance, we find, at 
 particular epochs, churches as far distant 
 from each other as the north of Scotland 
 and the south of Italy, to be minutely 
 similar in all the essential characteristics." 
 
 In conclusion, we may remark, that the 
 world is indebted to this association for the 
 introduction of the Gothic, or, as it has 
 lately been denominated, the pointed style 
 of architecture. This style — so different 
 from the Greek or Roman orders, whose 
 pointed arches and minute tracery distin- 
 guish the solemn temples of the olden 
 time, and whose ruins arrest the attention 
 and claim the admiration of the spectator 
 — has been universally acknowledged to be 
 the invention of the Travelling Freemasons 
 of the Middle Ages. 
 
 And it is to this association of Op- 
 erative artists that, by gradual changes 
 into a speculative system, we are to trace 
 the Freemasons of the present day. 
 
 Travelling Warrants. Warrants 
 under which military Lodges are organized, 
 and so called because the Lodges which act 
 under them are permitted to travel from 
 place to place with the regiments to which 
 they are attached. See Military Lodges. 
 
 Travenol, Louis. A zealous and 
 devoted French Mason of much ability, 
 who wrote several Masonic works, which 
 were published under the assumed name 
 of Leonard Gabanon. The most valuable 
 of his productions is one entitled, Cate- 
 chisme des Francs- Macons, precede" d'un 
 Abrege de VHistoire d'Adoram, etc., pub- 
 lished at Paris in 1743. 
 
 Treasure, Incomparable. This 
 was a phrase of mystical import with the 
 alchemists and hermetic philosophers. Per- 
 netty (Dictionnaire Mytho-Hermetique) thus 
 defines it. "The incomparable treasure 
 is the powder of projection, the source 
 of all that is good, since it procures un- 
 bounded riches, and a long life, without in- 
 firmities, to enjoy them." The "powder 
 of projection" was the instrument by 
 which they expected to attain to the full 
 perfection of their work. What was this 
 incomparable treasure was the great secret 
 of the hermetic philosophers. They con- 
 cealed the true object of their art under a 
 symbolic language. " Believest thou, O 
 fool," says Artephius, one of them, " that 
 we plainly teach this secret of secrets, 
 taking our words according to their literal 
 signification?" But we do know that it 
 was not, as the world supposed, the trans- 
 mutation of metals, or the discovery of an 
 elixir of life, but the acquisition of divine 
 truth. 
 
 Many of the high degrees which were 
 fabricated in the last century were founded 
 on the hermetic philosophy; and they, too, 
 borrowed from it the idea of an incompar- 
 able treasure. Thus in the ultimate degree 
 of the Council of Emperors of the East 
 and West, which degree became afterwards 
 the Sublime Prince of the Royal Secret of 
 the Scottish Rite, we find this very expres- 
 sion. In the old French rituals we meet 
 with this sentence : " Let us now offer to 
 the invincible Xerxes our sacred incom- 
 parable treasure, and we shall succeed vic- 
 toriously." And out of the initial letters 
 of the words of this sentence in the orig- 
 inal French they fabricated the three most 
 important words of the degree. 
 
 This " incomparable treasure " is to the 
 Masons precisely what it was to the her- 
 metic philosophers — Divine Truth. "As for 
 the Treasure," says one of these books, (the 
 Lumen de Lumine, cited by Hitchcock,) " it 
 is not yet discovered, but it is very near." 
 
 Treasurer. An officer, found in all 
 Masonic bodies, whose duty it is to take 
 charge of the funds and pay them out 
 under proper regulations. He is simply 
 the banker of the Lodge or Chapter, and 
 has nothing to do with the collection of 
 money, which should be made by the Sec- 
 retary. He is an elective officer. The 
 Treasurer's jewel is a key, as a symbol that 
 he controls the chest of the Lodge. His 
 position in the Lodge is on the right of the 
 Worshipful Master, in front. 
 
 Treasurer, Grand. See Grand 
 Treasurer. 
 
 Treasurer, Hermetic. {Tresorier 
 hermetique.) A degree in the manuscript 
 collection of Peuvret. This collection con- 
 tains eight other degrees with a similar 
 title, namely: Illustrious Treasurer, Treas- 
 urer of Paracelsus, Treasurer of Solomon, 
 Treasurer of the Masonic Mysteries, Treas- 
 urer of the Number 7, Sublime Treasurer, 
 Depositor of the Key of the Grand Work, 
 and, lastly, one with the grandiloquent 
 title of Grand and Sublime Treasurer, or 
 Depositor of the Great Solomon, Faithful 
 Guardian of Jehovah. 
 
 Trestle-Board. The trestle-board is 
 defined to be the board upon which the 
 Master inscribes the designs by which the 
 Craft are to be directed in their labors. 
 The French and German Masons have con- 
 founded the trestle-board with the tracing- 
 board ; and Dr. Oliver (Landm., i. 132,) has 
 not avoided the error. The two things 
 are entirely different. The trestle is a 
 framework for a table — in Scotch, trest; 
 the trestle-board is the board placed for con- 
 venience of drawing on that frame. It con- 
 tains nothing but a few diagrams, usually 
 geometrical figures. The tracing-board is a 
 
TRESTLE-BOARD 
 
 TRIAD 
 
 827 
 
 picture formerly drawn on the floor of the 
 Lodge, whence it was called a floor-cloth 
 or carpet. It contains a delineation of the 
 symbols of the degree to which it belongs. 
 The trestle-board is to be found only in the 
 Entered Apprentice's degree. There is a 
 tracing-board, in every degree, from the first 
 to the highest. And, lastly, the trestle-board 
 is a symbol ; the tracing-board is a piece of 
 furniture or picture containing the repre- 
 sentation of many symbols. 
 
 ®liftt 
 
 S 
 
 It is probable that the trestle-board, from 
 its necessary use in Operative Masonry, 
 was one of the earliest symbols introduced 
 into the Speculative system. It is not, 
 however, mentioned in the Grand Mys- 
 tery, published in 1724. But Prichard, 
 who wrote only six years afterwards, de- 
 scribes it, under the corrupted name of 
 trasel-board, as one of the immovable jewels 
 of an Apprentice's Lodge. Browne, in 1800, 
 following Preston, fell into the error of 
 calling it a tracing-board, and gives from 
 the Prestonian lecture what he terms " a 
 beautiful degree of comparison," in which 
 the Bible is compared to a tracing-board. 
 But the Bible is not a collection of sym- 
 bols, which a tracing-board is, but a tres- 
 tle-board that contains the plan for the 
 construction of a spiritual temple. Webb, 
 however, when he arranged his system of 
 lectures, took the proper view, and restored 
 the true word, trestle-board. 
 
 Notwithstanding these changes in the 
 name, trestle-board, trasel-board, tracing- 
 board, and trestle-board again, the defini- 
 tion has continued from the earliest part 
 of the last century to the present day the 
 same. It has always been enumerated 
 among the jewels of the Lodge, although 
 the English system says that it is immov- 
 able and the American movable ; and it 
 has always been defined as " a board for 
 the master workman to draw his designs 
 upon." 
 
 In Operative Masonry, the trestle-board 
 is of vast importance. It was on such an 
 implement that the genius of the ancient 
 masters worked out those problems of 
 architecture that have reflected an unfad- 
 ing lustre on their skill. The trestle-board 
 was the cradle that nursed the infancy of 
 such mighty monuments as the cathedrals 
 
 of Strasburg and Cologne ; and as they ad- 
 vanced in stature, the trestle-board became 
 the guardian spirit that directed their 
 growth. Often have those old builders 
 pondered by the midnight lamp upon their 
 trestle-board, working out its designs with 
 consummate taste and knowledge, — here 
 springing an arch, and turning an angle 
 there, until the embryo edifice stood forth 
 in all the wisdom, strength, and beauty of 
 the Master's art. 
 
 What, then, is its true symbolism in 
 Speculative Masonry ? 
 
 To construct his earthly temple, the Op- 
 erative Mason followed the architectural 
 designs laid down on the trestle-board, or 
 book of plans of the architect. By these he 
 hewed and squared his materials ; by these 
 he raised his walls ; by these he constructed 
 his arches ; and by these strength and dura- 
 bility, combined with grace and beauty, 
 were bestowed upon the edifice which he 
 was constructing. 
 
 In the Masonic ritual, the Speculative 
 Mason is reminded that, as the Operative 
 artist erects his temporal building in ac- 
 cordance with the rules and designs laid 
 down on the trestle-board of the master 
 workman, so should he erect that spiritual 
 building, of which the material is a type, in 
 obedience to the rules and designs, the pre- 
 cepts and commands, laid down by the 
 Grand Architect of the Universe in those 
 great books of nature and revelation which 
 constitute the spiritual trestle -board of 
 every Freemason. 
 
 The trestle-board is then the symbol of 
 the natural and moral law. Like every 
 other symbol of the Order, it is universal 
 and tolerant in its application; and while, 
 as Christian Masons, we cling with unfal- 
 tering integrity to the explanation which 
 makes the Scriptures of both dispensations 
 our trestle-board, we permit our Jewish and 
 Mohammedan brethren to content them- 
 selves with the books of the Old Testament 
 or Koran. Masonry does not interfere with 
 the peculiar form or development of any 
 one's religious faith. All that it asks is 
 that the interpretation of the symbol shall 
 be according to what each one supposes to 
 be the revealed will of bis Creator. But 
 so rigidly exacting is it that the symbol 
 shall be preserved and, in some rational 
 way, interpreted, that it peremptorily ex- 
 cludes the atheist from its communion, be- 
 cause, believing in no Supreme Being — no 
 Divine Architect — he must necessarily be 
 without a spiritual trestle-board on which 
 the designs of that Being may be inscribed 
 for his direction. 
 
 Triad. In all the ancient mythologies 
 there were triads, which consisted of a mys- 
 terious union of three deities. Each triad 
 
828 
 
 TRIAD 
 
 TRIALS 
 
 was generally explained as consisting of a 
 creator, a preserver, and a destroyer. The 
 principal neathen triads were as follows : 
 the Egyptian, Osiris, Isis, and Horus ; the 
 Orphic, Phanes, Uranus, and Kronos; the 
 Zoroastric, Ormuzd, Mithras, and Ahriman ; 
 the Indian, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva; 
 the Cabiric, Axercos, Axiokersa, and Axi- 
 okersos ; the Phoenician, Ashtaroth, Milcom, 
 and Chemosh; the Tyrian, Belus, Venus, 
 and Thammuz; the Grecian, Zeus, Poseidon, 
 and Hades; the Roman, Jupiter, Neptune, 
 and Pluto ; the Eleusinian, lacchus, Per- 
 sephone, and Demeter ; the Platonic, Taga- 
 thon, Nous, and Psyche; the Celtic, Hu, 
 Ceridwen, and Creirwy; the Teutonic, 
 Fenris, Midgard, and Hela; the Gothic, 
 Woden, Friga, and Thor; and the Scan- 
 dinavians, Odin, Vile, and Ve. Even the 
 Mexicans had their triads, which were 
 Vitzliputzli, Kaloc, and Tescalipuca. 
 This system of triads has, indeed, been so 
 
 Eredominant in all the old religions, as to 
 e invested with a mystical idea ; and hence 
 it has become the type in Masonry of the 
 triad of three governing officers, who are to 
 be found in almost every degree. The 
 Master and the two Wardens in the Lodge 
 give rise to the Priest, the King, and the 
 Scribe in the Royal Arch ; to the Com- 
 mander, the Generalissimo, and the Captain 
 General in Templarism ; and in most of 
 the high degrees to a triad of three who 
 preside under various names. 
 
 We must, perhaps, look for the origin of 
 the triads in mythology, as we certainly 
 must in Masonry, to the three positions and 
 functions of the sun. The rising sun or 
 creator of light, the meridian sun or its 
 preserver, and the setting sun or its de- 
 stroyer. 
 
 Triad Society of China. The San 
 Hop Hwai, or Triad Society, is a secret po- 
 litical association in China, which has been 
 mistaken by some writers for a species of 
 Chinese Freemasonry; but it has in reality 
 no connection whatsoever with the Masonic 
 Order. In its principles, which are far 
 from innocent, it is entirely antagonistic to 
 Freemasonry. The Deputy Provincial 
 Grand Master of British Masonry in China 
 made a statement to this effect in 1855, 
 in Notes and Queries, 1st Ser., vol. xii., 
 p. 233. 
 
 Trials, Masonic. As the only ob- 
 ject of a trial should be to seek the truth 
 and fairly to administer justice, in a Ma- 
 sonic trial, especially, no recourse should 
 ever be had to legal technicalities, whose 
 use in ordinary courts appears simply to be 
 to afford a means of escape for the guilty. 
 
 Masonic trials are, therefore, to be con- 
 ducted in the simplest and least technical 
 method, that will preserve at once the 
 
 rights of the Order and of the accused, 
 and which will enable the Lodge to obtain 
 a thorough knowledge of all the facts in 
 the case. The rules to be observed in con- 
 ducting such trials have been already laid 
 down by me in my Text Book of Jurispru- 
 dence, (pp. 558-564,) and I shall refer to 
 them in the present article. They are as 
 follows : 
 
 1. The preliminary step in every trial is 
 the accusation or charge. The charge 
 should always be made in writing, signed 
 by the accuser, delivered to the Secretary, 
 and read by that officer at the next regular 
 communication of the Lodge. The ac- 
 cused should then be furnished with an 
 attested copy of the charge, and be at the 
 same time informed of the time and place 
 appointed by the Lodge for the trial. 
 
 Any Master Mason may be the accuser 
 of another, but a profane cannot be per- 
 mitted to prefer charges against a Mason. 
 Yet, if circumstances are known to a pro- 
 fane upon which charges ought to be pre- 
 dicated, a Master Mason may avail himself 
 of that information, and out of it frame an 
 accusation, to be presented to the Lodge. 
 And such accusation will be received and 
 investigated, although remotely derived 
 from one who is not a member of the Order. 
 
 It is not necessary that the accuser should 
 be a member of the same Lodge. It is 
 sufficient if he is an affiliated Mason. I 
 say an affiliated Mason ; for it is generally 
 held, and I believe correctly, that an un- 
 affiliated Mason is no more competent to 
 prefer charges than a profane. 
 
 2. If the accused is living beyond the 
 geographical jurisdiction of the Lodge, the 
 charges should be communicated to him by 
 means of a letter through the post-office, 
 and a reasonable time should be allowed 
 for his answer, before the Lodge proceeds 
 to trial. But if his residence be unknown, 
 or if it be impossible to hold communica- 
 tion with him, the Lodge may then proceed 
 to trial — care being had that no undue 
 advantage be taken of his absence, and 
 that the investigation be as full and impar- 
 tial as the nature of the circumstances will 
 permit. 
 
 3. The trial must commence at a regular 
 communication, for reasons which have 
 already been stated; but having com- 
 menced, it may be continued at special 
 communications, called for that purpose; 
 for, if it was allowed only to be continued 
 at regular meetings, which take place but 
 once a month, the long duration of time 
 occupied would materially tend to defeat 
 the ends of justice. 
 
 4. The Lodge must be opened in the 
 highest degree to which the accuser has at- 
 tained, and the examinations of all wit- 
 
TRIALS 
 
 TRIANGLE 
 
 829 
 
 nesses must take place in the presence of 
 the accused and the accuser, if they desire 
 it. It is competent for the accused to em- 
 ploy counsel for the better protection of his 
 interests, provided such counsel is a Master 
 Mason. But if the counsel be a member 
 of the Lodge, he forfeits, by his professional 
 advocacy of the accused, the right to vote 
 at the final decision of the question. 
 
 5. The final decision of the charge, and 
 the rendering of the verdict, whatever be 
 the rank of the accused, must always be 
 made in a Lodge opened on the third de- 
 gree; and at the time of such decision, 
 both the accuser and the accused, as well 
 as his counsel, if he have any, should with- 
 draw from the Lodge. 
 
 6. It is a general and an excellent rule, 
 that no visitors shall be permitted to be 
 present during a trial. 
 
 7. The testimony of Master Masons is 
 usually taken on their honor, as such. 
 That of others should be by affidavit, or in 
 such other manner as both the accuser and 
 accused may agree upon. 
 
 8. The testimony of profanes, or of those 
 who are of a lower degree than the accused, 
 is to be taken by a committee and reported 
 to the Lodge, or, if convenient, by the 
 whole Lodge, when closed and sitting as 
 a committee. But both the accused and 
 the accuser have a right to be present on 
 such occasions. 
 
 9. When the trial is concluded, the ac- 
 cuser and the accused must retire, and the 
 Master will then put the question of guilty, 
 or not guilty, to the Lodge. 
 
 Not less than two-thirds of the votes 
 should be required to declare the accused 
 guilty. A bare majority is hardly sufficient 
 to divest a brother of his good character, 
 and render him subject to what may per- 
 haps be an ignominious punishment. But 
 on this subject the authorities differ. 
 
 10. If the verdict is guilty, the Master 
 must then put the question as to the nature 
 and extent of the punishment to be inflicted, 
 beginning with expulsion and proceeding, 
 if necessary, to indefinite suspension and 
 public and private reprimand. To inflict 
 expulsion or suspension, a vote of two- 
 thirds of those present is required, but for 
 a mere reprimand, a majority will be suffi- 
 cient. The votes on the nature of the 
 punishment should be viva voce, or, rather, 
 according to Masonic usage, by a show of 
 hands. 
 
 Trials in a Grand Lodge are to be con- 
 ducted on the same general principles ; but 
 here, in consequence of the largeness of the 
 body, and the inconvenience which would 
 result from holding the examinations in 
 open Lodge, and in the presence of all the 
 members, it is more usual to appoint a 
 
 committee, before whom the case is tried, 
 and upon whose full report of the testimony 
 the Grand Lodge bases its action. And 
 the forms of trial in such committees must 
 conform, in all respects, to the general 
 usage already detailed. 
 
 Triangle. There is no symbol more 
 important in its signification, more various 
 in its application, or more generally dif- 
 fused throughout the whole system of Free- 
 masonry, than the triangle. An examina- 
 tion of it, therefore, cannot fail to be inter- 
 esting to the Masonic student. 
 
 The equilateral triangle appears to have 
 been adopted by nearly all the nations of 
 antiquity as a symbol of the Deity, in some 
 of his forms or emanations, and hence, pro- 
 bably, the prevailing influ- 
 ence of this symbol was car- 
 ried into the Jewish system, 
 where the yod within the 
 triangle was made to repre- 
 sent the Tetragrammaton, 
 or sacred name of God. 
 
 The equilateral triangle, says Bro. D. W. 
 Nash, (Freem. Mag., iv. 294,) " viewed in 
 the light of the doctrines of those who gave 
 it currency as a divine symbol, represents 
 the Great First Cause, the creator and con- 
 tainer of all things, as one and indivisible, 
 manifesting himself in an infinity of forms 
 and attributes in this visible universe." 
 
 Among the Egyptians, the darkness 
 through which the candidate for initiation 
 was made to pass was symbolized by the 
 trowel, an important Masonic implement, 
 which in their system of hieroglyphics has 
 the form of a triangle. The equilateral tri- 
 angle they considered as the most perfect 
 of figures, and a representative of the great 
 principle of animated existence, each of its 
 sides referring to one of the three depart- 
 ments of creation, the animal, vegetable, and 
 mineral. 
 
 The equilateral triangle is to be found 
 scattered throughout the Masonic system. 
 It forms in the Eoyal Arch the figure 
 within which the jewels of the officers are 
 suspended. It is in the ineffable degrees 
 the sacred delta, everywhere presenting 
 itself as the symbol of the Grand Architect 
 of the Universe. In Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry, it is constantly exhibited as the ele- 
 ment of important ceremonies. The seats 
 of the principal officers are arranged in a 
 triangular form, the three lesser lights have 
 the same situation, and the square and com- 
 
 {>ass form, by their union on the greater 
 ight, two triangles meeting at their bases. 
 In short, the equilateral triangle may be 
 considered as one of the most constant 
 forms of Masonic symbolism. 
 
 The right-angled triangle is another form 
 of this figure which is deserving of atten- 
 
830 
 
 TRIANGLE 
 
 TRIANGLE 
 
 tion. Among the Egyptians, it was the 
 symbol of universal nature ; the base repre- 
 senting Osiris, or the male principle; the 
 perpendicular, Isis, or the female principle ; 
 and the hypothenuse, Horus, their son, or 
 the product of the male and female prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Osiris-male. 
 
 This symbol was received by Pythagoras 
 from the Egyptians during his long sojourn 
 in that country, and with it he also learned 
 the peculiar property it possessed, namely, 
 that the sum of the squares of the two shorter 
 sides is equal to the square of the longest 
 side — symbolically expressed by the for- 
 mula, that the product of Osiris and Isis is 
 Hcrus. This figure has been adopted in 
 the third degree of Masonry, and will be 
 there recognized as the forty-seventh prob- 
 lem of Euclid. 
 
 Triangle, Double. See Seal of Sol- 
 omon and Shield of David. 
 
 Triangle of Pythagoras. See 
 Pentalpha. 
 
 Triangle, Radiated. A triangle 
 placed within and surrounded by a circle 
 of rays. This circle is called, in Christian 
 
 art, "a glory." When this glory is dis- 
 tinct from the triangle, and surrounds it in 
 the form of a circle, it is then an emblem 
 of God's eternal glory. This is the usual 
 form in religious uses. But when, as is 
 most usual in the Masonic symbol, the rays 
 emanate from the centre of the triangle, 
 and, as it were, enshroud it in their bril- 
 liancy, it is symbolic of the Divine Light. 
 The perverted ideas of the Pagans referred 
 these rays of light to their sun-god and 
 their Sabian worship. 
 
 But the true Masonic idea of this glory 
 is, that it symbolizes that Eternal Light 
 of Wisdom which surrounds the Supreme 
 Architect as a sea of glory, and from him 
 as a common centre emanates to the uni- 
 verse of his creation. 
 
 Triangle, Triple. The pentalpha, 
 or triangle of Pythagoras, is usually called 
 also the triple triangle, 
 because three triangles 
 are formed by the in- 
 tersection of its sides. 
 But there is another 
 variety of the triple tri- 
 angle which is more 
 properly entitled to the 
 appellation, and which is made in the an- 
 nexed form. 
 
 It will be familiar to the Knight Tem- 
 plar as the form of the jewel worn by the 
 Prelate of his Order. Like every modifi- 
 cation of the triangle, it is a symbol of the 
 Deity ; but as the degree of Knight Tem- 
 plar appertains exclusively to Christian 
 Masonry, the triple triangle there alludes 
 %o the mystery of the Trinity. In the 
 Scottish Rite degree of Knight of the East 
 the symbol is also said to refer to the triple 
 essence of Deity; but the symbolism is 
 made still more mystical by supposing that 
 it represents the sacred number 81, each 
 side of the three triangles being equivalent 
 to 9, which again is the square of 3, the 
 most sacred number in Freemasonry. In 
 the twentieth degree of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite, or that of " Grand 
 Master of all Symbolic Lodges," it is said 
 that the number 81 refers to the triple 
 covenant of God, symbolized by a triple 
 triangle said to have been seen by Solomon 
 when he consecrated the Temple. Indeed, 
 throughout the ineffable and the philo- 
 sophic degrees, the allusions to the triple 
 triangle are much more frequent than they 
 are in Ancient Craft Masonry. 
 
 The Indian trimourti, or triple triangle 
 
TRIBE 
 
 TRIBUNAL 
 
 831 
 
 of the Hindus, is of a different form, con- 
 sisting of three concentric triangles. In 
 the centre is the sacred triliteral name, 
 AUM. The interior triangle symbolizes 
 Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva; the middle 
 one, Creation, Preservation, and Destruc- 
 tion ; and the exterior one, Earth, Water, 
 and Air. 
 
 Tribe of Judali, Lion of the. 
 The connection of Solomon, as the chief of 
 the tribe of Judah, with the lion, which 
 was the achievement of the tribe, has 
 caused this expression to be referred, in the 
 third degree, to him who brought light and 
 immortality to light. The old Christian 
 interpretation of the Masonic symbols here 
 prevails; and in Ancient Craft Masonry all 
 allusions to the lion, as the lion's paw, the 
 lion's grip, etc., refer to the doctrine of the 
 resurrection taught by him who is known 
 as " the lion of the tribe of Judah." The 
 expression is borrowed from the Apoca- 
 lypse, (v. 5:) "Behold, the Lion which is of 
 the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, hath 
 prevailed to open the book, and to loose the 
 seven seals thereof." The lion was also a 
 mediaeval symbol of the resurrection, the 
 idea being founded on a legend. The poets 
 of that age were fond of referring to this 
 legendary symbol in connection with the 
 scriptural idea of the "tribe of Judah." 
 Thus Adam de St. Victor, in his poem De 
 Resurrectione Domini, says : 
 
 * Sic de Juda Leo fortis, 
 Fractis portis dirae mortis 
 Die surgit tertia, 
 Rugiente voce Patris." 
 i. e., 
 
 Thus the strong lion of Judah, 
 • The gates of cruel death being broken, 
 Arose on the third day 
 At the loud-sounding voice of the Father. 
 
 The lion was the symbol of strength and 
 sovereignty, in the human-headed figures 
 of the Nimrod gateway, and in other Baby- 
 lonish remains. In Egypt, it was wor- 
 shipped at the city of Leontopolis as typi- 
 cal of Dom, the Egyptian Hercules. Plu- 
 tarch says that the Egyptians ornamented 
 their temples with gaping lions' mouths, 
 because the Nile began to rise when the 
 sun was in the constellation Leo. Among 
 the Talmudists there was a tradition of the 
 lion, which has been introduced into the 
 higher degrees of Masonry. 
 
 But in the symbolism of Ancient Craft 
 Masonry, where the lion is introduced, as in 
 the third degree, in connection with the 
 " lion of the tribe of Judah," he becomes 
 simply a symbol of the resurrection ; thus 
 restoring the symbology of the mediaeval 
 ages, which was founded on a legend that 
 the lion's whelp was born dead, and only 
 
 brought to life by the roaring of its sire. 
 Philip de Thaun, in his Bestiary, written 
 in the twelfth century, gives the legend, 
 which has thus been translated by Mr. 
 Wright from the original old Norman 
 French : 
 
 "Know that the lioness, if she bring 
 forth a dead cub, she holds her cub and 
 the lion arrives ; he goes about and cries, 
 till it revives on the third day .... Know 
 that the lioness signifies St. Mary, and the 
 lion Christ, who gave himself to death for 
 the people; three days he lay in the earth 
 
 to gain our souls By the cry of the 
 
 lion they understand the power of God, by 
 which Christ was restored to life and robbed 
 hell." 
 
 The phrase, " lion of the tribe of Judah," 
 therefore, when used in the Masonic ritual, 
 referred in its original interpretation to 
 Christ, him who " brought life and immor- 
 tality to light." 
 
 Tribes of Israel. All the twelve 
 tribes of Israel were engaged in the con- 
 struction of the first Temple. But long 
 before its destruction, ten of them revolted, 
 and formed the nation of Israel ; while the 
 remaining two, the tribes of Judah and 
 Benjamin, retained possession of the Tem- 
 ple and of Jerusalem under the name of the 
 kingdom of Judah. To these two tribes 
 alone, after the return from the captivity, 
 was intrusted the building of the second 
 Temple. Hence in the high degrees, which, 
 of course, are connected for the most part 
 with the Temple of Zerubbabel, or with 
 events that occurred subsequent to the de- 
 struction of that of Solomon, the tribes of 
 Judah and Benjamin only are referred to. 
 But in the primary degrees, which are based 
 on the first Temple, the Masonic references 
 always are to the twelve tribes. Hence in 
 the old lectures the twelve original points 
 are explained by a reference to the twelve 
 tribes. See Twelve Original Points of Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 Tribunal. The modern statutes of 
 the Supreme Council of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite for the Southern 
 Jurisdiction of the United States direct 
 trials of Masonic offences, committed by any 
 brethren of the Rite above the 18th degree, 
 to be held in a court called a Tribunal of 
 the Thirty-First degree, to be composed of 
 not less nor more than nine members. An 
 appeal lies from such a Tribunal of Inspec- 
 tors Inquisitors to the Grand Consistory 
 or the Supreme Council. 
 
 Tribunal, Supreme. 1. The sev- 
 enty-first degree of the Rite of Mizraim. 
 2. The meeting of Inquisitors Inspectors 
 of the thirty-first degree of the Ancient 
 and Accepted Scottish Rite according to 
 the modern ritual of the Mother Council. 
 
832 
 
 TRILITERAL 
 
 TROWEL 
 
 Triliteral Name. The sacred name 
 of God among the Hindus is so called be- 
 cause it consists of the three letters, A U M. 
 See Aunt. 
 
 Trinidad. Masonry was introduced 
 into the island of Trinidad by the estab- 
 lishment of a Lodge called " Lea Freres 
 Unis," under a Charter from the Grand 
 Lodge of Pennsylvania, in 1797. A Charter 
 had been granted the year before by the 
 Grand Orient of France, but never acted 
 on, in consequence of the suspension of 
 that body by the French Revolution. In 
 1804, the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania, in 
 its capitular capacity, granted a Charter for 
 a Royal Arch Chapter, which continued to 
 meet until 1813, when it obtained a new 
 Warrant of Constitution from the Supreme 
 Chapter of Scotland. In 1814, Templar 
 Masonry was established by a Deuchar 
 Warrant from the Grand Conclave of Scot- 
 land. In 1819, a Council of Royal and 
 Select Masters was established. Trinidad 
 has at present a Provincial Grand Lodge 
 under the Grand Lodge of Scotland, and 
 there are also several Lodges under the 
 Grand Lodge of England. 
 
 Trinosophs. The Lodge of the Tri- 
 nosophs was instituted at Paris by the cel- 
 ebrated Ragon, October 15, 1816, and in- 
 stalled by the Grand Orient, January 11, 
 1817. The word Trinosophs is derived from 
 the Greek, and signifies students of three sci- 
 ences, in allusion to the three primitive de- 
 grees, which were the especial object of 
 study by the members; although they 
 adopted both the French and Scottish 
 Rites, to whose high degrees, however, they 
 gave their own philosophical interpreta- 
 tion. It was before this Lodge that Ragon 
 delivered his Interpretative and Philosophic 
 Course of Initiations. The Lodge was com- 
 posed of some of the most learned Masons 
 of France, and played an important part in 
 Masonic literature. No Lodge in France 
 has obtained so much celebrity as did the 
 Trinosophs. It was connected with a Chap- 
 ter and Council in which the high degrees 
 were conferred, but the Lodge confined 
 itself to the three symbolic degrees, which 
 it sought to preserve in the utmost purity. 
 
 Triple Alliance. An expression in 
 the hign degrees, which, having been trans- 
 lated from the French rituals, should have 
 more properly been the triple covenant. It 
 is represented by the triple triangle, and 
 refers to the covenant of God with his peo- 
 ple, that of King Solomon with Hiram of 
 Tyre, and that which binds the fraternity 
 of Masons. 
 
 Triple Tan. The tau cross, or cross 
 of St. Anthony, is a cross in the form of a 
 Greek T. The triple tau is a figure formed by 
 three of these crosses meeting in a point, and 
 
 
 therefore resembling a letter T resting on 
 the traverse bar of an H. This emblem, 
 ^^^^^^_ placed in the centre of a 
 ^^^^^^^ triangle and circle — both 
 emblems of the Deity — con- 
 I ■ stitutes the jewel of the 
 
 I Royal Arch as practised in 
 I^^J^^^i England, where it is so 
 ^■■■■■J highly esteemed as to be 
 called the " emblem of all 
 emblems," and "the grand 
 emblem of Royal Arch Ma- 
 sonry." It was adopted in the same form, 
 as the Royal Arch badge, by the General 
 Grand Chapter of the United States in 1859 ; 
 although it had previously been very gener- 
 ally recognized by American Masons. It 
 is also found in the capitular Masonry of 
 Scotland. .(See Royal Arch Badge.) 
 
 The original signification of this emblem 
 has been variously explained. Some sup- 
 pose it to include the initials of the Temple 
 of Jerusalem, T. H., Ternplum Hierosolymoz ; 
 others, that it is a symbol of the mystical 
 union of the Father and Son, H signifying 
 Jehovah, and T, or the cross, the Son. A 
 writer in Moore's Magazine ingeniously 
 supposes it to be a representation of three 
 T squares, and that it alludes to the three 
 jewels of the three ancient Grand Masters. 
 It has also been said that it is the mono- 
 gram of Hiram of Tyre; and others assert 
 that it is only a modification of the Hebrew 
 letter shin, {£?, which was one of the Jewish 
 abbreviations of the sacred name. Oliver 
 thinks, from its connection with the circle 
 and triangle in the Royal Arch jewel, that 
 it was intended to typify the sacred name 
 as the author of eternal life. The English 
 Royal Arch lectures say that "by its inter- 
 section it forms a given number of angles 
 that may be taken in five several combina- 
 tions ; and, reduced, their amount in right 
 angles will be found equal to the five Pla- 
 tonic bodies which represent the four ele- 
 ments and the sphere of the Universe." 
 Amid so many speculations, I need not hesi- 
 tate to offer one of my own. The Prophet 
 Ezekiel speaks of the tau or tau cross as 
 the mark distinguishing those who were 
 to be saved, on account of their sorrow for 
 their sins, from those who, as idolaters, 
 were to be slain. It was a mark or sign of 
 favorable distinction; and with this allu- 
 sion we may, therefore, suppose the triple 
 tau to be used in the Royal Arch degree as 
 a mark designating and separating those 
 who know and worship the true name of 
 God from those who are ignorant of that 
 august mystery. 
 Trivinm. See Quadrivium. 
 Trowel. An implement of Operative 
 Masonry, which has been adopted by spec- 
 ulative Masons as the peculiar working- 
 
TROWEL 
 
 TRUST 
 
 833 
 
 tool of the Master's degree. By this im- 
 plement, and its use in Operative Masonry 
 to spread the cement which binds all the 
 parts of the building into one common 
 mass, we are taught to spread the cement 
 of affection and kindness, which unites all 
 the members of the Masonic family, where- 
 soever dispersed over the globe, into one 
 companionship of Brotherly Love. 
 
 This implement is considered the appro- 
 priate working-tool of a Master Mason, be- 
 cause, in Operative Masonry, while the Ap- 
 prentice is engaged in preparing the rude 
 materials, which require only the gauge and 
 gavel to give them their proper shape, the 
 Fellow Craft places them in their proper 
 position by means of the plumb, level, and 
 square ; but the Master Mason alone, hav- 
 ing examined their correctness and proved 
 them true and trusty, secures them perma- 
 nently in their place by spreading, with 
 the trowel, the cement that irrevocably 
 binds them together. 
 
 The trowel has also been adopted as the 
 jewel of the Select Master. But its uses 
 in this degree are not symbolical. They 
 are simply connected with the historical 
 legend of the degree. 
 
 Trowel and Sword. When Nehe- 
 miah received from Artaxerxes Longi- 
 manus the appointment of Governor of 
 Judea, and was permitted to rebuild the 
 walls of Jerusalem, and to restore the city 
 to its former fortified condition, he met 
 with great opposition from the Persian 
 satraps, who were envious of his favor with 
 the king, and from the heathen inhabitants 
 of Samaria, who were unwilling to see the 
 city again assume its pristine importance. 
 The former undertook to injure him with 
 Artaxerxes by false reports of his seditious 
 designs to restore the independent kind- 
 dom of Judea. The latter sought to ob- 
 struct the workmen of Nehemiah in their 
 labors, and openly attacked them. Nehe- 
 miah took the most active measures to re- 
 fute the insidious accusations of the first, 
 and to repel the more open violence of the 
 latter. Josephus says (Antiq., B. XI., ch. 
 vi., §8,) that he gave orders that the builders 
 should keep their ranks, and have their 
 armor on while they were building ; and, 
 accordingly, the mason had his sword on 
 as well as he that brought the materials for 
 building. 
 
 Zerubbabel had met with similar opposi- 
 tion from the Samaritans while rebuilding 
 the Temple; and although the events con- 
 nected with Nehemiah's restoration of the 
 walls occurred long after the completion 
 of the second Temple, yet the Masons have 
 in the high degrees referred them to the 
 time of Zerubbabel. Hence in the fifteenth 
 degree of the Scottish Rite, or the Knight 
 5E 63 
 
 of the East, which refers to the building 
 of the Temple of Zerubbabel, we find this 
 combination of the trowel and the sword 
 adopted as a symbol. The old ritual of 
 that degree says that Zerubbabel, being in- 
 formed of the hostile intentions of the false 
 brethren from Samaria, " ordered that all 
 the workmen should be armed with the 
 trowel in one hand and the sword in the 
 other, that while they worked with the one 
 they might be enabled to defend themselves 
 with the other, and ever repulse the enemy 
 if they should dare to present themselves." 
 
 In reference to this idea, but not with 
 chronological accuracy, the trowel and 
 sword have been placed crosswise as sym- 
 bols on the tracing-board of the English 
 Royal Arch. 
 
 Oliver correctly interprets the symbol of 
 the trowel and sword as signifying that, 
 " next to obedience to lawful authority, a 
 manly and determined resistance to lawless 
 violence is an essential part of social duty." 
 
 Trowel, Society of the. Vasari, 
 in his Lives of the Painters and Sculptors 
 (life of G. F. Rustici), says that about the 
 year 1512 there was established at Florence 
 an association which counted among its 
 members some of the most distinguished 
 and learned inhabitants of the city. It 
 was the " Societa della Cucchiara," or the 
 Society of the Trowel. Vasari adds that its 
 symbols were the trowel, the hammer, the 
 square, and the level, and had for its patron 
 St. Andrew, which makes Reghellini think, 
 rather illogically, that it had some relation 
 to the Scottish Rite. Lenning, too, says 
 that this society was the first appearance 
 of Freemasonry in Florence. It is to be 
 regretted that such misstatements of Ma- 
 sonic history should be encouraged by 
 writers of learning and distinction. The 
 perusal of the account of the formation of 
 this society, as given by Vasari, shows that 
 it had not the slightest connection with 
 Freemasonry. It was simply a festive as- 
 sociation, or dinner-club of Florentine 
 artists ; and it derived its title from the ac- 
 cidental circumstance that certain painters 
 and sculptors, dining together in a garden, 
 found not far from their table a mass of 
 mortar, in which a trowel was sticking. 
 Some rough jokes passed thereupon, in the 
 casting of the mortar on each other, and 
 the calling for the trowel to scrape it off. 
 Whereupon they resolved to form an asso- 
 ciation to dine together annually, and, in 
 memorial of the ludicrous event that had 
 led to their establishment, they called them- 
 selves the Society of the Trowel. 
 
 True Masons. See Academy of True 
 Masons. 
 
 Trust in God. Every candidate on 
 his initiation is required to declare that 
 
834 
 
 TRUTH 
 
 TSCHOUDY 
 
 his trust is in God. And so he who denies 
 the existence of a Supreme Being is de- 
 barred the privilege of initiation, for athe- 
 ism is a disqualification for Masonry. This 
 pious principle has distinguished the Fra- 
 ternity from the earliest period ; and it is 
 a happy coincidence, that the company of 
 Operative Freemasons instituted in 1477 
 should have adopted, as their motto, the 
 truly Masonic sentiment, " The Lord is 
 all our Trust." 
 
 Truth. The real object of Freema- 
 sonry, in a philosophical and religious sense, 
 is the search for truth. This truth is, 
 therefore, symbolized by the Word. From 
 the first entrance of the Apprentice into 
 the Lodge, until his reception of the high- 
 est degree, this search is continued. It is 
 not always found, and a substitute must 
 sometimes be provided. Yet whatever be 
 the labors he may perform, whatever the 
 ceremonies through which he may pass, 
 whatever the symbols in which he may be 
 instructed, whatever the reward he may 
 obtain, the true end of all is the attainment 
 of truth. This idea of truth is not the 
 same as that expressed in the lecture of 
 the first degree, where Brotherly Love, Re- 
 lief, and Truth are there said to be the 
 " three great tenets of a Mason's profession." 
 In that connection, truth, which is called a 
 " divine attribute, the foundation of every 
 virtue," is synonymous with sincerity, hon- 
 esty of expression, and plain dealing. The 
 higher idea of truth which pervades the 
 whole Masonic system, and which is sym- 
 bolized by the Word, is that which is prop- 
 erly expressed to a knowledge of God. 
 
 Tschoudy, Louis Theodore. 
 Michaud spells the name Tschudi, but Len- 
 ning, Thory, Ragon, Oliver, and all other 
 Masonic writers, give the name as Tschoudy, 
 which form, therefore, I adopt as the most 
 usual, if not the most correct, spelling. 
 
 The Baron de Tschoudy was born at 
 Metz, in 1720. He was descended from a 
 family originally of the Swiss canton of 
 Glaris, but which had been established in 
 France since the commencement of the six- 
 teenth century. He was a counsellor of 
 State and member of the Parliament of 
 Metz; but the most important events of his 
 life are those which connect him with the 
 Masonic institution, of which he was a 
 zealous and learned investigator. He was 
 one of the most active apostles of the school 
 of Ramsay, and adopted his theory of the 
 Templar origin of Masonry. Having ob- 
 tained permission from the king to travel, 
 he went to Italy, in 1752, under the assumed 
 name of the Chevalier de Lussy. There he 
 excited the anger of the papal court by the 
 publication at the Hague, in the same year, 
 of a book entitled, Etrenne au Pope, ou les 
 
 Francs- Masons Venges ; i. e., "A New Year's 
 Gift for the Pope, or the Free Masons 
 Avenged." This was a caustic commentary 
 on the bull of Benedict XIV. excommunicat- 
 ing the Freemasons. It was followed, in the 
 same year, by another work entitled, Le Vat- 
 ican Venye; i. e., " The Vatican Avenged;" 
 an ironical apology, intended as a sequence 
 to the former book. These two works sub- 
 jected him to such persecution by the 
 Church that he was soon compelled to seek 
 safety in flight. 
 
 He next repaired to Russia, where his 
 means of living became so much impaired 
 that, Michaud says, he was compelled to 
 enter the company of comedians of the Em- 
 press Elizabeth. From this condition he 
 was relieved by Count Ivan Schouwalon, 
 who made him his private secretary. He 
 was also appointed the secretary of the 
 Academy of Moscow, and governor of the 
 pages at the court. But this advancement 
 of his fortunes, and the fact of his being a 
 Frenchman, created for him many enemies, 
 and he was compelled at length to leave 
 Russia and return to France. There, how- 
 ever, the persecutions of his enemies pur- 
 sued him, and on his arrival at Paris he 
 was sent to the Bastile. But the interces- 
 sion of his mother with the Empress Eliza- 
 beth and with the Grand Duke Peter was 
 successful, and he was speedily restored to 
 liberty. He then retired to Metz, and for 
 the rest of his life devoted himself to the 
 task of Masonic reform and the fabrication 
 of new systems. 
 
 In 1762, the Council of Knights of the 
 East was established at Paris. Ragon says 
 (Orthod. Macon., p. 137,) that "its ritual 
 was corrected by the Baron de Tschoudy, 
 the author of the Blazing Star." But this 
 is an error. Tschoudy was then at Metz, 
 and his work and system of the Blazing 
 Star did not appear until four years after- 
 wards. It is at a later date that Tschoudy 
 became connected with the Council. 
 
 In 1766 he published, in connection with 
 Bardon-Duhamel, his most important work, 
 entitled, L'Fioile Flamboyante, ou la Societe 
 des Francs- Macons consideree sous tous les 
 Aspects; i. e., "The Blazing Star, or the 
 Society of Freemasons considered under 
 every point of view." 
 
 In the same year he repaired to Paris, 
 with the declared object of extending his 
 Masonic system. He then attached him- 
 self to the Council of Knights of the East, 
 which, under the guidance of the tailor 
 Pirlet, had seceded from the Council of 
 Emperors of the East and West. Tschoudy 
 availed himself of the ignorance and of 
 the boldness of Pirlet to put his plan of re- 
 form into execution by the creation of new 
 degrees. 
 
TUAPHOLL 
 
 TUBAL 
 
 835 
 
 In Tschoudy's system, however, as de- 
 veloped in the L'Etoile Flamboyante, he 
 does not show himself to be the advocate 
 of the high degrees, which, he says, are 
 "an occasion of expense to their dupes, 
 and an abundant and lucrative resource for 
 those who make a profitable traffic of their 
 pretended instructions." He recognizes the 
 three symbolic degrees because their gra- 
 dations are necessary in the Lodge, which 
 he viewed as a school; and to these he adds 
 a superior class, which may be called the 
 architects, or by any other name, provided 
 we attach to it the proper meaning. All 
 the high degrees he calls "Masonic rev- 
 eries," excepting two, which he regards as 
 containing the secrect, the object, and the 
 essence of Masonry, namely, the Scottish 
 Knight of St. Andrew and the Knight of 
 Palestine. The former of these degrees 
 was composed by Tschoudy, and its ritual, 
 which he bequeathed, with other manu- 
 scripts, to the Council of Knights of the 
 East and West, was published in 1780, 
 under the title of Ecossais de Saint Andre, 
 contenant le developpement total de Vart royal 
 de la Franche-Maconnerie. Subsequently, 
 on the organization of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Scottish Rite, the degree was adopt- 
 ed as the twenty-ninth of its series, and is 
 considered as one of the most important 
 and philosophic of the Scottish system. 
 Its fabrication is, indeed, an evidence of 
 the intellectual genius of its inventor. 
 
 Ragon, in his Orthodoxie Maconnique, at- 
 tributes to Tschoudy the fabrication of the 
 Eite of Adonhiramite Masonry, and the 
 authorship of the Recueil Precieux, which 
 contains the description of the Rite. But 
 the first edition of the Recueil, with the ac- 
 knowledged authorship of Guillaume de 
 St. Victor, appeared in 1781. This is prob- 
 ably about the date of the introduction of 
 the Rite, and is just twelve years after 
 Tschoudy had gone to his eternal rest. 
 
 Tschoudy also indulged in light litera- 
 ture, and several romances are attributed 
 to him, the only one of which now known, 
 entitled Therese Philosophe, does not add to 
 his reputation. 
 
 Chemins Despontes {Encyc. Macon., i. 
 143,) says: "The Baron Tschoudy, whose 
 birth gave him a distinguished rank in so- 
 ciety, left behind him the reputation of an 
 excellent man, equally remarkable for his 
 social virtues, his genius, and his military 
 talents." Such appears to have been the 
 general opinion of those who were his con- 
 temporaries or his immediate successors. 
 He died at Paris, May 28, 1769. 
 
 Tuapboll. A term used by the Dru- 
 ids to designate an unhallowed circumam- 
 bulation around the sacred cairn, or altar ; 
 the movement being against the sun, that 
 
 is, from west to east by the north, the cairn 
 being on the left hand of the circumambu- 
 lator. 
 
 Tubal Cain. Of Tubal Cain, the sa- 
 cred writings, as well as the Masonic le- 
 gends, give us but scanty information. All 
 that we hear of him in the book of Gen- 
 esis is that he was the son of Lamech and 
 Zillah, and was "an instructor of every 
 artificer in brass and iron." The Hebrew 
 original does not justify the common ver- 
 sion, for wdl, lotesh, does not mean " an in- 
 structor," but "a sharpener," — one who 
 whets or sharpens instruments. Hence 
 Dr. Raphall translates the passage as one 
 "who sharpened various tools in copper 
 and iron." The authorized version has, 
 however, almost indelibly impressed the 
 character of Tubal Cain as the father of 
 artificers; and it is in this sense that he 
 has been introduced from a very early pe- 
 riod into the legendary history of Masonry. 
 
 The first Masonic reference to Tubal 
 Cain is found in the " Legend of the Craft," 
 where he is called " the founder of smith- 
 craft." I cite this part of the legend from 
 the Dowland MS. simply because of its 
 more modern orthography; but the story 
 is substantially the same in all the old 
 manuscript Constitutions. In that Manu- 
 script we find the following account of 
 Tubal Cain : 
 
 " Before Noah's flood, there was a man 
 called Lamech, as it is written in the Bible, 
 in the fourth chapter of Genesis ; and this 
 Lamech had two wives, the one named 
 Ada and the other named Zilla; by his 
 first wife, Ada, he got two sons, the one 
 Jubel, and the other Jubal: and by the 
 other wife he got a son and a daughter. 
 And these four children founded the be- 
 ginning of all the sciences in the world. 
 The elder son, Jabel, founded the science 
 of geometry, and he carried flocks of sheep 
 and lambs into the fields, and first built 
 houses of stone and wood, as it is noted in 
 the chapter above named. And his brother 
 Jubal founded the science of music and 
 songs of the tongue, the harp and organ. 
 And the third brother, Tubal Cain, found- 
 ed smith-craft, of gold, silver, copper, iron, 
 and steel, and the daughter founded the 
 art of weaving. And these children knew 
 well that God would take vengeance for 
 sin, either by fire or water, wherefore they 
 wrote the sciences that they had found, on 
 two pillars that they might be found after 
 Noah's flood. The one pillar was marble, 
 for that would not burn with fire ; and the 
 other was of brass, for that would not 
 drown in water." 
 
 Similar to this is an old Rabbinical tra- 
 dition, which asserts that Jubal, who was 
 the inventor of writing as well as of music, 
 
836 
 
 TUBAL 
 
 TUBAL 
 
 having heard Adam say that the universe 
 would be twice destroyed, once by fire and 
 once by water, inquired which catastrophe 
 would first occur; but Adam refusing to 
 inform him, he inscribed the system of 
 music which he had invented upon two 
 pillars of stone and brick. A more modern 
 Masonic tradition ascribes the construction 
 of these pillars to Enoch. 
 
 To this account of Tubal Cain must be 
 added the additional particulars, recorded 
 by Josephus, that he exceeded all men in 
 strength, and was renowned for his warlike 
 achievements. 
 
 The only other account of the proto- 
 metallurgist that we meet with in any an- 
 cient author is that which is contained in 
 the celebrated fragment of Sanconiatho, 
 who refers to him under the name of 
 Chrysor, which is evidently, as Bochart 
 affirms, a corruption of the Hebrew chores 
 ur, a worker in fire, that is, a smith. San- 
 coniatho was a Phoenician author, who is 
 supposed to have flourished before the 
 Trojan war, probably, as Sir William 
 Drummond suggests, about the time when 
 Gideon was Judge of Israel, and who col- 
 lected the different accounts and traditions 
 of the origin of the world which were ex- 
 tant at the period in which he lived. A 
 fragment only of this work has been pre- 
 served, which, translated into Greek by 
 Philo Byblius, was inserted by Eusebius in 
 his Prceparatio Evangelica, and has thus 
 been handed down to the present day. 
 That portion of the history by Sanconiatho, 
 which refers to Tubal Cain, is contained in 
 the following words : 
 
 "A long time after the generation of 
 Hypsoaranios, the inventors of hunting 
 and fishing, Agreas and Alieas, were born ; 
 after whom the people were called hunters 
 and fishers, and from whom sprang two 
 brothers, who discovered iron, and the 
 manner of working it. One of these two, 
 called Chrysor, was skilled in eloquence, 
 and composed verses and prophecies. He 
 was the same with Hephaistos, and in- 
 vented fishing-hooks, bait for taking fish, 
 cordage and rafts, and was the first of all 
 mankind who had navigated. He was 
 therefore worshipped as a god after his 
 death, and was called Diamichios. It is 
 said that these brothers were the first who 
 contrived partition walls of brick." 
 
 Hephaistos, it will be observed, is the 
 Greek of the god who was called by the 
 Romans Vulcan. Hence the remark of 
 Sanconiatho, and the apparent similarity 
 of names as well as occupations, have led 
 some writers of the last, and even of the 
 present, century to derive Vulcan from 
 Tubal Cain by a process not very devious, 
 and therefore familiar to etymologists. By 
 
 the omission in Tubal Cain of the initial 
 T, which is the Phoenician article, and its 
 valueless vowel, we get Balcan, which, by 
 the interchangeable nature of B and V, is 
 easily transformed to Vulcan. 
 
 " That Tubal Cain," says Bishop Stilling- 
 fleet, (Orig. Sac, p. 292,) "gave first occa- 
 sion to the name and worship of Vulcan, 
 hath been very probably conceived, both 
 from the very great affinity of the names, 
 and that Tubal Cain is expressly mentioned 
 to be an instructor of every artificer in 
 brass and iron, and as near relation as 
 Apollo had to Vulcan, Jubal had to Tubal 
 Cain, who was the inventor of music, or 
 the father of all such as handle the harp 
 and organ, which the Greeks attribute to 
 Apollo." 
 
 Vossiua, in his treatise De Idolatria, 
 (lib. i., cap. 36,) makes this derivation of 
 Vulcan from Tubal Cain. But Bryant, in 
 his Analysis of Ancient Mythology, (vol. i., 
 p. 139,) denies the etymology, and says 
 that among the Egyptians and Babyloni- 
 ans, Vulcan was equivalent to Orus or 
 Osiris, symbols of the sun. He traces the 
 name to the words Baal Cahen, Holy Bel, 
 or sacred Lord. Bryant's etymology may 
 be adopted, however, without any inter- 
 ference with the identity of Vulcan and 
 Tubal Cain. He who discovered the uses 
 of fire, may well, in the corruptions of idola- 
 try, have typified the solar orb, the source 
 of all heat. It might seem that Tubal is 
 an attribute compounded of the definite 
 particle T and the word Baal, signifying 
 Lord. Tubal Cain would then signify the 
 Lord Cain." Again, dhu or du, in Arabic, 
 signifies Lord ; and we trace the same signi- 
 fication of this affix, in its various inter- 
 changeable forms of Du, Tu, and Di, in 
 many Semitic words. But the question of 
 the identical origin of Tubal Cain and 
 Vulcan has at length been settled by the 
 researches of comparative philologists. 
 Tubal Cain is Semitic in origin, and 
 Vulcan is Aryan. The latter may be 
 traced to the Sanscrit ulka, a firebrand, 
 from which we get also the Latin fulgur 
 and fulmen, names of the lightning. 
 
 From the mention made of Tubal Cain 
 in the " Legend of the Craft," the word was 
 long ago adopted as significant in the pri- 
 mary degrees, and various attempts have 
 been made to give it an interpretation. 
 
 Hutchinson, in an article in his Spirit of 
 Masonry devoted to the consideration of 
 the third degree, has the following refer- 
 ence to the word : 
 
 " The Mason advancing to this state of 
 Masonry, pronounces his own sentence, as 
 confessional of the imperfection of the 
 second stage of his profession, and as pro- 
 bationary of the exalted degree to which 
 
TUNE 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 837 
 
 he aspires, in the Greek distich, Hvfifiovxoeu, 
 (tumbonchoeo,) Struo tumulum: 'I prepare 
 my sepulchre; I make my grave in the 
 pollutions of the earth; I am under the 
 shadow of death.' This distich has been 
 vulgarly corrupted among us, and an ex- 
 pression takes place scarcely similar in 
 sound, and entirely inconsistent with Ma- 
 sonry, and unmeaning in itself." 
 
 But however ingenious this interpretation 
 of Hutchinson may be, it is generally ad- 
 mitted that it is incorrect. 
 
 The modern English Masons, and through 
 them the French, have derived Tubal Cain 
 from the Hebrew tebel, earth, and kanah, to 
 acquire possession, and, with little respect 
 for the grammatical rules of the Hebrew 
 language, interpret it as meaning worldly 
 possessions. 
 
 In the Hemming lectures, now the au- 
 thorized English system, we find the an- 
 swer to the question, " What does Tubal 
 Cain denote?" is "Worldly possessions." 
 And Delaunay, in his Thuilleur, (p. 17,) de- 
 nies the reference to the proto-smith, and 
 says : " If we reflect on the meaning of the 
 two Hebrew words, we will easily recog- 
 nize in their connection the secret wish of 
 the hierophant, of the Templar, of the 
 Freemason, and of every mystical sect, to 
 govern the world in accordance with its 
 own principles and its own laws." It is for- 
 tunate, I think, that the true meaning of the 
 words will authorize no such interpretation. 
 The fact is, that even if Tubal Cain were 
 derived from tebel and kanah, the precise 
 rules of Hebrew construction would forbid 
 affixing to their union any such meaning 
 as " worldly possessions." Such an inter- 
 pretation of it in the French and English 
 systems is, therefore, a very forced and in- 
 accurate one. 
 
 The use of Tubal Cain as a significant 
 word in the Masonic ritual is derived from 
 the " Legend of the Craft," by which the 
 name was made familiar to the Operative 
 and then to the Speculative Masons ; and it 
 refers not symbolically, but historically to 
 his scriptural and traditional reputation as 
 an artificer. If he symbolized anything, it 
 would be labor; and a Mason's labor is to 
 acquire truth, and not worldly possessions. 
 The English and French interpretation has 
 fortunately never been introduced into this 
 country. 
 
 Tunc, Freemasons'. The air of 
 the song written by Matthew Birkhead, 
 and first published in the Book of Consti- 
 tutions of 1723, with the title of " the En- 
 tered Prentice's Song," is familiarly and 
 distinctively known as "the Freemasons' 
 Tune." Mr. William Chappell, in a work 
 entitled Popular Music of the Olden Time, 
 gives the following interesting account of it. 
 
 " This tune was very popular at the time 
 of the ballad operas, and I am informed 
 that the same words are still sung to it at 
 Masonic meetings. 
 
 "The air was introduced in The Village 
 Opera, The Chambermaid, The Lottery, The 
 Grub-Street Opera, and The Ijover his own 
 Rival. It is contained in the third volume 
 of The Dancing Master, and of Walsh's 
 New Country Dancing Master. Words and 
 music are included in Watt's Musical Mis- 
 cellany, iii. 72, and in British Melody, or 
 The Musical Magazine, fol., 1739. They 
 were also printed on broadsides. 
 
 "In the Gentlemen's Magazine, for Octo- 
 ber, 1731, the first stanza is printed as 'A 
 Health, by Mr. Birkhead.' It seems to be 
 there quoted from 'The Constitutions of 
 the Freemasons,' by the Rev. James An- 
 derson, A.M., one of the Worshipful Mas- 
 ters. 
 
 "There are several versions of the tune. 
 One in Pills to Purge Melancholy, ii. 230, 
 (1719,) has a second part; but that being 
 almost a repetition of the first, taken an oc- 
 tave higher, is out of the compass of or- 
 dinary voices, and has therefore been gen- 
 erally rejected. 
 
 "In A Complete Collection of Old and 
 New English and Scotch Songs, ii. 172, 
 (1735,) the name is given as 'Ye Com- 
 moners and Peers ; ' but Leveridge com- 
 posed another tune to these words. 
 
 "In The Musical Mason, or Freemasons' 
 Pocket Companion, being a collection of 
 songs used in all Lodges, to which are 
 added the ' Freemasons' March and Ode,' 
 (8vo, 1791,) this is entitled 'The Entered 
 Apprentice's Song.' 
 
 "Many stanzas have been added from 
 time to time, and others have been altered." 
 
 Turban. The usual head-dress worn 
 in Eastern nations, consisting of a quilted 
 cap, without rim, and a sash or scarf of 
 cotton or linen wound about the cap. In 
 Royal Arch Chapters, the turban, of a pur- 
 ple color, constitutes the head-dress of the 
 Scribe, because that officer represents the 
 Jewish prophet Haggai. 
 
 Turcopolier. The third dignity in 
 the Order of Knights Hospitallers of St. 
 John, or Knights of Malta. It took its 
 name from the Turcopoles, a sort of light 
 horse mentioned in the history of the 
 Christian wars in Palestine. The office of 
 Turcopolier was held by the Conventual 
 Bailiff, or head of the language of Eng- 
 land. He had the command of the cavalry 
 of the Order. 
 
 Turkey. A writer in the Freemasons' 
 Quarterly Review (1844, p. 21,) says that 
 there was a Masonic meeting in Constanti- 
 nople, at which some Turks were initiated, 
 but that the government prohibited the 
 
838 
 
 TURQUOISE 
 
 TWELVE 
 
 future meetings. This must have been an 
 irregular Lodge, for organized Masonry was 
 not introduced into Turkey until 1838, 
 when the first Lodges were erected by the 
 Grand Lodge of England. They were, 
 however, soon discontinued, in consequence 
 of the opposition of the Mohammedan 
 hierarchy. A more tolerant spirit, how- 
 ever, now exists, and there is a Provincial 
 Grand Lodge of England, having under 
 its jurisdiction four Lodges at Constanti- 
 nople and four at Smyrna. There are also 
 four Lodges at Constantinople, under the 
 Grand Orient of France; four at Smyrna 
 and one at Constantinople, under the Grand 
 Orient of Italy ; one at Constantinople, 
 under the Grand Lodge of Ireland; and 
 one at Constantinople, under the Grand 
 Lodge of Scotland. There are also three 
 Royal Arch Chapters, — two of them at 
 Smyrna and Constantinople, chartered by 
 the Supreme Chapter of Scotland, and one 
 at Constantinople, chartered by the Grand 
 Chapter of England. There are also two 
 Rose Croix Chapters, — one, from the Su- 
 preme Council of England, in Constanti- 
 nople ; and the other, from the Grand Ori- 
 ent of Italy, in Smyrna. In these Lodges 
 many native Mohammedans have been in- 
 itiated. The Turks, however, have always 
 had secret societies of their own, which 
 has led some writers to suppose, errone- 
 ously, that Freemasonry existed long before 
 the date of its actual introduction. Thus, 
 the Begtaschi form a secret society in 
 Turkey, numbering many thousands of 
 Mussulmans in its ranks, and none but a 
 true Moslem can be admitted to the broth- 
 erhood. It is a religious Order, and was 
 founded in the year 1328 by the Hadji 
 Begtasch, a famous dervish, from whom it 
 derives its name. The Begtaschi have cer- 
 tain signs and passwords by which they are 
 enabled to recognize the " true brethren," 
 and by which they are protected from vag- 
 abond impostors. A writer in Notes and 
 Queries says, in allusion to this society, that 
 "One day, during the summer of 1855, an 
 English merchant captain, while walking 
 through the streets of a Turkish quarter of 
 Constantinople, encountered a Turk, who 
 made use of various signs of Freemasonry, 
 some of which, the captain being a Mason, 
 he understood, and others he did not." It 
 is, however, probable in this instance, con- 
 sidering the date, that the Turk was really 
 a Mason, and possessed some higher de- 
 grees, which had not been attained by the 
 English captain. There is also another 
 equally celebrated Order in Turkey, the 
 Melewi, who have also secret modes of 
 recognition. 
 
 Turquoise. Oliver says {Landm., ii. 
 621,) that the first stone in the third row of 
 
 the high priest's breastplate " was a ligure, 
 hyacinth, or turquoise." The stone was a 
 ligure ; but Oliver is incorrect in supposing 
 that it is a synonym of either a hyacinth 
 or a turquoise, which are stones of a very 
 different nature. 
 
 Tuscan Order. The simplest of the 
 five orders of architecture, as its columns 
 are never fluted, and it does not allow the 
 introduction of any kind of ornament. It 
 is one of the two modern orders, not being 
 found in any ancient example. Hence it 
 is of no value in Masonic symbolism. 
 
 Twelve. Twelve being composed of 
 the mystical numbers 7 + 5 or of 3x4, 
 the triad multiplied by the quarternion, was 
 a number of considerable value in ancient 
 systems. Thus there were twelve signs of 
 the zodiac, twelve months in the year, 
 twelve tribes of Israel, twelve stones in the 
 pectoral, and twelve oxen supporting the 
 molten sea in the Temple. There were 
 twelve apostles in the new law, and the 
 New Jerusalem has twelve gates, twelve 
 foundations, is twelve thousand furlongs 
 square, and the number of the sealed is 
 twelve times twelve thousand. Even the 
 Pagans respected this number, for there 
 were in their mythology twelve superior 
 and twelve inferior gods. 
 
 Twelve Illustrious Knights. 
 The eleventh degree of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite; more correctly 
 Sublime Knight Elected, which see. 
 
 Twelve Lettered Xanie. The 
 Jews had among their divine names, be- 
 sides the Tetragrammaton, a two lettered 
 name, which was Jah, a twelve lettered 
 and a forty-two lettered name. None of 
 these, however, were so sacred and unutter- 
 able as the Tetragrammaton. Maimonides 
 says of the twelve lettered name, that it 
 was formerly used instead of Adonai, as 
 being more emphatic, in place of the Tetra- 
 grammaton, whenever they came to that 
 sacred name in reading. It was not, how- 
 ever, like the Tetragrammaton, communi- 
 cated only to their disciples, but was im- 
 parted to any that desired its knowledge. 
 But after the death of Simeon the Just, the 
 Tetragrammaton ceasing to be used at all, 
 the twelve lettered name was substituted in 
 blessing the people; and then it became a 
 secret name, and was communicated only 
 to the most pious of the priests. What 
 was the twelve lettered name is uncertain, 
 though all agree that it was not a name, 
 but a sentence composed of twelve letters. 
 Rabbi Bechai says it was formed by a tri- 
 ple combination and permutation of the 
 four letters of the Tetragrammaton; and 
 there are other explanations equally unsat- 
 isfactory. 
 
 There was also a forty-two lettered name, 
 
TWELVE 
 
 TWELVE 
 
 839 
 
 composed, says Bechai, of the first forty- 
 two letters of the book of Genesis. An- 
 other and a better explanation has been 
 propounded by Franck, that it is formed 
 out of the names of the ten Sephiroth, 
 which with the *|, vau, or and, amount ex- 
 actly to forty-two letters. There was an- 
 other name of seventy-two letters, which 
 is still more inexplicable. Of all these 
 names, Maimonides {More Nev., I. lxii.,) 
 says that, as they could not possibly consti- 
 tute one word, they must have been com- 
 posed of several words, and he adds : 
 
 " There is no doubt that these words con- 
 veyed certain ideas, which were designed 
 to bring man nearer to the true conception 
 of the Divine essence, through the process 
 we have already described. These words, 
 composed of numerous letters, have been 
 designated as a single name, because, like 
 all accidental proper names, they indicate 
 one single object; and to make tbe object 
 more intelligible, several words are em- 
 ployed, as many words are sometimes used 
 to express one single thing. This must be 
 well understood, that they taught the ideas 
 indicated by these names, and not the simple 
 pronunciation of the meaningless letters." 
 
 Twelve Original Points of Ma- 
 sonry. The old English lectures, which 
 were abrogated by the United Grand Lodge 
 of England in 1813, when it adopted the 
 system of Hemming, contained the follow- 
 ing passage: 
 
 " There are in Freemasonry twelve origi- 
 nal points, which form the basis of the sys- 
 tem, and comprehend the whole ceremony 
 of initiation. Without the existence of 
 these points, no man ever was, or can be, 
 legally and essentially received into the 
 Order. Every person who is made a Mason 
 must go through these twelve forms and 
 ceremonies, not only in the first degree, 
 but in every subsequent one." 
 
 Hence, it will be seen that our ancient 
 Brethren deemed these " Twelve Original 
 Points of Masonry," as they were called, 
 of the highest importance to the ceremony 
 of initiation, and they consequently took 
 much pains, and exercised much ingenuity, 
 in giving them a symbolical explanation. 
 But as, by the decree of the Grand Lodge, 
 they no longer constitute a part of the Eng- 
 lish ritual, and were never introduced into 
 this country, where the "Four Perfect 
 Points" constitute an inadequate substi- 
 tute, there can be no impropriety in pre- 
 senting a brief explanation of them, for 
 which I shall be indebted to the industry 
 of Oliver, who has treated of them at great 
 length in the eleventh lecture of his His- 
 torical Landmarks. 
 
 The ceremony of initiation, when these 
 points constituted a portion of the ritual, 
 
 was divided into twelve parts, in allusion 
 to the twelve tribes of Israel, to each of 
 which one of the points was referred, in the 
 following manner: 
 
 1. The opening of the Lodge was symbol- 
 ized by the tribe of Reuben, because Reu- 
 ben was the first-born of his father Jacob, 
 who called him "the beginning of his 
 strength." He was, therefore, appropri- 
 ately adopted as the emblem of that cere- 
 mony which is essentially the beginning of 
 every initiation. 
 
 2. The preparation of the candidate was 
 symbolized by the tribe of Simeon, because 
 Simeon prepared the instruments for the 
 slaughter of the Shechemites; and that part 
 of the ceremony which relates to offensive 
 weapons, was used as a token of our abhor- 
 rence for the cruelty exercised on that 
 occasion. 
 
 3. The report of the Senior Deacon re- 
 ferred to the tribe of Levi, because, in the 
 slaughter of the Shechemites, Levi was 
 supposed to have made a signal or report 
 to Simeon his brother, with whom he was 
 engaged in attacking these unhappy people 
 while unprepared for defence. 
 
 4. The entrance of the candidate into the 
 Lodge was symbolized by the tribe of Ju- 
 dah, because they were the first to cross the 
 Jordan and enter the promised land, com- 
 ing from the darkness and servitude, as it 
 were, of the wilderness into the light and 
 liberty of Canaan. 
 
 5. The prayer was symbolized by the 
 tribe of Zebulun, because the blessing and 
 prayer of Jacob were given to Zebulun, in 
 preference to his brother Issachar. 
 
 6. The circumambulation referred to the 
 tribe of Issachar, because, as a thriftless 
 and indolent tribe, they required a leader 
 to advance them to an equal elevation with 
 the other tribes. 
 
 7. Advancing to the altar was symbolized 
 by the tribe of Dan, to teach us, by con- 
 trast, that we should advance to truth and 
 holiness as rapidly as that tribe advanced 
 to idolatry, among whom the golden serpent 
 was first set up to receive adoration. 
 
 8. The obligation referred to the tribe of 
 Gad, in allusion to the solemn vow which 
 was made by Jephthah, Judge of Israel, who 
 was of that tribe. 
 
 9. The intrusting of the candidate with 
 the mysteries was symbolized by the tribe 
 of Asher, because he was then presented 
 with the rich fruits of Masonic knowledge, 
 as Asher was said to be the inheritor of 
 fatness and royal dainties. 
 
 10. The investiture of the lambskin, by 
 which the candidate is declared free, re- 
 ferred to the tribe of Naphtali, which was 
 invested by Moses with a peculiar freedom, 
 when he said, " Naphtali, satisfied with 
 
840 
 
 TWENTY-FOUR 
 
 TYRE 
 
 favor, and full with the blessing of the 
 Lord, possess thou the West and the 
 South." 
 
 11. The ceremony of the north-east corner 
 of the Lodge referred to Joseph, because, as 
 this ceremony reminds us of the most super- 
 ficial part of Masonry, so the two half tribes 
 of Ephraim and Manasseh, of which the 
 tribe of Joseph was composed, were ac- 
 counted to be more superficial than the 
 rest, as they were descendants of the grand- 
 sons only of Jacob. 
 
 12. The closing of the Lodge w as symbol- 
 ized by the tribe of Benjamin, who was the 
 youngest of the sons of Jacob, and thus 
 closed his father's strength. 
 
 Such were the celebrated twelve original 
 
 f>oints of Freemasonry of the ancient Eng- 
 ish lectures. They were never introduced 
 into this country, and they are now dis- 
 used in England. But it will be seen that, 
 while some of the allusions are perhaps 
 abstruse, many of them are ingenious and 
 appropriate. It will not, perhaps, be re- 
 gretted that they have become obsolete; yet 
 it cannot be denied that they added some- 
 thing to the symbolism and to the religious 
 reference of Freemasonry. At all events, 
 they are matters of Masonic antiquity, and, 
 as such, are not unworthy of attention. 
 
 Twenty-Four Inch Gauge. A 
 rule two feet long, which is divided by 
 marks into twenty-four parts, each one inch 
 in length. The Operative Mason uses it to 
 take the necessary dimensions of the stone 
 that he is about to prepare. It has been 
 adopted as one of the working-tools of the 
 Entered Apprentice in Speculative Ma- 
 sonry, where its divisions are supposed to 
 represent hours. Hence its symbolic use 
 is to teach him to measure his time so that, 
 of the twenty-four hours of the day, he may 
 devote eight hours to the service of God and 
 a worthy distressed brother, eight hours to 
 his usual vocation, and eight to refresh- 
 ment and sleep. In the symbolic language 
 of Masonry, therefore, the twenty-four inch 
 gauge is a symbol of time well employed. 
 
 Twenty-One. A number of mystical 
 import, partly because it is the product of 
 8 and 7, the most sacred of the odd num- 
 bers, but especially because it is the sum 
 of the numerical value of the letters of the 
 Divine name, Eheyeh, thus: 
 
 PT ♦ fT K 
 
 5 + 10 + 5+1 = 21. 
 
 It is little valued in Masonry, but is 
 deemed of great importance in the Kabbala 
 and in Alchemy ; in the latter, because it 
 refers to the twenty-one days of distillation 
 necessary for the conversion of the grosser 
 metals into silver. 
 
 Twenty-Seven. Although the num- 
 ber twenty-seven is found in the degree 
 of Select Master and in some of the other 
 high degrees, it can scarcely be called in it- 
 self a sacred number. It derives its im- 
 portance from the fact that it is produced 
 by the multiplication of the square of three 
 by three, thus : 3 X 3 X 3 = 27. 
 
 Twenty-Six. This is considered by 
 the Kabbalists as the most sacred of mys- 
 tical numbers, because it is equal to the 
 numerical value of the letters of the Te- 
 tragrammaton, thus : 
 
 n 1 n • 
 
 5 + 6 + 5 + 10 = 26. 
 
 Two Lettered Name. The title 
 given by the Talmudists to the name of 
 God, j"l\ or Jo-h, which see. 
 
 Tyler. Tyle and Tyler are the old and 
 
 now obsolete spelling of Tile and Tiler, 
 which see. 
 
 Type. In the science of symbology it is 
 the picture or model of something of which 
 it is considered as a symbol. Hence the 
 word type and symbol are in this sense sy- 
 nonymous. Thus the tabernacle was a 
 type of the Temple, as the Temple is a 
 type of the Lodge. 
 
 Typhon. The brother and slayer of 
 Osiris, in the Egyptian mythology. As 
 Osiris was a type or symbol of the sun, Ty- 
 phon was the symbol of winter, when the 
 vigor, heat, and, as it were, life of the sun 
 are destroyed, and of darkness as opposed 
 to light. 
 
 Tyre. An ancient city of Phoenicia, 
 which in the time of King Solomon was 
 celebrated as the residence of King Hiram, 
 to whom that monarch and his father 
 David were indebted for great assistance in 
 the construction of the Temple at Jeru- 
 salem. Tyre was distant from Jerusalem 
 about one hundred and twenty miles by 
 sea, and was thirty miles nearer by land. 
 An intercourse between the two cities and 
 their respective monarchs was, therefore, 
 easily cultivated. The inhabitants of Tyre 
 were distinguished for their skill as artif- 
 icers, especially as workers in brass and 
 other metals ; and it is said to have been a 
 principal seat of that skilful body of arch- 
 itects known as the Dionysiac fraternity. 
 
 The city of Sidon, which was under the 
 Tyrian government, was but twenty miles 
 from Tyre, and situated in the forest of 
 Lebanon. The Sidonians were, therefore, 
 naturallv woodcutters, and were engaged in 
 felling the trees, which were afterwards sent 
 on floats by sea from Tyre to Joppa, and 
 thence carried by land to Jerusalem, to be 
 employed in the Temple building. 
 
 Dr. Morris, who visited Tyre in 1868, de- 
 
TYRE 
 
 UNAFFILIATED 
 
 841 
 
 scribes it {Freemasonry in the Holy Land, p. 
 91,) as a city under ground, lying, like Je- 
 rusalem, twenty to fifty feet beneath a debris 
 of many centuries. It consists, to use the 
 language of a writer he has cited, of " pros- 
 trate and broken columns, dilapidated tem- 
 ples, and mounds of buried fragments." 
 
 Tyre, Quarries of. It is an error 
 of Oliver, and some other writers, to suppose 
 that the stones of the Temple of Jerusalem 
 were furnished from the quarries of Tyre. 
 If there were such quarries, they were not 
 used for that purpose, as the stones were 
 taken from the immediate vicinity of the 
 edifice. See Quarries. 
 
 Tyrian Freemasons. Those who 
 sustain the hypothesis that Freemasonry 
 originated at the Temple of Solomon have 
 advanced the theory that the Tyrian Free- 
 masons were the members of the Society 
 of Dionysiac Artificers, who at the time of 
 the building of Solomon's Temple flour- 
 
 ished at Tyre. Many of them were sent to 
 Jerusalem by Hiram, king of Tyre, to as- 
 sist King Solomon in the construction of 
 his Temple. There, uniting with the Jews, 
 who had only a knowledge of the specula- 
 tive principles of Freemasonry, which had 
 been transmitted to them from Noah, 
 through the patriarchs, the Tyrian Free- 
 masons organized that combined system of 
 Operative and Speculative Masonry which 
 continued for many centuries, until the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth, to characterize 
 the Institution. This hypothesis is main- 
 tained with great ingenuity by Lawrie in 
 his History of Freemasonry, or by Dr. 
 Brewster, if he was really the author of 
 that work, and until recently it has been 
 the most popular theory respecting the 
 origin of Masonry. But as it is wanting in 
 the support of historical evidence, it has 
 yielded to the more plausible speculations 
 of recent writers. 
 
 u. 
 
 U.". D.'. Letters placed after the names 
 of Lodges or Chapters which have not yet 
 received a Warrant of Constitution. They 
 signify Under Dispensation. 
 
 Uden, Conrad Friederich. A 
 Masonic writer of some celebrity. He was 
 a Doctor of Medicine, and at one time a 
 Professor in Ordinary of the University of 
 Dorpat; afterwards an Aulic Counsellor 
 and Secretary of the Medical College of St. 
 Petersburg. He was from 1783 to 1785 the 
 editor of the Archiv fur Freimaurerei und 
 Rosenkreuzer, published during those years 
 at Berlin. This work contains much inter- 
 esting information concerning Rosicruci- 
 anism. He also edited, in 1785 and 1786, 
 at Altona, the Ephemerideu der gesammten 
 Freimaurerei auf das Logenjahr 1785 und 
 1786. 
 
 Unaffiliated Mason. A Mason who 
 is not a member of any Lodge. As this 
 class of Masons contribute nothing to the 
 revenues nor to the strength of the Order, 
 while they are always willing to partake of 
 its benefits, they have been considered as 
 an encumbrance upon the Craft, and have 
 received the general condemnation of Grand 
 Lodges. 
 
 It is evident that, anterior to the present 
 
 system of Lodge organization, which dates 
 
 about the end of the last century, there 
 
 could have been no unaffiliated Masons. 
 
 5 F 
 
 And, accordingly, the first reference that we 
 find to the duty of Lodge membership is in 
 the Charges, published in 1723, in Ander- 
 son's Constitutions, where it is said, after 
 describing a Lodge, that "every Brother 
 ought to belong to one ; " and that " in an- 
 cient times, no Mason or Fellow could be 
 absent from it, especially when warned to 
 appear at it, without incurring a severe cen- 
 sure, until it appeared to the Master and 
 Wardens that pure necessity hindered him." 
 In this last clause, Anderson evidently re- 
 fers to the regulation in the Old Constitu- 
 tions, that required attendance on the An- 
 nual Assembly. For instance, in the old- 
 est of these, the Halliwell MS., it is said, 
 (I modernize the language,) "that every 
 Master that is a Mason must be at the Gen- 
 eral Congregation, if he is told in reason- 
 able time where the Assembly shall be 
 holden ; and to that Assembly he must go, 
 unless he have a reasonable excuse." 
 
 But the " Assembly " was rather in the 
 nature of a Grand Lodge, and neglect to 
 attend its annual meeting would not place 
 the offender in the position of a modern 
 unaffiliated Mason. But after the organi- 
 zation of subordinate Lodges, a permanent 
 membership, which had been before un- 
 known, was then established; and as the 
 revenues of the Lodges, and through them 
 of the Grand Lodge, were to be derived 
 
842 
 
 UNAFFILIATED 
 
 UNANIMOUS 
 
 from the contributions of the members, it 
 was fouud expedient to require every Ma- 
 son to affiliate with a Lodge, and hence the 
 rule adopted in the Charge already cited. 
 Yet, in Europe, non-affiliation, although 
 deemed to some extent a Masonic offence, 
 has not been visited by any penalty, except 
 that which results from a deprivation of 
 the ordinary advantages of membership in 
 any association. 
 
 The modern Constitution of England, 
 however, prescribes that " a brother who is 
 not a subscribing member to some Lodge, 
 shall not be permitted to visit any one 
 Lodge in the town or place where he re- 
 sides more than once during his secession 
 from the Craft." He is permitted to visit 
 each Lodge once, because it is supposed 
 that this visit is made for the purpose of 
 enabling him to make a selection of the 
 one in which he may prefer working. But 
 afterwards he is excluded, in order to dis- 
 countenance those brethren who wish to 
 continue members of the Order, and to par- 
 take of its benefits, without contributing to 
 its support. The Constitutions of the Grand 
 Lodges of Ireland and Scotland are silent 
 upon the subject, nor is any penalty pre- 
 scribed for unaffiliation by any of the Grand 
 Lodges of the continent of Europe. 
 
 In this country a different view has been 
 taken of the subject, and its Grand Lodges 
 have, with great unanimity, denounced un- 
 affiliated Masons in the strongest terms of 
 condemnation, and visited them with pen- 
 alties, which vary, however, to some extent 
 in the different jurisdictions. I know, how- 
 ever, of no Grand Lodge in the United 
 States that has not concurred in the opin- 
 ion that the neglect or refusal of a Mason 
 to affiliate with a Lodge is a Masonic of- 
 fence, to be visited by some penalty and a 
 deprivation of some rights. 
 
 The following principles may be laid 
 down as constituting the law in this coun- 
 try on the subject of unaffiliated Masons : 
 
 1. An unaffiliated Mason is still bound 
 by all those Masonic duties and obligations 
 which refer to the Order in general, but not 
 by those which relate to Lodge organization. 
 
 2. He possesses, reciprocally, all those 
 rights which are derived from membership 
 in the Order, but none of those which re- 
 sult from membership in a Lodge. 
 
 3. He has a right to assistance when in 
 imminent peril, if he asks for that assist- 
 ance in the conventional way. 
 
 4. He has no right to pecuniary aid from 
 a Lodge. 
 
 5. He has no right to visit Lodges, or to 
 walk in Masonic processions. 
 
 6. He has no right to Masonic burial. 
 
 7. He still remains subject to the gov- 
 ernment of the Order, and may be tried 
 
 and punished for any offence by the Lodge 
 within whose geographical jurisdiction he 
 resides. 
 
 8. And, lastly, as non-affiliation is a vio- 
 lation of Masonic law, he may, if he re- 
 fuses to abandon that condition, be tried 
 and punished for it, even by expulsion, if 
 deemed necessary or expedient, by any 
 Grand Lodge within whose jurisdiction he 
 lives. 
 
 Unanimous Consent. In the be- 
 ginning of the last century, when Masonry 
 was reviving from the condition of decay 
 into which it had fallen, and when the ex- 
 periment was tried of transforming it from 
 a partly operative to a purely speculative 
 system, the great object was to maintain a 
 membership which, by the virtuous charac- 
 ter of those who composed it, should secure 
 the harmony and prosperity of the infant 
 Institution. A safeguard was therefore to 
 be sought in the care with which Masons 
 should be selected from those who were 
 likely to apply for admission. It was the 
 quality, and not the quantity, that was de- 
 sired. This safeguard could only be found 
 in the unanimity of the ballot. Hence, in 
 the sixth of the General Regulations, adopt- 
 ed in 1721, it is declared that "no man can 
 be entered a Brother in any particular 
 Lodge, or admitted to be a member thereof, 
 without the unanimous consent of all the 
 members of that Lodge then present when 
 the candidate is proposed, and their con- 
 sent is formally asked by the Master." 
 And to prevent the exercise of any undue 
 influence of a higher power in forcing an 
 unworthy person upon the Order, it is 
 further said in the same article: "Nor is 
 this inherent privilege subject to a dispen- 
 sation ; because the members of a particular 
 Lodge are the best judges of it ; and if a 
 fractious member should be imposed on 
 them, it might spoil their harmony, or 
 hinder their freedom; or even break and 
 disperse the Lodge." But a few years 
 after, the Order being now on a firm foot- 
 ing, this prudent fear of "spoiling har- 
 mony," or " dispersing the Lodge," seems 
 to have been lost sight of, and the brethren 
 began in many Lodges to desire a release 
 from the restrictions laid upon them by 
 the necessity for unanimous consent. H ence 
 Anderson says in his second edition : " But 
 it was found inconvenient to insist upon 
 unanimity in several cases. And, there- 
 fore, the Grand Masters have allowed the 
 Lodges to admit a member if not above 
 three ballots are against him ; though some 
 Lodges desire no such allowance." This 
 rule still prevails in England; and its 
 modern Constitution still permits the ad- 
 mission of a Mason where there are not 
 more than three ballots against him, though 
 
UNFAVORABLE 
 
 UNIFORMITY 
 
 843 
 
 many of the Lodges still demand una- 
 nimity. 
 
 In the United States, where Masonry is 
 more popular than in any other country, it 
 was soon seen that the danger of the In- 
 stitution lay not in the paucity, but in the 
 multitude of its members, and that the 
 only provision for guarding its portals was 
 the most stringent regulation of the ballot. 
 Hence, in every jurisdiction of the United 
 States, I think, without an exception, 
 unanimous consent is required. And this 
 rule has been found to work with such ad- 
 vantage to the Order, that the phrase, "the 
 black ball is the bulwark of Masonry," has 
 become a proverb. 
 
 Unfavorable Report. Should the 
 committee of investigation on the character 
 of a petitioner for initiation make an un- 
 favorable report, the general usage is (al- 
 though some Grand Lodges have decided 
 otherwise) to consider the candidate re- 
 jected by such report, without proceeding 
 to the formality of a ballot, which is there- 
 fore dispensed with. This usage is founded 
 on the principles of common sense; for, as 
 by the ancient Constitutions one black ball 
 is sufficient to reject an application, the 
 unfavorable report of a committee must 
 necessarily, and by consequence, include 
 two unfavorable votes at least. It is there- 
 fore unnecessary to go into a ballot after 
 such a report, as it is to be taken for granted 
 that the brethren who reported unfavorably 
 would, on a resort to the ballot, cast their 
 negative votes. Their report is indeed vir- 
 tually considered as the casting of such 
 votes, and the applicant is therefore at 
 once rejected without a further and un- 
 necessary ballot. 
 
 Uniformity of Work. An identity 
 * of forms in opening and closing, and in 
 conferring the degrees, constitutes what is 
 technically called uniformity of work. 
 The expression has no reference, in its re- 
 stricted sense, to the working of the same 
 degrees in different Rites and different 
 countries, but only to a similarity in the 
 ceremonies practised by Lodges in the 
 same Rite, and more especially in the same 
 jurisdiction. This is greatly to be desired, 
 because nothing is more unpleasant to a 
 Mason, accustomed to certain forms and 
 ceremonies in his own Lodge, than on a 
 visit to another to find those forms and 
 ceremonies so varied as to be sometimes 
 scarcely recognizable as parts of the same 
 Institution. So anxious are the dogmatic 
 authorities in Masonry to preserve this uni- 
 formity, that in the charge to an Entered 
 Apprentice he is instructed never to "suffer 
 an infringement of our rites, or a devia- 
 tion from established usages and customs." 
 In the act of union in 1813, of the two 
 
 Grand Lodges of England, in whose sys- 
 tems of working there were many differ- 
 ences, it was provided that a committee 
 should be appointed to visit the several 
 Lodges, and promulgate and enjoin one sys- 
 tem, " that perfect reconciliation, unity of 
 obligation, law, working, language, and 
 dress, might be happily restored to the 
 English Craft." A few years ago, a writer 
 in C. W. Moore's Magazine, proposed the 
 appointment of delegates to visit the Grand 
 Lodges of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 that a system of work and lectures might 
 be adopted, which should thereafter be 
 rigidly enforced in both hemispheres. The 
 proposition was not popular, and no dele- 
 gation was ever appointed. It is well that 
 it was so, for no such attempt could have 
 met with a successful result. 
 
 It is a fact, that uniformity of work in 
 Masonry, however much it may be desired, 
 can never be attained. This must be the 
 case in all institutions where the ceremo- 
 nies, the legends, and the instructions are 
 oral. The treachery of memory, the weak- 
 ness of judgment, and the fertility of im- 
 agination, will lead men to forget, to di- 
 minish, or to augment, the parts of any 
 system which is not prescribed within cer- 
 tain limits by a written rule. The Rab- 
 bins discovered this when the Oral Law 
 was becoming perverted, and losing its au- 
 thority as well as its identity by the inter- 
 pretations that were given to it in the schools 
 of the Scribes and Prophets. And hence, 
 to restore it to its integrity, it was found 
 necessary to divest it of its oral character 
 and give to it a written form. To this are 
 we to attribute the origin of the two Tal- 
 muds which now contain the essence of 
 Jewish theology. So, while in Masonry we 
 find the esoteric ritual continually subjected 
 to errors arising mainly from the ignorance 
 or the fancy of Masonic teachers, the moni- 
 torial instructions — few in Preston, but 
 greatly enlarged by Webb and Cross — 
 have suffered no change. 
 
 It would seem from this that the evil of 
 non-conformity could be removed only by 
 making all the ceremonies monitorial; and so 
 much has this been deemed expedient, that 
 a few years since the subject of a written 
 ritual was seriously discussed in England. 
 But the remedy would be worse than the 
 disease. It is to the oral character of its 
 ritual that Masonry is indebted for its per- 
 manence and success as an organization. 
 A written, which would soon become a 
 printed, ritual would divest Symbolic Ma- 
 sonry of its attractions as a secret associa- 
 tion, and would cease to offer a reward to 
 the laborious student who sought to master 
 its mystical science. Its philosophy and 
 its symbolism would be the same, but the 
 
844 
 
 UNION 
 
 UNION 
 
 books containing them would be consigned 
 to the shelves of a Masonic library, their 
 pages to be discussed by the profane as the 
 common property of the antiquary, while 
 the Lodges, having no mystery within their 
 portals, would find but few visitors, and cer- 
 tainly no workers. 
 
 It is, therefore, a matter of congratula- 
 tion that uniformity of work, however de- 
 sirable and however unattainable, is not 
 so important and essential as many have 
 deemed it. Oliver, for instance, seems to 
 confound in some of his writings the cere- 
 monies of a degree with the landmarks of 
 the Order. But they are very different. 
 The landmarks, because they affect the 
 identity of the Institution, have long since 
 been embodied in its written laws, and un- 
 less by a wilful perversion, as in France, 
 where the Grand Mastership has been 
 abolished, can never be changed. But vari- 
 ations in the phraseology of the lectures, 
 or in the forms and ceremonies of initia- 
 tion, so long as they do not trench upon 
 the foundations of symbolism on which the 
 science and philosophy of Masonry are 
 built, can produce no other effect than a 
 temporary inconvenience. The errors of 
 an ignorant Master will be corrected by his 
 better instructed successor. The variation 
 in the ritual can never be such as to de- 
 stroy the true identity of the Institution. 
 Its profound dogmas of the unity of God, 
 and the eternal life, and of the universal 
 brotherhood of man, taught in its symbolic 
 method, will forever shine out pre-eminent 
 above all temporary changes of phraseology. 
 Uniformity of work may not be attained, 
 but uniformity of design and uniformity 
 of character will forever preserve Free- 
 masonry from disintegration. 
 
 Union, Grand Masters 9 . Efforts 
 were made at various times in Germany to 
 organize an association of the Grand Mas- 
 ters of the Grand Lodges of Germany. At 
 length, through the efforts of Bro. Warnatz, 
 the Grand Master of Saxony, the scheme 
 was fully accomplished, and on May 31, 
 1868, the Grand Masters' Union — Oross- 
 miestertag, literally, the diet of Grand Mas- 
 ters — assembled at the city of Berlin, the 
 Grand Masters of seven German Grand 
 Lodges being present. The meetings of 
 this body, which are annual, are entirely 
 unofficial ; it claims no legislative powers, 
 and meets only for consultation and advise- 
 ment on matters connected with the ritual, 
 the history, and the philosophy of Masonry. 
 
 Union Master's Degree. An 
 honorary degree, said to have been in- 
 vented by the Lodge of Reconciliation in 
 England, in 1813, at the union of the two 
 Grand Lodges, and adopted by the Grand 
 Lodge of New York in 1819, which author- 
 
 ized its Lodges to confer it. It was de- 
 signed to detect clandestine and irregular 
 Masons, and consisted only of the inves- 
 titure of the recipient with certain new 
 modes of recognition. 
 
 Union of German Masons. 
 ( Verein deutscher Maurer. ) An association 
 of Freemasons of Germany organized at 
 Potsdam, May 19, 1861. The society 
 meets annually at different places. Its 
 professed object is the cultivation of 
 Masonic science, the advancement of the 
 prosperity and usefulness of the Order, 
 and the closer union of the members in 
 the bonds of brotherly love and affection. 
 
 Union of Scientific Freema- 
 sons. (Bund 8cientifischer Freimaurer.) 
 An association founded, November 28, 
 1802, by Fessler, Fischer, Mossdorf, and 
 other learned Masons of Germany. Ac- 
 cording to their act of union, all the mem- 
 bers pledged themselves to investigate the 
 history of Freemasonry, from its origin 
 down to the present time, in all its dif- 
 ferent parts, with all its systems and retro- 
 gressions, in the most complete manner, 
 and then to communicate what they knew 
 to trustworthy brethren. 
 
 In the assemblies of the members, there 
 were no rituals, nor ceremonies, nor any 
 especial vestments requisite, nor, indeed, 
 any outward distinctions whatever. A 
 commou interest and the love of truth, a 
 general aversion of all deception, treach- 
 ery, and secrecy were the sentiments which 
 bound them together, and made them feel 
 the duties incumbent on them, without bind- 
 ing themselves by any special oath. Conse- 
 quently, the members of the Scientific Union 
 had al 1 equal rights and obligations ; they did 
 not acknowledge a superior, or subordina- 
 tion to any Masonic authority whatever. 
 
 Any upright, scientifically-cultivated 
 Master Mason, a sincere seeker after truth, 
 might join this Union, no matter to what Rite 
 or Grand Lodge he belonged, if the whole 
 of the votes were given in his favor, and he 
 pledged himself faithfully to carry out the 
 intention of the founders of the Order. 
 
 Each circle of scientific Masons was pro- 
 vided with a number of copies of the deed 
 of union, and every new candidate, when 
 he signed it, became a partaker of the 
 privileges shared in by the whole; the 
 Chief Archives and the centre of the Con- 
 federation were at first to be in Berlin. 
 
 But the association, thus inaugurated 
 with the most lofty pretensions and the 
 most sanguine expectations, did not well 
 succeed. " Brethren," says Findel, (Hist, 
 Lyon's Trans., p. 501,) " whose co-operation 
 had been reckoned upon, did not join; the 
 active working of others was crippled by 
 all sorts of scruples and hindrances, and 
 
UNION 
 
 UNITED 
 
 845 
 
 Fessler's purchase of Kleinwall drew off his 
 attention wholly from the subject. Differ- 
 ences of opinion, perhaps also too great ego- 
 tism, caused dissensions between many mem- 
 bers of the association and the brethren of 
 the Lodge at Altenburg. Distrust was ex- 
 cited in every man's breast, and, instead of 
 the enthusiasm formerly exhibited, there 
 was only lukewarmness and disgust." 
 
 Other schemes, especially that of the es- 
 tablishment of a Saxon Grand Lodge, im- 
 paired the efforts of the Scientific Masons. 
 The Union gradually sunk out of sight, and 
 finally ceased to exist. 
 
 Union of the Twenty-Two. See 
 German Union of Two and Twenty, 
 
 United Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land. The present Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land assumed that title in the year 1813, 
 because it was then formed by the union 
 of the Grand Lodge of the Ancients, called 
 the " Grand Lodge of Free and Accepted 
 Masons of England according to the Old 
 Institutions," and the Grand Lodge of 
 Moderns, called the "Grand Lodge of Free 
 and Accepted Masons under the Constitu- 
 tion of England." The body thus formed, 
 by which an end was put to the dissensions 
 of the Craft which had existed iu England 
 for more than three-quarters of a century, 
 adopted the title, by which it has ever since 
 been known, of the " United Grand Lodge 
 of Ancient Freemasons of England." 
 
 United States of America^ The 
 history of the introduction of Freemasonry 
 into the United States of America is discussed 
 in this work under the titles of the different 
 States into which the Union is divided, and 
 to which therefore the reader is referred. 
 
 It may, however, be necessary to say, in 
 a general view of the subject, that the first 
 notice we have of Freemasonry in the 
 United States is in 1729, in which year, 
 during the Grand Mastership of the Duke 
 of Norfolk, Mr. Daniel Cox was appointed 
 Provincial Grand Master for New Jersey. 
 I have not, however, been able to obtain 
 any evidence that he exercised his prerog- 
 ative by the establishment of Lodges in 
 that province, although it is probable that 
 he did. In the year 1733, the "St. John's 
 Grand Lodge " was opened in Boston, in 
 consequence of a Charter granted, on the 
 application of several brethren residing in 
 that city, by Lord Viscount Montacute, 
 Grand Master of England. From that 
 time Masonry was rapidly disseminated 
 throughout the country by the establish- 
 ment of Provincial Grand Lodges, all of 
 which after the Revolutionary War, which 
 separated the colonies from the mother 
 country, assumed the rank and preroga- 
 tives of independent Grand Lodges. The 
 history of these bodies being treated under 
 
 their respective titles, the remainder of this 
 article may more properly be devoted to 
 the character of the Masonic organization 
 in the United States. 
 
 The Rite practised in this country is 
 most correctly called the American Rite. 
 This title, however, has been adopted with- 
 in only a comparatively recent period. It 
 is still very usual with Masonic writers to 
 call the Rite practised in this country the 
 York Rite. The expression, however, is 
 wholly incorrect. The Masonry of the 
 United States, though founded, like that 
 practised in every other country, upon the 
 three symbolic degrees which alone con- 
 stitute the true York Rite, has, by its 
 modifications and its adoption of high de- 
 grees, so changed the Rite as to give it an 
 entirely different form from that which 
 properly constitutes the pure York Rite. 
 (See American Bite.) 
 
 In each State of the Union, and in most 
 of the Territories, there is a Grand Lodge 
 which exercises jurisdiction over the sym- 
 bolic degrees. The jurisdiction of the 
 Grand Lodge, however, is exercised to a 
 certain extent over what are called the 
 higher bodies, namely, the Chapters, Coun- 
 cils, and Commanderies. For by the 
 American construction of Masonic law, a 
 Mason expelled by the Grand Lodge for- 
 feits his membership in all of these bodies 
 to which he may be attached. Hence a 
 Knight Templar, or a Royal Arch Mason, 
 becomes ipso facto suspended or expelled 
 by his suspension or expulsion by a sym- 
 bolic Lodge, the appeal from which action 
 lies only to the Grand Lodge. Thus the 
 Masonic standing and existence of even the 
 Grand Commander of a Grand Command- 
 ery is actually in the hands of the Grand 
 Lodge, by whose decree of expulsion his 
 relation with the body over which he pre- 
 sides may be dissevered. 
 
 Royal Arch Masonry is controlled in 
 each State by a Grand Chapter. Besides 
 these Grand Chapters, there is a General 
 Grand Chapter of the United States, which, 
 however, exercises only a moral influence 
 over the State Grand Chapters, since it 
 possesses "no power of discipline, admoni- 
 tion, censure, or instruction over the Grand 
 Chapters." In Territories where there are no 
 Grand Chapters, the General Grand Chapter 
 constitutes subordinate Chapters, and over 
 these it exercises plenary jurisdiction. 
 
 The next highest branch of the Order is 
 Cryptic Masonry, which, although rapidly 
 growing, is not yet as extensive as Royal 
 Arch Masonry. It consists of two degrees, 
 Royal and Select Master, to which is some- 
 times added the Super Excellent, which, 
 however, is considered only as an honorary 
 degree. These degrees are conferred in 
 
846 
 
 UNITED 
 
 UNKNOWN 
 
 Councils which owe their obedience to 
 Grand Councils. Only one Grand Council 
 can exist in a State or Territory, as is the 
 case with a Grand Lodge, a Grand Chapter, 
 or a Grand Commandery. Grand Councils 
 exist in many of the States, and in any 
 State where no such body exists, the Coun- 
 cils are established by Charters emanating 
 from any one of them. There is no Gen- 
 eral Grand Council. Efforts have been re- 
 peatedly made to establish one, but the 
 proposition has not met with a favorable 
 response from the majority of Grand Coun- 
 cils. 
 
 Templarism is governed by a Supreme 
 body, whose style is the Grand Encamp- 
 ment of the United States, and this body, 
 which meets triennially, possesses sover- 
 eign power over the whole Templar system 
 in the United States. Its presiding officer 
 is called Grand Master, and this is the 
 highest office known to American Templar- 
 ism. In most of the States there are Grand 
 Commanderies, which exercise immediate 
 jurisdiction over the Commanderies in the 
 State, subject, however, to the superintend- 
 ing control of the Grand Encampment. 
 Where there are no Grand Commanderies, 
 Charters are issued directly to subordinate 
 Commanderies by the Grand Encampment. 
 
 The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 is very popular in the United States. There 
 are two Supreme Councils, — one for the 
 Southern Jurisdiction, which is the Mother 
 Council of the world. Its nominal Grand 
 East is at Charleston, South Carolina; but 
 its Secretariat has been removed to Wash- 
 ington city since the year 1870. The 
 other Council is for the Northern Jurisdic- 
 tion. Its Grand East is at Boston, Massa- 
 chusetts ; but its Secretariat is at New 
 York city. The Northern Council has ju- 
 risdiction over the States of Maine, Ver- 
 mont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Con- 
 necticut, Rhode Island, New York, Penn- 
 sylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Ohio, In- 
 diana, Illinois, and Wisconsin. The South- 
 ern Supreme Council exercises jurisdiction 
 over all the other States and Territories of 
 the United States. 
 
 United Supreme Council. A 
 body of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite was formed February 13, 1832, in the 
 city of New York, by the union of the so- 
 called Supreme Council of the United States 
 and the Supreme Council of South Amer- 
 ica, which assumed the title of the " United 
 Supreme Council for the Western Hemi- 
 sphere." This body, irregular in its forma- 
 tion and illegal in its origin, was never 
 recognized by either of the regular Supreme 
 Councils of the United States, and is now 
 extinct. 
 
 Unity of God. In the popular my- 
 
 thology of the ancients there were many 
 gods. It was to correct this false opinion, 
 and to teach a purer theogony, that the in- 
 itiations were invented. And so, as War- 
 burton says, "the famous secret of the 
 mysteries was the unity of the Godhead." 
 This, too, is the doctrine of Masonic initi- 
 ation, which is equally distant from the 
 blindness of atheism and the folly of poly- 
 theism. 
 
 Universality of Masonry. The 
 boast of the Emperor Charles V., that the 
 sun never set on his vast empire, may be 
 applied with equal truth to the Order of 
 Freemasonry. From east to west, and from 
 north to south, over the whole habitable 
 globe, are our Lodges disseminated. Wher- 
 ever the wandering steps of civilized man 
 have left their footprints, there have our 
 temples been established. The lessons of 
 Masonic love have penetrated into the wil- 
 derness of the West, and the red man of 
 our soil has shared with his more enlight- 
 ened brother the mysteries of our science; 
 while the arid sands of the African desert 
 have more than once been the scene of a 
 Masonic greeting. Masonry is not a foun- 
 tain, giving health and beauty to some sin- 
 gle hamlet, and slaking the thirst of those 
 only who dwell upon its humble banks; 
 but it is a mighty stream, penetrating 
 through every hill and mountain, and glid- 
 ing through every field and valley of the 
 earth, bearing in its beneficent bosom the 
 abundant waters of love and charity for 
 the poor, the widow, and the orphan of 
 every land. 
 
 Universal Language. See Lan- 
 guage, Universal. 
 
 Universal Harmony, Order of. 
 See Mesmeric Masonry. 
 
 Universi Terraruiri, etc. Docu- 
 ments emanating from any of the bodies 
 of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite 
 commence with the following epigraph: 
 " Universi Terrarum Orbis Architectonis 
 per Gloriam Ingentis," i. e., " By the Glory 
 of the Grand Architect of the Universe." 
 This is the correct form as first published, 
 in 1802, by the Mother Council at Charles- 
 ton in its Circular of that year, and used 
 in all its Charters and Patents. 
 
 Unknown Philosopher. One of 
 the mystical and theosophic works written 
 by Saint Martin, the founder of the Rite of 
 Martinism, was entitled Le Philosophe In- 
 connu, or The Unknown Philosopher, 
 whence the appellation was often given 
 by his disciples to the author. A degree 
 of his Rite also received the same name. 
 
 Unknown Superiors. When the 
 Baron Von Hund established his system or 
 Rite of Strict Observance, he declared that 
 the Order was directed by certain Masons 
 
UNTEMPERED 
 
 UPPER 
 
 847 
 
 of superior rank, whose names as well as 
 their designs were to be kept secret from 
 all the brethren of the lower degrees; 
 although there was an insinuation that 
 they were to be found or to be heard of in 
 Scotland. To these secret dignitaries he 
 gave the title of "Superiores Incogniti," 
 or Unknown Superiors. Many Masonic 
 writers, suspecting that Jesuitism was at 
 the bottom of all the Masonry of that day, 
 asserted that S. I., the initials of Superiores 
 Incogniti, meant really Societas Jesu, i. e., 
 the Society of Jesus or the Jesuits. It is 
 scarcely necessary now to say that the 
 whole story of the Unknown Superiors was 
 a myth. 
 
 Untempered Mortar. In the lec- 
 ture used in the United States in the early 
 part of the present century, and in some 
 parts of the country almost as recently as 
 the middle of the century, the apprentices 
 at the Temple were said to wear their 
 aprons in the peculiar manner character- 
 istic of that class that they might preserve 
 their garments from being defiled by " un- 
 tempered mortar." This is mortar which 
 has not been properly mixed for use, and 
 it thus became a symbol of passions and 
 appetites not duly restrained. Hence the 
 Speculative Apprentice was made to wear 
 his apron in that peculiar manner to teach 
 him that he should not allow his soul to be 
 defiled by the " untempered mortar of un- 
 ruly passions." 
 
 Unutterable Name. The Tetra- 
 grammaton, or Divine Name, which is more 
 commonly called the Ineffable Name. The 
 two words are precisely synonymous. 
 
 Unworthy Members. That there 
 are men in our Order whose lives and char- 
 acters reflect no credit on the Institution, 
 whose ears turn coldly from its beautiful 
 lessons of morality, whose hearts are un- 
 touched by its soothing influences of 
 brotherly kindness, whose hands are not 
 opened to aid in its deeds of charity, is a 
 fact which we cannot deny, although we 
 may be permitted to express our grief while 
 we acknowledge its truth. Rut these men, 
 though in the Temple, are not of the Tem- 
 ple ; they are among us, but are not with 
 us; they belong to our household, but they 
 are not of our faith; they are of Israel, but 
 they are not Israel. We have sought to 
 teach them, but they would not be in- 
 structed ; seeing, they have not perceived ; 
 and hearing, they have not understood the 
 symbolic language in which our lessons of 
 wisdom are communicated. The fault is 
 not with us, that we have not given, but 
 with them, that they have not received. 
 And, indeed, hard and unjust would it be 
 to censure the Masonic institution, because, 
 partaking of the infirmity and weakness of 
 
 human wisdom and human means, it has 
 been unable to give strength and perfection 
 to all who come within its pale. The de- 
 nial of a Peter, the doubtings of a Thomas, 
 or even the betrayal of a Judas, could cast 
 no reproach on that holy band of Apostles 
 of which each formed a constituent part. 
 
 " Is Freemasonry answerable," says Dr. 
 Oliver, (Landm., i., p. 148,) "for the mis- 
 deeds of an individual Brother? By no 
 means. He has had the advantage of Ma- 
 sonic instruction, and has failed to profit 
 by it. He has enjoyed Masonic privileges, 
 but has not possessed Masonic virtue." 
 Such a man it is our duty to reform, or to 
 dismiss ; but the world should not condemn 
 us, if we fail in our attempt at reformation. 
 God alone can change the heart. Masonry 
 furnishes precepts and obligations of duty 
 which, if obeyed, must make its members 
 wiser, better, happier men ; but it claims 
 no power of regeneration. Condemn when 
 our instruction is evil, but not when our 
 pupils are dull, and deaf to our lessons ; for, 
 in so doing, you condemn the holy religion 
 which you profess. Masonry prescribes no 
 principles that are opposed to the sacred 
 teachings of the Divine Lawgiver, and 
 sanctions no acts that are not consistent 
 with the sternest morality and the most faith- 
 ful obedience to government and the laws; 
 and while this continues to be its character, 
 it cannot, without the most atrocious injus- 
 tice, be made responsible for the acts of its 
 unworthy members. 
 
 Of all human societies, Freemasonry is 
 undoubtedly, under all circumstances, the 
 fittest to form the truly good man. But 
 however well conceived may be its laws, 
 they cannot completely change the natural 
 disposition of those who ought to observe 
 them. In truth, they serve as lights and 
 guides; but as they can only direct men 
 by restraining the impetuosity of their pas- 
 sions, these last too often become domi- 
 nant, and the Institution is forgotten. 
 
 Upper Chambers. The practice of 
 holding Masonic Lodges in the upper rooms 
 of houses is so universal that, in all my ex- 
 perience, I have no knowledge of a single 
 instance in which a Lodge has been holden 
 in a room on the first floor of a building. 
 The most apparent reason for this is, that 
 security from being overseen or overheard 
 may be thus obtained, and hence Dr. Oli- 
 ver says, in his Book of the Lodge, (p. 44,) 
 that " a Masonic hall should be isolated, 
 and, if possible, surrounded with lofty 
 
 walls As, however, such a situation 
 
 in large towns, where Masonry is usually 
 practised, can seldom be obtained with 
 convenience to the brethren, the Lodge 
 should be formed in an upper story." This, 
 as a practical reason, will be perhaps suf- 
 
848 
 
 UPPER 
 
 URIM 
 
 ficient to Masons in general. But to those 
 who are more curious, it may be well to 
 say, that for this custom there is also a 
 mystical reason of great antiquity. 
 
 Gregory, in his Notes and Observations on 
 some Passages of Scripture, (1671, p. 17,) 
 says : " The upper rooms in Scripture were 
 
 f)laces in that part of the house which was 
 lighest from the ground, set apart by the 
 Jews for their private orisons and devo- 
 tions, to be addressed towards Solomon's 
 Temple." This room received, in the He- 
 brew language, the appellation of Alijah, 
 which has been translated by the Greek 
 huperoon, and improperly by the Latin cce- 
 naculum. The Hebrew and the Greek both 
 have the signification of an upper room, 
 while the Latin appellative would give the 
 idea of a dining-room or place for eating, 
 thus taking away the sacred character of 
 the apartment. The Alijah was really a 
 secret chamber or recess in the upper part 
 of the house, devoted to religious uses. 
 Hence the wise men or Rabbins of Israel 
 are called by the Talmudists beni Alijah, 
 or " the sons of the upper or secret room." 
 And so, in Psalm civ. 2, 3, the Psalmist 
 speaks of God as stretching out the heavens 
 like a curtain, and laying the beams of his 
 chambers in the waters, where, in the orig- 
 inal, the word here translated " chambers " 
 is the plural of Alijah, and should more 
 properly be rendered "his secret cham- 
 bers:" an allusion, as Dr. Clarke thinks, 
 to the holy of holies of the tabernacle. 
 Again, in 2 Chronicles ix. 3, 4, it is said 
 that when the Queen of Sheba had seen 
 the wisdom of Solomon and the house that 
 he had built — his provisions, servants, and 
 cup-bearers, " and his ascent by which he 
 went up into the house of the Lord — there 
 was no more spirit in her." The word 
 which our translators have rendered " his 
 ascent," is again this word Alijah, and the 
 passage should be rendered "his secret 
 chamber," or " upper room ; " the one by 
 which, through a private way, he was en- 
 abled to pass into the Temple. 
 
 On the advent of Christianity, this Jew- 
 ish custom of worshipping privately in an 
 upper room was adopted by the apostles 
 and disciples, and the New Testament con- 
 tains many instances of the practice, the 
 word Alijah being, as I have already re- 
 marked, translated by the Greek huperoon, 
 which has a similar meaning. Thus in 
 Acts i. 13, we find the apostles praying in 
 an upper room ; and again, in the twentieth 
 chapter, the disciples are represented as 
 having met at Ephesus in an upper room, 
 where Peter preached to them. But it is 
 unnecessary to multiply instances of this 
 usage. The evidence is complete that the 
 Jews, and after them the primitive Chris- 
 
 tians, performed their devotions in upper 
 rooms. And the care with which Alijah, 
 huperoon, or upper chamber, is always used 
 to designate the place of devotion, abun- 
 dantly indicates that any other place would 
 have been considered improper. 
 
 Hence we may trace the practice of hold- 
 ing Lodges in upper rooms to this ancient 
 custom ; and that, again, has perhaps some 
 connection with the sacred character always 
 given by the ancients to " high places," so 
 that it is said, in the Masonic lectures, that 
 our ancient brethren met on high hills and 
 low vales. The reason there assigned by 
 implication is that the meeting may be 
 secret ; that is, the lectures place the Lodge 
 on a high hill, a vale, or other secret place. 
 And this reason is more definitely stated in 
 the modern lectures, which say that they so 
 met "to observe the approach of cowans 
 and eavesdroppers, ana to guard against 
 surprise." Yet it is not improbable that 
 the ancient symbolism of the sanctity of a 
 high place was referred to as well as that 
 more practical idea of secrecy and safety. 
 
 Upright Posture. The upright pos- 
 ture of the Apprentice in the north-east cor- 
 ner, as a symbol of upright conduct, was in- 
 troduced into the ritual by Preston, who 
 taught in his lectures that the candidate 
 then represented "a just and upright man 
 and Mason." The same symbolism is re- 
 ferred to by Hutchinson, who says that "as 
 the builder raises his column by the plane 
 and perpendicular, so should the Mason 
 carry himself towards the world." Indeed, 
 the application of the corner-stone, or the 
 square stone, as a symbol of uprightness of 
 conduct, which is precisely the Masonic 
 symbolism of the candidate in the north- 
 east, was familiar to the ancients; for Plato 
 says that he who valiantly sustains the 
 shocks of adverse fortune, demeaning him- 
 self uprightly, is truly good and of a square 
 posture. 
 
 Uriel. Hebrew, ix^ix, meaning the 
 fire of God. An archangel, mentioned 
 only in 2 Esdras. Michael Glycas, the 
 Byzantine historian, says that his post is in 
 the sun, and that he came down to Seth 
 and Enoch, and instructed them in the 
 length of the years and the variations of 
 the seasons. The book of Enoch describes 
 him as the angel of thunder and lightning. 
 In some of the Hermetic degrees of Ma- 
 sonry, the name, as representing the angel 
 of fire, becomes a significant word. 
 
 I rim and Thummim. The He- 
 brew words D'llX, Aurim, and D'Dfi, Thum- 
 im, have been variously translated by 
 commentators. The Septuagint translates 
 them, " manifestation and truth ; " the 
 Vulgate, "doctrine and truth;" Aquila, 
 "lights and perfections;" Kalisch, "per- 
 
URIM 
 
 URN 
 
 849 
 
 feet brilliancy;" but tbe most generally 
 received interpretation is, "light and truth." 
 What the Urim and Thummim were has 
 also been a subject of as much doubt and 
 difference of opinion. Suddenly intro- 
 duced to notice by Moses in the command, 
 (Exod. xxviii. 30,) " and thou shalt put in 
 the breastplate of judgment the Urim and 
 the Thummim," — as if they were already 
 familiar to the people, — we know only of 
 them from the scriptural account, that they 
 were sacred lots to be worn concealed in or 
 behind the breastplate, and to be consulted 
 by the high priest alone, for the purpose 
 of obtaining a revelation of the will of 
 God in matters of great moment. Some 
 writers have supposed that the augury 
 consisted in a more splendid appearance of 
 certain letters of the names of the tribes 
 inscribed upon the stones of the breastplate; 
 others, that it was received by voice from 
 two small images which were placed be- 
 yond the folds of the breastplate. A 
 variety of other conjectures have been haz- 
 arded, but as Godwyn [Moses and Aaron, 
 iv. 8,) observes, "he spoke best, who in- 
 geniously confessed that he knew not what 
 Urim and Thummim was." 
 
 The opinion now almost universally ac- 
 cepted is that the Jewish lawgiver bor- 
 rowed this, as he did the ark, the bra-zen 
 serpent, and many other of the symbols 
 of his theocracy, from the usages so fa- 
 miliar to him of the Egyptian priests, 
 with which both he and Aaron were fa- 
 miliar, eliminating, of course, from them 
 their previous heathen allusion, and giving 
 to them a purer signification. 
 
 In reference to the Urim and Thummim, 
 we know not only from the authority of an- 
 cient writers, but 
 also from the con- 
 firmatory testi- 
 mony of more re- 
 cent monumental 
 explorations, that 
 the judges of 
 Egypt woregolden 
 chains around their necks, to which was 
 suspended a small figure of Theme, the 
 Egyptian goddess of Justice and Truth. 
 " Some of these breastplates," says Gliddon, 
 (Anc. Egypt, p. 32,) "are extant in Euro- 
 pean museums; others are to be seen on 
 the monuments as containing the figures 
 of two deities — Ra, the sun, and Theme. 
 These represent Ra, or the sun, in a double 
 capacity, physical and intellectual light; 
 and Theme iu. a double capacity, justice and 
 truth." 
 
 Neither in Ancient Craft nor in Royal 
 Arch Masonry have the Urim and Thum- 
 mim been introduced; although Oliver dis- 
 cusses them, in his Landmarks, as a type of 
 5G 54 
 
 Christ, to be Masonically applied in his 
 peculiar system of a Christian interpreta- 
 tion of all the Masonic symbols. But the fact 
 that after the construction of the Temple 
 of Solomon we hear no more of the consul- 
 tation by the priests of the Urim and Thum- 
 mim, which seem to have given way to the 
 audible interpretation of the divine will by 
 the prophets, would necessarily disconnect 
 them with Masonry as a symbol, to be ac- 
 cepted even by those who place the founda- 
 tion of the Order at the Solomonic era. 
 
 Yet they have been introduced as a sym- 
 bol into some of the continental high de- 
 grees. Thus, in the last degree of the Or- 
 der of Brothers of Asia, the presiding officer 
 wears the Urim and Thummim suspended 
 from a golden chain as the jewel of his office. 
 
 Reghellini {Esprit du dogme, p. 60,) thus 
 gives the continental interpretation of the 
 symbol. 
 
 " The folly of Solomon is commemorated 
 in the instructions and ceremonies of a 
 high degree, where the Acolyte is reminded 
 that Solomon, becoming arrogant, was for a 
 time abandoned by the Divinity, and as he 
 was, although the greatest of kings, only a 
 mortal, he was weak enough to sacrifice to 
 idols, and thereby lost the communication 
 which he had previously had through 
 the Urim and Thummim. 
 
 " These two words are found in a degree 
 of the Maitre ecossais. The Venerables 
 of the Lodges and the Sublime Masters ex- 
 plain the legend to their recipients of an 
 elevated rank, as intended to teach them 
 that they should always be guided by rea- 
 son, virtue, and honor, and never abandon 
 themselves to an effeminate life or silly su- 
 perstition." 
 
 It is, I think, undeniable that Urim and 
 Thummim have no legitimate existence as 
 a Masonic symbol, and that they can only 
 be considered such by a forced and modern 
 interpretation. 
 
 Uriot, Joseph. The author of a 
 work entitled Le veritable Portrait d'un 
 Franc-Macon, which was published by a 
 Lodge at Frankfort, in 1742. It may be 
 looked upon, says Kloss, as the earliest 
 public exposition of the true principles of 
 Masonry which appeared in Germany. 
 Many editions of it were published. M. 
 Uriot also published at Stongard, in 1769, 
 a work entitled Lettres sur la Franche Ma- 
 connerie; which was, however, only an en- 
 largement of the Portrait. 
 
 IJrn. Among the ancients, cinerary 
 urns were in common use to hold the ashes 
 of the deceased after the body had been 
 subjected to incremation, which was the 
 usual mode of disposing of it. He who 
 would desire to be learned upon this sub- 
 ject should read Sir Thomas Browne's 
 
850 
 
 URUGUAY 
 
 VALE 
 
 celebrated work entitled Hydrhtaphioz, or 
 Urn Burial, where everything necessary to 
 be known on this topic may be found. In 
 Masonry, the cinerary urn has been intro- 
 duced as a modern symbol, but always as 
 having reference to the burial of the Temple 
 Builder. In the comparatively recent sym- 
 bol of the Monument, fabricated by Cross 
 for the degree of Master in the American 
 Rite, the urn is introduced as if to remind 
 the beholder that the ashes of the great art- 
 ist were there deposited. Cross borrowed, 
 it may be supposed, his idea from an older 
 symbol in the high degrees, where, in the 
 description of the tomb of Hiram Abif, it 
 is said that the heart was enclosed in a 
 golden urn, to the side of which a trian- 
 gular stone was affixed, inscribed with the 
 letters J. M. B. within a wreath of acacia, 
 and placed on the top of an obelisk. 
 
 Uruguay. Freemasonry was intro- 
 duced into the Republic of Uruguay by the 
 Grand Orient of France, which, in 1827, 
 chartered a Lodge called " the Children of 
 
 the New World." Up to 1856, other Lodges 
 were established by the Grand Bodies of 
 France and Brazil. In that year authority 
 was obtained from the Supreme Council 
 and Grand Orient of Brazil, Valley of 
 Lavradio, to establish a governing Masonic 
 body, and the Supreme Council and Grand 
 Orient of Uruguay was regularly consti- 
 tuted at Montevideo, in the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite. 
 
 Utah. Freemasonry was introduced 
 into the Territory, October 7, 1867, by the 
 Grand Lodge of Montana, which chartered 
 Wasatch Lodge, No. 8. Mount Moriah 
 Lodge, No. 70, was chartered October 21, 
 1868, by the Grand Lodge of Kansas, and 
 Argenta Lodge, No. 21, by the Grand 
 Lodge of Colorado, September 26, 1871. 
 All of these Lodges are situated in Salt 
 Lake City. In January 16-20, 1872, the 
 representatives of the three Lodges met at 
 Salt Lake City and organized the Grand 
 Lodge of Utah, O. F. Strickland being 
 elected Grand Master. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vacancies in Office. Every Ma- 
 sonic officer is elected and installed to hold 
 his office for the time for which he has been 
 elected, and until his successor shall be in- 
 stalled. This is in the nature of a contract 
 between the officer and the Lodge, Chapter, 
 or other body which has elected him, and 
 to its terms he signifies his assent in the 
 most solemn manner at the time of his in- 
 stallation. It follows from this that to 
 resign the office would be on his part to 
 violate his contract. Vacancies in office, 
 therefore, can only occur by death. Even 
 a removal from the jurisdiction, with the 
 intention of permanent absence, will not 
 vacate a Masonic office, because the person 
 removing might change his intention, and 
 return. For the reasons why neither res- 
 ignation nor removal can vacate an office, 
 :see Succession to the Chair. 
 
 Vale or Valley. The vale or valley 
 was introduced at an early period into the 
 symbolism of Masonry. A catechism of 
 the beginning of the last century says that 
 "the Lodge stands upon holy ground, or 
 the highest hill or lowest vale, or in the 
 vale of Jehoshaphat, or any other secret 
 place." And Browne, who in the beginning 
 of the present century gave a correct ver- 
 sion of the Prestonian lectures, aays that 
 
 "our ancient brethren met on the highest 
 hills, the lowest dales, even in the valley 
 of Jehoshaphat, or some such secret place." 
 
 Hutchinson (Sp. of Mas., p. 58,) has dilated 
 on this subject, but, as I think, with a mis- 
 taken view of the true import of the sym- 
 bol. He says: "We place the spiritual 
 Lodge in the vale of Jehoshaphat, imply- 
 ing thereby that the principles of Masonry 
 are derived from the knowledge of God, 
 and are established in the judgment of 
 the Lord." And he adds: "The highest 
 hills and lowest valleys were from the 
 earliest times esteemed sacred, and it was 
 supposed the spirit of God was peculiarly 
 diffusive in those places." 
 
 It is true that worship in high places 
 was an ancient idolatrous usage. But 
 there is no evidence that the superstition 
 extended to valleys. Hutchinson's subse- 
 quent reference to the Druidical and 
 Oriental worship in groves has no bearing 
 on the subject, for groves are not necessarily 
 valleys. The particular reference to the 
 valley of Jehoshaphat would seem in that 
 case to carry an allusion to the peculiar 
 sanctity of that spot, as meaning, in the 
 original, the valley of the judgment of God. 
 But the fact is that the old Masons did not 
 derive their idea, that the Lodge was situ- 
 
VALLEY 
 
 VAULT 
 
 851 
 
 ated in a valley, from any idolatrous prac- 
 tice of the ancients. 
 
 Valley, in Masonry, is a symbol of 
 secrecy. And although I am not disposed 
 to believe that the use of the word in this 
 sense was borrowed from any meaning 
 which it had in Hebrew, yet it is a singu- 
 lar coincidence that the Hebrew word for 
 valley, gnemeth, signifies also "deep," or, as 
 Bate ( Critica Hebr&a) defines it, " whatever 
 lies remote from sight, as counsels and de- 
 signs which are deep or close." This very 
 word is used in Job xii. 22, where it is 
 said that God " discovereth deep things out 
 of da kness, and bringeth out to light the 
 shadow of death." 
 
 The Lodge, therefore, is said to be placed 
 in a valley because, the valley being the 
 symbol of secrecy, it is intended to indicate 
 the secrecy in which the acts of the Lodge 
 should be concealed. And this interpreta- 
 tion agrees precisely with what is said in 
 the passages already cited, where the Lodge 
 is said to stand in the lowest vale " or any 
 secret place." It is supported also by the 
 present lecture in this country, the ideas 
 of which at least Webb derived from Pres- 
 ton. It is there taught that our ancient 
 brethren met on the highest hills and 
 lowest vales, the better to observe the ap- 
 proach of cowans and eavesdroppers, and to 
 guard against surprise. 
 
 Valley. In the capitular degrees of 
 the French Rite, this word is used instead 
 of Orient, to designate the seat of the 
 Chapter. Thus on such a body a docu- 
 ment would be dated from the " Valley of 
 Paris," instead of the "Orient of Paris." 
 The word, says the Dictionnaire Maconnique, 
 is often incorrectly employed to designate 
 the south and north sides of the Lodge, 
 where the expression should be " the col- 
 umn of the south " and " the column of 
 the north." Thus, a Warden will address 
 the brethren of his valley, instead of the 
 brethren of his column. The valley includes 
 the whole Lodge or Chapter; the columns 
 are its divisions. 
 
 Vassal, Pierre Gerard. A French 
 physician and Masonic writer, who was 
 born at Manosques, in France, October 14, 
 1769. He was intended by his parents for 
 the Church, and entered the Seminary of 
 Marseilles for the purpose of pursuing his 
 ecclesiastical studies. At the commence- 
 ment of the revolution he left the school 
 and joined the army, where, however, he 
 remained only eighteen months. He then 
 applied himself to the study of medicine, 
 and pursued the practice of the profession 
 during the rest of his life, acquiring a large 
 reputation as a physician. He was elected 
 a member of several medical societies, to 
 whose transactions he contributed several 
 
 valuable essays. He is said to have intro- 
 duced to the profession the use of the digi- 
 talis purpurea as a remedial agent, espe- 
 cially in diseases of the heart. He was 
 initiated into Masonry about the year 1811, 
 and thenceforth took an active part in the 
 Institution. He presided in the Lodge, 
 Chapter, and Areopagus of the Sept Ecos- 
 sais reunis with great zeal and devotion ; 
 was in 1819 elected Secretary General of 
 the Grand Orient, and in 1827 President of 
 the College of Rites. He attained the 
 thirty-third degree of the Ancient and Ac- 
 cepted Rite, and was a warm advocate of 
 Scottish Masonry. But his zeal was tem- 
 
 Eered by his judgment, and he did not 
 esitate to denounce the errors that had 
 crept into the system, an impartiality of 
 criticism which greatly surprised Ragon. 
 His principal Masonic works are Essai his- 
 torique sur V institution du Bit Ecossais, etc., 
 Paris, 1827, and a valuable historical con- 
 tribution to Masonry entitled Cours com- 
 plet de la Maconnerie, ou Histoire generate de 
 P Initiation depuis son Origine jusqu'd sou in- 
 stitution en France, Paris, 1832. In private 
 life, Vassal was distinguished for his kind 
 heart and benevolent disposition. The 
 Lodge of Sept Ecossais reunis presented 
 him a medal in 1830 as a recognition of 
 his active labors in Masonrv. He died 
 May 4, 1840, at Paris. 
 
 Vault of Steel. ( Voute tfacier.) The 
 French Masons so call the Arch of Steel, 
 which see. 
 
 Vault, Secret. As a symbol, the Se- 
 cret Vault does not present itself in the 
 primary degrees of Masonry. It is found 
 only in the high degrees, such as the Royal 
 Arch of all the Rites, where it plays an 
 important part. Dr. Oliver, in his Histor- 
 ical Landmarks, (vol. ii., p. 434,) gives, 
 while referring to the building of the second 
 Temple, the following general detail of the 
 Masonic legend of this vault. 
 
 "The foundations of the Temple were 
 opened, and cleared from the accumulation 
 of rubbish, that a level might be procured 
 for the commencement of the building. 
 While engaged in excavations for this pur- 
 pose, three fortunate sojourners are said to 
 have discovered our ancient stone of foun- 
 dation, which had been deposited in the se- 
 cret crypt by Wisdom, Strength, and Beauty, 
 to prevent the communication of ineffable 
 secrets to profane or unworthy persons. 
 The discoveiy having been communicated 
 to the prince, prophet, and priest of the 
 Jews, the stone was adopted as the chief 
 corner-stone of the re-edified building, and 
 thus became, in a new and more expressive 
 sense, the type of a more excellent dispen- 
 sation. An avenue was also accidentally 
 discovered, supported by seven pair of 
 
852 
 
 VAULT 
 
 VAULT 
 
 pillars, perfect and entire, which, from their 
 situation, had escaped the fury of the flames 
 that had consumed the Temple, and the 
 desolation of war that had destroyed the 
 city. The secret vault, which had been 
 built by Solomon as a secure depository for 
 certain secrets that would inevitably have 
 been lost without some such expedient for 
 their preservation, communicated by a sub- 
 terranean avenue with the king's palace; 
 but at the destruction of Jerusalem the 
 entrance having been closed by the rubbish 
 of falling buildings, it had been discovered 
 by the appearance of a keystone amongst 
 the foundations of the sanctum sanctorum. 
 A careful inspection was then made, and 
 the invaluable secrets were placed in safe 
 custody." 
 
 To support this legend, there is no his- 
 torical evidence and no authority except 
 that of the Talmudic writers. It is clearly 
 a mythical symbol, and as such we must 
 accept it. We cannot altogether reject it, 
 because it is so intimately and so exten- 
 sively connected with the symbolism of the 
 Lost and the Recovered Word, that if we 
 reject the theory of the Sacret Vault, we 
 must abandon all of that symbolism, and 
 with it the whole of the science of Masonic 
 symbolism. Fortunately, there is ample 
 evidence in the present appearance of Je- 
 rusalem and its subterranean topography, 
 to remove from any tacit and, as it were, 
 conventional assent to the theory, features 
 of absurdity or impossibility. 
 
 Considered simply as a historical ques- 
 tion, there can be no doubt of the existence 
 of immense vaults beneath the superstruc- 
 ture of the original Temple of Solomon. 
 Prime, Robison, and other writers who in 
 recent times have described the topography 
 of Jerusalem, speak of the existence of 
 these structures, which they visited and, in 
 some instances, carefully examined. 
 
 After the destruction of Jerusalem by 
 Titus, the Roman Emperor Hadrian erected 
 on the site of the "House of the Lord" a 
 temple of Venus, which in its turn was de- 
 stroyed, and the place subsequently became 
 a depository of all manner of filth. But 
 the Caliph Omar, after his conquest of Je- 
 rusalem, sought out the ancient site, and, 
 having caused it to be cleansed of its im- 
 purities, he directed a mosque to be erected 
 on the rock which rises in the centre of 
 the mountain. Fifty years afterward the 
 Sultan Abd-el-Meluk displaced the edifice 
 of Omar, and erected that splendid build- 
 ing which remains to this day, and is still 
 incorrectly called by Christians the mosque 
 of Omar, but known to Mussulmans as El- 
 kubbet-es-Sukrah, or the Dome of the Rock. 
 This is supposed to occupy the exact site 
 of the original Solomonic Temple, and is 
 
 viewed with equal reverence by Jews and 
 Mohammedans, the former of whom, says 
 Mr. Prime, {Tent Life in the Holy Land, p. 
 183,) "have a faith that the ark is within 
 its bosom now." 
 
 Bartlett, ( Walks about Jerusalem, p. 170,) 
 in describing a vault beneath this mosque 
 of Omar, says : " Beneath the dome, at the 
 south-east angle of the Temple wall, con- 
 spicuous from all points, is a small subter- 
 raneous place of prayer, forming the en- 
 trance to the extensive vaults which sup- 
 port the level platform of the mosque 
 above." 
 
 Dr. Barclay ( City of the Great King) de- 
 scribes, in many places of his interesting 
 topography of Jerusalem, the vaults and 
 subterranean chambers which are to be 
 found beneath the site of the old Temple. 
 
 Conformable with this historical account 
 is the Talmudical legend, in which the 
 Jewish Rabbins state that, in preparing 
 the foundations of the Temple, the work- 
 men discovered a subterranean vault sus- 
 tained by seven arches, rising from as many 
 pairs of pillars. This vault escaped notice 
 at the destruction of Jerusalem, in conse- 
 quence of its being filled with rubbish. 
 The legend adds that Josiah, foreseeing 
 the destruction of the Temple, commanded 
 the Levites to deposit the ark of the cove- 
 nant in this vault, where it was found by 
 some of the workmen of Zerubbabel at the 
 building of the second Temple. 
 
 In the earliest ages, the cave or vault 
 was deemed sacred. The first worship was 
 in cave temples, which were either natural 
 or formed by art to resemble the excava- 
 tions of nature. Of such great extent was 
 this practice of subterranean worship by 
 the nations of antiquity, that many of the 
 forms of heathen temples, as well as the 
 naves, aisles, and chancels of churches 
 subsequently built for Christian worship, 
 are said to owe their origin to the religious 
 use of caves. 
 
 From this, too, arose the fact, that the 
 initiation into the ancient mysteries was al- 
 most always performed in subterranean 
 edifices ; and when the place of initiation, 
 as in some of the Egyptian temples, was 
 really above ground, it was so constructed 
 as to give to the neophyte the appearance, 
 in its approaches and its internal structure, 
 of a vault. As the great doctrine taught 
 in the mysteries was the resurrection from 
 the dead, — as to die and to be initiated were 
 synonymous terms, — it was deemed proper 
 that there should be some formal resem- 
 blance between a descent into the grave 
 and a descent into the place of initiation. 
 " Happy is the man," says the Greek poet 
 Pindar, " who descends beneath the hollow 
 earth having beheld these mysteries, for 
 
VEDAS 
 
 VEILS 
 
 853 
 
 he knows the end as well as the divine 
 origin of life ; " and in a like spirit Sopho- 
 cles exclaims, " Thrice happy are they who 
 descend to the shades below after having 
 beheld these sacred rites, for they alone 
 have life in Hades, while all others suffer 
 there every kind of evil." 
 
 The vault was, therefore, in the ancient 
 mysteries, symbolic of the grave ; for ini- 
 tiation was symbolic of death, where alone 
 Divine Truth is to be found. The Masons 
 have adopted the same idea. They teach 
 that death is but the beginning of life; 
 that if the first or evanescent temple of our 
 transitory life be on the surface, we must 
 descend into the secret vault of death before 
 we can find that sacred deposit of truth 
 which is to adorn our second temple of 
 eternal life. It is in this sense of an en- 
 trance through the grave into eternal life 
 that we are to view the symbolism of the 
 secret vault. Like every other myth and 
 allegory of Masonry, the historical relation 
 may be true or it may be false ; it may be 
 founded on fact or be the invention of imagi- 
 nation ; the lesson is still there, and the sym- 
 bolism teaches it exclusive of the history. 
 
 Vedas. The most ancient of the re- 
 ligious writings of the Indian Aryans, and 
 now constituting the sacred canon of the 
 Hindus, being to them what the Bible is 
 to the Christians, or the Koran to the 
 Mohammedans. The word Veda denotes 
 in Sanscrit, the language in which these 
 books are written, wisdom or knowledge, 
 and comes from the verb Veda, which, like 
 the Greek 0\$a, Foida, signifies " I know." 
 The German weiss and the English wit 
 came from the same root. There are four 
 collections, each of which is called a Veda, 
 namely, the Rig- Veda, the Yazur-Veda, 
 the Sama-Veda, and the Atharva-Veda ; 
 but the first only is the real Veda, the others 
 being but commentaries on it, as the Tal- 
 mud is upon the Old Testament. 
 
 The Rig- Veda is divided into two parts : 
 the Mantras or hymns, which are all metri- 
 cal, and the Brahmanes, which are in prose, 
 and consist of ritualistic directions con- 
 cerning the employment of the hymns, and 
 the method of sacrifice. The other Vedas 
 consist also of hymns and prayers; but 
 they are borrowed, for the most part, from 
 the Rig- Veda. 
 
 The Vedas, then, are the Hindu canon of 
 Scripture — his book of the law ; and to 
 the Hindu Mason they are his trestle- 
 board, just as the Bible is to the Christian 
 Mason. 
 
 The religion of the Vedas is apparently 
 an adoration of the visible powers of nature, 
 such as the sun, the sky, the dawn, and the 
 fire, and, in general, the eternal powers of 
 light. The supreme divinity was the sky, 
 
 called Varuna, whence the Greeks got their 
 Ouranas ; and next was the Sun, called 
 sometimes Savitar, the progenitor, and 
 sometimes Mitra, the loving one, whence 
 the Persian Mithras. Side by side with 
 these was Agni, fire, whence the Latin 
 ignis, who was the divinity coming most 
 directly in approximation with man on 
 earth, and soaring upwards as the flame to 
 the heavenly gods. But in this nature- 
 worship the Vedas frequently betray an 
 inward spirit groping after the infinite 
 and the eternal, and an anxious search for 
 the divine name, which was to be rever- 
 enced just as the Hebrew aspired after the 
 unutterable Tetragrammaton. Bunsen {God 
 in History, b. iii., ch. 7,) calls this "the de- 
 sire — the yearning after the nameless 
 Deity, who nowhere manifests himself in 
 the Indian pantheon of the Vedas — the 
 voice of humanity groping after God." 
 One of the most sublime of the Veda 
 hymns [Rig- Veda, b. x. hymn 121) ends 
 each strophe with the solemn question : 
 " Who is the god to whom we shall offer 
 our sacrifice ? " This is the question which 
 every religion asks; the search after the 
 All-Father is the labor of all men who are 
 seeking divine truth and light. The Semi- 
 tic, like the Aryan poet in the same longing 
 spirit for the knowledge of God, exclaims, 
 " Oh that I knew where I might find him, 
 that I might come even to his seat." It is 
 the great object of all Masonic labor, which 
 thus shows its true religious character and 
 design. 
 
 The Vedas have not exercised any direct 
 influence on the symbolism of Freemasonry. 
 But, as the oldest Aryan faith, they became 
 infused into the subsequent religious sys- 
 tems of the race, and through the Zend- 
 Avesta of the Zoroastrians, the mysteries of 
 Mithras, the doctrines of theNeo-platonists, 
 and the school of Pythagoras, mixed with 
 the Semitic doctrines of the Bible and the 
 Talmud, they have cropped out in the 
 mysticism of the Gnostics and the secret 
 societies of the Middle Ages, and have 
 shown some of their spirit in the re- 
 ligious philosophy and the symbolism of 
 Speculative Masonry. To the Masonic 
 scholar, the study of the Vedic hymns is 
 therefore interesting, and not altogether 
 fruitless in its results. The writings of 
 Bunsen, of Muir, of Cox, and especially of 
 Max Miiller, will furnish ample materials 
 for the study. 
 
 Vehm-gerieht. See Westphalia, Se- 
 cret Tribunal of. 
 
 Veils. Grand Masters of the. 
 Three officers in a Royal Arch Chapter of 
 the American Rite, whose duty it is to pro- 
 tect and defend the Veils of the Tabernacle, 
 for which purpose they are presented with 
 
854 
 
 VEILS 
 
 VEILS 
 
 a sword. The jewel of their office is a 
 sword within a triangle, and they bear each 
 a banner, which is respectively blue, purple, 
 and scarlet. The title of "Grand Master" 
 appears to be a misnomer. It would have 
 been better to have styled them " Masters " 
 or "Guardians." In the English system, 
 the three Sojourners act in this capacity, 
 which is an absurd violation of all the facts 
 of history, and completely changes the 
 symbolism. 
 
 Veils, Symbolism of the. Neither 
 the construction nor the symbolism of the 
 veils in the Royal Arch tabernacle is de- 
 rived from that of the Sinaitic. In the 
 Sinaitic tabernacle there were no veils of 
 separation between the different parts, ex- 
 cept the one white one that hung before 
 the most holy place. The decorations of 
 the tabernacle were curtains, like modern 
 tapestry, interwoven with many colors ; no 
 curtain being wholly of one color, and not 
 running across the apartment, but covering 
 its sides and roof. The exterior form of 
 the Royal Arch tabernacle was taken from 
 that of Moses, but the interior decoration 
 from a passage of Josephus not properly 
 understood. 
 
 Josephus has been greatly used by the 
 fabricators of high degrees of Masonry, 
 not only for their ideas of symbolism, but 
 for the suggestion of their legends. In the 
 Second Book of Chronicles (iii. 14), it is 
 said that Solomon "made the veil of blue, 
 and purple, and crimson, and fine linen, 
 and wrought cherubims thereon." This 
 description evidently alludes to the single 
 veil, which, like that of the Sinaitic tab- 
 ernacle, was placed before the entrance of 
 the holy of holies. It by no means resem- 
 bles the four separate and equidistant veils 
 of the Masonic tabernacle. 
 
 But Josephus had said (Antiq., 1. viii., c. 
 iii., \ 3), that the king "also had veils of 
 blue, and purple, and scarlet, and the 
 brightest and softest linen, with the most 
 curious flowers wrought upon them, which 
 were to be drawn before these doors." To 
 this description — which is a very inaccurate 
 one, which refers, too, to the interior of the 
 first Temple, and not to the supposed ta- 
 bernacle subsequently erected near its ruins, 
 and which, besides, has no biblical author- 
 ity for its support — we must trace the ideas, 
 even as to the order of the veils, which the 
 inventors of the Masonic tabernacle adopt- 
 ed in their construction of it. That tab- 
 ernacle cannot be recognized as historical- 
 ly correct, but must be considered, like the 
 three doors of the Temple in the symbolic 
 degrees, simply as a symbol. But this does 
 not at all diminish its value. 
 
 The symbolism of the veils must be con- 
 sidered in two aspects; first, in reference to 
 
 the symbolism of the veils as a whole, and 
 next, as to the symbolism of each veil sep- 
 arately. 
 
 As a whole, the four veils, constituting 
 four divisions of the tabernacle, present 
 obstacles to the neophyte in his advance 
 to the most holy place where the Grand 
 Council sits. Now he is seeking to advance 
 to that sacred spot that he may there re- 
 ceive his spiritual illumination, and be 
 invested with a knowledge of the true Di- 
 vine name. But Masonically, this Divine 
 name is itself but a symbol of Truth, the 
 object, as has been often said, of all a Ma- 
 son's search and labor. The passage through 
 the veils is, therefore, a symbol of the trials 
 and difficulties that are encountered and 
 must be overcome in the search for and the 
 acquisition of Truth. 
 
 This is the general symbolism ; but we 
 lose sight of it, in a great degree, when we 
 come to the interpretation of the symbolism 
 of each veil independently of the others, 
 for this principally symbolizes the various 
 virtues and affections that should character- 
 ize the Mason. Yet the two symbolisms 
 are really connected, for the virtues sym- 
 bolized are those which should distinguish 
 every one engaged in the Divine search. 
 
 The symbolism, according to the system 
 adopted in the American Rite, refers to the 
 colors of the veils and to the miraculous 
 signs of Moses, which are described in Ex- 
 odus as having been shown by him to prove 
 his mission as the messenger of Jehovah. 
 
 Blue is a symbol of universal friendship 
 and benevolence. It is the appropriate 
 color of the symbolic degrees, the posses- 
 sion of which is the first step in the pro- 
 gress of the search for truth to be now in- 
 stituted. The Mosaic sign of the 'serpent 
 was the symbol among the ancients of res- 
 urrection to life, because the serpent, by 
 casting his skin, is supposed continually to 
 renew his youth. It is the symbol here of 
 the loss and the recovery of the Word. 
 
 Purple is a symbol here of union, and re- 
 fers to the intimate connection of Ancient 
 Craft and Royal Arch Masonry. Hence it 
 is the appropriate color of the intermediate 
 degrees, which must be passed through in 
 the prosecution of the search. The Mosaic 
 sign refers to the restoration of the leprous 
 hand to health. Here again, in this repre- 
 sentation of a diseased limb restored to 
 health, we have a repetition of the allusion 
 to the loss and the recovery of the Word ; 
 the Word itself being but a symbol of Di- 
 vine truth, the search for which constitutes 
 the whole science of Freemasonry, and the 
 symbolism of which pervades the whole 
 system of initiation from the first to the 
 last degree. 
 
 Scarlet is a symbol of fervency and zeal, 
 
VENERABLE 
 
 VENGEANCE 
 
 855 
 
 and is appropriated to the Royal Arch de- 
 gree because it is by these qualities that 
 the neophyte, now so far advanced in his 
 progress, must expect to be successful in his 
 search. The Mosaic sign of changing wa- 
 ter into wine bears the same symbolic refer- 
 ence to a change for the better — from a 
 lower to a higher state — from the elemental 
 water in which there is no life to the blood 
 which is the life itself — from darkness to 
 light. The progress is still onward to the 
 recovery of that which had been lost, but 
 which is yet to be found. 
 
 White is a symbol of purity, and is pe- 
 culiarly appropriate to remind the neo- 
 Ehyte, who is now almost at the close of 
 is search, that it is only by purity of life 
 that he can expect to be found worthy of 
 the reception of divine truth. " Blessed," 
 says the Great Teacher, " are the pure in 
 heart, for they shall see God." The Mosaic 
 signs now cease, for they have taught their 
 lesson; and the aspirant is invested with 
 the Signet of Truth, to assure him that, 
 having endured all trials and overcome 
 all obstacles, he is at length entitled to re- 
 ceive the reward for which he has been 
 seeking ; for the Signet of Zerubbabel is a 
 royal signet, which confers power and au- 
 thority on him who possesses it. 
 
 And so we now see that the Symbolism 
 of the Veils, however viewed, whether col- 
 lectively or separately, represent the labo- 
 rious, but at last successful, search for di- 
 vine truth. 
 
 Venerable. The title of a Worship- 
 ful Master in a French Lodge. 
 
 Venerable Grand Master of all 
 Symbolic Lodges. The twentieth de- 
 gree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish 
 Rite. See Grand Master of all Symbolic 
 Lodges. The Dictionnaire Maconnique says 
 that this degree was formerly conferred on 
 those brethren in France who, in receiving 
 it, obtained the right to organize Lodges, 
 and to act as Masters or Venerables for life, 
 an abuse that was subsequently abolished 
 by the Grand Orient. Ragon and Vassal 
 both make the same statement. It may be 
 true, but they furnish no documentary evi- 
 dence of the fact. An examination of an 
 old MS. French ritual of the degree, when 
 it formed part of the Rite of Perfection, 
 which is in my possession, shows nothing 
 in the catechism that renders this theory 
 of its origin improbable. 
 
 Venerable, Perfect. ( Venerable 
 Par/ait.) A degree in the collection of 
 Viany. 
 
 Venezuela. Freemasonry first pene- 
 trated into Venezuela in the beginning of 
 the present century, when a Lodge was 
 instituted by the Grand Orient of Spain. 
 Several other Lodges were subsequently es- 
 
 tablished by the same authority. In 1825, 
 Cerneau, the head of th i irregular Supreme 
 Council at New Yorl - , established in Car- 
 acas a Grand Lodge and Supreme Council 
 of the Scottish Rite. In 1827, the Libera- 
 tor, Simon Bolivar, having by his decree 
 prohibited all secret societies, the Masonic 
 Lodges, with the exception of the one at 
 Porto Cabello, suspended their labors. In 
 1830, Venezuela having become indepen- 
 dent by the division of the Colombian Re- 
 public, several brethren obtained from some 
 of the dignitaries of the extinct Grand 
 Lodge, in their capacity as Sovereign In- 
 spectors General of the thirty-third de- 
 gree, a temporary Dispensation to hold a 
 Lodge for one year, in the expectation that 
 they would, in the course of that time, be 
 enabled to obtain a Charter from some for- 
 eign Grand Lodge. But their efforts, in 
 consequence of irregularities, were unsuc- 
 cessful, and the Lodge was suspended. 
 For eight years, Freemasonry in Venezu- 
 ela was in a dormant condition. But in 
 1838 the Masonic spirit was revived, the 
 Lodge just referred to renewed its labors, 
 the old Lodges were resuscitated, and the 
 National Grand Lodge of Venezuela was 
 constituted, whether regularly or not, it is 
 impossible at this time, with the insufficient 
 light before us, to determine. It was, how- 
 ever, recognized by several foreign bodies. 
 The Grand Lodge thus established, issued 
 Charters to all the old Lodges, and erected 
 new ones. In conjunction with the In- 
 spectors General, it established a supreme 
 legislative body, under the name of the 
 Grand Orient, and also constituted a Grand 
 Lodge, which continued to exist, with only 
 a few changes, made in 1852, until the pres- 
 ent Grand Lodge and Supreme Council were 
 established, January 12, 1865. There are 
 at present in Venezuela a Grand Lodge, 
 which, in 1870, had thirty-two Lodges un- 
 der its obedience, and a Supreme Council 
 of the Scottish Rite. 
 
 Vengeance. A word used in the high 
 degrees. Barruel, Robison, and the other 
 detractors of Freemasonry, have sought to 
 find in this word a proof of the vindictive 
 character of the Institution. " In the de- 
 gree of Kadosh," says Barruel, (Memoires, 
 ii. 310,) "the assassin of Adoniram be- 
 comes the king, who must be slain to avenge 
 the Grand Master Molay and the Order of 
 Masons, who are the successors of the Tem- 
 plars." 
 
 No calumny was ever fabricated with so 
 little pretension to truth for its foundation. 
 The reference is altogether historical ; it is 
 the record of the punishment which fol- 
 lowed a crime, not an incentive to revenge. 
 
 The word nekam is used in Masonry m 
 precisely the same sense in which it is em- 
 
856 
 
 VERGER 
 
 VERTOT 
 
 ployed by the prophet Jeremiah (1. 15) 
 when he speaks of nikemat Jehovah, "the 
 vengeance of the Lord," — the punishment 
 which God will inflict on evil-doers. The 
 word is used symbolically to express the 
 universally recognized doctrine that crime 
 will inevitably be followed by its penal con- 
 sequences. It is the dogma of all true re- 
 ligions ; for if virtue and vice entailed the 
 same result, there would be no incentive to 
 the one and no restraint from the other. 
 
 Verger. An officer in a Council of 
 Knights of the Holy Sepulchre, whose du- 
 ties are similar to those of a Senior Deacon 
 in a Symbolic Lodge. 
 
 Vermont. Freemasonry was intro- 
 duced into the State of Vermont in 1781, in 
 which year the Grand Lodge of Massachu- 
 setts granted a Charter for the establish- 
 ment of a Lodge at Cornish. This town 
 having soon afterwards been claimed by 
 New Hampshire, the Lodge removed to 
 Windsor, on the opposite side of the river. 
 In 1785, the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts 
 chartered another Lodge at the town of 
 Manchester. A Grand Lodge was organ- 
 ized October 19, 1794, at Rutland. I have 
 been unable to find any record of the num- 
 ber of Lodges that were engaged in that 
 organization, nor is there any evidence that 
 there were at that time in existence in Ver- 
 mont any other than the two which had 
 been chartered by the Grand Lodge of Mas- 
 sachusetts. 
 
 In no State of the Union did the anti- 
 Masonic party, as a political power, exer- 
 cise so much influence as it did in Ver- 
 mont. The Grand Lodge was, under the 
 pressure of persecution, compelled to sus- 
 pend its labors in 1833. All the Lodges 
 under its jurisdiction surrendered their 
 Charters, and Masonry for fifteen years 
 had no active existence in that State. The 
 Grand Lodge, however, did not dissolve, 
 but continued its legal life by regular, 
 although private, communications of the 
 officers, and by adjournments, until the year 
 1846, when it resumed vigor, Bro. Nathan 
 B. Haswell, who was the Grand Master at 
 the time of the suspension, having taken 
 the chair at the resumed communication in 
 January, 1846. The regularity of this re- 
 sumption, although at first denied by the 
 Grand Lodge of New York, was generally 
 admitted by all the Grand Lodges of the 
 United States, with a welcome to which the 
 devotion and steady perseverance of the Ma- 
 sons of Vermont had justly entitled them. 
 
 The Grand Chapter was organized De- 
 cember 20, 1804, Jonathan Wells being 
 elected first Grand High Priest. It shared 
 the destinies of the Grand Lodge during 
 the period of persecution, but was reorgan- 
 ized July 18, 1849, under a commission 
 
 from Joseph K. Stapleton, Deputy General 
 Grand High Priest of the United States. 
 
 The Grand Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters was organized August 19, 1854, by 
 a Convention of four Councils held at Ver- 
 gennes, and Nathan B. Haswell was elected 
 Grand Master. 
 
 The Grand Encampment (now the Grand 
 Commandery) was originally organized in 
 1825. It subsequently became dormant. 
 In 1850, the Grand Encampment was re- 
 vived ; but it appearing that the revival was 
 attended by irregularities, and in violation 
 of the Grand Constitution of the Grand 
 Encampment of the United States, the 
 members dissolved the body, and the Dep- 
 uty Grand Master, William H. Ellis, hav- 
 ing, in December, 1850, issued a commis- 
 sion to three subordinate Encampments to 
 organize a Grand Encampment, that body 
 was formed January 14, 1852. 
 
 Vernhes, J. F. A French litterateur 
 and Masonic writer, who was in 1821 the 
 Venerable of the Lodge la Parfaite Hu- 
 manite at Montpellier. He wrote an Essai 
 sur VHistoire de la Franche-Magonnerie, 
 depuis son etablissement jusq'd nos Jours, 
 Paris, 1813 ; and Le Parfaii Macon ou Re- 
 pertoire complet de la Magonnerie Sym- 
 bolique. This work was published at Mont- 
 pellier, in 1820, in six numbers, of which 
 the sixth was republished the next year, 
 with the title of Apologie des Magons. It 
 contained a calm and rational refutation 
 of several works which had been written 
 against Freemasonry. Vernhes became an 
 active disciple of the Rite of Mizraim, and 
 published in 1822, at Paris, a defence of it 
 and an examination of the various Rites 
 then practised in France. 
 
 Vertot d" Auburn f. Rene'-Aubert 
 de. The Abb6 Vertot was born at the 
 Chateau de Bennelot, in Normandy, in 
 1665. In 1715 the Grand Master of the 
 Knights of Malta appointed him the his- 
 toriographer of that Order, and provided him 
 with the Commandery of Santenay. Vertot 
 discharged the duties of his office by 
 writing his well-known work entitled His- 
 tory of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John 
 of Jerusalem, afterwards Knights of Rhodes, 
 and now Knights of Malta, which was pub- 
 lished at Paris, in 1726, in four volumes. 
 It has since passed through a great number 
 of editions, and been translated into many 
 languages. Of this work, to which the 
 Abbe principally owes his fame, although 
 he was also the author of many other his- 
 tories, French critics complain that the 
 style is languishing, and less pure and 
 natural than that of his other writings. 
 Notwithstanding that it has been the basis 
 of almost all subsequent histories of the 
 Order, the judgment of the literary world 
 
VESICA 
 
 VINTON 
 
 857 
 
 is, that it needs exactitude in many of its 
 details, and is too much influenced by the 
 personal prejudices of the author. The 
 Abbe Vertot died in 1735. 
 
 Vesica Piscis. The fish was among 
 primitive Christians a symbol 
 of Jesus. (See Fish.) The 
 vesica piscis, signifying literally 
 the air-bladder of a fish, but, 
 as some suppose, being the 
 rough outline of a fish, was 
 adopted as an abbreviated form 
 of that symbol. In some old 
 manuscripts it is used as a 
 representation of the lateral 
 wound of our Lord. As a 
 symbol, it was frequently em- 
 ployed as a church decoration 
 by the Freemasons of the Mid- 
 dle Ages. The seals of all 
 colleges, abbeys, and other religious com- 
 munities, as well as of ecclesiastical per- 
 sons, were invariably made of this shape. 
 Hence, in reference to the religious charac- 
 ter of the Institution, it has been suggested 
 that the seals of Masonic Lodges should 
 also have that form, instead of the circular 
 one now used. 
 
 Vexillum Belli. A war-flag. In 
 classical Latin, Vexillum meant a flag con- 
 sisting of a piece of cloth fixed on a frame 
 or cross-tree, as contradistinguished from 
 a signum, or standard, which was simply a 
 pole with the image of an eagle, horse, or 
 some other device on 
 the top. Among the 
 pretended relics of the 
 Order of the Temple 
 is one called "le dra- 
 peau de guerre, eu laine 
 blanche, a quatre raies 
 noires ; " i. e,, the standard of war, of white 
 linen, with four black rays; and in the 
 statutes of the Order, the Vexillum Belli is 
 described as being " albo nigroque palatum," 
 or pales of white and black, which is the 
 same thing couched in the technical lan- 
 guage of heraldry. This is incorrect. The 
 only war-flag of the ancient Knights Tem- 
 
 Slars was the Beauseant. Ad- 
 ison, on the title-page of his 
 Temple Church, gives what he 
 calls "the war-banner of the 
 Order of the Temple," and 
 which is, as in the margin, the 
 Beauseant, bearing in the centre 
 the blood-red Templar cross. 
 Some of the Masonic Templars, 
 those of Scotland, for example, 
 have both a Beaucenifer or 
 Beauseant bearer, and a bearer of the Vex- 
 illum Belli. The difference would appear 
 to be that the Beauseant is the plain 
 white and black flag, and the Vexillum 
 6H 
 
 I lii 
 
 Belli is the same flag charged with the red 
 cross. 
 
 Viany, Auguste de. A Masonic 
 writer of Tuscany, and one of the founders 
 there of the Philosophic Scottish Rite. He 
 was the author of many discourses, disser- 
 tations, and didactic essays on Masonic 
 subjects. He is, however, best known as 
 the collector of a large number of manu- 
 script degrees and cahiers or rituals, several 
 of which have been referred to in this 
 work. 
 
 Vielle-Bru, Rite of. In 1748, the 
 year after the creation of the Chapter of 
 Arras by the Young Pretender, Charles 
 Edward, a new Bite, in favor of the cause 
 of the Stuarts, was established at Toulouse 
 by, as it is said, Sir Samuel Lockhart, one 
 of the aides-de-camp of the Prince. It 
 was called the Rite of Vielle-Bru, or Faith- 
 ful Scottish Masons. It consisted of nine 
 degrees, divided into three chapters as fol- 
 lows: First Chapter, 1, 2, 3. The symbolic 
 degrees ; 4. Secret Master. Second Chapter, 
 5, 6, 7, 8. Four elu degrees, based on the 
 Templar system. Third Chapter, 9. Scien- 
 tific Masonry. The head of the Rite was 
 a Council of Menatzchim. In 1804 the 
 Rite was refused a recognition by the Grand 
 Orient of France, because it presented no 
 moral or scientific object, and because the 
 Charter which it claimed to have from 
 Prince Charles Edward was not proved to 
 be authentic. It continued to exist in the 
 south of France until the year 1812, when, 
 being again rejected by the Grand Orient, 
 it fell into decay. 
 
 Villars, Abbe" Montfaueon de. 
 He was born in Languedoc in j.653, and 
 was shot by one of his relatives, on the high 
 road between Lyons and Paris, in 1675. 
 The Abbe' Villars is celebrated as the author 
 of The Count de Oabalis, or Conversations on 
 the Secret Sciences, published in 2 vols., at 
 Paris, in 1670. In this work the author's 
 design was, under the form of a romance, to 
 unveil some of the Kabbalistic mysteries 
 of Rosicrucianism. It has passed through 
 many editions, . and has been translated 
 into English as well as into other lan- 
 guages. 
 
 Vincere aut Mori. French, Vaincre 
 ou Mourir, to conquer or to die. The motto 
 of the degree of Perfect Elect Mason, the 
 first of the elus according to the Clermont 
 or Templar system of Masonry. 
 
 Vinton, David. A distinguished 
 lecturer on Masonry, and teacher of the 
 ritual in the first quarter of the present 
 century. His field of labors was princi- 
 pally confined to the Southern States, and 
 he taught his system for some time with 
 great success in North and South Carolina. 
 There were, however, stains upon his char- 
 
858 
 
 VIOLET 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 acter, and he was eventually expelled by, I 
 think, the Grand Lodge of the former State. 
 He died at Shakertown, Kentucky, in July, 
 1833. Vinton published at Dedham, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1816, a volume, containing 
 Selections of Masonic, Sentimental, and 
 Humorous songs, under the title of The Ma- 
 sonic Minstrel. Of this rather trifling work 
 no less than twelve thousand copies were 
 sold by subscription. To Vinton's poetic 
 genius we are indebted for that beautiful 
 dirge commencing, "Solemn strikes the 
 funeral chime," which has now become in 
 almost all the Lodges of the United States 
 a part of the ritualistic ceremonies of the 
 third degree, and has been sung over the 
 graves of thousands of departed brethren. 
 This contribution should preserve the 
 memory of Vinton among the Craft, and 
 in some measure atone for his faults, what- 
 ever they may have been. 
 
 Violet. This is not a Masonic color, 
 except in some of the high degrees of the 
 Scottish Kite, where it is a symbol of mourn- 
 ing, and thus becomes one of the decora- 
 tions of a Sorrow Lodge. Portal ( Coleurs 
 Symboliques, p. 236, ) says that this color was 
 adopted for mourning by persons of high 
 rank. And Campini ( Vetera Monumenta) 
 states that violet was the mark of grief, 
 especially among kings and cardinals. In 
 Christian art, the Saviour is clothed in a 
 purple robe during his passion; and it is 
 the color appropriated, says Court de Ge- 
 belin, [Monde prim., viii. 201,) to martyrs, 
 because, like their divine Master, they un- 
 dergo the punishment of the passion. Pre- 
 vost {Hist, des Voyages, vi. 152,) says that 
 in China violet is the color of mourning. 
 Among that people blue is appropriated to 
 the dead and red to the living, because 
 with them red represents the vital heat, 
 and blue, immortality ; and hence, says 
 Portal, violet, which is made by an equal 
 admixture of blue and red, is a symbol of 
 the resurrection to eternal life. Such an 
 idea is peculiarly appropriate to the use of 
 violet in the high degrees of Masonry as a 
 symbol of mourning. It would be equally 
 appropriate in the primary degrees, for 
 everywhere in Masonry we are taught to 
 mourn not as those who have no hope. 
 Our grief for the dead is that of those who 
 believe in the immortal life. The red sym- 
 bol of life is tinged with the blue of immor- 
 tality, and thus we would wear the violet 
 as our mourning to declare our trust in the 
 resurrection. 
 
 Virginia. There is much obscurity 
 about the early history of Freemasonry in 
 this State. The first chartered Lodge ap- 
 pears to have been the " St. John's Lodge" 
 at Norfolk, which received its Warrant in 
 1741 from the Grand Lodge of Scotland. 
 
 December 22, 1758, the " Royal Exchange 
 Lodge" at Norfolk was chartered by the 
 Athol or Ancient York Lodge. But be- 
 tween 1741 and 1758 the Lodge of Freder- 
 icksburg had sprung into existence, for its 
 records show that General Washington was 
 there initiated November 4, 1752. This 
 Lodge was chartered by the Grand Lodge 
 of Massachusetts on July 21, 1758, but had 
 been acting under Dispensation for several 
 years before. In 1777 there were ten 
 Lodges in Virginia, namely, two at Nor- 
 folk and one at each of the following places: 
 Port Royal, Fredericksburg, Hampton, 
 Williamsburg, Gloucester, Cabin Point, 
 Petersburg, and Yorktown. On the 6th 
 of May in that year, deputies from five of 
 these Lodges met in convention at Williams- 
 burg, " for the purpose of choosing a Grand 
 Master for Virginia." So says the record 
 as contained in Dove's Text- Book. The 
 convention, however, adjourned to June 23, 
 after stating its reasons for the election of 
 such an officer. On that day it met, but 
 again adjourned. Finally, it met on Oc- 
 tober 13, 1778. The record calls it " a Con- 
 vention of the Craft;" but it assumed the 
 form of a Lodge, and the Master and War- 
 dens of Williamsburg Lodge presided. 
 Only four Lodges were represented, namely, 
 Williamsburg, Blandford, Botetourt, and 
 Cabin Point. The modern forms of Ma- 
 sonic conventions are not found in the pro- 
 ceedings of this convention. Nothing is 
 said of the formation of a Grand Lodge, 
 but the following resolution was adopted : 
 
 " It is the opinion of this Convention, 
 that it is agreeable to the Constitutions of 
 Masonry that all the regular chartered 
 Lodges within this State should be sub- 
 ject to the Grand Master of the said State." 
 
 Accordingly, John Blair, Past Master of 
 the Williamsburg Lodge, was nominated 
 and unanimously elected, and on the same 
 day he was installed, by the Master of Wil- 
 liamsburg Lodge, as " Grand Master of Free 
 and Accepted Masons of the State of Vir- 
 ginia." All this was done, if we may trust 
 the record, in Williamsburg Lodge, the 
 Master thereof presiding, who afterwards 
 closed the Lodge without any reference to 
 the organization of a Grand Lodge. We 
 may, however, imply that such a body was 
 then formed, for Dove — without, however, 
 giving any account of the proceedings in 
 the interval, when there might or might not 
 have been quarterly or annual communica- 
 tions — says that a Grand Lodge was held 
 in the city of Richmond, October 4, 1784, 
 when Grand Master Blair having resigned 
 the chair, James Mercer was elected Grand 
 Master. Dove dates the organization of the 
 Grand Lodge at October 13, 1778. 
 
 Royal Arch Masonry was introduced 
 
VIRGIN 
 
 VISITATION 
 
 859 
 
 into Virginia, it is said, by Joseph Myers, 
 who was acting under his authority as 
 a Deputy Inspector of the Scottish Rite. 
 The Grand Chapter was organized at Nor- 
 folk, May 1, 1808. It has never recog- 
 nized the authority of the General Grand 
 Chapter. 
 
 The Cryptic degrees are conferred in 
 Virginia in the Chapters preparatory to 
 the Royal Arch. There are therefore no 
 Councils of Royal and Select Masters in 
 the State. 
 
 The register, or roll published in the Pro- 
 ceedings of the Grand Encampment of the 
 United States for 1871, (p. 27,) states that 
 the Grand Commandery of Virginia was 
 organized, November 27, 1823. But from 
 a report of the committee of the Grand 
 Encampment, made September 17, 1847, 
 we learn the following facts. In 1824 there 
 existed three subordinate Encampments in 
 Virginia, which about the year 1826 formed 
 a Grand Encampment, that was represented 
 that year in the General Grand Encamp- 
 ment. It is supposed that this body ceased 
 to exist soon after its organization, and a 
 Charter was granted, by the General Grand 
 Encampment, for an Encampment to meet 
 at Wheeling. On December 11, 1845, dele- 
 gates from various Encampments in Vir- 
 ginia met at Richmond and organized a 
 new Grand Encampment which they de- 
 clared to be independent of the General 
 Grand Encampment. At the session of 
 the latter body in 1847, it declared this 
 new Grand Encampment to be "irregular 
 and unauthorized," and it refused to recog- 
 nize it or its subordinates. Wheeling En- 
 campment, however, was acknowledged to 
 be a lawful body, as it had not given its 
 adhesion to the irregular Grand Encamp- 
 ment. In January, 1851, the Grand En- 
 campment of Virginia receded from its po- 
 sition of independence, and was recognized 
 by the General Grand Encampment as one 
 of its constituents. It so remained until 
 1861, when the Grand Commandery (the 
 title which had been adopted in 1859) 
 seceded from the Grand Encampment in 
 consequence of the civil war. It, however, 
 returned to its allegiance in 1865, and has 
 ever since remained a regular portion of 
 the Templar Order of the United States. 
 
 Virgin, Weeping. See Weeping 
 Virgin. 
 
 Visible Masonry. In a circular 
 published March 18, 1775, by the Grand 
 Orient of France, reference is made to two 
 divisions of the Order, namely, Visible and 
 Invisible Masonry. Did we not know some- 
 thing of the Masonic contentions then ex- 
 isting in France between the Lodges and 
 the supreme authority, we should hardly 
 comprehend the meaning intended to be 
 
 conveyed by these words. By "Invisible 
 Masonry " they denoted that body of in- 
 telligent and virtuous Masons who, irre- 
 spective of any connection with dogmatic 
 authorities, constituted " a Mysterious and 
 Invisible Society of the True Sons of Light," 
 who, scattered over the two hemispheres, 
 were engaged, with one heart and soul, in 
 doing everything for the glory of the Grand 
 Architect and the good oi their fellow-men. 
 By " Visible Masonry " they meant the 
 congregation of Masons into Lodges, which 
 were often affected by the contagious vices 
 of the age in which they lived. The form- 
 er is perfect ; the latter continually needs 
 purification. The words were originally 
 invented to effect a particular purpose, and 
 to bring the recusant Lodges of France 
 into their obedience. But they might be 
 advantageously preserved, in the technical 
 language of Masonry, for a more general 
 and permanent'object. Invisible Masonry 
 would then indicate the abstract spirit of 
 Masonry as it has always existed, while 
 Visible Masonry would refer to the con- 
 crete form which it assumes in Lodge and 
 Chapter organizations, and in different Rites 
 and systems. The latter would be like the 
 material church, or church militant; the 
 former like the spiritual church, or church 
 triumphant. Such terms might be found 
 convenient to Masonic scholars and writers. 
 
 Visitation. Grand. The visit of a 
 Grand Master, accompanied by his Grand 
 Officers, to a subordinate Lodge, to inspect 
 its condition, is called a Grand Visitation. 
 There is no allusion to anything of the 
 kind in the Old Constitutions, because 
 there was no organization of the Order be- 
 fore the eighteenth century that made such 
 an inspection necessary. But immediately 
 after the revival in 1717, it was found ex- 
 pedient, in consequence of the growth of 
 Lodges in London, to provide for some 
 form of visitation and inspection. So, in 
 the very first of the Thirty-nine General 
 Regulations, adopted in 1721, it is declared 
 that " the Grand Master or his Deputy hath 
 authority and right not only to be present 
 in any true Lodge, but also to preside wher- 
 ever he is, with the Master of the Lodge on 
 his left hand, and to order his Grand War- 
 dens to attend him, who are not to act in 
 any particular Lodges as Wardens, but in 
 his presence and at his command ; because 
 there the Grand Master may command the 
 Wardens of that Lodge, or any other breth- 
 ren he pleaseth, to attend and act as his 
 Wardens pro tempore." 
 
 In compliance with this old regulation, 
 whenever the Grand Master, accompanied 
 by his Wardens and other officers, visits a 
 Lodge in his jurisdiction, for the purpose 
 of inspecting its condition, the Master and 
 
860 
 
 VISITING 
 
 VOGEL 
 
 officers of the Lodge thus visited surrender 
 their seats to the Grand Master and the 
 Grand Officers. 
 
 Grand Visitations are among the oldest 
 usages of Freemasonry since the revival 
 period. In this country they are not now 
 so frequently practised, in consequence of 
 the extensive territory over which the 
 Lodges are scattered, and the difficulty of 
 collecting at one point all the Grand Offi- 
 cers, many of whom generally reside at 
 great distances apart. Still, where it can 
 be done, the practice of Grand Visitations 
 should never be neglected. 
 
 The power of visitation for inspection is 
 confined to the Grand and Deputy Grand 
 Master. The Grand Wardens possess no 
 such prerogative. The Master must always 
 tender the gavel and the chair to the Grand 
 or Deputy Grand Master when either of 
 them informally visits a Lodge ; for the 
 Grand Master and, in his absence, the 
 Deputy have the right to preside in all 
 Lodges where they may be present. But 
 this privilege does not extend to the Grand 
 Wardens. 
 
 Visiting Brethren. Every brother 
 from abroad, or from any other Lodge, 
 when he visits a Lodge, must be received 
 with welcome and treated with hospitality. 
 He must be clothed, that is to say, furnished 
 with an apron, and, if the Lodge uses them, 
 (as every Lodge should,) with gloves, and, 
 if a Past Master, with the jewel of his 
 rank. He must be directed to a seat, and 
 the utmost courtesy extended to him. If 
 of distinguished rank in the Order, the 
 honors due to that rank must be paid to 
 him. 
 
 This hospitable and courteous spirit is 
 derived from the ancient customs of the 
 Craft, and is inculcated in all the Old Con- 
 stitutions. Thus, in the Stone MS., it is 
 directed "that every Mason receive and 
 cherish strange fellowes when they come 
 over the countrie, and sett them on worke, 
 if they will worke, as the manner is ; that 
 is to say, if the Mason have any mould 
 stone in his place, he shall give him a 
 mould stone, and sett him on worke ; and 
 if he have none, the Mason shall refresh 
 him with money unto the next Lodge." 
 A similar regulation is found in all the 
 other manuscripts of the Operative Ma- 
 sons; and from them the usage has de- 
 scended to their speculative successors. 
 
 At all Lodge banquets it is of obligation 
 that a toast shall be drunk " to the visiting 
 brethren." To neglect this would be a 
 great breach of decorum. 
 
 Visit, Right of. Every affiliated Ma- 
 son in good standing has a right to visit 
 any other Lodge, wherever it may be, as 
 often as it may suit his pleasure or conve- 
 
 nience ; and this is called, in Masonic law, 
 " the right of visit." It is one of the most 
 important of all Masonic privileges, be- 
 cause it is based on the principle of the 
 identity of the Masonic institution as one 
 universal family, and is the exponent of 
 that well-known maxim that "in every 
 clime a Mason may find a home, and in 
 every land a brother." It has been so long 
 and so universally admitted, that I have not 
 hesitated to rank it among the landmarks 
 of the Order. 
 
 The admitted doctrine on this subject is, 
 that the right of visit is one of the positive 
 rights of every Mason, because Lodges are 
 justly considered as only divisions for con- 
 venience of the universal Masonic family. 
 The right may, of course, be lost, or for- 
 feited on special occasions, by various cir- 
 cumstances ; but any Master who shall re- 
 fuse admission to a Mason in good standing, 
 who knocks at the door of his Lodge, is 
 expected to furnish some good and satisfac- 
 tory reason for his thus violating a Masonic 
 right. If the admission of the applicant, 
 whether a member or visitor, would, in his 
 opinion, be attended with injurious conse- 
 quences, such, for instance, as impairing 
 the harmony of the Lodge, a Master would 
 then, I presume, be justified in refusing 
 admission. But without the existence of 
 some such good reason, Masonic jurists 
 have always decided that the right of vis- 
 itation is absolute and positive, and inures 
 to every Mason in his travels throughout 
 the world. See this subject discussed in its 
 fullest extent in the author's Text Book of 
 Masonic Jurisprudence, pp. 203-216. 
 
 Vivat. " Vivat! vivat! vivat!" is the 
 acclamation which accompanies the honors 
 in the French Rite. Bazot (Manuel, p. 165,) 
 says it is " the cry of joy of Freemasons of 
 the French Rite." Vivat is a Latin word, 
 and signifies, literally, " May he live ; " but 
 it has been domiciliated in French, and 
 Boiste {Dictionnaire Universel) defines it as 
 " a cry of applause which expresses the 
 wish for the preservation of any one." The 
 French Masons say, " He was received with 
 the triple vivat," to denote that " He was 
 received with the highest honors of the 
 Lodge." 
 
 Vogel, Paul Joachim Sigis- 
 mimd. A distinguished Masonic writer 
 of Germany, who was born in 1753. He 
 was at one time co-rector of the Sebastian 
 School at Altdorf, and afterwards First 
 Professor of Theology and Ecclesiastical 
 Counsellor at Erlangen. In 1785 he pub- 
 lished at Nuremberg, in three volumes, his 
 Brief e, die Freimaurerei betreffend; or, " Let- 
 ters concerning Freemasonry." The first 
 volume treats of the Knights Templars; 
 the second, of the Ancient Mysteries ; and 
 
VOIGT 
 
 VOUCHING 
 
 861 
 
 the third, of Freemasonry. This was, says 
 Kloss, the first earnest attempt made in 
 Germany to trace Freemasonry to a true, 
 historical origin. Vogel's theory was, that 
 the Speculative Freemasons were derived 
 from the Operative or Stonemasons of the 
 Middle Ages. The abundant documentary 
 evidence that more recent researches have 
 produced were then wanting, and the views 
 of Vogel did not make that impression to 
 which they were entitled. He has, how- 
 ever, the credit of having opened the way, 
 after the Abbe Grandidier, for those who 
 have followed him in the same field. He 
 also delivered before the Lodges of Nurem- 
 berg, several Discourses on the Design, 
 Character, and Origin of Freemasonry, which 
 were published in one volume, at Berlin, 
 in 1791. 
 
 Toigt, Friederich. A Doctor of 
 Medicine, and Professor and Senator at 
 Dresden. He was a member of the high 
 degrees of the Rite of Strict Observance, 
 where his Order name was Eques d Falcone, 
 or Knight of the Falcon. In 1788 he at- 
 tacked Starck's Rite of the Clerks of Strict 
 Observance, and published an essay on the 
 subject, in the year 1788, in the Acta His- 
 torico-Ecclesiastica of Weimar. Voigt ex- 
 posed the Roman Catholic tendencies of the 
 new system, and averred that its object was 
 " to cite and command spirits, to find the 
 philosopher's stone, and to establish the 
 reign of the millennium." His develop- 
 ment of the Kabbalistic character of the 
 Rite made a deep impression on the Ma- 
 sonic world, and was one of the most effec- 
 tive attacks upon it made by its antagonists 
 of the old Strict Observance. 
 
 Toting. Voting in Lodges viva voce, or 
 by "aye" and "nay," is a modern innova- 
 tion in this country. During the Grand 
 Mastership of the Earl of Loudon, on April 
 6, 1736, the Grand Lodge of England, on 
 the motion of Deputy Grand Master Ward, 
 adopted " a new regulation of ten rules for 
 explaining what concerned the decency of 
 assemblies and communications." The 
 tenth of these rules is in the following 
 words : 
 
 " The opinions or votes of the members 
 are always to be signified by each holding 
 up one of his hands ; which uplifted hands 
 the Grand Wardens are to count, unless the 
 number of hands be so unequal as to render 
 the counting useless. Nor should any other 
 kind of division be ever admitted on such 
 occasions." 
 
 The usual mode of putting the question is 
 for the presiding officer to say : " So many 
 as are in favor will signify the same by the 
 usual sign of the Order," and then, when 
 those votes have been counted, to say : " So 
 many as are of a contrary opinion will sig- 
 
 nify the same by the same sign." The votes 
 are now counted by the Senior Deacon in a 
 subordinate Lodge, and by the Senior Grand 
 Deacon in a Grand Lodge, it having been 
 found inconvenient for the Grand Wardens 
 to perform that duty. The number of votes 
 on each side is communicated by the Dea- 
 con to the presiding officer, who announces 
 the result. 
 
 The same method of voting should be 
 observed in all Masonic bodies. 
 
 Toting, Right of. Formerly, all 
 members of the Craft, even Entered Ap- 
 prentices, were permitted to vote. This 
 was distinctly prescribed in the last of the 
 Thirty-nine General Regulations adopted 
 in 1721. But the numerical strength of 
 the Order, which was then in the first de- 
 gree, having now passed over to the third, 
 the modern rule is that the right of voting 
 shall be restricted to Master Masons. A 
 Master Mason may, therefore, speak and 
 vote on all questions, except in trials where 
 he is himself concerned as accuser or de- 
 fendant. Yet by special regulation of his 
 Lodge he may be prevented from voting on 
 ordinary questions where his dues for a cer- 
 tain period — generally twelve months — 
 have not been paid ; and such a regulation 
 exists in almost every Lodge. But no 
 local by-law can deprive a member, who has 
 not been suspended, from voting on the 
 ballot for the admission of candidates, be- 
 cause the sixth regulation of 1721 dis- 
 tinctly requires that each member present 
 on such occasion shall give his consent be- 
 fore the candidate can be admitted. And 
 if a member were deprived by any by-law 
 of the Lodge, in consequence of non-pay- 
 ment of his dues, of the right of express- 
 ing his consent or dissent, the ancient reg- 
 ulation would be violated, and a candidate 
 might be admitted without the unanimous 
 consent of all the members present. And 
 this rule is so rigidly enforced, that on a 
 ballot for initiation no member can be ex- 
 cused from voting. He must assume the 
 responsibility of casting his vote, lest it 
 should afterwards be said that the candi- 
 date was not admitted by unanimous con- 
 sent. 
 
 Touching. It is a rule in Masonry, 
 that a Lodge may dispense with the exami- 
 nation of a visitor, if any brother present 
 will vouch that he possesses the necessary 
 qualifications. This is an important pre- 
 rogative that every Mason is entitled to ex- 
 ercise; and yet it is one which may so 
 materially affect the well-being of the 
 whole Fraternity, since, by its injudicious 
 use, impostors might be introduced among 
 the faithful, that it should be controlled by 
 the most stringent regulations. 
 
 To vouch for one is to bear witness for 
 
862 
 
 VOUCHING 
 
 VOUCHING 
 
 him, and in witnessing to truth, every cau- 
 tion should be observed, lest falsehood may 
 cunningly assume its garb. The brother 
 who vouches should know to a certainty 
 that the one for whom he vouches is really 
 what he claims to be. He should know 
 this, not from a casual conversation, nor a 
 loose and careless inquiry, but from " strict 
 trial, due examination, or lawful informa- 
 tion." These are the three requisites which 
 the ritual has laid down as essentially 
 necessary to authorize the act of vouch- 
 ing. Let us inquire into the import of 
 each. 
 
 1. Strict Trial. By this is meant that 
 every question is to be asked, and every 
 answer demanded, which is necessary to 
 convince the examiner that the party ex- 
 amined is acquainted with what he ought 
 to know, to entitle him to the appellation 
 of a brother. Nothing is to be taken for 
 granted — categorical answers must be re- 
 turned to all that it is deemed important to 
 be asked ; no forgetfulness is to be excused ; 
 nor is the want of memory to be considered 
 as a valid reason for the want of knowledge. 
 The Mason who is so unmindful of his ob- 
 ligations as to have forgotten the instruc- 
 tions he has received, must pay the penalty 
 of his carelessness, and be deprived of his 
 contemplated visit to that society whose 
 secret modes of recognition he has so little 
 valued as not to have treasured them in his 
 memory. The "strict trial" refers to the 
 matter which is sought to be obtained by 
 inquiry ; and while there are some things 
 which may safely be passed over in the in- 
 vestigation of one who confesses himself to 
 be " rusty," because they are details which 
 require much study to acquire and constant 
 practice to retain, there are still other 
 things of great importance which must be 
 rigidly demanded. 
 
 2. Due examination. If " strict trial " 
 refers to the matter, "due examination" 
 alludes to the mode of investigation. This 
 must be conducted with all the necessary 
 forms and antecedent cautions. Inquiries 
 should be made as to the time and place of 
 initiation as a preliminary step, the Tiler's 
 OB. of course never being omitted. Then 
 the good old rule of " commencing at the 
 beginning " should be pursued. Let every 
 thing go on in regular course ; nor is it to 
 be supposed that the information sought 
 was originally received. Whatever be the 
 suspicions of imposture, let no expression 
 of those suspicions be made until the final 
 decree for rejection is uttered. And let 
 that decree be uttered in general terms, 
 such as, " I am not satisfied," or " I do not 
 recognize you," and not in more specific 
 language, such as, "You did not answer 
 this inquiry," or "You are ignorant on 
 
 that point." The candidate for examina- 
 tion is only entitled to know that he has 
 not complied generally with the requisi- 
 tions of his examiner. To descend to par- 
 ticulars is always improper, and often dan- 
 gerous. Above all, never ask what the 
 lawyers call " leading questions," which in- 
 clude in themselves the answer, nor in any 
 way aid the memory, or prompt the forget- 
 fulness of the party examined, by the 
 slightest hints. 
 
 3. Lawful information. This authority 
 for vouching is dependent on what has been 
 already described. For no Mason can law- 
 fully give information of another's quali- 
 fications unless he has himself actually 
 tested him. But it is not every Mason who 
 is competent to give " lawful information." 
 Ignorant or unskilful brethren cannot do 
 so, because they are incapable of discover- 
 ing truth or of detecting error. A " rusty 
 Mason " should never attempt to examine 
 a stranger, and certainly, if he does, his 
 opinion as to the result is worth nothing. 
 If the information given is on the ground 
 that the party who is vouched for has been 
 seen sitting in a Lodge, care must be taken 
 to inquire if it was a "just and legally con- 
 stituted Lodge of Master Masons." A 
 person may forget from the lapse of time, 
 and vouch for a stranger as a Master 
 Mason, when the Lodge in which he saw 
 him was only opened in the first or second 
 degree. Information given by letter, or 
 through a third party, is irregular. The 
 person giving the information, the one re- 
 ceiving it, and the one of whom it is given, 
 should all be present at the time, for other- 
 wise there would be no certainty of iden- 
 tity. The information must be positive, 
 not founded on belief or opinion, but de- 
 rived from a legitimate source. And, 
 lastly, it must not have been received cas- 
 ually, but for the very purpose of being 
 used for Masonic purposes. For one to say 
 to another, in the course of a desultory 
 conversation, "A. B. is a Mason," is not 
 sufficient. He may not be speaking with 
 due caution, under the expectation that his 
 words will be considered of weight. He 
 must say something to this effect, "I know 
 this man to be a Master Mason, for such or 
 such reasons, and you may safely recognize 
 him as such." This alone will insure the 
 necessary care and proper observance of 
 prudence. 
 
 Lastly, never should an unjustifiable deli- 
 cacy weaken the rigor of these rules. For 
 the wisest and most evident reasons, that 
 merciful maxim of the law, which says 
 that it is better that ninety-nine guilty 
 men should escape than that one innocent 
 man should be punished, is with us re- 
 versed; so that in Masonry it is better that 
 
VOYAGES 
 
 WAGES 
 
 863 
 
 ninety and nine true men should be turned 
 away from the door of a Lodge, than that 
 one cowan should be admitted. 
 
 Voyages. The French Masons thus 
 call some of the proofs and trials to which 
 a candidate is subjected in the course of 
 initiation into any of the degrees. In the 
 French Rite, the voyages in the symbolic 
 degrees are three in the first, five in the 
 second, and seven in the third. Their 
 symbolic designs are thus briefly explained 
 by Ragon ( Cours des Init., pp. 90, 132,) and 
 Lenoir, (La Franche-Maqonnerie, p. 263:) 
 
 The voyages of the Entered Apprentice 
 are now, as they were in the Ancient Mys- 
 teries, the symbol of the life of man. 
 Those of the Fellow Craft are emblematic 
 of labor in search of knowledge. Those of 
 the Master Mason are symbolic of the 
 pursuit of crime, the wandering life of 
 the criminal, and his vain attempts to es- 
 cape remorse and punishment. It will be 
 evident that the ceremonies in all the 
 Rites of Masonry, although under a dif- 
 ferent name, lead to the same symbolic re- 
 sults. 
 
 w. 
 
 W.*. An abbreviation of Worshipful, 
 of West, of Warden, and of Wisdom. 
 
 Waecbter, Eberhard, Baron 
 Ton. Lord of the Chamber to the king 
 of Denmark, and Danish Ambassador at 
 Ratisbon; was born in 1747. He was at 
 one time a very active member of the Rite 
 of Strict Observance, where he bore the 
 characteristic name of Eques d eeraso, and 
 had been appointed Chancellor of the Ger- 
 man Priories of the 7th Province. When 
 the spiritual schism of the Order made its 
 vast pretensions to a secret authority derived 
 from unknown superiors, whose names they 
 refused to divulge, Von W'achter was sent 
 to Italy by the old Scottish Lodge of which 
 Duke Ferdinand was Grand Master, that 
 he might obtain some information from the 
 Pretender, and from other sources, as to the 
 true character of the Rite. Von W'achter 
 was unsuccessful, and the intelligence which 
 he brought back to Germany was unfavor- 
 able to Von Hund, and increased the em- 
 barrassments of the Strict Observance 
 Lodges. But he himself lost reputation. 
 A host of enemies attacked him. Some 
 declared that while in Italy he had made 
 a traffic of Masonry to enrich himself; 
 others that he had learned and was practis- 
 ing magic; and others again that he had 
 secretly attached himself to the Jesuits. 
 Von Wachter stoutly denied these charges; 
 but it is certain that, from being in very 
 moderate circumstances, he had, after his 
 return from Italy, become suddenly and 
 unaccountably rich. Yet Mossdorf says 
 that he discharged his mission with great 
 delicacy and judgment. Thory, quoting 
 the Beytrag zur neuesten Oeschiete, (p. 150,) 
 says that in 1782 he proposed to give a 
 new organization to the Templar system of 
 
 Masonry, on the ruins, perhaps, of both 
 branches of the Strict Observance, and 
 declared that he possessed the true secrets 
 of the Order. His proposition for a reform 
 was not accepted by the German Masons, 
 because they suspected that he was an 
 agent of the Jesuits. Kloss (Bibliog., No. 
 622 b ) gives the title of a work published by 
 him in 1822 as Worte der Wahrheit an die 
 Menschen, meine Brtider. He died May 25, 
 1825, one, perhaps, of the last actors in the 
 great Masonic drama of the Strict Observ- 
 ance. 
 
 Wages of a Master Mason, Sym- 
 bolic. See Foreign Countries. 
 
 Wages of Operative Masons. 
 In all the Old Constitutions praise is given 
 to St. Alban because he raised the wages 
 of the Masons. Thus the Edinburgh- 
 Kilwinning MS. says: "St. Albans loved 
 Masons well, and cherished them much, 
 and made their pay right good, standing 
 by as the realme did, for he gave them iis. 
 a week, and 3d. to their cheer ; for before 
 that time, through all the land, a Mason 
 had but a penny a day and his meat, until 
 St. Alban amended it." We may compare 
 this rate of wages in the third century with 
 that of the fifteenth, and we will be sur- 
 prised at the little advance that was made. 
 In Grosse and Astle's Antiquarian Repertory 
 (iii., p. 58,) will be found an extract from 
 the Roles of Parliament, which contains a 
 petition, in the year 1443, to Parliament to 
 regulate the price of labor. In it are the 
 following items: "And y' from the Fest 
 of Ester unto Mighelmasse y e wages of eny 
 free Mason or maister carpenter exceed not 
 by the day iiiirf., with mete and drynk, and 
 withoute mete and drink yd., ob. 
 
 "A Maister Tyler or Sclatter, rough ma- 
 
864 
 
 WAGES 
 
 WAGES 
 
 son and meen carpenter, and other artifi- 
 cers concernyng beldyng, by the day iiirf., 
 with mete and drynk, and withoute mete 
 and drynke, iiiof., ob. 
 
 "And from the Fest of Mighelmasse 
 unto Ester, a free Mason and a maister 
 carpenter by the day Hid., with mete and 
 drynk, withoute mete and drink, Hid., ob. 
 
 "Tyler, meen carpenter, rough mason, 
 and other artificers aforesaid, by the day 
 iidj ob, with mete and drynk, withoute 
 mete and drynk iiiic?., and every other 
 werkeman and laborer by the day id., ob, 
 with mete and drynk, and withoute mete 
 and drink iiic?., and who that lasse deserveth, 
 to take lasse." 
 
 Wages of the Workmen at the 
 Temple. Neither the Scriptures, nor 
 Josephus, give us any definite statement 
 of the amount of wages paid, nor the man- 
 ner in which they were paid, to the work- 
 men who were engaged in the erection of 
 King Solomon's Temple. The cost of its 
 construction, however, must have been im- 
 mense, since it has been estimated that the 
 edifice alone consumed more gold and silver 
 than at present exists upon the whole 
 earth; so that Josephus very justly says 
 that "Solomon made all these things for 
 the honor of God, with great variety and 
 magnificence, sparing no cost, but using 
 all possible liberality in adorning the Tem- 
 ple." We learn, as one instance of this 
 liberality, from the 2d Book of Chronicles, 
 that Solomon paid annually to the Tyrian 
 Masons, the servants of Hiram, "twenty 
 thousand measures of beaten wheat, and 
 twenty thousand measures of barley, and 
 twenty thousand baths of wine, and twenty 
 thousand baths of oil." The bath was a 
 measure equal to seven and a half gallons 
 wine measure ; and the cor or chomer, which 
 we translate by the indefinite word measure, 
 contained ten baths ; so that the corn, wine, 
 and oil furnished by King Solomon, as 
 wages to the servants of Hiram of Tyre, 
 amounted to one hundred and ninety 
 thousand bushels of the first, and one 
 hundred and fifty thousand gallons each 
 of the second and. third. The sacred rec- 
 ords do not inform us what further wages 
 they received, but we elsewhere learn that 
 King Solomon gave them as a free gift a 
 sum equal to more than thirty-two millions 
 of dollars. The whole amount of wages 
 paid to the craft is stated to have been 
 about six hundred and seventy-two mil- 
 lions of dollars; but we have no means of 
 knowing how that amount was distributed; 
 though it is natural to suppose that those 
 of the most skill and experience received 
 the highest wages. The Harodim, or chiefs 
 of the workmen, must have been better 
 paid than the Iah Sabal, or mere laborers. 
 
 The legend-makers of Masonry have not 
 been idle in their invention of facts and 
 circumstances in relation to this subject, the 
 whole of which have little more for a foun- 
 dation than the imaginations of the in- 
 ventors. They form, however, a part of the 
 legendary history of Masonry, and are in- 
 teresting for their ingenuity, and sometimes 
 even for their absurdity. 
 
 There was an old tradition among the 
 English Masons, that the men were paid 
 in their Lodges by shekels, — a silver coin 
 of about the value of fifty cents, — and that 
 the amount was regulated by the square of 
 the number of the degree that the workman 
 had attained. Thus, the Entered Appren- 
 tice received one shekel per day; the 
 Fellow Craft, who had advanced to the 
 second degree, received the square of 2, or 
 2x2 = 4 shekels ; and the Mark Man, or 
 third degree, received the square of 3, or 
 3X3 = 9 shekels; whilst the ninth degree, 
 or Super Excellent Mason, received the 
 square of 9, or 9 X 9 = 81 shekels. 
 
 According to this tradition the pay-roll 
 would be as follows: 
 
 
 
 
 Shekel 
 
 
 
 An Entered Apprentice 
 A Fellow Craft 
 
 received 1 
 
 = 
 
 $00 50 
 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 = 
 
 2 00 
 
 A Mark Man 
 
 
 << 
 
 9 
 
 = 
 
 4 50 
 
 A Mark Master 
 
 
 (< 
 
 16 
 
 =3 
 
 800 
 
 A Master Mason 
 
 
 a 
 
 25 
 
 = 
 
 12 50 
 
 An Architect 
 
 
 (( 
 
 36 
 
 = 
 
 18 00 
 
 A Grand Architect 
 
 
 (< 
 
 49 
 
 = 
 
 24 50 
 
 An Excellent Mason 
 
 
 H 
 
 64 
 
 = 
 
 32 00 
 
 A Super Excellent Mason 
 
 (I 
 
 81 
 
 =• 
 
 40 50 
 
 But this calculation seems to have been 
 only a fanciful speculation of some of our 
 ancient brethren. 
 
 Other traditions give a classification of 
 the workmen as to their classes and the 
 number of men in each class. From this 
 classification, we may estimate the daily 
 expenditure at the Temple, in the article of 
 wages, at the following amount : 
 
 Shekel!. Dollan. 
 
 30,000 Entered Apprentice* received 30,000= 15,000 
 
 110,600 Fellow Crafts " 442,400 — 221,000 
 
 2,000 Mark Men " 18,000 — 9,000 
 
 1,000 Mark Masters " 16,000— 8.000 
 
 3,564 Master Masons " 89,100—44,550 
 
 24 Architects " 864— 432 
 
 12 Grand Architects " 688— 294 
 
 72 Excellent Masons " 4,600— 2,394 
 
 9 Super Excellent Masons ■ 729— 894 
 
 Prideaux says that King David had laid 
 up for the building of the Temple immense 
 quantities of gold, silver, copper, iron, and 
 other materials, to the amount of £800,000,- 
 000, or in round numbers about four thou- 
 sand million dollars. Now the daily pay 
 estimated in the preceding roll, which is 
 $276,944, would amount in one year, de- 
 ducting Sabbaths, to $86,406,528, or, in the 
 seven years occupied in building the Tern- 
 
WAGES 
 
 WARDENS 
 
 865 
 
 pie, to $604,845,686. A large amount would 
 therefore still remain out of the four thou- 
 sand millions for other expenses. So that 
 comparing the estimate of the tradition with 
 that of Prideaux, if the latter be true, (which 
 is, however, denied by many commentators, ) 
 the former is not incredible. But after all, 
 it is merely a legend founded on a specula- 
 tion. 
 
 These traditions are not now familiarly 
 known, and would perhaps be soon for- 
 gotten, were it not that they have been 
 preserved by some of our writers simply as 
 antiquarian relics of the speculations of 
 our brethren of former days. 
 
 The traditions in reference to the pay of 
 the Fellow Crafts have been preserved in 
 the ritual of the Mark Master's degree. 
 
 According to these traditions, there were 
 two divisions of the Fellow Crafts. The 
 first, or higher class, worked in the quar- 
 ries, in finishing the stones, or, as we say 
 in our lectures, "in hewing, squaring, and 
 numbering " them ; and, that each one 
 might be enabled to designate his own 
 work, he was in possession of a mark which 
 he placed upon the stones prepared by him. 
 Hence, this class of Fellow Crafts were 
 called Mark Masters, and received their 
 pay from the Senior Grand Warden, whom 
 some suppose to have been Adoniram, the 
 brother-in-law of Hiram Abif, and the 
 first of the Provosts and Judges. These 
 Fellow Crafts received their pay in money, 
 at the rate of a half-shekel of silver per 
 day, equal to about twenty-five cents. 
 They were paid weekly, at the sixth hour 
 of the sixth day of the week, that is to say 
 on Friday, at noon. And this hour ap- 
 pears to have been chosen because, as we 
 are taught in the third degree, at noon, or 
 high twelve, the Craft were always called 
 from labor to refreshment, and hence the 
 payment of their wages at that hour would 
 not interfere with or retard the progress 
 of the work. 
 
 But there was another, and it is prob- 
 able a larger, class of Fellow Crafts, young- 
 er and more inexperienced men, whose 
 skill and knowledge were not such as to 
 entitle them to advancement to the grade 
 of Mark Masters. These workmen were 
 not, therefore, in possession of a mark. 
 They proved their right to reward by an- 
 other token, and received their wages in 
 the middle chamber of the Temple, and 
 were paid in corn, wine, and oil, agreeably 
 to the stipulation of King Solomon with 
 Hiram of Tyre. 
 
 Of course, it would be a waste of words to 
 attempt to defend the authenticity of these 
 legends. Based on the theory that Free- 
 masonry, as now organized, was existing at 
 the building of the Temple of King Solo- 
 61 55 
 
 mon, they pass away with that assumption. 
 There is no countenance of history about 
 them. Parts of them are symbolical, and, 
 as such, of use. Greater portions are 
 merely fanciful speculations, indulged in 
 only to exhibit ingenuity and to test credu- 
 lity. Dr. Oliver, who is never reluctant to 
 accept a plausible legend, says of the tra- 
 dition of tne wages, that "indeed the prob- 
 ability is that the tradition has been fabri- 
 cated in a subsequent age without the 
 existence of any document to attest its 
 authenticity." 
 
 Wales. Anderson says, in his second 
 edition, that Grand Master Inchiquin 
 granted a Deputation, May 10, 1727, to 
 Hugh Warburton, Esq., to be Provincial 
 Grand Master of North Wales, and another, 
 June 24 in the same year, to Sir Edward 
 Mansel, to be Provincial Grand Master of 
 South Wales ; and it is at this period that 
 we may date the introduction of Freema- 
 sonry into the principality, for ten years 
 afterwards the same writer says that Lodges 
 were in existence. Wales forms a part of 
 the Masonic obedience of the Grand Lodge 
 of England, and the Fraternity there are 
 directly governed by three Provincial Grand 
 Lodges. 
 
 Wands. Oliver, under this title in his 
 Dictionary, refers to the three sceptres 
 which, in the Royal Arch system of Eng- 
 land, are placed in a triangular form be- 
 neath the canopy in the East, and which, 
 being surmounted respectively by a crown, 
 an All-seeing eye, and a mitre, refer to the 
 regal, the prophetical, and the sacerdotal 
 offices. In his Landmarks he calls them 
 sceptres. But rod or wand is the better 
 word, because, while the sceptre is restricted 
 to the insignia of kings, tne rod or wand 
 was and still is used as an indiscriminate 
 mark of authority for all offices. 
 
 Wardens. In every Symbolic Lodge, 
 three are three principal officers, namely, 
 a Master, a Senior Warden, and a Junior 
 Warden. This rule has existed ever since 
 the revival, and for some time previous to 
 that event, and is so universal that it has 
 been considered as one of the landmarks. 
 It exists in every country and in every Rite. 
 The titles of the officers may be different 
 in different languages, but their functions, 
 as presiding over the Lodge in a tripartite 
 division of duties, are everywhere the same. 
 The German Masons call the two Wardens 
 erste and zweite Aufseher; the French, pre- 
 mier and second Surveillant; the Spanish, 
 ftrimer and segundo Vigilante; and the 
 talians, primo and secondo Sorvegliante. 
 
 In different Rites, the positions of these 
 officers vary. In the York and American 
 Rites, the Senior Warden sits in the West 
 and the Junior in the South. In the French 
 
866 
 
 WARDENS 
 
 WARDER 
 
 and Scottish Kites, both "Wardens are in 
 the West, the Senior in the North-west and 
 the Junior in the South-west ; but in all, the 
 triangular position of the three officers 
 relatively to each other is preserved ; for a 
 triangle being formed within the square of 
 the Lodge, the Master and Wardens will 
 each occupy one of the three points. 
 
 The precise time when the presidency of 
 the Lodge was divided between these three 
 officers, or when they were first introduced 
 into Masonry, is unknown. The Lodges of 
 Scotland, during the Operative regime, 
 were governed by a Deacon and one War- 
 den. The Deacon performed the functions 
 of a Master, and the Warden was the sec- 
 ond officer, and took charge of and distrib- 
 uted the funds. In other words, he acted 
 as a treasurer. This is evident from the 
 minutes of the Edinburgh Lodge, recently 
 published by Bro. Lyon. But the head of 
 the Craft in Scotland at the same time was 
 called the Warden General. This regula- 
 tion, however, does not appear to have been 
 universal even in Scotland, for in the " Mark 
 Book " of the Aberdeen Lodge, under date 
 of December 27, 1670, which was published 
 by Bro. W. J. Hughan in the Voice of Ma- 
 sonry, (Feb., 1872,) we find there a Master 
 and Warden recognized as the presiding 
 officers of the Lodge in the following stat- 
 ute: "And lykwayse we all protest, by the 
 oath we have made at our entrie, to own 
 the Warden of our Lodge as the next man 
 in power to the Maister, and in the Mais- 
 ter's absence he is full Maister." 
 
 Some of the English manuscript Consti- 
 tutions recognize the offices of Master and 
 Wardens. Thus the Harleian MS., No. 
 1942, whose date is supposed to be about 
 1670, contains the " new articles " said to 
 have been agreed on at a General Assembly 
 held in 1663, in which is the following pas- 
 sage : " That for the future the sayd Society, 
 Company and Fraternity of Free Masons 
 shal bee regulated and governed by one 
 Master & Assembly & Wardens, as y' said 
 Company shall think fit to chose, at every 
 yearely General Assembly." 
 
 As the word "Warden" does not appear 
 in the earlier manuscripts, it might be con- 
 cluded that the office was not introduced 
 into the English Lodges until the latter 
 
 Sart of the seventeenth century. Yet this 
 oes not absolutely follow. For the office 
 of Warden might have existed, and no 
 statutory provision on the subject have 
 been embraced in the general charges which 
 are contained in those manuscripts, because 
 they relate not to the government of Lodges, 
 but the duties of Masons. This, of course, 
 is conjectural ; but the conjecture derives 
 weight from the fact that Wardens were 
 officers of the English gilds as early as the 
 
 fourteenth century. In the Charters granted 
 by Edward III., in 1354, it is permitted 
 that these companies shall yearly elect for 
 their government "a certain number of 
 Wardens." To a list of the companies of 
 the date of 1377 is affixed what is called 
 the "Oath of the Wardens of Crafts," of 
 which this is the commencement: "Ye shall 
 swere that ye shall wele and treuly oversee 
 
 the Craft of whereof ye be chosen 
 
 Wardeyns for the year." It thus appears 
 that the Wardens were at first the presiding 
 officers of the gilds. At a later period, in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, we find that the 
 chief officer began to be called Master; and 
 in the time of James I., between 1603 and 
 1625, the gilds were generally governed by 
 a Master and Wardens. An ordinance of 
 the Leather-Sellers Company at that time 
 directed that on a certain occasion "the 
 Master and Wardens shall appear in state." 
 It is not, therefore, improbable that the 
 government of Masonic Lodges by a Master 
 and two Wardens was introduced into the 
 regulations of the Order in the seventeenth 
 century, the "new article" of 1663 being 
 a statutory confirmation of a custom which 
 had just begun to prevail. 
 
 Senior Warden. He is the second officer 
 in a Symbolic Lodge, and governs the 
 Craft in the hours of labor. In the absence 
 of the Master he presides over the Lodge, 
 appointing some brother, not the Junior 
 Warden, to occupy his place in the west. 
 His jewel is a level, a symbol of the equality 
 which exists among the Craft while at 
 labor in the Lodge. His seat is in the 
 west, and he represents the column of 
 Strength. He has placed before him, and 
 carries in all processions, a column, which 
 is the representative of the right-hand 
 pillar that stood at the porch of King 
 Solomon's Temple. The Junior Warden 
 has a similar column, which represents the 
 left-hand pillar. During labor the column 
 of the Senior Warden is erect in the Lodge, 
 while that of the Junior is recumbent. At 
 refreshment, the position of the two columns 
 is reversed. 
 
 Junior Warden. The duties of this officer 
 have already been described. See Junior 
 Warden. 
 
 There is also an officer in a Commandery 
 of Knights Templars, the fifth in rank, who 
 is styled "Senior Warden." He takes an 
 important part in the initiation of a can- 
 didate. His jewel of office is a triple tri- 
 angle, the emblem of Deity. 
 
 Wardens, Grand. See Grand 
 Wardens. 
 
 Warder. The literal meaning of 
 Warder is one who keeps watch and ward. 
 In the Middle Ages, the Warder was sta- 
 tioned at the gate or on the battlements 
 
WARLIKE 
 
 WAR 
 
 867 
 
 of the castle, and with his trumpet sounded 
 alarms and announced the approach of all 
 comers. Hence the Warder in a Com- 
 mandery of Knights Templars bears a 
 trumpet, and his duties are prescribed to 
 be to announce the approach and departure 
 of the Eminent Commander, to post the 
 sentinels, and see that the Asylum is duly 
 guarded, as well as to announce the ap- 
 proach of visitors. His jewel is a trumpet 
 and crossed swords engraved on a square 
 plate. 
 
 Warlike Instrument. In the an- 
 cient initiations, the aspirant was never 
 permitted to enter on the threshold of the 
 Temple in which the ceremonies were con- 
 ducted until, by the most solemn warning, 
 he had been impressed with the necessity 
 of secrecy and caution. The use, for this 
 purpose, of a "warlike instrument" in the 
 first degree of Masonry, is intended to pro- 
 duce the same effect. A sword has always 
 been employed for that purpose; and the 
 substitute of the point of the compasses, 
 taken from the altar at the time, is an ab- 
 surd sacrifice of symbolism to the conve- 
 nience of the Senior Deacon. The com- 
 passes are peculiar to the third degree. In 
 the earliest rituals of the last century it is 
 said that the entrance is "upon the point 
 of a sword, or spear, or some warlike in- 
 strument." Krause, {Kumturk., ii. 142,) in 
 commenting on this expression, has com- 
 pletely misinterpreted its signification. He 
 supposes that the sword was intended as a 
 sign of jurisdiction now assumed by the 
 Lodge. But the real object of the cere- 
 mony is to teach the neophyte that as the 
 sword or warlike instrument will wound or 
 prick the flesh, so will the betrayal of a 
 trust confided wound or prick the con- 
 science of him who betrays it. 
 
 War, Masonry in. The question 
 how Masons should conduct themselves in 
 time of war, when their own country is 
 one of the belligerents, is an important one. 
 Of the political course of a Mason in his 
 individual and private capacity there is no 
 doubt. The Charges declare that he must 
 be "a peaceable subject to the civil powers, 
 and never be concerned in plots and con- 
 spiracies against the peace and welfare of 
 the nation." But so anxious is the Order to 
 be unembarrassed by all political influences, 
 that treason, however discountenanced by 
 the Craft, is not held as a crime which is 
 amenable to Masonic punishment. For 
 the same charge affirms that " if a brother 
 should be a rebel against the State, he is 
 not to be countenanced in his rebellion, 
 however he may be pitied as an unhappy 
 man ; and if convicted of no other crime, 
 though the loyal brotherhood must and 
 ought to disown his rebellion and give no 
 
 umbrage or ground of political jealousy to 
 the government for the time being, they 
 cannot expel him from the Lodge, and his 
 relation to it remains indefeasible." 
 
 The Mason, then, like every other citizen, 
 should be a patriot. He should love his 
 country with all his heart; should serve it 
 faithfully and cheerfully; obey its laws in 
 peace ; and in war should be ever ready to 
 support its honor and defend it from the 
 attacks of its enemies. But even then the 
 benign principles of the Institution ex- 
 tend their influence, and divest the contest 
 of many of its horrors. The Mason fights, 
 of course, like every other man, for victory ; 
 but when the victory is won, he will re- 
 member that the conquered foe is Btill his 
 brother. 
 
 On the occasion, many years ago, of a 
 Masonic banquet given immediately after 
 the close of the Mexican war to Gen. Quit- 
 man by the Grand Lodge of South Caro- 
 lina, that distinguished soldier and Mason 
 remarked that, although he had devoted 
 much of his attention to the nature and 
 character of the Masonic institution, and 
 had repeatedly held the highest offices in 
 the gift of his brethren, he had never really 
 known what Masonry was until he had seen 
 its workings on the field of battle. 
 
 But as a collective and organized body — 
 in its Lodges and its Grand Lodges — it must 
 have nothing to do with war. It must be 
 silent and neutral. The din of the battle, 
 the cry for vengeance, the shout of vic- 
 tory, must never penetrate its portals. Its 
 dogmas and doctrines all teach love and 
 fraternity; its symbols are symbols of 
 peace; and it has no place in any of its 
 rituals consecrated to the inculcation of 
 human contention. 
 
 Bro. C. W. Moore, in his Biography of 
 Thomas Smith Webb, the great American 
 ritualist, mentions a circumstance which 
 occurred during the period in which Webb 
 presided over the Grand Lodge of Rhode 
 Island, and to which Moore, I think, in- 
 considerately has given his hearty com- 
 mendation. 
 
 The United States was at that time en- 
 gaged in a war with England. The people 
 of Providence having commenced the erec- 
 tion of fortifications, the Grand Lodge 
 volunteered its services ; and the members, 
 marching in procession as a Grand Lodge 
 to the southern part of the town, erected a 
 breastwork, to which was given the name 
 of Fort Hiram. I doubt the propriety of 
 the act. While (to repeat what has been 
 just said) every individual member of the 
 Grand Lodge, as a Mason, was bound by hia 
 obligation to be " true to his government," 
 and to defend it from the attacks of its 
 enemies, it was, I think, unseemly, and 
 
868 
 
 WARRANT 
 
 WARRANT 
 
 contrary to the peaceful spirit of the Insti- 
 tution, for any organized body of Masons, 
 organized as such, to engage in a warlike 
 enterprise. But the patriotism, if not the 
 prudence of the Grand Lodge, cannot be 
 denied. 
 
 Since writing this paragraph, I have 
 met in Bro. Murray Lyon's History of the 
 Lodge of Edinburgh (p. 83) with a record 
 of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, a century 
 ago, which sustains the view that I have 
 taken. In 1777, recruits were being en- 
 listed in Scotland for the British army, 
 which was to fight the Americans in the 
 war of the Revolution, which had just 
 begun. Many of the Scotch Lodges offered, 
 through the newspapers, bounties to all 
 who should enlist. But on February 2, 1778, 
 the Grand Lodge passed a resolution, which 
 was published on the 12th, through the 
 Grand Secretary, in the following circular: 
 
 " At a quarterly meeting of the Grand 
 Lodge of Scotland, held here the second 
 instant, I received a charge to acquaint all 
 the Lodges of Scotland holding of the 
 Grand Lodge that the Grand Lodge has 
 seen with concern advertisements in the 
 public newspapers, from different Lodges in 
 Scotland, not only offering a bounty to re- 
 cruits who may enlist in the new levies, 
 but with the addition that all such recruits 
 shall be admitted to the freedom of Ma- 
 sonry. The first of these they consider as 
 an improper alienation of the funds of the 
 Lodge from the support of their poor and 
 distressed brethren ; and the second they 
 regard as a prostitution of our Order, 
 which demands the reprehension of the 
 Grand Lodge. Whatever share the brethren 
 may take as individuals in aiding these 
 levies, out of zeal to serve their private 
 friends or to promote the public service, 
 the Grand Lodge considered it to be re- 
 pugnant to the spirit of our Craft that 
 any Lodge should take a part in such a 
 business as a collective body. For Ma- 
 sonry is an Order of Peace, and it looks on 
 all mankind to be brethren as Masons, 
 whether they be at peaee or at war with 
 each other as subjects of contending coun- 
 tries. The Grand Lodge therefore strongly 
 enjoins that the practice may be forthwith 
 discontinued. By order of the Grand 
 Lodge of Scotland. W. Mason, Gr. Sec." 
 
 Or all human institutions, Freemasonry 
 is the greatest and purest Peace Society. 
 And this is because its doctrine of univer- 
 sal peace is founded on the doctrine of a 
 universal brotherhood. 
 
 Warrant of Constitution. The 
 document which authorizes or gives a War- 
 rant to certain persons therein named to 
 organize and constitute a Lodge, Chapter, 
 or other Masonic body, and which ends 
 
 usually with the formula, " for which this 
 shall be your sufficient warrant." 
 
 The practice of granting Warrants for 
 the constitution of Lodges, dates only from 
 the period of the revival of Masonry in 
 1717. Previous to that period " a sufficient 
 number of brethren," says Preston, (p. 182,) 
 " met together within a certain district with 
 the consent of the sheriff, or other chief 
 magistrate of the place, were empowered to 
 make Masons, and practise the rites of Ma- 
 sonry without a Warrant of Constitution." 
 But in 1717 a regulation was adopted "that 
 the privilege of assembling as Masons, 
 which had been hitherto unlimited, should 
 be vested in certain Lodges or assemblies 
 of Masons convened in certain places; and 
 that every Lodge to be hereafter convened, 
 except the four old Lodges at this time ex- 
 isting, should be legally authorized to act 
 by a Warrant from the Grand Master, for 
 the time being, granted to certain individ- 
 uals by petition, with the consent and ap- 
 probation of the Grand Lodge in commu- 
 nication; and that without such Warrant 
 no Lodge should be hereafter deemed 
 regular or constitutional." And conse- 
 quently, ever since the adoption of that 
 regulation, no Lodge has been regular un- 
 less it is working under such an authority. 
 The word Warrant is appropriately used, 
 because in its legal acceptation it means a 
 document giving authority to perform some 
 specified act. 
 
 In England, the Warrant of Constitution 
 emanates from the Grand Master; in the 
 United States, from the Grand Lodge. 
 Here the Grand Master grants only a Dis- 
 pensation to hold a Lodge, which may be 
 revoked or confirmed by the Grand Lodge; 
 in the latter case, the Warrant will then be 
 issued. The Warrant of Constitution is 
 granted to the Master and Wardens, and to 
 their successors in office; it continues in 
 force only during the pleasure of the Grand 
 Lodge, and may, therefore, at any time be 
 revoked, and the Lodge dissolved by a vote 
 of that body, or it may be temporarily ar- 
 rested or suspended by an edict of the 
 Grand Master. This will, however, never 
 be done, unless the Lodge has violated the 
 ancient landmarks, or failed to pay due re- 
 spect and obedience to the Grand Lodge or 
 to the Grand Master. 
 
 When a Warrant of Constitution is re- 
 voked or recalled, the jewels, furniture, and 
 funds of the Lodge revert to the Grand 
 Lodge. 
 
 Lastly, as a Lodge holds its communica- 
 tions only under the authority of this War- 
 rant of Constitution, no Lodge can be 
 opened, or proceed to business, unless it be 
 present. If it be mislaid or destroyed, it 
 must be recovered, or another obtained; 
 
WASHING 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 869 
 
 and until that is done, the communications 
 of the Lodge must be suspended ; and if the 
 Warrant of Constitution be taken out of 
 the room during the session of the Lodge, 
 the authority of the Master instantly 
 ceases. 
 
 Washing Hands. See Lustration. 
 
 Washington, Congress of. A 
 Congress of American Masons was con- 
 voked at the city of Washington, in the 
 year 1822, at the call of several Grand 
 Lodges, for the purpose of recommending 
 the establishment of a General Grand 
 Lodge of the United States. The result 
 was an unsuccessful one. 
 
 Washington, George. The name 
 of Washington claims a place in Masonic 
 biography, not because of any services he 
 has done to the Institution either as a 
 worker or a writer, but because the fact of 
 his connection with the Craft is a source 
 of pride to every American Mason, at 
 least, who can thus call the "Father of his 
 country " a brother. There is also another 
 reason. While the friends of the Institu- 
 tion have felt that the adhesion to it of a 
 man so eminent for virtue was a proof of 
 its moral and religious character, the oppo- 
 nents of Masonry, being forced to admit 
 the conclusion, have sought to deny the 
 premises, and, even if compelled to admit 
 the fact of Washington's initiation, have 
 persistently asserted that he never took any 
 interest in it, disapproved of its spirit, and 
 at an early period of his life abandoned it. 
 The truth of history requires that these 
 misstatements should be met by a brief re- 
 cital of his Masonic career. 
 
 Washington was initiated, in 1752, in the 
 Lodge at Fredericksburg, Virginia, and the 
 records of that Lodge, still in existence, 
 
 Present the following entries on the subject, 
 'he first entry is thus : 
 
 "Nov. 4th, 1752. This evening Mr. 
 George Washington was initiated as an 
 Entered Apprentice;" and the receipt of 
 the entrance fee, amounting to £2 3s., is 
 acknowledged. 
 
 On the 3d of March in the following 
 year, "Mr. George Washington" is re- 
 corded as having been passed a Fellow 
 Craft; and on the 4th of the succeeding 
 August, the record of the transactions of 
 the evening states that " Mr. George Wash- 
 ington," and others whose names are men- 
 tioned, have been raised to the sublime 
 degree of Master Mason. 
 
 For five years after his initiation, he was 
 engaged in active military service, and it is 
 not likely that during that period his at- 
 tendance on the communications of the 
 Lodge could have been frequent. Some 
 English writers have asserted that he was 
 made a Mason during the old French War, 
 
 in a military Lodge attached to the 46th 
 Regiment. The Bible on which he is said 
 to have been obligated is still in existence, 
 although the Lodge was many years ago 
 dissolved, at Halifax, Nova Scotia. The 
 records of the Lodge are or were, not long 
 since, extant, and furnish the evidence that 
 Washington was there, and received some 
 Masonic degree. It is equally clear that he 
 was first initiated in Fredericksburg Lodge, 
 for the record is still in possession of the 
 Lodge. 
 
 Three methods have been adopted to 
 reconcile this apparent discrepancy. Bro. 
 Hayden, in his work on Washington and his 
 Masonic Compeers, (p. 31,) suggests that an 
 obligation had been administered to him as 
 a test-oath when visiting the Lodge, or that 
 the Lodge, deeming the authority under 
 which he had been made insufficient, had 
 required him to be healed and reobligated. 
 Neither of these attempts to solve the diffi- 
 culty appears to have any plausibility. 
 
 Bro. C. W. Moore, of Massachusetts, in 
 the Freemasons 1 Monthly Magazine, (vol. xi., 
 p. 261,) suggests that, as it was then the 
 custom to confer the Mark degree as a side 
 degree in Masters' Lodges, and as it has 
 been proved that Washington was in pos- 
 session of that degree, he may have re- 
 ceived it in Lodge No. 227, attached to the 
 46th Regiment. This certainly presents a 
 more satisfactory explanation than either 
 of those offered by Bro. Hayden. 
 
 The connection of Washington with the 
 British military Lodge will serve as some 
 confirmation of the tradition that he was 
 attentive to Masonic duties during the five 
 years from 1753 to 1758, when he was en- 
 gaged in military service. 
 
 There is ample evidence that during the 
 Revolutionary War, while he was Com- 
 mander-in-Chief of the American armies, 
 he was a frequent attendant on the meetings 
 of military Lodges. A few years ago, Cap- 
 tain Hugh Maloy, a revolutionary veteran, 
 then residing in Ohio, declared that on one 
 of these occasions he was initiated in Wash- 
 ington's marquee, the chief himself presid- 
 ing at the ceremony. Bro. Scott, a Past 
 Grand Master of Virginia, asserted that 
 Washington was in frequent attendance on 
 the communications of the brethren. The 
 proposition made to elect him a Grand 
 Master of the United States, as will be 
 hereafter seen, affords a strong presumption 
 that his name as a Mason had become 
 familiar to the Craft. 
 
 In 1777, the Convention of Virginia 
 Lodges recommended Washington as the 
 most proper person to be elected Grand 
 Master of the Independent Grand Lodge of 
 that commonwealth. Dove has given in his 
 Text-Booh the complete records of the Con- 
 
870 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 vention; and there is therefore no doubt 
 that the nomination was made. It was, 
 however, declined by Washington. 
 
 Soon after the beginning of the Revolu- 
 tion, a disposition was manifested among 
 American Masons to dissever their connec- 
 tion, as subordinates, with the Masonic 
 authorities of the mother country, and 
 in several of the newly-erected States the 
 Provincial Grand Lodges assumed an in- 
 dependent character. The idea of a Grand 
 Master of the whole of the United States 
 had also become popular. On February 7, 
 1780, a convention of delegates from the 
 military Lodges in the army was holden 
 at Morristown, in New Jersey, when an 
 address to the Grand Masters in the vari- 
 ous States was adopted, recommending the 
 establishment of "one Grand Lodge in 
 America," and the election of a Grand 
 Master. This address was sent to the 
 Grand Lodges of Massachusetts, Pennsyl- 
 vania, and Virginia; and although the name 
 of Washington is not mentioned in it, those 
 Grand Lodges were notified that he was 
 the first choice of the brethren who had 
 framed it. 
 
 While these proceedings were in progress, 
 the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania had 
 taken action on the same subject. On 
 January 13, 1780, it had held a session, and 
 it was unanimously declared that it was for 
 the benefit of Masonry that " a Grand Mas- 
 ter of Masons throughout the United States " 
 should be nominated; whereupon, with 
 equal unanimity, Gen. Washington was 
 elected to the office. It was then ordered 
 that the minutes of the election be trans- 
 mitted to the different Grand Lodges in 
 the United States, and their concurrence 
 therein be requested. The Grand Lodge 
 of Massachusetts, doubting the expediency 
 of electing a General Grand Master, de- 
 clined to come to any determination on 
 the question, and so the subject was 
 dropped. 
 
 This will correct the error into which 
 many foreign Grand Lodges and Masonic 
 writers have fallen, of supposing that 
 Washington was ever a Grand Master of 
 the United States. The error was strength- 
 ened by a medal contained in Merzdorf's 
 Medals of the Fraternity of Freemasons, 
 which the editor states was struck by the 
 Lodges of Pennsylvania. This statement 
 is, however, liable to great doubt. The date 
 of the medal is 1797. On the obverse is 
 a likeness of Washington, with the device, 
 "Washington, President, 1797." On the 
 reverse is a tracing-board and the device, 
 " Amor, Honor, et Justitia. G. W., G. G. 
 M." French and German Masonic histo- 
 rians have been deceived by this medal, 
 and refer to it as their authority for assert- 
 
 ing that Washington was a Grand Master. 
 Lenning and Thory, for instance, place the 
 date of his election to that office in the year 
 in which the medal was struck. More re- 
 cent European writers, however, directed 
 by the researches of the American author- 
 ities, have discovered and corrected the 
 mistake. 
 
 We next hear of Washington's official 
 connection in the year 1788. Lodge No. 
 39, at Alexandria, which had hitherto been 
 working under the Grand Lodge of Penn- 
 sylvania, in 1788 transferred its allegiance 
 to Virginia. On May 29 in that year the 
 Lodge adopted the following resolution : 
 
 "The Lodge proceeded to the appoint- 
 ment of Master and Deputy Master to be 
 recommended to the Grand Lodge of Vir- 
 ginia, when George Washington, Esq., 
 was unanimously chosen Master; Robert 
 McCrea, Deputy Master; Wm. Hunter, Jr., 
 Senior Warden; John Allison, Junior 
 Warden." 
 
 It was also ordered that a committee 
 should wait on Gen. Washington, "and 
 inquire of him whether it will be agreeable 
 to him to be named in the Charter." What 
 was the result of that interview, we do not 
 positively know. But it is to be presumed 
 that the reply of Washington was a favor- 
 able one, for the application for the Charter 
 contained his name, which would hardly 
 have been inserted, if it had been repug- 
 nant to his wishes. And the Charter or 
 Warrant under which the Lodge is still 
 working is granted to Washington as 
 Master. The appointing clause is in the 
 following words: 
 
 " Know ye that we, Edmund Randolph, 
 Esquire, Governor of the Commonwealth 
 aforesaid, and Grand Master of the Most 
 Ancient and Honorable Society of Free- 
 masons within the same, by and with the 
 consent of the Grand Lodge of Virginia, 
 do hereby constitute and appoint our il- 
 lustrious and well-beloved Brother, George 
 Washington, Esquire, late General and 
 Commander-in-Chief of the forces of the 
 United States of America, and our worthy 
 Brethren Robert McCrea, William Hun- 
 ter, Jr., and John Allison, Esqs., together 
 with all such other brethren as may be ad- 
 mitted to associate with them, to be a 
 'first, true, and regular Lodge of Free- 
 masons, by the name, title, and designation 
 of the Alexandria Lodge, No. 22.'" In 
 1805, the Lodge, which is still in existence, 
 was permitted by the Grand Lodge to 
 change its name to that of " Washington 
 Alexandria," in honor of its first Master. 
 
 The evidence, then, is clear that Wash- 
 ington was the Master of a Lodge. Whether 
 he ever assumed the duties of the office, 
 and, if he assumed, how he discharged them, 
 
WASHINGTON 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 871 
 
 we know only from the testimony of Tim- 
 othy Bigelow, who, in a Eulogy delivered 
 before the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, 
 two months after Washington's death, and 
 eleven after his appointment as Master, 
 made the following statement: 
 
 "The information received from our 
 brethren who had the happiness to be 
 members of the Lodge over which he pre- 
 sided for many years, and of which he 
 died the Master, furnishes abundant proof 
 of his persevering zeal for the prosperity of 
 the Institution. Constant and punctual in 
 his attendance, scrupulous in his observ- 
 ance of the regulations of the Lodge, and 
 solicitous, at all times, to communicate 
 light and instruction, he discharged the 
 duties of the Chair with uncommon dig- 
 nity and intelligence in all the mysteries 
 of our art." 
 
 There is also a very strong presumption 
 that Washington accepted ana discharged 
 the duties of the Chair to the satisfaction 
 of the Lodge. At the first election held 
 after the Charter had been issued, he was 
 elected, or we should rather say re-elected, 
 Master. The record of the Lodge, under 
 the date of December 20, 1788, is as follows: 
 
 " His Excellency, General Washington, 
 unanimously elected Master; Robert Mc- 
 Crea, Senior Warden; Wm. Hunter, Jr., 
 Junior Warden; Wm. Hodgson, Treasurer; 
 Joseph Green way, Secretary; Dr. Frederick 
 Spanbergen, Senior Deacon ; George Rich- 
 ards, Junior Deacon." The subordinate 
 officers had undergone a change : McCrea, 
 who had been named in the petition as 
 Deputy Master, an officer not recognized in 
 this country was made Senior Warden; 
 Wm. Hunter, who had been nominated as 
 Senior Warden, was made Junior Warden; 
 and the original Junior Warden, John 
 Allison, was dropped. But there was no 
 change in the office of Master. Wash- 
 ington was again elected. The Lodge 
 would scarcely have been so persistent 
 without his consent; and if his consent was 
 given, we know, from his character, that he 
 would seek to discharge the duties of the 
 office to his best abilities. This circum- 
 stance gives, if it be needed, strong confir- 
 mation to the statement of Bigelow. 
 
 But incidents like these are not all that 
 are left to us to exhibit the attachment of 
 Washington to Masonry. On repeated oc- 
 casions he has announced, in his letters and 
 addresses to various Masonic bodies, his pro- 
 found esteem for the character, and his just 
 appreciation of the principles, of that In- 
 stitution into which, at so early an age, he 
 had been admitted. And during his long 
 and laborious life, no opportunity was pre- 
 sented of which he did not avail himself 
 to evince his esteem for the Institution. 
 
 Thus, in the year 1797, in reply to an af- 
 fectionate address from the Grand Lodge 
 of Massachusetts, he says: "My attach- 
 ment to the Society of which we are mem- 
 bers will dispose me always to contribute 
 my best endeavors to promote the honor 
 and prosperity of the Craft." 
 
 Five years before this letter was written, 
 he had, in a communication to the same 
 body, expressed his opinion of the Masonic 
 institution as one whose liberal principles 
 are founded on the immutable laws of 
 "truth and justice," and whose "grand 
 object is to promote the happiness of the 
 human race. 
 
 In answer to an address from the Grand 
 Lodge of South Carolina in 1791, he says : 
 " I recognize with pleasure my relation to 
 the brethren of your Society," and " I shall 
 be happy, on every occasion, to evince my 
 regard for the Fraternity." And in the 
 same letter he takes occasion to allude to 
 the Masonic institution as " an association 
 whose principles lead to purity of morals, 
 and are beneficial of action." 
 
 In writing to the officers and members 
 of St. David's Lodge at Newport, (R. I.,) 
 in the same year, he uses this language : 
 " Being persuaded that a just application 
 of the principles on which the Masonic fra- 
 ternity is founded must be promotive of 
 private virtue and public prosperity, I shall 
 always be happy to advance the interests 
 of the Society, and to be considered by 
 them as a deserving brother." 
 
 And lastly, for I will not further extend 
 these citations, in a letter addressed in No- 
 vember, 1798, only thirteen months be- 
 fore his death, to the Grand Lodge of 
 Maryland, he has made this explicit dec- 
 laration of his opinion of the Institution : 
 
 " So far as I am acquainted with the doc- 
 trines and principles of Freemasonry, I 
 conceive them to be founded in benevo- 
 lence, and to be exercised only for the 
 good of mankind. I cannot, therefore, 
 upon this ground, withdraw my approba- 
 tion from it." 
 
 So much has been said upon the Masonic 
 career and opinions of Washington because 
 American Masons love to dwell on the fact 
 that the distinguished patriot, whose mem- 
 ory is so revered that his unostentatious 
 grave on the banks of the Potomac has be- 
 come the Mecca of America, was not only 
 a brother of the Craft, but was ever ready 
 to express his good opinion of the Society. 
 They feel that under the panoply of his 
 great name they may defy the malignant 
 charges of their adversaries. They know 
 that no better reply can be given to such 
 charges than to say, in the language of 
 Clinton, " Washington would not have en- 
 couraged an Institution hostile to morality, 
 
872 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 WEBB 
 
 religion, good order, and the public wel- 
 fare." 
 
 Washington Territory. Free- 
 masonry in an organized form was intro- 
 duced into Washington Territory by the 
 Grand Lodge of Oregon, which established 
 four Lodges there previous to the year 1858. 
 These Lodges were Olympia, No. 5; Steila- 
 coom, No. 8; Grand Mound, No. 21, and 
 Washington, No. 22. On December 6-9, 
 1858, delegates from these four Lodges met 
 in convention at the city of Olympia, and 
 organized the Grand Lodge of Free and 
 Accepted Masons of the Territory of Wash- 
 ington. T. F. McElroy was elected Grand 
 Master, and T. M. Reed, Grand Secretary. 
 
 The high degrees of the American Rite 
 have not yet been established in Washing- 
 ton Territory; but in 1872 the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite was introduced by 
 Bro. Edwin A. Sherman, the agent of the 
 Supreme Council of the Southern Jurisdic- 
 tion, and several bodies of that Rite were 
 organized. 
 
 Watchwords. Used in the thirty- 
 second degree of the Ancieut and Accepted 
 Scottish Rite because that degree has a 
 military form, but not found in other de- 
 grees of Masonry. 
 
 Water -fall. Used in the Fellow 
 Craft's degree as a symbol of plenty, for 
 which the word water-ford is sometimes im- 
 properly substituted. See Shibboleth. 
 
 Wayfaring Man. A word used in 
 the legend of the third degree to denote the 
 person met near the port of Joppa by cer- 
 tain persons sent out on a search by King 
 Solomon. The part of the legend which 
 introduces the wayfaring man, and his in- 
 terview with the Fellow Crafts, was prob- 
 ably introduced into the American sys- 
 tem by Webb, or found by him in the older 
 rituals practised in this country. It is not 
 in the old English rituals of the last cen- 
 tury, nor is the circumstance detailed in 
 the present English lecture. A wayfaring 
 man is defined by Phillips as " one accus- 
 tomed to travel on the road." The expres- 
 sion is becoming obsolete in ordinary lan- 
 guage, but it is preserved in Scripture — 
 " he saw a wayfaring man in the street of 
 the city," (Judges xix. 17,) — and in Ma- 
 sonry, both of which still retain many 
 words long since disused elsewhere. 
 
 Weary Sojourners. Spoken of in 
 the American legend of the Royal Arch as 
 three of the captives who had been restored 
 to liberty by Cyrus, and, after sojourning 
 or remaining longer in Babylon than the 
 main body of their brethren, had at length 
 repaired to Jerusalem to assist in rebuild- 
 ing the Temple. 
 
 It was while the workmen were engaged 
 in making the necessary excavations for 
 
 laying the foundation, and while numbers 
 continued to arrive at Jerusalem from 
 Babylon, that these three woru and weary 
 sojourners, after plodding on foot over the 
 rough and devious roads between the two 
 cities, offered themselves to the Grand 
 Council as willing participants in the labor 
 of erection. Who these sojourners were, 
 we have no historical means of discovering ; 
 but there is a Masonic tradition (entitled, 
 perhaps, to but little weight) that they 
 were Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, 
 three holy men, who are better known to 
 general readers by their Chaldaic names 
 of Shadrach, Meshech, and Abed-nego, as 
 having been miraculously preserved from 
 the fiery furnace of Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 Their services were accepted, and from 
 their diligent labors resulted that impor- 
 tant discovery, the perpetuation and preser- 
 vation of which constitutes the great end 
 and design of the Royal Arch degree. 
 
 Such is the legend of the American 
 Royal Arch. It has no known foundation 
 in history, and is therefore altogether 
 mythical. But it presents, as a myth, the 
 symbolic idea of arduous and unfaltering 
 search after truth, and the final reward 
 that such devotion receives. 
 
 Wehh-Preston Work. The title 
 given by Dr. Robert Morris to a system of 
 lectures which he proposed to introduce, in 
 1859, into the Lodges of the United States, 
 and in which he was partly successful. He 
 gave this name to his system because his 
 theory was that the lectures of Thomas 
 Smith Webb and those of Preston were 
 identical. But this theory is untenable, 
 for it has long since been shown that the 
 lectures of Webb were an abridgement, 
 and a very material modification of those 
 of Preston. In 1863, and for a few years 
 afterwards, the question of the introduction 
 of the "Webb-Preston work " was a sub- 
 ject of warm, and sometimes of intemperate, 
 discussion in several of the western juris- 
 dictions. It has now, however, at least as 
 a subject of controversy, ceased to attract 
 the attention of the Craft. One favorable 
 result was, however, produced by these dis- 
 cussions, and that is, that they led to a more 
 careful investigation and a better under- 
 standing of the nature and history of the 
 rituals which have, during the present cen- 
 tury, been practised in this country. The 
 bitterness of feeling has passed away, but 
 the knowledge that it elicited remains. 
 
 Webb, Thomas Smith. No name 
 in Masonry is more familiar to the Amer- 
 ican Mason than that of Webb, who was 
 really the inventor and founder of the sys- 
 tem of work which, under the appropriate 
 name of the American Rite (although 
 often improperly called the York Rite), is 
 
WEBB 
 
 WEBB 
 
 873 
 
 universally practised in the United States. 
 The most exhaustive biography of him 
 that has been written is that of Bro. Cor- 
 nelius Moore, in his Leaflets of Masonic 
 Biography, and from that, with a few ad- 
 ditions from other sources, the present 
 sketch is derived. 
 
 Thomas Smith Webb, the son of parents 
 who a few years previous to his birth had 
 emigrated from England and settled in 
 Boston, Massachusetts, was born in that 
 city, October 13, 1771. He was educated 
 in one of the public schools, where he ac- 
 quired such knowledge as was at that time 
 imparted in them, and became proficient 
 in the French and Latin languages. 
 
 He selected as a profession either that 
 of a printer or a bookbinder ; his biographer 
 is uncertain which, but inclines to think 
 that it was the former. After completing 
 his apprenticeship he removed to Keene, in 
 New Hampshire, where he worked at his 
 trade, and about the year 1792 (for the 
 precise date is unknown) was initiated in 
 Freemasonry in Rising Sun Lodge in that 
 town. 
 
 While residing at Keene he married 
 Miss Martha Hopkins, and shortly after- 
 wards removed to Albany, New York, where 
 he opened a book-store. When and where 
 he received the high degrees has not been 
 stated, but we find him, while living at 
 Albany, engaged in the establishment of a 
 Chapter and an Encampment. 
 
 It was at this early period of his life that 
 Webb appears to have commenced his 
 labors as a Masonic teacher, an office 
 which he continued to fill with great in- 
 fluence until the close of his life. In 1797 
 he published at Albany the first edition of 
 his Freemasons' Monitor ; or, Illustrations of 
 Masonry. It purports to be " by a Royal 
 Arch Mason, K. T., K. M., etc." He did 
 not claim the authorship until the subse- 
 quent edition; but his name and that of 
 his partner, Spencer, appear in the imprint 
 as publishers. He acknowledges in the 
 preface his indebtedness to Preston for the 
 observations on the first three degrees. 
 But he states that he has differently ar- 
 ranged Preston's distributions of the sec- 
 tions, because they were " not agreeable to 
 the mode of working in America." This 
 proves that the Prestonian system was not 
 then followed in the United States, and 
 ought to be a sufficient answer to those 
 who at a later period attempted to claim 
 an identity between the lectures of Preston 
 and Webb. 
 
 About the year 1801 he removed to 
 Providence, Rhode Island, where he en- 
 gaged in the manufacture of wall-paper on 
 a rather extensive scale. By this time his 
 reputation as a Masonic teacher had been 
 5K 
 
 well established, for a committee was ap- 
 pointed by St John's Lodge of Providence 
 to wait upon and inform him that this 
 Lodge (for his great exertions in the cause 
 of Masonry) wish him to become a member 
 of the same." He accepted the invitation, 
 and passing through the various gradations 
 of office was elected, in 1813, Grand Master 
 of the Masons of Rhode Island. 
 
 But it is necessary now to recur to pre- 
 ceding events. In 1797, on October 24, a 
 convention of committees from several 
 Chapters in the Northern States was held in 
 Boston for the purpose of deliberating on 
 the propriety and expediency of establish- 
 ing a Grand Chapter of Royal Arch Masons 
 for the Northern States. Of this convention 
 Webb was chosen as the chairman. Pre- 
 viously to this time the Royal Arch degrees 
 had been conferred in Masters' Lodges and 
 under a Lodge Warrant. It is undoubtedly 
 to the influence of Webb that we are to 
 attribute the disseverance of the degree 
 from that jurisdiction and the establish- 
 ment of independent Chapters. It was one 
 of the first steps that he took in the organ- 
 ization of the American Rite. The circu- 
 lar addressed by the convention to the 
 Chapters of the country was most probably 
 from the pen of Webb. 
 
 The Grand Chapter having been organ- 
 ized in January, 1798, Webb was elected 
 Grand Scribe, and re-elected in 1799, at 
 which time the body assumed the title of 
 the General Grand Chapter. In 1806 he 
 was promoted to the office of General 
 Grand King, and in 1816 to that of Deputy 
 General Grand High Priest, which he held 
 until his death. 
 
 During all this time, Webb, although 
 actively engaged in the labors of Masonic 
 instruction, continued his interest in the 
 manufacture of wall paper, and in 1817 re- 
 moved his machinery to the West, Moore 
 thinks, with the intention of making his 
 residence there. 
 
 In 1816 he visited the Western States, 
 and remained there two years, during which 
 time he appears to have been actively en- 
 gaged in the organization of Chapters, 
 Grand Chapters and Encampments. It 
 was during this visit that he established 
 the Grand Chapters of Ohio and Kentucky, 
 by virtue of his powers as a General Grand 
 Officer. 
 
 In August, 1818, he left Ohio and re- 
 turned to Boston. In the spring of 1819, 
 he again began a visit to the West, but he 
 reached no farther than Cleveland, Ohio, 
 where he died very suddenly, it is supposed 
 in a fit of apoplexy, on July 6, 1819, and 
 was buried the next day with Masonic 
 honors. The body was subsequently dis- 
 interred and conveyed to Providence, where, 
 
WEDEKIND 
 
 WEISHAUPT 
 
 on the 8th of November, it was reinterred 
 by the Grand Lodge of Rhode Island. 
 
 Webb's influence over the Masons of the 
 United States, as the founder of a Rite, was 
 altogether personal. In Masonic literature 
 he has made no mark, for his labors as an 
 author are confined to a single work, his 
 Monitor, and this is little more than a syl- 
 labus of his lectures. Although, if we may 
 judge by the introductory remarks to the 
 various sections of the degrees, and espe- 
 cially to the second one of the third de- 
 gree, Webb was but little acquainted with 
 the true philosophical symbolism of Free- 
 masonry, such as it was taught by Hutchin- 
 son in England and by his contemporaries 
 in this country, Harris and Town, he was 
 what Carson properly calls him, " the ablest 
 Masonic ritualist of his day — the very 
 prince of Masonic workmen," and this was 
 the instrument with which he worked for 
 the extension of the new Rite which he 
 established. The American Rite would 
 have been more perfect as a system had its 
 founder entertained profounder views of 
 the philosophy and symbolism of Masonry 
 as a science ; but as it is, with imperfections 
 which time, it is hoped, will remove, and 
 deficiencies which future researches of the 
 Masonic scholar will supply, it still must 
 ever be a monument of the ritualistic skill, 
 the devotion, and the persevering labor of 
 Thomas Smith Webb. 
 
 The few odes and anthems composed by 
 Webb for his rituals possess a high degree 
 of poetic merit, and evince the possession 
 of much genius in their author. 
 
 Wedekind, Georg Christian 
 Gottlieb, Baron Ton. A German 
 
 Shysician and Professor of Medicine at 
 [etz, and a medical writer of reputation. 
 He was born at Gottingen, January 8, 1761. 
 As a Mason, he was distinguished as a 
 member of the Eclectic Union, and labored 
 effectually for the restoration of good feel- 
 ing between it and the Directorial Lodge 
 at Frankfort. His Masonic works, which 
 are numerous, consist principally of ad- 
 dresses, controversial pamphlets, and con- 
 tributions to the Altenburg Journal of Free- 
 masonry. He died in 1831. 
 
 Weeping Virgin. The weeping vir- 
 gin with dishevelled hair, in the monument 
 of the third degree, used in the American 
 Rite, is interpreted as a symbol of grief for 
 the unfinished state of the Temple. Jeremy 
 Cross, who is said to have fabricated the 
 monumental symbol, was not, we are sat- 
 isfied, acquainted with hermetic science. 
 Yet a woman thus portrayed, standing near 
 a tomb, was a very appropriate symbol for 
 the third degree, whose dogma is the resur- 
 rection. In hermetic science, according 
 to Nicolas Flammel, {Hieroglyphica, cap. 
 
 xxxii.,) a woman having her hair dishev- 
 elled and standing near a tomb is a symbol 
 of the soul. 
 
 Weishaupt, Adam. He is cele- 
 brated in the history of Masonry as the 
 founder of the Order of Illuminati of Ba- 
 varia, among whom he adopted the char- 
 acteristic or Order name of Spartacus. 
 He was born February 6, 1748, at Ingold- 
 stadt, and was educated by the Jesuits, 
 towards whom, however, he afterwards ex- 
 hibited the bitterest enmity, and was equally 
 hated by them in return. In 1772 he be- 
 came extraordinary professor of law, and in 
 1775 professor of natural and canon law, at 
 the University of Ingoldstadt. As the pro- 
 fessorship of canon law had been hitherto 
 held only by an ecclesiastic, his appoint- 
 ment gave great offence to the clergy. 
 Weishaupt, whose views were cosmopolitan, 
 and who knew and condemned the bigotry 
 and superstitions of the priests, established 
 an opposing party in the University, con- 
 sisting principally of young men whose 
 confidence and friendship he had gained. 
 They assembled in a private apartment, 
 and there he discussed with them philo- 
 sophic subjects, and sought to imbue them 
 with a liberal spirit. This was the begin- 
 ning of the Order of the Illuminati, or the 
 Enlightened — a name which he bestowed 
 upon his disciples as a token of their ad- 
 vance in intelligence and moral progress. 
 
 At first, it was totally unconnected with 
 Masonry, of which Order Weishaupt was 
 not at that time a member. It was not 
 until 1777 that he was initiated in the 
 Lodge Theodore of Good Counsel, at Mun- 
 ich. Thenceforward Weishaupt sought to 
 incorporate his system into that of Ma- 
 sonry, so that the latter might become sub- 
 servient to his views, and with the assist- 
 ance of the Baron Knigge, who brought 
 his active energies and genius to the aid of 
 the cause, he succeeded in completing his 
 system of Illuminism. But the clergy, and 
 especially the Jesuits, who, although their 
 Order had been abolished by the govern- 
 ment, still secretly possessed great power, 
 redoubled their efforts to destroy their op- 
 ponent, and they at length succeeded. In 
 1784, all secret associations were prohibited 
 by a royal decree, and in the following 
 year Weishaupt was deprived of his pro- 
 fessorship and banished from the country. 
 He repaired to Gotha, where he was kindly 
 received by Duke Ernest, who made him a 
 counsellor and gave him a pension. There 
 he remained until he died in 1811. 
 
 During his residence at Gotha he wrote 
 and published many works, some on philo- 
 sophical subjects and several in explana- 
 tion and defence of Illuminism. Among 
 the latter were A Picture of the Illuminati, 
 
WEISHAUPT 
 
 WEISHAUPT 
 
 875 
 
 1786 ; A complete History of the Persecutions 
 of the llluminati in Bavaria, 1786. Of this 
 work only one volume was published ; the 
 second, though promised, never appeared. 
 An Apology for the llluminati, 1786; An 
 Improved System of the llluminati, 1787, and 
 many others. 
 
 No man has ever been more abused and 
 villified than Weishaupt by the adversaries 
 of Freemasonry. In such partisan writers 
 as Barruel and Robison we might expect to 
 find libels against a Masonic reformer. But 
 it is passing strange that Dr. Oliver should 
 have permitted such a passage as the follow- 
 ing to sully his pages. {Landmarks, ii. 26.) 
 
 " Weishaupt was a shameless libertine, 
 who compassed the death of his sister-in- 
 law to conceal his vices from the world and, 
 as he termed it, to preserve his honor." 
 
 To charges like these, founded only in 
 the bitterness of his persecutors, Weishaupt 
 has made the following reply : 
 
 " The tenor of my life has been the op- 
 posite of everything that is vile; and no 
 man can lay any such thing to my charge." 
 
 Indeed, his long continuance in an im- 
 portant religious professorship at Ingold- 
 stadt, the warm affections of his pupils, and 
 the patronage and protection, during the 
 closing years of his life, of the virtuous and 
 amiable Duke of Gotha, would seem to give 
 some assurance that Weishaupt could not 
 have been the monster that he has been 
 painted by his adversaries. 
 
 Illuminism, it is true, had its abundant 
 errors, and no one will regret its dissolu- 
 tion. But its founder had hoped by it to 
 effect much good: that it was diverted 
 from its original aim was the fault, not of 
 him, but of some of his disciples ; and their 
 faults he was not reluctant to condemn in 
 his writings. 
 
 His ambition was, I think, a virtuous 
 one; that it failed was his, and perhaps the 
 world's, misfortune. " My general plan," 
 he says, "is good, though in the detail 
 there may be faults. I had myself to create. 
 In another situation, and in an active sta- 
 tion in life, I should have been keenly oc- 
 cupied, and the founding of an Order would 
 never have come into my head. But I 
 would have executed much better things, 
 if the government had not always opposed 
 my exertions, and placed others in situa- 
 tions which suited my talents. It was the 
 full conviction of this, and of what could 
 be done, if every man were placed in the 
 office for which he was fitted by nature, 
 and a proper education, which first sug- 
 gested to me the plan of Illuminism." 
 
 What he really wished Illuminism to be, 
 we may judge from the instructions he gave 
 as to the necessary qualifications of a can- 
 didate for initiation. They are as follows : 
 
 " Whoever does not close his ear to the 
 lamentations of the miserable, nor his 
 heart to gentle pity; whoever is the friend 
 and brother of the unfortunate; whoever 
 has a heart capable of love and friendship; 
 whoever is steadfast in adversity, unwearied 
 in the carrying out of whatever has been 
 once engaged in, undaunted in the over- 
 coming of difficulties ; whoever does not 
 mock and despise the weak ; whose soul is 
 susceptible of conceiving great designs, de- 
 sirous of rising superior to all base motives, 
 and of distinguishing itself by deeds of 
 benevolence; whoever shuns idleness; who- 
 ever considers no knowledge as unessential 
 which he may have the opportunity of ac- 
 quiring, regarding the knowledge of man- 
 kind as his chief study; whoever, when 
 truth and virtue are in question, despising 
 the approbation of the multitude, is suffi- 
 ciently courageous to follow the dictates of 
 his own heart, — such a one is a proper 
 candidate." 
 
 The Baron von Knigge, who, perhaps, of 
 all men, best knew him, said of him that 
 he was undeniably a man of genius, and a 
 profound thinker ; and that he was all the 
 more worthy of admiration because, while 
 subjected to the influences of a bigoted 
 Catholic education, he had formed his mind 
 by his own meditations, and the reading 
 of good books. His heart, adds this com- 
 panion of his labors and sharer of his 
 secret thoughts, was excited by the most 
 unselfish desire to do something great, and 
 that would be worthy of mankind, and in 
 the accomplishment of this he was deterred 
 by no opposition and discouraged by no 
 embarrassments. 
 
 The truth is, I think, that Weishaupt 
 has been misunderstood by Masonic and 
 slandered by un-Masonic writers. His suc- 
 cess in the beginning as a reformer was 
 due to his own honest desire to do good. 
 His failure in the end was attributable to 
 ecclesiastical persecution, and to the faults 
 and follies of his disciples. The master 
 works to elevate human nature ; the scholars, 
 to degrade. Weishaupt's place in history 
 should be among the unsuccessful reformers, 
 and not among the profligate adventurers. 
 
 Welcome. In the ritual, it is said to 
 be the duty of the Senior Deacon " to wel- 
 come and clothe all visiting brethren." 
 That is to say, he is to receive them at the 
 door with all courtesy and kindness, and to 
 furnish them, or see that they are furnished, 
 with the necessary apron and gloves, and, 
 if they are Past Masters, with the appro- 
 priate collar and jewel of that office, with 
 an extra supply of which all Lodges were 
 in the olden time supplied. He is to con- 
 duct the visitor to a seat, and thus carry- 
 out the spirit of the old Charges, which 
 
876 
 
 WELL 
 
 WESTPHALIA 
 
 especially inculcate hospitality to strange 
 brethren. 
 
 Well Formed, True, and Trus- 
 ty. A formula used by the Grand Master 
 at the laying of a corner-stone. Having 
 applied the square, level, and plumb to its 
 different surfaces and angles, he declares it 
 to be "well formed, true, and trusty." 
 Borrowed from the technical language of 
 Operative Masonry, it is symbolically ap- 
 plied in reference to the character which 
 the Entered Apprentice should sustain 
 when, in the course of his initiation, he as- 
 sumes the place of a typical corner-stone 
 in the Lodge. 
 
 Wesley, Samuel. At one time the 
 most distinguished organist of England, 
 and called by Mendelssohn " the father of 
 English organ-playing." He was initiated 
 as a Mason December 17, 1788, and in 1812, 
 the office of Grand Organist of the Grand 
 Lodge of England being in that year first 
 instituted, he received the appointment from 
 the Grand Master, the Duke of Sussex, and 
 held it until 1818. He composed the an- 
 them performed at the union of the two 
 Grand Lodges in 1813, and was the com- 
 poser of many songs, glees, etc., for the use 
 of the Craft. He was the son of the Rev. 
 Charles Wesley, and nephew of the cele- 
 brated John Wesley, the founder of Meth- 
 odism. Born February 24, 1766, at Bristol, 
 England, and died October 11, 1837. He 
 was well entitled to the epithet of the 
 " Great Musician of Masonry." 
 
 West. Although the west, as one of 
 the four cardinal points, holds an honor- 
 able position as the station of the Senior 
 Warden, and of the pillar of Strength that 
 supports the Lodge, yet, being the place of 
 the sun's setting and opposed to the east, the 
 recognized place of light, it, in Masonic 
 symbolism, represents the place of darkness 
 and ignorance. The old tradition, that in 
 
 Erimeval times all human wisdom was con- 
 ned to the eastern part of the world, and 
 that those who had wandered towards the 
 west were obliged to return to the east in 
 search of the knowledge of their ancestors, 
 is not confined to Masonry. Creuzer (Sym- 
 bolik) speaks of an ancient and highly-in- 
 structed body of priests in the East, from 
 whom all knowledge, under the veil of sym- 
 bols, was communicated to the Greeks and 
 other unenlightened nations of the West. 
 And in the " Legend of the Craft," con tained 
 in the old Masonic Constitutions, there is 
 always a reference to the emigration of the 
 Masons from Egypt eastward to the " land 
 of behest," or Jerusalem. Hence, in the 
 modern symbolism of Speculative Masonry, 
 it is said that the Mason during his ad- 
 vancement is travelling from the West to the 
 East in search of light. 
 
 Westphalia, Secret Tribunals 
 
 of. The Vehmgerichte, or Fehmgerichte, 
 were secret criminal courts of Westphalia 
 in the Middle Ages. The origin of this in- 
 stitution, like that of Masonry, has been 
 involved in uncertainty. The true mean- 
 ing of the name even is doubtful. Vaem 
 is said by Dreyer to signify holy in the old 
 Northern languages ; and, if this be true, 
 a Fehmgericht would mean a holy court. 
 But it has also been suggested that the word 
 comes from the Latin fama, or rumor, and 
 that a Fehmgericht was so called because 
 it proceeded to the trial of persons whose 
 only accuser was common rumor, the max- 
 im of the German law, " no accuser, no 
 judge," being in such a case departed from. 
 They were also called Tribunals of West- 
 phalia, because their jurisdiction and exist- 
 ence were confined to that country. 
 
 The Mediaeval Westphalia was situated 
 within the limits of the country bounded 
 on the west by the Rhine, on the east by 
 the Weser, on the north by Friesland, and 
 on the south by Westerwald. Render 
 ( Tour through Germany, p. 186,) says that 
 the tribunals were only to be found in the 
 duchies of Gueldres, Cleves, and West- 
 phalia, in the principal cities of Corvey 
 and Minden, in the landgravate of Hesse, 
 in the counties of Bentheim, Limburg, 
 Lippe, Mark, Ravensberg, Rechlinghausen, 
 Rietzberg, Sayn, Waldeck, and Steinfort, 
 in some baronies, as Gehmen, Neustadt, 
 and Rheda, and in the free imperial city 
 of Dortmund ; but these were all included 
 within the limits of Mediaeval Westphalia. 
 
 It has been supposed that the first secret 
 tribunals were established by the Emperor 
 Charlemagne on the conquest of Saxony. 
 In 803 the Saxons obtained among other 
 privileges that of retaining their national 
 laws, and administering them under impe- 
 rial judges who had been created Counts 
 of the Empire. Their courts, it is said, 
 were held three times a year in an open 
 field, and their sessions were held in public 
 on ordinary occasions ; but in all cases of 
 religious offence, such as apostasy, heresy, 
 or sacrilege, although the trial began in a 
 public session, it always ended in a secret 
 tribunal. 
 
 It has been supposed by some writers 
 that these courts of the Counts of the Em- 
 pire instituted by Charlemagne gave origin 
 to the secret tribunals of Westphalia, 
 which were held in the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries. There is no exter- 
 nal evidence of the truth of this hypothe- 
 sis. It was, however, the current opinion 
 of the time, and all the earlier traditions 
 and documents of the courts themselves 
 trace their origin to Charlemagne. Paul 
 Wigand, the German jurist and historian. 
 
WESTPHALIA 
 
 WESTPHALIA 
 
 877 
 
 who wrote a history of their tribunals, 
 (Fekmgericht West/dlens, Hamburg, 1826,) 
 contends for the truth of these traditions ; 
 and Sir Francis Palgrave, in his Rise and 
 Progress of the English Commonwealth, says, 
 unhesitatingly, that " the Vehmic tribunals 
 can only be considered as the original ju- 
 risdictions of the old Saxons which sur- 
 vived the subjugation of their country." 
 The silence on this subject in the laws and 
 capitularies of Charlemagne has been ex- 
 plained on the ground that these tribunals 
 were not established authoritatively by 
 that monarch, but only permitted by a 
 tacit sanction to exist. 
 
 The author of the article on the Secret 
 Societies of the Middle Ages, published in 
 the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, who 
 has written somewhat exhaustively on this 
 subject, says that the first writers who have 
 mentioned these tribunals are Henry of 
 Hervorden in the fourteenth, and iEneas 
 Sylvius in the fifteenth century; both of 
 whom, however, trace them to the time of 
 Charlemagne; but Jacob (Recherches Histo- 
 riquessurles Croisadeset les Templiers, p. 132,) 
 cites a diploma of Count Engelbert de la 
 Mark, of the date of 1267, in which there is 
 an evident allusion to some of their usages. 
 Render says that they are first generally 
 known in the year 1220. But their abso- 
 lute historical existence is confined to the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 
 
 The secret Westphalian tribunals were 
 apparently created for the purpose of pre- 
 serving public morals, of punishing crime, 
 and of protecting the poor and weak from 
 the oppressions of the rich and powerful. 
 They were outside of the regular courts of 
 the country, and in this respect may be 
 compared to the modern "vigilance com- 
 mittees " sometimes instituted in this coun- 
 try for the protection of the well-disposed 
 citizens in newly-settled territories from the 
 annoyance of lawless men. But the German 
 tribunals differed from the American com- 
 mittees in this, that they were recognized by 
 the emperors, and that their decisions and 
 executions partook of a judicial character. 
 
 The Vehmic tribunals, as they are also 
 called, were governed by a minute system 
 of regulations, the strict observance of 
 which preserved their power and influence 
 for at least two centuries. 
 
 At the head of the institution was the 
 Emperor, for in Germany he was recognized 
 as the source of law. His connection with 
 the association was either direct or indi- 
 rect. If he had been initiated into it, as 
 was usually the case, then his connection 
 was direct and immediate. If, however, he 
 was not an initiate, then his powers were 
 delegated to a lieutenant, who was a mem- 
 ber of the tribunal. 
 
 Next to the Emperor came the free 
 counts. Free counties were certain districts 
 comprehending several parishes, where the 
 judges and counsellors of the secret ban 
 exercised jurisdiction in conformity with 
 the statutes. The free count, who was 
 called Stuhlherr, or tribunal lord, presided 
 over this free county and the tribunal held 
 within it. He had also the prerogative of 
 erecting other tribunals within his territo- 
 rial limits, and if he did not preside in per- 
 son, he appointed a Freigraf, or free judge, 
 to supply his place. No one could be in- 
 vested with the dignity of a free judge un- 
 less he were a Westphalian by birth, born 
 in lawful wedlock of honest parents; of 
 good repute, charged with no crime, and 
 well qualified to preside over the county. 
 They derived their name of free judges from 
 the fact that the tribunals exercised their 
 jurisdiction over only free men, serfs being 
 left to the control of their own lords. 
 
 Next in rank to the free judges were the 
 Schopj)en, as assessors or counsellors. They 
 formed the main body of the association, 
 and were nominated by the free judge, with 
 the consent of the stuhlherr, and vouched for 
 by two members of the tribunal. A schbppe 
 was required to be a Christian, a Westpha- 
 lian of honest birth, neither excommuni- 
 cated nor outlawed, nor involved in any 
 suit before the Fehmgericht, and not a 
 member of any monastic or ecclesiastical 
 order. There were two classes of these as- 
 sessors or schbppen : a lower class or grade 
 called the Ignorant, who had not been in- 
 itiated, and were consequently not permit- 
 ted to be present at the secret session ; and 
 a higher grade, called the Knowing, who 
 were subjected to a form of initiation. 
 
 The ceremonies of initiation of a free 
 judge were very solemn and symbolic. The 
 candidate appeared bareheaded before the 
 tribunal, and answered certain questions 
 respecting his qualifications. Then, kneel- 
 ing, with the thumb and forefinger of the 
 right hand on a naked sword and halter, 
 he pronounced the following oath : " I swear 
 by the Holy Trinity that I will, from hence- 
 forth, aid, keep, and conceal the holy Fehms 
 from wife and child, from father and mother, 
 from sister and brother, from fire and wind, 
 from all that the sun shines on and the rain 
 covers, from all that is between sky and 
 earth, especially from the man who knows 
 the law; and will bring before this free tri- 
 bunal, under which I am sitting, all that 
 belongs to the secret jurisdiction of the Em- 
 peror, whether I know it to be true myself 
 or have heard it from trustworthy men, 
 whatever requires correction or punish- 
 ment, whatever is committed within the 
 jurisdiction of the Fehm, that it may be 
 judged, or, with the consent of the accuser, 
 
878 
 
 WESTPHALIA 
 
 WESTPHALIA 
 
 be put off in grace ; and will not cease so to 
 do for love or for fear, for gold or for silver, 
 or for precious stones ; and will strengthen 
 this tribunal and jurisdiction with all my 
 five senses and power ; and that I do not 
 take on me this office for any other cause 
 than for the sake of right and justice. More- 
 over, that I will ever advance and honor 
 this free tribunal more than any other free 
 tribunals ; and what I thus promise will I 
 steadfastly and firmly keep ; so help me God 
 and his Holy Gospel." 
 
 He further swore in an additional oath 
 that he would, to the best of his ability, 
 enlarge the holy empire, and would under- 
 take nothing with unrighteous hand against 
 the land and people of the Stuhlherr, or Lord 
 of the Tribunal. His name was then in- 
 serted in the Book of Gold. 
 
 The secrets of the tribunal were then 
 communicated to the candidate, and with 
 them the modes of recognition by which 
 he could be enabled to discover his fellow- 
 members. The sign is described to have 
 been made by placing, when at table, the 
 point of their knife pointing to themselves, 
 and the haft away from them. This was 
 also accompanied by the words Slock Stein, 
 Qras Orein, the meaning of which phrase 
 is unknown. 
 
 The duties of the initiated were to act as 
 assessors or judges at the meetings of the 
 courts, to constitute which at least seven 
 were required to be present; and also to go 
 through the country, serve citations upon 
 the accused, and to execute the sentences 
 of the tribunals upon criminals, as well as 
 to trace out and denounce all evil-doers. 
 The punishment of an initiate who had be- 
 trayed any of the secrets of the society was 
 severe. His tongue was torn out by the 
 roots, and he was then hung on a tree seven 
 feet higher than any other felon. 
 
 The ceremonies practised when a Fehm 
 court was held were very symbolic in their 
 character. Before the free count stood a 
 table, on which were placed a naked sword 
 and a cord of withe. The sword, which 
 was cross-handled, is explained in their 
 ritual as signifying the cross on which 
 Christ suffered for our sins, and the cord 
 the punishment of the wicked. All had 
 their heads uncovered, to signify that they 
 would proceed openly and fairly, punish in 
 proportion to guilt, and cover no right with 
 a wrong. Their hands also were uncovered, 
 to show that they would do nothing covert- 
 ly and underhand ; and they wore cloaks, 
 to signify their warm love for justice, for 
 as the cloak covers all the other garments 
 and the body, so should their love cover 
 justice. Lastly, they were to wear neither 
 armor nor weapons, that no one might feel 
 fear, and to indicate that they were under 
 
 the peace of the empire. They were charged 
 to be cool and sober, lest passion or intox- 
 ication should lead them to pass an unjust 
 judgment. 
 
 Writers of romance have clothed these 
 tribunals with additional mystery. But the 
 stories that they were held at night, and in 
 subterranean places, have no foundation 
 save in the imagination of those who have 
 invented them. They were held, like other 
 German courts, at break of day and in the 
 open air, generally beneath a tree in the 
 forest, or elsewhere. The public tribunals 
 were, of course, open to all. It was the 
 secret ones only that were held in private. 
 But the time and place were made known 
 to the accused in the notification left at his 
 residence, or, if that were unknown, as in 
 the case of a vagabond, at a place where 
 four roads met, being affixed to the ground 
 or to a tree, and the knowledge might be 
 easily communicated by him to his friends. 
 
 The Chapter-General met once a year, 
 generally at Dortmund or Arensburg, but 
 always at some place in Westphalia. It 
 consisted of the tribunal lords and free 
 counts, who were convoked by the Empe- 
 ror or his lieutenant. If the Emperor was 
 an initiate, he might preside in person ; if 
 he was not, he was represented by his lieu- 
 tenant. At these Chapters the proceedings 
 of the various Fehm courts were reviewed, 
 and hence these latter made a return of the 
 names of the persons initiated, the suits 
 they had commenced, the sentences they 
 had passed, and the punishments they had 
 inflicted. The Chapter-General acted also 
 as a court of appeals. In fact, the relation 
 of a Chapter-General to the Fehm courts 
 was precisely the same as that of a Grand 
 Lodge of Masons to its subordinates. The 
 resemblance, too, in the symbolic character 
 of the two institutions was striking. But 
 here the resemblance ended, for it has never 
 been contended that there was or could be 
 any connection whatever between the two 
 institutions. But the coincidences show 
 that peculiar spirit and love of mystery 
 which prevailed in those times, and the in- 
 fluence of which was felt in Masonry as 
 well as in the Westphalian tribunals, and 
 all the other secret societies of the Middle 
 
 The crimes of which the Fehmgericht 
 claimed a jurisdiction were, according to 
 the statutes passed at Arensburg in 1490, 
 of two kinds: those cognizant by the secret 
 tribunal, and those cognizant by the public 
 tribunal. The crimes cognizant by the 
 secret tribunal were, violations of the 
 secrets of Charlemagne and of the Fehm- 
 gericht, heresy, apostasy, perjury, and 
 witchcraft or magic. Those cognizant by 
 the public tribunal were, sacrilege, theft, 
 
WESTPHALIA 
 
 WHITE 
 
 879 
 
 rape, robbery of women in childbirth, trea- 
 son, highway robbery, murder or man- 
 slaughter, and vagrancy. Sometimes the 
 catalogue of crimes was modified and often 
 enlarged. There was one period when all 
 the crimes mentioned in the decalogue were 
 included; and indeed there was no positive 
 restriction of the jurisdiction of the tribu- 
 nals, which generally were governed in 
 their proceedings by what they deemed ex- 
 pedient for the public peace and safety. 
 
 In the early history of the institution, its 
 trials were conducted with impartiality, and 
 its judgments rendered in accordance with 
 justice, being constantly restrained by 
 mercy, so that they were considered by the 
 populace as being of great advantage in 
 those times of lawlessness. But at length 
 the institution became corrupt, and often 
 aided instead of checking oppression, a 
 change which finally led to its decay. 
 
 When any one was accused, he was sum- 
 moned to appear before the tribunal at a cer- 
 tain specified time and place. If he was an 
 initiate, the summons was repeated three 
 times ; but if not, that is, if any other than 
 an inhabitant of Westphalia, the summons 
 was given only once. If he appeared, an 
 opportunity was afforded him of defence. 
 An initiate could purge himself by a simple 
 oath of denial, but any other person was 
 required to adduce sufficient testimony of 
 his innocence. If the accused did not ap- 
 
 Eear, nor render a satisfactory excuse for 
 is absence, the court proceeded to declare 
 him outlawed, and a free judge was dele- 
 gated to put him to death wherever found. 
 Where three free judges found any one fla- 
 grante delicto, or in the very act of committing 
 a crime, or having just perpetrated it, they 
 were authorized to put him to death with- 
 out the formality of a trial. But if he suc- 
 ceeded in making his escape before the 
 penalty was inflicted, he could not on a 
 subsequent arrest be put to death. His 
 case must then be brought for trial before 
 a tribunal. 
 
 The sentence of the court, if capital, 
 was not announced to the criminal, and 
 he learned it only when, in some secret 
 place, the executioners of the decree of 
 the Fehmgericht met him and placed the 
 halter around his neck and suspended him 
 to a neighboring tree. The punishment of 
 death was always by hanging, and from a 
 tree. The fact that a dead body was thus 
 found in the forest, was an intimation to 
 those who found it that the person had 
 died by the judgment of the secret tri- 
 bunal. 
 
 It is very evident that an institution like 
 this could be justified, or even tolerated, 
 only in a country and at a time when the 
 power and vices of the nobles, and the gen- 
 
 eral disorganization of society, had ren- 
 dered the law itself powerless ; and when 
 in the hands of persons of irreproachable 
 character, the weak could only thus be 
 protected from the oppressions of the 
 strong, the virtuous from the aggression of 
 the vicious. It was in its commencement 
 a safeguard for society ; and hence it be- 
 came so popular that its initiates num- 
 bered at one time over one hundred thou- 
 sand, and men of rank and influence 
 sought with avidity admission into its 
 circle. 
 
 In time the institution became demoral- 
 ized. Purity of character was no longer 
 insisted on as a qualification for admission. 
 Its decrees and judgments were no longer 
 marked with unfalteringjustice, and, instead 
 of defending the weak any longer from the 
 oppressor, it often became itself the will- 
 ing instrument of oppression. Efforts were 
 made from time to time to inaugurate re- 
 forms, but the prevailing spirit of the age, 
 now beginning to be greatly improved by 
 the introduction of the Roman law and the 
 spread of the Protestant religion, was op- 
 posed to the self-constituted authority of 
 the tribunals. They began to dissolve 
 almost insensibly, and after the close of the 
 sixteenth century we hear no more of them, 
 although there never was any positive de- 
 cree of dissolution enacted or promulgated 
 by the State. They were destroyed, not by 
 any edict of law, but by the progressive 
 spirit of the people. 
 
 West Virginia. Originally, all the 
 Lodges in the western part of Virginia were 
 under the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge 
 of that State. But the new State of West 
 Virginia having been formed in 1868, nine 
 Lodges sent delegates to a convention held 
 at Fairmount, April 12, 1865, which, after 
 some discussion, adjourned to meet again on 
 May 10th of the same year, when the Grand 
 Lodge of West Virginia was organized, and 
 W. J. Bates elected Grand Master. 
 
 The Grand Chapter of Royal Arch 
 Masons of West Virginia was organized, 
 November 16, 1871, by a convention of five 
 Chapters. The Grand Chapter of Virginia, 
 under which these Chapters held their War- 
 rants, had previously given its consent to 
 the organization. 
 
 White. White is one of the most 
 ancient as well as most extensively diffused 
 of the symbolic colors. It is to be found 
 in all the ancient mysteries, where it con- 
 stituted, as it does in Masonry, the investi- 
 ture of the candidate. It always, however, 
 and everywhere has borne the same signifi- 
 cation as the symbol of purity and inno- 
 cence. 
 
 In the religious observances of the He- 
 brews, white was the color of one of the 
 
880 
 
 WHITE 
 
 WHITE 
 
 curtains of the tabernacle, where, according 
 to Josephus, it was a symbol of the element 
 of earth; and it was employed in the con- 
 struction of the ephod of the high priest, 
 of his girdle, and of the breastplate. The 
 word p 1 ?, laban, which in the Hebrew lan- 
 guage signifies "to make white," also de- 
 notes "to purify;" and there are to be 
 found throughout the Scriptures many allu- 
 sions to the color as an emblem of purity. 
 " Though thy sins be as scarlet," says Isaiah, 
 "they shall be as white as snow." Jeremiah, 
 describing the once innocent condition 
 of Zion, says, "her Nazarites were purer 
 than snow, they were whiter than milk." 
 "Many," says Daniel, "shall be purified 
 and made white." In Revelation, a white 
 stone was the reward promised by the Spirit 
 to those who overcame; and again, "he 
 that overcometh, the same shall be clothed 
 in white garments ; " and in another part of 
 the same book the Apostle is instructed to 
 say that fine linen, clean and white, is the 
 righteousness of the saints. The ancient 
 prophets always imagined the Deity clothed 
 in white, because, says Portal, {Des Couleurs 
 Symboliques, p. 35,) " white is the color of 
 absolute truth, of Him who is ; it alone re- 
 flects all the luminous rays ; it is the unity 
 whence all the primitive colors emanate." 
 Thus Daniel, in one of his prophetic visions, 
 saw the Ancient of days, " whose garment 
 was white as snow, and the hair of his head 
 like pure wool." Here, says Dr. Henry, 
 [Gomm. in loco,) the whiteness of the gar- 
 ment "noted the splendor and purity of 
 God in all the administrations of his justice." 
 
 Among the Gentile nations, the same 
 reverence was paid to this color. The 
 Egyptians decorated the head of their 
 deity, Osiris, with a white tiara. In the 
 school of Pythagoras, the sacred hymns 
 were chanted in white robes. The Druids 
 clothed their initiates who had arrived at 
 the ultimate degree, or that of perfection, 
 in white vestments. In all the mysteries 
 of other nations of antiquity, the same cus- 
 tom was observed. White was, in general, 
 the garment of the Gentile as well as of the 
 Hebrew priests in the performance of their 
 sacred rites. As the divine power was sup- 
 posed to be represented on earth by the 
 priesthood, in all nations the sovereign 
 pontiff was clad in white. Aaron was di- 
 rected to enter the sanctuary only in white 
 garments ; in Persia, the Magi wore white 
 robes, because, as they said, they alone were 
 pleasing to the Deity; and the white tunic 
 of Ormuzd is still the characteristic garment 
 of the modern Parsees. 
 
 White, among the ancients, was conse- 
 crated to the dead, because it was the sym- 
 bol of the regeneration of the soul. On 
 the monuments of Thebes the manes or 
 
 ghosts are represented as clothed in white ; 
 the Egyptians wrapped their dead in white 
 linen; Homer (Jliad x\iii. 353,) refers to the 
 same custom when he makes the attendants 
 cover the dead body of Patroclus, pharei 
 leuko, with a white pall ; and Pausanias tells 
 us that the Messenians practised the same 
 customs, clothing their dead in white, and 
 placing crowns upon their heads, indicating 
 by this double symbolism the triumph of 
 the soul over the empire of death. 
 
 The Hebrews had the same usage. St. 
 Matthew (xxvii. 59,) tells us that Joseph 
 of Arimathea wrapped the dead body of our 
 Lord "in a clean linen cloth." Adopting 
 this as a suggestion, Christian artists have, 
 in their paintings of the Saviour after his 
 resurrection, depicted him in a white robe. 
 And it is with this idea that in the Apoca- 
 lypse white vestments are said to be the 
 symbols of the regeneration of souls, and 
 the reward of the elect. It is this consecra- 
 tion of white to the dead that caused it to 
 be adopted as the color of mourning among 
 the nations of antiquity. As the victor in 
 the games was clothed in white, so the same 
 color became the symbol of the victory 
 achieved by the departed in the last combat 
 of the soul with death. " The friends of the 
 deceased wore," says Plutarch, " his livery, 
 in commemoration of his triumph." The 
 modern mourning in black is less philo- 
 sophic and less symbolic than this ancient 
 one in white. 
 
 In Speculative Masonry, white is the 
 symbol of purity. This symbolism com- 
 mences at the earliest point of initiation, 
 when the white apron is presented to the 
 candidate as a symbol of purity of life and 
 rectitude of conduct. Wherever in any of 
 the subsequent initiations this color ap- 
 pears, it is always to be interpreted as sym- 
 bolizing the same idea. In the thirty-third 
 degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite, the Sovereign Inspector is in- 
 vested with a white scarf as inculcating 
 that virtuous deportment above the tongue 
 of all reproach which should distinguish 
 the possessors of that degree, the highest in 
 the Rite. 
 
 This symbolism of purity was most prob- 
 ably derived by the Masons from that of 
 the primitive church, where a white gar- 
 ment was placed on the catechumen who 
 was about to be baptized, as a token that 
 he had put off the lusts of the flesh, and, 
 being cleansed from his former sins, had 
 obliged himself to maintain an unspotted 
 life. The ancient symbolism of regenera- 
 tion which appertained to the ancient idea 
 of the color white has not been adopted in 
 Masonry ; and yet it would be highly ap- 
 propriate in an Institution one of whose 
 chief dogmas is the resurrection. 
 
WHITE 
 
 WIDOW'S 
 
 881 
 
 White Ball. In Freemasonry, equiv- 
 alent to a favorable or affirmative vote. 
 The custom of using white and black balls 
 seems to have been derived from the Ro- 
 mans, who in the earlier days of the re- 
 public used white and black balls in their 
 judicial trials, which were cast into an urn, 
 the former acquitting and with the latter 
 condemning the accused. 
 
 White Cross Knights. A title 
 sometimes applied to the Knights Hos- 
 pitallers of St. John, from the color of their 
 cross. Porter [Hist Knts. of Malta, i. 166,) 
 says: "Villiers hastily assembled a troop 
 of White Gross Knights, and, issuing from 
 the city by a side gate, made a circuit so 
 as, if possible, to fall upon the flank of the 
 foe unperceived." 
 
 White Mantle, Order of the. 
 The Teutonic Knights were so denomi- 
 nated in allusion to the color of their 
 cloaks, on which they bore a black cross. 
 
 White Masonry. (Maconnerie 
 blanche.) A title given by French writers 
 to Female Masonry, or the Masonry of 
 Adoption, 
 
 White Stone. A symbol in the Mark 
 degree referring to the passage in the 
 Apocalypse (ii. 17): "To him that over- 
 cometh will I give to eat of the hidden 
 manna ; and I will give him a white stone, 
 and in the stone a new name written, which 
 no man knoweth, saving he that receiveth 
 it." In this passage it is supposed that the 
 Evangelist alluded to the stones or tesserae 
 which, among the ancients and the early 
 Christians, were used as tokens of alliance 
 and friendship. Hence in the Mark de- 
 gree, the white stone and the new name in- 
 scribed upon it is a symbol of the covenant 
 made between the possessors of the degree, 
 which will in all future time, and under 
 every circumstance of danger or distress, 
 secure the kind and fraternal assistance of 
 all upon whom the same token has been 
 bestowed. In the symbolism of the degree 
 the candidate represents that white stone 
 upon whom the new name as a Mark Master 
 is to be inscribed. See Mark and Tessera 
 Hospitalis. 
 
 White, William Henry. Distin- 
 guished for his services to the Craft of Eng- 
 land, whom he served as Grand Secretary 
 for the long period of forty-seven years. 
 He was the son of William White, who was 
 also Grand Secretary of the Grand Lodge 
 of England for thirty-two years, the office 
 having thus been held by father and son 
 for seventy-nine years. William Henry 
 White was born in 1778. On April 15, 
 1799, he was initiated in Emulation Lodge, 
 No. 12, now called the Lodge of Emulation, 
 No. 21, having been nominated by his 
 father. December 15, 1800, he was elected 
 5L 56 
 
 Master of the Lodge, and presided until 
 1809. In 1805 he was appointed a Grand 
 Steward, and in 1810 Grand Secretary, as 
 the assistant of his father. This office was 
 held by them conjointly for three years. 
 In 1813, at the union of the two Grand 
 Lodges, he was appointed, with Edwards 
 Harper, Joint Grand Secretary of the Uni- 
 ted Grand Lodge of England, and in 1838 
 sole Grand Secretary. In 1857, after a ser- 
 vice of nearly half a century, he retired from 
 the office, the Grand Lodge unanimously vot- 
 ing him a retiring pension equal in amount 
 tohis salary. On that occasion the Earl of 
 Zetland, Grand Master, said : " I know of 
 no one, and I believe there never was any 
 one who has done more, who has rendered 
 more valuable services to Masonry than 
 our worthy Brother White." In view of 
 the great names in Masonic literature and 
 labor which preceded him, the eulogium will 
 be deemed exaggerated ; but the devotion 
 of the Grand Secretary to the Order, and 
 his valuable services during his long and 
 active life, cannot be denied. During the 
 latter years of his official term, he was 
 charged with inactivity and neglect of duty, 
 but the fault has been properly attributed 
 to the increasing infirmities of age. A ser- 
 vice of plate was presented to him by the 
 Craft, June 20, 1850, as a testimonial of 
 esteem. He died April 5, 1866. 
 
 Widow's Son. In Ancient Craft Ma- 
 sonry, the title applied to Hiram, the archi- 
 tect of the Temple, because he is said, in the 
 First Book of Kings, (vii. 14,) to have been 
 "a widow's son of the tribe of Naphtali." 
 The Adonhiramite Masons have a tradition 
 which Chapron gives {Kecessaire Maconn., 
 p. 101,) in the following words : "The Ma- 
 sons call themselves the widow's sons, be- 
 cause, after the death of our respectable 
 Master, the Masons took care of his mother, 
 whose childen they called themselves, be- 
 cause Adonhiram had always considered 
 them as his brethren. But the French 
 Masons subsequently changed the myth and 
 called themselves 'Sons of the Widow,' and 
 for this reason. 'As the wife of Hiram 
 remained a widow after her husband was 
 murdered, the Masons, who regard them- 
 selves as the descendants of Hiram, call 
 themselves Sons of the Widow.' " But this 
 myth is a pure invention, and is without 
 the scriptural foundation of the York myth, 
 which makes Hiram himself the widow's 
 son. But in French Masonry the term 
 " Son of the Widow " is synonymous with 
 " Mason." 
 
 The adherents of the exiled house of 
 Stuart, when seeking to organize a system 
 of political Masonry by which they hoped 
 to secure the restoration of the family to 
 the throne of England, transferred to 
 
882 
 
 WIFE 
 
 WINDING 
 
 Charles II. the tradition of Hiram Abif 
 betrayed by his followers, and called him 
 "the Widow's Sod," because he was the 
 son of Henrietta Maria, the widow of 
 Charles I. For the same reason they sub- 
 sequently applied the phrase to his brother, 
 James II. 
 
 Wife and Daughter, Mason's. 
 See Mason's Wife and Daug/Uer. 
 
 Wilhelinsbad, Congress of. At 
 Wilhelmsbad, near the city of Hanau in 
 Hesse-Cassel, was held the most important 
 Masonic Congress of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. It was convoked by Ferdinand, 
 Duke of Brunswick, Grand Master of the 
 Order of Strict Observance, and was opened 
 July 16, 1782. Its duration extended to 
 thirty sessions, and in its discussions the 
 most distinguished Masons of Germany 
 were engaged. Neither the Grand Lodge 
 of Germany, nor that of Sweden, was 
 represented; and the Grand Lodge of the 
 Three Globes, at Berlin, sent only a letter: 
 but there were delegates from Upper and 
 Lower Germany, from Holland, Russia, 
 Italy, France, and Austria ; and the Order 
 of the Illuminati was represented by the 
 Baron von Knigge. It is not therefore 
 surprising that the most heterogenous 
 opinions were expressed. Its avowed ob- 
 ject was the reform of the Masonic system, 
 and its disentanglement from the confused 
 mass of rites and high degrees with which 
 French and German pretenders or enthu- 
 siasts had been for years past overwhelming 
 it. Important topics were proposed, such 
 as the true origin of Speculative Masonry, 
 whether it was merely conventional and 
 the result of modern thought, or whether it 
 was the offspring of a more ancient order, 
 and, if so, what was that order; whether 
 there were any Superiors General then ex- 
 isting, and who these Unknown Superiors 
 were, etc. These and kindred questions 
 were thoroughly discussed, but not denned, 
 and the Congress was eventually closed 
 without coming to any other positive deter- 
 mination than that Freemasonry was not 
 essentially connected with Templarism, and 
 that, contrary to the doctrine of the Rite 
 of Strict Observance, the Freemasons were 
 not the successors of the Knights Templars. 
 The real effect of the Congress of Wil- 
 helmsbad was the abolition of that Rite, 
 which soon after drooped and died. 
 
 Will. In some of the continental Rites, 
 and in certain high degrees, it is a custom 
 to require the recipiendary to make, before 
 his initiation, a will and testament, exhib- 
 iting what are his desires as to the distribu- 
 tion of his property at his decease. The 
 object seems to be to add solemnity to the 
 ceremony, and to impress the candidate 
 with the thought of death. But I am in- 
 
 clined to think that it is a custom which 
 would be " more honored in the breach than 
 the observance." It is not practised in the 
 York and American Rites. 
 
 Wilson Manuscript. In the mar- 
 ginal notes to the Manifesto of the Lodge of 
 Antiquity, published in 1778, there is refer- 
 ence to an "O. MS. in the hands of Mr. 
 Wilson of Broomhead, near Sheffield, 
 Yorkshire, written in the reign of King 
 Henry VIII." It seems, from the context, 
 to have been cited as authority for the ex- 
 istence of a General Assembly of the Craft 
 at the city of York. But no part of the 
 MS. has ever been printed or transcribed, 
 and it is now apparently lost. 
 
 Winding Stairs. In the First Book 
 of Kings (vi. 8) it is said: "The door for 
 the middle chamber was in the right side 
 of the house ; and they went up with wind- 
 ings stairs into the middle chamber, and 
 out of the middle into the third." From 
 this passage the Masons of the last century 
 adopted the symbol of the winding stairs, 
 and introduced it into the Fellow Craft's 
 degree, where it has ever since remained, 
 in the York and American Rites. In one 
 of the high degrees of the Scottish Rite the 
 winding stairs are called cochleus, which is 
 a corruption of cochlis, a spiral staircase. 
 The Hebrew word is lulim, from the obso- 
 lete root lul, to roll or wind. The whole 
 story of the winding stairs in the second 
 degree of Masonry is a mere myth, without 
 any other foundation than the slight allu- 
 sion in the Book of Kings which has been 
 just cited, and it derives its only value 
 from the symbolism taught in its legend. 
 See Middle Chamber and Winding Stairs, 
 Legend of the. 
 
 Winding Stairs, Legend of the. 
 I formerly so fully investigated the true 
 meaning of the legend of the winding stairs, 
 as taught in the degree of Fellow Craft, that 
 I can now find nothing to add to what I 
 have already said in my work on The Sym- 
 bolism of Freemasonry, published in 1869. 
 I might, in writing a new article, change 
 the language, but I could furnish no new 
 idea. I shall not, therefore, hesitate to 
 transfer much of what I have said on this 
 subject in that work to the present article. 
 It is an enlargement and development of 
 the meagre explanations given in the ordi- 
 nary lecture of Webb. 
 
 In an investigation of the symbolism of 
 the winding stairs, we shall be directed to 
 the true explanation by a reference to 
 their origin, their number, the objects 
 which they recall, and their termination, 
 but above all by a consideration of the great 
 design which an ascent upon them was in- 
 tended to accomplish. 
 
 The steps of this winding staircase com- 
 
WINDING 
 
 WINDING 
 
 883 
 
 menced, we are informed, at the porch of 
 the Temple ; that is to say, at its very en- 
 trance. But nothing is more undoubted in 
 the science of Masonic symbolism than that 
 the Temple was the representative of the 
 world purified by the Shekinah, or the Di- 
 vine Presence. The world of the profane 
 is without the Temple ; the world of the in- 
 itiated is within its sacred walls. Hence to 
 enter the Temple, to pass within the porch, 
 to be made a Mason, and to be born into the 
 world of Masonic light, are all synonymous 
 and convertible terms. Here, then, the sym- 
 bolism of the winding stairs begins. 
 
 The Apprentice, having entered within 
 the porch of the temple, has begun his 
 Masonic life. But the first degree in Ma- 
 sonry, like the lesser mysteries of the an- 
 cient systems of initiation, is only a prepa- 
 ration and purification for something 
 higher. The Entered Apprentice is the 
 child in Masonry. The lessons which he 
 receives are simply intended to cleanse the 
 heart and prepare the recipient for that 
 mental illumination which is to be given 
 in the succeeding degrees. 
 
 As a Fellow Craft, he has advanced an- 
 other step, and as the degree is emblematic 
 of youth, so it is here that the intellectual 
 education of the candidate begins. And 
 therefore, here, at the very spot which sep- 
 arates the porch from the sanctuary, where 
 childhood ends and manhood begins, he 
 finds stretching out before him a winding 
 stair which invites him, as it were, to as- 
 cend, and which, as the symbol of discipline 
 and instruction, teaches him that here must 
 commence his Masonic labor — here he 
 must enter upon those glorious though dif- 
 ficult researches the end of which is to be 
 the possession of divine truth. The wind- 
 ing stairs begin after the candidate has 
 passed within the porch and between the 
 pillars of strength and establishment, as a 
 significant symbol to teach him that as soon 
 as he has passed beyond the years of irra- 
 tional childhood, and commenced his en- 
 trance upon manly life, the laborious task 
 of self-improvement is the first duty that is 
 placed before him. He cannot stand still, 
 if he would be worthy of his vocation ; his 
 destiny as an immortal being requires him 
 to ascend, step by step, until he has reached 
 the summit, where the treasures of knowl- 
 edge await him. 
 
 The number of these steps in all the sys- 
 tems has been odd. Vitruvius remarks — 
 and the coincidence is at least curious — 
 that the ancient temples were always as- 
 cended by an odd number of steps ; and he 
 assigns as the reason, that, commencing 
 with the right foot at the bottom, the wor- 
 shipper would find the same foot foremost 
 when he entered the temple, which was 
 
 considered as a fortunate omen. But the 
 fact is, that the symbolism of numbers was 
 borrowed by the Masons from Pythagoras, 
 in whose system of philosophy it plays an 
 important part, and in which odd numbers 
 were considered as more perfect than even 
 ones. Hence, throughout the Masonic sys- 
 tem we find a predominance of odd num- 
 bers ; and while three, five, seven, nine, fif- 
 teen, and twenty-seven, are all-important 
 symbols, we seldom find a reference to two, 
 four, six, eight, or ten. The odd number 
 of the stairs was therefore intended to sym- 
 bolize the idea of perfection, to which it 
 was the object of the aspirant to attain. 
 
 As to the particular number of the 
 stairs, this has varied at different periods. 
 Tracing-boards of the last century have 
 been found, in which only five steps are de- 
 lineated, and others in which they amount 
 to seven. The Prestonian lectures, used in 
 England in the beginning of this century, 
 gave the whole number as thirty-eight, di- 
 viding them into series of one, three, five, 
 seven, nine, and eleven. The error of 
 making an even number, which was a vio- 
 lation of the Pythagorean principle of odd 
 numbers as the symbol of perfection, was 
 corrected in the Hemming lectures, adopted 
 at the union of the two Grand Lodges of 
 England, by striking out the eleven, which 
 was also objectionable as receiving a secta- 
 rian explanation. In this country the 
 number was still further reduced to fifteen, 
 divided into three series of three, five, and 
 seven. I shall adopt this American division 
 in explaining the symbolism; although, 
 after all, the particular number of the steps, 
 or the peculiar method of their division 
 into series, will not in any way affect the 
 general symbolism of the whole legend. 
 
 The candidate, then, in the second de- 
 gree of Masonry, represents a man starting 
 forth on the journey of life, with the great 
 task before him of self-improvement. For 
 the faithful performance of this task, a re- 
 ward is promised, which reward consists in 
 the development of all his intellectual fac- 
 ulties, the moral and spiritual elevation of 
 his character, and the acquisition of truth 
 and knowledge. Now, the attainment of 
 this moral and intellectual condition sup- 
 poses an elevation of character, an ascent 
 from a lower to a higher life, and a passage 
 of toil and difficulty, through rudimentary 
 instruction, to the full fruition of wisdom. 
 This is therefore beautifully symbolized by 
 the winding stairs, at whose foot the aspi- 
 rant stands ready to climb the toilsome 
 steep, while at its top is placed " that hiero- 
 glyphic bright which none but Craftsmen 
 ever saw," as the emblem of divine truth. 
 And hence a distinguished writer has said 
 that " these steps, like all the Masonic sym- 
 
884 
 
 WINDING 
 
 WINDING 
 
 bols, are illustrative of discipline and doc- 
 trine, as well as of natural, mathematical, 
 and metaphysical science, and open to us 
 an extensive range of moral and specula- 
 tive inquiry." 
 
 The candidate, incited by the love of vir- 
 tue and the desire of knowledge, and withal 
 eager for the reward of truth which is set 
 before him, begins at once the toilsome as- 
 cent. At each division he pauses to gather 
 instruction from the symbolism which these 
 divisions present to his attention. 
 
 At the first pause which he makes he is 
 instructed in the peculiar organization of 
 the order of which he has become a disci- 
 ple. But the information here given, if 
 taken in its naked, literal sense, is barren, 
 and unworthy of his labor. The rank of 
 the officers who govern, and the names of 
 the degrees which constitute the Institution, 
 can give him no knowledge which he has 
 not before possessed. We must look there- 
 fore to the symbolic meaning of these allu- 
 sions for any value which may be attached 
 to this part of the ceremony. 
 
 The reference to the organization of the 
 Masonic institution is intended to remind 
 the aspirant of the union of men in society, 
 and the development of the social state out 
 of the state of nature. He is thus re- 
 minded, in the very outset of his journey, 
 of the blessings which arise from civiliza- 
 tion, and of the fruits of virtue and knowl- 
 edge which are derived from that condition. 
 Masonry itself is the result of civilization ; 
 while, in grateful return, it has been one of 
 the most important means of extending 
 that condition of mankind. 
 
 All the monuments of antiquity that the 
 ravages of time have left, combine to prove 
 that man had no sooner emerged from the 
 savage into the social state, than he com- 
 menced the organization of religious mys- 
 teries, and the separation, by a sort of divine 
 instinct, of the sacred from the profane. 
 Then came the invention of architecture as 
 a means of providing convenient dwellings 
 and necessary shelter from the inclemencies 
 and vicissitudes of the seasons, with all the 
 mechanical arts connected with it; and 
 lastly, geometry, as a necessary science to 
 enable the cultivators of land to measure 
 and designate the limits of their possessions. 
 All these are claimed as peculiar character- 
 istics of Speculative Masonry, which may 
 be considered as the type of civilization, the 
 former bearing the same relation to the pro- 
 fane world as the latter does to the savage 
 state. Hence we at once see the fituess of 
 the symbolism which commences the aspi- 
 rant's upward progress in the cultivation of 
 knowledge and the search after truth, by 
 recalling to his mind the condition of civili- 
 zation and the social union of mankind as 
 
 necessary preparations for the attainment 
 of these objects. In the allusions to the 
 officers of a Lodge, and the degrees of Ma- 
 sonry as explanatory of the organization 
 of our own society, we clothe in our sym- 
 bolic language the history of the organiza- 
 tion of society. 
 
 Advancing in his progress, the candi- 
 date is invited to contemplate another 
 series of instructions. The human senses, 
 as the appropriate channels through which 
 we receive all our ideas of perception, 
 and which, therefore, constitute the most 
 important sources of our knowledge, are 
 here referred to as a symbol of intellec- 
 tual cultivation. Architecture, as the most 
 important of the arts which conduce to 
 the comfort of mankind, is also alluded to 
 here, not simply because it is so closely 
 connected with the operative institution of 
 Masonry, but also as the type of all the 
 other useful arts. In his second pause, in 
 the ascent of the winding stairs, the aspi- 
 rant is therefore reminded of the necessity 
 of cultivating practical knowledge. 
 
 So far, then, the instructions he has re- 
 ceived relate to his own condition in society 
 as a member of the great social compact, 
 and to his means of becoming, by a knowl- 
 edge of the arts of practical life, a necessary 
 and useful member of that society. 
 
 But his motto will be, " Excelsior." Still 
 must he go onward and forward. The stair 
 is still before him; its summit is not yet 
 reached, and still further treasures of wis- 
 dom are to be sought for, or the reward will 
 not be gained, nor the middle chamber, the 
 abiding-place of truth, be reached. 
 
 In his third pause, he therefore arrives at 
 that point in which the whole circle of hu- 
 man science is to be explained. Symbols, 
 we know, are in themselves arbitrary and 
 of conventional signification, and the com- 
 
 Elete circle of human science might have 
 een as well symbolized by any other sign 
 or series of doctrines as by the seven liberal 
 arts and sciences. But Masonry is an insti- 
 tution of the olden time ; and this selection 
 of the liberal arts and sciences as a symbol 
 of the completion of human learning is one 
 of the most pregnant evidences that we have 
 of its antiquity. 
 
 In the seventh century, and for a long 
 time afterwards, the circle of instruction to 
 which all the learning of the most eminent 
 schools and most distinguished philosophers 
 was confined, was limited to what were then 
 called the liberal arts and sciences, and 
 consisted of two branches, the trivium and 
 the quadrivium. The trivium included 
 grammar, rhetoric, and logic; the quad- 
 rivium comprehended arithmetic, geometry, 
 music, and astronomy. 
 " These seven heads," says Enfield, " were 
 
WINDING 
 
 WINDING 
 
 885 
 
 supposed to include universal knowledge. 
 He who was master of these was thought 
 to have no need of a preceptor to explain 
 any books or to solve any questions which 
 lay within the compass of human reason, 
 the knowledge of the trivium having fur- 
 nished him with the key to all language, 
 and that of the quadrivium having opened 
 to him the secret laws of nature." 
 
 At a period, says the same writer, when 
 few were instructed in the trivium, and very 
 few studied the quadrivium, to be master of 
 both was sufficient to complete the character 
 of a philosopher. The propriety, therefore, 
 of adopting the seven liberal arts and sci- 
 ences as a symbol of the completion of hu- 
 man learning is apparent. The candidate, 
 having reached this point, is now supposed 
 to have accomplished the task upon which 
 he had entered — he has reached the last 
 step, and is now ready to receive the full 
 fruition of human learning. 
 
 So far, then, we are able to comprehend 
 the true symbolism of the winding stairs. 
 They represent the progress of an inquiring 
 mind, with the toils and labors of intellect- 
 ual cultivation and study, and the prepara- 
 tory acquisition of all human science, as a 
 preliminary step to the attainment of divine 
 truth, which, it must be remembered, is 
 always symbolized in Masonry by the 
 Word. 
 
 Here let me again allude to the symbol- 
 ism of numbers, which is for the first time 
 presented to the consideration of the Ma- 
 sonic student in the legend of the winding 
 stairs. The theory of numbers as the sym- 
 bols of certain qualities was originally bor- 
 rowed by the Masons from the school of 
 Pythagoras. It will be impossible, how- 
 ever, to develop this doctrine, in its entire 
 extent, in the present article, for the nu- 
 meral symbolism of Masonry would itself 
 constitute materials for an ample essay. 
 It will be sufficient to advert to the fact 
 that the total number of the steps, amount- 
 ing in all to fifteen in the American system, 
 is a significant symbol. For fifteen was a 
 sacred number among the Orientals, because 
 the letters of the holy name JAH, n*> were, 
 in their numerical value, equivalent to fif- 
 teen; and hence a figure in which the 
 nine digits were so disposed as to make 
 fifteen either way when added together 
 perpendicularly, horizontally, or diago- 
 nally, constituted one of their most sacred 
 talismans. The fifteen steps in the winding 
 stairs are therefore symbolic of the name 
 of God. 
 
 But we are not yet done. It will be re- 
 membered that a reward was promised for 
 all this toilsome ascent of the winding 
 stairs. Now, what are the wages of a Spec- 
 ulative Mason ? Not money, nor corn, nor 
 
 wine, nor oil. All these are but symbols. 
 His wages are Truth, or that approximation 
 to it which will be most appropriate to the 
 degree into which he has been initiated. 
 It is one of the most beautiful, but at the 
 same time most abstruse, doctrines of the 
 science of Masonic symbolism that the 
 Mason is ever to be in search of truth, but 
 is never to find it. This divine truth, the 
 object of all his labors, is symbolized by the 
 Word, for which we all know he can only 
 obtain a substitute ; and this is intended to 
 teach the humiliating but necessary lesson 
 that the knowledge of the nature of God 
 and of man's relation to him, which knowl- 
 edge constitutes divine truth, can never be 
 acquired in this life. It is only when the 
 portals of the grave open to us, and give us 
 an entrance into a more perfect life, that 
 this knowledge is to be attained. " Happy 
 is the man," says the father of lyric poetry, 
 " who descends beneath the hollow earth, 
 having beheld these mysteries: he knows 
 the end, he knows the origin of life." 
 
 The middle chamber is therefore sym- 
 bolic of this life, where the symbol only of 
 the Word can be given, where the truth is 
 to be reached by approximation only, and 
 yet where we are to learn that that truth 
 will consist in a perfect knowledge of the 
 G. A. O. T. U. This is the reward of the 
 inquiring Mason ; in this consist the wages 
 of a Fellow Craft ; he is directed to the 
 truth, but must travel farther and ascend 
 still higher to attain it. 
 
 It is, then, as a symbol, and a symbol 
 only, that we must study this beautiful 
 legend of the winding stairs. If we attempt 
 to adopt it as a historical fact, the ab- 
 surdity of its details stares us in the face, 
 and wise men will wonder at our credulity. 
 Its inventors had no desire thus to impose 
 upon our folly ; but offering it to us as a 
 great philosophical myth, they did not for 
 a moment suppose that we would pass over 
 its sublime moral teachings to accept the 
 allegory as a historical narrative without 
 meaning, and wholly irreconcilable with 
 the records of Scripture, and opposed by 
 all the principles of probability. To sup- 
 pose that eighty thousand craftsmen were 
 weekly paid in the narrow precincts of the 
 Temple chambers, is simply to suppose an 
 absurdity. But to believe that all this pic- 
 torial representation of an ascent by a wind- 
 ing staircase to the place where the wages 
 of labor were to be received, was an alle- 
 gory to teach us the ascent of the mind 
 from ignorance, through all the toils of 
 study and the difficulties of obtaining 
 knowledge, receiving here a little and there 
 a little, adding something to the stock of 
 our ideas at each step, until, in the middle 
 chamber of life, — in the full fruition of 
 
886 
 
 WIND 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
 manhood ; — the reward is attained, and the 
 purified and elevated intellect is invested 
 with the reward in the direction how to seek 
 God and God's truth ; to believe this, is to 
 believe and to know the true design of Spec- 
 ulative Masonry, the only design which 
 makes it worthy of a good or a wise man's 
 study. 
 
 Its historical details are barren, but its 
 symbols and allegories are fertile with in- 
 struction. 
 
 Wind, Mason's. Among the Ma- 
 sonic tests of the last century was the 
 question, " How blows a Mason's wind?" 
 and the answer was, " Due east and west." 
 Browne gives the question and answer more 
 in extenso, and assigns the explanation as 
 follows : 
 
 " How blows the wind in Masonry ? 
 
 " Favorable due east and west. 
 
 " To what purpose ? 
 
 " To call men to, at, and from their labor. 
 
 " What does it further allude to? 
 
 "To those miraculous winds which proved 
 so essential in working the happy deliver- 
 ance of the children of Israel from their 
 Egyptian bondage, and proved the over- 
 throw of Pharaoh and all his host when he 
 attempted to follow them." 
 
 Krause very correctly thinks that the 
 fundamental idea of the Masonic wind 
 blowing from the east is to be found in the 
 belief of the Middle Ages that all good 
 things, such as philosophy and religion, 
 came from the East. In the German ritual 
 of The Three Sts. John's Degrees of the Mother 
 Lodge of the Three Globes, the idea is ex- 
 pressed a little differently. The catechism 
 is as follows : 
 
 " Whence comes the wind ? 
 
 "From the east towards the west, and 
 from the south towards the north, and from 
 the north towards the south, the east, and 
 the west. 
 
 " What weather brings it? 
 
 " Variable, hail and storm, and calm and 
 pleasant weather." 
 
 The explanation given is, that these 
 changing winds symbolize the changing 
 progress of man's life in his pursuit of 
 knowledge — now clear and full of hope, now 
 dark with storms. Bode's hypothesis that 
 these variable winds of Masonry were in- 
 tended to refer to the changes of the con- 
 dition of the Roman church under English 
 monarchs, from Henry VIII. to James II., 
 and thus to connect the symbolism with 
 the Stuart Masonry, is wholly untenable, 
 as the symbol is not found in any of the 
 high degrees. It is not recognized in 
 the French, and is obsolete in the York 
 Rite. 
 
 Window. A piece of furniture in the 
 Mark degree. It is a mere symbol, having 
 
 no foundation in truth, as there was no 
 such appendage to the Temple. It is sim- 
 ply intended to represent the place where 
 the workman received his wages, symbolic 
 of the reward earned by labor. 
 
 Wine. One of the elements of Masonic 
 consecration, and, as a symbol of the inward 
 refreshment of a good conscience, is in- 
 tended, under the name of the " wine of re- 
 freshment," to remind us of the eternal 
 refreshments which the good are to receive 
 in the future life for the faithful perform- 
 ance of duty in the present. 
 
 Wings of the Chernbim, Ex- 
 tended. The candidate in the degree 
 of Royal Master of the American Rite is 
 said to be received "beneath the extended 
 wings of the cherubim." The expression 
 is derived from the passage in the First 
 Book of Kings (vi. 27), which describes the 
 setting of " the cherubim within the inner 
 house." Practically, there is an anachron- 
 ism in the reference to the cherubim in this 
 degree. In the older and purer ritual, the 
 ceremonies are supposed to take place in 
 the council-chamber or private apartment 
 of King Solomon, where, of course, there 
 were no cherubim. And even in some 
 more modern rituals, where a part of the 
 ceremony referred to in the tradition is said 
 to have occurred in the holy of holies, that 
 part of the Temple was at that time unfin- 
 ished, and the cherubim had not yet been 
 placed there. But symbolically the refer- 
 ence to the cherubim in this degree, which 
 represents a searcher for truth, is not ob- 
 jectionable. For although there is a great 
 diversity of opinion as to their exact sig- 
 nification, yet there is a very general agree- 
 ment that, under some one manifestation 
 or another, they allude to and symbolize 
 the protecting and overshadowing power 
 of the Deity. When, therefore, the initiate 
 is received beneath the extended wings of the 
 cherubim, we are taught by this symbolism 
 how appropriate it is, that he who comes to 
 ask and to seek Truth, symbolized by the 
 True Word, should begin by placing himself 
 under the protection of that Divine Power 
 who alone is Truth, and from whom alone 
 truth can be obtained. 
 
 Wisconsin. In January, 1843, Free- 
 masonry was introduced into Wisconsin by 
 the establishment of Mineral Point Lodge 
 at Mineral Point, Melody Lodge at Platte- 
 ville, and Milwaukee Lodge at Milwaukee, 
 all under the authority of the Grand Lodge 
 of Missouri. December 18, 1843, delegates 
 from these three Lodges assembled in con- 
 vention at Madison, and organized the 
 Grand Lodge of Wisconsin, Rev. B. T. 
 Kavanaugh, the Master of Melody Lodge, 
 being elected Grand Master. 
 
 The Grand Chapter was established Feb- 
 
WISDOM 
 
 WOELLNER 
 
 887 
 
 ruary 13, 1850, and Dwight F. Lawton 
 elected Grand High Priest. 
 
 The Grand Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters was organized in 1857, and James 
 Collins elected Grand Master. 
 
 The Grand Commandery was organized 
 October 20, 1859, and Henry L. Palmer 
 elected Grand Commander. 
 
 Wisdom. In Ancient Craft Masonry, 
 wisdom is symbolized by the east, the place 
 of light, being represented by the pillar that 
 there supports the Lodge and by the Wor- 
 shipful Master. It is also referred to King 
 Solomon, the symbolical founder of the 
 Order. In Masonic architecture the Ionic 
 column, distinguished for the skill in its 
 construction, as it combines the beauty of 
 the Corinthian and the strength of the 
 Doric, is adopted as the representative of 
 wisdom. 
 
 King Solomon has been adopted in Spec- 
 ulative Masonry as the type or representa- 
 tive of wisdom, in accordance with the 
 character which has been given to him in 
 the First Book of Kings (iv. 30-32): "Sol- 
 omon's wisdom exceeded the wisdom of all 
 the children of the east country, and all 
 the wisdom of Egypt. For he was wiser 
 than all men; than Ethan the Ezrahite, 
 and Heman and Chalcol and Darda, the 
 sons of Mahol; and his fame was in all the 
 nations round about." 
 
 In all the Oriental philosophies a con- 
 spicuous place has been given to wisdom. 
 In the book called the Wisdom of Solomon, 
 (vii. 7, 8,) but supposed to be the produc- 
 tion of a Hellenistic Jew, it is said : " I 
 called upon God, and the spirit of wisdom 
 came to me. I preferred her before scep- 
 tres and thrones, and esteemed riches 
 nothing in comparison of her." And far- 
 ther on in the same book, (vii. 25-27,) she 
 is described as "the breath of the power 
 of God, and a pure influence [emanation] 
 flowing from the glory of the Almighty, 
 .... the brightness of the everlasting 
 light, the unspotted mirror of the power of 
 God, and the image of his goodness." 
 
 The Kabbalists made Chochma, HDDlT 
 or Wisdom, the second of the ten Sephiroth, 
 placing it next to the Crown. They called 
 it a male potency, and the third of the 
 Sephiroth, Binah, HTD> or Intelligence, 
 female. These two Sephiroth, with Keter, 
 "irO> or the Crown, formed the first triad, 
 and their union produced the Intellectual 
 World. 
 
 The Gnostics also had their doctrine of 
 Wisdom, whom they called Achamoth. They 
 said she was feminine ; styled her Mother, 
 and said that she produced all things 
 through the Father. 
 
 The Oriental doctrine of Wisdom was, 
 that it is a Divine Power standing between 
 
 the Creator and the creation, and acting 
 as His agent. "Jehovah," says Solomon, 
 {Proverbs iii. 19,) " by wisdom hath founded 
 the earth." Hence wisdom, in this philos- 
 ophy, answers to the idea of a vivifying 
 spirit brooding over and impregnating the 
 elements of the chaotic world. In short, 
 the world is but the outward manifestation 
 of the spirit of wisdom. 
 
 This idea, so universally diffused through- 
 out the East, is said to have been adopted 
 into the secret doctrine of the Templars, who 
 are supposed to have borrowed much from 
 the Basilideans, the Manicheans, and the 
 Gnostics. From them it easily passed over 
 to the high degrees of Masonry, which were 
 founded on the Templar theory. Hence, in 
 the great decoration of the thirty-third de- 
 gree of the Scottish Rite, the points of the 
 triple triangle are inscribed with the letters 
 S.A.P.I.E.N.T.I.A., or Wisdom. 
 
 It is not difficult now to see how this word 
 Wisdom came to take so prominent a part 
 in the symbolism of Ancient Masonry, and 
 how it was expressly appropriated to King 
 Solomon. As wisdom, in the philosophy 
 of the East, was the creative energy, — the 
 architect, so to speak, of the world, as the 
 emanation of the Supreme Architect, — so 
 Solomon was the architect of the Temple, 
 the symbol of the world. He was to the 
 typical world or temple what wisdom was 
 to the great world of the creation. Hence 
 wisdom is appropriately referred to him and 
 to the Master of the Lodge, who is the rep- 
 resentative of Solomon. Wisdom is always 
 placed in the east of the Lodge, because 
 thence emanate all light, and knowledge, 
 and truth. 
 
 Withdrawal of Petition. It is a 
 law of Masonry that a petition for initiation 
 having been once presented to a Lodge, 
 cannot be withdrawn. It must be subjected 
 to a ballot. It must be submitted to the 
 action of the Lodge. The rule is founded 
 on prudential reasons. The candidate hav- 
 ing submitted his character for inspection, 
 the inspection must be made. It is not for 
 the interests of Masonry, (the only thing to 
 be considered,) that, on the prospect of an 
 unfavorable judgment, he should be per- 
 mitted to decline the inspection, and have 
 the opportunity of applying to another 
 Lodge, where carelessness or ignorance might 
 lead to his acceptance. Initiation is not 
 like an article of merchandise sold by rival 
 dealers, and to be purchased, after repeated 
 trials, from the most accommodating seller. 
 
 Witnesses. See Trials. 
 
 Woellner, Joliann Christoph 
 Ton. A distinguished Prussian states- 
 man, and equally distinguished as one of 
 the leaders of the Rosicrucian Order in 
 Germany, and the Rite of Strict Observ- 
 
888 
 
 WOLF 
 
 WOOG 
 
 ance, to whose advancement he lent all the 
 influence of his political position. He was 
 born at Dobritz, May 19, 1732. He studied 
 theology in the orthodox church, and in 
 1750 was appointed a preacher near Berlin, 
 and afterwards a Canon at Halberstadt. In 
 1786, King William III., of Prussia, ap- 
 pointed him privy counsellor of finance, 
 an appointment supposed to have been 
 made as a concession to the Rite of Strict 
 Observance, of which Wollner was a Pro- 
 vincial Grand Master, his Order name being 
 Eques a cubo. In 1788 he became Minister 
 of State, and was put at the head of eccle- 
 siastical affairs. No Mason in Germany 
 labored more assiduously in the cause of 
 the Order and in active defence of the 
 Rite of Strict Observance, and hence he 
 had many enemies as well as friends. On 
 the demise of King William he was dis- 
 missed from his political appointments, and 
 retired to his estate at Grossriez, where he 
 died September 11, 1800. 
 
 Wolf. In the Egyptian mysteries, the 
 candidate represented a wolf and wore a 
 wolf's skin, because Osiris once assumed 
 the form of that animal in his contests with 
 Typhon. In the Greek mythology, the 
 wolf was consecrated to Apollo, or the sun, 
 because of the connection between hike, 
 light, and lukos, a wolf. In French, wolf 
 is louve, and hence the word louveteau, sig- 
 nifying the son of a Mason. See Lewis 
 No. 8. 
 
 Wolfenbiittel, Congress of. A 
 city of Lower Saxony, in the principality 
 of Wolfenbiittel, and formerly a possession 
 of the Duke of Brunswick. In 1778 Ferdi- 
 nand, Duke of Brunswick, convoked a Ma- 
 sonic Congress there, with a view of reform- 
 ing the organization of the Order. Its 
 results, after a session of five weeks, were a 
 union of the Swedish and German Masons, 
 which lasted only for a brief period, and 
 the preparation for a future meeting at 
 Wilhelmsbad. 
 
 Woman. The law which excludes 
 women from initiation into Masonry is not 
 contained in the precise words in any of 
 the Old Constitutions, although it is con- 
 tinually implied, as when it is said in the 
 Landsdowne MS., (year 1560,) that the 
 Apprentice must be " of limbs whole, as a 
 man ought to be," and that he must be " no 
 bondman." All the regulations also refer 
 to men only, and many of them would be 
 wholly inapplicable to women. But in the 
 Charges compiled by Anderson and Desa- 
 guliers, and published in 1723, the word 
 "woman" is for the first time introduced, 
 and the law is made explicit. Thus it is 
 said that " the persons admitted members 
 of a Lodge must be good and true men, 
 .... no bondmeu, no women," etc. 
 
 Perhaps the best reason that can be as- 
 signed for the exclusion of women from our 
 Lodges will be found in the character of 
 our organization as a mystic society. Spec- 
 ulative Freemasonry is only an application 
 of the art of Operative Masonry to purposes 
 of morality and science. The Operative 
 branch of our Institution was the fore- 
 runner and origin of the Speculative. 
 Now, as we admit of no innovations or 
 changes in our customs, Speculative Ma- 
 sonry retains, and is governed by, all the 
 rules and regulations that existed in and 
 controlled its Operative prototype. Hence, 
 as in this latter art only hale and hearty 
 men, in possession of all their limbs and 
 members, so that they might endure the 
 fatigues of labor, were employed, so in the 
 former the rule still holds, of excluding all 
 who are not in the possession of these pre- 
 requisite qualifications. Woman is not 
 permitted to participate in our rites and 
 ceremonies, not because we deem her un- 
 worthy or unfaithful, or incapable, as has 
 been foolishly supposed, of keeping a secret, 
 but because, on our entrance into the Order, 
 we found certain regulations which pre- 
 scribed that only men capable of enduring 
 the labor, or of fulfilling the duties of Op- 
 erative Masons, could be admitted. These 
 regulations we have solemnly promised 
 never to alter ; nor could they be changed, 
 without an entire disorganization of the 
 whole system of Speculative Masonry. 
 
 Wood -cutters, Order of. See 
 Fendeurs. 
 
 Woog, Carl Christian. Born at 
 Dresden in 1713, and died atLeipsic, April 
 24, 1771. Mossdorf says that he was, in 
 1740, a resident of London, and that there 
 he was initiatedinto Ancient Craft Masonry, 
 and also into the Scottish degree of Knight 
 of St. Andrew. In 1749, he published a 
 Latin work entitled, Presbyterorum etDiaco- 
 norum Achaice de Martyrio iSancti Andrece 
 Apostoli, Epistola Encyclica, in which he 
 refers to the Freemasons (p. 32) in the 
 following language : " Unicum adhuc addo, 
 esse inter csementarios, seu lapicidas liberos, 
 (qui Franco muratoriorum Franc- Macons 
 nomine communiter insigniuntur quique 
 rotunda quadratis miscere dicuntur,) quos- 
 dam qui S. Andreae memoriam summa ven- 
 eratione recolant. Ad minimum, si scriptia, 
 qua? detecta eorum mysteria et arcana re- 
 censent, fides non est deneganda, certum 
 erit, eos quotunnis diem quoque Andreas, 
 ut Sancti Johannis diem solent, festum 
 agere atque ceremoniosum celebrare, esseque 
 inter eos sectam aliquam, quae per crucem, 
 quam in pectore gerant, in qua Sanctus 
 Andreas funibus alligatus hsereat, a reliquis 
 se destinguunt ; " i.e., "I add only this, 
 that among the Freemasons (commonly 
 
WORD 
 
 WORD 
 
 889 
 
 called Franc-Macons, who are said to min- 
 gle circles with squares,) there are certain 
 ones who cherish the memory of St. An- 
 drew with singular veneration. At all 
 events, if we may credit those writings in 
 which their mysteries and secrets are de- 
 tected and exposed, it will be evident that 
 they are accustomed to keep annually, with 
 ceremonies, the festival of St. Andrew as 
 well as that of St. John; and that there is a 
 sect among them which distinguish them- 
 selves from the others by wearing on their 
 breast the cross on which St. Andrew was 
 fastened by cords." Woog, in a subsequent 
 passage, defends the Freemasons from the 
 charge made by these Expositions that they 
 were irreligious, but declares that by him 
 their mysteries shall remain buried in profound 
 silence — "per me vero maneant eorum 
 mysteria alto silentio sepulta." It is ap- 
 
 Sarently from these passages that Mossdorf 
 raws his conclusion that Woog was a Free- 
 mason, and had received the Scottish de- 
 gree of Knight of St. Andrew. They at 
 least prove that he was an early friend of 
 the Institution, and that he must have 
 known something of Ramsay's degree, 
 which was about that time introduced into 
 England. 
 
 Word. When emphatically used, the 
 expression, "the Word," is in Masonry 
 always referred to the third degree, although 
 there must be a word in each degree. In this 
 latter and general sense, the Word is called 
 by French Masons " la parole," and by 
 the Germans "ein Worterzeichen." The 
 use of a Word is of great antiquity. We 
 find it in the ancient mysteries. In those 
 of Egypt it is said to have been the Tetra- 
 grammaton. The German Stonemasons of 
 the Middle Ages had one, which, however, 
 I think was only a password by which the 
 travelling Companion might make himself 
 known in his professional wanderings. 
 Lyon {Hist of the L. of Edinb., p. 22,) shows 
 that it existed, in the sixteenth and subse- 
 quent centuries, in the Scotch Lodges, and 
 he says that "the Word is the only secret 
 that is ever alluded to in the minutes of 
 Mary's Chapel, or in those of Kilwinning, 
 Atcheson's Haven, or Dumblane, or any 
 other that we have examined of a date 
 prior to the erection of the Grand Lodge." 
 Indeed, he thinks that the communi- 
 cation of this Word constituted the only 
 ceremony of initiation practised in the 
 Operative Lodges. At that time there was 
 evidently but one Word for all the ranks of 
 Apprentices, Craftsmen, and Masters. He 
 thinks that this communication of the 
 Mason Word to the Apprentices under oath 
 constituted the germ whence has sprung the 
 Symbolical Masonry. But it must be re- 
 membered that the learned and laborious 
 5M 
 
 investigations of Bro. Lyon refer only to 
 the Lodges of Scotland. There is no suffi- 
 cient evidence that a more extensive system 
 of initiation did not prevail at the same 
 time, or even earlier, in England and Ger- 
 many. Indeed, Findel has shown that it 
 did in the latter country; and it is difficult 
 to believe that the system, which we know 
 was in existence in 1717, was a sudden de- 
 velopment out of a single Word, and for 
 which we are indebted to the inventive 
 genius of those who were engaged in the 
 revival at that period. Be this as it may, 
 the evidence is conclusive that everywhere, 
 and from the earliest times, there was a 
 Word. This at least is no modern usage. 
 
 But it must be admitted that this Word, 
 whatever it was, was at first a mere mark 
 of recognition. Yet it may have had, and 
 probably did have, a mythical signification, 
 and had not been altogether arbitrarily 
 adopted. The word given in the Sloane 
 MS., No. 3329, which Bro. Hughan places at 
 a date not posterior to 1700, is undoubtedly 
 a corrupted form of that now in use, and 
 with the signification of which we are well 
 acquainted. Hence we may conclude that 
 the legend, and the symbolism connected 
 with it, also existed at the same time, but 
 only in a nascent and incomplete form. 
 
 The modern development of Speculative 
 Masonry into a philosophy has given a 
 perfected form to the symbolism of the 
 Word no longer confined to use as a means 
 of recognition, but elevated, in its connec- 
 tion with the legend of the third degree, to 
 the rank of a symbol. 
 
 So viewed, and by the scientific Mason it 
 is now only so viewed, the Word becomes 
 the symbol of Divine Truth, the loss of 
 which and the search for it constitute the 
 whole system of Speculative Masonry. So 
 important is this Word, that it lies at the 
 very foundation of the Masonic edifice. 
 The Word might be changed, as might a 
 grip or a sign, if it were possible to obtain 
 the universal consent of the Craft, and 
 Masonry would still remain unimpaired. 
 But were the Word abolished, or released 
 from its intimate connection with the Hi- 
 ramic legend, and with that of the Royal 
 Arch, the whole symbolism of Speculative 
 Masonry would be obliterated. The Insti- 
 tution might withstand such an innovation, 
 but its history, its character, its design, 
 would belong to a newer and a totally 
 different society'. The word is what Der- 
 mott called the Royal Arch, " the marrow 
 of Masonry." 
 
 Word, Lost. See Lost Word. 
 
 Word, Mason. In the minutes and 
 documents of the Lodges of Scotland dur- 
 ing the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eigh- 
 teenth centuries, the expression "Mason 
 
890 
 
 WORD 
 
 WORKMEN 
 
 word" ia constantly used. This continu- 
 ous use would indicate that but one word 
 was then known. Nicolai, in his Essay on 
 the Accusations against the Templars, quotes 
 a "small dictionary published at the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth century," in 
 which the " Mason's word " is defined. 
 
 Word. Sacred. A term applied to 
 the chief or most prominent word of a de- 
 gree, to indicate its peculiarly sacred char- 
 acter, in contradistinction to a password, 
 which is simply intended as a mode of 
 recognition. It is sometimes ignorantly 
 corrupted into " secret word." All signifi- 
 cant words in Masonry are secret. Only 
 certain ones are sacred. 
 
 Word, Significant. See Significant 
 Word. 
 
 Word, True. Used in contradistinc- 
 tion to the Lost Word and the Substitute 
 Word. To find it is the object of all Ma- 
 sonic search and labor. For as the Lost 
 Word is the symbol of death, the True Word 
 is the symbol of life eternal. It indicates 
 the change that is always occurring — truth 
 after error, light after darkness, life after 
 death. Of all the symbolism of Speculative 
 Masonry, that of the True Word is the most 
 philosophic and sublime. 
 
 Work. See Labor. 
 
 Working-Tools. In each of the de- 
 grees of Masonry, certain implements of 
 the Operative art are consecrated to the 
 Speculative science, and adopted to teach 
 as symbols lessons of morality. With these 
 the Speculative Mason is taught to erect 
 his spiritual temple, as his Operative pre- 
 decessors with the same implements con- 
 structed their material temples. Hence 
 they are called the working-tools of the de- 
 gree. They vary but very slightly in the 
 different Rites, but the same symbolism is 
 preserved. The principal working- tools of 
 the Operative art that have been adopted 
 as symbols in the Speculative science, con- 
 fined, however, to Ancient Craft Masonry, 
 and not used in the higher degrees, are, the 
 twenty-four inch gauge, common gavel, 
 square, level, plumb, skerrit, compasses, 
 pencil, trowel, mallet, pickaxe, crow, and 
 shovel. See them under their respective 
 heads. 
 
 Work, Master of the. An archi- 
 tect or superintendent of the building of an 
 edifice. Du Cange (Glossarium) thus de- 
 fines it: "Magister operis vel operarum 
 vulgo, maitre de Poeuvre, cui operibus pub- 
 licis vacare incumbit," i. e„ "Master of the 
 work or of the works, commonly, maitre de 
 1' oeuvre, one whose duty it is to attend to 
 the public works." In the Cooke MS., (line 
 529,) it is said: "And also he that were 
 most of connying [skill] scholde be gov- 
 ernour of the werke, and scholde be callyd 
 
 maister." In the old record of the date of 
 Edward III., cited by Anderson in his 
 second edition, (p. 71,) it is prescribed " that 
 Master Masons, or Masters of Work, shall 
 be examined whether they be able of cun- 
 ning to serve their respective lords." The 
 word was in common use in the Middle 
 Ages, and applied to the Architect or Mas- 
 ter Builder of an edifice. Thus Edwin of 
 Steinbach, the architect of the Cathedral 
 of Strasburg, is called Master of the Work. 
 In the monasteries there was a similar 
 officer, who was, however, more generally 
 called the Operarius, but sometimes Magis- 
 ter operis. 
 
 Workmen at the Temple. We 
 have no historical account, except the mea- 
 gre details in the Books of Kings and 
 Chronicles, of the number or classification 
 of the workmen at the Temple of Solomon. 
 The subject has, however, afforded a fertile 
 theme for the exercise of the inventive 
 genius of the ritualists. Although devoid 
 of interest as a historical study, an acquaint- 
 ance with these traditions, especially the 
 English and American ones, and a com- 
 parison of them with the Scriptural account 
 and with that given by Josephus, are neces- 
 sary as a part of the education of a Masonic 
 student. I furnish the legends, therefore, 
 simply as a matter of curiosity, without the 
 slightest intention to vouch for their au- 
 thenticity. 
 
 In the Second Book of Chronicles, chap, 
 ii., verses 17 and 18, we read as follows : 
 
 " And Solomon numbered all the stran- 
 gers that were in the land of Israel, after 
 the numbering wherewith David his father 
 had numbered them ; and they were found 
 an hundred and fifty thousand and three 
 thousand and six hundred. 
 
 " And he set threescore and ten thousand 
 of them to be bearers of burdens, and four- 
 score thousand to be hewers in the moun- 
 tain, and three thousand and six hundred 
 overseers to set the people a-work." 
 
 The same numerical details are given in 
 the second verse of the same chapter. 
 Again, in the First Book of Kings, chap, 
 v., verses 13 and 14, it is said : 
 
 " And King Solomon raised a levy out 
 of all Israel ; and the levy was thirty thou- 
 sand men. 
 
 "And he sent them to Lebanon, ten 
 thousand a month by courses: a month 
 they were in Lebanon, and two months 
 at home: and Adoniram was over the 
 levy." 
 
 The succeeding verses make the same 
 enumeration of workmen as that contained 
 in the Book of Chronicles quoted above, 
 with the exception that, by omitting the 
 three hundred Harodim, or rulers over all, 
 the number of overseers is stated in the 
 
WORKMEN 
 
 WORKMEN 
 
 891 
 
 Book of Kings to be only three thousand 
 three hundred. 
 
 With these authorities, and the assist- 
 ance of Masonic traditions, Anderson, in the 
 Book of Constitutions, (2d ed., p. 11,) con- 
 structs the following table of the Craftsmen 
 at the Temple : 
 
 Harodim, Princes, Kulers, or Pro- 
 vosts, 300 
 
 Menatzchim, Overseers, or Master 
 
 Masons, 3,300 
 
 Ohiblim, Stone Squarers, "1 all 
 Ischotzeb, Hewers, V Fellow 80,000 
 
 Benai, Builders, ) Crafts, 
 
 The levy out of Israel, who were 
 
 timber cutters, .... 30,000 
 
 All the Freemasons employed in 
 the work of the Temple, exclu- 
 sive of the two Grand Wardens, 113,600 
 
 Besides the Ish Sabal, or men of bur- 
 then, the remains of the old Canaanites, 
 amounting to 70,000, who are not num- 
 bered among the Masons. 
 
 In relation to the classification of these 
 workmen, Anderson says, "Solomon par- 
 titioned the Fellow Crafts into certain 
 Lodges, with a Master and Wardens in 
 each, that they might receive commands in 
 a regular manner, might take care of their 
 tools and jewels, might be paid regularly 
 every week, and be duly fed and clothed ; 
 and the Fellow Crafts took care of their suc- 
 cession by educating Entered Apprentices." 
 
 Josephus makes a different estimate. He 
 includes the 3,300 Overseers in the 80,000 
 Fellow Crafts, and makes the number of 
 Masons, exclusive of the 70,000 bearers of 
 burthens, amount to only 110,000. 
 
 A work published in 1764, entitled The 
 Masonic Pocket-Book, gives a still different 
 classification. The number, according to 
 this authority, was as follows : 
 
 Harodim, . . 
 Menatzchim, . 
 Ghiblim, 
 Adoniram's men, . 
 
 Total, . 
 
 300 
 
 3,300 
 
 83,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 116,600 
 
 which, together with the 70,000 Ish Sabal, 
 or laborers, will make a grand total of 
 186,600 workmen. 
 
 According to the statement of Webb, 
 which has been generally adopted by the 
 Fraternity in the United States, there were : 
 
 Grand Masters, . 
 Overseers, 
 Fellow Crafts, 
 Entered Apprentices, 
 
 3 
 3,300 
 
 80,000 
 70,000 
 
 This account makes no allusion to the 
 300 Harodim, nor to the levy of 30,000; it is, 
 therefore, manifestly incorrect. Indeed, no 
 certain authority can be found for the com- 
 plete classification of the workmen, since 
 neither the Bible nor Josephus gives any 
 account of the number of Tyriaus employed. 
 Oliver, however, in his Historical Landmarks, 
 has collected from the Masonic traditions an 
 account of the classifications of the work- 
 men, which I shall insert, with a few addi- 
 tional facts taken from other authorities. 
 
 According to these traditions, the follow- 
 ing was the classification of the Masons 
 who wrought in the quarries of Tyre : 
 
 Super Excellent Masons, 
 Excellent Masons, 
 Grand Architects, 
 Architects, . 
 Master Masons, 
 Mark Masters, 
 Markmen, 
 Fellow Crafts, 
 
 Total, . 
 
 6 
 
 48 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 2,376 
 
 700 
 
 1,400 
 
 53,900 
 
 58,454 
 
 These were arranged as follows : The six 
 Super Excellent Masons were divided into 
 two Grand Lodges, with three brethren in 
 each to superintend the work. The Excel- 
 lent Masons were divided into six Lodges 
 of nine each, including one of the Super 
 Excellent Masons, who presided as Master. 
 The eight Grand Architects constituted one 
 Lodge, and the sixteen Architects another. 
 The Grand Architects were the Masters, 
 and the Architects the Wardens, of the 
 Lodges of Master Masons, which were eight 
 in number, and consisted, with their offi- 
 cers, of three hundred in each. The Mark 
 Masters were divided into fourteen Lodges 
 of fifty in each, and the Markmen into 
 fourteen Lodges also, of one hundred in 
 each. The Mark Masters were the Masters, 
 and the Markmen the Wardens, of the 
 Lodges of Fellow Crafts, which were seven 
 hundred in number, and with their officers 
 consisted of eighty in each. 
 
 The classification of the workmen in the 
 forest of Lebanon was as follows : 
 
 Super Excellent Masons, 
 
 3 
 
 Excellent Masons, 
 
 24 
 
 Grand Architects, 
 
 4 
 
 Architects, . 
 
 8 
 
 Master Masons, . 
 
 1,188 
 
 Mark Masters, 
 
 300 
 
 Markmen, 
 
 600 
 
 Fellow Crafts, 
 
 . 23,100 
 
 Entered Apprentices, . 
 
 . 10,000 
 
 Total, 
 
 35,227 
 
892 
 
 WORKMEN 
 
 WORLDLY 
 
 These were arranged as follows: The 
 three Super Excellent Masons formed one 
 Lodge. The Excellent Masons were di- 
 vided into three Lodges of nine each, in- 
 cluding one of the Super Excellent Masons 
 as Master. The four Grand Architects con- 
 stituted one Lodge, and the eight Archi- 
 tects another, the former acting as Masters 
 and the latter as Wardens of the Lodges 
 of Master Masons, which were four in num- 
 ber, -and consisted, with their officers, of 
 three hundred in each. The Mark Masters 
 were divided into six Lodges of fifty in 
 each, and the Markmen into six Lodges 
 also, of one hundred in each. These two 
 classes presided, the former as Masters and 
 the latter as Wardens, over the Lodges of 
 Fellow Crafts, which were three hundred 
 in number, and were composed of eighty in 
 each, including their officers. 
 
 After three years had been occupied in 
 "hewing, squaring, and numbering" the 
 stones, and in " felling and preparing " the 
 timbers, these two bodies of Masons, from 
 the quarries and the forest, united for the 
 purpose of properly arranging and fitting 
 the materials, so that no metallic tool 
 might be required in putting them up, and 
 they were then carried up to Jerusalem. 
 Here the whole body was congregated under 
 the superintending care of Hiram Abif, and 
 to them were added four hundred and 
 twenty Lodges of Tyrian and Sidonian Fel- 
 low Crafts, having eighty in each, and the 
 twenty thousand Entered Apprentices of 
 the levy from Israel, who had heretofore 
 been at rest, and who were added to the 
 Lodges of their degree, making them now 
 consist of three hundred in each, so that 
 the whole number then engaged at Jeru- 
 salem amounted to two hundred and seven- 
 teen thousand two hundred and eighty-one, 
 who were arranged as follows : 
 
 9 Lodges of Excellent Masons, 9 
 in each, were .... 81 
 
 12 Lodges of Master Masons, 300 
 in each, were .... 3,600 
 
 1,000 Lodges of Fellow Crafts, 80 
 in each, were .... 80,000 
 
 420 Lodges of Tyrian Fellow 
 
 Crafts, 80 in each, were . . 33,600 
 
 100 Lodges of Entered Appren- 
 tices, 300 in each, were . . 30,000 
 
 70,000 Ish Sabal, or laborers, . 70,000 
 
 Total, 
 
 217,281 
 
 Such is the system adopted by our Eng- 
 lish brethren. The American ritual has 
 greatly simplified the arrangement. Ac- 
 cording to the system now generally 
 adopted in this country, the workmen en- 
 gaged in building King Solomon's Temple 
 
 are supposed to have been classified as 
 follows : 
 
 3 Grand Masters. 
 
 300 Harodim, or Chief Superintendents, 
 who were Past Masters. 
 
 3,300 Overseers, or Master Masons, di- 
 vided into Lodges of three in each. 
 
 80,000 Fellow Crafts, divided into Lodges 
 of five in each. 
 
 70,000 Entered Apprentices, divided into 
 Lodges of seven in each. 
 
 According to this account, there must 
 have been eleven hundred Lodges of Master 
 Masons ; sixteen thousand of Fellow Crafts ; 
 and ten thousand of Entered Apprentices. 
 No account is here taken of the levy of 
 thirty thousand who are supposed not to 
 have been Masons, nor of the builders sent 
 by Hiram, king of Tyre, whom the English 
 ritual places at thirty-three thousand six 
 hundred, and most of whom we may sup- 
 pose to have been members of the Dionysiac 
 Fraternity of Artificers, the institution from 
 which Freemasonry, according to legendary 
 authority, took its origin. 
 
 On the whole, the American system seems 
 too defective to meet all the demands of the 
 inquirer into this subject — an objection to 
 which the English is not so obnoxious. 
 But, as I have already observed, the whole 
 account is mythical, and is to be viewed 
 rather as a curiosity than as having any 
 historical value. 
 
 Workshop. The French Masons call 
 a Lodge an " atelier" literally, a work- 
 shop, or, as Boiste defines it, " a place 
 where Craftsmen work under the same 
 Master." 
 
 World. The Lodge is said to be a 
 symbol of the world. Its form — an oblong 
 square, whose greatest length is from east 
 to west — represents the shape of the in- 
 habited world according to the theory of 
 the ancients. The " clouded canopy," or 
 the " starry-decked covering " of the Lodge, 
 is referred to the sky. The sun, which en- 
 lightens and governs the world at morning, 
 noon, and evening, is represented by the 
 three superior officers. And, lastly, the 
 Craft, laboring in the work of the Lodge, 
 present a similitude to the inhabitants of 
 the world engaged in the toils of life. 
 While the Lodge is adopted as a copy of the 
 Temple, not less universal is that doctrine 
 which makes it a symbol of the world. 
 See Form of the Lodge. 
 
 Worldly Possessions. In the 
 English lectures of Dr. Hemming, the word 
 Tubal Cain is said "to denote worldly pos- 
 sessions," and hence Tubal Cain is adopted 
 in that system as the symbol of worldly 
 possessions. The idea is derived from the 
 derivation of Cain from kanah, to acquire, 
 to gain, and from the theory that Tubal 
 
WORLDLY 
 
 WREN 
 
 893 
 
 Cain, by his inventions, had enabled «his 
 pupils to acquire riches. But the deriva- 
 tive meaning of the word has reference to 
 the expression of Eve, that in the birth of 
 her eldest son she had acquired a man by 
 the help of the Lord; and any system 
 which gives importance to mere wealth as 
 a Masonic symbol, is not in accord with the 
 moral and intellectual designs of the Insti- 
 tution, which is thus represented as a mere 
 instrument of Mammon. The symbolism 
 is quite modern, and has not been adopted 
 elsewhere than in English Masonry. 
 
 Worldly Wealth. Partial clothing 
 is, in Masonry, a symbol teaching the aspi- 
 rant that Masonry regards no man on ac- 
 count of his worldly wealth or honors ; and 
 that it looks not to his outward clothing, 
 but to his internal qualifications. 
 
 Worship. Originally, the word "to 
 worship " meant to pay that honor and 
 reverence which are due to one who is 
 worthy. Thus, where our authorized 
 version translates Matthew xix. 19, 
 "Honor thy father and thy mother," 
 Wycliffe says, " Worschip thi fadir and thi 
 modir." And in the marriage service of 
 the Episcopal Church, the expression is still 
 retained, " with my body I thee worship," 
 that is, honor or reverence thee. Hence 
 the still common use in England of the 
 words worshipful and right worshipful 'as 
 titles of honor applied to municipal and 
 judicial officers. Thus the mayors of small 
 towns, and justices of the peace, are styled 
 " Worshipful," while the mayors of large 
 cities, as London, are called "Right Wor- 
 shipful." The usage was adopted and re- 
 tained in Masonry. The word worship, or 
 its derivatives, is not met with in any of the 
 old manuscripts. In the " Manner of con- 
 stituting a New Lodge," adopted in 1722, 
 and published by Anderson in 1723, the 
 word " worship " is applied as a title to the 
 Grand Master. In the seventeenth century, 
 the gilds of London began to call them- 
 selves " Worshipful," as, " the Worshipful 
 Company of Grocers," etc.; and it is likely 
 that the Lodges at the revival, and per- 
 haps a few years before, adopted the same 
 style. 
 
 Worshipful. A title applied to a 
 symbolic Lodge and to its Master. The 
 Germans sometimes use the title " hoch- 
 wiirdig." The French style the Worshipful 
 Master "Venerable," and the Lodge, " Re- 
 spectable." 
 
 Worshipful Lodge. See Worship- 
 ful. 
 
 Worshipful Master. See Worship- 
 ful. 
 
 Worshipful, Most. The title of a 
 Grand Master and of a Grand Lodge. 
 
 Worshipful, Right. The title of 
 
 the elective officers of a Grand Lodge be- 
 low the Grand Master. 
 Worshipful, Very*. Not now in 
 
 use. It was formerly applied as a title to 
 the Senior and Junior Grand Wardens in 
 the Grand Lodge of South Carolina. 
 Wren, Sir Christopher. One of 
 
 the most distinguished architects of Eng- 
 land, was the son of Dr. Christopher Wren, 
 Rector of East Knoyle in Wiltshire, and 
 was born there October 20, 1632. He was 
 entered as a gentleman commoner at Wad- 
 ham College, Oxford, in his fourteenth 
 year, being already distinguished for his 
 mathematical knowledge. He is said to 
 have invented, before this period, several 
 astronomical and mathematical instru- 
 ments. In 1645, he became a member of a 
 scientific club connected with Gresham 
 College, from which the Royal Society sub- 
 sequently arose. In 1653, he was elected 
 a Fellow of All Souls' College, and had 
 already become known to the learned men 
 of Europe for his various inventions. In 
 1657, he removed permanently to London, 
 having been elected Professor of Astronomy 
 at Gresham College. 
 
 During the political disturbances which 
 led to the abolition of the monarchy and 
 the establishment of the commonwealth, 
 Wren, devoted to the pursuits of philoso- 
 phy, appears to have kept away from the 
 contests of party. Soon after the restoration 
 of Charles II., he was appointed Savillian 
 Professor at Oxford, one of the highest dis- 
 tinctions which could then have been con- 
 ferred on a scientific man. During this 
 time he was distinguished for his numerous 
 contributions to astronomy and mathe- 
 matics, and invented many curious ma- 
 chines, and discovered many methods for 
 facilitating the calculations of the celestial 
 bodies. 
 
 Wren was not professionally educated as 
 an architect, but from his early youth had 
 devoted much time to its theoretic study. 
 In 1665 he went to Paris for the purpose 
 of studying the public buildings in that 
 city, and the various styles which they pre- 
 sented. He was induced to make this visit, 
 and to enter into these investigations, be- 
 cause, in 1660, he had been appointed by 
 King Charles II. one of a commission to 
 superintend the restoration of the Cathe- 
 dral of St. Paul's, which had been much 
 dilapidated during the times of the com- 
 monwealth. But before the designs could 
 be carried into execution, the great fire oc- 
 curred which laid so great a part of Lon- 
 don, including St. Paul's, in ashes. 
 
 In 1661, he was appointed assistant to 
 Sir John Denham, the Surveyor-General, 
 and directed his attention to the restoration 
 of the burnt portion of the city. His plans 
 
894 
 
 WREN 
 
 WREN 
 
 were, unfortunately for the good of Lon- 
 don, not adopted, and he confined his atten- 
 tion to the rebuilding of particular edifices. 
 In 1667, he was appointed the successor of 
 Denham as Surveyor- General and Chief 
 Architect. In this capacity he erected a large 
 number of churches, the Royal Exchange, 
 Greenwich Observatory, and many other 
 public edifices. But his crowning work, 
 the masterpiece that has given him his 
 largest reputation, is the Cathedral of St. 
 Paul's, which was commenced in 1675 and 
 finished in 1710. The original plan that 
 was proposed by Wren was rejected through 
 the ignorance of the authorities, and dif- 
 fered greatly from the one on which it has 
 been constructed. Wren, however, super- 
 intended the erection as master of the 
 work, and his tomb in the crypt of the 
 Cathedral was appropriately inscribed with 
 the words : " Si monumentum requiris, cir- 
 cumspice ; " *. e., " If you seek his mon- 
 ument, look around." 
 
 In 1672, Wren was made a Knight, and 
 in 1674 he married a daughter of Sir John 
 Coghill. To a son by this marriage are we 
 indebted for memoirs of the family of his 
 father, published under the title of Paren- 
 talia. After the death of this wife, he mar- 
 ried a daughter of Viscount Fitzwilliam. 
 
 In 1680, Wren was elected President of 
 the Royal Society, and continued to a late 
 period his labors on public edifices, build- 
 ing, among others, additions to Hampton 
 Court and to Windsor Castle. 
 
 After the death of Queen Anne, who was 
 the last of his royal patrons, Wren was re- 
 moved from his office of Surveyor-General, 
 which he had held for a period of very 
 nearly half a century. He passed the few 
 remaining years of his life in serene retire- 
 ment. He was found dead in his chair 
 after dinner, on February 25, 1723, in the 
 ninety-first year of his age. 
 
 Notwithstanding that much that has been 
 said by Anderson and other writers of the 
 last century, concerning Wren's connection 
 with Freemasonry, is without historical 
 confirmation, there can, I think, be no 
 doubt that he took a deep interest in the 
 Speculative as well as in the Operative 
 Order. The Rev. J. W. Laughlin, in a lec- 
 ture on the life of Wren, delivered in 1857, 
 before the inhabitants of St. Andrew's, Hol- 
 born, and briefly reported in the Freema- 
 sons' Magazine, said that " Wren was for 
 eighteen years a member of the old Lodge 
 of St. Paul's, then held at the Goose and 
 Gridiron, near the Cathedral, now the 
 Lodge of Antiquity; and the records of 
 that Lodge show that the maul and trowel 
 used at the laying of the stone of St. 
 Paul's, together with a pair of carved ma- 
 hogany candlesticks, were presented by 
 
 Wren, and are now in possession of that 
 Lodge." By the order of the Duke of Sus- 
 sex, a plate was placed on the mallet or 
 maul which contained a statement of the 
 fact. 
 
 Mr. C. W. King, who is not a Mason, but 
 has derived his statement from a source to 
 which he does not refer, (but which w T as 
 perhaps Nicolai,) makes, in his work on the 
 Gnostics, (p. 176,) the following statement, 
 which is here quoted merely to show that 
 the traditionary belief of Wren's connection 
 with Speculative Freemasonry is not con- 
 fined to the Craft, He says: 
 
 "Another and a very important circum- 
 stance in this discussion must always be 
 kept in view : our Freemasons (as at present 
 organized in the form of a secret society) 
 derive their title from a mere accidental 
 circumstance connected with their actual 
 establishment. It was in the Common Hall 
 of the London Gild of Freemasons (the 
 trade) that their first meetings were held 
 under Christopher Wren, president, in the 
 time of the Commonwealth. Their real 
 object was political — the restoration of 
 monarchy; hence the necessary exclusion 
 of the public, and the oaths of secrecy en- 
 joined on the members. The pretence of 
 promoting architecture, and the choice of 
 the place where to hold their meetings, 
 suggested by the profession of their presi- 
 dent, were no more than blinds to deceive 
 the existing government." 
 
 Anderson, in the first edition of the 
 Constitutions, makes but a slight reference 
 to Wren, only calling him " the ingenious 
 architect, Sir Christopher Wren." I am 
 almost afraid that this passing notice of 
 him who has been called " the Vitruvius of 
 England" must be attributed to servility. 
 George I. was the stupid monarch who re- 
 moved Wren from his office of Surveyor- 
 General, and it would not do to be too dif- 
 fuse with praise of one who had been 
 marked by the disfavor of the king. But 
 in 1727 George I. died, and in his second 
 edition, published in 1738, Anderson gives 
 to Wren all the Masonic honors to which 
 he claims that he was entitled. It is from 
 what Anderson has said in that work, that 
 the Masonic writers of the last century and 
 the first half of the present, not requiring 
 the records of authentic history, have drawn 
 their views of the official relations of Wren 
 to the Order. He first introduces Wren 
 (p. 101) as one of the Grand Wardens at 
 the General Assembly held December 27, 
 1663, when the Earl of St. Albans was 
 Grand Master, and Sir John Denham, 
 Deputy Grand Master. He says that in 
 1666 Wren was again a Grand Warden, 
 under the Grand Mastership of the Earl of 
 Rivers; but immediately afterwards he 
 
WREN 
 
 WYKEHAM 
 
 895 
 
 calls him "Deputy Wren," and continues 
 to give him the title of Deputy Grand 
 Master until 1685, when he says (p. 106) 
 that " the Lodges met, and elected Sir 
 Christopher Wren Grand Master, who ap- 
 pointed Mr. Gabriel Gibber and Mr. Ed- 
 mund Savage Grand Wardens; and while 
 carrying on St. Paul's, he annually met 
 those brethren who could attend him, 
 to keep up good old usages." Anderson 
 (p. 107) makes the Duke of Richmond and 
 Lennox Grand Master, and reduces Wren 
 to the rank of a Deputy; but he says that 
 in 1698 he was again chosen Grand Master, 
 and as such " celebrated the Cape-stone " of 
 St. Paul's in 1708. " Some few years after 
 this," he says, "Sir Christopher Wren 
 neglected the office of Grand Master." 
 Finally, he says (p. 109) that in 1716 "the 
 Lodges in London finding themselves neg- 
 lected by Sir Christopher Wren," Masonry 
 was revived under a new Grand Master. 
 Some excuse for the aged architect's neglect 
 might have been found in the fact that he 
 was then eighty-five years of age, and had 
 been long removed from his public office of 
 Surveyor-General. 
 
 Noorthouck is more considerate. Speak- 
 ing of the placing of the last stone on the 
 top of St. Paul's, — which, notwithstanding 
 the statement of Anderson, was done, not 
 by Wren, but by his son, — he says, ( Consti- 
 tutions, p. 204,) " the age and infirmities of 
 the Grand Master, which prevented his at- 
 tendance on this solemn occasion, confined 
 him afterwards to great retirement ; so that 
 the Lodges suffered from want of his usual 
 presence in visiting and regulating their 
 meetings, and were reduced to a small 
 number." 
 
 Noorthouck, however, repeats substan- 
 tially the statements of Anderson in refer- 
 ence to Wren's Grand Mastership. How 
 much of these statements can be authenti- 
 cated by history is a question that must be 
 decided only by more extensive investiga- 
 tions of documents not yet in possession of 
 the Craft. Findel says (Hist., p. 127,) that 
 Anderson, having been commissioned in 
 1735 by the Grand Lodge to make a list of 
 the ancient Patrons of the Masons, so as to 
 afford something like a historical basis, 
 "transformed the former Patrons into 
 Grand Masters, and the Masters and Super- 
 intendents into Grand Wardens and the like, 
 which were unknown until the year 1717." 
 
 Of this there can be no doubt ; but there 
 is other evidence that Wren was a Free- 
 mason. In Aubrey's Natural History of 
 Wiltshire, (p. 277,) a manuscript in the 
 library of the Royal Society, Halliwell 
 finds and cites, in his Early History of 
 Freemasonry in England, (p. 46,) the fol- 
 lowing passage : 
 
 "This day, May the 18th, being Monday, 
 1691, after Rogation Sunday, is a great con- 
 vention at St. Paul's Church of the frater- 
 nity of the Adopted Masons, where Sir 
 Christopher Wren is to be adopted a Bro- 
 ther, and Sir Henry Goodric of the Tower, 
 and divers others. There have been kings 
 that have been of this sodality." 
 
 If this statement be true, — and we have 
 no reason to doubt it, from Aubrey's gen- 
 eral antiquarian accuracy, — Anderson is 
 incorrect in making him a Grand Master 
 in 1685, six years before he was initiated 
 as a Freemason. The true version of the 
 story probably is this : Wren was a great 
 architect — the greatest at the time in Eng- 
 land. As such he received the appointment 
 of Deputy Surveyor-General under Den- 
 ham, and subsequently, on Denham's 
 death, of Surveyor-General. He thus be- 
 came invested, by virtue of his office, with 
 the duty of superintending the construc- 
 tion of public buildings. The most impor- 
 tant of these was St. Paul's Cathedral, the 
 building of which he directed in person, 
 and with so much energy that the parsi- 
 monious Duchess of Marlborough, when 
 contrasting the charges of her own archi- 
 tect with the scanty remuneration of Wren, 
 observed that " he was content to be dragged 
 up in a basket three or four times a week to 
 the top of St. Paul's, and at great hazard, 
 for £200 a year." All this brought him 
 into close connection with the gild of Free- 
 masons, of which he naturally became the 
 patron, and subsequently he was by initia- 
 tion adopted into the sodality. Wren was, 
 in fact, what the medieeval Masons called 
 Magister Operis, or Master of the Work. 
 Anderson, writing for a purpose, naturally 
 transformed this title into that of Grand 
 Master — an office supposed to be unknown 
 until 1717. Aubrey's authority sufficiently 
 establishes the fact that Wren was a Free- 
 mason, and the events of his life prove his 
 attachment to the profession. 
 
 Wrestle. A degree sometimes called 
 the " Mark and Link," or Wrestle. It was 
 formerly connected with the Mark degree 
 in England. Its ceremonies were founded 
 on the passage contained in Genesis xxxii. 
 24-30. 
 
 Writing. The law which forbids a 
 Mason to commit to writing the esoteric 
 parts of the ritual is exemplified in some 
 American Lodges by a peculiar ceremony ; 
 but the usage is not universal. The Druids 
 had a similar rule ; and we are told that they, 
 in keeping their records, used the letters of 
 the Greek alphabet, so that they might be 
 unintelligible to those who were not author- 
 ized to read them. 
 
 Wykeham, William of. Bishop of 
 Winchester. Born at Wykeham in Hamp- 
 
896 
 
 WYSEACRE 
 
 XAINTRAILLES 
 
 shire in 1324, and died in 1404. He was 
 eminent both as an ecclesiastic and states- 
 man. In 1859, before he reached the epis- 
 copate, Edward III. appointed him sur- 
 veyor of the works at Windsor, which castle 
 he rebuilt. In his warrant or commission, 
 he was invested with power "to appoint all 
 workmen, to provide materials, and to order 
 everything relating to building and re- 
 pairs." He was, in fact, what the old man- 
 uscript Constitutions call "The Lord," 
 under whom were the Master Masons. 
 Anderson says that he was at the head of 
 four hundred Freemasons, was Master of 
 Work under Edward III., and Grand Mas- 
 ter under Richard II. And the Freemasons' 
 Magazine (August, 1796,) styles him " one 
 of the brightest ornaments that Freema- 
 sonry has ever boasted." In this there is, 
 
 of course, a mixture of myth and history. 
 Wykeham was an architect as well as a 
 bishop, and superintended the building of 
 many public edifices in England in the 
 fourteenth century, being a distinguished 
 example of the connection so common in 
 mediaeval times between the ecclesiastics 
 and the Masons. 
 
 Wyseacre. The Leland MS., referring 
 to Pythagoras, says that, "wynnynge en- 
 traunce yn al Lodges of Maconnes, he 
 lerned muche, and retournedde and worked 
 yn Grecia Magna wachsynge, and becom- 
 mynge a mightye wyseacre." The word 
 wiseacre, which now means a dunce or silly 
 person, is a corruption of the German weis- 
 sager, and originally signified a wise sayer 
 or philosopher, in which sense it is used in 
 the passage cited. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xaintrailles, Madame de. A 
 
 lady who was initiated into Masonry by a 
 French Lodge that did not have the excuse 
 for this violation of law that we must accord 
 to the Irish one in the case of Miss St. 
 Leger. Clavel {Hist. Pittoresq., p. 34,) tells 
 the story, but does not give the date, though 
 it must have been about the close of the last 
 century. The law of the Grand Orient of 
 France required each Lodge of Adoption 
 to be connected with and placed under the 
 immediate guardianship of a regular Lodge 
 of Masons. It was in one of these guar- 
 dian Lodges that the female initiation 
 which we are about to describe took place. 
 The Lodge of " Freres-Artistes," at Paris, 
 over which Brother Cuvelier de Trie pre- 
 sided as Master, was about to give what is 
 called a Flte of Adoption, that is, to open 
 a Lodge for female Masonry, and initiate 
 candidates into that rite. Previous, how- 
 ever, to the introduction of the female 
 members, the brethren opened a regular 
 Lodge of Ancient Masonry in the first 
 degree. Among the visitors who waited 
 in the antechamber for admission was a 
 youthful officer in the uniform of a captain 
 of cavalry. His diploma or certificate was 
 requested of him by the member deputed for 
 the examination of the visitors, for the pur- 
 pose of having it inspected by the Lodge. 
 After some little hesitation, he handed the 
 party asking for it a folded paper, which 
 was immediately carried to the Orator of the 
 Lodge, who, on opening it, discovered that 
 
 it was the commission of an aide-de-camp, 
 which had been granted by the Directory to 
 the wife of General de Xaintrailles, a lady 
 who, like several others of her sex in those 
 troublous times, had donned the masculine 
 attire and gained military rank at the point 
 of the sword. When the nature of the sup- 
 posed diploma was made known to the Lodge, 
 it may readily be supposed that the surprise 
 was general. But the members were French- 
 men : they were excitable and they were 
 gallant ; and consequently, in a sudden and 
 exalted fit of enthusiasm, which as Masons 
 we cannot excuse, they unanimously deter- 
 mined to confer the first degree, not of 
 Adoption, but of regular and legitimate 
 Freemasonry, on the brave woman who had 
 so often exhibited every manly virtue, and 
 to whom her country had on more than one 
 occasion committed trusts requiring the 
 greatest discretion and prudence as well 
 as courage. Madame de Xaintrailles was 
 made acquainted with the resolution of the 
 Lodge, and her acquiescence in its wishes 
 requested. To the offer, she replied, "I 
 have been a man for my country, and I will 
 again be a man for my brethren." She was 
 forthwith introduced and initiated as an 
 Entered Apprentice, and repeatedly after- 
 wards assisted the Lodge in its labors in the 
 first degree. 
 
 Doubtless the Irish Lodge was, under all 
 the circumstances, excused, if not justified, 
 in the initiation of Miss St. Leger. But 
 for the reception of Madame de Xaintrailles 
 
XAVIER 
 
 YATES 
 
 897 
 
 we look in vain for the slightest shadow of 
 an apology. The outrage on their obliga- 
 tions as Masons, by the members of the 
 Parisian Lodge, richly merited the severest 
 punishment, which ought not to have been 
 averted by the plea that the offence was 
 committed in a sudden spirit of enthusiasm 
 and gallantry. 
 
 Xavier Mier e Canipello, Fran- 
 cisco. He was Bishop of Almeria, and 
 Inquisitor-General of Spain, and an ardent 
 persecutor of the Freemasons. In 1815, 
 Ferdinand VII. having re-established the 
 Inquisition in Spain and suppressed the 
 Masonic Lodges, Xavier published the bull 
 of Pius VII., against the Order, in an ordi- 
 nance of his own, in which he denounced 
 the Lodges as "Societies which lead to 
 sedition, to independence, and to all errors 
 and crimes." He threatened the utmost 
 rigors of the civil and canon laws against 
 all who did not, within the space of fifteen 
 days, renounce them ; and then instituted a 
 series of persecutions of the most atrocious 
 character. Many of the most distinguished 
 persons of Spain were arrested, and im- 
 prisoned in the dungeons of the Inquisi- 
 tion, on the charge of being " suspected of 
 Freemasonry." 
 
 Xerophagists. On the 28th of April, 
 1748, Pope Clement XII. issued his bull 
 forbidding the practice of Freemasonry by 
 
 the members of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 Many of the Masons of Italy continued, 
 however, to meet ; but, for the purpose of 
 escaping the temporal penalties of the 
 bull, which extended, in some cases, to the 
 infliction of capital punishment, they 
 changed their esoteric name, and called 
 themselves Xerophaginte. This is a com- 
 pound of two Greek words signifying " eaters 
 of dry food," and by it they alluded to an 
 engagement into which they entered to 
 abstain from the drinking of wine. They 
 were, in fact, the first temperance society 
 on record. Thory says {Act. Lot., i. 346,) 
 that a manuscript concerning them was 
 contained in the collection of the Mother 
 Lodge of the Philosophic Scottish Rite. 
 
 Xerxes. A significant word in the 
 degree of Sublime Prince of the Royal 
 Secret, the thirty-second of the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Rite. He is referred to in 
 the old rituals of that degree as represent- 
 ed by Frederick the Great, the supposed 
 founder of the Rite. Probably this is on 
 account of the great military genius of both. 
 
 Xinxe. A significant word in the high 
 degrees. Delaunay {Tuileur, p. 49,) gives 
 it as Xincheu, and says that it has heen 
 translated as " the seat of the soul." But 
 in either form it has evidently undergone 
 such corruption as to be no longer compre- 
 hensible. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Y. One of the symbols of Pythagoras 
 was the Greek letter Upsilon, T, for which, 
 on account of the similarity of shape, the 
 Romans adopted the letter Y of their own 
 alphabet. Pythagoras said that the two 
 horns of the letter symbolized the two dif- 
 ferent paths of virtue and vice, the right 
 branch leading to the former and the left to 
 the latter. It was therefore called " Litera 
 Pythagorae," the letter of Pythagoras. Thus 
 the Roman poet Martial says, in one of his 
 epigrams : 
 
 " Litera Pythagorae, discrimine secta bicorni, 
 Humanae vitae speciem prseferre videtur." 
 i. e., 
 
 " The letter of Pythagoras, parted by its two- 
 branched division, appears to exhibit the image 
 of human life." 
 
 Yates, Giles Fonda. The task of 
 writing a sketch of the life of Giles Fonda 
 
 5N 57 
 
 Yates is accompanied with a feeling of 
 melancholy, because it brings to my mind 
 the recollections of years, now passed for- 
 ever, in which I enjoyed the intimate 
 friendship of that amiable man and zeal- 
 ous Mason and scholar. His gentle mien 
 won the love, his virtuous life the es- 
 teem, and his profound but unobtrusive 
 scholarship the respect, of all who knew 
 him. 
 
 Giles Fonda Yates was born in 1796, in 
 what was then the village of Schenectady, 
 in the State of New York. After acquiring 
 at the ordinary schools of the period a 
 preliminary liberal education, he entered 
 Union College, and graduated with distinc- 
 tion, receiving in due time the degree of 
 Master of Arts. 
 
 He subsequently commenced the study 
 of the law, and, having been admitted to 
 the bar, was, while yet young, appointed 
 Judge of Probate in Schenectady, the du- 
 
898 
 
 YATES 
 
 YATES 
 
 ties of which office he discharged with 
 great ability and fidelity. 
 
 Being blessed with a sufficient compe- 
 tency of the world's goods, (although in the 
 latter years of his life he became poor,) 
 Bro. Yates did not find it necessary to pur- 
 sue the practice of the legal profession as a 
 source of livelihood. 
 
 At an early period, he was attracted, by 
 the bent of his mind, to the study not only 
 of general literature, but especially to that 
 of archaeology, philosophy, and the occult 
 sciences, of all of which he became an ardent 
 investigator. These studies led him natu- 
 rally to the Masonic institution, into which 
 he was initiated in the year 1817, receiving 
 the degrees of Symbolic Masonry in St. 
 George's Lodge, No. 6, at Schenectady. 
 In 1821 he affiliated with Morton Lodge, 
 No. 87, of the same place, and was shortly 
 afterwards elected its Senior Warden. Re- 
 turning subsequently to the Lodge of his 
 adoption, he was chosen as its Master in 
 1844. He had in the meantime been ad- 
 mitted into a Chapter of the Royal Arch 
 and an Encampment of Knights Tem- 
 plars ; but his predilections being for Scot- 
 tish Masonry, he paid but little attention 
 to these high degrees of the American 
 Rite. 
 
 The following extract from an address 
 delivered by him in 1851, before the Su- 
 preme Council of the Northern Jurisdic- 
 tion, contains a brief summary of a portion 
 of his labors in the cause of Scottish Ma- 
 sonry. 
 
 "I turned my attention," says Bro. 
 Yates, " to the history of the Sublime de- 
 grees very soon after my initiation as a 
 Mason. My intercourse, in 1822, with sev- 
 eral old Masons in the city of Albany, led 
 to the discovery that an Ineffable Lodge 
 of Perfection had been established in that 
 ancient city on the 20th of December, 1767. 
 I also discovered that not only the Ineffa- 
 ble but the Superior degrees of our Rite 
 had been conferred at the same time on a 
 chosen few by the founder of the Lodge, 
 Henry A. Francken, one of the Deputies of 
 Stephen Morin of glorious memory. It 
 was not long, moreover, before I found the 
 original Warrants of this Lodge, its Book 
 of Minutes, the Patents of 111. Bros. Samuel 
 Stringer, M. D., Jeremiah Van Rensselaer, 
 and Peter W. Yates, Esquires, Deputy In- 
 spectors General under the old system ; also 
 the Regulations and Constitutions of the 
 nine Commissioners, etc., 1761, and other 
 documents that had been left by Bro. 
 Francken with the Albany brethren when 
 he founded their Lodge. With the con- 
 currence of the surviving members of said 
 Lodge in Albany, Dr. Jonathan Eights and 
 the Hon. and R. W. Stephen Van Rens- 
 
 selaer, P. G. M. of the Grand Lodge of 
 New York. I aided in effecting its revival. 
 The necessary proceedings were then insti- 
 tuted to place the same under the superin- 
 tendence of a Grand Council of Princes of 
 Jerusalem, as required by the Old Consti- 
 tutions : and such Grand Council was sub- 
 sequently opened in due form in said city. 
 
 " Having been made aware of the ' New 
 Constitutions of the Thirty-third Degree,' 
 ratified on the 1st of May, 1786, conferring 
 the supreme power over our Rite on ' Coun- 
 cils of Nine Brethren,' I hastened to place 
 myself in correspondence with Moses 
 Holbrook, M. D., at the time Sovereign 
 Grand Commander of the Supreme Coun- 
 cil at Charleston, and with my esteemed 
 friends, Joseph McCosh, Illustrious Grand 
 Secretary General of the last-named Coun- 
 cil, and Bro. Gourgas, at that time Illus- 
 trious Grand Secretary General of the H. 
 E. for this Northern Jurisdiction. Lodges 
 of Perfection in the counties of Montgom- 
 ery, Onondaga, Saratoga, and Monroe, in 
 the State of New York, were successively 
 organized and placed, agreeably to the Con- 
 stitutions, under the superintendence of the 
 Grand Council before named. The estab- 
 lishment of this last-named body was con- 
 firmed, and all our proceedings in Sublime 
 Freemasonry were legalized and sanctioned 
 by the only lawful authorities in the United 
 States, the aforesaid Supreme Councils. 
 
 " On the 16th day of November, 1824, 1 
 received a Patent appointing me S. of S. 
 of a Consistory of S. P. of the R. S. estab- 
 lished in the city of Albany. 
 
 " In 1825, I took my vows, as a ' Sover- 
 eign Grand Inspector General,' between the 
 hands of our said Brother Joseph McCosh, 
 he having been specially deputed for that 
 purpose. I was shortly after constituted 
 and accredited the Representative of the 
 Southern Supreme Grand Council near the 
 Northern Supreme Grand Council, of which 
 last I was made and ever since have been a 
 member." 
 
 In 1851, he was elected Sovereign Grand 
 Commander of the Supreme Council for the 
 Northern Jurisdiction, but soon after re- 
 signed the office in favor of Edward A. 
 Raymond. As he at that time had removed 
 his residence to the city of New York, he 
 was immediately appointed Deputy In- 
 spector for the State, and afterwards was 
 elected Grand Commander of Cosmopolitan 
 Sovereign Consistory of the State of New 
 York. 
 
 The last years of his life were oppressed 
 with poverty, and he was compelled to ac- 
 cept a subordinate office in the Custom- 
 House of New York, where, in my visits 
 to that city, I often beheld him faithfully 
 laboring at his desk on tasks which I pain- 
 
YATES 
 
 YEAR 
 
 899 
 
 fully felt were uncongenial to his culti- 
 vated intellect. He died December 13, 
 1859. 
 
 Bro. Yates was the author of a work en- 
 titled History of the Manners and Ceremo- 
 nies of the Indian Tribes, in which he seeks 
 ingeniously, if not satisfactorily, to discover 
 a Masonic meaning in the Indian mystic 
 rites. He was also engaged for many years 
 in the compilation of a valuable Reperto- 
 rium of Masonry, a work the manuscript of 
 which he left unfinished at the time of his 
 death. But most of his Masonic writings 
 appeared in contemporary journals. Moore's 
 Freemasons' Magazine and Mackey's Ma- 
 sonic Quarterly Review contain valuable 
 communications from his pen on subjects 
 of Masonic archaeology, in which science 
 he had no superior. He was also a poet 
 of no mean pretension, as his Odes of Per- 
 fection sufficiently show. 
 
 In an address delivered before the Lodge 
 of Sorrow held by the New York Lodge of 
 Perfection on the occasion of his demise, 
 Bro. Charles T. McClenachan has paid to 
 Giles F. Yates this true and appropriate 
 tribute : 
 
 " In the latter years of his life, this illus- 
 trious Brother, — so just, so pure, so firm in 
 mind, so unobtrusive, and yet so deeply 
 wrapt in the one great ideal of Perfection, 
 known by Masonic reputation around the 
 wide world, — passed daily unheeded from 
 the tediousness of duty to the pleasures of 
 study ; never forsaking the one great object 
 of his life — the solving of the Mysteries, 
 the searching after Truth. Active, thought- 
 ful, penetrating, his whole soul ever cen- 
 tred inagrasping desire to comprehend the 
 fulness of the Great Intelligence, the Rou- 
 ach Elohim, or Divine Existence — his 
 bright ideal of Perfection which dwells not 
 on earth — he has now found full relief in 
 death and the certain knowledge of the 
 Divine reality." 
 
 But the subject of this sketch has him- 
 self frankly and honestly, as was ever his 
 wont, described his own character: 
 
 " I would fain have you believe, my dear 
 brethren," said he, " that, as a member of 
 the Masonic institution, if I have had any 
 ambition, it has been to study its science, 
 and to discharge my duties as a faithful 
 Mason, rather than to obtain its official 
 honors or personal benefits of any kind. 
 Self-aggrandizement has never formed any 
 
 Eart of my Masonic creed, and all who 
 now me can bear witness that it never has 
 of my practice." 
 
 The motto he had selected was " prodesse 
 quam conspici," to do good rather than to 
 be conspicuous, and to that sentiment he 
 was consistently faithful throughout his 
 well-spent life. 
 
 Yaveron Ilamaini. A significant 
 word in the high degrees. The French 
 rituals explain it as meaning " the passage 
 of the river," and refer it to the crossing 
 of the river Euphrates by the liberated 
 Jewish captives on their return from Baby- 
 lon to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. 
 It is in its present form a corruption of the 
 Hebrew sentence, D'OH Y"I31^> yavaru 
 hamaim, which signifies "they will cross, 
 or pass over, the waters," alluding to the 
 streams lying between Babylon and Jeru- 
 salem, of which the Euphrates was the most 
 important. 
 
 Year, Hebrew. The same as the 
 Year of the World, which see. 
 
 Year of JLiglit. Anno Lucis, in the 
 year of light, is the epoch used in Masonic 
 documents of the Symbolic degrees. This 
 era is calculated from the creation of the 
 world, and is obtained by adding four thou- 
 sand to the current year, on the supposition 
 that Christ was born four thousand years 
 after the creation of the world. But the 
 chronology of Archbishop Usher, which 
 has been adopted as the Bible chronology 
 in the authorized version, places the birth 
 of Christ in the year 4004 after the crea- 
 tion. According to this calculation, the 
 Masonic date for the "year of light" is four 
 years short of the true date, and the year 
 of the Lord 1874, which in Masonic docu- 
 ments is 5874, should correctly be 5878. 
 The Ancient and Accepted Masons in the 
 beginning of this century used this correct 
 or Usherian era, and the Supreme Council 
 at Charleston dated their first circular, is- 
 sued in 1802, as 5806. Dalcho (Ahim. Rez., 
 2d ed., p. 37,) says: " If Masons are deter- 
 mined to fix the origin of their Order at the 
 time of the creation, they should agree 
 among themselves at what time before 
 Christ to place that epoch." At that agree- 
 ment they have now arrived. Whatever 
 differences may have once existed, there is 
 now a general consent to adopt the incor- 
 rect theory that the world was created 4000 
 B. c. The error is too unimportant, and 
 the practice too universal, to expect that it 
 will ever be corrected. 
 
 Noorthouck, (Constitutions, p. 5,) speak- 
 ing of the necessity of adding the four 
 years to make a correct date, says: "But 
 this being a degree of accuracy that Ma- 
 sons in general do not attend to, we must, 
 after this intimation, still follow the vulgar 
 mode of computation to be intelligible." 
 
 As to the meaning of the expression, it 
 is by no means to be supposed that Masons, 
 now, intend by such a date to assume that 
 their Order is as old as the creation. It is 
 simply used as expressive of reverence for 
 that physical light which was created by 
 the fiat of the Grand Architect, and which is 
 
900 
 
 YEAR 
 
 YELLOW 
 
 adopted as the type of the intellectual light 
 of Masonry. The phrase is altogether sym- 
 bolic. 
 
 Tear of Masonry. Sometimes used 
 as synonymous with Year of Light. In the 
 last century, it was in fact the more frequent 
 expression. 
 
 Year of the Deposite. An era 
 adopted by Royal and Select Masters, and 
 refers to the time when certain important 
 secrets were deposited in the first Temple. 
 See Anno Depositionis. 
 
 Year of the Discovery. An era 
 adopted by Royal Arch Masons, and refers 
 to the time when certain secrets were made 
 known to the Craft at the building of the 
 second Temple. See Anno Inventionis. 
 
 Year of the Order. The date used 
 in documents connected with Masonic 
 Templarism. It refers to the establishment 
 of the Order of Knights Templars in the 
 year 1118. See Anno Ordinis. 
 
 Year of the World. This is the era 
 adopted by the Ancient and Accepted Scot- 
 tish Rite, and is borrowed from the Jewish 
 computation. The Jews formerly used the 
 era of contracts, dated from the first con- 
 quests of Seleucus Nicator in Syria. But 
 since the fifteenth century they have 
 counted from the creation, which they sup- 
 pose to have taken place in September, 
 3760 before Christ. See Anno Mundi. 
 
 Yeas and Nays. The rule existing 
 in all parliamentary bodies that a vote may 
 be called for " by yeas and nays," so that 
 the vote of each member may be known 
 and recorded, does not apply to Masonic 
 Lodges. Indeed, such a proceeding would 
 be unnecessary. The vote by yeas and 
 nays in a representative body is taken that 
 the members may be held responsible to 
 their constituents. But in a Lodge, each 
 member is wholly independent of any re- 
 sponsibility, except to his own conscience. 
 To call for the yeas and nays being then 
 repugnant to the principles which govern 
 Lodges, to call for them would be out of 
 order, and such a call could not be enter- 
 tained by the presiding officer. 
 
 But in a Grand Lodge the responsibility 
 of the members to a constituency does exist, 
 and there it is very usual to call for a vote 
 by Lodges, when the vote of every member 
 is recorded. Although the mode of calling 
 for the vote is different, the vote by Lodges 
 is actually the same as a vote by yeas and 
 nays, and may be demanded by any mem- 
 ber. 
 
 Yeldis. An old hermetic degree, which 
 Thory says was given in some secret societies 
 in Germany. 
 
 Yellow. Of all the colors, yellow 
 seems to be the least important and the least 
 general in Masonic symbolism. In other 
 
 institutions it would have the same insig- 
 nificance, were it not that it has been 
 adopted as the representative of the sun, 
 and of the noble metal gold. Thus, in 
 colored blazonry, the small dots, by which 
 the gold in an engraved coat of arms is desig- 
 nated, are replaced by the yellow color. La 
 Colombiere, a French heraldic writer, says, 
 {Science Meroigue, p. 30,) in remarking on 
 the connection between gold and yellow, 
 that as yellow, which is derived from the 
 sun, is the most exalted of colors, so gold 
 is the most noble of metals. Portal (Des 
 Couleurs Sifmboliques, p. 64,) says that the 
 sun, gold, and yellow are not synonymous, 
 but mark different degrees which it is. diffi- 
 cult to define. The natural sun was the 
 symbol of the spiritual sun, gold represented 
 the natural sun, and yellow was the emblem 
 of gold. But it is evident that yellow de- 
 rives all its significance as a symbolic color 
 from its connection with the hue of the 
 rays of the sun and the metal gold. 
 
 Among the ancients, the divine light or 
 wisdom was represented by yellow, as the 
 divine heat or power was by red. And 
 this appears to be about the whole of the 
 ancient symbolism of this color. 
 
 In the old ritual of the Scottish and her- 
 metic degree of Knight of the Sun, yellow 
 was the symbol of wisdom darting its rays, 
 like the yellow beams of the morning, to 
 enlighten a waking world. In the Prince 
 of Jerusalem, it was also formerly the char- 
 acteristic color, perhaps with the same 
 meaning, in reference to the elevated posi- 
 tion that that degree occupied in the Rite 
 of Perfection, and afterwards in the Ancient 
 and Accepted Rite. 
 
 Thirty or forty years ago, yellow was the 
 characteristic color of the Mark Master's 
 degree, derived, perhaps, from the color of 
 the Princes of Jerusalem, who originally 
 issued charters for Mark Lodges; for it does 
 not seem to have possessed any symbolic 
 meaning. 
 
 In fact, as I have already intimated, all 
 the symbolism of yellow must be referred 
 to and explained by the symbolism of gold 
 and of the sun, of which it is simply the 
 representative. 
 
 Yellow Jacket. Prichard says that 
 in the early part of the last century the 
 following formed a part of the catechism : 
 
 " Have you seen your Master to-day ? 
 
 "Yes. 
 
 " How was he cloathed ? 
 
 " In a yellow jacket and a blue pair of 
 breeches." 
 
 And he explains it by saying that "the 
 yellow jacket is the compasses, and the blue 
 breeches the steel points." 
 
 On this Krause (Kunsturk., ii. 78,) re- 
 marks that this sportive comparison is 
 
YEVELE 
 
 YORK 
 
 901 
 
 altogether in the puerile spirit of the pecu- 
 liar interrogatories which are found among 
 many other crafts, and is without doubt 
 
 fenuine as originating in the working 
 lodges. Prichard's explanation is natural, 
 and Krause's remark correct. But it is vain 
 to attempt to elevate the idea by attaching 
 to it a symbolism of gold and azure — the 
 blue sky and the meridian sun. No such 
 thought entered into the minds of the illit- 
 erate operatives with whom the question 
 and answer originated. 
 
 Yevele, Henry. He was one of the 
 Magistri Operis, or Masters of the Work, in 
 the reign of Edward III., for whom he con- 
 structed several public edifices. Anderson 
 says that he is called, " in the Old Records, 
 the King's Freemason ;" but his name does 
 not occur in any of the old manuscript 
 Constitutions that are now extant. 
 
 Yggrasil. The sacred ash-tree of the 
 Scandinavian mysteries, which Oliver says 
 was analogous to the mystical ladder of other 
 Rites. If so, the symbolism is very abstruse. 
 
 Y-ha-ho. Higgins (Anacalypsis, ii. 
 17,) cites the Abbe Bazin as saying that 
 this was the name esteemed most sacred 
 among the ancient Egyptians. Clement of 
 Alexandria asserts, in his Stromata, that all 
 those who entered into the temple of Serapis 
 were obliged to wear conspicuously on their 
 persons the name I-ha-ho, which he says 
 signifies the Eternal God. The resemblance 
 to the Tetragrammaton is apparent. 
 
 Yod. The Hebrew letter », equivalent 
 in sound to I or Y. It is the initial letter 
 of the word Hit"!*, or Jehovah, the Tetra- 
 grammaton, and hence was peculiarly sa- 
 cred among the Talmudists. Basnage, (lib. 
 iii., c. 13,) while treating of the mysteries 
 of the name Jehovah among the Jews, says 
 of this letter : 
 
 "The yod in Jehovah is one of those 
 things which eye hath not seen, but which 
 has been concealed from all mankind. Its 
 essence and matter are incomprehensible ; 
 it is not lawful so much as to meditate upon 
 it. Man may lawfully revolve his thoughts 
 from one end of the heavens to the other, 
 but he cannot approach that inaccessible 
 light, that primitive existence, contained in 
 the letter yod; and indeed the masters call 
 the letter thought or idea, and prescribe no 
 bounds to its efficacy. It was this letter 
 which, flowing from the primitive light, 
 gave being to emanations. It wearied itself 
 by the way, but assumed a new vigor by the 
 sense of the letter j""l, which makes the sec- 
 ond letter of the Ineffable Name." 
 
 In Symbolic Masonry, the yod has 
 been replaced by the letter G. But 
 in the high degrees it is retained, 
 and within a triangle, thus, con- 
 stitutes the symbol of the Deity. 
 
 Yoni. Among the Orientalists, the 
 yoni was the female symbol corresponding 
 to the lingam, or male principle. The 
 lingam and yoni of the East assumed the 
 names of Phallus and Cteis among the 
 Greeks. 
 
 York Constitutions. This docu- 
 ment, which is also called Krause's MS., 
 Eurports to be the Constitutions adopted 
 y the General Assembly of Masons that 
 was held at York in 926. (See York Le- 
 gend.) No original manuscript copy of it 
 can be found, but a German translation 
 from a Latin version was published, for the 
 first time, by Krause in Die drei dltesten 
 Kunsturkunden der Freimaurerbruderschaft. 
 It will be found in the third edition of that 
 work, (vol. iii., pp. 58-101.) Krause's ac- 
 count of it is, that it was translated from 
 the original, which is said, in a certificate 
 dated January 4, 1806, and signed "Stone- 
 house," to have been written on parch- 
 ment in the ancient language of the coun- 
 try, and preserved at the city of York, 
 " apud Rev. summam societatem architec- 
 tonicam," which Woodford translates " an 
 architectural society," but which is evi- 
 dently meant for the "Grand Lodge." 
 From this Latin translation a German ver- 
 sion was made in 1808 by Bro. Schneider 
 of Altenberg, the correctness of which, hav- 
 ing been examined by three linguists, is 
 certified by Carl Erdmann Weller, Secre- 
 tary of the Government Tribunal of Saxony. 
 And it is this certified German translation 
 that has been published by Krause in his 
 Kunsturkunden. An English version was 
 inserted by Bro. Hughan in his Old Charges 
 of British Freemasons. The document con- 
 sists, like all the old manuscripts, of an in- 
 troductory invocation, a history of archi- 
 tecture or the " Legend of the Craft," and 
 the general statutes or charges ; but several 
 of the charges differ from those in the other 
 Constitutions. There is, however, a gen- 
 eral resemblance sufficient to indicate a 
 common origin. The appearance of this 
 document gave rise in Germany to dis- 
 cussions as to its authenticity. Krause, 
 Schneider, Fessler, and many other distin- 
 guished Masons, believed it to be genuine; 
 while Kloss denied it, and contended that 
 the Latin translation which was certified 
 by Stonehouse had been prepared before 
 1806, and that in preparing it an ancient 
 manuscript had been remodelled on the 
 basis of the 1738 edition of Anderson's 
 Constitutions, because the term " Noachida " 
 is employed in both, but is found nowhere 
 else. At length, in 1864, Bro. Findel was 
 sent by the " Society of German Masons " 
 to England to discover the original. His 
 report of his journey was that it was nega- 
 tive in its results ; no such document was to 
 
902 
 
 YORK 
 
 YORK 
 
 be found in the archives of the old Lodge 
 at York, and no such person as Stonehouse 
 was known in that city. These two facts, 
 to which may be added the further argu- 
 ments that no mention is made of it in the 
 Fabric Bolls of York Minster, published by 
 the Surtees Society, nor in the inventory 
 of the Grand Lodge of York which was ex- 
 tant in 1777, nor by Drake in his speech 
 delivered before the Grand Lodge in 1726, 
 and a few other reasons, have led Findel to 
 agree with Kloss that the document is not 
 a genuine York Charter. Such, too, is the 
 general opinion of English Masonic schol- 
 ars. There can be little doubt that the 
 General Assembly at York, in 926, did frame 
 a body of laws or Constitutions ; but there 
 is almost as little doubt that they are not 
 represented by the Stonehouse or Krause 
 document. 
 
 York. Legend. The city of York, 
 in the north of England, is celebrated for 
 its traditional connection with Masonry 
 in that kingdom. No topic in the his- 
 tory of Freemasonry has so much engaged 
 the attention of modern Masonic scholars, 
 or given occasion to more discussion, 
 than the alleged facts of the existence of 
 Masonry in the tenth century at the city 
 of York as a prominent point, of the call- 
 ing of a congregation of the Craft there in 
 the year 926, of the organization of a Gen- 
 eral Assembly and the adoption of a Con- 
 stitution. During the whole of the last and 
 the greater part of the present century, the 
 Fraternity in general have accepted all of 
 these statements as genuine portions of 
 authentic history ; and the adversaries of 
 the Order have, with the same want of dis- 
 crimination, rejected them all as myths; 
 while a few earnest seekers for truth have 
 been at a loss to determine what part was 
 historical and what part legendary. Re- 
 cently, the discovery of many old manu- 
 scripts has directed the labors of such 
 scholars as Hughan, Woodford, Lyon, and 
 others, to the critical examination of the 
 early history of Masonry, and that of York 
 has particularly engaged their attention. 
 
 For a thorough comprehension of the 
 true merits of this question, it will be nec- 
 essary that the student should first acquaint 
 himself with what was, until recently, the 
 recognized theory as to the origin of Ma- 
 sonry at York, and then that he should 
 examine the newer hypotheses advanced by 
 the writers of the present day. In other 
 words, he must read both the tradition and 
 the history. 
 
 In pursuance of this plan, I propose to 
 commence with the legends of York Ma- 
 sonry, as found in the old manuscript Con- 
 stitutions, and then proceed to a review of 
 what has been the result of recent investi- 
 
 gations. It may be premised that, of all 
 those who have subjected these legends to 
 the crucible of historical criticism, Brother 
 William James Hughan of Cornwall, in 
 England, must unhesitatingly be acknowl- 
 edged as " facile princeps," the ablest, the 
 most laborious, and the most trustworthy 
 investigator. He was the first and the 
 most successful remover of the cloud of 
 tradition which so long had obscured the 
 sunlight of history. 
 
 The legend which connects the origin of 
 English Masonry at York in 926 is some- 
 times called the " York Legend," sometimes 
 the "Athelstane Legend," because the 
 General Assembly, said to have been held 
 there, occurred during the reign of that 
 king ; and sometimes the " Edwin Legend," 
 because that prince is supposed to have been 
 at the head of the Craft, and to have con- 
 voked them together to form a Constitution. 
 
 The earliest extant of the old manuscript 
 Constitutions is the ancient poem com- 
 monly known as the Halliwell MS., and 
 the date of which is conjectured (on good 
 grounds) to be about the year 1390. In 
 that work we find the following version of 
 the legend : 
 
 " Thys craft com ynto Englond as y yow say, 
 
 Yn tyme of good kynge Adelstonus' day ; 
 
 He made tho bothe" halle and eke bowre, 
 
 And hye templus of gret honowre, 
 
 To sportyn him yn bothe day and nygth, 
 
 An to worschepe hys God with alle hys mygth. 
 
 Thys goode loroe loved thys craft ful wel, 
 
 And purposud to strenthyn hyt every del, 
 
 For dyvers defawtys that yn the craft he fonde ; 
 
 He sende abonte ynto the londe 
 
 After alle the masonus of the crafte, 
 
 To come to hvm ful eveDe stray fte, 
 
 For to amende these defautys alle 
 
 By good consel gef hyt mytgth falle. 
 
 A semblS thenne he cowthe let make 
 
 Of dyvers lordis yn here state 
 
 Dukys, erlys, and barnes also, 
 
 Knygthys, sqwyers and mony mo, 
 
 And the grete burges of that syt6, 
 
 They were ther alle yn here degrl ; 
 
 These were there uchon algate, 
 
 To ordeyne for these masonus astate, 
 
 Ther they sowgton by here wytte 
 
 How they mygthyn governe hytte : 
 
 Fyftene artyculns they there sowgton, 
 
 And fyftene poyntys ther they wrogton." 
 
 For the benefit of those who are not fa- 
 miliar with this archaic style, the passage 
 is translated into modern English. 
 
 " This craft came into England, as I tell 
 you, in the time of good king Athelstan's 
 reign ; he made then both hall, and also 
 bower and lofty temples of great honor, to 
 take his recreation in both day and night, 
 and to worship his God with all his might. 
 This good lord loved this craft full well, and 
 purposed to strengthen it in every part on 
 account of various defects that he discovered 
 
YORK 
 
 YORK 
 
 903 
 
 in the craft. He sent about into all the 
 land, after all the masons of the craft, to 
 come straight to him, to amend all these 
 defects by good counsel, if it might so hap- 
 pen. He then permitted an assembly to be 
 made of divers lords in their rank, dukes, 
 earls, and barons, also knights, squires, and 
 many more, and the great burgesses of that 
 city, they were all there in their degree; 
 these were there, each one in every way to 
 make laws for the estate of these masons. 
 There they sought by their wisdom how 
 they might govern it ; there they found out 
 fifteen articles, and there they made fifteen 
 points." 
 
 The next old document in which we find 
 this legend recited is that known as the 
 " Cooke MS.," whose date is placed at 1490. 
 The details are here much more full than 
 those contained in the Halliwell MS. The 
 passage referring to the legend is as follows : 
 
 " And after that was a worthy kynge in 
 Englond, that was callyd Athelstone, and 
 his yongest son lovyd well the sciens of 
 Gemetry, and he wyst well that hand craft 
 had the practyke of the sciens of Gemetry 
 so well as masons ; wherefore he drew him 
 to consell and lernyd [the] practyke of that 
 sciens to his speculatyf. For of specula- 
 tyfe he was a master, and he lovyd well 
 masonry and masons. And he bicome a 
 mason hyraselfe. And he gaf hem [gave 
 them] charges and names as it is now usyd 
 in Englond and in other countries. And 
 he ordeyned that they schulde have reson- 
 abull pay. And purchesed [obtained] a fre 
 patent of the kyng that they schulde make 
 a sembly when thei sawe resonably tyme a 
 [to] cum togedir to her [their] counsell of 
 the whiche charges, manors & semble as is 
 write and taught in the boke of our charges 
 wherefor I leve hit at this tyme." 
 
 Thus much is contained in the MS. from 
 lines 611 to 642. Subsequently, in lines 
 688-719, which appear to have been taken 
 from what is above called the " Boke of 
 Charges," the legend is repeated in these 
 words : 
 
 "In this manner was the forsayde art 
 begun ne in the lond of Egypt bi the for- 
 sayd maister Euglat [Euclid], & so hit went 
 fro lond to londe and fro kyngdome to 
 kyngdome. After that, many yeris, in the 
 tyme of Kyng Adhelstone, wiche was sum 
 tyme kynge of Englonde, bi his counsell 
 and other gret lordys of the lond bi comin 
 
 E common] assent for grete defaut y-fennde 
 found] among masons thei ordeyned a 
 certayne reule amongys hem [them]. On 
 [one] tyme of the yere or in iii yere, as 
 nede were to the kyng and gret lordys of 
 the londe and all the comente [commu- 
 nity], fro provynce to provynce and fro 
 countre to countre congregacions scholde 
 
 be made by maisters, of all maisters ma- 
 sons and felaus in the forsayd art. And so 
 at such congregacions they that be made 
 masters schold be examined of the articuls 
 after written, & be ransacked [thoroughly 
 examined] whether thei be abull and kun- 
 nyng [able and skilful] to the profyte of 
 the lordys hem to serve [to serve them], 
 and to the honor of the forsayd art." 
 
 Seventy years later, in 1560, the Lands- 
 downe MS. was written, and in it we find 
 the legend still further developed, and 
 Prince Edwin for the first time introduced 
 by name. That manuscript reads thus : 
 
 " Soone after the Decease of St. Albones, 
 there came Diverse Warrs into England 
 out of Diverse Nations, so that the good 
 rule of Masons was dishired [disturbed] 
 and put down until the tyme of King 
 Adilston. In his tyme there was a worthy 
 King in England, that brought this Land 
 into good rest, and he builded many great 
 workes and buildings, therefore he loved 
 well Masons, for he had a sone called Ed- 
 win, the which Loved Masons much more 
 than his Father did, and he was soe prac- 
 tized in Geometry, that he delighted much 
 to come and talke with Masons and to 
 learne of them the Craft. And after, for the 
 love he had to Masons and to the Craft, 
 he was made Mason at Windsor, and he 
 gott of the King, his Father, a Charter and 
 commission once every yeare to have As- 
 sembley, within the Realme where they 
 would within England, and to correct 
 within themselves Faults & Tresspasses 
 that were done as touching the Craft, and 
 he held them an Assembley, and there he 
 made Masons and gave them Charges, and 
 taught them the Manners and Comands 
 the same to be kept ever afterwards. And 
 tooke them the Charter and commission to 
 keep their Assembly, and Ordained that it 
 should be renewed from King to King, and 
 when the Assembly were gathered to- 
 geather he made a Cry, that all old Masons 
 or young, that had any Writeings or Vnder- 
 standing of the Charges and manners that 
 weere made before their Lands, where- 
 soever they were made Masons, that they 
 should shew them forth, there were found 
 some in French, some in Greek, some in 
 Hebrew, and some in English, and some in 
 other Languages, and when they were read 
 and over seen well the intent of them was 
 vnderstood to be all one, and then he 
 caused a Book to be made thereof how this 
 worthy Craft of Masonrie was first founded, 
 and he himselfe comanded, and also then 
 caused, that it should be read at any tyme 
 when it should happen any Mason or Ma- 
 sons to be made to give him or them their 
 Charges, and from that, until this Day, 
 Manners of Masons have been kept in this 
 
904 
 
 YORK 
 
 YORK 
 
 Manner and forme, as well as Men might 
 Governe it, and Furthermore at diverse 
 Assemblyes have been put and Ordained 
 diverse Charges by the best advice of Mas- 
 ters and Fellows." 
 
 AH the subsequent manuscripts contain 
 the legend substantially as it is in the 
 Landsdowne ; and. most of them appear to 
 be mere copies of it, or, most probably, of 
 some original one of which both they and 
 it are copies. 
 
 In 1723 Dr. Anderson published the first 
 edition of the Book of Constitutions, in 
 which the history of the fraternity of Free- 
 masons is, he says, "collected from their 
 general records and their faithful traditions 
 of many ages." He gives the legend taken, 
 as he says, from " a certain record of Free- 
 masons written in the reign of King Ed- 
 ward IV.," which manuscript, Preston as- 
 serts, " is said to have been in the possession 
 of the famous Elias Ashmole." As the old 
 manuscripts were generally inaccessible to 
 the Fraternity, (and, indeed, until recently 
 but few of them had been discovered,) it is 
 to the publication of the legend by Ander- 
 son, and subsequently by Preston, that we 
 are to attribute its general adoption by the 
 Craft for more than a century and a half. 
 The form of the legend, as given by Ander- 
 son in his first edition, varies slightly from 
 that in his second. In the former, he places 
 the date of the occurrence at 930; in his 
 second, at 926 : in the former, he styles the 
 congregation at York a General Lodge; in 
 his second, a Grand Lodge. Now, as the 
 modern and universally accepted form of 
 the legend agrees in both respects with the 
 latter statement, and not with the former, 
 it must be concluded that the second edi- 
 tion, and the subsequent ones by Entick 
 and Noorthouck, who only repeat Ander- 
 son, furnished the form of the legend as 
 now popular. 
 
 In the second edition of the Constitutions, 
 (p. 63,) published in 1738, Anderson gives 
 the legend in the following words : 
 
 " In all the Old Constitutions it is writ- 
 ten to this purpose, viz. : 
 
 " That though the antient records of the 
 Brotherhood in England were most of them 
 destroyd or lost in the war with the Danes, 
 who burnt the Monasteries where the Rec- 
 ords were kept; yet King Athelstan, (the 
 Grandson of King Alfred,) the first an- 
 nointed King of England, who translated 
 the Holy Bible into the Saxon language, 
 when he had brought the land into rest and 
 peace, built many great works, and encour- 
 aged many Masons from France and else- 
 where, whom he appointed overseers there- 
 of: they brought with them the Charges and 
 Regulations of the foreign Lodges, and pre- 
 vailed with the King to increase the wages. 
 
 "That Prince Edwin, the King's Brother, 
 
 being taught Geometry and Masonry, for 
 the love he had to the said Craft, and to the 
 honorable principles whereon it is grounded, 
 purchased a Free Charter of King Athel- 
 stan his Brother, for the Free Masons hav- 
 ing among themselves a Connection, or a 
 power and freedom to regulate themselves, 
 to amend what might happen amiss, and to 
 hold an yearly Communication in a General 
 Assembly. 
 
 "That accordingly Prince Edwin sum- 
 mon'd all the Free and Accepted Masons in 
 the Realm, to meet him in the Congrega- 
 tion at York, who came and form'd the 
 Grand Lodge under him as their Grand 
 Master, A. D. 926. 
 
 " That they brought with them many old 
 Writings and Records of the Craft, some in 
 Greek, some in Latin, some in French, and 
 other languages; and from the contents 
 thereof, they framed the Constitutions 
 of the English Lodges, and made a Law for 
 themselves, to preserve and observe the 
 same in all Time coming, etc., etc., etc." 
 
 Preston accepted the legend, and gave it 
 in his second edition (p. 198) in the fol- 
 lowing words: 
 
 " Edward died in 924, and was succeeded 
 by Athelstane his son, who appointed his 
 brother Edwin patron of the Masons. This 
 prince procured a Charter from Athelstane, 
 empowering them to meet annually in com- 
 munication at York. In this city, the first 
 Grand Lodge of England was formed in 
 926, at which Edwin presided as Grand 
 Master. Here many old writings were pro- 
 duced in Greek, Latin, and other languages, 
 from which it is said the Constitutions of the 
 English Lodge have been extracted." 
 
 Such is the " York legend," as it has 
 been accepted by the Craft, contained in 
 all the old manuscripts from at least the 
 end of the fourteenth century to the present 
 day; officially sanctioned by Anderson, 
 the historiographer of the Grand Lodge in 
 1723, and repeated by Preston, by Oliver, 
 and by almost all succeeding Masonic 
 writers. Only recently has any one thought 
 of doubting its authenticity; and now 
 the important question in Masonic litera- 
 ture is whether it is a myth or a history — 
 whether it is all or in any part fiction or 
 truth — and if so, what portion belongs to 
 the former and what to the latter category. 
 In coming to a conclusion on this subject, 
 the question necessarily divides itself into 
 three forms. 
 
 1. Was there an Assembly of Masons held 
 in or about the year 926, at York, under 
 the patronage or by the permission of King 
 Athelstan ? 
 
 There is nothing in the personal char- 
 acter or the political conduct of Athelstan 
 that forbids such a possibility or even prob- 
 ability. He was liberal in his ideas, like 
 
YORK 
 
 YORK 
 
 905 
 
 his grandfather the great Alfred ; he was a 
 
 f>romoter of civilization ; he patronized 
 earning, built many churches and monas- 
 teries, encouraged the translation of the 
 Scriptures, and gave charters to many oper- 
 ative companies. In his reign, the frith- 
 gildan" free gilds or sodalities, were incor- 
 porated by law. There is, therefore, noth- 
 ing improbable in supposing that he ex- 
 tended his protection to the Operative 
 Masons. The uninterrupted existence for 
 several centuries of a tradition that such an 
 Assembly was held, requires that those who 
 deny it should furnish some more satisfac- 
 tory reason for their opinion than has yet 
 been produced. " Incredulity," says Vol- 
 taire, is the foundation of history." But 
 it must be confessed that, while an excess 
 of credulity often mistakes fable for reality, 
 an obstinacy of incredulity as frequently 
 leads to the rejection of truth as fiction. 
 The Rev. Mr. Woodford, in an essay on The 
 Connection of York with the History of Free- 
 masonry in England, inserted in Hugh an 's 
 Unpublished Records of the Craft, has criti- 
 cally discussed this subject, and comes to 
 this conclusion. " I see no reason, there- 
 fore, to reject so old a tradition, that under 
 Athelstan the Operative Masons obtained 
 his patronage, and met in General Assem- 
 bly. To that verdict I subscribe. 
 
 2. Was Edwin, the brother of Athelstan, 
 the person who convoked that Assembly ? 
 This question has already been discussed in 
 the article Edwin, where the suggestion is 
 made that the Edwin alluded to in the 
 legend was not the son or brother of Athel- 
 stan, but Edwin, king of Northumbria. 
 Francis Drake, in his speech before the 
 Grand Lodge of York in 1726, was, I 
 think, the first who publicly advanced this 
 opinion; but he does so in a way that shows 
 that the view must have been generally ac- 
 cepted by his auditors, and not advanced by 
 him as something new. He says: "You 
 know we can boast that the first Grand 
 Lodge ever held in England was held in 
 this city, where Edwin, the first Christian 
 king of Northumbria, about the six hun- 
 dredth year after Christ, and who laid the 
 foundation of our Cathedral, sat as Graud 
 Master." 
 
 Edwin, who was born in 586, ascended 
 the throne in 617, and died in 633. He 
 was pre-eminent, among the Anglo-Saxon 
 kings who were his contemporaries, for 
 military genius and statesmanship. So in- 
 flexible was his administration of justice, 
 that it was said that in his reign a woman 
 or child might carry everywhere a purse 
 of gold without danger of robbery, — high 
 commendation in those days of almost un- 
 bridled rapine. The chief event of the 
 reign of Edwin was the introduction of 
 50 
 
 Christianity into the kingdom of Northum- 
 bria. Previous to his reign, the northern 
 metropolis of the Church had been placed 
 at York, and the king patronized Paulinus 
 the bishop, giving him a house and other 
 possessions in that city. The only objec- 
 tion to this theory is its date, which is three 
 hundred years before the reign of Athelstan 
 and the supposed meeting at York in 926. 
 3. Are the Constitutions which were 
 adopted by that General Assembly now ex- 
 tant? It is not to be doubted, that if a 
 General Assembly was held, it must have 
 adopted Constitutions or regulations for the 
 government of the Craft. Such would 
 mainly be the object of the meeting. But 
 there is no sufficient evidence that the Regu- 
 lations now called the 'York Constitutions," 
 or the "Gothic Constitutions," are those 
 that were adopted in 926. It is more prob- 
 able that the original document and all 
 genuine copies of it are lost, and that it 
 formed the type from which all the more 
 modern manuscript Constitutions have been 
 formed. There is the strongest internal 
 evidence that all the manuscripts, from the 
 Halliwell to the Papworth, had a common 
 original, from which they were copied with 
 more or less accuracy, or on which they 
 were framed with more or less modification. 
 And this original I suppose to be the Con- 
 stitutions which must have been adopted at 
 the General Assembly at York. 
 
 The theory, then, which I think may safely 
 be advanced on this subject, and which must 
 be maintained until there are better reasons 
 than we now have to reject it, is, that about 
 the year 926 a German Assembly of Masons 
 was held at York, under the patronage of 
 Edwin, brother of Athelstan, at which 
 Assembly a code of laws was adopted, which 
 became the basis on which all subsequent 
 Masonic Constitutions were framed. 
 
 York Manuscripts. Originally 
 there were six manuscripts of the Old Con- 
 stitutions bearing this title, because they 
 were deposited in the Archives of the now 
 extinct Grand Lodge of all England, whose 
 seat was at the city of Y ork. But the MS. 
 No. 3 is now missing, although it is men- 
 tioned in the inventory made at York in 
 1779. Nos. 2, 4, and 5 are now in pos- 
 session of the York Lodge. Recently Bro. 
 Hughan discovered Nos. 2 and 6 in the 
 Archives of the Grand Lodge of England, 
 at London. The dates of these manuscripts, 
 which do not correspond with the number 
 of their titles, are as follows : 
 
 No. 1 has the date of 1600. 
 
 " 2 " " 1704. 
 
 " 3 " " 1630. 
 
 " 4 " " 1693. 
 
 " 5 " " 1670. 
 
 " 6 " " 1680. 
 
906 
 
 YORK 
 
 YORK 
 
 Of these manuscripts, No. 1 was published 
 by Bro. Hughan in his Old Charges of 
 British Freemasons, and Nos. 2 and 4, by the 
 same author, in his History of Freemasonry 
 in York. The other manuscripts are as yet 
 unpublished. Bro. Hughan deems No. 4 
 of some importance because it contains the 
 following sentence : " The one of the elders 
 takeing the Booke, and that hee or shee that 
 is to be made mason shall lay their hands 
 thereon, and the charge shall bee given." 
 This, he thinks, affords some presumption 
 that women were admitted as members of 
 the old Masonic gilds, although he admits 
 that we possess no other evidence confirma- 
 tory of this theory. The truth is, that the 
 sentence was a translation of the same 
 clause written in other old Constitutions 
 in Latin. In the York MS. No. 1, the 
 sentence is thus : " Tunc unus ex senioribus 
 teneat librum et Me vel Mi" etc., i. e., " he 
 or they." The writer of No. 4 copied, most 
 probably, from No. 1, and his translation 
 of " hee or shee " from " Me vel Mi," instead 
 of " he or they," was either the result of ig- 
 norance in mistaking Mi, they, for Ma, she, 
 or of carelessness in writing shee for they. 
 It is evident that the charges thus to be 
 sworn to, and which immediately follow, 
 were of such a nature as made most of them 
 physically impossible for women to perform ; 
 nor are females alluded to in any other of 
 the manuscripts. All Masons there are 
 " Fellows," and are so to be addressed. 
 
 There are two other York Manuscripts of 
 the Operative Masons, which have been 
 published in the Fabric Rolls of York Min- 
 ster, an invaluable work, edited by the Rev. 
 James Raine, and issued under the patron- 
 age and at the expense of the Surtees Society. 
 
 York Rite. This is the oldest of all 
 the Rites, and consisted originally of only 
 three degrees: 1. Entered Apprentice; 2. 
 Fellow Craft ; 3. Master Mason. The last 
 included a part which contained the True 
 Word, but which was disrupted from it 
 by Dunckerley in the latter part of the 
 last century, and has never been restored. 
 The Rite in its purity does not now exist 
 anywhere. The nearest approach to it is 
 the St. John's Masonry of Scotland, but 
 the Master's degree of the Grand Lodge of 
 Scotland is not the Master's degree of the 
 York Rite. When Dunckerley dismembered 
 the third degree, he destroyed the identity 
 of the Rite. In 1813, it was apparently 
 recognized by the United Grand Lodge of 
 England, when it defined " pure Ancient 
 Masonry to consist of three degrees, and no 
 more : viz., those of the Entered Appren- 
 tice, the Fellow Craft, and the Master Ma- 
 son, including the Supreme Order of the 
 Holy Royal Arch." Had the Grand Lodge 
 
 abolished the Royal Arch degree, which was 
 then practised as an independent Order in 
 England, and reincorporated its secrets in 
 the degree of Master Mason, the York Rite 
 would have been revived. But by recogniz- 
 ing the Royal Arch as a separate degree, 
 and retaining the Master's degree in its 
 mutilated form, they repudiated the Rite. 
 In the United States it has been the almost 
 universal usage to call the Masonry there 
 practised the York Rite. But it has no 
 better claim to this designation than it has 
 to be called the Ancient and Accepted Rite, 
 or the French Rite, or the Rite of Schroder. 
 It has no pretensions to the York Rite. Of 
 its first three degrees, the Master's is the 
 mutilated one which took the Masonry of 
 England out of the York Rite, and it has 
 added to these three degrees six others 
 which were never known to the Ancient 
 York Rite, or that which was practised in 
 England, in the earlier half of the eighteenth 
 century, by the legitimate Grand Lodge. 
 In all my writings for years past, I have 
 ventured to distinguish the Masonry prac- 
 tised in the United States, consisting of 
 nine degrees, as the " American Rite," a 
 title to which it is clearly and justly enti- 
 tled, as the system is peculiar to America, 
 and is practised in no other country. 
 
 Bro. Hughan, speaking of the York Rite, 
 ( Unpubl. Rec, p. 148,) says "there is no such 
 Rite, and what it was no one now knows." 
 I think that this declaration is too sweep- 
 ing in its language. He is correct in say- 
 ing that there is at this time no such Rite. 
 I have just described its decadence ; but he 
 is wrong in asserting that we are now igno- 
 rant of its character. In using the title, 
 there is no reference to the Grand Lodge of 
 all England, which met for some years dur- 
 ing the last century, but rather to the York 
 legend, and to the hypothesis that York 
 was the cradle of English Masonry. The 
 York Rite was that Rite which was most 
 probably organized or modified at the re- 
 vival in 1717, and practised for fifty years 
 by the Constitutional Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land. It consisted of only the three sym- 
 bolic degrees, the last one, or the Master's, 
 containing within itself the secrets now 
 transferred to the Royal Arch. This Rite 
 was carried in its purity to France in 1724, 
 and into America at a later period. About 
 the middle of the eighteenth century the 
 continental Masons, and about the end of 
 it the Americans, began to superimpose 
 upon it those high degrees which, with the 
 necessary mutilation of the third, have given 
 rise to numerous other Rites. But the An- 
 cient York Rite, though no longer culti- 
 vated, must remain on the records of history 
 as the oldest and purest of all the Rites. 
 
ZABUD 
 
 ZEDEKIAH 
 
 907 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zabud. A historical personage at the 
 court of King Solomon, whose name ap- 
 pears in several of the high degrees. In 
 that of Select Master in the American Rite, 
 it has been corrupted into Izabud. He is 
 mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 5, where he is 
 described in the authorized version as 
 being "principal officer and the king's 
 friend." The original is Zabud ben Nathan 
 cohen regneh hahmelek, which is literally 
 " Zabud, son of Nathan, a priest, the friend 
 of the king." Adam Clarke says he was 
 "the king's chief favorite, his confidant." 
 Smith {Diet. Bib.) says: "This position, 
 if it were an official one, was evidently dis- 
 tinct from that of counsellor, occupied by 
 Ahithophel under David, and had more of 
 the character of private friendship about 
 it." Kitto ( Gyclop&d. Bib. Lit.) says of Za- 
 bud and of his brother Azariah, that their 
 advancement in the household of King 
 Solomon " may doubtless be ascribed not 
 only to the young king's respect for the 
 venerable prophet (their father), who had 
 been his instructor, but to the friendship 
 he had contracted with his sons during the 
 course of education. The office, or rather 
 honor, of ' friend of the king,' we find in 
 all the despotic governments of the East. 
 It gives high power, without the public re- 
 sponsibility which the holding of a regular 
 office in the state necessarily imposes. It 
 implies the possession of the utmost confi- 
 dence of, and familiar intercourse with, the 
 monarch, to whose person ' the friend ' at 
 all times has access, and whose influence is 
 therefore often far greater, even in matters 
 of state, than that of the recognized min- 
 isters of government." 
 
 This has been fully carried out in the le- 
 gend of the Select Master's degree. 
 
 Zabulon. The Greek form of Zebu- 
 lun, the tenth son of Jacob. Delaunay 
 {Thuilleur, p. 79,) says that some ritualists 
 suppose that it is the true form of the word 
 of which Jabulum is a corruption. This is 
 incorrect. Jabulum is a corrupt form of 
 Giblim. Zabulon has no connection with 
 the high degrees, except that in the Royal 
 Arch he represents one of the stones in the 
 Pectoral. 
 
 Zadok. A personage in some of the 
 Ineffable degrees of the Scottish Rite. In 
 Scripture he is recorded as having been one 
 of the two chief priests in the time of 
 David, Abiathar being the other. He sub- 
 sequently, by order of David, anointed Solo- 
 mon to be king, by whom he was rewarded 
 with the post of high priest. Josephus 
 {Ant. x. 8, § 6,) says that "Sadoc, the high 
 priest, was the first high priest of the Tem- 
 
 ple which Solomon built." Yet it has 
 been supposed by some authors, in conse- 
 quence of his name not being mentioned in 
 tne detailed account of the dedication, that 
 he had died before the completion of the 
 Temple. 
 
 Zarathustra. The name, in the Zend 
 language, of that great reformer in religion 
 more commonly known to Europeans as 
 Zoroaster, which see. 
 
 Zarthan. The Zarthan of 2 Chroni- 
 cles iv. 17 appears to be the same place as 
 the Zeredatha of 1 Kings vii. 46. In the 
 Masonic ritual, the latter word is always 
 used. See Zeredatha. 
 
 Zeal. Ever since the revival in 1717, 
 (for it is found in the earliest lectures,) it 
 was taught that Apprentices served their 
 Masters with "freedom, fervency, and 
 zeal ; " and the symbols of the first two of 
 these virtues were chalk and charcoal. In 
 the oldest rituals, earthen pan (which see) 
 was designated as the symbol of zeal ; but 
 this was changed by Preston to clay, and so 
 it still remains. See Fervency and Freedom. 
 
 The instruction to the Operative Mason 
 to serve his Master with freedom, fervency, 
 and zeal' — to work for his interests wil- 
 lingly, ardently, and zealously — is easily 
 understood. In its application to Specula- 
 tive Masonry, for the Master of the Work 
 we substitute the Grand Architect of the 
 Universe, and then our zeal, like our 
 freedom and our fervency, is directed to a 
 higher end. The zeal of a Speculative 
 Mason is shown by advancing the morality, 
 and by promoting the happiness of his 
 fellow-creatures. 
 
 Zedekiah. A personage in some of 
 the high degrees, whose melancholy fate is 
 described in the Second Book of Kings and 
 in the prophecies of Jeremiah. He was 
 the twentieth and last king of Judah. 
 When Nebuchadnezzar had in his second 
 siege of Jerusalem deposed Jehoiachin, 
 whom he carried as a captive to Babylon, 
 he placed Zedekiah on the throne in hia 
 stead. By this act Zedekiah became trib- 
 utary to the king of the Chaldees, who ex- 
 acted from him a solemn oath of fidelity 
 and obedience. This oath he observed no 
 longer than till an opportunity occurred of 
 violating it. In the language of the author 
 of the Books of Chronicles, " he rebelled 
 against King Nebuchadnezzar, who had 
 made him swear by God." 
 
 This course soon brought down upon him 
 the vengeance of the offended monarch, 
 who invaded the land of Judah with an 
 immense army. Remaining himself at 
 Riblah, a town on the northern border of 
 
908 
 
 ZELATOR 
 
 ZENNAAR 
 
 Palestine, he sent the army under his gen- 
 eral, Nebuzaradan, to Jerusalem, which 
 was invested by the Babylonian forces. 
 After a siege of about one year, during 
 wbich the inhabitants endured many hard- 
 ships, the city was taken by an assault, the 
 Chaldeans entering it through breaches in 
 the northern wall. 
 
 It is very natural to suppose, that when 
 the enemy were most pressing in their at- 
 tack upon the devoted city ; when the 
 breach which was to give them entrance 
 had been effected; and when, perhaps, the 
 streets most distant from the Temple were 
 already filled with Chaldean soldiery, a 
 council of his princes and nobles should 
 have been held by Zedekiah in the Tem- 
 ple, to which they had fled for refuge, and 
 that he should ask their advice as to the 
 most feasible method of escape from the 
 impending danger. History, it is true, 
 gives no account of any such assembly ; but 
 the written record of these important events 
 which is now extant is very brief, and, as 
 there is every reason to admit the proba- 
 bility of the occurrence, there does not ap- 
 pear to be any historical objection to the 
 introduction of Zedekiah into the legend 
 of the Super Excellent Master's degree, as 
 having been present and holding a council 
 at the time of the siege. By the advice of 
 this council, Zedekiah attempted to make 
 his escape across the Jordan. But he and 
 his attendants were, says Jeremiah, pur- 
 sued by the Chaldean army, and overtaken 
 in the plains of Jericho, and carried before 
 Nebuchadnezzar. His sons and his nobles 
 were slain, and, his eyes being put out, he 
 was bound in chains and carried captive to 
 Babylon, where at a later period he died. 
 
 Zelator. The first degree of the Ger- 
 man Rose Croix. The title expresses the 
 spirit of emulation which should charac- 
 terize the neophyte. 
 
 Zendavesta. The scriptures of the 
 Zoroastrian religion containing the doc- 
 trines of Zoroaster. Avesta means the sa- 
 cred text, and Zend the commentary. The 
 work as we now have it is supposed to have 
 been collected by learned priests of the Sas- 
 sanian period, who translated it into the 
 Pehlevi, or vernacular language of Persia. 
 The greater part of the work was lost dur- 
 ing the persecutions by the Mohammedan 
 conquerors of Persia. One only of the 
 books has been preserved, the Vendidad, 
 comprising twenty -two chapters. The 
 Yasna and the Vispered together consti- 
 tute the collection of fragments which are 
 termed Vendidad Sade\ There is another 
 fragmentary collection called Yesht Sade. 
 And these constitute all that remain of the 
 original text. So that, however compre- 
 hensive the Zendavesta must have been in 
 
 its original form, the work as it now exists 
 makes but a comparatively small book. 
 
 The ancients, to whom it was familiar, as 
 well as the modern Parsees, attribute its 
 authorship to Zoroaster. But Dr. Haug, 
 rightly conceiving that it was not in the 
 power of any one man to have composed so 
 vast a work as it must have been in its 
 original extent, supposes that it was the 
 joint production of the original Zarathustra 
 Sitama and his successors, the high priests 
 of the religion, who assumed the same 
 name. 
 
 The Zendavesta is the scripture of the 
 modern Parsee ; and hence for the Parsee 
 Mason, of whom there are not a few, it con- 
 stitutes the Book of the Law, or Trestle- 
 Board. Unfortunately, however, to the Par- 
 see it is a sealed book, for, being written in 
 the old Zend language, which is now extinct, 
 its contents cannot be understood. But the 
 Parsees recognize the Zendavesta as of Di- 
 vine authority, and say in the catechism, 
 or compendium of doctrines in use among 
 them: "We consider these books as heav- 
 enly books, because God sent the tidings 
 of these books to us through the holy 
 prophet Zurthost." 
 
 Zenith. That point in the heavens 
 which is vertical to the spectator, and from 
 which a perpendicular line passing through 
 him and extended would reach the centre 
 of the earth. All the old documents of the 
 Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite are 
 dated " under the Celestial Canopy of the 
 Zenith which answers to ;" the lati- 
 tude of the place whence the document is 
 issued being then given. The latitude 
 alone is expressed because it indicates the 
 place of the sun's meridian height. The lon- 
 gitude is always omitted, because every place 
 whence such a document is issued is called 
 the Grand East, the one spot where the sun 
 rises. The theory implied is, that although 
 the south of the Lodge may vary, its chief 
 point must always be in the east, the point 
 of sunrising, where longitude begins. 
 
 Zenuaar. The sacred cord used in the 
 Hindustanee initiation, and which writers 
 on ritualism have compared to the Masonic 
 apron. Between eight and fifteen years of 
 age, every Hindu boy is imperatively re- 
 quired to receive the investiture of the zen- 
 naar. The investiture is accompanied by 
 many solemn ceremonies of prayer and sac- 
 rifice. After the investiture, the boy is 
 said to have received his second birth, and 
 from that time a Hindu is called by a name 
 which signifies ' twice born." 
 
 Coleman [Mythology of the Hindus, p. 
 155,) thus describes the zennaar: 
 
 " The sacred thread must be made by a 
 Brahman. It consists of three strings, each 
 ninety-six hands (forty-eight yards), which 
 
ZERBAL 
 
 ZERUBBABEL 
 
 909 
 
 are twisted together : it is then folded into 
 three, and again twisted ; these are a second 
 time folded into the same number, and tied 
 at each end in knots. It is worn over the 
 left shoulder (next the skin, extending half- 
 way down the right thigh) by the Brahmans, 
 Retries, and Vaisya castes. The first are 
 usually invested with it at eight years of 
 age, the second at eleven, and the Vaisya 
 at twelve. The period may, from especial 
 causes, be deferred ; but it is indispensable 
 that it should be received, or the parties 
 omitting it become outcasts." 
 
 Zerbal. The name of King Solomon's 
 Captain of the Guards, in the degree of 
 Intimate Secretary. No such person is 
 mentioned in Scripture, and it is therefore 
 an invention of the ritualist who fabricated 
 the degree. If derived from Hebrew, its 
 roots will be found in % zer y an enemy, 
 and SjJS, baal, and it would signify "an 
 enemy of Baal." 
 
 Zeredatba. The name of the place 
 between which and Succoth are the clay 
 grounds where Hiram Abif is said to have 
 cast the brazen utensils for the use of the 
 Temple. See Clay Ground. 
 
 Zerubbabel. In writing the life of 
 Zerubbabel in a Masonic point of view, it 
 is incumbent that reference should be made 
 to the legends as well as to the more strictly 
 historical details of his eventful career. 
 With the traditions of the Royal Arch, and 
 some other of the high degrees, Zerubbabel 
 is not less intimately connected than is 
 Solomon with those of Symbolic or Ancient 
 Craft Masonry. To understand those tra- 
 ditions properly, they must be placed in 
 their appropriate place in the life of him 
 who plays so important a part in them. 
 Some of these legends have the concurrent 
 support of Scripture, some are related by 
 Josephus, and some appear to have no his- 
 torical foundation. Without, therefore, 
 vouching for their authenticity, they must 
 be recounted, to make the Masonic life of 
 the builder of the second Temple complete. 
 
 Zerubbabel, who, in the book of Ezra, is 
 called " Sheshbazzar, the prince of Judah," 
 was the grandson of that King Jehoiachin, 
 or Jeconiah, who had been deposed by 
 Nebuchadnezzar and carried as a captive to 
 Babylon. In him, therefore, was vested the 
 regal authority, and on him, as such, the 
 command of the returning captives was 
 bestowed by Cyrus, who on that occasion, 
 according to a Masonic tradition, presented 
 to him the sword which Nebuchadnezzar 
 had received from his grandfather, Je- 
 hoiachin. 
 
 As soon as the decree of the Persian 
 monarch had been promulgated to his 
 Jewish subjects, the tribes of Judah and 
 Benjamin, with the priests and Levites, 
 
 assembled at Babylon, and prepared to re- 
 turn to Jerusalem, for the purpose of re- 
 building the Temple. Some few from the 
 other tribes, whose love of their country 
 and its ancient worship had not been ob- 
 literated by the luxuries of the Babylonian 
 court, united with the followers of Zerub- 
 babel, and accompanied him to Jerusalem. 
 The greater number, however, remained; 
 and even of the priests, who were divided 
 into twenty-four courses, only four courses 
 returned, who, however, divided themselves, 
 each class into six, so as again to make up 
 the old number. Cyrus also restored to the 
 Jews the greater part of the sacred vessels 
 of the Temple which had been carried 
 away by Nebuchadnezzar, and five thousand 
 and four hundred were received by Zerub- 
 babel, the remainder being brought back, 
 many years after, by Ezra. Only forty-two 
 thousand three hundred and sixty Israelites, 
 exclusive of servants and slaves, accom- 
 panied Zerubbabel, out of whom he se- 
 lected seven thousand of the most valiant, 
 whom he placed as an advanced guard at 
 the head of the people. Their progress 
 homewards was not altogether unattended 
 with danger ; for tradition informs us that 
 at the river Euphrates they were opposed 
 by the Assyrians, who, incited by the temp- 
 tation of the vast amount of golden vessels 
 which they were carrying, drew up in hos- 
 tile array, and, notwithstanding the remon- 
 strances of the Jews, and the edict of Cyrus, 
 disputed their passage. Zerubbabel, how- 
 ever, repulsed the enemy with such ardor 
 as to ensure a signal victory, most of the 
 Assyrians having been slain in the battle, or 
 drowned in their attempt to cross the river 
 in their retreat. The rest of the journey 
 was uninterrupted, and, after a march of 
 four months, Zerubbabel arrived at Jerusa- 
 lem, with his weary followers, at seven 
 o'clock in the morning of the 22d of June, 
 five hundred and thirty-five years before 
 Christ. 
 
 During their captivity, the Jews had con- 
 tinued, without intermission, to practise the 
 rights of Freemasonry, and had established 
 at various places regular Lodges in Chaldea. 
 Especially, according to the Rabbinical tra- 
 ditions, had they instituted their mystic fra- 
 ternity at Naharda, on the Euphrates; and, 
 according to the same authority, we are in- 
 formed that Zerubbabel carried with him to 
 Jerusalem all the secret knowledge which 
 was the property of that Institution, and es- 
 tablished a similar fraternity in Judea. This 
 coincides with, and gives additional strength 
 to, the traditions of the Royal Arch degree. 
 
 As soon as the pious pilgrims had arrived 
 at Jerusalem, and taken a needful rest of 
 seven days, a tabernacle for the tempora- 
 ry purposes of divine worship was erected 
 
910 
 
 ZERUBBABEL 
 
 ZERUBBABEL 
 
 near the ruins of the ancient Temple, and 
 a Council was called, in which Zerubbabel 
 presided as King, Jeshua as High Priest, 
 and Haggai as Scribe, or principal officer 
 of State. It was there determined to com- 
 mence the building of the second Temple 
 upon the same holy spot which had been 
 occupied by the first, and the people 
 liberally contributed sixty-one thousand 
 drachms of gold, and five thousand minas 
 of silver, or nearly a quarter of a million of 
 dollars, towards defraying the expenses ; a 
 sum which sinks into utter insignificance, 
 when compared with the immense amount 
 appropriated by David and Solomon to the 
 construction of their Temple. 
 
 The site having been thus determined 
 upon, it was found necessary to begin by 
 removing the rubbish of the old Temple, 
 which still encumbered the earth, and pre- 
 vented the workmen from making the nec- 
 essary arrangements for laying the founda- 
 tion. It was during this operation that an 
 important discovery was made by three so- 
 journers, who had not originally accom- 
 panied Zerubbabel, but who, sojourning 
 some time longer at Babylon, followed their 
 countrymen at a later period, and had ar- 
 rived at Jerusalem just in time to assist 
 in the removal of the rubbish. These three 
 sojourners, whose fortune it was to discover 
 that stone of foundation, so intimately con- 
 nected with the history of Freemasonry, 
 and to which we have before had repeated 
 occasion to allude, are supposed by a Ma- 
 sonic tradition to have been Esdras, Zacha- 
 riah, and Nehemiah, the three holy men, 
 who, for refusing to worship the golden 
 image, had been thrown by Nebuchadnez- 
 zar into a fiery furnace, from which they 
 emerged uninjured. In the Chaldee lan- 
 guage, they were known by the names of 
 Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego. It was 
 in penetrating into some of the subterra- 
 nean vaults, that the Masonic stone of 
 foundation, with other important myste- 
 ries connected with it, were discovered by 
 the three fortunate sojourners, and presented 
 by them to Zerubbabel and his companions 
 Jeshua and Haggai, whose traditionary 
 knowledge of Masonry, which they had 
 received in a direct line from the builders 
 of the first Temple, enabled them at once to 
 appreciate the great importance of these 
 treasures. 
 
 As soon as that wonderful discovery was 
 made, on which depends not only the ex- 
 istence of the Royal Arch degree, but the 
 most important mystery of Freemasonry, 
 the Jews proceeded on a certain day, be- 
 fore the rising of the sun, to lay the founda- 
 tion-stone of the second Temple; and for 
 that purpose, we are told, Zerubbabel se- 
 lected that stone of foundation which had 
 
 been discovered by the three sojourners. 
 On this occasion, we learn that the young 
 rejoiced with shouts and acclamations, but 
 that the ancient people disturbed them 
 with their groans and lamentations, when 
 they reflected on the superb magnificence 
 of the first Temple, and compared it with 
 the expected inferiority of the present 
 structure. As in the building of the first 
 Temple, so in this, the Tyrians and Sido- 
 nians were engaged to furnish the timber 
 from the forests of Lebanon, and to conduct 
 it in the same manner on floats by sea to 
 Joppa. 
 
 Scarcely had the workmen well com- 
 menced their labors, when they were inter- 
 rupted by the Samaritans, who made ap- 
 plication to be permitted to unite with 
 them in the construction of the Temple. 
 But the Jews, who looked upon them as 
 idolaters, refused to accept of their ser- 
 vices. The Samaritans in consequence be- 
 came their bitter enemies, and so prevailed, 
 by misrepresentations, with the ministers 
 of Cyrus, as to cause them to put such ob- 
 structions in the way of the construction of 
 the edifice as seriously to impede its prog- 
 ress for several years. With such diffi- 
 culty and danger were the works conducted 
 during this period, that the workmen were 
 compelled to labor with the trowel in one 
 hand and the sword in the other. To com- 
 memorate these worthy craftsmen, who were 
 thus ready, either to fight or to labor in the 
 cause of God, as circumstances might re^ 
 quire, the sword and trowel crosswise, or, 
 as the heralds would say, en sallire, have 
 been placed upon the Royal Arch Tracing- 
 Board or Carpet of our English brethren. 
 In the American ritual this expressive sym- 
 bol of valor and piety has been unfortu- 
 nately omitted. 
 
 In the seventh year after the restoration 
 of the Jews, Cyrus, their friend and bene- 
 factor died, and his son Cambyses, in Scrip- 
 ture called Ahasuerus, ascended the throne. 
 The Samaritans and the other enemies of 
 the Jews, now becoming bolder in their 
 designs, succeeded in obtaining from Cam- 
 byses a peremptory order for the stoppage 
 of all the works at Jerusalem, and the 
 Temple consequently remained in an un- 
 finished state until the second year of 
 the reign of Darius, the successor of Cam- 
 byses. 
 
 Darius appears to have had, like Cyrus, 
 a great friendship for the Israelites, and 
 especially for Zerubbabel, with whom he 
 was well acquainted in his youth. We are 
 informed, as an evidence of this, that, when 
 a private man, he made a vow, that if he 
 should ever ascend the throne, he would 
 restore all the vessels of the Temple that 
 had been retained by Cyrus. Zerubbabel, 
 
ZERUBBABEL 
 
 ZINNENDORF 
 
 911 
 
 being well aware of the friendly disposition 
 of the king, determined, immediately after 
 his accession to power, to make a personal 
 application to him for his assistance and 
 protection in rebuilding the Temple. Ac- 
 cordingly he departed from Jerusalem, and 
 after a journey full of peril, in which he 
 was continually attacked by parties of 
 his enemies, he was arrested as a spy by 
 the Persian guards in the vicinity of 
 Babylon, and carried in chains before 
 Darius, who however immediately recog- 
 nized him as the friend and companion of 
 his youth, and ordering him instantly to be 
 released from his bonds, invited him to be 
 present at a magnificent feast which he was 
 about to give to the Court. It is said that 
 on this occasion, Zerubbabel, having ex- 
 plained to Darius the occasion of his visit, 
 implored the interposition of his authority 
 for the protection of the Israelites engaged 
 in the restoration of the Temple. The 
 king promised to grant all his requests, 
 provided he would reveal to him the secrets 
 of Freemasonry. But this the faithful 
 prince at once refused to do. He declined 
 the favor of the monarch at the price of 
 his infamy, and expressed his willingness 
 rather to meet death or exile, than to vio- 
 late his sacred obligations as a Mason. 
 This firmness and fidelity only raised his 
 character still higher in the estimation of 
 Darius, who seems, indeed, to have been 
 endowed with many noble qualities both 
 of heart and mind. 
 
 It was on this occasion, at the feast given 
 by King Darius, that, agreeably to the 
 custom of Eastern monarchs, he proposed 
 to his courtiers the question whether the 
 power of wine, women, or the king, was the 
 strongest. Answers were made by different 
 persons, assigning to each of these the pre- 
 cedency in power; but when Zerubbabel 
 was called on to assert his opinion, he de- 
 clared that though the power of wine and 
 of the king might be great, that of women 
 was still greater, but that above all things 
 truth bore the victory. Josephus says that 
 the sentiments of Zerubbabel having been 
 deemed to contain the most wisdom, the 
 king commanded him to ask something 
 over and above what he had promised as 
 the prize of the victor in the philosophic 
 discussion. Zerubbabel then called upon 
 the monarch to fulfil the vow that he had 
 made in his youth, to rebuild the Temple, 
 and restore the vessels that had been taken 
 away by Nebuchadnezzar. The king forth- 
 with granted his request, promised him the 
 most ample protection in the future prose- 
 cution of the works, and sent him home to 
 Jerusalem laden with honors, and under 
 the conduct of an escort. 
 
 Henceforth, although from time to time 
 
 annoyed by their adversaries, the builders 
 met with no serious obstruction, and finally, 
 twenty years after its commencement, in 
 the sixth year of the reign of Darius, and 
 on the third day of the month Adar, 515 
 years B. c, the Temple was completed, the 
 cope-stone celebrated, and the house sol- 
 emnly dedicated to Jehovah with the great- 
 est joy. 
 
 After this we hear nothing further of 
 Zerubabbel, nor is the time or manner of 
 his death either recorded in Scripture or 
 preserved by Masonic tradition. We have, 
 however, reason for believing that he lived 
 to a good old age, since we find no suc- 
 cessor of him mentioned until Artaxerxes 
 appointed Ezra as the Governor of Judea, 
 fifty-seven years after the completion of 
 the Temple. 
 
 Zinnendorf, Johann Wilhelm 
 Ton. Few men made more noise in Ger- 
 man Masonry, or had warmer friends or 
 more bitter enemies, than Johann Wilhelm 
 Ellenberger, who, in consequence of his 
 adoption by his mother's brother, took sub- 
 sequently the title of Von Zinnendorf, by 
 which he is universally known. He was 
 born at Halle, August 10, 1731. He was 
 initiated into Masonry at the place of his 
 birth. He afterwards removed to Berlin, 
 where he received the appointment of 
 General Staff Surgeon, and chief of the 
 medical corps of the army. There he 
 joined the Lodge of the Three Globes, 
 and became an ardent disciple of the Rite 
 of Strict Observance, in which he took the 
 Order name of Eques a lapide nigro. He 
 was elected Master of the Scottish Lodge. 
 He had the absolute control of the funds 
 of the Order, but refusing to render any 
 account of the disposition which he had 
 made of them, an investigation was com- 
 menced. Upon this, Zinnendorf withdrew 
 from the Rite, and sentence of excommuni- 
 cation was immediately afterwards pro- 
 nounced against him. 
 
 Zinnendorf in return declared the Strict 
 Observance an imposture, and denounced 
 its theory of the Templar origin of Ma- 
 sonry as false. 
 
 In the meantime, he sent his friend Hans 
 Carl Baumann to Stockholm, that he might 
 receive manuscripts of the degrees of the 
 Swedish system which had been promised 
 him by Carl Friederich von Eckleff, Scottish 
 Grand Master of the Chapter in that city. 
 Baumann returned with the manuscripts, 
 which, however, it appears from a subse- 
 quent declaration made by the Duke of 
 Sudermania, were very imperfect. 
 
 But, imperfect as they were, out of them 
 Zinnendorf constructed a new Rite in op- 
 position to the Strict Observance. Pos- 
 sessed of great talent and energy, and, his 
 
912 
 
 ZINNENDORF 
 
 ZOROASTER 
 
 enemies said, of but little scrupulousness as 
 to means, he succeeded in attracting to him 
 many friends and followers. In 1766, he 
 established at Potsdam the Lodge " Min- 
 erval," and in 1767, at Berlin, the Lodge 
 of the "Three Golden Keys." Masons 
 were found to give him countenance and 
 assistance in other places, so that in June 
 24, 1770, twelve Lodges of his system were 
 enabled to unite in the formation of a body 
 which they called the Grand Lodge of all 
 the Freemasons of Germany. 
 
 The success of this body, under the ad- 
 verse circumstances by which it was sur- 
 rounded, can only be attributed to the 
 ability and energy of its founder, as well 
 as to the freedom with which he made use 
 of every means for its advancement with- 
 out any reference to their want of firmness. 
 Having induced the Prince of Hesse- 
 Darmstadt to accept the Grand Mastership, 
 he succeeded, through his influence, in ob- 
 taining the recognition and alliance of the 
 Grand Lodge of England in 1773; but that 
 body seven years after withdrew from the 
 connection. In 1774, Zinnendorf secured 
 the protectorship of the king of Prussia for 
 his Grand Lodge. Thus patronized, the 
 Grand Lodge of Germany rapidly ex- 
 tended its influence and increased in 
 growth, so that in 1778 it had thirty-four 
 Lodges under its immediatejurisdiction, and 
 provincial Lodges were established in Aus- 
 tria, Silesia, Pomerania, Lower Saxony, 
 and Russia. Findel explains this great ac- 
 cession of strength by supposing that it 
 could only have been the consequence of 
 the ardent desire of the German Masons to 
 obtain the promised revelations of the high 
 degrees of the system of Zinnendorf. 
 
 In 1774, Zinnendorf had been elected 
 Grand Master, which office he held until 
 his death. 
 
 But he had his difficulties to encounter. 
 In the Lodge " Royal York," at Berlin, he 
 found an active and powerful antagonist. 
 The Duke of Sudermania, Grand Master of 
 Sweden, in an official document issued in 
 1777, declared that the Warrant which had 
 been granted by Eckleffto Zinnendorf, and 
 on the strength of which he had founded his 
 Grand Lodge, was spurious and unauthor- 
 ized; the Grand Lodge of Sweden pro- 
 nounced him to be a fomenter of disturb- 
 ances and an insolent calumniator of the 
 Swedish Grand Master, and in 1780 the 
 Grand Lodge of England withdrew from 
 its alliance. 
 
 But Zinnendorf was undismayed. Hav- 
 ing quit the service of the government in 
 1779, he made a journey to Sweden in an 
 unsuccessful effort to secure all the docu- 
 ments connected with the Swedish system. 
 Returning hence, he continued to preside 
 
 over the Grand Lodge with unabated zeal 
 and undiminished vigor until his death, 
 which took place June 6, 1782. 
 
 Von Zinnendorf undoubtedly committed 
 many errors, but we cannot withhold from 
 him the praise of having earnestly sought 
 to introduce into German Masonry a' better 
 system than the one which was prevail- 
 ing in the last quarter of the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 Zinnendorf, Rite of. The Rite 
 invented by Count Von Zinnendorf, and 
 fabricated out of imperfect copies of the 
 Swedish system, with additions from the 
 Illuminism of Avignon and the reveries of 
 Swedenborg. It consisted of seven degrees, 
 divided into three sections as follows: 
 
 I. Blue Masonry. 
 
 1. Apprentice. 
 
 2. Fellow Craft. 
 
 3. Master. 
 IL Bed Masonry. 
 
 4. Scottish Apprentice and Fellow 
 
 Craft. 
 
 5. Scottish Master. 
 III. Capitular Masonry. 
 
 6. Favorite of St. John. 
 
 7. Chapter of the Elect. 
 
 It was practised by the Grand Lodge of 
 Germany, which had been established by 
 Zinnendorf, and by the Lodges of its obe- 
 dience. 
 
 Zion. Mount Zion was the south-west- 
 ern of the three hills which constituted the 
 high table-land on which Jerusalem was 
 built. It was the royal residence, and 
 hence it is often called " the city of David." 
 The name is sometimes used as synonymous 
 with Jerusalem. 
 
 Zizon. This is said, in one of the In- 
 effable degrees of the Scottish Rite, to be 
 the name of the balustrade before the Sanc- 
 tum Sanctorum. There is no such word in 
 Hebrew, but it may be a corruption of the 
 Talmudic J^pf, ziza, which Buxtorf {Lex. 
 lalm.) defines as " a beam, a little beam, a 
 small rafter." 
 
 Zodiac, Masonic. {Zodiaque Macon- 
 nique.) A series of twelve degrees, named 
 after the twelve signs of the Zodiac, the 
 first being the Ram. It was in the series 
 of the Metropolitan Chapter of France, and 
 in the manuscript collection of Peuvret. 
 
 Zoroaster. More correctly, Zarathus- 
 tra. He was the legislator and prophet of 
 the ancient Bactrians, out of whose doc- 
 trines the modern religion of the Parsees 
 has been developed. As to the age in 
 which Zoroaster flourished, there have been 
 the greatest discrepancies among the an- 
 cient authorities. The earliest of the Greek 
 writers who mentions his name is Xanthus 
 
ZOROASTER 
 
 ZOROASTER 
 
 913 
 
 of Lydia, and he places his era at about 
 600 years before the Trojan war, which 
 would be about 1800 years before Christ. 
 Aristotle and Eudoxus say that he lived 
 6000 years before Plato ; while Berosus, the 
 Babylonian historian, makes him a king 
 of Babylon, and the founder of a dynasty 
 which reigned over Babylon between 2200 
 and 2000 B. c. The Parsees are more mod- 
 erate in their calculations, and say that 
 their prophet was a contemporary of Hys- 
 taspes, the father of Darius, and accord- 
 ingly place his era at 550 B. c. Haug, how- 
 ever, in his Essays on the Sacred Language, 
 etc., of the Parsees, declares that this suppo- 
 sition is utterly groundless. He thinks 
 that we can, under no circumstances, assign 
 him a later date than 1000 B. c, and is not 
 even disinclined to place his era much ear- 
 lier, and make him a contemporary of 
 Moses. 
 
 Bro. Albert Pike, who has devoted much 
 labor to the investigation of this confused 
 subject of the Zoroastrian era, says, in an 
 able article in Mackey's National Freemason, 
 (vol. iii.. No. 3:) 
 
 " In the year 1903 before Alexander, or 
 2234 B. c, a Zarathustrian king of Media 
 conquered Babylon. The religion even 
 then had degenerated into Magism, and 
 was of unknown age. The unfortunate 
 theory that Vitaqpa, one of the most effi- 
 cient allies of Zarathustra, was the father 
 of Darius Hystaspes, has long ago been set 
 at rest. In the Chaldean lists of Berosus, 
 as found in the Armenian edition of Euse- 
 bius, the name Zoroaster appears as that of 
 the Median conqueror of Babylon ; but he 
 can only have received this title from being 
 a follower of Zarathustra and professing his 
 religion. He was preceded by a series of 
 eighty-four Median kings; and the real 
 Zarathustra lived in Bactria long before 
 the tide of emigration had flowed thence 
 into Media. Aristotle and Eudoxus, ac- 
 cording to Pliny, place Zarathustra 6000 
 years before the death of Plato ; Hermippus, 
 5000 years before the Trojan war. Plato 
 died 348 B. c. ; so that the two dates sub- 
 stantially agree, making the date of Zara- 
 thustra's reign 6300 or 6350 B. c. ; and I 
 have no doubt that this is not far from the 
 truth." 
 
 Bunsen, however, ( God in History, vol. 
 i., b. iii., ch. vL, p. 276,) speaks of Zara- 
 thustra Spitama as living under the reign 
 of Vistaspa towards the year 3000 b. c, 
 certainly not later than towards 2500 B. O. 
 He calls him " one of the mightiest intel- 
 lects and one of the greatest men of all 
 time;" and he says of him: "Accounted 
 by his contemporaries a blasphemer, athe- 
 ist, and firebrand worthy of death ; regarded 
 even by his own adherents, after some cen- 
 5P 58 
 
 turies, as the founder of magic, by others 
 as a sorcerer and deceiver, he was, never- 
 theless, recognized already by Hippocrates 
 as a great spiritual hero, and esteemed the 
 earliest sage of a primeval epoch — reaching 
 back to 5000 years before their date — by 
 Eudoxus, Plato, and Aristotle." 
 
 The name of this great reformer is always 
 spelled in the Zendavesta as Zarathustra, 
 with which is often coupled Spitama ; this, 
 Haug says, was the family name, while the 
 former was his surname, and hence both he 
 and Bunsen designate him as Zarathustra 
 Spitama. The Greeks corrupted Zarathus- 
 tra into Zarastrades and Zoroastres, and the 
 Romans into Zoroaster, by which name he 
 has always, until recently, been known to 
 Europeans. His home was in Bactria, an 
 ancient country of Asia between the Oxus 
 River on the north and the Caucasian range 
 of mountains on the south, and in the im- 
 mediate vicinity, therefore, of the primal 
 seat of the Aryan race, one of whose first 
 emigrations, indeed, was into Bactria. 
 
 The religion of Zoroaster finds its origin 
 in a social, political, and religious schism 
 of the Bactrian Iranians from the primi- 
 tive Aryans. These latter led a nomadic 
 and pastoral life in their native home, and 
 continued the same habits after their emi- 
 gration. But a portion of these tribes, 
 whom Haug calls "the proper Iranians," 
 becoming weary of these wanderings, after 
 they had reached the highlands of Bactria 
 abandoned the pastoral and wandering life 
 of their ancestors, and directed their atten- 
 tion to agriculture. This political secession 
 was soon followed by wars, principally of a 
 predatory kind, waged, for the purpose of 
 booty, by the nomadic Aryans on the agri- 
 cultural settlements of the Iranians, whose 
 rich fields were tempting objects to the 
 spoiler. 
 
 The political estrangement was speedily 
 and naturally followed by a religious one. 
 It was at this time that Zoroaster appeared, 
 and, denouncing the nature-worship of the 
 old Aryan faith, established his spiritual 
 religion, in which, says Bunsen, " the an- 
 tagonisms of light and darkness, of sun- 
 shine and storm, become transformed into 
 antagonisms of good and evil, of powers 
 exerting a beneficent or corrupting influence 
 on the mind." 
 
 The doctrine of pure Zoroastrianism was 
 monotheistic. The Supreme Being was 
 called Ahuramazda, and Haug says that 
 Zoroaster's conception of him was perfectly 
 identical with the Jewish notice of Jehovah. 
 He is called " the Creator of the earthly 
 and spiritual life, the Lord of the whole 
 universe, at whose hands are all the crea- 
 tures." He is wisdom and intellect; the 
 light itself, and the source of light; the 
 
914 
 
 ZOROASTER 
 
 ZURTHOST 
 
 rewarder of the virtuous and the punisher 
 of the wicked. 
 
 The dualistic doctrine of Ormuzd and 
 Ahrimaues, which has falsely been attrib- 
 uted to Zoroaster, was in reality the develop- 
 ment of a later corruption of the Zoroasteric 
 teaching. But the great reformer sought 
 to solve the puzzling question of the origin 
 of evil in the world, by supposing that there 
 existed in Ahuramazda two spirits, inhe- 
 rent in his nature, the one positive and the 
 other negative. All that was good was real, 
 existent ; while the absence of that reality 
 was a non-existence or evil. Evil was the 
 absence of good as darkness was the absence 
 of light. 
 
 Zoroaster taught the idea of a future life 
 and the immortality of the soul. The doc- 
 trine of the resurrection is one of the prin- 
 cipal dogmas of the Zendavesta. He 
 also clearly inculcated the belief of a heaven 
 and a hell. The former called the house 
 of hymns, because the angels were supposed 
 to sing hymns there ; the latter the house 
 of destruction, and to it were relentlessly 
 consigned the poets and priests of the old 
 Aryan religion. 
 
 The doctrine of sacred names, so familiar 
 to the Hebrews, was also taught by Zoro- 
 aster. In one of the Yashts, a portion of 
 the Zendavesta, Ahuramazda tells Zara- 
 
 thustra that the utterance of one of his 
 sacred names, of which he enumerates 
 twenty, is the best protection from evil. 
 Of these names, one is ahmi, " I am," and 
 another, ahmi yat ahmi, " I am who I am." 
 The reader will be reminded here of the 
 holy name in Exodus, Ehyeh other Ehyeh, 
 or " I am that I am." 
 
 The doctrine of Zoroaster was not for- 
 ever confined to Bactria, but passed over 
 into other countries; nor in the transmis- 
 sion did it fail to suffer some corruption. 
 From its original seat it spread into Media, 
 and under the name of Magism, or the doc- 
 trine of the Magavas, i. e., the mighty ones, 
 was incorporated at Babylon with the Chal- 
 dean philosophy, whence we find its traces 
 in the Rabbinism and the Kabbalism of the 
 Hebrews. It was carried, too, into Persia, 
 where it has been developed into the mod- 
 ern and still existing sect of the Parsees, 
 of whom we now find two divisions, the 
 conservatives and liberals ; the former culti- 
 vating the whole modified doctrine of Zoro- 
 aster, and the latter retaining much of the 
 doctrine, but rejecting to a very great ex- 
 tent the ceremonial ritual. 
 
 Zurthost. The name given by the 
 modern Parsees to Zarathustra or Zoro- 
 aster. They call him theirprophet, and their 
 religious sect the Zarthosti community. 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 CONTAINING NEW AND OMITTED TITLES. 
 
 A. 
 
 Aaron's Band. A degree fabricated 
 in the city of New York by Joseph Cer- 
 neau. It was conferred for many years in 
 an independent body. The Grand Royal 
 Arch Chapter of the State, finding that it 
 was an infringement of the degree of " High 
 Priesthood," caused it to be suppressed in 
 1825. 
 
 Affiliate, Free. The French gave 
 the name of " free affiliates " to those mem- 
 bers of a Lodge who are exempted from 
 the payment of dues, and neither hold 
 office nor vote. They are the same as the 
 American " honorary members." 
 
 Africa. In Lodges of the French Rite 
 of Adoption, the south of the Lodge is so 
 called. 
 
 Alaska. Freemasonry was introduced 
 into the distant territory of Alaska by 
 Bro. James Biles, Grand Master of Wash- 
 ington Territory, who granted on April 14, 
 1868, a Dispensation for the establishment 
 of Alaska Lodge at Sitka ; a Warrant of 
 Constitution was granted by the Grand 
 Lodge of Washington, Sept. 17, 1869. 
 
 Architect. (vlrcAifecfe.) An officer 
 the French Rite, whose duty it is 
 of the furniture of the 
 
 charge 
 
 in 
 
 to take 
 
 Lodge. 
 
 Arkansas. There is much obscurity 
 concerning the early history of Masonry 
 in Arkansas. In November, 1864, a disas- 
 trous conflagration destroyed the Grand 
 Lodge Hall, and in it were consumed all 
 
 the records anterior to the year 1846. 
 This much, however, we know. On Feb- 
 ruary 22, 1832, three Lodges — Washington, 
 Western Star, and Morning Star, (C. W. 
 Moore says there were four, but the Grand 
 Secretary, Bro. Blocher, gives only these 
 three,) — assembled at Little Rock in con- 
 vention, and organized the Grand Lodge of 
 Arkansas. 
 
 The Grand Chapter of Royal Arch Ma- 
 sons was organized April 28, 1851, by three 
 Chapters at Fayetteville, Little Rock, and 
 El Dorado, which had previously received 
 Charters from the General Grand Chapter 
 of the United States. 
 
 The Grand Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters was established in the year 1860. 
 
 There are four Commanderies in the 
 State immediately subordinate to the 
 Grand Encampment of the United States, 
 viz., Hugh de Payens, at Little Rock, or- 
 ganized December 20, 1853; Bertrand du 
 Guesclin, at Camden, organized April 13, 
 1867; Jacques de Molay, at Fort Smith, 
 organized December 30, 1868; and Bald- 
 win, at Fayetteville, organized April 28, 
 1871 ; but no Grand Commandery has been 
 established. 
 
 Asia. In the French Rite of Adoption, 
 the east end of the Lodge is so called. 
 
 Audi, Vide, Tace. Hear, See, and 
 be Silent. A motto often appropriately used 
 in Masonic documents. It is frequently 
 found on Masonic medals. 
 
 B. 
 
 Book of the Fraternity of 
 Stonemasons. Some years ago, a 
 manuscript was discovered in the archives 
 of the city of Cologne, bearing the title 
 of Bruderschaftsbuch der Steinmetzen, with 
 
 records going back as far as the year 1396. 
 Steinbrenner ( Orig. and Early Hist, of Ma- 
 sonry, p. 104,) says, " It fully confirms the 
 conclusions to be derived from the German 
 Constitutions, and those of the English and 
 
 915 
 
916 
 
 BMTHERING 
 
 CONNECTICUT 
 
 Scotch Masons, and conclusively proves 
 the inauthenticity of the celebrated Charter 
 of Cologne." 
 
 Brithering. Scotch for Brothering, 
 i. e., making a brother. A term used among 
 the Operative Freemasons of Scotland, dur- 
 ing the seventeenth century, to designate the 
 ceremonies, such as they were, of reception 
 into the Lodge. 
 
 Buddhism. The religion of the dis- 
 ciples of Buddha. It prevails over a great 
 extent of Asia, and is estimated to be more 
 popular than auy other form of faith among 
 mankind. Its founder, Buddha, — a word 
 which seems to be an appellative, as it sig- 
 nifies the Enlightened, — lived about five 
 hundred years before the Christian era, and 
 established his religion as a secession from 
 Brahmanism. The moral code of Buddh- 
 ism is very perfect, surpassing that of any 
 other heathen religion. But its theology is 
 not so free from objection. Max Mliller 
 admits that there is not a single passage in 
 the Buddhist canon of scripture which 
 presupposes the belief in a personal God 
 or a Creator, and hence he concludes that 
 the teaching of Buddha was pure atheism. 
 Yet Upham (Hist, and Doct. of Bud., p. 2,) 
 thinks that, even if this be capable of proof, 
 
 it also recognizes "the operation of Fate 
 (called Damata), whereby much of the nec- 
 essary process of conservation or govern- 
 ment is infused into the system." The 
 doctrine of Nirvana, according to Burnouf, 
 taught that absolute nothing or annihilation 
 was the highest aim of virtue, and hence 
 the belief in immortality was repudiated. 
 Such, too, has been the general opinion of 
 Oriental scholars; but Mliller [Science of 
 Religion, p. 141,) adduces evidence, from 
 the teachings of Buddha, to show that Nir- 
 vana may mean the extinction of many 
 things — of selfishness, desire, and sin, — 
 without going so far as the extinction of 
 subjective consciousness. 
 
 The sacred scripture of Buddhism is the 
 Tripitaka, literally, the Three Baskets. The 
 first, or the Vinaya, comprises all that re- 
 lates to morality ; the second, or the Sitras, 
 contains the discourses of Buddha; and the 
 third, or Abhidharma, includes all works 
 on metaphysics and dogmatic philosophy. 
 The first and second Baskets also receive 
 the general name of Dharma, or the Law. 
 The principal seat of Buddhism is the isl- 
 and of Ceylon, but it has extended into 
 China, Japan, and many other countries 
 of Asia. 
 
 c. 
 
 Canticle. The French call their Ma- 
 sonic songs " cantiques," or canticles. 
 
 Clavel, T. Begue. A French Ma- 
 sonic writer, who published in 1842 a His- 
 toire Pittoresque de la Franc- Maconnerie et 
 des Societes Anciennes et Modernes. This 
 work contains a great amount of interest- 
 ing and valuable information, notwith- 
 standing many historical inaccuracies, 
 especially in reference to the Ancient and 
 Accepted Rite, of which the author was an 
 adversary. Clavel is also the author of 
 another work, published in 1844, and en- 
 titled Histoire Pittoresque des Religions, 
 Doctrines, Ceremonies et Coutumes Reli- 
 gieuses de tous lespeuples du Monde. For the 
 publication of the former work without au- 
 thority, he was suspended by the Grand 
 Orient for two months, and condemned to 
 pay a fine. Clavel appealed to the intelli- 
 gence of the Fraternity against this sen- 
 tence. In 1844, he commenced the publi- 
 cation of a Masonic journal called the 
 Grand Orient, the title of which he subse- 
 quently changed to the Orient. As he had 
 not obtained the consent of the Grand 
 Orient, he was again brought before that 
 body, and the sentence of perpetual exclu- 
 sion from the Grand Orient pronounced 
 against him. Rebold says that it was the 
 
 act of a faction, and obtained by unfair 
 means. It was not sustained by the judg- 
 ment of the Craft in France, with whom 
 Clavel gained reputation and popularity. 
 Notwithstanding the literary labors of 
 Clavel, I have searched in vain in Larousse, 
 Michaud, and the other more recent French 
 biographers, for any account of the time of 
 his birth or his death. 
 
 Connecticut. The first Lodge organ- 
 ized in Connecticut was Hiram Lodge, at 
 New Haven, which received its Charter, in 
 1750, from St. John's Grand Lodge, of Bos- 
 ton. Many other Lodges were subsequently 
 instituted, some by authority derived from 
 Massachusetts, but most of them by au- 
 thority derived from New York. A con- 
 vention of delegates from twelve Lodges 
 assembled at New Haven, July 8, 1789, and 
 organized the Grand Lodge of Connecticut. 
 Pierpoint Edwards was elected Grand 
 Master. 
 
 In 1796, there were three Royal Arch 
 Chapters in Connecticut. In 1797, these 
 Chapters had entered into an association, 
 probably with the idea of establishing a 
 Grand Chapter. On January 24, 1798, a 
 convention of delegates from Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New York 
 was held at Hartford, when a conference 
 
CUMULATION 
 
 EDWARD 
 
 917 
 
 having been held on the subject of the two 
 conventions, the delegates from Connecticut 
 united with those from the other States in 
 forming the " Grand Royal Arch Chapter 
 of the Northern States of America." By 
 the Constitution then adopted, the " Deputy 
 Grand Chapter " of Connecticut was estab- 
 lished. The title was changed in the sub- 
 sequent year for that of " Grand Chapter." 
 Webb gives the precise date of the organiza- 
 tion of the Grand Chapter as May 17, 1798. 
 
 The Grand Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters was organized in 1819. 
 
 The Grand Encampment was organized 
 September 13, 1827. 
 
 Climulation of Rites. The prac- 
 tice by a Lodge of two or more Rites, as the 
 American or York and Scottish, or the 
 Scottish and French Rites. Thi3 cumula- 
 tion of Rites has been practised to a con- 
 siderable extent in France. At one time 
 the Grand Lodge of Louisiana " cumulated " 
 the Ancient York, or rather the American, 
 the French, and the Scottish Rites, in each 
 of which some of the Lodges under its juris- 
 diction worked ; but the system was subse- 
 quently condemned by the Grand Lodge, 
 because the diversity of usages and compli- 
 cation of obedience was found to be pro- 
 ductive of evil results. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dodd's Constitutions. A Book of 
 Constitutions or old manuscript charges, 
 published in 1739 by Mrs. Dodd. The book 
 is exceedingly rare. The only copy known 
 to exist is in the possession of Richard 
 Spencer, of London. See Spencer Manu- 
 script in this Supplement. 
 
 Rowland Manuscript. A manu- 
 script so called because it was first pub- 
 lished by James Dowland, in the eighty- 
 fifth volume of the Gentlemen's Magazine 
 for May, 1815, page 489. It was preceded 
 by a note to the editor, in which Dowland 
 states that the document had not long since 
 come into his possession ; and he describes 
 it as being " written on a long roll of parch- 
 ment, in a very clear hand, apparently early 
 in the seventeenth century, and very prob- 
 ably is copied from a manuscript of earlier 
 date." Who James Dowland was I have 
 not been able to learn, nor does he give us 
 any information as to the place whence he 
 obtained it. Its resemblance, however, in 
 so many points, to many of the other old 
 records, such as theSloane, the Landsdowne, 
 and the Harleian Manuscripts, leaves no 
 doubt on the mind of its authenticity. 
 
 The suggestion of Dowland, that it was 
 copied from an earlier one, is very reason- 
 
 able. Indeed, the resemblances just spoken 
 of, and the slight discrepancies between it 
 and those other manuscripts, consisting 
 sometimes of a change of the spelling of 
 proper names, sometimes of the omission 
 of incidents contained in some of them, and 
 the addition of incidents not contained in 
 others, would almost necessarily lead to the 
 deduction that there was a manuscript 
 older than any of them, of which all of 
 these records were but copies, whose varia- 
 tions are to be attributed to the carelessness 
 incident to the character and attainments 
 of these mediaeval copyists, who were much 
 better fitted to work in stone than on parch- 
 ment, and who handled the trowel and 
 hammer with much more skill than they 
 did the pen. 
 
 Bro. Hughan, in his Old Charges of Brit- 
 ish Freemasons, (p. 22,) says: "Bro. Wood- 
 ford, Mr. Sims, and other eminent author- 
 ities, consider the original of the copy from 
 which the transcript for the Gentlemen's 
 Magazine was written to be a scroll of at 
 least a century earlier than the date as- 
 cribed to Mr. Dowland's MS., and in con- 
 sequence date it about A. D. 1550." 
 
 Due Examination. See Vouching 
 in the body of this work. 
 
 E. 
 
 Edinburgh-Kilwinning Manu- 
 script. See Kilwinning Manuscript in the 
 body of this work. 
 
 Edward III. Manuscript. A man- 
 uscript quoted by Anderson in his second 
 edition, (p. 71,) and also by Preston, as an 
 old record referring to " the glorious reign 
 of King Edward III." The whole of the 
 record is not cited, but the passages that 
 are given are evidently the same as those 
 
 contained in what is now known as the 
 Cooke MS., the archaic phraseology hav- 
 ing been modernized and interpolations in- 
 serted by Anderson, as was, unfortunately, 
 his habit in dealing with those old docu- 
 ments. Compare, for instance, the follow- 
 ing passages : 
 
 From the Cooke MS. " When the master 
 and the felawes be forwarned ben y come 
 to such congregacions if nede be the Scher- 
 
918 
 
 EDWIN 
 
 GRAVELOT 
 
 effe of the countre or the mayer of the Cyte 
 or alderman of the town in wyche the con- 
 gregacions is holden schall be felaw and 
 sociat to the master of the congregacion in 
 helpe of hym agenst rebelles and upberyng 
 [upbearing] the rygt of the reme." 
 
 Edward III. Manuscript as quoted by An- 
 derson. " That when the Master and War- 
 dens preside in a Lodge, the sheriff if need be, 
 or the mayor or the alderman (if a brother) 
 where the Chapter is held, shall be sociate 
 to the Master, in help of him against rebels 
 and for upholding the rights of the realm." 
 
 The identity of the two documents is ap- 
 parent. Either the Edward III. MS. was 
 copied from the Cooke, or both were de- 
 rived from a common original. 
 
 Edwin Charges. The charges said 
 to have been given by Prince Edwin, and 
 contained in the Antiquity MS., are some- 
 times so called. See Antiquity Manuscript 
 in the body of this work. 
 
 Eglinton Manuscript. So called 
 because it was discovered many years ago 
 in the charter-chest of Eglinton Castle. It 
 is written in the Scottish dialect, and bears 
 the date of " xxvii. December, 1599." An 
 exact copy of it has been published by 
 Bro. Hughan in his Unpublished Records of 
 the Graft. 
 
 Europe. In the French Rite of 
 Adoption, the west end of the Lodge is 
 so called. 
 
 Eva. This is the word of acclamation 
 in the French Rite of Adoption. 
 
 Evergetes, Order of. A secret so- 
 ciety established at Breslau, by Fessler, 
 about the year 1789. He intended it as a 
 substitute for Freemasonry (to whose con- 
 struction it was similar), because he hoped 
 by it to effect those moral and intellectual 
 results which in his opinion Freemasonry 
 had failed to secure. But the association 
 did not succeed, and was dissolved in 1795. 
 
 F. 
 
 Forty-two Lettered Name. See Twelve Lettered Name in the body of this work. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gomel. A significant word in the high 
 degrees, and said to signify reward or retri- 
 bution, from the Hebrew Sdj, gamal, to re- 
 ward any one for good or for evil. Len- 
 ning, borrowing from some of the old 
 rituals, has made the mistake of giving the 
 word as gomez, and translating it by beauty. 
 There is a Masonic tradition, in one of the 
 high degrees, that gomel was the first word 
 spoken by Adam on beholding Eve. 
 
 Gravelot. The name of the second 
 of the three conspirators in the Master's de- 
 gree, according to the Adonhiramite Rite. 
 The others are Romvel and Abiram. The 
 etymology of Gravelot is unknown. 
 
 Gypsies. Cornelius Van Pauw, more 
 generally known as De Pauw, in his Philo- 
 sophical Researches on the Egyptians and 
 Chinese, (Paris, 1774,) advances the theory 
 that Freemasonry originated with the Gyp- 
 sies. He says: "Every person who was 
 not guilty of some crime could obtain ad- 
 mission to the lesser mysteries. Those 
 vagabonds called Egyptian priests in Greece 
 and Italy required considerable sums for 
 initiation ; and their successors, the Gyp- 
 sies, practise similar mummeries to obtain 
 money. And thus was Freemasonry intro- 
 duced into Europe." But De Pauw is re- 
 markable for the paradoxical character of 
 his opinions. Yet Mr. James Simson — who 
 
 has written a rather exhaustive History of 
 the Gypsies, (1866,) finds (p. 387) "a con- 
 siderable resemblance between Gypsyism, 
 in its harmless aspect, and Freemasonry ; 
 with this difference, that the former is a 
 general, while the latter is a special society ; 
 that is to say, the Gypsies have the language, 
 or some of the words and the signs, pecu- 
 liar to the whole race, which each individ- 
 ual or class will use for different purposes. 
 The race does not necessarily, and does not 
 in fact, have intercourse with every other 
 member of it ; in that respect they resem- 
 ble any ordinary community of men." And 
 he adds : " There are many Gypsies Free- 
 masons ; indeed, they are the very people 
 to push their way into a Mason's Lodge ; 
 for they have secrets of their own, and are 
 naturally anxious to pry into those of 
 others, by which they may be benefited. I 
 was told of a Gypsy who died, lately, the 
 Master of a Mason's Lodge. A friend, a 
 Mason, told me the other day, of his hav- 
 ing entered a house in Yetholm where 
 were five Gypsies, all of whom responded to 
 his Masonic signs." But it must be remem- 
 bered that Simson is writing of the Gyp- 
 sies of Scotland, a kingdom where the race 
 is considerably advanced above those of 
 any other country in civilization, in hon- 
 esty, and in social position. 
 
HAYTI 
 
 KANSAS 
 
 919 
 
 H. 
 
 Hayti. Freemasonry, which had been 
 in existence for several years in the island 
 of Hayti, was entirely extinguished by the 
 revolution which drove out the white in- 
 habitants. In 1809, the Grand Lodge of 
 England granted a Charter for a Lodge at 
 Port-au-Prince, and for one at Cayes. In 
 1817, it constituted two others at Jeremias 
 and at Jacmel. Subsequently, a Provincial 
 Grand Lodge was established under obedi- 
 ence to England. In 1824, this Provincial 
 Grand Lodge declared its independence 
 and organized the Grand Orient of Hayti, 
 which is still in existence. But in conse- 
 quence of the want of official correspond- 
 ence, we are left in great ignorance as to 
 the actual condition of Freemasonry in 
 Hayti. 
 
 Hoben. The name given in some of the 
 high degrees to one of the three conspira- 
 tors commemorated in the Master's degree. 
 The derivation is uncertain. Oben, in He- 
 brew, means a stone ; or it may be a corrup- 
 tion of Habone, the Builder or Mason. 
 Bro. Albert Pike has suggested to me that 
 it is an anagram of the name of the Earl 
 
 of Bohun, one of the enemies of the house 
 of Stuart. And this may be a probable der- 
 ivation. 
 
 Homaged. First employed by En- 
 tick, in his edition of the Constitutions, (p. 
 230,) in reference to the installation of the 
 Earl of Kintore, in 1740, as Grand Master : 
 " Who having been homaged and duly con- 
 gratulated according to the forms and 
 solemnity of Masonry." He never repeats 
 the word, using afterwards the expression, 
 " received the homage." Noorthouck 
 adopts this latter expression in three or 
 four instances, but more generally employs 
 the word " recognized " or " saluted." The 
 expression, " to do homage " to the Grand 
 Master at his installation, although now 
 generally disused, is a correct one, not pre- 
 cisely in the feudal sense of homagium, but 
 in the more modern one of reverence, obe- 
 dience, and loyalty. 
 
 Hospitaller. An officer in Lodges 
 of the French Rite, who, like the Almoner 
 in the Scottish Rite, has the charge and 
 distribution of the charity fund for the use 
 of the poor. 
 
 I 
 
 Idaho. Two Lodges holding Charters 
 from the Grand Lodge of Oregon, and one 
 from that of Washington Territory, met in 
 convention at Idaho City on December 10, 
 1867, and organized the Grand Lodge of 
 Idaho. 
 
 Royal Arch Masonry was introduced by 
 the General Grand Chapter of the United 
 States, which granted a Charter for Idaho 
 Chapter at Idaho City, September 18, 1868, 
 for Cyrus at Silver City, and Boise at Boise 
 City, both September 20, 1870. 
 
 Ijar. y>1$. The eighth month of the 
 Hebrew civil year, and corresponding with 
 the months April and May, beginning with 
 the new moon of the former. 
 
 Increase of Wages. (Augmentation 
 de gages.) To ask for an increase of wages 
 
 is, in the technical language of French 
 Masonry, to apply for advancement to a 
 higher degree. 
 
 Inversion of Letters. In some of 
 the French documents of the high degrees, 
 the letters of some words were inverted, not 
 apparently for concealment, but as a mere 
 caprice. Hence Thory (Fondat., p. 128,) 
 calls them inversions enfantines, "childish 
 inversions." Thus they wrote &osv9 ounots 
 for Rosce crucis. But in all French cahiers 
 and rituals, or, as they call them, Tuilleurs, 
 words are inverted ; that is, the letters are 
 transposed for purposes of secrecy. Thus 
 they would write Nomolos for Solomon, and 
 Marih for Hiram. This was also a custom 
 among the Kabbalists and the Alchemists 
 to conceal secret words. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kansas. In the year 1855, there were 
 three Lodges in Kansas holding Warrants 
 from the Grand Lodge of Missouri. On 
 November 14, 1855, two of these Lodges 
 met in convention at Leavenworth. In 
 consequence of the absence of the third 
 Lodge, the convention adjourned until De- 
 
 cember 27, 1855, on which day the two 
 Lodges of Smithton and Leavenworth met, 
 and, Wyandot Lodge being again absent, 
 the delegates of these two Lodges organized 
 the Grand Lodge of Kansas, and elected 
 Richard R. Reece Grand Master. 
 But these proceedings were considered 
 
920 
 
 KENTUCKY 
 
 LION 
 
 illegal, in consequence of the convention 
 having been formed by two instead of three 
 Lodges ; and accordingly another conven- 
 tion of the three chartered Lodges in the 
 Territory was held March 17, 1856, and 
 the proceedings of the previous convention 
 ratified by a re-enactment, the same Grand 
 Master being re-elected. 
 
 The Grand Royal Arch Chapter was es- 
 tablished January 27, 1866. 
 
 The Grand Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters was organized December 12, 1867. 
 
 The Grand Commandery was organized 
 December 29, 1868. 
 
 Kentucky. Organized Freemasonry 
 was introduced by the Grand Lodge of Vir- 
 ginia, which in the year 1788 granted a 
 Charter for Lexington Lodge, No. 25, at 
 Lexington. This was the first Lodge in- 
 stituted west of the Alleghany Mountains. 
 Three other Lodges were subsequently char- 
 tered by Virginia, namely, at Paris, George- 
 town, and Frankford, and a Dispensation 
 granted for a fifth at Shelbyville. These 
 five Lodges met in convention at Lexing- 
 ton on September 8, 1800. Having resolved 
 that it was expedient to organize a Grand 
 Lodge, and prepared an address to the Grand 
 Lodge of Virginia, the convention adjourned 
 to October 16. On that day it reassembled, 
 and organized the Grand Lodge of Ken- 
 tucky, William Murray being elected Grand 
 Master. 
 
 Chapters of Royal Arch Masons, inde- 
 pendent of the Grand Lodge, were first 
 established by Thomas Smith Webb in 
 1816, and the Grand Chapter was formed 
 December 4, 1817. 
 
 The Grand Council of Royal and Select 
 Masters was organized December 10, 1827. 
 
 The Grand Encampment (now the Grand 
 Commandery) was organized Oct. 5, 1847. 
 
 Scottish Masonry was introduced into 
 Kentucky, and the Grand Consistory or- 
 ganized at Louisville, in August, 1852, by 
 Bro. Albert G. Mackey, Secretary General 
 of the Supreme Council for the Southern 
 Jurisdiction. 
 
 Khesvan or Chesran. pan. The 
 same Hebrew month as Marchesvan, which 
 see. Under the title Marchesvan, there is 
 an error in the statement that it begins in 
 November. It does sometimes, but more 
 usually with October, and therefore corre- 
 sponds to October and November. 
 
 Kisleu or Chisleu. ^02- The 
 third month of the Hebrew civil year, and 
 corresponding with the months November 
 and December, beginning with the new 
 moon of the former. 
 
 Knife and Fork Degree. Those 
 Masons who take more delight in the re- 
 freshments of the banquet than in the labors 
 of the Lodge, and who admire Masonry 
 only for its social aspect, are ironically 
 said to be "Members of the Knife and 
 Fork degree." The sarcasm was first ut- 
 tered by Dermott, when he said in his 
 Ahiman jRezon, (p. xxxvi.,) speaking of the 
 Moderns, that " it was also thought expe- 
 dient to abolish the old custom of studying 
 Geometry in the Lodge; and some of the 
 young brethren made it appear that a good 
 knife and fork, in the hands of a dexterous 
 brother (over proper materials), would give 
 greater satisfaction, and add more to the 
 rotundity of the Lodge, than the best scale 
 and compass in Europe." 
 
 Krause Manuscript. A title some- 
 times given to the so-called York Consti- 
 tutions, a German translation of which was 
 published by Krause, in 1810, in his Kun- 
 sterkunden. See York Constitutions in the 
 body of this work. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lawful Information. See Vouch- 
 ing in the body of this work. 
 
 Lenning, C. The assumed name of 
 a learned German Mason, who resided at 
 Paris in 1817, where Krause speaks of him 
 as an estimable man and well-informed 
 Freemason. He was the first projector 
 of the Encyclopadie der Freimaurerei, 
 which Findel justly calls " one of the most 
 learned and remarkable works in Masonic 
 literature." The manuscript coming into 
 the possession of the Leipsic bookseller, 
 Brockhaus, he engaged Friederich Moss- 
 dorf to edit it. He added so much to the 
 original, revising and amplifying all the 
 
 most important articles and adding many 
 new ones, that Kloss catalogues it in his 
 Bibliographie as the work of Mossdorf. 
 The Encyclopadie is in three volumes, of 
 which the first was published in 1822, 
 the second in 1825, and the third in 1828. 
 A second edition, under the title of 
 Handbuch der Freimaurerei, was published 
 under the editorship of Schletter and 
 Zille. 
 
 Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. 
 Motto of the French Freemasons. 
 
 Lion of the Tribe of Jndab. See 
 Tribe of Judah, Lion of the, in the body of 
 this work. 
 
MAGNA 
 
 MOORE 
 
 921 
 
 M. 
 
 Magna est Veritas et prsevale- 
 bit. The truth is great, and it will prevail, 
 The motto of the Red Cross degree, or 
 Knight of the Red Cross. 
 
 Masoney. Used in the Strasburg Con- 
 stitutions, and other German works of the 
 Middle Ages, as equivalent to the modern 
 Masonry. Kloss translates it by Masonhood. 
 Leasing derives it from masa, Anglo-Saxon, 
 a table, and says it means a Society of the 
 Table. Nicolai deduces it from the low 
 Latin massonya, which means both a club 
 and a key, and says it means an exclusive 
 society or club, and so he thinks we get our 
 word Masonry. Krause traces it to mas, 
 mase, food or a banquet. It is a pity to at- 
 tack these speculations, but I am inclined 
 to look at Masoney as simply a corruption 
 of the English Masonrie. 
 
 Medals. To what has been said of 
 medals, in the body of this work, it should 
 be added that in The Three Distinct Knocks, 
 published in 1767, there is the following 
 account of a custom which then prevailed 
 among Masons. "There are medals of 
 silver, (having the Tracing-Board inscribed 
 on them,) and some of them highly finished 
 and ornamented, so as to be worth ten or 
 twenty guineas. They are suspended round 
 the neck with ribbons of various colors, 
 and worn on their public days of meeting, 
 at funeral processions, etc., in honor of 
 the Craft. On the reverse of these medals 
 it is usual to put the owner's coat of 
 arms, or cipher, or any other device that 
 the owner fancies, and some even add to 
 the emblems other fancy things that bear 
 some analogy to Masonry." Some of these 
 relics of the last century may still be found 
 in museums, and are not unfrequently for 
 sale in curiosity shops. 
 
 Mitchell, James W. S. A Masonic 
 writer and journalist, who was born in 
 the State of Kentucky in the year 1800. 
 He was initiated into Masonry in Owen 
 Lodge, at Port William, now Carrolton, 
 Kentucky, in the year 1821. He sub- 
 sequently removed to the State of Missouri, 
 where he took a prominent position in the 
 Masonic fraternity, and held the offices of 
 Grand Master of the Grand Lodge, Grand 
 High Priest of the Grand Chapter, and 
 Grand Commander of the Grand Com- 
 mandery of Knights Templars. In 1848, 
 he established, in the city of St. Louis, a 
 monthly journal entitled the Masonic Signet 
 and Literary Mirror, which he removed to 
 Montgomery, Alabama, in 1852, where it 
 lasted for a short time, and then was discon- 
 tinued for want of patronage. In 1858 he 
 5Q 
 
 published The History of Freemasonry and 
 Masonic Digest, in two volumes, octavo. 
 Brother Mitchell was a warm-hearted and 
 devoted Mason, but, unfortunately for his 
 reputation as an author, not an accom- 
 plished scholar ; hence his style is deficient 
 not only in elegance, but even in gram- 
 matical purity. His natural capacity, how- 
 ever, was good, and his arguments as a con- 
 troversialist were always trenchant, if the 
 language was not polished. As a Masonic 
 jurist, his decisions have been considered 
 generally, but by no means universally, cor- 
 rect. His opinions were sometimes eccen- 
 tric, and his History possesses much less 
 value than such a work should have, in 
 consequence of its numerous inaccuracies, 
 and the adoption by its author of all the 
 extravagant views of earlier writers on the 
 origin of Masonry. He died at Griffin, in 
 Georgia, on November 12, 1873, having 
 been for many years a great sufferer from 
 illness. 
 
 Moore, Charles YYhitlock. A 
 distinguished American Masonic writer and 
 journalist. He was born in Boston, Massa- 
 chusetts, March 29, 1801. His own account 
 of his initiation into Masonry is in the fol- 
 lowing words : " In February, 1822, 1 was 
 proposed for the degrees of Masonry in 
 Massachusetts Lodge, then, as now, one of 
 the three oldest in Boston, and, but for the 
 intervention of business engagements, I 
 should have been received into Masonry on 
 the evening of my coming of age. Before 
 that evening arrived, however, I was called 
 temporarily to the State of Maine, when in 
 May following I was admitted in Kennebec 
 Lodge, at Hallowell, with the consent and 
 approbation of the Lodge in which I had 
 been originally proposed. I received the 
 third degree on the evening of the 12th of 
 June." 
 
 In the following July he returned to 
 Boston, and on October 10 affiliated with 
 the Lodge of St. Andrew in that city. In 
 October, 1872, that Lodge celebrated his 
 semicentennial membership by a festival. 
 
 In 1833, he was elected Master of the 
 Lodge, but having been elected Recording 
 Grand Secretary of the Grand Lodge, he 
 was compelled to resign the Mastership, as 
 the two offices were constitutionally in- 
 compatible. But he was on the same even- 
 ing elected Secretary of the Lodge, an 
 office the duties of which he discharged for 
 sixteen years. In 1825, he took the Capit- 
 ular degrees in St. Andrew's Chapter, and 
 was elected High Priest in 1840, and sub- 
 sequently Grand High Priest of the Grand 
 
922 
 
 PARLIRER 
 
 PARLIRER 
 
 Chapter. He was made a Knight Templar 
 in the Boston Encampment about the year 
 1830, and was Eminent Commander in 
 1837. In 1841, he was elected Grand 
 Master of the Grand Encampment of 
 Massachusetts and Rhode Island, which 
 office he held for three years. In 1832, he 
 received the Royal and Select degrees in 
 the Boston Council, over which he presided 
 for twelve years. He was elected General 
 Grand Captain General of the Grand En- 
 campment of the United States in 1847, and 
 General Grand Generalissimo in 1850. In 
 1844, he was received into the Ancient and 
 Accepted Scottish Bite, and in the same 
 year was elected Secretary General of the 
 Holy Empire in the Supreme Council for 
 the Northern Jurisdiction of the United 
 States, an office which he held until his 
 resignation in 1862. 
 
 " When he was elected R. G. Secretary 
 of the Grand Lodge in 1834," says Bro. John 
 T. Heard, in his Historical Account of Co- 
 lumbian Lodge, (p. 472,) " it was the mo- 
 ment when the anti-Masonic excitement 
 was raging with its greatest violence in this 
 State, and his first official act was to attest 
 the Memorial written by him, surrendering 
 to the Legislature the act of incorporation 
 of the Grand Lodge. This act of surrender 
 originated with him, and he may proudly 
 look upon it as one of the most important 
 and beneficial performances of his Masonic 
 life." The Grand Lodge surrendered its 
 Charter and its corporate powers that it 
 might escape the persecution of an anti- 
 Masonic legislature, who were disposed to 
 exercise a tyrannical power over it as a 
 corporation, to which its members would 
 not be obnoxious in their individual capa- 
 city. But the surrender of the Charter was 
 not an abandonment of Masonry. On the 
 contrary, the Memorial boldly stated that 
 " by divesting itself of its corporate powers, 
 the Grand Lodge has relinquished none of 
 its Masonic attributes or prerogatives. 
 These it claims to hold and exercise inde- 
 pendently of popular will and legal enact- 
 ment, not of toleration but of right." He 
 
 was also the author of a protest or declara- 
 tion, issued in 1831, by the Boston Encamp- 
 ment against the slanderous accusations of 
 the anti-Masons, and which was readily 
 signed by thousands of Masons in New Eng- 
 land. In fact, during the anti-Masonic ex- 
 citement which raged with peculiar vio- 
 lence in Massachusetts, many weak Ma- 
 sons deserted the Order, while only the true 
 and stout-hearted remained to battle with 
 the storm. "Of these," said Bro. Benjamin 
 Dean, " the one possessing the most cour- 
 age, the most persistency, the greatest abil- 
 ity and influence, was Bro. Charles W. 
 Moore, and he devoted himself to the work." 
 
 In Masonic authorship, Bro. Moore is 
 principally distinguished as a journalist. 
 In 1825, he established the Masonic Mirror, 
 the first Masonic newspaper ever issued in 
 America, and, perhaps, in the world. This 
 work, which was distinguished for the bold- 
 ness with which it fought the battle against 
 anti-Masonry, was merged in 1834 in the 
 Bunker Hill Aurora, a paper with whose 
 Masonic department he was associated. 
 In 1841, he commenced the publication of 
 the Freemasons' Monthly Magazine, a work 
 which he continued to publish to the time 
 of his death, a period of thirty -three years, 
 a longer life than was ever vouchsafed to a 
 Masonic journal. 
 
 In 1828 and 1829, he published the Am- 
 aranth, or Masonic Garland; in 1843, the 
 Masonic Trestle - Board, compiled under 
 the direction of the Baltimore Convention. 
 This work, though less popular now than 
 when it first appeared, is still used as a text- 
 book in several States. Bro. Moore died at 
 Boston, Massachusetts, of pneumonia, on 
 December 12, 1873. 
 
 As a Masonic jurist, C. W. Moore held a 
 high rank. Of many decisions on points 
 of Masonic law which he made during his 
 long career as a journalist, very few nave 
 been repudiated by the general sense of the 
 Craft as unsound. His interpretation of 
 Masonic law was founded on long experi- 
 ence, guided by a sound judgment and a 
 cultivated intellect. 
 
 P. 
 
 Parllrer. In the Lodges of Stone- 
 masons of the Middle Ages, there was a 
 rank or class of workmen called Parlirers, 
 literally, spokesmen. They were an inter- 
 mediate class of officers between the Mas- 
 ters of the Lodges and the Fellows, and 
 were probably about the same as our mod- 
 ern Wardens. Thus, in the Strasburg 
 Constitutions of 1459, it is said: "No 
 Craftsman or Master shall promote one of 
 
 his Apprentices as a Parlirer whom he has 
 taken as an Apprentice from his rough state, 
 or who is still in his years of Apprentice- 
 ship," which may be compared with the 
 old English charge that " no Brother can 
 be a Warden until he has passed the part 
 of a Fellow Craft." They were called 
 Parlirers, properly, says Heldmann, Par- 
 lierers, or Spokesmen, because, in the absence 
 of the Masters, they spoke for the Lodge to 
 
PARIS 
 
 SQUAREMEN 
 
 923 
 
 travelling Fellows seeking employment, and 
 made the examination. There are various 
 forms of the word. Kloss, citing the Stras- 
 burg Constitutions, has Parlirer; Krause 
 has, from the same document, Parlierer, but 
 says it is usually Poller; Heldmann uses 
 Parlierer, which has been now generally 
 adopted. 
 
 Paris Constitutions. A copy of 
 these Constitutions, said to,havebeen adopt- 
 ed in the thirteenth century, will be found 
 in G. P. Depping's Collection de Documents 
 inedits sur I'histoire de France, (Paris, 1837.) 
 A part of this work contains the Reglemens 
 sur les arts et metiers de Paris, redigis au 
 13me siecle et connus sous le nom de livre des 
 metiers d' Etienne Boileau. This treats of 
 the Masons, Stone-cutters, Plasterers, and 
 Mortar-makers, and, as Steinbrenner {Or. 
 and Hist, of Mas., p. 104,) says, " is interest- 
 ing, not only as exhibiting the peculiar 
 usages and customs of the Craft at that 
 early period, but as showing the connection 
 which existed between the Taws and regula- 
 tions of the French Masons and those of 
 the Steinmetzen of Germany and the Masons 
 of England." A translation of these Paris 
 
 Constitutions was published in the Free- 
 masons' Magazine, Boston, 1863, p. 201. In 
 the year 1743, the " English Grand Lodge 
 of France " published, in Paris, a series of 
 statutes, taken principally from Anderson's 
 work of the editions of 1723 and 1738. It 
 consisted of twenty articles, and bore the 
 title of " General Regulations taken from 
 the minutes of the Lodges, for the use of 
 the French Lodges, together with the alter- 
 ations adopted at the General Assembly of 
 the Grand Lodge, December 11, 1743, to 
 serve as a rule of action for the said king- 
 dom." A copy of this document, says 
 Findel, was translated into German, with 
 annotations, and published in 1856 in the 
 Zeitschrift fur Freimaurer of Altenberg. 
 
 Prince of Wales Grand Lodge. 
 About the time of the reconciliation of the 
 two contending Grand Lodges in England 
 in 1813, they were called, by way of dis- 
 tinction, after their Grand Masters. That 
 of the Moderns " was called the " Prince 
 of Wales Grand Lodge," and that of the 
 "Ancients" the "Duke of Kent's Grand 
 Lodge." The titles were used colloquially, 
 and not officially. 
 
 s. 
 
 Setting-Maul. A wooden hammer 
 used by Operative Masons to "set" the 
 stones in their proper posi- 
 tions. It is in Speculative 
 Masonry a symbol, in the 
 third degree, reminding us of 
 the death of the builder of 
 the Temple, which is said to 
 have been effected by this instrument. In 
 some Lodges it is very improperly used by 
 the Master as his gavel, from which it to- 
 tally differs in form and in symbolic sig- 
 nification. The gavel is a symbol of order 
 and decorum, the setting-maul of death by 
 violence. 
 
 Sliebet. fptP- Tne fifth month of 
 the Hebrew civil year, and corresponding 
 with the months January and February, 
 beginning with the new moon of the 
 former. 
 
 Sivan. ?VD- The ninth month of the 
 Hebrew civil' year, and corresponding with 
 the months May and June, beginning with 
 the new moon of the former. 
 
 Spencer Manuscript. Bro. Richard 
 Spencer, the celebrated Masonic bibliopolist 
 of London, in the preface to his reprint of 
 The Old Constitutions, published in 1871, 
 says that he possesses a Masonic tract of 
 twenty pages, printed in 4to, the title of 
 which is as follows : " Thebeginning and the 
 first foundation of the most worthy Craft of 
 
 Masonry, with the Charges thereunto be- 
 longing. By a deceased Brother for the 
 benefit of his widow. London : printed for 
 Mrs. Dodd at the Peacock, without Temple 
 Bar. 1739. Price Sixpence." This, he 
 thinks, is very like the Constitutions oj 1726, 
 printed by him in 1870, and is apparently 
 copied from a similar manuscript. The 
 tract to which Bro. Spencer refers has not 
 been reprinted by him, but the unknown 
 manuscript of which it is supposed to be a 
 copy has been entitled the " Spencer Man- 
 uscript." 
 
 Squaremen. The companies of 
 wrights, slaters, etc., in Scotland in the 
 seventeenth century were called " Square- 
 men." They had ceremonies of initiation, 
 and a word, sign, and grip, like the Masons. 
 Lyon {Hist, of the L. at Edinb., p. 23,) says : 
 "The 'Squaremen Word' was given in 
 conclaves of journeymen and apprentice 
 wrights, slaters, etc., in a ceremony in which 
 the aspirant was blindfolded and otherwise 
 ' prepared ; ' he was sworn to secrecy, had 
 word, grip, and sign communicated to him, 
 and was afterwards invested with a leather 
 apron. The entrance to the apartment, 
 usually a public house, in which the 
 'brithering' was performed was guarded, 
 and all who passed had to give the grip. 
 The fees were spent in the entertainment 
 of the brethren present. Like the Masons, 
 
924 
 
 ST. ALBAN'S 
 
 VETERANS 
 
 
 tlie Squaremen admitted non-operatives." 
 In the St. Clair Charter of 1628, among the 
 representatives of the Masonic Lodges, we 
 find the signature of " George Liddell, dea- 
 kin of squarmen and now quartermaistir." 
 This would show that there must have 
 been an intimate connection between the 
 two societies or crafts. 
 
 St. Alfoan's Regulations. The 
 regulations said to have been made by St. 
 Alban for the government of the Craft are 
 referred to in the Stone MS. cited by An- 
 derson in his second edition, (p. 57.) and 
 afterwards by Preston. See Saint Alban in 
 the body of this work. 
 
 Strasburg, Constitutions of. On 
 April 25, 1459, nineteen Bauhtttten, or 
 Lodges, in Southern and Central Germany 
 met at Ratisbon, and adopted regulations 
 for the government of the German Stone- 
 masons. Another meeting was held shortly 
 afterwards at Strasburg, where these statutes 
 were definitively adopted and promulgated 
 under the title of Ordenunge der Stein- 
 metzen zu Strassburg, or " Constitutions of 
 the Stonemasons of Strasburg." They from 
 time to time underwent many alterations, 
 and were confirmed by Maximilian I. in 
 1498, and subsequently by many succeed- 
 ing emperors. This old document has 
 several times been printed; in 1810, by 
 Krause, in his drei altesten kunstkrhinden 
 der Freimaurerbriiderschaft ; in 1819, by 
 
 Heldmann, in die drei altesten geschichtlichen 
 Denkmale der deutschen Freimaurerbriider- 
 schaft; in 1844, by Heideloff, in his Bau- 
 hutte des Mittelalters ; and in 1845, by Kloss, 
 in his die Freimaurerei in ihrer wahren Be- 
 deutung. Findel also, in 1866, inserted 
 portions of it in his Geschichte der Frei- 
 maurerei, which work has been ably trans- 
 lated into English by Bro. D. Murray 
 Lyon. 
 
 The invocation with which these Consti- 
 tutions commence is different from that of 
 the English Constitutions. The latter be- 
 
 fin thus: "The might of the Father of 
 eaven, with the wisdom of the blessed 
 Son, through the grace of God and good- 
 ness of the Holy Ghost, that be three per- 
 sons in one Godhead, be with us," etc. 
 The Strasburg Constitutions begin : " In 
 the name of the Father, of the Son, and of 
 the Holy Ghost, and of the gracious Mother 
 Mary, and also her blessed servants, the 
 four holy crowned ones of everlasting 
 memory," etc. The reference to the Virgin 
 Mary and to the four crowned martyrs is 
 found in none of the English Constitutions 
 except the oldest of them, the Halliwell 
 MS. But Kloss has compared the Stras- 
 burg and the English statutes, and shown 
 the great similarity in many of the regula- 
 tions of both. 
 
 Strict Trial. See Vouching in the 
 body of this work. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tammnz. fpH» The 10th month 
 of the Hebrew civil year, and correspond- 
 ing to the months June and July, begin- 
 ning with the new moon of the former. 
 
 Tebeth. »"DD. Th e 4th month of 
 the Hebrew civil year, and corresponding 
 
 to the months December and January, be- 
 ginning with the new moon of the former. 
 
 Tisri. _ HB71. The lst month of the 
 Hebrew civil year, and corresponding to 
 the months September and October, begin- 
 ning with the new moon of the former. 
 
 V. 
 
 Teadar. TTNV That is, the second 
 Adar. A month intercalated by the Jews 
 every few years between Adar and Nisan, 
 so as to reconcile the computation by solar 
 and lunar time. It commences sometimes 
 in February, and sometimes in March. 
 
 Veterans. Associations have within 
 the past few years been formed in several 
 of the jurisdictions of the United States, 
 consisting of Masons who have been in 
 good standing in the Order for many years, 
 not less than twenty. The object of these 
 associations, which are called. " Veterans 
 of Masonry," as set forth in the Constitution 
 of that of Ohio, is "the perpetuation of 
 
 Masonic friendship, the cultivation of the 
 social virtues, the collection of facts relating 
 to Masonic history and biography, the pres- 
 ervation of the good old usages of the Craft, 
 and the exertion of influence to improve 
 Masonry in every good word and work." The 
 officers of such an association are usually 
 a President, two or more Vice-Presidents, a 
 Secretary, Treasurer, and Sentinel. The 
 members wear a badge of a device regulated 
 by the association. None but Master Ma- 
 sons in good standing, who have reached 
 the required Masonic age, are eligible for 
 membership, which is not necessarily re- 
 stricted to residents of the jurisdiction. 
 
WOODFORD 
 
 WOUND 
 
 925 
 
 W. 
 
 Woodford Manuscript. A copy 
 of a manuscript which, says Bro. Hughan, 
 is " almost a verbatim copy " of the Cooke 
 MS. It has an endorsement: "This is a 
 very ancient Record of Masonry, which was 
 copied for me by William Reid, Secretary 
 to the Grand Lodge, 1728, etc." It formerly 
 belonged to Mr. William Cowper, Clerk to 
 the Parliament, and subsequently to the his- 
 torian, Sir J. Palgrave. It is now in the pos- 
 session of the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, who 
 purchased it from Mr. Thomas Kerslake, 
 of Bristol. It has never been published. 
 
 Wound, Mason's. Nicolai, in the 
 appendix to his Essay on the Accusations 
 against the Templars, says that in a small 
 dictionary published at the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century, the following defi- 
 nition is to be found : "Mason's Wound. 
 It is an imaginary wound above the elbow, 
 to represent a fracture of the arm occa- 
 sioned by a fall from an elevated place." 
 The origin and the esoteric meaning of the 
 phrase have been lost. It was probably 
 used as a test, or alluded to some legend 
 which is now lost 
 
^ 
 
INDEX. 
 
 AARON, 1. 
 Aaron's Rod, 1. 
 Ab, 1. 
 Abacus, 1. 
 Abaddon, 1. 
 Abbreviations, 1. 
 Abda, 3. 
 Abdamon, 3. 
 Abelites, 3. 
 Abibalk, 3. 
 Abide by. See Stand to and 
 
 abide by, 3. 
 Abif, 3. 
 Abiram, 4. 
 Able, 4. 
 Ablution, 5. 
 Abnet, 5. 
 Aborigines, 5. 
 Abrac, 5. 
 Abracadabra, 5. 
 Abraham, 5. 
 
 Abraham, Antoine Firmin, 6. 
 Abraxas, 6. 
 
 Stones, 6. 
 Absence, 7. 
 Acacia, 7. 
 Acacian, 9. 
 Academy, 9. 
 
 of Ancients or of Secrets, 9. 
 
 of Sages, 9. 
 
 of Secrets. See Academy of 
 Ancients, 9. 
 
 of Sublime Masters of the 
 Luminous Ring, 9. 
 
 of True Masons, 9. 
 
 Platonic, 10. 
 Acanthus, 10. 
 Accepted, 10. 
 Acclamation, 11. 
 Accolade, 11. 
 Accord, 11. 
 
 Accusation. See Charge, 11. 
 Accuser, 11. 
 Aceldama, 11. 
 Acerellos, R. S., 11. 
 Achad, 11. 
 
 Acharon Schilton, 12. 
 Achias, 12. 
 Achishar, 12. 
 Achtariel, 12. 
 Acknowledged, 12. 
 Acousmatici, 12. 
 Acquittal, 12. 
 Acta Latomorum, 13. 
 Acting Grand Master, 13. 
 Active Lodge, 13. 
 
 Active Member, 13. 
 
 Actual Past Masters, 13. 
 
 Adad, 13. 
 
 Adam, 13. 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, 14. 
 
 Adar, 14. 
 
 Adarel, 14. 
 
 Addresses, Masonic, 14. 
 
 Adelph, 15. 
 
 Adept, 15. 
 
 Prince, 16. 
 
 the, 16. 
 Adeptus Adoptatus, 16. 
 
 Coronatus, 16. 
 
 Exemptus, 16. 
 Adhering Mason, 16. 
 Adjournment, 16. 
 Admiration, Sign of, 17. 
 Admission, 17. 
 Admonition, 17. 
 Adonai, 17. 
 Adonhiram, 18. 
 Adonhiramite Masonry, 18. 
 Adoniram, 21. 
 Adoniramite Masonry. See 
 
 Adonhiramite Masonry, 21. 
 Adonis, Mysteries of, 21. 
 Adoption, Masonic, 26. 
 Adoptive Masonry, 27. 
 
 American, 33. 
 
 Egyptian, 34. 
 Adoration, 34. 
 Advanced, 34. 
 Advancement, Hurried, 34. 
 Adytum, 37. 
 ^Eneid, 37. 
 JEon, 37. 
 
 JEra, Architectonica, 37. 
 Affiliated Mason, 37. 
 Affirmation, 38. 
 Africa, 38. 
 African Architects, Order of, 38. 
 
 Brother, 41. 
 
 Brothers, 41. 
 
 Builders. See African 
 Architects, 41. 
 
 Lodges. See Negro Lodges, 
 41. 
 Agapse, 41. 
 Agate, 42. 
 
 Stone of, 42. 
 Age, Lawful, 42. 
 
 Masonic, 42. 
 Agla, 43. 
 
 Agnostus, Irenaeus, 43. 
 Agnus Dei, 43. 
 
 Agrippa, Henry Cornelius, 43. 
 Ahabath Olam, 45. 
 Ahiah, 46. 
 Ahiman Rezon, 46. 
 Ahisar. See Achishar, 49. 
 Aholiab, 49. 
 Ahriman, 50. 
 Aichmalotarch, 50. 
 Aid and Assistance, 50. 
 Aitcheson - Haven Manuscript, 
 
 51. 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, 51. 
 Akirop, 52. 
 Alabama, 52. 
 Alapa, 52. 
 Alarm, 52. 
 
 Alban, St. See Saint Alban, 53. 
 Albertus Magnus, 53. 
 Albrecht, Henry Christoph, 53. 
 Alchemy, 53. 
 
 Aldworth, the Hon. Mrs., 54. 
 Alethophile, 55. 
 Alexander I., 55. 
 Alexandria, School of, 55. 
 Alfader, 55. 
 Algabil, 56. 
 
 Ahncourt, Francois d', 56. 
 Allegiance, 56. 
 Allegory, 56. 
 Allocution, 56. 
 Allowed, 56. 
 All-Seeing Eye, 57. 
 All-Souls' Day, 57. 
 Almanac, Masonic, 57. 
 Almighty, 57. 
 Almond-Tree, 57. 
 Almoner, 58. 
 Alms-Box, 58. 
 Almsgiving, 58. 
 Alnwick Manuscript, 58. 
 Al-om-Jah, 58. 
 Aloyau, Society de 1', 58. 
 Alpha and Omega, 58. 
 Alphabet, Angels', 59. 
 
 Hebrew, 59. 
 
 Masonic. See Cipher, 59. 
 
 Samaritan, 59. 
 Alpina, 59. 
 Altar, 60. 
 Altenberg, Congress of, 60. 
 
 Lodge at, 61. 
 Amaranth, 61. 
 Amar-jah, 61. 
 Amazons, Order of, 61. 
 Amen, 61. 
 Amendment, 61. 
 
 927 
 
928 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 American Mysteries, 62. 
 
 Rite, 62. 
 Ameth. See Emeth, 63. 
 Amethyst, 63. 
 Amicists, Order of, 63. 
 Amis Reunis, Loge des, 63. 
 Ammon. See Amun, 63. 
 Ammonitish War, 63. 
 Amphibalus. See Saint Am- 
 
 phibalus, 63. 
 Amulet. See Talisman, 63. 
 Amun, 63. 
 Anachronism, 63. 
 Anagram, 64. 
 Ananiah, 64. 
 Anchor and Ark, 64. 
 
 Knight of the. See Knight 
 of the Anchor, 65. 
 
 Order of Knights and La- 
 dies of the, 65. 
 Ancient and Accepted Rite. See 
 Scottish Rite, 65. 
 
 Craft Masonry, 65. 
 
 Free and Accepted Ma- 
 sons, 65. 
 
 Masons, 65. 
 
 Reformed Rite, 68. 
 
 of I)ays, 68. 
 Ancients. See Ancient Ma- 
 sons, 68. 
 Ancient, The, 68. 
 
 York Masons, 68. 
 Anderson, James, 68. 
 
 Manuscript, 68. 
 Andrea, John Valentine, 69. 
 Andre, Christopher, 69. 
 Andrew, Apprentice and Fellow 
 Craft of St., 69. 
 
 Cross of St. See Cross, St. 
 Andrew's, 69. 
 
 Favorite of St., 69. 
 
 Grand Scotch Knight of. 
 See Knight of St. Andrew, 
 69. 
 Androgynous Degrees, 69. 
 
 Masonry, 70. 
 Angel, 70. 
 
 Angelic Brothers, 70. 
 Angels' Alphabet. See Alpha- 
 bet, Angels', 70. 
 Angerona, 70. 
 Angle, 70. 
 Angular Triad, 70. 
 Animal Worship, 70. 
 Annales Chronologiques, 71. 
 
 Originis Magni Galliarum 
 Orientis, etc., 71. 
 Anniversary. See Festivals, 71. 
 Anno Depositions, 71. 
 
 Hebraico, 71. 
 
 Inventionis, 71. 
 
 Lucis, 71. 
 
 Mundi, 71. 
 
 Ordinis, 71. 
 Annuaire, 71. 
 Annual Communication, 71. 
 
 Proceedings, 71. 
 Annuities, 71. 
 Anointing, 71. 
 Anonymous Society, 72. 
 Ansyreeh, 72. 
 Antediluvian Masonry, 72. 
 Anthem, 72. 
 Anti-Masonic Books, 72. 
 
 Anti-Masonic Party, 75. 
 Anti-Masonry, 76. 
 Antin, Duke d', 76. 
 Antipodeans, 76. 
 Antiquity, Lodge of, 76. 
 
 Manuscript, 76. 
 
 of Freemasonry, 77. 
 Anton, Dr. Carl Gottlob von, 78. 
 
 Hieronymus, 78. 
 Ape and Lion, Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the Ape and 
 Lion, 79. 
 Aphanism, 79. 
 Apocalypse, Masonry of the, 79. 
 
 Order of the, 80. 
 Apocalyptic Degrees, 80. 
 Aporrheta, 80. 
 Appeal, Right of, 81. 
 Appendant Orders, 81. 
 Apple-Tree Tavern, 81. 
 Apprenti, 81. 
 
 Apprentice. See Apprentice, 
 Entered, 81. 
 
 Architect, 81. 
 Perfect, 81. 
 Prussian, 81. 
 
 Cohen, 81. 
 
 Egyptian, 81. 
 
 Entered, 81. 
 
 Hermetic, 82. 
 
 Kabbalistic, 82. 
 
 Mason, 82. 
 
 Masoness, 82. 
 
 Masoness, Egyptian, 82. 
 
 Mystic, 82. 
 
 of Paracelsus, 82. 
 
 of the Egyptian Secrets, 82. 
 
 Philosopher, by the No. 3, 
 83. 
 Hermetic, 83. 
 to the No. 9, 83. 
 
 Pillar. See Prentice Pil- 
 lar, 83. 
 
 Scottish, 83. 
 
 Theosophist, 83. 
 Apron, 83. 
 
 Araunah. See Oman, 85. 
 Arbitration, 85. 
 Arcana, 85. 
 Arcani Discipline, 85. 
 Arch, Antiquity of, 85. 
 
 Catenarian. See Catenarian 
 Arch, 85. 
 
 of Enoch, 85. 
 
 of Heaven, 85. 
 
 of Solomon, Royal, 85. 
 
 of Steel, 85. 
 
 of Zerubbabel, Royal, 85. 
 
 Royal. See Royal Arch, 85. 
 Archaeology, 85. 
 Archetype, 86. 
 Architect, 86. 
 
 African. See African Archi- 
 tects, 86. 
 
 by 3, 5, and 7, Grand, 86. 
 
 Grand, 86. 
 
 Master. See Grand 
 Master Architect, 86. 
 
 Little, 86. 
 
 of Solomon, 86. 
 
 Perfect, 86. 
 
 Perfect and Sublime Grand, 
 86. 
 Architectonicus, 86. 
 
 Architecture, 86. 
 
 Piece of, 87. 
 Archives, 87. 
 
 Grand Guardian of the, 87. 
 Keeper of the, 87. 
 Archiviste, 87. 
 Ardarel, 87. 
 Arelim, 87. 
 Areopagus, 87. 
 Arithmetic, 87. 
 Ark, 87. 
 
 and Anchor. See Anchor 
 and Ark, 87. 
 
 and Dove, 87. 
 
 Mariners. See Royal Ark 
 Mariners, 87. 
 
 Noah's, 87. 
 
 of the Covenant, 87. 
 
 Substitute, 88. 
 Arkite Worship, 89. 
 Armenbiische, 89. 
 Armes, 89. 
 Armiger, 89. 
 Armory, 89. 
 Arms of Masonry, 89. 
 Arras, Primordial Chapter of, 
 
 90. 
 Arrest of Charter, 90. 
 Arthusius, Gotthardus, 90. 
 Art, Royal. See Royal Art, 90. 
 Arts, 90. 
 
 Liberal. See Liberal Arts 
 and Sciences, 90. 
 Ascension Day, 90. 
 Ashe, D. D., Rev. Jonathan, 90. 
 Asher, Dr. Carl Wilhelm, 91. 
 Ashlar, 91, 
 Ashmole, Elias, 91. 
 Asia, Initiated Knights and 
 Brothers of, 92. 
 
 Perfect Initiates of, 92. 
 Ask, Seek, Knock, 92. 
 Aspirant, 92. 
 Assassins, 92. 
 
 of the Third Degree, 93. 
 Assembly, 93. 
 
 Assistance. See Aid and Assist- 
 ance, 94. 
 Associates of the Temple, 94. 
 Association, 94. 
 Astrsea, 94. 
 Astronomy, 94. 
 Asylum, 94. 
 
 for Aged Freemasons, 94. 
 Atelier, 94. 
 Atheist, 95. 
 Athelstan, 95. 
 Athol Masons, 95. 
 Attendance. See Absence, 95. 
 Attouchement, 95. 
 Attributes, 95. 
 Atwood, Henry C, 95. 
 Atys, 95. 
 Auditor, 95. 
 Aufseher, 96. 
 Augustine, St. See Saint Atu- 
 
 gustine, 96. 
 Aum, 96. 
 Aumont, 96. 
 Auserw'ahlter, 96. 
 Austin. See Saint Augustine,96. 
 Australasia, 96. 
 Austria, 96. 
 Authentic, 97. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 929 
 
 Authenticity of the Scriptures, 
 
 97. 
 Autopsy, 97. 
 Auxiliary Degrees, 97. 
 Avenue, 97. 
 
 Avignon, Illuminati of, 97. 
 Avouch ment. See Vouching, 97. 
 Award, 97. 
 Ayes and Noes, 97. 
 Aynon, 97. 
 Azariah, 97. 
 
 BAAL, 98. 
 Babel, 98. 
 Babylon, 98. 
 
 Red Cross of, 99. 
 Babylonish Captivity. See Cap- 
 tivity, 99. 
 
 Pass, 99. 
 Back, 99. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, 99. 
 Baculus, 100. 
 Baden, 101. 
 Badge, 101. 
 
 of a Mason, 102. 
 
 Royal Arch, 102. 
 Bafomet. See Baphomet, 102. 
 Bag, 102. 
 Bagulkal, 102. 
 Bahrdt, Karl Fred., 102. 
 Baldachin, 102. 
 Baldrick, 102. 
 Baldwyn II., 102. 
 
 Encampment, 102. 
 Balkis, 103. 
 Ballot, 103. 
 
 Box, 104. 
 
 Reconsideration of the. See 
 Rec. of theBal., 104. 
 
 Secrecy of the, 105. 
 
 Unanimity of the, 105. 
 Balsamo, Joseph. See Caglios- 
 
 tro, 105. 
 Baltimore Convention, 105. 
 Baluster, 106. 
 Balzac, Louis Charles, 106. 
 Banners, Royal Arch, 106. 
 Banquet. See Table-Lodge, 107. 
 Baphomet, 107. 
 Baptism, Masonic, 107. 
 Bard, 108. 
 Bastard, 108. 
 
 Barefeet. See Discalceation, 108. 
 Barruel, Abbe, 108. 
 Basket, 109. 
 Basle, Congress of, 109. 
 Baton, 109. 
 Bat Parliament, 109. 
 Bavaria, 109. 
 Bay Tree, 109. 
 
 Bazot, Etienne Francois, 110. 
 B. D. S. P. H. G. F., 110. 
 Beadle, 110. 
 Beaton, Mrs., 110. 
 Beaucenifer, 110. 
 Beauchaine, 110. 
 Beauseant, 110. 
 Beauty, 111. 
 
 and Bands, 111. 
 Becker. See Johnson, 111. 
 
 Rudolph Zacharias, 111. 
 BSdarride, The Brothers, 111. 
 Beehive, 111. 
 Behavior, 111. 
 
 5R 
 
 Behold Your Master, 112. 
 Bel, 112. 
 Belenus, 112. 
 Belgium, 112. 
 Belief, Religious, 112. 
 Bells, 112. 
 Benac, 112. 
 Bendekar, 112. 
 Benedict XIV., 113. 
 Benediction, 113. 
 Beneficiary, 113. 
 Benefit Fund, 113. 
 Benevolence, 113. 
 
 Fund of, 113. 
 Bengabee, 113. 
 Bengal, 113. 
 Benjamin, 114. 
 Benkhurim, 114. 
 Benyah, Hi. 
 Berith, 114. 
 Berlin, 114. 
 Bernard, David, 114. 
 
 Saint, 114. 
 Beryl, 114. 
 
 Beyerle, Francois Louis de, 114. 
 Bezaleel, 114. 
 Bible, 114. 
 
 Bearer, 115. 
 Bibliography, 115. 
 Bielfeld, Jacob Frederick, 115. 
 Birkhead, Matthew, 115. 
 Black, 115. 
 
 Ball, 115. 
 Black-board, 116. 
 Black Brothers, Order of the,116 
 Blazing Star, 116. 
 
 Order of the, 118. 
 Blessing. See Benediction, 118. 
 Blind, 118. 
 Blindness, 118. 
 Blow, 118. 
 Blue, 119. 
 
 Blanket, 120. 
 
 Degrees, 120. 
 
 Lodge, 120. 
 
 Masonry, 120. 
 
 Master, 120. 
 Board of General Purposes, 120. 
 
 of Relief. See Belie/, Board 
 of, 120. 
 Boaz, 120. 
 Bode, Johann Joachim Chris- 
 
 toph, 120. 
 Boeber, Johann, 121. 
 Boehmen, Jacob, 121. 
 Bohemann, Karl Adolf, 121. 
 Bohemia, 121. 
 Bombay, 121. 
 Bonaim, 121. 
 Bondman, 122. 
 Bone, 122. 
 
 Box, 122. 
 Bonneville, Chevalier de, 122. 
 
 Nicolas de, 122. 
 Book of Charges, 122. 
 
 of Constitutions, 122. 
 
 guarded by the Tiler's 
 Sword, 124. 
 
 of Gold, 124. 
 
 of the Law, 124. 
 Books, Anti-Masonic. See Anti- 
 Masonic Books, 125. 
 Border, Tesselated. See Tessel- 
 ated Border, 125. 
 
 59 
 
 Bourn, 125. 
 Box-Master, 125. 
 Boys' School, 125. 
 Brahmanism, 125. 
 Brazen Serpent. See Serpent 
 and Cross, 125. 
 Knight of the. See Knight 
 of the Brazen Serpent, 125 
 Brazil, 125. 
 
 Bread, Consecrated, 126. 
 Breadth of the Lodge. See .Form 
 
 of the Lodge, 126. 
 Breast, 126. 
 Breastplate, 126. 
 Breast, The Faithful, 128. 
 Breast to Breast. See Five Points 
 
 of Fellowship, 128. 
 Brethren, 128. 
 
 of the Bridge. See Bridge 
 
 Builders, etc., 128. 
 
 of the Mystic Tie, 128. 
 
 Bridge Builders of the Middle 
 
 Ages, 128. 
 Brief, 130. 
 Bright, 130. 
 
 Broached Thurnel, 130. 
 Broken Column, 131. 
 Brother, 131. 
 Brotherhood, 131. 
 Brotherly K iss. See Kiss, Fra- 
 ternal, 131. 
 Love, 131. 
 Brothers of the Rosy Cross. See 
 
 Rosicrucians, 132. 
 Browne, John, 132. 
 Bru. See Vielle Bru, Rite of, 132. 
 Bruce, Robert, 132. 
 Briin, Abraham Van, 133. 
 Brunswick, Congress of, 133. 
 Buenos Ayres, 133. 
 Buh, 133. 
 
 Buhle, Johann Gottlieb, 133. 
 Builder, 133. 
 
 Smitten. See Smitten Build- 
 er, 133. 
 Builders, Corporations of. See 
 
 Stonemasons of tlie Middle 
 
 Ages, 133. 
 Bui, 133. 
 Bull, Papal, 133. 
 Bulletin, 134. 
 Bunyan, John, 134. 
 Burdens, Bearers of, 134. 
 Burial, 134. 
 Burning Bush ? 134. 
 Burnes, James, 135. 
 Burns, Robert, 135. 
 Business, 135. 
 Byblos, 135. 
 By-Laws, 135. 
 
 CABALA, 126. 
 Cabiric Mysteries, 136. 
 Cable Tow, 136. 
 Cable Tow's Length, 136. 
 Cabul, 136. 
 Cadet-Gassicourt, Charles Louis, 
 
 137. 
 Cadmillus, 137. 
 Caduceus, 137. 
 Cffimentarius, 137. 
 Cagliostro, 188. 
 Cahier, 143. 
 Cairns, 143. 
 
930 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Calcott, Wellins, 143. 
 Calendar, 143. 
 California, 144. 
 Calling Off, 144. 
 
 On, 145. 
 Calumny. See Back, 145. 
 Calvary, 145. 
 Camp, 146. 
 
 Campe, Joachim Heinrich, 146. 
 Canada, 146. 
 Candidate, 146. 
 
 Candidates, Advancement of. 
 See Advancement, Hurried, 
 146. 
 Candlestick, Golden, 146. 
 Canopy, 147. 
 
 Clouded, 147. 
 Canzler, Carl Christian, 147. 
 Cape-Stone, 147. 
 Capitular Degrees, 147. 
 
 Masonry, 148. 
 Captain General, 148. 
 of the Guard, 148. 
 of the Host, 148. 
 Captivity, 148. 
 Carausius, 149. 
 Carbonarism, 149. 
 Carbuncle, 150. 
 Cardinal Points, 150. 
 
 Virtues, 150. 
 Carlile, Richard, 150. 
 Carpet, 150. 
 Casmaran, 150. 
 Cassia, 150. 
 Castellan, 151. 
 Casting Voice or Vote, 151. 
 Catafalque, 151. 
 Catch Questions, 151. 
 Catechism, 151. 
 Catenarian Arch, 151. 
 Catharine II., 151. 
 Caution, 152. 
 Cavern, 152. 
 Cedars of Lebanon, 152. 
 Celebration, 153. 
 Celestial Alphabet. See Alpha- 
 bet of Angels, 153. 
 Celtic Mysteries. See Druidism, 
 
 153. 
 Celts, 153. 
 Cement, 153. 
 Cemeteries, Masonic, 153. 
 Censer, 153. 
 Censor, 153. 
 Censure, 153. 
 Centaine, Order of, 153. 
 Centennial, 154. 
 Centralists, 1 54. 
 
 Central Point. See Point with- 
 in a Circle, 154. 
 Centre, Opening on the, 154. 
 Cephas, 154. 
 Ceremonies, 154. 
 
 Master of. See Master of 
 Ceremonies, 154. 
 Ceres, 154. 
 
 Cerneau, Joseph, 154. 
 Certificate, 154. 
 Chaillou de Joinville, 155. 
 Chain, Mystic, 155. 
 of Flowers, 155. 
 of Union. See Chain, Mys- 
 tic, 155. 
 Triangular, 155. 
 
 Chair, 155. 
 
 Master in the, 155. 
 Oriental, 155. 
 Passing the, 155. 
 Chairman, 155. 
 Chaldea, 155. 
 
 Chaldeans or Chaldees, 156. 
 Chalice, 156. 
 
 Chalk, Charcoal, and Clay, 156. 
 Chamber, Middle. See middle 
 Chamber, 156. 
 of Reflection, 156. 
 Chancellor, 156. 
 Grand, 156. 
 Chaos, 156. 
 
 Disentangled, 156. 
 Chapeau, 156. 
 Chapel, 157. 
 
 St. Mary's, 157. 
 Chapiter, 157. 
 Chaplain, 157. 
 
 Grand, 157. 
 Chapter, 157. 
 
 General Grand. See Gen- 
 eral Grand Chapter, 157. 
 Grand. See Grand Chapter, 
 
 157. 
 Mason, 157. 
 Masonry, 157. 
 Rose Croix. See Rose 
 
 Croix, Prince of, 157. 
 Royal Arch, 157. 
 Chapters, Irish. See Irish 
 
 Chapters, 157. 
 Characteristic Name. See Or- 
 der Name, 157. 
 Charcoal. See Chalk, etc., 157. 
 Charge, 157. 
 Charges, 157. 
 
 of 1722, 158. 
 Charity, 158. 
 
 Committee. See Committee 
 
 on Charity, 158. 
 Fund, 158. 
 Charlatan, 159. 
 Charlemagne, 159. 
 Charles Martel, 159. 
 I. and II., 159. 
 XIII., 159. 
 
 Order of, 159. 
 Charleston, 159. 
 
 Charms, Magical. See Talis- 
 man, 159. 
 Chart, 159. 
 Charter, 159. 
 Chartered Lodge, 160. 
 Charter Member, 160. 
 
 of Cologne. See Cologne, 
 
 Charter of, 160. 
 of Transmission. See Trans- 
 mission, Charter of, 160. 
 Chasidim, 160. 
 Chastanier, Benedict, 160. 
 Chastity, 160. 
 Chasuble, 160. 
 Checkered Floor. See Mosaic 
 
 Pavement, 160. 
 Chef-d'oeuvre, 160. 
 Chereau, Antoine Guilliaume, 
 
 160. 
 Cherubim, 161. 
 Chesed, 161. 
 Chevalier, 161. 
 Chibbelum, 161. 
 
 Chicago, Congress of, 161. 
 Chief of the Tabernacle, 161. 
 
 of the Twelve Tribes, 161. 
 Chiefs of Masonry, 161. 
 Chili, 161. 
 China, 161. 
 
 Chinese Secret Societies, 162. 
 Chisel, 162. 
 Chivalry, 162. 
 Christ, Order of, 162. 
 Christianization of Freemason- 
 ry, 162. 
 Church, Freemasons of the, 163. 
 Cipher Writing, 163. 
 Circle, 165. 
 
 Circular Temples, 165. 
 Circumambulation, Rite of, 165. 
 Circumspection, 166. 
 City of David, 166. 
 
 of the Great King, 166. 
 Civilization and Freemasonry, 
 
 166. 
 Clandestine, 167. 
 
 Lodge, 167. 
 
 Mason, 167. 
 Clare, Martin, 167. 
 Classification of Masons, 167. 
 Clay Ground, 167. 
 Clean Hands. 168. 
 Cleave, 168. 
 Clefts of the Rocks, 168. 
 Clement XII., 168. 
 Clerks of Strict Observance, 
 
 168. 
 Clermont, Chapter of, 169. 
 
 College of, 169. 
 
 Count of, 169. 
 Clinton, De Witt, 169. 
 Closing, 169. 
 Clothed, 170. ' 
 Clothing the Lodge, 170. 
 Clouded Canopy. See Canopy, 
 
 Clouded, 170. 
 Cloud, Pillar of. See Pillar of 
 
 Fire and Cloud, 170. 
 Cloudy, 170. 
 Clubs, 170. 
 
 Coat of the Tiler, 170. 
 Cochleus, 170. 
 Cock, 170. 
 Cockade, 171. 
 Cockle Shell, 171. 
 Ccetus, 171. 
 Coffin, 171. 
 Cohen, 171. 
 Cohens, Elected. See Pascalis, 
 
 Martin, 171. 
 Cole, Benjamin, 171. 
 
 Manuscript, 171. 
 
 Samuel, 171. 
 Collar, 171. 
 
 Colleges, Masonic, 172. 
 Collegia Artificum, 172. 
 Collegium, 172. 
 Cologne, Cathedral of, 172. 
 
 Charter of, 173. 
 
 Congress of, 174. 
 Colonial Lodges, 174. 
 Colorado, 174. 
 Colors, Symbolism of, 174. 
 Columbia, British, 174. 
 
 District of, 175. 
 Column, 175. 
 Combination of Masons, 175. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 931 
 
 Commander, 175. 
 
 Grand. See Grand Com- 
 mander, 175. 
 
 in-Chief, 175. 
 Commandery, 175. 
 
 Grand, 176. 
 Committee, 176. 
 
 General, 176. 
 
 of Charity, 176. 
 
 of Finance, 176. 
 
 on Foreign Correspondence, 
 176. 
 
 Private, 178. 
 
 Report of. See Report of a 
 Committee, 178. 
 Common Gavel. See Gavel, 178. 
 Communication, 178. 
 
 Grand, 178. 
 
 of Degrees, 178. 
 
 Quarterly, 179. 
 Communion of the Brethren. 
 See Bread, Consecrated, 179. 
 Como, 179. 
 Compagnon, 179. 
 Compagnonage, 179. 
 Compagnons de la Tour, 181. 
 Companion, 181. 
 Compasses, 181. 
 Composite, 181. 
 Concealment of the Body. See 
 
 Aphanism, 181. 
 Conclave, 181. 
 Concordists, 181. 
 Confederacies, 182. 
 Conference Lodges, 182. 
 Conferring Degrees, 182. 
 Confusion of Tongues, 182. 
 Congregations, 182. 
 Congresses, Masonic, 182. 
 Consecration, 182. 
 
 Elements of, 182. 
 Conservators of Masonry, 182. 
 
 Grand. See Grand Con- 
 servators, 183. 
 Consistory, 183. 
 
 Grand. See Grand Con- 
 sistory, 183. 
 Constable, Grand, 183. 
 Constantine. See Red Cross of 
 
 Rome and Constantine, 183. 
 Constituted Legally, 183. 
 Constitution of a Lodge, 183. 
 Constitutions of 1762, 183. 
 
 of 1786, 184. 
 
 Old. See Records, Old, 185. 
 
 Secret. See Secret Consti- 
 tutions, 185. 
 Consummatum est, 185. 
 Contemplative, 185. 
 Continental Lodges, 185. 
 Contumacy, 185. 
 Convention, 185. 
 
 Night, 185. 
 Conversation, 185. 
 Convocation, 185. 
 
 Grand, 185. 
 Cooke's Manuscript, 185. 
 Cope-Stone. See Cape-Stone, 186. 
 Cord, Hindu Sacred. See Zen- 
 naar, 186. 
 
 Silver. See Silver Cord, 186. 
 
 Threefold. See Threefold 
 Cord, 186. 
 Cordon, 186. 
 
 Corinthian Order, 186. 
 Corner, North-East. See North- 
 East Corner, 186. 
 Stone, Symbolism of the, 
 186. 
 Corn of Nourishment, 187. 
 
 Wine, and Oil, 187. 
 Cornucopia, 187. 
 Correspondence. See Committee 
 on Foreign Correspondence, 
 187. 
 Corresponding Grand Secretary, 
 
 187. 
 Corybantes, Mysteries of, 187. 
 Cosmopolite, 188. 
 Council, 188. 
 
 Chamber, 188. 
 
 Grand. See Grand Council, 
 
 188. 
 of Knights of the Bed Cross, 
 
 188. 
 of Royal and Select Masters, 
 
 188. 
 of Roval Masters, 188. 
 of Select Masters, 188. 
 of the Trinity, 188. 
 Supreme. See Supreme 
 Council, 188. 
 Courtesy, 188. 
 Coustos, John, 188. 
 Couvreur, 190. 
 Couvrir le Temple, 190. 
 Covenant of Masonry, 190. 
 Covering of the Lodge, 191. 
 Cowan, 191. 
 Craft, 192. 
 
 Masonry, Ancient. See 
 Ancient Craft Masonry, 
 192. 
 Crafted, 192. 
 Craftsman, 192. 
 Create, 192. 
 Creation, 192. 
 Creed, A Mason's, 192. 
 Creuzer, Georg Fred., 193. 
 Crimes, Masonic, 193. 
 Cromlech, 193. 
 Cromwell, 193. 
 Cross, 194. 
 
 Double. See Cross, Patri- 
 archal, 195. 
 Jerusalem, 195. 
 Maltese, 195. 
 of Constantine. See Laba- 
 
 rum, 195. 
 of Salem, 195. 
 Passion, 195. 
 Patriarchal, 195. 
 St. Andrew's, 196. 
 Tau, 196. 
 Templar, 196. 
 Teutonic, 196. 
 Thrice Illustrious Order of 
 
 the, 196. 
 Triple. See Crass of Salem, 
 196. 
 Cross-Bearing Men, 196. 
 Crossing the River, 196. 
 Cross, Jeremy L., 196. 
 Cross-legged Knights, 197. 
 
 Masons, 197. 
 Crotona, 197. 
 Crow, 197. 
 Crown, 197. 
 
 Crown, Knightof the. SeeKnight 
 
 of the Crown, 197. 
 
 Princesses of the, 197. 
 
 Crowned Martyrs. See Four 
 
 Crovmed Martyrs, 197. 
 Crowning of Masonry, 197. 
 Crucefix, Robert T., 197. 
 Crucifix, 198. 
 Crusades, 198. 
 Crux Ansata, 198. 
 Crypt, 199. 
 Cryptic Degrees, 199. 
 
 Masonry, 199. 
 Cteis, 199. 
 Cubical Stone, 199. 
 Cubit, 199. 
 Culdees, 199. 
 Cunning, 199. 
 Cup of Bitterness, 200. 
 Curetes, 200. 
 Curiosity, 200. 
 Curious* 200. 
 Customs, Ancient. See Usages, 
 
 200. 
 Cynocephalus, 200. 
 Cyrus, 200. 
 
 DA COSTA HYPPOLITO, 
 Jose, 200. 
 Daduchos, 201. 
 Dagger, 201. 
 Dais, 201. 
 
 Dalcho, M.D., Fred., 201. 
 Damascus, 202. 
 Dame, 202. 
 Dames of Mt. Tabor, 202. 
 
 the Order of St. John, 202. 
 Damoisel, 202. 
 Dan, 202. 
 Danger, 202. 
 Dannebrog, 203. 
 Dantzic, 203. 
 Darius, 203. 
 Darkness, 203. 
 
 Darmstadt, Grand Lodge of, 203. 
 D'Assigny, Doctor Fifield, 203. 
 Dates, Masonic. See Calendar, 
 
 204. 
 Dathan, 204. 
 
 Daughter, Mason's. See Ma- 
 son's Wife and Daughter, 
 204. 
 
 of a Mason, 204. 
 David, 204. 
 
 Shield of. See Shield of 
 David, 204. 
 Dazard, Michel Francois, 204. 
 Deacon, 204. 
 
 Deacon's Rod. See Rod, Dea- 
 con's, 204. 
 Deaf and Dumb, 204. 
 Death, 205. 
 
 of the Mysteries, 205. 
 Debate, 205. 
 Decalogue, 205. 
 Decius, 206. 
 Declaration of Candidates, 206. 
 
 the Master, 206. 
 Decorations, 206. 
 Dedication of a Lodge, 206. 
 
 the Temple, 209. 
 Defamation. See Back, 210. 
 Definition of Freemasonry, 210. 
 Deformity, 210. 
 
932 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Degrees, 210. 
 
 Ancient Craft. See Ancient 
 
 Craft Masonry, 211. 
 Androgynous, 211. 
 Apocalyptic. See Apoca- 
 lyptic Degrees, 211. 
 High. See Sautes Grades, 
 
 211. 
 Honorary. See Honorary 
 
 Degrees, 211. 
 Ineffable. See Ineffable 
 
 Degrees, 211. 
 of Chivalry, 211. 
 of Knowledge, 211. 
 Philosophical. See Philo- 
 sophical Degrees, 211. 
 Symbolic. See Symbolic 
 Degrees, 211. 
 Deism, 211. 
 Deity. See Grand Architect of 
 
 the Universe, 212. 
 Delalaude, Charles Florent Jac- 
 ques, 212. 
 Joseph J6r6me Francois, 
 212. 
 Delaunay, Francois H. Stanis- 
 laus, 212. 
 Delaware, 212. 
 Delegates, 212. 
 Delta, 212. 
 Demeter, 212. 
 Demit, 212. 
 Denmark, 212. 
 Deposite, 213. 
 
 Year of. See Anno Depo- 
 sitionis, 213. 
 Depth of the Lodge, 213. 
 Deputation, 213. 
 Depute Grand Master, 213. 
 Deputy, 213. 
 
 Grand Chapter, 213. 
 
 Master, 213. 
 Lodge, 214. 
 Master, 214. 
 Dermott, Laurence, 214. 
 Derwentwater, 214. 
 Desaguliers, John Theophilus, 
 
 214. 
 Des Etangs, Nicholas Charles, 
 
 216. 
 Design of Freemasonry, 217. 
 Destruction of the Temple. 
 
 217. 
 Detached Degrees, 217. 
 Deuchar Charters, 217. 
 Deus Meumque Jus, 218. 
 Development, 218. 
 Device, 218. 
 Devoir, 219. 
 
 of a Knight, 219. 
 Devotions, 219. 
 Dialectics, 219. 
 Diamond, 219. 
 Dieseal, 219. 
 
 Dieu et mon Droit. See Deus 
 Meumque Jus, 219. 
 le Veut, 219. 
 Dignitaries, 219. 
 Dimit, 219. 
 Diocesan, 222. 
 Dionysian Architects, 222. 
 
 Mysteries, 222. 
 Dionysus, 223. 
 Diploma, 223. 
 
 Director of Ceremonies, Grand, 
 
 223. 
 Directory, 223. 
 
 Roman Helvetic, 223. 
 Discalceation, Rite of, 223. 
 Disciplina Arcani. See Disci- 
 pline of the Secret, 224. 
 Discipline, 224. 
 
 of the Secret, 224. 
 Discovery of the Body. See 
 Euresis, 226. 
 
 Year of the, 226. 
 Dispensation, 226. 
 
 Lodges under. See Lodges 
 under Dispensation, 226. 
 Dispensations of Religion, 226. 
 Dispersion of Mankind, 227. 
 Disputes, 228. 
 Distinctive Title, 228. 
 Distress, Sign of. See Sign of 
 
 Distress, 228. 
 District Deputy Grand Master, 
 228. 
 
 Grand Lodges, 228. 
 Documents, Three Oldest. See 
 
 Krause, 228. 
 Dog, 228. 
 Dolmen, 228. 
 
 Dominican Republic, 228. 
 Donats, 228. 
 Door, 228. 
 Doric Order, 228. 
 Dormant Lodge, 229. 
 Dormer, 229. 
 Dotage, 229. 
 Double Cube, 229. 
 
 Headed Eagle. See Eagle, 
 Double-Headed, 229. 
 Dove, 229. 
 Draeseke, Johann Heinrich 
 
 Bernhardt, 229. 
 Drake, M. D., Francis, 229. 
 Dramatic Literature of Mason- 
 ry, 229. 
 Dresden, Congress of, 230. 
 Dress of a Mason. See Clothed, 
 
 230. 
 Drop Cloth, 230. 
 Druidical Mysteries, 230. 
 Druses, 231. 
 Duad, 231. 
 Dualism, 231. 
 Dub, 232. 
 Due East and West, 232. 
 
 Examination, 232. 
 
 Form 232. 
 
 Guard, 232. 
 Duelling, 232. 
 Dues, 232. 
 Dumbness, 232. 
 Dummy, 232. 
 Dunckerley, Thomas, 232. 
 Dupaty, Louis Emanuel Charles 
 
 Mercier, 235. 
 Duty, 235. 
 
 EAGLE, 235. 
 and Pelican, Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the Eagle 
 and Pelican, 236. 
 Double-Headed, 236. 
 Knight of the. See Knight 
 
 of the Eagle, 237. 
 Knight of the American. 
 
 See Knight of the Ameri- 
 can Eagle, 237. 
 Eagle, Knight of the Black. See 
 Knight of the Black Ea- 
 gle, 237. 
 Knight of the Gold. See 
 Knight of the Gold Ea- 
 gle, 237. 
 Knight of the Prussian. See 
 Knight of the Prussian 
 Eagle, 237. 
 Knight of the Red. See 
 Knight of the Bed Eagle, 
 237. 
 Knight of the White and 
 Black. See Knight of the 
 White andBlackEagle,237 
 Eagles, Knight of the Two 
 Crowned. See Knight of the 
 Two Crowned Eagles, 237. 
 Ear of Corn, 237. 
 
 the Listening, 237. 
 Earthen Pan, 237. 
 East, 237. 
 
 and West, Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the East 
 and West, 238. 
 Grand, 238. 
 Indies. See India. 
 Knight of the. See Knight 
 of the East, 238. 
 Easter, 238. 
 
 Monday, 238. 
 Eastern Star, Order of the, 238. 
 East Port, 238. 
 Eavesdropper, 238. 
 Ebony Box, 238. 
 Eclectic Masonry, 238. 
 Rite, 239. 
 Union, 239. 
 Ecossais, 239. 
 
 Architect, Perfect, 239. 
 English, 239. 
 Faithful, 239. 
 French, 239. 
 Grand, 240. 
 
 Architect, 240. 
 Master, 240. 
 Knight, 240. 
 Master, 240. 
 Novice, 240. 
 of Clermont, 240. 
 of England, 240. 
 of Franville, 240. 
 of Hiram, 240. 
 of Messina, 240. 
 of Montpellier, 240. 
 of Naples, 240. 
 of Perfection, 240. 
 of Prussia, 240. 
 of St. Andrew, 240. 
 of St. George, 240. 
 of the Forty, 240. 
 of the Lodge of Prince Ed- 
 ward, 240. 
 of the Sacred Vault of 
 
 James VI., 240. 
 of the Three J. J. J., 240. 
 of Toulouse, 240. 
 of the Triple Triangle, 240. 
 Parisian, 240. 
 Perfect, 240. 
 Ecossism, 240. 
 Ecuador, 240. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 933 
 
 Edict of Cyrus, 240. 
 Edicts, 241. 
 Edinburgh, 241. 
 
 Congress of, 241. 
 Edwin, 241. 
 Egg, Mundane, 241. 
 Eglinton Manuscript, 242. 
 Egyptian Masonry. See Cagli- 
 ostro, 242. 
 
 Mysteries, 242. 
 
 Priests, Initiations of the, 
 243. 
 Eheyeh asher Eheyeh, 244. 
 Eight, 245. 
 Eighty-One, 245. 
 El, 245. 
 Elchanan, 245. 
 Elders, 245. 
 Elect. See Elu, 245. 
 
 Brother, 245. 
 
 Cohens, Order of. See Pas- 
 chalis, Martin, 245. 
 
 Commander, 245. 
 
 Grand, 245. 
 
 Lady, Sublime, 245. 
 
 Little English, 245. 
 
 Master, 245. 
 • of Fifteen, 245. 
 
 of London, 245. 
 
 of Nine, 246. 
 
 of Nine and Fifteen, 246. 
 
 of Perignan, 246. 
 
 of the New Jerusalem, 246. 
 
 of the Twelve Tribes, 246. 
 
 of Truth, Rite of, 246. 
 
 of Twelve. Bee Knight Elect 
 of Twelve, 246. 
 
 Perfect, 246. 
 
 and Sublime Mason. 
 See Perfection, De- 
 gree of, 246. 
 
 Philosopher, 246. 
 
 Secret, Severe Inspector, 246 
 
 Sovereign, 246. 
 
 Sublime, 246. 
 
 Supreme, 246. 
 Election of Officers, 246. 
 Elective Officers, 246. 
 Eleham. See Elchanan, 246. 
 Elements, 246. 
 Elephanta, 247. 
 Eleusinian Mysteries, 247. 
 Eleven, 249. 
 
 Eligibility for Initiation. See 
 Qualifications of Candidates, 
 249. 
 Elihoreph, 249. 
 Elizabeth of England, 249. 
 
 of Portugal, 249. 
 Elohim, 249. 
 
 Eloquence of Masonry, 249. 
 Elu, 250. 
 Elul, 250. 
 Elus, 250. 
 Emanation, 250. 
 Emanuel, 250. 
 Embassy, 250. 
 
 Emblem, 250. , 
 
 Emerald, 251. 
 Emergency, 251. 
 Emergent Lodge, 251. 
 
 Meeting, 251. 
 Emeritus, 251. 
 Emeth, 251. 
 
 Eminent, 251. 
 
 Emperor of Lebanon, 251. 
 
 Emperors of the East and West, 
 
 251. 
 Emunah, 252. 
 Encampment, 252. 
 
 General Grand, 252. 
 
 Grand, 252. 
 Encyclical, 252. 
 En famille, 252. 
 England, 252. 
 Englet, 254. 
 Engrave, 254. 
 Enlightened, 254. 
 Enlightenment, Shock of. See 
 Shock of Enlightenment, 254. 
 Enoch, 254. 
 
 Brother, 256. 
 
 Legend of, 256. 
 
 Rite of, 256. 
 En Soph, 257. 
 Entered, 257. 
 
 Apprentice. Bee Apprentice, 
 257. 
 Entick John, 257. 
 Entombment, 257. 
 Entrance, Points of. See Points 
 of Entrance, 257. 
 
 Sh ock of . See Shock of En- 
 trance, 257. 
 Envy, 257. 
 Eons, 257. 
 
 Rite of the, 257. 
 Ephod, 257. 
 Ephraimites, 257. 
 Epoch, 258. 
 Epopt 258. 
 Equality, 258. 
 Equerry, 258. 
 Eques, 258. 
 
 Professus, 259. 
 Equilateral Triangle. See Tri- 
 angle, 259. 
 Equity, 259. 
 Equivocation, 259. 
 Eranoi, 259. 
 Erica, 259. 
 
 Ernest and Falk, 260. 
 Erwin von Steinbach, 260. 
 Esoteric Masonry, 260. 
 Essenes, 260. 
 Esther, 263. 
 Eternal Life, 264. 
 Eternity, 264. 
 
 Ethics of Freemasonry, 264. 
 Ethiopia, 265. 
 Etymology, 265. 
 Euclid, 265. 
 
 Legend of, 265. 
 Eulogy, 266. 
 Eumolpus, 266. 
 Eunuch, 266. 
 Euphrates, 266. 
 Euresis, 266. 
 Evangelist. See St. John the 
 
 Evangelist, 266. 
 Evergreen, 266. 
 Exalted, 266. 
 Examination of Candidates, 266. 
 
 the Ballot-Box, 267. 
 
 Visitors, 267. 
 Excavations, 267. 
 Excellent, 267. 
 
 Masons, 267. 
 
 Excellent Master, 267. 
 
 Most. See Most Excellent, 
 
 267. 
 Right. See Eight Excel- 
 lent, 268. 
 Super. See Super Excel- 
 lent, 268. 
 Very. See Very Excellent, 
 268. 
 Exclusion, 268. 
 
 Exclusiveness of Masonry, 268. 
 Excuse, 269. 
 
 Executive Powers of a Grand 
 
 Lodge. See Grand Lodge, 269. 
 
 Exemplification of the Work, 
 
 269. 
 Exoteric, 269. 
 Expert, 269. 
 Expositions, 269. 
 Expulsion, 270. 
 
 Extended Wings of the Cheru- 
 bim, 271. 
 Extent of the Lodge, 271. 
 External Qualifications, 271. 
 Extinct Lodge, 271. 
 Extra Communication, 271. 
 Extraneous, 271. 
 Extrusion, 271. 
 
 Eye. See All-Seeing Eye, 271. 
 Ezekiel, Temple of. See Temple 
 
 ofEzekiel, 271. 
 Ezel, 271. 
 Ezra, 271. 
 
 F.-., 272. 
 Fabr6 - Palaprat, Bernard 
 Raymond, 272. 
 Faculty of Abrac, 272. 
 Faith, 272. 
 Faithful Breast. See Breast, 
 
 the Faithful, 272. 
 Fall of Water. See Waterfall, 
 
 272. 
 Family Lodge, 272. 
 Fasces, 272. 
 
 Favorite Brother of St. Andrew, 
 272. 
 St. John, 272. 
 Feast 272. 
 
 Feasts of the Order, 272. 
 Feeling, 272. 
 Fees of Honor, 272. 
 Felicity, Order of, 272. 
 Feld Loge, 273. 
 Fellow, 273. 
 Craft, 273. 
 
 Perfect Architect, 273. 
 Fellowship, Five Points of. See 
 
 Points of Fellowship, 273. 
 Female Masonry. See Adoption, 
 Rite of, 273. 
 Masons, 273. 
 Fendeurs, 273. 
 Ferdinand IV., 274. 
 VI., 274. 
 VII., 274. 
 Fervency, 274. 
 Fessler, Ignaz Aurelius, 274. 
 
 Rite of, 275. 
 Festivals, 276. 
 Fidelity. See Fides, 276. 
 Fides, 276. 
 Fiducial Sign, 276. 
 Fifteen, 276. 
 
934 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Finances, 277. 
 Finch, William, 277. 
 Fines, 277. 
 Fire, 277. 
 
 Philosophers. See Theoso- 
 phists, 277. 
 
 Pillars of. See Pillars of 
 Fire. 277. 
 
 Purification by. See Puri- 
 fication by Fire, 277. 
 
 Worship, 277. 
 Fish, 278. 
 Five, 278. 
 
 Pointed Star, 278. 
 
 Points of Fellowship. See 
 Points of Fellowship, 279. 
 
 Senses, 279. 
 Fixed Lights, 279. 
 Flaming Sword, 279. 
 Floats, 279. 
 Floor, 279. 
 
 Cloth, 279. 
 Flooring, 279. 
 Florida, 279. 
 Fludd, Robert, 280. 
 Folkes, Martin, 280. 
 Fool, 281. 
 Footstone, 281. 
 Foot to Foot, 281. 
 Fords of the Jordan, 281. 
 Foreign Country, 281. 
 Foresters' Degrees, 281. 
 Forest of Lebanon. See Leba- 
 non, 281. 
 Forfeiture of Charter, 281. 
 Form, 281. 
 
 of the Lodge, 282. 
 Formula, 282. 
 Fortitude, 282. 
 Forty-Seventh Problem, 282. 
 Foul, 284. 
 Foundation-Stone, 284. 
 
 of. See Stone of Founda- 
 tion, 284. 
 Fountain, 284. 
 Four, 284. 
 
 Crowned Martyrs, 284. 
 Fourfold Cord, 287. 
 Fourteen, 288. 
 France, 288. 
 Francis II., 290. 
 Francken, Henry A., 290. 
 Franc-Macon, Franc-Macon- 
 
 nerie, 290. 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main, 290. 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 290. 
 Frater, 291. 
 Fraternally, 291. 
 Fraternity, 291. 
 Fraternize, 291. 
 Frederick of Nassau, 291. 
 
 the Great, 291. 
 
 William III., 294. 
 Free, 294. 
 
 and Accepted, 294. 
 
 Born, 294. 
 Freedom, 295. 
 
 Fervency, and Zeal, 295. 
 Freeman, 295. 
 Freemason, 295. 
 Freemasonry, History of, 296. 
 Freemasons of the Church, 297. 
 Free- Will and Accord, 298. 
 Freimaurer, 298. 
 
 Freimaurerei, 298. 
 
 French, Benjamin Brown, 298. 
 
 Rite, 299. 
 Friendly Societies, 299. 
 Friend of St. John, 299. 
 
 Truth, 299. 
 Friendship, 299. 
 Fund of Benevolence, 299. 
 Funds of the Lodge, 300. 
 Funeral Rites. See Burial, 300. 
 Furlac, 300. 
 
 Furniture of a Lodge, 300. 
 Fustier, 300. 
 Future Life, 300 
 
 G300. 
 . Gabaon, 302. 
 
 Gabaonne, 303. 
 
 Gabor, 303. 
 
 Gabriel, 303. 
 
 Gaedicke, Johann Christian, 
 303. 
 
 Galahad, 303. 
 
 G.\ A/. 0.\ T.\ U.\, 303. 
 
 Garinous, 303. 
 
 Gassicourt, Cadet de, 303. 
 
 Gaston, John, 303. 
 
 Gates of the Temple, 303. 
 
 Gauntlets, 303. 
 
 Gauge. See Twenty-four Inch 
 Gauge, 303. 
 
 Gavel, 303. 
 
 Gebal, 304. 
 
 Gedaliah, 304. 
 
 Gemara. See Talmud, 304. 
 
 General Assembly. See Assem- 
 bly, 304. 
 Grand Chapter, 304. 
 High Priest, 305. 
 Lodge, 305. 
 
 Generalissimo, 308. 
 
 Gentleman Mason, 308. 
 
 Genuflection, 308. 
 
 Geometrical Master Mason, 309. 
 
 Geometric Points, 309. 
 
 Geometry, 309. 
 
 Georgia, 309. 
 
 German Union of Two and 
 Twenty, 309. 
 
 Germany, 309. 
 
 Ghiblim, 310. 
 
 Gibalim, 310. 
 
 Giblim, 310. 
 
 Gilds, 310. 
 
 Gilkes, Peter William, 312. 
 
 Girdle, 312. 
 
 Glaire, Peter Maurice, 312. 
 
 Gleason, Benjamin, 312. 
 
 Globe, 312. 
 
 Glory, Symbol of, 313. 
 
 Gloves, 313. 
 
 Gnostics, 314. 
 
 Goat, Riding the, 315. 
 
 God, 315. 
 
 Godfather, 316. 
 
 Goethe, John Wolfgangvon, 316 
 
 Golden Candlestick, 316. 
 Fleece, 316. 
 
 Kev, Knight of the. See 
 Knight of the Golden Key, 
 316. 
 Lance, Knight of the. See 
 Knight of the Golden 
 Lance, 316. 
 
 Golgotha, 316. 
 Good Samaritan, 316. 
 Shepherd, 317. 
 
 Sign of the, 317. 
 Goose and Gridiron, 317. 
 Gormogons, 317. 
 Gothic Architecture, 317. 
 Constitutions, 318. 
 Mysteries. See Scandina- 
 vian Mysteries, 318. 
 Gourgas, John James Joseph, 
 
 318. 
 Grades, 318. 
 Grammar, 318. 
 Grand Architect, 318. 
 
 of the Universe, 318. 
 Chapter, 318. 
 Commander, 319. 
 
 of the Eastern Star, 
 319. 
 Conclave, 319. 
 Conservators, 319. 
 Consistory, 319. 
 Couneil, 319. 
 East, 319. 
 
 Encampment. See Encamp- 
 ment, Grand, 319. 
 High Priest, 319. 
 Inquiring Commander, 319. 
 Inspector, Inquisitor Com- 
 mander, 319. 
 Lodge, 319. 
 
 Manuscript, 321. 
 Master, 321. 
 
 Architect, 321. 
 
 Mason, 321. 
 
 of all Symbolic Lodges, 
 
 321. 
 of Light, 321. 
 Offerings, 321. 
 Oflicers, 321. 
 Orient, 322. 
 Pontiff, 322. 
 Principals, 322. 
 Prior, 322. 
 Secretary, 322. 
 Stewards, 322. 
 
 Lodge, 322. 
 Tiler, 322. 
 Treasurer, 322. 
 Wardens, 323. 
 Grasse Tilly, Alexandre Fran- 
 cois Auguste Comte de, 323. 
 Grave, 323. 
 
 Greater Lights. See Lights, Sym- 
 bolic, 324. 
 Greece, 324. 
 
 Mysteries in, 324. 
 Green, 324. 
 Greeting, 324. 
 Gregorians, 324. 
 Greinemann, Ludwig, 325. 
 Grip, 325. 
 Groton, 325. 
 
 Ground-Floor of the Lodge, 325. 
 King Solomon's Temple, 
 325. 
 Gi\ard. See Due Guard, 325. 
 of the Conclave. See Knight 
 of the Christian 3fark,'32o. 
 Guards, 325. 
 
 Guerrier de Dumast, 325. 
 Gugomos, Baron Von, 325. 
 Guibbs, 326. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 935 
 
 Guillemain de St. Victor, Louis, 
 
 326. 
 Gustavus IV., 326. 
 Guttural Point of Entrance, 326. 
 Gymnosophist, 326. 
 
 H.\ A.-. B.\, 326. 
 Hadeeses, 326. 
 Hagar, 326. 
 Haggai, 326. 
 Hague, The, 327. 
 Hah, 327. 
 Hail or Hale, 327. 
 Hall Committee, 327. 
 
 Masonic, 327. 
 Hamburg, 330. 
 Hand, 330. 
 
 Left. See Left Hand, 331. 
 
 Eight. See Biota Hand, 331. 
 
 to Back. See Points of 
 fellowship, 331. 
 
 to Hand. See Points of 
 Fellowship, 331. 
 Hanover, 331. 
 Haram, Grand, 331. 
 Hardie, James, 331. 
 Harleian Manuscript, 331. 
 Harmony, 332. 
 
 Universal. See Mesmeric 
 Masonry, 332. 
 Harnouester, 332. 
 Harodim, 332. 
 
 Grand Chapter of, 332. 
 
 Prince of, 333. 
 Harpocrates, 333. 
 Harris, Thaddeus Mason, 333. 
 Hasidim, Sovereign Prince, 333. 
 Hat, 333. 
 Haupt-Hutte, 333. 
 Hautes Grades, 333. 
 Heal, 334. 
 Hearing, 334. 
 Heart, 334. 
 
 of Hiram Abif, 334. 
 Hecart, Gabriel Antoiue Joseph, 
 
 334. 
 Height of the Lodge, 334. 
 Heldmann, Dr. Friedrich, 334. 
 Helmet, 334. 
 Helmets, to Deposit, 335. 
 
 to Recover, 335. 
 Help. See Aid and Assistance, 
 
 335. 
 Hemming, D. D., Samuel, 335. 
 Henrietta Maria, 335. 
 Henry VI., 335. 
 Heredom, 335. 
 Hermaimes, 336. 
 Hermaphrodite, 336. 
 Hermes, 336. 
 Hermetic Art, 336. 
 
 Rite, 336. 
 Herodem. See Heredom, 336. 
 
 Royal Order of. See Royal 
 Order of Scotland, 336. 
 Heroden, 336. 
 Heroine of Jericho, 336. 
 Hesed, 337. 
 Hexagon, 337. 
 Hieroglyphics, 337. 
 Hierogrammatists, 337. 
 Hierophant, 337. 
 High Degrees, 337. 
 Highest of Hills, 337. 
 
 High Grades, 338. 
 
 Priest, 338. • 
 
 Priesthood, Order of, 338. 
 
 Priest of the Jews, 340. 
 
 Twelve, 341. 
 Hindustan, Mysteries of, 341. 
 Hiram, 342. 
 
 Abif, 342. 
 
 or Huram, 342. 
 Hiramites, 345. 
 Hiram, King of Tyre, 345. 
 
 the Builder. See Hiram 
 Abif, 346. 
 Hirschau, Wilhelm von, 346. 
 H.\ K.\ T.\, 346. 
 Horhi, 346. 
 
 Holiness to the Lord, 347. 
 Holland. See Netherlands, 347. 
 Holy Ghost Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the Holy 
 Ghost, 347. 
 
 Ground, 347. 
 
 Lodge, 347. 
 
 Name, 347. 
 
 of Holies, 347. 
 
 Place, 348. 
 
 Sepulchre, Knight of the. 
 See Knight of the Holy 
 Sepulchre, 348. 
 Honorable, 348. 
 Honorarium, 348. 
 Honorary Degrees, 348. 
 
 Masons, 348. 
 
 Members, 348. 
 
 Thirty-thirds, 349. 
 Honors, Grand, 349. 
 Hoodwink, 350. 
 Hope, 350. 
 
 Manuscript, 350. 
 Horn of Plenty, 350. 
 Horns of the Altar, 350. 
 Hoschea, 350. 
 Hospitality, 350. 
 Hospitaller, Knight. See Knight 
 
 Hospitaller, 350. 
 Hospitallers of Jerusalem, 351. 
 Host, Captain of the. See Cap- 
 tain of the Host, 351. 
 Hour-Glass, 351. 
 Hours, Masonic, 351. 
 
 of Initiation, 351. 
 How go Squares ? 351. 
 H.\ R.\ D.\ M.\, 351. 
 Hu, 351. 
 Humility, 352. 
 Hund, Baron Von, 352. 
 Hungary, 355. 
 Hutchinson, William, 355. 
 Hutte, 357. 
 Huzza, 357. 
 
 T A. A. T., 357. 
 1. I Am that I Am, 357. 
 Iatric Masonry, 357. 
 Iconologv, 358. 
 Idaho, 358. 
 Idiot, 358. 
 Idolatry, 358. 
 
 Igne Natura Renovatur In- 
 tegra, 358. 
 Ignorance, 358. 
 Ih-Ho, 358. 
 I. H. S., 358. 
 Ijar, 358. 
 
 Illinois, 358. 
 Illiteracy, 359. 
 
 Illuminated Theosophists, 359. 
 Illuminati, 359. 
 
 of Bavaria, 359. 
 
 of Avignon. See Avignon, 
 360. 
 
 of Stockholm, 360. 
 Illuminism, 360. 
 Illustrious, 360. 
 
 Elect of the Fifteen, 360. 
 Imitative Societies, 360. 
 Imnianuel, 360. 
 Immortality of the Soul, 361. 
 Immovable Jewels. See Jewels 
 
 of a Lodge, 361. 
 implements, 361. 
 Impostors, 36L 
 In Activity, 362. 
 Inauguration, 362. 
 Incense, 362. 
 Inchoate Lodges, 362. 
 Incommunicable, 362. 
 Incorporation, 362. 
 Indefeasible, 363. 
 Indelibility, 363. 
 Indented Tarsel, 363. 
 
 Tessel, 363. 
 India, 363. 
 Indiana, 363. 
 Indifferents, 363. 
 Induction, 363. 
 Inductor, 363. 
 Industry, 364. 
 Ineffable Degrees, 364. 
 
 Name, 364. 
 Ineligible, 364. 
 Information, Lawful, 364. 
 Inherent Rights of a Grand 
 
 Master, 364. 
 In Hoc Signo Vinces, 365. 
 Initiate, 365. 
 Initiated Knight and Brother 
 
 of Asia, 365. 
 Initiate in the Egyptian Secrets, 
 365. 
 
 in the Mysteries, 365. 
 
 in the Profound Mysteries, 
 365. 
 Initiation, 365. 
 In Memoriam, 365. 
 Inner Guard, 365. 
 Innovations, 365. 
 I.-. N.\ R.\ I.'., 366. 
 Insignia. See Jewels of Office, 
 
 367. 
 Inspector. See Sovereign Grand 
 
 Inspector General, 367. 
 Installation, 367. 
 Installed Masters, Board of, 367. 
 Installing Officer, 367. 
 Instruction, 367. 
 
 Lodge of. See Lodge of In- 
 struction, 367. 
 Instructive Tongue. See Tongue, 
 
 the Instructive, 367. 
 Instrumental Masonry, 367. 
 Integrity, 367. 
 Intemperance, 368. 
 Intendant of the Building, 368. 
 Intention, 368. 
 
 Internal Preparation. See Prep- 
 aration oj Candidates ,368 
 
 Qualifications, 368. 
 
936 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Intimate Initiate, 368. 
 
 Secretary, 308. 
 lutroductor and Introductress, 
 
 368. 
 Intrusting, 368. 
 Investiture, 368. 
 Invincible, 368. 
 Inwood, Jethro, 368. 
 Ionic Order, 368. 
 Iowa, 369. 
 Ireland, 369. 
 Irish Chapters, 370. 
 
 Colleges, 371. 
 
 Degrees. See Irish Chap- 
 ters, 371. 
 Iron Tools, 371. 
 Isaac and Ishmael, 371. 
 Ish Chotzeb, 371." 
 
 Sabal, 371. 
 
 Sodi, 371. 
 Isis, 371. 
 Italy, 371. 
 Izabud, 372. 
 
 JACHIN, 372. 
 Jachinai, 372. 
 Jacobins, 372. 
 Jacob's Ladder, 373. 
 Jacques de Molay. See Molay, 
 
 375. 
 Jah, 375. 
 Jamblichus, 375. 
 Janitor, 376. 
 Japan, 376. 
 Japheth, 376. 
 Jasper, 376. 
 
 Jebusite. See Oman, 376. 
 Jedadiah, 376. 
 Jehoshaphat, 376. 
 Jehovah, 376. 
 Jekson, 381. 
 Jena, Congress of, 381. 
 Jephthah, 381. 
 
 Jericho, Heroine of. See Hero- 
 ine of Jericho, 381. 
 Knight of. See Knight of 
 Jericho, 381. 
 Jermyn, Henry, 381. 
 Jerusalem, 381. 
 
 Knight of. See Knight of 
 
 Jerusalem, 382. 
 New, 382. 
 Prince of. See Prince of 
 
 Jerusalem, 382. 
 Word, 382. 
 Jesuits, 382. 
 
 Jewel of an Ancient Grand Mas- 
 ter, 382. 
 Member's, 382. 
 Jewels, Immovable. See Jewels 
 of a Lodge, 382. 
 Movable. See Jewels of a 
 
 Lodge, 382. 
 of a Lodge, 382. 
 Official, 383. 
 Precious, 383. 
 Jews, Disqualification of, 383. 
 Jezirah or Jetzirah, Book of, 384 
 Joabert, 384. 
 Joachim, Order of, 384. 
 Johannite Masonry, 384. 
 Johannites, 384. 
 John's Brothers, 384. 
 Johnson, 384. 
 
 John the Baptist. See Saint I 
 John, the Baptist, 385. 
 
 the Evangelist. See Saint 
 John the Evangelist, 385. 
 Jones, Inigo, 385. 
 
 Stephen, 385. 
 Joppa, 386. 
 Jordan, 386. 
 
 Charles Stephen, 386. 
 
 Fords of the, 386. 
 Joseph II., 386. 
 Josephus, Flavius, 386. 
 Joshua, 386. 
 Journey, 387. 
 Journeyman, 387. 
 Jova, 387. 
 Jua, 387. 
 Judah, 387. 
 
 and Benjamin, 387. 
 Jug Lodges, 387. 
 Junior Adept, 387. 
 
 Entered Apprentice, 387. 
 
 Overseer, 387. 
 
 Warden, 387. 
 Jupiter, Knight of. See Knight 
 
 of Jupiter, 387. 
 Jurisdiction of a Grand Lodge, 
 387. 
 
 Lodge, 388. 
 
 Supreme Council, 388. 
 Justice, 388. 
 Justification, 388. 
 Just Lodge, 388. 
 
 KAABA, 389. 
 Kabbala, 389. 
 Kadiri, Order of, 392. 
 Kadosh, 392, 393. 
 
 Grand, Elect Knight, 393. 
 Knight, 393. 
 of the Jesuits, 393. 
 Philosophic, 393. 
 Prince, 393. 
 
 of Death, 393. 
 Kamea, 393. 
 Kasideans, 393. 
 Katharsis, 393. 
 Keeper of the Seals, 393. 
 Kellv, Christopher, 393. 
 Key, 394. 
 
 of Masonry. See Knight of 
 the Sun, 394. 
 Key-Stone, 394. 
 Kilwinning, 395. 
 Manuscript, 396. 
 Mother Lodge, 397. 
 System, 397. 
 King, 397. 
 Kiss, Fraternal, 397. 
 
 of Peace, 397. 
 Kloss, Georg Burkh. Franz, 397. 
 Kneeling, 397. 
 Knee to Knee, 397. 
 Knigge, Adolph Franz Frie- 
 dench Ludwig, Baron Von, 
 397. 
 Knighthood, 398. 
 Knight, 405. 
 
 Black. See Black Brothers, 
 
 405. 
 Commander, 405. 
 
 of the Temple. See 
 Sovereign Command- 
 er of (he Temple, 405. 
 
 Knight Commander of theWhite 
 and Black Eagle, 405. 
 Crusader, 405. 
 Elect of Fifteen, 405. 
 Elect of Twelve, Sublime, 
 
 405. 
 Hospitaller. See Knight of 
 
 Malta, 406. 
 Illustrious or Illustrious 
 
 Elect, 406. 
 Jupiter, 406. 
 Kadosh. 406. 
 
 of Cromwell, 406. 
 Masonic, 406. 
 Mahadon, 406. 
 of Asia, Initiated. See Asia, 
 Initiated Knights of, 406. 
 of Athens, 406. 
 of Aurora, 406. 
 of Beneficence, 407. 
 of Brightness, 407. 
 of Christ, 407. 
 of Constantinople, 407. 
 of Hope, 407. 
 of Iris, 407. 
 of Jerusalem, 407. 
 of Justice, 407. 
 of Malta, 407. 
 
 Masonic, 410. 
 of Masonry, Terrible, 412. 
 of Palestine, 412. 
 of Patmos, 412. 
 of Perfumes, 412. 
 of Pure Truth, 412. 
 of Purity and Light, 412. 
 of Rhodes, 412. 
 of Rose Croix. See Rose 
 
 Croix, 412. 
 of St. Andrew, Grand Scot- 
 tish, 412. 
 
 Free, 413. 
 
 of the Thistle, 413. 
 of St. John of Jerusalem,413 
 
 Palestine, 413. 
 of the Altar, 413. 
 of the American Eagle, 413. 
 of the Anchor, 413. 
 of the Ape and Lion, 413. 
 of the Arch, 413. 
 of the Argonauts, 413. 
 of the Banqueting- Table of 
 
 the Seven Sages, 413. 
 of the Black Eagle, 413. 
 of the Brazen Serpent, 413. 
 of the Burning Bush, 414. 
 of the Chanuca, 414. 
 of the Christian Mark, 414. 
 of the Columns, 414. 
 of the Comet, 414. 
 of the Cork, 414. 
 of the Courts, 414. 
 of the Crown, 414. 
 of the Door, 414. 
 of the Dove, 414. 
 of the Eagle, 414. 
 
 and Pelican, 414. 
 
 reversed, 414. 
 of the East, 415. 
 
 and West, 415. 
 of the Eastern Star, 415. 
 of the East, Victorious, 415. 
 
 White, 416. 
 of the Election, 416. 
 
 Sublime, 416. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 937 
 
 Knight of the Golden Eagle, 416. 
 Fleece, 416. 
 Key, 416. 
 Star, 416. 
 of the Grand Arch, 416. 
 of the Holy City, Benefi- 
 cent, 416. 
 Holy Sepulchre, 416. 
 of the Interior, 416. 
 of the Kabbala, 417. 
 of the Lilies of the Valley, 
 
 417. 
 of the Lion, 417. 
 of the Mediterranean Pass, 
 
 417. 
 of the Moon, 417. 
 of the Morning Star, 417. 
 of the Ninth Arch, 417. 
 of the North, 417. 
 of the Phomix, 417. 
 of the Prussian Eagle, 417. 
 of the Purificatory, 418. 
 of the Pyramid, 418. 
 of the Rainbow, 418. 
 of the Red Cross, 418. 
 
 Eagle, 418. 
 of the Rose, 418. 
 of the Rosy and Triple 
 
 Cross, 419. 
 of the Rosy Cross, 419. 
 of the Round Table, 419. 
 of King Arthur, 419. 
 of the Royal Axe, 419. 
 of the Sacred Alountain, 
 
 419. 
 of the Sanctuary, 420. 
 of the Sepulchre, 420. 
 of the South, 420. 
 of the Star, 420. 
 of the Sun, 420. 
 of the Sword, 420. 
 of the Tabernacle, 420. 
 of the Divine Truths, 
 420. 
 of the Temple, 420. 
 of the Three Kings, 420. 
 of the Throne, 420. 
 of the Triple Cross, 420. 
 Period, 420. 
 Sword, 421. 
 of the Two Crowned Eagles, 
 
 421. 
 of the West, 421. 
 of the White and Black 
 
 Ea^le 421. 
 of the White Eagle, 421. 
 of Unction, 421. 
 Perfect, 421. 
 Professed. See Eques, Pro- 
 
 fessus, 421. 
 Prussian, 421. 
 Rower, 421. 
 Royal Victorious, 421. 
 Sacrificing, 421. 
 Knights of the East, Council of, 
 
 421. 
 Knight Templar, 421. 
 
 Masonic, 427. 
 Knight, Victorious, 434. 
 Knowledge, 434. 
 
 Degrees of. See Degrees of 
 Knowledge, 434. 
 Konx Ompax, 434. 
 Koran, 435. 
 
 5S 
 
 Krause, Carl Christian Frie- 
 
 derich, 435. 
 Kutu. Kivi, 436. 
 
 LABARUM, 437. 
 Labor, 437. 
 Laborare est orare, 437. 
 Laborers, Statutes of, 437. 
 Lacorne, 438. 
 Ladder, 438. 
 
 Brahmanical, 438. 
 Jacob's. See Jacob's Lad- 
 der, 438. 
 Kabbalistic, 438. 
 Mithraitic, 439. 
 of Kadosh, 439. 
 Rosier ucian, 439. 
 Scandinavian, 439. 
 Theological, 439. 
 Ladrian, 439. 
 Lady, 439. 
 
 Lalande. See De la Lalande, 439 
 Lamb, 439. 
 
 of God. See Lamb, Paschal, 
 
 439. 
 Paschal, 439. 
 Lambskin Apron. See Apron, 
 
 439. 
 Landmarks, 439. 
 Language, Universal, 443. 
 Lapicida, 444. 
 Larmenius, Johannes Marcus, 
 
 444. 
 Larudan, Abb6, 444. 
 Latin Lodge, 444. 
 Latomia, 444. 
 Latres, 445. 
 Latumus, 445. 
 Laurel Crown, 445. 
 Laurens, J. L., 445. 
 Laurie. See Lawrie, A lexander, 
 
 445. 
 Lawful Information. See Infor- 
 mation, Lawful, 445. 
 Law, Moral. See Moral Law, 445 
 Oral. See Oral Law, 445. 
 Parliamentary. See Parlia- 
 mentary Law, 445. 
 Lawrie, Alexander, 445. 
 Law, Sacred. See Sacred Law, 
 
 446. 
 Laws, General. See Laws of 
 Masonry, 446. 
 Local. See Laws of Ma- 
 sonry, 446. 
 of Masonry, 446. 
 Lawsuits, 446. 
 Lax Observance, 446. 
 Layer, 447. 
 Lebanon, 447. 
 
 Prince of. See Prince of 
 Lebanon, 447. 
 Le Bauld de Nans, Claude 
 
 Etienne, 447. 
 Lechangeur, 447. 
 Lecture, 447. 
 Lecturer, Grand, 448. 
 Lectures, History of the, 448. 
 Lefranc, 455. 
 Left Hand, 455. 
 
 Side, 455. 
 Legally Constituted. See Con- 
 stituted, Legally, 455. 
 Legate, 455. 
 
 Legend, 456. 
 
 of Enoch. See Enoch, 456. 
 
 of Euclid. See Euclid, 456. 
 
 of the Craft, 456. 
 
 of the Gild, 459. 
 
 of the Royal Arch Degree, 
 
 459. 
 of the Third Degree, 459. 
 Legislation, 462. 
 Lending, 462. 
 Leland, John, 462. 
 
 Manuscript, 462. 
 Lemanceau, 464. 
 Length of the Lodge. See Ex- 
 tent of the Lodge, 464. 
 Lenoir, Alexandre, 464. 
 Lepage, 465. 
 Lerouge, Andr6 Joseph Etienne, 
 
 465. 
 Lesser Lights, 465. 
 Lessing, Gottfried Ephraim, 
 
 465. 
 Lessons, 465. 
 
 Letter of Application, 466. 
 Letters, Patent. See Patents, 
 
 466. 
 Lettuce, 466. 
 Leucht, 466. 
 Level, 466. 
 Levi, Eliphas, 466. 
 Levite, Knight, 466. 
 
 of the External Guard, 466. 
 Levites, 466. 
 Levite, Sacrificer, 466. 
 Levitikon, 466. 
 Levy, 466. 
 Lewis, 466. 
 
 Lexington, Congress of, 467. 
 Libanus, 467. 
 Libation, 467. 
 Libavius, Andreas, 467. 
 Liberal Arts and Sciences, 468. 
 Libertas, 468. 
 Libertine, 468. 
 Liberty of Passage, 469. 
 Library, 469. 
 Lieutenant Grand Commander, 
 
 469. 
 Life, 469. 
 
 Eternal. See Eternal Life, 
 
 469. 
 Member, 469. 
 Light, 469. 
 Lights, Fixed, 471. 
 Light, To bring to, 471. 
 Ligure, 471. 
 Lily. 471. 
 
 Work, 471. 
 Limbs. See Qualifications, 
 
 Physical, 471. 
 Lindner, Friederich Wilhelm, 
 
 471. 
 Line, 471. 
 Linear Triad, 471. 
 Lines, Parallel. See Parallel 
 
 Lines, 471. 
 Lingam, 471. 
 Link, 472. 
 
 Linnecar, Richard, 472. 
 Lion's Paw, 472. 
 Literature of Masonry, 472. 
 Litigation. See Lawsuits, 472. 
 Livery, 472. 
 Livre d'Or, 472. 
 
938 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Local Laws. See Laws of Ma- 
 sonry, 472. 
 Locke's Letter, 472. 
 Lodge, 472. 
 
 Chartered. See Chartered 
 
 Lodge, 474. 
 Clandestine. See Clandes- 
 tine Lodge, 474. 
 Constituted. See Consti- 
 tuted, Legally, 474. 
 Dormant. See Dormant 
 
 Lodge, 474. 
 Emergent. See Emergent 
 
 Lodge, 475. 
 Extinct. See Extinct Lodge, 
 
 475. 
 Holy. See Holy Lodge, 475. 
 Hours, 475. 
 
 Just. See Just Lodge, 475. 
 Master, English, 475. 
 
 French, 475. 
 Occasional. See Occasional 
 
 Lodge, 475. 
 of Instruction, 475. 
 of St. John, 475. 
 Perfect See Perfect Lodge, 
 475. 
 . Regular. SeeBegularLodge, 
 475. 
 Room, 475. 
 Roval. See Royal Lodge, 
 
 476. 
 Sacred. See Sacred Lodge, 
 
 476. 
 Symbol of the, 476. 
 Loge, 476. 
 Logic, 476. 
 Lombardy, 476. 
 London, 476. 
 Lost Word, 476. 
 Lotus, 477. 
 Louisiana, 477. 
 Louveteau. See Lewis, 477. 
 Lowen, 477. 
 Low Twelve, 478. 
 Loyalty, 478. 
 
 Luchet, Jean Pierre Louis, Mar- 
 quis de, 478. 
 Luminaries, 478. 
 Lustration, 478. 
 Lux, 478. 
 
 Lux e Tenebris, 478. 
 Lux Fiat et Lux Fit, 479. 
 L. V. C, 479. 
 Lyons, Congress of, 479. 
 
 MAACHA, 479. 
 Mac, 479. 
 Macbenac, 480. 
 Maccabees, 480. 
 Macerio, 480. 
 Macio, 480. 
 Macon, 480. 
 Maconetus, 480. 
 Maconne, 480. 
 
 Egyptienne, 480. 
 Maconner, 480. 
 Maczo, 480. 
 Made, 480. 
 Madman, 480. 
 Magazine, 480. 
 Magi, 480. 
 Magic, 480. 
 
 Squares, 481. 
 
 Magicians, Society of the, 481. 
 Magister Ccenientarioruni, 481. 
 
 Hospitalis. See Master of 
 the Hospital, 481. 
 
 Lapidum, 481. 
 
 Militise Christi. See Master 
 of the Soldiery of Christ, 
 481. 
 
 Perrerius, 481. 
 
 Templi. See Master of the 
 Temple, 481. 
 Magistri Comacini. See Como, 
 
 481. 
 Magnanimous, 481. 
 Magnetic Masonry, 482. 
 Magus, 482. 
 Mah, 482. 
 
 Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz, 482. 
 Maier, Michael, 482. 
 Maine, 482. 
 Maitre Macon, 482. 
 Maitresse Agissante, 482. 
 
 Macon, 482. 
 Maitrise, 482. 
 Major, 482. 
 
 Illuminate, 482. 
 Majority, 482. 
 Make, 483. 
 Malach, 483. 
 Malachi, 483. 
 Mallet, 483. 
 Malta, 483. 
 
 Cross of. See Cross of 
 Malta, 483. 
 
 Knight of. See Knight of 
 Malta, 483. 
 Maltese Cross. See Cross of 
 
 Malta, 483. 
 Man, 483. 
 Mandate, 483. 
 
 Mangourit, Michel Ange Ber- 
 nard de, 483. 
 Manna, Pot of, 483. 
 Manningham, Thomas, 483. 
 Mantle, 484. 
 
 of Honor, 484. 
 Manual, 484. 
 
 Point of Entrance, 484. 
 
 Sign, 484. 
 Manuscripts, 484. 
 Marcheshvan, 485. 
 Mark, 485. 
 
 Man, 486. 
 
 Master, 486. 
 
 of the Craft, Regular, 487. 
 Marks of the Craft, 487. 
 Marrow in the Bone, 488. 
 Marseilles, Mother Lodge of, 488. 
 Marshal, 488. 
 Martel, 488. 
 Martha, 488. 
 Martinism, 488. 
 Martin, Louis Claude de St. See 
 
 Saint Martin, 488. 
 Martyr, 488. 
 Martyrs, Four Crowned. See 
 
 Four Crowned Martyrs, 488. 
 Maryland, 488. 
 Mason, Crowned, 489. 
 
 Derivation of the Word, 489. 
 Masoney, 490. 
 Mason Hermetic, 490. 
 Masonio Hall. See Hall, Ma- 
 sonic, 490. 
 
 Mason, Illustrious and Sublime 
 Grand Master, 490. 
 of the Secret, 490. 
 Operative. See Operative 
 
 Mason, 490. 
 Perfect, 490. 
 Philosopher, 490. 
 Practical, 490. 
 Masonry, 490. 
 
 Operative. See Operative 
 
 Masonry, 490. 
 Origin of. See Origin of 
 
 Masonry, 490. 
 Speculative. See Specula- 
 tive Masonry, 490. 
 Masons, Company of, 490. 
 Mason, Scottish Master, 490. 
 Masons, Emperor of all the, 490. 
 Mason, Speculative. See Spec- 
 ulative Mason, 490. 
 Stone. See Stonemasons, 490 
 Sublime, 490. 
 
 Operative, 490. 
 Mason's Wifeand Daughter, 490. 
 Mason, True, 490. 
 Masoretic Points, 490. 
 Massachusetts, 490. 
 Massonus, 491. 
 
 Master, Absolute Sovereign 
 Grand, 491. 
 ad Vitain, 191. 
 Ancient, 491. 
 
 Architect, Grand. See 
 Grand Master Archi- 
 tect, 491. 
 Perfect, 491. 
 Prussian, 491. 
 Blue, 491. 
 Builder, 491. 
 Cohen, 491. 
 Crowned, 491. 
 Egyptian, 491. 
 Elect. See Elect Master, 49 1 . 
 English, 491. 
 
 Perfect, 491. 
 Four Times Venerable, 491. 
 Grand. See Grand Master, 
 
 491. 
 Hermetic, 491. 
 Illustrious, 491. 
 
 Symbolic, 491. 
 in Israel. See Intendant 
 
 of the Building, 491. 
 in Perfect Architecture, 491. 
 in the Chair, 491. 
 Irish, 491. 
 Kabbalistic, 492. 
 Little Elect, 492. 
 Mason, 492. 
 
 Most High and Puissant, 
 493. 
 Wise, 493. 
 Mystic, 493. 
 
 of all Symbolic Lodges, 
 Grand. See Grand Mas- 
 ter of all Symbolic Lodges, 
 493. 
 of a Lodge. See Worshipful 
 
 Master, 493. 
 of Cavalry, 493. 
 of Ceremonies, 493. 
 of Dispatches, 493. 
 of Finances, 493. 
 of Hamburg, Perfect, 493. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 939 
 
 Master of Infantry, 493. 
 of Lodges, 493. 
 of Masters, Grand, 493. 
 of Paracelsus, 493. 
 of Secrets, Perfect, 493. 
 of St. Andrew, 493. 
 of the Chivalry of Christ,493. 
 of the Hermetic Secrets, 
 
 Grand, 493. 
 of the Hospital, 493. ■ 
 of the Key to Masonry, 
 
 Grand, 494. 
 of the Legitimate Lodges, 
 
 Grand, 494. 
 of the Palace, 494. 
 of the Sages, 494. 
 of the Seven Kabbalistic 
 
 Secrets, Illustrious, 494. 
 of the Temple, 494. 
 of the Work, 494. 
 Past. See Past Master, 494. 
 Perfect. See Perfect Master, 
 494. 
 Architect, 494. 
 Irish. See Perfect Irish 
 Master, 404. 
 Philosopher by the Number 
 3, 494. 
 by the Number 9, 494. 
 Hermetic, 494. 
 Private, 494. 
 Provost and Judge, 494. 
 Puissant Irish. See Puissant 
 
 Irish Master, 494. 
 Pythagorean, 494. 
 Royal. See Royal Master, 
 
 494. 
 Secret. See Secret Master, 
 
 494. 
 Select. See Select Master, 
 
 494. 
 Supreme Elect, 494. 
 Theosophist, 494. 
 through Curiosity, 494. 
 to the Number 15, 494. 
 True, 494. 
 
 Worshipful. See Worship- 
 ful 3Iaster, 494. 
 Materials of the Temple, 494. 
 Maters, 495. 
 
 Matriculation Book, 495. 
 Mature Age, 495. 
 Maul. See Setting Maul, 495. 
 Medals, 495. 
 
 Mediterranean Pass, 495. 
 Meeting of a Chapter. See Con- 
 vocation, 495. 
 of a Lodge. See Communi- 
 cation, 495. 
 Meet on the Level, 495. 
 Meister, 495. 
 
 im Stuhl, 495. 
 Melancthon, Philip, 495. 
 Melchizedek, 495. 
 
 Degree of, 496. 
 Melech, 496. 
 Melesino, Rite of, 496. 
 Melita, 496. 
 
 Member, Honorary. See Hono- 
 rary Member, 496. 
 Life. See Life Member, 496. 
 of a Lodge, 496. 
 Membership, Right of, 496. 
 Memphis, Rite of, 496. 
 
 Menatzchim, 499. 
 
 Mental Qualifications. See 
 
 Qualifications, 499. 
 Menu, 499. 
 Mercy, 499. 
 
 Prince of. See Prince of 
 Mercy, 499. 
 
 Seat, 499. 
 Meridian Sun, 499. 
 Merit, 499. 
 
 Mesmer, Friederich Anton, 499. 
 Mesmeric Masonry, 499. 
 Mesopolyte, 499. 
 Mesouraneo, 499. 
 Metals,* 499. 
 Metal Tools, 499. 
 Metropolitan Chapter of France, 
 
 500. 
 Mexico, 500. 
 Michael, 500. 
 Michigan, 500. 
 Microcosm. See Man, 500. 
 Middle Ages, 500. 
 
 Chamber, 500. 
 Miles, 501. 
 
 Military Lodges, 501. 
 Militia, 501. 
 Minerval, 501. 
 Minister of State, 501. 
 Minnesota, 501. 
 Minor, 501. 
 
 Illuminate, 501. 
 Minute Book, 501. 
 Minutes, 501. 
 Misconduct, 502. 
 Miserable Scald Masons. See 
 
 Scald Miserables, 502. 
 Mishna. See Talmud, 502. 
 Mississippi, 502. 
 Missouri, 502. 
 Mistletoe, 502. 
 Mithras, Mysteries of, 502. 
 Mitre, 504. 
 Mizraim, 504. 
 
 Rite of, 504. 
 Moabon, 505. 
 Mock Masons, 505. 
 Modern Rite. See French Rite, 
 
 505. 
 Moderns, 505. 
 Molart, William, 505. 
 Molay, James de, 506. 
 Monad, 506. 
 Monitor ? 506. 
 Monitorial Instruction, 506. 
 
 Sign, 506. 
 Monitor, Secret. See Secret 
 
 Monitor, 506. 
 Monogram, 506. 
 Montana, 506. 
 Montfaucon, Prior of, 507. 
 Months, Hebrew, 507. 
 
 Masonic, 507. 
 Montpellier, Hermetic Rite of, 
 
 507. 
 Monument, 507. 
 Moon, 507. 
 Moore, James, 508. 
 Mopses, 508. 
 Morality, 508. 
 
 of Freemasonry, 508. 
 Moral Law, 508. 
 Moravian Brethren, 508. 
 Morgan, William, 508. 
 
 Moriah, Mount, 508. 
 
 Morin, Stephen, 509. 
 
 Moritz, Carl Philipp, 509. 
 
 Morphey, 509. 
 
 Mortality, Symbol of, 509. 
 
 Mortar, Untempered. See Un- 
 
 tempered Mortar, 510. 
 Mosaic Pavement, 510. 
 
 Symbolism, 510. 
 Moses, 511. 
 
 Mossdorf, Friederich, 511. 
 Most Excellent, 511. 
 Master, 511. 
 
 Puissant, 511. 
 
 Worshipful, 511. 
 Mot de Simestre, 511. 
 Mother Council, 511. 
 
 Lodge, 511. 
 Motion, 512. 
 Motto, 512. 
 Mould, 512. 
 
 Stone, 512. 
 Mount Calvary. See Calvary, 
 512. 
 
 Moriah. See Moriah, 512. 
 
 Sinai. See Sinai, 512. 
 Mourning, 512. 
 Mouth to Ear, 512. 
 Movable Jewels. See Jewels of 
 
 a Lodge, 512. 
 Muenter, Friederich,512. 
 Munkhouse, D. D., Rev. Rich- 
 ard, 512. 
 Murr, Christoph Gottlieb von, 
 
 513. 
 Muscus Domus, 513. 
 Music, 513. 
 
 Mustard Seed, Order of, 513. 
 Myrtle, 513. 
 Mystagogue, 513. 
 Mysteries, Ancient, 513. 
 Mystery, 517. 
 Mystes, 517. 
 Mystical, 517. 
 Mysticism, 517. 
 Mystic Tie, 517. 
 Myth, 517. 
 
 Historical, 518. 
 
 Philosophical, 518. 
 Mythical History, 518. 
 Mythology, 518. 
 
 NAAMAH, 519. 
 Nabaim. See Schools of the 
 Prophets, 519. 
 Naked, 519. 
 Name of God, 519. 
 Names of Lodges, 521. 
 Namur, 525. 
 Naphtali, 525. 
 Naples, 525. 
 
 Napoleonic Masonry, 525. 
 National Grand Lodge of Ger' 
 
 many, 525. 
 Naymus Grecus, 525. 
 Nazareth, 526. 
 Nebraska, 526. 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 526. 
 Nebuzaradan, 526. 
 Negro Lodges, 526. 
 Neighbor, 527. 
 Nekam, 527. 
 Nekamah, 527. 
 Nembroth, 527. 
 
940 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Neophyte, 527. 
 Neoplatonism, 527. 
 Ne Plus Ultra, 527. 
 Netherlands, 527. 
 Net- Work, 528. 
 Nevada, 528. 
 Ne Varietur, 528. 
 New Brunswick, 528. 
 
 Hampshire, 528. 
 
 Jersey, 528. 
 
 York, 528. 
 Nicolai, Christoph Friederich, 
 
 528. 
 Night, 529. 
 Nile, 530. 
 
 Nil nisi clavis, 530. 
 Nimrod, 530. 
 Nine, 530. 
 Nineveh, 531. 
 Nisan, 531. 
 Noachidae, 531. 
 
 Noachite, or Prussian Knight, 
 531. 
 
 Sovereign, 532. 
 Noachites, 532. 
 Noah, 532. 
 
 Precepts of, 534. 
 Noffodei, 534. 
 Nomenclature, 534. 
 Nomination, 534. 
 Non-Affiliation, 535. 
 Nonesynches, 535. 
 Non Nobis, 535. 
 
 Resident, 535. 
 Noorthouck, John, 535. 
 North, 535. 
 
 Carolina, 535. 
 
 East Corner, 536. 
 Notuma, 536. 
 Nova Scotia, 536. 
 Novice, 537. 
 
 Maconne, 537. 
 
 Mythological, 537. 
 
 Scottish, 537. 
 Numbers, 537. 
 Numeration by Letters, 538. 
 Nursery, 538. 
 
 OATH, 538. 
 Corporal, 540. 
 
 of the Gild, 541. 
 
 Tiler's, 541. 
 OB, 541. 
 Obedience, 541. 
 
 of a Grand Body, 541. 
 Obelisk. 542. 
 
 Objections to Freemasonry, 542. 
 Obligated, 542. 
 Obligation, 542. 
 Oblong Square, 542. 
 Observance, Clerks of Strict. See 
 
 Clerks of Strict Observance, 
 542. 
 
 Lax. See Lax Observance, 
 542. 
 
 Relaxed, 542. 
 
 Strict. See Strict Observ- 
 ance, 542. 
 Obverse, 542. 
 Occasional Lodge, 543. 
 Occult Masonry, 543. 
 
 Sciences, 543. 
 Occupied Territory, 543. 
 Octagon, 543. 
 
 Odd Numbers, 543. 
 
 Offences, Masonic. See Crimes, 
 
 Masonic, 543. 
 Oflerings, the Three Grand. See 
 Ground- Flo or of the Lodge, 
 543. 
 Officers, 543. 
 
 Jewels. See Jewels, Offi- 
 cial, 543. 
 Office, Tenure of, 543. 
 Oheb Eloah, 543. 
 
 Karobo. See Oheb Eloah, 
 543. 
 Ohio, 543. 
 Oil, 544. 
 Old Man, 544. 
 
 Regulations, 544. 
 Olive, 544. 
 
 Branch in the East, Broth- 
 erhood of the, 544. 
 Oliver, George, 544. 
 Omega. See Alpha and Omega, 
 
 546. 
 Omnific Word, 546. 
 On, 546. 
 Onyx, 547. 
 
 Opening of the Lodge, 547. 
 Operative Art, 549. 
 Masonry, 549. 
 Masons, 549. 
 Option, 549. 
 Oral Instruction, 549. 
 
 Law, 551. 
 Orator, 551. 
 Order, 551. 
 
 Name, 552. 
 of Business, 552. 
 of Christ. See Christ, Or- 
 der of, 552. 
 of the Temple. See Tem- 
 ple, Order of the, 552. 
 Rules of, 553. 
 Orders of Architecture, 553. 
 Egyptian, 553. 
 of Knighthood, 553. 
 of the Day, 554. 
 Ordinacio, 554. 
 Ordination, 554. 
 Ordo ab chao, 554. 
 Oregon, 554. 
 Organist, Grand, 554. 
 Organization of Grand Lodges. 
 
 See Grand Lodge, 554. 
 Orient, 554. 
 
 Grand. See Grand Orient, 
 554. 
 Commander of the, 554. 
 Interior, 554. 
 of France, Grand. See 
 
 France, 555. 
 Order of the, 555. 
 Oriental Chair of Solomon, 555. 
 Philosophy, 555. 
 Rite, 555. 
 Orientation, 555. 
 Original Points, 555. 
 Origin of Freemasonry, 556. 
 Orleans, Duke of, 556. 
 Ormus or Ormesius. See Rose 
 
 Croix, Golden, 556. 
 Ormuzd and Ahriman, 556. 
 Ornaments of a Lodge, 556. 
 Oman the Jebusite/556. 
 Orphan, 556. 
 
 Orpheus, 557. 
 Orphic Mysteries, 557. 
 Osiris, 557. 
 
 Mysteries of, 558. 
 Oterfut, 558. 
 Otreb, 558. 
 
 Out of the Lodge, 558. 
 Oval Temples, 558. 
 Overseer, 558. 
 Ox, 558. 
 
 Oyres de Ornellas, Pracao, 558. 
 Ozee, 558. 
 
 PAGANIS, Hugo de, 559. 
 Paganism, 559. 
 Paine, Thomas, 559. 
 Palestine, 559. 
 
 Explorations in, 559. 
 
 Knight of. See Knight of 
 Palestine, 559. 
 of St. John of. See 
 Knight of St. John 
 of Palestine, 559. 
 Palladic Masonry, 559. 
 Palladium, Order of the, 559. 
 Palmer, 560. 
 Pantacle, 560. 
 Papworth Manuscript, 560. 
 Paracelsus, 560. 
 
 Sublime, 560. 
 Parallel Lines, 560. 
 Paris, Congresses of, 560. 
 Parliamentary Law, 561. 
 Parrot Masons, 561. 
 Parsees, 561. 
 Particular Lodges, 561. 
 Parts, 561. 
 Parvis, 561. 
 Paschal Feast, 561. 
 Paschalis, Martinez, 561. 
 Paschal Lamb. See Lamb, Pas- 
 chal, 562. 
 Pas perdus, 562. 
 Passages of the Jordan. See 
 
 Fords of the Jordan, 562. 
 Passed, 562. 
 
 Passing of Couyng, 562. 
 Password, 562. 
 Past, 562. 
 
 Master, 562. 
 Pastophori, 563. 
 Pastos, 563. 
 Patents, 563. 
 Patience, 563. 
 Patriarchal Masonry, 563. 
 Patriarch, Grand, 564. 
 
 of the Crusades, 564. 
 
 of the Grand Luminary, 564 
 Patron, 564. 
 
 Patrons of Masonry, 564. 
 Paul, Confraternity of Saint, 564 
 
 I., 564. 
 Pavement, Mosaic. See Mosaic 
 
 Pavement, 564. 
 Payeus, Hugh de, 564. 
 P. D. E. P., 564. 
 Peace, 564. 
 Pectoral, 565. 
 
 of the High Priest, 565. 
 Pedal, 565. 
 Pedestal, 565. 
 Pedum, 565. 
 Pelasgian Religion, 565. 
 Peleg, 565. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 941 
 
 Pelican ; 565. 
 
 Pellegrini, Marquis of, 566. 
 
 Penal Sign, 560. 
 
 Penalty, 566. 
 
 Pencil, 568. 
 
 Penitential Sign, 568. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 568. 
 
 Work, 568. 
 Penny, 569. 
 Pentagon, 569. 
 Pentagram, 569. 
 Pentalpha, 569. 
 Perau, Gabriel Louis Calabre, 
 
 570. 
 Perfect Ashlar. See Ashlar, 570. 
 
 Initiates, Rite of, 570. 
 Perfection, 570. 
 Perfectionists, 570. 
 Perfection, Lodge of, 570. 
 
 Rite of, 571. 
 Perfect Irish Master, 572. 
 
 Lodge. See Just Lodge, 572. 
 
 Master, 572. 
 
 Prussian, 572. 
 
 Union, Lodge of, 572. 
 Perignan, 572. 
 Periods of the Grand Architect. 
 
 See Six Periods, 572. 
 Perjury, 572. 
 
 Pernetty, Antoine Joseph, 573. 
 Perpendicular, 573. 
 Persecutions, 573. 
 Perseverance, 575. 
 
 Order of, 575. 
 Persia, 575. 
 
 Persian Philosophical Rite, 576. 
 Personal Merit, 576. 
 Peru, 576. 
 Petition for a Charter, 576. 
 
 for a Dispensation, 577. 
 
 for Initiation, 577. 
 Peuvret, Jean Eustache, 577. 
 Pha'inoteletian Society, 577. 
 Phallic Worship, 577. 
 Phallus. See Phallic Worship, 
 
 578. 
 Pharaxal, 578. 
 Pharisees, 578. 
 Phenicia, 578. 
 
 Philadelphes, Lodge of the, 578. 
 Philadelphia, 578. 
 Philadelphians, Rite of the. See 
 
 Primitive Rite, 578. 
 Philalethes, Rite of the, 578. 
 Philip IV., 579. 
 Philippian Order, 579. 
 Philocoreites, Order of, 579. 
 Philo Judaeus, 579. 
 Philosopher, Christian, 579. 
 
 Grand and Sublime Her- 
 metic, 579. 
 
 of Hermes, 579. 
 
 Sublime, 579. 
 
 Unknown, 579. 
 
 The Little, 579. 
 
 Unknown, 579. 
 Philosopher's Stone, 579. 
 Philosophic Degrees, 580. 
 
 Scottish Rite, 580. 
 Philosophy, Sublime, 580. 
 Phoenix, 580. 
 
 Physical Qualifications, 580. 
 Picart's Ceremonies, 581. 
 Pickaxe, 581. 
 
 Piece of Architecture, 581. 
 Pilgrim, 581. 
 
 Penitent, 582. 
 Pilgrim's Shell. See Scallop 
 Shell, 582. 
 
 Weeds, 582. 
 Pilgrim Templar, 582. 
 
 Warrior, 582. 
 Pilier, 582. 
 Pillar, 582. 
 Pillars of Cloud and Fire, 583. 
 
 of Enoch, 583. 
 
 of the Porch, 583. 
 Pinceau, 587. 
 Pine Cone, 5S7. 
 Pirlet, 587. 
 Pius VII., 587. 
 Place, 587. 
 Planche TracSe, 587. 
 Plans and Designs, 587. 
 Platonic Academy. See Acade- 
 my, Platonic, 587. 
 Plenty, 587. 
 Plot Manuscript, 587. 
 
 Robert, M. D., 587. 
 Plumb, 588. 
 
 Line, 589. 
 
 Rule, 589. 
 Plurality of Votes. See Ma- 
 jority, 589. 
 Poetry of Masonry, 589. 
 Points, 589. 
 
 of Entrance, Perfect, 589. 
 
 of Fellowship, Five, 590. 
 
 Twelve Grand. See Twelve 
 Grand Points, 590. 
 Point within a Circle, 590. 
 Poland, 591. 
 Politics, 592. 
 Polkal, 592. 
 Polycronicon, 592. 
 Pomegranate, 592. 
 Pommel, 593. 
 Pontifes Freres. See Bridge 
 
 Builders, 593. 
 Pontifex. See Bridge Builders, 
 
 593. 
 Pontiff, 593. 
 
 Grand. See Grand Pontiff, 
 594. 
 Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Jesus 
 
 Christ, 594. 
 Poppy, 594. 
 
 Porch of the Temple. See Tem- 
 ple of Solomon, 594. 
 Porta, Gambattista, 594. 
 Portugal, 594. 
 Postulant, 594. 
 Pot of Incense, 594. 
 
 of Manna. See Manna, Pot 
 of, 594. 
 Poursuivant, 594. 
 Practicus, 594. 
 Prayer, 594. 
 Pre-Adamite, 595. 
 Precaution, 595. 
 Precedency of Lodges, 595. 
 Preceptor, 595. 
 Preceptory, 595. 
 Precious Jewels. See Jewels, 
 
 Precious, 595. 
 Preferment, 595. 
 Prelate, 596. 
 
 of Lebanon, 596. 
 
 Prentice, 596. 
 
 Pillar, 596. 
 Preparation of the Candidate, 
 
 596. 
 Preparing Brother, 596. 
 President, 597. 
 Presiding Officer, 597. 
 Prestonian Lecture, 597. 
 
 Lectures, 597. 
 Preston, William, 597. 
 Pretender, 601. 
 Previous Question, 601. 
 Price, Henry, 601. 
 Prichard, Samuel, 601. 
 Priest, 602. 
 
 Grand High. See Grand 
 High Priest, 602. 
 
 High. See High Priest,602. 
 
 Royal, 602. 
 
 Theosophist, 602. 
 Priesthood, Order of High. See 
 High Priesthood, Order of, 602 
 Priestly Order, 602. 
 Primitive Freemasonry, 602. 
 
 Rite, 603. 
 
 Scottish Rite, 604. 
 Prince, 604. 
 
 Adept. See Adept, Prince, 
 604. 
 
 Depositor, Grand, 604. 
 
 Mason, 604. 
 
 of Jerusalem, 604. 
 
 of Lebanon. See Knight of 
 the Royal Axe, 605. 
 
 of Libanus, 605. 
 
 of Mercy, .605. 
 
 of Rose Croix. See Rose 
 Croix, Prince of, 605. 
 
 of the Captivity, 605. 
 
 of the East, Grand, 605. 
 
 of the Levites, 605. 
 
 of the Royal Secret. See 
 Sublime Prince of the 
 Royal Secret, 605. 
 
 of the Seven Planets, Illus- 
 trious Grand, 605. 
 
 of the Tabernacle, 605. 
 Princess of the Crown, 606. 
 Principal Officers, 606. 
 Principals, 606. 
 Principal Sojourner, 606. 
 Printed Proceedings, 606. 
 Prior, 607. 
 
 Grand. See Grand Prior, 
 607. 
 Priory, 607. 
 Prison, 607. 
 
 Private Committee. See Com- 
 mittee, Private, 607. 
 Privileged Questions, 607. 
 Privilege, Questions of, 607. 
 Probation, 607. 
 Problem, Forty-Seventh. See 
 
 Forty-Seventh Problem, 607. 
 Processions, 607. 
 Proclamation, 608. 
 
 of Cyrus, 609. 
 Profane, 609. 
 Proficiency, 609. 
 Pro Grand Master, 610. 
 Progressive Masonry, 610. 
 Promise, 611. 
 Promotion, 611. 
 Proofs, 611. 
 
942 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Property of a Lodge, 612. 
 
 Prophet, 612. 
 
 Prophets, Schools of the. See 
 
 Schools of the Prophets, 612. 
 Proponenda, 612. 
 Proposing Candidates, 612. 
 Proscription, 612. 
 Proselyte of Jerusalem, 612. 
 Proselytism, 612. 
 Protector of Innocence, 614. 
 Protocol, 614. 
 Prototype, 614. 
 Provincial Grand Lodge, 614. 
 Master, 614. 
 Officers, 614. 
 
 Master of the Red Cross, 614. 
 Provost and Judge, 614. 
 Proxy Installation, 614. 
 
 Master, 614. 
 Prudence, 614. 
 Prussia, 615. 
 Prussian Knight. See Noachite, 
 
 615. 
 Pseudonym, 615. 
 Publications, Masonic, 615. 
 Public Ceremonies, 617. 
 Puerility of Freemasonry, 618. 
 Puissant, 620. 
 
 Irish Master, 620. 
 Pulsanti Operietur, 620. 
 Punishments, Masonic, 620. 
 Purchase, 620. 
 
 Pure Freemasonry. See Prim- 
 itive Freemasonry, 621. 
 Purification, 621. 
 Purity, 621. 
 
 Brothers of, 621. 
 Purple, 621. 
 
 Brethren, 621. 
 
 Lodges, 621. 
 Pvron, Jean Baptiste, 621. 
 Pythagoras, 622. 
 
 School of, 622. 
 
 QUALIFICATIONS of Can- 
 didates, 623. 
 Quadrivium, 624. 
 Quakers, 624. 
 quarrels, 624. 
 Quarries, 624. 
 
 Quarterly Communication, 625. 
 Quarternion, 625. 
 Quebec, 625. 
 
 Questions of Henry VI., 625. 
 Quorum, 625. 
 
 RABBANAIM, 626. 
 Rabbinism, 626. 
 Rabboni, 626. 
 Ragon, J. M., 626. 
 Etagotzky, Carl August, 627. 
 Rains, 627. 
 Raised, 627. 
 Ramsav, Andrew Michael, 627. 
 
 Rite of, 630. 
 Ratisbon, 630. 
 Rawlinson Manuscript, 630. 
 Received and Acknowledged, 
 
 631. 
 Reception, 631. 
 Recipient, 631. 
 Recognition, Modes of, 631. 
 Recommendation, 632. 
 Reconciliation, Lodge of, 633. 
 
 Reconsideration, Motion for,633. 
 
 of the Ballot, 633. 
 Recorder, 633. 
 Records, Old, 633. 
 Rectification, 634. 
 Rectified Rite. See Martinism, 
 634. 
 Rose Croix, Rite of. See 
 Pose Croix, Rectified, 634. 
 Recusant, 634. 
 Red, 634. 
 
 Cross Knight, 635. 
 
 Knight of the. See 
 Knight of the Ped 
 Cross, 635. 
 Legend, 635. 
 of Babylon, See Baby- 
 lonish Pass, 635. 
 of Rome and Constan- 
 
 tine, 635. 
 Sword of Babylon, 636. 
 Letters, 636. 
 Reflection, Chamber of. See 
 
 Chamber of Reflection, 636. 
 Reformed Helvetic Rite, 636. 
 
 Rite, 636. 
 Refreshment, 636. 
 Regalia, 637. 
 Regeneration, 637. 
 Regent, 637. 
 Reghellini, M., 637. 
 Regimental Lodge, 638. 
 Register, 638. 
 Registrar, Grand, 638. 
 Registration, 638. 
 Registry, 638. 
 Regular, 638. 
 
 Regulations. See Old Regula- 
 tions, 639. 
 Rehum, 639. 
 
 Reinhold, Karl Leonhard, 639. 
 Reinstatement. See Restoration, 
 
 639. 
 Rejection, 639. 
 Rejoicing, 639. 
 Relief, 639. 
 
 Board of, 639. 
 Religion of Masonry, 639. 
 Religious Qualifications. See 
 
 Qualifications, 641. 
 Removal of Lodges, 641. 
 Renouncing Masons, 641. 
 Repeal, 642. 
 
 Report of a Committee, 642. 
 Reportorial Corps, 642. 
 Representative of a Grand 
 
 Lodge, 642. 
 Representatives of Lodges, 642. 
 Representative System, 642. 
 Reprimand, 642. 
 Reputation, 643. 
 Residence, 643. 
 Resignation of Membership, 643. 
 
 of Office, 643. 
 Resolution, 643. 
 Respectable, 643. 
 Response, 643. 
 Restoration, 643. 
 Resurrection, 644. 
 Returns of Lodges, 644. 
 Reuben, 644. 
 Revelations of Masonry. See 
 
 Expositions, 644. 
 Reverend, 644. 
 
 Reverential Sign, 645. 
 Revival, 645. 
 Revoke, 646. 
 Rhetoric, 646. 
 Rhode Island, 646. 
 Rhodes, 646. 
 
 Knight of. See Knight of 
 Rhodes, 646. 
 Ribbon, 646. 
 
 Ridel, Cornelius Johann Ru- 
 dolph, 646. 
 Right Angle, 646. 
 Eminent, 647. 
 Excellent, 647. 
 Hand, 647. 
 Side, 648. 
 Worshipful, 648. 
 Ring, Luminous. See Academy 
 of Sublime Masters of the 
 Luminous Ring, 648. 
 Masonic, 648. 
 Rising Sun, 649. 
 Rite, 649. 
 Ritter, 650. 
 Ritual, 650. 
 Robelot, 650. 
 Robert I., 650. 
 Roberts' Manuscript, 650. 
 Robes, 651. 
 
 Robins, Abb6 Claude, 651. 
 Robison, John, 651. 
 Rockwell, WiUiam Spencer, 652. 
 Rod, 652. 
 
 Deacon's, 652. 
 Marshal's. SeePaton, 652. 
 of Iron. 652. 
 Steward's, 653. 
 Treasurer's. See Staff, Treas- 
 urer's, 653. 
 Roessler, Carl, 653. 
 Roll, 653. 
 
 Roman Colleges of Artificers, 653 
 Romvel, 658. 
 Rosaic System, 658. 
 Rosa, Philipp Samuel, 658. 
 Rose, 658. 
 
 and Triple Cross, 659. 
 Croix, 659. 
 
 Brethren of the, 659. 
 Jacobite, 659. 
 Knight, 659. 
 Magnetic, 659. 
 of Germany, 659. 
 of Gold, Brethren of 
 
 the, 659. 
 of Heredom, 660. 
 of the Dames, 660. 
 of the Grand Rosary, 
 
 660. 
 Philosophic, 660. 
 Prince of, 660. 
 Rectified, 662. 
 Sovereign Prince of, 
 662. 
 Knights and Ladies of the. 
 See Knight of the Rose, 
 662. 
 Order of the, 662. 
 Rosenkreuz, Christian, 663. 
 Rosicrucianism, 663. 
 Rosicrucian Society of England, 
 
 666. 
 Rosy Cross, 666. 
 Rough Ashlar. See Ashlar, 666. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 943 
 
 Round Table, King Arthur's, 
 666. 
 Towers of Ireland, 666. 
 Rowers. See Knight Rower, 666. 
 Royal and Select Masters. See 
 Council of Royal and Se- 
 lect Masters, 666. 
 Arch, Ancient. See Knight 
 of the Ninth Arch, 
 6*66. 
 Apron, 666. 
 Badge, 666. 
 Banners. See Banners, 
 
 Royal Arch, 667. 
 Captain, 667. 
 Clothing, 667. 
 Colors, 667. 
 Degree, 667. 
 Grand, 669. 
 Jewel, 669. 
 Masonry, 676. 
 of Enoch, 670. 
 of Ramsay, 670. 
 of Solomon, 670. 
 Zerubbabel, 670. 
 Robes, 670. 
 Tracing-Board, 670. 
 Word. See Telragram- 
 
 maton, 671. 
 Working - Tools. See 
 Working- Tools, 671. 
 Ark Mariners, 671. 
 A.r, 671. 
 Axe, 674. 
 Lodge, 674. 
 Master, 674. 
 Order of Scotland, 675. 
 Priest, 678. 
 
 Secret, Sublime Prince of 
 the. See Sublime Prince 
 of the Royal Secret, 678. 
 R. S. Y. C. S., 678. 
 Ruffians, 678. 
 Rule, 679. 
 
 Rule of the Templars, 679. 
 Rulers, 680. 
 Russia, 680. 
 
 SABAISM, 680. 
 Sabaoth, 680. 
 Sabbath, 680. 
 
 Sabianism. See Sabaism, 681. 
 Sackcloth, 681. 
 
 Sacred Asylum of High Ma- 
 sonry, 681. 
 Lodge, 681. 
 Sacrificant, 681. 
 Sacrifice, Altar of. See Altar, 681 
 Sacrificer, 681. 
 Saint Adhabell, 681. 
 Alban, 681. 
 Albans. Earl of, 682. 
 Amphibalus, 682. 
 Andrew, Knight of. See 
 Knight of St. Andrew, 681. 
 Andrew's Day, 682. 
 Augustine, 682. 
 Bernard, 682. 
 Domingo, 682. 
 Sainte Croix, Emanuel Joseph 
 Guilhem de Clermont-Lodeve 
 de, 683. 
 Saint George's Day, 683. 
 Germain, 683. 
 
 Saint John, Favorite Brother of, 
 683. 
 Lodge of. See Lodge 
 
 of St. John, 683. 
 of Jerusalem, Knight 
 of. See Knight of St . 
 John of Jerusalem, 
 683. 
 John's Masonry, 683. 
 
 Order, 683. 
 John the Almoner, 683. 
 the Baptist, 684. 
 the Evangelist, 684. 
 Leger. See Aldworth, 3Irs., 
 
 684. 
 Martin, Louis Claude, 684. 
 Nicaise, 685. 
 Paul's Church, 685. 
 Saints John, 685. 
 
 Festivals of. See Festivals, 
 686. 
 Saint Victor, Louis Guillemain 
 
 de, 686. 
 Salli, Francesco, 686. 
 Salix, 686. 
 
 Salle des Pas Perdus, 686. 
 Salomonis Sanctificatus Illumi- 
 
 natus, Magnus Jehova, 686. 
 Salsette, 686. 
 Salt, 686. 
 Salutation, 686. 
 Salutem, 686. 
 Salute Mason, 686. 
 Samaria, 687. 
 
 Samaritan, Good. See Good Sa- 
 maritan, 687. 
 Samaritans, 687. 
 Samothracian Mysteries, 687. 
 Sanctuary, 687. 
 Sanctum Sanctorum, 687. 
 Sandwich Islands, 687. 
 San Graal, 687. 
 Sanhedrim, 688. 
 Sapicole, The, 688. 
 Sapphire, 688. 
 Saracens, 688. 
 Sardius, 688. 
 Sarsena, 688. 
 Sash, 688. 
 Satrap, 689. 
 
 Savalette de Langes, 689. 
 Sayers, Anthony, 689. 
 Scald Miserables, 689. 
 Scales, Pair of, 690. 
 Scallop-Shell, 690. 
 Scandinavian Mysteries. See 
 
 Gothic Mysteries, 691. 
 Scarlet. See Red, 691. 
 Scenic Representations, 691. 
 Sceptre, 691. 
 Schaw Manuscript, 691. 
 
 William, 691. 
 Schismatic, 692. 
 Schisms, 692. 
 
 Schneider, Johann August, 693. 
 Schools, 694. 
 
 of the Prophets, 694. 
 Schrepfer, Johann Georg, 694. 
 Schroeder, Friederich Joseph 
 Wilhelm, 694. 
 Friederich Ludwig, 695. 
 Schroeder's Rite. See Schroe- 
 der, Friederich Joseph Wil- 
 helm, 695. 
 
 Schroeder's System. See Schroe- 
 der, Friederich Ludwig, 695. 
 Sciences, Liberal. See Liberal 
 
 Arts and Sciences, 695. 
 Scientific Masonic Association, 
 
 695. 
 Scotland, 696. 
 
 Royal Order of. See Royal 
 Order of Scotland, 696. 
 Scott, Charles, 696. 
 Scottish, 696. 
 
 Degrees, 697. 
 
 Master. See Ecossais, 696. 
 
 Rite, 697. 
 
 Templars. See Templars 
 
 of Scotland, 698. 
 Trinitarians. See Prince 
 of Mercy, 698. 
 Scribe, 698. 
 Scriptures, Belief in the, 698. 
 
 Reading of the, 698. 
 Scythe, 700. 
 Seal, 700. 
 
 of Solomon, 700. 
 Seals, Book of the Seven, 701. 
 
 Keeper of the, 701. 
 Search for Truth, 701. 
 Seceders, 701. 
 Second Temple. See Temple of 
 
 Zerubbabel, 701. 
 Secrecy and Silence, 701. 
 Secretary, 702. 
 
 General of the Holy Em- 
 pire, 702. 
 Grand. See Grand Secre- 
 tary, 702. 
 Secret Doctrine, 702. 
 Master, 702. 
 Monitor, 703. 
 of the Secrets, The, 703. 
 Societies, 703. 
 Vault. See Vault, Secret, 704 
 Sectarianism, 704. 
 Secular Lodges, 704. 
 Sedition Act, 704. 
 Seeing, 704. 
 Seekers, 704. 
 Select Master, 704. 
 Semestre, 705. 
 Senatorial Chamber, 705. 
 Seneschal, 705. 
 
 Senior Deacon. See Deacons, 
 706. 
 Entered Apprentice, 706. 
 Warden, 706. 
 Senses, Five. See Five Senses, 
 
 706. 
 Sentinel, 706. 
 Sephiroth, 706. 
 Septenary, 706. 
 Sepulchre, 706. 
 
 Knight of the Holy. See 
 Knight of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre, 706. 
 Serapis, Mysteries of. See Egyp- 
 tian Mysteries, 706. 
 Sermons, Masonic, 706. 
 Serpent, 707. 
 
 and Cross, 707. 
 Knight of the Brazen. See 
 Knight of the Brazen Ser- 
 pent, 707. 
 Worship, 708. 
 Serving Brethren, 708. 
 
944 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Seth, 708. 
 Sethos, 708. 
 Setting Sun, 708. 
 Seven, 708. 
 
 Stars, 709. 
 Seventy Years of Captivity, 709. 
 Shaddai, 709. 
 Shamir, 709. 
 Sharp Instrument, 710. 
 Shastras, 710. 
 Sheba, Queen of, 710. 
 Shekel, 710. 
 Shekinah, 710. 
 Shem, 710. 
 
 Ham, Japheth, 711. 
 
 Hamphorasch, 711. 
 Sheriff, 711. 
 
 Shethar-Boznai. See Tatnai, 711 
 Shew-Bread, 711. 
 Shibboleth, 711. 
 Shield, 711. 
 
 of David, 712. 
 Shock, 712. 
 
 of Enlightenment, 712. 
 
 of Entrance, 712. 
 Shoe, 713. 
 Shovel, 713. 
 Shrine, 713. 
 Side Degrees, 713. 
 Sight, Making Masons at, 713. 
 Sign, 715. 
 Signature, 716. 
 Signet, 716. 
 
 of Truth, 716. 
 
 of Zerubbabel, 716. 
 Significant Word, 716. 
 Sign of Distress, 716. 
 Silence. See Secrecy and Si- 
 lence, in. 
 Silver and Gold, 717. 
 
 Cord, 717. 
 Sinai, 717. 
 Sintooism, 717. 
 Sir, 717. 
 Siroc, 717. 
 Sister Lodges, 718. 
 Sisters by Adoption, 718. 
 
 of the Gild, 718. 
 Situation of the Lodge, 718. 
 Six Lights, 718. 
 
 Periods, 718. 
 Skeleton, 719. 
 Skirrit, 719. 
 Skull, 719. 
 
 and Cross-bones, 719. 
 Slander, 719. 
 
 Slave. See Free Born, 719. 
 Sloane Manuscripts, 719. 
 Slip, 720. 
 
 Smith, George, 720. 
 Smitten Builder, 721. 
 Snow, John, 721. 
 Snows. See Rains, 721. 
 Social Character of Freemason- 
 
 ry, 721. 
 Socius, 721. 
 Sodalities, 721. 
 Sofism 721. 
 So Help Me God, 722. 
 Sojourner. See Principal So- 
 journer, 722. 
 Soldiers of Christ, 722. 
 Solomon, 722. 
 
 House of, 724. 
 
 Solomon, Temple of. See Tem- 
 ple of Solomon, 724. 
 Solstices, 724. 
 Songs of Masonry, 725. 
 Son of a Mason, 726. 
 Sons of Light, 726. 
 
 of the Prophets, 726. 
 
 of the Widow, 726. 
 Sorbonne, 726. 
 Sorrow Lodge, 726. 
 Soul of Nature, 726. 
 South, 727. 
 
 Carolina, 727. 
 Sovereign, 727. 
 
 Commander of the Temple, 
 727. 
 
 Grand Inspector General, 
 728. 
 
 Master, 729. 
 
 Prince Mason, 729. 
 
 of Rose Croix. See 
 Rose Croix, 729. 
 Spain, 729. 
 Sparticus, 730. 
 Speculative Masonry, 730. 
 Spes mea in Deo est, 732. 
 Sphinx, 732. 
 Spire, Congress of, 732. 
 Spiritualizing, 732. 
 Spiritual Lodge, 732. 
 
 Temple, 732. 
 Spoulee, John de, 733. 
 Spreading the Ballot, 733. 
 Sprengseisen, Christian Frie- 
 
 derich Kessler von, 733. 
 Sprig of Acacia. See Acacia, 733. 
 Spurious Freemasonry, 733. 
 Spurs, 734. 
 Square, 735. 
 
 and Compass, 735. 
 Squin de Flexian, 736. 
 Staff, 737. 
 Stairs, Winding. See Winding 
 
 Stairs, 738. 
 Standard, 738. 
 
 Bearer, 738. 
 Stand to and Abide by, 738. 
 Star, 738. 
 
 Blazing. See Blazing Star, 
 738. 
 
 Eastern. See Eastern Star, 
 738. 
 
 Five - Pointed. See Five- 
 Pointed Star, 738. 
 
 in the East, 738. 
 
 of Jerusalem, 738. 
 
 of the Syrian Knights, 738. 
 Starck, Jobann August von, 738. 
 Stare Super Vias Antiquas, 740. 
 State, 740. 
 Stations, 740. 
 
 Statistics of Freemasonrv, 740. 
 Statute of Henry VI. See La- 
 borers, Statute" of, 741. 
 Statutes, 741. 
 St. Clair Charters, 741. • 
 
 William, 741. 
 Steinbach, Erwin of. SeeErwin 
 
 of Steinbach, 743. 
 Steinmetz, 743. 
 Step, 743. 
 Steps on the Master's Carpet, 
 
 743. 
 Sterkin, 743. 
 
 Stewards, 743. 
 
 Grand. See Grand Stew- 
 ards, 743. 
 
 Lodge. See Grand Stew- 
 ard's Lodge, 743. 
 Stirling, 743. 
 
 St. Leger. See Aldworth, 744. 
 St. Martin. See Saint Martin, 
 
 744. 
 Stockings, 744. 
 Stolkin, 744. 
 Stone, 744. 
 
 Corner. See Comer-Stone, 
 744. 
 
 Cubical. See Cubical Stone, 
 744. 
 
 Manuscript, 744. 
 Stonemasons of the Middle Ages, 
 
 744. 
 Stone, Nicholas. See Stove 
 Manuscript, 750. 
 
 of Foundation, 750. 
 
 Pavement, 755. 
 
 Rejected, 755. 
 
 Squarers. See Giblim, 755. 
 
 White, 755. 
 
 William Leete, 755. 
 
 Worship, 756. 
 Strasburg, Cathedral of, 757. 
 
 Congress of, 758. 
 Strength, 758. 
 
 Strict Observance, Rite of, 758. 
 Striking Off, 758. 
 Stuart Masonry, 758. 
 Sublime, 760. 
 
 Degrees, 761. 
 
 Grand Lodge, 761. 
 
 Knight Elected, 761. 
 
 Masons, 761. 
 
 Prince of the Royal Secret, 
 701. 
 
 Solomon, 762. 
 Sublimes, The, 762. 
 Submission, 762. 
 Subordinate Lodge, 762. 
 
 Officers, 762. 
 Subordination, 762. 
 Substitute Ark. See Ark, Sub- 
 stitute, 762. 
 
 Candidate, 762. 
 
 Grand Master, 763. 
 
 Word, 763. 
 Succession to the Chair, 763. 
 Succoth, 765. 
 Sufferer, 765. 
 Summons, 765. 
 Sun, 765. 
 
 Knight of the. See Knight 
 of the Sun, 766. 
 
 Moon, and Stars, 766. 
 
 Worship, 766. 
 Super Excellent Masons, 766. 
 
 Master, 766. 
 Superintendent of the Works, 
 
 Grand, 767. 
 Superior, 767. 
 
 Superiors, Unknown. See Un- 
 known Superiors, 767. 
 Super-Masonic, 767. 
 Supplanting, 767. 
 Supports of the Lodge, 767. 
 Supreme Authority, 769. 
 
 Commander of the Stars, 
 769. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 945 
 
 Supreme Consistory, 769. 
 
 Council, 769. 
 Suspension, 771. 
 Sussex, Duke of, 772. 
 Sweden, 772. 
 Swedenborg, 773. 
 
 Rite of, 775. 
 Swedish Rite, 776. 
 Switzerland, 776. 
 Sword, 778. 
 
 and Trowel. See Trowel 
 and Sword, 779. 
 
 Bearer, 779. 
 Grand, 779. 
 
 of State, 779. 
 
 Pointing to the Naked 
 Heart, 780. 
 
 Templar's, 780. 
 
 Tiler's, 780. 
 Sworn Brothers, 780. 
 Syllable, 780. 
 Symbol, 780. 
 
 Compound, 781. 
 Symbolic Degrees, 782. 
 
 Lectures, 783. 
 
 Lodge, 783. 
 
 Machinery, 783. 
 
 Masonry, 783. 
 Symbolism, the Science of, 783. 
 Symbol of Glory, 783. 
 Syndication of Lodges, 783. 
 Synod of Scotland, 784. 
 Syria, 784. 
 System, 784. 
 
 TABERNACLE, 784. 
 Chief of the. See Chief of 
 the Tabernacle, 786. 
 
 Prince of the. See Prince 
 of the Tabernacle, 786. 
 Table Lodge, 786. 
 Tablets of Hiram Abif, 787. 
 Taciturnity, 788. 
 Tactics, 788. 
 Talisman, 788. 
 Talmud, 789. 
 Tamarisk, 790. 
 Tannehill, Wilkins, 790. 
 Tapis, 790. 
 Tarsel, 790. 
 
 Board, 790. 
 Tarshatha, 790. 
 Tassels, 790. 
 
 Tasting and Smelling, 790. 
 Tatnai and Shethar-Boznai, 790. 
 Tau, 791. 
 
 Cross, 791. 
 Team, 791. 
 Tears, 791. 
 Tempelorden or Tempelherren- 
 
 orden, 792. 
 Temperance, 792. 
 Templar. See Knight Templar, 
 
 792. 
 Templarius, 792. 
 Templar Land, 792. 
 
 Origin of Masonry, 792. 
 Templars of England, 793. 
 
 of Scotland, 794. 
 Temple, 795. 
 
 Grand Commander of the, 
 796. 
 
 of Ezekiel, 796. 
 
 of Herod, 796. 
 5T 
 
 Temple of Solomon, 796. 
 of Zerubbabel, 798. 
 Order of the, 799. 
 Second, 803. 
 
 Sovereign Commander of 
 the. See Sovereign Com- 
 mander of the Temple, 804. 
 of the Sovereigns Grand 
 Commander of the, 
 804. 
 Spiritual. See Spiritual 
 
 Temple, 804. 
 Symbolism of the, 804. 
 Workmen at the. See Work- 
 men at the Temple, 805. 
 Templier, 805. 
 Templum Jlierosolymae, 805. 
 Ten, 805. 
 Tengu, 805. 
 Tennessee, 805. 
 Tent, 805. 
 
 Tenure of Office, 806. 
 Tercy, 806. 
 Terminus, 806. 
 
 Terrasson, the Abbe" Jean, 806. 
 Terrible Brother, 806. 
 Territorial Jurisdiction, 806. 
 Tessel, Indented. See Tessellated 
 
 Border, 808. 
 Tessellated, 807. 
 Border, 807. 
 Tessera Hospitalis, 808. 
 Testimony, 808. 
 Tests, 808. 
 Test Word, 809. 
 Tetractys, 810. 
 Tetragrammaton, 810. 
 Teutonic Knights, 811. 
 Texas, 811. 
 
 T.\ G.\ A.'. 0.\ T.\ U.\, 812. 
 Thammuz, 812. 
 Thanks, 812. 
 Theism, 812. 
 
 Theocratic Philosophy of Free- 
 masonry, 812. 
 Theological Virtues, 812. 
 Theoricus, 812. 
 Theosophists, 812. 
 Therapeutae, 813. 
 Theurgy, 813. 
 
 Third Degree. See Master Ma- 
 son, 813. 
 Thirty-Second Degree. See 
 Prince oftheBoyal Secret, 
 813. 
 Six, 813. 
 
 Third Degree. See Sov- 
 ereign Grand Inspector 
 General, 813. 
 Thory, Claude Antoine, 813. 
 Thoux de Salverte, 814. 
 Thread of Life, 814. 
 Three, 814. 
 
 Globes, Rite of the Grand 
 
 Lodge of the, 815. 
 Grand Offerings. See 
 Ground - Floor of the 
 Lodge, 815. 
 Points, 815. 
 Senses, 815. 
 
 Steps. See Steps on the 
 Master's Carpet, 815. 
 Threshing-Floor, 815. 
 Throne, 815. 
 
 60 
 
 Thummim. See Urim and 
 
 Thummim, 815. 
 Tie, 815. 
 
 Mystic. See Mystic Tie, 815. 
 Tierce, De la, 816. 
 Tile, 816. 
 Tiler, 816. 
 Tiler's Oath. See Oath, Tiler's, 
 
 816. 
 Tilly de Grasse. See Grasse, 
 
 Tilly de, 816. 
 Timbre, 816. 
 Time, 816. 
 
 and Circumstances, 816. 
 Tirshatha, 816. 
 Titles, 816. 
 
 of Grand Lodges, 817. 
 Tito, 817. 
 Toasts, 817. 
 Token, 819. 
 Tolerance Lodge, 819. 
 Toleration, 819. 
 Tomb of Adoniram, 819. 
 
 of Hiram Abif, 819. 
 of Tyre, 819. 
 Tongue, 820. 
 
 Instructive. See Instruc- 
 tive Tongue, 820. 
 
 of Good Report, 820. 
 Topaz, 820. 
 Torches, 820. 
 
 TorgaUj Constitutions of, 820. 
 Torrubia, Joseph, 820. 
 Tournon, M., 821. 
 Tow, Cable. See Cable Tow, 821. 
 Tower, Degree of the, 821. 
 
 of Babel. See Babel, 821. 
 Town, Salem, 821. 
 Townshend, Simeon, 821. 
 Tracing- Board, 821. 
 Trade Gilds. See Gilds, 821. 
 Tradition, 821. 
 Tramping Masons, 822. 
 Transfer of Warrant, 822. 
 Transient Brethren, 822. 
 Transition Period, 822. 
 Transmission, Charter of, 822. 
 Travel, 822. 
 Travelling Freemasons, 822. 
 
 Warrants, 826. 
 Travenol, Louis, 826. 
 Treasure, Incomparable, 826. 
 Treasurer, 826. 
 
 Grand. See Grand Treas- 
 urer, 826. 
 
 Hermetic, 826. 
 Trestle-Board, 826. 
 Triad, 827. 
 
 Triads, Druidical, 828. 
 Triad Society of China, 828. 
 Trials, Masonic, 828. 
 Triangle, 829. 
 
 Double. See Seal of Solb~ 
 mon and Shield of David, 
 830. 
 
 of Pythagoras. See Pen- 
 talpha, 830. 
 
 Radiated, 830. 
 
 Triple, 830. 
 Tribe of Judah, Lion of the, 831. 
 Tribes of Israel, 831. 
 Tribunal, 831. 
 
 Supreme, 831. 
 Trilateral Name, 832. 
 
946 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Trinidad, 832. 
 Trinosophs, 832. 
 Triple Alliance, 832. 
 
 Tau, 832. 
 Trivium. See Quadrivium, 832. 
 Trowel, 832. 
 
 and Sword, 833. 
 
 Society of the, 833. 
 True Masons. See Academy of 
 
 True Masons, 833. 
 Trust in God, 833. 
 Truth, 834. 
 
 Tschoudy, Louis Theodore, 834. 
 Tuapholl, 835. 
 Tubal Cain, 835. 
 Tune, Freemasons', 837. 
 Turban, 837. 
 Turcopolier, 837. 
 Turkey, 837. 
 Turquoise, 838. 
 Tuscan Order, 838. 
 Twelve, 838. 
 
 Illustrious Knights, 838. 
 
 Lettered Name, 838. 
 
 Original Points of Mason- 
 ry 839. 
 Twenty-Four Inch Gauge, 840. 
 
 One, 840. 
 
 Seven, 840. 
 
 Six, 840. 
 Two-Lettered Name, 840. 
 Tyler, 840. 
 Type, 840. 
 Typhon, 840. 
 Tyre, 840. 
 
 Quarries of, 841. 
 Tyrian Freemasons, 841. 
 
 TT.-. D/., 841. 
 
 \J Uden, Conrad Friederich, 
 
 841. 
 Unaffiliated Mason, 841. 
 Unanimous Consent, 842. 
 Unfavorable Report, 843. 
 Uniformity of Work, 843. 
 Union, Grand Masters', 844. 
 
 Master's Degree, 844. 
 
 of German Masons, 844. 
 
 of Scientific Freemasons, 
 844. 
 
 of the Twenty-Two. See 
 German Union of Two 
 and Twenty, 845. 
 United Grand Lodge of Eng- 
 land, 845. 
 
 States of America, 845. 
 
 Supreme Council, 846. 
 Unity of God, 846. 
 Universality of Masonry, 846. 
 Universal Language. See Lan- 
 guage, Universal, 846. 
 
 Harmony, Order of. See 
 Mesmeric Masonry, 846. 
 Univerei Terrarum, etc., 846. 
 Unknown Philosopher, 846. 
 
 Superiors, 846. 
 Untempered Mortar, 847. 
 Unutterable Name, .847. 
 Unworthy Members, 847. 
 Upper Chambers, 847. 
 Upright Posture, 848. 
 Uriel, 848. 
 
 Urhn and Thummim, 848. 
 Uriot, Joseph, 849. 
 
 Urn, 849. 
 Uruguay, 850. 
 Utah, 850. 
 
 VACANCIES in Office, 850. 
 V Vale or Valley, 850. 
 Valley, 851. 
 
 Vassal, Pierre Gerard, 851. 
 Vault of Steel, 851. 
 
 Secret, 851. 
 Vedas, 853. 
 
 Vehm-gericht. See Westpha- 
 lia, Secret Tribunal of, 853. 
 Veils, Grand Masters of the, 
 853. 
 
 Symbolism of the, 854. 
 Venerable, 855. 
 
 Grand Master of all Sym- 
 bolic Lodges, 855. 
 
 Perfect, 855. 
 Venezuela, 855. 
 Vengeance, 855. 
 Verger, 856. 
 Vermont, 856. 
 Vernhes, J. F., 856. 
 Vertot, d'Auboeuf, RenS-Aubert 
 
 de, 856. 
 Vesica Piscis, 857. 
 Vexillum Belli, 857. 
 Viany, Auguste de, 857. 
 Vielle-Bru, Rite of, 857. 
 Villars, Abbe Montfaufon de, 
 
 857. 
 Vincere aut Mori, 857. 
 Vinton, David, 857. 
 Violet, 858. 
 Virginia, 858. 
 Virgin, Weeping. See Weeping 
 
 Virgin, 859. 
 Visible Masonry, 859. 
 Visitation, Grand, 859. 
 Visiting Brethren, 860. 
 Visit, Right of, 860. 
 Vivat, 860. 
 Vogel, Paul Joachim Sigis- 
 
 mund, 860. 
 Voigt, Friederich, 861. 
 Voting, 861. 
 
 Right of, 861. 
 Vouching, 861. 
 Voyages, 862. 
 
 W.-., 863. 
 \V aechter, Eberhard, Bar- 
 on von, 863. 
 Wages of a Master Mason, Sym- 
 bolic. See Foreign Coun- 
 tries, 863. 
 of Operative Masons, 863. 
 of the Workmen at the 
 Temple, 864. 
 Wales, 865. 
 Wands, 865. 
 Wardens, 865. 
 
 Grand. See Grand War- 
 dens, 866. 
 Warder, 866. 
 Warlike Instrument, 867. 
 War, Masonry in, 867. 
 Warrant of Constitution, 868. 
 Washing Hands. See Lustra- 
 tion, 869. 
 Washington, Congress of, 869. 
 George, 869. 
 
 Washington Territory, 872. 
 Watchwords, 872. 
 Water-fall, 872. 
 Wayfaring Man, 872. 
 Weary Sojourners, 872. 
 Webb-Preston Work, 872. 
 
 Thomas Smith, 872. 
 Wedekind, Georg Christian 
 
 Gottlieb, Baron von, 874. 
 Weeping Virgin, 874. 
 Weishaupt, Adam, 874. 
 Welcome, 875. 
 Well Formed, True, and Trusty, 
 
 876. 
 Wesley, Samuel, 876. 
 West, 876. 
 Westphalia, Secret Tribunals 
 
 of, 876. 
 West Virginia, 879. 
 White, 879. 
 
 Ball, 881. 
 
 Cross Knights, 881. 
 
 Mantle, Order of the, 881. 
 
 Masonry, 881. 
 
 Stone, 881. 
 
 William Henry, 881. 
 Widow's Son, 881. 
 Wife and Daughter, Mason's. 
 See Mason' 8 Wife and Daugh- 
 ter, 882. 
 Wilhelmsbad, Congress of, 882. 
 Will, 882. 
 
 Wilson Manuscript, 882. 
 Winding Stairs, 882. 
 
 Legend of the, 882. 
 Wind, Mason's, 886. 
 Window, 886. 
 Wine, 886. 
 
 Wings of the Cherubim, Ex- 
 tended, 886. 
 Wisconsin, 886. 
 Wisdom^ 887. 
 
 Withdrawal of Petition, 887. 
 Witnesses. See Trials, 887. 
 Woellner, Johann Christoph 
 
 von, 887. 
 Wolf, 888. 
 
 Wolfenbuttel, Congress of, 888. 
 Woman, 888. 
 Wood - cutters, Order of. See 
 
 Fendeurs, 888. 
 Woog, Carl Christian, 888. 
 Word, 889. 
 
 Lost. See Lost Word, 889. 
 
 Mason, 889. 
 
 Sacred, 890. 
 
 Significant. See Significant 
 Word, 890. 
 
 True, 890. 
 Work. See Labor, 890. 
 Working-Tools, 890. 
 Work, Master of the, 890. 
 Workmen at the Temple, 890. 
 Workshop, 892. 
 World, 892. 
 Worldly Possessions, 892. 
 
 Wealth, 893. 
 Worship, 893. 
 Worshipful, 893. 
 
 Lodge. See Worshipful, 
 893. 
 
 Master. See Worshipful, 
 893. 
 
 Most, 893. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 947 
 
 Worshipful,Right, 893. 
 
 Very, 893. 
 Wren, Sir Christopher, 893. 
 Wrestle, 894. 
 Writing, 895. 
 
 Wykeham, William of, 895. 
 Wysacre, 896. 
 
 XAINTRAILLES, Madame 
 de, 896. 
 Xavier, Mier e Campello, Fran- 
 cisco, 897. 
 Xerophagists, 897. 
 Xerxes, 897. 
 Xinxe, 897. 
 
 Y897. 
 j Yates, Giles Fonda, 897. 
 Yaveron Hamaim, 899. 
 Year, Hebrew, 899. 
 of Light, 899. 
 
 Year of Masonry, 900. 
 
 of the Deposite, 900. 
 
 of the Discovery, 900. 
 
 of the Order, 900. 
 
 of the World, 900. 
 Yeas and Nays, 900. 
 Yeldis, 900. 
 Yellow, 900. 
 
 Jacket, 900. 
 Yevele, Henry, 901. 
 Yggrasil, 901. 
 Y-ha-ho, 901. 
 Yod, 901. 
 Yoni, 901. 
 York Constitutions, 901. 
 
 Legend, 902. 
 
 Manuscripts, 905. 
 
 Rite, 906. 
 
 ZABUD, 907. 
 Zabulon, 907. 
 
 Zadok, 907. 
 Zarathustra, 907. 
 Zarthan, 907. 
 Zeal, 907. 
 Zedekiah, 907. 
 Zelator, 907. 
 Zendavesta, 908. 
 Zenith, 908. 
 Zennaar, 908. 
 Zerbal, 909. 
 Zeredatha, 909. 
 Zerubbabel, 909. 
 Zinnendorf, Johann Wilhelm 
 von, 911. 
 Rite of, 912. 
 Zion, 912. 
 Zizon, 912. 
 
 Zodiac, Masonic, 912. 
 Zoroaster, 912. 
 Zurthost, 914. 
 
 SUPPLEMENT, 
 
 CONTAINING NEW AND OMITTED TITLES. 
 
 AARON'S Band, 915. 
 Affiliate, Free, 915. 
 Africa, 915. 
 Alaska, 915. 
 Architect, 915. 
 Arkansas, 915. 
 Asia, 915. 
 Audi, Vide, Tace, 915. 
 
 BOOK of the Fraternity of 
 Stonemasons, 915. 
 Brithering, 916. 
 Buddhism, 916. 
 
 CANTICLE, 916. 
 Clavel, T. Begue, 916. 
 Connecticut, 916. 
 Cumulation of Rites, 917. 
 
 D ODD'S Constitutions, 917. 
 Dowland Manuscript, 917. 
 Due Examination, 917. 
 
 EDINBURGH - KILWIN- 
 ning Manuscript, 917. 
 Edward III. Manuscript, 917. 
 Edwin Charges, 918. 
 Eglinton Manuscript, 918. 
 Europe, 918. 
 Eva, 918. 
 Evergetes, Order of, 918. 
 
 FORTY-TWO Lettered Name, 
 918. 
 
 GOMEL, 918. 
 Gravelot, 918. 
 Gypsies, 918. 
 
 HAYTI, 919. 
 Hoben, 919. 
 Homaged, 919. 
 Hospitaller, 919. 
 
 TDAHO, 919. 
 
 1 Ijar, 919. 
 
 Increase of Wages, 919. 
 
 Inversion of Letters, 919. 
 
 KANSAS, 919. 
 Kentucky, 920. 
 Khesvan or Chesvan, 920. 
 Kisleu or Chisleu, 920. 
 Knife and Fork Degree, 920. 
 Krause Manuscript, 920. 
 
 LAWFUL Information, 920. 
 Lenning, C, 920. 
 Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, 
 
 920. 
 Lion of the Tribe of Judah, 
 920. 
 
 MAGNA est Veritas et prse- 
 valebit, 921. 
 Masoney, 921. 
 Medals, 921. 
 
 Mitchell, James W. S., 921. 
 Moore, Charles Whitlock, 921. 
 
 PARLIRER, 922. 
 Paris Constitutions, 923. 
 Prince of Wales Grand Lodge, 
 923. 
 
 SETTING-MAUL, 923. 
 Shebet, 923. 
 Sivan, 923. 
 
 Spencer Manuscript, 923. 
 Squaremen, 923. 
 St. Alban's Regulations, 924. 
 Strasburg, Constitutions of, 924. 
 Strict Trial, 924. 
 
 TAMMUZ, 924. 
 Tebeth, 924. 
 Tisri, 924. 
 
 YEADAR, 924. 
 Veterans, 924. 
 
 WOODFORD Manuscript, 
 925. 
 Wound, Mason's, 925. 
 

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